IF^ARMiX IE R'S G U1IDE
SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
THE LABORS OF TiHE FARME R,
IN ALL THEIR VARIETY, AND
A DAIT[N(G THEMI TO THIE SEASONS OF TIl'E YEARP
AS  TIIEY  SUCCESSIVELY  OCCUI.
BY  HENRY  STEPHENS,  F.R..S.E.,
AUTHOR OF ";THIE BOOK OF THE  FARM," ETC., ETC., ETC.,
ASSISTED BY
JOHN  P.  NORTON.   I[ A.,
PROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE  IN YALE  COLILEGE, NEW TIAVYN.
IN T'WO VOLUMES-WITH NUMEROUS ILLUST'RAl I')NS.
VOLI. II.
N E W  Y O  t K:
LEONARID  SCOTT  & Co.,
769 F'ULTON STREET AND 54 G(OLI) sTl lE:r
1853.
TH E
TO
DETAILINNG 
I~~~~~~~~~~~S 
CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER,
ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES,..ON THE SOWIN.G AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX,   - 
C), THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP,   -      -
)N THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE HOP,     -    -
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP,  -    -
THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF KOHL-RABI,      -
)}N THE PLANTING AND TIHE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THIE CABBAGE,    -
g)N THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF MANGOLD-WURZEL,  -
g)N THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT,    -
)N THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP,        - -
)N THE SOWING AND TIIE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE,    -    -
lrN THE SOWING ANID- THE SUM.MER CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT,    -
ON THE SOWING AND- THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE SUN-FLOWER,  -
i9N THIE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MADIA,   -      -     - 
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MAIZE,      -     -
rHE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,   -     -     -
ON SOWING BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLE
DIFFERENT DEPTHS,        -     -                                 -
ON REPAIRING TIlE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS,
XlN THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP, 
ON TIIHE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE,
ON MARES FOALING,    -      -      -
ON THE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER,
ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER,   -      -
ON THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER,    -     -
ON THE WEANING OF CALVES,                    -.
ON THE PASTURING OF FARM-HORSES IN SUMMER,    -
ON THE SOILING )OF STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS,     -
ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP,    -     -     -      -
ON TIHE SHEARING OF SHEEP,   -    -     -      -
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL,
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS,   -     -      -
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASE,   -     -
ON THE WEANING OF LAMBS,   -      -     -     -
.1
No
I I
'.26
I98
93
.-      35
46
8.7
.'     88
94
99
101
103
..105
. -      ib.
I; 106
110
114
129
130
139
153
158
169
180
184
186
196
200
206
216
218. 
P&M
ON THE DRAFTING OF EWES AND GIMMERS,.   223
ON THE MARKING OF SHEEP,.      -   225
ON HAY-MAKING,.-..      -   226
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT,         -        -.-         -   245
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY, -      -      - v                -   252
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS,    -     -     -      -     -.   253
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE,    -      -      -     -                254
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES,      -     -      -    -       -   256
ON SUMMER-FALLOW,.-               -                         -   261
ON THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED,          -                         -   267
ON MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE,.   268
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN AUTUMN,          300
ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED, 309
ON THE SOWING OF WINTER TARES,                                      -.10
ON THE SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN,         -        -                 -   311
ON THE SOWING OF CRIMSON CLOVER IN AUTUMN,         -     -      -        ib.
ON THE SOWING OF BOKHARA CLOVER,.         -         -   312
ON THE SOWING OF RED CLOVER FOR SEED,    -        -      -          -   813
ON THE SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE-GRASS IN AUTUMN,    -     -     -     -    314
ON THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS,       -      -     -            -   315
ON THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS,.      -            -   320
ON THE PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING OF FLAX,.        -         -    21
AND DRYI                           ~~~~~~~~321
ON THE PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING OF HEMP,    -    -      -      -   326
ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE,        -.     -      -   328
ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED, -      -   3.54
ON THE CARRYING AND STACKING OF WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE,   355
ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT,       -                                       - 374
ON HARVESTING THE SUNFLOWER,             -..               375
ON HARVESTING MAIZE. -s.
ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE,       -      -      -.      -   377
ON THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS,  -        -     -      -     b.
ON PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE EWE8,         -      -     -      -      -   384
ON THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP,   -       -     -      -      -   887
ON LIFTING POTATOES,  -     -     -      -                         -   895
ON STORING POTATOES,.             -.            -      -   400
ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN,            -      -     -         -.   403
ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN,        -     -      -     -.      -   409
ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN,         -     -      -. -    410
ON SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN TOGETHER,                     -.  411
ON PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN,. -    -     -      -   412
ON THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES,       -      -.          -     -   413
ON ELECTRO-CULTURE,  -      -      -         -  -                       444
ON THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIAL MANURES,      -      -   448
ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS,    -     -     -      -     -      -          455
ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS,   -     -.                          -   464
ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS,    -    -     -      -      -     -   468
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS,        -     -      -     -     -       -   471
ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,   -            -      -      -   478
CONTENT13. 
CONTENTS.
REALISATION.
Pap
- 482
485
494
49.7
-    503
505
512
516
ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS,
ON CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS,       -     -      -
ON THE JUDGING OF LAND,    -      -     -      -
ON ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM,       -        -
ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM,     -         -
ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE,    -      -     -
ON ENTERING TO A FARM,     -      -           -      -..
ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM,  -.       -        -    -
ON CHOOSING THE SITE, ON BUILDING, AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING THE
STEADING,.-     -            -      — 5     8
ON THE FARM-HOUSE,         -      -     -      -.      -     -   537
ON COTTAGES FOR FARM-SERVANTS,    -     -      -     -      -     -   542
ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE,    -    -.      -     -   548
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE, AND ON SHELTER,  -   -      -.   550
ON THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN-.HEDGES,   -    -            -   558
ON THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES,   -    -      -     -     -      -   588
ON WIRE FENCES,      -.                                                593
ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS,    -.      -.      -     -   596
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES,     -...      -   599
ON THE DRAINING OF LAND,    -     -. -         -      -   604
ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND,          -            - -. -  651
ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING,   -           -.            -   657
ON THE LIMING OF LAND,     -      -     -.          -     -      -   665
ON FORMING WATER-MEADOWS,         -                  -      -     -   671
ON IRRIGATION,                       -     -         -      -     -   677
ON THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS,.     -   680
ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES,          -      -     -   688
ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG SADDLE-HORSES,     -           -      -   686
ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD 8'S DOG,     -   -       -       688
ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS,...                        690
ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE
STOCK,     -.-.-   706
DESCRIPTION OF THE ANIMALS WHOSE PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES,   -   709
ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP,    -      -     -   717
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING,    -..          -                       728
ON THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING,  -   -      -     -      -   730
ON BREEDING IN-AND-IN,            -.          -     -     -          733
ON CROSSINO,.     -     -                         -.    735
ON THE HIRING OF FARM-SXRVANT8S,   -    -                             737
ON THE WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS,   -      -     -            -          741
ON THE FARM SMITH, JOINER, AND 8ADDLER,   -.      -   746
ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS,.     _-     749
ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM,      -     -      -                751
ON CORN MARKETS,                  -     -      -     -                757
ON FARM BOOK-KEEPING,      -     -      -.              -  -  761
CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER,. -           -    777
INDEX,               -783
vii 
LIST OF THE ILLUISTRATIONS IN VOL IL
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
Fig.
242. The Hay-Knife,   -         -       -
243. Crosskill's Clod-Crusher,
244. Side View of one Wheel  of the
Clod-Crusher.            -       -
245. Hepburn's  Double-Conical Land       Roller,
246. The Norwegian Harrows,
247. The Foot-Pick,
248. The Trenching-Fork with  Three
Prongs, -                -
249. The  Trenching-Fork  with  Two
Prongs,
250. The Square Method of Planting
Hops,
251. The Quincunx Method of Planting
H    ops,                                                      -      -       -
252. Espalier Form of Training Hops,
253. The Wire-Worm and its Perfect
Beetle-Cataphcegyus lineatus 
254. The  East-Lothian  Turnip-Sowing
X    Drill,    -       -
255. The Seed-Barrel,
256. Geddes' Two-RowedTurnip-Sowing
Drill,    -      -
257. The V       ertical Section of the                    Seed       Distributor,                                                                     -
258. The Turnip-Barrow for Sowing
One Drill,       -       -       -
259. The Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone      Dust Sowing-Drill,        -      -
260. The Plan of the Two-Rowed Turnip
and Bone-Dust Sowing Drill,
261. Smith's Drop-Sowing Drill,
262. The Body of the Double Mould      Board altered to a Scuffling
Plough,  -..    -
263. Wilkie's Horse-Hoe with Parallel
Motion,          -       -       -
264. The Common Drill-Grubber,
265. Wilkie's Drill-Grubber and Harrow,
266. The Turnip or Hand Draw-hoe, -
Fig.
267. The Singling of Turnips,
268. Turnip  Flea-Beetle- Ialtica  ne       moruw?,  -        -.       -,7269. Larva of the Flea-Beetle, -
27(. The Turnip  w-Fly-,4thaia i       onau m,          -       -      -
271. Winged Male of the Common Tur       nip Plant-Louse-Aphis rapce,  -
272. Wingles Female of the Common
Turnip Plant-Louse-Aphis rape,
273. Winged Male of the Swede Plant       Louse-A,4phis brassicce, -      -
274. Wingless  Female of  the Swede
Plant-Louse-A pivis brassice,   -
275. Two and Seven Spotted Lady-Birds
-Coccinella bi et septempunctata,
276. Ichneumon Fly-Aphidius rapce,
277. Cloddy and Stony Soil,   -        -
278. Soil with Water and without Air,
279. Soil with Air and withlout Water,
280. Soil with Water and Air, -        -
281. The Component parts of a Grain of
Wheat,  -        -       -      -
282. A Plant of Wheat in the State of
Germination,    -        -
283. Well-Ploughed Regular  Furrow       Slices,   -      -      -       -
284. The Position of Seeds when Sown
on Regular Furrow-Slices,       -
285. Irregular Brairding from even Re      gular Furrow-Slices,286. Ill-Ploughed  Irregular  Furrow      Slices,
287. Irregular Deposition of Seed on Ill      Ploughed Furrow-Slices,         -
288. Irregular Braird on Ill-Ploughed
Furrow-Slices,   -
289. Regular Depths of Seed by Drill      Sowing,  -
290. Regular  Braird from    Drill-Sown
Seed,                     -.
PA"
65
73
74
75
77
ib.
iS.
78
78
79
111
ib.
ib.
ib.
113
114
ib.
115
ib.
ilb.
iS.
iS.
is.
115
Page
26
28
29
ib.
30
35
36
ib.
37
38
42
43
47
48
49
ib.
50
51
52
53
62
ib.
63
64
is. 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
335. The Wingless Female of the Bean
Plant-Louse-Aphis fabce,
336. The Winged Male of the Bean
Plant-Louse-Aphis fabe,        -
337. The Striped Pea-Weevil-Sitona
lineata,  -                      
338. The Milking of Ewes,
339. The Punching-Nippers for Sheep,
340. The Buisting-Iron for Sheep,
341. The Branding-Iron for Sheep and
Cattle,   -      -      -      -
342. The English Hay Tedding-Machine,
343. The Hay Horse-Rake,      -       -
344. The Hay Hand-Rake,       -      -
345. The Hay Hand-Rake,      -       -
346. The Mode of Erecting a Rick-Cloth
over the Site of a Hay-Stack when
it is building,   -     -      -
347. Putting the Swathes of the Sown
Grasses into Winrows,  -       -
348. The Hay Horse-Rake cleaning the
intervening Ridges between the
Winrows,         -      -      -
349. The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed
in the Field,    -      - 
350. The Hand-Flail,   -       -      -
351. The American Hay-Rake, -         -
352. The Weed-Hook,   -        -      -
353. Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe,
354. Long and Short Shares for the
Horse-Hoe,       -      -      -
355. The Wheat Stem-Fly --  0lorops
pumilionis,      -              -
356. The Structure of sound Wheat
and of Smut-Ball compared,     -
357. The Kernel of Barley within the
Husk,            - -     
358. Sound Barley-Seed,        -      -
359. Diseased Barley-Seed,    -      -
360. Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower
Plant-Louse-A phis floris-rapoe,
361. Wingless Female of the Turnip       Flower Plant-Louse-Aphisfloris      rape,     -             -      -
362. Ground Plan of a Milk-House in
relation to the Kitchen, in a Farm      House,    -      -
363. Plan of Cheese-Room,  &c., for a
Farm-House,      -      -      -
364. Wedgewood-Ware Milk-Dish,        -
365. Green Glass Milk-Dish,   -       -
366. Wooden Milk-Dish,         -      -
367. Zinc Milk-Dish,   -       -      -
368. A fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble, or
of Wood lined with Metal,
369. The Milk-Sieve,   -      -       -
370. The Cream-Skimmer,        -      -
371. The Cream-Jar,            -      -
372. The WVedgewood Table-Churn,    -
373. The Agitator of the Table-Churn, -
374. The Box-Hand-Churn,    -         -
375. The Agitator of the  Box-Hand      Churn,.
376. The  Butter  Print  Mould  and
Hands,  -        -      -      v
377. The Butter-Spade,         -      -
378. The Curd-Cutter,         -         -  2
379. The Curd-Breaker,        -       -
291. Newberry's  One-Rowed  Dibbling
Machine,             -      -  -
292. Newington's Six-Rowed Dibbling
Machine,         -      -
293. The Double Roots of Deep-sown
Wheat,
294. The roots of Shallow-sown Wheat,
295. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang       ing Post of a Field-Gate,
296. The Side View of a Ripe Fat Ox,
297. The H ind View of a Ripe Fat Ox,
298. The Front View  of    a Ripe Fat Ox,
299. The View          o f the Back               of    a Ripe
Fat Ox,
300. The Measur     ing of    a Ripe Fat Ox,
to      a         scertain its Weight, sinking
the. Offals,301. Plan          of the  Cart-Steelyard,
302. Tr       a nsv erse Sect io n              of the Cart       Steelyard,   -   - -
303. Longitudin                            al Section of  the Cart       Steelyard,       -      -       -
304. The  Bush-Harrow,         --
305. The Head-Cap,           or Hood, fitted on
the Sheep,
306. Sheep Bo      et-Fl y istrw s ovis,.
307. Sheep Bot  Larva- (s-trus ov1s, 
308. Sheep Ked-Melophagus orints,
309. Maggot of the Checkered Blow-fly
-Sarcophaga carnaria,
310. Cock-Chafers-Jlelolonthavculgaris,
311. The Scoop for filling the Water       Barrel,   -      -.
312. The Cattle-Bot and Larva —(Estrus
boris,    -     -       -
313. Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg
— Tabanus bovinus,      -       -
314. The Bull's Ring in the state to be
inserted in his Nose,    -
315. The Bull's Ring as fastened in his
Nose,
316. The Bullock-Holder,
317. Swivelled Sprinig-Hook,   -      -
318. The Cleg or Gleg- Hematopota
pluvialis,       -       -
319. The Horse-Bot-Gasterophilws equi,
.320. A Horse-Fly- Chrysops cercutiens,
321. The Horse Forest-Fly —Hippobosca
equina,  -       -      -
322. The Patent  Scythe  with  bent
Sned,
323. A Scythe Strickle,
324. Scythe Stones,    -       -       -
325. Sheep Washing,
326. The Wool-Shears,          -       -
327. The First  Stage  of Clipping  a
Sheep,          -       -
328. The Second Stage of Clipping a
-     Sheep,
329. The Third and Last Stage of Clip       ping a Sheep,    -      -       -
330. A new Clipped Sheep,
331. The Rolling of 3 Fleece of Wool,
332. A Fleece of Wool Rolled ups 
333. The White-Shouldered Wool-Moth
— Tnea szarviteila,    --
334. The Weighing and Packinlg of
Wtool,..
ix
Page
122
123
124
ib.
130
139
140
ib.
141
Page
217
ib.
218
221
225
ib.
226
229
230
231
ib.
143
146
146
ib'
161
165
ib.
ib.
ib.
166
168
173
177
179
180
181
182
ib.
188
ib.
189
ib.
192
193
ib.
197
201'
202
203
204
205
207
ib.
208
209
232
236
238
242
243
244
246
24
248
249
251
253
ib.
ib.
268
268
269
ib.
270
ib.
271
ib.
273
ib.
is
276
ib.
277
ib.
279
ib.
283
284 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
433. The Potato-Graip, -       -      -
434. The self-delivering Potato-Washer,
435. The conical and prismatic forms of
Potato-Pits,     -      -      -
436. The Soot-Sowing Machine,
437. Electro-Culture Apparatus,
438. View of the Side of a fat Pig,   -
439. A trussed Roof of Wood,  -
440. A trussed Roof of Iron,   -      -
441. A Rain-Water Cistern,    -       -
442. Plan of a small Hind's House of
one Room,        -      -      -
443. Plan of a large Hind's House of
one Room,        -      -      - 
444. Plan of a Hind's House with two
Rooms,   -       -      -
445. Plan of Hinds' Houses having Bed      rooms in a second storey,      -
446. Elevation of double Hinds' Houses,
447. Section of the Foundation  of a
Hind's House,  -        -      -
448. Method of contracting the Top of
a Chimney,              -      - 
449. Top of a Chimney for preventing
the down-draught of Smoke,    -
450. The Shelter afforded by even  a
low Wall against a cutting Blast,
451. The Plan of setting off Fences
parallel to each other,  -     -
452. A Hand-Pick,      -      -       -
453. A Ditcher's Shovel,       -      -
454. A good Thorn Plant,      -       -
455. Plan to prevent Water Lodging in
the Hollows behind the Bank of
a Hedge,         -      - 
456. The Thorn-Bed,   -       -      -
457. A Thorn-Plant, prepared for plant      ing,     -       -      -      -
458. Finished Hedge-Bank,
459. Modes of describing a Curve in the
Corner of a Field,      -      -
460. Bad effect of a Scarcement,,
461. The Switching-Bill,      -       -
642. A correctly switched Thorn-Hedge,
463. A breasted-over Thorn-Hedge, with
the  Hedge Bank  and Face worn
down, -.-.
464. The Cutting-Bill,  -     -       -
465. The Hedger's Axe,        -       -
466. The plashing, and laying of an old
Hedge, and the Water-Tabling of
a Ditch,         -      - 
467. The  Mode  of Water- Tabling  a
Hedge-Ditch,    -       -      -
468. The Dead-Hedge of Thorns,        -
469. The Stake-and Rice Dead-Fence, -
470. The common Wooden Paling,    -
471. Turf-Fence to a Thorn-Hedge,     -
472. The Hedge Spade,.      -
473. The Dutch Hoe,  -                - 
474. The Hedge Weed-Hook,  -         -
475. The  Hawthorn Butterfly, Pie-/
-cratgi,  -                    -
476. The Building a Dry-Stone Dyke, -
477. Expedients  for increasing  the
heights of a Dry-Stone Dyke, - -
478.  Four Wering-Pools  formed   by
two Dykes crossing}    -.
Fig.
380. The Ch      eese-Vat,  -  -      -
381. The Ston        e  Cheese -       P    ress, 
382. The c        ombined Lever Cheese-Press
383. Th     e  Ch eese-Turner,  -     -
384. Plan   of  a        Steading for a Dairy      -Farm,
385. Plunger- Churns  fitted up  with
Power,
386. The Cheese-Fly-Piophila casel,
387. The Cheese-Maggot,         -      -
388.   Long         itudinal Section of the Hop
Drying-House,   -       -       -
389. Plan of the Hot-Water   Pipes in it,
390.    P     rogress of Ripening in a Stalk of
Oats,    -       -      -       -
391. The Toothed Sickle,
392. The Smooth-Edged Sickle,
393. Arrangement of the Reapers in a
Band-Win,        -      -       -
394. The Corn-Band ready to receive
the cut Corn,    -       -      -
395. An ordinary Stook of Corn,
396. A Barley or Oat Stook hooded,
397. The Sheaf-Gauge, -
398. Reaping-with the Hainault Scythe,
399. The Cradle-Scythe for Reaping,
400. The common Reaping-Scythe,
401. The Hand Stubble-Rake,  -
402. The Mowing of Corn with the
Scythe in Heads,        -       -
403. A Gaitin of Oats,  -      -       -
404. The Swedish Stook,        -       -
405. The Corn and Hay Frame,
406. Transverse Section of the Frame, -
407. The Corn and Hay Cart,  -
408. Robertson's improved Corn and
Hay Cart,        -      -       -
409. Coiled-up Cart-Rope,
410. Old form of Throw-Crook,
411. Another form of Throw-Crook,
412. The best form of Throw-Crook, -
4i3. The Straw-Rope Spinner, -
414. The process of making a Straw      Rope, -.-.
415. A Straw-Rope coiled up,
416. A Bunch of Diawn Straw,
417. The Building of a Stack of Corn,
418. A Stack Trimmer,
419. Making the Stool for a Corn-Stack,
420. The Lozenge mode of roping the
Covering of a Corn-Stack,
421. The Net-Mesh mode of roping the
Covering of a Corn-Stack,
422. The Border method of covering
and roping a Corn-Stack,
423. A pyramidal Boss and Tressle,
24. A prismatic Boss, -       -      -
425. The Rook Battery,
426. A Bath-Jug,        -'       -
427. The Bath-Stool for Sheep,
428. Bathing Sheep,    -       -       -
429. Wilson's Sheep -Dipping Appara      tus, -...-.
430. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep -Fodder
Rack,    -       -      -       -
d31. The Potato Raiser or Brander, 
432. The Potato-Raiser attached to a
Ploug    h,..
x
Page
285
ib.
286
287
289
290
297
ib.
317
ib.
329
330
ib.
332
ib.
334
ib.
335
338
ib.
339
840
341
343
353
356
ib.
357
358
359
ib.
360
ib.
360
361
362
ib.
365
366
ib.
367
368
369
372
ib.
382
388
389
ib.
pap.
397
399
400,
439
446
470
529
530
541
543
544
i6.
545
ib.
546
547
ib.
557
559
560
ib.
ib.
561
564
ib.
666
ib.
568
569
570
572.
573
i&.
575
576
578
570
ib.
580
581
ib.
ib.
586
589
5 1
592 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
519. The Instruments for Boring the
Substrata of Deep Drains,
520. The Drain Stone-Harp or Screen,  -
521. The Drain Stone-Rake,    -        -
522. The Drain Stone-Beater,  -        -
523. A Small Drain Filled with Broken
Stones,   -      -       -      -
524. The TriangularCoupled Stone Duct,
525. The Tile and Stone Drain,         -
526. Tile Double Duct for a Main Stone
Drain,   -       -       -      -
527. A Plan for Draining Bogs as prac      tised in Ireland,       -       -
528. The Edging-Iron,  -       -       -
529. The Horizontal Spade,    -        -
530. The Shouldered Bog-Drain,
531. The Larch Drain-Tube,    -        -
532. The Calderwood Peat-Tile Spade       Tool,     -      -       -      -
533. The Peat-Tile for Drains,
534. A Plan of Sheep-Drains on a Hill
of impervious Subsoil,  -       -
535. An Open Sheep-Drain in Grass,  -
536. A Covered Sheep-Drain in Grass,
537. Draining the Face of Railway Cut       tings,    -     -               -
538. The comparative efficacy of Drains
Across and Along Ridges on a
Declivity,       -       -      -
539. The descent of Water on a Ridge
i nto a Drain on each Side,     -
540. The ordinary position of Substrata
in reference to the Surface Soil,
541. Displacement of Pipe-Tiles in a
Drain,    -      -       -      -
542. A Concrete Pipe-Tile,     -       -
543. A Drain-Water Meter,      -       -
544. A Mattock,         -      -       -
545. The Levelling-Box, or Scoop,      -
546. Wilkie's Turn-Wrist Plough,
547. The Mode of ordinary Subsoil       Ploughing,       -       -      -
548. Read's Subsoil-Plough,   -        -
549. The Tweeddale Subsoil  Trench       Plough, -       -       -      -
550. The  Tweeddale Subsoil Trench       Plough and the Tweeddale Plough
in  operation,   -       -      -
551. The Iron Hammer Nut-Key,          -
552. The Plough-Slide,         -       -
553. The Carriage for conveying Har       rows, &C.,          -           - -
554. The Bed-Work Water-Meadow,   -
555. The Catch-Work Water-Meadow, -
556. The Breaking-Bridle Bit, -       -
557. The Shepherd's Dog,       -       -
558. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a
Carcass of Beef,        -       -
559. The English Mode of Cutting up a
Carcass of Beef,        -      -
560. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a
Carcass of Mutton,      -       -
561. The English Mode of Cutting up a
Carcass of Mutton,       -      -
562. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a
Carcass of Pork,       -       -
5ff3. The English Mode of Cutting up a
Carcas of Porks,      -        -
Fig.
479. One  Watering-Pool  common  to
four fields,                                      - -  -
480. A      C     lump of Tr ees  with      in the meet      ing                               of Dykes,  -  -
481. Straining-Post, with Sole  and Stay
un         der-ground,   -  -   -
482. Strain    i ng-Post, with Planks under      ground,  -       -      -       -
483. Straining-Post, with Standard  and
Stay above ground,
484. A Malleable-Iron Straining-Post, -
485. An   Embankment   and   Face
Dry- Stone   Dyke   against   a
R     ivu let,          -      -         
486. A             R ect angular Gate-Frame with
Diagonal Strut, -       -       -
487. A Common Field-Gate, - -
488. The  Kilmory  Wooden  Trussed
Field-Gate,      -          -  -
489. An Iron Field-Gate with Iron Posts
and Stay,        -       -      -
490. An Iron Field-Gate on the Tension
Principle,       -       -
491. An Angle Iron Field-Gate,
492. Miles' Wooden Field-Gate with
Iron Heel-Post, -       -       -
493. The Spirit-Level Set for Observa       tion,..      _.
494. Different Forms of Ducts for the
Inclined Planes of Drains,
495. The bad effects of too great a dis       tance betwixt Drains,   -       -
496. Tlfe Narrow Drain Spade,
497. Draw-Earth Drain-Scoop,
498. The Narrow Draw-Hoe for Drains,
499. The Drain-Gauge, -         -      -
500. The Levelling Staff, for testing the
uniform fall in Drains,
501. The Trowel for Drains,
502. The Drainer's Plumb Level,
503. Drain-Tiles properly set upon Tile       Soles,
504. The junction of a Conmmon Tile
with a Main,    -       -
505. Parallel Drains in the same Plane
of inclination of the Ground, -
506. Drains improperly made parallel
irrespective of the inclination of
the Ground, -            -      -
507. Drains made parallel in accordance
with the inclination of the
Ground,          -       -      -
508. The Narrowest Drain Spade,
509. The Pushing Drain-Scoop,
510. The Small Tile and Sole-Drain,
511. The Cylindrical Pipe-Tile,
512. Cylindrical Pipe-Tiles connected
by a Collar,     -.      -
513. Cylindrical Pipe-Tiles connected
by Lobes, -              -      -
514. Horse-Shoe Pipe-Tile,
515. Egg-Shaped Pipe-Tile,    -        -
516. Egg-Shaped Pipe-Tile Drain,
517. Ground Plan of aThorough-Drained
Field,    ----
518. The Positions of Planks and
Wedges to prevent the Sides of
Dramns Falling in,      -       -
xi
rage
635
637
ib.
638
ib.
ib.
ib.
639
ib.
640
ib.
ib.
641
ib.
ib.
ib.
642
ib.
645
Page
592
,ib.
593
ib.
594
ib.
598
600
ib.
601
ib.
602
ib.
ib.
607
613
615
618
ib.
619
ib.
ib.
620
ib.
621
621
622
646
ib.
647
ib.
648
649
652
654
656
658
659
660
ib.
664
ib.
665
672
675
683
1689
692
693
695
696
698
699
623
ib.
ib.
ib.
624
ib.
625
ib.
ib.
626
ib.
628
634 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
581. The Head of a Black-Faced Ram,
582. The Head of a Black-Faced Ewe,
583. The Head of a']'up of the original
Breed of Scotland,     -       -
584. The Head of a Southdown Tup,
585. The Head of a Boar,      -
586. The Vertical Section of the Head
of the Adult Horse, showing the
Teeth and the Nervous system
in connection with them,       -
587. The Vertical Section of the Head
of the Adult Ox, showing the
Teeth and the Nervous system
in connection with them,       -
588. The Vertical Section of the Head
of the Wild Boar, showing the
Teeth and the Nervous system
in connection with them,
589. The Sack-Lifter,        - -
564. The Shortf Horn Ox,
565. The Short-Horn Bull,
566. Mr Hopper's Short-Horn
Belville, -     -       -
567. View of the Back and  Cle
Belville, -     -       -
568. The Short-Horn Cow,
569. The Draught-Horse,
570. Tile Draught-Stallion,
571. The Draught-Mare,
572. The Leicester Ewe and Lam)
573. The Brood Sow, -
574. The Common Fowl,
575. The Head of a Long-Horn Bu
576. The Head of a Hereford Ox,
577. The Head of West-Highland
578. The Head of an Angus Ox,
579. The Ayrshire Bull,
580. The Head of a Cheviot Tup,
xii
Page
709
710
ib.
711
711
712
713
714
715
ib.
716
717
718
ib.
719
720
721
page
721
722
ib.
723
724
Bull,
St of
y      -
11, -
Ox,.
725
726
727
759 
THE FARMER'S GUIDE
TO
SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
PR AC TI CE.
SUMMER.
a very beautiful instance of design  and
adaptation in this.  The grand stimulating agent in all terrestrial action, at least
inll a natural view of it on the surface of
the earth, and the intensity of this action,
is made up of two elemienits-the portion
of the twenty-four hours during which the
sun is above the horizon, and the altitude
of the sun above that horizon.  Both of
these, in either hemisphere, increase as
the sun declines towards the hemisphere,
or rather as the hemisphere inclines to
the sun; though, as the first of these is the
apparent result of the second as a reality,
our using the one expression or the other
does not affect the result.  The increase or
decrease of altitude is the same, with the
same clhang,e of declination, in all latitudes;
but the variation in time above the horizoni increases with  the latitude: consequently, the higher the latitude the greater
the  change  of  solar  action  with  the
same change of declination.  The change
in declination increases from  the solstice
to the equinox, and diminishes from the
equinox torl the solstice. Thus the nnsreas e
of solar  action begins to    slacken at  the
vernal equinox in March, and gradually
diminishes till it becomes O at midsummer;
after this tile decrease commences.  This,
however, is only in so far as ddepend's on the
altitude of the sun; for the other element,
the time whichI the slln;W above the lhorizon, goes on iricreasi.ng tll the lonogest
day, or day of the wolice. Thus, in the
2959. As spring is the restoration of
life to vegetation, and thle season in which
the operations of the field again become
active, so summer is the season of proqqress
in vegetation, and in the operations of the
fieli, none of the greater ones of which are
begun or terminated, but only advanced
a step towards their maturity in autumn.
The advancement of the larger field operations involves no difference of principle
in their execution, but the minor operations
which accompany them, and the changes
they effect in the aspect of the larger ones,
in the most agreeable season for work in
the year, invest all the operations of sumimer with peculiar interest, and even delight.
2960.'I Summer is the bloom of the
year," as Mr Mudie truly observes-" the
period during which all the growing and
living children of nature, wllichl wax and
wane with the revolving seasons, are in
the  spring-tide  of  their  activity, and
whelln all those general agencies by vlwhich
they are stimniulated are working to tlhe
very toa) of their bent....   Sullmmer
is, both in the literal and the  -letaphliysical sense, thle season of blossoms; and,
as the blossoms make the fruit, the tinie of
t    Ve O is really the most important of the
wl.ole.  In our middle latitu(des, there is
VOL. 1I.
BLUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS AND
OF TIIE WEATHER IN SUM.MER.
A. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
advanced part of the summer, there is a
diminislledl increase of the momentary intensity of thle solar action, and a lengthlening of its daily duration.  What is given
to the presence of the sun above the liorizon is taken from  its al)sence below it;
and thus, as the summer advances towards
the longest day, all that works l)y the
acrtin of the sun woIrks with his increase
of intensity, and for a longer tinie. After
tile loingest day is past, both elements of
the solar action diiiiinisli, slowly at first,
and more rapidly afterwar(lis, until  the
summer mnerges in the autumn.  Near the
equator thle cliarigesare coin p)arati velysmall,
and tliev ilncrease with the latitulde; and
the differences in this respect ire what may
be called the celestial differences of the
character (,f sunmmer in different latitudes;
but terrestrial causes modify them so much,
that the practical results, as observedl, are
very difl'erentfroni what the celestial theory
would give.  Still, any one who thinks
but for a lnomerit will not f5il to discover
,how beautifully the season of bloom is secured from violent action either in the one
way or ithe other.  This is enough to coInwiuce us that the acti,on which goes on in
the production of nature during the sumnier
is rea;lly the most iniportant of the whole
years for it is performed with the maximullm  of power in the agents, and the min.
limurni  of disturbance in their operation.
That resistance of winter, which but too
often shrivels the young leaf, and blights
the early blossom  in the spring, is vanquishlied andi completely stayedi from miaking any inroad till the seasonal purposes
of nature are accomplislhed; and the ardour of the stimulating causes which have
vanquished the destructive one are slack.enedl, so that they may  not injure that
which, during the struggle of the early
part of the year, they have preserved.  All
this, too, is accomplished  by  means so
verysimple, thlat their simtplicity proves tiehe
most wonderful part of thie whole, for it is
nothing more than the planes of the annual
and daily irotious of the earthi intersecting
each other at an angle of about 23~ 28'; and
the line of intersection passing through
the  equinoctial  points  of  the  diurnal
orbit."
2962. Such changes, in summer, are
usually suid(lent and of short duration, and
are requisite to preserve the healthy state
of the  atmosphe lere.   Did rain    not  fall
in large quantities, the vapour absorbed
by tl-ie increased capacity of heated air for
moisture would  accumulate in  the  atrosphiere, and fortm perpetual clouds and
sunless days.. Did no cold strata of air
move  about to condense  the  warmi, the
warim, containing a large quantity of  v,apour in solution, would always be elevated
beyond the reach of the earth, and there
waste its latent heat.  The  slheet-lightniing passing from cloud.] to clouid, the most
cornilion display of electric action in summer, restores the electric equilibrium of
the air, and the foorked lightning relieves
both the earth and the air.  Did not the
hIrricane at times force its way through
the calm and settle(d air, the same portion
of the atmosphere would always remain
over the sable locality, and become  vitiated by the breath of aninmals and the
exlala'Itions  from   deca,yinrg vegetables.
It the dews failed to descend upon  the
grass, the pastures would soon become
pa,rclhed by  the  meridian fervour of the
summer stin.  Thus, the active agencies of
nature are all required to preserve the air
in a healthy state for animals and vegetables, and they operate in the imiost benieficial manner in stimitier-the season of the
intensest action of the solar rays. "
2961. The atmosp~herical i henoi-neiia
of sunimer are of the most:Fried and
coulplicated nature.  At one tiue the air
2
is highly elastic, and feels balmy and
bi-acin,,, iyi(licate(-l by the Iiigli position of
tiie Mercury in the barometer; at another
the mercury descends, and almost alwayi5
su,lde.nly, to the lowest point, followed by
blasts of wind and a deltige of rain, inii-.
t-itin,, the tornado of the tropics. The
liet of the -air so scorches iis as to cause us
to seek ttie slia(le, and the tlieryiioineter
marks its intensity; and shortly after, a
cliillin,, (,ust, accoitil)anie(i k%,ith I)ail, sud(leiily brings (lowri tlje thermometer inany
de,,rees.   The air to-day is so calin and
breathless, that not -t ripple is visible even
on the broad bosom of the great ocean;
tomorrow a hurricane agitates its waves
to a I)ei,lit dangerous to the safety of the
mariner. Not a cloiid is seen at times to
stain the purity of the blue vault of heaven;
at others, the thundercloud hovers over
the earth, -,iii(I blackens its surface with
a portentous shallow. 
hailed and enjoyed by every one whlo has
senses to perceive, or a heart to feel, and
a mind to understand the great goodness
of tlhe Creator in placing man in a world
of so i)iany and so sweet enjoyments —yet
sunimer is not a season of whchl we can
mark  thle beginning or the end by fixed
days in the calendar, or of which we can
say that it has definite characters which
belong to itonly, and to noother of the year.
Even with us, in the comparatively mild
,latitude of Britain, where none of the seasons ruli in to extrenmes, we cannot say that
sutniier is absolutely the warmest timie of
the year; because we  sometimes  have a
very warin (lay in the spring, which, probably from the contrast with the general
character  of thel season, we feel fully inore
thaln we  do i many  lays in the summer. So
atlso there are often days in tlie autumn
upon which we feel the heat more opprestsive than we l) lipo,n summer days; thlough
hiis may in part arise from  the greater
lengthl and( co(iiiparative coldness of the
autumnal nigh,lits.
laws; for from the  womn(at tat the mind
has acquired the requisite degree of experien(    e     which  pro;adpt s hinl to   th e   exercise
of his young jud ltm ent, lh e  be gins   to exercise it, and  tlJis t ak es plac e  lo n d, before he
is a         ndle  t r        reg ula t e    o h2ims.elf even in what
thos e wlio have had larger experien ce consbier *ery sinple cases.ao
This is a pei, id    at  which the burden of
bodlily lal)ouir of every kind slhouldl be
liglhter than -it any other perio,d.  It is
usually th e  timii e of  most   ra pid growtli,
atf  thereft)re t          the one of greatest  cbierpar.Ltive weakness  in  the whole system.
It is t.he time whent the body is most suibject to c, msutiiption, and to various other
lisea.ees'froni whiich-, if thlis timtie is fairly
g(-t over, there i-s comparatively little to
fear ini after life;a-nd, such  being  the
ca-se. we miay v4ery natuirally infer tlht it is
tire timiie when  the bodily constitution is
rather confirin6(l in strength or given over
to feebleness. It is also the timie at which
the d:ieeplest impressions aTre niade; because
it is then that the keenness  of the senses
to 4)1serve, anid the readiness of the mind
t( receive and retain the result of the observattions, are inost usually upon an equality.  Thie timiie of  )erfect equialitv inay
be earlier in somie cases and later in others;
but wve b)elieve we have truith on  our side
whent we  say, that at soine timiie within
tlhe limits of ten years, the perfect equipoise
(If tlhe balance I-,et%, een the senses and the
miind actually takes place.
2966. "1 Limited as the island of Bri-tain
is to a range of only about six hundred
miles in the iiieri(liani, which is just about
one-tentlh of the quadrant fronm the equiator to the pole, there are very great differences in tie character and econiomy of tho
sumimer in different parts of it; and these
are still further increased by difference of
elevation ablove the level of the sea, and
other local causes.  In general, the do)uble
season of activity, and the pause during
the very  vigour of the warm  and dry
2964. 11 This is in fact the sumnier of
life to which we have already alluded; 
PRACTICE-SUiMM.IER.
season, are much  more nmarked in the
southiern part of the island; while in the
extrenie north they may  be said to be
altogether unknown. In those remote parts
there are hardly any spring flowers, and
very few- autumnal ones.  On elevated
places, the snow will retreat before nothing
sliort of summer; and it returns, in occasional showers, even in June. Thus, summer is hardly gone when the snow returns
and maintains its ground till next summer.
When the duration of summer is so brief,
there can, of course, be few instances of
second flowering or growth in plants, or of
secondbroodsin birds. The plants analog(ous
to the early flowerers of tile southern parts
are not many; and of the summer birds
which make the southern groves and copses so gay with their songs, the far greater
p1)art do not reach  the extreme  north.
There is a double reason for this.  In the
first place, the summer is too short; and,        I
in thle second place, there are few or no
gr(oves for thern to visit; and in some of
the lonely moors there, one may wander the
livelong summer's  day without hearing
any sound of bird, save the hoarse croak
of the hooded crow, or the peevish and
melancholy' twite'  of  the  mountain
linnet.
ing  a goowl rent duritng the timne that it
stood; and(i then, when it hlead come to the
grovwth m)ost proper for cutting down-the
but-endis (of the tree for ordinary deal tim ber, and the top-cuts for pit-props, used in
the collieries -the surface upon which it
stood lh,l accuniulited so much soil dur ing the time of its standing,, that very little
expense sufliced for conv erting it into corn land, capable of bearing excellent crops.
*   2969. "Tlere are instances in which the
v-eget l    t)les that tmali has sown or planted,
have o)f tlhelmselves furnrishled no smnall por tion )f that auxiliary power of the reten ti(n of liiiidlity in the fields which enables
the wliole of that surplus of summer heat,
above what the natural condition of the
place requires, to be converted to useful
purposes.   Thiere are other results equally
striking and profitable as these.  In many
parts of the uplands which, not many years
ag,o, were in the naked and unproductive
state which is common to such places when
they are nieglected(l, the most advantageous
results hleave been obtained from belts and
I
2968. "1 But the extra heat whiichi parchies the dry plains in summer is actually
a store provided for man, and provided
where he cannot find anytliing in art to
answer the same purpose. Man can neither
cart the sunbeams into his fields, nor collect and retain them in reservoirs; and
therefore the bounty swhicli gives him this
sumiiuer surplus is a bounty for which lie
ought, nay, is bound, to show his grati 
SUMMIARY O0 FIELD OPERATIONS.
-clumnps of planting, and the bringing of the
surface into culture. While they remained
in a state of nature, the suminets were intolerably hot and dry, and thle wititers were
exces.iively cold, with heavy fitlls of snow, p
frequiently coming on about thle lid(ldle of
January, and sometimies renewed in Marchl
-so thlat they lay long, and field labour
could not be begun until the season was
far advanced.   This rendered the grounds
imme(liately adjoining of little value for
tillage, and the wastes themselves of as
little for pasturage, as the people in the
vicillity had no keep for cattle during the
lotng winter, and sheep were tltogetlier out
of the question.  When a few cattle were
kept in such. places, they were in a sad
condition in thle spring, from the scanty
supply and bad quality of their winter
food, which  consisted almost wholly of
straw, unripene(l, black, sod(len, and sapless, fronm the effect of the autumnal rains.
In consequence of this, when  the cattle
were put out to the upland, after the sun
had brought up the grass, a iiian had to be
sent along with tliem, to lift tlheiii in the
case of their lying down and falling, as
they hadl not stren,gthl to re,gain their legs
by their own exertions.  The  change of
food had also very unwholesoiiie effects
upon them, and iiiany used every year to
die of murrain, a (lisease which was understood to he infectious-so that, if it once
broke out, it was difficult to say to what
length it might no(t proceed.  The country
peo)l)le went so far as to say that crows
and ravens, which are certainlly not very
delicate birds, were sometimes poisoned by
the carrion of cattle that  died  of thlis
nalady; and  when  they  f,und  these
dusky-c,ateIl prowlers (on thle moors hlan,ging about thle outskirts of the hlerd, they
always concludled that these birds' stielt
death' among tile cattle.
there wa s  an  approxi mati on  to th e  claracter of the season of burning drought, as
it shows itself in the seasonal desolation
of tropical plains; and as there was no
power in the average temperature of the
year to produce the bulbous and tuberous
plants, which so speedily bring beauty
upon those plains when the rains do set
in, tle general character of the whole was
sterility.
297-3. " It is pleasant to view the  contrast produced, when this surplus of sumirier energy is seen and appreciated, and so
made to perform useful work in its own
season; andl though at that season the
effect is delightful, and greatly heightens
the chlarm of the sunmmer, it is not confined
t at    seasn, but extends to th e on,   u   een  o  e whole
year, rendulering, every season more healthy
and prodtuctive, and greatly adding to the
enjoyment of life.
2970. " Wlhat hias been stated was not
tlhe wlhole of the evil.  Tlhe slort summer
came on so very lhot tlat tlJe drv pastures
were burnt up; the little )atelies (,f cutltivated groun(d in thie neig,hibourlhoo(I were
h.ardeneil like b)ricks; anil thle crops late
sown, fr,,iti tle length of time thle   s           nowy
lay, could not rise withl any vigolir in tlhe
mnaini stein, or a.t all'tiller' at the roots,
so tlhat they never so covered the ground as
to slhut out the searching influence of the
siring,.   Thlus, as the summer advanced,
a
2971. " It is not probable that at any
time the seasons, in the most neglected
parts of Britain, ran into such extremes as
this; but still they were very different
from what they are now, and liad far more
pernicious effects in injuring the health of
iii.-tn, and reducing the produce of the
field., — to a very small fractioii of that which,
by proper management, they now regularly afford.
2972.',This may! eem to be treating
of the desolation of winter rather than the
bloom -ind beauty of the summer, and it is
'not a stiiec't of bloom or beauty certainly;
but still it is a summer -,uject, and one
the knowledge of which is far more useful
than any descant that could be written on
the most lovely feature of the most delightful and propitious season. The real cause
wasthe itiipro er man Lemeint of the Su-m              p
mers-iii the sufferini of that part of -it
which Gotl has obviousi provided for man,
y
as that element of successful cultivation
which lie cannot obtain by his own exertiotis, to run to waste; and thereby allowin,,, that which has evidently been created
for I)eing the blessing of art, to become the
bane of nature.
29-i 4. " Wlien the excessive ardour of
tlje siiiiimer is thus turned to good accounts
in the promotin- of growth, and cooled by
15
evaporation constantly going on from fiel(fe 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
that  subject, appear to  hlave been  very
satisfactorily  conlducled, and  the theory
which hlie estabilished by these ex)erimellnets
is the one now  emtbraced by all philosopliers.   " Aristotle  and   many  other
writers," says Dr Wells, " have reniarketd,
that dew appears only in calm  anti serene
nights.   Tis remark of Aristotle, however, is not to be received in its strictest
tsense, as I have frequently found a small
quantity of dew on grass, bothl in windy
nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so,
and i n  clo udy nights if tihere was no  wind.
If, indee,  the clouds were high and the
weather  calm, I have   sometimtes  seen on
grass,  though tiae sky was entirely  hiddeln,
no very  inconsiderable    quant ity  of dew.
Again, according to my observation, entire
stillness of the a tmosphere i s so f ar from
being nece ssary for the  for mation  of  t his
fluid, that its qwatenatity has  see med to tIae
to  be  increased by a  very gentle  motion
of the air.  Dew,  however, tas never h s  been
seen by me on nights both cloudy and
windy.  If,  in the  course of    the  nig ht,
the wea ther, from be i n      g c  alm and  serene,
should b)ecomie windy  and  cloudy,  not
only will dew cea se  to  form, but  that
which was  fornhed will either  disappear   or
dililsnis  consiterably.     In  calm weather,
if the  sky  be  partially covered      with
cltoud s, m ore  ded will a ltlpear than if it
wer e    entirelsy c(ve  ered, but less t han i f it
were entirely clear. Dew probably begins in the country to appear uphin grass,
in places slhadedI from the sun duirin,g calm
and clear weathIer,  soon after tile heat of
the a tlnosphere has declined; and I have
frequently felt grass mioist in dry weather
several llours Iefore sunset.  On the other
aLnd, I have scarcely ever known dew to
be present in such quantity upon grass as
to exhibit visib)le drops before the sull was
veryv near the horizon, or to be very copioius
till some t ine after suinset.  It also  con)ltinues to firmu in shaded places after sunrise;  and if the weather h)e favourable,
more dew toriiis a little before, and i
shaded places, a little after suntrise, than
at any ot!her tiule. Tile formation of dew,
after it  has once  comnmened, continues
diuring the whole n-lit,  if tihe w eathter
remain still a1nd  serenle. D~uringz  nigirlts
that are eq,,aly cleaer ands call,x,,,lew,,ften
appears ill vrey uIle*cq,~al quatis~lLicts. t~eve
of corn coming into bloom: when the bean
and         the r  ed clo ver giv e t     he f ull volumde of
t    heir   co mbined perfaum es to  the licodhtest
zephyr that flits   from field     to footp athe; and
wMLen the fieldsare cultivat   ed upto tlhe lpow er
of the se ason,  th        e littl e zephyrs do  sport at
th        e se short journeys as if they were specially
commissioned to sweeten your path as you
walk along; when the hay-f             ield, ready f       or
esythe scyt me, plays i   n gentle un(lul ations, as if
it were a sea of t)eryl;                                    Dwhen the rich pastvres, starre d o ver wi th ti h e  sweet though
lowly       bloss  oms of th  e  white clover, breathe
balm  and honey  combined,      and th     e         i      ndustrious bees are flitting from flower to flower,
softening th e air with their mindgled humn
of delight; when the fresh breeze from the
copse faces you as you pass, and the tremb l ing pop    lar b   y  thie brgok salutes you   with
all its leaves; when the birds, many of
the                        m from  transequatorial    climates, are
ernjoy   ing                  the        i     r meridian siesta, in order that
they may  pour  forth their gratitude in
vesper or in matin song; and when man,
and all that belongs to him, living or dead,
speaks of plenty, and comfort, and high
health, and full of grateful enjoyment'then, then it is summer, such as becomes
rational man in a land highly privileged
by a bountiful God: and you require no
verbal definition."*
2976. Dew. The phenomenon of dew
is familiar to every one residing in the
country.  In the hottest day of summer,
the shoes become wetted on walking over
a gras.s-field about sunset, and they'may
be wetted  as thorouglhly as in wading ao
through water.  The late Dr Wells investigated the phenonmena of dew more closely
than any other person.  His experiments,
as detailed in his instructive essay on
* Mudie's Suimmer, p. 1-(i4.
6
2975. The atmosplierical pbenoniena of
isunimer are not only varied, but are of a
very complicated character, difficult of explanation, and apparently anomalous in
occurrence. These are dew, which is a
great deposition of water at a time when
iiot a cloud is to be seen; a th?t)zder sto)-m,
which suddenly i-ages in the iiiidst of a
c-alni; and hail, which is the descent )f
ice and congealed snow in the hottest
days of the year. Each of these aiioiiialous phenomena requires explanation. 
SUNMMARY OF FIELD OPERA'l1O.bS.
after allowance l)as been madle  for any
difference  in  their lengrtlhs.  One great
source of their difference is very obviou,s;
for, it, beingi mianifest, wlhatever theory be
adopted concerning tlhe immIniediate cause
of dew, that the imore replete the atziosphere is with moisture, previously to the
or)eratiion of that cause, tl,e more copious
will  be  the precipitation of moisture  in tile
atmosphere, whihel- must likew ise tend to
incr ease the production  Of dew. Thus
dew,  in equally calm an   d c lear nigthlts, is
more abundant shortly after r ain tl)an
durlling a long               t ract of dry weather.  It is
more abundan            t durivpg S. and W. winds,
than d          heri ng, those wh ich b low             from the
N.          and               the E.   Dew                      is commonly more
plentiful  in spring and  atums   rii        i han in
summner;   the reaso       n         is, tha t  a g re     ater
differ          ence is generally founld between the
teimperature of the day an(] the night in
the former seasons of the year than in
the latter.   Dew  is always very copious
on those clear and calmii niglhts whlich are
followed by misty or foggy morning,s; the
turbidness of the air in the m-iorning showing that it must have contained, during
the preceding night, a considerable quanitity of moisture.  I have observed dew to
be unusually plentiful on a clear morning,
w%,hiclh had succeeded a cloudy nighlit.  For
the air lhaving, in the course of the nighlIt,
lost little or no moisture, was in the niornin,, charged  with more  watery  vapour
than it would  have been if the night had
also been clear.  Heat of the atmosphere,
if otlher circumstances are favotirable,wliichl, according to my  experience, tl)ey
seldom are in thiis couIntry,-occa,sionIs a
great  fo,rmation  of  dew.    For, as  tlhe
t.)wer of the air to retain watery vapour
in a pellucid state, increases considerably
faster while its temperature is         rising  t!la
in proportion to t!he 6eat  acqtlire(d, a decrease of its  leat in  any  smiiall,iven
quantity during the nighIt must britg it,
if tile temperature be  highr, much neairer
to the pointt of repletion b)efore it be acted
nplo)ot by the irmmiiediate caiuse of dew, tlhan
if time tenlperature were low.   I always
found, when the clearness and stillness of
t!he atmiosphere were the same, that more
dew  was  found  betwteen  mridig:llt  and1
6ulnrisie thlan 1)etween sunrset anl nlzidnig~llt,
thloughl tlle positive qulantity o>f molisture
in the air mlust hlave beenl less in thle
f(,rmer tlhan in the latter timne, in consequence of a previ(us precipitation of part
;of it.  Tlhe reasonl, no d&ubt, is tl)e cold
of  thle atmIosp)lere being greater in  the
latter than in  the prior part of the nighlt." *
2.97'7. Theories of the formation of dew
ohave been proffered by many philosophers,
wfpom thle days (of Aristotle to the time of
Dr Wells; and these have been referred to
in (176,) as also the observations of Dufay on thte perspiration  of moisture froin
tlhe earth, (177.)
2978. To measure the quantity of dew
deposited each  night, an instrument  is
use]d c(alled  a Drosometer.   Thle  most
simple process consists in exposing to the
open air bodies whose exact  wei,ght is
knowni, and  then weigh,ing them  afresh
after they are covered with dew.  Accordin,, to Dr Wells, locks of wool divided
into spherical masses of 32 inches diameter, are to be preferred to any other thing
for miieasuring tl:he deposit of dew.   All
circumstances that favour radiation equally
contribute to the formation of dew.   A
body that is a good radiator and a bad
conddtctor of lhea,t, will thl)erefoire be covered with a very abundant dew.  Thus glass
becomes wet sooner than the metals; organiisetl  bodies are wetted  more quickly
than glass, especially when  they are in
small fratgmienits-because, as the hreat
passes witL*- difficulty from the one  to the
other, tlhat whlich is lost is not replaced by
tllat wliiell is transmitted from the inte irior to thle surface of the body.  Thus locks
of wool are very well suited to these exI,)eri-ilents, and  become  covered with a
very abtiu(ldant (lew.  The moister the air
i,  tll otlher things b)eing equal, the nmore
consitlerable is thle quantity of dew that
falls in a given tite.  Thus, it is entirel,
waniting, in arid deserts, notwithlstanding
the intensity of nioctutirnal radiation.  In
our country, nlighlts with abtintlatt dews
iiiav be (t(t)sideried as foretelling rain; for
tllthey prove that thle air contains a great
qualitity of the vapour of water, an(l that
it is near the point of saturation.  DIalton
compl)ute(l tlie allmount of dew whlichi annuatl ly talls -.t 5 inichies. In fine weather,
iln the cvelleilg, the vapour  plane being
destr,,yed, atnd  the nubifie principle, as
Mr F'orster obserres, ceasing to act, the
* Wells On ])ew, p. 1. 1815.
7 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
left in the mouth a sharp and burning aftertaste.  On examination, these grains were
foundi  to be the tubercles of the  ficaire,
Rtanunculusficaria, a plant very common
in Silesia.  Ini the nmiddle of June the leaves
and stalks of this plant dry up, and the
thebercles hlaving, but loose  hold  of  the
ground,  the wind sweeps  tlhemr off their
sites, and the i'ains then carry them to a distance, but no one has seen thenm fall from
the clouds.   The seeds of the Melarnpyrumn nemorosurnm, of the Veronica heederafolia,- and of others, have been known to be
thus transported by wind and rain to considerable distances from their habitats.
2979. As sup posed d     epo     sitions from the
air, which take place usually in summtier,
and acconpanied chiefly with rain, are the
showers of remarkabl e substances, such as
sulphur, blood, corn, fishes, and  otlhers,
which h          ave b een       said  to have occurred in
several  places, and  which I mention more
as matter     s      of curiosity than of importance,
w             i         th the view  of correct ing the popular
ideas entertained  of them.  Showers of
Sulphur.-Formerly, and even at   the
pr esent                day, flour  of sulphur has been said
frequently to fall with rain;  a f         ter heavy
showers, quiet waters have b        een   foe                       ned
covered    with a       y ellow   dust, which, being,
e           asily inflamed, was believed to be sulplhur. i
Accurate researches have proved that the
dust was nothingo else than tnle pollen of
certain   flowers, and      of pines in p articular,
which had been  sw        ept off by th e w in d  and
precipitated by the rain. Tile nature of
the pollen depends on that       of the vegetables
th     a         t  grow within           a certain  distance.
Sc hm    e id     er  believes that, in March  and
Ap          ril, it is the pollen of alders and filberts;
in May and June, that    of pin es, elders,
birch; in   July, August,         and S  e        pt ermber,
that of lycopodiu n, typhew a, and  several
species of eqCnisetumt. Showers of Bloodt.
-Red spots have     b een  foun d on  th e  ground
and on the waters, which were believed to
be spots of blood. Microscopic researches
have proved that those colourings arose
from    innum erabl e  vegetabl es o r anitmals,
sone  filling the waters,  and otlhers- intorganic substances in the form of powderflling on the  ground,        were f( fsinl (,olrouaed with iron or hydroclhlorate of cobalt.
Slhowers  of Corn.S- A        fter le livy raivs,
bodies have frequently been found on the
ground that possessed a distinct ana-ilog,y
to grains of corn, and appeared to be coiiiposed of farina; but were founts not to Ire
the grain of the cereals, nor had they falien
from the air.  In June 18'30 were found
near Greisau, a village of Silesia,- after a
rain stormi, a certain number of small bodies
of a vegetable nature, (on places coverel-l
with turf. They had the taste of farina, lbut
2980. S9howers of A nimals.-One has
frequently heard of the fall of fishes and
frogs from  the air; and the common idea
is th         at they had been taken up by waters)outs into the clouds, and thence let fall
upon the earth with the rain; and it has
even been asserted that they  have fallen
fronm the sky in calhn weather.  " To all
these assertions," remarks M. Kaemntz, "1 I
kn1owv no other answer than that  Which
one of tile most distinguished naturalists
of the age made to one who assured lliii
that lie had seen such a phenomenon w itl
his o-wni eyes:'It is fortunate,' he saivl,
' that you have seen it, for now I believe
it: had I seen it myself, I should not lase
believed it.'"
* Kaemtz, Cumplete Course of..Ieteorology, p. 106, 465.
8
vapour so deposited comes down in dew.
Dew, however, is not ttie result always
of the stratus cloud, and it differs froni the
wet niist of tlle eirro-stratus of ttie lower
ati-nosphere.
298 1. Dry Fq-T.-From 2.9tli May to
ist Jiily 1783 a dense dry f(.)g was,e,-,ii
o-ver the reater 1)ai-t of Europe. The i'()"
iv,.is not an a(iiieous vapour, but a ti-i,,e
smokc-. Veltnianii ascertained tljat siii)iiit,aiieoii.s wine it great peat-bogs were. I)tii-iiit)(,, in Geriiiany that dry,4tiiiiiiier, -,is al.o
wei-c rreat volcanic eruptions in Caial)ria
and Iceland, the liot lava froiti wljicli btirtic(i  inu(,-Ii vegetation and many (Iwellin'(-, s.
Iri the dry suiiiiiier of 1839 a siriiil,-ti- dry
fo,, occasioned I)y burning bogs.*
2982. Sitinmer Eltet)-icity.-The natiire -,i.ri(I sources of electricity I)ave already
I)cen fully explained froin (123) to (130.)
As stinitiier is the season in wl)icli electricity is most active in displaying its
existence, a few i-ei-narks on its condition
if) tilis season seetns appropriate. Its ustial
state in the atmosphere is generally be 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
lieved to be positive, and that it increases
in quantity as we ascend.  In Europe, thle
observations of M. Scliiibler of Stutgardt
inltiniate that the electricity of the precipitating, fluids from thle atmosphlere is more
frequently neg,ative than positive, in the
proportion of 155 to 100; but that thle mean
intensity of the positive  electricity  is
greater than that of the negative in the
ratio of 69 to 43; and that different layers
or strata of the atmosphere, placed only at
small dlistances from each othler, a4'e frequently found to be in different states.*
It'appears also, from recent observ,atioin.s
by Schiiibler, that the electricity of the air,
in calm and serene weather, is constantly
positive, but subject to two daily fluctua-     r
tions.  It is at its minimum a little before
sunrise: after which it gradually accumuilates till it reaches its first maximum at
8 A.M. in May; and then diminishes until
it has descended to its second minimum.
The second maximum occurs in the evening about two  hours after sunset; and
then diminishes at firct rapidly, and next in
slower progression during the whole of the
night, to present again, on the following
day, the same oscillations. It is probable
that the exact time of its increase andi decrease is influenced by the seasons.   The
intensity increases from July to January,
and then decreases; it is also imutichi more
intense in the winter, though honger in
summer, and appears to increase as the
cold increases.+  These fluctuations may
be observed throughout the year more
easily in fine than in cloudy weather.
above.thie suirface6 of the eartlh: these appear to act as conductors of tlie electricity
fromr   the uipper  re,ionys.  Ca vallo  ascertained, fromii a set  of  exp)eIiments  performiied at Islinit,ton in 1776, that  the air
alvays contains  free  pos itive   electri city,
except waten iwcfitegtace(l by le-ivy clouds
near the  zenitlt.   Tlhis elect icity is fouund
strong,est in fogls, and(I duirin,, frosty weatlher,:'lbt weakest in liot weatlher, and just
previous to a  shiower of rain; andI to incr-ease  in proportion  as tle  instrument
used is raised to a grea-ter elev,ation. Thiis,
indeed,  necessarily  iaplp)eus; for  as  the
earthi's surface is, ca'te;is pairibis, always
negati:ely  electrified,   a-I  continiual  but
grad(uIal co)nbiliationi of its electricity with
that of tl3e air is constantly taking( place
at  its siiirface, so  tlat  no free positiv,e
electricity cani be detected wvithin fbur feet
of thie surf,-ce of the earthi." +
2984. Thunder-stoini. —Altliougih  the
presence of electricity  is tlihus accoulnted
for, its  ima-n ifest action   in  a thiuniiderstorin is not easily -,ttalyse(l. Storincloud(Is are at first small, an( triley raplxidly
becoime  larger  by  acculiatla'.il,g ill tile
vapours  around  thiem, wihen  tle  sky is
generally seen of a pale-blue coll,ur.  At
timnes  storin-clonds  are  formed in the
horizon, whlere they redlain either isolated
o r   runite  to,etiher.   Their characteristics
are, tihit the cilrri found in tthe ipper part
of  thie  atimospliere pass  to  a  state of
tlthick cirro-cuiii-ilus, ttlirugli the cumulus,
to a compact and uniform niss    of cttiumlostratus. Tlit( entiie iii:iss pereseiits reiiiarkable op)position of  ligiit —ioe part being
densely Ilu Ie-black, others tiashi-gray-and
if the sun is near to setting, a yellow  or
orang,e colour  mIay  pervade  tihe entire
IllaSS.
2983. " Among  the causes modifyin,
the electric state of the atmiiosplhere," oh)serves Dr Bird,' must be ranked its
hygrometric state, as well as probably the
nature of the effluvia which may become
volatilised in any given locality.  Tlhus,
Saussure has observed, that its intensity
is much more considerable in elevated and
isolated places than in narrow and confined situations: it is nearly absent in
houses, under lofty trees, in narrow courts
and alleys, and in enclosed places. In
warm places, the most intensely electric
state of the atmosphere appears to be that
in which large clouds and dense fogs are
suspended in the air, at short distances
2985. Thle formation of storm-ellouids is
preceded by a, slo,w and ciontinu(dl fall of
the baromteter, as mtlust be tli;e case wlhen
cirri occupy tile sky.   The  cal. ness  of
the air, and a suiffocating lIea.t, dulile to the
want of evaporation (,n the sutiface of our
bodies, are circumstances quite chlaracteristic.  The  hleat does not p)r,p(rti()lately
affect the thierionieter, alil is peeculiar to
tthle lower strata of the air, for it decr-ase
Forbes's R?eport on Meteoroloqy, vol. i. p. 253.
t Journal of Sciecae and of thre Arts, N. IV.
+ Bird's ElemneTts of Yatural Philosophy, p. 209.
9 
sucht a concussion in thle air between tihe
two clouds  tl)at its  vibra:tions,  strilckingrt
against  tlhe earth and  mountatins, cause
the nioise which is heard in tlhunder.
2:)90. Thle nmotion of the electric fluid
is llmost comlolily from  the clolds to the
eartlh, thougl  nuiiierons examnples exist of
its iravin,, flollowved an opposite direction.
It is prol)alble, however, that in miiost "cases
of  electric  explosion,   the  fluid leaves
bothi clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at
one  timle.   Hi)wever this  imav be, the
str.ole alvays goes iII the mnost direct line,
even through substances of the least  condqcting,  pow%er.  Anima-tls are frequently
struck, b)ecauise their fluiids easily conduct
the  tltii(d; wlJile  the slhock given to  the
bdly  seeimis to  be  tlhroug,,Ii the nervous
system.
2987. Tlhe tittie taken by  tlhe electric
fluid to pass fromii one cloud to another is
inal)fpreciable, but the velocity of sound is
calculable.   For every 42 secotds of tinle
whilich elalpse after seein(g thie ligylitning to
hlearing, tle thuntler, the clouds ar-e situate
as niany nmiles from  the ald(litor.  Far at
sea, where aie no objects fo,r sound to be
reflected  frkom,  thunder  is very  seldo-m        ec
heartl  -whereas in a ni(olitainiius country
it  insfires  terror,  thlouti,l   beinr   mere
: sound, it can (lo no hariii; whlile tle lightltnini(g, whichl  can do  hlarmn,  d(loes  all  tihe
nmischief it can before we are aware of its
presence.
2991.  Ilence lightningl,-co(nductors,called 8itLitrniofres, t,aif e  I)een recommended
not only t, draw off thie fli(id quietly from
the atmnosphere into the earit), whicil they
certainly (lo wlie-J, attlahed to houses, but
also witth thje v,iew of lessenting the number
and( virulency of thunder-storms, -whlich it
is douibtful thlat any inumttiber of conductors
w~,llll effect-since at Zurich, and its
vicinity, the   houses  aie  studded  with
conductors, and  storms  are   not  less rare
there tha-,n elsewhere.
2988. Liglitniing is of three kinds.  If
the  liglititing j)insl.  two  clotuds,  whlose
heighlt is n(,t equal, the sky appears irregtularly iiluxit inaaed.   If the  liglitinin,g g(es
fromt a cloudt  to the earthl, we  observe a
narrt,w train of d:tz,zlin, light, surr.,utldetl
by a less intense lighlt.   WVe  observe the
saLiie train  wlhen it; joins two  clouds (,f
eq.ual  iei,ghlt, because  tlere is no lower
ciouil in this case t,o li(le it froll  our viewt.
'I'lile two  sorts of lighltning, are of course
identical, and wve  namne  tliei  diffeirently
because  they  affect  our  sense of' gitllt
diffetently,.   Whlien we  remark a p,)iiit o,f
ilitgl  which is not clearly (lefitned, we call
it sheet li,ghtning.   Wlhenl lightning is of
%vegetation than any of tle tliers, (193,)
tlje excitin(, action of electricity in Plants
1-1
iiiay be connected vi,itli its blue colors,
2!)92. Electricity eniits a peculiar
odoezr, something ]iie sulpl)ur, t)r perl)al)s
ratlier g,,triic. This od(jur j',a generally
attributed to the discharge of minute par 
Withi a fla.sli that falls directly, tile noise
cau     sed by tl     e  f irst explosion is l.eard at
tile satee instarnt as the last while in,f
hlorizontal ftilsh, th         e           noises pr(ofdice(o at
tie           he greater distaces arrive later                than tile
otihers, a       nd a flasah which extendis over
2000 yards will produce a noise which
w ill last 7  seconds.  In tlhe zigzag, lighlItigii tide  nois      e  reacles  tlie ea                  r at different
intervals1;       an d         it is at tlhe antl,es                o r tehat tlen
noise   is stronigest, on account  of the coini)iression            of tlle air, antd lherice tile unequal
intensi ty of the  sotuind.  Tie                   rolliing (f
thuIlnder is thlus explainedl by           sI. Aerag,o:
" Lightnings only occupy a point in space,
and give place to a shiirt aid instaritaneo        iu s
noise.  Mtulitp la e ]ig fhtnings, On                    the olntrary, are accompanied by a rollling,, b)ecause  the different  parts of lon,  liines
whicl,  the liglitnings occupy are in general
ft, mnil a-t different distances, aiin( the sotunis
wllichll are tlhere eingendered3, eitlher successively or at the samie phlysical instant,
muist employ times gradually uniequal~ in
order to reach tile ear of the observer."
to re.achl  lhis ear.  Every one  miay  convince liniself tlhat liglitnings are reflected
wtllnrngi  tile air with great  intensity on a
daik ni(,rlIt. When a storlrl  is in tile W.,
and  thle remainder of thle sky is serene,
we  have  only  to turn  our back to  the
storm to see the  ligiltiliing reflected in the
E.
2998.  In a  tlttiivder-stordb, says  MI
Tesssan, " flasties of li,itigatiningg of  a terrible
bruilliancy, scceed eatel other with extreine
rapildity. and ar e  alesas t it)strint ly followed
by treiwendous claps of tldun(er, ftwhich are
tlieselyves succ eeded bvydeliu,ging, shiowers."
Btit tliou,,h thle ordtoer of  tle asce)niniiletta is
obvi,,us, a-n(l wvell un(lersto()d, yetthe ruling
casiue of tte  orter-ca   is  a cr tatter i f dispute-it
Ifeing  yt  ldnsettledI whetler th e  storm prodt ues the  electricity or  the  elgfetrwicit y teer
sto a.  M. les.s, following    tle orider of
phienollielna, sup)olrts thle latter view; and
1lKiner rjtz su)poits tae  fi,rrne r with     this
re.'sonirng: —"A  flasl, of lighitning, passes
tile zenithi, nand   before tl,e         clap (f thunder;
btit iraelv afterwarbs, the  rain  o      r hai l
escapes il torrents from  the cloud; tile
drols at  first in  a line  inclinied to  the
horizon, aind then return to a   vertical
direction.    It is  commn ionly stated," he
observes, " that the rain is thle effect of the
lighitilings tealing tlhe clouds; but it is
the giust; of wind  condensing the yalpo(urs
into large  lroIps, having first driven them
into a  lhrizontal  direction:  lhence, the
escape of electricity, and the clap of
thiunitler. As a proof that this condensa
2994.' All ttilin(ler-storins may be
divided into two classes, the oiie class being
due to the action of an -,iscen(ling current,
arid wl)ieli only occurs ii the hot season;
a,n(I the other class is the result of a conflict between two opposite wir)tis, an(I is
the catise of the winter tt-iutidei,-,toriiis.
299-1. Tliiiiider-storms in suniiiier a]w-,tys continence with cii-ri, antl when
theme become thicker, or when several 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
tion precedes tile lightniniig, the rain often
falls before the noise of the thunder is
leard.  Now, the latter travels 333 metres
(1092 feet) per second; if, therefore, the
rain was an effect (of liglhtning, it would Ii
follow that tile drops of water would have
fallen with a velocity at least equal-a             J
velocity which they never have, even at
the end of their fall."*
the  day, and  selflosn in the  night.  In
England hail falls most in winter; and at
Plynmoutil, according to Mr Giddy, in the
course of 21 years, its recurrence in each
mionthi was, in
Times.                 Times.
January,  23           July,.  ]
Febrtuary, 25          Aug-ust,     0
March,    25           September, 5
April,    27           October,   17
M.4y,      7           November, 22
Juniie,    5           December, 43
In August is absolute zero, and in December is the niaxinium.  The appearance of
Ilail-cl,ud(s seems to be distinguished from
other storimy clouds by a remarkable shading;  their e(lg,es present a multitude of
indentations, and their surfaces disclose
here  and  there immense  irregular  protuberanes.  I-lail se ldo m falls  in deep
valleys surrounded by mountains.  It falls
more on the sea-coast than in the interior
of a country.
2999. Thunder-storms are of great use
in the economy of the atmosl)here. The
surplus electricity is disposed of to the
earth, the surplus vapour is condensed and
sent down to the earth in raini, the air is
prevented  from becoming stagnant,  the
extraneous  matters floating  in  the air
are brought down to the earth, whether
these be in a solid or gaseous state, (290
to 295.)
3000. Hail.-The fall of ice from  the
atniospliere in the hottest weather is a
phenomenon not easily solved.  That both
snow and ice are required in the formation
of hail there cannot be a doubt.  "Tile form
of  hailstones varies.  They  are nearly
uniform  whern  they  fall on  the samie
level; and in the saine stormn they have
fallen smaller on the tops of lmountains
than on the plains.  Chainue of temuperature or  wind alters the form  of hail.
On 7thi July 1769, M. Adanson observed
six-sided pyramids  fall; but  the  wind
cilanging to N.E., changed them to convex
lenses, and so transparent as to transfer
objects without distortion.  Hail is sometimes attended with spongy snow, which
nla.y have formed the interior of the hailstone, while its exterior was transparent
ice.  It has been supposed from this, that
tlie different portions have  been formed
under  different  circumstances.    Leslie
imagines tile spongy texture to result from
an atom  of water hleaving been suddenly
frozen, and particles of perhaps  rarified
air suddenly driven into the centre. The
pyramiidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29tih
November 1823.  The usual form of hail
is a concentric laniellar structure, with a
stellular fibrous arrangemient."t
3002. Noise fr   equently accompanies or
precedes -t fall of hail. It is probably due
to t'lie lhailstones beating against each
other, or to the conflict of contrary winds.
The latter ale frequently so violent that
tile hailstones are transported in a  horizonta,! direction. It is often observed that
the wind  bl)ows in puffs, and that each of
tlheim is accop,~ilanied  withi   a torrent  of
hail.  ] f the hail falls as usual at intervals,
hailstones, whllielh are at first driven hurizontally, fiatllv mingle with the drops of
rain; an(d in tile end there is nothing but
rain, the drops  fallinig vertically on the
surface of tle earth.
3004. Botlh thie barometer and  thermomieter are affected by lhail-storms.  TILe
I)aromi-eter falls on the approach of a lhailstor,n and  imimniediately after the storm
has passed the temnperature falls, and  the
3001.Hilgnealyfalsiteot           contrast is the more  severely    felt in  c('nsequenoace of the storm. Theat loweriorng of the
al~l~roachi of the storm. The lowering of thoe
SOOr1. Hail th dener ally     falls in talhe hottest
lhcmsrs of the day  in Spain, Italy, and
France.  It falls in Europe generally in
* Kaemtz' Complede Course of Ifet eorologqy, p. 345-368.
+ Escyclopedia.Ietrolpolitana-art. Me-teorology, p. 129.
12
3003. Altlioiigli liail-storms are very
violent, they occupy but a very Iiinited
space. They will occur at the foot of
Mountains and in the plain, wl-iile nothing
I)ijt r,-tin falls on f.lie mountains adjoining,
ai)(I in their iiiarcli they leave a narrow
train of li,-tilstoiies. 
SUMNIMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
temperature for two or three weekls after
a severe hail-storm, woul(l intlicate that
such a storrm  has a iiiiici grieater effect
upon the atmosphlere, and  mutst tlherefore
be much more extetsive, tlian tlhe space
covered by the fall of liailstones  would
lead us to believe.
the  formation of hla,il —Iave been erected
in p)artsof the Continent, tosave tbe  vineyatris froti thle l!ail; anid if electricity  is
conine('tp(l with- tle fori,ation of lhail, these
should(  have some such effect, btlt tl)ere
are  no authentic records of their utility.
Ii(-eed, Kaemtz asks, are not  forests a
collection  of  livitng  paragreles, and  yet
thley are not s)are(l by hIail.   Vegetable
l>oitits )ossess great powers of conduction.
Accor(-dinig to Mr Pine of Maidstone, a blado
of grass is a better conductor of electricity
thsan  a steel needle, and  that thle spines
ul.)(;i tlhorns, gooseberry bushes, and indeed
tle wlhole creation of buds and leaves,  liavu
thle pr(operty of silently drawing off aud
condluctin(g away electricity.
3005. As to the formation of h~ail, tlhe
difficulty of accounting(  for the retention
of the masses of ice in the free atnlosllhie e,
as observed byProfessorForbes, is certainly
verygreat. Volta's theory, than whlich none
is more satisfactory, and certainly n()ne
more ingenious, is thus particularlyexplained byKaemtz:-Evaporation is faivoured b             y
the solar rays striking thle upper part of the
cloud; the air above is very dry; thle electric state of the clouds falvours evaporation.
Of two clouds, thie one upper the othler
lower, thle upper is first fi~ried(; the upper
becomes in a state of positive,and tlhe lower,
in consequence, in that of negative electricity; tile snow-flakes of the lower stratunm
of clouds are in thle sanie electrical condition with it; they are tllerefore repelled
and attracted by the upper stratumi; as soon
as they touch it they partake of its electricity, are repelled, and fall to tile lower
cloud(, into which they penetrate; they are
again repelled, and so on.   These attractions and repulsions may last for several
hours, duriing which tinie the grains unite
in masses, and condense around them tile
surrounding vapolurs, whichl  thley convert
into ice; tliey strike a gainst  each other,
and originate the noise which is heard;
when tlie hailstones lihave attainie(i a certain
size, the lower cloud( can no lon(ger retain
them, and resisting tlhe action of gravity,
they traverse thle stratiumi and fall to the
earthil.  Tile violence of tile storm is accountedl for by tile mlleeting of two opposite winds, the N. and the S.  The hail is
precipitated at the moment of contact.  The
-.  wind prevails, and accounts  bothi for
the cold which srucceeds and thle rapid formi-ation of hail.
8009. Cloud.s. The forms of the cloudt
in  summer ae *ery  distinctly nmarked.
When a (dep)(sition of  vapouir is takinlgI
place ini the igl es     t          par t  of the atmosphere,
th le cirrum      ies pe rs (242;) and whe n it
soon  disal,)pe ar, it is a sign of fine weather;
but instead of lisappearif,ll  it inav descend
a little  lower, an(l be converte d  i nto the
cirro-eurn, ulus (25)0,) —-an elegant, light,
flocculent cloti(I so often seen in a fine
sumnmiierday.  A filrtl!er deplosition clanges
tlhis stma,ll ]cloud intol tle larger cumulu.s,
called tlhe day-(-l]uti( in sulmlnier, because
it disapp)ears ini a,iothler form in the even -
iiig, (245.) Tl~e cmr-n. utilus is distinctly represented in Pla.te XII I. of tlieLeicestertup
near tlhe horizo,n, wlIere it frequientlv takes
up its position fo>r tle greater part of the
day, resting on tlhe vapour plane. Wh en a
large clumu-llus rises fr-om the horizon in the
laytimne, with w%lzite t(,wering heads, it is e
sign of a storin  or fall of rain  fron that
quarter; and the wind will change to that
direction in the course of the next twenty
3007. Para qreles-tall       posts e  rected for
drawing off the electricity, and opposing
* Kaemtz' Conplete Course of I[eteorology, p. 387 and 582.
13,
01008. Sleet.Very small hailstones are
t,ernie(-l sleet.' They are niostly spherical.
Isolated ones are opaque, frequently soft,
aii(I of a whiteness al-)proacliinc, to tl)at of
snow. The latest are sotiietitiies surrouri(le(!,A-itli a sli,lit filiii of ice. They fall
in winter aii(I sprin(I during gugty weather,
aii(I rarely accoiiip.,iiiy storiiis, but always
fall gales, and when the weather
is an(I still gusts of cold wind
seat a necessary condition for the fortii-ttioii of sleet.*
3006. Pieces of straw, and in Icelaiicl
volcanic aslies, have been found m,itliin
hailstones. 
PRACTICE-SULMMER.
four hours.  This threatening cloud, called
cumulo-stratus, is given in Plate VIII., of
the Drau,ghjt Mare.  In calm serene evenings in summiner, the day-cloud descends
anid subsides in the bottom of valleys, or
spreads itself in hollows of the open country covering the ground like a lake or a
sheet of st(.)W, as seen in nioonilighIt, when
it bec(mies the true stratus cloud.  Tall
objects, such as trees, steeples, and even
elevated ground. jut through this cloud like
rocks and islands in a lake.   The air is
then perfectly caln, the temperature deligihtfully warni, and the intenseness of the
silence is broken only by the snipe druimming in its curious somersaults in the airby the harsh ventriloquous cry of the corncraik amongst the grass-or by the occasional barking of the watch-dog at some
distant homestead.   The morning  after
such a night is sure to usher in the sun in
bright and peerless splendour, whose steady
heat soon evaporates the sheet-like stratus
cloud from the valley and hollows, elevating it, in the form' of the beautiful,
conmpact, day-cloud, above the mountaintop or vapour-plane.
Deemys.
15'8
11-8
l...     16'1
43'7
3010. The effect of larger masses of
cloudl, and especially cumuli, on the smaller clouds in their vicinity is evidently
marked in summer.   The approximation
of clouds towards each other is always attended with some alteration of their appearance, and clouds are constantly oleratilig on and altering each other's forms.
Analogy leads us to refer alI such changes
to tlhe operation of the different states of
electricity in the clouds nearest each other.
3015. Ofthese quantities much etlelarblest
proportion of  rain  in  the sarlie  time is derived from tliunder-storls, tlhouglh of course
an entir e rainy day  mnay  supply  more
than any  storm.  Whien  rain falls in a
shower to the extent of 1!18 inch in a (lay,
the low plains (of Europe b~ecome inundated,
while at Joyeuse 8'84 inches have been
known to fall in that tiiie.  In mnountainous countries such slhowN-ers are not
rare, because the winds frequently blow
with violence in several contrary directirans.
3011. Rain. —The.character of the rain
in suninner is refreshing; for even in a
rainy season, though  we  may  feel displeased at being kept by it within doors
on      a suimmier  day,        w e feel assured that it
will in a great measure be absorbed by the
iminense mass of vegetation which is in
constant activity during this season.
3016. It is stated by Kaemtz that, if
on the N. of the Alps and the Pyrenees the
wind always blew from the N.E., no rain
would ever fall in Central Euro(pe, and
that if it always blew from thle S.W. it
would never be fair.
3017. The boundlary-line of the provinice of summer rains in Europe proceeds
W. firom the Carpatlhian mountains to
the N. of the Alps, tlhrouhi the midildle of
France, the west of Holland, and by the
north part of the Gulf of Botlhnia, through
3012. Since the experiments of Dr
HIales proved that a sunflower plant, 3-1
feet high,, and an ordinary-sized cabbage,
on the average perspire  22 ounces of
water every twenty-four liours, and consequently absorb at least that quantity,* we
Hales' Statical Essays, vol. i. p. 12 and 15.
14
tna.y jud,,e of the iiiiinense mus of
water required daily to supply the wants
of ve,,etatioii. And when we know that
evaporation, besides, carries -in incredible
ql,l,,Llltity of N,,,il.)ot.ir dii-ect from the surface
of the groun(-l into ti-ie atmosphere, it may
more excite our surprise where -,ill t.lie requisite moisture cati be dei-ived froin, than
that too mail has, beeii provided.
3013. Ttie quantity of rain wliieli falls
in the siiini,i)er titotitlis, as we leave adopted
tlieni, taking the nie,-in qiiaiitity as 1, is,
according to Al. Flaguergue., in      May, 0-0947
Jutie, 0-0765
July, 0,0544
0,2156.
1 3014. The niiiiiber of rainy davs in the
same inoiitl)s, according to the saiiie autlioit.y, is as follows:
Iii Ma,y,
Juiie,
July, 
...svw "1 "'llu~l~l~t 11tbt~t#11DI t'I)'F'r u[ll
U ill imiost  )robal)ly  ultimately  prevail.
Whlen  it is unertailin lietl,,er there be any
breeze, the lifting up  of  a wettedt finger
will instantly feel thle current, an(d indicate
tlhe quarter fromii wlhenice it comes.
_re  t....n.._1.-....J    —,
eerved this phenomenon.
301,9. Winds.-The character of tlhe
winds in summer in this country is gentle
and refreshing.
3025.  In summer, especially  in July,
the wind bh(%,ws c!hiefly fromii the W.-tthe
pre(1ldoiinance of W.  winds *over E. at tlhis
season attainiin,lr its  maximtum; and at the
saimie timiie the N. winds b)ecome more comImioni; whlence it follows that the nean
direction of the wvind in this seasoni is N.
of the arnnual neian.
3020. This is the season for the land
and sea breezes.  In fine weather, oin the
sea-coasts, no movement is perceived in the
air until eighlt or nine o'clock in the niorining, whlen a breeze from the sea gradually
rises, and increases in strengthl to thlree
o'clock in the afternoon, when it dlecreases,
and gives place. after a shlort period  (f
calm, to a breeze from the land towards tle
sea, which rises soon after sunset, and attains its maximum of velocity and extent
at the moment of sunrise.
:3026. Wlien  tl!e wind blows strongly
froin  any quiarter, even  froimi the  S. W.,
whiclh is tie warintest wind in stiintrer, for
two or tlihree d(ivs in slicession, tlie tenmperature of the air is (liulinislied, sonimetinijes
as ltlucli as 20~, and seld(oml less than 10~.
3021. The direction of these two breezes
is perpendicular to the coast line, but if
anrothier breeze arises at the same time they
are modified in various ways. On tlhe E.
coast of this island, if the wind blows fromi       i
t!he E. the sea breeze will be strollg, and
tlhe landi breeze weak; and on the W. coast,
the land breeze will be stronger than the
sea breeze.- These effects will he the contrary withi a W. wind.   In a wind  front
the N. or the S. botlh the land anid sea
breeze will be changed in their direction
respectively to thle N.E. an(l S.W.   The
sea breeze  is very weak  in gulfs, aud
tlhe land breeze is as weak on promontories.
3027. Wleen siuall whirlwinds are seen
raising thle didst tp, l the roadls or fields,
it is a sign of dry weather.  I reii-,eniber
seeilng, in the neiglihbo(lrliood of Berlin, a
large,and beautiful whirlwind, in a  hlot
calml day, raise the sandy soil of a field,
inii a  perpendicular  direction, to  a great
heilght in tlhe air, and iiiove majestically
away  out of sight.
3028. E?vaporation.In proportion as
tllthe sun rises above the horizon the eva
poration  increases, and the air  receives
" Joinston's Physical.4tlasMeteorology, Map iV. 
PRACTICE -SUMMIER.
taut element  in nature, for the promotion
of vegetation  in summer.   We  have already considered its nature and  cominposition, (from 189 to 194.)  Its properties
are most evidently manifested in this season, and these have been shortly and forcilbly enumerated by Dr Lindley. " It is
to thie action of leaves," lie observes-" to
the  decomposition of their carbonic acid
and of their w.ater; to the separation of
the a(Iueous p),ticles of the sap from the
solid parts  that were dissolved in it;  to
the  deposition thus e  ffec ted  of vario us
earthy and ther other sbstances, either introduced i nt o  plants, as silex and   mbetallic
salts, or fidfrted there, as  ve getable   alkaloids; to t he extrication of  nitrogen, and
probably to othier causes as yet unknown
-that the formation of the peculiar secretiots of platts, of whatever k i nd,    is owing.
And athis is  brought a bout  principally,   if
not exclusively,  by the agency of     light.
Their green colour becomes intense, in
proportion to their exposure to light
within  certain limits, and feeble, in proportion to their removal from it; till, in
tot~al and continued darkness, they are
entirely destitute of green secretion, and
become  blanched  and  etiolated.   The
same result attends all their other  secretions; tiintber, gum, sugar., acids, starch,oil,
resinis, o(dours, fla'vours, and all the numberless narcotic, acrid, aromatic, pungent, astringent, and other principles derived from
the vegetable kingdom, are equally influenced, as to quantity and (quality, by the
amount of light to which tile plants producing them have been exposed." t
every moment   a  greater  quantity (of
vapour.  The  fact of the rising of tile
vapour from  tile ground,  may  be  (listinctly observed in summer, by the flickering, with which distant obiects are seen
thlrough the vapour.   But as the air opposes an  obstacle  to  the  formation  of
vapour (22!),) it becomes further and furthler removed from the point of saturation,
antl the relative humidity becomes iiore
and  more feeble.    Thile  rate continues
without interruption,  until the  moment
when  the temperature attains its inaxinmui.   In summer the absolute quantity
of vapour increases in the morning, but
before mid-day thile maximum occurs, and
in different months  it occurs sooner  or
later.  Thile absolute quantity of vapour
then diminishes,  until  the  time of the
highlest temperature of the day, without
however attaining a minimum  so low as
that of the morning.   As the temperature
rises during all this space of time, it follows,
that the air is farther and farther from the
point of saturation: after having attained
its minimum, the quantity of vapour again
increases very regularly until next morning, while the air becomes relatively mnore
and more moist.
In February,  it is
March,...
April,...
303 1. To show the advantage that
sunmmer possesses over all the other seasons
as regard(ls light, it is only requisite to
state its comparative duration  in the respective months of the seasons, as we have
divided the year, and it will then be seen
that summer enjoys more than double the
light of winter, a half more than spring,
and a third more than autumn. Thus,
IN WINTER.
November has 8 hours 10 minutes of light a-day.
December,... 7...  8..........
January,... 7... 44.......
Making a      -
meanof  7.. 41..,.
In  May, it is
June,...
July,...
The quantity of vapour attains its maximnum in July, the month in which the air
is driest.  We  thus see that evaporation
is nearly twice as active in summner as in
spring.*
3030. LiqAt.-Ligot is a most impor
* Kaemtz' Complete Course of Jleteorology, p. 85, 92.
+ Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, p. 52.  -
16
3029. Vapour being the result of tlie
action of lieat on )N,ater, it is evident tli,-tt
it,s quantity inust vary in different seasons.
The relative differences in - the tension of
the vapours of water in the sprin,, and
0
,sunimer seasons, are as follows:
4.74.)
t). 1 07
6.247
16.103
Their sum,
7.836
10.843
11.626
30.305
Their sum, 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
lhence it is that  they illuminate the vault
of heaven, lighlt up terrestrial objects on
whichl the sun does not shine directly, and
deternime  the insensible  transition  between day and night.
IN SPRING.
February, has 9 hours 30 minutes of light a-day.
ilarch,... 11...  49.........
Aprils... 14...   9.........
Making                                 a -
mean of  11...  49.........
3033. Heat.-We  have already  con sideredl the properties of heat from  (158)
to  (162.)   As  Ieat always accompanies
ligh,t with the solar rays, its intensity increases with tlhat of the latter.   The actinometer and hleliotlhermometer, as well as
the pyrekeliometer of  Pouillet, have all
been employed to measure that intensity,
and the results seem to be satisfactory.
It would appear that a very large proportion of the heat of the solar ray is absorbed
in passing through the atmosphere, and
that  the proportion  is increased as the
sun approaches the horizon.  The results
of some experiments made by Professor
Forbes of Edinburgh, with M.  Kaemtz, in
1832 at Brientz, and on the Faulborn in
Switzerland, are  interesting, and rather
startling-to learn that so large aproportion of the solar heat is absorbed  by the
atmospheric air.  It  appears  that  the
bundle of calorific solar rays, on entering
into our iatmosphlere, is composed of two
sorts of rays; the one easily absorbable by
the atni(mosphere, the other absolutely refusint, all extinction;  the former form
nearly 0'8, nnl the latter 0'2 of the niumI)er.   The law of the extinction of the
rays  of the first order is a geometrical
o)rogiession, according, to the hypothesis of
Bouger, K.emitz, &c., such that the verticrel tirnnsmission through the atmosphere,
taken from its base, the level of the sea,
to its superior limit, reduces the 80 absorba lble rays out of each 100 to 33.  It follow's fiom tlhis theory, that tile portion of
t}ae lheat  -lhiech is not absorbed in the case
of verticail transmission, instead of being
75 per ceniit of the extra atmospheric heat,
is (ronly 5) per cent.   Calculating  erene
rr(inl cl(ut(ly  lays, we  thus see  that the
earth dloes not profit by more than a very
small portion of the suiln's rays that arrive
,it the atmosphere.*
IN SUe MfER.
IMlay,... 16...  11
June,... 17...  I6
July,... 16...  45
Mlaking a
mean of 16... 44
IN A UgTU MN.
August,... 14...  34
September,... 12...  23
October,... 10... 17
Making a  -
mean of  12...  25
3032. Besides its existence for a greater
number of lhouirs each day, light is of
greater intensity in summer  than in the
other seasons; because it is then transmitted t hrousg n a the atmosphere at a.higler
an gle.   The light       of the sun or of the
moon, in its passage from the  meridian,               is
dazzling, whilst we  can gaze at  either
body w he n near         t        he horizon, b ecause           their
ra ys c ann      ot so easily penetrate through
the thick stratum of atmosphere they have
there to traverse, and, many of them are
absorbed. If it were possible to measure
the intensity  of solar lighIt at different
elevations, we might indicate the quantity of the absorption of those rays. The
a(ctac,ometer of Herschel and the ]teliothermometer of  Sau.ssiire have been enipl()yed for the purpose, but unsuccessfully.
MNessrs Fizeau andFoucault, miore recently,
have  tried  to  effect  the  purpose  1by
Dagl,errean plates, and they have  measured the intensity of light by its chemical
effects; and they regard  it as very  prolb)able, that the luminous radiations of white
lig,lit possess optical and chemical intenisities in the same ratio.  Ligh,t and }leat
fire so intimately connected with the solder
rays, that it is difficult to separate the two
manifestations, so that thle measure of the
intensity of the calorific rays may also be
regarded as that of the  luminous.   Oni
considering the nature of this al)sorption
of the solar rays by the atmospheric air,
we must necessarily conclude that a portio~n only is absorbed-others are allowed
to pass, and a third portion is reflected;
.t034. Prp,onostics.-Ind  summer, when
falling stars appear, some feature  of the.
cirro-stratus nmay genemlty, be seen about.
Tl.ey indicate the a-poal of a t      hdp
* Kaemtz' Complete Gourse of Mleteorology, pp. 1 -, 410:&
VOL. II.
17
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.........
.........
.........
.........
I
2 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
storm.   Fire-balls are not uncommon in
warm summer  nights, particularly viwhen
cirro-cumulus,  cirro-stratus, and  electric
clouds abound.
3041.  The summer flowers consist of
the ranunculus, goatbeard, harebell, scarlet  lyclinis, poppy, lily, and  rose; and
with nunmerous suchlike flowers the ground
is  literally covered with a profusion of
beautiful creations.
3035. The barometer remains pretty
stationary in summer, and comparatively
high, ally remarkable oscillation being a
sudden fall before a violent wind from the
S. W.   It was an observation of Dr Daltoni, that in summer, after a long continuance of fair weather, with the barometer
high, it generally falls gradually, and for
one, two, or more days, before there is
much appearance of rain.  If the fall be
sudden, and great for the season, it will
probably be followed by thunder.
A cold May and a windy,
Makes a full barn and a findy.
May, comes she early, or comes she late,
She'll make the cow to quake.
Beans blow-before May doth go.
A May flood-never did good.
Shear your sheep in May-and shear all away.
A swarm of bees in May
Is worth a load of hay.
Look at your corn in May,
And you'll come weeping away.
3036. The thermometer is also steady
and high, only indicating a great fall duriDg a hail-storm.
3037. The air is clear and dry in summer, the clouds high, and the wind breezy.
The clhanges from this state are occasioned
by thunder and hail storms, and such
changes are always sudden and violent.
JUNE.
Look at your corn in June,
And you'll come home in another tune.
Calm weather in June-sets corn in tune.
3038. Animals are numerous in summer, and constantly in the air, and their
covering of  hair and feather s being peculiarly sensible to the changes of the atmosphere, give rise to such motions in the
animals as are significant of approaching
changes in the weather.  Ducks, geese, all
,waterfowl, the guinea-fowl, peacock, crows,
frogs, and sparrows, make much noise be!fore a fall of rain.  Bees roam but a short
distance from their hives, and ants carry
their eggs busily before rain.   Mag,pies
chatter much before wind.  Spiders cover
everything with their gossamer when the
weather,is to continue fine.
JULY.
A swarm of bees in July-is not worth a fly.
A shower in July, when the corn begins to fill,
Is worth a plough of oxen, and all belongs
theretill.
No tempest, good July!
Lest corn come off blue by.
3043. Among the superstitious prognostics connected with the weather still in
existence, it is mentioned  tha t if St Urhban's day, 25th May', be f air, th e Germans
count    on a  go od vintage, but if stormy,
the reverse is said to be in dicated.   The
forty days' rain ascribed  to St Swithin, on
the 15th July, is another w    ell -kno wn
superstition, and may be ranked among
those originating in atmospheric plenomena; for al tho ugh the placi ng of  t he
prognostic to the account of St Swithin is
palpably thbe effect of ig,norance and credulity, yet, if rainy weather occur about
the 15th July, it willbe of long continuance,
as whatever weather sets in soon after
the summer solstice is of long continuance,
according  to reference in niany  journals of the weather.  The influence now
ascribed to St Swithii  used to be shared
by St John the Baptist, and by St Paul
is
And,
Wtien clouds appear like rocks and towen,
The earth's refreshed by frequent showers.
8042. Ttie metrical proverbs connected
witli tiie summer are not many.
MAY.
3OS9. Wild -flowers indicate changes in
the atmosphere as sensibly as animals.
Chickweed expands freely and reniains
open fully, in a continuance of fine weather.
When it, with the trefoil and convolvulus, contracts its petals, rain may be
expected.
3040. Particular forms of clouds also
indicate both steady ancl chan,,eable
,,weather, as thus:  If woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way,
;Be sure no rain disturbs the summer day. 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
hours, or happen alove once a-year.  If it
be,,inis to rain an lhouir or two  I)(fore sunrisintg, it is like to be fair before noon, and
continlate so that day; but if the rain begin
an hour or two after sun-rising, it is like
to rain all that day, except the rainbow
be seen before it rains."*
St Margaret's day, 20th July, used to leave
some curious superstitions c()nnecte(l with
it, relative to the fecundating power  of
this lady's festival, quite at variance with
her character as a virgin martyr. Probably
it may be connected with the circunmstance,
that heifers are commonly p)ut to the bull
about this period of the year.
3046.  Rainbow.-As  showers of rain
fall most frequently in sumlier, so is the
rainbow miiost frequently seen in that season. For the formation of a rainbow it
is sufficient that the sun strike drops of
water with its rays, and thus may be seen
rainbows on clouds, an~d even on terrestrial objects.  In order to see a rainbow,
it is necessary that our face be turned away
froi,n the suni, and directed towards the raindropl)s falling in the opposite direction of
the heavens.  What we then see is an arc
conposed of  the prismatic colours, (191.)
arranged in parallel and concentric arcs,
the cetntre of which is formed by the
shadow of the spectator's head. When two
arcs appear, they are concentric on the
samie centre.  In the interior bow, which
is the mnore fiequently seen, and the colours
of which are the niore vivid, the violet
colour is within and the red without, and
consequentlv, the red slpace is greater than
the violet; anlD when two arcs appear, the
outer one lhas the colours reversed, and consequettly the violet rays  predominate,
The colour-s are more or less vivid in pro'portion to the intensity of the rays o,f the
sun; and hence it is that lunar rainbows
rarely exhibit the prismatic colours, being
merely whitish or yellowish.
3044. Among many remains of augury
e x t a n t    at the present dd i  ay ay  be mentioned                                          the common practice  of nailin g up s
dead kites, crows, owls, hanks, weasels,
a       nd other rapacious animals against the
d    o    o    r     s of barns, stables, and ou thlouses -a
custom    which originated in an endeavour
to                        terrify their living compeers, an d to
warn them not to obtrude themselves.
3045. The Shepherd of Banibury's rules
affecting the weather of the sunimer quarter are these:-' In summnier or harvest,
when the wind has been S. two or three
days, andl it grows very hot, and yoti see
clouds arise with  great whlite topls like
towers, as if one were upon the top of another, and joinedi together with black on
thle nether side, there will tie thunder and
rain suddenly.  If two such clouds arise,
one on either hand, it is time  to make
haste to shelter.  If you see a cloud rise
against the wind, or side-wind, when the
cloud conies up to you, the wind will blows
the same way that the cloud camie; and the
same rule holds of a clear place, when all
the slky is equally thick except one clear
edge. If the clouds look dusky, or of a
tarnish silver colour, and move very slowly,
it is a sign of hail; and if there be'a
nmixture of blue in the clouds, the hail wi 
be smnall, but if very yellow, large.  Small
scattering clouds  that fly very high, especially from  the  S. W., denote wliirlwinds.   The  shooting  of falling  stars
through them  is a sign of thunder.  Stidden rains never last long,; but when the
air grows thick by deg.rees, and the sun,
nmoon, and stars shine dinmnmer and dlimmer,
then it is like to rain six hours usually.
If it begin to rain from the S., with a high
wind for two or three hours, and the wind
falls but the rain continues, it is like to
rain twelve houirs or more, and does usually
rain till a strong N. wind clears the air.
These long rains seldom hold above twelve
3047. Thle conditions under which the
inner bore is  formiedl, are, that  the ray
floii the sun. in passii,g through the drop
of rain, is refracted towards  the  opposite
side of the drop, where it is reflected, and
directed again by another refraction to,
wards the eye.   The different prismatic
colours are reflected to the eye undler different angles.  The red ray, in these circumstaiices, subtends an angle of 42~ 23';
and thle violet ray only 40~ 29'; so that
the width of the axc'is 1~ 54'.
* The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules, p. 27, 41.
19
3048. Wli'n the ra is twice reflected
on, tl)e'back of the rain drol-l' befor it
reaches the eye, a double bow is obseirvett -I 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
and the angles formed  by the different
colours, in this case, is for the red 50~ 21',
and for the violet 53~ 46'; the widthi of
the arc being 3~ 25'.
bow.
3049. A third and a fourth bow lilay be
formed; but tilhe intensity of the lilght from
these is so feeble that they are rarely seen.
I have at times observed a triple bow.
3053. The prognostics connected with
the rainl)ow are the following:-After a
long-droug,hIt the bo,w is a certain sign of
rain; and after niuchl wet, of fair weather.
0When  the green is large and bright, it
indicates rain; and when  the red is the
strongest colour, botlh aswind and rain are
indicated.  If the bow break up at once,thierewill follow-serene anidsettle(d weather.
When the bow is seen in the morning, rain
will follow; if at noon, settled and heavy
rain; and at night, fair weather. The
appearance of two or three rainbows indicates fair weather for the present, bult
settled and heavy rain in two or three
days after.
3050. I have hitherto considered only
a single drop of rain, and as it moves
rapidly, the image from it can only last
for a moment; but if a great number of
drops fall in succession in the same direction, each of them will produce an image
inl the same place, and the sensation produced by the colours will remain permanent.  It is evident that, as the various
colours subtend different angles with the
eye, only one person  can see the same
rainbow.
3054. The appearance of twilight, depenldingl on the state of thle sky, foretells
to -a cer tain  extent  the w e athe r   of  the
following day.  Wloen  the  sky is blue,
and after   sunset tihe western  regi on  is
cov ered witha  slight purple  tint, we ma  y
be sure  that the  weather wi    ll be  fair,
especially if  tile horizon  seem  covered
witlh a slighIit siiioke.  After rain, isolated
clouds, coloured red and w;ell illuminated,
announce the return of fair weather.   A
twiig,l,t of a whitish yellow, especially
wlieii it extends to a distance in the sky,
is not a sign of fair weather for the follou ing  I:.>:. We Allay expect  showers
when the sun is of  a brilliant white, and
sets in the iiii(lst of  a wMlite light, which
scarcely iperiits us to distinguish it.  The
In'0ognosticautioii   is still worse  when   lift
cirri, that give thie sly a dull appearance,
alppear deeper near tile lhoirizon; stiid when
tlhe twilig!ht is of  a grayi.~lh red, in the
mii(dst of which are seen portions of a deep
reel that pass into gray, and scarelv permit
the sun to be distinguished.  In this cast.,
vesicular vapour is *verv abundant, and we
miay calculate  on win1iid and approaching
rain.
3051. When the sun is in the horizon,
the bow  appears a semicircle, with an
apparent diameter of 41~.' Wheni the sun
is 41~ above the horizon, the apex of the
bow will be a tangent to the plane of tilhe
horizon.  If the sun is still higher, the
bow will be seen projected on the ground,
and the colours will be very pale.   When
the sun attains the hleight of 52~, a rainbow cannot be formned at noon in summier.
When  the  head  is elevated  above  the
plane of the sun, as on a  molntain, a
larger portion of thie arc is seen than the
semicircle, in proportion to the hleight of
the mountain, from wllence may be seen the
circle complete.  When the head is elevated ab-)ove the cloud, a red circle will be
seen projected upon it, the rays of the sun
from whichl will subtend an angle witil the
eye of 42) 23', and thile apparent diameter
of the circle will also be 42~ 23'.
30.52. When a vividly coloutred rainbow
is projected on a dark cloud, the sky is
mutlch darker above than below the bow,
which difference is the more strikitng wihenl
the sun is low.  This is a plhtenomiienon
opposite to that connected with halos.  If
we follow the course of the sun's rays in a
rain drop, we shall see that the drops situated above that  in which  the bow is
formed do not send us the rays reflected
8055. The signs drawn from daybreak
are somnewhat different. When it? is very
red, we may expect rain; whilst a gray
* Kaemtz' Cormptlete Course of lleteorol'oy, p.'440-4.
20 
SUlMMIARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
morning announces  fair weathler.   The
reason of the difference between a gray
d(lawn and a gray twilight is, because in
the evening the colour mnainrly depends on
cirri, in the morning on a stratus, which
soon yields to the rising sun; whlilst the
cirri become thlicker during the nlight.  If
at sunrise there is enou,gh  of vaplouis for
the sun to appear red, it is then very probable that, in thle course of the day, the
ascending current will determine the forination of a thick stratum of clouds.*
or  nli,,htl   y connected, yi ng at rest or
gently floating alona, seren e  weather may
be cotfide.tly  expected. A change of this
set tle d  state is presaged by the wind suddenly rising,  by close continu ous  cirrostrati gatlerin, into an unbroken glo om,
and bo y that variety (of cirrus) known as
thte goat's-lair or gray-mare's-tail. Someti.nes a  fe w  fleecy clo uds skim  rapidly   beto   e en   th  e rce          r the superincubet vapour and the
earth's surface, and are  the fore runners  of
sno w or r1ains".(the scud ).  "Should  the
cirri not pass away with the immediate
fall, but  extend towards  the horizon, a nd
present  their troubled edges towards  t he
zenith, there will be stormy weather for
so1te time.  When a imodification of  the
cirro-stratus is formed to leeward, thick in
the middle, and wasting at bot h ends, with
its side to the wind like a ship lyitg to, it
inditates continued w in d. After a clear
frost, we sometimes  see long  whitishcoloured streaks of cirrus, (cirro-stratus,)
4  whose two  extremitie s seemingly approach
each other as they  recede from the zenith.
This appearance is vulgarly called Noah'sark; and if it point froun S.W. to N.E., we
expect a thaw from S.W.  Small blackish
boat-slhaed clouds rising in the W.,  and
moving sideways,          indicate a thaw, with
little  or  no rain.  A short glare of re d in
the E., about sAtn-rising, portends  a rainy
and wintly day. Whe n  the sky            shines
fomle the watery exhalations  around the
mnid-(day sun, rain or snow will soon follow;
when  it has a hreen appearance  to the E.
or N.E., frost and snow.  A crimson red
in tlee W., after  sunset, in d i cates   fair
weather; a purple red indicates sleet.
Athhnosplaeric changes  are  more  likely to
happen a few days'after new and full moon
tcianfi  in  the  quarters. The point when s he
ci.sai,tn,es  seems to elave little influence; if
in the  N.W. ori N'W. by  W.,  it is often
succeeded by boisterous weather. When
lser hdornis are sharp and well -defined, we
look for frost; when she is whitish and
not v ery clear, for rain or snow. If the
new mioon seems to embrace the old, very
stol'my weather is likely to follow...
Halos are seen only when the cirro-strati
are  slightly but equally diffused over the
sky; the sun or moon seems'to wander
tllroigh the storm,' which is at no great
cdistance.   One side of the halo is often
3059. It may prove useful to suelh of
you as may engage ill pastoral farming, to
know  the  prognostications  observed  in
pastoral countries; and I cannot do this
better than  in the words of the Rea. Dr
Russell, m        ini s     ter of Yarrow.  It ma y  b e
noticed that some of the prognostics leave
alreadybeen enumerated; butthe concurrent testimony of certain prognostics, in
high,ind low parts of countries, serve to
confirmn  the  more  strongly  the probability of their truth.  "' When there is a
copious deposit of  dew,"  observes Dr
Russell, "and  it remains  lon,  on  thje
grass —when  the fo,g in the  val leys is
slowly dissipated Iby the stin's hieats and
lingers on the hiills-, hebn  tire clXmds —appa'rerntly take a higler startint.!(- esl-,ecially wlhen a few Cirr,-stl,ti appear h~ose
KIeitz' Co(,Tl,te Course of Meteorology, p. 413.
21
305t3. According t,o'tlie opinion of Dr
Kirwan, after forty-one years' observati(-)iis, it would appear that a (Try summer
was followed, by -a dry autiiiiin 5 titnes;
by a-,w'e't one, 5 time's'; and a variable one,
12 times. A variable summer was followed by a dry autumn only once; a wet
one' 3 times; and a variable oile, 12
times.
3057. After a dry stinimer, the pr(.)bability (')f a dy atitumn occurring, is as 5 to
16; a wet one, as,-) to 16; and a variable
one as 6 to 16. After,a wet suinnier, the
probability of a day autunin is a,,, I to 5;
a wet orte as 3 to 5; aild a variable oiie as
I to 5.
30-58. In the be,inniug of any yea,r, the
I.,
probability of a dry suiiiiner is as 16 to
41; of a wet o-tie, 20 to 41; and of a
variable one as 5 to 41. 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
open or imperfectly formed, owing to the
denseness of the vapour, and points to the
quarter from which the storm is approaching.... Aurora  borealis is most
likely to appear il changeable wmeather,
and  is often followed by a S.W. wind.
From the appearance of falling stars, it
may be inferred that the equilibrium of
the atmosphere,  held  probably by  the
agency of electricity, is destroyed.  They
generally forbode wind, and when many of
them are seen, they are faithful though
silent monitors, warning us to prepare,.
with the earliest dawn, for the coining
storm.  There is often much lightning in
the night, both with and without clouds,
which announces unsettled weather, especially if it be whitish in colour...
When the wind shifts to the west, after
rain from S. or S.W., it generally fairs up,
or there are but a few showers.  Frost and
snow fromn  S.W. are forerunners of bad
weather.  If the wind turn suddenly from
S.W. or S. to N.N.E., while this is accompanied with a smell resembling that of coal
smoke, a severe storm will follow...
The lower animals, but such especially as
are in a state of nature, or exposed in the
open fields, are very susceptible of atmosph)eric changes. Sheep eat greedily before
a storm, and sparingly before a thaw.
When they leave the high parts of their
range-when they bleat much in the evening or duiring the iiight, we may expect
severe weather. G(,ats seek a place of
shelter, while swine carry litter, and cover
themselves better than ordinary, before a
storm.   Wind  is foretold by  the  cat
scratching a post or wall-and a thaw,
when she washes her face, or when frogs
come from their winter concealment. The
gathering of grouse into large fl(cks, the
diving of sparrows in dry dust, the fluttering of wild-ducks as they flap their wings,
the dismal lengthened howl of sea-gulls in
an  inland  place  or around  lakes, the
mournful note of the curlew, the shl)rill
whew of the plover, the whet-wuhet_whet
of the chaffinch perched upon a tree, the
crowing of the cock at unusual tiiiies —all
prognosticate rain or snow.  When  the
fieldfare, redwing, starling swan, snowfleck, and other birds of passage, arrive
soon from the north, it indicates an early
and severe winter.   When  gnats bite
* New Statistical Account of Scotland-Yarrow, Selkirkshire, p. 31-4.
n
keenly, wlien flies keep near the ground,
(shown I)y swallows, which feed upon the
,viiig, flying low,) we look for wind and
rain. But the most wonderful instance of
atmosplierical changes is upon those creatures that burrow in the ground. The
earthworm appearing in -tbuiidance indicates rain. In like manner, the mt)le
seems to feel its approach, as, a day or
two before, he raises more hillocks than
usual; and when, after a long severe frost,
be begins again to work, it will soon become fresh. The effects of electricity are
well known both on the atint)spheri and
on animals; and the- deposition of aqueous
vapoiirs, with the relaxing danip near the
surface of the earth, which in certain states
takes place, may give rise to this increased
activity."*
3060. The strong and refreshing sinell
wliicli is felt sometimes when siiowers
first fall, after a I()nf, drought in summer,
is not an invariable attendant on them,
even under tlje circumstances which seem
to indicate a strong positive electricity,
such as the rising of the barometer in rain.
The highly electrified water of summer
thunderstorms produces this sniell the
strongest; and it is weakest with the cold,
and Perhaps even. electric rain, which
sometimes falls after the condensation of a
spread]Dg slieet of cirro-stratus into ninibus,
with a cold atmosphere.
3061. I tliirk every one, besides persotis of a nervous tenil)er,-i;iiieiit, leave felt
the truth of the following observations of
Mr Forster, on tl.,e eff-ects of certain states
of the atniosl)l)ere on ilie Itair of the head:
In I.,eol)le of what are called nervous
and susceptible codstittitiong," lie says,,I
bave frequently noticed a i,eiiiarkaf)le variety in the apl,-earaii(-eof tl)e liairs on the
bead: they have appeared at tinies diniinislied in quantity -, -,It otliers, sul)eral)undant. I 1),-t%-e examined'tlieni carefully ill
each of their states,, -,ii.,d f(.)iind their al.)I.)arent diiiiititition to consist in the sliaft's
themselves bec()niiiig,,;it-tallei-, drier, losing
their teD!Sion, and lying in closer contact.
I w.-is once iiieline(i to attribute their
closer contact to a dimidution of their
electricity, I)y Which they would becoiiia
mutually repulsive: this, however, dom 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
not seem sufficient to account for their decrease in size.  The shaft may possibly be
organised thlroughlout, and its enlar,gement      M1
may be caused by an increased action of
its vessels; there may also be an aeriformn
perspiration into its cavity, on an increase
of which it may be more distended; andl
the increased size and tension of the shaft
may result from the co-operation of these
two causes.  The increased size, strength,         Mand tension of the hair, appear to accoinpany health, while the opposite state seems
to be connected with disorder.  The sympathlies between the skin and stomach have
been frequently adverted to by physiologists: the skin has been found to be alternately dry and hot, moist and hot, dry and
cold, moist and cold; and these varieties
have  been attributed to varieties in the
state of the stomach, between which and
the skin a very direct sympathy is believed to exist."*
June, -.   -   W  by N. toN.E.
May,.....    46
June,.....    20
July,........            47
The least number of fire-balls occurs in
June, and doubtless the length of the (lays
in sumnmer allows a great  many of these
meteors to pass unperceived.
3062. Variety of states in the hair of
animals  is  frequently observed  in  all
classes of the domesticated aniiimals; and
the difference is invariably ascribed either
to the pleasant or disagreeable state of the
air, or to the functional derangements or
activity of the stomach and bowels.  As
the food in pasture is nearly always the
same, any change of the condition of the
hair of animals in summer on pasture, must
be  ascribed to  the  ch anges  obs erv abl     e           in
the state of the atmosphere; and from the
recognised sympathy existing between the
skin and the stomach, the changes in the
state of the hair may safely be ascribed to
arise from the altered states of the air.
3064. No circumstance shows so
strongly the  in convernience  to farming of
arranging spring and summer according
to the calendar months, than in directing
the sowing of the numerous sorts of crops,
whli(c-h must be undertaken at the end of the
one and the beginning of the other season.
Tihe sowing goes on progressively of one
crop after another, from  the sowing of
beans in February to that of turnip)s at the
end of June; and all that period may be
regarded as spring, in as far as field operations are concerned, and yet the latter
d(late brings us a great way into summer.
This being the case, many of the crops
may as well be sown at the commenceiient of sumnmer as at the end of spring.
Thus flax may  be sown in April as well
as May, and kolhl-rabi may be begun to
be sown in March as well as in May, accord(ling to the mode of culture followed.
As regards the crops, therefore, about to
be sown at the commencement of summer,
it must not be deemied an absolute requisite to sow tliemii at that season.  The
proper time for sowing each crop is specifically mentioned, irrespective of the place
* Forster's Researches about Atmosphericail Phenomena, p. 180.
23
Tension of vapour for 59"9=26'83.
Mean fall of rain in England in
May, 1-37 inches.
June, 2,71 -
July, 1,66 -
Mean of,summer, 1,91
3063. Mean of tlte atmosplierical I)Iienomeiia occurring in summer is as follows:
Mean of the barometer in England in
May, 30,03 inches.
June, 29'98 -
July, 30'04 -
Mean of summer,. 30,0'a -
Mean of the thermometer in En,,Iand in
May, 54 "6
June, 61"3
July, 63"8
Mean of summer, 59,19 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
it may happen to occupy in the spring or
summer season, as we have divided these.
The real point to attend to is, the order of
succession in which the different crops
follow each other; and which they invariably do every year.  With this explanation, the description of the sowing of the
crops will be continued.
30:?'2. Hay-mnaking is represented  by
poets as a labour accompanied with unalloyed pleasure.'Lads  and lasses are
doubtless then as merry as chirping grasshoppers; but haymaking is in sober truth
a labour of much heat and toil, the wielding of the lhyra~ke and pitchfork ill hot
weather, for the  live-long day, being no
chiild's play.
3065. All the root crops are sown jatst
now, beginning with kohl-rabi, anid endling
with the turnip.  The land for all these is
worked,  cleaned,  drilled, dunged, and
sown.  The culture-of the turnip is a most
important and busy occupation, affording
much occupation in singling and hoeing
the plants the greater part of the summer.
3074. The forage-plants on farms in the
neighbourlhood of towns are now disposed
of to cow-feeders and carters.
3066. The period has now arrived for
disposing of the fat cattle to the butcher or
dealer, as they are never put to grass.
The fat sheep are also disposed of, except
wheni it is desired to take off their fleece
before parting with thenm, when they are
allowed to pasture until the season becomes
warm enough for them to be shorn.
3076. Summer, of all the seasons, is the
most appropriate for the farmer to make
serious attacks upon weeds, those spoilers
of  his fields and  contaminators of his
grains.   Whether in pasture, on tilled
ground, along drills of green crops, amongst
growing corn, or in hedges, young and
oll, weeds are (laily exterminated; and
the extermination is most effectually accomplislied by the minufte and painstaking
exertions  of female  field-workers;  for
which  purpose they are provided with
appropriate implements.
3067. Before any of the stock is put on
grass, it is the duty of the hedg,er to mend
every gap in the   hedlges, and t   o        h       ave the
gaps in the stone walls, and the gates of
the fields in grass put into repair.
3068. Young cattle, s  heep, and c        ows,
are now put on pasture, to remain all
summer. Cattle and sheep graze well
together, as the former bite the grass high,
and the latter, following, bite it still lower.
For the same reason, horses and cattle
graze well together.  As both horses and
sheep bite low, they are not suitable cornpanions on pasture; and horses, besides,
often take delight in annoying sheep, by
biting and kicking them.
3n078. Altlhoughl yet early, preparations
are made in summer for   the next  year's
crop.  Tile fallow land is worked. cleaned,
an(] manured, and perhaps also limed, to
be in readiness for  the wheat seed in
autumn.
3069. Slheep-slhearing  is never   comiaenced until the weather becomes as warnm
as not to chill the shlee), after thie privation of their coats of wool.
3070. Horses now live entirely another
sort of life, being transferred fromr the
thlraldom of the stall-collar in the stable
to the perfect liberty of the pasture-field,
and none of the animals enjoy themselves
there more heartily.
24
3071. The brood mare now brings forth
lier f;al, and receives immunity from
I-,tbour for a time.
3073. Tlje separation of the lanib from
the ewe is now effected, and the niarks of
age., sex, and ownership are staniped upon
the flock.
3075. Butter ancl cheese'are made on
dai   farins as often as the requisite sup   ryply of niilk will warrant.
S071-. This is the season in wliicb all
maniie.r of insects attack both crops and
stock, much to tliei'r iii'tiry and annoyance.
3079. Tlte top-dressingof growingcrops,
with specific tyi-,inures, is a recent introduction into fariiiing. Ttie subject is not yet
niatilred, from want of sufficient experience 
1~-  -.....                     c
commeice till 2 o'clock, an(dl finIisllillg fiat
6, only 9 lhours are speint in the fielis, or it
is continued to 7 o'clock.  In otlher l)arts,
only 4 hliours are spelnt ill the morniting
yokinrg, whlen the horses are let loose it 10
o'clock, an(l, ol yoking again frorii 2 to (; inii
the afternoon, only 8 lhours are devoted to
work in the fields, thle mien being, employed
elsewhllere by thleniselves for 2 hlours.   Tllis
practice is pursued vlwhere the ploughliamen
are mnade to do the work of field-workers,
and a large number of drau,ghts are kept.
Perhaps the best division of timue is to yoke
at 5 o'cl(oclk in the niorninig, loose at 10,
yoke again at 1, an(l loose ait 6 in tl,e
evening,, giving 3 hloIrs of rest to mian an
hlorse at the height of the day, aii(l 10
hours of work in the fieltl.
Hi ow sweet, wlen lablurs close,
To gaitlhr rountd the aclhing breast
Timi(e ctirtaini of reposeSt.retell tle tir-ed linibs  antd lay the hlea,d
Upoll on,e's oAwni deliglhttful bed!"
JAMIES  /IONTGOMEF.Y.
(30884. Siu-mmer  is the  only  season  in
wilth tthe   fyigalea rsti  lils)ertv to le ave l one
witle  lout   incurring tile  blattnie of neg,lecting
his blsiness,5 and even then the timle h)e lias
to sp-aire is very limitedl.  Strictly speaking(h li Ixas (,tily ab(out a fortnighlt betwA een
fin islbint  tl,e fidglow   and tlre collllencefielu ut fo,f rIvest,  i,, wldicli  to  latve leisurre
to travel.   Sucih a limita,tion of time is to
l)-e regr]'etted, as, a.iourn-ey once   a year to
wvittess tile fan-perations  condltucted in
otlier pa-rts of  tlhe  kingd(Iomn, w{,ulzl  enli,rlten  Iirjl oiim,iimtty  uncertain p,,ints  oi
practice.    Sltlc an excersi on coultl not  be
uindiertakIesn 1)y    fartimher, wh, io is generally
as mm (of olbservation n      itlmut Ilis acquirin rz  confi(lei:ce in  goo(o andli rceiviting convictioio ag,aiist  baLd 1 )ractices.  A  journey
3081. Day-labolirers.wlwennot worlk-ing(,
along                        with Iorses, as      well as fiel(- wor kers,;
usua l l y work from 7               to 12, an    d ffrot  1 to
6                         o'clock in tle eveninz, hIaving one lleetr
fior rest and dinner. Whlen.lb,rtier       s tl  take
t         he    i     r      dinner to the fiell, this is a  c o nveniieit enouufli division of tinne; but l           when f
the                 y lhaae t                      go hoome to dinner, one lh(,ur
is                         too little for dinner and rest betweeni
thle y{Okings-and rest is absolutely neess    a     r    y, as  ueitlier              men nonr wnmien ire allle
t            o work l0O lhouirs witli(ut ic l    n'e                    k         tliaat an
interval of an h-i(,iir.  It wotl(l b)e at better
arra,ngement  for field-work                      eres  to go to w, irk p
att                                                injstead of 7, tna lol,ose at i I inst eadl
of 12, wlheni tlhev Ilvec to (r,, liotme to ditiner;- liut if the r take tlheir dinnie-rs t(o ti:e
field, one lhour is sufficiernt for estand dili
3083. Every operation, in sirnmer, re(III i I-es the C()iist,,ii,i t atteii tion of the faritier.
Witere Y)a,tiiral a,,encie.,i exert tijoir most
a-etive i,ifilielices Oil ve.(,etatioii, lie requires
to I,)iit foi-tli li:.s iiiost active exertions to coopei-ate %vitli tlie'-,rei-y ral)i(l changes they
I)i-o(li.ic.e. lie liave, besides, flold
experit-i,ients iti                          the deni-,tiids  iip(.)Ti Iiis
attention -tii(I tit)ie will be tile inore iir,7eiit,
-i;iid lie iiii-ist eN,()te I)otl), if lie w(,uld re,-tp
the   gre,-tte,,;t                                        derivable froin
In
experimental rest,ilts. 
til e top) of tile po,rtion left, to preserve the
n11hay I) CCIoliinlg wuetted by rain.   The fieldwhork erlcs carly thle lihay into  the hay-hlouse
as tle cutter throws it down with a fork,
andi(I Ibuiilhl and tramp, it in regular mows,
iii the iianner straw is mowed in the strawbbarn froii the thlresiing-mlachine, (1763,)
to nliuke it easier for  the  plouglimen to
talke the lhay in armiifuls to their lhorses.
and tlis is   (lelayedi a lo)nger or shlorter til!me,
according, as there is otlher noiirislJinig fo(od
fior horses on tlle far.  Where goo(d b)eainstrawv abounds, tlhe l-hay ilay be saved(i uitil
later in the s)ring,   h lien thlat sort (,f stlw'br
becomiles too diry; but on iarmns wlhere  no
beatns are  grown, tlhe horses slhould lhave
lhay when.ever t!he see(d-tiimie is commitencedl,
whlethler witl  sprinr-w!,eat  or  witli olt.s.
Thle site of tile llay-sta ck iio the stack.-yard(l
S, Plate II., is at n, ()l)posite tlhe lay-lhlise
H., at(l a(li(oiinr thle woivelrk-liorse  stiil)le
0.   The site ()f thle lvay-stack iiay b)e seenl
in tlhe  iso)liletii(cal iep)resetitation  of  the
stack-yard in Plate I.
3087.  Ilay is supIplied to work-horses
at will; and, as I lhave already said, when
tr eatting, of their fc e(ling in winter, stronig
ones will eat aleout 30 lb.  a-day, besides
tiieir c(orn, whliichi iii.ay be 10 lb. nmore,
(1444.)   These  quantities imply that the
lAtay aini coirn are given in  thleir natural
state, but whljen c(.lied the q(lantities vary,
as lha-s beeu stated ini (1438 and  1444.)
3086. As  mucll,of t!e staclk is br(,glItt
in as will fill tlhe liay-lh(),ise, a.%( the lhay is
thlence  distrilbuted  to  thle  iiOr.,es.    Eacal               h
pIortion  of  tiie  stack  cut  (ff  s!ould  lIe
4  or   )  feet  broa:l,  anti(   tile  iltllndleriewt
used fo,r (oing  it  is  tile  /-               ifi.
242,  whici  rep        res nts   its us al  fi,r1l.
Fig. 242.          It w  ill t)e               iii
tlJe figuiire. tlhat thje liine
Cof tle (if,t'   tlhe 1lal"(le
is i,IOt at rigl,t ang,Ies
to the l atlle,    a  p(osi         1t/$ii,11,    tion  whlic!] giveO3s  tile
cuiittilng  edg~e   of  tile
,,,,,~I] knife- alit.lntin t
;/',/q!/~    tlhe lite  (d' sectio(),. an(
conse(quently    a - i l,rs
it,  in   its  d(,wiiwa,ijl
~;J            stroke, a  force  to  cut
the   straws,f  lliay  in
,r,X HAY-KV-;IlE.   succession    wlichi    i
8088.  Consideral)le waste  of lhay is incuiriie(1  in  the llay-racks, fig.  105.   Tjhe
pllugiiiiie  stuff tlhe rack  not onlv full, but
Iis(teeze  tiie  hay  firm,  fi-o,ii  a  miistakenr
le inotii tlhat tlhey caiLrot give too 1iuch(I at
ea   1    t e tol    tlieir lhorses; but lwhen  hlorses
fin-ili hay  in  a coiil.resse(li state, and  are
1tie,-lle to select  tihe nilorsels  they  like,
ti,'ey toss so,(liIe il)on tle litter,  whlich, after
bleinr  trallpiedl ou),  is  thrown  into  tlhe
ldun4'-yal(l.   Tie cattle  there eat  it, and
tprefer  it  miillh  to stiawN,  bec.iuse  it is
hlnuy, andtI lhas alcluired a  saline t.aste fromn
the  stabhle, so  it caln(It  be  said  to  be
eentirely  Il,stL  still,  if it is desireil to give
tIay  to   tile  calttle  also,  it   should   be
riseen l    tlieiii iii  clean state and proper 
HAY GIVEN TO IIORSES.
manner,  rather than  in  thlis  way.  To
avoid suchl  waste, therefore, slntll quian)tities of hlay shoul be 1)lt into the rthcres
at a time, and frequently; but tlhe sll           es t
way to preventt wvasLe of foo(1 is to cliol)
tlhe hlay and bruise thle corn.
which are administered at the same time.
Vegetable food of every description has nearly
tth e s atiae specific gravity,  which is little above
that of water. The bulk of the allowance therefoire depenids upon its weight, and it will thus
be perceived that a highly nutritious food. which
for this reason would occupy little space, would
be objectionable.  Thus a cart-horse belonging to
M. Boussingault, required from  26 lb. to 33 lb.
of solil food every day, and about the same quaiitity of water.   The bulk of this allowance, wlhei
imasticated and brought to a state to be  swallowed, is more than 9i cubic feet.  Now, if a
t'iew timies more  inutritive food, as oil-cake, were
sploubstituted, its bulk  would be reduced  to 5$
cubic feet.   The aminial would not feel satisfied
witll this  last  allowauce-it would  still feel
-hiutingry, alinl the foodj(, in so concentrated a state,
would di.agree with it.  Oii the other  halid, if
food of' ti-ch less nutrition were substituted for
the hay, such as wheat straw, the allowanc(e that
woiild  affrd  the same  degree  of nourishment
vwould beconte too bulky to be eaten in the course
o f o a day.   It is therefore absolutely necessary
to take  tlle bulk oft the fod to be  allowed into
cutlsideratiti: the belly must  be filled; whatever itay be the nutritive quality of any article,
i t must be givenl in a certain quatitity; and ini
tlhe case of such a substance as oil-c(ake, the consrsdtinioiti to fill the stonmach would cease to  be
in atiy kiil o'f proportion  to the  nutritive eqitivaleit.  Tlhe best tfood for horses has  long  beea
adnliritted to be  hay and oats in combination,
ne itlier article  aije  liaviig  the same  happy
effect that  the  two  together  produce.    Hay
alotie would be too bulky, oats alone would not
be bulky enough; but the horse is not particular
in his fi,od, as barley in the  southern countries
rela)ices oits and answers equally well-tlthough
it may reasonably be doubted that oats and hay
fisght be replaced by roots atd tubers.   Experieal oe, liowever, h:s proved that a cart-horse may
ul ive litif his allowance in roots and tubers, and
-e  seupli)ied  with sufficient inourishlment. M.
B,onls.siiigauilt has fmuid that  100 parts of' good
niea idow }lay is eqntil to the following quantities
of r,,ots usually given to horses:
3091. I          n  Hollan(1 th   e                  horses in winter,
and -at all tilnes whien not on       grass, 1eceive
chopp)ed lhay an(I straw,  witII not  miucIh
oats.   In  Belgiumii, ab)Out  Bruges,  farm
horses receive about 35 ll). of hay and ill). of oats a-day, anid in lieu of 15 lb. of
liay, 73  lb  of carrots.  Near  Courtray,
10 11). of straw is given with 15 lb. of
hay and 7 lb. of oatIs.  Their drink is also
nutritive, b)eiino, comlpfose(d  of wvater  witl
Soicle oil-cake (lisso,l%e(l in it, and swieetened
with rye-nlea,l or buclk-wh lIeat flour.*
3092. Accordinig to Boils:ingault, hay  ii,ay  be
assulttedl as the irois          t  commiiion   or u'iesa.               t of:ill
kiitlds ot fo,dder.   It is iii somtie sort  the staple
food of the atitinals tlhat are particulaily a,ttaclied
to a  agricultiral coicern, aitil  iiay thlerefr Ure  be
alp)ropriately inale the stantdard of coiilpariLsoiL
fo)r all othler kitids of t)od- or forage.  Hlay, h,vwever, varies greatly in p,,it of quality, but iii an
average of kinds and states, tie fitroportioni for
tfle sti tdard sliould (,cosisi t t 1 15 Iper (elt  of azote,
and 11 I per cent of water- that i, abou                         tit  o          pe r
cent of a.lbutmer  antI glutei, aid the reitaiatder
wiody fibre.   It is  this last iitgredieit  which
gives al imniplortait value to hay as a fotdder, tfr,
iidependettly  of  the   ciri ititistaii(,e tlat  tlhistoitiaachs of animals are able to digest a ceitain
prtportioii of the woody fibie, its bulilk is ne              aes.sary  for the  digestion of  the  miore  nutritious
parts of itself and  ot  otlier food,  stuch  as  oats,
*  It:ideliff.'s Afr/iultur-e nf Fl,under., p. 259.
t  Boussingault's ]itu-t'l'iitJI&, Law's Ti'atslaitio,t  p. 522-48.
27
3089. Yoiiii, lior:ses slioti](I also receive
liy after the s,a(I-i lias I)eeti bro]en til),
straw becojiiiii" too liard aiid (Iry -il'ter
Mal-ell;                     liay   serves,  besides, to iiii[,rove their coiiai,,iot), -.tiid pi-el-)are tlieii-i
for grass.
3090. Feo,liii, cattle ne'vei, receive liay
in Scotlancl, beiii, coiisi(tel-e(i too expeiisive  foo(I for tlieiii. In E-,i,,Ian(l,  iiieadow
liav is in-eri to fee(liiig cattle eitlier.,ilone,
"il               str:.tw, but iiioi-e  i't-eqiieiitly cliol.)ped I)a., an(i str,-tw to(,e,,,,Iiel', 01' it] tlt)ii)D
witli ()il-cale, or witli linseed pre,,)are(l.
In dairy cows al%v,,tvs i,ecei%:,e liav
after liaviii,, calved, -i.n(I it is I)ai-tiy
t'rie!i,i in tile foi-in of steamed ciii,iff, aii(i
partly as di-y fo(Ider.
T) 2,O of potatoes by a,,,-ilysis 315 by experiment
2,O 311
4f)                                           1,46
4!'-O           Sw d,s, 676
4t)O            C.r,-ots, 382
It niav be concluded tl)a.t the nutritive equival-iit of the I)ot,,ito, i-nangold-wurzel, Jertisalem
it,Li(tlioke,i aii(I carrots, as they are inferred from
tll(..t ii t of azote they contait), iliav be adopted
,%vitli,)iit    ]6ti-iiiieiit to the health of horses. If
they err at it is that tliev -i,.,,ign equivalents
too Iiigli, Ttiakirig t lieir act tial nutritive
i)ower less il)aii these i)titiibers give it-so that,
a, I,(,rti,,ti of the liay of the standard allowance
beilig ill-)stitiited f —,r its eqiliv-aleiit of root, tlio
tl,et wli.1 I)e iiiii)roved.t 
PRACTICE —SUMME.IR.
Ty ielding coarse fibre,  and on  the latter
tlle crop w<ould be too scanty. Soil in
to(, liighl  a condition also causes flax to
g.row.  riank and  branching,, and  thlje fibre
coa11'se.
3093. The copositio  of the ash of l.y is as
follows:
Potash....        18'11  2.9-03
14,S1d,....         11'35    2-44
l,imre,  2.....2295   16'(36
Mi..ginesia,...          6. 75    8'82
Oxile of iron, alumina, &c..    1 69    0'61
lls;ri acid,..  97    5-;3
SXlpimri.ic acid,...   2"70    3'08
Chlorinle,....  2.'259    2-97
hiS,lcz,.....,537-89  31'03
100-00 100l00
Prc-entage of asl   )                00 6a20
iin the dry) state, }
i3097. TlJe finest condition  of tlhe flax
cr(,p is best attained( by sowing  it after a
corl i crop  or after lea-as, after a green
c r(,p tlhat hlas bleen liannred, it grows too
Pratlk arid coarse.   Whl-eii grown  after lea,
fl.Ix nmay be raised on stronger soil tlial
after any cer-e.ail crop.
3094. Good old hay is long and large, hard
and  tough; colour inc(liiiiiig to greeii rather
tha.i to white; has a sweet taste and fragranit
smell, a-old when inflsed ida hot   water produces a
rich dark-coloure(d tea.  In damip weather good
hay absorbs moisture, and becomties heavier.  A
truss of good old bay weighs 56 lb.
30.98. Wletlier after cereals or lea, the
laul( to be  cr<olleed   by flax should  be
y ilade s elle(  elarly in autlinln, to receive the
filll ilnfluen(ces  of  the winter  frost,  as
it cannot  b)e in too fine a state of pulverisatioi for  rieceivin/, tlhe  flax seed.   To
ol)tain  tliis state  of the soil,  the crosstpl(y,fcr. heig sliould lbe executed asearly  as
),iissible in sp)rirg, (2613,) taking care not
t   o (t) it iii wet  weather, or whlen the soil
is  in a wet state, as the least dry  weather
afterw.rils wvill render thle soil  hard and
ldifficult to  p)iilveiise.   Ally clods left on
the surface,  after a double  turn  of  the
liarrows, should be  reduced by  rolling;
but  tlhere aire (other  implements  better
ladapted for pulver-ising, the soil than the
silotitli roller, fig. 222.
3095. B(id hay will chan-cge a horse's appearanice in two das., even with an iulimiiitedl qi,aiitity of corn.  The kidneys are excited by  it to
extraorIiniary  activity.   The  urine, whiich  iiil
thlis disease  is alwats  per,aectly traispareat, is
discharged very frequently and in copious p)rofusion.  The  hlorse  soon  becomes hidiebouild,
emnaciatedl, and  feeble.  His thirst is excessive.
He never refuses water, and he driiiks ais if he
would never give over. The disease does  not
produce death, but it readers the horse uiseles,s,
anid ruiins the constitution..       lsty  iay is said
to be bad " for the wird," and it is certainly so
for every part of the body.t
ON TIlE SOWING ANt) SUMIMER TREATAME'NT
OF FLAX.
3099t. Cro~ss/, ill'.s clod-crusher. —This is
O(ne of tlhe iiiost efficient iml)lemients of its
class, anil is represented( in perspective in
fig. 243, wlhere  a a is the roller, six feet
in letigth, and 30 inches in diamneter; b a
cayst-irn edtin fgram-e, at each end of the
roller, bolted to tlhe wooden framde c c, to
which are bolted the  horse  shafts  d  d.
3096. The flax plant requires a deep
mellow loarny soil, aboundIiii, in vegetable
matter,' aind equally renioved from strong
clay and thin gravel-  on the fortner              the
plant would grow too strong and branchy,
Fig. 243.
OSSK.l L'S cLoD-cRUSHEIR.
* Johnston's Lectrres on  lgqriculturol Chetaistry, 2d edition, p. 390.
t Stewart's Stable Lcoeoiy, p. 184-6.
28
31,,.d.-b.y.  R,,,-,                h.y.
8-o
2- I!
(i -.-,
4' (.)I
0'3.,
64-;')7
$)S.15
5 89 
THE CUL,TURE OF FLAX.
,lo31.01.  Thlis  implement  hlas  been  but
p:i'tialliy usedi 1)y Scottish  farmers  within
toee few years, thoughl it is extensively
uc'ecl  iii Englaiiil-       perhaps  on account
rof  thle mrucli greater extent  of  clay soils.
r  nliici  are  lii(st  sttLl)ject  to  itidilrati,)n.
celerei  tjhe  iiiil)leleient  has  been  used in
Scotllliii, the results  lhave proved equally
fitv ourbl)le, on  st)roin,g  tud  ligiit soilsi;n  illver;isiiit t   foe fiorer  an(d  cotisolidat3ilig  lie latter.   Thle  price is a. bar to its
initrodiuctioi  initi SJotland,  as the smallest
si ze is -? 1 8.  Tthe  we'i,zllt o,f thle imnpletment
is 26i (,wt.; it foilrs a go(,,l draught for two
~ lo.,ses,:and( fre(quenit.ly fior tlhree.
The frame ends b                are    placed yipo n i thle
axle e. tlhe ends of whicil are prohmgefl
to fi)ri arms on wlhich wlheels are lxlae(tl,
an(d kept on by means o,f cotterels, 5,r the
removal of the roller  frothi one fiel(l to
anotl)er.   Wlhen  the  wlheels  a-,re to!:,e
placed or removed, a lhole is dug,, in tlhe
ground uncler eaclh whleel, while thle roller
rests on tile ground.
3100. Tile roller consists of a niim!ier
of  toothed  wheels,  stil)portedl io         r t   iittifeathlered armis, and ati eye formed( in tlei
centre fitted to niove easily  (in tlhe axle
e of the roller.  Fir.  244 sliows  a si-lde
viewv of one of those whleels, l)y,licli its
actiotn lup)i til the soil iiim.y be (eas il,cy u,tteinstood. When                 Fig. 244.
suclh  a  r                                               eat
numbier of
angles, acting 
like so inmany
wed,es,   are                                                                    
brou,lit  into                                             a 
contact  w itlih v                                          J
the induirated   I                - 
clods, they iii-                               
faillibly sp~lit
them  into iiiinierous  frt-tginents, antltlie  SIDZ VIEa OF  iN  WsrEii (l)
repetition  of          ri    ti.    i                                         tn           c
tile process )roduices a well I)iilveirised suirface.   The effect is quite different from          f
that  of  the plain  roller,  fig.  222,  with
whliclh, if a clod does not crumble down at
once with its pressure, it is forced into the
soil in a solid state.
31()2. ttepburn's  double conical land,rol!,r.- Anotlier    iiiiplement  of   this
cil.a  is theie  double conical  roller, in vetite,l  IJy  J.   Stewvart  Hepburn,  Esq.
,)t   C (ol(tlialzie,   neair Creiff;   Pei tine'iree.    T lhe lead(ing, feature  of  this  iiiil)lle.-It is to give  tite roller  a' conical
f(,ril, andl to -,i]l to  it a series of transvert,.e  I)aralel  flutin)gs c,arrie(I rouned  tlhe
o',ni..-l  strifce.    Two  (f  thlese conic al
' ltst     s -:i re 1la 1 i el  (i one  fr.aiime, base to
ae, Ibut   il;tvi   tlJeir axes  so  inclined
tiar.t tlie fore Ip)ait ()f the  peri)lihasis, and
also tll(,s    rts wh lichl lie on tile ground,
slhall b)e in a stiglit li    ne.   Fig,. 245 ret)je.:eints tills initplenienit in I)ersp-ective in
the iiiost ap)provedI forin, wlhere (i a  is tle
fraiie work, similar to that of the  coImmtiioni
lanid-roller, fig. 222,  surmounteed by three
horse shafts b b b, for yoking two horses
abreast. The three pendant bars c c c
carry the axles of the two cones d d, in
Fig. 245.
it'PB'UTRN'S DOtlBLE CONICAL I, AND-ROLL[
29
-,     i. —.  b
—;,- I
il 
PRACTICE-SUNIMMER.
clined as above described.  A light fraime
e is attached to carry the scrapers wlhich
clear thle flutings of adhering earth.
love  outward in  a circle,   and  beiiif'restrained by  the bearings in whiclh they
revolve, their surface will produce a crushin,u and abrading action well adapted for
the pulverisationi of the soil.*
3103. Thle effects of this forrn of roller
upon the surface are peculiar an(l imniportant.  While the smooth cylindrical roller
acts merely by its pressure on the roughl
soil, the  conical form as here arrang,ed
will,  besides acting by direct  )rIessure,
produce a strictly pulverising effect, for
the cones having a constant tendency to
Fig. 246.
~~~~~~~~~~~~
which give locomotion to the machine. The
lower bars of the framne a support three
axles, in the same plane, threading a nunmber of discs containing eachl 6 long, rays c,
which, being loose, revolve round  their
centres by successive insertions of their
points into tlhe ground.  The franie a:is
proloinged in a triangular form to d, where
it is supported  by  the  pivot-wlheel e.
The apparatus fd, for lowering and raising the axles cf the rays c, to,ive them a
deeper and sl)all,,wer insertion into tlhe
soil, is moved by the screw h, which is put
in motion by turning the winch  by its
handles i.  The horses are attached at k.
3106. Swedish Itmnd-roller.-A )ulveriser of the soil lhas lately  I)een introduced
into tliis coulntry by  Mr  Jamies Sliglht of
Elinlulirghl, fr(mni Sweden, where it is extensively and successfully used in tlhe
farmiing of Got.tland.   In construction it
is sinlplly the skeleton of a cylinder formed
of wro,uglt-iron ribs, of a triangular forin,
placeI  l,,ngittidinally  routind two  crossariiiedl rings, wlichl  are  the ends of  tlhe
cylinder, an(] tlhroughI the centres of wlhichl
ptsspes thle axle uplti the en(l-s of  whichi  a
fratiie-workl and shaft, sitimilar to the coinnion  landl-roller, fig,,. 222, are  nmounted.
It is ilnade in two  lengths, for tle coave
3105. The action of tlhis machine is to
redaice large clods into very small ones,
by the insertion of the points of the rays
c  into tlean, to         split tehenm                         into pieces  by
tlheir reiterated action. The lar-,er cl+o-ls
are split in o smaller pieces by the first
row of rays, thie second row splits these
* Prize Essays of the HIighland and 4Aygricultural Society vol. xi. p. 471.
30
3104. Norwegian harrows.-Anotlier
puIN!erisin,- inil)leiiient which has recently
t,
been introduced into practice, is the NorNN,egian  harrows. Fig. 246 is a -,riew
in I)ersl.)ective of these harrows, "?here a tia
is a fraiiie, supported by two wheels b,
h -
a
.q
.44                                                     k
THE NORWEGIAN HARROWS.
.into smaller ones, and the tliird row splits
those smallest 1.)ieces into still smaller ones -
so tiiat, by the tittic the clods leave iiiidergone those various sl)littings, they are probably stifficieritly I)ill%,erise(i; but if not,
they iii,.ty be so by another similar process
of si)littin(,.
L-t 
THIE CULTURE OF FLAX.
nience of turning rounl, and as tlhe ribs
are placed with their angles olltwards at
221 or 3 inches, they are well ad(lapted for
pulverising clo)(ls.  In tile trials tilat ilave
beeiin made of tihis roller in tle neigllllr lh,)()d of Edinblurgll, in 1849, it hlas pr(ved
its efficiency as equalling any otlher of its
class.
3112. To facilitate the weeding of the
flax cro), it has been reconlnen,led to sow
the see(d in rows, in tire rilbs forrmed by tlle
small plough, fig. 230; but it is obvious
t!iat sticii  a practice would cause the plants
along the outer sides of the roNws to throw
olt branclhes very mnuchl to the injury of
the fib)re.
3107. The soil being tl)us well pI-lveirised, it slhould be  finely  llarrnwed(l,  anl
rolled  slIootlh  withl  the  lanl-roller,  tig.
222, before being sown  witlh  the  linseell.
Lia seed   beintg a very slippery  see(l,             wind
very difficult to be sown by lhand-i it is apt to
to be ladteired, (2320,) and  I  lhave iiener
lheard of it being sown  with  at miaicline.
It should be talken holh  of by the t liumbi)
and  two fioremost fingers, like grass seeds,
(2647,) and thrown forwar(l in shlarp casts,
wit,l shiort quick  steps,  and, being dark
coloured(, mnay easily  be observed  to fall
ul)on the rolled ground.  It is tilus usually
s(own broadcast.
3113. To save thle weeding of the flax
Lcr(,), lltogetlier, it liasbeen recomnlenrded to
sow  grass seeds aniongst it; butt those wlho
recoimllinend this practice, (1o not consider
tllat it is bad  husbandry to sow grass
seeds withl any crop thlat follows a corn crop
witlhouit nmanure, or witlh one after lea.
3114. Although  the flax crop does  not
bear (lung, to be applied before it is sown,
a top-dressing of  bone-dust of 10 or 12
I)ushels to tlhe acre, is reommiiendeid after
a vwhite crop, and is said to make thle fibre
finer.*   Thle Belgians p)rofilsely top-dress
their flax ground  withll liquid  manure,
in whicih hiave been  dissolved  bothl  rapecake and nilghtsoil, to tlhe extent of 2480
,gallons to tlhe acre.+   Were a top-dressing
applied to the flax crop, containilig its
essential inorganic ingredients, as plhospil)oric aci(l, iagnresia, and potash, (1263,)
I hlave no doubt it would tendl to produce
a superior quality of fibre or seed.  Newlilted  land( is  detrimental  to  the flax
crop.
3108. The quantity of seed used depends on the obtjiect of sowing  tl,e ci,p)I.
If f(or tbe fibre alone, the seedl should b)e
thickly sown, fronm 2 to 2- buislhels to the
acre; if for seed, less seed should be sonxii;
and if for both fible and see(], perhaps 2
bushels are amnple.
3109. The     seed sh     ould be covered very
shallow in tlhe s,)il, not exceeding half -n
incll; and tile best implemnent for cov  ering
it is tlhe grass-seed lharrow, fig. 232.
3115. The onllly care required  by  thle
flax cr(op in sunmer is to keep it fiee of
fseeds, wlicll will probably appear above
wero(lind as sooin as ttle croi.) itself; and  as
soon as tlie flax plant shall have attaine(d
thIe leighllt of an inchl, so as to be identified froili  weeds, the ground  should  be
freed of them.   Thle flax beinog best cultivate,l in broadcast, and  thickly sown,
tlle only practicable way of weeding  the
ground is withl the hland; and as the plant
is not of a succulent  nature, but firm
Diand elastic, even when young it is not inRjured by  the  weeders  kneeling or  lying t   upon it in the act of weeding.   The
weeding sliould lbe done effectually, and if
so  once done,  tile weeds will not again
* Warnes' Sugiestions.for Fittellinq Cattle on Natire Produce, p.8, 1st edition.
t RadclifTs A.yriculture of Flanders, p. 42.
St
linseed beyond a vear old sboul(I never
be sown.
31 1 0. Liii,,,eed may be sown -,it any
titiie,,,tccorditig to the state of tire weather,
from the middle of Marcli to the first
week ()f May; a,nd perlial)s the best time
is about the middle of April.
31 1 1. Linsee(I is of a-n ol)loyi   lenticiilar
forin, liavirig as siiiootli a surface as to
appear oily, and it sliotil(I feel lieavy ati(I
seeiii pli-inip and fi-esli. It is ob,,aitied of
the finest quality for sowit-)(-, front Rtissi-,],
of the variety called Riqt, k,;ndt, wliieli the
Duteli obtain for their -,OWiDg See(I froin
It wei(,Iis — boiit 52 It). 1.)er busliel,
,,i,n(I afflr(Is 840 seeds to I (ii-aclitti
(1323.) As good -,eed is of great iti,)portance in the success of the flax crol.), 
PIPR)ACTICE-SUMM'IAIER.
troua>le tlje crop  in clean  r,(l,  blefore
it grl)ws beyo ni d     la nger; anl  altiloig          ii
hand                           er weeding costs severail     reoe1ilisgs                  t     oer
.acre, accor(ling t,:'lie stite of the groundl,
thle iicreeised value of thie cr,o't)   ii iiore
than repay the cost.
an,l especially from Odessa, is peculiarly
infected w it-h it.'s*  A  tloroug!,IJ weeding,
will remove this pest from  the soil before
it hias the power of injurinp, the flax-plant.
311 8. The flax, Linum usitat,;ssitnum, from the
Celtic Lin, a tlhread, is in the class and order
Per,tandria Pentaqynia of Linnieus; in the order
Linece of the natural system  of Jussieu; and in
the class   Hypo gynous   Exoens; alliance  36,
G7eratn,.ales; order 183, Linacee; gentms. Linutn,
of the natural system of Lindley.   The plant( is
scattered more  or less over mobt parts of the
globe.
3116.  Besides tl:e conmmon surface  and
r()ot weeds wlii.il infest the soil, accordi           t      sn                      g
to  its  nature, tlieie  ire  otliers sp)ecially
found  ainon zst fla,x: of thlese, one is tle               he
comm(tit t,,l   t' l.'easioe,  g'umelinas Gtiv,
the see(i of N.licili is imported  aniionig tlhe
flLtx-,see,l, andl  tlie  nrw    plant niay  le
know-ln 1Jy its att.ti:iir,g, fr{lil two t, thlree
feet in height  tiri' It   i all] yeI lIi)w fl wers,
andI very large l,o,ucl'es oa lonig stalks.
3119.;The imeal of the seed of the common flax
is used for pouiltices.  The itnfision is demulcent
ann14 emiollieiit.  The oil, mnixed with lime water,
vhas been a ftavourite application to burns.   The
tetiacious and  delicate  fibtre obtained  from  this
l,lalit  forms  the  imobt beautiful of our  linen
fabrics.
3117.  Bl:ut  a,i,r'e  trouil)lesolie  weel
thant this is the flatx-il,,der, Ciuscutia              3llt r2opta, imasilucli as it idl)eres parasiticllly
to  the flax plant, and  iiiaterially  injures
its fibre; wliile the Gold,f Plea,sure miiay
be pulled  (iiit separ,tely fi'im  the  fltx.
The hiabits of thle fi:x-lo(dder are thesee:
"It is a  I)lant wlhich geclTiates  in the
ground, and seid.s,ill a sleitiler tlhreadlike
stemi, whicl,  tws'tiiig itself  al)out, s(oon
touches (one of the stemins of tlhe flax aostt            I      gst
whllichl  it  is gr,,win,.   As  soono as tlis
takes pl-ce, tlhe dlddher twvists itself roi(nd           f
th e fliax. a   tlir)ow.s out fr,,ii the side next
to its vietlii several sliiall I)i-icesses, wIiclich
penie'rate tlie ouiter co.:,t o,r citicle of the
flax, aitl  anet  as  suckers.  l,      lhicl  the
])arasitl;cal dodder ai/)/) I~n  riat(s to its owt    Tf
use the stp which hts bee,. )rep?          red ivt the
flax,0  upon  which'  the gro?i th  of th, fi.         ~
deplends.   The  tludiler theti sep) ra.tes  itself
from  ttie                                                poroiid, tn  e relies s,leslyv dlpon
the  flax  for its  n'ii,irisliiiient,,,;r,l,cig      t
)long slender leiafless stellms, whicih a-ttachl     i
tl:einselv es  to  eacil  steii  of  flax  tihat
comes in thleir w:t.   Tlhuts large                                     cmasses               cof
the crop are mattei,:l t(og,etlier, anti st) litl  (1
weakenied  as  to  li)ec,nie  almost.useless.
This  plant  produces  greit  quianti ties  if
seed,  whichl  is  iisallv tlhiieelie(i witli tl e
flax-seed, anwad s,n1 again  withi it, ill t.lle sue -
ceeding year.   Se-eral y ears sint-e, I titk
cotlsiderable  trotl)iec  to  ascerlain  if aill
f,)reign flax-seetd was itixeIl                       owitlh tlhat of
the dodder, and vwas led to the conclusinon
that the Aitericari flax-seed is nearly firee
from this pest, tand that that from I                         fussia,
3120. The oil extracted from linseed (1323) is
iimtch used in the arts.    The best is that which
is  cold drawn.   The  warimi drawni is obtained
by hleating the seed by steam to a temperature of
200~ Fahirenjheit; and as the heat liquifies the
'il, no doubt miiore is obtained of it by this process thani the cold one. The oil is expressed by
putting both the cold and the hot seeds into flannel b,ts, anid subje cting them to enormous pressure by mieans either of wedges driven by weiglhty
hamnmers, or of the hydraulic press  (107.)  This
oil may be used in fattening cattle, (1322.) Colddra wl linrseed oil is the best substance for polishinig furniture of mahogany.
3121. The compressed husk left in the bag,
after the expression of the oil, takes the form of
a cake-tlhe oil-cake.  The English cake weighs
abtout 3 lb., and sells from ~10 to ~11 per 1000.
The oil-cake imported from  Denmark, Holland,
or America, is sold from  ~7 to ~9 per ton.   At
~7 the price is three farthinigs the pound, and at
~11, it is about one-penny  two-teniths.'At ld.
the pouind the price is ~9, 6s. 8d. per ton.  That
which  comes from  Flensburg in Sehleswig-Holstein  is e steemed   tale best of   the breign cake.
The- machinery abroad being generally  inferior
to that of this country, the foreign cake  may  be
supposed to contain more  oil than  the English,
wtliih conjecture chemical analysis has confirmed,
(1268.)
3122. Mr James Bruice, Wauightoni, East Lothiiani, mnade experimiieiits in 1844, to ascertain
tle coinparative value of English and foreign oilcake in the feeding of sheep; and onl two lots of
twenity  di tmo eit s e ac h, hav ing a s  much Swedish
tiurinips as they could eat, with 16 oz. each daily
of oil-cake, which was as much as they would eat,
onie lot on English and the other on foreignicake,
from the 1st of January, when  the  experiment
comiiimenced, to the  1st AMarchi, the increase  of
weight fronm the Enaglish cake over that of the
* Gardeners' Chronicle for 10th February 1844, p. 189.
- 32 
THE CULTURE OF HEMP.
3127. The price of linseed in 1849 for sowing
is from 53s. to 56s., and that for crushing from
42s. to 44s. the quarter.
foreign was as 209 lb. are to 150 lb., after a
consumption of 1182 lb. of cake  by each lot.
But to show the uncertainty of results from only
one experiment, other two lots of dinmonts of 20
each were fed in the same nialiner, and these
would not eat more than 13 oz. of each kind
of cake daily, and  the result of this  experiment was the converse of teat of the former —
namely, the increase from the foreign cake over
that of the English was as 207 lb. are to 167 lb.,
after a consumption of 880 lb. of cake by each
lot.  So the results of the oniie experiment nieutralise those of the other, while the opposite nature
of the results could not be accountedl for, farther
than the less consumption of 3 oz. daily by each
sheep, of cake, might possibly have sonie effect on
its relation to the quantity of tturips consumned,
arid this relation may have affected all the sheep
alike.  Such a suggestion may be regardied as of
trifling import upon the general condition of an
experiment; but when we know that a. very slight
difference of food or of exercise nmay affect the
functionis of the animal economy at any time, we
should not regard such a difference affecting animals as of trifling importance.
3130. The flax plant is stated to be a native
of Britain, and yet it would appear that flax seed
was not sown in England until as lately as A.D.
1.533, when it was directed to be sown for the
mtaking of fishing-nets.~
3123. In another experiment by Mr Bruce,
to ascertain the effect of oil-cake oil the quality
of manure voided by cattle fed oIL turnips, on
comparing the produce of turnips from 20 cubic
yards of dung in the common state with 20 cubic
yards containing 26 lb. of cake in each cubic yard,
he found an increase of I ton 11 cwt. 47 lb. of
turnips from the caked maliure.*
3124. Oil-cake, independently as an article of
food, or of manure, is an excellent iiiediciiie for
live stock, preventing constipation of the bowels,
and givilng to the hide a sweetness lif coat uunattainable by other means.  Mr Wilson of Edington Mains, in Berwickshire, tells me, that, ever
since hlie has given oil-cake to his calves after being weanied in slimmer, they have not been affected with the usually fatal complaint of the qlarter-ill; and he has experienced this beneficial effect
for many years, without any external application
of setons.  By administering oil-cake to mlly cows
after calving, I1 certainly preveutel them being              3o
affected with the red-water, (2242.)
o3132.  Agreeing with    manure, hemp
may be cultivated as a green crop, but the
quality of the fibre will be finer when the
manure is applied to the soil in autumn
upon the stubble, than immediately on the
sowvinigi of the crop in spring. Twenty
tolls of (diiun(g are required to the acre for
the production of a good crop of leinp.
3133. The land should be cross-ploujghe(l in spring, and harrowed and cleaned,
and pulverisedl, as in the case with flax or
potatoes, oir any  other suchI crop; but as
tile young, liemnp plant is very susceptible
of  frost, thle Ilaid  does  not  require  to
be lireparedI for the seed before the end, of
ApriI, when the seed minay be sown.
3125.' I have already given the composition of
linseed, (1262,) andof the ashes of litseed,(l 263;)
the quiatntity of linseed imported.into this Country
to 1845, (1264;) the price of litiseedI oil, anid of its
proportion in the seed, (1323;) aid(i of the comiiposition of English  and  foreignii litseed cake, as
well as that of their ashes, (1268 and 1269.)
3134. There is no doubt, as  the filbre
sh1ould be bosth fine in quality and  u,rliform
in texture, that the lienip plant shlould be
cultiv ated broadcast; but as it grows to the
c3,rsilerable t 2eiglht ocf 6 feet, and  as eqrtain processes  of the  cultivation.  ruire
3126. Linseed and oil-cake are inmported (iduty
free, and since (1264) was written, the parliamenitary returns give the importation of Iiniseedl
in 1847 at 439,512 quarters,and ill 1848, i96,013         t
qua       rters. In            1847,               of oil-cake and rape-cake
there were imported 61,978 tons, and in 1848,
73,029 tons, (1267.)
Transactions of the HiIhland and Ayriculturttl Society, for July 1846, p. gS..
' Owei's Geoponika, vol. i. p. 87.    + Phillip)s' History of (Cultivated Vegetables, vol]. i. p. 20t
~ Haydii's Dictionary of Dates —art. Flax.
VOL. II.
33
3128. The Greeks.preferred a very, different
period from ours for sowiiig the flax crop, their
authorities saying that " flax likes places that are
miry, but it is sowii from the autumnal equinox
to the day before the noires of January.Ilt
3129. " Formerly the seed of the flax was occasionally used with corn to make bread, bui it
was considered hard of digestion, and hurtful to
the stomach. In a scarcity of corn which happeried in Zealand in the sixteenth century, the
inhabitants of Middleburgh had recourse to linseed, which they made into cakes, and which
caused the death of many of the citizens who ate
of it, causing dreadful swellings of the body and
face."+
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER
TREATMENT OF HEMP.
3131. Heiiip requires a deep rich. mellow moist alluvial soil.
a 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the worl-people to be amongst the crop,
the most convenient manode is to place the
plant in rows; and as plants are placed
most like the broadcast fashion when the
rows are narrow, the best instruiment for
making such rows is the r;bbing plough,
fig. 230, or ribbing coulters, fig. 231, which
make the rows from  9 to 14 inches asunder, according to the capability of the
soil to produce a large or snmall plant.
3138. I-Hemp would no doubt be benefited by a top-dressing of some  nanure,
after it fairly assumed the foril of a plant;
and as pigeons' dung is considered by many
cultivators as g,ood maturing  for hetmip,
guano, to the extent of 2 or 3 cwt. the
acre, would perhaps be the best ingredient
for the top-dressing.
3135. To secure a fibre of fine quality
the plants require to be set close togethter;
and for this purpose fromn 2-1 to 3 bushels
of seed are required to the acre.  The seed is
la      r g e,    of a flattened orbicular s  hape,  g reyish-brown colour,                fresh aspect, somew hat
o     ily lustre, and            feels light in th e  hand.
The seed should not be older than thl;at of
the preceding crop.   Prove the seed by
rubbing it between the hands, and if it
suffers this without breaking, and becomes
brighter, it is good.   Tile bushel of seed
weighs about 40 lb., and the seeds afford
200 to the drachm  weight.   The seed
should be sown by hand along the ribs, or
it may be sown broadcast over the ribs,
and harrowed lightly along them with tihe
grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, and the plant
will come up in rows.  The ground requires to be watched after sowing until the
plants are in leaf, to keep off the birds
of the finch tribe, which are very fond of
eating hlemp-seel,: and even  the young
plants are in jured by themn-the capsules
of the seed, being br       ought  above gro und
by the- embryo, are greedily devoured by
those birds.
3199. The, hemp, Cannabis sativa, belongs to
the class and order Ditceia Pentandria of Linnwtus, which have the male and female flowers on
different plants, and on which account it is Allknown, when hemp-seed is sown, whether  the
plants produced will be male or female. In common parlance, the plant which bears the seed is
called the male, whereas it is the female.  Hemnp
is of the order Urtiacete of the natural system of
Jussieu, and is therefore closely allied to the
common nettle; and it is of the Diclintous Exogens-alliance  19, Urtica/es-order  86, Cannabinaces-genus Canna,is of the natural sysstem of Lindley. Stem upright, from 5 to 8 feet,
strong and branching. Its valuable fibre makes
the cordage of our ships.   It is a native of the
cooler parts of India, and is not cultivated there
for its fibre, but for its intoxicating property. Dr
Lindley says that " it appears to owe its narcotic
properties to the presence of a resin which is not
found in Europe.  This resin exudes in India
from the leaves, slender branches, and flowers;
when collected into masses it is the chiu-rrs, or
cherris, of Nepal.    Its odoutr is fragrant anl(
narcotic, its taste slightly warm, bitterish, and
acrid."  The hemp plant of India is a legumen
of the order Fabacee, Crotolaria juncea, the sun
hemp, which affords  a coarse fibre, from which
bags and low-priced canvass are largely prepared.
3140. "According to the observation of Vanclher of Geneva, the seeds of Orabanche ramosa
will lie many years in the soil unless they come
in contact with the roots of hemp, the plant upon
which that species grows parasitically, when they
immediately  sprout.   The maniner ian  which the
seeds of orabaiiche attach themselves to the
plantt on which they grow has been observed by
Schlatiter. This writer states that they only seize
seedlings' and are unable to attack roots of
stronger growth." ~
3136. The rows admit of the ground
being easily kept free of weeds  with the
hand hloe or horse hoe in suiiimner, but the
hemp plants will soon grow up and overtop the weeds, which will be kept down
ever after. Care should be taken in weeding nost to break down the young  plants,
as they will never    rise again.
3137. The hemp plant is not suited to
the climate of Scotland.   I have seen it
cultivated there but once, and that in the
farm of Kinnear in Fifeshire, when it was
in the possession of the late Mr James
Meldruni.  It grewv in a fiat holmt of small
extent, and had attained the hleirlght of
3141. An oil is e xpres sed fro m the  s eed of
hemp, which is {' employed with great advantage
in the lamp, and in coarse painting.  They give
a paste  made of it to hogs and horses, to fatten
them.   It enters into the. composition of black
soap, the use of which is very common in the
manufacture of stuffs and felts; and it is also
* Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 265, 549, and 61
34
about 6 feet, and was in- bloom at tlie. time.
In England.it is grown,in many localities,
b'ut perliaps, most successfully in Suffolk
and Lincolnshire. 
TIHE CULTURE OF TIIE IIOP.
used for tanning nets."*   The proportion of oil
from the seed varies from 14 to 25 per cent. 
be subjected to the extreme temperatures
prevailing every day; but it should rather
be to the north on gently sloping ground,
to rec eive a modi f ied temperature, a nd to
be awav from the force of the prevailing
S.W. winds. The sl,oping ground Will also
be favotirable ill evading the blights prevalent in the flat grounds of hollow valleys.
3142. The price of hemp-seed in 1849 is for the
small and the large fromn 34s. to 36s. the quarter.
It is used for feeding birds, and those of the finch
tribe are remarkably fond of it.
3143. The composition of hemp-seed, according
to Bticholz, is as follows:
Oil,.........                19.1
Husk, &c.....         383
Woody fibre and straw,..       5-0
Sugar, &c.,.... 16
a     ucilage.....  920
Soluble albumen, (casein?).           24-7
Fatty matter,....     1'6
Loss,......     0'7
100'0
3148. The preparation of a new hopground, after its tlioroiglli drainage, should
be the trenching of the soil to t!he depth
of 2t feet, which nmay be effected in this
manner:-Let the ground be  laid off in
spaces of 15 feet in breadthl to the length
of the hop-g,round.  Let the surface mould
to the depth of 15 inches, and 3 feet in
breadth across the 15 feet space, be taken
away withl the commnon spade, fig  237, to
the opposite cornerof the otherside of the
ground, to be ready to finish the trenching
when it arrives at that point; and should,
a portion of the subsoil be required t(o be
stirred, to make  up the 15 inches of the"
surface so taken away,  let it be so;  iand
should the spade not be able to cut the
subsoil, let the foot-pick, fig. 247, be employed to loosen it for the spade.
3144. The composition of the ash of the hempseed is this:-.
21P67
0"'6
26.63
1-00
0'77
34'96
0.18
0 09
14.04
100-00
5-60t
3149. Thie foot-pick, fig. 247, is a very
Fig. 247.    efficient"t  implement  for
stirring the- subsoil, when
in an indurated state.  It
stands 3 feet 9 inches in
lheighit.  Thie shal'nk is of
ir,,n,  thiree-quarter  inchI
square at the neck, under
thle eve tlrouigh which the
cross lhantidle passes, and it
is 1-i inchl  broad at ti'e
tramp.   Tie  tramnip  is
armovable, and may be shift      31  ld     ed to either side of tihe
,shlank to Suit tllhe  orking
f(oot of thle laboifrer, andl
it reimaiins   firm  at  16
inches  from  tlie  point,
poruss     which inclines a little for                 ward, to assist the lever
THE FOOT-PICK.  wer of the inlplement in
loosieing hard  soil,  or  reiotving large
stones   The cost of a fo)st-pick is 6s. 6d.
The imiplemiient is used in thiis manner:
3146.  To afford sefficient roon for the
roots of the plants, the drain in ta lhop)ground should not be less than 4 feet deep,
and thle distances between the drains  mtay
be fromt 15 to 35 feet, according to the
porousness of tile subsoil.  Tile expense
may be stated at ~6 the acre.
* Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, which contains the sentiments of the best authorities on the oultivation of this plant.
+ Johnstot's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 381 and 921.
35
Percentage of asb,
ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER
CULTURE OF THE HOP.
3145. Formation o anewhopqroulid.
-Tlie goil for tl)e liop should be deep an(]
mellow, and if resting on a fissured rock,
so inuch the better. An ol,,l garden, or an
old nieadow., f(,rnis the best site for a liopgroutid. In everv case tl-je ground should
be d      that is. not subject to sta(,tiaiit
ry,
water, and, if not naturally dry, should be
rna(ie so by tliorougli drainage.
3147. The exposure of a liop-ground
sitokil(i not be direct]. y to that of tlie'iiiei-iIthan sun, because l,tlien ttie plants would 
n  Lrlljyari  u aung  De reaay,
near at lhandi to the hopTHE TRENCIING- grou)utd, and  whenever each
FORK wrITl  portion of the ground has
TWO PRONGS. tlhus been trenched, let solne
of thle dung be put upon the trenched part
withl the graip, fig. 82, to the extent of
40 or 50 cubic yards to thle acre.   The
dunng is spread equally and trampled firmly
dowii, not to be easily displaced.
thle spade alike when tlie surface imould is
of thie requisite depth, and  no  picking, is
leq uir; but when picking is  needed, lafter
a,,i;' e of thle surface lhas been removed,
o    ie ial renmov~es the surface, another pielks
the subsoil, an(d the tlhird, genierally the
master workman, follows and  sho-vels tip
the loose earth.
3'51. After    the  surf-ice  has   thus
been  reimoved, all thle men take each  a
trencliing-fork, such  as  fig. 248.    This
instruiment  ConSists of  tliree  connected
)ronfgs of iron, 15 inclies in ltengthl, and 1                                                I
iclti i'i depthl at tie iinecck, tap)erilng to a
F g  _. stout  point.   Thle  pr)ongs
arl-e connDected with a hose,
u s into w         hlelic   a  wooden helve,
.      switlh a shiort cross handle,
*,    I         is  fastenedl.   The  enitiire
.th f ork st ands 3   feet  9 inchles
.             inE}i s eizeht, a ced costs  5s.  It
|  is  used by   thrusting  the
i)ron(,s into the subsoil witl
'         tlhe pressure of  tlhe foot,
like the comimon spade; and
using tle helve as a lever,
tlje workman forces the
prong,s tlhrough   the  sul);  g   r  F   stance of the subsoil, whicl
s...,            is tlhereby ripped up  into
pieces, -vhich   are so far
displaced, and deprived of
all the stones oef a larger
size th an tlle spaces between
?1'0,tK ~:.-,-'' tile pron g      S/.:' liould' the
T,IZI.EL: Pat)tNGS. stones  be -ey   large, tthe
3153. Tlcen, upon the ding, let the surface soil o f th e    next  brieadth of  3 feet be
tlrown to tsle  deptla again  of 15 inches, by
the samiie process as  formerly described.
TTh e  surface  tiirf  slaouild  be placed  over
the dusno, wi thi  te gras s face  dowinwa r ds,
and the succeeding soil and  subsoil  tnixed
over te tbtrf b  cltolrpinr wi th the fitspade,
andl rendering the entire soil,uniform  and
firmii.  Every large stone in thle soil should
be tlhrown aside folr dIrains, or breaking
into roadi meta,l.  I hiave been  the more
particular in describing,, tlhe fork-trenclhing,
as well as   tlat b)y the spadie here, wlhere
first allusions  to the sub)jects hlave been
iiiade,  that thle p)rocess  imay not  again
lhave to be described.
315l4. In tlis mnTlner let the entire
ihop-,ground( be  spade,and fork trenched,
and nianured below at 15 inlches in depth:
and( sIIuch a modIe (oftrenchin   and Iniaiintirinig hlas the adv.antage of remnoving all the
alar ge stones of thle slibsoil and soil, to the
deptlhof the tr-enchl; of placing,ood imanure
15 inches under tlhe surface soil, to nourish
the roots of the hop plants  when they 
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
reach it; and of maintaining the natural
relation subsisting betwixt the soil and
subsoil.  The trenching should be finished
by the end of autunin, at latest before the
winter weather sets in; and in that state
the soil nmay remain until spriing, and derive all the meliorating effects of frost and
rain.
setting off te groun d for th e  plant ing of
the young plants. There are two methods
of arranging the plants in a hop-groundone in squares, and the other in quincunx;
and of these two modes, the quincunix is
the preferable, because the plants, standing independently, are more exposed to sun
and air; a greater number of plants are
placed on the same extent of ground, in
the ratio of 1 20 to 100; and the ground can
be cleaned nearer the plants with the horselhoe.  In  fig,  250 is shown the square
Fig. 250.
3155. The  cost  of such a iole of
trenching is considerable, but as the part
-trenched witlh.tlhe fork is done at less cost
than by the spade, in proportion to the
depth stirred, the depth  of 2- feet will
cost no more than about 20 inches with
the  comnmoil  spade; because,  in forktrenching, the soil has not to be lifted iup
and turned over, but only stirred in its
own place. The entire cost will, of course,
depend on the quantity of stones to!he
removed, and the indurated nature of the
soil and subsoil to be overcome; and, takint,r
these at their worst state, the expense will
not likely exceed ~7 the acre, including
the putting in the dung.
,I ~~lll~I'I I li, l~llll 11 
:I,. ~,.    I! 
3156. To  avoid such an expense, it
has been recommended to plough anid sllsub)soil the ground simultaneously, the comimon plough going before and turning over
the soil,       or a  ski ti-pflout,lh going before
and turning over a thin furrow' of the
turf, fig,. 240, followed by the  comimon
plough covering the turf wit]h soil, and then
the subsoil l,lough to stir the subsoil in the
last plough furrow.  Tlhis process clay stir
the soil to the depth of from  15 to 18
inches, but when  done, however well, is
inefficient compared  with the  thorough
trenching described above; and altlhougihl i
this may at first cost more than the combined ploughings, yet, in a case of establislhing a hiop-ground which has to remains
perhaps for many years, the imiost stubstantial and the most satisfactory operation,
and the most economical to-,, in the lonl
run, is trenchling by the spade ani,frlsk.
method, in which the hills of hops, such
as a, are each surrounded, in a triaingular form, by three poles.  In cleaning the
ground with tl-e horse-hoe fromn b to c, one
pole is closely passed at each hill on the
right, and two poles are as closely passed
on the left hand; and  the same  happens
in cleaning the ground from d to e.  On
cleaning the ground in the direction at
r  ighlt angles to the fornier, as fronimf tog and
h to i, one p(ole is passed closely on both
hands at eac h ll.  The intersecting lines
b c, and d e, by.f g, and h i, represent the
spaces of groinid stirred by the hlorse-hoe;
and it will be ob)served that while a square
p)iece (of ground included by every four hills
is stirie(l twice, a considerable space in the
anrgles (on eachl side of the single poles in the
s1.a el'r piece of ground surrounding each
hill is left untoucheed by  the hloe, which
msust be cleaned by manual labour at an
enhanced coast,.
3157. Early in spring, in the end of
March, the  surface  of  the hop-Tground
should be hatrrowed and rolled, aind reduced
to as fine a tilth as practicable; andl fromn
150 to 200 busheds of linie to the acre,
according to the nature of the soil, shouldI
be applied to the surface and harrowed in.
3159. In fig.  251 is shown the  quincninx  method, in which a is a lhop hill,
surirounded ty three poles set in a triangular form, as in the  square method; but
37
d
THE SQUARE METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS.
3158. Everything is now prepared for 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
here it will be observed that in stirring the
ground with the horse-hoe, from b to c, and
from dto e, in one d(lirection, and from b to
.f, and from g to h in another direction,
and frto,  f ro m  d  to       oln a ld f rom ko I     n         th liii  d
direction, the ground is not only all stirred
Fig. 2a1.
they are to    remain  permanently; ani i n
the other case, the sets are planted on a
piece of ground for a year, to produce roots
before being  pernaoently inserted in the
hills. With the cut sets is the r isk of
one or more of the        plants dying in the
hills before  striking roo   t,  and,   therefore,
more are planted than are absolutely required;   and  sh ould   they all succeed  in
ev ery          hill, it  become s too crowded with
plants.  The number  thus planted, is
5 in each hill. With bedded sets, as the
others are termed, is little dan ger o f loss;
and therefore only 3 are planted in each
hill.  Of the two methods, I would always
prefer the latter, although the    ot-er is
most practised, merely, perhaps, because it
saves the trouble of transplanting the
young plants, and of having to provide   a
piece of ground eor   r ooting the sets in.
Bedded sets can no doubt be purchased;
but some one, in that case, must take more
trouble than will supply himself, in preparinig the plants for others.   Mr Lance
mentions the raising of plants from seed,
but when it is considered that no reliance
can be placed on the varieties raised fram
seed, this does not seem an advisable plan,
except- for experimnent  to originate  new
varieties.*
THE QUINCUN'X METgOD OF PLANTING HOPS.
close to each pole, whichl is as near the hop
plants as any horse impleimienit  can approachl themn, but the greatest proportion
of it is twice, andl some of it thrice stirred.
Of the two hiethods, therefore, the quincuax not only saves niuch manlul laboiur
'ih cleaning the land, but stirs it the oftener.
3162. A hlole is made in each hill where
the pin  was stuck in on setting off thie
ground; and befS.re the plants are set into
it, some riclh compost, consisting of rotten
dung, earth, and liiie, is put into it, for
encouraging the growth of the young roots,
and to give tlhemn strength to strike down to
tihe mianiur-e below. Tile rooted plants are
set witlh their roots outwarns, and their
stenms i ni c! i n i) (,, I  i ttle i ni wards, in triangular ord-er, andl about six inches apart;  and
on the ektrtli being(- pressed around them
over  the  stems, a riin, is made on  the
ground around each hill to mark its place.
3160. Tlhe maximliumii distance between
thle plants is regulated by the combinatio n
of the power of the soil, and the nature of
the variety to pro(luce the largest developmerit of plant; and the iiminiuni distance
is determined  by the  room  required to
keep the ground  clean.   In the  former
case, the distance should not exceed 7 feet;
and for the latter purplose, it shiuld not be
less than 51 feet.  Taking 6G feet as a
good  medium  distance,  the  numbl)er  of
hills in the acre will be 1194 in the qliincunx order, and 1031 in the square.  The
distances are set off by mieans of a nieasurilig chain, and pins are stuck into the
sites of the future plants.
316-3. There are many varieties of hops
cultivated, al'd some are greater filtourites
in one locality than others, being best
suited to the soil, and also to other circumstances prevailing in the locality.,Some
osf the best varieties are the Golding, the
Canterbury, the-Grape, J(nes, and Colegates, nanses directly deri-ved from individuals, places, and character of the pro
3161. Yount, -plants a        re produced  in
two ways, but both by cuttings from the
prunings of tlie bines of the f,)riner year's
growth, after the crop has been gathered
from thenm.  In the one case, the cuttings
are inserted directly into the lhills, where
* Lance's ]lop Farmner, p.,53.
38 
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
duce of the plant.   Whichever kind is
chosen,  it is desirable  to  have  only
one vtariety within one hop-grounnd,  or
so separated as to be distinct from eaclh
other in the same ground, becauise the picking of the lhops in thle same piece of ground
sllould take place at the same tinie, and
different varieties require to be pulled at
different times.  And it is also desirable,
in chloosing, different  varieties, to have
them to succeed one another in ripening,
that too mnuch work may not be thlrowln
uponI the workpeople at one time. Keepitng
these distinctions in view, it would seem
that the Golding or Canterbury nmay be
taken as one variety, thle Grape as
another, and the Colegate as the latest.
Some of the Jones are recommended, as
the broken and short poles answer to support them.
Brolight forwar d,     ~25 12   0
Setting off 1194 hills. at 61 feet
apart,....             0
Plantinig 1I 94 hill.s of bedded sets,
at 2s. 6d. per 100,..     0 14  0
Compost for 1194 hills..    1  0 0
3582 bedded plants, at 6d.,per 100, 0 17   0
Twisting the young bines, and re pairing the hills in autumn,     0 15  O
~29   0  0
3166. In the first year of a new hopground, the soil between the hills may be
cropped with a green crop, manuirel for
itself, in order to  keep the ground clean,
and cause it to make somne return for the
great outlay incurred in converting it into
a lop-ground.
3164. Whatever varieties are chosen,
as all sorts of hops are dimecious, it is necessary to have  nmale plants amongst  the
female which bear the crop.  Many h.op
farmers  contemn  the male  hlop as bein,g  useless; but  experience  has  sufficiently proved, and connmmon sense supports
it, that wthen male plants are present to
impregnate the female, the crop is always
better and heavier.  To secure their services, therefore, al hill of male planits sllhould
be plante(l at every 10 or 1 2 hlills, which
will give a proportion of one miale hill to
every 100 or 120 hop-growing hills.  A
few extra hills of males on thle si(le o        f the
ground whlence the prevailing,, wimtls blow,
will tend still more to secure the iimpregnation of thle female flowers.  The effect
of the impregnatio(n is not a Tiiatter of
fancy, since the impreg,nated flowers are
always larger, firmer, and lheavier, an(d
never g.ow so loose and open as the splirious ones.
3169.  DiTgein. —As rega r ds  thse treatqnent of tale growing  plants of  a   hopgrourin(, the  soil  is dat g over in  spe rin, as
early as its state will permiiit in Marel;
and tlis is done withe  a thlree-pronged tool
named{l a hop-spud,  lhaving thlBe forks or
sp7eens broad and flat, or with a square speen
which turns over tlhe several  piece'J of the
soil raised at eacl-L strole. An experienced
hand, with. eithier of these implenmernts, will
turn over the ground niore easily for himself than with the coninion spade, which
obligres himi to lift as well as turn it over.
Digg,ing costs from 18s. to 20s. the acre.
Draining,....  ~6  0  0
Spyade a"nd fork trenching,        7  0  0
Manure, 50 cubic yards, at 3s.,    7 10  0
Limie, 200 bushels, at  6d., and
spreadling,....5  0  0
Harrowing and rolling,..    0  2  0
Carry forward,     ~25 12   0
3170. Metnurinq.-Tlhe annual produce
of  a  liop-grouind, consistinig of the ilOps
and bines, being very considerable, and as
39
I One man at 3s., an assistant at 2a., and 2
boys at6d. each, Is.in all 6s., iill set,
of 3:Ycres a-d,-ty: 2 men -it 2s. each, 4.9.,
and 1 boy at 6(i.-in al.14s. 6d.-wiU plant
600 hills a-day.
. 3167. During, the - summer, the voung
plants will piit out bines, wliicli'must be
supported by inserting beside them an old
pole or stob, and fastenin,- them to it.
When be(l(led sets have been employed,
a sniall crop of hops may be expected.
3168.- In aiittinin, after the biiies have
died down, they should. be cut off, and a
still mound of earth put over them, to
reniai,.ialltliewinter.- fneleavetliebines
on until after the ground is dug in springs
but the moiitiding tile YOUDG roots preserves
tlieiii safe all winter against frost.
31 (-)5. -Tliese are all the pai-tictilars:reqijisite, for the furnisliiii of a new liop                         Z5
ground; and the expense per acre attendin(, tlietii is as follows: Z5 
PRACTICE-SUMIMER.
the perennial nature of the plant does not
permit it to be placed in the category (of
those plants of the farm which follow    earc h
other in any given rotation, it is necessary
to manure the ground every year at least
once, if not twice.  The first manuring
after tile crop may be given in the autumni
or in spring. and  if in the latter, the
time to do it is before the digging of the
ground commences.  The best plan is to
apply the manure twice a-year-in the
spring, with farm-yard manure and rags,
and during the summer with some assistant, as guano, rape-cake dust.  Of farrnyard dung, from 25 to 30 cubic yards
should be givnen to the acre. Black mould
is an excellent application about the crown
of the roots, and from 80 to 100 single
horse-loads should be put on the acre.  The
dung and nmould may be carted on the
ground, if its state permit; but the manure applied and dug in in summer should
be wheeled on to the land,and the operation
will cost about ls. per 100 hills. Woollen
rags cost ~6 per ton, and from 12 to 20
cwt. per acre will be required.   Woollen
waste or shoddy may be had for ~4 per
ton, and from 20 to 30 cwt. per acre will
be required.
the sets o     t or shoots of last  vear that were
tied to the poles; and which, frtom having
earth put on tletda the preceding sumnler, swell out to four or five times their
original size,  a nd for m what w e call sets
or  cuttings; and i   i t i s t he cutting th eml off
a t  the right part that should be par ticlllan irly attended    to, or great injury  may be
done.   It is therefore necessary that the
person cutting them should ascertain
exactly where the crown of the hill
is, that he may not cut them too low
or too highi; and the place where  they
should be cut off is between the crown of
the hill and the first joint, for it is around
the set close to the crown where the
best and most fruitful bine comes. If the
set is pared off down too close to the stock
or crown, it takes away the part from
where  that bine comes, as little buds are
seen ready to shoot  forth at the time of
cutting, which, if cut off, the bines come
weakly and  few.  On the other hand, if
tile set is cut off above the first joint,
which sometimes will be the case, if the
man in cutting does not pay the attention
to it lhe. ought, the bines which come from
that or any other joint higher up the set
grow fast, but are coarse, hollow, or what
we call pipey, and unproductive: all such
should  be discarded at the title of tying.
Consequently the operation of clutting or
dressing, on  which the future well-doing
of the plant so much depends, is not left
so mucli to the judgment or skill of the
operator as to his care and attention.
Many planters, have their hops dressed
by the day, paying extra wages to persons
in whom tl~ev can confide to do it with care.
After all tile old bine and runners, as the
roots and stmall rootlets near the surface
are called, are cut and trimmed off clean;
some fine earth is pulled over tile crown,
and aL circle mad,-t~e round with the  handpicker. to in tiiiate where the hill is before
the young shoots  t,il,))ear." The male hills
are Iparticularly  iilarlked.   Tile dressing
should be finished b,efoi'c the end of March.
It costs 6(i. per 100 hills.
3171. Guano and rape-cake dust are
convenient applications, in June and July,
to be made around the plants and spread
over the surface and hoed in with horselabour in damp weather.  About ~4 of
cost of either, to the acre, will suffice for
one manuring.  Some seem to doubt that
the stummer manuring does any good, but
experience has proved, by coliparative experiment, that the yield of crop is coInsiderably increased by it.
3172. Dressing the shoots.-  After the
manuring and digging  in spring, the sht oots
of the hop     s    ar e dressed,        and cuittings  oatle
from  them.   T      hese are    nic   e  opera tioons,
and  require a      n experienced hand  n  to execute them, otherwise the success of the
futur   e   w      ill be rendered doubtful. A               recent
author, Mr Rutley, writes thus particularly on this subject. After stating that
a boy or woman opens around the stock
of the hill, with a small narrow hoe, a
little below the crown of the hill, "a miian
follows with a  pruning-knife and a small
hand hoe, with which he clears out the
earth on the crown of the hill betwieen
40
31 "3. Stiell of - the sets as liav, e two (,r
more joints are sele(-te(I to iyiake a new liopground witli, or soi'(1 for that T)urpose; but
the clittin,,s should oiilv be taken front tlio
6
most fiealtliy b iies.
3174. Pblt',ttq.-Everyt-Iiing is now ready 
THIE CULTURE OF TfIE HOP.
for thle reception of thle poles —for, thle iho l
being a climnbing plant, it is necessary tlhat
tlhey be supplied with poles sufficiently
strong, and long to supl,ort them  effectually.  Thle i)est poles are of yew, next
of clhestnut, thlen larchl, ash, willow, oak].
cut in winter, Scots fir, birch, al(ler, beech,
in the order enumerated.  As three poles
are required for each hill, every acre of
llop-groiund requires 3600 poles. Tlley cost
ls. per foot the 100 poles-tlhat is, l.)les
of 20 feet in length cost 20s. tlhe 100, or
~36 thle acre.   They last fromi 3 to 5
years, according to tile wood they are mnade
of; and thus, at thle long,est, 700 poles per
acre  are r equired to maintain  th      e        stock of
poles in an efficient manner.
hill, as  shlo wn i n figs. 250 a nd 251: they
are s e t fronil 18  ilnhe  s to 2      f(eet apart,
accoraline,r to the strength of- the plants to
be  st rpported.  An   instrument like   tlhe
fold-pitcler, fis. (;3, makni es   a hiole deep
etenough  to  give  e  te  end of thtle pole   a
firmn  ldl(I of the ground, wlichl  shloul(d
b)e as miiany it!elies in deptl! as  the pole
is of heiglht in feet.  The  pole is ptuslhed-.
to  uppor  t  tlJe b-ery b e attwong  of title loioe, and
if it have any crook or  set at ttie lower
end,  it is placed iniwards to b)e ()tt  4,f
tlhe  way  of the hiorse  in cleaning  tlhe
grouId; and tlhave  to sdnotldb leate  a    leaon
suteiards,t         roI to gide    o t   tl.e  )ies to
b)ratnc;ll while the body of tlheplsole slhould
1)e as  upriglht as possible, in ordler to grive
it tlhe strotngest position. The cost of poing
and slharping is f'roml is. to -s. 6d. per  100
iliills of three poles, accordinlg  to,tle size
of the poles and the natuire of tlie ground;
and the carrying  of nlew  poies into tihe
ground  costs  from  ld. to  3d. per  100
poles.
317.5. To lessen this great expense, it
has been suggested to emiiploy stout wire
to support the bines between a few strong
poles; and I have no doubt, now t!hat wire
is extensively enmployed in- field fencing,,
that it might be as usefully employed. p
hlop-groulnds.  The bines could be spread
and tied withl freedoiti on such wires, for
exposure to sun and air, and thle tyin(gs
could be  effected  with great ease and
precision.
3178. Many modes  lhave been devised
of setting thie poles.   A modle adapted hy
Mr Knowles, in Kent, seems to combine the
advantages of affording shelter to the lopground, and( of training, tlhe binies for tile
greatest production.    The  weather side
of the grouind is poled four hills deep, witl
2i-fect poles  in rows  fiomii end to end.
To these are laslhed( similar poles, placed
hlorizontally firom pole to pole about eigllht
feet ablove thle ground; antd each row of such
lashled poles is bound to thle nearest one,
l,y mneans  (f. horizontal  p,Iles simlilarly
laslie(d and pla-ced at ri,g,ht ang,,les to tlhemii
fron tie outside to thle inside rows.   By
tlhese means a phalanx  of poles  offers
,t sulfficient resistance  to  the wind, and
sl,elters tle whole ground; and tiis plan
le.eas  provedl a  nieans of increasing  thle
quantity of lI,ps grown  on  tlhe  outside
lvrow, whicli is covered with  fr(ioiii 13 to
14 feet of lhops fr(om tlJe top, and branched
and clustered 1most heavily on the  cross
peoles, tlhereby  shlowing,  tlhe advantage
of keepi,ng thle tops of thle plants firittly
fixed, inistead of allowing them to swing
about in thle wind.   Thle increased expense of Ioling a- ground1 in this way is
30s. the acre, besides an extra iand at
the poling; but tlhe saving, in  a windy
seasot  is considerable, both in  hops and
p,,les.
3176. The poles, when about to be set,
are chloserl in conformity to thle variety of
the lop they are intended to support; for
if long p       o     le       s are set beside a low-grop  ing
hlop, the plant will be drawvn too muclh up
and prove unproductive; and, on the other
halnd, if the poles are too short foa- the
plants, the tops of the plants will ben(d
down and not branch out, and the crop wi lIl
be smt:othered.  Mucl), however, muiist be
left to chance in this nmatter, as a favotirable season for vegetation will cause a s!hort
variety of htop to grow tall, ain(d a stiunting
year will prevent  the  tallest  att,ainintgi,
t!heir proper lheiglht.  The poles -;re new
slmarpe.d at the ends every year; an(d, w lien
slarpening  tleui, trial should be  miiade of
each pole, whether it be strong entouigh,I
above the sharpened point to bear a sliglit
blow, and if it cannot, it wonlId have br(3ken
off in lfigh, wind, and caused mnitchi inconveenience and loss. Wlhenever a pole p.roves
doubtful, it slould be cut short and slari)ed,
to be used by a lower class of plants., or
by the youtng plants in a new liop-g,roundl.
31  77. Tlhree lpoles are set arountld  eacl ii
4 
renmoved, to allow one to take the lead,
anid this one should be carefully trained to
the pole.   In every season some of the
poles will be  blown down  by  the wind,
aai d in such cases the common practice is
to tie the bines to an adjoining pole;  but
a l)etter plan is to sharpen the bottom of
the broken pole and push it into the ground
ragain, and altlhough shorter than it should
be, it will keep the bines in a better state
of preservation for ripening the crop than
wh-en tied to another plant, to the injury
of bothl plants. The repairing of blowndown poles will cost about 5s. an acre.
3180. Imnled(-iately after the poles are
set, the grouind is liorse-lioed as deeply as
possible, and  all weeds mnaking  thleir alpearance eradlicate,l; atid this ()pelation is
conridete,l thiroutg,hi t!he suimmlier, as op)portinity offers.   Solie object to thle elupl,y,nent (of liorse la.bo(ur in a liop-grotind(l, lilt
it is clheaper than hand labour, and eqtually
effectual.
3183. After the bines have all been tied
up, anid thje leaves stripped below, which
-will be al)out  the first or second week  of
Junie, tlhe g,round arouind the  lhills where
tlle ho,rse-hioe could not touclh sholuld be
dugx,  over   with the spade  or spud, and
will cost from  3s. to 8s. tlle acre.   This
diggiing is necessary for thl)e double purpose
of loosenin,  the  eaLrthl  about  thol crown,
and( the hlills, troddeen down  by the tiers.
If  tl!e ground  is rotugh  in  the alleys, it
slt,hil(il )e liarr,we(d, and  even  rolled,  to
ehnder the tiltli as file as possible.  Besides
these  (,perations, ea.rth is placed upon  thle
w  llaces wlhere  tlhe lines had  b)een  cut off,
aritd tliis is requisite t,t stop the fresh shoots
wrising utp ft'onl tlhe stt,ols-to keep thle weeds
unlder-to sul)porIt  )othl the l)ines and the
p,les —:nd  t(, s,rengtlien the   shoots  that
will be tlle cuittiriis and- thle hines of next
ye.ir.  Eartl ing is done  to thlle endi of June,
and costs.3d. the 100 hiills.  This finishies
3181. Wlilenerer thile bines silioot to a
leng,thi to bse fastened, thley are tiedl to the
poles.  - Thriee *,f the best biines are selected
to b)e tied to eteli pole, andl tile rest  aire
ctut away.   Tlhe bines 4are tiedl   y women
-a woman and(  lier f,-iily, or  by:sini,.e
woliten  andI tje joi) is taken b)y the pie(e
at 8s. tlhe a(re.   The  ties are iaIdle -,itli
witlieredl,rus!les, wlhichl  caninot injure  the
stemis o)f tlie lines a-,.iinst t!re p-oies; aii,l
the tie is m,ade  with a slip-)kinit. so tit,-t
the tying mtay give way as tihe biines enilarge in (liatjtneter.  Tlhe tyitngs are dl,ne
fromii near tl!e gr-ound up to 5) feet above it,
ESPALIER FORM OF TRAINING HOPS.
a long  pole or two at suclh interv-als as may
be desired, fixed to the top of the h)orizonital ones to keep tlhemn steady.  A  plant is
set at eachi stake, an(d the riows are f~,rt)ed
one way across ttie field.  This metlhod may
be adopted witlh success wliere poles are
scarce, and( wlhere the ground is exposed to
winds. All the male plants should be place(d
on the long poles, that their farinat ma y (drop
on the feiiiale flowers on the lower oines. 
TIlE CULTURE OF THE HIOP.
thle sunmmer treatment of the lio,) in as f,ar
as thle manual labour is concerned, but
the lhorse-hoe must be used until the crop)
becomes ripe, iii order to preserve the
ground in a loose state for the roots of the
plants, and to overcome s,trface weeds.
are fortuniiately enabled to furnishl a pretty
compil)iete account of one of the tiiost comimon ikindIs; and- as the fainily is a very
natuiral  one,   we  nmay thence  derive a
pretty corriect notion of the natural history
of tle wlhole.  Any mode of treatment
which  chlecks  the  depredations  of  this
species will p)rob-ably be equally effectual
in regard.to the others.
3184. The hop-plant is subject t         he
attacks of insects and other  iialalies in
the course of its growtli.   Aimongst  its
earliest enenlies is tlte Wire-worin.  This
insect is the larv'le of a tribe nailled Elateri(lde, or click-beetles, which  are readily
known by lhaving the sternumi produced
belhitid  a strong, spine, fitted to enter a
groove in the abdoien, situated b)etween
thle interni-ediate pair of legs, as thus described  by the Rev. Mr  Duncan: "By
bring,ing th!esepar-ts suddenly into contact,"
hlie observes, "the insect is enabled to spriigng
to somie hleight in the air, and thus recovers
its natural position, when  it happens to
fall on its back, which it frequently ldoes
when dropping froin plants to the gr,und.
A special provision of this kind is rendere(l       d
necessary, in consequence of the shlortness
and weakness of its legs.   Ul)wards of 60
different species of wire-worims occur in
Britain, and it is probable that a considerable proportion of  tlien  feed upon  our
most valuable cultivated pliants.  The same
species of I.iIvY (loes not appear to confine
itsell' to one kind of food, but attackls indiscriiniiiately the roots of corn and other
grasses, as well as esculent roots, such as
turnips, cairrots, radishes, &c.  But it is at
the s5n0 timie deservitig of notice, that, as
a stron.g similarity prevails.imong larve
specific:.ly distinct, it is probable tlhit
different kindls may often  have been conf)uiide(l, -anl a niore correct  knii wle1edg
iiay prove them to be m(,re restricted in
their choice  of food tliaii is at presellt slupposed: this at least is rendered not unlikely by wha:t is olbserved in analogous
cases.  *We are as yet acquainted with the
inetarnorphollses an(l lhal)its of a very s!Xiall
nuiller of these insects; an(l it is therefore high(ly dlesirable that, wllerever a (lestructive wire-worin prevails, it si(houll lbe
tr,acd to tlhe  perfect  e,niditioni.   This,
hlowever, is attendedl  witli considlerable
difficulty, owing to the lengthl of timie they
contirnue in the larve state, extending iii
maniy inistances to several years.   But we
3185.  "Tle cliaracter of  wire-worms
generally is tlhat they lhave a long, slender,
and eyvlildlical body, covered by a tough
crust, wlhi(,ch lhas o,ccasioned the above name.
Tley,are composed  of'12 segments. fittingclosely to eaclh otler, andi are provided witlh
6 conical scaly feet, placed in pairs on the
tllree segmiiients next tlh~e heiad.  Tlhe latter
is furnished witlh sl)ort antennae, p)ai, and
two stronii,,  liinandiblcs  or   jaws.   Tle
species ailluded to as  being, weil-known is
the larlva of Catah(,/gus linetttus.  When
fildl-grown it is abljout seven lines long,
a line being the tweltlh part of an inch,
and ratlher less than a line in breadth,
as a,  fi,. 253.   The slhape of tlhe body
Fig. 253..
* Journal of the Enyish.gu iiciultura1 Society, vol. ix. p. 532-563.
I
43
. I 16                                                     e
d
a'
TIIE WIRE-WORM AND ITS PERFECT BEETLE           CATAPH,EGUS
woti](I be perfectly cvliiidi-ical. were
tl)e back not a little depressed. It is entirel,; of an oclire vellow.col,)ur, except the
,],rit.ei-iot- part of tl)e                  %%-Iiieli is I)rown
for soii)e tiiiie aftet- -t cli'an,,e ()f skin, it i.4
while.   O%N-itic, to the consistency of
the skiii or crii:,t, tli'e -larva can scarcely
c(,)Y.iti-act its bo(iy, btit, I)einr,,, composed of
riti,s t)i- se(,nieiits, it is flexible enoii,-4i
front sitle to sitle. TI)ese riti.,s are, 12 in
iii,iiiil)et-, tlie tliree nearest the liea(i each
provi(le(I witli a 1.)air of coiiical le, and
91-1
the caudal se,,iiierit liavin,- a fleshy tubercle
?I 11 
vdamip localities,  Steropus madidus, destroys  the  wire-worm with its mandibles.
Ttie smnall tick, Ufopoda umbilica, inifects tlhe perfect beetle of tbe Cataphaqus
obscurus; and thje brilliant scarlet-oloure( liarvest-bug, Leptus phalangii, already
referred to in (2956,) as the Acarus autumnnalis of Stiaw, infests another species
of w ire-worrm beetle, Elater  ru.ficaudis.+
'brown colour', thickly covered wsitil shitort
pubescence.   Thie antennae d are about the
.lengthl  of tire hlead and  thorax, wvithl  the
radical joint long and thlick.  The'nder
sidie of thle body is dusky an(l pubescent;
thle legs obscure yellow: len gtli e aboat
four liines, breadth l -. Thlis insect occuirs
in considerable plenty throug,hl-out tile
country, in green fields and pastuire lands,
and is usually foutnd creeping, amiong, thle
lhert):ige, or lyitig at tthe sidles of stonies; it
is scarcely ever o'bserved on the winrg,,.
3189. I hlave been the more particular
iii giving,  a detailed description  of tihe
wire-woriti, as mnany insects, such as centi)pelesa, whlichl inhabit the grotind and inijure
tle cr(ops are so called; and a remnarkable
iista*Lnce of sucli a mistatke hIas been commiItte(d by Mr Lance, in assunling, the wirewormi to I)e a scolopendra.+
3186. "Another species,. at least wlhat
is usually  regardezl as  suchi, occturs  in
simiiilar places, and generally  in  michl
,reater atbtundance, -t least in Scotla-nd,
namely Catapl.aytus obscurus.  This insect
is so closely allied to tlat albove describe(l
tl.t it may rea(iily be taken fo(r a, variety
of it; and there is little dotil)t that thle descriltioii of the lairvai ()f C.  i,(,atus, will
-apply.Ilit(st equally t(o tha,t of C. obscuruts~.
Frotii thje grealt a-lutndance of t}le latter, it
ma.y be presunied to l)e tle species wNhicilt
commlits Il(iost injury in this country.
3190. As  a tra) to catel wire-worms,
potatoes cut in two, and turnips sliced, m.ay
be butiriedI ariouinid the hiil's, and examined
daily antid replaced, by whlichl means iiiany
riiiay b,e destroyed, as the insects will leave
tije roots of tlhe lhop to reg,ale on these
esculents.
l931   1. Otler insects, besidles the  wire w()rni, injlire tle hop.  The caterpillars of
tile gilost-i1()tll, Hepjialus humiuli, which
tare of a rather  gilossy cream colo'r, witlI
tlie  heid brown, and(l a scaly patchi on tbe
neck, feed( (on thle root  of the 10op, and it
clhanges in Alay to a dark-brown pupa;
" Quarterly Journal of Aqriculture, vol. viii. p. 101-3.
+ Journal ot the lnglish Aqricultural Society, vol. v. p. 209-227.
+ Lance's Hlop Farm,er, p. 73.
3187. "1 There is another species, wllich
occurs more plentifully ini plout,ghedi la,nd(s
tlhroughbout the  south of Scotland,  Ibut
wlhichl we lhave never heard charged wvith
similar depredations.   Yet  there is no
doubt that the larva is a root wtlrin, and,
from the places thfe perfect insect fi'eqients, 
- 1 - --    -.......c _i __AI~                     I A~ ~ I             A
seasons recovers firomi the attack of tihe
aplis,as ill 1807, 1834, all 1846; buit in
others it is almost entirely destroyed, as ill
1837; while it is reni:Irked tlhat the sanmie
ground is not attackedl ill two successiXve
seasons.  The natural eneiimy of the al)llis,
Aphis humuli, is the larva of the lady-l)ird.
Coccinella biplunctata, and one or iiore of
the iclineumon-flies, whichl deposit an egg.
within the body of the aplhis, the larva
from which destroys the enellmy.
fully converted in to strong cloth for  sacking and
coar~:e bags for hops, for which purpose the stalks
are gathered il autumin, soaked  ill water during
the winter, and in  the sticceeding spring, after
being dried oti stoves, are dressed like flax.
3199. "The  prunings are also cut into pieces
and  stacked for winter provender tfor cattle and
horses, which  are fond of them, their bitterness
constituting an excellent stomachic.  The biles
require careful harvestinlg to preserve them."
3192. Besieges by insects, the hop is assailed by a parasitic fungus, conimon  called
themould, because the pla ts seem moulded.
It is most subject to this disease iln moist
warm summers, anal its elebcts are iiiost
disastrous, as it deprives the plant of the
power of forming, the flower; but it is paitial in its attacks, confining itself to certain spots and localities.
3200. The tender shoots of the hop in spring
may be used as a pleasant bitter salad; and " iii
Flanders, where the hop is cultivated, the prixicipal culture being from Brussels to Alost, they
tiuse the young shoots in the same way as asparagus, tied in bunches, boiled and stewed, and eate4
with butter and gravy.  Such bunches are sold
in the vegetable markets.
3193. Thie power of some hop-grounds
to produ ce a great crop  every year, wlen
external circumstances do not occur to preveent it, is extraordinary.  MA,any (grolunds
have borne crops for upwa-rdIs of ha.lf a century, and some exceed ill are an entire
century.  It Imutst not be suipposedi, l(,w.
ever, from tlhis, that any plant that was
plantet at the formnation of the g,round(I
remains alive such a length of timiie.
Whienever a planit or an entire hill ind(icaLtes
symptonms of decay, it slhouldi be removed,
and another substituted; but care slhouldI be
3201. " From the young leaves and offshoots
of the bine, after being dried, an extract is obtaiiied, which will dye woollens of a fine cinnaIhaoeo  brown.  The expressed juice of the bine is
well kniown amongst French chemists, as afforditig a permanent red-brown colour."t
3202. According to the analysis of Mr Nesbi,
9p  oz. of the Golding hop leaves, dried at steam
heat, lost 11 oz. of moisture, and left 8~  oz. 6f
dried leaves.  The dried leaves, burned to ashes",
gave  572 grains, being, at the rate of 161 per
cent. Of the yellow grape hop leaves, 141 6z,
lost of moisture in drying 1I6  oz., and left 12 o.
* Stephens' Illustrations of British Entomtloqy, vol. i. p. 6.
t Lance's Hop. Farmer, p. 17. 
3197. " A coarse sort of brown paper has been
made from  the bines of the hop, at a mill in the
ieighbuurhlood of Maidstone.
3198. " Ilop bines are also used as binders for
the sheaves of corn and bean haulins. 
PRACTICE-SUAlMMER.
of dried leaves. The dried leaves, burned to ashles,
ga ve 2          5         per c ent of mineral matter.   The  comI'positioni of the ashes w,as as follows:
been dlescrilted for that crop from (2732) to
(27,36.)  Having drilled up as much land
as w%ill allow tile dugingg to proceed withouit interruption, that process is carried on
a s describ)ed in (2749  and  2750);  and
tlhen tile ploughls proceed as in (2752.)
This mode of dunging  is the same as recomImended for drilled beans, (2433,) and
more fully d(escribed for potatoes.   Tile
only difference between preparing thle land
for turnips and potatoes is, that, as turnips
are later in being sown, mosre titce is foound
for cleaningll, the land thloroughly for them,
on which accolunt another  ploug!luing or
another grubbing,  according to the  circumstances of the weather, may be given
to  the land before the process of dunging
is com-nnlenced.
Golding Hop Yellow Grape
leaves.   Hop leaves.
Potash,...   12.48           5.13
Soda,...    0.32   2.29
Lime,...   41.46        32.28
Magnesia,..    1.99          6.24
Sul phuric acid,..    4.20        3.63
Phosphoric acid,.    2.02         3.68
Phosphate of iron,.    2.93         0.54
Carbonic acid,.          16.54       21.25
Chloride of sedium (com mon salt,)..    7.92         4.58
Silica,...   10.14        20.38
100.00      100.00
3203. Of the Golding hop bire, I lb. 2, oz. dried
at a steam heat, lost 11 oz. of moisture, and left
1 lb.  oz. of dry bine.  The  dry bine burned,
gave 353 grains of ashes, beiiing at the rate of
nearly b per cent. Of the yellow grape hop, 2 lb.
12 oz. of bilue, dried, lost 4t oz. of moisture, leaving 2 lbs. 7i oz. of dry bilue,  The dry bilue, in
being burnt, gave 5.1 per cent of mineral matter.
The composition of the ashes was as follows:
e3205. When the land is to be manured
with farm-yard  dung, it is first dlrilled
in the single mode, (2389,) as  beilg tilhe
best and most  expeditious;  but as the
drills for tuirnips must be formed of exactly  the  same  distance, to  accommodate
thie working of the drill-maclime for sowing the seed, the best ploughlman should
be desired to forns those drills.
Potash,
Soda,
Lime,
Magnesia,..
Sulphuric acid,..       
Phosphoric acid,
Phosphate of iron,
Phosphate of alumina,
Carbon    ic acid,o
Manganese, 
Chlo~ride ofsodium (com mon salt,)..
Chloride of potassium,
Silica,...
3206. Wllen  farm-yard dung is alone
used  for manuring  the  turnip crop, tlhe
quantity applied generally differs fi(onl 12
to 15 tons the acre, accor(ding to tlie sort
of tutrnip tlie Swedislh variety receiving
the  larger  quantity, and thile  wilite the
snialler.   In thle neiglibourl)sod of towns,
. much inore mianure is applied to tile turnip
crop-as Inuchi as32 loads of at leaist 1 5cwt.
each of town manure tile acre, and upwards
of 20 tons of farmyard dung. Tile ni(-oredung
the turnip receives it will yielMt lie heavier
and mnore valuable crop; still, if thile firtiler depend entirely on thie sources (if the
farmn for manure, hlie cannot apply a large
quantity to one  crop, without depriving
others (of their slhare.. After tile (lung las
been plouglhed in by the double iliode of
drilling,, (2397i,) the land is ready for the
seed.
3204. I shall now  take  fear subject
the culture of the turnip, because it is the
most important root-crop cultivated, and
whatever  relates  to it may easily be
applied to the culture of every other of the
ro(ot-cro)os cultivated oil the farm, suchl as
kohil-rabi, mangold-wurzel, earlrot, and the
like, although one or all of these may be
sown earlier than the turnip.  The turnip occupying the same place ill the order
of crops as tile potato, the land is prepared
for it in precisely the same manner as has
* Journal of the Enflish Aylr iculturail Society, vol. vii. p. 212-217.
46
olding Hop Yellow Gmp
bine.        liop bit-e.
12.97
... 2.32
29-59 17-39
3.15 12.(l
2.63 3.14
5.22 8.14
0.31 2.06
1.55
2i.il 24.18
... a trace.
4.95 9.98
7.38
4.64 5.66
lot).OO        100.00*
ON THE BOWING, AND TUE SUMMER CUL          TURE OF TIIE TURNIP.
0
3207 Of the varieties of ttirnips.usually
cultivated on the I leave already
giver) a sufficient -,ic(,-()ut)t, froit) (843) to
(8,54.) Tiie Swedisti tiiriiip slooiild I*
sown about the 15tlt May,-and 3.1b. of 
TIIE CULTURE OF TlIE TURNIP.
seed to tile acre will suffice.  The seed
varies in price from  9(1. to Is. a pound,
accord(ing to the supply.  The next hardy
turnip, tlhe yellow, should be sown i-ilnediately after the swedes a,re finlislhed with f
a smaller quantity of seed, 221 lb to thle
acre-tie  seed  being  smllaller, mnore  of
course are found  in the same nieasure.
The  whlite  turnips  may  be  sown  any
tinie fromi thle beginning, to the end of
June, and in Enrgland they are sel(lon s(owni
before July, for, if sown too early, accordaling to the climate, they are apt to run
to seed.  The price of the yellow and whlite
Fig. 254.
THIE EAST-LOTHIAN TURNIP-SOWING DRILL.
nemil)r-ace thle upper part of thle drills, and
revoNlve up(oni a shlaft passing throughI the
lower ends  of  the ui)right bars  b.  Of
the two  seed-boxes  qg, one is  shown
t ihrown open, and they are attached to tile
iron bows h h, through thle ends of whichi
tthle axle also passes, whereby  thle whole
becomes  movable  upon  thle  axle.   Thle
bottom  of  thle boxes is formed  funnelslhape(l, teritminatin, in a nozzle which
passes hb   etween the sl)eathes i i of the coulter for c(,nveying t~erthe seed from teboxes
to thile,rround:  tlhe bottonms of tile boxes
are firmly attachied to the bow h.   Conderti  rods  kk are  attached  to the seedbox framer for regulating the depth of the
in which a a is the bed-frame, consisting
of two transverse and thllree longitudinal
bars, to wileci are imoitised thlree upriglit
bars b b 6.  Stav-lblaces c c are attached
to  the bed-frame by  bolts, tlhoug     ih in many
of the in'fei l,rr machi ne         s tles          e are   of)itted,cu
greatly  to  trie  deterioration  of  their
stren,-tli and durability.  Thle horse shafts
.d are bolted,  to the transverse bars, strpported  bv  stav-br-aces e, andI furnisihed
with  thle luslua;l horse  nmounting. IThis
miachline sows two drills at a time, and, to
supl)ort it tip(rn tw       o  o f  tl,e drills of laa                        to-l,
two rollers.ff, whiclh are both motive and
compressing, are provided one  for each
drill, and so curved  longitudinally as to
I
47
turnip seed is the same, 9d. the pound,
and the quantity sowvn of botlh may  be the
satne. A little saving in turnip seed is
of nio great importance, unless when one
farms on a verv large scale; and if fresh 
seed only were used, much  smaller quantities than thiose specified would suffice.
3208. Two-rowed Tutrnip-drills.Tulrnip seed is always sown w-ith a drillnlachline, and one of the most efficient and
sitnple sowing drills whliclh sows seed alone
is tlle East Lotlhian turnip-drill. Fig.
254 is a view in perspective of this drill;
I
9g 
PR,ACTICE-SU.MMIER.
coulter in the so)il.  The see(l I)arrels ar       a
mounted on axles wvitlhin the 1).x traTlee q,
thle otliter extremiity of  wA,Iiilh is fllrll  iisl)e(d
,,vitll a, pulley mn, corir esponding to anotlher
fixse(l in the  lend   o,f the drll;ei-f  anrr I)otle
miatle to  ollove by means of' a.iack-clJain.
Tlhe lhatn(lies 11 n,e1   upon tle joiint 1', anel
whlen elevated draw the coulte.s i i out of
tlh   e  g   rodund, anid whle    depressel by thle
veig,hlt of the lhan(d, keep them steraly in
tle grounid.  An  important  function of
this machine is its self-ad.iustmenit to thle
widthi of thse drills. This is is accomplishedel
by  the widtl    b    etw      een the pendants                                      m e       a
being  greater  than  the  len(gthi  of the
rollers,  togetlher  witlh  their  attaclhe(l
pulleys  and ironi  bows h, whlichi adrmiit
of a ready lateral  motion of the rollers,
with their accompanimiients of bow, couilters, and seed-boxes, so soon as thje
maclhine is put in prog-ressive nmotioni, antd
the curved rollers.feel any itnequial resistance right or left.   Any ~sichl unequal
resistance, on  either end of the rollers,
(draws it inmmediatelv to that side  wlere
the resistance is felt, until it is fairl]  adjusted to the slope of the drill; tlhe effect
in this case beingr produced entirely by the
action of th.e sloping  sides of  tlhe dirill
ag,ainst tle conoiidal sides-of the rollers.
are p)uinch(led out, each tlhree varying in
.ize t'rmn a sixteenth to an eiglth of an
inch diamiieter, blit all in the saimie order
frl lll more to less.   A  separate band is
thlen fitted to the first, closed with a claspjoint, and ca)pable of being slid round, to
a sall  extent, upon thle interior band, and
is, besides, provided with a pitncling-screw,
by  which it can be fixed at any point
witlia its range of nlotion, which does not
necessarily exceed one inch. The movable
bandl is  likewise divided into six equal
parts, an(- at each division a perforation is
miade larger than any of those in the interior.  13y thlese arrangements the movable band can be placed so as to expose
any of thle thleesets of the six perforations
of thlie inner band,  whlereby a greater or
lesser quantity of seed can be sown according to circumstances.   In the figure, the
perforations are seen  on the outer band;
the  clasp )-oint 2also is seen near the upper
side b *,f the fi(Ture;  and  the pinchingscrew and slit, bty which it can be fixed or
moved, are seen in the middle of the figure.
The slider d covers a lhole by which tlhe
barrel can be filled or emptied of seed.
3210. This machine is furnished with a
pair _ f small coverinc, rollers, made of any
lar(li wood, mnounted in light iron frames or
shlears, whlicl) are hiooked( on to a bolt in
the coulter-frame, and are thus dragged
l)clilld the machine.  These rollers are not
considered as forming an essential part of
tlhis drill, thloughi they serve to compress
Iig,rlgt soils from  droughit, but on heavy
soils a crust would be foirmed on the surface, should rain  fall  afterwards.   The
figure given here is from the machines as
mnanufactured( by Mr James Slight, Edinburghl.   Thle price of  this drill, in the
ordinary state for sowing seed alone,
I-ranges from  ~5 to ~6, lOs.
29. Fise. 2.5           is   a persp-ectivne                          a  iew  of
the seed-t)arrel, detached fromii its seat;
321 1. Several varieties of tll is drill are
to be met withl, in wlichl thle chief difference lie, in tlhe  imode of communicat:ng
motion to the seed-barrel, and of throwing,
it ouit osf gear.']Thiis last particular may
be re(,ar(le(g as a  (lefect in the machine
jbIst (lescribed, and undoubtedly it is a defect; but the  question is simply  wleether it is
llloie economical to lose ahtlalf oronepercent
of seedl everv year, or pay a considerable
al-litil(  in price to tlheoriginal costof the
mlachine, wvlichl the adoptionl of the  disen
THE SEED-BARREL.
a a  is the axle or spindle in   lwhich it re- e
volves, an(l on tlle lon,ger end ot  "l%iclil
the pulley is placed.  The bariiel is flrmed
of tin-plate, in two conical frusta, joined b
base to base, with a cylindrical  b)and1  b
interposed  b)etween  tlhe t wo,  and  thle
truncated ends  -ir-e closed with  (eliscs (f
hard wood.   The  bXand b is usually divided into six eqtual  parts, and at eacll
Loint of division  three small  apertulres
I
48
Fig. 255.
. a 
TIIE CULTURE OF TIIE TURNIP.
gaging principle would incur.   For my   rather than want the power of stopping
part, I ami so fond of having everytiing  tl,e issue of the seed whlen desired.
in the best state it can be obtained, that I
would willingly pay the additional cost        3212. Fig. 256 givesa viewin perspece
Fig. 256.
GEDDES' TWO-tROWEVD TURNIP-SOWING DRILL.
tFir. 2.57 is a transverse section of this,
d d leing the interior surface  of:the box
Fig. 257.
tive of a variety of turnip-drill, contrived
by Mr Geddes, Carg,en  Bridge, Duiiifriesshire.  Its construction of pI)arts  is muchl
the same as-tlat already described, l)ut tle
depression of the parts forinig thlje fiamrework gives the maclhine an ap)pe.ralice of
compactness and strength.  Tlhebe,l-fiaiiie
a a is a plank, b are the pen(lants il)()ti
whiich tlje frame-work is suplporteil lipo,ni
the axles of thle curved rollers e e. Tlhe
horse shafts c are bolted on the llank (Z,
and the handles d d are jointed to it, and,
being embraced  by  open gilairds,  per-.
mit the elevation and(  depression of tl,e
coulters by means of thie chlains k k, according, to circumstances: g y  are tile
seed-box  frames;  ]- are  sl)ur-gearin, a
shown exposed, by which thle seed axles
are moved; and  i ire lhe hind coveringln
whieels.
in the diottoimi osf  which an opening -is
thsade  to receive a bras.s roller  b, havin g
a,roove IrIIIin(g round it.   The roller
is tloounte(d  ona al   a   axle  a whi ch  is prolongpped to a  sufficient distance  beyond  the
box for receiving   the last wheel  of  the
series  already described, the  connexion
with which gives m(otion to the roller  b.
A slidler c is attached to the interior of the
box, a,nd capable of nice adjustment by a
screw or otherwise. The lower end of the
slider, which comes in contact with the
roller, is formed with a tongue thatenters
into the groove, and the adjustment of the
openiing between the point of thle tongue
andb  tl he b'ttomT of the groove determines
D
3213. The distributing apparatus in
this nm-aichine is peculiar, anid has been conisi61ered to contain its  principal merit, anid
supposed to afford a more correct meanis
of graduating the quantity to be s-own than
the comnon seed-barrel, fig. 255. This
.pparatu,s i,s very simple; tlhe interior of
the seed-box i,Q formed into a semi-cyliinder, which may be of wood or of tini-plate.
VOL. II.
49
'A
-4
- i
0
4d
a 
b I
TI-IR VERTICAI. SF.CTION OF TEIR SEED-DISTRIBUTOR. 
PRACTICE-SUIMMER.
the quantity of seed to be delivered.  TI)e
expense of this machine, in consequence of
the whleel-gearing, is greater than tlihat of
the machitie above described.
or more pairs of horses; but for farms of a
small class, having only one pair of horses,
a smaller class of nmachine miight answer
the pur pose; and on this account I give the
Ie,spective view of a miachine which sows
one drill at a time  with seed alone in fig.
2.)8, wliicli consists of a frame of timber
fi,riIe(l of the  twvo lhandles a a  framtned
Fig. 25:8.
THE TURNIP-BARROW FOR SOWING ONE DRILL.
The pull may be too much for one man's
strength, when a pony or horse should be
employed.  The price is from ~2, 5s., to
~2, 15s.
upon a broad transverse bar which carries
the seed-box. Besides the broad bar, a
round stretcher is introduced near the point
of the stilts, chiefly intended for the attachment of a drag-rope; an iron axle is
placed below the frame, running in bushes
or small pillow-blocks, and the two wheels
b b are fitted to it, one of them fixed, the
other running free.  Two iron legs c c are
bolted to the stilts, with stretcher and
braces to render them steady.  A toothed
spur-wheel d is fixed upon the axle, and
this acts upon another e of equal size fitted
upon the spindle of the seed-barrel, whi(h
last is of the same construction as fig. 255.
The seedbarrel is mounted in the casef,
and the wheel e can be disengaged from
the driving-whleel.  The  bottom  of the
seed-box is formed into a fulnnel, terininating in a director-pipe, as seen at d,
which descends into the sheath of the
coulter h.  The coulter is simply a bar of
hardwood, set in the transverse bar of the
frame; and fixed at the proper position by
means of a wedge, and shod at the bottom
with  a  strong sheet-iron sheath.  One
man pushes the        machi ne  forward along a
drill by the stilts, and a boy or another
,man pulls it forward by means of a rope.
3216. Two-rowed turnip  and  bonedust drill.-Fig. 259 exhibits a view ia
perspective of a turnip-seed and bone-dust
50
3214. One-rotred tui-itip-drill.-Tliese
maciiiiies are suitable for ttie larger class
of farnis, such as tilose wliich eiiil)loy t%*,t,
3215. But ttiruip seed is not alway
sown alone, it being also deposited along
witli granulated manures in the drills.
Such granulated manure has hitherto
chiefly been bone-diist, though certain
composts have recently been recomniende(i
as substitutes or assistants to bone-dust.
Guano cannot be distributed by means of
any drill hitherto known, on account of
its claiiiiiiy consistence, which, if natural,
may be rather troublesome to get rid of;
but if produced by water bein,, poured
into the guano, t(t inei-ease itis weight, it
may be overcome by evaporation, though
the process would certainly be attended
with trouble and expense. The practical
consequence hitherto of tl)is inconvenience
has been to distribute the giano by the
hand. Bone-diist 1,4 admirably deposited
wi'tli the machine about to be described. 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
drill, and althoughli apparently of very  been said of this class of machines.. Tihe
comrnplicated f,,rm, its description may be  bed-fraiime a( a, is constructed in a similar
easily understood from what has already  nmanner to those of the corn-drills.  The
Fig. 259.
TillE TW()-It,)VED) TUItNIP AND BONE-DUST SOWING DRI.L.
axle of the carriage, wiicli -iasses across
and underi it, is supported on pillow-blocks.
The wheels b 6 are added to support the
great weight of the manuire: one of them
being fixed (lead upon the axle, carrying
the latter round with it, and thus forming
the mover of the acting parts; the other
being left at liberty to revo,lve on the
axle, for the convenience of turning the
machine round.   The hlorse-shlafts c c are
bolted to the two foremost transverse bars.
The seed-barrels, are enclosed in the boxes
d d, thllroug,h which axles pass; and each
axle carries a pulley, one of which is seen
at d'.  The two manure hloppers e e are
constructed with a cast-iron bottom, hliaviig a narrow opening, and in lengthl equal
to the breadth of the entire bottom foir the
reception   of  the  manure-distributing
wheel;f f are pressing rollers, of the same
forni and dimensions as those of the conmmon drill.  Each roller is also furnished
with a coulter-frame g., which carries
the coulters h h, and has also the  usual
extent of lateral play, whlereby they  a)ossess the property of adjusting tlhemselves
to the drills,-of  carrying the  coulterframe and coulter along with them, and
of securing the object of the seed being
always sown directly in the middle of the
drills.  The  pressing-roller axle is sup
51
. el
6 I
I.A
I
ported by the iron pendants i. Two
le%-er handles k k are jointed to the front
bar of the bed-frame, all(] to them are
,attached the contiectiti,, rodsf'f; whose
lower ends brin,(, the operation of the coiilters under'the control of the person %vllio
takes charge of the leve'rs k.k. An iron
]ever is also jointed tipon the front bar-.
its handle, extending backwards to,ki,
serves to disengage the action of'tlje
mantire-distributors from the motion of
tlieittain axle; and asthe itiotionoftlie
seed-barrels is taken from that of the
mantire-distributors, all the secondary
motion ceases on the movement of the
]ever k', and is a,,ain brought into action
by niovinc, it in the opposite direction.
The nioti,)ti of the manure-distribiltor is
conveyed by sniall spur-wljeels, and the
seed —I)arrels are (iri %-en, by separate chains
from the haft of the -former. These
wheels are so placed in relation to the
pening of the liopf)er, Ias to be qtiitto close
to the fore-end of the opening, while an
aperture'is left at the opposite end sufficieiitly large to pass the Jai-gest allowance
of manure to be given out; - and in
order to araduate this quantity, a sharing
sluice e' 6 is attached to that side of the
liopper, and is adjusted by -means of a
iscrew at the top. By these uteans, the 
PRACTICE-SUMMNIER.
area  of the discharging orifice can  be
regulated to  any desired  quantity  per
acre.  The miotions for the discharge of
the seed and manure are produced fromi
the wheel b, which is placed on the nmain
axle, and gives motion to a similar-wheel
placed upon the manure axle.
Fig. 260.
_ k
F~..- b;
L- - ~  I =':=
THE PLAN OF THE TWO-ROWED TURNIP AND BONE-DUST SOLVING DRILL.
are seen in their position at d d anld ff,
the boxes being removed, nmounted on the
auxiliary shaft j', wlichi carries also thl       e
':uanure-wheels e e, and the cluitclI-wlheel
*&.  This last wheel, which carries round         a
lthe auxiliary shaft, rulls loose up(on  the
shaft, but can at pleasure be put in connexion withl the clntcll-forkl i, whichll slidees
upon the shlaft, and moves at all times
with it.  The loose wheel h is also constantly in gear with thle driving-whleelqy,
which is fixed upon the main axle, anid at
all times, when the machine moves, keeps
the wheel h inl motion, while the sowin~ggear is at rest.  The lever k is jointed
.to the front-bar, and has hold of the clutchfork. The lever handles I I are jointed
belowthe front-bar a, and extend backw —ard
to a convenient distance, their chief duty
being, to lift the coulters, and keep them
at a uniform depth in the ground.
3219. TJ',e drorp-dr-ill.-Not content
wit,l- de)ositing the  bone-dust in a continuous stream, regarding that as a waste
of manure, several parties  have proposed
to (Irop the manure at such specific intervals as to suit thle turnip crop, after the
plants  have  been  thinned out to  tiheir
ultimate distance fromi  each other along
I" 7 ,                                   -                                               -.. 1. -,
.l
52
3217. A more distinct idea of the work,ing of this inaciiine will befornied -by the
following plan, represented in fig. 260,
where a a is the frame, b b the carriage
wheels, the main axle b' b', and the horseshafts c c, broken off. The seed-barrels,
with their separate spindles -and pulleys,
Ll
I I a.
B
I
b,
!-Lin
I
a
h,III II,
a
I
I
I
UJ I I
m
I -- — i
.   11.           -Z —,
ai
A- /If
all -
I
is yet as free of that fault as it is perha
possible to attaiii, while the essential
ojects are kept -under cominand. The
gra.dkiation of the discharge of i-nanure is
attainable by it to any desired litnit, anA
the di,-,clial,.re is also re,,iilar and uniform.
Ilic iiieaiis of eiigariiig and disengaging
I)otli the seed -,iiid iiiaiiui-e gearing is perfectly efficient and siiiiple.    Fi-oiii the
i)iatei-ials and lal)our necessarilyexpende(i
in the construction of a iiiaebine of this
kind, the price is conseqiiently li' Iier
tljaii the coition tNN,o-i-ow drill, being
Xll,  10s.   ,lacliiiies o'f  tl-iis particular
construction have only been iiiade b, -y
Mr Jaiiies Sli(,Iit, E(iiijbLrzli.
1'218. The machine thus described may
,be considered as one of the best of iw
kind, and, though apparently complicated, 
THIE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
the drill.  This object hlas been attained  by the Messrs Smith of St Ninians, near
by the drop-drill, as itl has been called,  Stirling.
because it drops the  manure in  small
quantities at determinate intervals; and    3220. This improved one-rowed dropthe best that has yet appeared of that  drill is represented in perspective by fig.
form is that introduced to public notice  261.  In this machine the general priu                                     Fig. 261.
I!~=  ~.','.:"
.       ThI -
SMITH'S DROP-w
cipl    e  is, that a metal trunk receives the
manure from the ordinary distributing
wheel, and being provided with a valve,
capable of beirut opened and shut at certain intervals, the manure is retarded in
its descent within the trunk by means of
the vwlve, until the requisite quantity is
collected, when the valve, being suddenly
opened, makes the deposit, and is again
shut.  The bed-frame a a is supported on
two carriage wheels b b, to ease the pressure of the manure upon  the tops of the
drills.  The bed-frame has a central bar,
which supports the manure hopper n and
the manure trunk behind it. Tile axle of
the wheels carries a speur-wheel c, which
acts upon the pinions d and- e, the first
being upon the shaft of the manure-distributing- wheel, the second upon that of
the seed-distributor.   The shaft of the
pinion dextends beyond the nmanure-dis
tributing wheel, to carry the wiper-wheel
f.  The sheath g slides up and down the
shank plate A, to regulate the depth at
which  the manure should  be deposited
The discharging valve within the trunk
carries at the end the lever k.  The lower
extremity of the seed trunk is seen at l.
The regul.Lting screw for discharging the
mnanure out of the hopper is at o. The
pressing roller is p, which, following,
covers in the seed and the manure, and
consolidates the soil in the drill.  Though
thie machine only sows one drill, it requires
to be drawn  by a horse; and that  the
thorse and man who drives him may walk
in the bottom of the drill, the bar to which
it is yoked is placed at one side of the
bed-frame, of which q is the yoke-bar or
beamni, supported by the stay-rod r, and
s s  are  the handles supported by  the
stay t.
53
a0           3. 
PRACTIC'E —SUMMER.
cially with  those  manures  held to  be
the most active, such as bones,   guano, and
the  ilke-for here the manure is l aid into
the  rut, the earth of   wlsicl p artially falling
in aslnd mixing with  i t, t hereby    reduces its
intensity; and the seed  is dro pped upon
thuis mixture, instead   of falli    ng directly
anuongst t he  manure, as is  generally the
case with  machines   which sow the  seed
and manure continuously. It  is said that
a  more speedy and vigor  ous vege tation is
produced by this  than by the  c ontinuous
mode of  sowing;  but it ma   y yet be deserving of observation,  whether the   mor e
speedy development of the young plant
does not arise from the  circumstance  of the
seed, under this mode of treatme nt, being
deposited  nearer the  surface  of the soil,
than it is when put in immediately behind
a coulter; and, viewing the subject in  this
light, it may suggest the question, whether
deep  sowing    alone ma y nnot be  the cause of
the  protracte d  v         egetation so often and so
seriously experienced in the turnip   crop?
It is well  known teat  the vegetation of a ll
seeds is decidedly affected by the depth at
which they are planted in tlhe soil, so much
so, that at or beyond certain depths the
seeds lie perfectly dormant; the depth,
however, requisite for producing this effect
varying considerably with the nature and
qualities of the seeds. Tlhus, a potato-tuber
will vegetate if within 2 feet of the surface,
but the process will be very much retarded;
the seeds of some Crucifera, again, to
which f-inmily the turnip belongs, are supposed to become  dormant,  tlhoug,h not
dead, at the depth of ordinary ploughing.
There need be no surprise, then, though we
should find the vegetation  of the turnip
retarded to the extent of  days, or even
weeks, froml the seed being deposited at
2, 3, or even 4 inches, as is sometimes done,
below the surface. Thle subject, as regards
the turnip crg p alone, appears to me deserving of careful experimiient, and, if deternfiined il  the affirmative,   much disappoilntmienit and loss may be prevented by
adopting due precautions to insure sowing
at proper depths. But independently of
the consideration of the relative-positions
of the seed and imianure, which are favourable, tihere are practic:al objections to dropping thJe manure at wide intervals. The
intersvals shlould vary according to the kind
of turnip sown. Swedes should be placed
more apart than yellowe or white turnips;
3221. In sowingwitlh this machine, tile
effect of the combination of its ii;achlinery
is to be thus understood.  Thie carria,gewheels being three feet in diameter, or 113
inches in circumference, the wheels will
turn once r,und( while the miachine passes
over that space.  Thle main spur-whleel
will also make one revolution in the same
space;  but, as  the pinions  upon  the
axle of the seed and the manure distributors are just half the diameter of the
other, they will each make two revolutions while the machine is moving over
113 inches; and as the wiper-wheel has
six wipers, each revolution of it will lift
the valve six times, or twelve times in the
space of 1 13 inches, making twelve depositions of manure in that space, which is
9i inches to each nearly.  In the same
manner the seed-distributor, which also
makes two revolutions in tlhe same time
or space, and:is it has six little cups or
perforations, it will discharge twelve times,
as before, in 113 inches.  Tlien, the seeldepositor being placed 91  inches distant
and behlind the manure; and as they are
arranged to drop at the same instant, the
manure-deposit will be always one space
in advance of the seed, and the seed will
be dropped over the immediately preceding
deposite of manure.
3222.  The savieg of manure  in th       e first
instance, by the use of the drop-drill, appears to be considerable, since it has been
frequently asserted that 10 or 12 bushels
of bone-dust per acre will produce a braird
equal, if not superior, to 16 or 18 bushels
put in by the continuous mode.  In the
view of its more general adoption, the
form of thie machine must be changed
from the single to the two-row drill, a
change of'wwhich it is quite capable, and
which Slav be done at le.ss than double
the' expense of the single machine. In
its present form, the process is too slow
for large farms; and on any such, the
additional expense of the double machine
is not to be put in comparison with thie
advantages of despatch in sowing. The
price of the single machine is about ~6;
if ex-ended to two rows, the price would
not exceed E10.
51
3223. Apparently some advantages
are derived fro'm this successive iiiode of
del)ositiiig the seed and nianure, espe 
THE CULTURE OF TIHE TURNIP.
great as to induce to tl)he employment of
the rollers at all times.  The  mechanical
effect of the hI)ind rollers is to fill up the
rut made by the coulters, and to smoothen
the top of thle drills.  Now, the utility of
this snmootliening, and compressing of the
top of the drills is, not only to  prevent the
drou,ghit  reaching beyond  the surface of
tile  ground-whiclh,  in both  light and
strong soils, is an advantage-but to render the singling of the young, turnips more
easy and certain; and after the sides of the
drills have been pared by the scuffler, fig.
262, it will be found that the turnip-plants
are much more easily singled when the tops
of the    drills have been smpootlyened  than
when left  rough with a rut; be cause    the
hoe displaces every individual plant more
certainly when  on the surface  than   a t the
bottom of a rut, where   the plant is  comparttively out of reach, and partially   out
of sight  of the field-worker.   A larger portion,  to o, of  tile   drill  is p ushed   away  with
tlhe  hoe  when  s ingling is performed in the
bottom of a rut; the d ung is more  apt to
be to rn up along  w itilh te plant; h in the
plants cannot be singled so young; for,
until they have reached a certain height
above  the edges of the rut, it is not safe to
tounch thlem wit h the  hoe a t   its bottom,
whereas on a smooth surface they may be
singled very young. The advantages of a
smooth surface are not imaginary, for I
have experienced all the inconveniences
enumerated when I have been induced to
remove the hind rollers in damp weather,
from the desire to proceed with the sowing
before the ground was perfectly dry on the
surface.  A  scraper is of use on the hind
rollers, but still they cannot  make the
rollers work well when the ground is damp.
On  carefully weig,hIing, the disadvantages
of both illodes, I am convinced of the suiperior-ity of the smooth drills, inasmuch as I
consiller tl'e nlost proper singling of the
plants to lIe of much greater consequence
to the it'iturd crop thlai -IIIy injury that can
arise fromii waiting 2 (or 3 hours in the
morning  until tile ground  b)ecomiies dried
with the sun and ali; anal I would much
rather work that titie longer in the even
ing, than  sov turnip seed in land in a
damop state without the Blind rolles". This
resolution, however, wrould not induce
me ten fix the rollers so: as they could not
be removed, for the option of removal
and tile last rather wider than tile yellow,
because they have generally larger bulbs.
Whatever distance the intervals may be, it
is evident that the youing plants, which
have sprung directly fromt the influence of
the manur-e, will be more forward in growth
and larger in size thlan those which have
risen from the soil alone between the heaps
of nu.iytre.  All  the plants,  therefore,
should be removed from between tile heaps
of nianure, and only one plant left at each
heap.   But suppose that a careless fieldworker should remove all the good plants
fronm a hear) of manure, a gap would be
left in the crop of double tlhe proper distance, and thie loss will be irremediable;
but when such a mistake occurs in a continuous deposition of nianuire, little loss
will accrue, because the adjoining, plant
has as good a chance as the one remnoved
by mistake, to advance in growth, and
therefore to supply the deficiency.   The
growing plant, too, will afterwards have a
better chance of obtaining a full supply of
food whien it is distributed continuously, by
sending forth  its fibrous roots into the
space around it not occupied by plants,
than when confined to food  within  the
limitsof agiven space.  We slhould expect
the success of a plant in the former position to be as great as in an open border,
when  compared to the state of anothier
plant with its roots confinred within the
limits of a flower-pot.
3224. 1 would make  a   few                remarks  on
the  effects    of the too common lisuse of the
hind ro         llers of tile               turnip -drill.  There is
no doubt that rollers make the best work
wore n  t he surface of the grolin(l  is                 dry, anTi
asll l      ittl e doubt they make bad                                    work    n when
the surf      atce  is damp,.tn(l that                        ewhen the
surface is wet  they shoul i n ot be us          ed at
all.  The finer the surface of the ground
has been pulverised, those different effects
of rollers  are the more evidently maniifested. This being tile state of the case,
when the ground is danp, the sowinig (of
the turnip-seed will be delayed until the
ground become sulffliciently dry for the use
of the roller, arid, in the delay, the fate of
the crop may be materially affected for the
worse.  On the other hand, the distuse of
rolling causes a positive incoi)venience in
tile singling; so that it is worthy of consideration wh lether the inconvenience is so
55 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
should rest with the farmer, who should
act according to the particularstate of the
weather and the soil.
3226. The same remarks apply to the
use of the one-rowed sowing machine, fig.
258, wvlieen turnip seed alone is sowan,
w ith a ftull manuring of farm-yard dung.
3225. The land having been dunged and
drilled, and the sowing machine prepared,
let us first take  fig. 254, which sows
the turnip seed alone, and the first use
made of it is in sowing the Swedish turnip
seed.  The quantity of seed required, I
have said, is 3 lb. the acre, because, the
seed of swedes being large, that quantity
is given to secure the necessary number of
plants against all the chances of failure
connected with old dead seed, and the
numerous casualties to which it is subjected in  the soil by  insects, cold, and        (
drought.  The seed-box  of the sowingnmachine  should  never be abovre  thri         ee
quarters filled with seed, to allow the seed
to fall easily through the holes.  Swedish
turnip seed requires a larger sized hole of
the seed-box than either yellow or white
turnip seed.   A tin funnel is the most
convenient means of filling the seed-box
from the seed-bag.  The drills should be
browned or dried on the surface before the
machine is made to sow the seed, as otherwise the coulter will mniake a large and
rough rut in the drill, and the covering
rollers will become clogged withl earth;
and the rough rutting would te bad work,
even with the covering rollers removed.
One of these machines could sow a great
breadth of land in a day, but it is seldomin
that it can be employed  throughout  a
whole day, for two reasons: one is, that
the soil is seldom in a dry enough state in
the morning to be sown with it; an(l the
other reason is, that a sufficient quantity
of land will not be dunged and split in the
course of a day to keep a maciline going
constantly, because one pl(;uO,hI can only
split one-third more land in a (lay tliaiii it
can plough, so that 3 ploughls will only
split 5 acres at most of drills in a day, and
thus one machine could holl 4 ploughs
splitting drills; and as the dunging is
carried on  at the same time, few farms
are so large as to employ 4  )lou,ghs splitting drills.  In like manner are the yellow and white turnip seeds sown throughs
smaller holes of the seed box; andl as
both those seeds are small, 2- lb. the acre
of each will suffice.  At every landing
the sowing gear is disengaged, and put on
66
a,ain when the machine be.ins to sow new
drills.
'3227. When bone-dust is used as the
sole inaniii-e foi- the turnip crol), the land
is soniewliat differently prepared for the
see(I froiri what has been described for
fariii-yai-(.1 iiiaiitire. On the land being
ready to be drilled up, it is drilled at Once
in the doul,)Ie method, (239 i,) and is then
ready for the niariure and seed to be deposite(I in it by the sowing inachine. It
would not aDSwer to drill the land by
the single nietl)od, as the drills would be
too inil)el-fectly fornied for the seed.
3228. The machine for sowing bonedust, alon, with the seed, has been described under fl,. 259. The bone-dilst is
-riiost. conveniently taken to the field in a
cart, fi-. I 5, the body of whicli slopes on
its tran)s on, a bea(I-ridge when the horse
i3 taken out. A field-worker takes the
maniire out of the cart in a rusky, fig. 201,
which is i-nost conveniently filled with a
Iiiiie sliovel, fi,. 233. Botli hoppers are
filled to the top with the bone-dust: their
exact contents should have been previously
ascertained; and the seed-boxes are filled
in the iiiaiider described above (3225.)
When tl.-,Ie iiiacl)ine has been,entered by
the horse at the end of the first two drills,
the sowitig gearing is put on and the horse
bid to go on, the man guiding the
machine by the handles. To ascertain if
tl-ie machine is s-owino, the I)roperqiiant-ity
of the boiie-dust in tile acre nattiely, 16
biisl)els, or two quarters-it should be calculte(I beforehand how many yards the
known quantity of bone-dust in the hopper
should sow -,along the two drills to distribiite the proper quantity: one busti'el will
sow 30 yards.9 inches alone, two drills, at
16 bustiels the acre.
322!). The action of bODe-dust on the
soil, ant-] its consequent power to produce
a lar,,,e turnip crop, is not yet well understood, the iiiearis eiiiplo ed bein,, apl)ar                        y         c
ently so inadequate to the results received.
Up to a certain quantity Used, this manure 
THE CULTURE OF TIIE TURNIP.
I
nearer thle bone-dust is placed to the turnip seed, thle quicker does tlie seed veg,etate,
andi tle,niore tle plant isencourag,ed togrow.
Int soiwing by  lal,ld, the  anu,alre is not
placed near the seed, in so far as thle sower
knows; and when thje seed is sown  by itself, after the bonie-dust has been covered
uip by  tihe drill, the sowing-macline is as
lilkely to deposit  somiie of it away  fronm,
as near tlhe mnanuire, a-nrd lhecce ail irregular
I)raird mnay be  tlhe consequence.   Bonedust,, tlhogh in contact with turnip seed,
(doeIs not affect its vitality.    Guiano,  on
tlie contrary, affects the vitality (jf seeds,
and(i s],o,uld therefore t-e applied by the hand
at a clifftirent tinme fromi sowinig the seed.
has an evidently beneficial effect, but, beyond that quantity, no apparent benefit is
derived from  its use, in as far at least as
the crop is concerned.   I have tried to
raise turnips with different quantities of
bone-dust,  varying from  12,  16, 20, to
24 bushels  to thle acre, andl  found the
crop improved ul) to 1(; bushels; but the
quantitiesbeyond thlat,even to 24 bushels,
produced i  greater effect on thle turnips
in the same field, and on the stame s(ort of
s)il, than 16 bushlels.   More than this, my
late  agricultural  preceptor,  Mr  Geor(ge
Brown, when he farmnied Ietton Steadls, in
Northumberland, raised as good crops of
turnips, as did 16 bushels of bone-(,lust,
with only 8 bushels of bonle-dust, comlined
with an indefinite quantity of sifted (dIry
coal-ashes; andi yet 8 bushels of bonedust, (or an indefinite quantity of coal-aslhes,
when applied separately, produced a very
poor crop of turnips. It is therefore ullnecessary, in so far as the crop of turnips
is concerned, to sow more tliani 16 bushels
of borne-dust alone, or 8 bushels with coalashes, or street manure.
323 l. The effect on the soil of so small
ca quantity of boiie-dust is surprising.   I
l,have liftet a portion of thle manured soil
of a drill withl mny  hand before thle turnipseed had germninated, and felt it very warm,
and found it agglutinated  together in a
Ils lup withl  a g,reasy matter, and the lunip
interspersed pairtly withl  a white mould
and partly with  iiiinute fibres of plants.
When tlhe turnip seed( germinates, which
it wvill do in 8 or 10 days, according to the
state of the weatler, its rad(licle strikes
into thle greasy 1iiiss of earth, and  seinds
out an ilililtense numbl)er of white fibres
around  and through it.  Its cotyledons
then expand upwards, in two rudimnentary
smnooth leaves, an(l iin,tedliately tltereafter
the two true leaves appear; and these last
are called roul]h leaves, because they feel
roulgh onl account of tle small sharp spiculh
whichl cover tilJe sutrface of every leaf of
the common  trinip.    The  rudimentary
leaves of tlhe Swedish turnip are not rouglh
but sniootlh, the plant not  being  a true
turatil, but a species (,f cabbage, whichi all
have smooth lea%,es.   Tlh,y are, nevertl-heless, tertoed the roiugh, leaves.  TJ-ie smaller
bone-diist is groundI thie nmore active it is
as a inanuire, bec a:,se it then Imiixes mo1s9t
in-tita.,tely with thle soil, though its action
contirniues a siorter tiue; ainl, on the other
lhan(d, large  or drilledi, or inchi-bones, as
they are called, rem-iiain  longer in tlle soil
uncl-ecomiipose.:d, but produce less immediate
effect.   Oi thiese accountsQ, bone-dust isthe
mi,;re valuable mandurie for turnips, and inch
bones fbr the cereal crops.
3230. in   some parts          of tl e  country,
particularly on the Borders, bone-dust is
sownl     by hand  eith er     adlong tise (brills tmade
up in       the    single  way   (2i)89,) aIid   which
are      then sp li   t          in the double way (2397,)
imposing-                  the    t      rouble of        a second(l (rilling;
or  it i s s own on the fl  a t                         u      groundt and  covered
by drilling      in t    ale  doub le way.  In       both
cases the turnip seed is s(,wn atterw-a-rds by
itself,                           with the common ttho-roge(d sowing
machine.  The only re ason I lae                                       e heard in
favost ro f sow       ing bonie-dustby    d, instead
of machinsery, is   the savin the cost of tthe
machine;  but  whatever a.d\vatntag,e  is
gained by this savin,, it is, I ttilnk, e-ident that the ma  chine atog sit depo(sit tlhe
bone-dus t much mor    e reaulear ly   tlithan tl-ie
hand; and as to te l    e      cost of        a,amncline, the
saving mn uist be trifling, as hlopi):ers for containing bone-dust can be attacledl, anid
made to be removed at pleasure fro'nt thie
ordinary sowin-Inachline.  I alwavs used(
a mlachine of tlis form myself, a,(I fou'lnd it
to answer the purpose well: it;s as contstructed like fig. 259.  But, in a case of
this kind, accuracy of work is a,ior,e itmportanit consideration than t!ie co,st of a
small maclhine, altlhough it slho,,l!l oinly be
used for a few weeks e-ery year. Thixer e
is, betides, the value of the fact, that,, the
57
3232. A better method than using bonedust alone, as a manure for turnips, is to 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
apply it ill conjunction w,ith fatrm-yard dung.
The benefit accruing fron thle combination
of the two manures is, that the bone-dust
primnotes the quick germination of the tutrnip see(l, and supports tlhe plant until it
sends its roots downwards, vwhere it finds
the  doug,, ready to  sustain  its  future
growth. The quantity of farmi-dung, whlen       i
tlius used, is reduced to 10 or 12 tons,
andl tlhe bone-dust to 8 bushels the acrle.
TIe result is generally very satisfactory;
ad(-, even on strongr clay soils, a cr(,p of
swedes may be raisedl withl  thlis nixt,ire
of inaniures.  The  seed( and bone-dust are
sown with the bone-dust sowing-inacliine,
fig. 259, taking care not to dip the coulters
so cldeep as to disturb the dung below, whlichil
shoutld hlave been well rotte(l, andl coverel
in with the drills formed in  the double
method, (2397.)?
3235. Stllp)lhated bones  may be used
alone in raising tuirnips, or in conjunction
fgith farn-yard dung.  When used alon e,
perhaps 200 lb. of bones and.100 lb. of oil
of vitriol im.ty' suffice for an acre, for the
quantity  lias  not yet been  definitively
settled by experiment; but it is better to
use it with farm-yard dunig, when i0 or 12
tons of dung and I cwt. of bones, with  56 lb.
of vitriol, will be sufficient for the acre to
raise a fair crop on comparatively heavy
land.
3236. According to some experiments
e 2made by Mr Pusey, and at his request by
others, it would appear that, when bones
heave been fermented with coal-ashes and
even pure sand, their efficacy is stronger
thani in the form of dust, probably from the
fermentation disintegrating the bones  to
the sziallest degree, and thereby rendering
them nmore easily mixed with the soil.  The
method of fermenting bone-dust in  this
nianier is to mIix 4 cart-loads of bones with
as iiiany of sand(l, or nmould, or sawdust,
in a fiat-toplpe(d htiep.  The bones should
be tlhoroughly drenchled with water, and
the othler ii.aterials moistened.  In a few
datys, such at lheat will be generated in the
elie.L) as to render it unbearable  by the
hland.  As thle outside of thle heap will not
be heated so mucll, it should be covered
withl sand.  Alietlier the heat should  be
allowed to (lie out before thl)e heap is used
is a point still tunascertained, but a large
heap ii.akes better mianure than a small
one; so( do u nboiled and fresh bones, than
boiled(] or stale ones.  Large bones may be
-red(luced(-l l)y fermentation in this way, by
turningi  the heap over at the end of a
fortni,lght and waterit,ng it afresl)h, and at the
end of a n-iiitli very few whole bones will
remiain.  Broklen bones will of course  be
more quickly, reduced than whole ones.
3233. Of late it has been deemed better
to use bone-dust in combinati!)n with sulphuricaci(l, orratlher tleoilof vitriol as sold
in the shoi)s, than by itself, or with farm-iyard-I (dung,. The effect of the action of the
acid on thje bones is to reduce tlhiemn to a
pulpy mass, which is nmade in tlhis nmaniner:
-Mix a givenquantityof vitriol with twice
its bulk of water, iif any convenient vessel,
wj.ien the nmixture will evolv,e a considerable deglee ( f hreat.  Put into a large tub
or troughi double the weig,hit of bonie-dust
as of acid used, and pouI — the mixture of
acid and water gradually, anil by  timiies,
over it.  An  a(ction will stloi be observed
arising froit the escape of cail)onic acid
gas, and in timre, on stirring, tile bone(lust will h)e entirely dissol(ved, and(I forml
a inass wVitl  the aid and  water.  Thje
nass imay be dried with   ri,ldled  sawdust,
dry ashies, or fine (dlry vegetaible mnouli;
and the granulated  powder  tlius l)repaleld,
may be s(;wli eitherby it.elf, (,r in corllilinatiori with fa,rm-yartl dung, with tle bonedust sow ing-mahelinle, fig. 25.().  Uncrluslse~l
bones will,tiswet the purp(ose as %%,ell as
crushed, but the acid will tale muli Lchl  longer
timee to -tot upon them.
3237.  Slionll(  this metlhod of reducing
bones prove suiccessfuil, it is a  mnuclh cheaper
and  simpler  riio,le of doing, so than  with
vitriol. A   f.armer tried  a c(mllpar-ative
experiment f,)r Mr  Pusey, and  found that
4  buslhels,,f ferm-iented bones gave  the
samlIe yield of swedes as 16 bushels of bone
3234. The material thutis obta-ined  lias
been called the stiperp)hospli.ite (,f liiie, hut b
a  iiuore coirrect n:Lmie would be sui.)hA(tt d
bones.  It is f(iiind to hlave a greater piower i
of raisinii turnips 01o  clay soils tli'.-i bmtedust.   No doub)t bone-tilust operates imiore
beneficially on li,ght (34w) tlhan on hleavy
58
soils, (,346;) and if a substance can be
easily niade wl-iicli will secure a crop of turDil)S on licavy lard, it is a very valuable
coinii)odity. 
**,........ _..........   v..e,...o vg'-1""'
I)road-cast for a  broad-cast crop), cannot
piroriote the growthl of the crop at its early
sta,3e so well as when deposited in r o    ws;
atld  I tlvink it cannot  adcm      it of  doubt,
tlthat  tlee s   t ie quantity of imanure prlaced
i(medh2(liately illcder t    hje  seed  sioul( prop aote tlie a,owtl  of the young plan t   more
rapidly thaiin wl-en  spriea over a large surface  of gro(und.   Now i t I slist  be adtitteil,
:rega   Isre.rs the  turnip plan t, that  the nlore
ralnidly  it  igr(fws  in it   s        early stage, the more
quiclly  iL hill cover     tle ground  front
droughte,  arlh be beyon  d th e  reacl of insects-as it is well kwdown, in    reu,ard to the
lac-bits of tdlo se wwodelo at tack th e turnip,
ttha t tlhey be(ole inpoctwous afte r  tie full
develofpment of the  leaves.   I (lo ncl t  tlhinik
that tlie sowing of  turnil)s in er i l ls re(iiders
thelau inivulnerable t the  attack of   insects,
or the  in iuiy o,f drouglit;-but, tloese ef,Jects
being setsonlal, thle driill  systeme p l aces   tbe
cro,p imore immediately under the conitrt)l
of the  cultivator, iniasi uclliI asi it secures to
himi tlhe *whoile p)owers of the  imianuire at
once, atnt t  enmables dlimi,  t o  clean  the soi l in
the slor itest time wtlh th e    assistan ce(f lorseo
lab,iur.  Besides, the periodI of sowing tlho
criop sh;(tld b     e  chose n so as to av winl such
cas4IlIties..o  If tlrouglt is too grea t in July,
or insects too t)owerftil, tlle crop should be
sowni earlier, a-ntd tliaoughl it shouldl reach
nmaturity So(,ner than desire(d, it may be
stored uintil the season of  consulmiption
arrives; or it might be sown later, as in
Aug,ust, wlhen  thle genial climate of the
..... l
but it may  i)e sown  by  lhand out of a
s        hl eet            like corn, and it may be mix ed witlih
dry                        ashles or mould. Wlehen seld by itself,
5  cwt. tle acre are required.             Wlen used
in ctnjuuictioa with farr-yard d         ung, 3   c wt.
the                        acre will siffice.                               I
* Jourr,al of the Enylish 4Ayricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 418, and vol. ix. p. 530.
3239. When  applied with farnm dun,
the land r ecei ves a d ifferent treatment tlhani
wvhien l bone-dust is used.  After  the dung
]has been  spread in the drills, (2,49 andI
2750,) thie grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, is
passed a  sin,le time  along, the drills,
wlliclh  lhas tlhe effect of  drawing  somtie
of thle soil off  the drills upon  thle dung.
Thle giiano is tilien sown by hand over thje
harrowed drills, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the
acre, and it does not come directly in contact witlh the dung, thouglh it is scattered
over the surface of the ground.   Instead of
the harrows, I have seen it recotnlnienidedI
to enmploy n sort of scraper, wlhicl extend(s
across two drills, having twvo bars of wood
slhod witlh iron, wliichl, on  being drawn
forward by a horse, scrapes the eartlh fromii
the top of the dirills upon tl)e (lun, in tlle
bottom.  Such a device, I  have Ino douibt,
will answer the psurpose, biit. it possesses
no advantage over the grass-seedI lharrows.
TIhe *lrills are tlheni set up ini the doulle
method, (2397,) aind the tuirnip seedl is
sowIi with the comiiimon dIrill, fig.  254,
wihlich firnisles the work.
3240. It is not an uinusual practice in 
PRACTICE-SUAIMMER.
south of England-whlere the nights are
warm as well as the day, affording every
day the growth oft wo ordinary days in Scotland, where the ni,ghts are always cold-in
sufficient time tonmature the crop before the
end of October,wlhici, is as early as the
turnip crop is required for consumlption
in that part of the couiitry-thlie grass
till then continuing  good.   Were  the
soil, too, properly cleaned before the crop
is sown, comparatively little labour would
be required to keep the ground free of weeds
in sunnier, and the droughlt would not
then have  nemuch effect upon it.  To render the culture varied, part of the turnip
crop might be taken after winter vetelies,
which, on being cleared off the ground in
timne by feeding sheep, or by cutting for
forage, would allow the land to receive a
short fallowing before the end of July.
3242. A somewhat similar   success atten2le(o the    trial of raisin,g  turnips on str on g
clay-lannnl, at ordinary distances, by Mr
Peter, Thomnson, Peffertiill, near  Edinburt,ia.  As sooin as the gro un d w as  cleared
of tares, lie  crossfploughed it   with a deep
furrow   early iil  October;  harrowed,
grubbed, and  d rille d   it in  the single
way,  (2389,) at 28 inches asunder, but,
owing  to the  unfavourable state of  the
weather, was preven ted a pplyin g the  dung
untilDeceneber andJanuary, w he  n 32single
horse-loads t   he acre  of street manure were
covered   in wih th the common plough.   In
Marel-c, the ground was found  inl a fine
.sta t e, but, as i t was rather foul with weeds,
the drills weere hl arrolwed    a      dou bl e tine, the
soi l stirred between them with    the  drill
grubbner f2, fig. 262, and set oupwith the double
inouldI-board plough, for forming drills, fig.
214, and    againb set tiup aby   the same, just
before sowing,   the  seed of  the  green-top
yellow turnip on the  15th, a nd of t he  white
globe on the  25tlt and  26th of  May.   The
yield in autumn  was  32 to ns of turnips the
acre, including tops.  The field had beent
tdungre d five years before, a nd twic e sin ce
topu-dresse( with 8s       ba g of 4 bushels each
of soot to the acre.+  Were such modes of
cultivating the turnip adopted in the south
of Englan(l, I have no doubt certain and
abundant crops would be raised in spite of
dlroughIit and insects, and the slovenly practice of broad-cast culture give way to the
more  scientific mode  of  the  drill  system.   After all, it has never yet  been
proved that  broad-cast sowing prevents
the turnip plant from being affected either
by drough,t or insects.
3241. Nor is the much earlier fallowing
an d cleansing      of the    turnip land ibtpracticable in England, since the corn crops are
frequent       ly cleared from the fields by the
end of Autu,st, when th      ie s tubble ould be
broke       n  up, harrowed, cross-pleoufgre(l, clean,ed, drilled, and even diinged, before the
ar rival of win                      ter,  as  has   been proved in
Scotladnd, by the                      practice of Mr James
$cougall, at Balgone, East Lothian, on the
farm of Sir George Grant Suittie, Bart., in
the autumn of 1841, when lie drilled and
dunged good  turnip-land, at 32 inches
apart in the drill, and otherwise finished
its tillage. Puirple-top swedes were sown
on the 10thi of M.ay 1842, the plants thinnd to 15 inches apart, and the matured
crop was drawn and stored by the middle
of September following, when the ground
was sown with wheat.  On comparing the
produce of this mode of culture with the
usual one of working the tuirnip-land in
spring, and at the usual distance of 28
inclies between the drills and 12 inches between the plants, the ground prepared in
autumn yielded, in 429 likls  measured
alon(g, a drill, 82 stones of turnips, whereas the land worked in spring yielded only
58 stones, wh,ilst the number of turmips in
the 82 stones was only 238, and that in
the 58 stones was 276 —mnaking each turnip 4 lb. 13 oz. in the former, and only
2 lb. 15 oz. in the latter number.  A single
horse-load of turnips selected fromn the
* Mark-Lane Express, October 17, 1842.
60
ground prepared in autunin, only numbered
141 roots, and weighed as much as 10:9
stones, sliowin(, the W'6iglit of each root to
be io lb. 13 oz.* T[iis instance proves
that land for Swedisli turnips' may be
prep,,ire(l in autut-nn, and a heavy crop
ol)taine(i on drills as wide as 32 inches,
and frotii plants 15 inclies apart.
324:'3. On stroii, soils it is difficult to
obtain t. I)i-a;'-, —d ()f ttii-iiil)s in a dry season,
on account of the 1-i.-ir(I cloddy state of
I the                 (,f t-lie drills, which is generally
induced by the land having been ploughed
in earlI.y spring in a rather damp state,
t Ibid, November 21, 1842. 
TI-IE CULTURE OF TIlE TURNIF.
young state better than the kinds in use.
As noi turnip is yet known which possesses
the latter property to a greater degree than
the kinds ill use, it is requisite to sow  a
kind wliicli will come early to nmaturity,
anml this the  white stone turnip will do,
lwhliicli, thlough sown lateinJuly,will be ready
fir use by  the end of October.   If a few
very early turnips are desire,l, as in Septemuber, tile stone turnip,sown immnediately
after the white ones in June, will afford
the supply.
3244. To -avoid 811ch  serious  inconvenienices, it has been recommended to
drill up the land in the beginning of winter, to dung it fully, and to let it remailn
in this state all winter, to receive  the
f         rost.  In the sprina  te  scuffler, fig. 262,
is passed along  the dril ls t o kill thie  surface w eed s. The          drills  are larrowel a
littl     e d   own with tihe drill harrows, fim,. 220,
a       short time before the sowing                       of the se;
and  the seed is then                             sown either by itself,
or better       with the mansre-drill, fig. 259,
along  with sliphtated Tbonyes,wiics act more
beneficial ly  on st ong                    soils than  comimon bone-dust.   By this iimode of treating a strong soil, it becomes fine on the
surfac       e  by means of t ile f ros t      and  air, and
is in the best state for encouraging a braird.
But it must be borne in mind that unless
the land be clean, it cannot be so treated;
for were it foul withl couch-i-grass, the
working  and  manuring  of it would so
encourage the growth of that weed, thlat
th9 summer culture of the turnip plant
would be almost impracticable.
3247. It is of importance to fix thie rei-lativ-e pr(oportions of ground to be occupied
tby the different kinds  of turnips.    If
turntips are to be early begun to be eaten,
lmor!-e vwhite sliouldbe sownI, as they should
last to the end of the year; and if turnips
are likely to be late in spring in being
consulied, mniore swedes should lie sown, to
last four imou tlas. Th         e intervening period
of about a month is occupied  with the
yellows.
3248. If it is desired  to  manur e a large
field with sheep in the latter part of the
seas on,  the field shoul be sown   half with
swedes, and half with vellows, with white
alternating withi both.   The yellows  are
led (ff tani stored,  whi le  the white a le
taken to the steading to the cattle, leavint  possession of th e fi eld  to the stwedfes.
If it is desired t o manure toe field early
with the  sleep, it is sown with yellows
and white, and the white are led  o,ff to
the cattle, anal the yellows left in possessiami of the field. Tlhus the extent of ground
desired to be occupied by any kind of turllip Ililay easily lbe arranged, and its mnanurind oIy  sheep secured- to that extent with
any kind of t,urnip  desired.
3245. It has occurred to nme, that one
cause of the scanty brairid of turnips, in
seasons unfavourable to veg,etation, is the
too deep sow,inig of the turnip seed.   Tile
coulters of  most of  the  turnip-sowiig,
inachines are set to go too deep into the
soft grouin(d of raised drills, acud when they
are also iliiinovalble, they cannot fail to
deposit the seed dleeper than desired in
suchl drills.  I hleave imade experiments on
the germination (0f turnip see(ls, sown               at
different depthis, thie comparative results of
whichl I will mentioni when I coiiie to treat
of that interesting subject.
3249. The youingr turnip plants nmay be
expected to make their appearance above
ground in  the course of eight or tell days
at soonest, and later if the sweather is unfa, —Curable to vegetati-oii. WISEl tle plants
have attained about  3 inches in height, it
is tinie to prepare  the ground for their
beingc sinqled at determinate  distances.
Tile first preparation is passing the horselhoe between the rows of plants.
3246. It may happen on account of the
state of the weather, or its own condition
in re(ard to hardness,  or  to  foulness
from weeds, that the ground  cann,tli b      e       e
prepared in proper time for sowing the ordinary kinds of. turnips when it becomes
expe(lient to sow a kind which will eithier
Come to mnaturity, or stand ithe winter in          a
6l
and becoming Hardened by siil)seqiient
drpuo,lit in Mav. lu these eircutnstatices
it not unfreque'litly gappetis that the plants
come iip in a puny state, and very scantily,
and are afterwards devoured by the fle-,tbeetle, so that the land is re-sown with
white turnips in June.
it
3250. Horse-hoe or - SculWer-. - The
dotible, niould-board i)loucli;,fl -       lf~
Z5    9
convertible into a sctiffliii,, or- cleansing
0 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
plougli, or horse-hoe.   To effect this, the   262, is formed; the portions of the beam
hinge-pins of the mould-)oards are witli-  and handle leing cut off, and the reinmaidrawn,   and the  nmolld-boards removed,  img portiot. of the bgam: a, and of the
when the implelnent represente(d by  fig.  handles, arc 6b b, exhibiting also their junc
THE BODY OF THX DOUBLE MOULD BOARD ALTEItED TO A SCUFFLING PLOUGH.
tion with the tail of the )eadlu.  The body
frame c c is of an  irregulatr rliholboidal
form, whereof the front bar d( forins the
shield, and the lower bar, the sole-shloe m.
The two wing bars. gq are jointed to a stud
that projects from thie beam on each side
at k.  A quadrant bar f is attached to the
two stilts atf, and the ends of the wing-,
bars, having a mnortise formed to receive
the quadrant, are moved upon this to any
required width, and secured by thle screws
i i.  A secondi mnortise is punched in each
wing-bar to receive the scuffling coulters
A h, which are thlinned off to a knife-edge
in front, and bent inward below till thle
points stand 6 inches to the right and left
of the shanks.  A  double-feathlered share
e is fitted to the head d of the body-framne,
which conmpletes this simple lhorse-hloe, and
the change fronm the one state to thle other
is effected in a few minutes, for, in return
3251. The effect of this horse-hoe in the
soil is to loosen  the earth between  the
rows of drills, or, if fouli, to under-cut all
the weeds that exist in that space, or to
such breadth as the two scufflers h hm iiay be
set; the upright part of thesie coulters performing a  species  of paring,  alongZ the
sides of the two contiguous rows.   If the
land is in good order, and tolerablly clean,
stirring it with this scuiffler will be sufficiernt; but if overrun witlh w(-eeds, one or
otlher of  the drill-lharrow.s  or  grulJlers
will be found necessary to prevent  a  revegetation of the weeds.
the two back tines hlave thleir tails jointe(l, pivots placed in thile ini(ldle of their length,
at a 6 c d, to two transverse parallel bars,  attaclie(il to the tail (,f tlze beam.   By the
which  traverse  to a stiall  extent Uip(1 mnotion of tliese, a perfectparalleli.sm o(f thle
a
Fig. 262.
ing it to tlhe- double mould-board state,
it is only necessary to remn)ve the soulfflers g g and h h, and the featlhered share e.
3252. Fig. 263 exhibits Mr Wilkie's
hiorse-hoe with parallel mnotion", in1 whlichl
Fig. 263.
a
WILKICR8 HORSE-HOE WITH P.ARALLEL MOTION. 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
tines is preserved, capable of being secured at any requllired width by pinchingscrews.  This is the most perfect mode of
adjustment for the tines of a hoe of this
c4)nstruction-three-tined-but it does not
apply to those of more than three, and is
perhaps too refined for a field implement.
Thie self-cleaning formn of thle tiiies has been
adduced in favour of this implement, but
THE COM.MON DRILL-(RUBBER.
by one ihorse.  It consists of a central beamin
a 6 c, tlhe neck part of which is bent upwards, and punched at the front for the
passage of the stem of the wheel.  The
wing-bars  b  d, carry the  tines g            t g,
6 in number, and the central beami carries the front tine at b.  The wing-bars
are each furnished with  a quadrant-bar
riveted into the wings at d d; the tail of
the quadrants, passing through the mortise
at c, are secured by a pinchinig-screw fixing thle wings at any req(uired width.  The
wing,-bars are extended backward, an(l bent
upwar,ls to fiorm the handles c c.  To the
point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle
f with  a cross-web and shackle, giving a
small rang,e of yoke right and left.  TilJe
fronit wlieel, whose office is to regulate the
depth of tile grubilbiig, is usually 8 or 9
inclhes diameter, and the tiies q are forged
Nwithli duck feet slightly pointing ft,rward.
In many l,,calities this implement is use(d
for all the purposes of horse-boeing, except tlhe process of paring or of eartling
up; and, hlaving cheapness as well as utility
as a recomnmiend-Iation, it is very generally
approvedl of.  It is, however, subject to
ariety  in tihe  different  districts where it is
employed: in some it is shortened to 5 tines,
3254. In this class of imnplemnents, we
fin(d a very hlands(,,ely constructed one,
known as  Wilkie's drill grubber (and harroiw, which  is represented in fig. 265.  This
iiiipleiiient is constructed with a beam a  b,
an,] a pair of handles c c attached to the
tail (of the beam, one on each side.  It has
no  prolper bo((ly-frame, but is mnerely  a
skeleton, t!he grubbing parts of it being the
three tines or coulters d ef.  The foremost
one d isset in a colilter-box in the beam, and
terminiates in a double-spreading feather
or duck's-foot point; the two others, e and
cp  are continuations of thle two wings, which
are capabele of adij ustmient by the quadrantbar y.  Thle effect of the tines on the soil
is somewhat sifilar to that iof the scu2ffer,
fig. 262, paring andi uindercutting; but
the iml)lemient is firtnished with an appen
N m
63
the form that may be useful in a great
field-gi-ubber is not applicable to an iinplenient still as this; for it seldom occurs,
atid oti,,Iit never to be tije case, ttiat a
drilled -,reen crop is so overrun witli weeds
as to require a self-cleaning title.
3253. Tlieconimoridi-ill-,qrubber, fir,. 264,
0
is a li,,Iit and con venie.nt implement drawn
0
Fig. 264.
c
a
d
....
in others len(,tliciied out to 9, and in many,
cases the tines are plain-pointed. It is
frequently also inade witli the tines standinm in a zigzat-, 1)()sition; but, except in
tile second pair of tines, this is of, little
iiiiportatice, as those beliind the second are
si,ifficiently apart to prevent tlieiii beconiiiig clioke(i witti weeds. I'lie price of thi"S
grubber is about X2, 10s. 
PRPACTICE-SUMAMER.
dage in the attached  6-tined  harrow  i,  depth by nmeans of its suspendlers, and to
whichl completes the operation at one turn.   breadtht by means of its two small  quatdThe  lharrow is capable of atl iustin)eut to  rant-I)ars.   Tlie  reg,ulation of  dep)th is
Fig. 265.
WILKIE S DRILL-GRUBBER AND HARROW.
pare tle soil from  the plants as near as
possible without  touchlling them, and  the
drier and finer the state of the soil, the
nearer  they may work to the  plants.
In roughl and damp soil, the clods, raised
and disturbed by the coulters, will be apt to
fall upon the plants when the coulters are
place( toonear to thiem. In scuffling turnips
the ploughmnan requires to be constantly
on his guard, to guide the implement in the
middle space between the row of plants on
each si(le of him; and on entering and finisling every landing, he should take care
that the horse does not turn too sharply
uponI the hlead-ridge, and cause the coulters to c(ut off some of thle plants from the
ends  of the drills.  Scuffling admits of
walking at the rate of thlree miles in the
hour or more, and is a very expeditious
process, when the land is pretty clean.
aided by the wru    hel I  hunp    in the  sh ears n,
wlhich is jointed to the beaimi at a, and to
whlielc also is attached a shackl,e and hiook
o for the draughlt.  The price is ~4, 15s. ~
3256. A ploughlman is set to work the
scuffler, fig. 262, and  he takes one of his
Ilorises while the other one is resting, each
horse working one yoking every day wh lile
at this work.  On  faruis hlaving, a large
breadth of turnips, two scufflers may  be
thuls engaged.   As thle work of scuffiiiit     i
is easy comp)ared to plou,ghing, thle agred
horses, or mares suckling, foals, are emiployed at it. Should thle conmpanioll to
the mnare with foal be a horse or a  iiiire
without a foal, the mare and  her foal are
sent to p)asture, while her comnpanion works
all the day.  The steadiest horses, in whlatever state thley niay otherwise be, sliotill          d
only  be employed  at scuffling, else by
unsteady walking   the  implemnen   t  may
cut up the plants right and left.    The
ploughiiman should provide double reins to
the ihorse.   In setting the wings of the
scuffler, the coulters should be brought t(          o
a, facecl wit l steel 7 inclt es in length, and  4
inclies in breadth, witlh an eye b, attached to
its ul)per edge to receive thre shaft c, usually
made (if fir, to make the implemnent as lig,t
in lhanid as, possible.  The slaft should not
exceeed 3 feet in length, tlhouglh in some
parts of the country it is 41 feet, whilst
84
c
a c
h,t.
I i
325,5. In stiff soils, the broad-featlier
shares will with difficulty I)e kept in the
ground; and, from t,beir great ledgtli and
I)i-eadtli, will have the effect of coiisolidatinfr that part of it which they pass over,
into a hard crust. The narrow is an iniport,,tnt part of the implement, but a(lds
consi(ler-,tbly to the drau,,Iit; and the iiiiI)Ieiiient, upon the whole, is too heavy for
one lioi-se beiri,., able to produce effi ient
,%%,ork with it. By Tightening the entire
structure, and altering the form of the tiiie,
it Ought be reti(lored a very useful lioi-selloc.
'325. The scuffline, having cleared part
of the ffi-ouiid in a yoking in advance, the
sirigling is ready to -continence. The implei-nent used for siii(Ilin,, turnips is repre                    Z, ip
sented in fig. 266, and is nanied the turnij)-hoe. It consists of a thin iron plate
Fig. 266.
0
TIIH TURNIP OR HAND DRAW-HOR. 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
in others as short as 33 inches. The shorter
it is the better for the  work, as it enables
thefield-worker to bow closer to              ti e ground;
but            as this   position is really severe for the
black, tile shaft in some                       places is made as
long as  to        allow the fiel(hi-worker  to
stand nearly upright, in which position,
the eye antf hand being both far removed
fronm so small an object as a young turnip
plant, the worker  cannot  command th-ec
implement so effectually in the thjinniing,
process, as  when  the hands are  placed
nearer the working part of the hloe.
in, faces will last longer than that which
h,leas only one; but the utility of tile im)plenent is sacrificed for the sake of its
durability, as it is evident that the nearly
square end of the hloe, in fig. 266, is much
mIore likely to separate a bunch of turnip
plants  whiile pushing them away from a
single one, in a firm and decided manner,
than the sharp point of a triangle, over
which the separating plants are apt to fall
upoln the one wvhich it is desired to retain.
The price of a hioe such as in the figure
is 2d. the inch along the face, without the
hlielve, and whlen made entirely of steel,
3which is unnecessary, it is dearer, while
the triangular hoes are 4d. the inch round
all the three faces.
3258. The consequences are, that numbers of the plants are. removeed by awkward pushes of the hoe, and the singling
is done very slow. Other fornis of hlioe
are in use, such as the triangular, with
the handle attached to a hose rising fromb
the centre of the equilateral triangle. This
form has been constructed on the supposition
that the hoe which possesses three work
Fig. 267.
the farm, and they are placed at every 2
rows, beginning at one side of a field, the
first worker getting the charg,e of the first
and second drills, the second of the tliirtli
and fourth, th    e     third  of th e fifth and sixtl,
and so  on with the rest                       of the worlkers. The
reason for this particular arrangement, instead of giving a drill to every worker, is,
that each  may have sufficientt room to
work, and, having 2 drills each, the whole
band of workers have the less seldom to
shift their ground.
of  thle fnext drill  i k, so tha t the side  of
the woIker is presented to the drill to be
siigleed. The shaft of the hoe is held  near
its eindl witlh oiie  hand, while the other
h)and, bei    tg that of the side in front, is
placed  I little in advance.  The foremost
ilandl indicetes whether the person is right
or left handed, as  it is rare to find  a
t   o tirker  that can singlz,e turnips equally
wvo ell with   either hand.  The   foremost
hand is steadie(! by being partially rested
on the l)enId of the leg of the same side,
as is  ),artienl-,rly slionii in the  figure o.
The hlioe, )n its face being held downwards
and in a horizontal position, is pushed
csieflty -by the weight of the body of the
worker against the ground and the plants,
wheln as  maniy plants are removed along
awithl the earthl behind them, by the forward
pus-h, as the length of the face of the ho
3260. It is not easy to give a slort
account of the mnode of iising, the loe in
singling turnips; but the followirng, dir.ectionis mnay serve to show the leading requisites to performn that operation in the best
miianner.   On  comnmencing   to sin,-,le  a
drill 1  n, a foot is placed on eaclh sidle
VOL. It.
65
3259. Tile attitude of the worke-rs' theI)est method of using the hoe, and of arrangin,, the field-worker-s at singling,'is endea  in
voured to, be represents(' bv fiz. 267 This
worl is performed by the fierd-workers of
- - 0
n
.'I
THF, SINGLING OF TLTR,'IPS.
B 
PRACTICE-SUM MER.
tiup c d, she returns down b a.   All the
figiiies in thl)e cut are represented going up
singling  thl)e  first drills of  their stints
of two drills each.   Only  3 figures  are
introduced  iii the cut, but the number of
w orkers eimployed depends on the size of
the fitrit.
covers; and in this ac       tion th    e  pl ant desti ned to b       e  lef t        single falls over  if tall,  or
a littl      e          to   one side-partly from the want
of  suppor      o f f the oth er pla nts, and  partly
from talsin, acway soml      e of t   e        soi       l fonfi
i ts  roo     t. TilJe body of the worker is toen
brought back to its former position, and
thus an oscillation of it forward and backward is maintained in the act of singling.
In pushing away the next portion of thie
plants,    on e                   side of the hoe takes care not
to touch  the plant last sing led,  while its
other  side co vers th,    plants  next to  the
one  intended  to be  left growing, which
also falls over, and is left tingle, and so
on, plant after plant.   The leaving the
preserved plant single constitutes the
difficulty of the operation; for, if attention
and dexterity are not both exercised, the
plant will be dragged up by the roots
with the slightest hold by the hoe of a
portion of a leaf; and although the leaves
are not touched, its stem or root may be intertwined with those of the adjoining plants.
3264. On shifting the workers from
one stint to a.n(other, the worker next the
side of the fiel]( which has yet to be singled
foirms the pivot upon which the rest turn.
Thus the worker on the drill c d, on finishi n,g thle drill b a, shifts to the drill next a
b, not seen in the cut, formiing the  pivot
for the rest to tuirn, thie worker m going to
the left side of her, and the worker o takes
iip her position on the left side of the worker
m.  This alternate shifting, whilst it keeps
every worker in her own relative place, and
prevents confusion, divides the space to be
gone over by each worker every day equal.
3265. In  usinig the hloe, it is not an
unconmmon practice, both in England and
Ireland, to make  regular gaps with it in
the rows of plants, and to leave the singling
to boys or girls by the hand, who thus act
as assistants to nmen, who form  the gaps
withl the hoe. -No doubt turnips may be
singled  inl this way,  but at greater expense; and it intrusts the selection of the
plants to be left single to mere boys and
girls, who cannot  be  supposed to know
so well as experienced aduilts the properties which mnake one plant to be preferred
to another.  Indeed, I consider the  employrient of boys  and girls in singling
turnips a questionable policy, because they
cannot work as  fast as an experienced
band of fiel(ld-workers; and thus working
much slower, as migh,t be expected of all
inexperienced persons, they retard the progress of the whole working band, as these
wish not to leave their young companions
very far behind. The want of skill also
causes them to destroy many  plants that
should have been left, and this is a much
greater evil than retarding the work.  Two
y(ung workers   are  put for an old one on
one drill, but this deranges the balance of
the whole banrd, and does not attain the
object desired-*of keeping the entire work
uniform in tine. Ratlherthan thisslhouild be
done, young workers should be put bythemselves   in another part of tlhesamtieoranother
field.  Girls must acquire a knowledge of
3261. It is foun d, tha    t  the best mode
of avoiding these difficulties is to single
the plants before the leaves of each plant becomeso much expanded as to be confounded
with those of the adjoining plants, or the
steins become so dr*awn up as to intertwine  with those of the others.  It is
also found, that in puishing the hoe is a
much more certain mode of leaving the
plants single than in drawing it towards
the worker.
3262. The plants are represented on
their sides in the row n o, fig. 267.  They
receive no injury by falling, over, and if
the weather is at all favourable, they will
hlave nearly recovered their uplri,lit positioii by the following day; and it has been
ascertained that all that portion of the
stem which was drawn ouit of the earth,
being thle part left exposed above  the
ground, is converted into bulb.
3263. When  the first row  has been
singled, the second is singled, by the workers moving in the opposite direction from
the first; and, when the second drill has
been singled, the bout is finished and the
sinigling of that part of the crop completed.
Thus, on going tip the drill I mz, the
worker returns by the drill k i; on goingto
ip g h, she returns byf e; and on going
66 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
turnips to a distance of 9 inchles, and of
those of Swedes  at 12  inches, the first
conisidleration is, whether the plants have
brairdied so equally over the field as to
allow you to preserve  those  distances
between them.  Being satisfied that tho
germination of the seed is pretty equal
over the field, it oiught to be your endeavouir to single the plants at the stated
distances of 9 inches for white globes, and
of 12 inclhes for swed(les.  The hloe, fig. 266,
commonly  iti use is 7 inches long in the
mouth, so in either case plenty of room is
left for the hoe to play between the plants.
If ctue ao  were reailly bestowed in thie use of
te   ) hoe, there cannot be a doubt but that the
plants would grow at the stated distances,
ands produce as weighty crops, at the respective weights of bulb, as are indicated
in the table in (877.)  In like nlanner,
were the after hoeings of the crop to
receive as much  attention,  no  cutting
away  the single plants, and  no making
of blanks would occur, and the estimated
weight of the crop would  be realised in
every  case.   But instead of  bestowing
care, field-workers are too often left to
themselves-when talking, the proverbial
failing of women, occupies their attention
more earnestly than  the work intrusted
to thetm.  Plants are pushed away without regard to the space left between them;
and, even  wlien   superintended,  many
women are so disingenuous as to stick the
plants they cut into the places they grew
on.   In  gravelly soil it is difficult for
the  best workers  to  use  the hland-hoo
well, as  a corner will  sometimes  slip
off a snmall stone, and cut  through  or
remove  a plant against the will of the
worker.  In all stonIy soils particularattention is required in the sintglin,g, and hoeing
of the turnip plants.  Instead, therefore,
of stewards  being  anxious  merely to
gather a large number of field-workers to
the singling of the turnips, their anxiety
should be evinced to obtain a number  of
practised hands, in whomin they can place
confidence for their attention and skill.
this work, to make'theml expert when they
become workers; but to acquire their knowledge  they should at first be placed in a
part of a field which offers peculiar facilities for singling, such as a smooth state
of the ground, and the most proper age of
the plantits; and  so  circanmstanc ed they
slhoulh! learn to single at leisure, from instructions received from an experienced
worker who superintends their work.
3268, From what I have said of tl-he
effect of 1 or 2 inches between thie turnips
decreasing  the  weight  of  a  crop  by
several tons per acre, in (878,) tile singling of this crop ought to be regarded
as one of the most important operations
that denmands  your attention.   If you
wish to single the plants of white globe
67
3266. Singling turnips should only be
prosecuted when the ground is dry, and
the pl,-ti-its tlierii-,4elves also dry, as they
then separate from one another and from
the ground more readily. Whenever the
ground becomes clo-gy on the lioes, even
with a slight sliower, the work should be
Suspended until it again becomes dry
enough.
3267. In Scotland the distance between
the rows of turnips has been fixed on, conventionally nodotibt, at 27 inches, wliicli
is a very convenient distance for drilling
up the land in the first place, with the
common or double mould-board plough;
for dutigin it with the ordinary tilt cart
of the common width between the wheels
and for working the implements employed
in turiiip culture, such as the sowing dri'ls,
and the succeeding sctifflers and drill-hrrows. On a consideration of the size of
the bulbs of ttirnips, and the nature of tl)e
respective kinds of tiii-nips cultin,ated, the
di.stance,4 fixed on between the plants in
the drill are 12 inches between the plants
of Swedish turnips, an(].9 inches between
those of yellow turnips and white globes.
Wliere the soil is naturally fertile, and
sheltered, and known to promote vegetatioti generally in a luxuriant nianner, those
distances maybe increased to the nianife,,;t
enlargement of the plants and bulbs-so
that tl)e n)atter of distance must be left to
be fixed, in each case, by the judgment of
the farmer, in the circumstances in whicli
tl-ie particular crop is placed.
32(' )9. Siiotild blanks occur in the ger-,,
niination of sweder-,, either foiji loss of
vitality in the seed, or from the ettects of
the weather, they may be filled up by
transplanting those taken out. which will
grow as well as the comnion cabbage;
but the true turnip,' the white globe or 
ground," says lIir Hiowlson, "1 raise drills
at th    e dis tanc e  of 12      inches fromt ceontse to
centre, in each of which I plac e    a layer
of short dung, closely laid on, on which the
turnip-seed is pretty thickly sown,  and
afterwardscovered with 2 inch of fine miolll(l.
The breadth of the drills at top slhouil(l not
be nmore than 4 inches, so that the earth
and plants may be more completely lifted
together by the spade, when to be tr-anisplant ited.   The tinie of sowving. should be
re,ulated according to tile purposes intended; and as a fall of ground converted
into drills will produce plants sufficient for
tran,splaniting 3 or  4 acres, it is better
always to have a superabiunda.ince.  As to
the best age for taking up, the plants, I
have found no difference in their suiccess
front the time they have got their proper
leaves, until they are 3 or 4 months ohl;
however, those intended to reiimain lo(ng,
should be thlinne(d out in the rows.  I
need scarcely mention, that in dr-y w%-eatlher
they should be carefully watered, wvliicii in
so smnall a space can easily be done. Having, provided a  wheel-barrow, <t garden
spade, and a couple of flower-pot saucers of
a large size, I-with the spade lift up  its
breadth of one of the drills, taking care
that the spade enters below the roots ()f
the plants.   This spadeful is then carefuilly placed in the barrow, and the same
operation is repeated until the quantity of
plants wanted is taken up.  When that if
donie, they are then removed in the barIr()w to the field, where they are transplanted with the implements above nen
his finfer, make a hole which should only
reach to the lung; and then lifting up a
plant by its leaves drop it into the hole,
and with the fingers of both hands press
the earth gently around it.  In  this way
two drills niay be planted at the same
time.  I-is follower with the barrow will
be able to supply himn with prepared plants;
and, from  mlly experience, the two  men
should be able to finish one rood of ground
in the course of the day, if the plants are
,S inches distant fronm each other.   I may
here warn the transplanter against using
plants that have not one or more balls of
ding or earth adhlering to their roots; for
if lie does, the chance of their growing
will  be  very small."  The  advantages
hattenlding  this  mode  of  transplanting
swe(les are stated by Mr Howison to be
three:-" It enal)es the farmer to fill up
the blanks of a tI'rnip or potato field with
Igood plants of swnedes.  It is more certain
of procurilig a crop than  sowing  the
turnips over again- this was exemplified
on the farmii of Green Burnside, Lanarkshlire, in 1839, tenanted  by Mr  James
Cassie, when in October of that year
the cri(p that had escaped the ravages of
the fly was excellent;  the transplanted
tvery good, bult the turnips not so large in
general as the first.  The third advantage
is, that, although sowni on thie same day as
the others were transplanted, none attained
the size of an  egg, which I believe is
always the case with  late-sown  turnips,
although  the result  is difficult to  be
accounted for.  I may, in conclusion, mnen 
THIE CULTURE OF TIIE TURNIP.
tion another advantage, that it is bes                        t
performed in wet weather when all other
field-labour is at a stand.  I consider
rainy and cloudy weather as of the utmost
importance to successful transplanting; and
so much so, that I prefer waiting weeks to
attempting it in sunny and dry weather."*
3272. In England the singling of turnip3s in broadcast costs 6s. the acre, and
the second lhoeing 2s. the acre. In drills
the cost is front 2s. 6d. to 5s. the acre
with hlorse-hoeing: and in taskwork fromn
a halfpenny to one  penny the  100 vards
along a drill; and the second hoeing'from
a half to two-thirds of the singling.
3270. The quantity of work done in
singling turnips varies in different parts of
the country.  In the midland counties of
Scotland it is estimated to take 3 women
to single.1. Scotch acre in a day of 10
hours, and there the long shafted hoes are
in general use, and the women work with
their backs upriglit.  In other parts one
woman will single half an Egis  acre in
a day of 10 hours, and'there short-shafted
hoes are used, and the women work with
bent backs.  One summner I superintended
16 field-vworkers, and they singled about
90  imperial acres in 8 days of 1I0 hours
each, which was equal to 2 roods 32 poles
a-day to ealch worker.  Thiis is above the
average rate of work, but the weather was
exceedingly  fine all the time, the land
mellow and dry, the plants of a proper
age, whether of swedes or of white globes,
and  the women  were  all experienced
hands.  I set one of them, a steady hand,
to lead the band, whom she carried on
like clock-work.  lShe herself preferred to
work with a hoe only 33 inches in length,
which allowed her to bow down to her
work,  which she performed, in consequence, in the most perfect nmanner.  The
hoes of the rest were 36 inches in length.
A rest of 20 minutes was given them at
each niid-yoking.  If the time occupied
in resting   be deducted frot             the 8 days,
the work  done was exactly 3 roods to each
worker every day. To save fatigue in
walking home at the end of the mid-day
yoking, they brought their dinners to
the field, consisting of barley and pease
bread, anal a bottle of milk.  I took my
bottle of milk and loaf of homne-mnade bread
to the field, and einjoyed the repast at the
hedgl,e-root with genuine relish, in as lighthearted company as ever undertook laborious work.
3274. The field-workers  then hoe  t he
ground, by whi ch t hey   remove     the weeds
from between t      e         plant   o the plats, and loosen the
soil immediately   around  them. Each
worker  t ake s one drilln t  t o, ot two, as in the
case of  singlingd, because, hoeing  clos e
together, they can see at once whether
all the ground has been hoed over, which
it should be, whether a weed is seen or
not. The fh og te seing is done  by setting a foot
on  eaulh side of a row of plants, and,
grasping the hoe short, the earth is loosened witlh it around every plant-care being
taken that none of the plants arecuttthrough
by the root under ground with the hoe.
Each worker taking a row of plants betweeni her feet, there is no chance of her
jostling her neighlbour. All plants left
double in the sing,lint are removed by the
hand, and every weed pulled by the hand
which grows too near any plant for the
hoe to remove, and if its removal were
attempted by the hoe, it might cut the
plant through. The hoeing should be begunr before tile weeds become too strong,
though the singling should not be interrupted for the sake of the hoeing.
3275. Wlhen tile hoeing has been  accomplishie(-a and it should be conducted
with nmchll cale —the scuffler, fig. 262, is
againi passed between the rows of plants,
to pare away a little of the ground from the
plants with its curved coulters, while it
undercuts the roots of every weed  that
smay be remaining.  Such a paring  wan
* Plrize Essays of the Highland and 4gricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 513.
69
'3273. After the. plantis have been
singled, the (]rill-grii ber fi 264, is use,.,
5 9.
with a single lj'orse, between the dril,
to level tire lumps Of'soil which have'
been pushed away with the hoe', and to
sliake the clumps of'lants asunder that
I P,
they niay not continue to survive, which
they would, were, they not- separated, if
the weather proved favourable to growth.
32'1. At these rates of work, the singling of turnips in Scotland costs from 2s. to
is. 2d. the acre in the drill systetyi. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
formerly done with the small ploughl, fig.
23(0, when it also bore the name of the
paring-plough.  Requiring to go a bout
between every two rows of plants to pare
away the soil on both sides, it performs
the work slowly, and the scuffler paring
the drills as well, it cleans the middle of
the drills better, at one landing.
numerabl e minute  fibres  interlacine, one
anoth er,  proceeding  fromt the roots of the
turniplns, on both sides,  which had not yet
attained the fortm of a  bulb.  A  similar
appearance  may be  o bser ved When a spider's w eb becomes visible   wit h de w or mist
on a furze b ush. Having      traced these
delicately minute fibres  to  the  roots of
the plants, by means o  f the  dew,  it occurred t  m  to m e  to be  an  error in practice to
work in e   tui     as i he turnip land after the development of tho se fibres, a s there is  no doubt
that these ar e  sent o ut  f   or a special purpos e connected with the growth of the
plants. The setting up should either be
concluded  beforu these fibres  begin to grow,
or be abandoned altogether; and I apprellend more injury will accrue to the
crop from disruption of those fibres than
from want  of          a channel to carry  off  superfluous surface- water from even undrained
land: for, as  t o   drained   ground, such clan-t
nels are of no use, there being no surfacewater to run off, the rain being absorbed
by the soil as fas t  as it falls. The  fibre s are
not to be        seen after the dew has evaporated,
except on  the  most  careful examination o f
the surface of the soil. The same phenomenion may be partially observed amongst
potatoes; but the fibres from their roots
spread more under the immediate surface
of the ground than those from the turnip.
Such is the desire of  most farmers to set
up the drills, that I have seen the double
mould-boardI plouigl-h smashing the leaves
of the potatoes and tu:rnips after they had
completely met across the drills. On rather
strong undrained land it is prudent to set
up turnips with the double mould-board
plough, fig,. 209, in case of the occurrence of a wet autumn, otherwise it is
better to omit the operation.
3276. A  second hoeing, similar to the
first, finishes the manual operations of the
turnip culture.   This hoeing is quickly
performed, as, by this  time,  very  few
plants will have been left double, and the
weeds will have been thoroughly eradicated; and, if not, the weather must have
been unfavourable for their destruction.
Both this hoeing and the first may be at
times retarded by the workers having to
attend at hay-making, as it unfortunately
happens that turnip culture and hay-inakil)g lhanve to be conducted at the same tine.
And  even the singling of the later-sown
t      urnip s  m ay be           retarded by the hay-o.making,. On account of such conflictingv operationts, the ingenuity of the steward is,
at this season, much taxed in arranging
the field-labourers, so as to avoid the least
loss in the condition of the crops respectively requiring immediate attention.
3277. The time has now arrived for
setting up the drills with the double mouildbroad plough, fig. 209.  I am of opinion
that tlhis, in most cases, is an unnecessary  piece of work;  and certainly,         on
dry turnip-soil and on thlorouighi-drained
land, it is so, for two reasons-namely, that
flat ground is the -best forin for sheep
to eat turnips upon in winter; and that,
on  a  considerable  inclination, hollow
drills serve only as channels for surfaeewater to carry away the best of the soil to
the bottom of the inclination. There is,
besides, the objection of setting, lup or workitig in any way amongst turnips after the
leaves are spreading across the drills; and
this objection is founded on afact connected
with the growth of the plant which I shall
inention.  Early one summer morning, I
observed a whiteness, like hoar-frost, betweeii th    e       rows  of young t urnips before
their leaves had met across thie drills.
Knowing from the temperature of the air
thal. the phenomenon could not be hoar-frost,
I examined it particularly, and found that
it arose from the deposition of dew on in
3278. Thle weeds most troublesome in
the turniip-gIround are the common couchgrass,  Triticum  repeis; the wild nustard, Sinapis arvensis; knot grass, _Poly.qonum avicul(ire; wild radish, Ratphanus
raephaciistum, and a few others. Of these
the couclh-(gra-ss is most troublesome while
sing,ling tihe turnips; as, in removing it,
its raiiifyiiig underground shoots, intertwining the young roots of the turnips, fiequently bring awsay the plants with them.
This weed slloull, if possible, be entirely
removed from  the ground before thle turnip seed is sown.  The knot-grass, having
70 
TIlE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
a cluster of small bulbs for its root, when
they are removed a large hole is left in their
place, and several plants may be brough t
away along with them. This weed should
also bereinov ed as completelyas possiblebefore                the crop is sown. The wi niistat-un becomes  troublesome on account  of its great
numbers,  covering  alnost  the surface
of       th   e ground                                                       with its bright yellow
flowters; but  it       is chiefly i n the           r,eigihbourlhioodl      of towns that it ap pears t   o     so great
an extent, fronp the use, it is said, of the
polic    e  manure. When allo    wed               t      o stand so
loni                          as to produce flowers- and it is a
plant which runs very rapidly throuighi its
courses-its sten is difficeil   t         to cut witli the
hlioe;  and if any plant removed by the roots
mIas a    ttachment  to the soil by even a  single
fibre, it will flourish as if it had never been
disturbed.  Appearing only with the crop,
this weed cannot be renioved from the soil
before the l  turni ps are sown.  The wild
radish,       thou   gh not plentiful, is   difficult to
eradicate       by th  e    toughness  of i ts sten, and
tle vitality of its roots. It also only appears
after t    he cr op is above,round.   The   red
shank, Polygonum amphitrum, i               s           difficult
to cut with the hoe. Whatever be the weed,
it should be entirely severed from the
ground.  Weeding cannot be practised ill
s       ingling the crop, as the entire attention
must  be directed to the single plant to be
preserved, although every weed in the way
has a chance to be removed.  Weeding is
professedly practised in hoeing the crop,
and it is in thie first lhoeirng that tile most
effectual manual weeding  is given,  the
second hoeing being chiefly required to stir
thle surface of tile soil around the plants.
The scuffler and drill harrow are powerfill
means of removing the weeds between the
rows of plants.
not a single weed will be teen in spring
when the land is ploujghied up fo r spring
wheat or  barley.   I had a  favourable
opportunity of witnessing, one season, a
corroborationi of whlat I am now recomsmending.  I had a field of 25 acres so foul
of couch-grass, that it was utterly imnpossible to clean it in time.  After removing
the roughest part of the wrack to a coIipost, the land was dunged and sown with
white globe turnips,  anid the result was
precisely what I have stated above.   I
may  mention  that  the turnip sowingmachine, which has movable coulters and
handles, is the best adapted for sowing
foul land, the coulters passing over the
larger masses of weeds instead of displacing
them.
3281. From (383) to (433) I have
given a list of plants regarded as weeds
that infest the different kinds of soils, and
wlicil indicate to a certainty the nature
of the soil upon whllich they grow.   Suchi
of those plants as are grasses, and occtir as a constituent of natural pasture,
are useful, an(]  should be  encouraged;
but wherever they occur  in  cultivated
arable soil, they are doubtless weeds and
should be eradicated.  What seeiis to me
a good definition of a weed is-whlen any
plant is found growingr whiere it siould not
be, it is a weed. For example, a stalk of
whleat in a bed of tulips in a gaiden is a
weed, and * outl  be removed, ani(l. in like
mariner, a tulips il a wheat field is a weed,
andl sh,ulhi be eradicated. Whien you consider the number of the plants  mentioned
in thie paragraphs above referred to,-and
the number is not intended  to include all
that occurs as weeds in the fields, but only
as those decidedly indicative of tile nature
of the soil upon  which  they respectively
3279. The land should be made quite
clean before sowing the turnip crop; but
whien it has been allowed to run excessively foul to weeds, rather than be too
late in sowing the crop by cleaning t          il  e
land, and rendering it too fine, that is,
deaf, (856,) sowthe crop in itspropertime;
and provided thle weeds, chiefly the coiuchgrass, can be kept down by the horse and
hland hloe, until the luxuriance of the leaves
cover the drills, the weeds will be smothlered under them and rot, and serve partly
to support the crop; and after the turnips
have been eaten off by the sheep in wsinter, 
71
3280. In conclusion of the turnip culture, after all the manual operations of it
are finished, the surface between the rows
of turnips should be levelled with the drillgrubber, fig. 264.  This ope Iration should
be concluded some time in August, and,
at all events, before the comnieiicement
of harvest, let that be ever so early. The
crop requires no farther attention, until
the sea.son ari-ives for pulling -tnd storing
the turi)ips at the comnieiieenieut of winter, and there I have fully explained from
(808) to (834.) 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
culture of the turnip have been finished,
andr while  the leaves of the plants are
expanding, and especially if there appear
anything like a cessation in their growth,
it is of importance,  in the first cloudy
or  imoist weather-and if such do  not
occur, dewy  miiornings and  eveningsto administer  a slight sprinkling,  by
ehand, of guano around each plant,  fromni
ta  to  2 cwt. to the acre.   The woanen
workers, pbovide(d wvith coarse  aprons,
will  do this well by the  hand, and an
apron will  contain  as  much  as  will
suffice for a long drill, going and coming to
the  lheadridge, where the cart with  the
guano should be.   Let  the women each
take a drill, and then no drill or plant will
be m-iissed, nor any one receive mnore than
its due allowance of the manure.
grow, and when you consider that they                all
a       re reeds in cultiv ated   fields, in the sense
of  th e       abov e definition,-you may imagine
h       ow act ively the farmer should be employ ed in extirpatingt          he  a     so    them in        the season they
present thems elv es i       n th e greates          t        activity.
The  entir     e  n um  ber of them do not make
their  appearance  simultaneously, since
each has its season   of efflorescence and na turity; an d were  o ne allowe  d to irdow,
until  another was ready                             to be removed,
such is the vigour of g.rowtlh in wild plants,
that thte former would sledf its seeds and
soon occupy the ground to the exclusion
of thecultivated plants. The farmer should
allow them,no such indulgence,  and their
intrusive tendencies should be checked
betimes.  Par tly for this purpose   the l    a nd
is plough ed bef      ore   winter, that the roots
and        seeds of     w e      eds may be         directly destroyed by frost and exposure? and esue  a indirectly
by other natural atmosphlerical agents  comminutirng the soil, so as  to render their
mechanical  remov al by       th e r oots cor nparative]y easy. By perseverance, it is quite
possible for the far mer                    to get quit of every
weed  which propagates  itself by the root,
althougrh  it is impossible to prevent weeds
appearing among his crops which  originate from seed, many of which are brought
from a distance by the wind; and it is quite
possible, even as regards these, to prevent
their maturitng  the flower and seed. In
summer, weeeds thrive in th        e         greatest l70xuriance,  and sutmm er ought to be the season
for the farmer to employ his most active
means for their        de          struction.             A principle
affect       s the vitality of weeds, which should
never be lost sight          of i n attwiemp ting their
d estruction; and he who                 practises it                           a rill
inf allibly p   revent thteir cofi, iin to matur ity.
It is a ws ell-knowti law of vegetation, that
the  elaborati         on of the sap is effected  ty theye
leaves of a plant, and it is the elaborated
sap which enables it to sustain its existence. ~ By preventing the develop!lent of
the leaves, and consequently the elabora —
tion of the sap, the life. of the plant will
be sacrificed. The simple plan, therefore,
of destroying all sorts of weeds, is to deprive them of their leaves as soon as they
appear.
3283. The turnip belongs to the order Tetradynatnia Siliquosa of Liiinnus; to the nattural
order of CruciJeirce in the system of Jussieu, f~rom
tile crticiate formil of its petals; and to the Hypoqynous Exoxens —alliance  27,  Cistalis-order
123, Brassicacem-edivision 3, Orthoploceav-subdivision Brassicidim-genus  Brassica, of  the
natural system of Lindley.
In the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere        205
In all the tropics (and chiefly in the mountainous
tegions)                                             30
In the temperate (of the northern hemisphere, 548 ) 63~
zone          { of the southern hemisphere   86.6
According to Humboldt's statistics of the principal famiiliies of plants, it would  also appear that
the crucifers have the maximum of their species
iii the temperate zone, and decrease as well  toward thile eqiatoir  as toward         the poles.  They
are altto.t unknown in the torrid zone, if we
loisiidetr the mountain regions between  7,6io and
10,870 feet in hleight, where these plants scarcely
form one eigit-]iiuiidredth of all the phantgasoutes planits.  In the temperate zone their quotienit in Europe is onie-eighlteenith; in America
only  one-sixtieth; in  the  frigid  zone  onetwe.Aty-fourth.  The s  ca rcity of this  family in
the temlperate zone of America is a remarkable
circuminstanice. Schouw, in his botanical division'
of the globe into 25 phyto-geograplhical regions,
places the crucifers ill the second, wherein they
extend over northern Europe and Asia from the
southern limits of the first region to the Pyrenees,
the Alps, the Balkan mountains, the Caucasus,
and the Altai, within the mean temperature of
36~ to 57~?1
3282. Afte r al l the manual an-d implemental operations in connexion with the
* Johnston's Physical Atlas-Phytology, Map No. 1.
72
3284. Cruci rcv.-Tlie are a very
.fe crucifers
natural and iniportaiit family of plants, and, if we
regard their geographical distribution, we shall
see that the temperate zone is their favoured
region, according to De Candolle: 
TIIE CULI,TURE OF TtIE TURNIP.
'nips'bears the same proportion to the respective
distatices of the butlbs in the drill, so as to imake
the waste of seed in each 27 to 1.  It nmust not be
supposed, from these results, that 1 oz. 6 drachms
troy of turnip seeil will suffice to sow an  acre,
for many of the seeds  may want vitality,  anid
manly  others, in sowing, are  no  doubt  buried
too deep to vegetate with the rest.  Abundance
of turnip-seed iiot only secures a full braird, and
tends to draw  the plant quickly to a state for
being  singled, but  quickness, combined  with
abubidance, of growth, is the best  safeguard
against the inijurious attacks of itnsects.
3285. "The universal character of crucifers,"
says Lindley, "is to possess anitiscorbutic  anid
stimlulant                                    qualities, combined with au acrid
flav our.   The officieal species                 e are  among  t he
commonest of all planits, and onily require to be
namted.  They a  re  found to con tain  a great deal
of nitrogen, to  whichl it is supposed is due   their
aeixnal odour w          hen   rotting.... When tihe
acrid flrovour   is disper      sed among an ab2,uldaulce
of rmucilage, various parts  of th ese plants becp,me
a wholesome food, such as the root of the radish
and the turlip,the her bage of th          e  water-cress, thle
cabbage, and the sea-kale. According to Muiller,
the  water-cress contain s iodine.  Sulpehur  exists
in the oils of mustar         d  and  horse-rladisle to the
extent of about 30 per cent. The oil from thleir
seeds is one of their more important products.
That from rape is iu very general use, and the
residue, rich in nitrogen, is largely employed by
the farmner as manure or cattle-food, under thle
name of oil-cake," (rape-cake it should be, oil-cake
being obtailned from linseed.) " Another of the oil
plants is Camelina sativa, or gold of pleasure;
but its cake is said to be too acrid for cattle:
brooms are made from the dry liaulm."*
2390. 7'Trnip'lea-beetle.-The  inse ct  which
first infests  thae tier,iip-plant, and  attacks  its
seed-leaves, is  the turnip flea-beetle, alatica
Fieiorum, fig. 2687 usually,
Fig. 268.    though improperly, desig                    rteated the  ture iip-fly, which
one<v          ~is a  very different so rt  of
insect.  The flea-beetle is a
theg rcoleopterous or hard-.shell       -
prtly pend insect, capable of eith e r
fields.  bpenetrating the  ground    or
apex] F o     f be ari ng a   co nsiderable
3287  "The  common  tup ressure.  "1 It is a   small
insect," says  Mr Duncan,
" scarcely  o,ie-eiglhth  of
rape, hav inch  in length. It is
hUarI   FLEA -BEu  TLe  cmootul, shlining, and o f a
-tesAITICA NEroRU-i. brassy black  colour, with
a  slighrt  tinge  o f green,
particularly on  the  windg-cases; the abdtenaue
black, with     i t he second   and third  joifts, anpl the
apex of the  first, of' a pale colour.  Tlhe  thorax
is coiive x above, aie    bnd   p  rrettydeeply punclured;
the  wils-cases  are mubh  ider than th e   thorax,
likewise  thickly arTd irregu larly  pun cture d, ebaci
o' them wits   a pale  yellow or slightly  sulphurcolou ire d.t rpe lltt    t ila g  along  the middle, curved
i,r nwarb(s f)Jrsteriorgy, led  iot reaching quit e to
t     yle extremity; the ua der  side of tlle body and
t38iThlis blwack;.ill the tibiae and  tarsi of  a pale
hle.,.This little ib..ect teedis o  o  the  turiip,s
wlii(8h  it attg,cks botl  il its  perfect  a nd l arva
sta;,e.   NVWie, thle iplanits have  acquired  s(,ine
degree otf sty  egtlh, a nd the t  oliage is considerably
deNel.,)ped, tile intjuiry done by it is insignificant;
btit uoitfirttit c wtely a it s  favourte f ood  is the   young
lanit, jilst s it  is begiiningh to unfold i ts  cotyledloni lea,ves. Tlhese it consumes with the utmost
avidity, both s  a s a la rva and full-grown i nsect;
and wl10eif it aboutgdos, the field is often wholly
st ripped of its crop if   a ve ry  short  time.  Indeed their powers a,f msastication are  surpri sing
for  creatures of such sitall size. An in dividual
who coinfited a few, for the purpose o   of observi ng
ttheir labits, four g d t hat th e y con l sunied l10 young
tuirniip-plants every day. This may serve to give
an1 idea of the extent of their devastations when
their  numbers  becomtie  excessive. They are
f,ouind to attack the turnip plants as soon as the
latter imale their appearance; and one of the
difficult poiots- to determine is, how they   are
produced so speedily  and so opportunely.  In
regard to the turnip saw-fly, and lepidopterous
3287. "The co   mmon tcrnip is the  BriassCta
rapa, having the radical leaves lyrate, destitute
of glaucous bloom, green, covered with briLtly
hairs, middle cauliine ones cut, ulpper ones eiitire, smooth.   Native  tliroughouit  Europe    m
cultivated fields, and their borders."t
* Lindley's Vea. table Kitnqdon, p. 353.
t Do,ii's General Systemn of Botany aind Gal-deni,,y, vol. i. p. 242-5.
73
3286. The Swedish ttiriiip is nanied by botan.ists Brassica campestris, rutabag(t, and its -,pecifie characters are, according to Doti, " leaves
rather fleshy, covered with glaucous blooin; first
ones rather hispid or ciliated, lyrate, tootlied;
the rest cordate, stem clasping, acuinii)ated,
partly pennatifid; is a native of Britain, La,pland, Spain, Traiisylvaiiia, and iii the Criiiiea iii
fiialds.
3288. After a gravelly knoll of about',O feet
in height had been cut through, in forinii)g the.
railway from Bell,ast to Li.,2bui-n, I observed a
large number of wild turnil.) plants growiitg on
the sides of the embankment, formed by wheeling
the gravel from  the knoll.  The leaves of all
the plants were beautifully expanded, of a dark
green_ colour, and quite healthy, but not e veii the
rudiment of a bulb was forwiiig.
3289. The waste of tiiriiip-seed, by the time
the turnips are singled, is surprising. Froiii 2-L
lb. to 3 lb. of seed is sown iii the acre, and as iii
(877) 25,813 plants of white globes at 9 inches
apart; 23,232 of yellows, at 10 inches apart; and
19,360 of swedes, at 12 inches apart, can grow oii
an acre on drills at 27 inches aunder; and as
1387 seeds of swedes, 1645 of purple tol-, yellows,
and 1800 of white globes, weigh one draclini, it
follows that I oz. 6 dracliiiis of seed of troy, or
I I draclims of avoirdupois weight, are sufficient
for the above crops; so that the waste in turriipseed is as 27 to I' It is a remarkable fact that
the respective weight of the seed of those tur 
PRACTICE —SU1MMER.
insects, the process is obvious, the eggs being
laid upon the plant by the parent fly, and the
larv,a  evolved more or less speedily, but after
the lapse of some considerable time.   The ap pearance of the plant and insect being ill the
present case almost simultaneous, it has been
thought difficult to conceive how the same pro cess should be gone thlirough."*  Various conjec tures hlave been formed to account for the early
appearance of this insect oni the turip-lilaut.
" But these conjectures," coutiiues Mr Duncan,l
"may now be referred to merely as matters coii iiected with  the past history of this insect, and
as showing the difficulty that has been expe rier,ced in  tracing it throughout  its different
forms  and  changes.  This, however, has been
recently done by Mr H. Le Keutx, ad we are no
l,ioger in doubt  as to the points alluded  to.
This observer founid that the sexes pair frnom st
April to Septenmber, (luring which  period  the
eggs are deposited on the uiider sidle of the rough
leaves of the turnip.  The femiale inisect appareitly does not lay above one egg daily-iii a
week, tei pair were found to lay only forty-three
eggs.  These eggs are very minute, smooth, and
partaking of the colour of the leaf.  Tihey are
hatched in ten days, and the maggots, fig. 269, aii 
Fig. 269.        eighth ot' al inch iong, are
pale, fleshy, and cylitidri;'+~~..':~.3_.~ ~    cal, with six pectoral feet,
the eyes dark, and a dark
LARVA OF THE FLEA- patch on the first and last
BEETLE.    segments of the boly; irn                       *mediately ea t through the
lower skin or cuticle of the leaf, and form winding
burrows among the pulp, upoii which they feed.
The thickuess of the leaf is sufficient to afford
them ample scope for this, and they may be seeii
at work in their galleries by holdiing the leaf up
to the light.  These mnaggots or larvae are fullfed in 16 days, when they bury themselves in the
earth  not quite 2 inches  below  the surface,
selecti,g a spot near the bulb, where the tturiupleaves protect tlheii front wet anll drought.  They
enter upton their chlrysalid state in thi earth, and
the beetle emerges in about a f)rtiight.  About
thirty days carry the insect through all its diffeireit sta.ges; and of these, ten are passed iii tihe
egg, state, six as a maggot, aind foiirteeii i  tihe
clrys alis.  There appear to               be 5 or 6  broods ii
tile season"."t
3292. The remedies a gainst the  attack  s o f this
insect are,  I   f ear, of a hopeless character; at
least, it  i s  better  to prevent the ir a ppearance
thtean   wage war agai nst the m      when they do appear, as, even  in the  efforts t o e ffect their destructioII,e d r,    the frm er    i s the  chief sufferer.  The  pre,renti-ve measures seem to be to keep the land in
as clean a state  as possible of all weeds,  and
especially of  those of  the  cruciferous kind, such
as wild  mustard  and  clharlock, which are the
special ftv,)tirites of this beetle; to sow the turniips il drills instead of broad-cast; but whether
it is this difference in the culture of the crop
which makes it less vulnerable, I do  not know
although the attacks of the turnip insects, being
less fiequent il S(cotlanid than in England, would
lead the  mind to such a conclusion; to sow the
seed thick an.d of the same age, for it is found
that the more rapidly the plants grow at first,
they are the less often attacked; to put the seed
for some time before it is sown amongst flour of
sulphur, anldi sow the sulphur amongst it.  The
late Air Airth informed me, that when he farmed
the Mainis of Dun, Forfarshire, his young turnip
crops were often very much affected, and even
destroyed, by these insects, but after using the
sulphur, he never suffered loss —though his neighbouirs didi, who would not use the same tprecautionf'or the eighteen years he possessed the farm.
It may be that the juices of the plant are so
affected by the sulphur as to cause disrelish for
it, while the disagreeable odour arising from the
sulphur strewed in the soil  may drive  the insect
away.   The sulphur  was found in no degree  to
ijture the vegetative powers either of seed or of
plant.  Being  a simple preventive, it is worth
tryiig by those whose crops are usually affected
by insects.
3293. As a remedial measure, a long-haired
heairtlh-bruish swvitchled along  the drills by fieldwo)rkers would cause the insects to fall from the
plaijts better than any board or net; and if quicklime were strewed iiniiiediately uponi the plants,
as recotiineulded from  the experielnce  of 102
practit,al faritiers of the Doncaster Agricultural
Associatioii, their destruction would likely  be
more certain.+
3-291. In the case of those insects which  feed
on the foliage of plants in their larva- state, and
afterwards derive their aliment froin other substauces, the general law seems to be, that a iimuch
longer d(irationi is assigned to the larva than to
the perfect insect; and it nmay be that  this is
iot observed in regard to such as always coiisonme  vegetal)ies, because  in  either  of these
conditions they serve the same pturio-es in the
ec,ronoty  of  nature, to whlich  the  prolonged
existence of the larva  bears  referetnce  ill the
* Qetai-te7.q Journal of Ayriculture, vol. viii. p. 353.
t Transactions of the ltiiomlto:icoil Society,f London, vol. ii. p. 24.
++  Rep,rt of thie Doncaster Ay:ricalteral A4ssoci,ttiosi on  ithe 7'rnip-g/, 1834.  A  filler account of
the  laltica wemorum, by  Mr Curtis, will be  fbuiid it tile Journal  of the Enylih Ayriculturat
Society, vol. ii., p. 193-213.
74
other instance. Parallel examples are of freqtietit oceurreiice arnoiigst insects. Unless the
eg,s of the cominoti flesit-fly were hatched with
c
,xtreine i-a,l)idity, the larv;e, when they appear,
would neither obtain their food in perfection,
nor fulfil ttie useful purposes for which they are
now subservient.
3294. Turitip.9-g.-Tlie insect wliieb comit its the greatest rava,es oii the ttiriiip crop,
after the otie ji.ist described, is t,be turiiip sawflv, -4thalia. -,pinai-uiii,, fig. 270. It belongs
to tl)e order fivriieii,)Ptera.,Iiavii-i,-, 4 -nie.-iibraious
wiiigs, and it is denominated a saw-fly froiii the 
THIE CULTURE OF TIlE TURNIP.
u.. and appearance of the instrumenet with which
it deposits its eggs.  It is placed at the extremity of the abdomen of the temtale oil the unider
side: and is so constructed, that it combines the
Fig. 270.
several times, and most of these moultings are
attended with a slight change  in the  colour.,
After casting their last skin, they are of a dark
lead or slate-gray colour, paler beneath.  Mr
Curtis states that  they are sometimes green, a
colour which we  never saw them assume, for in
general they are not liable to much variation in
this respect. Like most of the other larve of
their tribe, when touched, or in any way disturbed, they coil themselves up, and remain motionless... When  full grown,  the larki
cease to eat, and allow themselves to drop from
the plant that nourished them to the ground, in
which they usually bury themselves, or they take
shelter armotig rotten leaves, moss, &c. - When
examined after a short time, they are found to
be coiilpletely encl,,sel  iii a cocoon, composed of
twoi distinct layers of silk.   The inner layer is of
a fitle satilly lustre, and wlihenii the cocoon is
opened, it aIppears as if it had been washed with a
solution of silver.  When the fly is fully matured,
it makes its exit by guawilng with its mandibles
a tlhe ill one  end.  The larva e   are known ip differeiit parts of the country by the names of blas,
caterpillar, blacks, riggqers, canker, &c.
ITHE TlURNIP SAW-PFLY-ATHALIA SPINARUM.
properties of a saw and auger. It is distiuguished by  the following characters:-" He,-d
wider than long; deep black, with three oc(,elli
in the cenitre; eyes oval; anteninia blaclk above,
and  for the  most part dull yellow  beneath;
labruin and puilpi, light yellow;  tihorax, black
above, with a trianiguilar space iii froit; the scutellumn and a spot behlilnd it, reddish oranige; the
collar, which is rather long and sled(ler, black on
the sides, and yeilow ill the middle; abdomen
rather short, entirely orange-yellow, inicliinig to
red, with a sinmall black spot onl each side of tihe
first segment; legs likewise (raiIge-yellow, the
tarsi paler, approachiig to whiti.li; the tip of
the tibia, aid of ea(h of the tarsal joints, bla(k;
the tibiae with two spiles at tile apex, and the
joints of the tarsus each with a very slender lobe
beneath; extremiity  of the ovipositor, black;
wings yellowish at the base; the costa and stigima
black.  Leiigthli, 3 to 31 liines, excli:-ive of the
anteiiiiiae.  Antesnna, short, aid somewhiat clubshliped, 9 or 10 jointed il the tiale, but generally
with tile a p)pearauee of 11 joilits in tile femiale,
the radical joint slightly thiikeiied at tile extremity, the second shorter and ovate, the third, as
lobg, or luiger, than any two of thle other joints
taken together, the reindiudzer decreasing s,l,ewhat ill lengthi to the terminial one, which is large
and ovate.
3296. " The loss they occasion to farmers is very
considerable, but data cannot be easily obtained
to form an estimate of its amount.  In somie instances the crop is wholly destroyed, and where
the caterpillars are    most numerous,   the injury
they occasion to the  plant  a ppears in the  diminiished size of the bulb, its vegetative functions
being imple(led by the partial consumption of the
leaves. A belief at one timie pretty generally
prevailed that they did not attack the Swedish
turnip), and they certainly seem less partial to
that pl)aiit- f)r, examining a field in which swedes
alternated with the ordinary kind, the caterpillar
was found iiiiuch less plentiful in the former, and
ill iiiany places (lid not appear at all. The late
Ea rl of Leicester, however, lost in 1836 upwards
of 200 acres of swedes by them, and that plant
by no mean,s escaped in other parts of the  counItry.  Thiey are sai-l to have attacked the mangold
wurzel, but this seems not at all probable." My
own tuirnip)s never suffered  fromn insects but in
onie seasonj, wleieu the swedes were partially attacke(d by this s.atw-fly after they were singled.
Theo leaves were eaten to the stem, and the crop
seenile~d as if it would be lost, but it recovered and
produced a fair one after all.
3295. " The flies which appear ils the early part
of sumImer, anid deposit their eggs oii the youniig
turnip plants, have probably survived the winter
nuider ground iii the pupal state, enveloped iii
their cocoon.  Emer,gitg from them as soon as
the milder weather is confirmed, iii their wi,ged
state, the females immediately lay their eggs,
after which they very soon die.  The eggs appear for the most part to be placed round the
outer margin of the rouga leaves.  Iii favourable
weather they are hatched iii a short time, aud t
the yoiiing larvae immediately commence their
attack ot the plant.  At first these larvae are of
a deep black coloutr, aud, of course, smnall size;
but they grow ra)pidly, ad iii the coiir.e otf a few
weeks  attain their full dinmeisions.   In  the
course of their growth, they change their skini
* Curtis's British E,itoiology, vol. xiii. folio 617
11
I
321-97. " Unfortunately," adds Mr Duncan, 11 it
i,i iiioi,e eay to describe their depredations than
to suggest an efficient reinedyofeasy application.
A distinguished delineator of insects, who has
published a beautiful figureuf the fly, expresses
his belief that it is not difficult to destroy tliein,
' for if they were brushed off the leaves, it seeing
they are unable to crawl upon the ground and
recover their station; they consequently perish
unless they are full-growii at the tiiiie; but. as
there is a constant succession from August till
near Noveiiiber, the operation of drawing a.
litirdle or board over the turnips ought to be repeated at intervals during that period.'* Of 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
abdominal  portion of the body is thus left at
liberty, and it is either borne curved inwards, as
ill the gooseberry saw-fly, Nematus grossulariw,
or projects into the air in variousvly-contorted
and singular postures, as is remarkably the case
with  the willow saw-fly, Netnatus capreo, and
the larvse  of Ilylotomna rosce, the rose saw-fly,
which  has the extremity of its body almost  al awatys raised and curved in the form of the letter
S.  Additional distinctive characters might  be
thertiouned-such as the form of the eyes, which
are pretty large in the false caterpillars, and
placed one in each side of the head; while in true
caterpillars they  are  small,  almost  invisible
points, disposed it) a circle.  These peculiarities
will suffice to distinguish the two tribes, and it
is of importance to be able to do so, as they are
often associated to,gether in the work of destructioii.  The body of false caterpillars is generally
composed of 12 segments,  but the incisures are
distinctly defined, and liable to be confounded
with the transverse wrinkles which thickly cover
the whole surface.  Many of them  are marked
with  bright and varied  colours, but the  niajority are of one colour. In this respect they
often undergo  a remarkable change after they
have  cast their last skin, the colour becoming
entirely unlike what it was before, so that it is
impossible to  recognise  the same  individual.
Thlis change, indeed, extends even farther than
to colour, for such  kinds as are furnished with
tiibsrcles or sluiies in their earlier stages, lose
th eml at their last imioult, and become smooth;
that of the gooseberry species, Nenematus grossuislrit, for example, loses  the black tubercles,
whlich made the surface appear as if chagreened.
Like the flies which  they produce, these larvae
are sluggish and inactive, seldom moving from
the place where they fix themselves, unless when
requiring anzi additional supply of food. When
not engaged in feeding, or when apprehensive of
danger,  most  of them roll themselves into a
circle, sometimes with the tail elevated in the
centre. The greater number lie exposed on the
foliage of plants, but others take up their abode
il the interior of the slender shoots, and feed
on the immature  pithl; others lodge in the  iiiterior of fruit, and cause it speedily to decay.
course,               i                 ethis method can be effectucal onlyo on the
supposition that the caterl, ll:r is unable to
crawl; it might have been presumed, however,
that it did not receive such a complement of legs
]nerely as a matter of form, and accordingly the
slightest observation shows that it canii move
about with facility." *  Rain wvill destroy the
caterpillars; ducks are very fond of them. I
have often thought that women and boys might
be employed to whisk them off the plants, and
though they would not thereby  be destroyed,
they would be much annoyed,and,duiring the time
the aninoyanices were repeated, the (rop might
advance as falr as to escape serious injury. The
most effectuial destruction would be that of the
fly itself before it lays its eggs.  It is very sluggish in its flight, does not fly far at a time, and
slay be easily caught by hand, or with all enitomolog,ist's net. Swallows are useful assistants in
capturing these flies. Each fly so destroyed
would prevent the coming into life of fromt 250 to
300 caterpillars. It has been ascertained that a
boy of tell years of age can gather 130 caterpillars ili an hour; and a troop of young ducks, preceded by a boy or girl to switch them to the
ground, would destroy them in great numbers.
Young fowls are also efficacious, but old ducks
and old fowls do not work well.
3298. 0aterpillars.-As the term caterpillar is
so frequently used il reference to insects, it is
right to b       e able t   o distinguish betaween true and
ifalse caterp    il lars.  Th e  larva  o f the saw-fly are
called oratse  caterpillars, from the general resemblatce thi y b        ea r to the larvue      of     butterflies
awid moths,        to which   the n am e        of    caterpillar is
properly applied.  A very slight exrmiuination,
however, soon shows decided marks of distiniction. Caterpillars, properly so called, have never
nmoire than 16 feet, while the larvge of sawflies
have generally from 18 to 22; a few have only 6
-a cirtcumstance which again distinguishes them
from true cate            rpillars,            in which the number  of
these  organs is nev       er     below 10.  An                    other mark
of            distinction is afforded by the structure of the
feet.  In lepidopterous larvae, the abdominal legs
are surmop  unted  by a         corone t  o f      small hooks,
which is never f        ound to be               th  e ase in those of
false   caterpillars,           t          e as     they are simple mammiform
protuberances. This minute difference, which
can only be detected               by the microscope, has,
however, a material influence over                           their habits,
and often enables us to distinguish between the
respective  kinds at  f     irst sight. Th e  coron et of
hook     s  c onv ert s  t he membranous or abdominal
leg    s     of   caterpillars  into efficient instru;ments of
prehension, and they accordingly          fix their body
by means of them to the place of position, while
the head and anterior part remain free. The
abdominal legs of the others, on the contrary, ale
mere points of support, incapable of clinging to
an object, and the larvm consequently fixes itself
by its pectoral or fore-legs, which are  much
developed for the purpose.  The whole of the
* Quarterly Journal of AJ4riculture, vol. vii. p. 562-566. Othler a,ecount.s of this insect will be found
in Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Ent Nmoloioy, vol. i. p. 186; Journal of the Royal English
Agricultural Society, vol. ii. p. 364-389; Newport's Observations on the Turnip Saw-Jfy; and ia
Newman's Letters of Rusticus-On Blight, p. 99.
76
3299. 7u,,i,n,)'p treeviti.-A very small weevil,
sc.-treely   ),,e iii le))gtli, of a uniform black
colotir, sl iglitly tinted with metallic blue oi) the
elyti-        tl)e   la,tter with    plin I Itred lines, the
Ce.t,-i-ohyn,citu.q coi?tractus, is foiijid occasionally
associated %,,,itli ttie ttirnip flea-beetle, I-Ialtic(t nemioi-uitt, fee(ling oii, the young leaves of
tl)at plaiit, This species does also good by
attacking tbi,t I)e.tileyit weed, the wild mustard,
Aiiotlierspecies,C(uteroltynchus
p(,Ilinai-i?is, attacks tl)e little, Urlica dioic"' I
.tr(,iibl,e.,,otyie weed iiear buildings; atid a. third,
(,'eittei-ohyliel,iis                                    the knobs on
the r.,ots ot'ilie wil(i rzt(ii.-Ii.Ralhanus rat'hatits      oiie of the most troublesome weed.,i wbich, 
THE CULTULRE OF THE TURNIP.
infest  cultivated  fielhls, particularly  thlose  ii   v,.res light brown; tips of the  thighs, shanks,
which the turnip is cultivated.                                               F.
Fig. 271I.
3300. Alphides.-That multitudinous tribe of
insects, named the  -Il)his or planiit-louse, seiids a
few of their inulnber to attack the turip crop,
and their attacks are chiefly directed against the
Swedish tui nip. Mr Cur tis says that there are 3 if
not 4 species of aphides  lwhiclh live Iupoi  the
turnip; one hlie has fbund under the rongh leaves
of the English varieties, as well as one which lie
believes to be distiiict, another appears to be
attached to the swedes, anrd the last is sec reted
amongst the flower stalks.  I cannot enter fully
upon this extensive and interesting subject, and
must refer you to Mr Curtis' paper.*  I slialll
only add a few words descriptive of the niatulre
and peculiarities of that very curious tribe of
insects, the aphides, from another author: "As
alnmost every animal has its peculiar louse, so has
almost every plant its peculiar plant louse; and,
next to locusts, these are the greatest enemnies oft
the vegetable world, and, like them, are  so aliamrerous as to darken the air.  The multiplication
of these little creatures is infinite, atnd ahnost
iiicredible.  Providence has eudued them with
privileges  for promoting fecundity, which  no
other insects possess: at one time of the year
they are viviparous, at another oviparous; adild
what is most remarkable and without parallel,
the sexual intercourse of one original pair serves
for all the generations which proceed fromi the
female for a whole succeeding year.  Reaumnur
has proved, that in 5 generations, one aptils may
be the progenitor of 5,904,000,000 desceudants;
and it is supposed that in oue year there may be
20 generations."  Bonnuet says there may be 30.
' This astonishing fecundity exceeds that of any
known animal, and we cannot wonder that a
creature so prolific should be proportionably iiijutrions: some soecies, however, seen, to be more
so than others.  Those that attack wheat, oats,
and barley, of which there are more kinds thani
onle, seldom multiply so fast as to be very nloxious
to those plants; while those which attack ptilse
spread so rapidly, and take su(hIi entire possession,
that the crop is greatly iijuredl, aund  sometimes
destroyed by them."    Mr Walker enumerates
6 different states of the aplis —willged oviparois 
female, wiiigless oviparous femial,; winged viviparous t'eniale, wiigless vivipa rous  emale; winged male, aud wingless n.ale. I'lThe wingless feliiiale
is the parent of the winged feytlales; the wiiiged
feniale is generally ovil,arons, while the wingless
female is generally viviparous.  An oviparousT
inldividual iieier becomes viviparous, nor a viviparous one oviparous.+
WVINGE,D MALE OF TIE  COMMON- TURNIP PLANT              LOUSE-APHIS RA PE.
feet, and] claws, black. Abundant beneath the
leaves of the comnioni turnip the whole of July,
Fig. 272. &c.  It is  at once
distinguished  from
the other species by
its long tubes and
sma1l apical cells of
the wings.  The'cross                            ed lines below repre
sent the na-tura  size
of the body  and of
the expanse  of tle
wings.  Fig.  272 is
the  female  of  the
;sanme species  magni WVINGI,ESS FEMALE OF THE fled. It  is  bright
COMSION TURNIP I'LANT- green, shlagreened   LOUSE-A PHIS RAP,'.   horns fiscous, except
at the base; eyes, tips of shanks and feet, black.
The  smiall figure  on  the left represents  the
apllis of the natural size, and  the figure below
represents one of the natural size just excluded.
V\t~.'.N'-D MAL,E OF THE SAVEDE PI,ANT'-LOUjSR —
APIIIS BRnAS.SICL..
planlts, the:Iphis bassicc,  manified, the lines
ltelow representing thle natural size of body andexl,al)ne of wiiigs.  Generally pea-green; horns
setaceous, longish and black, as well as the head,
collar, and disc of thorax; several blackish bands
iiiore or less perfect across the body; tubes short
and stoutish, black at the base; wings irredesceut,
stigmna p wa le  green; nervures strong,   piceolir,
apical cell large, and the first furcate one wider
3301. Fih. 271 represents the winged miale of
the common turniip planit-louse, iphis r apce, magnified. Its characters are ochraceous, hornis moderately long, setacious, two first joitits black, third
ochraceous at the base; head blackish; collar
ochraceous and brown, disc of shining black;
abdo.nen greenish; wings irredeseent, the ner
* Journal of the Enqlish Aggricultural Society, vol. iii. p. 49-56.
t Kirby aud Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol. i. p. 174.
+ Newiuan's Letters of Fvsticus- On Blight, p. 68.
77
I f i
3302. Fig. 2i3 is the winged itiale of the aphis.
wl.icli iiif'ests the Swedish tiiriiip and ci'6ba',,,ie
lig. 2t-3., 
PRA,-CTIC;' —SUMIMER.
than the species above; legs black, base of thighs
green.  Fig.  274 is the femilale of' the species.
Fig.27a4.     bSlightly       aoiewly; ge                              nerally of a yelloav             and blac,         er green tlialo the
greenish    Thesmall igu le; thlird jrwint of
sents  a           the anitetine  ocih           as my  o aio        raced)ses, following
black; eyes two, two
/w s he s e   os    lar ge  spots on the
crown, anid oij on
und,_  52       ~each side of the  col                              lar, black; abdo                denselymen very larThe anld
heavy; spiracles, se              mae w n  ll      veral dots aupon tr he
back, and a few
WINGLESS FEMAtl,E OF THE  t raysverse   streaks
t WhDa,   PLiarNT-rOUSE- nibeyond the middle,
AramI BRASSIC^a.        *
fgs  frmin black; tibia short
and black, a.s well a s the legs; base   of  thighs
greenish.  The small figure on -the left represents  this apldis  of t      he n atural size.  "As far
as my observation goes," sa         ys Mr Curtis, "the
swedes have suffered most froln the aphides; the
under sides of the curled       leaves be ing sometime                       s
densely covered  with  them of all sizes.  The old
wingless  females  are seen resting in August,
Septem a        d ober, and Oc tob er, surroNunded by their
young broods, with h ere           and   ther   e a winged
male walking lazily over his kindred. The leaves
are frequently, at the same time, gray with iiiildew; but that is a distinct disease.  It is said
that, in a very dry autumn, early sowII turnips
seldom escape the mildew, which is a species of
fungus forming a whitish powder over the
leaves, and readily brushing off. Tthe leaves thus
affected soon become yellow, dry, and brittle;
and, at an early stage, this disease seems to elicourage the aphides, owing  to the plants  not
being healthy and able to resist such attacks.
I may observe that  I have  seen myriadis  of
Aphis brassicxe under cabbage leaves in July,
and secreted in the leaves of the crumpled brocoli
as late as the end of Noveimiber,wwhen they were of
all ages and sizes, both winged and apterous."
a secretion from the aphlides, and that ants devout
this honiey-dew, and a sweet, clear, liquid  honey
it is.  I have often watched an atit go from one
aphis to another, stand behind each, and gently
squeeze the body with its fore legs; perhaps one
aphis in ten, not nmore, will give out a small drop
of ihouey, as clear as crystal, which the alits illstantly swallow.  The auts take much mnore care
of the apliid(les than the aplides do of thenmselves:
they are sad, dull, stupid creatures.  It is very
pretty to see the lickiug and washing, and cleansinig, aid caressing which the auts constantly bestow on then."'*
3305. "Protected  as  the aphides are in the
wrinkles of the  leaves, whichl  they themselves
have caused by the puimping lip aud extravasation of the sap, it is, I tliuk," observes Mr Curtis,  imnpossible, in the open fiel]l, to apply any
effectual remedy for the extirpation of this prolific tribe.  Wheni it is in our power, the best
plan would be to cut off the diseased leaves as
soon as the presence  of the insects is detected,
and cruish them  completely  u,jder ootr; or put
them  illto a sa.(k, antd carry tlhem away to be
destroyed with boiling water."
3306. Lady-birds.-" Fortunately, no tribe of
in-sects hlas a. greater number  of natural etemies
to keep it iii check than the pla,,t-lice.  Ollie  of
the  most cotspictio-s and e ffiient enemies are the
lccirelloe, of which ablout  30  differett   species
have beern noti ced  i  Engilandw.  Ladhy-birds pas8
the awititer id i  thes l   crevices of paig2gs and  tralunks
of trees, &c., land are ready to come out with the
Fig. >275.           slightest increase of
*lieat in stpriiig. They
eat into the hide of
a "i     the  aplhis, and thus
b ti  ~~~~~          destroy man1iy daily.
b  4  2         2   >       The two mios,t c)m                             imtoni s-pecies are the
TWO A ND.S'EV    SPOTTED)  ~Cocinella    bipune I.A r)V-BsltD,-CI)CCIsNI,,LLA   ttats,    two)-sputted
BI ET SEPTEMPUNCTATA.   Ieladh-bird — a   sinall
insect of 2t liies 1hmiig, it) fig.  275  a; and v
larger one,  (occinella  septeinpunct,ita, sevenspotted lady-bird, which is 31 lines long, and
nearly 3 broad, fig. 273 b; both of the niatural
size.
3303. Honey-dewt.  - " Whether  any  of the
above aphides deposit the sweet liquor called
honey-dew upon the turnlip leaves," reimarks Mr
Curtis," has not yet been observed; but I hleave
never seen the ants occupied in visiting the infested leaves for the purpose of collecting the
sarclcaritne matter which exudes froin the two
abdominal tubes or ducts, and which is also (]ischarged from t,-he extremiiity of the bodies of some
species.   The exudation of this honey, whic,h
passes off through the tubes, and chri-ystalises in
cold weather, may be a necessary means of disposing  of any    surp       lus secretions  arisietg from
the constant supply of sap  wlhich is passing
through the stomachs of these little leeches, anid
which they may not have the power of discharging fast enough by the usual organs."
3307. lchnieutonfiy.-Another active enemy
of the aphis is the ichiiieinoi fly, Apitphidius reaps
of Curtis, fig. 276, magnified.   Aitei.iim slih,rter
tliaii the body, coml)osed of 14 joints; basal jint
beneath, as well as the inmlutith, ochliraceous; head
and  thorax shiiing black; abdoitmeii siiidlesliapel aii I,itchly in colour,attached to the truilk
by a narrow ochraceous pedicle; wiijgs four,
irredescelit, sulperior, with  a  narrow   tn-ctius
Stiglmia, tromi  which  issues, beiieatl, a.Ihort
curved nervure, aud there is a large  elkiiigate
trigoiiate cell at the base:  legs  six, slender, and
bright oehieotus, variegated  with  (lark  I r,,wn;
lenigtli I   iiie, expanse of wiligs 2.   Thie small
cross liiies at the left side represent the iiatural
size of the fly with the wiligs expanded.  This fly
* Newman's Letters of Rusticus-On Bliyht, p. 108.
79
3304. A writer assuming the name of Rustictis
says-, I am quite convinced that honey-dew is 
Till-E CULTURE OF TIlE TURNIP.
streaked across with black; they have  a mark
re.embling the letter W  on the disc of the an terior wings, which expand 1I  inch.  The cater iiillar is greeisih or brownish, with a dark stripi
along the bac k, on which a pale line is visible;
the sides are marked with all obscure yellowish
stripe, having a tendency to become reddish on
the  ilpper side.  The spiracles are white  sur rountided with black.  The White  line brown eyed moth, Ma,itestra olerocea, is of a rusty-brown
colour, the fore-willgs at times slightly clouded,
the cross-lines obliterated.   The caterpillar red dihli or yellowish-brown, with a dark line along
the back, and another on each side, and beneath
the latter a white line; underside and feet light brown.  The Gamma or Y-moth, Plusia qaw.,,,a,
is easily recognised by the silvery character on
its fore-wings resembling the letter Y, or rather
the Greek r, upon  a variegated  dusky-brown
ground. Head and thorax ash-gray; the abdomen
of a lighter hue.  It expands from I   to 1I inch.
The eggs of this moth are very beautiful, being
of an orbicular shape, with elevated ribs, and slen der, transverse, raised lines.   They are chiefly
laid on the ander side of leaves, sometimes singly,
but more commonly in small clusters. When the
caterpillars reach maturity, they are green, with
6 white or black lines along the back, and a faint
yellow streak on each side; the breatlhing p)ores
black.  They possess only 4 abdominal feet, and
2 anal ones, thus indicating an approach to the
geometric or looper caterpillars.  The chrysalis,
which is pitchy brown, is inclosed in a white
woolly cocoon, spun between the folds of a leaf,
or amoing herbage.  The  nothi flies about in the
day with much rapidity, keeping the wings, when
feediug, in constant vibration.  They  may be
seei, often in great numbers, hovering in this
otmmanner about a turnip-field, over  the yellow
blossom of the charlock and field-mustard, or the
blue heads of the scabies and devil's-bit.+  There
is no moth more shy and difficult to catchl by day,
for it will seldom allow any one to come near it,
but whether it detects the approach of man by its
eyes, which sparkle  like living rubies, or by its
hearing, is not known: it darts off, however, in
ean instant, when disturbed, and stops again a few
yards off, or entirely vanishes.  There is, per ilaps., nothing but hand-picking, or switching the
tuirtip-pllant, to get quit of thiese insects.  The
l,arge White cabbage butterfly, Pontia brassicw,
]lays eggs in clusters, of 20 or 30, on the under
side of the turnip leaves.  The caterpillars are
greei before and yellow behind, when young, but,
when matured to full growth, are 11 inch long,
axid as thick as a small goose-quill. They chiefly
attack thlte Swedish turnip.  They are destroyed
by the iclineumoins Microgaeter gloweratus and
sPisnpla instigator, and by the cynips Pteromnatus
brassioce and pontiae.  The Small White or turnip butterfly, Pontia rapev, as its name implies,
is another enemy to the turnip.   The superior
wings of the male are tipped with black, and the
inferior have a black spot on the upper edge; the
female is similar, but has 2 large blank spots likewise beyond  the centre of the superior wings;
3308. Turnip-Icaf Miners.-There is a class of
insects called turnip-leaf miners, the larvw of
which destroveen the euergy of the                    l        eaves of turnips,
by boring galleries between their upper and
under surfaces, in the mantner which is now ascertained to be the case with the turnip flea-beetle.
One is the Drosphila tla.ra, which forms its
dwellings so carefully under the upper cuticle of
the leaves that not a trace of them can be seen
on the under side. Its length is 1 line. The
la~rva of this insect is destroyed by two little parasitic hymeuopterous flies, the  Cerapliron nigher,
and the Microqaster viridis. The other leaf-miller
is named t'hk.~totiyza nigricornis, which is bred
from the under sides of the turnip leaves, where
the maggots form long irregular galleries inside
of the lower cuticle, and these millers are not
visible on the upper side of the leaf.  The fly is
1 line in length.
* Journal of the EnlisAlt Agricultural Society, vol. iii. p. 68-72.
+ Quarterly Journal tf 4Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 167-170.
79
I)v the an,] the
i e, r
with her,vi             Pi"-..27
t,,r,
iiig a, sin-,Iie
egg, and ttieii
proceeds to
Stotler, and
thus itiocu                                   latt:s a coiisi                                   (lerable niiin                                   ber. As the
apliis imbibes
the jiiiee of
ICHNEUMON FLY-Ar-HIDIUS XAPM  the plant, the
' little maggot
wlii(!Ii has ]latched in her body hourly increases
iii size, uiitil the exhausted a.,pliis die.. A. there
are iii,-tijy generations bf ichneumon flies in a
stiminer, it follows that they are most formidable
eneinies to the plaiit-lice.
3309. Moths.-Lepidopteroiis insects, that is,
those oftlie butterfly and moth kind,affurd several
species injurious to the turnip crop. One is the
turiiip diamondback moth, Cerostoina xylostella..
When at rest the wings are closed and deflexed,
and the" horns are projected forward in a straight
line. It is tnore or less brown. The upper wiilgs
are long and narrow, and when closed furm 2 or
3 diaiii(-iids upon the back; the ii-iferior wiiigs are
lance-.,:haped, and of an a,sb-eolour, with a very
loii friiige. Its letigtl) i,-, 2J,- Iiiie.,;,. The cat-erpillar is green, about half an iiielt iii letigtb, sleti.
der and tapering to both ends. They are exceedingly active' and on the slightest tonal wriggle
themselves off the leaf they are feediiig, aiid let
themselves down by a silken tl,,read, and reinaiii
suspended until the'cau,e of a-larin sub.,:i(tes.-I As
many as 240 have been counted on one leaf, and
f3ueh is their avidity, that not the smallest vestige
,uf a green leaf is left by them. This larva is
destroyed by a black ichneumon, named Campoplex panisoits.* The cabba-ge-motb, Namestra
biassic,w, will live on the Swediib turiiip. The
frelegs are ash-browu, clouded with asli-gray 
PRACTICEF-SUMlIMER.
underside of the same white, apex yellow, and'2
black spots beyond the miiddle, the lower  icne
som.netimlie.s obliterated; inferior wings yellow,
frec kledI with black.  Length of niale 8 lines, ati,t
expainse of wings 2 inches. The eggs are iiot utnlike
tl.)so of' the cabbage-btitterfly; but the caterpillar
is totally different, being entirely green, atid so
denisely clothed with igriute hairs, as to be velvety.
T hey have a yelIowish stripe down the back, aiJd
another along each side.  They a,e. more than 1           I
inch loitg, and about  as thick a.s a crow quiill.
The small oval eggs so deeply embedded  in tlhe
pulpy substance of the back of somne turnip) leaves,
are laid by  the Chtrysomelc bettlice, a brilliaiti
shining or green oval beetle, with  usl(ersides,
horns, and legs black, and about 1! line long.
nip with her proboscis,  and deposits an  egg in it;
anil tLhe youti:  maggot, wlhichl is fat and whitish,
oftenl of a bright fleslh-colouir, lives on the subst.,nce of tie bulb. Except il affecting the beauty
-antd  sviimetry of the  btulb,tthis insect does  no
gr-eat harm to the turnip.m
331 1. A plan of destroying moths in vineyards]its t~een tried by M. Audouin with success, and
whiclh consists of lighting lamps covered with bellglass       es smear ed witl oil, when the light attracts
the  insects, and they are captur ed  on the  glass.
Stelt lights are  much more  effective  tha p n    openfires
of brushwoodl. Ill this way 200 lamps the first
nit]t, and 1180  the following nights, placed  at
25 tet apart, in 4 nights in August  1842, in a.
vineyard of 4 acres extent, and lighted for'
hours each night, destroyed these numbers of
Illothls in the respective nights-30,000, 14,400,
anid the two last nlights 9260; in all, 53,660. Of
these it was rekoned that  three-fourths were
females, which, supposing they would  have  laid
1.50 eggs each, caused a destruction of 6,000,00a
of eggs. Matly moths, I apprehend, might have
beeni caught besides, while flickering round the
lamps, with an entomologist's net.'
3310. Besides the leaves, the turnip is attacked
by insects in the bulb, among which noxious insects are many large caterpiilars, called by farmers and gardeners surface grubs, which commit
veryextensive depredations upon turnips. Amiong
these is the caterpillar of the Triphucero pronubta,
the Great yellow uniderwing.  This moth is sometimes very plentiful in hay-fields, where it will
rise from the swathes when disturbed, atid alight
again in another swathe.  The Noctua or iEqrostis exclamationis, the Heart and Dart motih, so
nam ed from the nmarkings of the wings resembliig the note of exclamation (!), nid a heart and
a dart, affords a caterpillar of a dull lilac colour,
with a lurid space down  the back of a more
ochreous hue, which is a most destructive animal
to crops of turnips at every stage of their growth,
it beitzi very apt to separate the crown from the
r,ot.  The grub of the Noctua or A.,grostis.,egeturn is a very formidable assailant in the more
atlvauced state of the turnip plant, near to which
it firius a round hole in a vertical direction about
2 or 3 inches deep in the earth.  At the bottom
of this it remains during the day, unless it be
dark aId moist, and at night it emerges' from its
burrow, and commences an attack lupoti a plat             l
by eatitig round the neck of it, and eventually
detachling the utipper part from the root.  In tlhis
wav singled Swedish turnip-plants may be destroyed one after another until very few are left.
The rook is useful in searching for this grub,   dand
iX quest ot'f it will also tear up the plant. Young
pigs are fond of it, and would dig for it in a turnip-field, were it not that they would dig up the.
plants at the same time.  Tlhere seems no ready
ineais of getting quit of this pest.  The excresceices which frequently disfigu       re the tiurnip bulb,
and are not confined to any particular variety of
turnip, on being opened will be foulnd to contain
a small maggot. This is produced by the Ceuterohy.c) us pluerostigma, the turnip-gall weevil.
It is very similar to the turnip-see(d weevil, but
is black instead of gray; the wing-cases are n,ot
so rough or strongly tuberculated at their extremities, and all the thighs have a small tooth
beneath. It is not uncommon in hedges from
May to August, and, closely contracting all its
members when alarmed, it looks like a black seed.
The female pierces a hole in the riled of the tur
3312. Twhe f4nbuey in Turnips-Mr Marsha       ll,
i all   lusion to  th e  a  nbury, says     that  it  is a large
exrescence produced below the    bulb; and whene
this was just forming, and not larger than a green
ewalnuti, the atburies were    as large as a  goose's
egg, irregular  in form, wi th    excreseences    below, and not unlike races of ginger depending
from them.  After  a r ri ving a t maturity, they exhiibit a putrid fermentation, and emit a most
offensive smell. When the anburies are divided,
they are hard; but  with the assistan ce of  a lens,
veinis or stuing-like vessels ma y  be seen d ispersed
through the  tucmonr.  When turnips are affected
with this disease, the tops become yellow, and flag
il  the heat of the sun, and its existence is thus
readily distinguished. He says it has been  attributed to the land being too long continued under
this  green crop; but it  is certain  that t he  anbury
appears  on hland wher e turnips had   n e ve r before
been grown. He, however, considers that it proceeds from the  formation of an insect in  the
vessels of the tap-root, by which the course of the
sap is divide(], and instead of the natural bulb an
excrescence is produced. He recommends that
the diseased plants should be removed as soon as
possible, and the earth stirred about those that
remain; and he adds, that it may  be wholly
avoided by well preparing and  ric(hIly manuring
laiids subject to produce anbury.+  If the disease
were occasioned by the puncture of insects, better
cultivation would not abate its virulence, but
rather increase it, G'LS the turnip would thereby be
rendered  much more palatable to them.   The
triith is, all such diseases arise from poverty of
the soil, either from want of manure when the
soil is naturally poor, or rendered effete by
overcropping. Labour, clean, and manure the
soil fully, according to the condition it presents,
and no anibury will appear, unless it may happen
* Journal of the Englisi A4gricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 103-121.
t Gardener's Chronicle rip  1843.
Alarshall's Rural Econoiny of Norfolk, vol. ii. p. 33.
80 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
knolls, where sheep would take to and rest onf for
the night.  In conformity with this circumstance,
light loamy turnip-soil, on an open  bottom, is
nnuch more apt to produce the disease than clayland, or any soil resting on a retentive bottom;
anll d it prevails mare in dry than in wet seasons.
Hence in the wet seasons of 1816 and  1817 it
was but little felt in Roxburghshire; whereas in
the dry summers of 1818 and 1819, and particularly in 1818, it was both extensive and destructive.  IHence also Roxburgh, with its light soil,
was always more affected than the neighbouring
county of Berwick with its heavy soil.  The
ultimate effects of the disease are to produce a
distorted bulb like a boxer's glove, with fingers
and thumb, which are longer or shorter, smaller
or larger, in proportion to the bulb.  The leaves
are unhealthy in colour, and the top has a tendency to shoot.  Inequalities occur in the bulb,
which collect water, the freezing of which  in
winter causes premature decay of the bulb.  The
texture of the bulb becomes fibrous, its juice
tastes acrid like the skin, and the smell is somewhat putrescent.  Hence the disease affects thi.'
weight of the crop, as also its nutritive properties
as an article of food for live stocked
3314. Fingers and Toes in Turnips.-Of this
disease Mr Dickson says:-" It occasionally happens that turnip-plants, instead of swelling and
forming bulbs, send off numerous stringy roots,
which soon decay and come to no account. It
occurs most generally when the crop is sown on
fresh land, and no remedy is said yet to have been
discovered to prevent it. More perfect tillage,
and the use of such measures as have a tendency
to render such lands more mellow and friable,
may perhaps be beneficial."*'  No doubt the disease has been observed on fresh virgin soil, that
had never before borne a crop of turnips; but it
has been remarked in a long experience, that land
which had often carried turnips was most affected
by this disease. The county of Roxburgh was
much afflicted with it, and it continued to increase
for 30 years; but latterly it has decreased, and
may now                           be said to have disappeared, in consequenrce of the superior manuring of all the crops
and the larger liming of the soil, and the same
result has been experienced everywhere. I may
here remark, however, that spurious seed will
have the same effect on the turnip, in unfavourable seasons, as want of mainure, and the injurious
effects of weather, such as was the case ill Scotlaud in the season of 1847.  The disease affects
the turnip plant from the period of sinigling to the
first hoeing of the crop.  The plant becomes
flaccid, and the leaves assume a yellowish hue,
but do not die, nor does the plant bear the slightest mark of insects; and when once affected never
gets free of the disease, and continues to live and
grow in size.  The disease never affects a whole
field atonce,nordoes it run along drills,but invariably begins in spots which increase in diameter,
.and spread out into large patches, which patches
never come in contact, but, on finding interruptions, assume irregular forms.  The interruptions
are.the ends of drills and the hollows of fields.
The patches never commenee in             h  ollows or drillends where water may lodge, but o0  the driest
3315. The analyses of the tops of turnips, asl
well as of the bulbs attached to them, have been
made by different chemists.  In conducting such
analyses of the tops, it has been found that the.
proportion of the water in them to the ash,taken'
in both the wet and dry states, is as follows,
according to Professor Way and Mr Ogston:
Wat eri c.             Ash. Aah-d.
Turnip-top   90.0   79.0  t5.5  1 2.64 1.19  1.84 |  18.00  -U.;;:
The mean numbers  are those of 30 different
analyses, and not of the highest and lowest quantities; hut it is evident that the percentage of
water and ash varies with tolerable uniformity,;
both above and below the averages given.
3316. Pro f essor  Johnston a scertained  the proportion of water contained in different parts of the
tops of turnIIips, before and after the formation
of the bulb. Thius
Mean pr eoo, 9
From Junre 28 to qTuly 26, the water in the.
entire top was,...          88.49
Fromii Aug. 2 to Sept. 27, water in the top,  85.42
.....   -....  at the bottom,    90.22
Thie conclusions which these results warrant are,,
that the proportion of water is greater when the!
t)lanits are young and succulent; that the percenltage of water in the lower part of the top isa
greater than in the phpper; and that  the  averagea'
quantity of water in the lower part is greater:
than the meani of the whole green part, inolud-"
iiig leaves and stalks.+
3317. Tche    composition of the ash of    the tur-ns'
niip-top, as ascertained by Professor Johnston, is,
as follows:
* Dickson's Practical bAgriculture, vol. ii. p. 666.
+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. vol. i. p. 429.
+ Transactions of thle IHighanid an(l Algricultural Society, for July 1848, p. 281-3.
VOL. 11.  
8i
in peculi.-tr seasons, which always counteract the
effects of culture, and affect plants in a manner
similar to want of nourishment.- This disease is
not so prevalent as it was 30 years ago, beoause the culture of the ttir.,iip is now better
understood, and the ground is maiiured with
greater liberality.
3313. Insects are invariably found in the bulbs
of turnips diseased with aubtiry, but they are
the egect and not the cause of the disease, as
the habits of the insects so found clearly indicate.
The principal insects are the. winter turiiipgnat, Trichocera hiematis, belonging to the
family Tipulidoe, and one or two of the rovebeetles, principally of the genera 41eochai-a and
Ox,ytelus, of. the latter of which the sculptured
rove-beetle, Oxytelus sculptut-atus, is the most
common. Both these kinds of insects are to be
found among dung after it has been a few days
dropped, and in rotten turnips, particularly in the
diseased parts.
p 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
This table exhibits wide differences in the corm.
position of the ash of the turnip-top, the phosphoric acid of one specimen being double that of
others.   We are prepared for this, observes Professor Way.   In the growth of plants of this description, the construction of  the materials is
supposed to go on in the leaves from which the
vegetable matter, when fully worked  up, descends into the tuber, and is there deposited.
The leaves would contain, therefore, not only
their own proper mineral constituents, but the
greater part of the excess of such bodies which
had entered the plant. The ash of the top differs
from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less
phosphoric and sulphuric acid, less potash, but a
great deal more lime.   On comparing  the  contents of the column of mean results with that of
Professor Johnston (in 3317,) a great difference
will be observed to exist in the composition of
turnip-tops derived from different localities.
Potash,
Soda,
Limes.
Magnesia,.
Oxide of iron,
Phosphoric acid,
S3ilphfuric acid,
Chlorine,.
Silica,
Percentage of ash from 14. to 20.
Professor Johnston says there is no doubt the
proportion of ash varies very much with the
period of the plant's growth, and with the part
of the tops which is burned for the collection of
ash.*  The variety of turnip from  which the
analysis was taken is not mentioned, but in a case
the following results were obtained in illustration
of these remarks:-Percentage of ash obtained
from green turnip-tops, collected from the 2d of
August to the 27th September from  the top,
mean, 2.19; from the bottom, mean, 1.75. From
the same, when dried at 2120 Fahr. top, mean,
16.84; bottom, mean, 18.21.  The conclusions
which these results warrant are, that the proportion of mineral matter in the tops increases with
the age of the plant; that the average quantity
of mineral matter in the green part of the turnip is
greater in the highest than the lowest part; and
that in the tops dried at 212~ Fahr., the proportion
of mineral matter is greater in the lowest than in
the highest part. As regards this change of place
in the proportion in the mineral matter in the tops
when green and dried,ProfessorJohnston gives an
*explanation, which you should bear in mind when
,comparingthe resultsof chemical analyses in other
cthings:-" This difference arises from the circumstance that the lower part contains the largest
percentage of water. The present case is only one
of many illustrations of the fact, that the relative
proportions of mineral matter, in green products,
are not to be received as real indices of the relative proportions in which this mineral matter
exists in the dry substance of the plant."t
Potash,..
Soda,..
Lime,                         
M      agnesia,.
Oxide of iron,.
Phosphoric acid,
Sulphuric acid,
Chloride of sodium,
Chloride of potas sium,.
Silica,  e.
3320. The leaves of turnips contain much more'
conmeon salt, chloride of sodium, than the bulbs,
and the quantity is considerable in some cases,
the second column of Dale's hybrid above exhibiting an anmount of it of 11 I lb. to the ton, or
about 9 oz. to every cwt. of the green tops.  May
not this circumstance in part explain the  action
of turnip-tops in causing purging in sheep when
they are first turned upon this food from pasture tThe other alkaline salts, such as the phosphates
of soda and potash, and organic salts of these
bases,  oxalate, tartarate,  &c. and  which are
known as purgatives, exist largely in turnip-tops.+
11'56 20'79 13.53 12-35
12-43.. 1 4-60..
28-49 30-3835-10 24-27
2-62  3-18, 1'75 3 -57
3'02 0'66n 0-61  3-09
6i-18 12'97 13-82   6'10
4'85 6-21  4-58 11 -70
10-36 12-20  6-71  6 99
12'41 10-31 18 02 22-70
..   2'09..   1-84
8-04  1-14 1 126  7-3,
99.9s) 99-93"99,8 99,96
I',97 1-95 11119 2-2)5
3321. A rather singular result was obtained
by Mr Johnstone, Lang-Liddesdale, Wigtonshire,
on transplanting swedes on land which he had
not got ready for sowing them in at the proper
season. IHe sowed some seeds of Skirving's swedes
in a bed in April 1 847,and transplanted the plantse
from them as late as the 22d of June.  From
ten to twenty days afterwards, the transplanted
plants running into flower, some of them were
pulled up, and others cut over near the ground;
when, in about fourteen days afterwards, bulbi
P        otash
*8oda,. 
Lile,.
Magnesia,..
Oxide of- iron,,..
Carbonic acid,
Ph-sphoric acid
Sulphuric acid,
Chloride of sodium,
Chloride of potas sium,..
ica,..
~ Johnston's Lectures on A4gricultural Chemnistry, 2d edition, p. 385.
t Transactions of the'Hi yAland and  4qricultural Society, for Juily 1848, p. 28&
i: Journal of tlte english 4Agricultural Society, Vol. viii. p. 176-84.
i
7
1
h
I
i
.1
i
i
I
I
a
28.65
5.41
23.27
3.09
0.86
9.29
12.52
16.05
0.86
100.00
3319. It may be useful to give the -relative
quantities of the mineral matter, in pounds weight,
contained in one ton of the tops of each of the
kinds ofthe turnips given in the above table:
Ski,,i.g'.               G-.  M-l..  -
8-d.. bid.    T-P    P-i  lb. Ulb. Whit,,' -f.i.
lb. lb.
5-09 9-08
5-49..
12-57 13-26
1.16 1.39
1-33 0-29
2,15 2-71
4,57 5'33
5-48 4-51
...0.91
3,55 0-50
41-39 37-98
1-97 1-95
5.18
li-'76
1.17
0-33
1-29
3-20
4-36
6-77
0-85
34-91
1-82
6.08
1-12
11-29
1.16
o-72
2-60,
3-46
6.15
2-02
1-73
36-23
3-61 6-20
i-23..
9-37 12-18
0-47 1-79
0-16 1-5
1,22 5-87
I-79 3-51
4-81 11-40
.. 0-92
0-34 3-69
23-00 47-11
1,19 2-25
tage of ash,
3318. The following table exhibits the compotion of turiiip-tops of the respective varieties of
e- turnips mentioned in it, as ascertained by
rofessor Way and Mr Ogston
n
Skir,ing'.     Dl.'.   C-,en I f.i.
S,,.d Hybrid. T,p p,,I_
White. m,n..
t
12-6,i
28-73
2'85
0.80
14'(;4
3.15
7-,S3,
10'67
16-.56
2 -05
99-96
1-82
15-21
. '4
',28-49
2-81
1.68
9.98
6-77
8'43
15-30
5'04
3-99
99,94
tage of asli, 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
bean to form, and new stems and leaves were
put forth luxuriantly.  He then cut over others
whinch had flowered, and the same results followed.   Finding the new leaves succulent and
delicate, he caused them to be pulled as green
food for his cows, and continued to do so dutiring                   -
the season, three times, never imagining that the
bulbs would ever be of any value.  Meanwhile,
however, the bulbs enlarged until the latter end
of October, when two were pulled, and one
weighed  18 lb., the other 15 lb., with scanty
stem and leaves, because the former ones had been
cut down not long before.
Bonw of the
Bear buried.
Deep. Shallow.
..
Animal matter,....  16'    4'2
Phosphate of lime,...       56'0     62:1
Carbonate of linfe,..               13-1    13-3
Sulphate of lime,....              7-1   12-3
Phosphate of magnesia,.               0 -3    0-5
Fluoride of caldium,..       -       2-0     2- t
Oxides of iron and manganese,             2  20  2-1
Sioda,..    *....    *         1-1.'3
Silica, I.......  22              2-1
1bs'0: 1i0'0
3322. The question, after such treatment of the
bulbs, was, were  they deteriorated as f)ood 
From  an analysis made of them by Professor
Johnston, it wouild appear they were not-as may
be seen from these figures:
In the natural
state.
Water,...    90.95
Protein compounds,       1.28
Sugar, gum, fibre, &c.,  7-17
Ashof hOsplhateS,. 0'60
100 00
That substance  must be  a  valuable  manure
which resists decomposition for a long time,
while  it imparts nourishment  to the roots. of
plants as they require it.
The nutritive power not having been diminished,
is it probable that* green food may be obtained
all suminmer from the Swedish turnip, and enlarged
size of bulb for winter in the same season? The
subject deserves to be experimentally investigate-i, when only a true answer will be obtained
to the question.  I think. however, that the
tranlsplanting process is merely incidental, and
canilot affect the result; for it is evident that the
plant will produce new stemis and leaves, and
consequently bulb, whether it had beengrown
from seed sown at one place, or sown elsewhere
and transplanted in that place. *
3327. Bones  contain  a large proportion  of
water, the quantity of which is greatest when
the animal is young, and the interior of the-bone
spongy, varying i  frotm 33 to 15 per cent in the
former and from  20 to 80 per cent in the latter
case, in different animals.
3:323. Bone-dust.-Boue-dust has  now  completely established itself as a valuable manure;
atid 1 believe that, w th the exception of farmyard dlung, there is no substance we know upon
which we may place more implicit reliance, in
one ior another of its states, as a fertiliser of the
soil, not even excepting guano.
3328. Bones  are composed  of  organic and
inorganic matter, the former consisting of fat
and cartilage, the latter of earthy matter.  The
inorganic matter varies in the  bones lt.1cen from
different parts of the body. When the fat has
beetl removed, the proportion of earthly matter
to cartilage is as follows, according to the experiments of Dr  Stark:
3324. One of its most valuable properties as
a manure is its durability, and in this respect it
is superior to farm dung and guano.  Bones, even
in the,ir reduced state, when applied in large
quantities, as l i ton and upwards on the acre, as
is done by the farmers of Cheshire, will evidence
their existence as a maniure after the lapse of 20
years.  This result arises from the slowness of
the decomposition of their orgattic matter in the
soil.  I pulled off 4 acres of turnips raised with
bone-dust, and four acres adjoining in the same
field, which hiad been raised with 15 loads of
farm-yard dung to the acre; and the crop was
not only better after the bone-dust than after the
dung, but the crops that followed in the rotation
* Transactions of the HliqAlandl and Aqricltural S    ociet y, for Ma'rch 18a48, p.  1.
t Thomson's Anmia  Che,,istry,p. 234
:83
-ngm,ely,barl-ey:biyVasturea"d'itwero
all better in their' respective e years.
3325. Thus Maroband fotind,the bones of a
bear that had been buried'for ati, indefinite titne'
at a shallow depth-wberemoisture and air ihay
have been supposed to have exercised their
influences very t,.ctively-not_ to ha*e differed
'very tuaterially in cothposition to other bones of
a. beat that bad been buried deeply, exce IpIt in animal matt,6r, as is'sh6wn in the flowing table
Dri,-d t
2121.
14-14
79-23
6-63
100-00
3326. Done is a dense substandt-,Iiia will be
seen by the specific gravity of different kinds as
determined by Dr Thomson:
Os femorts of asheep, 2-0345
Tibia of a sheep, 2-0329
Iliuni6tafm
ox,
ftuman 08 bumeri,                          1-7479
tebyga of a haddock# I 6350t
it ti)iis alipo-ars tti,at,:the' bones of gheeO'&'r'e'4 deiiiier than those of oxen.
tby -Iktter.      CartO
Boti:es oft'ht O"x d6n'titin',        6,ti-5
horse, 66-7 33-S'
64-7,              35.3
P!g' "
birdi' 66-2 33-8,
' I
f6-hes 66-1 32i.9
In the earthly ni's"t-tr".,,tbe, bones of different #Oil*
mal8do not th.'ug vary. much. The ea-rthy 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the French have long been in the practice of
steaming them for two or three days in continuance ill the making of soup.
ter consists chiefly of the carbonate and phosphate of lime; andDr Ure says, "that the bones
of the ox are three times richer of the phosphates
of lime and magnesia than those of manl, and
hence we may conclude that as manure they are
more valuable."*
3332. It is the opinion of both Sprengel and
Liebig, that it is the earthy portion of the bone,
and particularly the phosphate of lime, which is
alone useful as manure  in bone-dust.   Some
experiments may have warranted tsuch a conclusiopa   but  others, on the other h and, would lead to
the conclusion, that it is only the organic part of
bo nes w hich is usef ul i n manure.  Such results
would depend upon the degree in which the soils
experimented  on at the time had bee n  previous ly
supplied, from othe r sou rces; wit h  organic or
inorganic matter. " The most striking change,"
as Professor Johnston observes, " undergone by
bones buried at the roots of trees,,was the large
loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered.
The relative proportions of the phosphate and
carbonate of lime had been comparatively little
altered. The main effect, therefore, produced
by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, as
particularised in the table in (3325,) and their
first effect, in all cases, must be owing to the
animal matter they contain-the elements of the
animal matter, as it decomposes, being absorbed
by the roots with which the bones are in contact.
He who candidly weighs the considerations
above presented, will, I think, conclude, that the
whole effect of bones cannot in any case be
ascribed exclusively  either to the one or the
other of the principal constituents. He will
believe, indeed, that in the turnip husbandry the
organic part performs the most permanent and
most immediately useful office, but that the
earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready supply
of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many
soils the plants could not otherwise easily obtain.
He will assign to each constituent its separate
and important function, being constrained at the
same time to confess-that, while in very many
cases the earthy part of bones applied alone
would fail to benefit the land, there are few
cultivated fields in which the organicpart applied alone would not materially promote the
growth of most of our artificial crops." +
3329. When bones are boiled, a large proportion of the fat and cartilage pass into the water.
The fat is skimmed off the surface of the water,
and is used by the candle-makers; the water,
when boiled down, makes size for the stiffening
of certain kinds of cotton goods.  The bones,
after being boiled, contain more water than they
did before, and when ground into dust make as
good manure as when fresh, according to the
opinion of some. But it is evident that the loss
of the fat and cartilage must deteriorate the
value of bones as a manure for general application.  It is probable that the additional water
obtained by the boiling may facilitate the decomposition of the bone-dust in the soil, and thereby
give to the boiled bone a factitious value.
3330. The organic parts of bones, when heated
to redness in the open air, are dissipated, and the
earthy matter is left in the form and bulk of the
original bone.   The calcined bones, which are
very brittle, and easily reduced to powder, get
the namne of animal charcoal, but its proper
name is bone-black, which constitutes a valuable
manure in some cases. 
3331. Bones, when subjected to the action of
steam heat, equal to a pressure of 35 lbs. to the
inch. become spongy and brittle, and  may be
reduced easily to powder.  This process has
lately been introduced to notice by Mr Blackhall of Edinburgh, as a means of reducing bones
to  powder in a more economical manner than by
the powerful machinery which is necessary tfor
the construction of a bone-grinding mill. But the
analyses by Dr Anderson make it appear that
steaming deprives bones of much animal matter.
Thus, in two instances, steamed bones gave of
Water,..... 12'-66   13-86
Animal matter,.. 27'37    19X90
Bone-earth,... 59'97   66-24
100'00    lO0-00'
And that of bones in three states gave, from
Inch bones.  Bone-dust.  Entire bones.
Water,...   1000        10 39      14 89
Animal matter,   41-88     42-60       3704
Bone-earth,.  48-12     47-01       48-17
100-00    100-00     100-00
Hence the loss of animal matter is as 27 to 40;
and hence, also, if crude bones cost ~4 the ton,
steamed bones would cost ~5, 6s. 8d., besides the
expense of steaming.+ It has been more recently
stated that steaming bones at a pressure of 50 lb.
to the square inch, reduces them to0a state of pulp.
That the steaming process will deprive the bones
of most of their organic matter is evident, since
3333.  The comparative value of bones and
farm-yard dung was ascertained by Dr Henry R.
Madden. This is his analysis of both:                   BoNz-DUST.
* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts-art. Bones.
+ Transactions of tle Highland and 4gricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 22.
+ Johnston's Lectures on AIrictltural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 789.
84
. 11-5
. 57.7
. 30-8
100-00
FAIIM-YARD DuN(;.
Water,.........
Oi-ganic matter,......
Inorganic -matter,......
45-535
43-565.
10-900
100-000
'334. Another analysis gave of azote'in bone* 
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
become dry, and be in a good state for passing
through the sowing-machine.
dust 1'77 per cent, in farm-yard dung 45; so
that, with respect  to  azote, these substances
stand comparatively thus in                      Bo ne-dust.  Farm-yard dung.
Total organic matter,   38-50          33.565
Soluble matter,         10'20          10'750
Easily rendered soluble, 41'50         14'250
Azote,                   1'77' 450
Saline matter,           55'00         10-900
Hence  1 ton bone-dust equals, as regards        Organic matter,   I    ton farm-yard dung.
Soluble matter,      1......
Easilydissolved do., 2'9......
Azote,               3'9......
Saline matter,       5......
Earthyphosphates,  18'3......
3339. Although it is improbable that you will
keep bone-dust over the year, it being more prow
fitable to put it into the ground, yet in case you
should have any left over, or should purchase
a lot cheap out of season, it may be proper to let
you know how to keep it in the best state until
it is used.  It is this: whenever you get it, you
should put it on a dry pavement floor, as a damp
one quickly rots it.  It will heat, but not so
strongly as when it was grinding, and it will heat
every time it is turned, which it should not be.
It should not be kept in the bags, as it will
soon rot them, as I have experienced, nor should
it be kept upon or under a wooden floor, as it
will rot it; nor should it be kept near horses
and cattle, as they evince a strong dislike to its
smell; and horses actually become restive and
troublesome on feeling the smell it emits.
"If all the various degrees in which bone-dust is
superior to farm-yard dung be added together,"
concludes Dr Madden,  "1 ton of it equals  30
tons of dung; but as only 16 bushels of bone-dust
are applied to the acre, which, at 47 lb. per
bushel, weigh 7 cwt., this quantity is equal to
10-1 tons of dung."*
3340. Heating has the effect of increasing the
weight of bone-dust from 47 lb. to 49 lb. per
bushel, and this increase is no doubt effected by
the heating taking off the angles of the particles,
and allowing them to come closer together in the
bushel. The colour is also changed to blue and yel,
low, and, on examination with the microscope, the
mass contains numbers of minute insectslike mites.
3335. Bone-dust is less efficacious as manure
on clay than on light land; nor does land which
has been recently limed experience the same
benefit from bone-dust as land devoid, or nearly
so, of lime.
3336. Bone-dust is obtained from those who
grind bones, with heavy and costly machinery,
constructed for the purpose, and bone-mills are
now common over the country, -A least ill all the
large seaports. Hull is the great emporium of
this article.  When bone-dust is purchased on
ship-board, it is almost always adulterated with
old plaster, brick-dust, ashes, &c., and should
therefore be purchased direct from the grinderfrom one, if possible, on the spot. To avoid such
adulteration,  an  association  of  farmers was
formed a few years ago in Perthshire to import
bones, rape-cake, &c., and grind them at their
own mills under the        superintendence of a manager in whom they had confidence, and they
thus supplied themselves with genuine manures.
3341. The consumption of botne-dust as manure
must have been great before the introduction of
guano; and, even in my own experience of its use,
it rose in price from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. the bushel,
on account of the increased demand, which continued to increase until the use of guano was
known.   It is now imported duty-free, and its
pr ic e  has receded to the original amount of 2s.
6d. the bushel.
3342. By a parliamentary return, the quantity
of bones imported from abroad inl 1847 was 29,646
tons, and in 1848, 32,582, the increased 2936 tons
implying an increasing demand for bone manure,
notwithstanding the use of guano.
3343. Guano.-Guano is the Peruvian word
guano, meaning dung, so spelt by   t he Spaniards.
It i s an exrementitious d      eposit  from myriads
of cormorants, flamingos, cranes, &a. and is found
in the highest perfection in the small granite
islands  l0 miles from Chineha, off the  coast of
Peru, in latitude 14~, to Paquica, on the coast of
Bolivia, in latitude 21~ S.   Little or  no  rain
falls il this district, and it is to the desiccating
effect of the sun that the valuable state of the
guano is to be ascribed.  Rain falling in the distri(ts beyond those latitudes,  the guano from
Chili is not so good as that obtained from  the
Peruvian port Iquique, having  undergone a certain degree of fermentation.
3337. Bone-dust is best conveyed from the
mill in sacks, and 40 bushels will fill a doublehorse cart and sow 21 acres.  It weighs 47 lb.
per bushel.  It should be immediately emptied
out of the sacks and kept in small heaps in a
cool shed until it is used, as it is very apt to heat;
and one consequence of recent heating is, to
become lumpy and troublesome to sow by the
bone-dust sowing machine, fig. 259, though otherwise it is not injured but rather improved by it.
3338. If fresh bone-dust just obtained from
the mill is desired to be heated at once, which it
should be if it is to be kept for a few months,
the process is much accelerated by the addition
of a little sifted coal-ashes or earth, and as much
water as will make the whole mass only damp,
and by turning it over several times until it is
incorporated; and in 48 hours the hliea will be
so great that you cannot hold your hand in
it.  The heat will gradually subside, the mass
* Prize Essays of the Higihland and.Ayricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529-31.
86.
3344. If guano. be compared with the exerementitious matter from man and the maiiiiiia.14ia,
it will be found to be very superior, imasmuch as
the urine and dung of that class of animals are
evacuiited separately, and each has its owu 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
Ieculiar action on vegetation; whereas in birdsthe excretions both of the kidneys and intestines
are contained in the cloaca, whereby the volatile
elenments of the former become combined with the
more fixed components of the latter: and guano
should be a richer manure than the excrements 
ofthe mammalia, on account of its being produced by sea-fowl which live entirely oni fish,
without admixture of vegetable matter.    *
s [ia and ammonia,.  4-50 53-00 0.32
loo0,0 9.80
3349. Two samples of guano were analysed ia
1847 by Professor Johnston, one of which was obtained in 1846 and kept in a dry room, the other in
1847, both from Messrs Meyer & Co., Liverpool.
He also analysed in 1848 two samples, one of'
Chilian and the other said to be Peruvian, both obtai ned from Glasgow.   All the analyses were
made at the request of Mr Cranstoun of Corehouse, Lanarkshire.   The results were these: —
s18m s.  1847. 1848.
Peru- Peru- Chi-  Peru.
,is..  ian. Ion.'ian.
Water,...       783 1514  5-03  8.70
Organic m       atter with ammonia  cal salts,                59-85 51-64 12'75 55-73
Common salt, sulphate of soda,
with a little phosphate of pot.
ash and soda,..12-24  7'67 15-86 6-23
Phosphates oflime and magnesia, 15-15 29'72 47-35 26-48
Carbonate of lime,.. 0'97  2'26 10-27 0-73
Insoluble siliceous matter,. 3.39  1-71  8'74 2'14
99-43 99-14 100-00 100'0
The Peruvian guanos of 1846 and 1847, obtained
direct from Meyer & Co., proved excellent; and
that of 1848 was  also good, and much better
than the Chilian used at the same time, and for
the same purposes.
3346. Pure Bolivian guano possesses these
properties:-Pale  yellow  brown  colour, dry,
partly pulverulent, partly concreted, in small
lumps, with small fragtnents of granite interspersed.   Specific gravity of the pulverulent
portion without the granite 1-60, of the concretions 1'66, mean 1'63.   No ammoniacal smell
should be felt, and when present it is a sure proof
of decomposition. The Chilian guano always
emits such a smell. Genuine guano, when burned
on a hot shovel leaves a white ash of phosphate of
lime and magnesia.
3347. Guano has been found on the coast of
Africa, in the island of Ichaboe, and in Saldanha
Bay, and on account of the high price of Peruvian,
these African deposits were highly prized; but as
the supply from them was scanty, it was soon exhausted.  The guano from those sources was of
a very inferior description to that from Peru.  I
have heard that a recent visit to Ichaboe has
discovered newdeposits of guano there,so that the
birds must have returned to their former haunts.
Were these deposits placed under responsible
authority, as are those of Peru, it is probable that
they might yield a continued supply of good
maiure,but if left to commercial rivalry,the birds
will again be driven away, and the guano will be
taken as individual caprice and interest dictate.
3350. After many analyses of guano             
description, Dr Ure wasenabled to establ
lowing formula as an average result, a
has reference solely to its agricultural
Azotised animal matter, including urate of
ammonia, together capable of affording
from 8 to 16 per cent of ammonia by
slow decomposition in the soil,.
Water,
Phosphate of lime,
Phosphate of ammonia, sulphate of aMmo  nia, ammonia, phosphate of magnesia,
together containing from 5 to 9 parts of
ammonia,
Siliceous sand,
3348. Dr Ure, among many analyses o
made an elaborate one of a sample from         a
and as this sample may be regarded as a
the substance in its best state, its tom
should be a standard for comparison:
ype of     3351. Guano is adulterated to a great extent,
sition   and one sample, offered to the public by adver       tisement as Peruvian, Dr Ure found to contain
mmonia.  the following ingredients:(Sulpate   f poash,Common salt,                       -.       - 32-0
'Sulphate of potash,
with a little sulphate
of soda,..   6'00
Muriate of ammonia,    3-3 00
Phosphate ofammonia, 14-32
Sesqui - carbonate of
ammonia,              1-00
,%a.phlate of ammonia,  2-(00
Ox,Aate of ammonia,    3'23
Water,.,  8' 5 -
Soluble organic mat  ter and urea,. 8,95 47'00
Common salt,.. 32'0
Common siliceous sand,..  28-0
Sulphate of iron, or copperas,.   5-2
Phosphate of lime,..           4-0 with
Organic matter from bad guano, &c.
to give it a smell,..          23-3
Moisture,..    7'5
100-00
This stuff had a specific gravity as high as 2-17
produced from the salt, sand, and copperas; and,
I
so
Silica,.  - I.
Undefined organic
matter,. I.
Urate of ammonia,.
Oxalate of lime,
Subpliosphate of lime,
PhsphiCte of magne.sia and ammonia,.
i
9-32
14-73 - I'm
I.00?
22-00
Matter
insoluble
in
water.
3345. So,.much, do the farmers of Peru appree,iate the value of guano as a manure, that they
bring the nit te of soda from the interior to the
coast to exchange. for guang, thou t  p
gh he itrate
is much cheaper. The far ers themselves collect
the nitrate and purify it. From ordinary applications the returns from the nitrate upon mai2;e is
'only 15 to 1, while that, from giiano is 300 to 1.
Hence the Peruvian proverb-Huano, though no
saint, works many miracles.
13.
I
100.
-Matter
soluble
in
- r. 
THE CULTURE OF KOHL:RABI.
when burned in a hot shovel, left a black fiused
mnass of sea-salt, copperas, andandsaud.* No farmer
should therefore purchase guano without having
it analysed by a competent chemist; and in
guarding the interests of farmers in this respect,
the late Agricultural Chemistry Association of
Scotland was eminently useful.  The Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland in their
chemical department will be equally protective
of the farmers' interest.  The sure way to purchase genuine guano is to order it only from
Messrs Gibbs of London, or Messrs Meyer & Co.
of Liverpool, who are the accredited agents of the
Peruvian government in this country.
3357. As-  kohl-rabi  ho  lds   the sa me
position, as a crop, a s  th e    turnip, its culture is very similar;  but while turnips affect the lighter soils, kobl-rabi thrives on
the stronger, so it nmay be raised where
turnips cannot be.  The  stubble-land in
the beginning of winter is either gathered
up with g(ore-furrows (749 and 756) or
cast with the saime, (755 and 7.56.) In
spring it is cross-plouighed, (2613,) drilled
in the single way, (2389,) manured in
the drill, (2749,) redrilled in the double
way, (2397,) and made ready for the seed,
as in the case of turnip culture., All these
operations should be, gone through: by the
l1st of May, and before the land for the
earliest of the turnips is required.
3352. Peruvian guano is always high-priced
in this country, being seldom below ~10 the ton,
not only on account of its superiority to other
kinds-and the longer voyage no doubt incurs a
larger freight than the African-but the exportduty imposed on the shippers from Bolivia enhances the value ~3 a ton.  African guano is
sold for ~5 or ~6 a ton, and the Chilian for ~7.
3353. Guano is now imported duty-free, and
the importation in 1847 was 82,393 tons; in 1848,
71,414 tons, which gives a falling off of 10,979
tons in one year, which, at 8 cwt the acre, indicates a want of the means of manuring for 79,860
acres in 1848 compared with 1847,t but the increase in the importation of bones in the sam         e
period would manure 11,248 acres, at 16 bushels
the acre.
3358. Either of two modes may be
adopted in cultivating kohl-rabi-to transplant plants, or sow the seed. If the method of transplanting is adopted, a piece
of good ground in a favoured aspect should
be prepared' in February or beginning of
March, by deep digging  and manuring,
and sowing the seed in rows of 12 inches
apart, and not very thick in the row. The
rows admit of the ground being hoed with
the hand-hoe, fig. 266, which it should
occasionally be, not only to keep down
surface-weeds, but to loosen the soil for
the encouragement of the growth of the
plants.  The plants should be raised and
carried to the field to be  transplanted,
in the manner already described for transplanting swedes, (3269,) in the first week
of May, before the sowing of the swedes
about the 15th of May.   As damp  and
cloudy weather is the most favourable state
of the air for transplanting  plants, it
should be chosen for the purpose; and the
operation may be forwarded or retarded before or after the ordinary time, for the sake
of obtaining the assistance of such weather.
3354. About 4 or 5 cwt. is the quantity of
guano which experience has ascertained to be
required for the acre when applied alone, and 3
cwt. in conjunction with farm-yard dung.
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT          MENT OF KOHL-RABI.
3355. Kohl-rabi, or the turnip-rooted
cabbage, is a plant of recent introduction
into the agriculture of Britain.   Attention was directed to it in consequence of
the properties it possesses of withstanding
drought. and being little subjected to the
attack of insects —properties which impart
to it an intrinsic value over Swedish turnips. Still it was a question whether it
would afford a large enough crop to become a substitute for swedes; and it appears, from recent experience, that it is
capable of. affording, in certain localities at
least, a heavy crop.
3359 But as transplantation is attended
with considerable trouble, the  crop  is
equally secure when  sowni  in the seed;
an(l the seed mlay be sown either by itself,
with the common turnip-sowing machine,
* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, and Supplement-art. Guano.
t Parliamentary R?eturn, 26th February 1849.
817
for the climate of Scotland, althongh ilt
may be raised in favoured spotin such as
gardens. In Ireland it has been sucoe
fll,v cultivated for years.
3356. Agreeing witl-i heat and drought,
it may suit the climate of the south of
England, to which it has hitherto been
confined; but it is, I suspect, too delicate 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
fig. 254, or along with manure, with the
bone-dust sowing-machine, fig. 259.  The
quantity of seed may  be the same as
swedes, namely 3 lb. the acre.  And as
bone-dust is not favourable to strong soil,
the manure selected should be bone-dust
prepared with oil of vitriol, termtned sulphlated bones, (3233.)  The seed is (dearit costs 2s. 6d. per lb.; on which account,
it has been  recommended to  be sown
with manure with the drop-drill sowingmachine, fig. 261, or dibbled in at intervals
along the drill.  I think the saving would
not compensate for the trouble of dibbling,
or the purchase of a drop-drill machine.
3365. As kohl-rabi stands in the same position
in the Lininman, Jussieuan, and natural system of
Lindley, as the turnip, it is unnecessary to repeat the particulars which have been already
given in (3283.)  Its specific name is Brassico
olereacea, caulo-rapa, alba, of De Candolle, and, as
this name indicates, it is a variety of the common
cabbage. Its peculiar character is in having its
stem towards its upper extremity swollen into a
large globular pulpy mass, in consistence and
texture somewhat resembling a Swedish turnip;
from and near the summit of which mass the
leaves, which are smooth, and of various shapes
and shades of colour, are produced. The taste
of the pulpy mass is very similar to that of the
heart of the stem of the cabbage.
3360. When the seed is sown, the crop
is singled the same as turnips with  the
hand-hoe, (3259,) and the intervals left
between the plants may vary from 12 to
15 inches, according to the vegetating
power of the soil.  The cleaning of the
ground with the scuffler, fig. 262, and with
the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is the same as
in the case of the turnip, (3256;) but when
the finishing operation is arrived at, the
ground between the rows should not be
left somewhat fiat, as recommended for
the turnip, (3277,) but raised with the
double mould-board plough, fig. 209, as
high as just not to cover the bulb upon the
stem of the plant, and this setting up should
not be executed  until the  bulbs have
attained the size of a man's hand.
3366. The kohl-rabi is used in Germany as a
vegetable for the table. In whatever way it
is cooked, it is a coarse, harsh vegetable; and
yet we hear people in this country recommending its culture in the gardens of the poor, as a
suitable esculent for their use; but why the
vegetables eaten by the poor labouring man and
his family should be coarser than those for other
people, it is difficult to perceive. If mere bulk
of crop is a recommendation of it for the poor,
the Swedish turnip becomes bulky enough
for such  a purpose, and it is actually better
tasted, even when plain boiled, than the heart
of a cabbage stem, to which that of the kohlrabi has been very truly likened.
3361. With I 6 tons of good farm-yard
dung, and 4 or 5 cwt. of sulplated bones
to the acre, a crop of from 20 to 30 tons
may be expected to be raised.  Kohl-rabi
will yield a heavier crop than swedes on
clay land, but not so heavy on turnip soil.
A sprinkling of 2 cwt. of guano to the acre,
around each plant after they are singled,
would tend to increase the size of the bulb
materially.
3367. The  kohl-rabi   is a n             exc ellent   food
for cows and horses, and, when boiled with
grain for their use, will afford them true nourishment. The leaves may also be used, having entirely the character of a true cabbage; but they
should be removed with a sparing hand, else the
enlargement of the bulb will be prevented.
3362. The advantages which kohl-rabi
is said to possess over Swedish turnips
by those who have cultivated it in England and Ireland, are these:-cattle, and
especially horses, are fonder of it; the
leaves are better food; it bears transplanting better than any other root; insects do
not injure it; drought does not prevent its
growth; it stores quite as well or better;
it stands the winter better; and it affords
food later in the season, even in June.
'88
. 3363. Two Varieties of kohl-rabi are
ctiltivated-tlie green and the purple. The
green gives tbe Heavier crop, but the purple the more nutritious one.
3364. Specimens of kohlrabi have
beeii raised iii Scotland weighing from
lb. to'i I lb. each; in Ireland, individtial bulbs have attained the weight of
14 lb.; and in England they comnionly
reach from 8 lb. to IO lb.
ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER
TREATMENT OF THE CA13BAGE.
,9368. Ttie cabbage may be usefully
and successfully raised on a farm; and,
occupying the -,anie position in ti.ie order
of croppin,, as ttie turnip and potato, it ig
;n
planted on the fallow break. It likes a
rich deep soil with a considerable proportion of cl-,iy. 
THE CULTURE OF THE CABBAGE.
treatment may be from 30 to 40 tons tlheo
acre.  In Scotlanid, the drumhead cabbage
has yieldedI ill the field from 17 lb. to 22 lb.
of individual wei,ght, with thle stem and
under leaves; and from 10 lb. to 14 lb. of
solidly-hlearted leaves.   There are a great
smany small cabbages in a crop, bLit at 10
lb. of solid heart in each plant, thle yield
should be 43 tons 4 cwt. the acre.
3369. The cabbage, up to the time of
laying the dunig in the drill, is cultivated
.in precisely the same mianner as are turnips and potatoes.  As  the cabtbag,e requires muchli manure, 20 tons to the acre
of farm-yard dung should be given, and at
least 2 cwt. of guano sowni by la.nid over
.the (lung. The drills are then set up in tle
double form, (2397;) and just before the
plants are planted on the drills, a light
roller, of the form of fig. 222, should flatten
their tops, and reduce tlhe soil on them to a,
fine state.   The turnip-sowing machline,
fig. 25.4, with the coulters removed, will
do this work well with its curved rollers.
3373. Th e    unde r leaves  shoul d never be
plucked from the close-lheaded cal)eage,
but be allowed to drop off.  Those of the
open-hearted sorts, aniid of the kales, may
be removed by tlte hand, and the growth
of the remaining ones, will be increased.
3370. Cabbages may be raised by sowing tlhe seed in the drill, as with turnips,
or by transplanting prepared plants.  The
transplanting is much  the preferable and
secure plan for raising cabbages. ThIe plants
are prepared  in this way:    Plougl), or
dig with  tlhe spade, a piece of ground,
which  lhas grown early potatoes or tares
for tlhe ljhorses iii harvest, with a sprinkling
of manrrre upon it, and sow  the cabbage
seed. either broadcast, whicli is the conmmon
mode, b)ut better  in rows at 12 inches
apart, atid fence the plot fromt trespassers
during thle winter.  H(,e the grouind between tl,e rows, and keepl it clean.  Fromn
the enid4 of MIarch to May, take the best
of the plants in the mi,aniner described in
traish)l,tntitig Swedish thrlltgs (3269,) and
transl)nt them in moist or dull.,eath-er
on thie niewly p)reparei fla.ttene(d drills, at
2 feet a,ipar-t; and at this,listante,  with  27
inches I)eL%%eeii the drills, 9680 planits will
be replared  for tlhe acre.    Wlien purchased fr-,,mi nurserymen  or gardeniers, the
plants cost 5s. the 1001).
3375. In autumn     the cabbage plant is
subjected to the attacks of insects, and
particularly  to  tlat of  the well-known
cabba,ge butterfly Pontia brassictv, with
white  wings and ])lack tips, which produces the long, beautiful, green caterpillars,
familiar to every one who  frequents  a
garden.
3376. The cabbage occupies the same place as
the turnip and koll-rabi in the systems of botany.
The specific rname of the drumhead cabbage-so
named, 1 suppose,fromi its resemblance in size and
shape to a drtum, is Brassica oleracea, c(4pitata
depressa, and of the Scotch  cabbage, Brassica
ioleracea, capi)itat  sphei-ica alba, of De  Catidolle,
(893.)   Tie  large savoy,  ca,pe, or  drumhead
savoy, with its solid-like globular form of head,
anid wrinkled leaves, being both hardy and productive, nmight also be cultivated in the field.
The tall purple German green is so cultivated.
3371. The  sunimer  treatmnent  of  the
cabl)age, as  regarls scuffli,z, ist t,l-lo                             e it, l
drill-g?'uill-)itig fir the destrisetiti () f weeds
and tite!ilveri~ation of tlje surfacte, is in              i
all res,;ects the siniie as that of tlie turnip.
The ealrth slit)ild be lail ttwarI  thestestis
withl  the ((tille iiiuld-lIoard 1l,ugh, fig.
209, (it fit istitiig the,peratio,ns. t(, issist in
steatyitig lie Iliants, s,  wlien the hieals becomne heavy,  the wintl is apt to cause  tlhe
stetim to work a lhole aro)unid it.
3377. The ash left by buirnling the dry leaves
of  the cabbage  leave  the following ingredients,
according to the analysis of Dr  Fromnberg:    Potash,...?.      11.70
Soda,.....     20.42
Line,.....     20.97
1aguesia,.....           5.94
Oxide of iron,....       0.60
Phosphoric aci(l,...       12.37
Sulphuric acid,....        21.48
Chlorirne.....       5.77
Silica,i.....         0.75
100.00*
3372. The crop expected from  such
* Johnston's Lecturer on Aggricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384.
OD
1:3374. The application of 2 cwt. of sulpliated bones tothe acre, around each plant,
would greatly increase the size of the
c,lose-lieaded cabbage, and the leaves of the
ol.)en-liearted kinds. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
low, and the globe orange, which name
truly indicate their respective characters;
and  where the chief reliance of  winter
food is placed on beet in preference  to
turnip, all the varieties oughlt to be cultivated, since  the globe orange  thrives
best on light soil and the  long yellow
is in a better state for use in the early
part of winter than thie long  red.  The
circunistance of beet riot being a safe root
to give to cattle, iuntil it has been some
timie out of the ground, is the only objection and it is a serious one, to their indiscrinminate use,
3378. In the neighbourhood of large towns,
farmers raise the drumnhead and common garden cabbage to s up ply the  market gardeners for
planting in spring, in the manner described in
(3370.) The plants are cleared off the ground
early in spring, and the gro)uind sown with spring
wheat.  Good plants fetch about half-a-(,rown
the thousand.
3379. The turnip-rooted cabbage, Brassica
campestris, napo brassica cottmunis, of De Candolle, is little known in English culture, though
it is cultivated in the fields of the north of France.
Its root is white or red, and its neck and pitioles
greenish or purplish.   It has a woody short
stem, produced by the formation and decay of
the leaves; and as new leaves are formed by the
central bud of the stem, the lower leaves drop
off, and thus the top of the bulb assumes the appearance of a stem. Dr Neill observes that it
has a root under ground as sweet as a Swedish
turnip.
3383. One and the other of these varieties will grow  on any soil  intermediate
fro m a gravel to a strong clay, on neither of
which classes of soil will any one succeed.
3384. The climate of Scotland does not
seemi to suit niangold-wurzel.  I tried it
in Forfarsiiire for three successive years
on the best lmnd I possessed, which had as
well been longa in cultivation as in a fresh
state, but failed in two seasons (lot of the
three; and tile successful crop was but a
poor compensation compared to tuirnips.
In England it succeeds well, particularly
in the eastern counties, and in the north
of Ireland I have seeli very  heavy drops
of the long red on drained bog.
3380. The cow-cabbage, or Cesarean kale,
Brassica oleracea, acephala  ar)orescens, of De
Candolle, which created so much interest a few
years ago, only deserves a passing notice. "This
plant," says Don, "is almost similar in habit to
the palm kale, and it lasts four years without
fresh planting.  In La Veiidde, it is said to attain the height of 12 or 16 feet.  In Jersey this
plant is sufficiently hardy, and  there it grows
from 4 to 12 feet.  The small farmers there feed
their cows with the leaves, plucking them from
the stem as they grow, leaving the crown at
the top. The stems being strong, are also used
by them for roofing small outhouses.  When the
gathering of the leaves is finished at the end of
the year, the terminating bud or crown is boiled,
and is said to be particularly sweet. It is not
sufficiently hardy to stand the climate of Britain,
unless planted in a very sheltered situation."*
3385. The mangoh(l-wurzel being a
green crop, is subjected to precisely the
same culture as tl,he turnip up to the point
of plou,liing the dung in the drills, and
need not be repeated here. Tile quantity
of farm-yard dung given is tile same as to
Swedish turni)s-l16 tons the acre, with 3
cwt. of guano, sown upon the dung,, before
being cov.redl in the drill. The land slhould
thus be prepared for the seed early in
April, and not later than the beginning of
Mav.
338 a. Mangold-wiirzel, a species of beet,
is a very important green crop, and may be
regarded as next so to the turnip. It contains a sweet nutritious juice, which seems
well adapted forthe supportof cows in miiilk,
as it imparts none of the acrid flavour which
the turnip does. This root, theref,)re, oughlt
to be valued on every dairy farm.
338ti. The  seed  of mangold-wurzel
beiing covered  withl  a rough  integumenit,
cannot  be sown  with a  turnijp-niachiiie
havin,g the coilniiloi seed-boxes.   Perhaps
Gedles' turnip sowiingi-macline, with  the
ii(,,)(de of leeding the seed dlescribedl in fig.
2.57, iiiiglit answer the purpose; and Mr
taynefield;f Stfholk refer s  to a one-horse
drill  whiichi sows  three rows  of reed at
3382. There,l                                   a    re  several vatoieties     a    ef
mangol(-wurzel fitted for cultivation in
the field;  the long red, the long yel
* Don's Get,eral Dictionary of Botany and Gardeninyg, vol. i. p. 229.
I I have given the quantity of min-cral matter taken
from the soil by a crop of 20 tons of Drumhead
cabbage at (894.)
ON TIIE SOWING, AND TITE SUM.,MER TREAT       M,NT OF NIANGOLD-WURZEL. 
THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD-WURZEL.
a time, over three acres in two hours.*
Newberry's whleel-dibbler  11has also been
used.  I have never seen a machine capable of sowing ilangold-wurzel seed well,
and  one  that will sow two drills at a
time, like turnips-and roll the drills before and after the sowing witllh  a light
roller-is preferable, for management, to
one having three drills.  Mr Miles uses an
iron  wheel, uponl  thle circumference of
which are placed iron studs at 18i iDnhes
apart and 21 inches in projection, to act as
dibbles in forming holes along the top of
tihe drill; but a projecting stud from  thl    e
circumference  of a whleel in revolution
must make a lle  imuclh rag,ged on  one
side.  In lack of a miachine, I tried a plan
of sowing which answered very waell, a.nd r
which I would  prefer to any dil-bl)le-it
was  this:  A  light roller flattened and
made even the tops of two drills at once,
when the soil had beconme dry after the
plouglhing of the dung.  A  fiel(-worker
followed, atd( made a light rut along the
top of the drill with the corner of a handhoe, fig. 266; another worker dropped tihe
seed along the rut in tile given quantity- p
4 lb or 5 lb to the acre-steeli)ed or in a dry
state as desired; dry sand l)eing mixed
with it, in either state, to all(w the miore
easy separation from eachl  other; and a
thinrl worker fi)ll,,wed and  levelled the
earth, which hadl been raised up in tiiakin,g
the rut, ovrer thle seed witl-h the back of an
iron garden rake.  The sowing was tius
condlucted quickly, tlihough a sowing-nmaclhine that rolls the drils  at the saen        e
tinie woulil be preferable.  A  roller follows the sowing, and terminates the whole e
operation.
3389.  Marngold-wurzel   is  raised in
rows on the flat surface as well as in drills,
and tlhis is clhiefly practised on the strongest
species,,f soils, wlen the manure is ploegled in  at thre commencement  of winlter.
Tihe seed is dibbled in by  hand, or with
Newl)erry's  dibbler, referred  to above,
(3386,) or witlh a fliat piece of wood 5 or
6 feet long, furnished with short dibbles, in
thje lholes miade by which the seed is dropped by the lhasd.  In tl-je flat culture sowing with the common dibble, giving it a
twist with tlhe wrist to keep the hiole open
until the seeds have been droppedi into it
by a field-worker, a man and woman sowing an acre a day, is apt to make the
dibble holes in strong soil receptacles for
water.  But thtere is no miietlhod sooodof
raisinl,, green crops of all kinds as in drills;
and if roughl clods are dreaded in strong
land, let the land be drilled  and manured
in winter, as hlas been recomnmeindedi in the
case  of raising turnips on strong soils,
(.8244.) One (,bjection to the fl,.t culture
on stronng soils seemns to nme to be insuperaljle-tlhat thero>ts are atpt to set out lateral
shloots, after the soil is set up with the
double rmiotlfd-board plough.
3387. A difference  of opinion exists
whethler or not thle seeds of manigo]ll-wnrzel should be steepe,-l in so01e liquor before
bein, sorwn.  Mr laynl)ird conceives thley
should  be sown dry, and, on trying an
experinijent with steeped and dry see,ls,
foundl tlhat 10 of the dry  germinated,
whlilst the largest nunmber of thle steeped
that app)eared was only 6, and these had
been stee)ed( in water f,r 14 hours.  I
prefer the (Iry see(l, as being  safest from a
tlje effects of frost and drought, botllh whlicell
mlay be expected at the season  miangoldwurzel seed should be sownI.
* Journal of tlte Enylish.Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 213.
91
3388. When tl)e weather is fa,,vourable,
the plants should make their appearance
,above round in 8 or 10 days. The
sciiffler, fi(,. 262, is flrst sent along tlje
di-ills to pare their sides, and cut down
any weeds in the intermediate space; and
I may say at once that the entire clean..
in.4, process, during the summer, is precisely
the sanie as for the turnip. The plants
are hoed out with the ha.ild-hoe, fig. 266,
at froiii 14 to 18 inclies apart, according
to the sti-eiigtli and rich state of the land.;
an(] tijis is the tiiiie to fill iip the blanks
in the crop, by the transplantation of the
best plants Which had been singled out.
3390. By soii)e experiments instituted
by Mr Pusey, on the effects of certain
iijaiiui-es on the growth of inang(,](I-wurzel, it wotil(l al,pear tliat, in doiit)ling
f,,ti-ni-yar(I dung from 13 loads to 26 the
aci-e, oijlyone ton additional was obtained;
and of various ingredients useti,,,no
effect exceet-ling a' tons the acre 1)                        n
w li,-it I),,t(I no ii;an,tire at all. was producedwitti tlje exception of 3 owt. of guanq,,ana 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
wurzel leaves is not serious, the crop re covering after the larva have dropped into
the ground to be transformed into pupae,
from wlichl emerge  the beetles.   A very
destructive t insect is the common  dart rmoth, Noctua( or,grotis seyetum, which
is gellerally of a reddishl-brown, but varies
so greatly in thie tint of the upper wings
as to be sometimies of a clay colour.  It is
in length fromn  8 lines to thllree-quarters of
an inch, and its expanse is fromnt 14a to 2
inclhes.  Thie nioth is sonmetimes seen flying
in multitudes about tlhe tops of hedges, soon
after sunset, in June and July.   The larva
is smooth and sliining, and of a pale lurid
oclhreous colour, faintly freckled,  with a
broad space down  the back, often rosy, and
a few short hairs scattered over the body.
It does great mnischlief to young mangoldwurzel plants, the roots of which  it cuts
thlroulgh  just below the  crown,  and  it
attacks the potatoes as they are pushing
out of thle ground, andl is exceedingly voracious.  One cause of the great  mischief
arising, fiom the attacks of the caterpillar
of thlis species, is its capability of travelling at a very rapid rate from one spot to
another; and(l in this way, as soon as a
caterpillar has eaten through the root of a
young plant, it mn'arclies off in quest of another, andl thius the evil is greatly mutltiplied.   The gru,b which attacks tile oat
plant in sltring, fig. 223, also iliures the
inangold- wurzel  plant  by  dividing  the
young root about an inchl below the surface of the ground.  Insects which injure
the parts of crlaps under the ground are
hsmuch  iimore destructive in thleir effects than
tht,se which injure the leaves and buds of
plants.
3391. Like all           the succulent green crop s,
mangold-wurzel is subject to the attack of
insects. It was at one time believed thiat
this root was exempt from suclh'attacks,
but the exper ienc         the the few years bypast
h      as     produced an      opposite conviction. The
mangold-wurzel  plant, as soon    as it app        ears abov e ground, is    a       ttacked by the
larva of a beetle, named Silpha opaca.
Th e eggs are probably             laid in th4e earthbut this r ema           ins to be proved-  and the
larva are hatched in ten                     or twelve days,
and;  when  full-grown  ar e           f     our to five lines
in breadth.    These are shliniing  black,
comprisin g  13  segments, inclu ding                tche
head. They have 6                 s    hort legs.  From
1844 to 1847 they completely                       ate down
the leaves of the mangold-wiirzel in the
counties of Londonderry and Tyrone in
Ireland; and what is remarkable, the same
insect, though abundant in En,,gIland, does
no harm to that crop there.  The ultimai-tte
effect of these attacks on the mnangold
3392. It is not an unfrequent practice
to strip off the under leaves of the nmangold-wurzel plant  ill sumtmier, as fo(dder
far  cows  anti  )i,s; but  the practice, as
n  may be supposed, is il uriols, as seen frtom
an ex)eriz-ient madle  by Mlr R.  Rand,
HIadleiglh, Stiff(,k, in 1842. He selected
3 portion]s of  iiiai-jg,old-wur-zel, containing
eachi 7 sq ua-re yardsa iid froin the fi rst portion-i lie.stril)pe(l 4 or,5 of the un(ler leaves
on 8tl, of Jell ve (tith of Augui,st, ain(d first week
of Seliteyber; fromn the second portion he
stripped the samie  number at each period
of the 6tlh of Auigust and the first week
* Journal of the Enylish Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 53o.
" 92
t Ibid. TO!. Viii. P. 407. 
THE CULTURE OF MAN;GOLD-WURZEL.
of September;  and  from the thlird( por-   were carefully cleaned and weighed, and
tion none were stript at all. Tile roots the produce was as follows:          From 1st portion, 471 lb. net weight, or 14 tolls, 13 cwt. 0 qrs. 27 lbs. per acre.
2d... 2d 52...... 16...   1... 0...  2...
...  3d...   61...... 16... 16... 2...  O*...
3393. Roots of mangold-wurzel  have             3397. The German name of the field beet was
been grown in Scotland as heavy as 15 lb.,  at one time a matter of dispute, but is now set                                                  tied to be man~qold-wrurzel, which literally means
and crops obtained of 38 tons to the acre,  tled to be mnl-urzel which literally means
the root of the white beet.  The former phrase
at Largo in Fifeshire, where the land is of  mantgel-wurzel means  the root of scarcity, and
fine quality.  Fromn 5 lb. to 8 lb. each root  is used by Von Thalier, in common with the former,
would be near the ordinary niark; * but in  to denominate the field beet.  His opinion is,
seasons of late frosts, of which there are that the field beet is a hybrid betwixt the red
seasons of late frosts, of which there are
in Scotland, te   angol-ur    garden beet and the white sugar beet-a not
too many                      inSctadthmagl-u- mprobable conjecture.~
zel hlas no chance of succeeding there.
3398. Mangold-wurzel seed has a remarkable
appearance.   It proceeds from a capsule which,
when green, is soft and  fleshy, and, wh en r ipe,
hard, and somewhat woody in texture, and into
which the rough kidney-shaped seeds -re deeply
im-ibedded. The seeds, w,-ith their persistent rough
capsule, are so large and heavy as only to require
184 to weigh a drachm.
3394. The plants of mangold-wurzel
are very apt to run to seed when exposed
to drought early after hlaving been singled
out in the rows; and the seed froit plants,
which had prematurely run to seed, encourages  that  tendency  in  the future
plant still more than drought.
3399. 1 have given the composition of mangold.
wtnrzel in (854,) and  the ashes of the bulb  and
leaf, as ascertained by Professor Way  and Mr
Ogston, contain ingredients as follows:         1. Of the yellow globe beet.
Bulb.      Leaf
Potash,....    23-54      8'34
So)da,....    19-08    12-'1
Lime,....          1.78     8172
Magnesia, c          X w   sg75 99          84
Oxide of iron,...     0'74       1-46
Carbonic acid,..    18'14      6'92
Phosphoric acid,..     4'49      5'89
Sulplhuric acid,..      3'68 6'54
Chloride of sodium,..    4'54    37'66
Silica,....      2'22     2'35
99.96    99.93
Percentage of ash, 1- 0 2   1 -40
Percentage of ash,       1.02      1-40
3395. The mangold-wurzel belongs to the class
and order Pentandria Digynia of Liiinous; the
natural order Chenopodic of Jussieu; and to fyqogynons Exogens-alliance 38, Chlenopodalesorder 195, Chenopodiacece-genus Beta, of the
natura system of.Lindley.  Its specific name is
Beta vulgaris canpestris, of the order Chenopods,
which are closely allied to the.Nettleworts.  Its
leaves are reddish or reddish green; roots thickly
fusiform, globular, or spindle-shaped, of a dullish
red colour on the outer surface, and marble            d
white and red of various shades in the interior.
One globular variety is of dull orange'colour on
the outer skin, and another spindle-shaped is
similar in colour.
3396. A white variety, called the white sugar
beet, Beta vulgqaris campestris alba, has long been
cultivated in France for the sugar which it yields.
Many mills are at work in that country for the
manufacture of the sugar.t  It was the policy of
Buonaparte to encourage the culture of this root,
in order to render the French people independent
of sugar from our colonies. The scheme succeeded
in France, but the climate of Britain is unsuited
to this delicate root.  The physical characters
which serve to show that this beet is of good quality for sugar, are its being firm, brittle, emitting
a creaking noise when cut, and being perfectly
sound within.  The degree of sweetness is also a
good indication.   The  45th degree of latitude
appears to be the southern limit of the successful
growth of white beet, in reference to the extraction of sugar.  Dr Ure states that he has obtained
5 per cent of good sugar from white beet grows
near Mitchem in Surrey.'+
* Henslow's Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk-Letter xiv.
+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 922.
+ Ure's Dictionary of the Arts-art. Suqar, p. 1210.
S Thier's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 589-Shaw and Johnston's translation
93
2. Of the long red beet.
Bulb.
1 29-05
19-05
2-17
2-i9
0-56
21-61
. 3-11
3-31
14-18
4-11
99-94
Leaf..
27-53.,
5.83
19.06
9.10
0-48
6-11
4'-39
. 6-26
29-85
1-35
99-96
Potash,..
Soda,..
Liiiie,.I 0
Magnesia,
Oxide of iron,.
Carbonic acid,.
Pbospboric acid,
Sulpliuric acid,
Chloride of sodium,
Silica,..
Percentage of ash,
1-00 1.91 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
3400. Mineral matters in pounds in one  ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUtyMMER TREAT
ton of                                              MENT OF THE CARROT.
Mean of
three specimens of leaf.
lb.
7'86
2.52
3-31
3.27
0-52
1-94
2-20
12.832
0(76
3403. Al though  the carrot is a green
crop, and occupies the same  course o f
cropping as the turnip, it is raised generally on so limited spaces of ground  that
it has never assumed the importance of a
crop of the farm as its value deserves.  ItS
limited culture may have arisen fiomn certain inconveniences  attending  its cultivation, such as that it requires a particular kind of soil, very deep ploughing-tihe
dung applied in  tile unusual  season of
winter, when the land of the fallow break
is not likely to be free of weeds, a second
illanurilig when the seed is sown and some
difficulty attendling the sowing (of the seed.
These are all unusual items of practice,
which I have no doubt continue to operate as obstacles against the extended cultivation of even so valuable a root as the
carrot.  On  however small  a scale it is
cultivated, every particular of the process
of cultivation nmust be attended  to as if
thle crop occupied as large a space as the
turnip.
Potash,
Sodla,.
Lime,...
M     agnesia,. 
Oxide of iron,
Phosphoric acid,.
Sulphuric acid,.
Chloride of sodium,
Silica,.   I.
3401. " The chief features in the composition
of the ash of the bulb, are the large proportion of
alkali present in it as carbonates, bat existing
in the vegetable itself no doubt in great part il
the form of nitrates, which are well known to be
constituents of beet. Phosphoric acid, sulphuric
acid, and lime, are found in the nmanigold bulb
ash in smaller quantity than in that of the turnip.
The high percentage of common salt, chloride
of sodium, in beet is remarkable: in one case it
constitutes one-third, in another one-fourth, of
the entire mineral matter. The ash of beet
leaves contain more phosphoric and sulphuric acid,
more lime and magnesia, but less alkali, and a
smaller amount of alkaline carbonate, than that
of the bulb.  It contains, however, like the bulb,
a very considerable quantity of common salt.
The ash of both bulb and leaf evidences a partial
substitution of soda for potash.   Weight  for
weight, the leaves are considerably richer in
phosphoric acid than the bulbs; and they also
contain a very much larger proportion of inagnesia.   The alkalies predominate in the bulb,
whilst common salt, although abundantly present
in both, is found in larger quantity ill the leaf
than in that of the thrnip."
3405. As the carrot has a long fusiform
root, which grows  almost entirely tin-der
ground, it is evident that it must have a
deep soil; and such  a depth of soil  must
either be  natuiral or artifici a lly  made so,
blefore the root can be expected to arrive at
a perfect proportion of length.
3402. It may be owing to the effects of the large
quantity of- common salt contained in nianigoldwurzel and turnips, that the milk of cows decreases when fed exclusively on raw mangoldwurzel, or that abortion is brought on ewes in
lamb when placed wholly on turnips in winter,
and their milk deficient when the lambs are
dropped. It is a well-known fact that, when ewes
in lamb have been principally fed on Swedish
turnips, for some time before the lamibing season,
that their lambs are small and unhealthy, and
themselves are deficient of milk.  The effect nlay
arise from the circumstance of the large quantity
of common salt contained in turnips diminishing
the secretion of the liver, and the effect would
be aggravated by a free use of commonll salt being
given to ewes on turnips; and it is, besides, known
that incipient disease of the liver is favourable
to the production of fat, and hence the high condition of the ewes or lamb on turnips, and espe.
eially if salt is attainable at pleasure.
3406). While treating of sea-weed as a
manure, I nmentionedI that it was so used
four raising carrots,  (2110,) by pe,)ple in
certain part s of tuhe coasts of Scotlan',
in light sandy soil.  This is  the mode
of raising carrots practised by the feuars
of the  parish  of Barrie, Forfarslire, on
sandly soil, and it deserves  inmitation in
similar circumstances. They begin a trench
of 2 feet  deep in the sand in autumnii, after
a white on(p, and, collecting sea-weed as it
is washed ashore after storns in the courrt
* Journal of the' English Aygrioultural SIciety, vol. viii. p. 185' 190.
94
3404. The best soil for the carrot is a
deep sandy loam. It will not succee4i at
all on tenacious soil of any kind, nor one
resting itniiiediaflely upon a retentive stib;soil, wtietliei- of clav or i-ock, and niiith
less if either are undrained. 
THE CULTURE OF THiE CARROT.
of winter, they half-fill trench after trench
with it, till the break of soil allotted to
the carrot crop is manutred.  Of course
other manure wouldi answer the same purpose as sea-ware, but when it can be found
in sutfi-cieut quantity for the gatlh.ering and
carriage, it aff,)rds a cleap manure for the
purpose.   Of farm-yard manure,  horsedung is found to be best when treated in
this mannier as sea-ware is.  In the end of
April, or beginning of May, ruts are foimed with the hoe in rows  of about 14
inches apart, and old rotten dung is sown
along the bottom of tthetti to insure the
brairding of the seedl on so poor a soil as
loose sandl generally is, the seed is sown
upon the dung, and the soil raked over it.
The plants aie thinned out by the hand,
at about six inches asunder, and the ground
kept clean by hand and hoe together.  Tihe
carrots grown  by the  sea-weetl in this
manner, in loose sandl, are not only excellent in quality, but clean, long, and juicy,
ts may be witnessed in the Dundlee market
in autumni  and winter.  The culture in
this case is on a small scale, but may be
extended to any degree where the circumstances are similar.  At the price of
~3, or ~3, 1Os. the ton, and with a crop
of not mnore than 10 tons to the acre, a
considerable sumn niay be annually realised
by the labourinrg and industrious cottar.
Instead of rotten dung in the spring, guano
might be employed, and in case of ili)jury
to the seedl from the guano, the seed should
be mixed with a quantity of the sand.
should be applied in drill; and as it need
not be much  reduced by  fermentatio'n,
the drills should  be  deep, and formed
in the d,urble mode, (2397.)  The quantity applied should be 25 tons to the acre.
After the dung hlas been covered in the
double mode  again, the land remains in
that state until next spring.
3409. About the middle of April, should
the drilled grounid bear evidence of surface weeds,  the  drill-hairrow, fig. 220,
should harrow along  the drills, antl the
drill-grubber, fig,. 264, remove the weeds
between the drills.  At this tiiise, 2 cwt.
of guano should be carefully sown by handi
along the top of the drills.   The setting
up double imould-board ploughl, fig. 214,
shoulld place the mould again  upon the
drills, anitl give them again their proper
form; and-a light roller, such as the concave rollers of the turnip sowing-mnitachline,
fig. 254, witlhouit the coullters, will make
the tops even  and smooth.   The seed
shouild be preparing in the steeping and
germinating processes, to answer thle time'
of these last operations;  and  the large
quantity (of sand with which  it is mnixe&
will protect it from immediate contact andinjury from the action of the guano.
3407. The land intended to bear  the
c arrot crop, should be      e       gloughe d in  the
stubble immediately after the harvest is
over, to have time to clean it, should it be
foul, before the ball weather in winter.
bs the soil is light, the maode of   ploughing it will be by casting, (755,) fig.
22; ands when ploughed, a second plou,gh
should follow in  the furrow  of the one
turning over the surface, i order to stir
th e  soil  to th e  depth  of 14  or 16                 inches.
Reibd's  two-h or se sub.soig-phlugh,  to be
afterwards  fiured and  described,  will
answer a similar purpose.  The land will
now be ready for the dung,; for the manure for carrots must be put into the ground
before winter, the nature of that root not
agreeing with fresh dung, which causes it
to divide into a number of roots, each so
fibrous. aM to be unfit for use.   Tie dung
95
3408. About the end of April the seed
is sown, and carr,,t seed should always be
steeped in water before being sown, and it
is steeped in tl)is way: The bag containing
ttie seed, which slioiild be in ttie qtiantit'y
of 6 ]I). of tije best quality to the acre, and
an indefinite nunil)er of pounds more when
of doubtful soundness-wbicli it will cer-,
tainly be if older than one year-is lplaced
in a vessel of water and allowed to soak
for 48 hours; and this process should begone through eight or nine days before tile
seed is sown. After the soaking, the seed
is spread about a foot in thickness upon
tl.ie bai-n floor, to encourage its geriiiination, which will take place in six or seven
days, according to the state of tile weather.
Wlien the seed is observed to be cl-iipped it
should be sown, and it is prepared for
sowiiig by being intimately iiiixed with
fine dry,:and to about 4 pecks tothe acre,
seed and sand together.
3410. 1 bave never yet seen a property
constructed niacliiiie for sowing seeds with
rougli capsules, suich as those of niangold 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
w,ir'zl and carrot; but as carrot seed is
mixiedl w*ithl s,) lairge t qiuintity of fine sand,
I iar  ay tile souwing I)art of tile beanbarl'rio, {it,. 21!), Iiiiriglt be so  adjusted
.ais t) ain8sw er thJe  )url)()sc.  Failing any
iacl ifie, a rut shlould be IIIa(le along  the
top,) of eahIi drill withl  the corner of the
lian(-lhoe, fig. 266; the seed and sand sowni
by hland in the rut, and covered with the
earth raied by making the rut about an
inch in depth, with li,ght iron rakes.  The
rollers of fig. 254, on being again passed
along the drills, finish the operation.
3415. Carrots are also sown broadcasts
upon the flat surface; but, excepting in very
small patches, this mode of culture is note
suited to the use; of implements of  the
field, and the clearing of the ground of
weeds must therefore be expensively exe-:
cuted by the hand.
83411. The varieties of carrot cultivated
in the field need not be numerous, as one
or two kinds are all that are desirable.
The white Belgian carrot now stands at
t,e head of all the varieties for certainty
of crop, beauty of root, and sweetness of
taste. It is not long, —thick at the crown,
and tapering to a point.  It grows wholly
tunder ground.  The Altringham is a good
carrot-long, blunt in the end, rather                        irregular in its taper, and of an orange tinge
in its colour.  It grows a  considerable
height abo   ve t    he g r ound. The lon  red is
also a good carrot, of a deep red colour,
long in proportion to its thickness, and
has a comparatively small heart.
3416. Insects infest the carrot crop. in
the root, stem, and flower. The plant.
no sooner makes its appearance than it
is attacked by aphides, the Aphis dauci,:
Which  are  scarcely larger than  c he ese
mites, of a uniform pale green colour, withi6 legs, 2 horns, and no wings.  Their presence is indicated by  the  yellow foliage,.,
and, in pulling up the plant, the roots are;
sound and clean, but the crownis not only
discoloured, but, on opening the embryo
leaves, numbers of the aphides are found
concealed.
3417. The root of the carrot is affected:
with a   dis ease  nariced the  rust, in,   which
t h e   crop gradually  dies off, loses its sacch,arine qualities, and, changing to a ferruginous colour, becomes of little value., This
complaint is occasioned by the  larvae of the
carrot-fly,  Psila  rosa, eating  galleries
al h  ont   geh                the roots wi   they  inhabit throngh
the summer, when they  become  pup, in   the
ea rth, but a new brood  hatches in summer
every three   o r four wee ks.   This fly is   3
lines long  of a pit  chy black; the  wings l ie
,horizontally along the back when at rest,.
and extend beyond tihe  tail,  and whlen -expan(led extendto 5 lines. The maggots are
ochreous and slining, cylindr ical, pointed
at the tread and obtuse at the tail, resem-;
blnng chee se-hoppers, though they cannot
leap, and are ex ceedi ngly t  ranspare nt,.
every internal part being visible.  When
cavities have been opened by- this maggot
in the rest of the carrot, large numbers of
the millepede, Polydesmus complanat4s,
and of the centipede,,S'colopendra eo ctrica,
assist in extending Ithe depredations.  An-.
other caterpillar, the larva of the ghost
3412. The use of the guano is to start
t    fie   seedl-   and         support the  young   plant,
u    n    t    i    l     its long root reaches th e  dung below,
which                     it will  not be long  in doing.  The
y    o    u    n     g     germ will appear above groun d in
f     r     om twenty to twenty-five days, and     when
it is about an inch in             height, it is time to
single out the plants to 6 inches apart in
the                      drill,               which is best done  by th e  hand,
in   the  case of the long-rooted ca       rrot.
Scuffl                                        lrubbing, fig. 262, and drill-grubing the
g r o u n d    between the drills, fig. 2 64, to  mnake
the lae and clean and to stir it, are     executed
in precisely the same manner as for turnips.
9 ey
naturally deep an4.. rich,, and:  loose, this;
mode of culture iq not so well suited for'the
fiel(i as that in drills; for with deep-ploughiDg to any extent, tl-icre is no possibility of
btiryin,, dun,,, so deep and affording thecrop such a depth of soil, as'I-ri ttie drill
aii(i both',tikese conditions are essential to —
the successful cultivation of the carro-..
8413. Besides ligbt true, soils, cari-ot;s
.qre successfully raised on recl,,.timed bog
b at has some, all.un,ial matter in it. The
culture is the same as oil cartl,iy soil, the
inanurel,beinL,, deep buried; and as dried
iposs is very porous in texture, the carrot.
is     abled to push its loln,, root tliroucli it
with comparative ease.
, 3414. Carrots my. be, raised in rows on
b,      g            I.11  - I I 11,Ie, flat round, but llijless the 80il is, 
THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT.
moth, Hepialis hiumili, also eats ilto the
root of the carrot and injures it.
white Belgian  carrot is:9 or  -10 tons the
acre greater, in the same circumstances,
than that of the red varieties.  In  Belgium the produce of the white carrot is
160 bushels the acre, the individual carrots
weighing I  lb., making the crop about 4
tons the acre, raised with 21 tons of manure, half of farm-yard dung and half from
the privies.
3418. Mr Curtis gives the recipe of a
composition of sand and  spirit of tar,
to prevent those insects injuring the carrot
root.  Take 4 bushels of sand and mix t
intimately with them  one gallon of the
spirit of tar.  The mixture is to be applied along the drill, and if a space of
half a foot in breadth upon the top of the
drill is dressed with it, the quantity named
will dress about 1300 yards along a drill.
If it is applied in the drill when that is
formed in winter, the spirit of tar may kill
the young larvae in the soil; if ill spring,
the female fly may be deterred from  depositing her eggs, and it will no doubt be
as successful when the crop is sown, as it
is the smell of the spirit of tar which is
the obnoxious ingredient to insects.  As
carrots are not cultivated over a large extent of ground in any one place, this remedy
may be easily applied, both as regards its
cost and the ease of its application.         I 
3422. Ho  a rit  ares and  rabbo its ar e so nd of ihe
carrot that, unless the crop is protected
where  they abound, it will have   a poor
chance of coming to maturity; and unleso
the fence  erected round the crop is    a close
one, it will  not be able  to exclude these
wily depredators.   I believe the  only
effectual fence is a close paling of laths
pushed into the ground, supported near the
top and bottom with horizontal spars nailed
to them, and the whole held steady by
stobs driven at intervals into the ground
to act as shores against the paling.  If -a
common 3-sparred paling already exists,
it might be made fencible by interlacing
stems of broom, or whin, or branches of
spruce fir, between  the spars.   A  dead
fence of thorns also forms a complete
fence.
3419. The larvw of the flat-body motls,
Depressaria cicutella and depressella, bore
into the stems of the carrot, causing the
leaves to stint and decay; and the larvae
of the gray carrot-blossom flat-body moth,
Depressaria dancella, commit great havoc
on the floral umbels of the carrot.
3423. On account of the land for carrots
hav ing to be cleaned and manured before
winter, the culture of that root is not likely
to be extended in Scotland  where  the
harvest is not unfrequently late, and little
time left for cleansing operations after it.
It is true that, should the potato crop occupy a less extent of ground in future than
it has hitherto done, the time that would
be sav ed fromn attending on that crop might
be bestowed on the carrot  in the end of
autumn, and it would thus come in for i
share of attention which it has not hitherto
received.  Both it and  mangold-wurzel
requiring to be taken up and stored in
autumn, (836-37-38,) wheat would follow
them.  Trivial as' the circumstance may
appear of the partiality which hares and
rabbits exhibit for the carrot, it will continue to operate as an obstacle to its ex-i
tended cultivation, for the trouble of feneing in the  crop so closely cannot  be;
generally practised.
3420. Few   agricultural seed           s  a re      so
diqficult to obtain in a good state as those
of the different varieties of the carrot; and
this is partly to be ascribed to the injuries
occasiorie(d by this insect, and greatly also
to a wet state of the weather, the form of
the umbels being favourable to the retention of much moisture, which either prevents impregnation altogethier, or destroys
the vitality of the seed.  Of all the varieties, the-seed of the AltringhlIam is the most
difficutlt to obtain pure, for though obtained
from selected roots, its produce is often
unlike the parent stock.
3121. Altringhain carrots have been
grown at Falkland in Fifeshiire, of crop
1834, that have weighed 5 lb. each.  In
good hazel loam, on the lionie farm  of
Blair-Drummond in Perthshiire, 29 tons of
car                 rots have been obtained from       thie acre;
but from 16 to 20 tons are a good crop.
It is said generally that tie produce of -thie
VOL. II.
3424. Notwithstanding theseconsidera-"'
tions, I have dwelt the longer on the culture
of the carrot, as it is a root suited to the
V
i4 
9PRACTICE-SUMMER.
climate of Scotland, on which account it
imay take the place of the potato, the culture of which cannot now be pursued with
the same degree of confidence it has hitherto received.
WAY AND
JOHNSTON.  O.8TO.
White Bo1w...
Young red   Old red carrot-3e1w
carrot.    carrot. of 5 specimens
46.3'7 46.87            32.44
12.92       8.12       13.52
15.38       6.58         8.83
2.12       9.06        3.96
0.90       0.37        1.10
4.65      10.48         8.5J
8.09       6.30 6.5&
17.30
6.i3      10.o2        6.50
3.14       1.62        a1.19
lo00o.     100.02        99.94
3425. The carrot stands in the class and order
Pentandria Digynia of Linnaus; ill the natural
order, Umbelliferce of Jussieu; and in Epigqynous
Ex0oens-alliance 55, Umbellales-order  295,
Apiacee-tribe 12, Daucidco-genus Daucus, of
the natural system of Lindley.
The carrot is rich in alkalies, much resembling
the turnip - the latter yields more sulphates, the
former more carbonates.
3426. Umbellifers are " natives chiefly of the
northern part of the northern hemisphere, inhabiting groves, thickets, plains, marshes, and
waste places.   They appear to be extremely
rare in all tropical countries, except at considerable elevations, where they gradually increase
in number as the other parts of the vegetation
acquire an extra-tropical or mountain character.
Hence, although they are hardly known in the
plains of India, they abound on the mountains of
Himalaya.  They are, however, not uncommon
in the southern hemisphere, where they belong
principally to hydrocotylids and malinids.  The
umbelliferous is one of those large orders in
which plants occur with  extremely  different
secretions.  They all appear to form three different principles: the first, a watery acrid matter; the second, a gum-resinous milkysubstance;
and the third, an aromatic, oily secretion. When
the first of these predominate, they are poisons,
as  the hemlock; the second, in excess, converts
them into stimulants, as the assafcetida; the
absence of the two renders them useful escutents, as celery, fennel, samphire, parsley, and
the roots of carrots, parsnips, and skirrets; and
the third cuses them to be carminatives and
pleasant condiments, as anise, carraway, coriander, and cureain, used in veterinary practice."*
Potash,.          48'50
Soda,...       4-53
Lime,..      18-58
Magnesia,..        2-04
Oxide of iron,..                     1-46
Phosphoric acid,        3-36
Sulphuric acid,.       5-05
Carbonic acid,
Chloride of potas  sium,
Chloride of sodium,   14-54
Silica,..     1-94
10000  100'00 100-00    99'97
f
"The  ash of carrot-leaf is   peculi ar in  one respect/" observes Professor Way: "of the  alkalies, potash, and soda, the latter greatly predominates. Thi s  is, in reality, an  imp ortant as
well as a singular  circumstance.  The alkali s oda
is much more available for agricultural purposes
than potash, especially as the results we have
obtained would induce a belief that a plant can
obtain this alkali from common salt-the commo*
est of all salts. If any plant be found to content
itself with this alkali, such plant will undoubtedly be more easy of artificial culture than others
which require potash, and refuse to take soda instead of it: it is not said that this is the case with
the carrot, but attention is drawn to the  uniformity of the result in the case of the leaves."
3427. The  carrot,  Daucus carota, has  white
flow    ers, with                     & solitary red or purplish barren one
ine    ired t he celtre  of t he umbel; bristles             of he seed
slender, and as the same becomes ripe, the umbel
acquires a contracted and concave form; leaves
tripinnate; leaflets, pinnatifid; stems, rough and
furrowed; root, fleshy and fusiform, biennial.
The generic name, daucus, is derived from the
Greek, signifying hot, implying pungency; and
the specific term carota, is from the Celtic car,
meaning red, the colour of the root.
Mean of Mean of
five specimens. three specimer s,
ltoot      Leaves.
lb. lb.
6.59             6.64
m2.71            9.67
1.77         30.24
0.80           2.5':
0.22      2'16
~ 1.73!.64
~1.31           5.61l
1.42          11.95
0.24           4.46
6.79         7.14
3428. The composition of the carrot has been
given in (854).  The proportion of water in the
carrot is as follows:
Young red              Old red        Old hit
carrot.              carrot.                ht
tleave.   stemI.   rots   tos.    roots.  tops.                    Pho      or       i..64
Water,   87'08 76'63 8ij-58                 75,97   80-23 74'
;
3429.  The ash                       of the root of the carrot is as
-bllows, from two authorities:
The asho* Lindley's Vegetable Kinodom, p. 775.
,f TraMactionsof the Highland and  4gricultural Society, for July 1847, p. 67-68.
Potash,
Soda, ~ ~
Lime,. ~
Magnesia,..
Oxide of iron,.
Phosphoric acid,
Sulphuric acid,
Carbonic acid,.
Chloride of sodium,
Silica,..
3430. The ash of the leaves contain:                                      WAY AND
~ST(
red
lt
ON,               OOSTON.
Old *d White Belgian
earr'       ot.
earo- rarrot   carrot-mean
Leaves Tops.   of 3 specimens
Leaves.
19-08   27'04        7-12
5-80..        10-97
34-10  26-53       32-64
4'48    4'95        2-92
2-40     0'71      2-40
8'17    3-60 1-67
14-54    7-75       6'20
,....            17-82
5'04
9,33   22o69       13-.7
2-10    1-69       4-56
3431. Mineral matter in one ton of carrot-roots
and of leaves, in pounds:
Potash,..
Soda,..
Lime,..
Magnesia,..
Oxide of iron,.
Phosphoric acid,.
Sulphuric acid,.
Chloride of sodium,
Silica,.. 
THE CULTURE OF PARSNIP..
Although the ash in the leaf is greater than, in
-he root, and varies much m,,re greatly in the
different specimens, yet in the entire plant the
mineral matter will be found far more constant
in quantity and composition, than in either the
root or the leaf taken separately; the variations
which occur being counteracted by the alteration
of the percentage of ash, or of the proportion of
root to leaf.*
3437. Its culture should be precisely that
of the turnip and the carrot, being a green
crop in the fallow division of the farm, and
requiring a deep soil for the growth of its
fusiform roots.  This root, however, is not
impatient of immediate contact with ina
nure like the carrot, so that the land may
be drilled and dunged in spring instead
-of winter, as is done for the carrot.  Parsnips should receive 25 tons of farm-yard
dung in the drill, and 4 cwt. of guano sown
over the dung, as described for the turnip
crop, (3239,) and the land then drilled tip
in the double form,  (2397,) or with the
setting-up double mould-board plough, fig.
214; though it is improbable that this
plough is able to cover so mnuch manure
as the carrot and parsnip require.
3432. A mode of raising the carrot is practised
in Belgium which we would consider slovenly and
expensive.  The seed is sown broadcast With the
last turn of the harrows, with a cereal crop in
spring, and when the crop is harvested the carrot  has acquired a very moderate growth, and
the land is weeded by hand and the stubble also
removed, the field-workers going down on their
knees and wearing a peculiar dress for the purpose, no fewer than 20 weeders being required to
the acre. The produce is about half of the regular
crop. Each horse is allowed 25 lbs. of carrots
a day without hay, and cows receive the same
quantity, upon which they yield good butter
both as to quantity and quality.t -
3433. The farmer may raise as much carrot
seed as to supply his own wants. The largest
and best roots are inserted in some convenient
piece of ground in October or November, or in the
end of February, in rows 27 inches apart, as deep
as to have two or three inches of earth over their
crowns.   The only care required during  the
summer is to keep the ground clean, partly with
hand-hoeing and drill-grubbing, fig. 264.  The
seed will be ripe in autumn, aikd as birds do not
disturb it, the crop does not require to  be
watched. Gather the seed only from the priincidal umbel of each plant, which will not only
afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most
vigorous plants. The umbels are very liable to
be affected with mildew in damp weather.  The
yield of seed may be expected to afford from
14 lb. to 5 lb. per rood of 16i feet square.  A
considterable quantity of carrot seed is raised'for
the London market, near Weatherfield, in Essex.
3438. Parsnip seed is contained in a
broad  thin capsule, and is very light.
Even when good, 10 lb. will be required
for the acre.  Care should he taken that it
be fresh and new.   It should be steeped
in water bef,ore it is sown, as it would
otherwise lie long in the grIound before it
wouhld germinate; but after being soaked,
-if sown in very dry soil, it is apt to be deprivedofitsvitality. Thesowing-imachiines
at present in use are not well adapted for
the sowing of this seed any more than that
of the carrot and the niangold-wurzel; but
on being mixed with  sand, after being
soaked, it may be sown in the rut, made in
the top of the drill with the corner of the
3hand-hloe, fig. 266, or with the bean-drill
barrow, fig 219; but it would be more expeditiously sown in the rwt, out of tile hands
of two or three work-ers, than with that
machine.  Rakes cover the seed with soil
very well, and a rolling with concave
rollers of thie turnip-sowing machine, fig.
254, without  the coulters, finishes  the
sowing of the crop in a neat manner.
3434. Much carrot seed is annually imported
from Holland, and, by the tariff of 1846, it pays
a duty of 5s., and when from any British possession, 2s. 6d. the cwt.
3435. The parsnip requires a milder
climniate than Scotland generally affords;
but it grows well in England, and in perfection in the island of Jersey, loth as
regards the quality of the root and the
weight of the crop.T
3439. Parsnips should be singled whenever the plant can lie discriminated.   The
scuffler, fig. 232, clears away the surface
weeds in the first instance. The singling
is made at a distanice of 8 inches apart in
the drill-tithe stems and leave, spreading
* Journal ofthe English Ag9ricwltural Society, vol. viii. p. 192-6.
+  Radcliffe's 4.Arieulture of Flasders, p. 76.
Ithan the ctirrot and yet it mity be raised
upon sand, and even pea't, if sufficient
Inianure be applied.
ON T.HE BOWING, AND THE SUMMER
TREATMENT OF PARSNIP.
2436. It will grow in a much stronger so'll
:::'-..: t.. - 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
more than those of the carrot, require niore
roon.  The after-lhopeing  and cleaning of
the land of the weeds with the drill-grubher, fig. 264, are conducted in the same
manner as those for the turnip and carrot.
Th-e drill should be set up with the double
rmould-board plough, fig. 214, to heap the
earth as nmuch about the root as possible,
as in the case of tile carrot.
violates every rule of good husbandry,
suchl is the nature of the climate  that the
crop yields 27 tons and upwards thle acre
— a quantity, Colonel Le Couteur states,
whicli is " nearly sufficient for 10 cows
during the 6 winter nmonths, according to
the calculation of the ]Flemings."*
3441. The parsnip is subjected to the
attacks of a few insects. The maggots of
the parsnip miner, Tephrites onopordonis,
are hatched from May to July, andy     feed
upoie   the  parenchyma  o r p ulp   of the leaf,
causing large  blister s up on t hem; and
when two  or three larva are feeding  on
the same leaf, the  blisters uni te  and form
large  discoloured patches,  but  otherwise
the mischief is not serious. The caterpillars of the flat-body motlh, Depressaria
pastintacella, infest the parsnips left for
seed, and often much injure and diminish
the yield. Tlhey prefer the parsnip to the
carrot seed, and on  this account the growers
of carrot se ed sow some  parsnips beside
them, by which to lure the insect from the
carrot crop.   These caterpillars are grayisl blue, with the head, thorax, and pectoral feet, black; upon each of the segmerits are 6 distinct little black dots, producing single minute hairs; the sides and
the belly are yellow, and the abdominal
feet are dotted with black. They live in
July upon the flowers and young seeds of
the parsnip. There seems to be no better
mode  of ridding parsnip  crops of these
caterpillar pests than hand-picking, and
shaking the umbels of the flowers over a
vessel for them to fall into.  The flower of
the parsnip is not nearly so liable to be
affected by insects, danp, or mildew, as
the carrot, on which account the crop of
seed is,t surer one —though it should bo
borne in mind that it will not retain its
Xvitality beyond one year.+
3440. Tile parsnip may be raised in
rows in the fiat ground, as well as the
carrot, but the sanme reasons given for the
culture of the carrot in the drill (3314) will
apply to that of tl-ile parsnip.   Colonel Le
Coutetir describes the broadcast mode purs.ied in Jersey in the following terms:        l
"An  old grass lea is broken up by some
persons in September, by others just before
t' e parsnip-land is sown.  The former I
consider to be the best nmode. When the turf
is well rotted, 20 tons of stable manure per
acre are spread over the land.   A trench
i.S thien opened through thie centre of the
fieltl, between  2 and 8 feet wide, and,
where the soil will admit of it, from I foot
to 18 inches deep.  A 2-hlorse plough then
turns the manure and about 3 inches of
soil into the trench, and is immediately
f)llowed( by a large trenchl-plo,ugh with 3
or 4, and in many cases here, with 8 or 10
horses, w hich t urns o ne foot or nmore of c l        ean
soil upon tle manure         and  turf, when the
land lhas been  recently  skiim-t)lougited.
The soil is then larrowed,  an         d the parsnip-seed, quite nei., is s own      at the     ra te of
o or 4 lb. to the acre, and lightly harrowed.
Wloeni th        e plants are one inch high, they
are weeded.  The plants, from the first,
slhould tbe thinned out to 6 inches apart,
and, according  as the soil is                  good,  should be
again thinned out to 9 inches or more at
the second lioeing.  In a dry season it is
well to observe that moistening the seed
with  wet sand a nd                earth,     and stirring it
dainly, to b                ow        ni e sown ir the first noist weath       e        r, or after wa shower,  will forward its
growth a fortnighbt."  I may observe that
t!his method of cultivating any green crop
does no credit to Jersey agriculture. Just
conceive a green crop taken after lea-8 or
10 horses being employed in a trenchploughll-the land  duntged before being
trench-plouighied.   But  notwifi~stan(ling
t;}'is objectionable mode of culture, which
* Journal of the Engilish Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 419.
100
I
9442. It is quite easy to raise as much
,-eed of tlie parsnip as is required on any
farm. Transplant some of the'best roots in
a spade-dug piece of ground in February,
at 2 feet apart in every direction, and insert
theiii with their crowns under the surface of
the ground. The ground should be kept
clean with the hand-lioe until the leaves of
the plants cover the ground. The slioota
will become strong stalks, and produce
It Ibid. vol. ix. p. 190-C
1,:::::..:: 
THE CULTURE OF RAPE.
large umbels of seed, which will ripen in
autumn. From 1-1 lb. to 4 lb. of seed, being
very light, may be expected from a square
rood of 1612 feet, dependent on the nature
of the season, and escape from the attacks
of insects.  Birds do not injure it, though,
if the seeds  are not gathe red from                          the
umbels as they ripen, they are very apt
to be blown off by the wind.
3446. Parsnips are cultivated in the drill
method in Jersey as well as the broadcast, as
thus described by Colonel Le Couteur. " The
land," he says, " may  be prepared as in the
broadcast method.   In one case  I found  the
plants to answer well by spreading a portion of
the manuire on the surface of the ploughed land,
and then earthing it up into small ridges, one
foot apart, with a double  mould-board plough.
The seed is then sown on the top of the ridge
and rolled in, which succeeded extremely well.
The hoeing was performed with a horse-hoe in
the drills, and the plants were cross-hoed with a
hand-hoe.  This mode does not appear so neat
as the following: when the land is well harrowed and levelled, sow the seed broadeast, harrow
and roll it; then when the plants appear, hoe it
illn to drills, either with a horse-hoe or hand-hoe.
A drill-machine will be the best method if one
could be found to sow parsnip seed regularly;
mine sows it much too profusely.  The parsnips
require hoeing and thinning as in the broadcast
husbandry."t  It seems strai)ge practice to us
to convert a crop into rows by sending an implement through a broadcast Hraird.
3443. I have seen    a st ate      ment of the
expense of cultivating- an acre of parsnips,
an d  the return  obtained from it in 1847
up        o        n the Cappoquin -hom         e farm in Ireland,
belon ging to Sir Richard Keene, B       art. The
cost of cultivating the  imperial acrea including trenching 16 inches deep with the
spade, ploughingl into drills of 27 inches
apart, manuring with 40 toils of farm-yard
dung, singling, hoeing, weeding, rent,
taxes, and planting 400 cabbage plants in
the spaces which failed, was ~11, 15s. 4d.
The return was 20 tons  of- parsnips the
acre, which were sold in Cappoquin m-arket at 4d. the stone, or ~2, 13s. 4d. the
ton, amounting to ~53, 6s. 8d., and the
cabbages fetched ~3, 6s. 8d., at 2d. apiece, averaging 14 lb. each in weight.
After deducting the cost, the sum realised
from the acre was ~44, 18s.
3447. The composition of the parsnip root I
have given in (854,) anid the composition of the
ash, whether of the root or the leaf, has not yet
been ascertained by the chemist.
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT             31ENT OF RAPE.
3444. The parsnip is placed in the.class and
order Pentandria diqgynia  by Liunneus; in the
natural order Unbellifere by  Jussieu; and in
the natural system of Epiqynous Exoqens-alliance 55, UnbUllales-order 295, 4pialce —tribe
8, Peucedanidx Sgenus Pastinaca, by Lindley.
38448. Rape is cultivated in this country, not for its seed, as is the case on the
Continent, but for its leaves as a forage
plant, and  a more  whoilesome food  for
sheep is not raised on the farm.
3445. The  parsnip, Pastinaca satira edulis,
has leaves pinnate or compressed, downy beneath,
and generally shining above; leaflets broadly
ovate, cut, and serrated, terminative, three-lobed;
colour of the flower yellow; root fleshy, thick,
and fusiform; biennial.  It derives its generic
name from the form of the root being like a
dibble, pastinum. This root has long been an
inmate of the garden, and was formerly much
used. In the times of Popery it was the farmer's
Lent root, being eaten with salted fish, to which
it is still an excellent accompaniment. " In the
north of Scotland," Dr Neill observes, " parsnips
are often beat up with potatoes and a little
butter; of this excellent mess the children of
the peasantry are very fond, and they do not fail
to thrive upon it.  In the north of Ireland  a
pleasant table beverage is prepared from the
roots, brewed along with hops.  Parsnip wine
Is also made in some places; and they afford an
excellent ardent spirit, when distilled after a
-similar preparatory process to that bestowed on
3449. It may be raised to be consumed
at two different seasons - autumn and
spring.   To  be  consunwed in autumn
it should be sown in summer, and for
spring consumption it sliould be sown in
autumn.  The culture up to the sowing ot
the seed, in either case, is precisely the
same as for turnips.  In England, in the
richer soils, it is sown without manure;
but in Scotland the crop would not repay
the trouble were it attempted to he raised
without manure, thoughl it does not require
the same quantity of farm-yard dung as
the turnip; 10 tons the acre being sufficient to raise a,good cr(p, or 16 bushels
of bone-dust, or 4 cwt. of guano - the
* Don's General System of Gardening and Botany, vol. iii. p. 354.
f Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 420-1.
1-01
potatoes destined for that  purpose"'* It is an
excellent food for cows, and its fattenin-, properties I have already noticed in (896.). 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
manures being applied respectively as di-  renders the culture of rape both convenient
rected for turnips.                          and useful.
3454. In  the progress of growth, the
rape is attacked  by insects.  The green
veined white butterfly, Pontia napi, is so
named because it feeds chiefly upon the
rape.   The superior wings have tips of
powdery black, and the nervures grayish,
inferior wings have a black spot on  the
upper margin, and the dark nervures shining through.  Caterpillars are delicately
green, clothed with velvety hairs.  The
mtuale butterflies are nearly three-quarters
of an inch long.  The larva of this species
is destroyed by  the ichneumon, named
IHemitele8 melanariut.   Hand-picking,
and young fowls to pick up  the larvve as
they are switched off the plants, is the
most easy mode of getting quit of them.
3450. The   culture  of this plant c      eases
afterte bfr the sowing of the seed, as the crop
is      not thinned out li ke  turnips                  or the other
rooted               green crops,        the object being to
rai.se    a   s ufficient   numlber of stemis to produce a large crop of leaves, for which
purpose 2 lb. of seed to the acre will
suffice; and as the seed is large coinpared
to that of the common turnip, and about
the size of that of the swede, that quiantity will not produce too many plants to
stand in thle drill. Rape seed affords 810
seeds to one drachm, and weighs about 53
lb. to the bushel.   The turnip sowingmachine, fig.. 254, is used ft)r sowing the
seed, using one of the larger-sized holes in
the seed-box. When weeds make their
appearamce before the plants are sufficiently advanced in height to keep thein
down, the scuffler, fig. 262, drill grubber,
fig. 264, and double imould-board plough,
fig. 20's, must be put in requisition to reniove them, and place the ground again
in its proper formn and state.
3455. Sheep are very fond of rape as
food; and that it is nourishing food the
experience of every farmer who has cultivated it can testify.  By an experiment
made on Barteliver farm in Cornwall, it
appears that 14 acres of rape, sown at
three periods, from  13th May  to  10th
July, supported 80 sheep from the 2d of
July to the 2d of November.   On the
lo 10th of August, 10 wether hoggs of those
sheep were weighed, and they were  146
lb. each, and on the 21st September they
were again weighled and were then 166
lb. each, making an increase of weight of
20 lb. in six weeks-that is, an increase
of I Os. a-hlead in 6 weeks, at 6d. the lb.*
3452. Rape is raised to be consunied
by sheep, by folding on t   he land,              a        s a
mode of maniurinig fallow ground.  This
is a common practice in England, for the
double purpose of manuring the soil and
fattening sheep; and to attain both ends
the rape seed is sown in May, and the crop
is ready for being folded on in July or
August.
3456. The rape is placed by Linnaeus in the
class 7etradynamia; in the natural order Cruciferaz by Jussieu; and in Hypogynous  Exo!/ensalliance 27, Cistales-order 123, Brassiaceatribe 3, Orthoplon-genus Brassica.  The rape
is Brassica napus, the botanical characters of
which are leaves smooth, of a grayish-glaucous
hue, radicle ones lyrate, stem ones pinnatifid and
erenated, uppermost ones cordate lanceolate,
clasping the stein; siliques devaricate spreading.
Native country not known.  This species of rape
is well suited for culture in winter, and is allied
to the common turnip in its nature.
3453. In Scotland, shIeep are never
fattened on rape, the crop being appropriated to ewes, to bring them into season f(:r
the tup, and to hoggs in preparation for
turnips.  For these purposes it is not necessary to sow the rape seed  until the
beginning of July, after the termination of
the turnip seed at the end of June, whlichb
3457. The rape of the Continent is   Brassioca
ca,tpestris olifera, or colza, a variety of cabbage
allied to the Swedish turnip, and is best suited
for summer culture. It is distinguished from the
other rape by its leaves being hispid, those of
the other being smooth. Its produce also, when
* Journal of te English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 430.
102
3451. Rape will grow on almost, any
soil, and certainly well on clay, on wlticii
it requires less manure than on liaril loatn;
but it grows on iioiieqo well as on drained
moss restin, on a clay subsoils The aslies
of the surface of a peat-bog, pared and
burned, foriii excellent manure for ral.)e
on drained moss. 
THE CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT.
compared to the other, is greater by 955 to 700
according to Gujac.*
supported on the potato, as long as it was
available for the purpose: but now that
no implicit confidence can be placed on
that crop, and in consequence  it will in
future fetch a large comparative price, it
will be prudential in the farmer to consider
what plants may be substituted for it in
supporting these useful races of live stock,
with wholesome food, at a reasonable cost.
Fortunately there are other plants which
may be employed for the purpose.  Buckwheat, Polygonumfayopyrum, makes excellent food for pigs; the seeds of the common sun-flower, Helianthus annuis, fatten
poultry; the  usadia, Madia  satira, is
favourably spoken  of on the Continent,
for the same purpose; and the dwarf varieties of the Indian corn or maize, Zea
mays,  are  capable  of supporting  the
horse as well as the fowl.  Whatever may
be the results attending the cultivation of
these plants, a trial of one or more  of
them, by way of experiment, should be
made in many localities of Scotland; and
then perhaps, ere long, they would become
naturalised to the climate.
3459.  The  cake left on the expre    ssi on of t    he
oil from the seed is called rape-cake, and is more
used in this country as a specific manure  than
for feeding. Its price is from ~4, 10s. to ~5,
1Os. the ton, and is free of duty on importation.
analysis,  yields  the  following  constituents,
according to Dr Henry R. Madden:         Water,.          10'5     10-5
{Soluble in cold water,   24'7'
Organic            in hot water, 4' 8
matter, 4in weak potass, 31.5 |   85'5
in strongpotass, 10'2
Destroyed by heat,      14'3 J
Earthy phosphates, 3'0 40
Silicate of potass,      1.0
1()0-0   100-ot
3461. The quantity of rape seed imported in
1847 was 47,523 quarters, and in 1848 it was
129,967, free of duty. The rape-cakes imported
in those years were included in the returns of
oil-cakes imported, as stated in (3126.)
3464. Buckwheat is not well suited to
the variable climate of Britain. It possesses the advantage of growing best on
sandy soil, which is too poor to carry
barley, and in such heat and drought  as
are too great for oats to bear.   In the
circumstances  of heat and sandiness of
soil, then, it might be cultivated where no
cereal grain would grow; and on the light
soil of a farin, in a sheltered situation,
it might be attempted, especially on newv
tr en che d ground, without manure, in preparation of a green crop.  Much manure
would encourage the growth of the plant,
and prevent the formnation of seed.  This
plant is very impatient of frost, and, were
it sown as early as to appear above ground
before frost had left for the season, the
crop would inevitably be destroyed.   It
should, therefore, not be sown sooner than
the last week of May in England, and of
June in Scotland: and late sowing is in
no  case unfavourable to the plant, as it
grows quickly, and produces its seed in
the principal part of the flower in Septeimber. The land is very easily cultivated for
buckwheat.  Having, been  ploughed  in
winter, from the oat stubble, by  casting
3462. The plants enumerated from the bean
to the rape, are those usually cultivated on a
farm:  not thata any one  of                                  these plants are
cultivated every year up       on  the  sa me        farm, for
space migh t  not  b    e       found in som     e farms for the
cultivation of so large a variety of plants; and
it is improbable that any farm contains so diversified a soil as to permit the cultivation of such
a variety of crops. Beans and turnips cannot
be cultivated to a large extent on the same
farm, the soil best suited to the former being ungenial to the latter.  Nor is it convenient to sow
a large breadth of turnips and of rape in the
same season. Should the weather prevent the
sOowing of turnips in their proper season, it would
be more prudent to employ the labour and manure
allotted for them to raise rape a few weeks after
the turnip season, to be consumed by the stock
in late autumn or early winter, when cows are as
fond of rape  as sheep are, than  to  attempt to
raise turnips too late. In choosing, therefore,
the various crops enumerated and described above,
those should be selected which are best suited to
the soil to be cultivated, and to the weather which
may prevail at the season when the state of the
work is ready to undertake the sowinig of a crop.
* Don's General Systemn of Botany and Gardeninq, vol. i. p. 242.
t Prize Essays ofthe Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529.
.103
3458. ThecolzaiscultivatedinMeeklen-burgand
Holstein for its seed, out of which is expressed
rape il, used for the purpos es of illumination
0 -
and in manufactures. In Holstein the crop of seed
is great, being 4000 lb. the acire, or nearly 36 cwt.,
which yield's from 40 i. 0 per cent of oil.
O.X THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL         TURE OF BUCKWHEAT.
3463, Poultry and pigs wcre greatly 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the ridges together, (755,) fig. 22, it should
be cross-ploughed (2613) in spring, larrowed, and picked free of weeds,  after
which recast, and again harrowed and handweeded.  As abundance of time will be
found to clean the land thloroughly before
the time arrives for sowing the seed, it
may be ploughed in anyway thought most
expedient, should the land show symptoms of foulness; but, if not, a passage of
the grubber, fig. 215, will prevent the surface weeds becoming troublesome.  From
I to 2 bushels of seed are sufficient to the
acre, and is always sown broadcast, though
sometimes  recommended  to  be  drilled
in rows at 12 inches apart.  After the
seed has been sown and harrowed in, the
crop requires no further care until the
harvest.   The land should be cultivated
for a green crop after the removal of buckwheat.
3467. This plant has not yet been satisfactorily
examined by chemists: the composition of it.green stems, according to Crome, is    Water,....   82-5
Starch,...    4'7
Woody fibre,..  10'0
Sugar,.....
Albumen,....    0-2
Extractive matter and gum,.    2'6
Fatty matter,...?
Phosphate of lime,.. e.?
100.0
3468. The composition of the seed of the buck.
wheat, according to Zennick, is this, but which
is evidently imperfect    Husk,...      *   26.9
Gluten, &c...  10'7
Starch,....   52'3
Sugar and gum,...   8'3
Fatty matter,...   0'4
3465. Buckwheat stands in the order Octandria Trigynia of Linnaeus; in the natural order
of Polygoneve of Jussieu; and in Hypogynous
Exogens-alliance 37, Sitenales-order 191, Polygonaceee-tribe 2, Polygoneve-genus, Polyqonum,
of the natural system of Lindley.   The character of this family of plants is, that while the
leaves and young shoots are acid and agreeable, the roots are universally nauseous and purgative; and to these are added a third-that of
astringency.
98'6
3469. The ash of the seed of the buckwheat,
according to Bichau, consists in the following
proportions of the ingredients:    Potash,....    8'74
Soda,....   20' 10
Lime,...    666
Magnesia,....   10'38
Oxide of iron,...      105
Phosphoric acid,...   50'07
Sulphuric acid,...    2'16
Silica,....    0'69
99'85
Percentage of ash,        2'125
3466. "Buckwheat, Polygonum fagopyrum,"
Fagopyrusn esculenttum of Tournefort, "is said
to be found wild in Persia," observes the late
Rev. Mr Rham.  "The cultivation of it, according to some authorities, was introduced into
Europe by the crusaders; according to others, the
Moors introduced it into Spain from Africa; and
hence it has in France the name of Bled sarrasin.
The name of buckwheat is a corruption of the
German buch-weizen, which signifies beechwheat,
from the resemblance of the seed to that of the
beech-tree.  It is called wheat because, when
ground, it produces a fine farina, which resembles that of wheat in appearance.  The botanical
name of the genus, Polyqonum, is taken from
the angular form of the seed, and the specific
name, fagopyrum, from its resemblance to the
beech-mast.  Buckwheat grows with a strong
herbaceous, cylindrical, and branching ste         m  o         f a
reddish colour, about 2 feet high.  The leaves,
which are ivy-shaped, are placed alternately on
the stems.  The flowers grow in bunches at the
end of the branches, and are succeeded by black
angular seeds, formed of four triangles, being
thus nearly regular tetrahedrons. The plant is
an annual, and the flowers appear very soon after
it is out of the ground.  They continue to blow
* Rham's Dictionaru of the Farm-art. Buckwheat.
t Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemtistry, 2d edition, p. 377, 893, 917, 928.
. Johnston's Physical Atlas-Phytology, Map, No. 2.
.104
and bear seed in succession, till the frost destroys
the plant."'
3470. The quantity of nutritive matter derived
from an acre of buckwheat, yielding a crop of
30 bushels, 1,300 lb., is of husk, 320 lb.; starch,
sugar' &e. 650 lb.; gluten, &c. 100 lb.; oil or fat,
5 lb. (?) and saline matter, 21 lbs.t
347-1. Buckwheat, which grows to a height of
about 30 inches, is extensively cultivated over a
great part of Northern Europe, as well as in
Brittany, in Siberia, and on the tablelands of
Central Asia.. It is understood to be a native of
Asia, and to have been imported into Europe in
the fifteenth century. The -,eeds of the buckwheat
are in some countries used as food, the mealy
albumen being mixed with a portion of wheaten
flour, of which a coarse bread is made. It is also
used by the distillers at Danzig in the ma-iiijfacture of cordials, but it is chiefly used as a green
fodder.
3472. Buckwheat imported in 1847 w.-t,,#
22,917 quarters, in 1848 only 205 quarterr,; and 
THE CULTURE OF MADIA.
of buckwheat meal in 1847, 386 cwt., in 1848,
194 cwt.  A duty of ls. the quarter is payable on
buckwheat, and 4-ed. the cwt. on buckwheat
meal.
3475. The sunflower belongs to the class and
order Syn.qyenesil  F1rustranea of Linn,us; the
natural order  Coipo.sitm of Jussieu; anid  to
EOpigynous  Exoyens-alliance  50, A4steralesorder 273, Asteracece-sub-order 1, Tubuliflorcesub-division 4, Senecionidece-tribe Coreopsidecegenus Helianthus.  A bland oil abounds in the
seeds of many species of this extensive family of
plants. Among the most remarkable is the common sunflower, whose large, sweet, nut-like seeds
are very palatable and wholesome, and which
yield 15 per cent of oil. The tall sunflower is
Helianthus annuis, which, at one timue, was a
more common inmate of the flower garden than
it is now.  The dwarf species is Helianthus indicus.  The specific charaoters of the sunflowers
are leaves all cordate, rough, and three-nerved;
flowers yellow; heads large and nodding; peduncles and stalks  a nth ick, t he  latter  from 4 to 6
feet high; branched; annual.  Native of South
America; introduced in 1569.
3473. The  sunflower consists of two
species,                     the tall and the dwarf.  The tall
is what is best known in this country,
t h o ugh the dwarf is the favourite in    France,
as its leaves also afford an excellent food
'for cows.  We  shall confine our observations to the tall species.
3474. The tall sunflower requires a deep,
mellow, rich soil, and also a large quantity
of manure. Its long and strong stein renders it unfit to be grown in drills like turnips: the roots would not have a sufficient
hold of firm soil to counterbalance the
great leverage power of the tall stem. It
should, however, be grown in rows, otherwise the ground would not be easily kept
free of weeds. Its culture nmay be precisely that of the turnip up to the point of
applying the manure,  which should be
ploughed in broadcast instead of in drills,
and the quantity of farm-yard dung so
ploughed in should not be less than 20
tons to the acre.  Before the land is barrowed, 4 cwt. of guano to the acre should
be sown upon the surface, and then the
land should be harrowed both along and
across the ridges, to make it fine.  After
this the small ribbing-plough, fig. 230,
should make ribs along the ridges at 27
inches apart, into which the seed should
be sown, by hand, along the ribs, at the
rate of 7 or 8 lb. to the acre.  As sunflower seeds are not heavy and easily disturbed in their place, it would be proper
to cover them in the ribs with the handrake, instead of even the lighIitest harrows.
The guano will cause the seed to germinate soon, and the  duing below       will support
the plant, through its fibrous roots. When
the plants have shot up sufficiently high
to be distinguished, they should be thinned
in the row to 12 inches apart; and, as the
rows are on the flat, the thinning will better
be done by hand, leaving the best plants,
than with the hand-hoe, fig. 266.  The
root weeds may be eradicated with the
scuffler, fig. 26 2, and the surface once afterwards with the drill-grubber, fig. 264, wlhile
3476. Of this r ecen t ly introduced  plant
Mr Lawson   says that, " in its native country the  madia has long  been  culti vated for
its  oleaginous seeds, the prod uc e o f which
is deemed by many even superior to t    hat
of the olive  and poppy.   In Europe its
culture was first attempted in 1835 by M.
Bosch, royal gardener at Stuttgard, since
which period it has been greatly extende d, a nd th at w ith  the utmos t success,
under the  patronage of his  majesty  the
King of Wiirtemberg, a nd othi ers. Tle foillowing, is extracted from a commiiunication,
received along with a quantity o f seed of
the madia in 1839:-' From its valuable
property of enduring winter and spring
frosts, the madia may eite  e  r be sow n i n
autumn o r  spring, the g rou nd being previously well pulverised. Four pounds of
seed will suffice for sowing an acre in
drills, and about six pounds for the same
space broadcast. The young plants should
be thinned out, so as to stand at least 4 or
5 inches apart.   The crop should be reaped
when the earliest seeds acquire a gray
colour, and disposed in handfuls to facilitate drying, after which it should be inimediately thrashed out, as, if stacked in
the haulm, the viscid matter which adheres
to the foliage would cause fermentation.
The seeds should afterwards be washed in
105
the ground between the plants, in the
rows, is best cleained with the band-boe.
The crop niay now remain until harvest.
I ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMElt CUL         TURE OF THE SUN-FLOWER. 
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL            TIJRE OF IVIIADIA.
i 
PRACTICE-SUMMFR.
the sSphenogyne.   The madia, Madia satin,
the cultivated or oil-seeded  madia, has these
generic and  specific  characters:-Receptacle
and seeds naked; involucre double, the outer
usually 8-10 leaved, and much larger than the
inner, which is composed of many leaves and
scales.  Plant upright, with numerous diverging
branches, and, together  with    the leaves   and involucre, covered with a very viscid glandulous
hair or down; leaves lanceolate, entire, and more
or less clasping; flowers inconspicuous, yellow,
and much crowded at and near the extremity of
the branches. Annual; 1 i to 2 feet high. Native of South America.
warm water, to cleanse them of the same
viscid or gelatinous and strong-smiielling
substance.  The crop on an acre  of poppies aver'ages  12 bushels, which yields
abo,ut 22 lb. of oil per bushel, or in all
264 lb. at ((. = ~ 6, 12; while an acre of
niadlia pro)(luces on an average 26 bushels
of seed, eilc of which yields about 17 lb.
of oil, or in all 442 lb. at 6d. = ~11, Is.
Chenuical analysis shows that 100oo parts of
madia oil contain 45 of elain, (fluid fat,)
40 of stearinr, (margarine, or solid fat,) and
15 of glycerine, a sweetish glutinous substance.' "
3480. According to Souchay, the seed of the
madia sativa contains the following ingredients
in its ash:     Potash,..    e.    9'53
Soda,........           11-24
L ime,....          7-74
Magnesia....    15'42
Oxide of iron,...     1'08
Phosphoric acid,...    54'99
8Sulphuric acid,......
Chloriie,......
Sodia,..... 112
3477. Professor Lindley observes, in regard to this remarkable plant, that it is
"a Chilian plant, lately introduced with
success into the agriculture of the drier
parts of Europe.   Madia oil expressed
without heat is described as transparent,
yellow, scentless, &c., and fit for salads;
its cake is said to be good for cattle.  It
produces, in dry climates, as much oil per
acre as poppy; in comparison with colza
as 32 to 28; linseed as 32 to 21; and
olives as 32 to 18."*
Stheda, contains
it w i be observed howlarge a proportion of soda,
magnesia, and particularly of phosphoric acid,
the madia contains.
3478. Mr Lawson further observes, that
"a quantity of madia sown by us in the
vicinity of Edinburgh, in May 1839, ripened seeds in August following; but the unusually rainy weather caused many of the
plants to damp off after flowering.  A portion of the seeds, which was sown immediately after liarvestin,.,, produced plants 2 or
3 inches in height that autumn, many of
which perished in the course of the winter; but the                      remainder, although weak  in
spring, recovered sufficiently to produce a
good crop of ripe seeds about the middle of
July.  Upon the whole," Mr Lawso                         n coiicludes, " there seems  every  probability
that, in ordinarily favourable seasons, the
madia sativa might be grown very successfully in Scotland."+  It would seem that
the culture adapted to the turnip would in
every respect suit this plant, and the richness of its seed could not fail to prove
nourishing food to poultry and pigs.
3481. Indian corn, as it is commonly
called but more properly  maize, is unsuited to the climate of this country; but
as many varieties of this plant exist, and
as Schouw observes, in his account of the
geographical distribution of the grasses,
that of all the cultivated grasses" maize
has the greatest range of temperature," it
is, perhaps, possible to select one variety
that may succeed so far in our climate as
to afford a means of supporting pouiltry,
without having recourse to any of the
species of grain cultivated for the use of
man. It would appear that two varieties
ripen their seeds in the course of our summier in ordinary seasons-one called by the
French  Mais-a-Poulet, or chicken corn,
brought from Egypt, which ripens its seed
in 120 days from planting, but the crop
derived from  which is so scanty that it
does not repay the trouble of cultivation;
the other is called the Forty Days' Maize
3479. The madia is in the samne botanical position as the sunflower, excepting in the niatural
system  of Lindley, where it is in the tribe of
* Lindley's Veqetalble Kingdom, p. 707.
t  Lawson's A.griculturist's Manual-Supplevnent, p. 57-8.
4 Johnston's ~ectures on A4gricultural CGhemistry, 2d edition, p. 383.
106
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL            TURE OF MAIZE. 
THE CULTURE OF MAIZE.
not that it ripens its seeds in 40 days from
planting, but because the male flower is
ready to} fecundate the crop in 40 days
from planting, and the seeds come to mnaturity in 140 days after being sown, or in
about 5 months.  To this latter variety Mr
Keene has, ill 1849, directed the attention
of the British farmers, remarking that the
reason of the want of success attending the
culture of the maize by the late Mr Cobbett was, because lie cultivated an Ame         rican variety, which are all known to be
late of ripening in Europe; but it appears,
by a letter in the Gatrde'2,. rs' ChIronicle of
the 31st of March 1849, fr(om Mr James P.
Cobbett, that the Mafs Quarantain, orForty
Days' Maize of the French, and "Cobbett's corn," are precisely the samte plant.
In fact, Mr Cobbett obtained his corn from
Artois in France, and there was no want
of success in his cultivation of it, but that
at that time (1828) no interest was attaclied to its cultivation in this country.
But now that substitutes must be found for
the potato, in the success of the cultivation
of which we can no longer place implicit
reliance, for the feeding of tl-e live stock,
which was chiefly supported on the potato,
the maize may now receive that attention
to which it was not entitled under different circumstances.  The question now is
simply whether Cobbl)ett's  or any other
variety of the miuaize may be raised in this
country with a reasonable expectation of
success; and it appears that it is worthy of
a trial.
348 5. The seed shoul d be   selected from
the  middle  of the ear, a s  beirlg tho   there th
best and strongest.  It is no matter what
colour it bears, whether dark purple, light
red, yellow, or white, as it will not produce'seed of the same colouir, but only as
many of the same colouir in the same proportion. The seed should be steeped in
water for 24 hours before being sown, and
the quantity required is 6 pecks t!he acre.
It has been recommended to steep the seed
in the same sort of liquor as wheat is, for
the prevention of snmut, as the maize  is
liable to the ergot fully as much as the
rye.   Cobbett denies that  the  maize is
affected by any disease or any insect, and
perhaps the kind le cultivated may lhavo
experienced immunity fiom disease in this
country; but no doubt exists that maize is
affected with ergot, for, according to Roullin, it is very common  in Colombia, and
the use of it is attended with a shedding of
the hlair, and even the teeth, of both mian
and beast   Mules fed on it lose  their
lho.ofs, and fowls lay their eggs without the
shell. Its action upon the uterus is as
powerful as that of rye-ergot, or perhaps
more so.  The country name of the maize
thus affected is Ma'/s peladero. Thlis statenment, however, as Professor Lindley remarks, requires confirmation.*
3482. The better the soil the better will
the mnaize grow, but it will grow with j)roper culture in soils not of the finest quality,
provided they be warin, sheltered froni
strong N.W. winds, exposed well to the
sun, be free of bottom wet, and not of
tough tenacious clay.
3486  The time for sowing maize seed
is anT iiiilortant particular in the culture of
the plant.  Tile young plant is very susceptible of frost, and should the seed bo
sown as early as to have no assurance of
freedom ro   from  frost, the pla nts may The   so
affected that, althlouglh theymaynot die, the
leaves   may bvecome yellow, and the growth
more b)ackward than that of plants raised
from seed inuclh later sown.   The fiosts of
3483. As the maize does not occupy the
ground very long, it may be cultivated in
England on the land which has borne the
winter tare or rape, which has been eaten
down in spring with sheep, and the maize
is removed in tinme in autumni  for the sowing of wheat.   In Scotland, there being
no winter tares,it may succeed winter rape,
where that  is grown; but where  not
grown, the maize may occupy a part of the
* Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 115.
fellow or green crop break, as a preparatiou of it for wljeat in the autuniri.
3484. The culture of maize is the same
as that for the turnip, up to.the dunging of
the drills; and as we have already seen
how greatly the crop of maize ig increased
in Peru bythe application of guano, (8'1)145,)
it would be proper to,,t-)w 4 ewt. of giiano
over the 20 tor,-s of farmyard dung, given
as the maturing before covering the (lung
in the drill in tiie double niode, (2,397.) 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
April and the droughts from the east winds
in May are dang,erous periods, and ought
to be avoided.  Mr Keene gives an apparently infallible rule in tile appearance of
the cock-chafer Afelolontha vulgaris ill the
air, as indicative of the teiiimperature in
which miaize may be sown in safety, and
this period usually occurs fio'in the midd(lle
to the e(nd of May.  No apprehension need
be entertained of the crop being too late,
for thie flowering, of the plant will then take
place in the finest part of the season, in
July, and even early frosts in autiumni will
not injure the fruit within its covering.
pear, for       they were  in  th e  ground 10ng
before the r n  n  the    corna, and    they claim their right
of primogeniture, and act upon t hat  right.
They will not rise to the same height with
the corn plants; but their inferiority in
point of height will be made up for in
numbers, and the poor  corn p  lant, if left
to itself, will soon be a Gulliver, when
bound down by the  Lilliputians."+  It is
recoimmnended by Mr Keene to protract the
ultimate thinning for some time, that the
plants so taken out may be used    a s green
food.   But this  is  no t the object  of the
culture, whlich is to produce a crop of seed;
and to do so in the best manner, the ground
should be allowed to exert its fullest powers
for that purpose, by the removal of all
superfluous vegetation, whether of weeds
or of superfluous plants. For the same
reason, no roots or haricot beans ought to
be sown in the drills of maize. All catch
crops are no better than robbers of the
plants among which they are sown.
3487. In sowing the  seed, Mr  Keene
recoinmieii(s the d ropping  it in the drill s
between  the finger and thuldnb at distances
of 3        inches, and then  to cover it in ploughing the drill.*   But  such  a procedure
w    ould b e  t oo roug h  treatment   of the s eed
of a plant that  requires the tender                  est care
we c     an bestow.  A better plan ts to cover
the dung in the drill  befor e  so      wing  the
seed; and as the seed shoul        d  not be buried
beyotind 2 inches in dep th, t        h e top  of the
drills should be rolled with tile concave
.roll     er of the turnip  esowing-nmachlinie, fig.e
254, without the coulters, a rut of about 2
inches deep miade along the top of the
drills         with the corner of te                         he shatcd-le, fig.
26s,      h ansd th       e           nee               d th e gn either drouped
by lhand into the rut, or with the beandrill barrow, fig. 219, at 3 inches or thereabouits apart, covered over with the earth
cast up by the rutting with the lhoe, and
the drills agrain rolled with tile concave
rollers, which will finiishi the work in fine
style.
3489. After another drill-grubbing, fig.
264,  and hoeing, to  remove the surface
weeds, the ma ize plants   will grow with
great  rapidity, pe r haps  a n inch  a-day,
until the flower spike appears; and so far
fron other  plants being  allowed  to compete
with tie principal crop, the rilsucke rs which
spring from the root s of the standing  plants
should be removed, a nd o n removi ng  them
both hands    s houls d be employed -one in
stripping down one sucker, and the other
another sucker, in the    opposite side, at the
same time. The suckers may be used as
green food by the pi gs; they should not be
given to cows, as green maize invariably
causes  a d ecrease of milk in them, though
it enriches the butter. "TThe maize now
lan ces  out it s o     flower fom  the seed
sheath," says Mwr Keene;  " thenI  the s e ed
cob forms, and sends forth its pretty
drooping yellow, red, or bronze-colouired
silken featl-her, falling'down  gracefully
upon  the  smniling head of corn.    The
flower-stalk sioots up rapidly; its growth
is marvellous, and the broad dark green
flag-leaves of the healthy crop denote the
strength of the vegetative power which is
rapidly pouiring into the whole system of
this splendid plant.  As this begins to retreat, the graceful feather shows signs of
withering; the sap no longer circulates
3488.  T          he spik es         of the yoveni plant
may be expected to b~reaik the ground inl
about 6 or 8 days. As the g,rouind( at this
season is easily overrun with weeds, the
scuffler, fig. 262, will have to eradicate
themi in the space between tihe drills, and
pare away the soil fron the sides of the
drills ill preparing for the singling. Witen
the plants have attained 3 or 4 inches in
heigh-it, they are sinegledt to a dis,ante of 9
inches apart with the liandI-hioe, filr. 266.
Cobbett, in his own  lhumiior,)is style, thus
alludes tic the weeding: "1 Let uis nowt su:ppose the corn plants to le 3 inches lhigh.
Long before this weeds will begin to atp
* Keene's Faectsf,r Farmoers-,[aize, p. 6.
+ Quoted by Amicus Curile in mMize airtinst IPotato, p. 130. 
THE CULTURE OF MAIZE.
the harvest.  The plants are never laid
witlh rain  or broken down  by  the  wine d,
tlough the latter may cause somie of them
to lean over a little.
with the same vigour; it is time to confine
the remaining strength to the cob, and
the flowering-stalk is cut off by a draw of
the knife, at an inch higher than the first
joint above  the cob.   Womten do this,
walking along the rows; and when they
have thus gathered a handful of 12 or 15
flower-lheads, they bind them round with
a leaf, and hitch the little bundle, stalkend upwards, on the stick of the standingo
stenm, where it haings for 4 or 5 days to dry,
becoming excellent winter food for cattle."
The criterion for removing the flower-heads
is when all the:- farina has completely
quitted  the  tassel,  and  the  tassel  is
dead and dry; also a perfect deadness of
the end of the silk of the cob, where,
instead of the bright green that appeared
before, gracefu lly hanging  down, a              little
bunch of witlhered-up and brown-looking
stuff is seen.  The farmer -should choose
his time for topping, when the weather is
wet and  unfavourable for other work;
neither need it be all done at one time,
unless the plants are in a fit state for the
operation. Mr Keene's Forty Days' Maize
only bears one cob, which contains about
48 seeds.
3492. Maize is of the class and order  Triandria I)igynia of Linumus; of the natural order
Graminece of Juss;-u; and of Endogens-alliance
7, Glumales-order 29, Gramninaece-tribe  2,
P-halaracece-genus Zea.  The maize, Zea nays,
has male and female organs in distinct flowers,
but on the same plant: male in branching termiral spikes;female in a concealed spike or
elongated receptacle, proceeding from the joints
of the culm or stalks; calyx a two-valved blunt
glume; corolla a two-valved glume; style one,
long and pendulous, protruding considerably
beyond the leafy envelope of the seed spike;
seeds solitary, immured in an oblong common
receptacle.
3493. Maize is also called  Turkish wheat.
b   The origin of this plant has been disputed.  In
the equatorial countries of America, maize is
cultivated, according to Humboldt, at an elevation
of 7,600 feet.  In Europe, when cultivated in
the open fields and for its grain, not as green
fodder, its northern limits extend to latitude 47%.
It is cultivated in abundance: between La Maas
and  La  Fleche, (lat. 48~,) for feeding fowls.
From this the limit is traced with some difficulty,
around Paris to Frankfort on the Maine, (lat. 50*
30'.) Farther east its limits are not ascertained.
In the plain of Brandenburg (lat. 520 30') it
yields abundantly, but is little cultivated, and
that only  for fodder.  In Eastern Europe it
occurs on the banks of the Daeister, (lat. 490;)
beyond this its limits are unknown.  Maize is an
annual plant, which only requires heat in sumwmer, and is not influenced by the cold of winter.
In North America, maize is cultivated more extensively than in Europe; in the interior  of
Canada, its northern limits reach  the parallel of
lat. 50'.  The highest point at which it has been
cultivated in Europe is the village of Lescaus,
in the department of Basses Pyrenees, situated
3,280 feet above the level of the sea.  This is
above the limits of the vine, which only reaches
2,620 feet."*  According to Schouw, in respect
of the predominating kinds of grain, the  earthi
may be divided into five grand divisions or kingdoms.  The kingdom of rice, of maize, of wheat,
of rye, and lastly of barley and oats.  Rice,
maize, and wheat, are the most extensive, and
the rice supports the greatest number of the
human race.  The maize has the greatest range
of temperatures
3491. In finishing the summer culture
of the tnaize, the drills are set up to their
original form with the double mould-board
plouigh, fig. 214; and this operation should
be completed before the plants have attained such a size as to come in contact
with the horse or iml)lement.  The flowering season is so critical to the maize, that
nooperation should be permitted that would
in the least agitate the plants; and for this
reason  windy  weather  is unfavourable
for the crop at that stage of its growth.
The crop, after being set up, remains until
3494. I  have al ready given the composition
of maize in (1303,) and of the composition of
the ash of the grain of the maize in (1304.)
Every bushel of maize leaves about a pound of
ash. I shall now give the composition of the
ash of maize straw, grown near Gratz by Hraschauer:
* Johnston's Phsysical Atlas-Phytology, Map No. 2.
i Edinburgh New PPhilosophical Journal for April 1825.
109
3490. In the case of localities in wliicli
frost is felt until late in the season,,it is
possib,le to raise plants of niaize in a piece
of goo(I ground sheltered from frost; and
when they have attained a bei lit of 8
1 9
or 9 inches, to, transplant tiliein in the
Prepared drills at 9 inches asunder, and
in case some of the plants die, to reserve
a few to fill up the gal)s. The transplantation may be deferred until tl-le third
week of -Jtine, when all dread of frost is at
an end. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
living object.  Though apparently lifeless
to the sight and tile touch, it has life, and
its vitality is capable of exerting great
power when excited into action.   What
the agent is, and  how  it acts,  whi:ch
excites the vitality of seeds, we do not
know, and perhaps never shall know-it
niay he  one of thle secrets which nature
will keep to herself; but we do know
the circumstances in which, when  seeds
are placed, vitality is invariably exciteid,
and the proof of thisexcitemerit is furnished
by their gernination, which is the first
movement towards the production  of a
plant.
Potash,...
Soda,...
L    ime,...
Magnesia,
Oxide of iron,
Fhosphoric acid,.
Sulphate of lime,.
Chloride of sodium,
Silica,...
Professor Johnston makes these important
general remarks, in regard to the great discrepaney between the results in these two analyses.
# Between these results we observe great differences, both in the total percentage of ash left,
and in the proportions of every one of the constituents which the ash contains.  This is by no
means unexpected, but it illustrates a fact, that
our knowledge of the inorganic constituents of
plants-of the function performed by them in
the several parts of plants-and of the proportions required most perfectly to perform these
several functions-is yet in its infancy."*
3498. Now the circumstances which
excite germination, are a combination  of
air, heat, and moisture. These must be
afforded in  the mos t  favourable conditions,
before  the  p lant  will  grow.    They  may
all be supplied to the seed, and its germinat ion  secured in the air as certainly as
in the ground;  but on       the development {f
the radicle, the province of which it is to
penetrate into the soil, the young germ,
instead of growing upwards, would die,
were it kept constantly in the air. The
earth supplies all the requisites of air,
heat, and moisture to the plant, in a much
better state than the air can of itself,
and the soil continues to supply them, not
only at the period of its germination, but
during its after life.  A vital seed placed
in the ground must be affected by three
agencies, one physical, another chemical,
and a third physiological, before it can
produce a plant.
3495. The importation of maize in 1847, the
year ofthe Irish famine, was as great as 3,608,312
quarters, and in 1848, 1,586,771 quarters.  Of
maize meal in 1847, 1,448,837 cwt., and in 1848
234,114 cwt.                    were imported.  A duty of ls. a
quarter is payable on maize, and of 44d. the cwt.
on maize meal.
THE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF
SEEDS.
3496. Now  that we have  vroceeded
thro,ugh the whole course of the seed-tisne,
incidental to spring and to the early part
of summer, and the finishing of which terminates for a time one busy period of
farm operations, it will prove useful to
rest a while from actual  labour,  and
consider the principles upon which the
success of the operations we have  been
conducting, chiefly depends.  By obtaining
a clear view of the circumstances which       l
best promote the germination of the seeids
of the crops we have been sowing, and of
the earliest growth of the plants arising
from them, we shall be enabled to conclude
whether or not the practice we pursue,
in sowing seeds, is calculated to afford
those circumstances which best promote
their germination and the growth of the
plants from them.
3499. Physical. —When a vital seed
is placed in pcliverised ground it is surrounded  wit h air; for although  the particles of soil may seem to the eye to be
close together, on examination it is fourd
that the interstices between the particles
occupy  oxie-fourth of a given quantity
of  soil.   Hence,   100  cubic inches  of
pulverised soil contain no less than 25 cubic
inches  of air.  Therefore, in a  fielh, the
soil of whic! has been ploughe(d and pulverised to the depth of 8 inches, every
acre of it will contain 12,545,280  cbilcic
inches of air; and hence also, as every
additional inch of depth  pulverised, calls
into activity 259 tons 5 cwt. 32'lb. ol
* Johnston's Lectures on dyricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 375.
tio
14-46 4-78
39-92 12-C,9
4-93 11-00
1-84 11-44
0-90 0-73
11-76 22-39
1.01 1-37
6 0-55
18-89 35-05
100.(JO   100-00
2-30 6-50
Percentage of ash,
3497. The healthy seed of a plant is a 
THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.
soil, at 1'48 of specific gravity, (119,)           so
the ploughing of the soil deeper every inchi
introduces into it all additional 1,568,160
cubic inches of air.  Thus, by increasing
the depth of pulverised soil, we can provide a depot of air to any extent for the use
of seeds.   Suppose that as mnuch as 3
bushels of wheat are sown on the acre,
2,104,7 04 seeds will be sown, (1 856,) so
that each grain will have about 6 cubic
inches of air in a soil 8 inches deep.
able circumstances for germination.    Be.
Fig. 278. sides the di
sioII ofthe air,
the water, on
evaporation,
renders the
earth around
each  seed
much colder
than it would
SOIL WITH WAT'R AND WITHOUT otherwise be.
AIR.            The evils of
the excess of moisture are evident from
this figure.
3500. But this air must be above a certain temperature ere the seed will germinate-it must be above thefreezing point,
else the vitality of the seed will remain
dormant.  A  pulverised state of the soil
affords great protection to the seed from
a considerable depression of temperature,
and the more finely it is pulverised, the
more it will resist the induction of cold
from without, and the less will it radiate
the heat from within.  The less finely the
soil is pulverised, such as in fig. 277,
~?~,~ i  a is placed
, bv Am w 1 clods b, on
hard by, neither the clods nor the stone
l         i.:can~ afford the seed any air which can onlya
the other;
be supplied through the few particles of
CLoDDY ANo- STONYSOILm. fine earth
hard by, neither the clods nor the stone
can afford the seed any air, which can only
be supplied through the few particles of
pulverised soil; but cold is easily transmitted by stone from the atmosphere, with
which it communicates by its upper surface, and by which also the internal heat is
easily radiated into the air.  It is clear
then, that, in such circumstances, seed is
n      ot placed in favourable circumstan ces for
its germtination.  The advantages of pulverised soil are evident from this figure.
3502. Bult total want of moisture prevents germination as much as excess. Fig.
Fig. 279.          279   shows
Fg 277  wthere   seed           a
"7,  a  fi$is  placed  in  pul
an dtheinter        ~~~]~~~~ ~~~stices filled
no moisture
is visible be                             tween and in
SOIL WITH AIR AND WITHOUT   the particles
WATER.             of soil.   In
such a state of soil, heat will find an
easy access to the seed, and as easy an
escape from it.  The evils of the want
of moisture, and of excess of  heat, are
evident from this figure.
3503. Fig. 280 represents the seed a
Fig. 280. in  soil corm                             pletely pul
vensed5. soi ar  evdn  verised; be                             tween every
particle of
air flinds easy
~'~-~a t                            o~~  the hearttoe
seed; and in
every   par  1B e, SOIL WITH WATER AND AIR.   tide of soil
moisture is lodged.  All that is here requiired in addition is a favourable temperature, which the season supplies, and germination proceeds.
3501. Besides by clods and stones, the
air may be exclud(led by water. Fig. 278
represents the seed a placed in a ptilverised soil, the interstices of which are entirely occupied by water, instead of air,
as well as the interior of all the pulverised
particles of it.  It is also clear that, in
this case too, the seed, being deprived
of air, is not placed in the most fayour
3504. Chemical.-The clhenmical composition of seeds consists of organic and
inorganic substances.   The  organic  am
111 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
3507. Heat, if now present, assists the
elements of air and moisture to excite the
vital principle  into action.   It expands
the air contained in the numerous cavities
of the seed, produces distension of all the
organic parts; and, their irritability being
thus excited, the seed cannot be destroyed
but with death.
composed of two classes of elements, the
azotised and the non-azotised: the inorganic of earthy, alkaline, and acid ingredients.   The azotised elements consist of
matter atnalogous to the casein of milk,
albumiieni of the e,g and of blood, and of
the fibrine of the fleshl of animals; the
non-azotised consist of starchl and mnucilage, and of fatty and oily matters rich in
carbgn and hydrogen.  The proportions of
the starch, and of the mucilage, do not vary
muchl in most seeds; but in other respects
the composition varies considerably-iln
sonime the gluten predominating, in others
the oil, and by which the distinctive qualities of the plants are chliaracterised.'*
3508. Immedia tely o n the e nlar gem ent
of bulk by the moisture, and the excita-r
tion to vitality by heat, a chemical change
takes places in the constitution of the seed.
The vital principle decomposes the water
absorbed, fixes its hydrogen for future
purposes, and its oxygen, uniting with
the carbon of the seed, forms carbonic acid,
which is parted with by the respiratory
organs into the air, and of the seed into
the  soiln,  most s   of                the ingredients of the
latter absorb it.  The carbon is thus got rid
of until the proportion is reduced to the
amount best suited to its being appropriated
by the embryo plant. The evolution of the
carbonic acid may be one source of the heat
which becomes manifest during germnination, just as Liebig has pointed out the
source of animal heat by a similar cause
in the animal economy. It thus appears
that oxygen is essential to germination,
since no seed will germinate in lhydrogen,
nitrogen, or carbonic acid.
I 3505. A seed, when fully ripe, contains a
large proportion of carbon or mucilage, and,
as long as it continues to be charged with
either, it is unable to grow.  It is only
able to grow when p1)laced in circumstances
in which it can get qulit of a large proportion of the carbon or mucilage, and this it
is enabled to do when sown in the ground.
3506. When a seed is consigned to the
ground, the first change which takes place
in it is physical-it becomes increased in
bulk by thie absorption of moisture.  If
the moisture is presented to it in the proportion represented in fig. 280, it is placed
in the most favourable circumnstances for
gernmination; it then  receives  moisture
and air, and only requires the requisite
degree of temperature to excite its vitality
into action.  If it is placed in want of
moisture, as in fig. 279, it will remain in
a state of dormancy until moisture arrive,
and in the mean time may become  the
prey of the imany animals which inhabit
the soil, eager for food, or be scorched to
death by heat.  If it is placed in excess of
moisture, as in fig. 278, its germination is
prevented by the exclusion of the air, and
its tissues are destroyed by maceration in
the water.  In favourable circumstances,
besides the direct effect of the absorption of
moisture in increasing the bulk of the seed,
it softens and expands all its parts; mnany d
of thle dry and soluble parts becomie fluid;
sap or vegetable food is formned, and a sort
of circulation established, which communicates between the m ore remote parts of
the embryo.
3510. Acet ic acid         is    f ormed in the
chemical changes effected by germination,
but whether it or diastase is first formed,:
after germination commences, is uncertain.
* Boussingault's lural Economy-Law's translation, p. 19.
112
3509. When the seed begins to gerininate a substance named diastase is formed
at the expense of its albumen. The functions of diastase are important, being to
convert the insoluble starch of the qeed
into soluble dextrin and su,ar - to effect
which change it seems to possess extraordinary.power, as one part of diastase will
convert into sugar no less than 2000 parts
of starch. The diastase is formed at the
base of the germ; and as the seed shows
the first signs of germination there, the
diastase converts the starch which it finds
there into a useful state for the support of
the first efforts of vegetation, and, after baving performed this important function, it
disappears. 
THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.
The  action  of dilute  acids  gradually
ehanges starch  into dextrin, then into
eane sugar, and lastly into grape sugar.
After the acetic acid has been ejected by
the plant, it may serve to dissolve lime,
ianl       other earthy matters contained in  the
soil, and Liebig conjectures this to be an
especial function of this acid.
light the leaves of plants-absorb carbonic
acid and give off oxygen, and seeds exposed to liglft ollow the same law; but
in the process of healthy germination, carbonic acid is given off and oxygen absorbed.  Hence to attempt to germinate seeds
in the li,ght is to reverse the  order of
nature;  and the best way to exclude the
light is to cover the seeds with earth.
3511. "Under fitting circumstances,"
says Professor Lindley, "theembryo which
the seed contains swells, and bursts through
its integuments; it then lengthens, first in
a direction downwards,  next in an upward direction, thus forming a centre or
axis round which other parts are ultimately formed.  No  known  power can
overcome this tendency, on the part of the
embryo, to elevate one portion in the air.
and to bury the other in the earth; but it
is an inherent property with which nature
has endowed seeds, in order to insure the
young parts, when first called into life,
each finding itself in the situation most
suitable to its existence-that is to say,                              tihe
root in the earth, the stem in the air."
3516. Physiological.-A seed onsidered in reference to its organisation consists of an embryo, which includesthe germis
of the root and of the stem, and of a cotyledon or cotyledons.
3512. When the germ has shot out from
the seed, and attained to a sensible length,
it is found to be possessed of a sweet taste,
which is owing to the presence of grape
sugar in the sap which has already begun
to circulate through its vessels.  There is
little doubt that the grape sugar is formed
subsequently to the appearance of both
diastase and  acetic acid*  " With the
assistance of this saccharine secretion,"
continues Professor Lindley,  "the root,
technically called the radicle, at first a
mere point, or rather rounded cone, extends and pierces the earth in search of
food; the young stem rises and tinfolds its
cotyledons, or rudimentary leaves, which, if
they are exposed to light, decompose carbonic acid, fix the carbon, become greeln,
and form the matter by which all the preexisting parts are solidified.  And thus aI
plant is born into the world; its first act
hlaving been to deprive itself of a principle
(carbon) which, in superabundance, prevents its growth; but, in some other proportion, is essential to its existence."t
3517. Fig. 281 represents a grain ot
wheat magnified, and so dissected as to
Fig. 281. show its component
pa rts. It consists of
two skins,  an outer
l/iili  11 and an inner —a a the
outer, and b the inner
l  1skin': b is also where
t    the nutritive matters,
,'   called the starch and
the whole ~seed; c is
the little scale orcotyTHECOMPONENT PARTS ledon through which
OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT. the nutritive matter
passes in the sweet state, when  the grain
is germinating, and by whlich it is rendered
nost fit for the  nourishment of the little.
plant; d is the rudimentary plant, at the
base of which 3 tubers may be seen, from
which as many roots or stems, or both,
will afterwards proceed; and e is the point
where the nutritive matter, the little scale,
and  the  rudimentary plant, are uinited'
All these parts are essential to the growth.
of the seed, since, any one being absent
3513. It is prejudicialasy to cogerminatprehend why
lig,ht is prejudicial to germination. In
* Johnston's Lectures on A4gricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 221-8.
t Lindley's 7'Theory of Horticlture, p. 8-1 0.
113
3514. In oily seeds leaving no staroli,
mucila,-etalcesitsplace,which,be,ingeasily,
dissolved, transfuses itself into the Circular
tion, and is converted into dextrin or
cellulose, as tl)e case may require.
3515. Turnip and carrot seed have no
starch, but they contain pectic acid, which
being changed into de'-xtri'n, leaves carbon and oxygen to be used as the occasion
niay require. "
I
TOL. 11.
n 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
by accident or design, the seed fails to  ON SOWING, BROADCAST, DRILLED,' AND
spring.                                    DIBBLED-THICK AND THIN-AND AT
DIFFERENT DEPTHS.
3518. The seeds of most species of plants
possess such a structure as that only one
stem can proceed from themn; but in the
grasses, and particularly in  the cereal
ones, which yield human food, a remarkable  departure  from this  structure  is
observed.  In them the embryo plant is
usually thickened towards its base, and is
so organised that, instead of one stem, 3 or
4 usually spring from one grain; and, in
some cases, the number of stems is so great
as  almost  to
exceed  belief.
The peculiarity
mentioned may
be observed at
c, fig. 282,
which  is the
rudimentary
plant, having 3
projections in
the lower part,
while in other
kinds of seed
there would
have only been
one; and from
each of these
three   projec                           tions a rootlet
or-a stem, d or
t  d  i 6     b or both, pro                           ceed when the
.Ak PLANT OF WHEAT IN THE  grain is placed
STATE OF GERMINATION.   in the soil.
3522. However well the land nmay be
ploughed, the seed sown  broadcast will
braird irregularly-some falling into the
hollowest part of the surface, some upon
the highest,  and some  being  scarcely
covered with earth by the harrows-some
sliding gently into the rut after the tines
have passed,  whilst others are  carried
as deep into the ruts as the tines themselves penetrate.   To  harrow  the  land
smooth, previous to the sowing of the seed,
would not cure the inconvenience of irregular covering, since it is impossible  to
cover so large a seed as that of the cereals,
merely with the action of the tines of the
h arrows, without the assistance of a rough
surface of mould.   On smooth  harrowed
ground the seed would be left on the surface, and even  harrowing, as presently
conducted, leaves many seeds exposed, to
be picked up by granivorous birds.  What
I have stated may be illustrated by the
following figures, where from c to d, fig.283, are represented furrows, well and re
3519. Fig. 282 represents such a grain in
a state of germination, one shoot a having
left the sheath, another b is just evolved,
and a third c remains  unev olved; and d d
nare the rootlets. It is this peculiarity of
etructure which compensates, in some degree, forthe great loss sustained from thede.struction of seed, on sowing thecereal crops.
gularly plhughed; but -it is obvious that
altlhoi;gli the seeds will ftll successively
more into the hollows between tile furrows
than upon the sharp points, when scattered
broadcast from the hand, yet some will fall
on the points and sides of the  fiurrows.
The seeds will lie in the ground, as shown
in fig. 284, where those are thicker at e,
which fell into the hollows of the furrows,
and thinner at f, which stuck upon their
apex, or on their sides.  But even their
3520. The  force of   th e  v egetati    on       of                          a
;ingle seed is as great as to raise a weight
of 200 lb., as has been proved by its splitting hollow balls, in the nmanner the Florentine academicians measured the expansi,ve fi~rce of freezing water, (644.)  In
1847 a small fungus upheaved from its bed
a large flag-stone in a foot pavement in one
tof the squares of Edinburgh.
114
3521. Broadcast sowing. —Of all  tlho
modes of sowing the seeds of the cereal
crops, none requires so much seed as the
broadcast. The usual quantity of seed
sown is 3 bushels of wheat, 4 bushels of
barley, and 6 bushels of oats to the acre.
Thirty years ago the quantities of seed
sown were larger, viz.: —4 bushels of
wheat, 6 of barley, and 71 of oats. -These
quantities I myself have sown.
Fig. 283.
e                               d
WELL-PLOUGHIED REGULAR FURROW-SLICES. 
BROADCAST AND DRILL-SOWING.
is shown in fig. 287  lwhere some seeds aro
clustered together and covered in agshallow
Fig. 287.
ssition d ill not be so regul ar as is heie
represented, where all the seeds are at the
same depth from the surface, for some will
a         b          c              d
e:' f  e-.             * f.    I   99.....,:!..
-?ko::   I     *'    -.'*.1''.''; I- "' I:.':
.-'o:- II1,.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~.'-_    *.'*.......': 
I' —. —
-. —.. —.. - -. --    
-..-.-' —— *.. - -       ~~~~~~~~Th~~\~~~
K                                                           ~\>\\~\\~~~~~~>W.w
THE POSITION OF SEEDS WHEN SOWN ON REGULAR
FURROW-SLICES.
be deeper than others, some too deep, and
others too shallow, whilst not a few  will
have been left exposed on  the suirface.
From such a deposition, as in fig. 284, the
plants will come up in the irregular manner
represented in fig. 285, wherey are clu)mps t
IRREGULAR DEPO-SITiON OF SEED ON ILL     PI,OUGHED FURROW: SLICES.
maner  at a;  others also  clustered, but
buried daeep at  b; wah ii st many are scattered irregularly at different depthsi, at o
and d.  It is obvious,  froth  saucn  a (leosi- 
tion ofthe se edI tlatti. 2 braird mustcoh e  up
in a very irregular manner, likely to affect
the future pr,,gress- of the crop; for we
have only to look at such a braird to be
c(,nvinced that the plants have noat all the
satne chance of arriving at maturity at the
saine time; and, if a crop does nottmature
alike, the grain cannot be alike inl th4
saniiple.  In fig. 288, where  the seed  wate
Fig. 288.
b         ~
\\~~\~~                                                 Fig. 288.
IiRRZGULAR BRAIRDING FROM EVEN REGULAR 
FURROW-SLICES.
of too many plants, and h straggling ones
too far asunder. But in reality, the seeds
having been deposited at different depths,
the plants will present greater irregularity
of height than is shown in fig. 285.
IRREGULAR BRAIRD ON ILL-PLOUGsKD
FURROW SLICES,
sown very deep, it will produce plants
that will come up late, as at a; while that
covered in a shallow manner will send up
plants early, as at b, which will 1s)Ilil oe
in growth when the Feathlier is favourabl),
and'get fari r1 advance ef the late ones at
a.  The rema~nder at c, comning up in a
more regular manner, will form  the be,
part of the criop.:
ILL-PL()UGHED IRREGULAR FURROW-SLICES. 
irregular imanner in which the furrows are
place-l by bad plou,ghing.  Bad ploughling
is attended with had consequences at all
seasons, in forming the seed-furrow for
any kintd of crop, but particularly for a
cereal one, inasmuch as irregularity of surface cannot be amended in this by the
cleansing implements in future operations,
as might be the case in a green cr(i'pp.  Seed'
sown on the irregular surface of fig. 286,
where a is a narrow deep furrow, b a shallow one, c a large one of ordinary depth,
and d one having a high andl steepl) side,
will be covered in an irregular manner, as
II*
Fig. 284.
a 6!            e
:'' ee.      7.- I":.:.!.:;:   %' #"        ~-?:,
.::::.. —v:.:.:.-.......:-"~...: of:.::::.
Fig. 285.
3523. But when the land is ill ploughed,
the case is still worse. Fig,.- 286 shiows the
Fig. 286.
a,b                      110,  I 
3524. Drill-sowing, —One evident aclvantage of sowing with a  d-rill over a
broadcast miiachine, is the regular deposition of the seed at one depth, whatever
depth niay be chosen.  Fig. 289 relpreseitt
the seeds depo,sited at regular ititer%-s,
from a to a. The figure is supposed to bo
a crows section of the ground, as also of the
Fig. 289.
REGULARP DBPTHS OF PBRD BY DJRILLZ;DWlN 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
seeds in the lines of rows as sown witli
th      e           dilll'T he braird is shown  also in
cross         section from the drilled seed in fig.
29     0              from c     to c, where the plants seem all
Fig. 290.
tion may either be in rows or broadcast
though commonly it is in rows. The dif-'
ference betwixt dibbling and drilling it,
that the latter places the seed in continuous lines, while the former places it in
rows, at intervening distances in the row.
The object of dibbling is to fill the ground
with plants with the least quantity of wed.
The seed when sown in rows with  the
dibble appears as those in fig. 289, viewed
along one row, and the plants fronm  them
come lup as shown in fig. 290, standing
at intervals when also viewed along  a
row.  The depth of t  e ed    ad   t he seed an d the equ al
brairding of the plants are as uniform as
in the case of drilling, while the plants in
each dibble hole stand indepe',dent of the
rest.
..............,...........,-..,-.:.,............................. >..........
REGULAR BRA1RD FROM DRILL-SOWN' SEED.
of the sampe h-ligle t and strength, and their
t):roduce may reasonably be expected to be
o,f the same quality.  What makes drilled
seed be certainly retained at a uniform
(iel)tl is the harrowing of the land into
-a sniootli state before the drill sows the
seel.
3527. The waste in seed.-When sown
in all these ways in equal quantities, this is
surprising, as  may be determine d  both  by
reason an d  experixnent. Wheat  at   63 lb.
the bushel gives 87 of its seeds to the
drachm, or 701,568 to the bushel, (1856,)
in apothecary's weight, or 865,170 in
avoirdupois weight.  Now,, 3 bushels of
seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510
grains of wheat. Suppose that each grain
produces one stem, and every stem bears
an ear containing tile common  number of
32 grains, the produce  of t he  acre  s hould
be 96 bushels; but the heaviest crop in
Scotland seldom exceeds 64 busheli the
acre, so that 32 bushels to the acre, or 33
per cent of the seed, is lost in the best
crops, and 58 per cent in an ordinary one
of 40' bushels.
3525).  Certain as the result of the
drill-machine is in depositing the seed at
a stalte(l depth, there  are objections to
sowing corn in rows, which all drill-macli;.iles do, that  are not  applicable  to
l)roadcast sowing; and could the seed be
deposited at a uniform depth in broadcast,
the objections would be disposed of. One
,,ieetion to all grain crops placed in rows
is. that the air, having free access along
the rows, encourages the growth of weeds;
to,lestroy which, certain implements, named
l(horse and hand hoes, are used to stir the
ground. And, as in their progressive growth
the plants throw out innumerable rootfibres in every direction, in search of food,
those which occupy the open space between
the rows are destroyed in common with the
weeds; and although no estimate can be
formed of the,amounit of inljury whichi
plants suIstain in such destruction of their
root-fibres, it is consonant to reason that
those fibres must be essential to the welfire of the plants, otherwise they would
lnot be sent forth by them.   It would
therefore be worth while to ascertain by
experiment  the comparative results deriv ed from depositing seed broadcast at a
uniform depth witil the same quantity of
seed drilled in rows at a like depth.  The
drill-sowing machines conliieonly in use
are described under figs. 205 and 206.
3528. The waste in barley seed may be
estimated thus:-Chevalier barley at 57 lb.
the bushel, and  75 gr ains to  the  drachm,
gives 547,200 grains to the bushel, apotle.cary's weight, (I91i,)or 665,242 avoirdupois weight.  Four bushels of seed are
sown to the acre, which -gives 2,660,968
grains to the acre;  and taking one stem
from each grain, and the produce of an
ear at 32 grains, the produce should be
1 28 bushels; but the best crop in Scotland
does not exceed 60 bushels, which gives a
loss of  53 per cent on the best, and of
621 on an ordinary one of 48 bushels.
3526.  Dibble-sowing.- Dibbling,  or
dibblQ sewing, is the distributing of seed
by  means of a          dib       ble at given distances,  at a
uniform depth in the soil, and the distribu
3529. In like manner  the  lotw upon
oats may be estimated. The potato oat of
47 lb. the bushel, and 134 grains to the
... I.... -.                      ......... 11.
116 
DIBBLING.
drachm, gives 806,144 grains to the bushel,
apothecary's weight, (1930,) or 978,968
avoirdupois weight.   Six bushels of oats
are sown to the acre, which gives 5,879,808
grains to the acre; and taking one stem
from each grain, and the number of grains
in an ear at 44, the produce should be 264
bushels; but the largest crop in Scotland
I know of, is 114 bushels to the acre, and
a poor one is 36 bushels.  The loss of seed
on the best crop is more than one-half,
and on the poor one six-seventhls.
soil;  but the bro adcast    method involves a
loss of seed beyond    the    others  of 16  per
cent-an anticipated result, sin ce many of
the seeds were necessarily left unburied on
the surface, and some perhaps buried too
deep by the harrow tines. The seeds were
all sown on the same dav, the 19th March,
and the thickest sown of the drilled and.
broadcast brairded first on the 16th April.
For three nights after that, severe frosts
occurred, which, m ay have had a more injurious effect on the shallowest covered
seed of the broadcast than on the other
kinds of sowing.  Every one of the brairds
seemed quite thick enough for a crop.
3530. Another view of the thickness of
seed as sown is this:-2,595,510 grains of
wheat the acre give 536 grains to the
square yard; 2,660,968 grains of barley
give 550 grains to the square yard; and
5,879,808 grains of oats give 1214 grains
to the square yard.  In the cases of wheat
and barley, the proportion of seed is in
proportion  to their respective weights,
but in the case of oats the seed is more
than double in proportion to the weights
of the grains, probably because the weight
of oats is made up by that of its thick husk.
3532. Mr M'Lagan extended the experiment by sowing 7 pecks of oats drilled,
or 252 grains to the square yard, and from
these 208 plants came up, giving a percentage of'825. He also sowed 24 pecks
to the acre broadcast, or 864 grains to the
square yard, of which 570 produced plants,
giving a percentage of *671, only a little
more than in the former case of broadcast.
Thus, 7 pecks of oat seed gave the largest
return of plants brairded.  Still the ultimmate yield from the respective quantities
of seed sown has yet to be ascertained.
3531. Mr M'Lagan, junior of Pumpherston, Mid-Lothian, made experiments
at my request in the spring of 1849, for
the purpose of ascertaining the waste of
seed in sowing oats in the three different
ways of dibbling, drilling, and broadcast.
The oats weighed 42 lb. the bushel.  The
dibbled holes were made 6 inches apart,
and 6 inches between the rows, making 36
holes in the square yard, and each hole
was supplied with from one to four seeds,
makling the quantity sownI from one peck
to four pecks the acre; and the seeds sown
drilled and broadcast were in the same
proportion.  In drilling and dibbling, the
seed was inserted 3-2 inches into the ground.
The results were these:
Of Wheat sown,
Barley,.
Hopetoun
oats,
Potato oats,
Birley do.
Sh,,erriff do.
Percentage of
WI-eat I
came tp, J
Barley,
Oats,
Dibbled.  Drilled.  Broadcast.
Prom 36grains sown, 26 plmts, 32 plants, 19 plants came up.
.. 72.... 49..  53..  52....
.. 108.... 75..  78..  68....
.. 144.... 120..  94..  87....
360         270      257      226
Percentage,    750    -714      628
There is not much difference in the brairding of the seed sown dibbled and drilled,
excepting the case where four seeds were
town; and this might have been expected,
s ince       the seeds in bi,,th ways w  ere           deposited
much in the sanme circumistances  in the
3534. On the  25tle March simila r seeds
were sown in drills at the same rates per
square yard, and the plants counted on
117
3533. Mr Ha in
.y of Wliiterigg,' Roxburghsbire also erforilied similar experiments for me at the same time, by dibbling
and drilling wheat, barley, and oats, and
by sowing oats in broadcast. The dabbled
seeds were put into holes within 3 inches
!quare to the number of 1, 3, and 6 grains
in each bole, which gave respectively 144,
432, and 864 grains to the square yard.
The seeds were sown on the 16th March
,1849, and the plants counted on the 8tli
May. The results were these:
1009 plants emne up.
1117....
1332....
1365....
1315....
1288....
-67 -69 -71 average -69
.66'79 -7.9 -75
'90 -94.91 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
in.g ones, which were dibbled and drilled,
and their advanced state in that time is an
indication that plants sown in spring tiller
very quickly, after brairding, in favourable weather.
Afeer  Ater
144    4A
dJ. Aeds.
Of Wheat sown, 105   3'27
Barley,. 86   318
liopetoun I  1:9  408
oats,    1310
Potato oats,.137 407
3536. Taking the respective quantities
of seed as having been sown on the square
yard, both by Mr Hay and Mr M'Lag,an,
the quantities will be as follows on the
acre:
b~rcenkagp of
%i'lieat
s73'75'75 average -74
Barley,      *60  *73  *86'73
Oats, 96  94.92.94
On comparing the brairds of thle drilled
with the dibbled seeds, the barley and oats
do not exhibit much  difference, but the
wheat incurs less loss of seed when drilled
than when dibbled, in the ratio of 1009 to
1084.  On comiparing the results obtained
bv Mr Hay in the cases of dibbling and
drilling oats with those by Mr M'Lag,an,
Mr Hay obtained a braird of nine-tenths
of the seed sown in both cases; while Mr
L'Lag,an only obtained seven-tenths; and,
in the case o(f sowing oats broadcast, he
obtained a still smaller braird, namnely,
six-tenthlis.
Grains.              Grains.
36 per sq. yd. =    174,240 - I peck per acre.
72......      348,480 -= 2......
108......  =    522,720   - 3......
144...... 696,960 =  I bushel...
288...... — 1,393,920 2......
432...... = 2,090.880 =......3
576...... = 2,787,840=  4......
720...... = 3,428,800-  5......
864......  4,181,760 6......
- 3537. Mr Kenyon S. Parker made a
comparative  experiment between  drilling, dibbling, and broad-casting wheat on
clover lea, and the results show little difference between the drilled and dibbled
crop with Newberry's dibbler, the difference only consisting in the straw being
longer and stronger, and the ears and grain
bolder in the dibbled.
3535. After a lapse of ten days, on the
18thl May, when rain had fallen in the interval, the plants  sown  broadcast were
counted, and they were unexpectedly found
in greater numnber than the seeds sown.
The plaints therefore muist have  tillered
in the course of the ten days during the
rain, and the tillering, was ascertained to
b)e to the following extent:-e
heeds.            Plants.     Tillering.
31.5 Barley produced 3'0 =  one-sixth.
825                405 _  one-f,ourth.
471 Sherriff oats    9301 double.
b20....    648 _  one-fifth.
66;6 Potato do....    704    onie-sixteenth.
On  account ot)f the wet  weatt,er in the
course of the ten days, these plants were
longer in being counted than the preced
Broadcast, 1  3 produced 3  7  1       62
Drilled,    1  2...   4  3  1       63
at 12 in., 4
Dibbled,  I 0... 4  3  0               631
3538. Mr Thomas King Thedam, Little
Braxted, Essex, made, in 1848, experiments upon wheat deposited in eight different quatntities, dibbled at  the sae  distance, each  having 40 holes, upon a space
of fourteen square feet, with these results
Amended rate,
according to the
quantities given
in (3536.)
Pecks.  Pints.
0       14
1       12
2       10
3         8 
4       14
5        4
6         2
7         0
Rate of
Graills
per
square
- foot.
3
6
8
11
14
17
20
23
I
I
I
f
118
the 8th )vlay, wlien
following:
the results were the
Aft.,
8"
-d..
6;i2
747
798
795
1084 plants came up.
11-51.'..
1345.'''
1339.. I..
bush. peck.
the acre.
t
fL
No. (,f
Gr.,ins
i,, e-acti
bole.
1
2
3
4
.    5
1   6
7
8
Weight, in
clt,ding
straw and
chaff.
Ounces.
12
1 6   -
26
26i
261
40
36
38
Amount of
Grains
SOWII.
40
80
120,
160
200
240
2110,,
320
Number of
ears
produced.
67
97
157
170
174
242
224
222
Rate of Seed
per acre.
Peclis. Pints.
1        3
2 6
3 1 0
1 4 1 2
6
7 3
8        6
1 9 9 
THICK AND THIN SOWING.
"The produce of a sheaf of wheat grown
last year, and weighing 12 pounds, was
4 pounds net, or one-third of the gross;
this season 12 pounds gross produced only
3-1 pounds net;  therefore, as there are
43,560 s(quare feet in the acre, only one
ounce of wheat is required per square foot
to produce  2,7221 pounds, which will
amount by weight to something more than
42 buslels, at 64 pounds to the bushel.s
The foregoing experiment was made upon
a gravelly soil, of a tenacious quality, and
subject to grub and wireworm; and the
crop that surrounded my experiments was
fromn 61 pecks of seed per acre, drilled with
10 rows upon a 7-feet stetch, and was
in general appearance much better than
any of that grown upon this thin-sowing
system."  This experiment indicates that
the greatest result was obtained from 240
grains in the given space, which is here
stated at 7 pecks 3 pints the acre; but as
the number of grains in a given space is
made to show a larger quantity of seed by
Mr Thledam than the calculations of Mr
Hay and of Mr M'Lagan make it, I have
inserted a column of amended rates in the
above table, by which the quantity of seed
which produced the greatest result is altered to 5 pecks 4 pints, from 7 pecks 3 pints.
have be en much      discus sed  and experimented on by several parties, but none has
expres se d himself so conc lusively on it as
Mr dHewitt Davis,   London,  and fa rmer
of Spring Park, near Croydon, in Surrey.
Mr Davis' farm contains 800 acres of high
rented poor soil; but Scottishfariners should
be  madeacquainted thatthis farm stan ds
on  a warm subsoil of  chalk, a n advant age
which no  farm of theirs  possesses.  Of
his practice,  M       r          Davis  says, that   the
practice  thro ughdut Eng land  is to sow  two
or three bushels of wheat to the acre, and
the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and
more commonly less than  20 bushels, so
that one-tentlh at least of the crop grown
is consumed as seed, whilst a single grain
of wheat, planted where it has room to
tiller out, will readily produce many
hundred fold. The knowledge of these
facts has induced me, in the course oi the
last fourteen years, to make a variety of
experiments, the results of which have
clearly shown me that, independent of the
waste, a positive and serious injury offar
more consequence is done to the -crop from
sowing so much seed. I bear in mind, that,
if so much be sown as to produce more
plants than the space will allow to attain
to maturity, the latter growth of the whole
will be impeded, and a diseased state will
commence as soon as the plants cover the
ground, and continue till harvest.  In
consequence, I have gradually reduced my
proportion of seed-corn to less than a third
of what it was my practice to sow; and
this reduction I have accomplished to the
very evident improvement of my crops."
The quantities of seed which Mr Davis has
at length determined on sowing, in accordance with these reasons, are, for
3539. The question to which these particular data'give rise is, what quantity is
too thick or too thin sowing, or what is
the least quantity of seed that should be
sown to vield the largest crop? The inqiiiry assumues much importance when we
consider that from one-tenthl to one-fourteenth part of all the grain g,rown in the
country is every year put into the ground
as seed. However small a fraction of either
of these proportions could be saved by another mnode of sowing, would increase the
profit of the farmer to that extent. If
one bushel of seed could be saved on the
acre, the quantity of seed saved would
amouint to 2,403,198 quarters, according to
the data fuirnished by Mr  Couling to the
House of Coummons  the number of arable
acres in the kingdonm being, 19,225,583-a
quantity of grain considerably exceeding
tthe annual import  of foreign wheat for
the long period from 1801 to 1844.*
Ryne. bar -ley  bush.~ow in Auig. and Sept.'
IVtinter barley, 2.............  September.
. Tares,....         three   sowings  in
ae   I  Aug. Sept. & Oct.
Oats,....6 pecks          Jan. Feb. March.
alway  posses a   ge  J a an. Feb. March,andt
Barley,n.    5 "          A          r     il.
Wheat,..  3...... Sept. and Oct.
Pease,        9......  Dec. Jan. & Feb.
Beans,.. 9.....  Sept. and Oct.
It will at once be observed that  the timeof sowing here specified would not suit
most of those crops in Scotland, and on
this account alone the English farmer will
always possess a great advantage over the
Scottish. Tile results obtained byMrDavis,
* Porter's Progress of tle N,ration, p. 188, 159.
119'
13540. Tliick and thin sowing of seed 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
after such scanty sowings, are 5 quarters
of the best wheat, above 13 quarters of
oats, and above 8 quarters of barley to the
acre on ".very inferior land," from the
manure available on the farm.*
barley per Scotch acre respectively, tlke
Scotch being one-fifth larger than the iniperial acre.  More recently,  however, I
have curtailed these quantities by nearly a
bushel per acre, and, so far as I call judge,
with manifest advantage to the crops. The
straw is much more bulky, and the grain
decidedly greater in quantity;  and(, if
sown early enough, quite equal in quality
to what it was  under  the  thlick-sowing
system.  I am persuaded that, were I to
d rill the seed either with a machine or a
plough, I could safely and economically
dispense witlk another bushel per acre.
While making these remarks in favour of
thin sowing, I am not yet a convert to the
English  system  of infinitesimal  small
quantities of seed, such as two or three
pecks per acre, and can easily conceive
circumstances under which this sowing
would be positively injurious."  Experience here also indicates the propriety of
sowing in moderate quantity.
3542. Mr B. Hunt, Basingstoke, tried
an experiment of thick and thin sowing of
wheat on clover lea, betwixt 6 pecks of
seed to the acre, which produced 5 quarters the acre, and 10 pecks of seed, which
not only produced 6 quarters the acre of
grain which was 4 lb. the sack heavier,
but half a ton of more straw.  The results
obtained by Mr Hunt have a tendency to
uphold thick sowing, and lie is therefore of
the opinion that it is not safe to sow less
than 7 or 8 pecks of good seed.  As  lihe
does not mention the mode in which the
seed was sown, I conclude it-was the common mode of broadcast.
3545. On comparing thebroadcast, drilled,       and dibbled met aho ds  of sowing  the
cereal graips, fro m  wha t has been said on
the subject,  it must  be owned  that the
broadcast method, which is the most comimon one throughout the country, imposes
a loss of seed by the liarrowing, which not
only leaves some of the seed exposed on
the surface, but takes perhaps as many
too deep into the soil. These effects are
produced whether the seed be sown by the
hand, (2316,) or by the broadcast machine,
fig. 204, and cannot be avoided as long as
the broadcast modes of sowing, as presently practised, are persevered in.  I
think it would be desirable could a plan be
contrived of sowing grain broadcast at a
uniform depth. It would be more economica'l than dibbling or drilling, inasmuch
as the horse and hand-lhoeiing of the crop
would be saved.
3543. The experience of Scotlanid as to
thin sowing is as yet limited.  Mr  Hay
of Wliiterigg tried an experiment in the
spring of 1848 with wheat after turnips,
by sowing 1.4 bushel against 3 bushels the
acre, and  the result was  that the thin
sown gave a greater produce bsy a small
quantity of straw and grain together, the
chief advantage being in the saving of
seed; but that thle thick sown gave rather
more thaii 2 bushels the acre more of
grain, which was 1 lb. heavier the bushel.'
3546. A saving of one-tenth of the seedcorn is secured by using drilling or dilbbling
machines instead of the broadcast, and
whl)ichl of these should be chosen must be
determined by other considerations than
the proportion of plants produced by each,
since both are nearly alike in that respect,
from the thick as well as from the thin
sowing.
3544. Mb r John lIaxtoan, Drumnod, in
Fifeshire, thus expresses himself on this
subject:-"My own practice," le says,
"used to be to sow 4 buslhels of wheat,
after green crops, 5 busl-,els of early oats,
6 bushels of late oats, and  5 bushels of
* Davis On the Waste of Corn by i'oo Thick Sowing, p. 6-12.
t Journal of Agriculture for Janiuary 1849, p. 638.
120
354 1. Mr Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, Essex,
continues his experiments of comparative
sowing between one bushel and two bushels
the acre, and the advantage is iii favour of
thin sowiiic,, though the results are not
Uniformly in favour ofit, the products
varying from 3 bushels 3 pecks to one
bushel the acre in favour of thin sowin-,
and half a peck the acre in favour of thick
sowing. But it should be borne iii mind
that Mr Meclii's thick sowing is only 2
bushels the acre-a quantity equivalent to
the thin sowing of many farmers. 
THICK AND THIN SOWING.
rived at the stage when their wants are of
the most necessitous description; and the
struggrle terminates in th e  least vigorous
ones dying off, and leaving  the strongter,
which iwould  have be en a s n umerous with
thinner   sowing, but which in consequence
of the struggle have been nmuich impeded
in growth, and by which tihe ear s  a   nd
grains continue small, and yiel  d a small
return. Thick sowing  is advisable  on newly
broken up  land containing, a large amount
of vegetable matter in an active state of
decomposition, when it is beneficial in   repressing, by it s numerous roots antd stenis,
that exuberance of  gro wth which pr oduces
soft and  succulent steins, tha t        become
lodged and produce   untfille d ears. Thin
sowiwng has  a tendency to make th e  roots
descend deep; and wh ere     a ferrutinoius
subsoil exists, tcsk hi sowing    keeps the
roots Dearer  the  s     urface,  away  fromn it.
Thin sov ing develops a large ear, gra in,
and  ste), but   delays maturity.  Thick
sowing on old land in high condition renders the plant diminutive, and hastens its
moaturity before  e  tie  ear and grain  have
attained their proper  size. Thin sowing
in autumn afiorts room to plant s  to tiller
andp fill the   roulnd in spring, lnile thin
SoWing in spring does not afford tiyie for
the plant to tiller much. Thick sowing in
autumbln r iapkes the    p lan ts look best in winter, but it gradually attenuates thiemii as
the spring advances.  Thin sowingr makes
tlhemii l,,ok worst in winter, but to become
mor e    full as the har ve st approaches.  You
thus see  that a moderate quantity of s ee d
of the cereal Lrains is the imiost p)ruldent
practice to adept generally; anld where
exceptional cases occur, as noticed alcove,
the judgment must be particularly exercised; and after experience has certainly
established the ntost proper quantity for
every  particular case, the difficulties  of
sowing, will be removed, and its economical
benefits realised.
3547. The drill does not work well in
stony ground, it easily displacing  the
coulters, or the stones are displaced by the
coulters, or the coulters ride ovei the tops
of some of them; and where  lan(1fast
stones or the subjacent rock lie near the
surface, drills would be certain of being
broken.   The dibble is prevented penetrating into the ground by even a small
stone, but perhaps no harm accrues to seed
from depositing it upon stones under the
suirface of the ground. With the exception
of such inconveniences, of which many instances might occur in Scotland, drilling or
dibbling grain is preferable to sowing it
broadcast as practised.  One great advantage those possess is making the surface
f            ine by harrowings and rollings, before the
seed is sown, after which it is not disturbed
in its position. Reference to figs. 289 and
290 at once shows that the deposition of
seed at a uniform depth is miiore likely to
produce a uniform crop than that at irregular depths and irregular distances, such
as broadcast sowing necessarily deposits it.
3548. On  thle comp arative   merits of
thick and          thin sowing,   exper i ence has yet
much  to teach.  The             d irect saving of seed
effected by thin  sowiig recomme ndsd e   it at
once for adoption; but if this advantage
were all-unless the crop it produced were
always       g      ood,  of which there  is n         o constant assurance -it wo uld not produce  a
conviction of its superiority over  tihicp                                       a
sowing. In so doubt fil a position we miay
safely taske the middle course, of sowing                       a
moderate   quantity o f seed; for I be        lieve no
doubt exists of very  thick sowing, as
hitherto pursued, having wasted a large
proportion of the seed.  In sowing, any
more than in other practices of husbandry,
no absolute rule will apply to all circuinstances, and many considerations slould be
taken into account before a particular rule
be adopted.  I should say that farmers are,
generally, blamable for the lavish manner
in which they throw the seed into the
ground, and subject themselves to considerable loss in sowing more seed than the most
extreme conditions of so il and  season
warrant. The great evil of too thick sowing, is the crowding the plants tf(,etiier
into a space where neither sufficieincy of
air or cf room  for their roots are provided.  A struggle for existence bxetween
the pllants commences after they have ar
12i
11354f). I have already describe(] tl)e
niode of sowirilr grain I)roadeast, (2.'33,3,)
and -,tlsf- in t,lrill, (2339;) it Yiow i-et)iaiiis
to de-sci-ihe the sowing of it with the ollbl)le,
which is done bv tn,-i,niial operation or with
]Dil)blingTn,-ybeperft)rtiiedby
ttie hand with a hand dabbler as 1)()tatoes
are in gardens, or with pins at,tacliett to
the side (,f a lori,(', piece of wood, and
tlii-ust ivitli the foo,t into the ground, or 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
with small hand  dibbles, thrust through
holes formed in a thin board of wood.   In
all these modes the seed is deposited into
the holes so formed at stated distances of
7 inches between the rows, 4 inches apart
in the rows, and 2-1 inches in depth, by thle
hlands of boys and girls, and the earth is
put over them with thle foot.  The cost of
these modes of dibbling grain is from 5s.
to 7s 6d. the acre, and of pease and beans
fromi 3s. 6d. to 4s. the acre.
is placed between the extremities of the
handle s a a,  prevents  the large wheel f
being pres sed closer to the ground  than is
needful.   A  man pulls the inachine for ward by means of a rope attached to the
stilts at  b, or, what is better, a bridle  and
shacklt be  ligt be mounted tlere, fo r voking
a p ony or o-orseftO draw the niaclline.  As
the wlieel is drawn forward by the horse,
it turns round by its action on tlhogroiind,
the projecting points e of the hiollow tubes
acting as dibbles and making holes in the
ground, one portion of which dibbles, before
leaving tlhe ground, slide upon the otlher
half, making an opening thlrougll which the
seeds are deposited in tle holes. The seed
descends to the requisite number, from  the
hopper g, lv means of feeding-rollers,
moved  by the pinioni, which is set in motion
by teetlh placed on the circumference of the
disc d. The disc is supported in its cenitre
by an axle revolving in its ends on pltumnrer blocks.  In using this machine, a man
holds byv the two stilts aa, while a horse
draws the machine in the given line.  This
line not being in that of the drill, a rigger
like that of the drop-drill, fig. 26 1. is here
required for the horse to be y(oked to.
The stay i supports the machine when at
rest.  The price of tlhe  5 and 7 rowed
dibbles is,t';0, that of the one-rowe(I on
wheels  ~-13, and a  hand  one, without
wheels, &'6.  This one-rowe(d dibble is said
to be well suiited for sowing mangold-wurzel seed on tlhe top of the drill.
3550. But machines will no doubt supersede hand labour in dibbling, grain, should
that mode of sowing be ultimately adopted,
and they can do the work at one-third of the
expense incurred by the hand.   The dibbling machine first brought into notice, and
which is yet the most perfect of its class,
was invented by Mr James Wilmot Newberry, of Hook Norton, Chipping Norton,
Oxfordslhire.   It is a very  ingeniously
constructed machine, and rather elaborate
in its construction,  which  will  alwavs
maintain its high price; but it deposits
every kind of seed( at given distances, in
any (quantity, with the utmost precision.
Fig. 2)91 is a view in perspective of one of
3551. Silnce  then a dibbling  machine
hlas been Iresented to public notice hy Dr
Sailuel Newington, of Knole Park, Frant,
near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent.   Fig. 292
is a view in perspective of one hating six
depositors: the box in firont  contains  the
seed, anfl the points of the depositors are
seen to rest upon thle ground,  which  halls
been liarrtowe(l si-imootli.  Tihe  depositors
bsae made to deposit tlhe seed at tl,e desired
depthls, elevating (,- depressinig tlhei, and
keeping tlieu: in their places by  Iiticling
screw%s.  The machine is worked( l)y taking hold o)f the ilpper rail by botlh  lian(ls,
antl, onl pressing  upf-)on it, tlle depositors,
wlwh ien witlidrawni, leave the requisite number of seeds in eacli hole the delp(;sit(trs hlave
alade, by thle nacliinery in the interior of
thie macline.   By )ressilng d,:,n tlje upper
handle, the del,,(sitors  press e-ery seed
firmnly into a solitd bed, wlhicl-i is so snall
the fbrms i n which this    laciinte is om   a     ide,
being oneDrowed.  It consists of a hollow
flat disc, d, which contains tlje machinery
that directs the seed from tlhe hopper g
into tlthe lollow t     ubes, e, 18 of whiclh are
connected with and )rfo)ject erom t)he circurnference of the disc d, like tlhe spokes of
a wheel from its nave, and theil points pass
through the larger outer ring f, which retains tle lhollow tubes or 6'istributors of
,seed in their respective places, and prevents
them sinking into the ground beyond the
requisite depth.   The fore wleel c, which
122
Fig 291,
e
NEWBF,RRY'S ONE-ITO%VED I)ilil,,LIN'j MACHINE. 
TILLERING OF ROOTS.
an(d, when at b, let himn shift tblat end of the
line from b tof, and tlien dibble the seed in
fronm d  to c, where, let him shift the end
of the line at a to e, whicth b)rings the line
straight froinf to e.  Before starting with
the dibl,lintg from  e, let him remove  the
end of the line at c to 9, and then dibble
the  seed from  e to f, lwhere he shifts thle
end (of the line from d to A, whicll )rings
the line straiglt from g to h.  Sliftiug the
line from f to i, lie proceeds precisely as
lie did when at b, and so  on altern:ltely
from one side of the field to the otlher.
3553. Another circunmstance whichl  af fects the relation  between the seeds sown
and the plants  produced, is the depth to
whicli the seed( is buried in the ground.
In ill-plouglied lan(-Il, such as il fig. 286,
seeds sown broad-cast falling between illassorted furrows, sink to the I)ottomii of the
firrow slic(e, where they are buiried so deep
as to becomne dorlii ant or lose  thleir vitality.
See(ls are  very  differently  a-ffected by
deptlh. some sorts germinating froni a considerable depth, vwhilst othlers become dor-.
niant or die, if placed at a coniparatively
sniall distance  below  the surface of the
ground.  1 hiave traced the stenl of a pllant
of barley as far as 9 inclies below the surface, fri, ii whichl depth it lad penetrated
the ground  rolni the see(l whlence it sprung;
whiile oats, buiied  7 inclies deep in the
soil, will die.   This accounts for the absence  of oats, whichl  have  slipped d(own
between the furrow slices  of lea,h *here
they perish.'The risk of thus lositg, the
seed sown on (1I (1  lea, the furrow-slices of
wlwh lich are difficult to be laid close to each
othler in  pll(oughlling, iinduced  ame to recomli)lend  thle partial  liarrowing of the
siirface of pl,,ughle(d  (71( lea bef(Ire the
seed is so%wn, (2491.) The roots (,f lI,arley
strike  (lownnwards a considerable  depth,
whljicl in,licates that  barley-seecl sI(huld
lhave a deep see(l-furrow, as I recomniuetded
in (2(;89;) but, tlhe roots of oats spread and
keep near tlhe surface, like those of tihe
Scots fir andl the beech, and hlence oats
tlthrive better  upon shallow groiund than
barley.
hours, wlaicli mak      es th      e cost about 2s. thle
acre. In using the mnachine after thie first
line is laid off stra.ig,ht next the fenie. thre
workman continues to keep the otlher lines
straiglht at the stated distance by the mark
left oil tlte ground by tlhe miiaclinie.  Tbe
seeds are put in at 4 inches apart in tlje
rows, and the quantity is variedl by either
altering the distance between the rnws, or
inicreasing- the number (of seeds in  each
bole. but it is not desirable to exceed
three see(ds in each hole.  The cups wvhlich
contain the seed are of four sizes, and can
be easily removed( or replaced by imieanis of
screws.   The price of a mac!hine witli six
depositors, wlhichl is tle usual size,is~'2, 1Os.
3552. When a man uses a small dibl
a convenient mode  of  keepingi  the I
straight in sowing  is tl,is:-Take two
lines and stretclh tlhem alongi, th-e sid(
tlhe field to be sown, at a cdeterminate
tance tetween tlhenm; a b and c d are the
lines at a distance het wen tlhei of (ai c
b d. Let hiiiii dibble in the seed atlong
b —      3554. WI.eat possesses a property in its
-d    roots  co(lim(In to  b(Itll bartley and (,ats.
f      The seed will hear to be dleep sowi'l-not
hA    so deep as barley, but d(leepl)er than  oats,
i     and not deeler than 6 or 7 inches; and
123
as to preclude the fear of their containing
water, and yet comlpletely buries the seed.
By changlinig tlhe cups, the quantity of the
seed is regulated, as well as the de(scription
of seed.  With a ilmachlinie having 6 del)ositors, a iman can dibble an  acre  in 10
Fig. 292.
N]CWINGTON'S SIX-ROWED DIBIBLING M~ACHIINI.
a
0
9
g 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
being out of the reachl of frost, will  then
be enabled to s e n d up nourislmernet to t he
crown, by means of the pipe of communication."
after the germ has become a stem, it puts
out another set of roots about an inch be        Fig. 293.      low the surface. The
deeper may be call                     ed the seminal, and
a6tth e uee -                          c  the upper the coro   be  Xeoitedl                                   n  root of the wheat
plant.:Fig,.  293
shows the arrange                      ments of the roots
under the  surface,
l,    R      l  where a is the seed
with   its  seminal
roots c, and the germ
b rising from it to
the surface  of the
ground at.f, above
which the stem, with
its leaves, are seen.
About an inch be                      low the surface at d
........... are formed the coro                      nal roots e e, the
office of which is not
d     only to maintain the
plant, but to form
the site from which
b/  \ A    the multiplication of
the plants proceeds
when it sends forth
4 Q              its tillers. At what                      eyer depth the seed
mayhavebeen sown,
from 2 to 5 inches,
the coronal roots are
formed at one inch
at d, the difference
THE DOVBLE ROOTS OF being the length of
IDzP SOWN WHEAT.  the connecting tube
a b, according to the depth the seed had
been deposited.
3556. Now the form  which the plant
Fig. 294.     assumes,  when  sown
near the surface, is dif                    ferent from this, and
mt   of  i s seen  in fig. 294,
ue   te   where a is the seed
wr     is twith its seminal roots
h   i    s   b the pipe of comnimu                    nication between them
l r   f   and the coronal roots
te s   o  c c, which are a little
g n  a A   beneath the surface d.
w h te     The coronal root c be          its l s   ilg at a less distance
d    from the surface than
...................
....before, the pipe of com                c   munication is shorten       nal  root     ed to the smallest lon office of wigitude. "'Hence it is
oltt  7'\  obvious," continues the
pn   bu  to frsame  writer,   " that
SHALLOWSOWNWHEAT. whlieat sown superficially must be exposed to the frost," while
the life of the plant is placed in jeopardy
"fromn the shortness of the pipe of communication,"placing the seminal root within reach of the frost.  The plant, in that
s ituation, has no benefit from its double
root.   On the contrary, when tile grain
has been properly covered,  the seminal
and coronal roots are kept at a reasonable
distance.  The crown, being well-nourishled
during  the  winter,  sends  up numerous
stalks in spring.   On  the tillerirg of the
corn the goodness of the crop principally
depends.   A  field of wheat  dibbled, or
sown in equidistant rows by the drill, always makes a better appearance than one
sown with the harrow.  In the one, the
pipe of communication is regularly of the
same length, but in the other it is irregular, being either too long or too short."*
3555. " As the increase and fructification of the plant depends upon the vigorous
absorption of the coronal roots, it is no
wonder that they should find themselves
so near the surface where the soil is always
the richest.  I believe I do not err when
I call this veyetable  instinct.   In the
northern counties wheat is generally sown
late.  When the frost comes, the coronal
roots, being young, are frequently chilled.
This inconvenience may,however, be easily
prevented, by sowing more early, and burying the seed deeper.   The seminal roots
* Geor Ical Essay#, vol. i. p. 67-9.
124
3557. The conclusions which the fore,going statements warrant are evidently
these: tliattliewlieatsoNvnbeforewititer
should be as deeply covered with earth aq
to be beyond the reach of injuriotis frost,
say 4 or 5 inches; that i spring the
coronal roots will set out from the estab 
DEPTHII OF SOWING.
lished plants abundance of tillers or stools;
that wheat sown in spring shoueld be lightly
covered, little exceeding one inch; that the
tillers or stools will be few;  that thlerefore the autumn wheat ought always to
be dibbled or drilled to makle the pipes of
communication lon g, and of uniform length;
that spring wheat mnay be sown broadcast;
and that aatunlual sown wheat should have
less seed than that sown in spring.
clover s eeds  should   be     covered,  to produce thie gre atest number of  plan t s.  The
same weit,ht of seed was sown of each
kind, and as different seeds differ in bulk
and weight, the numbers of each  kind
differed materially.   I think the  better
plan would have been  to have sown the
same number of seeds of eacht kind, and
the proportion which came  up of the plants
would have been more easily ascertained
than by the method adopted by Mr  Stirlint,. Each kind of seed was covererl froni
a quarter of an inch to three inches of
depth in the soil.  They were sown on
the 1st of July and counted on the 1st of
August 1844.
3558. Depth   of sowing affects no plants
so sensibly as the grasses. The late Air
Stirling of Glenbervie, near Falkirk, made
the following experiments to ascertain
the depth which the conmmon grass and
Pr~por
No. of tioZ o
pnlants 1-l___
No. of                             COVERED AT                                     No. of ]}~tioo o
Ici it I  ]h
inch. inch. i,nch.
19   16   19
13   13   10
15   10f    9
16  13  13
12   10    6
18  12    9
15   10   8
15  12    7
19   16  15
I....
17  14   11
11   11    8
4    3     1
6    4   2
181 144  118
Perennial rye grass, Loliumperenne,
Italian rye grass, Lolium Italicurn,
Cocksfoot, Dact!lusqlomerata,
Large fescue, Festuca elatior,
Meadow fescue, Festuca prateisis,
Varied  leaved  fescue,  Festuaca )
heterophitlla,
Hard fescue, Festuca duritscuta,
Meadow   Fox-tail, Alopecurus                                  -
pratensis, 
Timothy gra.s or Meadow Cats'-                5
tail, Phleum pratense major,
Evergreen wood  nieadow grass,.
Poa nemoralis sempervirens, f
Rib grass, Plantao ltanceolata,
Red clover, Trifoliuz,, pratense,
White clover, Trifolitumn repens,
Yellow clover, Mledicago luputlina,
*    3900  358  303  241  181  144  118   90   65   37   21  j9   1581.40
It will be seen from this table that in only
three cases did the number of plants come
up exceeding one half of that of the seeds
sown, the largest proportion being in that
of the perennial rye grass-the average of
the whole being under one half, viz.'40.
The clovers caiiie up in a smnall proportion,
particularly the white, which is gc.erally
considered a hardy plant in this climate.
The rye grasses  caine up  much  better
thian tlhe clovers. Of the deptlhs, the quarter of an inch covering gave the largest
return of plants, and J 6 per cent more thlan
half an inch; anti to show that the quarter
of an inch is the most favourable depth for
all the seeds, most of them gave more
plants than the seeds sown, which indicates a tillering from the roots before the
germ had penetrated the soil; and this
3559. The scanty braird obtained fronm'
the large nlumber of turnipseeds sown, there
being about 292,600 seeds of swedes sown
in the double drill on every acre, while only
19,360 plants are required, it has frequently occurred to me that many of the
seeds are buried too deep in the drill by
the coulters, and that this circumstance
might account for the want of sufficient,
* Transactions of t!e Highland ard.4grioultural Society, for January 1845, p. 3-11.
I
I
I
I
I
f
.1
I.,
i
I
I
.iI
I
I
N...
,,d.
COVERED AT
KINDS OF SEEDS EXPERI     MENTED ON.
.It.g,,th,.
th.t
.P.
198
14.5
115
142
117
124
114
94
190
43
134
85
3.,i
42
1581
th.t
,!..,3
.P.
57
:51
.38
.42
.36.
.35
.38
.49
.36
.18
1.53
.44
.2.6
.43
.40
i
i.h.
29
24
30
20
2S
31
30
17
52
24
22
17
13
12
.358
i
i.,h.
30
21
22
24
28
23
23
17
39
14
25
16
11
10
03 1
I
i.e.
27
20
15
20
16
20
10
16
37
4
19
14
6
8
41
it
i-h.
14
11
7
11
9
6
5
6
7
2
i.,-h.
21
8
5
9
4
2i
i,,,,h.
11
9
2
4
2
2i
i.,!h.
9
6
24
i.,,h.
8
5
3
—,,h
4
5
348
276
300
312
324
348
300
192
528,
228
252
192
144
96
3900
'i
2
'i
14
9
4
3
3
5
I
1
1
0
6
37
12
21
10
4
90
8
4
65
may have been induced in the young
roots, froil'i the seeds haviii,, been sown
in soil in a greenhouse, where the tem'
perature would be more.,conducive td
refiroductioil than that of the open air.
This experiment, tlierefore,'tliou,,Il evi
dencing much loss of seed, sbov IVs a more'
favotirable result than should be.'e"xpected
in the field. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
braird on strong soils in unfavourable seasons, for even that small nunilier of plants.
This point cannot be exactly ascertained
in ordinary times, as it requires the coincolitant circumstances of strong soil and
an unfavQurable season in whlichl  to co,nduct the experiment; but I made an experiminent in the summer of 1849, in June,
to ascertain the effects of deep sowing in         i
comparison w       ith shallow ill the   most favourable circumstances for vegetationi-a free
soil cherished in the lXigh temperature of a
vinerv. Seeds of swedes, yellow Aberdeen, and white  globe turnips were experimented on, 40 of each of which were
placed in friable soil taken from under fine
old pasture, at 1, 2, 3, and 4 inches in
dep)tlh ill pots, at 8 o'clock in the evenilg of the  6th of June, and the plants
came up at the time and  in numbers  as
follows:
3560. The property of the cereal plants to tiller
or stool-that is, to send up a number of stems
fromn the same root-is a valuable one in an econo rmical point of view.  But for this property, when
the seeds of the cereals lhappened to be much de str,yed by iinsects uijder ground, or by the un favourable state of the ground  or of the air for
vegetation, or  from  the destructive effects of
frost, or when  the young plants are destroyed
by ins,ects as they appear above the surtace, the
crop would  be so scanty on the ground that t
would  miost probably be ploughed tip by the tarmer as profitless, and another  substituted in its
stead. The extent of tilleriig depends on the
circumstances of soil, weather. and  the space al lowed the plant to grow in. A free soil, admitting
the-shoots ot the  radicles to penetrate  easily,
encourages tilleriig, other circumstances being
equal, more than a stiff hard soil. The weather
when moist and warm promotes tillering. Unless
plants have space tor their roots, or are crowded
together, they will not tiller. Tillering implies an
instinctive faculty in plants to take advantage
of all the food that will support them, and it is
strikingly exemplified  in the stronger plants in
a crowded state, overcoming and  kiiling the
weaker ones.
SWEDES.
Inches Plants In
in depth. came tip. days.
From  40 seeds 1         31      4
...         2       29      5
...         3      20       6
...         4       10      8
YELLOW ABERDEEN
1    28    4
2     25    4
3    14    5
4      5    8
3561. When the cereal plants find abundance
of room in which to shoot their radicles around,
they (1o so vigorously, withl all apptarent deter miniation to occupy it to the exclusion of other
plants; but when they are not crowded together,
and are not more  numerous than to occupy the
ground fully, they exhibit no tendency  to tiller.
The  questioll which such anrt  observation gives
rise to is, Whether it is better to allow few plants
to fill the ground by tillering, or to fill the ground
at once with the requisite number of plants I
The  answer  to  this  question  inmu.st be given
conditionally.    In naturally fertile soils, and
in those  rendered fertile by art,  tillering will
take place, and  should be  encl)uraged, as the
straw  and  ears  of tillered  plants are much
stronger  and larger than those  of single ones.
In suchi a condition of soil, a small quantity of
seed will, theretfore, suffice, even in early spring, as
it is in that season alone that tillering takes place
in a sensible degree; but then the seed must not
be sown so deep, or so late, as  to deprive the
plant of the  time required  by its tiilering to
occupy the ground fully.   The extent of tillering
is sometimes remarkable.   Colonel Le  Couteur
mentions a downy variety of wheat which tillers
to the extent  of 32 plants,'  and from 5 to  10
stems are  a very common  tillering for ordinary
varieties of wheat. Barley has also tillered as
much as wheat, though generally this species of
* Le Couteur On the Wheat Plant, p. 29.
126
greater weakness than it'in penetrating'
fi-oni 4 inches in depti-i. The conclusion
I would draw is, that the seeds of the
swedes should not be sown deeper than 3
inches, those of the yellow Aberdeen. 2
inches, and of the white globe I I inch. 
-q
In proportion.
,77
.72
,50
,25
Hours.
1 2
18
21
18
10
18
13
14
.70
,62
,35
,12
IIITE GLOBE.
22 4
18 4
12 7
7    7
1
2
3
4
10
13
0
13
'55
,45
,30
.17
...
On coniparidg these results there will at
once be seen the large proportion of plan- ts
protliiced by the seeds sown at I and 2
inches in depth, compared W'ith those at 3
and 4 inches. The proportion at 4 inches
was so small that it is qiiite possible that
if the experiii)ents had been conducted in
the, open air,.iinstead of in a wartm vinery
at a temperature of about', 50 Fahrenheit,
no plants would have appeared at all, since
those wliicli did'ppear were qui,-e ptiny.
Of the kinds ofseeds sown, the swe(les gave
the most vigorous plants, these being always the lar.!Iyest sized seed. Of the other
two kinti-,R, the white globe gave,,enerally
the Weakest, being the siiial lest sized see(l,
tillu,,h the Yellow Aberdeen showed
t) 
TRANSPLANTATION OF WHEAT.
grain -shows less tendency to do so than either
wheat or oats, the last indicating fully as strong
a tendency as wheat.  In weak soils, and in those
iii low condition, the tendency to tiller is much
checked, each plant being as if conscious of the
inability of the soil to supp;,rt more than itself.
Ileice tihe practice is to sow more seed in low
than in high conditioned land, and yet ability to
support the larger quantity of seed is just the
reverie.  Still, what can the farmner do than afford the soil as much seed as will certainly produce as many  plants as  will occupy the soil
fully?  It would be imprudence in him were he
to act otherwise, though a large proportion of
the seed should be ultimately lost.  The best way
for him to escape from such a dilemma is to put
the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages
derivable frorm tillering.*
3564. A mode of saving seed to a greater
degree than by dibbling and drilling, is by transplantation.  Thiisis  done by  sowing a   small
portion o f ground wit h seed  early  in the season,
taking up the plants as they   grow, dividing them
int o single plants, and   transplanting them. By
thus  dividing the  plants, as they itilnler into single
plants, at four periods of the season, a  ver y small
quantity of seed will s   supply a s  many plants a s
would cover a  lar ge ex ten t of ground. Though
wheat  no  doubt bears tran sp lantin g very  well,
yet  as the s cheme  impli es  the  use of  much  manual labour, it is question able  i f it will repay
the expense.   The proposed method  has  been
t ested  by experiment, and  the que stion o f comparat ive  expense sta nd s t hus:-Suppose  440
grains of wheat are sown on the lst of July,
and, on the supposition that every seed germinates, by the beginning of August each seed will
afford 4 plants, or in all,         1,760 plants.
At the end of August these will
produce...    5,280...
In September these again.    14,080...
And in November these last will
produce...   21,120...
The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and
dividing and transplanting the produce of them;
stands thus:
3562. The great loss  in plants  comp ar          ed t  o
t         he       numbers of seed sown, may be accounted
for from natural causes. Birds pick up seeds
exposed on the surface after          broadcast sowing.
Maly  vermin, such as  the  rabb       it, dev our  the
young germ as it penetrates the soil, and many
insects subsist in the     grub     state  on  the   stems an d
roots of young plants; but I suspect that most
of the    seed des troy     d         i   s so by    insects before
it germinates.  We  have seen ho w           muc h of the
ingredient             of the seed is converted  into grapelsugar, just at the germination of  the radicle
(3512,) and as every living animal isfond of sugar,
it is natural in the very numerous coleopterous   t rt             the  ope           spei insects which inhabit te soil, especially in
spring, when the insect creation generally bursts
into active life, to revel on the large quantity of
sweet food presented to them at the time they
are most in want of food-in  the grub state.
The myriads of voracious grubs existing on the
grain sown,cannotbuit have a sensible effect on the
limited quantity consigned to the soil. Were it not
tfothe quickness of germination and vegetation,it
is quite possible that all the seed sown might
thus be devoured; and accordingly we find
that, whenever the weather is such as to retard
germination, the largest quantity of the seed is
lost, even although that state of weather also
tends to retard the development and suppress
the numbers of the insect race.
beginUli8gs.t taking up. 440 plants,   0    20
beginin, taking up
.  dividing into.  1,760..      1   10
planting.  1,760..      3   30
August, end, taking up.  1,760..     1   28
..     dividing into.  5,280..     3    30
planting.  5,280.       10   33
September, taking up.  5,280..        4    24
..    dividing into. 14,080..     9    23
..     planting. 14,080..    28       9
November,  taking up.  14,080..    11   44
..  dividing into. 21,120..    14      4
.3. Aplaniting. 21,120..    42    14
130   49
Equal  to 13 days, 4 hours' work, at 10  hours a
day. Of these say 131 days, 5 days may be
reckoned for women and boys occupied in taking
up and dividing the plants, which, at 10d. per
day, will cost 4s. 2d. The remaining 81 days
are for men transplanting, at 10s. per week, or
Is. 8d. a day, which will cost 14s. 2d. more;
both 18s. 4d. per acre. The seed for the plants,
half a bushel at 44s. the quarter, or 5s. 6d. the
bushel, would  cost  2s. 9d.  The  entire  cost
wouli be ~1,  Is, Id.   The  saving of seed from
the ordinary quantity sown would be the difference of cost between half a bushel and three
3563. A mode of drilling wheat similar in
effect to ribbing with the small plough, (2628 and
2630,) is accomplished with the common plough
and a single horse, and, if necessary, any species
of dry manure may be deposited in the furrow.
The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in
the bosom of the plough, the quantity of which
is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve
by a small wheel, which receives its motion by
being carried along the ground with the plough.
The immediate effect of the operation is to cover
the seed-whleat with the plough-furrow, which
prevents its beinig thrown out by the frost in
spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the
crop to grow ill rows 9 inches apart.  The pulverised manure is sown at the same time and in
* British Farmers' Magazine, No. vi. old series, p. 15, 1827
t Mark Lane Express for November 24, 1842.
127
the same manner as the seed. out of the same
bopper, in which a division is made to separate
the seed from the manure; and both fall through
spouts, one placed behind the other. The ad.
vantages resulting from this mode of sowing
wheat on spongy soil are, that the horse does
not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no
covering in with the barrow; but the state of the
soil for which this method of sowing is adapted
would be entirely changed by thorough drainiijg.t
,.. mi..
20
it ly 440 grains 0
IF
soing,
Atigugt taking up 440 plants, 0
be intin -
9     9,
dividing into 1,760 I
planting 1,760 3
Augu,st, end, taking up 1,760 I
dividing into 5,280 3
plan tin g 5,280 10
September, taking up 5,280 4
dividing into 14,080 9
plating 14,080 28
November,  takirg up 14,080 11
dividing into 21,120 14
planting 21,120 42 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
taking possessiotn of the pasture fiells, it is
necessary to inspect the state of the fences
enclosing themi, and to put them into such
repair as to offer no temptation to the stock
to scramble thirough neglected gaps, to the
injury not only of the fence, but of thems e lves.   Sonietimes ag,ood deal of work is
required to put grass-fields in a proper
state for the reception of stock, owing
principally to the nature of the soil, and
partly to the state of the weather.
bushels, or 13s. 93.  So that the loss on  the
tranisplaniting over sowing would be 7s. 4d. " In
my opinion," says Mr Palmer, the experimenter,
"tihe oily way o f executing this plltd is to dibble
il the seed, 2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches
from each other, the plants to be taken up when
they are in a proper state, and divided into 5,
which would be as many on an average at that
time as could skilfully be made, and then planted
out at once, where  they are to remailn, thus
getting rid of all the intermediate dividings." *
3565. Suippose this method were adopted, the
number of grains of wheat required for 1 rood
would be 391,040, which would be about lialf-abushel, at a cost of 2s. 9d.; and, consequently
about half-a-bushlel of wheat will plant 195,520
holes.  If' each hole gives 5 plants on an average, which may be reasonably expected, there
would be at the disposal of the farmer about
977,600 plants, a quantity sufficient to plant 3
acres l  0  e          at 18  in  chs apart.   To limit tle t ime  for
planting so many plants, suppose they are taken
up, separated. and planted again by, say, 25 persons taking up, dividing, and supplying 25 planters, in all 50 persons, and allowing each planter
to plant 5280 per day-suppose it wholly done by
boys and girls at 6d. per day-they would take 7
days to do it in.  The cost of transplanting the
3 acres would thus be ~8, 15s. Wheat-seed for 3
acres, sown in the usual way of 3 bushels to the
acre, would cost ~2, 9s. 6d. at 44s. the quarter.
-  3567. On every kind of soil, the small
stones lying upon the pasture should be
gathered by the field-workers, and carted
away for the use of drains, or to be broken
into metal for the farm-roads.   It may
happen that the throng of other field-work
may prevent the assistance of horses and
carts being given for this purpose, in which
case the stones should be gathered together
in  small heaps upon  the furrow-brow of
every other single ridge; but in doing this,
it should be remembered that many such
heaps of stones occupy much ground, and,
of course, prevent the growth of as much
grass, so that it is much better practice to
cart  them  away at once, although  the
gathering should be delayed  for a few
days, and even after the stock have been
put into the fields. When carts are used,
the stones are thrown directly into fliem;
whereas, in making  heaps, they require.
to be carefully put together, which wastes
time, and they have to be removed after
all.   Some  farmers  are  regardless  of
gathering the stones from the grass-fields
to be pastured; while all acknowledge
that those for hay ought to be cleared of
stones to save the  scythes from injury
wheri cutting the grass. On clay soils few
or no stones are found, and in wet weather
no cart should be allowed to go, or stones
be gathered, on new grass on any soil.
Cost of half bushel  of wheat,.
Cost of dibbling quarter of acre,.
Cost of transplanting 3 acres,.
3566. Havingf placed in the ground the
seeds of all the crops which will be matured  in  the  course of  the  following
autumn, we must now bestow some attention on the treatment, during summer,
of the live stock, for whose special use are
those crops of roots, and straw, and forage,
the culture of which has hitherto occupied
our time and skill.  The live stock are
supported in summer chiefly on pasture
grasses and forage plants.  We shall first
consider the management of pastures, as
they come first into use, and then we shall
treat of the forage plants; but before
3568. Every field, whether    of new or
old grass, should be rolled with the smooth
roller, fig. 222, some time before the
stock enter it; and it is clear that the
ground cannot receive  all the benefits of
rolling as lon, as stones are allowed to
remain on its surface. The best time for
rolling is when the surface is dry, not
when hard as well as dry; for when grass,
particularly young grass, is rolled in a
* Gardeners' Chronicle for October 1843.
128
The whole matter,would stand thus:
XO 29
0 13
8 150
X8 190
2 9 6
X6 9 6
, Cost of sowing 3 bushels of wheat,
Loss on transplanting 3 acres,..
Or X2, 3s. 2d. the acre.
ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE
FIELDS. 
REPAIRS OF FENCES.
The stones left on  making the repairs
should be immediately renmoved.
wet state, it becomes bruised and blackeed(l, but, when  dry,  it is elastic,  and
ablie to bear  the  pressure  of  the roller
without  injury.    LighIt land will bear
rolling at any time when the surface is
dry; but plants are liable to be bruised at
:a11 times between the roller and hard clods
,en clay  lan    d, and such  land  in a soft state
ecolies hardenead or encrusted  by rolling.
Tlhe rolling,, of lheavy land thus requires
conisideration; but a good criterion of its
being,, in a fit state for the roller, is when
the cl~,ls cruinible easily with the pressure
of the foot, and dlo not press flat, or enter
wlhole into the soil. The rolling is always
given across the ridges, (2475.)  After
rolling,, the grass is found to grow rapidly,
if the wegather is at all favourable.
3571. In making repairs in all sorts of
fences, it should be borne in mind to keep
a passag,e for the shepherd from field to
field when looking after his flock. Such
facilities are afforded  by leaving small
openings at the corners of fields, or by
placing wooden stiles across the fence; and
it is better for the fences  that these are
made at once, than that the shepherd should
thavre afterwards to make them for himself.
Hle is the best judge of where they should
be placed, in the short cuts to be taken
from field to field.
3572. Besides the fences, the gates of
grass-fields require inspection and repairs,
so as they may be put into a useful state
for the season.  When  a post is broken,
or a bar awanting, a new one should  be
supplied by the carpenter, and  the ironwork should be repaired by the smith.
3569. Wlhile the surface of the field is
thus preparing for the reception of stock,
the hied,er slhould be engaged in repairing
the fences of thorn hledges.  In this he is
frequently assisted by the shepherd, and
in case of no professed hledger being on
the farm, the shlephlerd himself undertakes
the duty.  The repairing chiefly consists
in filling lip gaps,  which  are rendered
feucible by drawing a thorn branch betweeii the hedge roots, or by driving a
couple of stakes into the face of the he(ldgebank behind the gap, and nailing i2 or 3
short railson them, or in wattling them with
bralnches of trees or of thorn, or by setting
a dead hledge upon thl)e hledg,e-bank.  There
slouldl nothing l)e placed in the gap, as is
often done, to the prevention of the lateral
extension of the thlorn-pl)lantts on either
side to fill it up, which the shloots will
do in timee in a narrowv gap. A  wide flap
nmay require to  be filled up with livint, plants, or with layers from the hedge
on b(oth sides.  Every gateway in a field,
nost required for the seasoIn, should be
filled up with a dead hledge.
3573. Thie mos t convenient position for
a gate, for easy entrance into and egress
fromn a field, is at the end  oe one or both
lheadridges, which are always regarded as
the boundaries of fields.
35;74. Field-gates should always be
miiadle to fold back upon a fence, to open
bt )eyoiid  thle square,  and  not to  shut of
tlhemiselves.   Whlen they  slaut of  thenmselves, and  are  not far enough  pushed
lback wleii opened, they are apt to catch
the  wl!cel of a cart when passing, and to
be b)rolken, or the post to be snapped asunder l)y the concussion; and as  self-shutting gates ire often left unfastened bypeople
hI   pasho    ss thlroughl  theni, requiring greater
l  attention than is usually bestowed on such
miatters,  the stock,  particularly  young
holrses, w%-hich seeni to take delight to loiter
ah)(ut gate., would tliei escapefrom tlhe ield.
YouIIng horses loiter about gates to  rub
ag(ainst them, to pIrevent which it is necessary to *wa-ttle thorns into the bars.
3570. StoTne-fenices should be repaired
Iby a dry stoine masoin, anal       l they require  is chiefly the  repilacing  of sorie
c(ope —stonIes, and  the rebuildin,, of  any
stoines in the walls, that  ilay have been
d(Iriven down  by  violence.   It is selldom      oa
tlihet the stonies so driven down will repair
tlhe( dilapidations, so that a few fresh ones
shouild be laid down  at the gaps for the
use  of the mason.   Every gateway not
required for the season slhouild be built up.
VOL. II.
357.5. I la-ve found an, excellent plan
of fixing a lhanginig post is to dig as narr,,w a hole as is practicab4k for the purtpose, 3 feet d(eep, and at tl-he bottom lay a
flat stone of about  15 inclhe,s square, and
7 or 8 inches thlick, through the centre of
which is cut a bole of  8 or 9, inches. ia
129
I 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
diameter, to tale in the lower end of the
post, dressed with the axe to fit the hole.
Earth alone is then put in spa4lefuls into the
hole, and made firm around the post with a
raimmnier up to the surface of the ground,
in which is stink the stonie, at the edge of
the uipper face of which tile heel-post of the
gate is liade to rotate in a shallow hollow
made to fit it. Fig. 295 shlows the different
Fig. 295.
357 7. WVhien last treating  of  slheep,
in regard to the lamibing of ewes, we left
tle ewes anti(i lambs upon the young grass,
(2555,) at whichi time tile shieep weire feediig on turnips, in the nimainner described in
the early part of winter (940); anul they
continue there until all the turnips allotted
to them are consumued.
3578. When  the turnips allotted them
are all consutned, and the time has arrived
for  the last of  the turnip  land to  be
plo(ugl,Ied tip for barley, (2685,) the hoggss
receive  a  change  of  treatllmenrt.   Tlhe
wether-lioggs are either sold to the dealer
off the turnips, or put to grass till sihorn
of their wool, and then disposed of. Tilhe
circumstance that  determines  whichi  of
tlhese ways they should be treated, is the
state of tile wool and mutton mnarkets.
If you fild, on examination, that the lioggs
are il  a condition to  realise as miuchl
money off the turnips as they probably
will, after being kept a month longer on
grass, and wwaslied and shorn, it is msore
profitable to dispose of them at once; and
besides this, should you fear the extent of
grass to prove insufficienvt to supl)port tlhemr
in ironproving condition till they are shorni,
a necessity exists for parting with  them
imminediately off the turnips.  But should
you find the grass able to maintain them
in condition, and that the wool market will
probably be brisk, it would be advisable to
retain and shear them.
parts of this mode of fistening the hlanging-p,)sts of field-gates; where a b is the
hole into wfhichl the post d is sunk, and c
the stolie in the hole e, of which the end     o     f
the post is inserted and secured.  Water
passing through thle stone, the end of the
post will be preserved; and further so by
being in the bark, snimeared with coal tar,
and the upper part d is planed and painted.  The earth is ranmmed hard into the
pit a b to the surface of tihe ground, in         i
which is sunk at f a stone, on which the
heel-post of the gate rotates.   Part of
tle liheige fence of the field in which the
gate is p':acedl is shown, as also the crook
on which the gate is hung, in the gate-post
above d. 
3579. If you determine on selling the
wether-hogg,s, you should first ascertain
thieir value; and in attempting this you
will per-ceive, that  a sheep  wearing its
coat of wool cannot  be subjected to the
ordlinary rules of measurement; nor can
its true weight be found  by  weighing it
a live, since the weight of the wool enters
as a disturbing element into the calculation, and  the value of that material depends on very different circumstances fi om
that of mutton.  A  new-shlorn sheep may
be either weighed or mneasured, and  it8
130
of a spruce tree, with the branches sawn off
square, not quite close to tire trunk, and the
stules thus  left are rubbed  smooth  by
scratching.
ON TIHE DISPOSAL OF THE PAT SI]EEP.
....... I,,!  "..:.;.............:....
'SUCUI,E MODE OF FASTENING TlIE IIANGING-POST
OF A FIELD-GATE.
3576. Every pasture-field should be provided with one good rubbing-post standing 6 feet in height above the ground.  It
shoul(i not be so rough as to injure the
oskins of the animals, or so smooth as not
to titulate the skin.   Perhaps the best
material for a rubbing-post is ttie trunk 
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP.         I
value ascertained very nearly.  The eye
and the hand alone iiust he employed to
judge (,f the value of a rou,gi  shieep, and
no m,ore certain way of acquiring a correct
jud(igment (of the weight exists than  by
lhandling it, except by slaughtering one
of average size and weighing  the four
quarters.
the  progr ess  of the inside has ilereased,
unti l a f attening  disp ositi on h a s been  elvcorag eaed  by the  acquir ed  condition; and
the result  is, that  the space between  thleo
intestines and lo,in is filled up with net and
kidney fat.   By this tire, the cellular
spaces around  each fib re  of  niuscle  has
received its share, and  the fat deposit   ed
there in quantity gives the        meblt thele
marbled  appearance.   The  ititerfibrofus
slaces are ttle last to re ceive the nat; but
after  the dIelposition  has  begun,  enelry
other part simultaneously r ece ive ts    its share,
tthe  back  and kidnn eys  receiving the ieost,
the former becomintg nicked, that is, the
fat is felt tlrough  the skin  to be divided
int o two portions, fron   the tail-lhea  aloni,
the  back-bone o  to tihe top of the shoulder,
the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top
of the neck biroad, the lhawer part of each
side of the neck towards the breast full,
and the hollows between the breastbone
and the inside of the fore-legs, and between
the coal and the inside of the tligl!s, coinpletely filled up.   When in this state, the
sheep is said to befat or ripe.
3580. Hoggs, when  put on turn ip          s         in
winter. are generally  lea n; fo       r alttout'll
th    e        y              t    gad  been in good condition  as lamtbs
when weaned from their m,,thers ice summaer, the                    ir growtlth in statite is so rapinM,
that their flesh is but little internixed wioth
fat. Fo       r            th e  first few weeks  on turnips,
and         in the most favourable circumstances
as to quality of                            food, warmth af shelter,
dryness of land, and pleasantness of
weather. they make no apparent advancement in condition; they rather seemn to
fill off, the wool looks collapsed, and indicates a        tendency  to delicacy in  the             sheep,
in consequence, I suppose, of the  turnips
operating medlicinially on their constitution
as an alterative, if not as a laxative. But
immediately after that trying period for
young s~leep, particularly trying in bad
weather,!as passed, when the grass has
been got rid of, anal the stomach and intestines have become accustomed to the
more solid foo(o of the turnip, their improvement  is marked, the  wool  seems
longer and fuller, the carcass fills out, the
eyes become clear and full, and the gait
firmn and steady. They then thrive rapidly,
and the more so the drier the weather.
3582. When the body of a sheep is enitirely overlaid withlfat, it is then in tile
most valuable state as mutton; but few
sheep lay on fat equally over their bodyone lays the  larges   t        proportion on  the
rumnp, another on the back, a third on the
ribs, a fourth on  the flanks, a fift h o n the
parts adjoining the fore-quarter, a sixth on
those of the hiind-qiiarter, a seventh lays
on  more fat on the inside, and an eig,hIth
more on the outside. Out of so many parts,
combining any two or more totgethier, you
may expect to find, in a lot of fat sheep,
a consi(eral)le variety of condition; yet
any one sheep is as ripe in its own  way as
any other.
3581. The formation of fat in a sheep
placed to be fattened, commences in the
insidte, the net of fat enveloping the intestines being first formed, and a little fat
deposited around the kidneys.  After that,
the fat nmakes its appearance on the outside,
and first upon the end of the rump at the
tail-head, whlence it moves along the back,
on both sides of the back-bone, to the neck,
spreading out to the bend of the ribs.  It is
then deposited between the mMuscles, parallel with the cellular tissue.  Meanwhile
it is covering the lower round of the rilis
descending, to the flanks, until  the two
sides meet under the belly, front  whence
it proceeds to the breast in front, and to
the cod behind, filling up the inside of the
fore legs and thi,gh,s.   While  all these
depositions are procee(ling oni the outside,
131
3583. Takinti, these data for you.r giiido
ill be able, by handling, tojiid,,e the
YOU W in
..dition of a sl)eep in its progress towards
ripeness. A ripe sheep, however, is easily
known bv the eye.. by the fulness exliibitei
in all its external parts. It n-iay exhibits
deficiency of fat in some par s, 1.)ut vou
easily perceive tl)at those Iarts- will rever
become so ril)e as others; and the deficiency ai-ises no doubt frt)iii some constitutional (lefect in the anitnal, because, otherwise, no reason sliould exist why c',very
part i3liould tiot,. 4 i   r  e.  The cond'
,, like ip               I 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
tion of a sheep obviously not ripe cannot
altogether be ascertained by the eye; it
mnust be handled-slsubjected to the scrutiny
-of the hand.   Now  tl)he hand  srutiniiises
by discretion.  A full-looking sheep need
not be handled on the rump, as it would
not seemn full elsewhere until fat had lbeen
deposited there.   A  thin-looking sheep
should be handled on the rump; an(d, if no
fat is felt thlere,  it is useless handling
elsewhere, since none exists.  Betwee n
these two extremes of condition,  every
variety may be met with;  on which account exanination by the hand is the rule
to judg,e:l fat  sheep, that by the  eye
alone tlict exception; but the hand is much
assis~eil by the eye, whose acuteness detects
deticencoies andl redundancies at once.  In
lhantlling a sheep, the points of the fingers o
ai'e chiefly employed,  and the accurate
knowledge  conveyed  by them, through
practice, of the real state of the condition
is truly surprising, and conveys a convic..
tioll to the mind of an intimate relation
existing between the external and internal
condition of an aninilal.   So intimate is
this relation, that the practical maxim, in
the judging of stock of all kinds, has long
been establislledl, that no animal will appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat
had previously been laid on in the inside
as its constitutional habit will allow.  The
application of the rule is easy-whlenever
fat is seen or fell on the outside, the inside
had previously received a deposition.   In
tracing, the progress of the fat on the outside, a relation  also exists between  the
parts.  Thuis, wlien you find the  runip
nicked on handling, you expect to find fat
on the back;  when you find the  back
nicked, you expect the fat to have proceeded to the top of the shouldler and over
the ribs; and when you find the top of the
shoulder nicked, you expect  to fin(l fat
upon the neck, and on the under side of
the belly.  To ascertain its existence l)elow, you will have to turn the shleep, whichl
is done by setting it upon its rump, with
its  back  inclining  against  your  legs,
and its llind(-feet pointing upwards.  In
this position you feel and see whether or
not the breast and thighs are completely
filled up.   Still the criterion to know b
the real state of the inside of the sheep
-the  largeness of the mass of  fat on
tlhe kidneys, weight of net, and thickness of  layers between  the abdonminal
3584. I have spoken of the turning of
a fat sheep, which is done in this way.
Standing on the near side of the sheep, or
its left side, put your left hand under its
chin, and seize the wool there, if rou-,l-if
otherwise, the skin; place your knees,
still standing, against its ribs, then lean
forward a little, extend your right arm
over the far loin of the sheep, and get a
firm hold of its flank, by the wool  and
skin, as far down as you can reach.
Lift the sheep fairly off the ground, with
the assistance of your arms and knees, and
then turn its body towards you upon your
left knee placed under its near lri)s, and
drop it upon its rump on the ground with
its back to you, and its hinid-feet sticking
out and away from you.  This is an act
which really requires strength, such that,
if you cannot lift the sheep off the grounds,
you cannot turn it; but practice teaches a
sleight in doing it, beyond mere physical
strengtlh. The art consists in jerking the
sheep off its feet at once, before it suspects
what you are going to do; forr, when it
suspects, it is surprising how it contrives
to retain hold of the ground with tihe
point of the hoof of the neaw  hintl-foot,
which, if you cannot lift off the ground,
you cannot turn the sheep.  I remember
seeing four shepherds defeated in the attemtl)t to turn 5 dinmionts belonging totlhe
late Mr Edward Smith, Marledowtn, N(rtlhuimiberlatnd.  None of tlhem-i, not even the
tallest and strongest, could turn all the 5
sheep, atnd one, a short, stout mian, cotuld
not turn one of them.  The ability to turn
a sheep easily, is not to be regarded as a
feat of strength or dexterity in a shepherd,
but a necessary qualification in connexion
with many important operations connected
with the management of sheep.
132
niuscles-is the thickness of'the flank, tlie
ftilness of the breast, fultiess fromshotilder
to shoulder across the ineck; stiffness
and thickness of the root of the tail, and
breadtli of the back of the iieck. Hence
the sole object of f-ee(lin,(,, sheep on turnips
is to layfat upon every bundle of flesliy
fibres, called niuscles, which are capable of
acquiring it; for as to bone and muscle,
these increase in weight and extent iiidepen(lently of fat, and fat only increases
the thickness of the muscles.
3585. Tlieewehoggsarealwayaretained 
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP.
on the farm, as from them is supplied the
waste of ewes, and they are shorn of their
wool in due course of time.  It is of less
importance increasing their condition off
the turnips by putting them on the best
grass, which the wetlier lioggs should occupy
until they are disposed of.  Nevertheless,
the ewe hioggs should not be allowed to
fall off in condition, in case of injuring the
quality of their wool.
Bu tchers purchase chiefly in the market
towns in which   they reside, t ho ugh they
also atte nd fairs, a nd pick up a few fat
lots which  will not bear the lonhg journey s
of the   dealers; in w hich case   they pay
ready mon ey  and lift immediately, as
dealers do.  But w hen the y purchase on
the farmer's premises, they usually lift so
many at a time, according to agreement,
and  pay on ly for wh at they lift.  Every
farmer s houlh avoid  thi s practice, as every
time  the butcher  comes for a   lot, the sheep
have to be gathered, and the  whole handled,
that hle may take away only those which
suit his present purpose; and in the commotion thus  made, prob ably      ev ery week,
the whole stock are di sturbe d by the  stshouting of men   and the  barkingof dogs,  amongst
which the  butcher an d  his  dog ar e  not
the least  noisy or  least acti ve.  Besi des
meeting  purch asers  at   home, farmers
take their stock to  fairs and ma rket-towns; 
and at fairs  they meet bothi sorts   of pnrchasers, wiile, in the market towns, the
butchers rule paramount. When a dealel
purchases on the farmer's premises, he lifts
his lot at    any  tim  e of day that best suits
his own a r ra ngements. He be gins to   lift
the first lot in twe   more dist an part of the  bt r  o    t
country, and, proceeding on the road in
the direction of their destination, he lifts
lot after lot, until the whole are gathered
to the amount of many hundreds.! In this
way he may lift a lot in the forenoon on
one farm, and another in the afternoon ou
another, which is a much more satisfac tory way for the farmer to lhave his stock
lifted than the one tile butcher chooses to
adopt.
3587. When dinmonts  or wethers (925)
are seen in quantity feeding on turnips,
they have been purchased for the purpose,
and are in technical language called a
.flying stock; and this is the practice followed by farmers in most arable districts
at a distance from large towns, in following which they become dealers of sheep,
and are subject to the fluctuations of the
markets for profit or loss.
3588. Fat sheep are purchased from
farmers both by dealers and butchers.
Dealers buy from farmers in wholesale, and
sell to butchers in retail; so they constitute
a sort of middlemen; but,  unlike nmost
middlemen, their avocation is fully as useful to both parties as to themselves, inasmuch as they purchase at once the whole       f
disposable stock of the farmer, and, assorting it, they present it in the most suitable
form  at the markets which the different
classes of their customers, the butchlers, are
in the habit of frequenting.   They buy at
fairs, or on the farmer's own premises.  In
the forrmer case they pay ready money,
and lift the stock inmmediately;  in the
latter, they pay at the time the stock is
lifted by agreement.  Dealers ch'iefly buy
at the country fairs, where  they  have
ample choice, and only purchase on the
farmner's premises when stock happens to
be scarce, and prices likely to advance.
1'.R3,
3586. Farmers of  mixed litisbandry
have seldom any other class of sheep feedinf, on turnips than the hoggs, which ar'e
bred on the farm, and perhaps a few draft
ewes which had not become fat enouch on
the afteritiati-i gra8s in aututiil.. Occat3ionally, froni want of a goo(I market, or
from want of condition,- dinmonts (924)
are retained to be fed on turnips; and, when
this happens, their disposal is stit-)jected to
the same considerations as tl-iat of the
ho,o,,gs.
3589. The many casualties attending
sheep sent to market, should cause the
farmer to consider the case well before lie
undertakes to send them there at his own
risk, The expenses of the journey will
cost.at least Is. a-head, and their jaded
appearance in the market, especially if the
sheep have been overtaken by bad weather,
may lower their price 2s. or 3s. a-liead
more; and, besides, the fees of the market
have to be paid. But if he cannot dispose
of them at home, which sometimes lial)petisi
lie has no alternative but to send them to
market on his own account.
3590. On determininff to send them to
I?
market, the sheep require to be selected 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
for the purp(se, and divided into equal
lota, and each lot marked in a particular
manner.  The sheep selected for market
are the best co)iditioned at the time, to
ascertain which it is necessary to handle
thel whole lot and shled the fattest fromi the
rest, and this is best done about midi-day,
before the sheep feed again in the afternoon.
be started on their journey about mid-day
in winter, and  in tle afte rnoon  in summer.
TThey should  not begbhin their journley wllhen
too full or too hungry. When too full,
the y  will pur ge o nl the road, and whe n t oo
hungry, they        will  lose stre ngth at once.
Le   t  them walk gently a way;  and, as the
road  is new t o them, the y will   go too fast
at first, to pr e ven t whi ch the drover  s hould
go  before   t hem, a nd let h is dog lring up
the rear.  In a short time they will ass elle
the proper speed,, about one mile in tile
hour.  Slahoulht the   road  thev travel  be a
green one, the shieep will proceed nibbling
t!ne ir way onwards at the  gras s,  along boft
sides; but if a turnpike, especially a nar row one,  the  dr over wi ll  require  to exert
all his attention in  case o f meeting a nd  of
being passed  by every clas s of   vehicles, to
avoi d  injury to   his charge.  In this part
of their  busin ess drovers  generally  nltoe
too much  ado, b oth  themselves and their
dogs; and the consequence is, that tlo
sheep are   d riven   from side    to  side of the
road more than is necessary.  On meeting
a carriag e, th     e        drover  should go  forwaral,
instead of  sendin g h is dog  and point d,t
with his stick, the leading sheep   to the
nearest side of the road, an d the rest  will
follow as a matte r of course, while the
dog should   walk behin d        the     flock, and
bring up  the str agglers. O!d e n gates into
fields are sources of great  a nnoyance  to
drovers, the stock invariably miiak'ilg en deavours to go tlrough them.  On observing an o pen gate before,  the drov er    should
send his do,, behind Iimi over the fence, to
be ready to meet the  sheep in the gateway.
When the shee p itpeline to  r est, let tlet-n
lie down.  Before    nightfall thle drover
should inquir e of lodging fo r them for tle
night. Usion drove -roads,  farms  will be
found at  stated  distances, wit h fioo d and
lodsginf,  for the  drover  and his fl,ick at a
moderate charge. In winter it is requisite
to put them into a grass-field, an(] suiplfly
tlethea with a few turnips or a little h)a.y. If
turnips or hay are laid down near the gate
of the field they occupy, the sheep will be
ready to take the road in the nmornin,g;
but, before lodging them for the night, the
drover should ascertain whether the road
is infested swithl stray dogs, whicli if it bse,
tthe sheep should be taken to the safest
spot in the field and watched all night.
3591. The slheepslhould also be mnarked
with keil, or ruddle, as it is called in England-the oclhry-red ironstone of mineralogists, which occurs in abundance near
Platte in Bolhemia.*   The  keil-mark is
put on the wool and oi any part of the
bodiy you choose, the purpose being to
identify your own sheep il case of being
lost in the fair. The parts usually chosen
for marking Leicester sheep are on the
wool at the top of the shoulder. back, rump,
far and near ribs. The mark is made in
this way:-Prepare the keil by wetting it
and rubbing the part to be used upon a
stone.  Take hold of a small tuft of wool at
any of the above parts with the right hand
fingers, and s eize     it       wi th the left hand
with the palm upwards, between the fore
and middle fingers, and colour the wool in
the palm  of the hand with the prepared
keil.   Short-woolledl sheep are usually
marked on the head, neck, face, and rump,
or with a bar across the shoulders, anal
generally too tmu('h keil is put upon themn.
The  lots are keiled in scores and  halfscores, in large or small lots, according to
the value of the slheep, and the character of
the market.
3592. The selected ones are put into a
fielrd by      themselve s, wherle they                   r emain
until tile tim    e  ap w)inte hd them  to     s      tart
arrive.  If there obe rough pasture to give
tbetnh, they should be put upon it, to get
quit of some of the turnips in them.  If
there be no such pasture, a few cut turnips
on a lea field will answer. Here all their
hoofs should be carefully examined, and
the loose horny skin removed, but the
irrn portion of the horn  should  not. be
touched.   Every  clotted piece of wool
should also be removed with the shears.
* Jameson's Mineralogy, vol. iii. p. 245.
134
3593. Being thus prepared, tlie slieep
rL,Iiould have food, e,-ti-Iy in the mornin,, and 
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP.
31anydogs thatlive in tbe neighbourhood of
drove-r,oads, and particularly village dogs,
are in the habit of looking out for sheep to
worry, at some distance from their lhoimes.
Short of sittiig up all night, the principal
precaution that can be used under an apprehension such as this is, for tlhe drover to goo
freque;ntly through the flock with a light,
be late ill retirinig to rest, and up a,gain
early in the morning,. The apprehension
reg,arding doogs is not solely on account of
thle loss sustained by the worrying, but
wlen s     heep ha v    e     been distiurbed bv dokgs,
they will not settle quietly again upon that
journey. The first day's journey should be
a short one, not exceeding 4 or 5 miles.
Allowing 8 mniles a-day for a winter-day's
trasvel, and I0 miles in summer, and knowint, the distance of the mnarlket by the destined route, the sheep -should start in good
time, allowance being made  for unforeseen delays, that one whole day's rest may
be secured to the stock near the market.
ale-lhouse.   Though exposed all day~ to
the air, and even feel co,!d, he should avoid
drinking spirits, which only produce temporary warmth, and for a long tinie after
superinduce chilliness and langtlor. Much
rather drink ale or porter during, the day,
and reserve the allowance of spirits lie
gives himself until the evening, when }e
can enjoy a tumbler of warm toddy beside
a comfortable fire, before retiring to rest
for thle night.  The injulnction  to refrain
from spirits durin~g the day will sound odd
to the ear of a  HIighland drover;  but
though a dram may (o10 him goo(l in his
owI1 mountain-air, and while taking active
exercise, it does not follow that it will do
him as much good on a drove-road in the
low country, when walking at a very slow
pace, in wet or dry weathler.   I believe
raw spirits do more harmn than good to all
drovers who indulge in them. Hle should
also have a good knife, by which to remove any portion of horn that may seem
to annoy a sheep in its walk; and also a
small bottle of a mixture of tobacco-liquor
and spirit of tar, with some  cloth and
twine, to enable himi to smear and bandage
a sheep's foot, so as it nmay endure  tlhe
journey.  Hle should be able to draw a
little blood from a sheep in case of sickness.
Should a sheep fail on thle road, lie should
be able to dispose of it to the best advantage; or becoming ill, lie should be able
to judge whether a drink of gritel or a
handful of conmmon salt in wariu water
ndmay not recover it so as to proceed; but
rather than a lame or jaded sheep should
spoil thle appearance of the flock, it should(
be disposed of before the flock is presented in the market.
3594. The flrmers' drov er    m      ay e ithe    r
be his own  shepherd, or a professional
drove       r  h i    red for the occasion. The flock
kno wing  the shepherd, hea makes the best
drover, if lhe c         an be  spared as lon,  from
homiie. A hired drover gets 2s. Gd. a-day
of     wtages,  be sides travelling  expenses, and
bhe  is          intrusted with cash   to pay the dues
incid ental  to       t      he road and markets,             such
as      tolls, foo         fo ferri es, and  market custom.
A          dr o ver of sheep should always be provioled                  with a dog, as tthe nj ie tfl)ers  and
nimblen ess of s        ehee)       r ender  it impossible
for  on e     hisan  t o  gu id e   a           capricious  flock
along a          ro         ad subject to           emany casualties;
not a yoinn  d(-og, wliich is sure to work
and bark withl: a great deal miore zeal than
judgment, muchl to tle annoyance of the
slieep, but a knowing, cautious tyke.  The
drover should have a walking-stick, a useful instrument at timies in turniing a. sl)eep
disposed to break away from the rest.  A
slhepherl',s plaid  he  will  fin(d to afford
comfortable protection to his bt,dy from
cold an(I wet, while the mode in which it
is usually worn leaves tlhe limbs free for
motion.  He slould carry provision witlI
hiim, such as bread, meat, cheese, or butter, that he may take luncheon or dinner
quietly beside his flock while r e.sting in a
sequestered part c~f the road, andl slake his
thirst in the first brook or spring, lie finds,
or purchase a bottle of ale at a roadside
3595. Railroads now afford easy means
of transit for sheep to markets, to all places,
and wihen thre distance t o mark let is co)nsiderable, and the  slreep valuable, such a m ode
of conveyance  otolght to be pr  efer red to
driving tlem on the road. The adlvantages
of railroad transit are, that the sheep need
not leave ho(mtie on a jouirney so soon by perh~aps many days, antl, beirngtr a slhort number
of hours on thie journey, they feel, at its
end, neither jadedI nor hlung,ry, and will,
therefore, enter the marlket in muclh finer
condition than off a Ion( journey on foot.
The shepherd sliohilk accompany the sheep
in thre t,.in, and  have them condlcted to
the market at the prop)er hiour.  The cost
135 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
of conveying sheep by railroad is that of
the truck, which contains alarger or smaller
number, according to the size of the sheep.
The charge of the truck is by the mile,
and the longer the distance the less is the
charge by the mile. 
morning,         aris ing fro, the dealers finding
t he    condition    of the  stock below th eir ex -
pectation. The marke t is  ne ve r bet te r for
the farmer than when it begins brisk early
in the jmorning, and the  stock  are all sold
off early. These are the vicissitudes of a
market; they are interesting, demiand at-'
tention, and are worthy of examiniation.
You will fiequlently observe a trifling cir cumstance give a decided tone to a imar ket. A dealer, for instance, who generally
buys largely, and who has bouglht for many
years in that particular fair, will make the
prices of the day by his purchases; so that
other people, particularly sellers, olbserving
the prices given by him, will sell briskly
and with confidence.   There is no use, at
any time, of asking a much hiiglher price
than the intrinsic value of your stock, or
than you will willingly take; for, aitlioughI
your stock may be in particularly fine
condition, and of good quality, and therefore worth more than the averaye price of
the market, still their value must conforni
to the rate of the market, be it high or
low, and it is not in your power to control it, though, should prices dissatisfy
you, you have it in your power to take
your stock home again. There is a common saying applicable to all public markets, and is now received as a maxim, because indicating the truth, that " the first
offer is the best"-tthat is, the first offer
from a sincere buyer, for there are
people to be found in all markets who,
having no serious intention of buying at
market price, make a point of offering
considerably below it, with the view of
catching a bargain from a greenhorn, or
from one tired of standing longer in the
fair, and they sometimes succeed in their
tactics; but such people are easily discovered, and cannot deceive any but inexperienced sellers.
3596. Und       eer e aery c ircums t ance, when
you have  determi         ned        o n sending         your
sheep t o a market-t      ouwn, it  is  the best plan,
after  t   ou t                in the journey,   to  intrust them to a
salesman, rather tha        n  stand                in the market
with them yourself, a s you cannot know
t          he character of the butchers so well as ihe
does, nor can                 you know what class of pur chasers          your lot  may best suit. The con venieuyce      attending t      he empl oyment of         a
salesn aan                       is now generally felt,  as it not
only saves th     e p  ersonal annoyafnce of at t         ending a market, but your money is re neitted to  you         through  a       bank  in the course
of th        e  day.   The o nly precaution requi iite in the matter is to be come acquainted
with a salesman of judgment, for as to
honesty, if         he    p     ossess not  that,       he cannot
show hi           s face    in any market.   In  attending country fairs, where are no salesmen,
you must dispose of your stock yourself.
B    efore att  end ing the fair, you should make
up  your  mindt  what  to ask  for                      the
stock, in  accordanc       e with the current
market prices; blt, notwithst      and ing these,
you may  have to take more or less cash
than you anticipated, as the actual state
o f         the ma rket    is regulated by the quality and quantity of the stock in it, and by
th e pauci ty or ntinubers of purchasers who
ma y  appear. After your s        heep are                   placed
you  shoulid inquire  of friends of the state
of price      s       before you s ell, and  on doing this
you may find the market in a most perplexing state fromn various causes.  Thus,
there may be too many sheep  fo          r  the bu  yers, when the market will be dull, and
remain so all day. Or the stock may be
smcanty for th       e        buyers, whe n    a briskness
may  start in the  morning  and         co      ntinue
u ntil  the whole                stock  are   sold  off.  Or
th      ere m ay b e  briskness in the nornin, the
buyers  purchasing-(lulniess at nmid-day,
buyers declining-and briskness again in
the afternoon, buyers becoming eager. Or
there may be excessive dulness in the
morning, occasioned by the buyers lying
off and beating-down prices, and, finding
they cannot succeed, buy briskly all afternoon.   Or there may  be dulness in the
136
3597. There are certain rules which, by
tacit consent, govern the principles upon
which all public markets of stock are conducted, and they are few and siiiiple.
A custom is payable for all stock preseiited at fairs, exigible. by the lord of the
niatior, or by other recogni,-,ed authority.
After entering the field, your stocli c-,in
take up any unoccupie(i position u
choose, appointed for tli -e'particular kind
of stoclz you have to show. No one, on
pretence of purchasing, has a right to in 
UllI1(J1 (1I    tJUL;            LiiI -ii  -.,                                        - 11
brinig the price to their own -Ideas. Sometimiies, when parties cannot ag-ree as to
price, thle offerer proposes to abi(le by the
decision of a tlhird party, but ill doing thlis,
you virtually relinquish the power to sell
your  own  stock.   Sonietimes bills, ai(ln
bank-post-bills, are tendered ly dealers in
part or entire paymenit of their purchases;
buit it is in your power to refuse any form
of caslh but tlhe leg,al tenders of tlie country,
suchl as Btank of Englandl iiotes, or gold, or
silver.  If a bill of exclhange or p:romtissory
note is proffered instead of rea(ly money,
you are quite entitledl to refuse tlhe bargain; for the usage of trade in a. fatir iunplies the condition of ready nmoney,* or yoii
mnay deinand a hlighler pi'ice to cover thl      e
risk of tlhe bill being dislionioured.  Tlhe
notes of a bank you know to be good slhould
adnit of no question.  After the stockl                          are
deliverod, they are at the risk of tiJe purchaser.  Sonie dealers' to)'s-men. the iiieu
whlo take charge of their iiiasteir's lots after
deli vetry, dei,and agratuity for thleir trouble,
whlichl yout are at liberty to refuse.   All
t!Jese rtles, in as far as relates to inoiiey
and the ilelivery (,f stockl, apply to thl)e stck                                          ls
purchlased h)y dlealers on your ownI farnm.
Whlen you pI)rch,ise stock at a fair, peo)le
will be fioutund (on the groun(l  willig to
render your drover assis,ance in takiig
theml out of it,.,in(l of setting tlienii fLirly ol t
thle road.  Suclh  )eople are useful on the
occasion, as it lly happen, especially ill
the case of slheep, that one or imiore may
the loss by steamn is only  2 stones out of
the 50; and, besides thlis great loss itself,
the state of the remiiainder of the flesll is
worthl  6d. a stone less after land travel.
Wlhen stock are setit to graze after a journey, tl)ey require a month to regaini their
former state on pasture, whereas the steamcarried are ag,ain iit the same state at the
end of a fortnighlt.   Land  travel renders
tlthe  tejuices of tlhe meat of fat stock in an
unniatural state, while, on  bein(g carriedl by
steamii,'these  are  not  sensibly  altered.
Heavy and higl-conditione(d stock, tra, elling  by  land  long  distances,  inevitably
sinik under the attempt, whxilst  by steam
tlleir condition is preseerved witlh comiarative ease.   The  tim,e spent  on  a land
joullrley is of considerati(,n in regard to
alterintg  the tonie of  the stomdachl  of tlle
a nima-ls, wlhen a mnor-e expeditious mode of
travelling, would preserve it —and in  tijis
respect  railroad travelling is  eminently
superior to any otlher nmode of transit.
3a99. Wihen     you   determine send in     g
stock to Londoni, you  shoulcl establish a
correspo(n(dlenice  witlh  a  live-stock salesman, wlio will may allarges of tlhe journley or vofyage, and at market, andl remit
tlhe lalance in course of post. Tile clharges
by sea consist of freight, whicll varies with
tlie distatnce, colmmissioni, lhay or grass on
board-(l, (diies, wlharfage, lhay or grass  on
slhore, and cost  of drivinig to market.  By
railroad thfe cost consists of tlhe value of
* T7le Farmter's Lawryer, p. 143. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
thle truckl, lihay or grass at the station, and
the cost of driving to market; and there
are 11market dues ill bothl cases.  You will
never traisntIit mreat to the London mrarket,
but you shoutld be well acquainted withl all
the pieces into whlichl a carcass of leef or
mrutton  is cuit lip there, tllat you  may
kniow wAlIethcr vour stock is of tlhe descriptioni t~o stllply thle most valuable p)ieces of
meat; witlhoit whlich knowledge you cannot be certain whlether your stock ou,ght
to realiie tle top prices.
and their mutton is bought fo r tlae olliers
with avidity.  The  long-established a nd
famiied Morpeth market is now transferred
to Newcastle, as a consequence of the
opening of the  Berwick and Newcastle
railw-av. In Smitlfield, in London, on
Molnd~ay, Soutlhdown sheep are to be had
in great perfection aud beauty, and the
miiuttoni they afford finds the most favour
ini the metropolis.
3602. Fairs. according to Spelman, were first
instituted in England by Alfred, in the year 886.
They were established generally  by order of
Gregory VII. in ]078, and were termed Perice,
at which the moaks celebrated the festival of
their patron saint: the vast resort of people occasiotied a great demand for goods, wares,  &c.*
Fairs were first held in churchyards on Sunday,
and afterwards in the principal street of towns,
where a cross was erected.
3800. Wlien youi send sheep to London
on your own account, thley should be of
the foll(,witlg description, to coimmand the
best plrices; and unless tl-hey are so, you
had better dispose of them at home.  They
sllo(uld be  ripe, colmpact, and  of  liglht
wei,ghtt; cariyilig  a larg,e  proportion  of
lean on tiie back, loinrs, andl slhoulders,
with a full routiti leg, and handsomne car cass.  Suchl  a formth, of 14 lb. to 20 lb. a
quarter, will readily tlike, but miost so at
16 lb. to 18 11). tie quarter.   Tlte nearer
in foriii and  qia-ility thlley approach  tile
Soutlidowns, the nearer they  will comiand  tl           hee top p)rice.   True-bred  Cheviots, a     nd the Black-faced Linton breed,
approach  near tle Soutldown, and co1nmand  a  highi price.    Half-bred(  sheep,
between Leicester lt. ups and the above sorts
of Chleviot and Black-facedl ewes, afford
valiuable mutton.   Tlhe  old  Black-faced
breed are too tliin. aid are styled goat.y in
Smlitlifield, -an-l wlhen (lnly lalf-fat-lfmen,ted,as thle plhrase is-fetchl but imiiddlintg
pric,es, however good  the flavour may be.
Pure-ltred  Leicesters are too fat, unless
young, and not exceediing 20 lb. a-qua ter,
but above that weiglit they realise an inferior p-ice, and a differetice,f id. a lb.
iiiay constit ute all the  profit  on  their
expu(rt.  This last iremark t,1plies to every
breed of slieep, and shlows tl.e exledlientcy
of onily exp(rtinrg  the  best  forti.s, andJ
finest, not fullest condition.
3603. M'Queen esdtimated in  18 36 the permanen 1t stock of sheep in Great Britain at          19,800,000 of long-woolled, and
28,200,000 of short-woolled.
In all,   48,000,000 t
3604. We shall see what proportion of this
number of sheep fitnd their way every year to
Smithfield        In  1841   it was    1,435,090
,, 1842...       1,655,370
1843...       1,817,360
1844...       1,804,8.50
, 1845..      1,539,660
1846...       1,527.220
,, 147...        1,505,650
,, 1848...       1,353,720
Average of the 8 years,  1,579,786
3605. The number 1,353,720, presented in the
market ini 1848, was divided in each mouth of
the year ini the following proportions:    In January,..     91,880
February,...      75,160
March,.....           72,010
April,.....            882,310
"May,.... 10,230
,Junie,...152,73:0
, Jily,.. 1.     47,200
,August,..    153,280
September,..  161,230
O, ctober,...     l14,760
November,..    108,770
,, December,...      92,160
1,353,720
3601. Tlhe Edilnb)urrhl  weekly  marklet
en Wednll.es liy contain's Black- ficed slhe,tp 
in thle hligIest perfection, ind tlle Clhevi,t,
talso ai-e very good, and  the  niutton of
botli is bouglh,t by liouseli)lders.   In Newcastle  niarket on  WedInesday  aire seen
Leicester shleep in thte highlest c(on-(iition,
It is necessre      to remark that the ne nbers here
s;tatedi were,he total iiulnbers exhibited, from
which-I ouighit to be dedluicted the nutimber which
nmad(e their reappearance at a future market-day,
*  1taydii's  )icti,)nary of Dates.-art Fairs.
+  MI'Queen's Statistics o!f the British E,i,p)ire, p. 21.
138 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
and which hasbeen estimated to amount to 100,000
In the course of the year.
3610. Like shleep, cattle are disposed
of to tlre dealer or butcher either at htonie
or in the pulblic markets inl towns, or fairs
in the counitry, and the same  rules exist
- as regards  thle  pavymnent and delivery  of
cattle as of sheep.
3606. The  nbuoabers of sheep i mp(rted          into
Londoni from abroad, duty free, ini 1848 were as
follows ini the respective months: —
Slheep.
I.       4,608
~ II.       1,167
2,341
p..      2,479
~a,..      4,781 
.     9,59 1
~            t 8,70.i
14,266
~.       21,6,81
~.      10,6639
3,424
..       9,334
10::,046
~.    126,247
13611. Tlhe ox lays on faLt in precisely
the sa, ne mannier as thle sheep, (3581.)
3612. Prior to disposing, of your cattle,
eitlhri to  dealer or butchler, you  slIould
estimate tlheir weighlt and value, an(, in
judyiyq cattle, thle procedure is somewlI,at
different frotmi thljat of sheep, inasIliucih as
the hair of cattle not hiding thle forni as
wool does that of the slheep, thle eye is
nmore used tlhant the hand; and, in thle case
of ripe tfe(d cattle, thle eye alone is econsiltel'; but the hand, as well as  tle eye,
is broulght into  use in judging  of lean
cattle put on to grass or to fatten on ttiri,ips.  Wlhen you look at the near sitle of a
ripe ox int profile, wlictlI is the side always
begun  witl, inmagine its body to be  i.nscribed withlin a franle of wood  of  thle
forei  of  t rectatngled parallelogram, wlliose
length is horizontal, as in fig.. 296; and if
3607. It,niglht be supposed that the decrease
in the ullinmber of sheep presented in Smithlfiel(
since 1844, was occasioned by the importation
of foreign sheep duty tree, but this circumstance
does not appear to be the cause; t;fr the total
nunimber of sheep sold in Smnithlfield in 1848, was
under the average of the 8 years by 122,920, a
number considerably more than the importation
of foreign sheep into London that year.  The very
depressed state of trade in 1848 is a imore likely
caiise of thle comparative decrease of the numtber presented to market; and the same cause had
evide,,tly a silllilar effect in decreasing the nuiber of the fbreign importation.
3608. The numbers of sheep imported, duty
free, itito the U,itted Kingdloni froiti the Continent, int 1847 and 1848, were as follows:
I_    i    1d,' k
1847.
Sleep,..        139,37 1
Lani)bs,..         3,349
Total of sheep imported, 142,720
ONX TrIIE DISPOSAL OF TIlE I.'AT CATTL       EA.
THE SIDE VIEW OF A RIPE FAT OX.
thle ox is completely filled ul in all points,
Ilis carcass will occllupy thle fiame lbeolout  ts
fully as in tlhe figure; but in iiost cases
deficiencies will exist in various  )parts,nolt ti.a;t evely deficiency will occur inll tlle
saime  animnal.   Tie flank a, f'or  exallpipe,
may be shruniik up, andl leave a large as.Leo
above tile line of thle fianie; tile brisket b
nmay descelldl muclh fartlher down; the rIump
c d s tay be elevated ab ove the line   of tlIe
back; the miiidd-tle of tlhe back d,nay be
rm clh hiollowed below that line; the top of
3609. Thxe cattle fed on tuirnips all wintea' and spring, are sufficiently fat  to be
disposedi of to tlje dealer or tlie blltcer
by thie time all the Swedislh  turnips,ire
c(,nsumed, wlhichi imay be about tlje enid of
MIay  anrld  even  tl)e  beginining  of  June.
About that tithe tlhe g,rass is in a fit state
to be pasturedI by cattle, but tile fat ca.ttle
are never put on grass, and  are disp)sedt
of o(lit of tile llIlllels (Ir froul  tile stalls,
to dea-lers or butchers.
* Bell's Weekly 3.fessenger, January 1849.
+ Paliameanttry;   etuiry 26t.h February 1849.
Lamibs.
47
14
74
302
871
2.;. 
77
111
1,763
4,083 -
I1n Januarv
,, Fe. bruary,
,,  March,.
,, April,.
,,  May,.
,,  J ullO,.
,, Juiy,.
,, Auiguist,
,, September,
,, October,
,, November,
,, Decernber,
Fig. 296.
1848.
128,093
2,177
130,270]' 
PRACTICE-SUIMMER.
the shoulder e mnay be elevated above it;
a larg,,e space may be left unfilled at the
lianii                                                                     is f.
wlhetlher tlhe lho(,k-t,one k appears to co'nnect itself easily witi, the  ramltp c on tle
one hand, and witlh the ribs d on tihe otlier,
or projects or sinks in.  In all these altern atives, thle former are  the correct, and
the la.tter the objectionable forms, and the
correct ones  slionldl be  arranged  in  the
fillowing manner, to constitute points in
perfection
3613. A  simnilar survey shoulh  be nmade
behind the aniiiial: the imag,in:,L,y framiie
Fig. 297.          inscribinlg   tlre
>.                   i hind-(quia rters in
.;    (:'      this view, being p
I,  1 tj,       a square, as  re           ~  ~  ~~  J,;'~;~presented in fie.
297, wlhere thie
breadth of the
.";;''q'~".'.q lh ook - bones, a
to a, is carried
~i~~' >1as far downvi as
3616(;. The line from  thle shoul(-der e to
tthe liook-bone k, fig. 296, shlould be parallel
to the baicl-boiie.  The line on eachll side
of the ribs d t,) e, on the one hand, and to
k on thle other, sl,ouhl not fall in with the
line of the backl, but be a little nearer, and
almost as highl as the back-bone, with thle
ribs falling in a rounded form  down tlhe
side.  Thle loin above, from  k to d, should
be perfectly flat, and on the same level
with  the bacl-bone, and  drop suddenly
dowli the side, ad-l connect itself withl the
rounding of thle last three ribs.  The point
of the hlookl-bone k shlould just be seen to
project, an(l no,liore; and  the space between it and the rump C should gradually
sweep in a rounded formt to tile narrower
breadth of thle pelvis, on each side of the
tail hlead( as in fig 297.  The utmost betid
of the ribs is aty, through which a straight
line shloull touch every point, from  tihe
front of the shiouller to the round.   The
triangular space of the neck conmprehended above  h should gradually tapler from
thle slhoulder-point to the lhea.l.  The line
of the back slhouldl be strai,ght from e to
c;  the tail should drop perpendicularly
from c; and thle belly should sweep  in a
sonmewlhat level line, not too high at a nor
drooping  at  1.   There  are  thus three
strai(ght lines along the side of a fat ox,
one along tlhe back from e to c, a seond(
tlthrough the top of the ribls g  fromr   h to i.
and the third from  the lower part of the
shoulder through the flank a to the buttock f.
3614. Then a   o in g  front of tae ox, and
imagine the outline of tile body inscribed
Fig. 298.        wwthin th e s'tne
square framie, as
in fig. 29S. The
shoulders, from
"i ~"'fi~ l'('!:'  a to a, are nearly
'of   the   samtie
breadth ds across
the hiook-bones,
_=~=_.._, ~ 297.              Havin.*
:~-~_. ~:~_.'.~'4~~~~ thuis   obtained an
k., ~~ _~.__~-.,!idea of the out                           line which a fat
THE FRONT VIEW OF A RIPE OX should  have,
PATOX.           in all tl-e views
it can be taken, let us attend to the filling
up of the areas within the frames.
3615. On looking again at tlhe nearside view, fi;,. 296;, observe whetlher the
ribs.q are rounded, and nearly fill up the
projecting point of the shoulder h, and the
round i  Observe whether the slhouller
is flat, somewhat in the same plane as the
ribs, or more prominent or hlollow; and
wheth-er the space behind  the shoulder
is filled up or hollow.  Observe whether
the shoulder-point h is projecting forward
and sharp, or rounded off; arind whetller
the neck, between e and h, sweeps finely
into the shouldler, or is flat and sniall.
Observe whether the muscles at i and f
are full and rounded, or thin and flat; and
140
Fig. 29,'.                  inscril)iii,        tire
Iiind-(Itia,rters in
this view, I)ein(,
a square, as re                         presented in fic,.
297, wliere ttie
breadth of the
liook - bones, a
to a, is carried
as far dowii as
the liotiglis, cc;
and the clogitt
between the legs
THE HIND VlrW OF A RIPIC   is also ",ell fill       FAT OX. ed up.
3617. Proceediiif, to behind the ox, fl,,,.
2,')7, the,              I)etween the hooks, frotn
(,-, to ti, stioiil(l I)e level, I)tit a littlci rotinded
off at botli 4i(les, aii(i the I)otle -it tire top
of the tail 1.)roject a little iipwar(Is. When
the mtiscles on each si(le of the rotlntl$,
below the liook-bones a, are ftiller tliati
the 1-iools. it is no but wlien
no fuller, they are rig,lit. The iiiiiscies at
the buttock, at c and c, at the lower end of 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
the siiiall roun(ls, shiould sweep gradually      a
towards tite hiock joinits of tile legs.   Tle
closinj( shlio(l be filled to futrnishl tle rounds
fully, but freely, f(-r packed rounds prevent
easy  niotion  of  tlhe  hind-legs.   Sometimes the tail lies in a chlannel f,rmedl between the irunds and buttocks, but tlhis is
not colnlmmonly the case.
and  stronger, and the fleslh less valuable,
and  it l       aus al  so            the eect of tining the
fla-1.nk a.   Flatness of tThe rib is a lso accompanied witlh  a hollowness of the spxace be9in,d tle sshoulder, giving  t o tlat part  of
tethe  bo dy     a contracted appear ance.   The
sloakls  shoulde r  an d hiollow r ibs  are accomi)anied w ith  a project ing slotlder joint h,
whiichl again causes a thiinness of the neck.
Tile rum)p-bone at c frequently rises
up)wa-rds,  spoiling,  tlJe straig,hIt line  of
tlhe back; and (lei)iiving thle rump  between k anl c of flesli, wlhere it-i,e(,oiies
lholiow, deteriorating the value of tile Ilost
va,lualble I)arts  of  tlhe hiind-quiarter.  A
projecting  hook-bonie   k also  tliiIIs the
muiscles below it, and as far back as  tlie
rounds; and this is accompanied with an
enlargem-tent of the opening at the closing,
fig. 297.
3618. On goirng, to the front view,  fi,.
298, tle  slhoulder-top slhould be  broadl,
withl its siles nlatlIrally rounded, and the
Imuscles below it upon tlle slihotldler-bla(les
at a a sliouild al%ways project fartler tliah.
the brea.dtll of thle slioulder-to); an( in
this respect thle fore-qularter differs froni
the liinil, where the mtiuscles  below the
hlook-blones do not project b)eyondI  thiemii,
for if they do,  the lhook is too,narrow.
The slh,)ul(er points slhould not be promineIInt, but rounided off withl thle tiiuscles of the
neck into tle brisket, whlere the front of
the neck  comes firoin  the hlead to  the
breast.   The brisket projecting a little
fi)rward, falls in a rounded form to the
lowest part of the body, and fills out on
bothl sides to the fore-legs.   The fore-legs
are usulally farther apart than the hlind,
but the hind at times, when the cod is large
aild fat, is even mnore apart.  The fore and
hind quarters are  miore nearly alikle ini
wei,ght, whlen the fore and hind legs stand
equally apart.
3621. A great commendation of a fat
ox is a level broad back from runmp to
shoulder, as  tlhe whole flesh on  that
space, seen when view                    ed firom  above,  fig.
362 [ ej299, is of  the nlost
tee p s   valuable description;
a hollo.where  tlhe triag,,ular
space  included  be              h         tween  a  b  c is the
s   a   g t    rump,  the triangular
5   er    space between a dc
distae       tlIe loill, and the space
between d and e, de   te         Ia lclaa a  flecting on eacli side,
"]Il 1 alc pre thle ribs   All thle
ba e  a s i o m)oints of a fat ox that
wh a  i   d   o h   lave been enumierated
at, grp      can be judged( of by
ii  at b,!J       the  eye  alone, andl
.6d rs- -     most judges  employ
THE VIEW OF THE BACK no othler means; but
OF A RIPE FAT OX.  the assistance derived
from the hand is inmportant, and in a pupil
cannot be dispensed with.
36-19. Tlie objectionable deviations from
these points are as follows:-In fig. 296,
a lhollow back at the ribs d is bad, sh1owing weakness of the back-bone.   A  high
shoulder at e is -always attended with a
sharpness, hiavingii the effect of br-inging the
slloultlers, fig.  298, too close.   A  long
distalnce li)et ee   thle  r        ibs d and hook-boie
k, fi,. 296, makoes thle loins  ollow,  gives
tlje ox wlhat is called a waishy appearance,
wlhichi is always  prone to looseness of the
bowels, anud washiness is also a,ccomiipanied
witlh an inordinate breadth of lioolks, from
a to at, figr. 29,.  A  sliarp projecting, lhook
is always acco,ml)aiiecd wit filat ribs atgq,
fig. 296, and flat ribs miiake a hollow side,
w4hich  bxears little flesh, and pushes the
viscera into the lower part of the a)domen,
causing  the belly to droop considerably
below the line of the franie.  With this
conformation, the yellow-coloured, tough,
insensible integument of the belly, having
a greater weig,hit to bear, becomes thick
3622. The first point handled is at tht
tail-head, fig. 296, although the least fat
141
3620. Whenever the shoulder I,,econies
ti,iii and narrow, viewed in front, fi(,. 298,
the slioulder-poin'ts are much wider than
the slioulder-top; and while this is the
case, the brisket below never becomes fat,.
and then the fore-legs stand too near each
otlier.                 - 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the lower than thle upper part of the body.
These are all the points that require touching when the hand is used; and in -hiiighconditioned ox, they are gone over very
rapidly.
ewere is obvious to the eye, and sometimnes
it attains an enormous size, amounting to
deformity.   The hlook-bone k is touched,
and should be well covered; but if the
bone be easily felt, both tile rump between
the hook k and tail-head c, and the loin
fromin the hook k to the ribs d, may be  ex  pectedi to be hlard and deficien             t of flesh.
To  the  po i     nts of the  f          ingers the flesh upten
the ribs g should feel soft and thick when
the ribs are round; bu       t         when  flat, the flesh
feel    s hard and thin from want of fat. The
skin, too,  on  a ro     unded rib, feels soft and
moblile,  and  the  hair   thick set, soft,  and
mossy, both indicativ      e  of a kindly disposi  tion  to lay  on       flesh  and f at. The hand,  on
grasping the fla-nk a, find s it tgick, wlYen the
internal tallo     w is abu nd ant, as well as the
cod fat and  large,  and, on lookinga     t itfrom
behind, seems t o                      at   a                              act as a cushion between
the h-ind,-legs, t   o keep them  asunder. The
paliiof the hand passed al ong th     e lineof the
back from the tail- hea        d  c to the top of the
eshoulder e,  points  out the hard parts upon
it, and  when all feel s soft  an d  ple        asant, the
flesh is good.    Hollowness behind the
shoulder h         i s a ve ry common occurrence;
and  when it i        s          filled up with flesh  and fat,
th    e fle sh   of th e  fore-quarter is good. You
wouild scarcely believe th         e  d ifferenc          e of
the feel of thle flesh betwixt a lean and fat
ashou     l        der.   A  high narrow sehoulder e         is
at         tended with a  ridg ed back-bone, and low set narrow hooks k, a conformation named
razor-back,                    always  accompani      ed with  a
deficiency andl hardness of flesh along the
back, where the best            flesh of a good ox
should be.  This conform          ation is always  ind        icativ e  of     a    slow and obdurate feeder.
The shoulder point h should be covered,
and feel soft like the point of a good lhookbone, and in that state            indic                ates a wellfilled feck-svein, which runs  f           romr             that
point to the side of the head. The slhoulder point is more often }}are and prominent
than the hook-bone. When the neck-veini
is so firmly filled up as not to allow the
points of the fingers to enter into the inside of the shoulder po~ints it indicates
.M)nldanlce of tallow in tile inside; as also
doe the fultless betaween the brisket and
inside of the f re-legs, and the projecfin
iorwaald of the brisket. Whlen thle flesh
becomells hleavy on the thlighls, mlaking a
sort of dloable thxigh,z the thighl is called
lytr'y, and it indicates a tendency in the
whllle fleshl of the ox to grow~l rathler on
3623. By the former part of these rules
you will be enabled to judge by the eye of
the points of a fat ox, which  ogIlIt to be
filled up; and, with the assistance of the
hand, you will ascertain the degree of per  fection which the most valuable points of
an ox  have attained.  On putting tlhose
rules in practice as opportunity (iffers, ex  perience will teach you to estimate the
weight of an ox, not its live-weight, lunt
the weight of beef and bones it will yield
after deducting the weight  of thie ofhl,
which consists of the skin, liead. enitrails,
and loose tallow. The  farmier is entitled
to the value of the entire weigiht of the
beef and bones at the current prices; and
the profit of the purchaser is confined to
the value of the offal: these formi tie basis
of the agreement between hiiii and  the
farmer.  The offals are generally equal to
the  value of one-fifth of tile ox, so that
an ox of ~25 value in beef  and Ienies,
should leave the purchaser ~5 for profit,
though the offals are worth sonmetimes be low, and sometimes above tthat valuie.  If
the buyer is a good judge of cattle, hle
knows the exact value of the lIeef, anti will
ende:,vour to make such a bargain  with
the farmer as will not only leave his profit
on the carcass, but cover his exleiises of
droving and slaughtering.  De,ilers c(n stantly in practice  arenerally ii.ake pietty
good bargains for toemselves, aced,ding to
tile prices at the time thetl)argaiii is nodule;
but their purchases are subiect to fluctuzatiotl in piice, which may  fitil witliout an
adequate cause, and occasion serious loss;
or  mllay rise as caus,elessly, and  lesvee  a
handsomer profit tthan was anticipatei —so
that the  pro,fession of a dealer  resolves
into a specuilation, the issue of vt Iich is
involve!41 in uncertainty  at  all  wines.
Dealers  formerly  made   large  fortuiies,
when breeders estimated the v.ltie of their
own stock with  nncertainty, and w.h%ll
dealers inAvari.ally purchased it) a rising
m-iar-ket, but now-.a-days  tew f,~ae fortuines, owing to competition), to greater
skill in  thie fa-rmiter estimating  the real
value of hiis stock, to tile great  exl.ense
incurred in taking cattle to suitable iwar,
142 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
kets, and to the uncertain incidents of a
roving profession.
wlhat principle the rules,iven in books is
founded I cannot say, unless on the assumnption that the body of the ox is a hlollow
cylinder; for a sufficient number of experimnients have not yet been instituted to ascertain tiheexact relation subsisting betwixt
the bulk of an ox's body, and  ttie weiglht
of tlie fleshi and bones upon it.
3624. As long as farmers trusted to their
jud,g,menit only, when they had few o)pportunlities of exercising it, in estimating the
-value of stock, dealers It-,d an a(ldvanitage
over tileel, and the advantage still exists
to somnie extent, but assistance is now af -
forded farmners to ascertain tlhe nett weiglht
of cattle by  measurinrg their bulk, or
weiyhing their gravity.   Tile live-weiglht
of cattle is easily aseertainedl by placigng
the ox upon a steelvard, and  tlhe  nett
wei,ht is ascertained by multiplying the
live wvei,,ght with ttile decimal.o(i5, if the
ox is ripe fat, and if not, by.55-tlhat is
to say, tliat the offals and fluids of a lean ox
weigh about as tis uchl as the beef and bones.
An ox shouild not be weighed immediately
after it has taken food, whlen it will be
too heavy, but after it has chewed the cud,
and is again ready to eat.
3626. Several suclh rules exist. Suppose an ox is 5 feet in length and 7 feet
in girth.  One rule is, Multiply tlhe square
of the girth) in inches, by  the length in
inchles, and divide thle sum  by  7344, and
the quotient is the weigh    t  desired.   For
exam)le:
3627. Another rule is, Square  tbe girtl,
in feet, multiply tlse sum by tlhe length in
feet, and niultilsly the double sum  by the
decimal'238, and the entire  sutll is the
weight desired.  For example:   Square the girth in feet,      {7
4$)
3625. Ascertaining the weigl)t by measuring, thle body of tlhe ox is a more convenient mnethod than weighing; and when
the measureineist is correctly takesi, and
the ox of an ordinary size, tlhe result is
pretty accurate.  Suptl)pose fig. 3())00 repre                  Fig. 300.
Multiply by the decimal,
n   ~                           1,
rHB MEASUR,ING OF A R,IP3 PAT OX, TO AeSCERTAItNe
ITS WBIGHT, SINKING: THE OFFALS.
3628. A  third rule is, Multiply  half the
girtli by itself in feet, and the suni by  tlhe
length  in feet,  and the double  sunis gives
the  weight desired.   For example: Multiply half the girth by itself in feet,   35
3'5
12-25
Multiply by the length in feet,        5
Weight,       61'25 stones.
Here  is an average  excess of 32  stones
above thle first and second rules.
sents an ox whose weight is desired to be
Ascertained by mneasurement.  The mn(ode
is, measure with a tape line from the top
of the siloillder a to tile tail-liehd b. which   a
gives thle length; tlhen measure round the
body at c to d, imniediately behind t             le
ojlsoulder, which gives the qirth; and on
consulting any  table calculated for the
purqose, at the corresponding figiires of
the le:.gtll andI girth ascertaisse(l, the  )ri)duct will give the nett weiglht.   Upon
3G29. A fourth rule   is, Div ide  the live
weight Ity 8 and multiply the quotient by
5, and the sunm gives the nett weight.  For
example:  The live weight of 5 li st. dead weight by the
rule ini (3624,) of'605 is 92 stonies.
Divide by       8)92(i 1{
Multiply by            5
143
Square the girthi in inches,           84
' 84
70.56
Multiply by the length in inches,      60
Weight.
Divide by 7344)423360(57 st. 8 lb.
Mtultiply by the length in feet,.
245
*238
58-310 stones.
And the weigl,t is,
And the nett weight is.57 st. 
PRAGTICE —SUMMER.
3634. Accurate measuring would easily
be acquired, and the result  would ever
be correct, were the fornm of the ox always
perfect, which it very seldom is, the fore
and 1in1d( quarters being frequently un equal; and thle degrees (ofcondition various.
Thie judgment is called into exercise to
make allowance f)r those differences, and
the allowance may be  made  somewhat
in this mianner:-When the fore-quarter
seems  heavier than the hind, tlhe line
should be extended nearerthe head than the
exact top of thle shoulder a, fig. 300; and
in like  mnanner, when the  hind-quar ter is heavier than the fore, the line should
be stretched a little beyond the tail-lhead
b. In regard to the girth, it is a very
common fault in tlhe carcass of an ox to
be contracted behind thle shoulder; the actual girth of wllich gives a result below
the truth.  It is very rare to find the girth
filled out beyond its proper form.   The
tape line must therefore be appliedl with
judgment.  The line is most conveniently
divided  into feet and tentAs, instead  of
eiglthls, because the multiplication by decimals is the easiest.   As an illustration
of the practical effects of misapplying thle
tape-line, I may state, that one inch only
added to the girth and length, assumed in
tlhe abo,ve examples, makes an increase in
the above weights of upwards of 2 st. The
addition of one inch to the length is a mnistake easily made when the ox stands with
his lhiead down; and a similar error may as
easily be made in the girth, when the ox
stands with his back raised.  Experience
alone can give proficiency in mneasurin(,
cattle. I knew a steward in Berwicksliire
who so successfully measured cattle, and
had so many opportunities of verifying his
nmeasurements, that the measured wei(ght
(,f an ordinary ox, whether fat or half lean,
differed only from I st. to I st. of its real
weighlit.
3631. Thus miany rules exist by wliich'
thle mleaslirin,g and weighing of cattle m.ay
ascertainl  thlleir nett weights, an(l many
books of tables are found in whlich those
weig,hIts are calculated to one's i~and. A
sliding scale conveniently carried in the
pocket, indicating, at a glance the wleight,
withl  reference to the length and girthl of
animals, is solI by the philosophlical instrumnent makers.
3s 32. Lord    Farlinhain's  Dev                   on ox,
slaughItered in Dulblin in 1828, weighed 12
cwt._ 96 st. =  1344 lb'.  The offals
weighled,
Blood,..
...  lost,
Feet,
Head and tonigue,
Kidneys,
Hide,
Heart, liver, and lights,
Guts anid contenlts,.
Fat,
Weight lost by evaporation; from
the carcass,
3633. After repe.ated trials b~y Mr P-obert
Stephensoim, Whlitelaw, East Lotlhian,i, on a
nuisiber of oxen of thle sanie weight an(l
age, of the relative proportioins (,f their
live an(d deai( weiglts, the foll ing  conclusions  mwer e (co(mne  to-thlat every  100
lb. of live weicg,ht gave of
3635. To an ox from 40 to 70 stones
the tables in books apply pretty near, when
the measuremnent is ma(le with judgment;
but in weights below and above  tlhose
figures, thle tables are at fault.  I hlave
no instances to adduce (of error in very
small weights, but many  in large ones,
and  shlall only adduce one.  A  shorthorn whlite ox, belonging to Mr Boswell
* Qaartcrly Journal,f Aqriculture, vol. iv. p. 552.
I"
3630. A fiftli riile is shortly tljis:           Gi,tli 2 X 5 lengtlis_ Weiglit.
21
Sqtiare the girth, 7
1 7
49
'Nlult'ply bv 5 times tie lengui, 25
Divide by 211)1225(5,i st. weight.
lb. oz.
22 5
8 7
18 0
30 0
4 0
80 0
25 0
135 4
152 0
25 0
504 0
1344 0
Live weiglit,
Equal to 60 stories, 1340 0
Ttie rule I)y nicasureirerit iii (3628) c6tnes
nearer the trutli than those ft)iiyided on
live wei,,Iit either in (3624) or (3629.)-X        0
57-7 ter ceiit.
8-0...
5'5...
,818...
100.0 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
Irvine of Kingeausie,  was  exhibited at
the Highland and Agricultural Society's
Show at Aberdeen in October 1834.  Its
measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girtlh,
and 6 feet 2 inches in length.  According
to Renton's  tables, the farmner once of
Dyke,gatellead,in Berwickshlire, the weighlt
was 126 st. 9 11).; to Strachan's 124 st.
2 lb).; to Ainslie's 122 st.; and to Stewart's
117 st. Thle actutial weight of beef yield(led
by the ox was 136 st. 10 1I)., on being
slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aberdeen, being, 10 st. 1 lb. more tlhan the
heaviest, and 19 st. 10 lb. more than the
lightest weight indicated by thle tables.
Suchl deficiencies of weight, at 7s. the
stone, incur a loss to thle feeder of from a
~3, los. 6d. to ~6, 18s. upon a single ox!
3638. Ta e cart-steelyard o    r  reigehbridge.e-As I have mentioned time weiglhing of cattle alive, for the ascertaining of
their v al ue as   a  marketabl e     commodity,
and as many occasions occur in farmcs   for
weighing  heavy weights, i t i s proper to
give a description of such a steelyard
as will be useful on a farm. The cartsteelyard is a machiine in which a combiniation of levers are employed to effect,
in a commodious way,  the weighing of
bodies of considerable weight, and whicl
would require tbe.comnmon Roman steelyard of most inconvenient dimensions, or
a balance equally cumbrous, besides the
ineonvenience of a great mass of moveable weight.   The combination consists of
two double-fulcrum levers    of the  second
order, combined with a single lever of the
first order.   The-relation of tlhe armn' of
the first are 3,1 to 1, and of the second 8
to 1, making the ultimate ratio 28 to 1;
so that every  cwt. placed upon the platforr!: of the machine is balanced by 4 lb. on
tie scale-board attached to tme second lever.
3636. The rule for live-w.eiglht is also
liable to error when applied to oxen of
extraordinary weight.  Thlus the late Lord
Kintore's black ox, 7 years off, exhibited
on the above occasion at Aberdeen, weighed,
alive, 28 cwt., or 224 stones.   By the rule
of multiplying time live-weig,hIt by the dlecimal ~605, the dead weight  should have
been 135 st. 7 lb.; but wlen the ox was
slaughtered by Mr Rodger, Crown Street,
Aberdeen, it weighled 1 73 st. 4 lb., or 37
st. 11 lb. more than tlhe rule indicated,
whichl, at 7s. thje stone, imiade it worth
more by ~13, 4s. 6d.! On the othler hand,
a small spayed heifer, belonging to Mr
Boswell Irvine, weighed 88 st. live-weigh t,
whlichl shouild lhave yielded, by thle rule, 53
st. 3 11)l., but it only weiglIe(l 4.9  stones.
The rule in (36:.24) is equally in error
w ihen app)lied to tlese cases..
ti36.39  In   describing  the constrluction ot
tills  coimipound steelyard,  we  lhave in fig.
3l) l1, the ground plan: the bed-framiie a a a a,
20)o I.
-3637.  Sucl  (liecrelp   ncies ( ertalil V ren                                     Fi,.
(I:0!'
_a                LXr~P~
~~~~~~~~~~~I~,
[p t
P1
b                                              b
b,
-,, i4-,-4-r     ---— t         I  -)I                         J;calein:eet.
I' ]..\  *,,,           Cll  it l-'i, i'l li-L.
VOL. 1I.
"ks I,, 
I
[I
I
145
der it desirable  tlhat: means  were used for
rendering tlhe rules of measurement, as. well
as of weight, more correct tbman they are;
and I see no  way  of effecting this end
but in collecting data, by instituting
experiments in different parts of the country, to  measure and ascertain  the  liveweight of every animal before itdis slauglhtered, be it Qx, slheep, or pig, large or small,
for a given period, and to -, eigh its fore
and hlind quarters, after it is'slauglhtered.
a
rl1
*     f0    II1 
IM
I I
b~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l
g
A —k
I-.
a
b
x 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
which is 6 feet in length by 4 feet in  surface of its foundation course laid level,
bieadthl,  is surrounded  by  a stand-up  under the surface of the ground, sufficient
flange.  This frame is laid in a pit formned  to bear the sole-fraime and upon which it
of masonry xx, figs. 302 and 303, adapted  requires  to lbe solidly  bedded.    Four
to the size of the frame, and leaving the  blocks b' b', fig. 302, are faced on their
Fig. 3()02.
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD.
top-surface witlh a cradlle of steel, forming
the dead fulcra of the levers.' Th'le two
first levers 6 c d, b c d, fig. 301, seen in
profile at b c d, b c d, fig 302, are so formed
in the  horizontal direction as to bring
their points of bearing at b, c, and d to
the requisite position; and in the vertical
direction, to bring tie centres 6 c d into
one  plane.   When  the levers are duly
placed, their ends d pass each other, being t
thus suited to the centres of the second
lever.  The second lever k 1, figs 301 and
303, has its main centres 9 supported upon
Fig. 303.
X     b6 H                  -               by, | t         m     -g.
;~/~   ~~%                                                  I;~;I;
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD.
is a frame with raised ledges, to guide the
cart-wheels when being place(ld upon the
platform.   Four pendant pillars n, fig.
302, attached to the platform, hear equally
on the centres c of the first levers.  If tile
equilibrillul of the levers is not perfect,
it is to be adjusted by addling to or t-akling
from the back end of the second lever.
Studs projecting inward, coming under the
platform at the wheel-tracks, serve to bear
not only the weighlt of the platform when
unloaded, but to receive the shocks of the
lead when coming upon it, thereby saving
much of tlie tear and wear of the centres.
3641. The most perfect form of such
steelyard I have seen was that exhibited
by Mr Craig, Liverpool, and nianufactured
by Redlathi, Brown, and Co. Edinburgh,
at the general sllow of the Highlland and
Agricultural  Societv of  Edinburglh, im
AuguSt 1848. This machine is adapted to
3640. In this,, form of weighing-miachbiie,
it will be observed that thle platform can
have no lateral niotion, which would be a
defect if it had a great range vertically;
146
the two arms of the standard  h.  Froin
the centreq to i, and from 9g to I is 8 to 1;
the extremity i to k being for the purpose
of a(diiisting the equilibrium of the machine.
Upon the two centres i, fig. 301, links are
appendled, which, in their lower bend,
receive the ceritres d d of the two first
levers, and the extremity I is formed into
the fork, upon the centres of wlhich, p p,
the scale-board m is suspended. In the
chamber a' a', the second lever vibrates.
TIhe platform, which is left out in fig 301,
but is seen in profile in figs. 302 and 303,
but this being extremely small, thle want
of lateral motion does not affect the accuracy of the indications.   In those  maclhines leaving slight lateral motion, the
principle -of the levers is the same as
here described, the chief difference being
that the platform is suspended  upon links,
to accommodate which the pillars n 71 are
lengthened downwards, and hooke(d under
the first levers, so as rest upon the links
suspended from them. 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
the weighing ofcattle, as well as every other
live (,r dead stock,  wlietlier of large or
siall bulk and weight.   It is constructed
on tihe lprilnciple (If conib)ined levers, is providled with a p)lttforni, thle size,f whlichl is
pr,,portiioneol to the intendled plirl)oses, the t
p!atf,rni heilng suispendel on, or appended
to, the levers.   It is tlitus of the same
princilIe in ct,nstriicti,n as tlhe steelyiarg                                           o
I l:ave ide.scril)eil;  )ut its Iheariings are so
arrtiige,l as t, w,ei,,h any ii()bject acculritely,
no iiatter on    liat part of thle platifoinrm it
iiiav i)e placedl.  In tile niachline exlil)ited, o
indi teste,l Ily weigihing anilalos and artitles,
the l,atfioriti is 6 feet 31 inchles, and is
tproviled with a movable r             oliing or petn,
t) insure safetv to live aininals wliile being  weighed(.  The price is ~22.   Other
steelyards  range in price  fr(iim  ~ 15  to
~25.
th        e  yre, he soon calmed down and  bcame exhausted. On being let out for the
first time, cattle should be put a while into
a large court, or in a road well fenced with
enclosures, and guarded by  men  Two  (,r
three times of such exercise will   make
tlietn)  quiet; and  in  the  mean time, to
lighlten the weig!ht of tlheir carcass, they
sh(oul(l ha ve lhay for the largest proportion
of their tood.   All these precautions are
absolutely requisite for cattle'Which have
been fed bound for montlhs to the stake,
otherwise accidents will befal them on tile
road.d...  Even  wlhen retained at hiome, seriotis accidents sometimes overtake cattle
let out of a byre, sucli as the breaking of
a horni, casting of a lIoof, spraining a ten-,
don, bruising ribs, and!'eating the wvholoe
body suddenly an(] violently-anid every
such ill-luck befalling an animal, affects,
its value  in  the  market to  a sensible
degree.
3642. Whlether the fat cattle are disp(osed
of t;) thle dealer or Iiutelier, or are inten(lded
to l,e driven to iiarket I)y the farmer himself,'.hey shlouh l uiiridergi, a preparati,n for
the.iItirniey.    If  iiiinie,liately nmade  to
travel on  the  road froiii feciling on turnip., whlen  t!he bowels are full of undiaesteil vegetali)le mtatter, a scl)iring, ensutes
whichl  soon ren(ler.s tihem   unfit to pursue
the      ir:rney; and  the  conipl.tiit is the
mor    e likelv  to  be l)r(iiglit on  froiii the
great pri,)[Iensity  lwhitch  cattle evince  to
takle vi,Ileiit exercise on feeling tlieinselves
'it ll)ertyv, after a lo)ng coufineiieut in tlhe
hoiise.   Tliey  I)ecoiie  li!(ht-headed  in            ll
leaviiin, even the hliminlel, and,repiiarkably
s4 ()II li)eiig br(Iugllt (?it of a byre, when
their cliiiii,v  arit,ics wc(ul(l l)e li,ilily a.inusin, were it nil,t f(,r ti.e appieliension thiat
tlney will liurt tiemselves agaiiist every
oliject, Wlichi  they seeiii not t(o see li-)efire
ti)efi, tlieir visuil ()irgLtis beiiin,, evitlently
at fat Ilt at thle tinge.   I reiiiein)er seeing
a,(l(lelel Aucrus st,t let out of t Iyr e runninir s,s  rec ikle.sly atout, tihat at  le        nt  lth                      he
camie at full sI,eed with hlis liead against
the wail (tf tlhe stei(ling, andl was instantly
fellel  to the giroiin,l.   Befo)re  anly  one,
iowev, e', co(il(l run  to h.is,. ass, sistuice, lie
spra.ing  to hIis feet and  nimadle  o)ff  again
at full sl,(I wittli  iis hlead high  up, and
tail on  en(l,.s if feeling  proud( of hliavin, actiomililislhel a fea,t which iInone of the
(tibers d:.rel t) (1(,. With disteniled nostrils
ani, ieaiiviing flLnks, lie seeiedil  painfully
excited; I)ut on beiiing, brouglht again into
147
3643. Havin,, been thus prepared for
the road, the drovet —wlio iiiay be your.
own shelter!, or a hired professional
drover, on the supposition that you are
to take your cattle to the iiiarket-takes
tliei)i  al(,n,,  the r(.),a(l very Slowly  for
the first two days, no'. pxceedinL, 7 pr
miles a-.(la n tr, t
y At niglit,,i'n wi
should be 1.)ut into an open cour    az
sul-)plied wine liay and water, a,n,d a very
few turnips; for if the turnips ai-e suddenly withdrawn frotn tlietii, tl)eir bellies
will cling or shrink tip-;x state very
niiielt against. tl)e a e of every
annual in a iiiai-ket, as it.niav be tl)e effect
of disease. In suininer, a g;ass park suits
them best to feed and rest in. After the
first two days, tl)ey proceed faster, say 12
or 13 iiiiies a-day, if very fat, and 15,
if moderately -(). When the Tourney is
]on,, aii(I the cattle become faiiit in travelling, they slioulil tet corn to support tlietn.
In frosty Weather, wl)en the i-oads tire
I)aj,d, cattle,.ire apt to beconie shoulder,
shaken, which is one effect of founder;
and if sleet f-,ill during the (]aV, and be
cotiie frozen upon tl)ent at iii,,Iit, they will
be
shrink rapi( ly i' bulk. I had'a lot
of 12, Ap(_rti~ oxen so affected, on their
road to (,ri'a,g -o w, - when - overtaken. by an
unexpecteol E;toi-iii as late in the season as
May, that I scarcely recogiiised them in
the niarket, and their value was deterio
I 
PRACTICE-SU.MMER,.
raSone like to proceed on the road quietly,
slowly, but surely, and to take thleem ilnto
the market in a placid, cool state.  Otlierb
drive thenm  smartly  along for some  distance, and then rest them to cool a while,
when  they Avill probably become  civilled,
andl have a staring coat wlhen they enter
the -market.  Wliilst others like to enter
the niarket with the cattle in an excited
state,  imagin,iing that  they  look  gay;
but distendled nostrils, lI(-)ose bowels, and
reeking sides,  the ordinary concomitants
of excitenient, are  no  recomiiinendations
to  a purchlaser.  Good judges are chary
of purchasing cattle in a heated state, as
they do not know how long  they  have
been so, and to cover thle risk, will offer
t a  lower price for  thlem than in  a cool
state.  Some  drovers  have the  habit of
thumnping the hindmost  ox, whichever it
may be, with his stick, while on the road.
This is a reprehensible practice, as  the
flesh, where  thumped, will  bear  a red
mark after the animal has been slaughtere(l, named  a  blood-burn.    The  flesh
so affected will not take the salt, and is
apt to putrefy.  A touch upon the shark,
or any tendonous j)art, when correction is
necessary, is all that is required; but the
vUice, in most cases, will answer  the end.
3644. In  droving  cattle,  the drover
slould lhave no doy, which will only annoy
thiemii.  He  slhould walk either before or
behind the drove, as lie sees tlhem disposed
to proceed too fast,  or loiter on the road:;
and in passing carria(,es, the leading oxfor one generally  assumes  a  leadership
after travelling for a *whiile togetlherwitll a little experience, will  make way
for  the  rest.   In otlier respects, their
managetnent on the road is i.luclh the same
as that of-slheep, tlhouglh the rate of travel:ling  is quicker. Accomemod(lation will be
founfl at nighlt at stated distances along,
tl5e r(o)ad.
3645. On  putting, oxen  into a ferry
boat, the shipping of the first one only i's
attended witlh muclh trouble.   A man on
eaclh side should take hiold of a lhorn, or of
a halter of rope, sl1o1lld thleox be hornless,
and othler two nmen, one on each side, slhould
push  hlim forwardl from behlind withl  apiece
of role held bete peel i tl  hemi     a for a breeciinsg,
and tlhe men slhothl(I simultaneously conduct
him along, tlhe plank into the boat.  Tlhis
arrangemnent of tlje men should be adopted
at once, and not after it lhad been f5,unl imIIpossible to induce tlhe ox to go aboard  of
hiimself, or by diint of twisting lis ta-il,- the
irritation occasioned by whlicIh will cause
everystibseqieiit plan difficult of execution.
If tile boat lhave low gunwales, one  ii~an
should remain beside tlhe ox until one or
two more  cattle follow their coiiiparnion,
wlhich they will most readily do.   InI neglectini to giuard the first ox in small ferryboats, I lhave seen -it leap into the water,
and( it is tlheII difficult to prevent tlhie rest
doing tlhe same from tlhe jetty4,~          -
......,   
3647. A  few large oxen look best to getlier in a market, on a position  rathl)er
above thle eye of the spectator.   Whlen a
a-la-rge lot is nearly alike in size and appea-r alce, tlhey look  best and level, on  a flat
apiece  of ground.- Very  large  fat oxen
nev e r   look better than on  the same level
i f  itli tlle' spectator.   To (look in the best
istate, aii ox sliotild 1101(h lhis head in a line
efwith l's body, lhave lively ears, clear eye,
dewy nose, a well-licked  hide, and  stat(nd
firm on all his feet.  These are invariable
symptoiiis of liigli helltli and good condlition.' Whlenever you see  an ox shlifting(
his standing froni one foot to another, lie
is foot-sore, and has been far driven. Wlien
you observe liiiii langing his head, and his
eyes wateing, lie feels ill inwardly. Whlen
hiis'coat staiies, lie has been  overlieated(
sote i time, and lias becomne subsequently
chilled. TlIese latter symptoms  will be
llll much ag(rravated in cattle thlat have been
' fed tied tothlle stake.   You may at once
discover whether cattle have been fed at
-the stake, by observing a fretted and  cali   lous -. mark occasioned by the rubbing of
24
rated to t-he amount of X3 a-li-ead. Cattle
f3holild arrive the day- before in the iieiglibourlioo,(l of a distant market, aiid be supplied with (-,ood turnips and liay' or grass,
to niake them look fresh and to fill up their
flanks a(,aiti,; but if;the iiiarlet is ()iily a
short distance, they can travel to it froiii
early iiiorniri,.
WI), N?-er t'i'tn6l
3646. ate I t of.cattleriiay
take t(i walk to a,inai-ket. "tbey,-'glioilld
iiever be overdri"ve-it-,. Tli:,o flsli of )vet(Iriven -cattle %,vlieii  s'lau,htered" -nev'er-beconies firin, and tlj'e-tn:l-lo%v lia8 a Soft, P.101te-(Iappearance. Mucli'diversity exists in
managing. cattle "on the -road by drovers. 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
the baikie or seal, figs. 75 and 76, on the
top of the neck, immnediately behind the
ears; by the ho:ofs being overgrown at the
points; by marks of dung and of much
,Testing, upon the outside of the hamiis; and
%lso very frequently hy the remains of lice
.ipon the tail-lhead and the top of the
shloulder, their scurf remaining, or thie hair
lshorn bare from those parts.
is the only criterion of -value, and the retuth itrns of the prices to the respective graziers
must depend entirely on  his discretion
the apportioning  of  the money taking
place in the money taker's office."  Thus
your good cattle.niay be slumped in price
with the inferior ones of another person.
"Again, we will suppose a case of consignmiient of 100 cattle or sheep by one
person: these may be sold in one lot at an
avserage price; but in order to satisfy his
principal, it is not unusual for the salesman to render a fictitious account, showing
that the sale was effected by tens or twenties to different persons, and  at prices
varying, but making  up the amount for
which they were actually sold.  The reason given for this proceeding is, that the
salesman wishes to gain a name for maki n-g exertion to obtain the best prices, which
might be questioned if thle animals were
returned as sold in one lot."*
3648. Steam conveyance by sea and
Mnal is now so common from all parts of
the country, and from sea-ports, that fat
,attle are not now travelled on foot to
markets                     at greatt distances,  as was wont to
be the case somle years ago; still it is well
n.or you to be made acquainted with the
best method of driving cattle on the road,
,ince most parts of the country at which
nattie are fattened are situate at considerable distances both from railway stations
and shipping harbours.  Fat cattle must
still be driven to local fairs from short distances, and in those short journeys they
require to be as well guided as on long
)nes.
3651. Besides this unfair mode of sale,
the iniuries probably to be sustained by
the cattle or sheep you may consign to a
salesman, on their way through the streets
to Siiiithifield(, are at tines to a serious
amount.   "The loss to the grazier," says
a writer, " is in the difference in value of
his sheep or cattle, when they arrive in
the neighlbourhlood of the metropolis, and
when offered for sale in Smithlfield after
intense suffering from hard blows, driving
ov er  thle stonries, from hunger, thirst, fright,
and the compressed state in which they
are constrained to be packed; the sheep
and  beasts  the  wlhole time, from  their
raised temperature, clouding the  atmosphIere of Smnitlhfield with dense exhalations
from their bodies.   The London  buitclher,
carrying on a respectable trade, will at all
times, when lie enters the market, reject
such cattle or sheep as are what is termed
in a mess; that is, depressed, after excitationi by being overlaid or overdriven, or
such as  have  been  more  than  isually
tr oubleso me in  gettin, in to the market,
and, consequently, will be in a more worried-l and exhiausted condition. It is to be
observed, that all animals brought into
Smithfield, especially  on: the  Monday's
n'.arket-tlay, are more or less in the conditioni above described."   This was  the
case when an inquiry was made into the
3649.  T         he cu stom s relating to the purt.aase and sale of cattle in fairs, and town
markets, are precisely thie same as tlhose
connected  with  the  disposal  of  sheep,
135791.
3650. On consigning fat cattle on your
t,an account to London, either by steamvoat or railroad, it is necessary beforiehand
to estublisli a corres,)ondlence with a respectable salesman.  I say with  a salesman of established character, for that class
of persons hlaving the monopoly of the sale
of stock at Suitlifield, some of tlihen effect
sales for their customers il a  quiesti(nable mnanner.  It has been  alleged, for
exatmlple, that "eachl  salesman  receives
consigrnments of stockfrom severalgraziers,
an(l it frequently lHapp)ens that when a sale
is effected, say of I100 cattle or sheep,
composedl of perhaps 10 from  one grazier,
20 from  anotlher, 30 from another, andl so
on; they, of course, vatry in quality andi
siie; the 10 or 20 being perlhaps far snperi(Ar to those with which  they are sold;'
but it often happens that one general average price is fixed foir the wliole: tlhus it
occurs that the judgmenit of the salesman
* Inquiry into the State of SinithAt-(. Cattle Market in 1848, p. 6.
149 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
state of the market in 1828; and the inquiry instituted in 1847, by a committee
of tlhe House of Commons, presents no improveinent of thle picture, as may be seen
by the evidence of Mr Walter Anderson,
Oakley, a grazier near Bedford, when, in
answer to the question put to himi, " In
wlhat way were cattle ill treated?" he answered. "I have witnessed in Smithfield, on
four different occasions, when I hlave gone
there to see my beasts, which were of very
good  quality, they have  been put into
ring-droves, where tlhey have been cramnied in so thick that I have not been able
to see my animals for two hours; and when
thley have been brought out, they were so
disfigured withl mud, and bleeding, that I
should not have known them, unless the
marlk. was pointed out to me."*
3654. The charge  for conveying cattle
to London by the steamniboat and railwa,-iy
increases, of course, with the distance, ]ut
less in proportion for the longer dis.ati(e.
The  charges are too costly; but, to view
the matter in its proper  lig,ht, tl)e cost
should be compared with the loss of (con(dition incurretl by sendling fat stock on foot
to t!he samiie distance. Mr D. Martin of
Wa,infleet, in Leicestershire, ascertained
the difference by experiment. He walked
5 sheep to London, which weilghed. 8-')8 lbIs.
live-weight, and. on being killed there,
tlheir carcasses weighed 435 lb., ain(d the
loose fat 60 11).; whereas 5 sheep of tlhe
sanae weig,-het, kille d at bho) e, yi elded 4t89
lb. of imutton and 74- 11). of  lo(se l-t,
the difference 68i 1l). in fi, vour of tliose
not travelled, at 6(d.  the  lb.,  gives a
stum of 34s. 3d., which w(,uld have paid
the cost of a very loing journey by  tie
railway.++
3652. The blows and bruises sustained
by the cattle and shleep mnaterially affect
their market value, and the state of their
flesh as an article of food.  "A calculation  has been made," says another and
earlier writer, " that 512,000 serious and
extensive (edematous bruises are, in the
Course of one year, discovered {n cattle
after they  are slauglhtered.   Thle  pain
these bruises must occasion to the cattle,
and the loss to the butIcher or the public,
is exclusive of those parts of thle ainial
which suffer most froim the conduct of the
drovers, nanely, the head, especially the
nasal organs, and concussions of the irain
by blows on the hlorns, besides the more
acute suflering, from blows on the hlocks."
T'lhe beef consumed( in London, in 1836,
lie states, amounted to 94 nmillions of stones,
which, at 6s. a sto,ie, gives a total value
of ~2,850,000; and if its deterioration is
taken only at lialf-a-fartliing per poun(d,
the annual loss sustained by the bruises
of cattle alone, will amount to E~69,2'40,
1f6s.+  This was in 1.828, and frotmi the
increase in the numnber of cattle since that
period, and the consequent ciurtailmetent of
space allotted to e.acli, the loss sustained
by  bruises  was calculated,  in 1848, to
amount to ~100,000.
3655.  It has  long been my opin    ion tlhIat
cattle an( sheep coniveyed by railw,ayv,,ug,lIt
to pay t  y weiglit,        a      ws goods   o,   ail not
by btlk as n earnige(e in  a'rtucl.   The  )irese nt  plIn lbas ttee  e ffec t (,f ove rcrotw (i ngr    ftlt
stoc k   in    the trck, an    f discnur ingo
tlhe sendiin  t,f lean stock  by rail; tOr le(atn
cattle o)ccupy moire space in  pI)i,,,rtion
to tlheir  valuetio than f;it, and)(I thieir 1),,,er
v alue is, besiles, less a:e to pay lt}le }igher
fare.   It woul(d  n(,t  be difficult  ti,r tl.e
station master, or  the servants at  the  st:ation, to ascerta,in the live weiglit of  sto(k]l
by weighing i  t,ne aiilali.1 of eveiry equal lI,,t
on  tihe weighiing,-machlinie, atlway.i at   tl.e
station; andul such practice, fi>r a  sil,rt
timiie, *wouild enal)le them to (leter,etine thte
weig,ht  b-)y the eye. Were  farmers  to
* Inquiry into the State of Smititafi,d ('atttle Market in 1 848, p. 19.
T'he Question (f the,niithtield Alirket ftlly c,,tsidered, p. 21 and 24.
+ 2lie iailuay beltt, tfr FYbruary 1i;47.
m
loose from their fastenings, and, in knock-'
ing a(,ainst each other and tire of the
vessel, become bruised to a coiisi("lerat)le
degree; and, in some instances, have Leen
thrown overboard to secure the satetv of
the vessel. If such confusion is I,.a(-l I)elow decks it i,,; rich worse upon deci,
wliere the cattle interfere with tire worling of the sliii). In the event of sti(-Ii a
ri,sk, it is much safer to transient tliet)i in
the trucks' of a railway than in the liolds.
or decks of steain-yes-sels.
3653. Cattle and slieef) -,ire not free from
serious accidents on bo,-ii-d steuiii-ves,els
in storniy weatlier.                Tije cattle break 
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
press this change on thle railway authorities, and show, by a practical trial, thl       e
ease with which it miight be effected,  it
would no doubt be adopsted onl thle principle of fair dealing.   Stuck gives less
trouble than goods to railway servants, in
the putting, in and tle taking, out of the
trucks, and  thl)ey  occuti)y  no  warehouse
roomi; and therefore, if they pail the sai.e      b          0
cllarg,e as goods, they ws iul ( be iiore profitable traffic to the comil)ally.
In January,
... February,
... Mar(-,.
... April,.
... M.y,.
... Julie,
... July,.
... August,.
... Septemiiber,
... October,.
...'Novemib  r,
... December,
3656. The imnportation of hlornied cattle from
Ireland and Scotlanlld inlto Enigland(, was  prohibited by a law, 16 Charles II. 1663; but the
export of cattle fromii Ireland now forms a vast
and beneficial branch of the lri,hI trade with the
sister country.  Frot the inferior port of Waterford alone, the value of imported cattle and provisions amnounted, in 1841, to nearly half a million
sterling.* Now all live animals are imported from
all quarters of the globe into Britain free of duty.
212,014     6,292   25,585
Total number of cattle,. 243,891
In regard to these  numbers, it should be  borne
ii miniid that they represent the total niumiibers exhIibited in each  monthl; but  a deduction should
be mnade for the  cattle turned out unsiold iii onte
market day, and which  make  their api)earalice
in another.   It has been  estinmated  thlat about
25,000 cattle reappear in the course of a year.
8. It is interesting to observe the propornii which the oxei from the diffe(rent districts
kingdom found their way to London in th he
iit  months of  the year:  in 1847 an1id
W. and Mid- Other parts ofEngla id Dis-    land witl' Ire-   Scotland.
tricts.        land.
2,2000        2,900           790
1,800         2,700             61 0
2,300          1,600            8'50
2,500          1,350            840
y2,85t0        2,100          2,5.t,0
3,00       0  100            3,180
3,8.0         2,250           7.90
1,410          1,9(;O           960
2,600          3,450           572
4,550          1,810            910
2,oo00         3,'50           400
4,000          3,900           290
32,830        29,270          12,752
27,800         2(;, i 5-0 8,725
3657. The numbers of cattle presentedl in each
month of 1848, for sale iii Siiiithfield market,
London, were as follows:
and an  increase of the  Devons and llerefords
from  the western aidi midland districts, while
the supply  irotin the eastern  districts is abcut
the  sanse.   From  Scotlaud,  the increase in
1848 is very miarked, owilig, no doubt, to the
accominmodations of direct conveyances oni the railways froimi Scotlanid to Lonidoni.
A few deductions may be drawn from the
numsbers  oft this s            tatement.  Fromw  the northern
district                      s th e  chief supplie s   ire in th e beginning
and   end ot  t           hl e   year, isdi cati   nfg there the prevaletce  of arable husbandry, atd fattening         with
ttirinips, and little    grazing.   The  samie remark
alplies to other par    ts of En        gland  w ith I2eland;
lutit,  from   thlese  districts,  the supply i  s more
uniform  th an f          rom the northern    districts. From1
the easterni districts the supply is scanty in winter,  the  fattening  on  turnips  beinig evidently
limited, while the grazinig in summer is carried
on  to:t large  extent.   T'ire  supi)ply  troiim  the
western and  midlanid  districts is more  reguilar
tlhrouighouit the year  th~liL  fromn any other  district, while it rather iieIeases  in winter, iiidicatiug fatteiiin, tbr a short timie oni tIrni)s trosi1
the  grass  in autinllll.''lie graziing Ieasts  are
largely supplied  front  the  isirtli of Scotlanid in
the early  summer  inointlis.   Ot  comparisig the
numbers of 1848 with  1847, wve fisl a tfalliug
of  of the Short-hornis from the isortheris districts,
3659. The number of oxen presented at Smithfield tbr the last 8 years was as  f'llows:                                  Oxen.
In 1841,..        19.1,298
... 1842,.. 2t0,723
.   1843,..    207,195
... 1144,.. 21(;,848
... 14.5,.. 222,122
... 1846,.. 2:"3,402
... 1s47,....216,20
... 1 8;4,....'S212,014
1,713,382
Average of the 8 years,  214,197
* Haydis's Dictionary of Dates-art. Cattle.
161
Oxen.
15,589
15,404
15,407
1 5,.' V2 2
16,541
17,452
lf;,8-78
1
1 -,g- 5
li
21,714
20.177
19,7(,'O
19,1155
COWL
4t;O
,570
601
.577
491
509
495
4(,17
421
487
544
620
Calves.
770
859
1,122
11)37,5
2,087
3,f;46
4,033
3,840
2,707
2, 00
1,483
1,263
N. Districts. E. Districts.
In January,.
... February,
...  larch,.
... April,.
... IVI ay,
... June,
...i uly,
... August,.
... Seitember,
... October,.
... Novernber,
... December,
In 1847,
4,150 2,200
3,000 4,200
2,000 4,500
1,000 5,400
500 5,900
6,300
960              5,000
3,(iOO              8,000
5,000 2,000
7' 200 81)0
6,300 1,500
6,000 2,500
39,650 43,300
47,870 48,700 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
3663. Cows are chiefly imported from Holland,
and calves from Holland and Belgium, whilst the
oxen mostly come from Holstein.  Dutch cows
are good.  The Dutch and Belgians feed calves
well.  The pastures of Holstein afford the best
oxen of any imported.
Bulls. young a        nd old,
Cows,.........
Oxen, fat, to kill,
... growing up to fat
... used to work,
... to replace waste,
Or thus: Permanent stocl
To replace waste,
3664. At the end of the season of fattening
the cattle,it is profitable to hear the conclusions
arrived at by so acute and scientific an expe rimenter atd philosopher as M. Boussiigault, on
the experimenlts made by Mr R.bert Stephen son, Whliitelaw, East  Lothiian, an abstract  of
which is given from  (1342) to (1350.)  " In a
series of experiments which he undertook," says
M. Boussiugault, "Mr Robert Stephenson pro posedl to compare the progress of the ilncrease ill
weight of oxen upon different alimentary regimens.  Starting upon the principle which we have
alreadyestablished-thatanimals consumne a quantity of food in proportion to their weight and size,
when they are under  the same  couditiois-lie
had, of course, to divide his stock into several
lots, each made up  of animals of as nearly as
possible the same weight.  Oxen of two years
old, brought up on the same farm, and kept in
the same manlier, were  the subjects of experimenits.  I shall select one experiment, in which
the observations were made  upon three lots of
six beasts each.  The live weight of each lot
was ascertained before and after the experiment,
which was carried onl for 119 days,  1. The first
lot was put upon white turnips, linseed oileake,
beans, and oats; and, for the last 24 days, each
beast had 20 lb. of potatoes every day in addition.  2. The second  lot was fed like the first,
with this difference, that it had  no  cake; and
that, during  the last 24 days,  the quantity of
potatoes allowed was but 10 lb. a-day.  3. The
third lot had no other provender than turnips.
Cattle.
.   720)
.     852
~ 1,146
. 2,456
~ 2,197
2,044
. 1,(666
~ 2,526
. 4,301
~ 2,962
. 3,488
. 2,401
26,759
32,968
3665. " Here are the weights and nature of
the provender consumed by the animals during
the 119 days, with a column added, contailing
the equivalent in hay corresponding to each
article consumed:
1847.
Oxen and bulls,.    27,83.1
Cows,...    35.480
Calves,...    12,406
Total of cattle imported, 75,717
LOT 1                Lor 2.                LoT 3.
,Equivalent
-qiI.._ Yli.I.    Wiht. 
PaOvE:NDI5R.                 Weight  Equivalent  Weight    i            quivalent
P)ROVICNDICR.                Weight.                                         in,h,1 hay
.in   y.       W       i hay.               i               hay.
assumed.
White turnips,
Swedes,.
Beans,.
Oilcake, 
Oats,.. 
Potatoes,.
Ration expressed in hav,.
Hay constnmed per heand per day,
Ilay per 10o) lb. of the live-weighlt,
hay per 11)0 lb. of tile hve-weiglit,                          4-01                     3 1)3                     2-1)
It therefore plainly appears that the lot which   creased in the smallest measure, both in flesh and
had' the largest allowance of provender, thIe food   fat-results  which  might  have  been  readily
which containedl the greatest qutiantity of azotised  foreseen.
principles of flesh, in fiact prolduced the largest
amount of dead-weight in a given time; and that        3666. "It is also apparent, fromn the table,
the lot which had the shortest allowance  in-  that, in proportion to the nutritive value of the
I  M'Qtieen's,talstis ofthe British Empire, p. 1 8.
t Bell's 1'eckly Messenger, January 1849.      ++ l'arliameatary Return, 26th February 1849
t
t
I
I
i
152
3661. The cattle and calves imported duty free,
from the Ccntiiient into London, in each moiith
of the year 1848, were a-s follows:- - I
In January,
... February,
... Mareli,.
... April,.
... May''
... June,:
... Jul Y,
... August,.
... September'
... October,
... November,
... December,
3662. The total numbers of cattle imported,
duty free, into the United Kingdom, in the course
of 1847 and 1848, were as follows:
1848.
24'591
22,510
15,642
62,743+
lb.
1.518.0
13.336-0
3.i8-0
389'0
173'0
479;0
lb
171.(;
1973'4
1559-8
176,i-O
279-0
151.0
5,902-8
49,7
4-01
lb6.8.0
13,384-8
5:i8-0
173-0
1 239-8
lb
1184.8
1980-0
1559.0
ago
77-0
40,-9-9
34-3
3,03
lb.
I'l 22-0
lb.
127-0
1777-6
1904.6
16:0
2 0
lb.
385
676
23
22
62
315
F 
MARES FOALING.
articles consumed by each lot, the increase in
carcass-weight was greatest in that which re      ceived its allowance in the least bulk.'lThus
1      reducing the different rationls to a standard for      age, we find that ill the first lot, which was
plentifully supplied. 100 lb. of hay gained 4'2 lb.
of increased weight, wliist the same allowanice
of hay produced 6 lb. ill the third lot, which
was fed most parsimoniously.  The fa(-t is most
readily explained; over a certaini limit, tlhe more
iood an animal receives, the smaller is the frac      tion which is assimilated and( turned to use in
the body. Breeders have collnsequelntly (lis.covere(dl,
that it is by no mealns generally advautage,tius
to push animals beyond a certain poilnt of fatuess.
The excess of weight whichl is obtained with the
assistance of the quantities of food exaggerated
as it were, no longer comnpensates for thle addi      tional expense incurred.'I'his is a circumstance
which Mr  Stephensoih's experiments also  illnis      trate; and, indeed, they led him to the conclusion
which has just been stated.
36.71. As  it is impossible to liredict a
omare's foalinrig  within  a few  hoiir.s, it is
proper  to pIut hler into a loose-box by hlerself, and to watchl  her every nighlt, as in u
in tlhe work-liorse stable 0, or in thle (litlhousie  y, l     Uate II.  Too  inany farmers
nemlect        and evten  contemn Sutilc priecautionis, beallowr  their  mares to  foial if thle
st"ill in tile stahln e, i t tie risk of a llavingt
botlh tlheli atn(I thleir folals iniljred.   The
la,te Mr Airtl,  ainis of I)un, Foi-f,irsliire,
told  mie  tl,.at. iiaiae (f lhis, laving  been
neg-le(ted to be wa~telced at night, or even
reioved fi'on the stable, was found( in the
mor-ning" lying on the floor witlh lher wonb
protru(ied, and the foial simiotlhered(d in it.
The  miare slhortly after died in great agony.
It is a remitarkablle fact, that few people
lhave observe(l mares to foal, even tlougi
watching  fo;r the  purpose, for  sonielhow
they contrive to fosal whien left Iby tlhemiiselves for even a few Dlonients. I hiane
endeavouired for successive years to witness the foaling tbothl of blood and (Irauig,hitmares, and was 9lways disappointe d.
3667. "Judging by the market price of the
several articles of provender employed by this
distinguished breeder, the first lot appears to be
the one the fattening of whlich turned out thle least
advantageously; whilst each poutnd weight of
flesh produced here cost about 5d., the price of
production in the second lot did not rxiucli exceed
4d., (4ld.); and in the third it was a little inure,
41d.
3668. " With these observations of Mr Stephenson, we find the following numbers to express the daily increase in weight of the cattle
during the period of fattenilltg:
3672. A  mare  will eat  withi hleartiness
until the,pains of lab)lolur seize ler, when
si)e suidpenly  lies down,  foals  easily,
quickly, fo(rcibly, requiring no  assistance,
starts to lher feet almtiost itllnletliately after
parturiiom, takes  up  withi, thiolIgh li icks
but  little  ait, hler  foal, and sooni begins
again to eat.
ht Hay colsumed Increase per Increase
e-  per day per    head in 119 per day,
g.     head.            days.       and per
head.
lb.            lb.           lb.
49'7          247-.            2-0
34'3          2.3,1-6         1'9
16'0 112'6   0'9
3669. "The weight of the several animals must
also be taken into accounlt, in sc-ekinrig to estimate
the increase realised uponl every 100 lb. of liveweight during the fattening: —
In the first lot, I 00 lb. of li ve-weight,
in 119 days gained.    22' - lb.
...  second,.........,2'8...
... third,......... 14-2.'
3673. Tlie foal is not long of gaining
its feet after a fbw staggering, attempts on
its 1ong, spindtlled  slihantks,  )ult  sle tile
elapses bef(ire it can  steadly itself.  in walkindg, or to lay 1l(1(1 of tlhe tenat.  It s!litil(ul
de assisted-l in its first atteciipt, to get fillel
withi  nilk, after whichl it will  lie  d,,wn
and sleeIp  ainglii(st straw, now  replenisliei
clean, until it, becmnies (lry.  Thie IplIacenla
s,}on (irops fioiii thle niaie, andl slioul( lI)e
iiiimediaitely  iemiived.   Tie  thiin liellicle
whiiclh covers tlie foal, is,  wlhen    riei, like
the finest  gut-skin  usel by   the  goidl)eaters; anid it lilrms a good I rot(etion
friomii the air,  wh-ieni atilplie(l as a p)laster
over the surface  (,f n recent wouund.
36f70. Mlay is the usual monthl in which
drauight-miares  foal.   Th-ey  continue  to
work  until tl-e inimedinte sytilptoins of
foaling are  observed.   Thesee are, gre.lt
loosening of the ligatires on each side of
the root of the tail, and the appearance of
* Bou-singault's Rural Econony-Law's  translation, p. 615-17.
153
a waxy-like matter projecting from the
point of the teats. The -lieriod of gestation is fi-oii-i 333 to 346 days.
lb.
First lot, 1115-0
,Second lot, 1016-0
Third lot, 794-0
ON 31ARES FOALING. 
p(rtalit  operations  o)f  tlhe  farm; laviigng
to  sicklel  tihe foial evely  li,alfytkiig,, slie
slioulild I)e etoiloyeil sin.lyV, such  as at so" in,~  anl scuffling  t-lril- )s  1n()tatoes.and
leadiii  grass or utlier fir-ii,rge to the stead ing, antI  woirkedl gently.  aVlien she woilks,
thle fo(l slitotill be left l)y itself in tlhe out hlouse,  well-litteretl,  until  it becomye  ac customle(l  to  I)e   lione, rather  tliaii  ii  a
court  or  l!amidel, out  of  whichl  it miay
attempt  to escaple an(  inijure itself, as  at
first it  alllost   roes  ilist.cted  1)o beii,g
sei.arated  f'rti,  its  mothier; and(  shle also
evinces grteat  lneasine's fir it for the first
few  d(.ivs.   Slioulll  tl!eie  be  two  mares
wit,  f:ils, l)(itli sIllul li)e w(,irked to,getier:
tile  tre:ttielit  of  botli  leilicg  alike, little
inciiiveiiie:ice  will  arise  to  woik,  fioili
li tiig       i taken i)lt of volke tog,etlher to  their    a
fials;  )r tone (,f t lieii lilt li)e woirkedi  iii
tlh e f(e,iooii. atI,l the  tther in  tlhe  aftern(ooll.  A   st(,it  iiarte w% ill  e alle to pierfiirkl'l    sher  O lw ull sla be ()f stiin-ier  woirk, and
btitbg     e  f,,;leal  ft  le, siiil           iiIe        s ie timet
ssl,llt swl     i,e in a     eall  state, wlicll sle
avill     be    whaien  beroing eh upi,  oltl, or  is overwoa keal, sie sh       d e be a uiit eit      heer     t- to teryl
gentle  wvorlk, in  ]mlf-y-i,,gs, or one y(,kin,, a-(Ilyt, or  be set  idle alto,,et}~er,  an1l
be c{}nstantly  witll foer  fial.    S};e shlioi(l
not le  neg,Iecte41 o)f  cornii, thll J,,I iile at
gra~.s.s  wsitll lier fo~al.  Selil()t-i  ainy illness
att.aclks al (lra,,tglit-nmare *i liie bjring.ing( up
.a. fi-al, a1( as -seldtntti aiiytliingr is tihe Imatltter  wi ith   a  final.   I!ka(d  ontle   vorkc-ftal,
lio%,ever, wicihl, tloug},I  s,ifly an(d teasily
f)i,ledl, antid  seemed  lively  eniouighi, could
3677. In presenting a mnare to the stal lioni, cauttion  is required to  prevent  ler
strikiinc ltimii with lher hieels should slhe refuse hlis attentions; and this consists simniply
in laoldit ig  lier by the head       wit      h a bridle
ac,-()ss tle  outs ide  of the stable door, while
the stallion  is   like)t witin, and only allowed to  snuff and pinc!i lher flank.   If
shie tak1;es hiis teatsinig kindly, presses closer
towards hlimii, twitches the  ulva., and eimits,
slee is ini pkro)er season; but if she  squeal
and( kick aint lkake water, wlhenever lie
touclies laer, slbe  is in an   unfit state fior
bin: bcnt wle tie   ckling of  the h  orse foi r  n
tin.e not un'feqiiently confirms  the season
of tlhe mare, tlhoug]i at first it may erince
a dollltful issuie.  If in season, sle should
b)e ta-ikeni to -in open piece (,f lev el  ground,
aind held by  the hjea(l as l(ng as  tire lhorse
c{,lers  }     ier, and  the titne  occupied by  a
stallion  in  (c(eIing is considerable.    A
hs e safe to use re(uires  tno enc,)urage,neiit froi,, hlis leadler to leap) on  tl-e nii,tre.
MaIklilng a,},are stannd to tl~e hlorse witlh  a
twitclh  on lher  niose; is aini un,iecessary act
of c,'uelty; for, if shle will not voluntaril  y
receive himii, slhe uill not  )eco,me' imxipregat(ed  ini ani involunta,'y  e,,}l)ra(.e; tbut
mani-ny v li,,ses nee(d  assistance, wl jiclh his
keeper lkno%-s lhow to aff;ird.   One cover
is quiite stufficieit at. time.
3678. In a bo,it 3 weeks it will  b~e seen
wltie'ler tlhe  miare lhas lieldt- to tihe l()rse;
tin(l sion,fi(  slhe again exhibit syinpionls of
seasin, sii:ple 1atid ssafe exl)ed(lients li,ay be
used to secuilre her hoi(ling, such as tihrow 
MARES FOALING.
that could be procured, and slhe produced
fotr very fine and valuable foals; hut after
attaining ten years of age she becanie barren, and no art that co ul] be devised coulI
bring, her again into foal.
ing a bucket of cold water upon her rump
thie moment the horse leaves hier; or draw in, liood fromi ler neck vein whlIile tle
hloorse is in tile act of covering; or, wlhat
is better  tltan  these,  unless  tlhe  season
is going  rapidly  off her,  retaining  the
lorse aill oiglt, angi  ofieri otg  hoer  a freslh
ca)aer       in the m(;rntint; or, to dpt a  dif ferent plan altogether, coverinig lier witlh
anotlher hiorse, or anotler kind  of lhorse
.one or otler of whiiclh expedliellts gene rally secures tlhe holdiri,, unless tlhe miai-re
is past hearing.    I  was told ly a man
wlho led stallions for many yews, that the
drawing of a long sigh,  f'ron  botlh lorse
and rnare, imttriie(-Iiately after an embrace,
ik an infallib)le sign of t,he mi-a,,re prov ing, in
foal.
3681. Now that we have considered( anld described all the phenomena attetidiug the partitrition of all the domnesticatedl animals of the farm,
a few retiarks oli the nature of labour, as constituting the premonitory symptoms of parturitiotn,
may enable  you to  tiiderstand mirre clearly  tihe
rattioillaJe on which that  importalit  proe.ss depeids.  This is a; subject  with  wh-ich shepherds
aad cattleiimen  oughit to be well acquaitnted; atid
so ought the fariner, iii order to perceive whlether
or inot his servalnt.s uniderstanid their duty.
3682. The foetis in the  uterus of the feminale
is produced  by the impregniation of an ovilim by
the seinmei of the male.   The period of gestatiot
differs in different kinds of animals.  The mare
goes 11I montiths wish  yotiug, the  cow 9 monthis,
the ewe 6 monithis, anid the sow 4  months. And
attention is required to be directed to  tlie,e
peri)ods, whichl) are natiural, and canniiot be altered
tosuit the convenienc( eotf mailin, that the young imia-y
not  be produced  in the cold and  unpropitious
season of winter, buit in the milder and  mnore
favourable season or' spring and early summer,
iila,in ieli as those seasonis plrese,it an abundance
of  grass, the  most  niatural  of  all food  for
animals.
3879. Tle  circumiistances that miilitate
against a mare's liolditig in foal is too high
aatd too low condition.   Wvhenever at nare
is ~een to eject the semnen as s:)on as thle
lhorse las left ler, sle will                         certhainly not
lhoIl.  Somiietlim-es the fautlt is as iiiuch hiis
a:3 tlhe m,re's,  wlhen lie is  sulbjected  to
tiichli tr.tvelling; and  wlien  lie is not a
good traveller, an(] lha,s und(letalken more
setrvice thain lie can  easily otvertake, lie is
often so nucil fti     gued wllen  lir(,glit to
a  mnare,  es.)ecially in tlhe evetit,g., as to
be qiite infit for effective service.   AVWhen
the liorse is olbservedl to be in  t state                 of
lastsitude, the best policy fisr tlhe firther is
to g,ive hin  Lid hlis leatler a nigitht's quartets, all to,.et hiun cover the inare itn tlhe
mio)rniit), "wliei lie is coniparatively fresll.
iatty i'ariiers griudge maintaiining a liorse
anda nia at all night, bitt                          tiic hl o)ette r incur tlhat sitiall expense tIhan run tlile risle
of a tiiare proviig barren.   NVWhen  at miare
lhas b,een  covered  thlree  separate l)eriods          3
witlhout.c.ess, it is needless to persevere
wvitli   - for tlhLt year, as  the  fioal will
c,IIIe        late next season, and a late ftall
is:,s,jectioiiable  to bring up  as a latet
ealfr.
3683. At the  termination of  the  period  required for  the  complete  develo)pmenit of  the
ovumii, a  tiew series of operations are enitered  oii
for the purpose of giving birth to the foetuis which
has been miiattiued; the:e are included under  the
teriti laboeur.   It iusually commenices at the coinpletioii  of the determinat e pe riod  of gestatioen; ii
some instances it occurs before- that time, wlhenl
it is cal~led preliiature labour. Iin the cotmpirehensive sense, thereftore, we would definie parturitioni to be, as observed by Dr Muirplhy —the (action
,of thle uter),s to expel its co,tet,ts wvhen tfle.otieta is
suficiet,tiy m)tature to sustain respiratory lije.
3684. There are many circuimstanies,dependzling, either upi)-i constitutional peculiarities, irregiliar forimnation, or upon accident, which  mna-y
d:amage  parturition or  render it dangerous;
hetice  laboiurs have been divided and subdivided
to  miieet tlhose difficult conditions.  So)Imie adopt
onily two  divisionis.   The  first  includes  those
labouts wviiich proceedl regularly to their terininatioti without iiiterriuption.''The secotid eni braces
those who do  not do.o.  The   onje is the rule,
the  otlhe   the exception; biut as the exceptional
includes several  arieti  es, this second class is
sulbdividedi into corresponding heads.   Deiimani's
division is sufficient tor our puirpose, under  the
sevwral hleads of natural, difficult, v,reteriaturtyal
ogol,ex.
3(;680. Tile becom)ing barren  is ai casualty  whlicl betalis 1tli.res at very  dlifferent
ages.   S(ome  will c()titinie to  )ear  until 
after  tweiity yeitrs (f atge,  %%hilst otler.si
eat.se at tile age of teni.   I lia(l a poweirful    df
tantl    hitd-lsote driulrtigilt Iii;ire,  ci wL    s       r
prlt to tile Itorse at five years old, withl tlhe
view of proilicitig a lari,e nutl)her (if valtable foals.   Shle was put to the best lIorses
155
3685. Denman defines labour to be na,tumi,
" if'tlie liead of the fcetus is present; if the labour 
PRACTICF SU.MMER.
be completed in 24 hours; and if artificial assistance be not required."  Labour is called pretern(ttural when some other part than the head
of the foetus presenits.  It is called difficult labour
when it exceeds 24 hours.  It is complex labour
when some accidenital cause of danger occurs,
whlcl may render initerferenice necessary.
wr,ineed, and draws  the womb  gradk     ally to the
pewivic.   By this e m eats al so th e  bottom of the
wonb.;s maintained il its p roper direction, a  nd
prevented front incli:ing too iduch to either side.
This gradual  contraction is  uniaccotnpa,nied by
pain, rand t.here fore is n         ot taken notice of; but
its effec     t           in alter ing th e s ize  o f  the abdomen,
and making  if, less prominent, has always  been
observed  l.nd  n-qtel as a premonitory sign  of
labour.  The fiwobre of  the omb  also serve a useful  purpose w hen the dilatetion  of  its  inoutll
commaentces: the  bottcmb  ef tly  wolmb thus supp ort ed, o the fibres onmt o   the ie terpal surface contract
more efficiently.  It is the mtscles at the bottoin
of the womb which  chiefly ef~co tile dilatation of
the mouth of    the wo mb  and tibe  edpw ilsion of
the fetus-ther  fibres o f the bod ly au d ot th e h eado
of the  wo mb re maining  comparatively passive;
and thei r  unit ed action isn  thethe direct ion of  the
m                outh of  the womb; but there  is s till a   necessity
for the means by which the result O,f that actioa
should be perfectly  conveyed   to it. This    is  rccom
plished by the  fluid       enclosed with, in    the amiiioIi, which acts with a distending power upon tl.#
mou th  of  the womb, exactly equal to    the monle
bined forces of the muscles. The muscular bal,dt
must also have  the effect of  expa nding the mouthl
of the womb, by drawing it upwards.  The
circular fibres of the  b ody and the head  of the
womb resist the effects of the bottom of the womb
to dis tend  them;        and  the f orce   of their resistaince  is also  communicated  to the contained
fluid. This force is therefore, as it were, reflected upon the mouth of the womb, so that the
whole womb might be said to act as one muscle
in dilating its mouth. In ordinary cases dilatation occupies a certain period of labouir, (often
a very lengthened one,) and the mouth of the
womb yields very gradually to the power employed.
3r,86. Applying these definiition,s to tile ordinary cases of labour among the animals of the
farm, I silo,il say tlilat natel at labour is rare
in short-hor:ied cows alld Leicester ewes, since
both classes of animals usually require artificial
assistance.   Most other breeds  of cattle  a        mid
sheep, tiot requirilng assistance, may  be said to
produce their young by means of.,atural labour.
The mare may be said to be always delivered by
means of natural labour.
3687. Sliort-lhorn cows and Leicester ewes are
seldom overtaken  with  p?reterncatural  labour,
since the head of the foettus most commonly presents; and so it is with the other breeds.
3688. Shl ort-lorn cows are frequently subjected
to dijfGult labouir, since more than 24 hours
elapse before they are delivered of the foetus, from
the time the premonitory symptoms of parturition present thiemnselves. Neither Leicester ewes
nor the females of the other breeds of stock are
subject to dixcult labour.
3690. It is of importance that you should have
a clear view of the whole series of phenomena
which constitute parturition; for unless you perfectly comprehend the changes which are going
forward in the womb, and have an accurate
knowledge of thie means adopted by nature to
accomplish her purpose, you can never understand the principles of midwifery; your practi ce
must be empirical; and, however indebted to
chance you may be for success, you will always
be exposed to the risk of committing some fatal
mistake.  II order to study parturition sufficiently, it is necessary to divide it into certain
stages.  The means by which the womnib is opened
is nlot the same as that by whichi(,  the feetus is
forced through the pelvis; and the manner in
which the placenta is separated and expelled is
different froiii either; hecee labour has been
divided into three stages by Denman.
3693. Here nature   interposes a means  by
which the  danger attending the  action of  thi   s
pow er  mafy  be me t  and  modified. If the womb
exerted its full  power upon its uaidilated mouth,
and if the unyielding head of the foetus were
driven forcibly against it, the almost certain consequence would be, that the irritation would excite increased resistance, and ultimately terminate in inflammation of the mouth of tile womb.
To obviate such an effect, nature:re.poses afluidl
mediums between  the power and the resistance.
The liquor  aeniil, contained within the  mneinbratnes, occupies  the cavity  of the womnb, and
when its parietes contract upon it, the force
exerted (as explained above) by this means,'is
accurately conveyed to the mouth of the womb.
When the latter dilates in the slightest degree,
the fluid insinuates itself within the smallest
opening, a,nid expands it by a direct lateral pressure against its edges.   The power  of the womb
is thus made to act in the  most favourable umanner for distending its miouthi.
3691. Thefirst stage is dated from the opening
of the mouth of the womib to its complete dilatation.'I'he second stage commences when  the
mouth of the womb is perfectly dilated, and terminiates ill the expulsioni of the foetus. The third
stake is occupied with the expulsion of the placeialta.
3694. The importance of the action of the
liquor anilii depends on the well-kinowili hydrostatic law, that the force conveyed by a fluid does
not act ill one direction otily, but is distributed
to every part of the surface to which the fluid
156
3689. Every breed of stock is at times subject to complex labour, since accidental cir(-,umstances occur every year to render interference
necessary in cases of parturition.
3692. For the purpo,e of opening the mouth
of the womb to its complete dilatatiot-i, the external Inuscular la'yer of the womb slowly contracts
for some tilue before labour has actually com 
MA',E$S FOALING.
is applied, and it may be observed in thi charact         er                  of the pains during this stage of th e   aab b;ur.
Y         ou                   will find that, however severely tt ey may
commence,  they last but a                   short  time, an d the
e    f    f    e     c    t on the mouth of the wom b     is comnpara atively                          slight.  If these short,  thoug h  severe
p a inss,    be contrasted with the long -continuued and
p o w e rful                       pains which follow them,  aft er the
l    i    q    u     o    r amnjii, or water, is dischar,ged, an d  t he
m         o    u     t    h of the womb is dilated, the  differerc e  i t he
e    f    fect                  will be sufficiently obvious.
to overcome unusual opposition occasioned by
rigidity.   The contraction takes place  conitinuously tbr a certain time; but when the  period
which is usual to effect dilatation is exceeded, or
whel tile  mouth of the  womb be comes irritated,
the  paicas grow feeble, and tthe  wo mb of ten suspetds its action altogether.  By this     meal,s al
interval of rest is gained, when the irritation may
subside, and the patient recovers from fatigue,
which otherwise might end in exhaustion. Whela
the action of the womb is renewed, after a suspetisioli of this kind, the dilatation is often
rapidly completed.  Much  confusion has arisen
as to the duration of labour, in conlsequenee of
neglecting this fact. The commencement, however, is generally dated  from  the saniguiineous
discharge, which marks  the first opening of the
miothtli of the womb; and all suspensions after
this, occasioned by whatever causes, should be
regarded as irregularities in the actions of the
womb, and not as indicative of the  commenicement of the continuous labour, which may be of
very short duration previous to parturition.
3695. In regard to the order observed by the
womb in the contractions which take place, and
which may easily be ascertained experimentally.
Thus: when the hand is passed into the woaiib
after delivery, to remove  the  placeita, when
necessary, we find that it may remain for some
time in the cavity, without exciting its contraction, but the moment the hatnd is being withdrawn, the bottom of the womb  instantly contracts, and as the hand passes aloiig the vagina, the contractions are continued from above
downwards;  so also, iii other ilistances, wheti
the mouth of the womb  is only irritated by
the  finger  of the hand  iitroduced  into                       the
vagina, and all attempt is made to dilate it, the
bottom  of the womb  conltracts, lnot the mouth.
You have thus a very favourable illustration of
the reflex nervous function.  Hence, we  iiifer
that the order of interior contractions is fronm the
farther end of the wonlb downwards, and that
the action comninelces there.
3699. " It  affords," concludes  Dr  Murp hv,
"all additional illustration of the principle which
nature seems to observe in the dilatation of the
mouth of the womb-to do nothing by rioleence.
lin all ordinary cases the liquor amnii, the water,
moderates the action of the womb; but if there
be an unusual resistance offered to it, and thle
waters are discharged, tlie increased action does
not continue: it is suspended, and again renewed;
so that the object is obviously to accomplish by
time what nature avoids effecting by force."'
3696. The dilltable condition of the mouth       i
may be ascertained, if the fingers be passed
withiii tlie mouth of the worib and separated.
The edges yield readily to a moderate pressure;
there is a very slight increase of temperature;
and there is no tenderness or pail produced when
the mouth of the womtb is touched.
3701. The growth of foals while sucking for
three mo,ths, increases from 112 lb. the  meanl,
ill the various ratios of 172 lb. to 241 lb., that
is, from 1'9 lb. a-day to 2'7 lb. a-day, the meai
beiijg 2'2 lb. a-day.
3697. But care shouild be taken that riqidity be
not induced by too much  iied(ldliug, iaking too
frequenit examinations, and attelmpti,g to dilate
the Illouthli of the womb artificially.  Sonme shepherds are too fond of showillg their skill by too
freqiuent displays of examiniiation into the,tate
of the month ot the womb.  The danger is that
the month (,tf the wotob becomies iniflatned and
rigid, a,d    the os titicte grows hot anid tender,
is swolle, ali,l also becoities rigid.  Rigidity of
the imolthl of the wonmb may be i,attiral, as in the
cane of the first p)regiiancy of the gimnliner alid
the quey, whicl, however, gives way in repeated
parttlilitionis in future years.  But somietinies the
Etrlucture of the mouth  of the woimb is tough,
which only gives way reluctantly; andl it may
even be cartilaginiotis, the edge )perftectly niiyieldilig from  thickenedl contraction; and eveii when
thin the resistaince miay be the same, and is to
the touch like a hole made ill parchmelit.  Such        vc
cases  requires  great  attention  a,d  constant
watching on the part of the attendants.
3704. It appe ars that  a yoiung horse  increases
12 per cent in live-weight oi the weight of the
food lie eats.+
3698. The womb acts differently when it has
* Murphy On N~atural and Difficilt Parturition, p. 42-59.
t Boussinigault's lural lEconoi,y-Law's translation, p. 629.
157
3i'00. From experiments made bv M. Bous,-4ngault, it a.ppears that mares weighing from 960
lb. to 1100 lb. prodiiee foals weigliitig at birth
from I I 0 lb. to II 3 lb., about a iiiiitli part of'
their own weight.
3702. Foals increase less after being wearied
tliati on milk. Tlie. increase on milk of 2-2 lb.
a-d.-i,y is de(-,reased to I'l lb. a-day, exactly onelialf.
3703. The increase of a foal to the end of the
first year is 1-3 lb. a-day, the increase to the
end of the i-Iiird year is something under I lt.
a-day. After three years complete, the per;-,d
at which the lior,,,e lids very nearly attaiiied his
growth and development, any increase be(,oniei
less and less perceptible. These conclusions ]II
regard to the growth of the youi-ig horse differ
'Very little from those in coiiiiexioii with cattle. 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
ON THE PASTURING OF SIHEEP IN SUMMER.
grass for a fortnight or so, till thl re ste4t
inew grass has grown again; and in suchl  a
case they slhould receive poppy-cake, whichI
assists ewes in secreting, imiilk.
3705. Wlihen treatin,, of tle lambling of
ewes, we left thlem with tlheir lmbl)s on
new  grass,  to bring, a flush of Imilk on
tilein. (25.55.)  Since tlhen they have contininietl to receive  the best grass on thl     e
farm  the  weatlier allowed,  until  now,
thle beginining of the summer quarter, in
lMay,  according to our  division of the
ag,ricultural year.  The ewes and  lambs
continue togethler after the ewes lhave been
wasliel an(] shorn of their wool, until tlhe
weaiiing of thle lanmbs at thle end of June,
or begiinning of July, according as tile
lambs becomie strong, and thle ewes lean
from  being sucked;  but early  weaned
lambs are found to stand the winter best.
3709. The  pastures  ouglht not  to be
allowe(l to be overrun with weeds.  Ti.ere
are some weeds whlicl sheep will not  ale,w
to grow up, being fond of them as ft',,o.
These  are thle parsley,  Aie)um yisaveeolstn*;
thle - rag- weed,  8eiecio  Jacoba-il —anri,so.
flnd are sheep of  this  plant, that, wle areve
it is seen in    pastures, it nlay be conclidedl
that  no shee) lia-ve gr azed there annlile ttie
plants were   young tle plantain or rilwo ts, Plauntago,  and several otlher s. Ev ery
l)]ant, not  a pasture plant, slould  ie cuit
down aa3 wee(s, such as  a ll tile    tljistles,  aid(
docks, Cairduus and Rumex, whiclh -Are
most unsightly  weeds in sheep pa-.sture.
Tie  perennial  species    of  the oterks afe
easily increased by seeds, as w ell at s (i wisions of tlhe roots, and tlhe annutal ()nes
very easily by the seed, of wh,Iiichi tite
plants  produce  a large  number.   Tihie
annoyance attending the miiaturation of tlie
thistle trile, and of all other seeds simtiilarly constructed, as the rag-weed, daynde -
lion, chickweed, is the making otller fieldls
foul witlh weeds as well as those in whi(cih
tlhev imnmediately grow,  by the tratisportation of tlheir seeds by  the *wind.
3706. Ewes                have more inmilk for their
lanib)s on                          sown pastures of rye-grass and
clover than on old pasture, which is at
least a fortnighit later in spring,ing than
thie sown  grasses.   This is a  serious
objection against old grass for ewes at so
early a period of the year as the mid(dle of
Marcl; and as ewes otight to be well kept
for at least a month before they latnb, it
is essential to t],eir thriving, as well as
that of tl)e lambs, that they be kept not
only as well but better after they have
latmibed.
3710. No impleniment is better suite(l for
cutting weeds in pasture thlan thle coniimlla
lhand-hoe, fig. 266.  In wee(ling pa.stulles,
two  fieli-workers should be  all('tted to
every ridge,  and  whlen tlhey  have gone
from one end of the rid,ge to tlhe otliet,
they take  a new ridge every  timie tlhey
arrive at the hieadridge.
3~08. The new grass, to be pastured by
ewes anid lamnbs, should be selected witlh
judgment.  That intended for lhay should
first be stocked, since new grass, moilerately eaten down in spring, stools out, and
affi)rds a thicker cuttingr for lhay tihan if it
had( n,t been so pastured.   For thle same
reason, tile new grass intended to be cut
for horses' forage shollil also be earlier
pastured than that to l)e pastured all the
sea.son.  This arrangement gives both tlhe
forage and hlay grass tiiiie to attain thl)eir
gr,)wthli wlhen they are wanted, andl it also
gives the pasture time to gainl as mniuch
strengthl as to support the ewes and laribs
well Iduring,, the season of pasturag(e.  None
of the new grass, however, sllould be eaten
too I)are; and rathler than cotmmit so great
a iiiistake, even in a late season, the ewes
should graze lightly on the best of the older
1,58
. 3707. Notliiiig is (ione -with the lai-nbs
after their castration, (2571,) until they
are weaned froin their niotlier.
371 1. Should the?retlier-hogg-9 I)e retaine(i on the fai-ni until they are sliorn
of the fleece, they should be I-)iit on tlio
best pasture to iijiliold the condition tire
have acquired on the turnips, and to iiiaiiitain the strength of tlje staple of tl-ie wool
until the fleece is taken off.
3712. Slioiii(i diii?,nonts leave I)een fed
oii the ti,irnips, and it is (losired to
the wo(-)l before disposing of tlietii, ti.,ey
sliotil(I 1.)e treated in the saiiie ii,ianrier -is
tlio wet.lier-lio(, s.
- 31,-13. For the sake of the wool, the 
PASTURING SHEEP.
3717. Lanibs are subject to serious, and
even fa.tal. injury on  faril.s situate on the
rocky cliffs (of the ocean, from  tile atta(-ks
of the Ea%en, Cortus corox. T'Ihis firnidable bird apl)pro)acleslanibswlIen asleep,
andu  left alone by tlheir ldams, grazirng at a
dist.ance, and pecks a l!ole in thle al)d;linein,
and draws out the entrails.   Slo-uldl tile
lamibs be awake oni its aplproacli, it p)icks
out tlheir eyes.   Even lh,,s, wlienl fallen
onl  thleir  baeck,  haLve  beetl  knoIwn  to
ihave  had  their  eyes picked,  anll  thleir
entrai!s pulled out.  Tlie ra-en frequently
builds its nest on  cliffs overlatlningt thle
esea, and, wlien feeding its lIr,(od, l)ec(ines
very  bold,  and will seize  miany  anitiials
gowhicl  it will not mieddle witi; at otliecr
tilles.  Many  a hlare falls a victimni to it.
Thliere is no  way  of destroying thiis bird
but by slho,ting after long watctings. or
by setting baited steel-traps near their
ha-unts.'
ewe- hog,qs should liave  go od pas ture until
they are shorn of the fleece; and after that
they miiay be put on roughl or inferior )astuire, as it is not desiial)le to make tlhem
too fat before being put to the tup ini
auttinlll.
3716. Leicester  iho(,gg,s,  before  being
clipped, are so loaded with wool, that, when
annoyed by thle ked, thley often roll.upon
their backs witlh the feet in the air, and,
when this  happens in the hlollow of a ftirrow, they cannot get up a,gain.   They are
thlen said to lie awkward or awu(tld.  Shou.ld t
they lie for sonie timie with  tileir l,ea(l
down  the hill, with the sto(tac(i fill of
foodl, they may soon {lie (,f apoplexy.  It is
disgraceful to a shlepherd to allow even one
sheep to die on lying, awkwardtl.   He cannot prevent thlemi falling aNwkw-ard(, but as
l(ng as ro)ughl sheep are grazing, lie sliould
visit them  frequently.   Sheep  are  not
easily discovered lyitig awkw,ar(l in a furrow, and thlerefore, when thle fiel(l is exatined(, the ridges should Ibe crossed, and
thle ftlrro)wvs viewed in letl(rtli.  An accustoimed eye, liowever, can detect t, he liindhoofs elevated in tile air, sniall as tl,ey
are,  at a  considerable  distance.   Many,
logs are (quTick in observing, shleep in tllis
state, and some I lhave   seen rtin and  take
hold (of thle wool near tile ground, and pull
thle sheep so far over on its sidle as to enable
it to regain its feet.  Shlee) lain awkward
for a sliort tinie will run away on getting
up, buit liavin  lai   a good while,  v()ided
mniucli dung, an(  thiitiipled the gro.und wNitlhi
the head and rump in strugLgling to get up,
)ecotiie fatigued, and on regaining their
feet, appear stupifiedl, ani( wall; away as if
lig,llt-theade(l.   Sliepliertls cardnot be too
active on visiting the sheep in the pastures
at this season.
3719. Carse farms  afford  no  pastuiraige: the
grass, being sown only tor o,e year, i. best suited
for the soiling of stock, and tie making of hay.
3720. Nor is it profitable to pasture the grass
in tlie nieighiboi-rhood ot towns, i wai,h a. steady
demand(I exi.sts for gra.ss  tv be cut for forage from
cowfed,lers, carters, anid cabmeni.
3721. Dairy farms depend much  on the  richness and age  of  their  tpastures.   The greater
variety of plants a pasture  possesses the better is
it fur tire purpo,es  of the dairy, and tl.e greatest
number ot' planlts olu tle sallie space of ground is
found on  dry, deep hazel loain, which coniistitutes
the  best soil for yielding dairy  iroduiee of the
fitnest descripti,,n.  It is probably to  tile  great
vari oety o    f th e  grasses, and  aldo to   the  lry, deep
sandy loans, so often  met with  in the  liauighs
along the baijks of the  riners in the gleins of the
Highlantds of Sc(,tlaid, that is to be'ascribe d the
superior richness of the butter made in those localities.   The hati-ehs are very  limited in extent,
and are thereftore  capable  of sLupportinig but a
small  number  of even the small  cows of  the
Iliglilandti breed,whichi may account for the scanty
supply of that kind of butter in the markets.
3722. As to   pa,storal farms, there are    various
circumtstances wbich  regulate  the pasturage  of
themn.  Some  pabturage ii suited to the breeding,
159
3714. Taps should also leave good 1)asttire iiiitil they are shorn of the fleece; ati(i
after tii,,it they should have or(lina,i-v pastili-e, either by themselves or with tlte
cows, but apart front the eN-es aD(I lambs
and giiiiiiier;s.
3715. A general reniark as re,,ards the
pa turing of t3heep is, tliat, as sbeel) crop
grass closer aii(I niore constantly than
cattle, they -ire not so profitable to graze,
since they do not permit the grass to grow
so full and freely.
371s. TlieCarrion-crow,(,oi-vuscorone,
will I?ereli itself on the rump of a sheep
iiifested witl) ni-,i.ggt)t-,R, and in devoiji-iijg
them %N, ill - pick the flesli off the slieel) to
the t-)one. I leave s,-tved iitany a y'()tiiig
leveret from beiiig destroyed by tiie carrion-crow. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
wlilst others are adapted to the britigitig up of
Isheep.  Ol) what is called baie or ]i,rd lIlld, ewes
ale  Iprefe,red, and, to preserve roomt  fotr thenm,
thlieir 1;tib.. are sold off every year.  Somne retain
a ftew ewe-laimb  to miii itaiii the character of th       e
ewe stock, whilst others purchitse!;'eit ewestlimt is, ewes il  lamb-ili lien of the d(raft ewes
they  sell.    lai-d  land  bears  scanlty  pastutre,
whicih, although  sufficient aud wholesomie  for
breeding ewes, is unfit to support yoiliug sheep in
conditioni, or to rear theln to a proper size.
3726. The  brats or jac kets s hould be removed
from the sheep at the end of April, or beginning
of May, according to the state of the weather,
(1038.) Experience every year corroborates the
use expressed of the brat in (1040,) not only in
main taininigthe condition ofthe sheep by its warm
coverinig, but also in protecting the wool from
being washed by the weather, and in retaining
the yolk, which is so essential to its preservation.
3723. Soft land is best suited to lambs. The
wether-lamnbs purchased are reared until they
become wethers, when they are sold in autumn
to farmers who raise turnips to feed the sheep
they do not breed themselves, or to English
graziers, who fatten them upon grass.  The ewelambs also purchased are reared until they are
tupped, and then sold as qreat ewes to breeders,
who purchase them to tile extent of the old ewes
they draft in autumn.   Ewe-lamnbs are also purchased to convert into ewes, and after taking a
few crops of lambs from them, are sold while yet
young to be fed off on turnips ill winter.  Soft
lan.d will also put old sheep into good condition,
but it is unsuited to ewes, because they become
too high conditioned for a permanent stock, and
are besides liable to be seized with the rot, on
such pasture, in wet seasons.
3727. Sheep on hill-pasture delight in summer
to spread themselves over, and go to the highest
tpoinit of their range. Ewes are restricted in
their range by the lambs, which, when young,
show little inclination to wander, and would
rather lie down and sleep after being satisfied
with milk. Hoggs keep much together, and do
not wander far from their morning lair, whereever that may have been. Wethers go to the
height of their pasturage at an early period of
the day, and remain till dusk. Thus, when sheep
of different ages arebrought up together, how usefully they distribute themselves over their entire
pasture; and where only one class of sheep are
reared, they extend their range as their age increases, or food becomes scarce.
3728. On contiguous estates, where no marchwall defines the common boundary, the flock of
one property may occasionally trespass on the
pasture of another.  Should this happen in the
early part of the day, the shepherds should not
dog off the strange sheep, as that will make
them,  restless for days, but to wait till nightfall,
and then point them gently over the march to
their own ground, where they will take to their
ownii lair.   Sheep usually select a spot for restigpg at night, and it will mostly  be the safest
one  for t     e eall    i  them,  especially if they  are  aged sheep,
and well acquainted with the ground. In fine
weather they should not be disturbed in selecting their lairs; but in case of threatening storm,
they slhouild be directed to the sheltered side of
the pasture, or even to the stells. With inclosed
fields, sheep cannot go wrong in summer in selectiing their lairs for the night.
3724. It is dangerous to change the ewe stock
ol some lands, because new ewes become diseased on new ground; and the fear of disease is
so strongly felt that many proprietors will not
allow the breeding ewes to be changed  upon
them, the incomig te nant being t  bo un       d         to take
the standing breeding stock at a valuation.
3X25. These various modes of regulating the
pasturing of hill-sheep have probably originated
from local circumstances, which cannot now perhliaps be traced; but the rot has made such fearful havoc upon  lhill-sheep, and especially upon
ewes, that every means have been devised to
avert its occurrence, and a store-master is justified in trying them  all to prevent so great  a
calamity.   Other circumstances ulay have had
the effect of iiitrodnciiig practices which otherwise appear questionable.  For example,-Land
may support ewes ill keeping condition, which
couldl not fatten wetliers; and land may support
lambs well, though not wethers.   Yotung sheep
may pine on land that supports wethers, because
its elevation and steepness nmay fatigue them to
travel over it, and its herbage may  be too hard
for them.  Circumstances such as these affect
the practice of different grazings, as well as the
dread of the rot.  If this view be correct, more
genieral draininig on hill-farius  wouldl render both
pastures and practice uniformi  in similar localities.  At all evelits, drainillg would give farmers
liberty to follow their own plans, whereas, at
presenlt, they are under the control, not only of
the seasons, but of the state of the soil.  Let
wet pasturage be dried, and rot will be subdued,
whilst the mind, emancipated from dread, would
* Jameson's Mlineralogy of ta,e Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 120-57.
160
then adopt a general system of, pasturing hillflocks in accordance with sound principles.
. 3729. The uppermost parts of our mountain
pastures, as well as many portions of lower
elevation, consist of a soil very different in its
nature from what is found in the valleys. This
is pe(it-earth-not the soft peat of bogs, but the
bard peat-earth which covers the mountains.
The natural produce of this peat-ea,rtli is lieatli,
consisting usually of.3 kinds, the Calliiria rutqa-ris,
common Iiiig, the Erica teti-alix, cross-leaved
Ijeatli'a iid the Erica cenerea, fine-leaved lieatli.
Peat-,,artli is only found in the colder portions
of tl. e temperate zone, and it was no doubt formed
from the partial decomposition of several cryptogamic pla-iits., Professor Jameson of Edinburgh
was the first to propound the theory of the formatioii of peat-eartli.* The pasturage on peatearth would be greatly improved by draining. 
PASTURING SHEEP.
bolted to it.  A  field-gate may be mounted in
this fashion, but it is better   to have a frame m ade
for the purpose, to be ready to be wattled with
fresh tough branches when required,for old brittle
ones will not do.  The bush harrow is worked by
a horse attached by a swinig-tree to the shackle d,
by the driver walking behind the harrow with
double reins in his hand; and on the branches
rubbing against the powdered limestone, lime, or
compost, or whatever may be the composition of
the top-dressing,it is harrowed into the pasturage,
some to the very roots of the plants.
.1730. It has long been observed that the application of lime on peat-earth producesabundance
of white clover, Trifoliumi repens.''he seeds
must have lain in the soil ill a dormant state,
and their existence in elevated situations would
imply that the pastures of our hills had been at
one time better than they now are.  Probably the
woods which, it is known, once covered  the
greater part of our mountains, had sheltered the
valleys near them as much as to allow the growth
of the clover; and their subsequent destruction
may have exposed the ground to the cold, to the
destruction of the pasture, and to the formation
of peat-earth.
3733. Limestone, sand, or gravel, occurs in
Ireland in abundance.  "They are, indeed, extensively diffused over the surface of that island,"
observes Professor Johnston, "as we might expect ill a country abounding so much in rocks of
mountain limestone.  Inii the neighbourhood of
peat-bogs, these  sands and gravels are a real
blessing.  They are a ready,  most useful, and
largely employed  means of improvement, producing upon arable land the ordinary effects of
liming,  and when  spread  upon  boggy soils,
enabling it, without other assistance, to grow
sweet herbage, and to afford a nourishing: pasture.
The proportion of carbonate of lime which these
sands and gravels contain, varies from 26 to 40
per cent."+
3731. The top-dress ing  of mo       untain   pastu re
with  line  has      been  attended  with suc cess
wherever it has been do ne.   Pounded limes                      tone
would answer  th e  p urpose  as         well as slake             d or
quitck lime, and it    wou ld be  m   o re enduring in
its atctioIi.  Mills for poilInding it were elected
-about the beginning of the century on the estate
of Str uan, in Rannoch, Perthshire.  After being
potunided,- the limestone wa-as carried by a run of
water to 3 different ponds, one above the other.
Tite tipper pond contained the grossest particles,
altd the lousiest the filuest part of the limestone,
which there resembled clay or marl from its
smoothness. Oa. being put oIL the land at Struan,
its effects were visible and much approved of.*
There is no use of putting the pounded limestone in water, and it should be applied in the
state of powder upon the surface, and harrowed
into the grass or pasture with a buslh-harrowy.
3734. The  top-dress-ng, whether of pounded
limestone, ordinary lime, limestone  sand and
gravel, or compost, is best spread from the carts
with the frying-pan shovel, fig. 233, the raised
back of which preserves the hand from being injured by whatever material is contained withia
the shovel.
3732. A bush-harrow is easily constructed. It
consists of a frame of wood having two longitudinial side-bars, a a, fig.. 304, two cross-bars, and
Fig. 304.
3735. The green pasture obtained  by topdressing mountain pasture, would  maintain an
increase of moiuntain stock beyond calculation.
As the pasturage in the green grounds are reserved
as hospitals for complaining sheep, for which the
best ft,od should be provided, it creates a want
of sufficient extent of grass ground for young
sheep, and prevents them getting full turnips in
winter, in case they should fall off in sunmmer on
the scanty grass; aud it is better for the health
of sheep to be kept lean, than to be reduced to
lealiess fromn higher condition, when means are
not in the power of the store-farmer to maintain
hlis flock in the hitgh condition he would desire.
= - 
3736. As heath constitutes a principal food of
the louniitain slheep, isii'tr-burtiisu   improves the
lieatli for food.   Store-larniers have long beeil in
thle habit of buri-iiiig tle heath on their faru's
every year, with thle viewv of alliwing it to grow
agaili, that its yuniig shloots may  support tie
sbheel iii those  parts  of the  grazings whiere is
little or 1no  grass.  The  injudicious  annrier  iix
w hich the biurning was long  conducted, and the
late period of the seasonii at which it was done, destroyed  not only the heath plant itself by the
roots -,  butt also the eggs of the grouse.  Such  destructioui of the game determined the owners d
a third of a rounde ded form, b. which ale all threee
inortised into the side bars by their ends, the
whole forming a frame 7 feet ill length anl d 3 feet
in breadth.  Stems of thorn, or branches of trees
c, seven or eight feet long, -ire wattled through
tihe three cross-bars so as to cauise the twigs c, to
rest hard upon the ground. A  shackle, d, is
tastenied to the froiit-bar.  The 1ront-bar being
thinner than the side-bars a, is strengthened by
a spar under the wattles, to secure them, and is
* Robertsoii's Ayricultural Reportfor Pert4shire, p. 62 and 309.
t Jolhnston On the Use of Lime it Aysieulture, p. 24.
161
(4
THE BIUSH-IIARROW.
L
YOL. 11. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
grazings to prohibit muir-burning altogether, and
the consequences were that the heath grew so
tall, that its top was beyond the reach of the
young grouse from the ground, and ihe old plants
put out so few shoots as to afford insufficient
support both for sheep and grouse   Bturning
causes an abundant growth of young shoots; it
is, therefore, the interest of both landlord and
tenant that the heath should be so burned as to
produce the greatest growth of young shoots.
The question of burning beiiing thus established on
principle, the difficulty at first was to discover a
mode which would produce the best results, but
at length a good plan was discoveieod, alil it is
this:-Let that part of a hill-farIN which bears
heath be divided into 8 equal parts, if the whole
farm forms one hirsel; aid if it contains more
hirsels, let each hirsel be divided into 8 equal
parts, and in 8 parts, because beyo id that niumber
of years the heath plant grIows so rigid as not to
afford many new shoots, and it has then reached
one foot in height, tall enough lu or grouse.  The
first portion of all the hirsels is burned in the
same year, and the second portion in the second
year, and so one portionii every year, until the
eight years have gone round.  Every year the
plants which were first burned will be putting
forth fewer shoots as the expiry of the eight years
approaches; by which time the first portion is
burned again, as the commencement of a new
series of years.
wholly be en    burn t  by  the  evening, let it be
watched all night, and whenever the fire reaches
its prescribed limit, let it be put out by going to
windward and beating the flames, and pushing a
board nailed across the end of a long and limber pole against the burning plants. Wihere the
fire has not reached the bounds of the portion,
let the flame buril until it reaches  the limit.
There is none more easy plan than this, and if
followed on every heath farm every year, there
would every year be grown a certain quantity of
young heath in an excellent state, to support
both sheep and grouse in the best condition the
plant is capable of sustaining them.*  Before
beginning the burning, it should be considered
from what direction the wind prevails, and the
burning conducted against the wind. When the
wind is from the E. or W., the burning should
be begun on the side of the lot, but when from
tile N. or S., it should be begun at the end.
3740. Law of Muirburn.  "Persons  making
muirburn, or setting fir e  to any,.heath o r muir in
Scotland, f rom the  11 th April to lst N  ovember,
will be filed 40s. for the  first offence,  ~5 for the
second, antd ~10 for every other, or  suffer inprisoni3eit for six weeks  for  the first, 2 smotlitg h  f or
the second, and  3 months f or every subsequent
offence, (I 3th Geo  I Il., 54, 4.) The tenant or
p ossessor of the  ground will be  dee med guilt y of
te fee  u es   e    pr   t  he offene, unless he prove that the fire wascommunicated from other grounds, or raised by
some one  not belonging to his family, (ib. 5.)
Proprietors of high or wet muir may butiri the
heather thereon, between the l lth and 25th
April, or, if the ground be let, he may give permission to do so in writing, (ib. 6.)  Which  permission, however, must be recorded in the sheriff's
books, (ib. 7.) Prosecutions for the above offence
prescribe in 6 months, (ib. 14.)t
3737. Ib  winter   the    sno w covers    the- young es  t
shoot otcs a nd protectsi them under it, while the older
plants being above the snow, both grouse and
sheep feed upon them; and in spring, on the
melting of the snow, the young shoots, tender
and nourishing, are ready for use. It is remiarkable that the young plants of heath bear the frost
better than the old, as was witnessed in the severe
frost of 1837, which is a natural indication that
the heath plant has only a period of utility.
3741. Weeds.-The first writer of practice on
the " Weeds of Agriculture," was Mr Benjamin
ltoldich  who classified weeds into 5 very natural divisions, in as far as the experience of a farrnier would suggest, viz.:-1. Weeds which inifest
samples of corai, such as the corn-cockle, Agrostentnma githago.  2. Fallow weeds, such as couchgrass,  Triticum repens.  3. Weeds  which  are
principally  objectionable as they encumber  the
soil; or whose roots are aniiual, and whose seeds
pass the corn-sieve, such as the charlock, Sinai)is
arrensis.  4. Weeds  which  never rise into the
crop, nior comie into the sickle, such  as  spurry,
aSpergula arveensis.  5. Weeds  of pastures, such
as yellow  goat's-beard, Trogapogon pratensis.
Other authors divide weeds into fibrous and ftisiform rooted, annual and perennial; but it is of
little moment to the farmer whether the weed
that aniioys at the present moment has a fibrous
or long root, or is an annual,  biennial, or perelinial, as ordinary ploughinig will eradicate almost
every weed that intfests cultivated fields. These
are botanical distinctions, which may  be studied
as such, buet give little iniisight into  the weeds
which infest a particular soil or crop.
3739. The proper way is to begin the fire along
the entire lee-side of the portion, when the flame
will not mount high, but, as it were, eat its way
amor, thle heath against the wind, and if any
part e.aapes the  fire,    it      is         easy to take a burning
brand and set it on fire. Let the burning be
watched all day, and if the portion has not
* Prize Essays of the Hlighland and Agricultural S(ciety, vol. xiv. p. 640-8.
i The Farmer's Lawyer, pp. 193-4.
t Holdich's Weeds of Agriculture.  Edited by G. Sinclair, 1825.
162
3738. The usual mode of burning is to set fire
to the heath on the windy side, when the blaze
i3oon towers to a great height, and is seen at a
great distance, and the plants crackle ai-nidst the
scorching beat; but the beat which produces the
crackling destroys the plants by the roots, and, the
aflame, fanned by the gale, runs along the ground,
catching every bush ofhea,th tliatpreseiits itselfthe
most readily, until a intich larger space ofgrotind
.is set on fire than is desired, and the coiifla-gra,tion becomes so extensive that the shepherd and
,all his family cannot extinguish it. Ttiey don't
mind it, and retire, aiid the flaine goes wlierever
the wind.lists, till it has no more heath to consume, or until the wind lulls, or the rain fa Ils. 
PASTURING SHEEP.
is distended, they appear only as opaque spots
upon it; but a lenis of no grbat power will give
a distinct view of their heads, or rather necks,
with the tentacula or batbs projecting from  the
apparenit openlilng or mouth which forms the extremiity of them.  These hydatids vary  int size
from that of a pigeoni's to a hen's egg.  The wall
of the cyst appears to be composed of 2 or 3 layers,  the cenitre oide   o f  which se ems to possess  a
.mus cular  character..  On e xatmining the"' with
lenses of a high magnifying power, their coats
resemtble  pape r  ma de  upon  a wire  frame, the ir
miscular films so plainl.) and  regularly interlace
each other."' The  complaint        ma y be  cured,
t hough it is seldoin a ttem i pted, the sturdied hogg
being killed  whenever it is se en to be affected.
I was  once tempted  to try the  experi  ment of a
cure on a very fine Le i cester gimuker, which wa  s
evidently with  twin lambs,  and would   lamb  in
the  course of a fortnight'. The  creature became
so  bewihiered  under the dis ease, that s he  was
obliged  t o be broiught into the lambitig paddock,
and ted by  hand os  cabba ges and ka;.il.  O  examinitig the  head,  I found  a  sof t spot  near
the site of where a horii would be.   I cut an incisiona into  the skull r ound the  marigin of  th e soft
spot,  leaving only a  small at tachment to a ct a s  a
hinge  to lthe piece cut out, and  on raising it,  I
distinctly saw  the hydatin, which     I extracted
entirely with a small cobbler's awl, the only instrudient the   shepherd or  I had  that would
answer  the  purpose.  Shutting th e  l id, covering
it with a plaster of tar on a piece of liinen, and
putting  a cap  osn  the head,  the  gimiier was
allowed to remain  in the paddock and fed, and ia
the  (,ourse of a tew days  I had the sati staction of
seeing her perfect  ly recover,  and  in due  time
bring  lorth twin lambs, which She  brought up
well, and  C:lltii-fed to breedsfor several'.yiears
after.  The  success attending this experiment,
was probably owing to the proximity- of the hydatid to the skull, wh)ich it had ioftenied, by absorbing a, portion of its substance; but when
hydatids dxist deeply in the brain, it is questionable that a cure ca.n'be effected. The Ettrick
Shepherd  recommends the insertion  of a wire
through the niose and brain into the liydatid, by
which it would be destroyed, and the wire may
be resorted to bef,)re any softening appears, and,
from the situationi of the lhydatid, there may be
no softness o,f the skull at all; and lie says that
" several years  passed betfre he failed iin this
operation in anly  one instance."+   But it is
evident  that no hydatid  can be  touched  by
the wire, but such as may happen to be situate
ini the  direc: line of its passage; and if a wire
thus used will always destroy the hydatid, it
tollows that the  liydatid must always occupy
a particular part of the brain. A trocar and
canula, like fig. 104, but smaller, are now used
for tapping  the hydatid.   The  sturdy i8  not
an infections.disease, and I agree with Mr
Parkitisoii, that it is not hereditary, for although
1 have seenl several sturdied boggs, I never
could trace any Coninexmnl of tile disea~se wig
their parensts. ~
3742. It may be well to give a detailed account
of the weeds which inifest pastures.  The biennial spear plume-thistle, Cnicus lanceolatus, is
prevaleiit,aii(d not utiifrequeiitly the welted thistle,
Carduus acanchoides, both in dry groumd.  In
nlarshy pastures, the inarsh plume-thistle, Cnicus
palust-ig, is the most prevalent plant of the kind.
The ragwort. yellow weed,  or weebo, Senecio
Ja,obcea, is-ofteii seeni in pastures, in deep dry
la,nam.   The tribe of docks is also numerous: the
br,,al-leaved Rumex obtusifolius, ail acetodella,
sheep sorrel, are found on dry pastlures, and the
comin,,ii sorrel, R. aceeosa, atid sharp dock.  R.
ac?.tus, in  moist biid dainp pastures. Iin imioist
pastures iai low situations, the soft rush, Juncus
etfusus, and comamoni rush, J. conylomeratus, are
Itio~t frequent. The rush is prospectively removed  by drainiage, and imnmediately  with the
scythie. The great white ox-eye, or no)wt-gowaii,
Cihrysan.themum leucanthemum, and the common
daisy, Belli. perenitis, disfigure the pastures on
low  grounids, while  the yellow  nowt-gowan,
Chrysinthemnn teyetum, acts the same part ila
ui,l,ind  pastures,  and  all indicate soil in  a
state of poverty.   The  common  bracken, or
ferni, PIteris aquilina, prevails in upland pastures, where the soil is deep and dry.  When
growilng tt,gether so thickly as to iiijure the grass,
it shotIld be removed as a weed, whiich  iiiay be
doiie with  the scythle,  or  by irrigation with
water.   When so thin as to permit  grass  to
grow under it, it is all advanitage as a shelter to
sheep, and  as pr,,tection to grass trom frost,
thereby cherishing it early in spring.  Circumstances alonie shotild guide you in the destructioui of the bracken ini upland pastures.'  What
constitutes  the  winidlestraw  of  rich  pasture
is  the dried  steit of the  crested  dogs'-tail,
Cynosurus cristatus, one  of its most  valuable
pasture grasses. 
3743. Thi e Sturdy.- iSheep     a         re subjec    t           to     be
affctetd with certain  complai.;ts         adr  ol          a  partiure, one
of wlhi aph               is the                           sturdy or tarnsick, which produces
so muciilh ligh~t-eadedness as to c;ause its victims
td titri rouildi adl y s       eemi stiIpified. When affect              ed
by  ii, the     s     heep sepa               rates ta ioi         the fldick, wanders
intto a cort,er of the field, eel s aversion to pu             t
its head down to the gro lind, but keeps its head
high and a little to one sitle. It sel-loie eats,
and thus h,)ses coniditioni, aili1 at leingbth, becoming
emiiaci.-tedl, falls itito a ditch or buirn, aid is killed
or dies, if neglected. lioggs are m)st affected
by this disease, wlhich seldom attacks large
numbers, on,e or two  now and then.   What  induces the growth of tfie hydatid, I do not kn,ow,
for the complaint may be  observed when  lhoggs
use little exertion in walking,, to obtain their food
on ttiriiipdatid, and also when they wanider over
a large range of pa-stvtye.  Ac(,curate dissection of
tle head has proved tiha~t the diseaSe is caused by
a living- animal -in the brain, the Maniy-headled
hydatii, Hydaltis t,olyceld)hlus cerebrali.  "Instead of a single head, there are a great kumber
spread over tihe surtace of the parasite, and opening into the same genieral cavity.  When the sac
^* Journal of A4.ricuilture for October 1843, p. 143.         t Youatt On Stt~ep, p. 379.
:+ kogg'g Slhepherd's Giuide, p. 50.            ~ Parkinson On Li  toe ock, vol. i. p. 412.
163
-S 
PRACTICE-SUMMER,
The danger is greatest wllhen the papalt are of a
dark purple hlie, or, runninig into each other, become conifluenit.
3744. Blilding.-TThis affection is sometimes
produced in the eyes of sheep by the wind blowintig into them the pollen of the grasses. The eyes
become almost clogged tip with pollen-dust, and
such a degree of inflammation is sometimes set
up as to cause the effulsion of pus from them.
In many cases the eyelids become glued together
with the pus.  No ser           i       ous injury is produced by
this accidental annoyance, though it is disagreeabie to tlhe sheep for the time it lasts. Wiping
the eyes with a wet sponge affords great relief,
which should be cheerfully bestowed by  the
shepherd once a-day.  The annoyance can only
last till the largest portion of the pollen is blown
off at the termination of the period of the floweriuig of the plants, and it may not be of annual
occurrence, as there mav be no wind, but rain,
during their efflorescence.
3747. "The disease is decidedly both infectious
and contagious, so much so, that it might be possible to inoculate 1000 sheep from one hlaving the
disease well developed.  It is not till the vesicles
form that the disease becomes contagious, but it
is probably infectious previous  to this.  It is
uncertain when infection actually  begins, but
we are disposed to consider that there is danger
as soon as any eruption takes place on the body,
though unquestionably the ddnger is greatly increased afterwards."
3748. As regards the cure of this disease,
c   "we decidedly object to the plan of inoculation
simply as a means of prevention, whilst a flock
is free from  the disease, as by this means we
propagate an infectious disorder, though in a
mild form.                           The plan we
advise, after some experience and considerable
reflection, is, as soon as the disease appears in a
flock, to practise separation and examination  as
rigidly as possible, but, at the same time, to inoculate one or two sheep.  Then, if we find that
the disease extends in spite of our daily examinations, we  shall have from these inoculated
cases    tfavourable lymph for the inoculation of -lie
remainder.  If some 12 to 20 cases of small-pox
have really occurred, then, without any further
delay, we advise inoculation to be practised on
the remainder of the flock; for it should be borne
in mind that the earlier cases are generally mild,
and the disease increases enormotisly in virulence
and fatality as it extends.  The advanfages in
fayour of this plan appear o be these: we may
select the most favourable weather for the operation, and in the course of six weeks are free
from further anxiety about the matter; the utmost care  can be taken of the flock during the
period, and the greatest vigilance  exercised to
prevent the spread of the disease to other flocks
— a care and vigilance which it may be difficult to
adopt through so long a period as the system of
contilual turning might demand. Besides which,
it should be remembered that there are at least
three ewes probably to one wether sheep, and
these ewes being of course kept for breeding, it
is of the utmost importance to select the earliest
and most favourable time for receiving the disease, and not to run the risk of their getting the
disease naturally just previous to lambing.  It is
quite a mistake  to suppose  that the risk of
spreading the infection is increased by inoculationi-ini fact it is lessened, for the disease becotrmes milder, hlaving a mortality ranging from 2
to 10 per cent.  It is also circumscribed, and necessarily entails the utmo.' vigilance, and prevents the sale of sheep from  the  flock for a
given period of twenty-one days."*
3746. "        There i     s      a siengular uniformity in the
period that  elapses bi trveery    exposure  to cntagionathdthe  appell ratteornle seruptioxls, whether
th       e  animal ge         ts it by inonlculation or by simple
exposure todiseased aimals. This period is abot t
ten days.   On exa-miniationt at this time, the
papalar stage cotnlloelse,es —that is, little swvellinigs
resembllng fl'ea-bites are f'oundi- all over the body,
but nmostly on the parts fi'ee trom wool. TI'h-ese
l apa~lt  are preceded onte or two days by red spots
oti the site of the papilla. It the course of' six
days, vesicles or blnd-lers form on the papal.e,
and contai,n a fluid at first clear, and afterwards
becoming mole opaque.  Tlhe chief point of differen.ce ill these vesicles, between the human
subject and the sheep, is —in man the vesicles are
rounide,d, while in the sheep, we find them flat,
and much larger in proportionA; and it is rarely
the case irl sheep that pustular secretion takes
place, which is so common il mallnas to con-4itute
a distinct stage of the disease. Il about six (lays
more, commences the stage of desiccation, that
is, a scab-forms, antd the ulcers gradually heal by
the end of a month.  These are the stages of a
case that ends in recovery; but when death takes
place, it is either in the first or third stage. In
the tormer, all the external symptoms are suppressedi and the animal soon dies, whilst in the
tlhird stage the animal perishes from exhaustion.
* Gardeners' Chronicle for April 14, 1849.
164
345. Sheep-pox.-.A troublesome and fatal
disease amoii,t sheep has been brought into this
country since the, i.itrportatioii of live stock was
permitted fr) in the Coi itiiient. It is nained the
siiiall-po x, because iii its particulars it is very si.ii.r to that of the huin,,tii subject. The disease
Iii,s existed in Etirope for m,.tiiv years, and in
Fraiice and Germaiiy its ravages have been very
gre.,,t. Since its iitr,),Iuctioit into this country,
its mortality in soitie flocks )it-3 been to the exteiit of 90 per ceiit' ati(I iii numerous other cases
50 per cent. The first outbreak here was traced
.to two small cargoes of meriiio sheep, one from
Hambur,, and the other from Toriningen in
D..ark. These sheep were s(,Id at Smittifield,
in various lots, to fariners iii.(Iireiit parts of the
country, and it was thus that the disease was
introduced amongst our flocks.
. 3749. The only means of avoiding being con tititially annoyed with this disease, and of pre venting. its circulation, is the prevention of the
importation of diseased sheep from d,. aud 
PASTURING SIhEEP.
the prohibition of the sale of infected animals in
the country, as well as those actually labourinq
under the disease.  The former means might be
used in ourinsular position by strict surveillance,
but the latter could scarcely be made available
without inquisitorial inspection of the flocks in
the possession of both breeders and dealers.
5 lines in length.   It is supposed to deposit its
eggs on th e m argi n of the nostrils, and whenever
it doe s s o, the sh eep  lies   down  upon dusty bare
s pots,  holdingwits head  close to the  gro und, or,
when  a number    are attacked  at the same time,
they form  a dense phalanx, with their noses
pushed towards each other. The warmth and
humidity of the nostrils very soon bring the eggs to
maturity, and the  larva find no  difficulty ill gainiiig their way into the frontal  maxillary, and
other s inuses and cavities of the  face. The re
they adhere  by mean s  of 2 h ooks, the secretions
Fig. 307.   of the cavities con stituting  their
food. In  time  they  wriggle
tdown the  nose   and fal    l on the
ground, in      which they und    ergo
their future transformation., The
larva, fig.  307, is flat on the
under sides and convex above, of
a delicate white colour, without
spines of any kind, save the ter           n lminal hooks already mentioned.
SHEEP BOT   A series of black transverse spots
LARVA-    are visible on the under side,
(ESTRUS OVIS. covered with rough poitst.
3750. Two acts connected with this subject
were passed by parliament, which received the
royal assent on the 4th of September 1848, and
are to continue in force only for two years,
from 1st September 1848 to 1st September 1850.
One act prohibits the importation of sheep, cattle,
horses, &c., affected by the disease; the other
imposes certain specified penalties on those who
should expose for sale any stock suspected to be
infected with any contagious disease. The penalty is ~20  for every offence of exposing such
stock for sale, knowing them to be diseased, and
a penalty of ~5 for each offence in obstructing
persons in the execution of this latter act.*
37.51. Scalded heads.- Sheep are much infested
in summer with- flies.  As  a protection to the
kead against them, the simple cap, or hood, fig.
305, is effectual. It may be made of stout linen,
3753. Iieds.-The ked or keb, the sheep spiderfly, -Iclophagus ovinus, is an insect  so well             Fig 30.      known in its nature
Fig. 308.        and  habits, that  a
~   ~n    ~ ~ ~ particular   descrip      7m\~x;Yi \  ~tion here seems un        i,~ \ EWJ~/necessary. It is minag     ~)~~~~ %S1 >nified at a, fig. 308,
— he<-       T~ the line b showing its
b natural size.  It pe                           netrates the skin and
! t         fa  buries  the  anterior
part of its body in the
flesh or fat of the
. l;;l 2'sheep, where it con           a               tinues to subsist and
SHIIEEP IFD-MELOPHAGUS  enlargen.  Its tough
OVINUS.          skin renders it difficult to be killed by pressure; and when its body
is bisected by the shears, the buried part instantly emerges and runs about quickly in a manner
almost incredible, but nevertheless it soon dies.
Another remarkable circumstance attending the
tribe of keds or ticks which belong to the family of
Hippoboscida, and are included among the dipterous or 2-winged insects, though they are wingless-is, that the young is retained in the body of
the mother until it becomes a pupa, there being
no other instance amongst other 2Twinged flies
of the period of gestation extending beyond the
state of larva.  This peculiarity has caused the
Hippoboscidae to be termed  nymphiparous or
pupiparous insects.
3752. Bots. —Sheep
are troubled with bots
as well as cattle. The
fly is called (E0strus
oris, the sheep bot-fly,
fig. 306. It is a smaller species  thean  the
cattle-bot, being about
3754. Blow-flies.-Much more dangerous tormentors of shleep are blow-flies.  When sheep
are struck by thefly, the symptoms of disease cannot be easily misunderstood.  They almnost constantly hang down their heads, sometimes turni ng them oni one side as if listening; shake  the
tail with a quick jerking motion;  run rapidly
* Journal o(f Ayriculture for March 1849, p. 670.
165
,Fig. 305.
I
THE HAD-CAP, OR HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP.
and fastened with 4 tapes tied crosswise under the
cbiii, or of leather, and buckled at the same place.
Leicester tups should not be without these caps
in summer, especially when graziiig near woods;
and as tups are occasionally fond of boxing each
other, any skiii that may thereby be abraded on
the head'will receive immediate a,nd effectual pro.
Fig. 306.         tectioij, from the air
and flies b the ea.
BilREP BOT-FLY (ESTRUS OVIS. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
ftom one place to another, and, in doing so, at
times stop suddenly and stamp with the fore-feet.
The flies deposit their eggs on any bare skin
they can find, and, failing that, on the wool on
the rump, below the tail, and about the groins.
If the larvae are left undisturbed, when in large
numbers, in two days they will destroy the sheep,
having in that short time eaten the flesh into the
very bones, and sometimes exposing the entrails!
Warm moist weather, in fields enclosed by woods,
and in the bottom of dells, are the circumstances
and places most favourable to their attacks.  The
smell arising from  excremnentitious discharges,
the glutinous matter left after milking ewes, and
long wool, are all attractive objects to blow-flies.
A  shepherd ought to be able to detect sheep
that have been struck by the fly the moment lie
enters the field.  Dogs have been known to po in          t
them, as truly stated by Mr Price.  " A looker's
dog," he says, "when properly trained, the m1oment he enters a field in which are any sheep
struck by the fly, instantly singles out the diseased animals, and runs up to them, as much as
to say they ought to be caught." * Dogs require
little training to do this, partly because the
symptoms which struck sheep exhibit are uiiequivocal, but more probably from the peculiar
smell which maggots doubtless emit; or the
sheep themselves may emit a peculiar odour after
being struck.  The Ettrick Shepherd is of opinione
(and it is a probable one) that flies give a preference to one sheep over another, probably on
account of the selected sheep being either actually
subjected to diarrhcea, or emitting such 4 peculiar
flavour along with its perspiration, as to be attractive to flies, and which may be indicative of
a predisposition to disease.t  It is culpable -in a
shepherd to allow any sheep to be dangeroutsly
injured by the fly.   He cannot prevent their
attack, but hlie should be able to detect it before
it proves serious in its consequences.   The sheep
should be carefully observed one by one when
the flies are active, and being gathered in a convenieiit part of the field, the suspected ones
should be caught with the crook, fig. 224, and
examined, and every maggot removed by the
hand.   As  maggots are not killed by being
thrown on the ground, they should be collected in
some vessel, and  destroyed  either  by being
crushed by some hard substance, or by having
boiling water poured upon them.  I have seen a
shepherd fill his hat with maggots, in the course
of an hour's search atmongst a small flock of
Leicester hoggs.   Should  the  maggots have
broken into the skin, rubbing the part with a -
strong solution of corrosive sublimate, or a strong
decoction of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, will
check a farther attack on that part; and should
the part affected be larger than is seen between
the sheds of the fleece, the wool should be renmoved with the shears, and the corrosive sublimate applied upon, and around, and rubbed into,
the wound.  Should the wound, on healing, indicate a dryness of the skin, in consequence of
the application of the corrosive sublimate, an
ointment of tar and lard will soften it, and keep
' Price On Sheep, p. 472, note.                  + Hogg's'Aepherds Guide,  p.106.
++  PrizekEsays   of t~he A a da d Arcll       ra HSo' Siety,   vu.  x.  p. 221.
+    IPriz e            qla~othe Hglan-d antd I4gricuitaral Society, vol. x. p. 22 1
lo$
off the flies. Mr Gorge'Ma.tber, shepherd, New,
Scone, recommends a wash coiitaiiiiaig arsenic
which I have no doubt would prove effectual;
but I have a great aver;,iion to using ar.-eiiie in
any shape on a farin, atid caiiiiot recoiniiieiid it
to be used in this case.'
3755. The most dangerous, peritap-, of all the
flies is the checkered blow-flv, Surcupbago. c(irnaria. It is soniewliat  I-,trger aiid uiore  eloiigated in ipe tliiii,ttie c,)iiiii,.on   blue-tottle  flv;,
geiiera-I colotir changeable gray; tt'i,,Irax with
black lotigitu,:Iiiial liiies; abd,,iiieit covered wi,tli
black quadrate spot.,:, wliielt give it a tel;selate(i
appearance; body pretty thickly I-)eset witlisir,.i.g
bairs. It produces its yout)!l alir,; lieiice the
appearance,,,;,, ofteii ct)iisi(lereti utiaccoiiiitable, f
titay!lots iii a -short tiiiie a-f-I er the lieel) li-,i ve beeii
exaiiiiiie(l.              The la,rva, wl)eii ttill  gi-o"-i),"  sztvs
Alr   Dtiti(,-aii, is,tit iiieli  i.. I,,iigiii,
as at a, fig. 301); the liea,i I,, 1, sijall Hit
h Pig.:"09.
i
9
4
e
a
d
MAGGOT OF THE CHECKERED 13LOW-FLY-SARCO              PHAGA CARNARIA.
bra.notis, having two fleshy prominences ab,ve,
with a small iiipple-sliape(i ktiub c c, so tlia,t they
bear a perfect resemblance to small iiiaiiiiiim.
Beneath these maiiiihiferous protiib(ratices are
two strong black movable hooks d placed by the
side of each other; e e is the first segment of the
body, and f one of the anterior stigmata. The
principal use of these lio(,k,,i is to tear (,ff -iiid
separate the fibres of the flesh on which the
creature feeds., Tiie last segment of the body _a
is, as it were, cut across.'I'wo large air-vessels
may be seen running aloiig each,i(-Ie of the b,,.;dv,
terminating at both ends in breatliitig-lioles, h
and i i.
3756. The description of the maggot of this
fly will serve for that of tlie,otlier flies about to
be meiitioiied.3fiisca (,!(vqar is readily known
by its brilliant green liue, which his a silvery
play of coli,,ijr when seen in certain lights.Musca,coinitoria, c(,miiioti blue bottle-fly or bl(,wfly. This fly is weil known in  uur and
may easily be identifier. by its btizzitig iioi.,:e
when oii the wing. " This, is the species," tbserves Mr Dtinea.ii, " of which Liiiiiwus affirmed
that 3 individuals could devour the carcass vf a 
PASTURING SHEEP.
attack of sheep by dogs there are comparatively
few deaths to the number injured, and, were time
afforded, most of the bitten sheep would  most
probably recover; but the usual custom, in the
excitement which such an occurrence creates, is
to kill the sheep with the view of preventing the
total loss of the mutton by the sheep dying-and
were they to die in the blood, the mutton would
be rendered unfit for use.  -There were once  9
of my Leicester ewes worried by a dog, from 3
of which the blood was drawn on the spot, and
the shepherd would have bled other two had I allowed- him.  From  the recovery of these bad
cases by the means used, I was persuaded that
the 3 which were killed would have recovered
had they been permitted  to live.  There is 1no
doubt, however, that sheep which have been run
and worried ever so little are a long time, if ever,
of recovering their customary composure; and oi
this  account alone, the owieer of a dog that runs
other people's sheep should  be severely finled
over and above the value of the sheep actually
injured.
horse as soon as  a       lion.  T here is no  doubt that
we must impute to it a large share of the inijury
our flocks sustain from this tribe of insects.".Ar4thomyia lardaria is rather more than half the
size of the blue-bottle fly, and of a bluish-black
colour; thorax with longitudinal lines, and
abdomen slightly tesselated. It is very common
in low sheltered woods, and is doubtless often
associated with the other in preying on living
subjects.* It is said that the green-fly first attacks the sheep, and is succeeded by the more
greedy blue-bottle fly, which, having made a
suitable place, is, in its turn, succeeded by the
checkered blow-fly.
3757. Sheep worried by dogs.-Shieep  on  past ure are sometimes worried by dogs, a nd the  de -
struction happens most frequently early in a
summ er            m      orning.  Experi          enced dogs go singly
to do the mis ch ief, and    take c    are not to bark
w      hil e      engaged in it;  the   i    r only object seeming
to    obtain a f eed  of mutt on. Dogs most    addicted
to the vice of worrying sheep are mastiffs, bulldogs, bull-dog     terrier    s,       and lurchers bred from a
colley,   and they are most prone to it when they
escape fro m the   chain, which detains them as
watch-dogs.  An       old colley addicted to this vice
practises it with  consummate  art, and obtains
mutt on  with th         e  leas t trouble to himself, and
comm it s                   the least extent of  mischief.  Pointers
when hu       n t            ing  an eeia                                               seing, and especially self-hunting, are
v     er  y        ap t  to c hase  sh eep when running from them.
The part of the sheep commonly seized by the
dog        is the throat, which   he     tears open,           and  eats
the flesh to the neck-bone; and were he to content  himself       with  this   norsel,  or to satisfy his
appetite,               the loss would not exceed the value of
one sheep; but the propensity to destroy seems
only bounded by  the number               of t he flock;  he
w     orries  some   to    dea               th and bite      s  a great many
more. The destruction is probably aggravated
by the conduct of the sheep themselves, which
run away    in a body from t   h     e dog; and            in fear of
losing th         e           rest whilst running down one,  he   leaves
the wound ed one         on th   e    ground    and pursues the
others, seizing the nearest him, one by the back,
aMother by the throat, and a third by the haunch,
until a great number are lamed by bites. It is
rare that a dog feeds upon more than one sheep,
as he is probably scared by some circumstance,
before he has time to break into another. When
a lamb is run after, it is so easily overtaken that
the dog tears its neck open at once and satisfies
himself upon it. I am not aware that a dog
which worries sheep can be deterred from the
practice by any means-certainly an old dog cannot-anid the only fate that should befall so hardenied an offender is the rope or the gun. But a
yotiiig dog, especially a pointer, may be deterred;
and the most effectual way, I believe, of doing
it, is to couple him for a few days to the carcass
he has worried, and cause him to drag it about
With him; or, in a hill country, to couple him to
a black-faced ram for some days, with a sufficient
length of chain to allow the ram to turn about
and butt him' severely with its horns.  In every
3758. Besides the sheep, the pasture on which
they tfeed is iniifested and injured with a host of
insects. The grub ofthe meadow crane-fly, T'ipula
oleracea,fig.. 223,destroys the roots of grass as well
as ofoats,(2504.) The year 1762 was called the
wormy year, in consequence of the depredations
occasioned by  this grub in Selkirkshire. 1i
again appeared in 1802, 1812,'1824, and 1826,
and in Peeblesihire il 1830.t
3759. The ear-beaked weevil, Otiorhyncus sulcatus, about 5 lines in length, of a brownish black
colour, and incapable of flight, il  consequenice
of the junction of the wing-cases, produces  a
larva nearly half an inch long of a whitish colour,
thick and fleshy, and thinly beset  with  long
bristles, which is for the most part subterranean,
and lives inidiscriminiately on the roots of all gramineous plants.
3760. The common kinds of ants, Formicai
fusca and s-uf(, somietimes almost usurp the eliitire dry pasture; and it is difficult to extirpate
them.  Perhaps as effectual a mode of doiniig so
of any is to notch a piece with two cuts of the
common spade, fig. 237, out of the top of each
mound, in the beginning of winter, and expose its
contents to the weather.
* Quarterly Journal of Aqriculture, vol. ix. p. 58, 63.
t New Statisticarl AccouInt of Suotland-Selkirk,shire-Yarrow, p. 41.   -
167
3761. The caterpillars of several butterflies
also destroy pasture plants. The meadow brownbutterfly, Hippai-chia )'(.ini2-a, whose wings expatid nearly 2 inches, produces a liglit-green
caterpillar, with a. white line along each side,
which prefers for its food the smooth-stalked
meadow-grass, Poa, pratensis, one of the most
nutritious grasse,,i for cattle; and the caterpillar
of the large heath butterfly, Hil)parchit tithofdus,
considerably le.,s than the preceding, is of a. greea
colour, with a reddi,,ih line on each side, and a
brown head, -tiid feeds on the annual meadowgrass, Poa annua, wliieli forms the cliief cover 
PRACTICE-SLIMMER.
ing of our meadows and pasture-lands.   The
caterpillar of the antler-moth,Clhareas graminiis,
is brown or blackish, with light-yellowish stripes
along the back and sides, and attains about one
inch in length.  It lives under ground, and feeds
on the roots of grass-and the injury it does to
pasture-land in hills is sometimes very greatbut it avoids low-lying damp  meadows.  The
effects of its ravages are very similar to those
produced by the burning of heath.
feed    ing   on th   e grass,  as many insects do, but ry
throwing up mounds of earth upon it when digging
their galleries uder ground  in pursuit    of their
favosrite food, the  earth-worm, and mlany  of the
larvae of insects. They are thus useful and irnjtirious at the same timne —useful in devouring.
the larva o f inse cts on the surface   of the ground
at ni-ghit, and which fall or go into their galleries
ill the day-sand injurious in destroying the
earth-worm, which is useful to          the soil while
alive, by  k e eping it open to the air and  moisture,
and whe       n  d   ead by manuring it with its body;
and also injurious in covering the surface of the
grass with earth-for, as to the value of  the topdressing which the grass receives il this way,
it is received at the  expense o f the fiin e r a nd
richer part of the mould immediately lunder the
grass plants, which, by its removal, are thulls dep rived of nouris hment  t  the roots,   w here   it is
of m ost use to them. We  have o    nly to    look a t
the scorched a ppearan ce  o f the ground in dry
weather along the lines of thte galleries, and find
ourselves sinking nearly ankle-deep in the ground
undermined by           moles,  to be convinced that no
top-dresrsing will ever compensate for the injulry
don       e to the    pastures of low farms.  " A course
of thirty years' observation," says the Ettrick
Shepherd, " o ver a n extens ive d      istrict  of the
south of Scotland, and hard-earned experience,
have  con vinced  me, long a go, of th e pernicious
effects  of destroying  the moles on   sheep  p asture.
.. The        most unnatural   of al l persecutions that ever was raised in a country is that
against the   m ole,  that  innocent  and  blessed little
pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with
the first top-dressing, dug       with  gre at pains and
labour from the fattest of  the  soil  beneath. The
advantage s of th i s top-dr essi ng  are so appare nt,
and s o    manifest to  th e       ey es  of  every unprejudiced
person, that it is really amazing how our couintrymen should have persisted, now nearly half a
cenitury,in the most manlly and valiant endeavours
to extermin at e  thi e  moles tom the teface of the
earth. If a I100 men and horses were employed
on a common sized-pasture farm —say from 1500
to 2000 acres-in raising and driving  manure
for a top-dressinig of that farm, they could not
do it so effectnally, so neatly, or so equally, as
the natural number of moles on that farm would
do of the mselve s.  That  pasture  land is be nefit ed
by a  top-dressing, no man, I think, will  attelnpt
to deny. That the moles give it that top-dressing, as few will deny."t  No  one denies  the
benefit of top-dressing to pasture grass; still, if
its benefit is to be derived at the expense of the
soil itself, many would question the prudence of
permitting it, merely because it Would give the
farmier no trouble, and incur no cost.
3762. But the greatest devastation of this
kind is committed by the larvae of the common
cock-chafer, Afelolontha vulgaris, an insect but
little known in Scotland, though sometimes it
occurs in countless myriads in England and Ireland.   There this beetle "wheels its droning
flight" in the summer twilight.  Fig. 310 represents a female a, about an inch in length, oblong and convex, the head reddish in front
the hinder part pitchy black.  As soon as fecundated, the female makes holes il the ground
Fig. 310.
about half a foot beneath the surface, and lays a
cluster of white eggs b, tinged with dirtv yellow
at the bottomq of each hole, and she lays a great
many in all.  The larv-e c, which proceed from
them,are ofa dingy-white or yellowish colour,anid
soft and  inactive.  They are    I' inch il length,
and furnished with a pair of powerful mnanidibles.
T     he perfec   t insect is short-livesd, but the larvae
survive for 3 y         e ars, passing  into a state of             perfect            repo se in winter, and  recovering their activity in  spring.  So  completely do  they                              sever
the pasture from the soil that the turf may be
rolled  up  in large  sheets.  Another chafer,
named Jlmphi.r)alla solstitialis, prod-uces a grub
very similar in its habits to the one described,
though smaller and more restricted in is distribution.*
3764. Moles  are  cauight in traps  expressly
made to fit into their galleries, and persons make
a profession of entrapping them in the summiiier
season, who are called  m)tole-catcher.s.  AtMolecatching is generally taken for the season by
such lersons, and the price on an extensive lowland farm is 5s. the  100 acres.   No enideavours
t3763. Moles, Talpa Europea, ofte                n disfigure
the face of the richest parts of pastures, not by
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 565-572.
1.68
a
b
COCK-CHAFERS-MELOLONTIIA VULGAR,-S.
t 16id. 640-41. 
PASTURING CATTLE.
should be made to extirpate the mole, but only
to keep their numbers down to a moderate extelnt.
A few mole-hills here and there do little hliarmii,
but acres of good soil converted into a burrow
as a preserve, for the pleasure of moles, is too
much of a good thing.
should have the   bes t pa sture, twe Cw iject of
keelPing telel eing to  breed cm lves, a nd
affore-l plenty  of   milk      to brint  o them up.
The more     milk tlhey yield, thllerefore, theil
better will the calve s pr ove, and tth e  more
c)rof itat)le wiil they themselves prove after
the calves  are weaned. Cows  in       sutintier
are treated in an opposite nman ner by  different people,  one teaking, them into the
t;yre -it night, and even at all times liilkinv, them there,a    on an   oth er  allowing them
t o  l ie out  all nit, and  milking them in
ttile field.   Whichever  mode   is a doptedt, it
slhoeldyi be kept i n mi nd that  cows a re  peculiarly susceptible of  s  udde n c  haan l ges  of
tenlsepatiir e, especia lly f romn heat to  cold,
and from (droug,hit to rain; so that, when cold
or  raifc, or  both, comne  togetlher,     which is
tthe  commo n  circuinstance, tlley should be
brought  into the    byire.  For  soilie time
after they are first pult out to grass, they
slhouelfa  be housed in    thle  byre at night, when
they are ailkogedt  tlere, and  maggain    in  the
morning before they are let go into tlhe
field; a nd whet(   th e y are   n ilred tliree times
a-(lay, tlhey should be oeillted inl t lhe  field
at mid-day. In  (dairy districts  c,,ws are
miilked twice  a-da,y, morning  a,ti-d eveniiig, and in breedinig districts tlhrice a-day,
morning, noon, and night.  After the niglts
become warm, I have found it conducive
to health, and it is both a rationial  and a
natural custom, to let them lie in thie field
all night, arnd  to milk them there also at
stated lhours —three times every day, the
shepherd or cattle-man bringing tlhem to
the mliost convenient spot of the field to be
milked.  The lying out always in thje field
no doubt imposes more labour on the dairy miaid and  her assistants, in carrying the
milk to tlhe calves, and to the dairy after
the calves have been weaned; but I am
persuaded it is an excellent system for the
health of the cows.  The cows rise  fromn
their lair at daybreak, and  fee(d  while the
dlesw is still On lte'grass, -andl by tl-e time
of milkin,~ arrives, say (i o'clock, they llave
partially fiiled thenlselves with foire, and
st an,d contented, clhewinig tlhe cuid, while
t!he miiilkinig p)r-ceeds. They thien satiate
tlletiiselN es, and bv 9 o)'cle,ck lie dowt  in a
siadyv )art of tle field, and cliew their cud
unltil m~ilking tingle alrri ves at n(on, whlen
-they are agai~n brouXghxt to) tlxe samue spot
and milkled.  Feedinlg  again, wh)en  thze
hleat of t!le afternoc~n arrives, they stand~ in
the coolest palrt {,f thse riehl,l whisk;ing aw ay
3765. Tlhe cattle of all ages, as accomllmodated in the steLading in winter, (1082)
to (1085,) remain there as  we  left them        t
(1219,) until  the grass is ready to receive them, whilch, in ordinary seasons,
is at the  end  of  Illay or beginning  of
June; but, in late seasons, when thle tur.nips  are expended  before the grass  is
sufficiently long, to afford them  at bite,
cattle  are  put  to  grass  bef(re  it is
ready for tliefii.  In case of such an unrtoward event hlappening, it is the duty of the
farmer to provide against it, by purchlasing extraneous food for his cattle, suchl as
oil-cake; or giviing, them beans or oats; or
disposing of thle fattening cattle in time to
leave a sufficient quantity of turnips for
the young cattle and cows until the grass
is ready to receive them.  In the state of
confinement in the steading, cattle thrive
better on a variety than on the same food;
and yet when on grass they require  no
variety (f foo(l, and thrive the better the
longer  they live upon it, unless tha            t          a
change of pasture is desirable- when it becomes bare.  Grass is thuts evidently tle
natural food of the ox, and his anatotmiical structure is peculiar ly a~dapted for tihat
sort of food.   Whatever kind of food liehe
receives in winter partakes of,-n artificial
character; and being only a succedaneuiti
for grass when it cannot be obtainled, the
artificial food should be                                       cwade ais palatable
to ihim  as  circumiista-nces will  allow,
whether by variety or superior  quality.
This considerati(-,n  shows the propriety of
A,I. Boussingault adopting grlass, or rather
hjay-grass deprived of its water, as the
standard for conllparing the nutritiv-e I)ro perties of tbe different sorts of food,iven
to stock on tlte farm.
169
ON TIIE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN
SU.'VI MEII..
'.3 7(;6. The fit cattle I,,aving been di.9p   se(-l of, (3609.                      the I)asture,;Ii(-uld be
iii(-Iicioiisly disti-ibtite(i aiiioiigst the re          stoclz t)f cows, year-olds, an(I
caIN-es; and iii,t as to the cows. Tliey 
cvl'iest state.   it is thus cons(ils(nant  witih
tlhe fact, that tlhe cows kept  in thle byre at
nig,!l t are  alone aflected   with tlhe gralss
wlhen it is uwet witlh  dew;   and, b~eing
}ungry. they eatt the col(l dlaitip grass withl
avidity and much  reslish, whlile co%s whlich        c
lie outt all nighlt are not affected by the wet
grass.    Cir-cumnstances,  however, should
ruile the customi (,f lyin(, out or hiousitng at
niglit.   In a col(d uila        n district, l,r in
exp,()se(l situations, devoid of shlelter in the
fields, so susce)tible  crcat.u es as jilkl-cows
slioIil(l not lie out  it niglit;  and as I)utt
very few nighlts are re-tlly warmi  iii suichi
situati,,ns, it is safer to )put tlhe.ni  into  thle
byre, an(l veiitilaite it well  in  tlhe warni       fi
niglits  tlhat  umay  occur.   In  fa,vourible
sitii.itions. one ciircunstaincee is worthly  of
attentioi  iii (]eteriiiiiiing  thle practice  (,,f
]yinlg (ut  ianl  liotising,  tlhat the  liotisingr
casluestlie trolubleof )ri d iing silper fortle
co,ws; -an,l thlis pro isioI not only itnl)lies
tlhe cittilig (,f the for-ige, wl.atever it is,
b)!it also pieparittio,n  (,f the plant  iii tlle
fiell.  Exc(eliting a chlange of plasture-ati(d
the cl,ange slihull aiw.1 ys l)e f r a I)etter
one-tle treatniet of tlie cows is tlle satiire
tliro,,ii.l()ut tihe suiiimmer  atld even to the
ctiol eveliligs at tIle enc( of autuminn.   As
thle liilkl falils ofi; tle nio, n nilking is dlroppe,l; anl, wlieii tthe evenigi-s lec,lile cool,
tle ci,,ws aLie brilrlIt iiiit, the l)yre at niglit,
itilked(  thlere eveiiing an(l in4liing, ald                7c
graze  lrig thle l    day    Wlien this takes
place, siip)er inmust li)e irl,vi(dei for tlie iin
the vbyre a.fter thle evening, ii niilking, is over,
and thleysliouldals() be littered fortle night.
are  quite good for all grazing purposes,
and( will geiierally stand tte eating, during
tlthe sumiiiter, bI)etter under all cirecumstances
of weather.   The  pasture of tlle young
c.cattle slioul(l be echanged as well as that of
cows,  whenever  it  happens to be eaten
rather b)are: not  quiite bare, for no stock
oughi,,t to be allowecd to remuain as long
in  the same field as to allow the grass
to become bare by too much and too close
eating.
3768. On this account, moderately sized
fields, of 20 to 25 acres, answer best for
grazing stock,  as one can be rested for a
fortnight or three ueeks  until the grass
grow again in it, whlilst the o,'hers are being p)astured. In tlhis manner of treating
pasture, the stock obtain a tasting Of new
fresht-growni grass at intervals  during the
seaso,n, wliclh hias tlhe wlholeso)me effect of
an alterative  upon their systemti.
3769. YoIung cattle require little tendin(, whlile oni -rass; nevertheless, it is the
duty Of the  -slheplherd, as le goes lhis daily
rouirnds to the sIleep, to ascertaini every
day  tlh,. t tlhe young b)easts are  in good
hjealth, and(I Ia.ve plenty of food, plenty
of wiater, and  are  in security  within the
fences.
3'77. Cattle, whliicll do  not crop  tlie
~:r.... close to  tl~e ground, graze well  witlh
bo(,rs,es or shieep, I)otlh whichl  ciop-tlje grass
chlse.   Tlje lips of  the  ox  are stiff'  and
cannot  lay h:l,l o)f the grass while they cut 
PASTURING CATI'LE.
it with thle teeth, like the sheep and horse;
but their tongue is very prel-hensile, and
with it they embrace every mouthful of
grass, and, drawing, it towards thle Imolth,
retain hold of it until the incisors of the
unider jaw sever it from the ground with
a.jerk of thle head upwards, and the ton,igue
then sweeps it into the iiioutli.  Thle grass
at this timtne receives very little mastication,
and  is swallowed and  deposited in the
paunchl; when this is full, the ox eats no
niore for a tiuie, an(l prefers to lie down in
a sliady place, and chlew the contents of
thle paunchl in thle lpellets forced tip into the
mouthl, (1652.)
37 73. Another principle that affects the
mnietlit(  of treating pasture land, is the
difference in the effect of cropp)ing the grass
which the diflerent animals empil,)Ioy; cattle
cropping hig,   and  sheep nibbling  low,
onlwhile horses bite botlh high, andl low.  This
is a wise  distinction  between  the  two
classes of our ruminants, the sheep being
suited to tlhe short pasturage ()fimountainous
regions; their mnobile lips enabling tlhemii to
hold it firm, while it is severed( fromi tlhe
ground with the incisors of the lower jaw,
withl a twitch of the headl to one side, notwitlhstanding the want of teethl in the ulpper one; whereas the ox is better suited
to the plains and  valleys, where  grass
grows  long, and may be cropp)ed  by thle
scythle-like operation  of its tongue  and
teetlh.   The  practical conclusion  to be
drawn from these different modes of croppin(, grass by tlhe domiiesticated aninlals is,
that the hlorse or sheepl) should follow the
OX in grazing,  or accomipany him, but not
precede  him.   Whlen  thley  follow,  the
pasture will  be eaten barer by the horse
or sheep) thIan the  ox left it; and, when
in  company, it will  be  eaten barer  by
the hlorse  or  shleep  where  thle ox  has
eaten before, or it mnay first be topl ed by
tlhe horse before  the ox  has touchled it.
Wlietlier the horse or shleep slhould follow
or acc(oil)any the ox, the latter is tlhe pie-.
feral)]e arrangement,  because they  )have
tlthee  tlhe choice of tile long grass, as well
as the short.  The sani)e reason that sll'uidlt
graze the horse and sheep, in  reference
to tlhe ox, should cause  the horse  to  be
sep:rated fromt  the slieep, particularly in
thie latter part of the pasture season, as
btttli lhiting close make the grass too bare
for either.  Horses, too, and worklhorses
in  particular, have  a  greater dislike to
sheep than to cattle.
3771. Calves are put on grass at the
same time as  thle other cattle, whlethl)er
weaned  or not.  By that time the oldest
ones will be  ready for weaning; but                                                   altho,,ugh  readv, t        he ler(r of            calv es slonuld    be
kept to,etlher at first, in a small paddock
of        g     rass   near  the  steading, where  the
young       er on e         s   are served wi th mlk,l and
tlhe older with grass, and both are at hand
to be put into the slhedidedi court at night,
until the weather becomes wariim enoughI
to  permit  them  to lie out  all nigh,t.
Calves are very susceptible of cold, especially as l(h,ig as they are on imilk, and
receive more injury from expostire to it
than most  breeders  seeim to he aware
of.  Much rather keep them in their court
at night one nighlt longer than necessary,
after the w-,rn   evCenDins  have arrived,
thtan cause them to lie out one night too
soon in thie cold.
317 2. Grass-land    r equir es pecu liar  m          anagenlent to rend(ler it the  most  available
as pasture in every v:,riety of season. Tlhe
circumiiistanices wlhiclh  miost inijuIre grass are
overst.)ckiny and continiteil sto(king.  Tlhe
most efbectual  method  of avoiding  overstockinig is to lhave no imoie stock upon tile
farmi than its gl.ass will in sunimer ilaintaini in g,(od conditioni; tlnd to avoid conitinuiial stocking,, tile  stock solioild not be
allowed to  remiiain too long in thie  sanle
field.   Tlhe  safest prin)cilIe to treat eacthli
grya-zinig fiel-, is to stock it at once, so as it
slhall be eateni I)are enoug!I in a slhort time,
say in a milonitlh, andl tlhen to leave it unist,)cke(i altogetler-htiived, as it is teclhnically terlnetl-for perlh.aps a fortnigilt, in
order to allow  thre,irass sufficient time to
afford a good bite for cattle. One advan
171
tage of this plati is, that the stock at periodic times during the grazing season eiijoy
new-growi) grass; and aiiotlier, tl)at t,.o
gro%%,tli of the grass is so ]()n.-, pastured -is
to cloy the appetite of the aiiiiii,,tl,-, or I)ecome foul by being constantly tro,](ion
up(-)n. That this is a rational -ind natural
iiiode of pasturin,(-,grass-land is evinced I)y
stock delighting- to coiisuti-ie new-growti
grass; and every aninial loathes,rass wliicli
has been long trampled and duiiged ul.)on,
an(-l the breath passed over it tiziies out of
n uiiiber. 
cuionstalnces assumed, would  lower  tlheir
valuie; and if thle stock stiffer lihungr, as it
did in the severe drou(Ight of tile suiiiiecr
of 1826, no alternative exists lbut to niealie
ip the deficiency by hay, even ti(loglih i                         t
should be puirchiased for tlheoccasioll.  On
the othier l;and, superabulndlance of pasture
dloes no  harm; for,  independent  u(f its
maiutaining tle entire stock in Ilig,l cond(lition, the rouglI afteriiatll w%ill be (f great
service to tie eewes in winter.  On fa,        l      yvi s
thie stock of whichi are purchased every
year, tile number imay be rerguilated( by tihe
crop of the grass; but even  in thlat case
the seaso,ol  may turn out worse tithan exl)ecte,l.   Seeing that no one can foretell
the ftture state of thle grass, tile prudi(ent
plan.is, in every case, to keep thie niliuber
of stock uinder thie niark whichl  the farim
can SUpl)porlt.
cattle,:nd in very dry weather a stand at
a tisie amiongst w       ater is an excellent preventi ve of f that trot)lesoiie complaitnt, tshe
foto t -sore.  The  external application of
water  in thi s manne r allays inflal, nlation,
and prevents irritatio n, a nd permit s the
animnals to  take tieir food in peace in   a
scorching drought. The water ouit of a
tank of a pump-well is never relisled by
cattle, and in cold and rainy weather it is
rarely visited by them; and in hiot weather
it is viewed witlh indifference, because it is
evidently inadequate to su)pply all their
wants for water; at-d tanks  are invariably pla,ced to() hii,,h for sheep.  A waterit g-pool sllould be roomny and securely
fenced, as cattle are apt to push one an-I
otlher about while in it, and several go
together to drink or stand in the water;
and it is tlhe same practice  with  young
colts. It should be of considerable lengtlh
and narrow, to give access to it for a numriber
of thle cattle at the same timIie; and its side
next tlhe fie]( sl. Juld be made hiardI with
broklen stones like road metal, tire bottom
of thle pool  gravelled to keep  tihe water
cleani and sweet, while tlhe water should
always fl(ow gently thirougylh it.
.37'75. An essential requiisite in all pasture-fiel(is        i   s an abwndant suptp)gly of w(hter
for the cattle to drink.  Both cattle and
horses drinik largely, and slheel), gra-zilln,
early on the dewvy grass, (lo not require so
muclh water to keep  tlhem in a hjealtlhy
conditi(on; still, wlheni no dew falls, and
drou,ght continues,  they drink  a little
water.   Thle proper  constructi n  of  a
waterin,g-pool is sadly lisln(lerstood in
tlhiscountry. Tlhe entrance to it generally
is a puddle of poachlel niud at least I)alf a
foot in depth, to avoid standling- in which t
thle anitnals go into thle water, anl rendler
it muddy before tlhey drink.  Not unfrequently the pool b)econmes nearly dry f      rom
3776. Wthere water is so scalrce, tlhat n o
rivulet runs  tii-ou,h  thle fields, and no
water can be obtained  bjy tlhe sinking of
wells, tlhe (onily exlI)e(ient is to bring water
to  the pasture fieldIs  t-oni a distance in
1)arrels mounted on wheels, such as tlhe
liquii(d-mnanure barrel in fig. 194.   Suich a
barrel  iny  be filled at a punmp, or  more 
PASTURING CATTLE.
for straw in sumnier, as the romlgh  grass
from an adjoining, wood, or a ditcll, will
supply litter; and the dung, at all events,
should be shovelled up and renioveel b)efrore
it accumulates to the discomfort  of the
animals.  I should like to see every farni
systematically furnished Witth suchl sieds,
to the extent at least of one shed every
two adjoining fields.
3778. Young  cattle are not grazed on cirss
farms, nor on farms i,n the n?ei.yhbourholud of towls.
On the former no laud is aplpropriated to graziing,
a.s the grass is kept  for only onle year, and it is
chiefly used for forage  and  hlay; and on the
latter it is more profitable to sell the grass for
forage, and make  hay.  The  grazing on these
farms is confined to the farm milk-cows and workhorses.
3777. The want of sheds in pasturefie'ds is also a sad reflection on the saglacity
of our farmers.   In  suimmer, where  a
triee spreads  its branches over the grass
iin a lawn, how gratefully cattle resort to
the shade, where they know that the stirring breeze will cool their hides, and afford
them  a refuge from the attacks of flies. In
cold weather, cattle crowd to the wooded
corner of a field, and will do so in a rainy
day even in summer.  Suchl ind(ications by
animals  teach  us how  tlhey ough,t to be
treated.   I amt  no adlvocate for, hedgeerow
trees altlhough thley should cast a grateful
shlade into a pasture-field, since they prove
injulrious to the crops and fences near them;
and still less do I admire an  umbrageous
plane in the middle of a field (lIvoted t( a
course of cropp)ing; but similar effects miay
be obtained ly other means.   There are
few farmns one or two sides of the fields
of which  are  not  sheltered  frtiom      nisome
quarter by a  few trees; but, ind(lependently of tlis, a slhed, erected at a suitable
part in the line of the fence, woild not
only afford a *ia(le in the hottest day in
sumnier, but shelter in a rainy day, or in a
cold neitlt in aut.nlini.  Such an erection
wouli cost little wh-ere stone andi wood tire
plentiful ()ti an estate, and  lthey should be
placed to answer tie field on either side of
the fence when it is in grass.   But  no
iiatter what it costs, wlIen  thie  healtlhi
and comfort of stock are concernedl.   Its
c(ist woul(l be repliid by the state of tlhe
stock in the first year of its erection, and
it would stand, withi slight rei}airs, fir a,n1(,1O
lease.  Let it be roomly, alti its structurere
light, and it may be roofed at a  moderate
cost with  zinc, or composition, or tiles,
when manufactured in the neighlbourhood.
It may be troublesome to carry straw for
litter from the steadintig to a slichl situate
at a distance; l)ut there is little occasion
3779. On dairy farms the pasture for cows is
preferred on old lea abounding in natural
grasses, which afford finer  flavoured butter and
ritcher cheese than young grass. On such tarms
cows are kept for the express purpose of yielding
dairy produce, forming the principal stock, and
receiving        thhe larg est s har e  o f attention.  They
are brought into the byre at night, milked there
morning and evening, and generally only twi-.e
a-day. It is most profitable tor the dairy-farm;er
to give his cows at all times as much food as they
can consume; and with this view, besides the fine
pasture during the day, they have clover-grass
or tares in the evening for supper.
3780. The most profitable and also conivenilent
plan for dai rymen  in towns is.to keep  their cows
constantly ill the byre in sunmer, and to feed
them oil tforage, and purchase such litter as caltl
be found ch eape st a     t      hiie season.   In  purs tuance
of this system, the irrigated  meadows il  tlhte
neighbl)ourhlood' of Edinibuirgh are taken by the
dairymen by auction every year, and their produce cut and carted daily  ('roii April to Novem -
leer.  The  number of cuttings imiay be 4 or 5 ill
tha.t period.  The usual renttis trom ~16 to  X20
the acre; and in the excessively dry year of 1826,
such was the demand for the grass which grew
well, while the forage plaints of  the arable fields
were burnt up, that the renit was ~40 the acre.
lout sul(h is the conviction of the  healthy nature
of pasturage for. milk cows, that many dairyimien iil towIts take pasture  at lhiglh renits in the
iieiglibourhood, andal allow the cows to lie out
all night, and incur  the trouble and expense
of senidinig people to milk them twice and thrice
ai-day.
3a rI. Onpastoral farms devoted exclusively to
the rearing of cattle, the calves are allowed to go
with their dams, from who-m they draw as much
milk as they can, get, and support  theiiselves
besides on grass.  Tihe calves thrive well in this
.way, and attain to a large size; and could the
farmn maintain them in the same condition until
3 years old, they would become very fine beasts.
But, unfortunately, they fall off il   condition
173
I ik- el'y at a rivulet at some distance; in
which lattt,,r case -.t has to be filled with
.such a scoop.as is represented in'31 1,
o'f the diniensioiis, and used in the iiiatiiier described in (20'i 5.)
Fig. I'l I.
THE scoop r-OR FILTING THE, WATER-BARREL. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
whenever they are weaned in autumn, and it is
difficult to bring theiii  p to the samle condition
in winter.  This circumstance raises a doubt illni
my mind whether it wolild not be better to weain
the calves at 4 months old, and let them depend
entirely on the grass in the best season of the pasture, and no difficulty would then be felt of mlaintainiulg, in the ensuing winter, the growiing and
healthy condition thus attained.  Such a plan
would no doubt incur the trouble of milking the
cows, as it would  be improper to let them run
dry in the height of the grass season;  which,
besides incurring the loss of milk, would be inmpolitic to pursue, as it'would put the cows in so
high a condition before winter, as would be difficult to be maintained until next calving.  Cows
with calves at their foot will wander long distances from  home if their range of pasture is
large, and they evince great art in concealing
themselves and their calves.'
and constitution.  The hams  shoild not be too
fu ll        e o f flesh, Iyary, (3622,) which in a  yolotlg
animal  indicates  that the carca ss will soon set
from growing.  A eep beody, and s      hort  carcass
between   the  shoulhler-bla(le and th e  hook-boltes
across the ribs, indicate a disposition to fatten at
a small size. Flat ribs and a high back-bone
indicate difficulty of fattening; and though the
bone of the  legs may b e  large enough, it is coar se
and round, instead of  flat   and  fite; and  thet
sinews seem  indistinctly marked  and heavy,
instead of small and clean. Oil selecting a lot
of young cattle, they should all nearly be of the
same size and appearatnce; and they will then be
what is termed level, t,reseijtiing al even surface
over their backs when stanidingi together, or
walking in a drove-the sharp horns and ears of
the horned cattle, and  the crowns of the heads
and ears of the polled ones, rising above the level
of the backs. This levelness is a very enticing
property in every lot of cattle.   It is a lesson to
the seller in preparing cattle for the market, to
assort them in lots of equal levelness, and the
larger the level lot is, the more is the purchaser
persuaded that pains have been taken ill their
breeding. When a number of cattle of the same
breed have to be comparei, the properties whichi
distinguish the particular breed Duust form the
standard of comparison, and what those standards
are you shall know when we  come to treat of
the properties of the different breeds.
3782. The young stock on pastoral farms graze
on the lower and more sheltered portions of the
grazing, till the weather becomes less stormy and
cold in the upper parts, when they stretch their
walks upwards by degrees until the highest points
are at length attained.  This procedure cannot
be strictly adhered to where no fences mark the
boulndaries of the farm; but in the higher elevatiolns the state of vegetation naturally deters them
from proceeding higher up until the grass grows.
It would be better were fences laid off to divide
the pasture into portions, which should be occupied during the season at proper intervals of time; 
and it has often occurred to me, that this object
would be best attained were fences to be run in
horizontal parallels along the face of a height, or
round ati elitire hill, than up and down the slope
of the ground.  As it is, pastoral fartners seem
contented with a rinig fenlce round their farms.
It is the duty of the herds to ascertain the state
of the cattle every day.
3784. As to the state of cattle most profitable
for the farmer to purchase, I believe that 2 yearold  queys have  been  tbund the most  kindly
feeders in every  breed.   They are  subject  to
periodic disturbance when in season in summer,
and  to avoid  these  the operation of  spayibig
(2287,) was recomumeinded, and was at one  time
extensively practiced; and as  long as  the heifers
generally possessed few properties for becoming
good cows, the practice was unobjectionable.
Now,  however, that every farmer  possesses  a
large proportion of his heifers well formied, spayinig has fallen inito desuetude, and it is found
more profitable to dispose of them  as breeding
stock than to fatten them, atinhe heifer market
is not now so well supplied  as it used  to be.
Good  2-year-old quieys, from  upland  pasto-al
farms, can seldom  be obtained without being in
calf, the bulls having the range of the pastures.
Of the  different breeds, perhaps, more  liheifers
may be obtained of short horns for feeding, than
of any other; and the reason is, that this breed is
now so generally improved, every animal poss essing good properties, that all cailniot be transferred to the cow stock, and are therefore brought
to the market for other purposes, if desired by
purchasers. I have known, even lately, hand(some
profits returned from those heifers, when n~o suich
profit could be obtained from steers of any kind.
Still, as every farmer cannot be  supplied  with
heifers, oxen  mifst be purchased in lieu; and the
age at which these slhould be pureclhased depends
upon the nature of the soil. Some soils bear
pasture which will fatten oxen of large size,
and on these steers of 3-years will return  iobt
profit; on weaker stils, it would be folly to attempt to feed -cattle to heavy weights; and for
3783. Young    catt le ar      e        purchased for farms
in the  arable districts of the country, on which
none ae e   bred, irnriiediately before the  grass             i     s
ready  to r        eceive them;  and  not unfreqtiently
this class of farmers hire grass-parks tor  the
s     easo n       and stotck  them w ith  yo hong c attle  on
Bpeeus,l ation.  Stilc h cattle are obtaie ied at public
mark           ets, or from breeders          wh          o do not keep their
stock beyond two years. Young cattle for graz inig should have all                       the sytiptoms of health, a
clear eye, dewy Inose, and glossy long hair,
although they mnay be in low condition. Such a
conidition may be a greater loss to the breeder
who has half star ved theiln, than  t   o  the purchaser
who  may have go,rd  pa      sture to give them on sound
feeding land.  To attain full size they  should
have a strong boiie, and their appearance might
be termed raw-boned;-tthat is, the skeleton seems
l;rge in proportion to the quantity of flesh, and
irnalies a quick growing condition.   To  be a
glu,d thri-iver and attain conidition), the hair,hould
feel mossy, and the touch of the skill mellow.
The skin should not be too thin, nor feel hard
-and tight, arid it should be covered with abunidanee of lhair. A thick tail with plenty of hair
on it and at the point, indicates strength of back
174 
PASTURING CATTLE.
light soils, young beasts should always be chosen.
Of the black breeds, the hornless Aingus and
Galloways, the West Highlanders and Aberdeenshires, or a cross of all these with  short-horn
bulls, a re  kinidly feeders.    Those who              possess
pasture that will feed a heavy ox have  the advatat,ige, as they can puirchlase small stock as well
as large; bult those who have only weak land must
purchase small, and, for most profit, young stock,
and let the heavier aind aged alone to others.
necessarily produ          ce a larger quantity of fnrage
the a  an land laid ot ill andy other w ay.    It is true
tha t  the  forage  thoks  obtai ned  will  not, like  the
cereal grasses, answer immediately  for  the support of  man; bilt it nevertheless  concurs powerfully in this by producing  milk, and butter, arid
cheese, and in breeding and fattening cattle.  l,et
there be added to all these advantages of what
may be called a permanent vegetations, that  the
cost ()f keeping it il  ordler is infinitely less, ar:d
that there is 11o risk to be ran from failures of
7crops, and the vast advaintages of meado(w  or
pasture land will meet us witlh all their foree."
3785. The following observations of M. Bouissingault, oni pasturage  in geineral, and  on the
eftfcts produced by pasture grass on the size
and condition of cattle in several countries on
the Conutinenit, are interesting.  " In those countries," hlie observes, "the nature of whose climiate        t
is favourable to pasturage, the rearing of cattle
presents immnense advanitages, but the aiimnals
can only be fattened in those that are the most
fertile.  The meadow that suffices for the growth
and keep of a bullock, will not always bring the
aiiinial into condition for the butcher.  Those
countries where  the climnate is mnioist, and l,ing
droughts rarely felt-where neither the suiimmer
heats nor winter colds are excessive-the conditions in tfact, which are met with in the beautiful
pasture lands of England in especial, are those
that  prove  most  favo    tirable to the rearing  and
feeding of cattle. The pasture lands of Nermandy and Brittany in France, of Switzerland,
Holland, several of the provinces watered by
the Rhiine, &c., are also remarkable  for their
luxuriant herbage.  In such situations, and with
sucelh advantages, the grand object t,f the farmer
is the production and fattening of cattle.
3787. Th ese  prelimin ar y  observations o f Wn.
Boussilgalt sge st fvra few remarks  on the prlopriety of  ha.vilig sofne mwo adow land, as l e ale
the farmers in Eniglanid name what in Scotland
is c al led  perequan ient    pasture, on  every arable
farn; and were  those observations  absolutely
applicable to all situations, they would go far to
satictioni the practice  which pre vails in Englanid,
of havinig a large proportion  of  the counitrv in
meadow, whether the soil be re ally f it ted to grow
permanent pasture.   However well suited  the
climate of Englasn d  may be    for  the gr owth  of
meadow grass, there is l to question   that much of
the land of Eiiglanrd is kept ill meadow which is
unsuited for it; fur that soil' is certainly not
suitable  which  grows  coarse  rank  herbage,
equally  unfit for good  pasture axnd lay, anid
which is inore occupied with rushes than anly
other sort of plants. Whatever use slach soils
may  be after beinig draiined, and worked, and
made to grow Filee plants, they are iii their
present state unfit to be meadow land.
3788. The practice of Scotland encourages the
opposite extreme of having no meadol(w at all, on
land which  the plough can make arable, and the
practice may have taken the  strong root it has
as a consequence of the general poverty ot the soil,
which impo.ses the  conviction that tio naturally
poor soil is capable of growi)g good permanellt
pasture.   Permnanienit grass of some  kind is  nio
doubt grown oi manaly places ill Scotland, but uriless such pasture is capable of being converted
into hay (r pasture, as the farmer pleases, it is
not entitled to the character of a permanent pasture that will fatteni stock.
3786. " Wherever it has been possible to lay
down  extensive and productive  iteadlows, it is
now beginning to be clearly understood that the
introduction of even the best system of rotation
were to make a false application of agricultural
science.   In my opinion, there is no10 system  of
rotation, however well conceived  and carried
out, which will stand comparison, in point of productiveitess, witlh a nlatural nmeadow, favourably
situated and properly attended to.  The reason
of this is obvious, and  follows from  the  very
principles whicih we have laid down  in treating
of rotatiions.  The whole object ill the best systemn of lhusbandry, is to snake the earth produce
the largest p)s-ibility  of organic matter in a
given tilme. But in such a system we are                     limited
by the climate, inasmuclh as we are obliged so
to arrange matters that our crops shall always
attain to complete maturity; the consequence of
which is, that with all our paiiins the soil remrains
unproductive during a certain   unumber of weeks
and months towardls the end of autumn, in the
early sprilng, and thiroutgh the whole of winter.
But upon meadow lands vegetation is incessant;
the winter, even, does  not interrupt it completely; it still revives and miakes progress in
the bright days; anti in sprillg it proceeds when
thie mtean temperature is but a few degrees above
thie freezing po)itt of water, and never ceases
until it is checked again by the severer cold of
winter.  It is therefore easy to obtain convic tion that a given surface of meadow land must
3789. It was once a grea t  desire of   the Berwickshire, as it still is of  the Northuniberlatid
farmier, to have at least one field on the  farm of
good  permianeint pasture, and the best land was
chosen to be converted to such a purpose.  Experiem're had proved  that large  oxen would  not
feed ripe but on old grass, and the farmer who
desired to feed oxen of extraordinary weight
couldl not accoimplish his end uniiless lie had pasture in summer tor his beasts that would feed to
a great weiglht. But after it was fould to be more
profitable to feed cattle fat at as early  ani age ad
practicable, ard which can be easily accomplished
on turnips and sown grasses, with the assistance
of oil-cake and linseed meal, the old permanent
pasture was no longer required, in as tar as  the
fattening of heavy  oxen  was  concerned; and
the consequence was,:tliat much of it was plough.
175 
PRACTICE-SUMME,R.
requirel to fttten an ox of meidium size. On those
of  the  third quality, a surface of 3720 square
yards, (aboutt three roods,) is deemed necessary
to fatten a small ox.
ed ulp and thrown into the ordinary  rotation
of the f,ran.  Still old grass has one use which
the extension of new has not yet providedit formied the rankest and tklckest pasture iln
autuniii, long after that from the sown grasses had
ceased to grow and become bare. This iniconvenietnce attending the sown grasses, has partly
been met by pasturing them after the grailn crop
has been removed in autumn, and partly by the
extension and early  production of the  turniip.
An old lea is an excellent winter walk for ewves
in laimb, andi a few turiups strewed upon it are
kept cleani in the worst weather.
3794. " M. Dubois calculates  the quantity of
grass fodder consumed by an ox during the eight
rmoniths when he is fattening, as equivalent to
6600 lb. of dry  hay, (equal to 300 stones, of
22 lb. to the stone;) this is at least the quantity
that the extent of meadow required to fatten one
ox would produce. The average ration of green
forage each day is, therefore, equivalent to about
27 lb. of hay, a  quantity which appears small,
and which would be so ill effect, were  niot the
oxen kept so long in the, meadows. M. Dubois,
indeed, observes, that in the stall, with a ration
composed of from 11 lb. to 13 lb. of linseed oilcake, and 26 lb. of hay, an ox will become sufficiently fat for the butcher in 70 days, and will
acquire nearly the same weight that lie would
have gained  in  the course of  seven or eight
mon i  ths i  the meadows.  There is no thing surprisinig in this fact, inasmuch as the ration mentioned by M. Dubois, in our mode of viewing it,
is equivalent in nutritive value to at least 81 lb.
weight of lay; the quantity of oil-cake alone is
enough to supply a good pound weight of fat
a-day.
3790. In relating the mode of pasturage followedl in some of the countries of Europe, M.
Boussiu,gault goes on to say, that "oIn the banks
of the Rhine, in Holland, in the neighbonirhood
of Artheiiii, the meadows are depastured during
one year, and cut, and their produce made         i       nt        o
hay the following year, and so on alternately.
The cattle are fed in the house with the hay durilig the winter.  Thley are driven  out into the
pasture in May.   Ii  the Low Countries, it has
been found that to fatten a large ox, a surface of
meadow land, of about 9960 square yards, (more
than two acres,) upon which it will pasture durinig five or six lmonths, was  necessary.  In the e
bottoms of greatest fertility near Diesseldorf, it
has been calculated that to keep ad cow, all extent of surface equal to about 1800 square yards
(1-2 rood) was necessary.
3795. " In Old Friesland, where the pastures
are excellent results are obtained which  may be
compared with those of the meadows i the valley of the Auge; an ox of from 770 lb. to 990 lb.
weight, (about  70 stone,) will be pushed to a
weight of from 1 100 lb. to 1650 lb., (about 1 18
stoabe,) oin a surface of meadow  land between
3000 and 3600 square yards (nearly 3 roods) in
extent.
3791. " In couintriecs which possess rich pasture
lands, oxen are put to tatten immediately upon
the richest of them.  In the valley of the Auge,
in Normanicly, these meadows are designated as
liherbages.  A  ime;d(ow of this kiud requires a rich
damlip soil, cpable of retaillning moisture.  It is,
therefore, to a, ceisid(lerable  extelit dependent
upon its subsoil.  It the district mentioned, the
soil of the pastures Con sists of a  thick layer of
vegetable iiiould, restiiig ipoii (1'  it is, therefore, very rare that this meadow land feels the
effect of drought; it is, indeed, onlly in the early
sprilng that the pasture upon such lald  sometimes
fails, iii whichl case the stock  uiiist of course be
assisted with hay, the qluantity beiniig gradually
diminished as the season advances. 
3796. " In the meadows of  the  Auge, the fattenitig goes on even duxring the winter; the oxen
are received into tie pa,stures between the 15thi of
September and the 15th of November, and the
animals pass the winter ill the open  field; but
they receive from 12 lb. to 26 lb. of hay a-(ay
until the month  of April,  when the grass has al.
ready grown sufficiently to suffice for their keep.
These oxen are generally fat ard readly for the
market in July."*
3792. "M 1. Dubois finds that a IC2la ox, weighing 473 lb., after fartteiiing in tlhe valey of the
Auge, will weigh 763 lb., so that he  will have
gained  290 lb., (or 1 lb. 3 oz  a-day, iii eight
months, or 1 lb. 6 oz. a-day  it                           e sevean montlics.)
The degree of fatness attained ii tl,is district is
prodigious.   M.  Dubois  mentimns oxen wlhiclhi
weighed  wheii  fat  1760  lb., upwards  of 125
stolies; and he speaks of onie whih  attauied  tihe
enlorinous  weight of 2750  lb., upwards of 196
stolies.
3797. I am not aware of any experiments haviIng been purposely undertaken, in titis country,
to asceitail  the increase of' fles   by oxen diirirng
th e grazin    g season.   Fattening cattle are not
kept above five moiitlhs oln g   rasp  trom the end of
May to the end of  Octoler, or 153 days., Sir
John  Sinielair menitions that  Galloway  cattle,
when kept ill winter so ams to maintain the  conidition they had acquiired on the pasture of the
previous sjumnmler, lut oil  all their  increased
weight  ol the gr' ass alone,  and this increase
varies with the age of' the cattle: those from 3
to 3i years  old, increase 1A  stones; and those
front 4 to 4x years old, increase 13 stonies. lie
adds, " Almost all these several additions are
gained, according to the Galloway report, during
3793. " It is calculated tha-,t, in the maosof
greatest fertility, a surface of 2760 square yards,
(more than half an acre,) are required to fatteiin a
large ox.  On meadows of mniediiiiii fertility, a
surface of 4680 square yards (uearly ar. acre) are
I Boussingault's.1i-ra/ Econoxny-Law'a translation, p. 619-21.
0
176 
PASTURING CATTLE.
The pock makes its appearance both on the udder
and the teats of the cow; and as milking must
be performed frequently by all the teats, the
operation is very painful to the  cow, and she
becomes troublesome to milk.   The pustules are
soon rubbed off by the operation, and their sites
become skinless sores.  Nothing but the utmost
gentleness will   prevent  the    cow    becoming    distracted under the torture.  After having run its
course, the disease declines, the sores become less
acute, and heal up by degrees.  The disease fortunately is not of frequent occurrence; I have
only seen it once in the course of a fifteen years'
experience, and it affected all the cows I had at
the time-9 in number.  I found an efficacious
ointment in affording relief to the cows when
afflicted with the cow-pox, sore teats, or chapped
teats.  It consists of fresh butter melted and
burnt il a frying-pan, and mixed with half its
quantity of tar.  While hot it is poured into a
gallipot, and applied cold to the affected parts.
The tar has the effect of keeping off the flies,
while the burnt butter never becomes dry.  The
ointment is washed off with warm water, and the
udder and teats dried with a soft linen cloth, before milking commences; they are again bathed
with warm water after milking, again dried with
the soft linen cloth, and the ointment again applied.
the                          six months of the grass season."  I  t ake the
grass season at five months; and at the above
increased weights, the younger ox gained just
I lb. a-day, and the older one 1 lb. 3 oz. a-day
on pasture, which agrees pretty near with the
results stated by  M.  Dubois, as having been
obtained in the pastures of the valley of the
Atige (3792.*)
3799. The teats and udder of cows are at times
subject to certain complaints in summer; and
these are chapped teats, sore teats, warty teats, and
cow-pox.  Chapped teats consist of cracks across
the teats, which, when drawn downwards, the
cracks are forcibly opened, and inflict pail. on the
animal, which then becomes troublesome to milk.
The easiest mode of milking them while under
this complaint, is that desc.ribed by nievling  in
(2258,) while stripping aggravates the conmplainit
(2257.) I do not know the certain cause of thli
complaint, but suppose it to arise from leaving
the teats in a wet state after nilking; and perliaps cows lying upon wet ground may have the
samie eitect.
3800. Sore teats are, when blotches of skin
comne off the teats, and their fleshy substance becolimes sore by exposure to the air.  This coinplaint may arise from the milker who strips seizing a particular part of the teat too hard, where
all iiiflaminatioii being set up, terminates iii a,
sloughiug of the skin, and cot,seqteiit exposure of
the fleshy substance to the air.
3801. Warty teats, I conceive, mlay originate
in the skin of the teats being ruffled by too Much
force in stripping, or by too lolg a nail ul),nIl tlhe
tl           i     i     iimib; and the warts produce d   in consequ ence
m         ay                   be exuiberances of the skin i  c overilg the
in juired parts.  I am not slre that these eoo ijectur             e    s, for they are nothing more, wil l  explain the
caus                 e     s of these complaints; but I  believe w]eni
c       a      r       e        is used not to abrade the skin  or pinch thie
substance  of the teats, but to keep th            em c lean
and                             dry, none of them ever occur.
of the fl         y  which oirigiates  these  ladrve. It i
the cow-pole ihich haas the  abdomen  atteriutte   d
behindle, and  tertoipoatint in  a       black-co lotruced
style, composed of cylinders which slide into each
other like the tube.s of a telescope, as seen at b,
but  greatly magniified.   It is  not well  ascerta~ined whether the fly merely lays  her eggs on
the hair or skill, and the larva, when disclosed,
is left to force its  own way beneath it, or a perforatio-n is made by the fly and the egg deposited
with it. That the latter is the case seems most
probable, as the ovipositor b seems constructed
* Sinclair's General Peport of &Wlaad, vol. iii. p. 90.
177
3798. Cattle are subject to cei-y few diseases
vleite?tpon qrass in summer. Sometimes they
receive a chill in a sudden change of the weather
to wet and cold; but were sheds provided in
every field, probably no cliills would be f'elt, as
cattle never suffer from cold when they have
shelter at will. The immediate effects of such
a chill is a staring coat and Iiide-botind skin,
which may be removed by a cordial drink, composed of one quart of gruel and one bottle of
ale in a lukewarm state, in which has been dis.,:olved some treacle, and spiced with 1 oz. of
singer and 1 oz. of caraway seeds ground fine.
The drink is administered with the dritiking-horn
(1481) and the animal kept in a shed for a night
or two. The ultimate danger from such a chill
is inflammation of the lungs, whili in most cases
is a fatal disease.
3803. Warbles.-Cattl'e are not unfreqtiently
troubled, towards the latter end of the feediiig
season, with what are named warbles or womtnals,
that is, small swelled protuberances aloii- the
cbine, caused by the larvae of the on, trus borig,
the cattle-but. Fig. 312, a, gives a represeittatiort
Fig. 312.
c                       b
TFIE CATTLE-BOT AND JIARVA-(ESTRUS BOVIS.
3802. As to the cow-pox, it is a constitutional
disease, and cannot be either induced or retarded.
x
VOL, 11. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
for the express purpose.  Cattle feel great pain,
and become almost furious, when attacked by
this fly.  The larvae c are of an oblong shape;
the body divided into 11 segments by transverse
bands, which again are crossed at the sides by
longitudinal lines; and on each side of all the
segments there is a distinct spiracle or breathinghole.  The young larva is found to occupy a
small cyst or cell within the substance of the
skin, which gradually enlarges with its growth;
while the pus, which is abundantly secreted by
the irritation, serves for its subsistence.  " The
tumour is never entirely closed around it," says
Mr Duncan, "there being always a smnall aperture on the upper side.  On attaiuing its full
growth, the larva makes its exit by the aperture
just mentioned, and the wound speedily closes up
and is healed; but the hide nlever recovers its
original strength, as afterwards appears when it
comes under the operations of the tanner.  It is
remarked by Reaumur as a singular circumstance,
that the larva commonly issues from the tumour,
to assume the pupa state, at a very early hour
in the morning, and thereby avoids many of the
dangers to which it would be otherwise exposed.
The warbles are so conspicuous on cattle, that if
searched for scarcely any could be overlooked;
and they may be killed with the utmost ease by
simple pressure of the finger and thumb, or byv
,pouring some corrosive liquid into the aperture
.of the tumour.  They are seldom so numerous
.but that a short time would suffice to inspect a
Pawhole herd, and if this were done simultaneously
at different places, an entire district might in a
,hort time be nearly or aliogether freed from this
,.pest."*
3805. Pleuro-pneumonia.- Epidenmic zootic
disease s have  more   o r  l  ess  frequently  ravaged
th    e      catt le  of many  countries from the eariiestperio        d  of  hist ory. Dur ing the pa st century, they
have  made  havoc in several  of  the co untrlies of
Europe,  especially in the pas toral pla ins of the
Ukraine; atd of late years-oinly since the permission to import live stock- they have crossed
the  ocean  that  begirts our island, and have
visited our establishments of stock with fearful
severity. None of the epidemics have been so
direful il their effects as what was formerly denominated epidemic catarrh, then murraini, and
now pleuro-pneumonia. From the earliest accounts of th is  disease,    we find  th e predisposing
cause attributed  to ma rshy an d  woody districts,
or where perfect under-draining did not exist,
combined with exposure to sudden changes of
the atmosphere, and a half-starved method of
feeding.   The  influence of these predisposing
causes is now acknowledged by agriculturists
and veterinarians; but, however  ill-ventilated
byres, want of drainage, dirt, and nastiness of
every description, may aggravate the force of the
disease whell it exists, these cannot be said
to be the predisposing causes, since they all existed in their full strength, and in the same
places, before the disease was  so well known.
Where are ill-ventilated byres to be found in the
Ukraine, the cradle of the disease? The truth is,
the complaint is found in this country in the best
managed and best constructed dairy-lhouses of
the country, as well as in the worst; and since
this is the case, we  must look  to more general
influences than  those  to be found in locally
ill-constructed houses, for the origin of the
disease; especially as exposure to cold, with
bad food, and little of it, are in theIm-selves
quite sufficient to originate an affection of
the lungs, which pleuro-pneuimonia is, and
nothing  more; and which can be cured as certainly as anything can be so, provided its approach is detected, and remedial measures
applied in proper time.
3804. A very tormenting insect to cattle on
the Highland moors, though it is scarce in the
,lowlands of Scotland, and far from being rare in
'England, is the cattle cleg, Tabanus bovinus. It
-is about one inch in length, being the most bulky
>of our native Diptera.  When the proboscis is
~fixeal in the skin, and emploved in pumping the
blood, the insect can in general be easily got at,
:and killed with a stroke of the hand.  The instrumetnt by which the skin is pierced, and the
blood extracted, is of curious and complicated
structure.  The larva a,fig. 313,is long and cylin                    Fig. 313.
3806. The functional vessels of the lungs, as
remarked by Dr James Mercer, are three ini number: the air vessels-the pulmonic vascular substance,the parenchyma —and the investing serous
membrane, the pleura.   All these vessels  are
subject to inflammation.
3807. The  inflammation of the mucous lining
of the bronchial tubes and air cells, is called bronchitis; that of the pulmonic vascular substance,
or the parenchyma of the lung, is called )neumo.
nia; and that of the investing serous membrane
of the lung is called pleurisy, or inflammation of
the chest. Pleuro-pneumnortia, is, therefore, inflammation of the vascular substance and  of
the investing serous membrane of the lung, comr
tAKVA AND PUPA OF THE CATTLE cLEG-TABANUS
BOVINUS.
drical, narrowing at the head into an elonga-ted cone   The body is divided into 12 rings, the
anal one being very milnte, and resembling a
,piracle; colour dirty white, the head brown and
~*hining.  The pupa b, is nearly cylindrical, of a
* Quartcrly Journal of Aqgriculture. vol. x. p. 544.
d  M-agazinc of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 359.
178
greyish-brown colour, the segments fringed on
the posterior margins with grey bairs. The aital
segment is small, and armed with 6 sharp scaly,
points c, which seem to enable the pupa to push
its head above the surface of the skiii.t
-7 -
,.,,k 
PASTURING CATTLE.
bined-acombination attended with great danger
to, and even rapid destruction of life.
mediable debility would rapidly follow. Promiscuous bleeding must be avoided; for, without
careful analysis of the symptoms, bleeding will
hasten the fatal debility of the systerm. After
the bleeding give a purge of 1 lb. of Epsom salts
I1 drachm of tartar emetic, and 2 or 3 drachms of
ginger, mixed il water; and the dose should be
repeated every five or six hours, until purgation
has been produced. When this has been accomplished, let an anodyne diaphoretic mixture be
given regularly, at stated intervals of four or five
hours, consisting of half an ounce of laudanum, 2
drachms of tartar emetic, and  2 pinits of water,
and thereby keep up the diaphlioretic or sweating
effect.  The animal should be carefully removed
from its companions, into a clean, comfortable
loose- box, or outhouse, free from sudden chanlges
of the atmosphere.  Cover the body with a war m
woollen rug to prevent the too rapid evaporation
of  the sweat, which would  chill the aijimnal.
Warin bran mashes, and tepid meal and water
should be left beside it, and a little of anv
slightly stimulating food that may be at hand.
Should symptoms of debility remain, tonics
are required, beginning with camomile tea, and
giving stronger ones  a s  the  strength increases,
as the infusions of gentian, columba, caicarella,
&c.*
3808. The symptoms of these three species of
inflammation  are  shortly the  following:-Of
bronchitis, breathing quick and free; cough at
first short and soft, then loud, harsh, rough, and
prolonged; pulse, frequent, but full and soft.  Of
pneumonia, breathing weaker, slower,  stifled;
cough, short and stifled; pulse, small, weak, and
oppressed.   Of pleurisy, breathing short, and
only partial; cough, short and catching; pulse,
rapid, hard, and wiry.  As long as the symptoms indicate only bronchitis, a cure may be
easily effected; but if neglected, and allowed to
run into pneumonia, danger becomes imminent,
and  rapidly passes into pleurisy, when  death
ensues.
3809. In every sort of inflammation of the
lungs, there are  three stages-conigestion, red
liepatisation, and gray or white hepatisation.  In
congestion are found engorgement and pure inflammatiori.  In red hepatisation is no circulation of air, no crepitation. In gray hepatisation,
lymph is effused throughout the substance of the
lungs, which are marked with black patches,
caused by thie colouring matter of the blood being
imprisoned in the vessels.  In this last case, recovery is hopeless.
3814. " The grand principles which ought to
regulate our treatment of pleuro-plieumovnia, and
w hich, when properly pursued, will guide us to
tthhe best and most scientific mode of combating
the disease, may be thus set forth in a few words,"
observes Mr Finilay Dun, veterinary surgeon.
" Pursue warily the antiphlogibtic course; subdu ae  the  inflammation, and reduce the fever, with
the least possible expenditure of the strength of
the patient; resort to veiaesection only when the
symptoms indicate a state of active iiflainmatioii; avoid  pushing too far the exhibition of
sedatives,  contra-stimulants, or  any depleting
measures whatsoever; rely miostly on the use of
tonics, and subsequently of stimulants; separate the animal fromi his fellows-place him, if
possible, in a loose box, and keep hirt cool, clean,
and comfortable; keep the bowels in good colldition with treacle given at intervals; check the
slightest appearance of diarrhcea by giving flour
gruel, arnd, if necessary, astringents.  Where the
animal is reduced, and manifests much weakness,
blisters, rowels, and setons are to be condemned,
as producing irritati(on and increasing the hectic
fever.  In short, let the treatment of tihe disease
be guided by a mature consideration of the symptoms; and, while attending to the more important remedial measures, do not neglect  what is
aptly called by Dr Armstrong'the small artillery of physic;' endeavour, by the combination and co-operation of various mreans, to arrive
at the main  point-the grand object of your
treatmentt-thie eradication of  disease and  thle
restoration of health."t
3810. Casesof pleuro-pneumonia,which assume
the distinct forms either of pneumonia, pleurisy,
or bronchitis, will generally terminate favourably,
while those characterised by prostration of
strength and typhoid fever, will be much, more
d ifficult uf treatment, and often terminate fatally.
Whiere animals are exposed to E. winds and
drizzling rains, the symptoms seem to approach
lieafXer to those characterising pure pneumonia;
while, oil the other hand, dry, cold weather, and
sharp, severe wiilds, cause the symptoms of pleurisy to become more apparent.
3813. Whenever the disease appears characterised by the earliest symptoms, decided treatmenit must be had recourse to. Bleed at once,
and carry it to such an extent as to make a decided impression on the circulation.  If this is
effected, and the symptoms become moderated,
the bleeding must not again be repeated, as irre
* Journal of A49riculture for March 1848, p. 313-16.
t Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 64.
179
3811. Young animals seem less predisposed
to pleuro-pueumoiiia than sucli as are nearer
maturity; aiid fa-t cattle are attacked lessfreqtietitly than those in a backward condition.
Btit of all sorts of stock inilk-cows are the most
liable to this disease.
3812. Much difference of opinion exists conceriiiii,-, the propriety of using the flesh ur milk
of affected with pleuro-ptieumonia. In
the first,.-ta-ges of the disease, before the iiiflamniatury fever has run its course, both the flesh
and iiiilk may safely be used, but not so when
the fever has assumed a typhoid form.
381 5. In summer, " inflammation of tl,.e 1 —iryiix
frequently takes place in cattle, tire difrsase, at 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
tlie same time, spreading from the delicate lining
nmembrane to thile nearest parts.  In this way
lymphl is effused, and the play of the parts impeded.  Sometimes the smaller cartilages themselves are altered, being thickered and  cointorted, and small tumours are apit to be produced,
both withlin the  tube  and without it.  The
marked symptoms are local pain, difficulty in:
breathing and swallowing, and general fever:
the treatment required is venesec(,tioii, and the
other parts of the antiphlilogistic regimen.
more comalete command t      han       anything
else ov er the most ungovernable bull. In
case a bull becomes irritative and troublesome as b  e- advances  in years, whicht is
often the case,  the ring furn ishes the loe ans
of curbit g him at    once, whe n it would
otllerwise be impossible to  get  a  hold of
his nose.   Ital a lso afo rds  an easy mea ns of
suspending a   ligltt chain  f r om i t to  the
ground, uponO  which  the fore-feet of the
bull  are  apt to tramp, whe never i he a ttempts to run for ward, and by thus suddetly jerkping his nose, li e cheks hoinself
in an in stant.   A  young bull may  foil ow
a personn    t   d at              him in sport, ad te  run a t  hi in
earnest.   I was once encountered by  a 2year-old in the midst of   a past ure r fieldl.
Feeling i t vain to reach   a fence before i e
could run at me, I determined on standing
,s t ill t o face   him armed with   a couple  of
large stones.   Whenl  he came within  five
yards of me, scraping the  ground with    his
for e-feet, with   hi s  hei d close to the
ground, and bellowing   with apparent
anger, I struck him a blow  w ith a stone
on the forehead, between the horns, on
which he  started up, became silent, slhook
Iris head, turned, and ran away in a trot.
Not content with defeating  him in this
manner, he was taken to the steadinig, and
anew rope fastened to the rinig.  I led
him to the hiiglhroa(d, and punislhed hiiml so
by checking, him by the nose, that he never
again attempted to mnedille with any  one.
To keeep  him in constant clheck, a cl)ain
was suspended from the ring, with its end
trailing on the ground.
3816. "Turnours occurring in this locality in
cattle constitute the disease called clyers, which,
though it may not for a time interfere with fattening, yet speedily inijuires health."*
ON TIlE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER.
3818.  Whe n             a   numb er  of bull-calves
are broua,ht up  togetleer, they  shoulld be
,razed by to hemselves            on the  best go e.rss the
farm affords, or they may go with the cows,
or with  the ox-calves            o       while the  (ueyctalves go with tjhe cows.   Anglowv           they
slhoul Inot    be  alloa-  ed to accoipany thle
quey-cealvesc.   I          knew  a in in stance  of a
quey cal f being stinted at as e arly an ate
a-s to bear a calf at 15 nmontlhs old; and I
knew another quey-calf, one o f miy own,
thiat was so injured by a young  bull-calf,
tloat she was  thereafterren.1ered itcal-oable
of impregnation, althouth her seasson recurred periodically.  To avoid sutc! casltalties, it is well to keep young anima-,ls (,f
diffeleret sexes, capable of breedingi, aparit.
A siongle bull-calf may go will the cows
or with the young oxen.
3820. Fig,. 314 represents a bull's ring.
It consists of two semiiicircles constituiting
Fig. 3l14.         a circle or ring,
j,,,ined together
at one  end]i a,
wit-I -, r-ivet
f  r  a    \    I ~pssed tlroluIllgh
! 4 t; ~~~~the enlslpl.Sllilmg
'J,oer eaheli otlier,
aift-er  eacll enTd
is r~edui~ced to
ha-lf' t'IC  thiicklTIFIE IJLL'S ItINI I.N A STATF, ness of tlhe rin)g,
T O,E INSERTED IN  mIS,NOSE. and acting as a
hing(e; and( the otlher two  ends  b also-lap,
and are fastened togetlher witlh two couniter-sunik screws.   The  ring is opened, as
381.9. Year-old buills should be furnislhed
with a r-ing in their nose.  This instrumnent is useful not only in leading thlenm,
hut of keeping their temper in subjection.
I have no doubt that such a ring affords a
* Dick's MIanual of Veterinary Science, p. 76.
180
3817. Bull-calves, we have sai,], (2290,)
should I)e early calved, have good milk
en,ery (la.y, for at least four months, to
stren,tlien their bone, and until the grass is
(litite able to support thei-ii. and to rii,-tintain
tije fii)e condition tliev have ac(it-tired on the
iii;.!. k. Tf tl,-e Mothers of the bull-calves did
n)t -lfl't)rd sufficient i-nilk for them, it was
-tlie practice of that very eniiiient bi-eeder,
the late Mr Robertson of Lad kirk in
Bei-%vicksliire, to leave cows in milk to
supply the deficiency. 
SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.
shown  in the figure, before it is passed
thlroughl the hole in the bull's nose.
takes the bull by the -nose with his left
hand, and feeling inwardly with his fingerss,
past the soft part of the nostrils, until lihe
reaches the cartilage or septum of the nose,
h lie distends the orifice of the nostrils, so
that the hot iron may pierce clear through
the septum  without touching the skin of
the nostrils or his own fingers, taking care
to pass the iron in a direction exactly parallel to the front of the nose, otherwise the
hole will be pierced obliquely.  Imniediately after  the tapering  rod has  been
passed as far as to make the hole sufficiently large for the ring, and the wound
seared enough, the operator then takes the
ring opened, still holding by the bull's nose
with his left hand, passes one end  of it
gently through the hole, and, on bringing  the two ends together, lets go the
nose with the left hand, and taking hold of
the ring with the same, -still to command
the bull, puts one screw in after another,
and secures each firmly with tile screwdriver.  He then turns the ring round in
the hole, to feel that it moves easily, and
to see that it hangs evenly, after all which
the bull is released. The ring should appear in the nose as represented in the por trait of the Slhort-horii bull, Plate XI.
The ring should not be used  until the
wound of the nose is comipletely healed;
though it is nothing uncomnlon to see the
r inging of a bull delayed, until the time ar rives that he must be led by it for somiie particular purpose, such as the exhibition for a
premium at a show, wleii, in the attenmpt
to accustom him to be led about by the
ring immediately after the operation, every
part of the nose being still tender and
sensitive, the poor animiial is tormented.
So alarmed (do some blulls become by this
operation, that they hang back from- the
rein-rope in the riDng with such force as
to tear the ring through the nose;  but
this is an abuse of the use   of th e  roi e,
which should be slackened, and thetaiinial
relieved tfom paini, as often and until lie
learns to yield to the slightest  motion of
the rope.  On first trying to lead a bull
by the ring, the drover, who should always
be the cattleman that has charge of:him,
in whIom the  bull will place  more con fidencee than in any other person, should
not endlearour to Full tide ansimal along
after hlimlself, bult allow him to walk on
while he remains at his sidle, or goes be hlind him, with the rope in his hand.
3821. Fig. 315 shows the rin g  screwed
P. ig. 315.     together as it hangs
in the bull's nose;
the joint  a  closed,
and the  lapped ends
a ilso  closed with
the two countersunk
screws, all flush with
the  suiltface of the
ring.  The  ring  is
formied  of  quarter TaIE BULL'S,RI As   inclh rod-iron, and its
FA.ST:NED IN HIS NOSS. d(iiameter over all is
2,~ inches.  ThIe  surface should  be very
smoothly filed, and it cannot be too highly
I,olislhe(1 with sand paper. It costs 2s.
3822. The ring is put into the young
bill's nose in this manner:-It is the smith
wlh puts the ring into tie bull's nose.  Let
liin be provided with an iron rod about a
f,iet long tapering to the point, and rather
thicker than the rod of the ring.  Let a
file be near to heat the point of' this rod.
The smith should also be provided with a
small scr ew-driver.  Let a long stout cartrope be provided with a noose hitched upon
the middle, just large enough to take in
thle bull's neck like a collar.  Put the bull
into any outhouse that has a window sufficiently low to allow his head to reach       i
tlhiouglh it, though it is safer for his knees
to press his counter against a stout bar of
wood.  Slip  the top of the loop of the
rope over his head down to the counter,
)bring his breast against the window or
bar, pass the rope from  the lowest part
of his neck along the rites on each side
round hiis buttocks, like a breeching, and
bring an end through the window or over
the bar on each side of the bull, whljere
let a stout man hold on at each end of
the rope, and prevent  the bull retreating backwards from the window or bar.
d man stands on eaclh side of the biill's
bllttock, to prevent him  shifting to one
side'jr the other.  A  man also stands on
cavll side of the i)ull's head, holding oil by
the lhorn, or by the ear if he is hornless, with
oie hand, and keeping out thle nose by
supporting thie jaws with the other.  Tihe
operator Ihaviting, the iron rod given him by
an assistant, heated in the fire just red
enough to see the point in daylighlt,                he
181 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
anim nal attempts to move away.  The reinrope is fastened to the ringed end e.  The
cost of such a holder is 4s.
While so following, to relieve the animal
as much as practicable of the weight of the
rope upon  the nose, the drover should
throw the middle of the rope over the
bull's back, and retain a hold of its end. 
Should the bull offer to step backwards,
a slight tap on the shank with a stick
will prevent  him;  and  should  hlie attempt to run forward, a  miere check by
thie rope will cause him to slacken his pace.
On no account should the drover attempt
to struggle with the bull on the first occasion; on the contrary, lie should soothle and
pacify him, and endeavour to inspire him
with confidence in himself and the rope,
and to show him that hlie will receive no
lhurt if he will but walk quietly along.  A
bull soon learns what is intended for him
when lie is properly dealt with; but, if torinented merely that the drover may slow
his power over him, it may  be  a long,
time, if ever, before  lie will learn  to
behave quietly when led.
3824. The leading-rein is best fastened
Fig. 317.    to a ring or holder by
F means of a spring-hlook
%w*;x    swivel, such as fig. 317.
tif']':~;i  The movable part  a is
Wig!.      it2 jointed at d, and kept in
~:~    // t  its place by  the spring
behind  it.   When the
Hi: t |    hook is desired to be at               taeled to the ring, the
thumb presses on a, whictl
l yields,and allows the ring
d             to be taken in the circular               wvil of the hook. The
rein rope b is spliced on
the end of the ring of the
hook.  This ring, turning
upoIn the swivel c, pre               vents the rope twisting.
El _ GNU *1......!_!....1_s  1,1._s l~_l
3823. A  useful instrument for leading
a bull by occasionally, when hlie has not
been ringed or for leading a cow to the
bull at sonme distance, or for taking away
any single beast, and retaining a power
over it, is what  is named  the  bullockIolder.  It consists of iron in two parts
jointed,  fig. 316,   lwhere a is the joint
Fig. 316.     which permits the two
iii m c eparts           to        open    as far
~~~as to a l low       the                    two
prov  of, ra     smnv   all balls at b   to em         b to be  br ace the nost        ril         s and
take a gentle hold of
&7  |i,   the septum r    by mean       s
of t              h        e pinching s                             crew
c. T         his                              eitherb of bul                     lock-lholder allows tihe
points b to be screwed
to every degree of
tightness  until  they
meet; and in my opi                     ni;,n, is so far objecTIIE BULILOCK-HOTDER~ tioenal~le, as the screwing may be carried, by a rash hand, to hurt
the animnal severely when the instrument
is moved  in the least degree to either
side.  Another form I have used, anml approve of, which never allows the two knobs
b to be screwed closer than just to embrace
the septum of the nose, from which the
bolder swings at ese, whlilst it lol(ds the
nose with sufficient firmness whenever the
!!    L     3825. A bull is never
in  a better position for
serving  cows  t.hatn when
pr  grazing with theiii in tlJhe
SWIVeLLED SPRING- field, (2233.)  I believe
eHOOK.      it to be a fact, that a bull
which is constantly amongst cows in a
fielhi never teases or abuses thleni, like one
taken to tlhem for the occasion out of his
own house. But a bull can only be left in
the field when lie is intended to serve all
the cows.  It may be necessary, however,
in the course adopted for the iniprovenient
of stock, that different bulls shall serve
particular cowns, in whichli case no single bull
can have access to tlihemi all, and  cannot
therefore be grazed in the sanie field. When
a bull goes amongst cows he is usually quite
safe to approach, and is quiet withjin the
fence; but one is always troublesome  by
himiself in a paddock  or field, or even
amongst oxen, and su-chl is his desire to be
withl the cows, that few fences are able to
retain hiimi.  He is constantly restless,
often bellows, especially where he can snuff
the cows at a distance.  In such circumstances he should either be confined to his
182 
SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.
liammniel or byre, and supported on cut
forage of some kind, or allowed to be with
the cows hlie is to serve in a separate field
fromi thie rest.
should nevner be allowed to herd together,
as they will inevitably fight; and a serious
bull-fight is a terrific sight, seldom  terminating before the infliction of severe
injuries on both combatants.
3826. When confined, bulls, like watchdlog,s always kept on  the chain,. dislike the approach  of any one  but their
keeper; and even a keeper has been known
to fall a victim  to  his resentmnent of
others.  Some bulls become so prone to
mischief, when constantly confined, that
they will attemnpt to run at every person,
when brought out of the house to serve at
cow-the presence, or smtell of the cow in
heat apparently having so nmaddening an
effect upon them as to render themn reckl    ess. Air  and daylight together seem to
have an intoxicating effect upon them.  I
have obser ved that Alderney bulls are particnilarly reckless in such circumiistances.
Besidles thi     e  ro be or  tchain  in      the  ring, a
safe       precaution for the       keep       er      in such a
case, is to have a stout stick  about 6 feet
lofg, with a swivelled spring-look, like
fig. c17, on its end to fasten into the ring,
avichetl g   iv    e      s him a              better command over
th      e        ring  than the rope merely;   and  i      t also
enable     s  h  im to keep   the bull off to a           certain
distance, and to  prevent his making a rush
without givin g warning of his intention by
pushing the stick.  tA nmode recommended
of tanling a savage bull when at liberty,
consists of the action of an apparatus,
attached to the point of one of the horns,
which pulls the ring so tight in the nose
by means of a short chain, that whben the
bull sets his head to use his horns, its
action imminiediately causes himn desist from
it.*
38829. Bulls can serve a large nuniber of
cows in a season, amounting to 60; but
where a bull is confined to the service of
cows on the owner's farm, he will be restricted to a much smaller number, as few
farmers of the mixed husbandryhave above
20 breeding cows, with a few heifers,
though most permit the service of a certain
number of cows of the nei,hboirhood.
3830. When  bulls gain premiums at
agricultural shows, a common condition
imposed upon them is, to serve a certain
number of cows in a prescribed district.
The number of the cows is generally restricted to 60, and the fee for service is
fixed at from 10s. 6d. to a guinea each,
besides a small gratuity to the keeper of
the bull.  The bull is kept at a convenient
station, and not travelled, the cows being
brought to him.
3831. On  carse farms it is  not   necessary  to
keep bulls; the number of cows being kept for the
purpose of merely giving milk to the farmer's
house and the servants, it is more convenient to
purchase cows giving milk than to keep them,
and put them to the bull.
3832. On farms in the neighbourhood of towns,
the dairy husbandry is so far practised as to
have cows to supply new milk to customers in
town; and the practice is to milk the cows as lowg
as they give milk profitably, and feed them, aini
purchase others newer u  calved or about to calve,
rather than to put them to the bull. Bulls are
unnecessary in such a case.
382a. Bulls  often  display  a  natural
fondness for calves.  A calf of mine, afflict,e(l w-ithl scouring, lay for the most part of
the day ia the cow pasture from weakness.
Wh?ene'ver the proper medicine  for its
state was brou,ght into the field, the bull
c~.nie and watched the proceeding with
interest, and on the calf being left, went to
it as  if to examine w he ther or not it had
sustained iuiury, an d then went his way.
He %%as often seen licking, the calf with his
tongue, and persuading it to rise to its feet.
3833. On farms distant from towns practising
other than the mixed husbandry few cows may
be kept, and these mor e  for the pur p ose of supplyingr milk than for breeding; nevertheless they are
not sold every year, calves being taken from them
and fed as veal, for which purpose the cows are
kept in calf, and bulls are required.
3834. On pastoral farms bulls are always kept
to serve the breeding cows, and their number is
in proportion to the extent of the breeding stock.
The cows bringing up their calves at their feet,
the bulls accompany them in the pasture, and
attend them as they require their services. So
promiscuous is the intercourse of the bulls with
the females in the herds of upland pastures, that
* Journal of the Englishl Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 559
183
3828. Bulls that leave served cows 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
many of the queys are in calf as well as the cows;
and so much uncertainty attends this portion of
pastoral husbandry, that no lot of upland queys
can be purchased at the fairs in autumn with the
assurance that they are not in calf.  The assurance may be given, because the owner does n             ot
know to the contrary, and the risk is run by the
purchasers, very few of whom escape disappointment.
tity reserved foro h   o the use  of the house will
allow. The eldest calves are  off the sieetmilk by the   titre tqe  cows  go to grass,
and re cei      ve skimmed-milk with lytldax
(2278) amongst  it, aandcut   swedes an    d
hlay, until the grass be ready. The most
convenient grass -field at first   for calv es is a
contiguous       paddock,  from  whlich  they
should be brought into the court  for a fe w
nights, and receive turnips at nd lray    until
the  grasas  has safely passed  twhroeugth  them,
and  the wea ther  prov e  sufficie ntly a nild
and dry or  them to  lie ou t a ll night ton t he
gras s. The    yoiungest calves now leave
thei r  cribs R,  and pass  a few (lays in  the
court  k Plate  II., until   accustomed  to tlhe
air and sun-Ithe latter readily blistering
their ears —before they are put into the
paddock during the day,  wher tthe   y then
receive their diets of milk, and  are broti,let
into the court at night  until the  temperature permit them  to lie out all niglht
on the grass. In weaning the youngest
calves, the  milk  should  be  gradually
taken from them, without giving any
other food but grass, until they entirely
depend upon it.
3835.  ol pastoral farms  in which sheep alone
are bred, bulls are useful to keep the cows il
calf that are required to supply  milk to the
people on the farm; and such farms are too far
removed from towns to make it convenient for
the farmers to purchase cows ill milk, just and
always as they are swanted.
3837. Among the instances of extraordinary
trials, those in which bulls were placed at the
bar, convicted and sentenced, are not the least
curious:-" In 1314, a bull having killed a man,
by tossing him with his horns, was brought before the judges in the province of Valois, and
indicted as a criminal, atnd,after several witnesses
had given evidence, it was condemned to be
hanged.  This sentence was confirmed  by an
order of the parliament, and carried into effect.
And we are told that an unfortunate pig, which
chanced to kill a child in Burgundy, was in like
manner solemnly tried in court, and suffered the
same punishment." * I have heard of a shepherd's
dog having been condemned in Scotland along
with his mnaster, for assisting him in a very artful
manner to steal sheep on many occasions.
3839. Tile older calves may be 4 nontl)s
old before theyare weaned; butasthe season
of grass approaches, the younger ones may
be weaned at an earlier age, being seldon
indulged with milk for mnore than 1:3 weeks.
But it should never be forgotten, that tihe
first month's good milk to a calf is of
miuchi greater importance to its future
growth and health, than at any period beyonid the 13 weeks, supported on a stinted
allowanice of inferior miiilk, and the reason
for the generous treatment is given below,
where the functions of the calf's stomach
is explained.
3838. We left the calves in the court k
Plate II., receiving  the treatment most
proper for them, until the period shouldl
arrive for weaning them from milk and
other foo(l, and causing themt  to maintain
themtselves upon grass, (2288) and (2289.)
That period hleaving arrived, we must now
proceed( to tie consideration of the best
mode of weaning tlhemtn.   It should not
exceed, in the latest case, one month after
the cows have been on grass-that is, by
the end of June; for a calf later weaned
than that period, has been too late brought
into the world to be worth belonging to
the standing stock of a farm. As cows
increase in milk after the grass has safely
passed through them, the latest calves
should have as large an allowance of new
milk, three times a day, as thesmall quan
* Forsyth's Hortensius, p. 267.
184
13836. -Dairy farms, whether large or small,
require bulls, which are generally fully employed
in summer at home.
ON THE WEANI,';G OF CALVES.
3840. There are parts of Irelaind!vA71iere
cal,ve,s are brought up on buttermilk and
gruel, after the first 8 days they liax,e received sweet milk, and'it is alle(-,ed tl,,at
they thrive well on that beverage. Tliis
is possible, but they will tlirive niticli better
on sweet- milk.
3841. By the time all'this lia-,4  liapf)eiied, say by the middle of July, the pastui-e
iti tl)e paddock will leave lecome too
and the whole lot of calves slioul(I tlieii be 
tenice, are suOject to a complaint cailea qast, err ts,
or inflamunation of the stomach.  Its symptoms
are the distension of the paunchl, the iunner mucous
lining of which is inflamed, and it mostly colntains
a quantity of dirty, yellow, offensive fluid, and
whitish matter often larger tlhan a person's fist,
composed of the coagulated ingredients of the
milk, the density of which is nearly equal to that
of cheese.  None of the cheesy matter is foutid
in the intestines, and but rarely in aniy of the
stomachs except the first or paunilch.  Loathing
of the food ensues, and at last total suspension
of the appetite. The animial prefers to stand, and
whent it lies down, it is onil its right side, the left
beinig swelled.  Grating of the teeth alid eructations elisue.  The stools are mostly thin, of a
whey-like appearance, and small  ili quantity.
The aninmal shows unieasiness by 1lo,,king roiuid
to the left side, and kicks at the belly with tihe
hind legs.  A stupor at last comnes oil the aiiiiiial
statidinig with its head in a corner, or pushilng
with it against the wall.
3846. Calves, after being weaned, are subject,
towards  the end of summer, to a disease  commoinitly called  the joint- jllon, wllichl, when oxen
take it uiponi the loinis, is niamtied the chine-fetion.
It is nothing else than acute rheumiiatisn, enidinig
il a resoliution to low fever; anid so severe is it at
timtes upoi calves, that they canilot bear to be
moved wheel lying stretched out all their lengtl
upon the ground. Were  sheds erected in the
fields for cattle to retire into, wlhenievera dash of
raLini comes in the evening of a cold day, even  in
sumiimer, this disease wouMl   perhaps  never occur.
Iad treatment is removal to the courts and sheds
of the steadinig am.nongst str-a w, lbleeding, moderate pturginig, with fomenita-ttioni, anid eil)r-ocations
of'liquid blister, forcibly and lo,g rubbed inl, on
the swelled joints.
3844. The remedial measures will be best uniderstood after hearie   the rationale of the disease as explained by AMr Barlow, veterinary surgeon in the Veterinary College of Edinburglh."Ii the ailult runiluant." lie observes,  " the
first three stomatchs are of great size, and serve
to Irepare the coarser particles of vegetable food 
for the action of the fourth or true digestive
stomach.  The young calf, however, is not physically fitted for living oti solid food; but. like tlhe
yonig, of other inaimtnalia, is naturally inourisid     he
by milk, a fluid which needs liot thle action of the
first three stoniachls to render it fit for dligestion
and absorption.  In the calf, at the birtih, coLsequiently, anid for sollie tine  afterward,  these
three first or pIreparatory stomacihs are iiifiiiitely
smaller iil proportion to the fourth, than they
are in more advaticed life, beintg, in tact, as yet
but rudimentary organis.  Tile caltf i             s also                vaturally adapted for taking in its foo(l by snckiii., a
process by which the milk eii ers the aliuetitary
I WNorth British A4gricultiti;st for 2(1 July 1849.
collections act as irritants to the parts containing
them; itiflaiiirra,tioti is the result, aiid the extensiuii of tlijs, witli its consequences, causes death."
3845. The obvious reniedy is prevetitioii. Give
the young calt' milk freqtieiitly, iiot less than
tlirice a-day, atid in small quantities at a tiiiie,
perhaps ait imperial liiit. Let it take time to
dr'iik it, atid as the quantity Should be sniall, it
,;bould be the rielier, that is the ptiie iii)''k. As
the stomach increases iii size the qtiiiititv of food
should be increased; aiid iii tiiiie otliei- kiyids of
food should be added t,) the necessarily Iiinited
quantity of milk the calf gets to drink as it
attaiiis,:ize and alle.1
3847. Aiotber effect of the 83 Me febrile affectioti iti calves iii -.itittiinii is the q?tc(2-ter it/, or evil.
Its cbaracteristir, svn,.ptoms ai-e general dis.
turbatice of the cirettlatiot), aiil teeble, rapid
piiise, weakiies,-, prostration of sti-eligtli; deterTniiiatioii oilr bliod to particular, but iii different
iii,,-taiiees a,iid epi(ietiiics, very different, la.rt,4;
I)rodLiciiig paiii, an(i iilai;lifestiiig a. tendency to
iiflai,.iTitatioii, but of a degenerate kind, so that 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the very texture of the tissue becomes  disor ganised.  The progress of the disease is often
rapid, and the result very fatal.  In some cases
the luigs or heart are attacked, in o thers th            e
liver, bowels, or even some exterual part of the
body."  Its immniediate cause is plethora, or ful ness of blood ill the system, which shows its
effects in this manner:-" When  the supply of
food is greater than the exigencies of the system
require," as Professor Dick observes, "an aiii mal usually becomes fat, but still may be toler ably healthy. When, however, a sudden chauge
is made from poor to rich feeding, not f'tiess but
plethora may be the consequence; more bloo4 is
tfornmed than the system can easily dispose of; and
it becomes oppressed.  Tile effect is often witnessed il cattle and sheep, which, after indulging
for a time in luxuriant pasture, take what is
called a shot of blood.  All at once they become
very ill; some part of the body swells, becomes
puffy, as if containinig air, and in two or three
hours the animal is dead, from the quarter-evil
already  described.   Upon  dissectioin,  a large
quanitity of black and decomposed blood is found
in the cellular membrane, which during life w          as
distended."*  This disease is of frequent occurretce on farmis where fine stock are bred, and
firom the above description of its nature, there
is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims
to it. As its name implies, the disease attacks
the hiud-qutarter, and its effects are as sudden as
described.   Since its cause is known, calves
should not be put at once on strong rank foggage
or aftermath-which is the renewed growth of
grass after it had been cut for hay or foragefrom a comparatively bare pasture; nor, for the
same reason, should they, when in low condition,
be put on rank foggage; the transition, both as
regards the pasture and the state of the calves,
should be gradual.
3849. From  the time of the sowing of
the oat seed until the completion of the
turnip seed, the horses n)ay be said to
have enjoyed no rest; and,  in the  long
hours of labour in a period of not less than
14 or 15 weeks, the best food that can be
devised to support them in strength and
condition will not  have prevented  them
fallil]g off in condition.   The time, iowI!ever,  has  now arrived when  comparative leisure awaits tlhein for  a while-to
en ioy for several weeks to collie  the food
most congenial to their taste-the palatable
green food and the much-loved pasture.
3850. The  usual  treatment   of fa r mhorses in stummer   is to    make  them lie out
in  the pasture-fieldu all night, and give
theim cut grass   be tween  the yokints in
the s t able.  Forage is then supplied them,
becaus te  the t ime is too short  to f ill tlemselves with or a ss  on pasture; b     ut where
the fir st  yoking is over by   9 or t0  o clock
in t he  fore noon, as on the Borders,  the
horse s are put on pasture until the afternoon  yoking at    I o'clock; which d,lan
saves  the trouble of cutting and reservin l
gr ass for them.  The         grass th us allotted to
the  horses    is  cut by  the  plougbt,ieti, who
each take the duty for a week  by turns,
and lhe  quits the  field-labofur  in time to cut
the requisite  quantity a nd  cart it to the
stable; and the man  who vworks the  miare
that has a foal is a very  proper one t  o do
thi s  work.  It is no part  f his prduty to
supply the hlorses' racks in the stable with
grass, except those of his own. The load
of grass is usually emptied on the ground
near the stable  door, which is a dirty and
slovenly practice.  No doubt, it is better
for tile grass to keep  it fresh in the open
air than to put it into a hlouse; bilt it migtnt
be emplltiedi into a crib in a convenient
shady place near the stable, or, what is
best of all, allowed to remain in the cart
3848. As a preventive, some farmers introduce
a setton into the dewlap of' all their calves before
puttiug them ou foggage in autumn.   The use of
the setoni is to produce counter-irritation. The
setoni consists of a piece of tape  or soft cord
p)assed under a portion of the skin by a setotnneeille; tile eiJds may be tied together, and the
cord may be moved every other day from side to
side,l)eig previously lubricated with oil of tirpenti;ie or blister-plaster, and in this way the amount
of irritation mtiay be regulated. As to the cure, I
believe every one is unavailing after the disease
has been ohserred to exist; but as a remedial
measure apl)liedl by anticipation, large  bloodlettii, with pur,in"g of repeated doses will reduce
the  plethoric  tendency  of the aniimal system.
PelIaps a cribftil of hay, with some  salt, placed
in -a f,ggage field, would not be a bad alte          ra           tive
for calves to resort to a t  times, in o  rder to modifgy
the effects of the succulence of the rank aftermath.  But the best prere7ntive is the adminiistratioe( of osilcake.  Mr John  Wilson, Edington
MaLinis, Berwi(kshire, gives his calves  oilcake
towards the miiiddle aud latter end of the grazing
seasoli, and before they are put on aftermath, and
since lie has followed this practiehe hlie as never
* Dick's JIanual of Veterinar-y Science, p. 11 and 88.
186
lost a calf from this disease. The quantity given
depends on the wetness or dryness of the season,
and the strength of the calves. The drier the
season, and the stron-er the calves, the quantity
is the greater. From I lb. to 2 lb. a-day to each
calf, as it increases iu size, will suffice.
ON THE PASTURING OF FARM-IIOIISES'l-N
SUMMER. 
PASTURING FARIM-IhORSES.
that brought it, out of whlich thlle men can
as easily take it as froni any othler place
or receptacle.
hlave grass in summer, as the best course
of pliysic lie can have; but it is much
miore convenient to give  him cut grass in
a court or haniimel than to send him to
pasture, ill which lie will be  with cornsiderable difficulty  caught  wlieii wantedl
whien  ill company with young  lheres;
and if lie is with the work-horses, lie
will feel lonely wlheni they  leave him dur -
ing the d,ay, and will hang about the gate
of the field in their absence.
3851. The stable is the usual place
where horses receive their forag,e; but a
better place, in every respect, for room,
air,  anil  freedom,  is tlie hainmels  M,
Plate TI., and Plate I., which are now unoccupied and c(leared out of the manure,
each  liaimreel  accoulinodating  a pair of
horses.  Forage may hlere not ouly be given
to liorscs )etween the yokings, but at uiglit
if dlesired; and little straw is require(l for
litter, as the part only utider the roof is
occupied as the night ipartinent, although
more litter will be required( in the haiiimels
wlieii the horses are fed on cut grass than s
iu thle stable, when  on corn and hlay.
38o6. It is sulrprisingc witlp   wlat constancy a work hor se            will er-t at  pasture.
His stomjiachi being  very small in psroportion to the  bulk of Ois  body, the food requires to be well  masticatedI before it is
swallowed; and   as lon g as  tllat process  is
proceeded with   wlliee  t egrass  is crlspped,
no large quantity  can pass into the stomTaclh at a time.  The lhorse, like all lherbivorous animals, grazes with a I)rogressiv-e
motion  oniward,s, and smells the g,rass before he crops it. His mobile lips seize
a nd gathler thie stem  and leaves of the
grass, whichiel the incisors in bothl jaws bite
thiroughl  withl  the assistance of a lateral
twitchl of the head.   Wlien  the grass  is
rank lie crops the upper part of it first, and
whlen shlort, bites very close to the ground.
3852. Frollm  3  to 8l   montllls, from tls  e
beg,inning, of June to the middle of Oct(ober,
is as l]ong  timne as farni-liorses should lie out
at night on pasture.   Work-lhorses suffer
imtuchi fromii clhilly niglts, and thie cold thleni
la,ys the foundation  of diseases,  suichl  as
rlheumiiatismii, costiveness,  stiffness of  the
limbtss.  Tle afterma,tlh may  )e,ood pasture
after the middle of October fi~r tlhe interval
of works at noo)n, andl tije second cutting
of cl()ver will last long elloughll for sup)ers
until it is time to  betake  to  tlle stable
al~tog,etller.
3857. Ihorses should iiot graze amnongst
sheep, as both l)ilte close to the ground;
but lhorses, particularly work ones, often
inijure the sheep that come  in their way,
either by a sly kick, or by seizing the wool
with their teeth.
385:3. Young  horses are put to  pasture dtuirin,g tle day as soon as they can
obtain a bite, and should be bt)roughjt, at
niight, into thleir 1hamiels until tlhe grass
hlas passedl completely thlrou,gh tlieim; after
whichl  thley sliotld lie out all nig,it in a
fiel(l whlichl offers tlhem the p)rotection of a
sled(l.  Tile  work-horses don't care for a h
shled on p-)asture, being t(oo iiiieli ocil)ield
withl eating all ni,ght to nind it.  But in
rainy vweathele  tlhey sliould I)e kcpt in thl       e
liamnrel, on cut grass, rathler tlhai.n be exposed  to the raiin in the field                  all the hig,sht,
as also on a rainy Sunday.
3858. During the hard work of the see(]-time,
farm horses are, ini some seasons more than in
otlhers —the wet anid warm seasonis-subject to
have galled shoulders and backs,  whichl, whent
not  attenr!ed to, are apt to produce troublesome sores.   The skini not only becomes abraded
by  th-ie collar and saddle, but the flesh irritated
anid ififlanied; anid if the irritation is kept up, an
iclorois discl)arge takes place, which is difficult
t,o.eal without miaking the horse rest froni work.
When a saddle gall is  observed, the harniess
shoulh  be looked  t,,, and the pressing poyiints
which have caused  the sore should be relieved.
A glotioii should  then  be  used  to  aiioinit the
bruiised parts every night, after they have been
washed with warmi soap aud water, and dried
with a  soft cloth. The  lotioni.s  made in this
mnannter: Take hot limie slhells of the bulk of 2
quarts, and  pouir upon them  2 quarts of cold
water; and after  they  have iltimately  comllbiled, pouir off the liquid into a dish.  Add  to
the liquid 5 wine glassftils of linseed oil, and 2
ounces ot'f sugar of lead, dissolved in a little water.
3854. A good wateritig-pool is essential
to ebery                            pasture-field occupied by ihorses
of every age, whichl are  is fond as cattle
are to stand  in the water in the midist          of   a
p    ool,                    to avoid the tor-mennt of fl ies tog houghq
the                  y       drink from  a troughl quite willingly.
187
38.55. Tile f,-irmer's saddle-liorse sliould 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
Stir them together, and theni bottle and cork up
the lotion for ise.  After the bruises have been
washed in the evenings, anoint them with this
liquid with a feather until the wounds heal.
colour clear yellowih-browii: thorax iincliniig to
grey; abdomen ruist-browni with a tirn~ge of yel low; wings whitish; and legs yellowish.  The
arttenure are inserted in the cavity of the face.
The eyes are equally distant in both sexes;
mouth  either  entirely  wantiug, or consisting
merely of an  indistinct line or  ope oingl. This
insect takes no nou rishment  o f and y kind in fact,
the alimenltary canal has no opening at its anterior extremity.  It flies in company, produci ng
a humming sound.  " The femnale havin   g selected
the horse to which her t r ea sur e i s to be intrust ed," says Mr Duncan, " she continues to hover
about for a short time till the  e gg be  propelled
through the oviduct, and placed im the pincers at
the extremity of the anal tube. Thus prel)ared,she
makes a sudden descent upon the lhorse -her body
carried nearly in a perpendicular direction, and
the ovipositor curved forwards-and deposits the
egg upon a hair, to which it instantly adheres by
means of a glutinous matter secreted along with
it.  This process, which is performed with such
expedition that the fly cati scarcely be said to
alight on the horse, is repeated at intervals till
the whole of the mature eggs  are discharged."
These eggs, which are very numerous, 400 or 500
being sometimes placed  on  a single  horse, are
somewhat pouch-shaped, and  chagreened with
transverse  and longitudinal strip, as seen at b.
Under the guidance of an instinct which cannot
be sufficiently admired, the fly almost invariably
attaches her eggs to some part of the tfore-quarter of the horse, the inside of the knee and  the
shoulder being the spots most commonly selected,
so as to be within the reach of his mouth; for lihe
is himself to be made the unconscious iistrunteut
of conveying them into his stomach, where alone
they can be brought to maturity, the temperattire of a horse's stomach being as high as 102~
Falhrenheit.  Even when beyond  the  reach  of
the mouth, the eggs are not ntecessarily lost, for
horses are in the habit of licking each other,
and a horse free from bots may thus receive them
tfrom another.  " When  the eggs are  niature,"
contitnues Mr Duncan, "it would seem that the
larvae make their appearance  very Soon after
they are touched by the tongue, the warmth and
the moisture both contributing to their immediate
development. Indeed, if the larvae were not disclosed before reaching the stomach, or very shortly
after, the eggs would very soon pass  into the
alimentary canal.  The larv-e fix themselves by
hooks to the inner tissue of the stomachl, where
they remain in security, ninitijiured by the powerful action of the gastric juice, aud  etnjoying the
warmth of a tropical cliimate.   A sntall group
of tlhese larvae adherinig to the coat of the stotacli
are represented at c. Their colour is pale reddiliyellow.   Their only food seenis to be the humnour
secreted Iby the initernial menibraiie of the stomiach
or it may be the chniyme, the latter undergoing a
farther elaboration to adapt it to their system.
Bots take lip their quarters in the stomrachl in the
end of' suitmimter or auitumnii, and pass the whlole
wiuter and spring months there, without  nudergoitig any change, save gradually enlarginig -od
advaticinig to maturity.  Wheni that is coniplete,
they cease to retain their hold, pass into the iintestinlal canal, and are ejected by the anxus. On
3859. Work-horses, when on grass, are subject
t      o        few distemipers, th e principal being annoyance m
f r o m    a                 host of  insects;   and amongst these the
common   Horse-fl      y     or Cleg, and the Bot-fly, are
th        e miost troublesome. The cleq or gleg, a term
derived  from th      e      Danish klaeq, Hloetiatopota pluvia liss                     represented in fig. 318, is so well known,
that  a   pa     r          ticular de          Fig. 318.          scription of it seems
unnecessary. It may
As  Xf   /     ~be sa~id generally of
the tribe of Tabani.....s<'    A,     de, of which this is
-~i   one, that they ap                             pear in June, and
come into full force
in autumn.    They
are more plentifali in
TH-JE CLEG OR CLEG-HEM.4,- the southern than in
TOPOTA PLUVIALIS.       the northern parts of
the country.   They
delight in warm and sultry weather; are most
active on the wing during the day, and therefore
most troublesome to horses and cattle when they
stand most in need of repose. They are particularly excited and eager for blood when the atmosphere is in a warm and humid state, such as it
usually is after a thunder shower; and it is this circtumstance which has obtained the specific name of
plurialis for the cleg. A remarkable fact in
reference to this species is, that the males are
seldom seen, their numbers seeming to be remarkably f'ew in proportion to those of the other sex;
and they appear to subsist entirely on the juices
of flowers, and, in conformity to their innoxious
lhabits, the organs of the mouth are much less
developed than in the female.
TIE HORSE-BOT-GASTEROPHILUS EQUI.
188
3860. Atiotlier -pest to the borse is the Great
Spotted Hor,,:e-bot, Gasterophilus Equi, se6n at
a, fig. 319. It i, about 7 Iiiies iii leiigtli; general
Fig. 319.
I
I C.
C.'o
c
1) 
PASTURING FARM-IHORSES.
accounit of the manily ordeals which this inisect has
to pass ill its tiaiisfotbrmation, perhaps iiot 1 in 100
of the eggs ever arrive at the perfect state of fly.
3864. Another fly, thle  Stetnoxys calcitrans, is
in size and markings not unlike the commininol housefly, Musca domestica. This insect attacks various
alimials, as well  as mian himself, and becomes
very troublesome in certain localities.  It attacksthe legs, and its punctures  are attended  with
great paini, especially in damp  mnoist weatlher.t
3861. The Red-tailed Horse-bot, Gasterophilus
hcrnorr]hoidalis, though only half the size of the
preceding, is nevertheless a greater torment to
the hors-e.  The female parent fly deposits her
eggs on the lips of the horse; and this operation
ib ateiided withl so much pain, that no sooner
does it make hinm aware of the preselnce of the
fly, than lie tosses his head and gallops off to a
different part of the field; or, if he has the opportunity, betakes himself to the water, where his
tormentor generally leaves him, having a peculiar
dislike to that element.  Indeed all the tribe of
gad-flies have; and, to avoid them, it is not uinconmmoll to see  num   cab    ers of cattle lying on the seashore until the approach of       the      tide    alone compels
th         em to  retire.  When this fly                succeeds in fiJxing
an egg, the  hor         se    r        ubs                              his mouth against the
ground or uponi his fore-legs ill great agitation,
irequenotly      strikin g   out w i th his fore-f oot, which
occasionall y com es         in c  ontact wi th the jaw,  and
serves  but  t   o in crease his          irritation.  Thie larvae
ale taken into the stoomach, and fix themselves
there, exactly in the same manner as the greater
bhot. When they reach t              he   intestines they remain a long time, casting anchor again in  the
rectum,;;here they cause great uneasiness to the
horse, causing him to kick frequently, and even
rendering his movements awkward.   These bots
should occasionally be looked for in horses that
have been out at grass the preceding year, at the
extremity of the anus.  The only speedy remedy
for getting quit of them is iii back-rakirg by
the anius.
3865. Another  annoyance  to  horses is the
forest-fly,  -lippobosca equina, fig. 321; its an                       teniie consist of a single
Fa m ig.pcl   - * tubercular    articulation,
with  3 setoe at the extre                       mility.  " This inse(ct," says
commoii       Mr Duncan, " is generally
shore u a     distributed throughout, but
it is scarce in all the lnor                       thern  quarters, and does
not seem  to become  abun THE HORSE FOREST- dant  till  we  reach   the
F I,Y-HirPOBOSCA  wooded districts of tlhe cen           sEQINA.     tral counties of England.
It flies  with facility,  but  seldom a ppear s on the
wing except durinsg bright sunshine. June, July,
and  August are the   months it  i s i n force.  Its
attacks are p rincipally confinersd to   horses.  lIt
occasions no other harm than an extreme degree
of irritat ion,  and if  the fli es a re nomilerous, the
animal is a pt to  becom e  unmanageable.  It insinuate s itse lf by a si(lelisig cr ab-like m otion  beneath  the hair, an d aoichors   itself to the skin by
means  of is it  large  sharply-tootahed claws.  It
also runs about  am ong the roots of thl e hairs witht
great ease, creating an insufferable titillation,
which is still more  increased by the   frequent ithsertion of its proboscis into  the pores o f the s kin.
The  places  to %%,hichl it prefers  attachi,n  itself
are  the under side of  the belly,  beneath  the tail,
and on the  unders  ide of  the jaws.    The  inshect
is so flat, to ugh, and unyielding, that  i t  is by  no
means easy to kill it by pressure, and it is, more ever, tenacious of life. It is said that horses
long accustomed to its attacks, become, ill somie
measure, indifferent to them; those which have
never experienced this plague, which is enough
to render some  aniimals almost  fr-antic, may be
saved from it, according to  Mi. Kollar, by the
following application: Take of minieral earth 8
oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make them ii to a salve.
Some of this salve is to be  rubbed ou here and
there uponi the hair, and worked in with  a wisp
of straw. After 24 hours the salve is to be
washed  off with warm  water, in Nhichi'- brown
soap has been dissolved. Care must be taken
that the horse does not catch cold.+ This insect
a nid its allies are neither oviparous nor viviparous.
The egg, when  feculndated, descends  1r~,nl) the
ovarium into'a kind of matrix, consisting of:Ua
large  musculo-membranous  bag, expressly  de signed for its reception, and analogous to the
uterus of mammiferous animals. The egg is here
hatched; and the larva passes its life and is con
3862. The more rare species are the Gasteropilhts  vasaii.,, salutif7rus, and  Clawrkii.  Mr
]3racey Clark was of opiliioli that the presence of
bots in no0 way injured the horse, but on the coiitrary, by stimulating the stomach, they tend to
prevenlt cholic, gripes, and  other indigestions
which affect the head of the horse and produce
staggers.   " Thle appearance  of exantliemous
eruptions on the skiii," he says, "and the forniatiloi of local abscesses, from the same cause of
partial irritation, often relieve a geiieral disorder
of tile systeLiii.  Tile mniucous menibranes of the
skini possess this power, when irritated, in the
niost eiiiiiieiit degiee, aiindi to these the larvie of
thie Xstri are applied.  Ir'itatitng the membranes
Fig. 320.    of the stomach in otiher  aiii                   mails would excite nausea and
CLAW't  svomiting; but the hiorse, not
possessing this power, his sto                   inach is peculiarly fitted for
.,.~df} /..?~,,~ the stimulus of such an:imals."*
t3863. An annoying insect of
v'    less importa nice, is the (?hItrysops
A HORSE-FLY-   ccecutiens, fig. 3-20, which is of
CIIRY-SoPs CA:cU- a bright colour, and though fre      TIENS.      queiit in some parts of Enig
* Clark's Essay on Bots, p. 40.
t Quarterly JouirsiRil of.Ayricilture, vol. x. p. 529-46.
++ Kollar's Treatise oi7 Insects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and Farmers-Misses J. and
M. London's tralislation.
189
lan(l, is not so great a pest there as to li,)rses un
the Coiltiiieiit. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
profitable and less wiastefuill nlode of using
it tihan pasturing.   Altihotgh  the objections contain muchi truth, they are thius
expressed too generally to be true in all
cas es.  It is evidently imipracticabl)le to use
mountain grass by soiling.   Mucl  cattle
and  sheep must,  therefore, be  alloiwed
to pasture; and a great part of the sunummer
would elapse before tihe old grass of the
low country would be fit for the operation
of tile seyllie. Wliat would becoiiie of the
stock in the mieani timle?
verted into a pupa in the same receptacle. When
the pupa is completely formed, it is then extruded
froln the body of the mother in the form of a soft,
white, oviform body.  It soon changes its colour
to brown, then to black; and at the same time the
skinl becomes hard and strong, so much so as almost
to resist the edge of a knife. Out of this body
the insect makes its exit by a kind of lid."
3866. 4nthomyka ineteorica is often troublesomiie to horses, by collecting in clouds round
their heads in warm weather, and flitting about
with a kind of jerking flight, and] occasionally
alighting on the lips and nostrils of the animal,
to his no small annoyance.*
I87 O. Thle other grasses are the cultivated kin(ds, such as clover and ryegrass,
and those on irrigated meadows.  It is q!ite
possible to cut grass from water nieadows
by thle time the Swedish turnips are coIInsumed  by  thle beginning of June,  but
water nmeadows cannot be formeti'everywhere.  The cultivated grasses are  not
fit to cut by that time except, perhaps, ini
the  neighibourhiood of large towns, and a
second cutting from them is iiot to be depended upon every season.  What, again,
is to become of tlie stock iti the mean time?
3867. It is amusing to hear the cool manner
iin which M. Boussin,ault speaks of permitting
the public sale of horse-flesh. " The flesh of
the horse," he says, " is not generally used, or at
least openly used, as food for miiant, though there
are countries in which it is exposed for sale and
commonly eaten. At Paris, indeed, in times of
scarcity, horse-flesh has been consumed in quantity.   During the Revolution,  a knacker  exposed publicly for sale, in the Place de Greve,
joints from the horses which he had killed, and
the sale continued for three years without any
ill effect. In 1811, a scarcity obliged the Parisians to have recourse to the same kind of food;
and is said, indeed, that the traffic in horse-flesh
as an article of human sustenance is still coiitinued to a very considerable extent il the French
metropolis.   At the present moment, a distinguished writer on medical police, M.  PaveaitDuchatelet, has even proposed to legalise the sale
of horse-flesh as food for man."t 
3871. Other plants than clover and ryegrass would require to be cultivated to
support the stock until that period.  Lucerine and Italian ryegrass  miiighlt be cultivated for tile purpose, but liucerne cannot
be generally cultivated in Scotland; and
before Italian ryeg,rass could be cultivated
everywhere, a  diflerenit system  of  lhisban(lry would  have to be adol)ted-tlie
fourcourse shlift-a system which could not
be everywhere practised without the support of much more manure than most farims
command.'Plants that will produce both
late and early forage,  in a late clilmate,
are not easily found.
3868. Nearer home a writer asserts, " It is
generally supposed that when horses die, or are
killed, the carcasses are converted into food for
dogs, cats, or for wild animals in the menageries,
but we grieve to have to state that such is not
a-lways t h        e          case;  som e  po r tion of this foo d   f inds
its way into th         e         sho ps  and is consuied, when
disguised, as sausages,  the horse-flesh tending
to give the peculiar redness observable in the
sausages.   Adjoining  to  the largest licensed
horse-slaughter-house in the city, is the principal
sausage  manufactory  in London, in  Sharp's
Alley, Smnithfield. At the same spot where your
olfactory nerves are disgusted with the stench of
tile kiacker's yard, you may distinctly hear the
noise of the sausage-machine, performing its
work of amalgamation and deception." +
3872. In regard to the comparative
extent of ground required for soiling and
pasturage, it lhas been alleged to be 3 to 1 in
favour of soiling.   For examiple, 33 Iead
of cattle were soiled frotii 20th)i May to
the 1st of October 1815, on 174 Eniglishl
acres, which would have requiredt 50 acres
to pasture them.~  I would saly, that any
33 head of cattle that could be raitntained
386.9.  Objections  have  been  urged        past               woul s            an
on 171 acres of cutting grass, would as
3869. Objections have been ura                           aaed
against pasturing grass by any species
of stock, inasmuch as soiling is a more
* Quarterly Journal of Aqriculture, vol. xi. p. 51-57.
t Boussingault's Itural lEconoiyiVTaw's translation, p. 629.
+ Inquiry into the present state of Sinit fie d Cattle Market, p. 10.
~ Sinclair's Cvde of lAyricultturc, p. 424, and Note, 354, p. 73.
190
ON TIIB SOILING OP STOCK ON FORAGP,
PLANTS. 
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS.
easily be maintained on the samne sort of
land on 33 acres of pasture -  I acre of
pasture being quite sufficient to maintain
anl ord(linary-sized ox fronm May to October.
So  the proportion is reduced  to 2 to 1,
whviichl I believe is near the truth.
at one time for want of cutting grass, the
second cutting  having entirely failed that
year, and the other for want of straw for
litter. The straw would have been more
economised in.the stable than in the hamir enels; but the stable at night, in summer.
even with open windows, ventilators, and
no hay-loft, is insufferable; and I aiii sure
that my stables were more comfortably
constructed for summer anal winter use,
than most in the country.   The lhorses required much more straw to keep them dry
in the hamrmel, on cut grass, than on straw
and corn in the stable in winter.
3873. To cut grass, however, for all the
cattle on a large farm, to lead it to the
steaditig, and to supply them with sufficient
litter itn sulimer, I consider an inipracticable tiling, were it for no other reason than that the crop of grain on most
farms cannot afflordl sufficient straw to
litter stock the whole year; and if the
sheep are included in the soiling system,
adequate  accommodation  could  not  be
provided them.   Tile only way to treat
them would be to soil them upon the bare
land within hurdles, as is conmmrion in mnany
parts of England; but such a practice
would not suit tile variable and wet part of
the climate of Scotland.  The objection to
grazinr,, in that the manure o)f the animals
is entirely lost, is not a valid one, because
land constantly grazed will support stock
for an indefinite length of time; and it
would not do that, if tile ground did not
actually receive nourishment in lieu of the
grass taken from  it.  Dissipation of the
dung dropped on pasture caninot be great,
since no fermentation is ever observed in
it. In dirv weather the wvater is soon evaporated out oif it, and in rainy weather the
water diss(olves it amiong the roots of the
grass, converting it into a state of good
liquid  manure.   The greatest waste of
dung is fiomii tile consumption of it by insects, and yet these leave their bodies in
the ground in return when they die.  The
objection is thus purely theoretical.  Cut
grass and carry it off every year, and see
how long timie will elapse ere it can no
longer be cut until manure be again applied
to the grounil.  Does not thIis circumnistanlce
of itself show that the dung drolpped on
pasture is not entirely lost; and that the
land derives an advantage from  pasturage that it can receive in no other wa.y,
sucli as the fresh state of the urine dischargred upon and absorbed by it.
3876. Where winter tares, crimson
clover,  lucerne, or sainfoin, and at least
two  cutt ings of red clover, ca n  be  certainly secur ed as  i n the  southi   of England
they may be,    i n most s easons, soiling  of
cattle and horses rmay be conducted, not
without trouble, for the cutting of green
forage and carrying it to the steading is attended with much lab)our, but withl advN an tage to the manure heap, as well to faittening cattle as work-horses; but the system
cannot be systematically carried on in
Scotland, for want of a regular supply of
green forage. Winter tares rarely survive
the winter with a sufficiency of plants to
make a crop.  Lucerne is t(,o delicate, and
so is the crimson clover. Winter rye has
been proposed, and it withstands  the
winter very well, and'would perhaps be
fit to cut in May; but stock are not fond
of the herbage of the cereal plants. The
Italian ryegrass makes an earlier start, in
spring, than any forage plant we h1ave;
and, in some situations, it niay be cut by the
end of May, and the first cutting would
continue until the red clover was ready
in June.   In the former part  of  the
year it might supply green forage, and
also later, with due attention for it.i pro
3874. I!have often thouiglht that the
workhorses  mighlt be supported in the
siteaditg, niglt and  day,  upon cut gitass.
I have triedi the experiment nmyself twice,
in the harmnels, and failed in both cases;
191
3875. Taking every untoward circuiiistance into consideration, they lead to the
conviction that soilin on grass, on a
large scale, is impracticable; and until
early growth, as well as a late aftermatli and plenty of straw, are assured to
the fariiier every year, general soilitig
cannot be established, even on a moderate
scale. On a small scale soiliiig might be
practised with advantage, and it belioves
en,ery small farmer to make his grass go
as far as possible. 
PRACTICE-SUMMEIR.
(Iliction.  In  Se,tlantl,  tlhe difficulty of
s(,itilig cotietieicces in August,  when tlehe
socoi(l cuttirng, of red clover fatils; anid,
even wlher  it does not entirely fail, tihe
crop is t(-o  ligilt to  give  an  adeiquate
cutting for a letigth of tinme.  The Italian
rye,rass sliould, therefore, come in also at
thIt season, in case of the failure of the
red clover; but it cannot last during tihe
autumnn wlen tlhe cold ni,,hts conmmiienice in
Sel)temiiber, and certa~inly cannot  be de)pedled on  until thle turnips are  realy.
Tares imiiglht come in at this season, but
they grow so fast then that portions sown
at successive periods  run  their courses
to  seed  faster  than  they  can  be  consulied; and towards thlle latter end of the
autullin they are unfitted as a forage plant.
Perli.,tl)s the maize, or Indian corn, as it is
imiore comlnonly called, mighlt be s(-wn at
suchi a season, according to its early or
late nature, as to afford  a good cutting
of hlerbag,e late in autumn, until the turnips
are ready for use.   Although, thle niaize
iiay be regardled as a cereal plant, its hlerbage is nmore palatable to stock tlianI thlat
of othler grain plants, on account of t             ile
larg,e proportion of saccharine nmatter it
coIItains.~
b, is onade either    curved, to suit the sweep
of the instrument by the arms rou nd the
body, as in tcle figure, or straig.ht -a nd the
suitableness of both for work you slhall
learn  wlnien we  coiae to consi  der  harvestwork.   Tswe cur     ved sned i     s usually  nade
of willow, wlhichi, being so shaped in hlot
waiter, retains its slape on becoming  cold.
Another form of sned is that of the cradle,
wlhichi consists of two pieces of wood, one
inserted into the other. Bent sneds cost
from is. 3d. to  ls. 6d. each, straight ones
Is. each.  Thie straighIt are made of any
sort of wood; I  have seen good ones  of
larch.
3878.  Scythes are of various kinds:
the co         oemon   kind keeps its   edge  but a short
time, and in tl,e long run is, I believe,
more  expensive  than  the  patent kind,
which consists of a steel plate with two
flat rods of iron, riveted on one, of its
edges, and which plate will continue to cut
keenly until it is worni to the back.   The
len(gth of the blade of scythes varies fromt
28 inches to 46 inches, and the price of thio
common kind varies between these lengtlhs
from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each, and the patent
from 3s. 2d. to  4s. 8d. each.  There are,
besides tbese, other kinds termed crown,
htibelled, and extr-a-warranted scytlhes.
3877. Grass is cut with  thle conimon
Fig. 322.             s c y t l e,
which is
so well
lknowii an
i m p le                               mient, tlat
a particu                               lar    de                               scription
of it seems
liunne-ces                               sary. Tile
choice  of
scythes,
an(d   the
tnanni rof
mounting
them, are
subjects
c worth at
a |  to. The
handle, or
sned, or
TH1 PATZNT 8YTHB WITH BIENT   s n e a t h,
8NzD.            fig. 322, a
3879. The blade of a scythe is mounted
in this nianner:-the  sned is furnishe(l
w i th a n iron ring at the end a, fig. 322, to
which the blade is attachled; the projecting
stud at the but-end of the blade is embed(led flush into the sued, by taking away a
portion of the wood; and the ring is thlen
slipped over it, and held tight in its 1)0osition by an iron wedge, driven between tlhe
rin g and the sned.  The peculiar position
which the blade bears to thle sned is determined by setting off thle length of the
blade a c, along tho sued  froii a to el,
wh iich is the place for the handle of the
righlt hl:Lnd., and the same length from  (I
to c fixes the point of the scythle, so that a
d c formis an equilateral triangle; the blade
s tanding at an angle of (tO~ with thle snedl.
Theory  w,ould advise the placing of the
plane of the blade parallel with the ground,
when the scythle is held for cutting; but
practice requires the cutting edge to be a
little elevated from the ground, and above
the back of the blade which sweeps along
the surface of the ground; and the reason
192 
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS.
3882.  On  using the scythe to cut a
forage crop with the greatest ease to the
workmnan, a narrow swathe should be taken
at each  stroke of the  scythle, as also a
short sweep.  To meet both these conditions, the blade of the scythe should boe
short.
for keeping the edge elevated is, that it is
apt to run into the ground when swung
parallel with it, and the scythe is worked
with greater labour, as the stems of the
plants are cut by the blade at right ankles
against them; whereas, on the edge being
set upwards, it cuts the stems easily in an
oblique direction. The blade is still further secured in its position by the grassnail f, whicll is hooked bv one end into a
liole in the blade, and nailed through an
eye by the other end to the snell; the great
use of this nail being to prevent the cut
llants becoming entangled  between the
Fig. 323.
Fig 323 blade and the sne(l. Tile left            hand handle e is placed to suit
the convenience of the work            man, the usual dlistance fromi
the right hand one being the
len,th of his arm fromii the
elbow  to the points of the
fingers.
3883. Green forage should  always, if
possible, be cut in a dry state, and should
not be long cut before being used, nor lie
long in the field before it is carried home.
When obliged to be cut in a damp state, it
may l ie  a while in the swathe to let the
water evaporate, which it will do-in warm
weather even in a damp day.
3884. Green forage is given to cattle
and horses in the natural state, or mixed
with straw or hlay.  When in a very damp
state, a mixture of either will tend to prevent fermentation in the green food. When
hay and forage are nmixed together in equal
parts,  the mixture  makes  an excellent
fodder for fattening cattle.  Such a mixture is much used in Holland for horses,
-whether employed in the field or on the
road.
3880. Scythes are shlarped
with strickles and stones. The
strickles, fig. 323, are made of
b   fine sand embedded in an ad            hesive mediium, spread on the
surface of a piece of square or
flat wood, 15                   inches long,  hav            ing  a handle, and cost  6d.
each.    They  are  used  to
smoothen the edge after the
stone, and serve  of thel  A SCYTrItF  selves, for a time, to keep the
STlICKLE.  ed,e keen and are always
-~trrie(I at the upper end of the sned at b,
GIl. 322, by a T-lheaded nail Cl, and spike
b, fig,. 323.
3885. The clover crop growing closely
together prevents the growth of weeds
amongst it, an occasional field thistle only,
or  broad-leaved dock, maintaining its existence.   But one of that class of parasitical pests, the dodders, sometimes annoys
the crop to a considlerable extent.   The
species which annoys the clover has been
n.ame(l the Cuscutat  Trifolii, the clover
dodder; and its nature  and habits are
precisely the samie as that which attacks
the flax plant, as already described in
(3117.)  Professor Henslow well describes
the clover dodder as  resembling "fine
closely-taligled wet catgut."  Of the effects of the Orobanche mnajor and minor,
the greater and less broom-iape, another
parasitical pest to the clover in Flanders,
Dr Raldcliffe says, "The moment it establislies itself at the root, the steim and leaf
of thie clover, deprived of their circulating
juices fad(le into a sickly  lihue, which  the
c 4T fatrmer recognises, and, with true Flemish
industry, roots uip, and destroys the latent
enemy.   If this be done in time, and with
g reat care, the crop is saved; if not, the
infected soil refuses to yield clover again
3881. Scythe-stones, fig. 324, are 14 or
Fig. 324.       15 inches long, taper                  in,, in shape, and  of
sutiicient tliiekness to
fill the  grasp of  the
! Al};     il~tl    lhanh. They are either
ii'!,!t Of a rotindi fornm, a, or
W i~l idlsqtiaile, b, and are
c()llpose('l of the same
V   1 1llso rt  of  sandstone as
grindstones are, and
Cost  (l. each.  They
li i[! are only occasionally
used at the landings,
a b                to set a new  edge on
SHEM sSoTNES.    the blade.
VtL. 11.
i
iii
I
II
193
n 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
for.matny  years."*   And such  weeding
requires very great care; fiOr, if a part of a
stein or one seed is left in the ground, the
pest will rise again, and renew  its destructive attack.
our common culture, we shall fail-it is to  be
accounted for in the fine preparation, and extraordinary cleanliness of the Flemish husbandry.
The ground is repeatedly ploughed, and wellmanured; no weed is suffered to exist, and the
clover plant can tiller uninterruptedly, and possess itself of the entire surface."+
3886. The crop of clover varies much,
ac         cor ding to the nature of the season. In
a  wet w         arm one it is very bulky;  in a
iry  on e much lighter, but miore    nutritious.
A      crop of clover    is  a          great  one if it yield
300         s tones of                              r      hay, of 22h1.  eael, equal to
2                        tons 18 cwt. 1w4 lb.  the  acre;  and  as
Dr R. D. Thomson states, that 100                                of hay
is equivalent to 387i of grass,' it follows
that such a                     crop              of  clover should weigh 8
tons, 16 cwt. 88 lb. the acre. The second
cutting is seldom as heav              y  a s        the first,
thoug h  in      some se asons   it is, and even
heavier; but if we                     assmume  the  two cuttings
to yield I(; tons, the quantity will not be
under the mark  in most seasons.  But in
so-se seasons a third cutting is obtained;
and when that is realisedl, it is very nutritious, though not so bulky as either of its
predecessors. It is rare that three abun,dant crops of clover are obtained, and still
more rare that they all fail.
3889. It is a well-ascertained fact in husbaudry, that  when  the  clover plant has been
frequently cultivated on the same ground, it not
only fails to produce as heavy a crop as it did
before, but it ceases to appear.  When  a failure
takes place, the land is said to be  clover-sick,
and  explanations on scientific principles have
been given of the phenomenon;~ but the failure
has evidently no connexion with the kind or
quantity of manure einployed, since it most sensibly occurs in the neighbourhood of large towns,
where the four-course rotation is followed, where
the land is heavily manured with extraneous
matters in addition to the farmyard dung, and
where  bone-dust is but scantily applied as a
manure. The crop has been recovered in some
localities, as in the  neighbourhood of Dundee,
by extending the members of the rotation of
cropping, and making the repetition of the clover
less frequent along with the same kind and qua~
tity of manures as were formerly employed.
3890. Mr Keene, in his pamphlet on the Forty
Days' Maize, has this observation on the failure of
the crimson clover in England:-" The reason,"
he says, "for its succeeding  so rarely in England is, that the cleansed seed only is sown;
whereas  I sow it with the rough  pellicle as
gathered.  This pellicle seems to act as a protection to the young plant till it gets strength. The
clean seed sonmetimes rises as well as the rough,
but it invariably drops off in strength, and very
often the whole disappears as completely as
though none had been put into  the ground;
whereas the  same seed, not cleansed, so wn alongside, has resisted the cold temperature of the
soil, and turned out.,vigorous plants."II The reasons assigned by  the writer  may not account
for the failure, but the fact that rough seeds
never failed to grow is valuable, and may lead
to the adoption of the practice of sowing the red
clover in its rough capsule, and of thereby saying the troublesome process of depriving it of
its husk. The hint is worthy of a trial by all
cuiltivators,-but especially by those who raise
clover seed.
3888. "1 In the management of the clover crop,"
,says Dr Radcliffe, "the Flemings are most successful, especially in the division from Waereghem to Courtrai; indeed, upon the cultivation
of this plant hinges apparently the whole of the
farmers' prosperity; it is here and everywhere,
except where vetches are sown, the summer support of all his stock.  Here are very few pastures.
The clover, cut and carried to well-littered stalls,
becomes an abundant source of manure of two
descriptions, and thus the cattle are made profitably subservient to the production of their own
nourishment.  The luxuriance of the clover is
surprising, but doubly so when you inquire the
'quantity of seed sown.  In Ireland, for a soiling
crop, we cannot be secure of a good one from
less than 17i lb. to the statute acre; but in
Flanders, the usual quantity is 6~  lb. to the
acre. Can it proceed from the reduced quantity of
eed!   Thence, then, the superiority of the crop?
io-fbr if even by the reduced quantity upon
* Radcliffe's Agriculture of Ilanders, p. 61.
.+'Thomsotn's Researches int the b'ood of A4nimal:, p. 71.
4 Radcliffe's A4griculture of Flanders, p. 59.
I Z6hnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 858.
,I Facts for Farmers p. 9. 
194
'3887. Clover will thrive in every icind
,of soil, and hence the general usefulness of
the lplant; but its favourite soil is a deel-,
,.well-limed clay loam.
389 1. In regard to the, va,lue of, green food to
stock, Boussitigault observes, that " breeders
have long suspected t.bat green fodder is more
nutritious than dry; tl)at grass, clover, &C., lose
nutritious matter by being made into bay. That
the tliing is so in fact appears to have been -demoiistrated by a skilful agriculturist M. Perrault 
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS.
de Jotemps, who  found  that  9 lb. of green
lucerne were quite equal in foddering sheep to
3.3 lb. of the same forage made into hay; whilst
hlie at the same time ascertained that 9  lb. of
green lucerne would not, oil an average, yield
more thawi  2.02 lb. of hay.  In allowing each
sheep 3.3 lb. of lucerie hay as its rationi, consequently, it was as if the animal had had 14.34, or
more than 141 lb. of the green vegetable for its
allowance.'IThliese practical facts are obviously
of great ilmportalnce:  they prove beyond  the
shadow of doubt that the belief of agriculturists
il genieral, as to the immense advantages of coinsumiig clover and lucerne as green mneat, is well
founded.  Nor is this all; it is not merely the
absolutely greater feeding value  of the crop
green, than of the crisp dried and minad(e into hay.
There is further, the saving of expense iii aiking
the hay; and still further, the escape of all risk
fromi loss through bad weatlherduring the process,
by which that which was valuable fodder but a
few days before, may became fit only for the
dunghill." *
the same extent of ground will yield 600 lb., itf
the cropbe mown only once during the six weeks:
this has been positively demonstrated by a  conparative experiment  expre ssl y dire cted t o  this
subject. This is one of the main causes which
render the  pr oduc e  of a  gi ven    extent   of surface
so much great er  when  the crop is mown tha     n
when fed off, the plants not being allowed in the
latter case to attain their full development. The
question as to whether a cow yields a greater
quantity of milk when pastured or stall-fed,leaving
out of consideration the greater or less extent of
ground employed in tfeeding her, can never be
decided in a general mannier. The same cow
which a pasturage of good quality, but not extraordinary richness, will yield 10 quarts of milk a.
day,  may, when stall-fed, yield   no more thatn  6
quarts, or as much as 14 quarts, according as her
feed is scanty, or substantial and abunidalit.  If,
however,  the pasturage  be of the richest anli
most abundant description, so that the cattle are
not able to consume the whole of it, I believe
that a cow will produce more milk upoIn it than
upon the most abundant supply of green food that
call be given to her in the stall. Trustworthy
persons assure us, that certain cows fed upon the
best and most milk-producinig pastures of' the low
countries, have given from 90 lb. to 100 lb. of
milk a-day, at the time of their greatest abunidance; and I am  not acquainted with any positive
instance of stall-fed  cows  giving  nmore than
60 lb. in the same time."+ These observations
of M. Boussiiigault and Von Thtaer are valuable,
inasmuch as no definite data exist on kindled
subjects in the experience of our farmers.
3892. "'A  comparative experiment, made at
Tliorserg, onr. the relative advantages of.qrazi,npg
withl the tether, and stall-feeding, gives," says
Von Thlier, the following results:-Four cows,
#tall fed, during twelve days, gave  1110 lb. of
milk; extent of land required, 4344 square yards;
quantity cousumned, 6144 lb. of clover; which
gives tfor one cow a-day, 23- lb. of milk; 45          0
square fathoms;  901  square yards;   128 lb.
clover.  Four cows, pastured by the tether, for
twelve days, gave 9502  lb. of milk; extent of
land grazed, 3684 square yards; which gives for
one cow a-day, 194-  lb. milk; 771s square yards.
Thei-refore the stall-feeding consunied the produce
of 660 square yards more than the pasturage by
tether, anid, oi the other hand. the quantity of
milk was greater by 1591 lb. by the stall-feeding.  Oi  estimating the milk that would have
been yielded by the samne extent of land pastured
as stall-fed, the result wouldl he that no particular advantage is gained by either side. The dung
was  more economised by the stall-tfeeding, but
the mowing and carrying of the clover were saved
by the pasturage.
3896. The composition of the green stems of
red and white clover, is as follows:
3893. "I have never known cattle to be inIured by young clover mown before flowering,
when it was givei to them in moderation," continues ton Thliier.  "But if it be given to them
in very large quantities at a time, when they are
very eager for green meat, or if they are allowed
access to the place in which it is kept, it may
uJdolubtedly produce indigestion, and its consequeuce, the hoven -% blown (1381.)  Besides, it
is most economuical to mow the clover which has
put forth its flowers, because in the week during
which the flowers come out, the plant increases
in volume more than it has done forthe five weeks
preceding.  If a field of clover be mown once a
f3brtnight dur ing six          weeks,  and each crop yields
30 lb. of fodder, making 90 lb. in the whole,
3897. The composition of the ash of red and
white clover,  rye- grass, a nd  Italian rye-grass
seeds is as fellows, and ought to have been given
after (2684.):
* Boussingault's Rural EFconomy-Law's translation, p. 526.
+ Tha.er's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 710 and 720-Shiaw and Johnson's transl&tio
+ Quarterly Journal of Ayriculture, vol. ix. p. 18.
195
3894. A weevil named Ipion flaviper, about
11 iijoh in length, with a black shiiiiiig body, attack —, the Dutch or white clover plant, 7i-ifoliunt
rep,ens; and as this insect is very conimuii, the
cultivators of white clover would require to be
on their guard against it.+
3895. Slugs-Li)nax cinereus- devour the
broad leaves of red clover, 7rifoli-iim pratenw,
particularly in damp weather.
Red clover.
Water,... 76-0
Starch,... 1-4
Woody fibre,..       13-9
2,1
8,ulgaur,..,::: 2.0
Extractive matter and gum, 3.-5
Fatty -"tter,..        0.1
Phosphate of lime,.                     1.0
100.0
White clover.
80.0
1-0
11.5
1-5
1.5
,3-4
0-2
0-8
99.9 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
Red clover.   White clover.
SPRENGEL.
26-0O         34'00
7'07          6.34
37'09         25-72
4  4.5       3'34
0 -20         2-77
8-80         5.53
5-98          3-86
4-86          2-31
4-85         16-13
100'00        100-00
7-48          9-13           -
effort on the one side, and on their walking
out of it by thenselves on the other. Should
the side from which they'are put into the
water be a little steep, it is less objectionable than having a steep slope for their
exit from the water on the other side; for
in the sheep struggling to get upon the
bank, even with assistance, when  their
wool is loaded with water and a certain
degree of terror affects them, their wool
will become inevitably soiled, and discomposed against the earthy bank.  When a
natural rivulet is awanting, a pool should
be constructed in a large ditch, and in
either case the banks should be covered
with clean sward.
3898. The clover, or trefoil, is cultivated in
China.  " After the last crop of rice has been
gathered in," says Mr Fortunie, " the ground is
immediately ploughed up and prepared to receive
certain hardy green crops, such as clover, the oilplant, and other varieties of the cabbage tribe.
Tihe trefoil, or clover, is sow, in ridges to keep
it above the level of the water, which often covers
the valleys during the winter months.  When  I
first went to Chusan, and saw this planit cultivated so extensively in the fields, I was at a loss
to kuow the use to which it was applied, for the
Chinese have few cattle to feed, and those are
easly suipplied from the road-sides, aid uncultivated parts of the hills.  On inquiry, I was  infornmed that the crop was cultivated almnost exclusively for manure.   The large fresh leaves of
the trefoil are also picked, and used as a vegetable by the natives." ~
3899. The method of a part of the manufacture
of scythes, is so curious that I cannot forbear
mentionlilg it.  " Ili the manufacture of scythes,
the lengthli of the Iblade renders it necessary that
the workman lshould move  readily, so as to
bringi every part on the anvil in quick succession.
Th is is effected by placing him in a seat suspended by ropes from  the ceiling, so that he is eiiabled, witi little bodily exercise, by pressing his
feet agaisiiit the block which  supports the auvil,
to vary his distaice to aiiy required extent."T~
3901. The next step is to form a damming across the rivulet or ditch, if it hlave
not naturally a sufficient depth of water
to conduct the operation of washing. It
is better, however, to make a pool than to
use a naturally  deep poo l, a s the wate r
will flow from it quicker than the natural
current of a deep pool will. The bottom
of the river or ditch should be hard and
gravelly, and the water pure, or it will
not answer the purpose, as a soft and
muddy bottom, and dirty water, will soil
instead of cleanse the wool. A damm iing may consist either entirely of a turfwall built across the stream, though that
imposes considerable labo~ur and waste of
grass, or what is better, with, an old door
or two or other boarding, supported by
stobs driven into the bottom of the rivulet, to bear the boarding against the weight
of water, and the chinks at the bottom
and sides of which are stopped with turf ill
3900. On the weather becoming mil(l,
and oin the likelihood of its continuing so,
a pool should bie made in which to wash i
the sheep, preparatory to  their fleeces
being shorn.   The pool should be made
in a convenient place in a natural rivulet;
and the convenience consists in the banks
of the rivulet shelving, so as to admit tle
sheep being put into the water with little
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 390.
+ Thomson's Researches in the Food of Aninals, p. 80.
+ Journal of the Agricultural Society of lngland, vol. ix. p. 144.
~ Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 65.
~ Babbage On the Economy ofMachinery and 3ianufacturcs, p. 27.
196
Clover.
BO0TSSl NAULT.
Potash,....    35'47
Soda,.....'67
Lime,;...    32'80
Magnesia,.;'40
Oxide of iron} alumina, &c., 0-40
Phosphoric acid,..       8'40
Sulphuric acid,..      3-33
Chlorine,...       3-47
Silica,....      7-06
100-00
Percentage of ash in the dry state, 7'70
1lly grass.
THOMSON.
8'03
2'17
6.50
4'01
0'36
12-51
o.o
64-67
98'05
5.89 +
Italian rye grass
WAY AND oGsa'Ro.
12'45
3'98
9'95
2'23
0'78
6'34
2-82
2'27
59-18
100.00
6'97 +
ON TIIE WASHIING OF SH-IEEP. 
WASHING SHEEP.
sheep.  They are confined in their respective places by hurdles, fig. 40, or nets,
fig. 44.  To prevent the sheep taking the
water of themselves, which they are apt
to do when they see others in before them,
the fence should be returned along the
sides of the pool as far as the men  who
wash the sheep take  up  their  stations.
Fig. 325 brings out all the particulars,
the inside.  When the water accumulates,
it falls over the boarding; and in constructing                                             the dam, th  se overflowing should be as
great as to cause such a current in the
pool as to carry away all impurities, such
as earthy matter, greasy  matter, small
locks of wool, and scum, quickly.  One
side of the pool is occupied by the  1Xnwashed, and the opposite by the washed
;,-.:,,t,-.Z              -,          F.,                                           " *
~                                        ~ -                         Fi  305
bran::7:::-.    -'"~-....'me.
SHEEP WASHING.
ing incessantly; but, notwithstanding the
annoyance, they should not be dogged, but
rather get plenty of time upon the route,
whicle should be chosen free of dust or
mud.
where the damming a a, by means of doors
and stobs, is seen  to retain the water
until it overflows.   The net on each side
of the pool is returned far enough down
both sides.  The water is seen to take the
men to the proper depth of thie haunches.
3903. The men who are to washl prepare themselves by  casting  their coats,
rolling the sleeves of their shirts up to the
shoulders,  and putting on old trousers
and shoes to stand in thle water.   The nmen
should not be barefooted, as they will not
be able to withstand the struggling of the
sheep with steadiness and firmness.  Tho
shepherd and other two  plougl)men are
quite sufficient to wash a large number of
sheep thoroughly; but  if the stream  be
broad, another may be  required  to save
time in hlianding the sheep fr,inm manr to
man. The three men are represented in
fig. 325, e being the shepherd, and the
last man to handle the sheep, and d and c
are his assistants. At least two other men
are required to catch the sheep for the
washers, of whom one is seen at b. On
this occasion the men receive bread and
cheese and ale, and also a dram of sp,irits
as a safeguard  against being chilled on
3902. Everything being  thus ready at
the pool, the sheep a,e prepared for the
washing. Tihe   tups              are washed first, either
the day  or tu                             e week preceding th e rest of
the flock, and the shepherd himself perforins the  ope      ratie                on with an  ass istant, to
hand each sleep to hibpm in  the water. The
lambs not being waslhed, they are temporarilN separated frout their mot hers,           and
left in a co urt   of the stealding until the
washing is finished, to save trouble with
them at the pool. When the flock is not
very large, and the work can be done in
the course of three or four hours, the ewes,
boggs, and dinmonts, when these latter
are retained on the farm, are all taken
to the pool in a lot.  They Sllould be
driven to it genitly, not to create a heat on
them when about to be put into the water.
The ewes are troublesome to drive, being
in constant search of their lambs and bleat
197 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
standing in the water.  The materials are
seen at A, where the dog keeps watch; he
has no occasion to work, but should be
present in case of an outbreak occurring.
Some stimulant, as good spirits, is requisite
for men who stand for hours with the
lower half of their body chilled in the
water, and the upper half heated by the
work.  If they had on long fishermen's
boots they would less require the fillip.
the hand. Bein  g sa tisfied  tha t the sheep
is clean, he dips it over the head while
turning it to its natural position, when it
swims  ashore, a nd  gains the  bank atg q.
On coming out of the water it walks feebly,
its legs sta gger in g under the weigh t of the
dripping fleece; in a little, it firees itself
from the water  by a aaking the fleece twirl
like a aloy,. In the echelon form, in which
the men stand in the water, the sheep have
the opportunity, when in its  dirties t  state
in the hands of the first man c, to get quit
of its impurities farthest down the stream,
where they flow away at once, and do not
come near the stations of the other men.
The sheep being in a comparatively clean
state when it reaches the second man d,
the water in which it is further washed,
canlot much affect that which runs past
the first man c; and still less will the
water in which the sheep are last washed
by the shepherd e, affect that near either
of the other two men.
3.904. Tlhe washinq is performed in this
way:-While tile three washers are takingo
up their positions in the water, the two
catchers are capturing a sheep.  The catch ing is fatiguing work,arid, to make it easier,
the fold should be made as small as to contain the sheep easily.  A sheep is caught,
and is presented as at b to the first washer
c, who takes it into the water, and, allowin, the wool to become saturated with it,
turns the sheep over on its back, keeping
up the head, by taking a hold of the wool
of the near cheek with his left hand, and
the arm of the off fore-leg with the right.
With this hold he dips the sheep up and
down, from and to him, rolling it over
from one side to the other slowly, and
causing the wool to wave backwards and
forwards, as if rubbing it against the water.
These  motions are  easily effected, the
shleep feeling li,ght iii the water.  In this
operation the water becomes very turbid
about the sheep, and lie continues it till
the water clears itself, when he hands the
hlieep to the next washer d, who stands in
the mid(ldle and  higller up the stream.
Whenever c gets quit of one sheep, another
should be readly by the catchers for hinm
to receive into the water.  Thle second
washer d lholls and manages each sheep
he receives fromn the first washer in the
same manner, and then hands it to the
shepherd e, who stands towards the margin and still a little higher up the streani,
and is imniediately ready to take anothier
sheep from the first man.  It is tile duty
of the shepherd to ascertain if the skin of
the sheep is cleansed, and every imipurity
removed from the wool.  Tile position of
the sheep on its back is favolirable for the
rapid descent of earthy matter from the
longer part of the wool.   Wherever lihe
feels a roughness upon the skin, lie washes
it off with his hand, and clots upon the
wool  he rubs out.   The belly, groins,
breast, and round the head, be scrubs with
198
3.905. In this. way sheep are washed in
the Lowlands; and from two to three scores
may be washed in an hour, according to
the size of the sheep, the activity of the
washers, and the supply of water. After
wasliiii,o,,, sheep should be driven alonz a
clean route, and be put into a clean grassfield having no bare earthy banks, a-,aitist
which they might rub themselves. They
should be kept perfectly clean until ti,eir
fleeces are taken off. How long the fleece
remains on after the wasliin- depends on
the state of the weather, as the wool i,iiiist
not onl be tliorou,,Iily dry, but the yolk,
y In.
which the natural oil of the wool is called,
must return into it acaiii; and further, the
new wool slioiiltl be risen from the skin
before the old is attempted to be taken off.
Disregard to this particular will make
good clipping difficult to be accomplished,
and it will certainly deteriorate the appeai-ance of the fleece. Perhaps 8 or 10
(-lays may suffice to produce the,e effects.
You need I)c tin(ler no apprehension of the
fleece falling off when the new growtli
commences, for wool will remain for years
upon the qlieep's back if not clipped off,
and the sheep be free of all nianti Ier of
disease. How many years the fleece nii(,Iit
continue to grow I do not know, but I
have seen a fleece upon the slieep's back
three'years old. Lord Western exhibited
Anglo-nierinos, at the show of the English 
WASHING SHEEP.
leaping from that height, the sheep go over the
head, and on swimming across the pool reach
the dry land at the opposite side, where another
enclosure of hurdles is ready to receive them.
They are thus treated several times till they are
clean.  Where the edge of a lake is employed
for washing sheep, stakes are driven in the water
and rails nailed to them, to form a space of water
in which the sheep are swum, after jumping
from  the jetty, and land upon the same shore.
There are store-masters who prefer hand-washing to leaping and swimming  them across the
pool.  Merely with hand-washing, and without
inverting their backs, I cannot see how sheep
can be thoroughly washed, especially those which
have been smeared.
3906. The afternoon is generally chosen
by shepherds as the period of the day for
washing sheep, but I conceive  that the
niornin,,. is a better time, inasmuch as the
fleece will have become much drier during
the day than in the night when the sheep
are washed in the evelning, and they must
feel uncomfortable in the night with a wet
fleece.
3909. I have seen it somewhere stated, that
the more greasy the water becomes, in which
sheep are washed, the cleaner will the sheep be,
and, therefore, it should not be changed.   I suppose that this opinion prevails generally in pastoral districts, as I have seen no means used
there to let the water flow off, except where the
side of a lake forms the washing pool. Theoretically, the opinion may be correct, as M. Raspail observes, that "when the wool is washed,
this soap, (the yolk) is dissolved, and takes the
salts along with it.  Hence it follows, that the
water that has been used in this process becomes,
at each repetition, better adapted for the purpose."   Practically,  however,  the  notion  of
greasy and dirtied water washing wool better
than clean will gain no converts from those who
have used clean water; besides, every fleece has,
or ought to have, as much natural soap in it as
will wash it clean in clean water.   No doubt
soft water will wash wool better than hard, but
all river water, when exposed to the air tfor some
time, becomes soft, unless it contain an inordinate proportion of lime or tannin; but let the
state of the water be what it may in particular
localities, there is no doubt that wool, like everything else, is best washed in clean water.  A
greater probability attaches to what M. Raspail
states, that "it has been calculated that the grease
obained from  the washing of wool in Franice
mIight be sufficient  to manure about  370,000
acres of ground."* In small lots of sheep, I
have seen the wool clipped before it was washed.
The clipping on a dirty skin makes rough work,
but independently of this, wool washed off the
sheep's back is deprived of its yolk, and, when
dry, feels harsh, and is in an unfit state for ce —
tain processes of manufacture.
3907. Sheep are differently affected in
the time of washing.  Some disregard the
plunges,  and                            seem to enjoy them, giving
themselves up entirely to the will of the
washers; whilst others are in a state of
great terror, struggling against every new
motion, and groaning in anticipation of
greater danger. Some are very expert in
turning their backs upwards, should the
washer be off his guard and dip them
too perpendicularly down, and when they
thus turn themselves quickly, they are
apt to strike and scratch the bare arms of
the washer with the boof.s of the fore-feet.
I was once anmused by seeing a new hand,
though a stout fellow, thrown on his back
and soused under water by an old supple
ewe turning quickly and pushing herself
against his breast. He held on by her at
first, but, on finding lie could not regain his
feet on account of her impetuosity, he was
at lergtlh obliged to let go his hold. To
make the matter worse to him, he lost both
his slhoes in the strug,,gle.
3908. Neither carse, dairy, nor farms in the
weigtqhboiiiihood of towns, support sheep, and therefore have nothing to do with washing them. The
ua.shing of sheep on pastoral farms is conducted
on a somiewhat different manner from what has
been described. A natural deep pool in a river is
selected for the purpose, or, failing this, a damming is made in the gully of a rivulet, or a pool is
diig in the plain ground near a supply of water.
MWhere no river exists the edge of a lake is
selected. A small space is enclosed with hurdles,
fig. 40, near the edge of the pool; a narrow passage fit to contain at most 2 sheep and 2 men ill
breadth, is made from the hurdles to a jetty,
which projects into the pool, and is 5 or 6 feet
above the water —and from this the sheep are
made to leap into the water one by one.  On
* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 457.
I"
Agricultural Society at Oxford in 1839,
the fleeces of which were of that aye, and,
when clipped, weighed I believe 20 lb.
each. Ti-ie lambs are restored to the ewes
immediately after the washing.
3910. A curious mode of washing sheep is
practised in WUrtemberg. Advantage is taken
to make a fall of water at a sluice in a river, by
means of a number of spouts to convey the
water in small broad rills, and let them fall from
a height of 5 or 6 feet into the shallow water in
the bed of tlje river. Or a pool is dug out of the
plain ground, and water is brought into it from
a river or canal, by means of a cbannel'wbich
supplies the number of spouts required for uss 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
in the washing of the sheep.  Men hold  the
sheep in different postures, in the shallow water,
under the spouts, from which the water falls
upon different parts of their body.  The water
first falls upon the head and shoulders, the sheep
being held up upon its rump; it then falls upon
the belly, the sheep being placed on its back; it
falls upon one side and thei upon the other, the
sheep being placed upon either side; and lastly,
it falls upon the back, the sheep standing in the
water.  The washersgall the tiiie shed the wool
this way and that with the bare armn, to let the
water reach every part of the body, and not with
the hand, in case its manipulation should break
the wool.  The sheep are first rubbed with soap
in a trough in which they are mnade to stand,
and the cost of the entire process is about Id.
a-head.*  I would apprehend that the constant
beating inflicted by the fall of the water is anything but serviceable to the sheep.
3914. The medium quantity of yolk in a
Hereford, Shropshire, or Sussex sheep," says Mr
Youatt, "is about half the fleece; and  this is
the customary allowance  to the wool-buyer, if
the fleece has been sold without washing. More
yolk is found on the breast and neck of a sheep
than on any other part of the body, and it is
there that the finest and softest wool is found.
Softness of  the  pile is, therefore, evidently
connected with the presence and  quantity of
yolk. The re    is no  doubt that   this substance
is designed, not only to nourish the hair, but to
give it richness and pliability. It what way is
the growth of the yolk promoted? By paying more
attention than our agriculturists are accustomed
to give to the quantity and quality of this substance possessed by the animals which they select
for the purpose of breeding, the quantity and
quality of the yolk, on which many farmers now
scarcely bestow a thought, and the nature of
which they neither understand nor care abset,
will, at some future time, be regarded as the
very essential and cardinal points of the
sheep." ~
3911. An interesting topic of investigation is
the ascertaining the quality of that substance
which is most commonly found intimately mingled
with the pile of our fleeces, which, on account of
its yellowness and consistency, its egg-like appearance, is aptly denominated yolk.  The investigation of its properties, and of the good
effects which it produces upon the fleece while
growing, is more properly the business of the
grazier than of the wool-stapler, and he has the
most abundant means of acquiring information.
Hitherto it must be acknowledged  that they
have been too much neglected; yet the few facts
with which we are furnished indicate that, without the assistance of yolk, "or the application of
some other substance which shall act as a substitute for it, wool possessing the best qualities
cannot be produced. The celebrated breeds of
Berry, of Castile, and of Persia, we are informed,
furnish the most copious supply of yolk, and at
the same time yield those valuable fleeces which
are eagerly sought after by the manufacturers
of the countries where they are shorn, in order
that they may be able to supply even distant
markets with the most valuable commodities."
ON THE SHEARING OF SHEEP.
3912. The composition of the yolk has not
been particularly analysed, but Vauquelin examined the matter, and found it to consist of a
soap of potash, carbonate of potash, a little acetate of potash, limne, a very little of muriate of
potash, and an animal matter, which imparts to
wool its peculiar odour.t  "The yolk being a
true soap, soluble in water, it is easy to account
for the comparative ease with which the sheep
that have the natural proportion of it are washed
in a running stream.  There is, however, a small
quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is
not in combination with the alkali, and which,
remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little
glutinous notwithstanding the most careful washing.
3910. A  place lander covter should  be
selected  for  clipping the fleeces.   The
straw-barn, L, Plate II., of the steadinig, is
* Zeller's Landwirthschaftlichen Maschinen, Apparate, und Geraithe, zweite lieferung, p. 15-21.
+ Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 30.5.                $  Luccock On }fool, p. 80 and 84.
~ Youatt On the S]heep, p. 61 and 75.
200
upon the wool," observes Mr Luccock, "is not
accurately known. Some have considered it as
the superabundance of that substance whicli
forms the filament, and which by some unknown
process, while the pile is growing, is consolidated
itito a transparent mass; while others conclude,
perhaps more reasonably, that it is a peculiar
secretion, which exudes through the,-kiii, and
by iiiterinidglillg with the pile, renders it
soft, pliable, and healthy; affectiti, it tiiucli in
the same way as oil does a thong of leatlier, wlieit
kept immersed iii it and perfectly,,aturated. A
very curious and interesting question has been
asked respecting the itiode in which the wool
imbibes the yolk, whether by means of the root
alotie, or also by the I)ores, which it i,, sul)p(med
may be scattered through the whole lengtli of
the liair.+
3915. After the wool is di,y, the yolk returned into it, and the fleece has iii(licated a
,fresh growth next the skin, the sheep should
be shorn of their fleeces; and they are
shorn in regular order, the trips bein, first
shorn, to give the longer time for the wool
to grow ere the time arrives for selling
them, or letting them on hire in a.titiiiiin;
then the liog(,,s and dinmoiits, it' there be
any of the latter, and, lastly, the ewes.
$913. 11 The maiiner in which the yolk acts 
SIHEARING SIhEEP.
shears hleave a(lditional sprilngs between tle
hhandles 6 to separate the blades Illore for                  Fig. 326.
a suiitable place for the purpose. Tlhe end
next the chaff-lhouse r, between the two
doors, is a good site for thle clipping floor,
and the rest of the barn contains thle slheep
cool under cover.  Tile clipl)ing floor is
prepared in tlhis way;-Let clean whleat
straw be strewed equally over tile fli,()r
two or three inches thick, and then spread
thelarfge canvass barn-slheet over it, (1740,)
the edg,es of which should be naile(l down
tight to the floor.  Thle straw lil:tkes a soft
cushion for the knees of thle cll)pers, as a
w           e ll as for tl-(e tsheep. A brooh is reiired
to sweep the bar-n-slieet clean, (1794.)
Any  otiher equally convenient place will
answer the purpose (,f clipp)ing, slleep as
well as the straw-barn. The Iarn-fioor and
walls, as hiiglh as the slieep can reach, should
be swept of dust, and sonme straw strewn
upon the floor for them to lie clean upon.
cibly, but atre not so  -t,,areeabsle to the hand
as tle simple rotund( spring  at. The spritng
wt is solletimnes niade too strong  and tires
the lland, to reliev,e wlJich  a piece of  coIrd
is  woundi  loosely round   tl)e  handles.
Strln,g-sprinrged shears  are  mlost  easily
worked if lleli near tlhe blades;  but tile
sharp backs of these soon hurt the  hand.
When not in use, and when  carried(l, tile
blades are held together at their points by
a ring of leathler.  A  ragstone is used to
sharpen wool-shears.   The cost of shears
is from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each, andl of
ragstones  4d. per  lb.    A  sle)plerdl requires two or three pairs of snmall  silears
for jobs, and he only uses the large shears
for shlearing,.
3917. In case of dew or rain in the
morning, it is customary to bring into tile
barn as inany dIry sheep on the )rev-ious
evening as the number of clippers to be
employed  will shear on the ensuing dav.
It is a custoni for neighbouring shlephlerds
to assist each other; and though thle plan
cannot expedite thle entire sheep-shearing
of the country, yet the enlulation amongst
a number of men clipping together, expedites the shearing of tlhe individual flock.
Other hands besides sheplherds are pressled
into the service at this time.  A steward
sellonm clips sheep, but the art is mostly
possessed by the lie(i,er, and if tile cattlem,an had been a hlerd, he lends a hland.
Clipping being dirty and heating work,
thle coat isstripped, tile hat and vest t!,rown
aside, and the oldest c l,tlies                          wi oI n. Garters,
or tighlt knee-breeclhes, atre irksome pieces
of dress in clip)ing.   It is rare to see
knee breeches now-a-days, the Iong trousers having superseded tlheir use entirely,
even with elderly men.
392(). Tile shears are used in a particular miiannier, to be safe alike to tlje fleece
aIld thle skin of the animal.   Thle essel-tial
particular ever to be attended to in clip ping, is to keep the points always cear oJ
t/Le skin; for if thley rest upon it, they will
inevitably  either  run  into it, (or miake
a  large gash in  it. before the clipper  is
aware of thle miscllief he is doinrg. Thlis
is an error commonly  coiniiitted  by new
clippers, byholding, tlhe hand too lhiglh above
the wo(ol, and is a great offence in any experienced clilpper.  The sure way of avoiding tills serious injury to slheep), is to rest
only tile broal pairt of thle blades (of the
shears upon thle skin;  in which  position,
witl the skin drawti a little, not too tight,
by thle left hlandl, tlhe shears slide upon it
with a hold of thle wool with their points,
whlich are never broughlt  nearer than an
3918. The  instrument by which  the
wool is clipped off sheep, is made of steel,
and is named wool-sheairs, which [lave the
form as seen in fig. 826.   They require no
Iparticular description farilier than to ex —
plain that the bend or bowl, a, which connects tlhe two blades, acts as a spring to
keep  tlhe blades separate, and it is the
pressure of the hanid on e,achl side of the
handle b, wlichl overcomes the sprinig and(
brings the blades c together.  Some wool
201
I
11 I b
THE WOOI,-SIIEARS.
3919. The oject of ii,asliin, tl-ie sheep
perfectly clean, is apparent at sl-iearin,,,; for
if not clean, the slietirs grate upon the dirt
and iiialie bad work; and for this the
si,ieplierd alone is to blaine who had the
slIieep last through hands in the water,
aii(.1 ttie cliarge of them afterwards on the
pasture. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
inch apart, while tlie clips are made short
and frequent. Thle form of the shleep's body
being round, tlhe shears should not miake so
lorng a clip as to bring( tlhe pointsof tileblades
lo,ether at every st-roke, for if they (lo, they
will cut thle wool withl their points at a consideial)le elevation albove the skin,ata point
in advance of the place where thl)e broad
part is cutting close to the skin; thle wool,
in fact, would be cut in two places at once.
Veryslsort clips, no doubt, make slow work,
but rather have slow work safely done,
than hasty slashing with injury to the wool.
Experienoe will teacl  you h      ow to make
longer clips effective, when you know  how
to manage the slhears dexterously, but at
all tinmes short clips are the safest ino(le of
using the shears.
38921. Clipping is  do ne-in this  way:
Whenever a sheep is cauglht in the barn,
the straw or bits of plants on the wool, or
dirt on the hoofs, should be picked off before it is taken to the barn-sbeet. Clipping
consists of three stages, the first of which
is represented in fig. 327' After setting
Fig. 327.
M g~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.A.1 
~~~~ I~
THE FItST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.
thle sheep on its rump, and on the supposition t.hat the clipper  is a ri,ght-hlandled
iiian, lie rests on his ri,lht knee, and leans
thle back of thle shleep against his left leg
a bent. Taking tlhe slears in lis ri,ght hand,
antI liolling, util) the shleep's nmouth witlh l     sis
left,  lie first cli1)s the short wool on tthe
front of thle neck, antl then passes down
the throat and breast between the fore-legs
to the belly.   Then placing the lore-legs b
under his left arm c, lie slieirs the t)ellyv
across fromt sidle to sid(le *lown to thegroins.
In passilig dlown the li)elly alld groin, where
the skin is naturally loose, while the slhears
d are at work, the palm of the left hand e
pulls the skin tighllt.  The scrotutn f is then
202
bsared, then the  inside of thle  tl)iglhs  g q,
and, lastly, the sides of  the tail h.   These
are all the p)arts that are reaclie(-l in tliis;
position.   For  tlie cipip)ing of thjese p}ar ts
small slhears suffice;  lttid as the  Aeo(,l there
is short, and of a detachedl character, it is
best clipped by -tlhe points of the slhears,
as carefully lheld close like d.
- 3922. Fig. 328  represents  the second
stage of clipping.   Its potsition  for  tle
sheep is gainedt  by first relieving its foreleg,s b froni their po3iti(,n in fig. 327, and,
gently tujrning tlie slheep upon its far side,
vkhile fie himtlself, resting on botlh knees,
supports  its far  shoulder upon hiis lap. 
SHEARING SIEEP.
You may always rely upon  tl-his fact-  clipper first removes the wool from behind
the more a sheep feels at ease, the more  thle head, then around the entire back of
readily it will lie quietto be clipped. Stip-  the neck to the shoulder-top.    ie tl-len
porting its head with his left hand, tithe  slips its head and neck a under  his left
Fig. 328.
I
*~ ~   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
d
~.,h;0
1..:'.".
THE SECOND STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHZBP.
arm, g, and thlus having thle left hland at
liberty, lie keeps  thle skin tight witlhi              it,
while li      he c lips the wool with tile ric                                            eht,
from-i wlhere the clipp)ing in the first p)osition, fig,. 327, was left off to the back
bonie, all tile w%ay down the near side.
III tile fig,uire, the fleece appears to be
removed  about  half-way  down  the carcass; the left lhand- b lying flat, keeping
the skin tig.ht; while tlhe rigllt hand e holds
tlhe slhea,rs at the right part, and in tile proper position.   Thie clipper thus procee(ls
to the thliigh-  and the I-umiip and tlhe tail d,
whichl he entirely bares at this timne.
knees; and he then rests his riglit knee, fig.
32!h, over its neck on the ground, and lhis
right foot 6 on  its toes, thle ankle  keepiwn, tile sleep's head (Iown to tile ground.
Titis is tile third position in clipping. TIlo
w   ool having been bared to the shoulder in
the secondl position,  the clipper lhas now
nothlin,g to do but to comiieiice where it
was then left off,  and to clear thle fleece
from tile far side fromi the ba.ck-bone, whlere
it was left off in fig. 328, in thle second
position,  towards  tile  belly,  whlere  thle
clipping was  left off in the first position,
fig. 327. -  the  left  hand  e being still
at liberty to keep the skin ti(ght, while the
righit hand f uses thl!e shears across the
pwhole side to thle tail. Thile fleeceg is now
quite frieed from the sheep.  In assisting
the sheep to rise, care slhould be taken that
208
3!)23. Cleariin,- tlhe slheet of the loose
parts of the fleece, tlle clipper, hiolding, by
tile headl, lays over tile stleep on its clipped
or near side, wlhile still conitinuing on lhis 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
its feet are free from entanglement with the  from the unusual treatment it has just re
fleece, otherwise, in its eagerness to escape   ceived, it will tear the fleece to pieces.*
Fig.329.
: -...
~~~~~,," g....
THY THIRD AND LAST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.
bent outward by his knees.  The  skin is
certainly tightened, but at the expense of
the personal ease of the animal; for the
h) and can tighten the skin as well, as shown
in all the fi,gures, at b and e; whilst the
bowing down so low, and as long, until he
clips the entire side, cannot fail to pain tihe
bhack of the clipper.   The third position is
nearly the same in both plans,  with  the
difference in the commton  otne, which keeps
the left leg bent, resting on its foot -  a
nmuchl more irksome position than kneeling
on both knees.
3924. On comparing the attitudes of
the clipper and of the  sheep, in t    the   biferent stages  of clipping  j, ust described,
with th ose of a mode very comi ho          n      in th e
country, it is necessary to look again at the
.first stage of the process, fig. 327, the
common practice of coniducting which is
to place the sheep upright on its tail, and
the clipper to stand on his feet, suipporting
its back against his legs-which is both an
insecure and painful position for the sheep,
and an irksome one for the nman, who has
to bow miuchi down to clip the lower
part of tlhe, animal.   In the second stage,
fig. 328, the clean still remains on his feet,
and the sheep upon its ramp, while he
secures its head between his legs, iil order
to tighten the skin of the near side, which is
3925. All the fleeces are not in the
same state for being clipped.  Thin watery
wool  is apt to be clipped in too broad
courses- the shears passing through  it
* The artist has erroneously represented the sheep lying upon itsfar side, and the clipping to proceed from the belly to the back-bone, which is the proper posture for the second position, as also the
keeping the head of the sheep down with the left leg a, whereas the sheep should have lain upon its
near side, the wool been shorn from the back-bone to the belly, and the head d kept down with the
right leg, as described above.
204 
SHEARING SIIEEP.
u   3927. Imnmediately that one lot of sheep
in the barn is clipped another is brought
into it fromii the fielh, to be ready to comteniice the next morning's work.   Howevser little it ilaays    injue  oggs  to be kept in
tlle barn all nigh,]t, it is not good treatment to ewes and lambs; and in order to
dispense with it, the shepherd should brini,
in a few ewes during the day when their
wool is dry, to clip while the lho,gs are
tlipping; in which way the first shorn ewes
would be but a short timie confined, whilst
fewer ewes would  be long confined when
time last of tile flock to be clipped consisted
entirely of them.
quickly induces tile clipper to take more
into the clip, in order to withstand the
force of his hand.   Thick wool requires
the shears to be emnployedI more at the
points, as these cannot penetrate it so far
in advance of the blades as wool in the
ordinary state. Certain fleeces become so
thick as to be coated(-that is, felted on the
sheep's back; and these can only be taken
off with the points of the shears in ninute
clips, and take longer time in being removed than their value is worth.  Such w
fleeces can scarcely be clipped at all, until
a fresh growthi of the wool has taken place
after the washing..
3928. A new clipped sheep slhouild have
the  appearance of fig. 330, wlere  tile
shlear-fmarks are seen to run in parallel
b)andI-s rouind the body, from  the neck and
counter a, along the ribs b, to the rump,
3926. To shear 20 sheep a-(lay is considered a good day's work for any clipper,
though there are slleph)lerds wlho can do
more.  A fat shleep) is iiiore easilv and better clipped than a lean one.
a
Fg.L3%O.I              I
7
A'E W CLIPPED SHE~EP.
A NEW CLIPPEI) SHEEP.
an(l ldown the hind-leg, c. Wh liIen pains  wrer
taken  to round tile shiearniarks on  the
back of the neck down byg; to fill up the
space in thle chlange of thie rings betwveen
tlh(se of the counter and of thle  od(lya)ove e;
to bring the miarks down froiii C t(hf to tlhe
slali)e of tile leg, as far as the wool reaches;
to iiiake them run straight down tihe tail,
and to have thieni coinciding across the back
from each side-a shleep in good condition
so clipped forms a beautiful object.          fi
sleep clipped to perfection shouldi have no
205
marks at all, whlihel are  fiortie(I of small
ridglets of wool left between each course
takeni by the  shears; but such extreme
nicety in clippinjg is scarcely attainable,
and certainly not.worth being attained by
the sacrifice of the tinie occupied in doing,,
it.  It shiotuld be borne in mnind, however, that the closer the wool is clipped
to the skin it is the better clipped, and is
in a better state foar growing the next year's
fleece; and what is miore, a larger and
heavier fleece is obtained from each sheep. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
the workers from the heat of the sun.   If the
part of the ground occupied by the clippers were
covered with barn sheets, the wool would be
kept clean. A tent of this sort can be erected at
little cost, and would last many seasons. Still
no pastoral  f,-irm should be without a steading,
and a part of it should be made suited for so
necessary a process in a sheep-farm, such as the
straw-bar e fig. 55.
3929. Clipping makes so great a change
on the appearance of sheep, that many lambs
have difficulty at first in recognising their
mothers, whlilst a few forget tiheIn altogethler, and wean themselves, however desirous their mothers  may  be to suckle
them; and as the ewe is content with one
lamb, maltny a twin which does not follow
her is weanie(-l on this occasion. It should
be the shlepherd's particullar care to mother
the lambs  frequently  after                                              cipping; but
the difficulty of bringing -n >old lanlb and
ewe together, without, much disturbance to
the rest of the flock is great; and besides,
the shepherd cannot constantly attend (;n
the clipped portion of his flock while engaged with clipping, and this is one of the
reasons why ewes should be last clipped.
3933. The deprivation of wool before the warm
weather has appeared, inidiuces diseases in sht-ep.
It is seldom that a flock-master errs in this re spect, though cold nights  do  sonietimes occur
after the shearing of the tups in cases where
their owners are desirous of clipping early, that
the wool may have the longer time to grow be fore the season arrives when tups are sold or let
onl hire.  But the practice of shearing fat sheep
early, before they are sent to niarket, is thus very
properly deprecated by Mr Youatt. "There is
scarcely a Smiithfield cattle show in which, in
the dead of wiliter, two or three sheep just shorn
— certainly in a very neat and tasteful way, and
everyexcellent point of the animal displayed are not exhibited.  Some excuse  may be made
for this, for the sheep are brought to the metro polis in closed carts, and are shovwn in a place
where  the  winds of heaven  cannot visit them
too roughly; but what shall be said of a
drove of iiaked sheep going to market iii the early
part of March-the east wind cutting like ice,
and their eyes  and noses nearly closed with
mucous?  This is done for the sake of the little
additional profit to be derived from the wool. Is
that profit really derived? Has not the unfeeling
owner miscalculated the matter?  Let him, or
let any thinking or humane man, compare two
pairs of sheep close by each  other.  lI the one
the animalsretain their natural (iovering,and they
are full of hcalth and vigour; the inhabitants of
the other hang their heads with cold and disease,
an unpleasant stream is discharged from  their
nostrils, and the eye of the sheep that never deceives when the question of health is to be decided, tells tales, tfar too initelligibly, of pulmonary  diseases, and of constitution undermined,
and of everything to disgust rather than attract.
Has not the unfeeling owner miscalculated  the
matter I He will say, perhaps, that the sheep will
not well travel in their fleeces. In the heat of
summer they will not; but when the winds blow
chilly, no system can so surely promote the health
of the animal as that which secures to him the
feeling of comtort."*
3931. No slheep-shearing takes place in carse
farms, or dairy farms, or on farms in the eiciiity
oftowns. T'he clipping of sheep in most pastoral
districts is conducted in a most slovenly mainner.
The old-fashioned practice of tying' the legs of
the sheep together, on the  grass swar  i th e ga  ar ii  e
open air, is still practised in most parts of the
Highlands,; and after the creature is thus placed
in a lhelpless state between the legs of the clipper, who sits on the grass with the bead of the
sheep towards him, the shears are made to ply,
froin the neck to the tail, in irregular long
slashes, so that the fleece may be said to be
snatched off ill the shortest time.   The legs are
then loosened and the sheep set at liberty.
Women are frequently employed at this work, to
which there is no objection, provided they do it
properly; but the result is, that a considerable
proportion of the wool is left on the sheep, and
their appearance, as a piece of work, is most
disgraceful. The entire proceeding is the less
justifiable, that the proper way can be done as
expeditiously in the hands of dexterous people
as any slovenly method. If hill-herds cannot clip
in any other way, let them go and learn it ia
places where it is better done.
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE
QUALITY OF WOOL.
3932. An improvement has been effected on
the mode of clipping sheep in one pastoral district
by Mr Colin Munro, Dingwall   It consists of
erecting an awning of canvass, fastened to stobs
driven into the ground at stated distances, and of
appropriate heights, along the side of a wall.
This tent, as it may be called, is sufficient to hold
as many sheep as is desired, by making it large
enough; it protects them from rain, allows the
clipping to proceed uninterruptedly, and screens
* Youatt On Sheep, p. 548.
206
3930. Stieep-shearing is a joyous season-a sort of liarvest-in which a liberal
allowance of beef and broth and ale is dispensed to the.clippers engaged in the laborious but important work.
3934. Wlierever the slieep are sborn,
wliotlier in tlje sti-aw barii or in a sued, a
board is erected, for rollin(, the fleect's lipon
r In
as ttiey are sliorn. A'niootli I)Iain deal
painted door inakes a useful land good board 
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
for winding fleeces upon, and it should be
supported on tressels about 2 feet above
the ground, and 2 or 3 feet fromtn a sidewall, near the clippI)ers.   A  clhaff-slieet
(1749) should be  spread  on  the  floor
close to tile samne wall, to pile the rolled
fleeces upon until they are taken to the
wool-room, at the end of the day's work.
part of the farmer, and in the latter diminisling his profits.  Besides  the disgrace
of the attempt to commit such a fraud, tie
farmier is amenable to a criminal charge
of fraud and imposition by the common law
of Scotland.
3937. Tile winder being satisfied of the
purity of the fleece, folds in both its sides,
putting the loose locks into the mniddle, aind
niaking the breadth of the folded fleece
from 24 to 30 inches, according to its size.
She then rolls the fleece from the tail towards  thle neck, tightly and  neatlv; and
when arrived at  the nieck, puts a knee
upon  the  fleece, while  she  draws  out
the  wool  of it, twisting it in the form
of  a   rope  with  both  hands,  as  far
until it will go round the fleece; and then
holding the fleece tight at the lower end of
the rope thus niade, with one hand, removes
the knee, and still holding the point of the
rope in the other hand, she winds the rope
tig,ht round the fleece, making it fast under
the rope.  The fleece, as a bundle, is easily
carried about, having the clipped surface
outside, which, being composed of white
wool satiii ratedwith yolk, exhibits a shlining
silveiy lustre. Fig. 332 represents afleece
3935. The p        erson  appointed to roll the
fleeces is one of the field-workers who has
been accustomed to the work, and sle,
whenever a fleece is separated from the
sheep, lifts it carefully and unbroken from
the shearing cloth, and spreads it ulpoin
the board upon its clipped side, with the
neck end farthest from  her.  She examines the fleece carefully, that it be
quite free of extraneous substances, such
as straws, bits of thorn, of whliiis, or
burs, and removes them; and she also pulls,
not clips off, all locks having lumps of
dung adhering to them, which may have
escaped the notice of the slheep-waslhers.
Fig. 331 shows the mode of rolling a fleece
Fig.'432.
I              Thi
____                  ~
L 
b    a 
<tA
THE ROLLING OF A FLEECE OF WOOL.
where a is the board supported on the
tressels b and c, and d is the field-worker
in the act of winding the fleece e, placed
as above describe(l.
of wool rolled up in the proper nianner,
where a is tile wool at the breech forniung
the centre coil of the fleece, and c is the
end of tile rope made from the neck of the
fleece twisted round its body, b.
3936. The farmer shoulh be very particular in riving instructions to have every
fleece as clean as possible, as the purchaser
cannot unloose every fleece hlie buys; and
should he find as muchl filth in the fleeces,
after purchasing them, as to warrant the
belief that it had been purposely left there,
he may either relinquish his bargain, or
make a large deduction from the pricein the former case implying fraud oni the
207
Fig. 331.
A FLEECE OF WOOL ROLLED UP.
3938. Fleeces are not all alike, either in
structure or colour. Those (of ewes aire thin
and open in the locks, of pale colour, and
feel light in lhand. Hoggs' fleeces are close
and long in the pile, of a rich colour,bulky, 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
and feel heavy ill  land.  All thle fleeces
are not in proper condition; ait occasional
fleece nmay want sonie part, hlaving beent
slle(l off in the  fieli; another  niay be
coated, having a felte(l appearance, like a
piece of very thick cloth;  whilst otliers
may have a dusky  hue.  Whenever suchl a
differences are observe(l, the fleeces should
be laid aside, and sol( separately.
This, as observed by Mr Curtis, " has long
been recorded as a mos t    m n ischievous little
moth in our dwelling-lhouses, where it is
common the greater portion of the sp-ring,
sumnler, and autumn.......   Thie
female deposits her e,ggs upon clothes,
blankets, curtains, carpets, or any woollen,
articles, on which the larva feed, living in
cylindrical cases wl;ich  they form of the
materials on which they subsist covered
with their excrement, and in which tlhey
change to  pupae.   The caterpillar  is a
lively  wriggling animal, about  half-aninch long  when  full fed; it is soft and
white, with ayellowislh tint, and sparingly
clothed with fine longish hairs, sometimes
having a slate-coloured stripe down  the
back, arising from  the food; the head is
horny, of a chestnut brown, and furnished
with little stroii,, jaws and minute horns.*
3939. Coarse stray locks, and those
clotted withl dirt, should b)e put into a
basket by themselves, to be afterwards
washled, dried, and used at lhome for variouS purposes, such as in repairing the
saddlery.
3940. Every day's clipping is carried
into the wool-room, i,, fig(. 130, which is
entered by a stair c', fromll the straw-barn s.
Previous  to being  occupied,  the  room
should  be swept clean of (lust from its
plasteredl walls, and its floor washed clean
and  dried.   The fleeces are piled uponl
one another on tile floor ait a little distance
froiii the wall, puttilig, the llogg and ewe
fleeces in separate divisions. Each division
is covered with cloths, and( the shutters of
the win(low closed.  The reason for these
precautions, which are seldom attended to
by farllers, is, that thle cloths keep off
dust, )prevent too quick evaporation of tle
yollk (of thle wool, lwhichl, if allowed, will
dinminishl its wei(ght, and the exclusion of
the li,ght retains the bright lustre of the
wool.   A  dalmp) wool-riooiii  causes  thle
wiool to clap together aind( become inoulldedt
with a yellow mnould.  A  very (Iry rooiiim
scorches thle woo]l.  The odd fleeces and
flocks should not be brought into the woolroom at all; the f)ormer shlould be sold,
and the latter prepared  for  use  inniediately, as their unclean state creates suchl
Fig. 333.           all eflluvi                               uni -Is will
induce tide
whIIi te                               shouhlered
wool'-notl,
Ti nez sar                               ci t ella,
fig. 3'33,
to    come
THE WHITZ-SHOULDZRZD WOOL- into    the
KO'ra —INNA SARCITBLLA.    wool-roomn.
3941. Wool   is  arr ua.aafe article for a
fnrlmer t o  keep   long.    F or a short time
w ool becomes   heavie r in  the   room,  absorbin, mo isture  from  the walls, f loor,  and air,
i         whichl it pr obably d oes as long as it retains
its vita lity; for,  being  a living body wh en
slforn, som te tie must   elapse before   it
loses its vitality entirely. After it has lost
its vitality, it will soon lose its natural
moistur e          in a d ry room, occasioned b the
yolk  evaporating, when  the fibres  becormie curled and feel harsh.  In a damp
roomii, the absorptieon  of moisture increases
aftelr the  loss of vi tality, a nd the fleeces
I)ecomie compressed, feel clammy, and af-,
fectedI with green  and yellow  moulh.
TIhe wool-motlh then takes up its residence
in it in sumrer, and breeds  numerous
larvve, which subsist on the fibres of the
wool, and  cut them  in pieces.   Many
farmers have no proper wool-roonm, but
keep their wool in the granary or in an
out-house, where, of course, either of these
eftbets are aggravated.  The best way I
know of preserving wool for a length of
time is to keep it in a cool dry room lhaving a woodeni floor, packed in the packshieets, in which it will be out of the reach
of dust,  lighlt, and motlhs.  If onily fo,r a
fewv weeks, it is best kept as directed ini
(3940.)  The safest plan for the  woolgrower is to sell it every year at the cuirretnt prices, which are determined at the
great wool fairs that take place in summer
* Journal of the Ayrlgultural Society of England, vol. vii. p. 429.
208 
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
own  pack-shleets.  Wool  is weighed  in
this way:-It is sold in Scotland by the
wool-stone of 24 lb. avoirdupois, and is
weighed out in double stones of 48 lb.,
each being called a wveigh.  Usually 7
Leicester hogg and 11 ewe fleeces make 1
weigh of 48 lb.  In England, wool is sold
by the lb., and weighed out by the tod of
2 stones of 14 each, or 28 lb.  In weighing out, the above number of fleeces may
not exactly weigh the double stone; and,
as fleeces are never broken to equalise the
scales, a few small weights are used to
balance the scale either on the side of the
wool or of the weights, at eaclh weighiing.
In this way the weight of the number of
weighs required to fill each pack is correctly ascertained, a memorandum being taken
of each weighing.  In  fig. 334, is seen
the large scales and beam A, used in weigh
in every part of tile country, either to the
wool-dealers who attend there, or renlit
the entire clip of wool to a commission
agent in Hull or Liverpool, to dispose of
to the best advantage, at the proper time,
to the wool-staplers,  who  assort each
fleece into several portions, each portion
being suitable to a particular manufacture.
His  object  is  to please  the mianufacttirer, who will give the best current prices
for the  wool  suited  to  his particular
purpose.    The  niere  wool-dealer  purclhases with the view  of earning a profit
on the fleeces in bulk.   His object is to
purchase at as low a L,rice as he can bargai. for.
3942. Wlen   a wool-merelciant, of whhatever sort, purchases wool from a farmer,
he sends his own people to pack it in hiis
THB WNIGHING AND PACKING OF WOOL.
iiig wool.  The maii i takes the fleeces
fromr the pile q, and, after weighing the
(,ouble stone, places the fleeces in a beap
:rs at k.  The wool-room should have as
]Iii,h) a ceiling as to admit the suspension
t,t thle beam and scales from a hook; and
if it is large enough to admit of the paclin,, of the wool too in the sheets, so much
the better; but if it will admit of neither of
thlese conveniences, the wool must be remiiovedi out of it to the place where it is
cleig,ne an( where  it must be placed on
cleall btarn-sheets.
feet long when empty? and open along one
side. A small stone is placed in each end
of the opening of the sheet, and a rope for
each end being suspended from the ceiling of the place where the wool is to be
packed, the stones form knobs which pre vent the corners  of the  sheet  slipping
tlthronughl the tyings of the ropes, as at a a,
fit. 334.  Tle sheet d is suspendedijust
to swilmi above the floor. Two men, b aind
c, get into the slheet, place the fleeces, as
hanided to them by the woman e, from the
heap k, lengthways across its bottom, as
the iman c is doing; and they trample thliem
down with force, especially at the corners,
where  they are  pushed down wi   th bothl
feet set tog,etler; while both hands  hold
3943. Wool is packed in this way:Pack-sheets are made of thin canvass, of
the shape of an oblong rectangle, about 8
VOL. II.
209
Fig. 334.
h
i
b
II
I
0 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
firmly by, and pull up the outside of the
corner of the sheet immediately under the
tying, as shown in action by the man  b.
The second layer of fleeces is laid contrary
to the first, in length along the sheet, 2 or
3 fleeces being placed  parallel in the
breadth of the sheet: but the ends of the
sheet  are  always  filled with  a fleece
placed  across its length, in  the  same
position as at first, and pressed down iii
the samne manner.  The sheet is thus filled
with alternate layers of fleeces to the top,
when the packers come out of it, auln tlhen
loosening the ropes, atnd reserving  the
smail  stenes  for the next shleet, iiiiitediately close the iiioutli of the pack; for,
if left opeii for a tine, the elasticity of the
wool will cause the fleeces to rise so far
as to render the closing afterwards iumpracticable, and a pack is difficult to close
at all times. With the aid of hland-cramips,
inserted into opposite sides, the e(ldges of
the l)ackl-sheet are brought together, and
so held by iron skewers passed through
both edges. When a farmner is packing wool
-on his own account, it is well for him to
know that common iron table-foirks answer
as well as hand-cramps for pulling, in op,posite directions, the edges of a  packsheet together, and for keeping them close
like skewers.  The edges being thus kept
together, they are pernmanently secured by
sewing  w itlh  packing-needle  and  stout
twine, and the skewers or forks are remnioved as the sewing proceeds.  One pack
is thus filled after another.   A  pack of
wool f contains 10 stones, that is, 240 lb.
3945o. On  the  slightest inspection on
the  sleep's back, one can  per e ive  that
wool consists of different qualities, the
coarser being evidently below and the
finer above.  The finest wool is upon the
slhoulder and along the top of the back to
tile  rump; the next  best is below  the
shoulders, along  the ribs to  the rump;
the coarsest is on the haunches; and below the bellv it is short and detached, and
cannot be classed with the rest. Each of
these parts have their respective qualities,
which wool-staplers classify, in order to
satisfy the wants of the manufacturers.
The subdivison of the fleece by woolstaplers is technically in these terms:Prime-lock- choice-lock-Ipicked-locksuper-head - head -downrigh ts - second
abb-livery-short-coarse or breech-wool.
It would be well for wool-growers to receive lessons from wool-staplers on the
essential properties which constitute each
of these practical subdivisions of the fleece,
that they may be able to judge whether
the  wool they grow is useful or otherwise
to the manufacturer; and if it is not, its
value is sure to be depreciated in the
market; for it is certain that, if the mannfacturer cannot obtain in this country what
he wants, he will go to other markets, and
other countries.  According  to present
practice, wool-growers grow wool without
knowing whether or not it is fit for any
sort of manufacture pursued in this country,
and they must, therefore, take such prices
as are offered.
3944. Wool, as I have seen it packed
in the Highlands, is not placed regularly
in the shleet as I have descrilbed; the
fleeces being cranmmed in and trampled
down as they hlapp ened to come to the
handis of the packer.  The staple of the
wool is sure to be broken by such treatment.  I have seen Merino wool packed
on a large scale at Leipzig.  The sheets
were made of horsehair, and, in the packing, were occasionally subjected to the
pressure of a long pole of wood acting
upon them as a lever.   The pole was
fixed at ose end by a ring to the ground,
and heavy weig,hts were suspended, and a
rope fastened to the othlier end and passed
through a ring in the ground, to keep
good, by holding an, what the lever had
gained.  The wool was aecking for Bri
210
tain, to be conveyed in large waggons,
eacli drawn by eigbt stallions, and to be
shipped at Rotterdam.
3946. Godd wool should have these
properties:-The.fibre should be of iiniform tlilbkness from root to point, wl-ie-n
it is said to be true; the finer the wool,
the smaller in diameter it is; it should
be elastic, on being stretched lonways;
touch, not easily broken; its surface should
h.N,e a staining silvery Iiistre; it should
be of great density.
'1947. Of a staple-.tbe staple being,
0
any lock that naturally sheds itself from
the rest - all the fibres should be of the
sanie. length, otherwise it will be pointed;
the end of the staple should be as bright
as the bottom, and not iseeni composed 
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
of dead wool; the elltire staple should be
strong, and its strength is tested in this
nianner: -take the bottom of the staple
between the finger and thumb of the left
hand, and its top between thlose of the
right, and, on holding the wool tight between the hands, make the third finger of
the right hand play firnily upon the fibres,
as in staccato on the strings of a violin:
and if tile sound prodluced be firm and
sharp, and sozuewliat musical, the wool is
sound(; if the fibres do not break on repeatedly jeiking the hands asunder with
considlerable force, the staple is sotund; if
they break, the wool is unsound, and it will
break at the place which issued from the
skin of the sheep when it was stinted of
food or had an ailmrnent-although it will
not break at both those places sinmultaneously, because the part occasioned by the
greater illness, being the weaker, will first
give way.  Pliability is an important property in the staple; inflexibility and brittleness are the opposite bad qualities.
3951. Carding wool should  be  slhort,
unter  foeur inches  in lengtlh, fin e, true,
very elastic in its length, and crumple up
when  let  go.  The opject of carding is
to break  the wool    cottppletely, to  blend
it most i n timately, so    as   to  fores  it  into
a thin roll   of the slightes   t textures held
together only by the natural hlookedness
of the pile, which disposes it to assume
a zig,zag, or waved form. Wool that will
bear this process is fit to be manufactured
into the finest fabrics, with a  close and
smooth surface.  Tile waving and crumpledhiess is not any sort of curvature whirhl
disposes the fibres into parallel curves, that
seemi as if they lhatd been formed by externial pressure, best is produced by a natural
cause affecting every individual pile as
it passed tlhroughl the pores of' tile skin,
cauising, one pile to hook on to its neighbour.
3948. A good fleece should  have  the
points of all its staples of equal length,
otherwise it will be  a pointy one; the
staples should be set close together; and
the fleece should  be clean.   A  pointy,
watery, or dirty fleece creates much waste
to the manufacturer, to bring, a portion of
the wool to the proper state. An essential property of a fleece is its softness to
the feel, which does not depend on Jinegess of fibre, but on a peculiar sort of
elasticity which yields to the touch at once,
and  realily recovers  thle form  it had.
There should be no hairs in wool, no long
ones, which are easily distinguished fromin
wool, and rive the  nanmie of bearded to
the fleece; nor short ones, soft and fine,
like cat's hair, whlichl are not easily distinguisled( from wool, an(l are inatiedl kemps.
The long hairs are frequently of a different c(,lour from  the wool, but the kenmp
hairs are of the same colour; and of the
two, the latter are the more objectionable,
as being less easily detected.
3953. Tile distinction in the spinning
of the carding and combing wool is tlhu.s
well described by Mr Luccock:-" In
twisting a woollen thread," be says, " widen
h   the staple has been previously broken, and
the fragments of it in the uttmost disorder,
they are united only by their natural hook
3949. Keeping all these properties in
view, thle farmer who breeds sheep having
fleeces with pointy staples, thinly set on,
and of unequal lengths-who stints his
sheep of food at times, producing wool of
unequal size —and who does not wash his
shleep cleani-or, having waslhed them clean,
211
allows their wool to be dirtied before
being clipped, injures his clip of wool to
a serious extent.
3950. Attention by farmers to the different classes of wool required by the
various iiianufactiirers of woollen goods,
mi),Iit direct tbeni to produce wool in
every locality best siiited for a particular
manufacture. Our manufactures seeiii to
require tliree classes of wool, Wltiell posses.s distinct cliaracteristics-one for card    anotlier for combine,, and a tl-tird int'Iriiiediate to tliese.
3952. Combiq wool must be more tli-,iii
four iiiclies long, fine, true, but little elastic
ir, lepgtl-i, and eacii pile readv to ari-ange
itself in parallel spirals witli its iiei,,Iibours.
The conil) lias not only the effect of laying
e'very pile sti —,tigl)t and even, an(-l of removing the Eborter piles than tl)e generalit of the fleece, but also the few longer
y
ones wliieli iiia bal)pen to be tietl together
y
in indissoluble kn(,ts. Coiiibed.vool spins
into tl)e worsted whicli makes all ttie fiiier
class of worsted goods. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
e,lness, and the turnigl of thie wheel rolls
thenm  togethler without arrangement, and
they are pl)aced in every possible direction.
But in spinning a worsted thread, where
every hlair has been previously dispos:ed
by the side of others in the most regular
or(ler, the  ile is drawn out in the direction
of its leng,tli,everysingle hair being parallel
to all those which lie near it, and is twisted
in a spiral form, something like the threads
of a conmpound screw.  If these hairs conitracted their length to any considerable
(idegree, they could not be correctly arr.-iiged, nor drawn  out  in that regular
ogler wvhichi the work requires, but would
be twistedl into the thread in an irregular
-in(] crumipled foi-rm-a circumstance inj.itious to worsted yarn, andito the goods
!whlichl are made froni it."*
3957. In regard to the cause of the fineness of
wool, Mr Culley remarks, that " the Herefordshire
sheep that have the finest wool are kept lean,
and produce 1I lb. each; if better kept they grow
larger, and produce more wool, but inferior in
quality." t This is true of every breed of sheep,
and particularly of the Merino, whose propensity
to leanness caused their culture to be abandoned
in Britain as unprofitable. Their wool did not
so much deteriorate in this cold climate, as the
impossibility of getting mutton upon their carcass. But though leanness may produce wool of
finer quality than high condition, yet the remark
is only strictly true when applied to breeds which
yield fine wool in all conditions; for no degree of
leanness will cause a coarse-woolled breed of
sheep, such as the Black-faced, to produce fine
wool. To obtain a given quality of wool, therefore, it is necessary to possess the breed that produces it, and the wool may be comparatively
finer or coarser as the sheep may be kept in low
or high condition.   But  I apprehend that the
fineness of the pile of wool depends chiefly on the
fineness of the pores of the skin of the animal,
and this probably depends on the fineness of the
breed-but of those breeds, of course, which produce fine wool. There is no doubt, however, that
the quality of the wool of this country is coarser
than it was years ago; not because  the breeds
of sheep have deteriorated-on the contrary,
they have all improved-but because the animals
are kept throughout the year in much higher
condition than they were; and such a result might
have been anticipated, for a high condition, indicatinig a mnoist skin, should cause its pores to
enlarge.  During the improvement that has taken
place in the breeds of sheep, the counteracting
influence of shelter, as I conceive, has been at
work to retain the wool of finer quality against
the effects of high condition; and though shelter,
by preventing unequal evaporation of the yolk of
the wool, by warding off cold and drying winds,
only exercises a negative influence, yet its effects
are positively beneficial, inasmuch as Mr Luccock
obser ves, that " th e silky softness, like most olther
good qualities of the fleece, depends very much
upon the breed of the sheep, and the quality of
the yolk which they constantly afford."
39.54. Intermediate to   th          e s hort               and
lent  wools, is that chiefly employed in
the  hi,,siery manufacture.   This  mianu&tac;tu   takes wool from four  to  eight
ill(lutJes log,, which has contracting properties in too great a degree and are too
wi eak fo,, the comb, and are as elastic and
l,,ngs r tlh-an the short wools, but too coarse
for thle finer classes of goods.
395-. The geographical distribution of
the slheep in Great Britain, which produce
these three classes of wool, is pretty distinetly  mariked.   The E. co                            ast more
tol. the interior and the W.  coast, and all
tile r icler lands in the courses of the rivers
flowiing chiefly to the E. coast, are inhlabiLed by the sheep which yield long
wool.  The green, half-elevated grounds,
which lie between those river courses, support the fine short-woolled sheep;  whilst
the  liglehest ranges of pasture produce tlhe
coarse wN-ool.
3958. It is not easy to determine whether the
density of the fibre of wool, that most desirable
property, depends on some general law connected
with the breed, or the circumstances ill which the
fibre is produced, since the mere  coarseness  or
fineness of the fibre does not affect its specifio
gravity: as, for instance, the close full-grown
wool on the shoulder of a sheep does not differ
materially, in density, from that of the thin and
hairy breech; and hence, perhaps, the density
does not depend on the breed. I am inclined to
believe that soil and food very much affect the
weight of wool, for we find what is grown ill tile
chalky districts  of England much  drier   anrd
3956. The Leicester, Lincoln, Cotteswoldl, and Kent breeds of sheep produce
long wool; and little long wool is inmporledl.  The Cheviot, Norfolk, Wiltshire,
Western, Hereford, and Southdowns, pro(duce short wool, and miuch short wool is
imported.  The Merino wool, whichl is
shlort and fine, is imported froni Spain,
Saxony, and Australia, in large quantities.
The Black-faced and Welsh breeds produce coarse short wool; and of this quality
* Luccock On Wool, p. 154, edition of 1805.
212
a considerable quantity is obtained from
abroad.
t Calley On Live Stock, p. 132ote-. 
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
meter, the invention of the late celebrated optician, Dolland of London, reads off diameters of a
very minute fraction of an inch, and  may therefore be used for measuring the diameters of wool.
It produces a double image of the fibre, which,
on being brought in contact, the result is read off
a circular index.  The cost of this instrument
is about ~2, 2s.
light er th an wool produced        on fine s  oft hazel
loam; and that grow         n        from tur nips  appears to
me  h e avi          er        than      wool from grass of the same soil.
This fact is undeniable, that fleeces from the
same  breed, reared in s  imil ar circumstances,
differ much      in   density.  The conclusion to be inferred from all these considerations seems to be,
that whatever induces the greatest secretion of
yolk, whether it be breed, condition of animal,
nature of soil, or food, will produce fibre of the
greatest specific gravity; and hence on grass on
a deep mellow soil, in good heart and in a sheltered situation, a fine breed of sheep, capable of
continuing in good condition tkhroughout the
year, should produce the densest, the finest, and
the longest fibre of wool. If these views be
correct, you easily perceive how much depends
on the judgment of the farmer to produce
wool possessing the greatest number of good qualities.
3962. M. Raspail ascertained the manner of
the growth of wool by means of the microscope.
" If the faetus of a sheep," he observes, " taken
when it is of the length of about 4i inches, and
preserved in alcohol, be examined, it will  be
found studded with globules  of uniform  size
elegantly arranged, and almost at equal  distauces, round certain white  spots disposed in
quincunxes, which seem, even at this early period,
to indicate the places where the hairs are to
grow.   On the epidermis of the temple, instead
of thin white spots, we find vesicles projecting in
the form of bottles, or rather of urns, whose sides
are granulated in the same manner as the epidermis. These vesicles are the rudiments of hairs."+
The organic difference in the origin of hair and
of wool is thus distinctly indicated.
3959. The late Mr Youatt examined the externial structure of wool with the microscope, and
ascertained that the surface of the fibre is covered
with scales which form a series of serrations
along its entire length.  The general outline of
the fibre consists of a central stem or stalk, probaly hollow, or at least porous, and  the stem
possesses a semi-transparency not found in the
fibres of hair.  From this central stalk springs at
distances, inl      all the breeds of sheep,                     a circlet   of
leaf-shaped projections.  Thus wool possesses a
property common to all independent horny fibres
which issue from the skin of animals, an irregula-rity which constitutes a degree of roughness
upon the surface from the root  to the point.
Hence, both physically and chemically, wool and
hair are analogous substances.
3963. Wool is well known to have the power
of becoming felted. This quality is not evident
to the eye, and the best judges of wool consider
this to be a point only to be ascertained by trial.
It consists of a tendency in the pile, when subrmitted to moderate heat, combined with moisture,
to cohere together, and form a compact and pliable substance; and pressure serves to  make
the contact the closer, by excluding the air from
between the interstices of the fibres.  The pro ceeditigs of nature in the operation of felting
are little known. A coated fleece is a natural
instance of the felting property of wool.  Mr
Youatt believes that the discovery of the serrations on the fibre of wool accounts for its felting
property. " It is a curious and interestiling point
that hlas been established," he says, "the  existence of an irregularity of form in the wool accounting for, and  necessarily giving it a lelting
power-is  there a variation  in this structure
corresponding with the degree of felting power 8 "
Mr Boyd, woollen manufacturer, of Intierleithin,
Peeblesshire, questions Mr Youatt's view,. "Mr
Youatt asserts with much  confidence," he riemarks, in which he is supported by Mr  Luccock,
" that the felting properties depend entirely on
the structure of the wool.   During  an experience of many years, 1 have found this not to be
the fact, and  therefore  state, without  fear  of
contradiction, that in tmany instances it is impossible to estimate the extent of the  felting pro perties in a  variety of wools, until they have
been submitted to the actuial test of experinme,t;
and  I am  decidedly of opinion, that  however
perfect the structure of w*ol may be, if produced
in the absenice of an oily (;r saponaceous substance, it cantot         tioress lhe requisite properties
of a clothinug miiterial."++  Mr Boyd is again
supported  by  Mr  Luccock, when lie says, "If
Merino wool,.
Picklock,
Saxony,.
Leicester,.
Deccan, black,
Odessa,
Wallachian,
Australian,
New South Wales,
~Mr Arthur's,
Van Diemen's Land,
Southdown,
Wiltshire,.
Ryeland,
Cheviot, hill-fed,
good pasture,
Norfolk,
Lincoln,
Irish,.
* Youatt On Sheep, p. 91.                       + Raspail's Organic ('emnilstry, p. 283.
+ Prize Essays of the Hightland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv., p. 669.
213
3960. The comparative fineness of the pile of
wool of the following breeds of sheep 9 measured by Mr Youatt with the micrometer:
Diameter Serrations
of one inch. in the inch.
.71 6
5
.71.6
.1
I
'9. u
3 I
uu
-f..u
.5 6
i.6
'7.5
1
,7 s U
L.6
11 5
I
"'9 u
T iL, u
-Iiu
sun
,I I u
I
3 uu
s i -6
i I
'9 u
" I's
6
and
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2400
2560
2720
1860
1280
2080
2080
1920
2080
2400
2iO
1860
2420
1860
1440
1600
1280
1920*
3961. A correct instrument, named the eiro 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
bably to the effect upon it by the calcareous soils
abounding in those districts, for when  those
sheep are removed to different soils, they produce
a wool which thickens in the fulling mill, although
the process proceeds more slowly than iln some
other breeds.  We  must not conclude from  this
circumstance that the difference observed in the
felting quality of fleeces is entirely owing to the
land, because we find upon soils known not to be
injurious to wool, different kinds of sheep whose
fleeces do not felt il an equal degree.'
3964. Mr Youatt's theory appears to me unsatisfactory. On the authority of Mr Luccock,
the application of moisture, warmth, and pressu re
are necessary to bring the felting property of wool
into action.  " Without the aid of moisture," lihe
affirms, " it remains  perfectly dormant;  the
warmth and pressure are required  to quicken
the process." And he adds, " The degree of heat
required to make the felting property act with
the utmost force, is considerably below the boiliig point of water," and that "a higher temperature loosens the texture of the thread, and increases the elasticity of the hair, thus giving it a
disposition to start from the substance of the
cloth, and spoil its surface."  If the serrations of
the fibres be the principal means of felting wool,
it must be proved that they change their structure on be;.lig immersed in water at a temperature near the boiling point, which has not yet
been done. Wool, after being combed with heated
iron combs, will not felt; and yet the number
of serrations given by Mr Youatt, do not warrant
us in believing  that, with any number of serrations, one wool shall felt, and another with the
same  number shall not felt.  For example, the
table iiiforms us that Leicester wool gives 1860
serratiolls in the inch; and it has no felting
property, being an excellent combitng wool.., It
also inftorms us that Cheviot wool gives only the
same numnber of serrations, 1860, and yet it is
one of the best felting wools known; while the
SouthdowI gives as high as 2080 serrations ill the
inch, and it is not a good feltiig wool.
3969. Taking the price of long wool at ls.,
and of the short wool, coarse and fine, at 9d. the lb.,
the quantities specified in (3967) will bear
these values:
3965. " Felting," observes Mr Luccock, " is
the basis upoi  which the hat manufacture depends anmong ourselves, and has for maijy ages
been appllied abroad to the production of pieces
of domestic furniture.   In the fabrication of
worsted goods it is nlot employed; nor is it niecessary ill the manufacture of stockings, blankets,
baize, flantiels, nor any other article not sublllitted to the action of the fulling mlill.  Ill some
of  them, when  made  of wool in  which  it
abounds, the housewife finds great inconvenience,
and complains that her stockings and her flalllels
becolme too small for the wearer.   From  the
different modes of manufacturing these articles,
we may conclude that, iln general, the  feltiglu
quality is a valuable one ill almost every description of finle and short-stapled fleeces, andl that it
is not desirable in the greater part of the longer
and coarser wool.."W
1847.
Wool, sheep's and lamb's, ~288,231
Woolien yarn,.      1,001,364
W'oollen manufactures,   (;,89,"',O",8
~8,185,633
3966. The natlire of the soil seems to have an
effect o0i the felting property of wool.  The fine
short  wool of  the Southliownt and Wiltshire
breeds, do not felt well or easily, owing most pro
+ M'Qneen's Statiqtics of thle British Empire, p. 52,
~ Parliamentary Return, Feb. 26, 1849.
* Lecock On           o    NVool, p. 161-4.
t Porter's Progress of the N~ation, p. 175.
214
the wool-grower be anxious to promote the
growth of fleeces prevailing in the felting
quality, I should recommend, from the little
knowledge at present possessed, that he should
promote the supply of the rich and nutritious yolk, which the pile receives while
growing."
3967. I have mentioned the calculated number
of sheep in the kingdom (3603.) Taking tlp,-it a,.3
the basis, Mr M'Queen calculates the quantity of
wool they produce- at the following rates:19,800,000 long-woolled sheep at 7i lb. - 148,000,000 lb.
28,200,000 short 3i lb. - 98,700,000 lb.
48,000,000 246,700,000 t
The pack containing 240 lb. of wool, this quaiitity will fill 1,002,791 packs.
3968. Mr Porter states that the late "Mr
Hubbard of Leeds, a gentleman of great experience in the wool trade, expressed his belief before the committee of the House of -Commons, in
1828, that the actual number of sheep in England
and Wales had increased one-fifth since 1800;
that the loiig-woolled sheep had become more
numerous than the ghort-woolled, aiid that the
weight of the fleece had so much increased that,
one with another, each sheep yielded more than
5-1 lb. of wool."  It will be observed that the
4 +
relative number oflong and sbort-woolled sheep,
as given by Mr M'Queen, in the foregone table,
(in 3967,) does not coincide with the statement
of Mr Hubbard, though the average weight of'eacli
fleece does so exactly.
148,000,000 lb. at Is.,
98,700,000 lb. at 9d.,
246,700,000
.         X7,400,000
3,701,'-150
XI 1, IO l,)50
3970. Tije quantity of sbeep and lamb wool,
inclildin,-, tliat of the Alpaca, Llama, aiid Viciliial
imported int() the kingdom, dtity fre,-, iii 1134i,
was 62,592,598 lb., and in 1848, 70,521,957 lb.
397 1. The declared value of wool and woollen
m,-ttiufactui-es, exported from the kiyigdoni,
was
1848.
X 1 8.9.81 7
776-175
5,74 0,6,i -4
,e(,',706,fi2(; ~ 
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
troops of their respective provinces in war; blt,
before the time of Henrique II., it was become
wholly a civil-office, and the title was  gradually
giving place to that of Alguacil,(mayor.) Moloct
probably the judge of the shepherds was called
the merino, and hence the appellation extended
to the flocks under his care."
.~977 To show tlhe imnportance of the home
tn. lkett to the woollen manufactures,  I shall
state, kieepilg the amount of exports as above in
view, that iII the committee of the House of
Cunl:ii,,u ill 18'28, it was stated by MrT. Elworth
that toIl-fifths of the woollen goods made were
wtrni at hotne, by Mr Henry Hughes, that threetoiirtli.s were woun at home; by Mr G. B. Hall,
tihit i, washing wool loses 10 lb. in 20 lb.-tlithat
it takes 4 lb. of unwashed wool to make one yard
,l' bIroad cloth, price 18s.; by Mr J. C. Francis,
that it requires 2} lb. of wool to make one yard
tf cloth, value 10s.-that the manufacturing costs
5e. the yard; and by Mr Benjamin Gott, that the
price of manufacturing a yard of cloth was equal
to the value of the wool.*
3976. It is the common opin  ion that merino
sheep  came  to t his         coun try from Spain,l and  so
they did  in the end o f the last century, but it
appea rs  t ha t fine-wo olled sheep    werr sent froni
England to Spain a much longer   time  ago.  That
sheep were sent  from Englan       d  to Spain at' s
known period is certain, forMr Youatt quotes
from the Chr onicles  of Stowe, that "this   yere
(1464) King Edward IV. gave a license to pass
over   c er tai n Cotteswolde  sheep into Spain;" and
he quotes Baker also, who says, "/King Edward
IV. enters into a league with John, King of
Arragon, to whom he sent a score of Costal ewes
and four rams-a small present in show, but
great in the event, for it proved of more benefit
to Spain, and more detrimental to England, than
could at first have  been imagined." The  wool
of the Cotteswolde sheep of   the present  da y is
long, and not remarkable for fineness.  Perhaps
the old Cotteswolde wool was finer than that of
the present period, because that breed of sheep
has been much crossed with the Leicester. But
if the old Cotteswolde conferred so much benefit
on Spain, it may be fairly inferred that the wool
of Spain was not so fine as that of England at the
time.  But sheep were exported from England
to Spain prior to the reign of Edward  IV., as Mr
Southey intimates, that " Fernan Gomez de Cibdareal, in one of his letters, (Epist. 73,) meiitiotna
a dispute between two Spaniards concerning ralkl
in the presence of Juan II., 1437. It was objected tauntingly to one of them, that he was
descended from a judge of the shepherds, that is,
from a merino. The reply was, that this office
had always been held by hida.lgos of great honour,
and that'King D. Alfonso had instituted it in
the person of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, u,hen tie,
English sheelp werefirst broui7 t ocer to Spain.'
This dispute occurring in 1437, and referring'to
an ancient title of honour, which had been (-oiiferred as far back as the time of the introduction
of English sheep into Spain, and a taunt being
then also given to a descendant of a Merino, it Is
clear that the English sheep referred to cohll!
not have been the Cotteswoldes exported iii
1464, as mentioned by Stowe. " How long was
it before the merino fleece became finer than that
of the original stock!" asks Mr Southey- and be
replies, " Brito, who wrote towards the close of the
sixteenth century, says in praise ofthewool grown
about Santarem, it is so fine that it mayl tie with
that of England, (Monarchia Lusitania, f. i. p.
93.) If the Spanish wool had been as fine then
as it is now, he would hardly have drawn his
comparison from the English."
'3973. " A curious trade," observes Mr Porter,
"has of late years been introduced-that of importinig foreign woollen rags into England for the
purpose of re-manufacture. These are assorted,
torn up, and mixed with English, or more commonily with Scotch wool of low quality, and inferior cloth is made from the mixture, at a price
sufficiently moderate to command a sale for exportation.  By this means a market is obtained
for wool of a very low quality, which might otherwise be left on the hands of the grower."t
3974. When the skins of the Cape sheep are
properly dressed and cleaned, and a number of
them sewed together, they form a much warmer
covering than could be made from any other
materials.  The richer inhabitants, and those of
Cape Town, who can afford themselves more expensive coverings, affect to dislike this cheap
article, because they say it smells of mutton; but
the boor, the Cape farmer, is enabled by his immense flocks to select such only as have a smooth
fur, and so hlie obtains a handsome coverlet, so
unlike what a European could imagine, from
sheep's skins, that it may be doubted whether
many persons could even guess from what animal
it was made.  Those that have been brought to
Europe, have been viewed as the skin of some
unknown  quadruped.  Few furs can  be more
beautiful than the selected skins of lambs thus
prepared.+
3975. The term merino, denominative of a particular breed of sheep and kind of wool, is of obscuare origin.   Mr  Southey informs  us,  that
"'Merino is an old Leonese title, still preserved
in Portugal, though long since obsolete in the
other kingdom of Spain.  Perhaps it is a moingrel diminutive of the Arabic title  nir or etnir,
likely enough to have been formed when the two
languages, Spanish  and Moorish, were, as it
were, running into each other.  3firquebir, the
augmented title, was in use at Ormuz.  Merino
would be sufficiently explained by supposing it
a diminutive grade.  The old laws of Spain define it thus:-' He is a man who has authority to
administer justice within a certain district.' The
first mention of this office is in the reign of Bermudo II.  The Merinos then commanded  the
* M'Queen's Statistics of the British Emipire, p. 54.    + Porter's Progress of the NYation, p. 177.
+ Bischoff's History of Woollen Mlanufactures, vol. ii. p. 292.
121'5
3977'While these facts are recorded in Spa.nish
literature, regarding the origin and ancient quality 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
of the wool of Spain, the opinion of Mr Youatt
seems much  too strongly expressed, when he
says, that "Europe and the world are oriqinally
indebted to Spain for the most valuable material
in the manufacture of cloth."  And again," The
chunahs, therefore, may be descendants of the
English sheep," namely, those sent to Spain in
1464, "mixed with the common breed of the
country; but farther than this England cannot,
with any degree of justice, urge the claim which
some have done, of being instrumental in produciig the invaluable Spanish wool." * And yet,
as we have seen, sheep were probably sent from
England to Spain long before that date, or even
long before 1437; for if the King Alphonso mentioned above, as having instituted the order of
judge of the shepherds, be Alfonso the Wise,
king of Leon and Castile, who is stated to "have
digested a code of excellent laws, and rendered
his name famous in history by his patronage of
the arts and sciences,"t he reigned at the early
period from 1252 to 1284.  Another fact mentioned by Mr Southey is, that when Catharine,
daughter of John of Gaunt, was  espoused to
Henrique IlI., she took English sheep with her
as her dowery, which fixes another exportation of
sheep to Spain about 1390-a considerable time
prior to the Cotteswolde exportation of 1464; and
if the English sheep had been of an inferior description to those of Spain, it is not likely that
the future Queen of Castile would have taken
them with her for her own dowery.
hand  growing between   t hem, a nd displace
such clods as are seen to interfere with thle
proper growth of the plants.  The workers
should be careful in using the hoe amnongst
bean plants, as they are very tender and
easilybruisedandcut over. Aftertle plants
have risen about a foot in height, whiiicl
they will soon do in favourable weatler,
the blossom will begin to appear; and its
appearance should be the signal to finish
the work  amongst this crop as soon as
possible.   Time may be found to drillgrub, fig. 264, the space between the drills,
and hoe the sides of the drill along the
plants; but if not, the double-miould-board
ploughl, fig. 214, should at all events, as
the last operation, set the earth well, tip to
the roots of the plants, in order to grive
them a firm footing on the top of the drill
against the power of the wind.
3980. The suimmer culture of  beans
growing on the flat ground in rows (2431)
is the same, in as far as the scuffling, lloeing, and drill-grubbing the ground are
concerned, as on the drill; but the land is
not set up with the double-mould-board
plough,  the  drill-grubbing finishing the
operation.
3978. Mr Southey puts the query: "Can there
possibly be any truth in the remark of Yepes (t.
7, ~ 134,) who says,'Daily experience shows us,
that if a lamb is suckled by a goat, the wool becomes hard and hairy; and, on the contrary, if a
kid  is suckled by a ewe, the hair becomes
soft 1' "+
3981. When beans are grown broadicast, (2414,) no implement but the hatidlhoe is of any avail in clearing, the ground
of weeds; and as the hand-hloeing would
require to be  performed  muchl oftener
than time will allow, to keep the ground
as clean as it should be, the inevitable
consequence is that a crop of broadcast
beans  is always  a foul one, unless  the
weather is so favourable, from the earliest
part  of the seas on,    as to push the bean
plants as far forward as to snotlier the
weeds by overgrowing them.
3979. The state we left the bean crop
in spring, in (2443,) was immediately after
the drills had been harrowed down on the
crowns with  the drill-liarrow, fig. 220,
about a fortnight after the crop had been
sown. So soon as the young plants growing
on raised drills (2432) have attained two
or three inches in height, the scuffler, fig.
262, should remove all the weeds that may
have appeared between the drills in the
interval of time since the drill harrowing;
and the scuffling will also reduce some of
the clods, where the land is naturally
tender.  The field workers follow the scuffler with the hland-lioe, fig. 266, and remove all the weeds growing along each
mide of the plants, and pull those by the
3982. In England, the youngbean plants
are subject to be eaten down  in  moist
weather by the common field slug, Limiax
ayrestis.~   I never heard of this mollulsc
being so nDumnerous in Scotland as sensibly
to affect a field crop, although the small
grey slug, Limax cinereus, is troublesome
enough at times on plants in the garden.
* Youatt On Sheep, p. 146-7.            + Bigland's View of the World, vol. ii. p. 589.
+ Southey's Omniana, vol. ii. p. 103-8.
~ Macgillivray's folluscocs Animals of Scotland, p. 43.
216
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS.
3983. In dry suinmers, the yoiln" stalks
0 
SUMMIER CULTURE OF BEANS.
and leaves of the bean are attacked by the
Aphis ftbce, commonly  called  the black
Fig. 335.       dolphin, and  collier.
The females, fig. 335,
I       are apterouis, ovate,
sooty black.   Wlhen
; y. X       thiis aplhis appear,, it
does so, like all its
tril)e, in  countless
numinbers; and fromii
their numbil)ers they
coiiiiiiit, in a few
(lays, extensive ravTHE WINGLESS FEMALI  age upon thie leaves
OF THE BEAN PLANT-  atnd ten(ler stalks,)f
LOUSE —API1IS FABA3.
the bean. Th~e only
creep into the flower to reaclh tlhe nectary,
shie pierces the exact spot of the calyx, as
well as thle upper lobe of thle flowei,, benefactli which the nectar is stored, and the
extraction of nectar is a great (letriment to
the crop, which cannot tllen perfect all the
beans in the seed-pod.*   The most foridable foe to the lihuiible bee is the caterpillar of the mothl called Ilythia colonella,
which feeds up)on thle lhoney, and, when full
fed, spins a web of a close woolly texture,
so toiugh that it cannot be rent in pieces.
The mothl creeps into the nest in June to
deposit her egg,s, and the caterpillars live
iin famnilies sometimes of 500, to tile total
destruction of tile poor humble bees.
course that can be practically adopted to
get the better of them is, that, as they
cluster chiefly on the topmost bunch of tlle
leaves, these should be cut off with a sickle,
which the field-workers can do very quiclly, and by this means tlhe propagation of the
pest may be prevented.  But it is not sufficient to cut off the tops of the bean plants
and let them lie on the ground, for the
aphides will again reimount the bean plant
-or at least the nlales, fig. 336, whichl are
Fig. 336.
3985. Beans often sustain serious injury from the attacks of a snall shortsnouted weevil, of thlle genus,Sitona.  It
was  particularly abundant in 1848, and
we  have seen young bean-plants  almost
wholly stripped of  their leaves  by it.
Thiere are numerous species, but thle two
which appear to be most injurious in Scotland, are S. ulicis and S. caniniat.  The
bealk is short, and nearly flat above, and
has a groove down the middle; the body
covered withl small scales of a brownish
colour above, and ashl-grey beneath; there
are three pale lines on the thorax, and toe
wing-eases are deeply punctured in linear
rows; in S. canina, the latter are likewise markled with pale lines.  Tihese insects attack thle bean shortly after it appears above the ground, and continue to
frequent it during, the greater part of its
growth.  But  they by  no  means confine
their de)redations to that plant, but feed
on almost all the leguminiouts species, and
are often very lhurtful to young I)ease both
in gardens and in the field.  Sweet pease
in gardens seldom  fail to be  disfigured
by them, in the earlier stlages of  their
growthl.
THE WINGED MALE OF THE BRAN PLANT-LOUSR                APHIS FABAE.
win,e  and  bla ck, wlen they are hatcl ed,
will escape. Tlhe tops cut off slhouhl be
carriee to the end s of the drills                        and burned,
,or         deep  hole s d apg in the                    aleadridees, and the
tops buried in thieimi witlh quicklimtie. It is
doubtful where tlhese aplhides are bred in
the ef....it cannot be upon thle beautti plant,
and as they are at first apterotis, they cannot transport tlhemtiselves. The lady-birds,
fig. 27-5, destroy this aplhis.
3986. After  tlje  bean-plant lhas,rown
until a11 tlhe pods are set, tlhe practice of
thle garden indlicates thlat, *when the to0) of
the l)laiit is cut off in moist weatiei, at that
peri.(- of its growthl, thle crop will bt)e sensibly increased.  Th}is is a pro)babxle result,
it  being a  c,,mtiioii observation  tlhat, in
moist weather, thle  bean has a great tendency to gr,w in  lteigl(t long after the p3od-s
lhave ceased to  f'i)rn; and as lon" as this
3984. Tlhe flower of the bean is often
deprixe(I of its prolificacy by one of the
liunible bees, Boinmbus t(rrestris, whichi l             is
densely clothled witlh the finest hairs of tlhe
deepest black.   Altliougli bees are  useful
in assisting in the fecundation of plants,
when  the female earth-bee is too large to
* Journal of the Enylish Agricultural Suciety, vol. vii. p. 413-16.
217 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
tendency continues, the pods and beans do
not enlarge; and the only miode of chlecking the tendency, in thle circumstances referred to, is to cut off thl)e top, when the
vigoutr of the plant's growth will of course
be directed to the nourislhment of thle fruit.
prominent, orbicular, and black; below
them, on each side, is a cdeep angular groove
Fig. 337.      to receive  tlhe  two
~        2       antenina, inserted to                       wardg the tip of the
nose; thorax deeply
]            pic  I,unctured,   broader
than thelhead towards
N  f    U   C   the base; tarsi four                   k  jointed, and all conm         A g  te ns c     biiied beneath except
leas  t       hte  fourth, ewhich is
long, clavate, and ter   THE STRIPED PEA-  miinated by two sinall
WrsEVIL — STO,14 L,NE- claws.   The numnbers
dTA.         of this beetle are at
times very great, while tlhe art it displays
in eluding detection is very remarkable.
On a person going, into a crop of peas infested by it, a pattering like rain  may be
lhea,rd upon  the leaves, occasioned by the
numbers dropping down to the ground,
where they fall upon their baclks amongst
tlhe clods, and  remain  motionless, witlh
their legs folded up. They perfectly
riddle the leaves of the pea. They affect
the leaves of the lucerne and red clover, as
well as those of the pea. Tlhey be,in at
the edge of the leaf,  holding it steadily
between tlheir legs, whlilst they eat down
froin the  top  to tlhe bottorm.   Oa the
clover being  moved  by hand  or foot,
tljey will fall off by dozens to the grouindi,
wlere they remain concealed for a timie.
398. Altliough the most comrnon prac tice is to sowv peasse along  with beans
(2454,)yet,as thley arealsocultivated alone,
it is necessary to bestow attention on tlhemii
vwhen ithley are so cultivated.  Wlhen sown
broadcast, the pea-Ilant, growing quickly,
especially in nioist weathler,  soon overcotues tlhe weeds tliit may be disposed to
grow alIonIr with it; but t,-tliliough it overcomues tlheml, it (l)es not entirely destroy
the'i; atill the consequence is, the ground
is left by  the )ea,  twhen  sown  alone
br(la,-cast, in a foil state.  When sown in
rovs, in every third furrow of the plough,
()r in drills, (24i.5,) at 27 inches apatrt,
the grioind miiay be scuffled, fig. 262, hoed,
fig,. 266;, and drill-g,rubl)ed, fig. 264, the
samie ais beans are when sown in rows in
the flat, (3.980.)   T'liese operations will
require to be rapidly performed, since the
quick  ull straggling growthi of pea-straw
aifords niieitler time nor room for dilatory
w,ork, aidi as iichi slllld be (lone in the
titie ts the ciricumstances of the case will
admi t.
3990. The  pea  itself  suffers  from  a
beetle named the pea-beetle, Bruchktspisi.
" Thie beetles pair in suimmiler," says Mr
Curtis, " whilst the peas are in flower and
producing podis; the females tlhen  deposit
an egg in alhniost every pea wlhiel hias.just
fi:)rited.   Fromii the outsidle of thjese peas,
whlen arrived at maturity,  they  do  not
tappear  damaged; but, on opelingf tlheii,
o0ie generally  finds a very  small  larva,
whIicll, if left to repose, realains tlere all
thje winter aind part of the following, sU111mler, consumiiingr by (degrees all the initerhal stlbstatlce of tlse pea, so that  in thle
sprinit, the slin only rema-,ins; after wlhiclh
it is tr;lnsf,,rllied into -III insect witlh scaly
wine.'-caseds, Zwlic,l,  i)1ieces "I hiole in thle
slkin of tle  pel, from    whence it conmes
fortlh andii restarts to tiie fiel.s sowed with
that pulse, in  order to (lelosit  its egs iII
the  new )ods."*''   This insect is about  2
3988. The pea-plant is subject to thle
atta.cks (of many insects.  Thel little brown
Iputl,a  of thle fly Phytoit?yzi nigricornis
feed( oii the parencliyma, or Ipulp of tlhe
leaf, causili,g iinute brown specks on tlhe
leatf.
3989. A,,,ore formnidable enemniy i.s the
striied lef;-weevil,.Sitona linextta, fig,. 337,
wvtichl represenits the insect greatly llliainifie,I, as  minty be seen  by  coitilparinti  tle
figure  withl  the  line  alongsi(-ie of it ini
lengthl of thle natural size.  This weevil is
n(Iore or less ()clireous, or light clay colmlrt
eliiptical in forni, an,l con vex abl(ve, pIl       n         sictu-retl antill covere,l  witih  miinute  scales;
an(l,  wl,eni tlhese are worn  o(ff Ihy a'ge or
accident, t.le lieetle  has a black  slilining
isuriface: it lihas two strl,)i(, ilantlilies fitr
biting, notlched,in the inside; eyes lateral,
* Jour-ial of tlte Elsglil  4.yricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 408, 419, 428.
218
ON TIIE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASP,. 
WEANING LAMBS.
lines in length, but fortunately it is rare in
this country; but anothler species, Bruchus
yran(rius, is rather plentiful in peas and
beais, stored iii granaries as well as in
those izupo(rted froui abroad, particularly
fromi  Odessa.   Worm-eaten peas are ascribed( by some to the larva of a saw-fly,
wliilst otlhers aflirmn it is that of a nlio,th,
whliose inetaiii(rllhoses are as yet unasceirtaline(l, an(l a BrIucihus gets the blame froliii
other parties.  It would seeni, from  this
contrariety of opinion, that the itisect whlichl
collllmmits the ravages  has not yet been
detected( in the perfect state.  ThIe caterplilIl'sof thle wliite-sliouldlered woollen miotli,
Tinea satrcitella, fig,. 333, are fouimd in thle
cavities of peas and beans wilichl ad been
occupied bythelBruclhus. Tlhesecaterpillars
spi                n their webs in tile texture of tl e  sac ks
w        hich                                    contain peas or beans; and so closely
are tile tihreads of the sacks agglutinated
togetlher by tlheir wel)s, that the strengthl of
a imian is required to tear tlhemi asundller.
No d,,ubt d-liitpness and iiiouldiniess assist,:
the efforts of those caterpillars.
in that  sense. These    distinctive appelltions  aa are natual, nd cllara c teristic as to
their ap pear ance.   "Tlhe sec ondary an  d
iaenediate causes of tthis dis ease," observed
the late Mr  Knighlt, " have long appearwed
to  me  to be the  want of  a suffici ent su)ply
of moissturle fromn tie soil, with excess of
lurtnidity in th e  air-)articiularly if the e
plants be exposed to a tenlpera,ture below
that to whicli  they have been accustomed.
If dampiy and cold weather in July succeed
that  w hich has   been wan rIts   and briight,
witlhout the intervention of sufficient rain
to moisten tthee ground to some  delptlth  the
crop  is  generally rds clie  injoiredi   by cloildew."+   These remarks explain  tle caus   e
of the  appearance of  mildew  in the    pea
witl reufficient ac curacy, a nd, acting  in
tlthei  belief,  Mr  Knigrlt  as  enabled to
ward tle  diseas e  o ff his pea cnrops.   The
wlite mould  on tle pea  is     a sspec ies pof
erysiphle. "All funteals abs orb oxygen,
and exlhale carl)onic acid.  Tlis lhas been
proved experitmentailly  bv Dr Marcet of
Gene,  a, end may accoue.t f or ttheir     tend ency t        o         vitiate th e  a ir, inst ead  of purif ing it as other plants  do; and it  mai.-ty
al so explain  the  cause of tle fungi bein;,
so universally destitute of green colourinig
matter, which  is  known t  o ressnlt in nother
plants from the decomposition of carbonice
acid.  FUaigals abound i  nitrogen.  Certain fungi, in n  imperfe ct state, are sai d to
be  connected  with  fernientat ion.    The
curious circumstance that in ceiitain bakehouses the bnead becomes r tioy, ated, tlnout,e l
sometimes prevente d    frsom assuwiin, th  ilis
condition  by  rep-eated  washin,s of  the
walls and floor withl cloride of limiie, the
evil is occasionally so obstiniate as to'irove
the ruin of tie establishlmienit, is pro,baibly
dependent on the samc cause.  Another
curious circunmstaince is, that iiouldiness is
effectually prevented by any kind of per fume.  It is known that books will not
becollle  iioul(.y in the neigrhblourlhood of
Ruissia leatler, nor any substance, if )I,Ice(l
witllin the influence of an essential oil."+
s3992. o Iillew is a ftngal plabit, parawsitic upon  organiised te atter,i air i is vallal)le
in th       e  ecor l env of  natuire by assisti nEg in
the   dlecoIl'osition  of (lecayitng  or  decayed
anirle (  and vhe,etable substances   I. t                     ofriginates  in sporules so  iiminute as to eit(le
ol)serva-Ltion 1v th)e naked eve.  Somlle lifl(s
of mildew  lieve entirely  ulnder the scarf
skiin  of the plants tlhey inha bit; wlhilst
othier-s exist in tlhe )fren air, but -.ll live at
first beue tlt  tim ei dermis, anud not upon
it.-'  Whleni the fugtal   affectioin,s  f plants
are of a whvite colotur thley are called,,ildew, in tle agricultllral sen,se, and wllen of
red or brown colour tley are natmed rust
39.93. Mte any of  the  older la ebs wean
thliense.eives after  their m-nothiers lhave been
slhiorn of their wool.   Whetlher it is that
*.1ournal of the Enlish Agriciltuir-al Society, vol. ii. p. 2-11.
+ Kni,ght's lorticultuial Iacpeis, p. 206.                  * Liiidley's Vegetable IKingdom, p. 41.
219
'991. Ttie pea crol) is very subject to
mil(le,,v wt-,en the ground is di-y, -,tri(I the
air nioist aii(i co()I-an uiifcivourat)le state
for ve,-et,ttion in suiiiiiier. It exliil)its
itself upon the lefties of the plants, and as
Ion,, as it remains their functions -,eeiii
stispeiided-tlie stet-ri an(I leaves iiiale no
I)rf),,ress in growth, -tnd ttie blossoiyi and
grain are diminutive. Rain washes tl)e
iiiildenv off, -,and the plant regains its or(liiiai-y late but never attains the size,iii(I
lic,,aitti it \\otil(I leave en,joyed liad it not
been -t,tacked I)y the iiiil(lew.
ON TI-IE WEANING OF LAMBS. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
they do not recognise their miothlers, from
tile altered appearaince they lhave on being
deprived( of their fleece, or wiletiler the
seenit of the bodysis lost or changed  by
exposure to tile air from  want of the
fleece, it is not easy to determine; but, be
the caise whlat it ni)ay, the event may be
looked( for by ttle shephierd of several of
the oldest lanibs weaning themselves from       e
their mothers, imniediately after tlhese shall
lihave been clipped.  Tie voluntary weanimg is no loss to thle lambs, since, up to the
period of clipping, thljey had almost solely
depended on the grass for subsistence.
general weaniing  takes place.   Tlhe ewes,
whieni separated from their lamibs, should
be lkept in a field of rather bare eaten pasture until their nmilk b)e dried up.  They
mu ist be imiilked by the hand, for a few times
till the secretion ceases-once, 24 hours
after tle lambs are taken away-again,
36  hours  thiereafter-and  the third time
perhial)s 2 days after that. Even beyond
that time a few  n:av feel distressed  by
miiilk, which the shepherd should relieve
at intervals until the udders become dry.
Milking them after the  weanirig of the
lambs is essential to the safety of the ewes,
and I fear that it is not so effectually performied as it should be until the  udders
become dry.   The  danger  to be  apprelhended fiom its neglect is the plugging, tip
of tlhe teats with caseous matter. deposited
tlherein by tile milk which sl,ould have been
drawn away; and which plugg,ing, in the
next lattibing-season, will probablyprevent
the natural flow of the new milk; and the
consequence  will  be,  tlat inflammation
will be set up in the udder, and the ewe
eit!ier take puerperal fever, that is, udderclap or garget, (2596,) and die, or her
laimlbs be so restricted of milk as to be
half starved.
3994. Leicester lambs are weaned at
the endl of June or beginning of July;
and the process is simple and safe, as mIost
of theiem by that timie chiefly depend upon
grass for sutipport.  All that is required in
the process of weaning is to separate tilhe
ewes fromn the lambs.  The usual practice
is to take the lambs away fromi the ewes,
an(l, being taken  to a strange lpa)asture,
they bleat loudly and incessantly; whereas
if thley are allowed to remain on thle pastlure tlhey have been accustomed to for
soTnie time past, and thle ewes taken away,
the  bleating  will  sooner cease.   The
ewes sli(uld be taken to a field lying far
asunder from the one the lambs were left
in, in ord(er to be beyon(d the hearitig of
the bileatings of each other.  Thle ewes
should be put on bare, eaten, and not mown
pasture, the latter being unfavwur.'lble to
drying ulp the milk.  Thle pasture of the
laiiibs siheiild be frequently chlanged after
the  bleating has ceased, say every ten
days; and, where such is at lian(il, they
thrive well on hilly pasture for some weelks
at tllis timie, the astringent quality of whilchi
giving an excellent tone to their systeni,
and rendering tlhem nmore hlardy for the
winter.  Some  farmers even hire roughii
hill lasttire for their lambs; but whlere
such cannot be had, they put tlhem on the
ol(lest g(-od( pasture, for a few weeks before the aftermath is ready to receive
them.
3996. Ewes aire     milked  iu a  very different rteanner  from c ows.   A  lon g    nar row bughit, a a fig. 338, forflmed of hurdles,
fig,. 40, on both sides, when the fence of the
fie(l is a hedge, and only on one side when
it is a stone wall, as in the  figure, is
erected along the fence close to the gate of
a field near the steading; and it should be
no  latrfer than to contain all the ewes in a
crowded state. Tle ewes       being (riven into
it lead inwards, women proceed with the
nmilking, which is done by placing a simall
lhanidy, c, on its e(ge on tl)e gr, und, and
sittilig down behind the ewe, as at b. The
miilk is stripped clea,rn from the  tea-,tts alternately, with the rigilt hand into the handy,
wl i le the left hand p)resses thie udder of the
ewe towa,-rdIs the miilker.  Thie milkier  requiires to I)e always on her guardl, to remove
the handly tl)e instant she observes thle ewe
showin]g  tlie least  sytiijp)tomi of wolding,
eitlier waiter or fw-ces; and a ewe is a-pt to
void  the  ftriler whenever  lher  utdder is
t,,uchlel  f(r tle first time  ftrm belhind.
The  rmillk from  every ewe is potiire(d kfrom
the handy into the mi;ilking pail, di. Every
ewie is tuirnedI out of the  buigfh,t by  the
3995. The ewes which were  forsaken
by thieir lambs after being, clipped, slhould
be  daily  observed  by  thle  shleplerd,  to
ascertain whlethier tlhe milk c,nfined in tihe
uddler is tr:,ulilesomnie to thei; and fir this
pura tose mi   t              the, suIld he ee   is tn oauglut o sio i ally,
and the milk taken from  them, until the
220 
WEANING LAMIBS.
shepherd, whlo  waits  for that purpose,  hand again; and thle milkers move up thle
as it is miilketl, to prevent its comning iin  buiht as the ewes are turned out to keep
Fig 338
I 
3999. Some breeders of Leicester  sheep
sar ntiually displose of all their lambs, immei-i.i:iteiv after beiing w eane(l, except a few
ewe-latmbs to fiehlien tle ewe-floc(kl; and
s3ell l)r,ee(lers keel, a larg,er flock of ewes.
Tvis difference  of t ipanasigement  t  (iies not
arise fetolie  capi)rice,e for it is wfoin,( tlTt solii-e
s(ils will  m,int'iti ewes itn krio(, felinzcondition whl,.Il will not  p)lt. Ilo,ga's in tlle
conlition tlheey sldoiil(l beo;   anfo  tleete  ate
paorre br's eeliging farmfes wto s   ic. c annosat  raiset, i(
suflfciency of turn-iiips to imiaintainli(, gs it]
winter.   Their  a,re any.l1v  iiiairiets coi)venient for the sale of  lail1)s in su'111111ncl,
an(d it is no uInIicoiii-mmon  sigfhit  f(,,i    h
50,0)0o   to 70o,00'0 laim1bs to!)e c(,1Iected -it
a        siir, such  is at St  Boswell's, Yethiolll,
Lockeirby, AVest Lit(, n, and  ~ieli-o.~e.
39.97. Timiie  was  wlien  ewe-rmilkingir
created a great stir in thle farm-housi.e in tl)he
iiakiug of ewNe-iiiikl clieeses;  aii  so tiuchli
anxiety (lild h((mscx  vsv e Iit,ce for thiis process, tliat the ewes were millked until they
w ere peirfectly le:vn, to suipply a sufficiency
of thlis sort of nilk.  Petter iuleas now prev-ail, all f~ rcrs v-erv Tpr(,,)erly will rn(,t
allow tile ew-es to I)e ~iiillke(d of'teier tlian is
rel(iiisite to nake  tlhe,n c,liipletely  dry.
It wsas  Lmkisplr)y;cedl eoiiity  tn re(luce tlhe
condition  of tlhe entire ewe-flock for the
poor boast of imiaking a few,str(ong-tastel
chleeses.
4000. It is recmllinlende(l 1)y s(,lle )leec,lers (,f lambl)s to (lip tleil il  a solullti,ll of
-arsenic anid soft soap) on,ice or twice ini tire
coiur.e of the summiiiier, ill order t(, get  rid
of the lked,s, fig,. 308, whliiel      d  es(tl,e(l
upon them froili the ew es,af'tei tlley w  ereclilipe(l.   Otlier  (i(uiors besides soI)lution (,f
ar-senic, sucel -.s a (lecoctioni of tol,aic~, a,nd
spirit  of  tar, Ilnswe the plirl.ose, a tol
shiouhl( be preferred to tlhalt d(iangeIrous ingre(dieiit.   Thle solution of arseiiic will les
affect the colour of thle wool tLIhan  the  t(bacco liquor; but that is of no conseqilelice
in Scotlanid, wlee tilewool is neofer  slrin
from  the lanib.  Tle pro)cess of dl)l)ippin  is
3.998. {lOne,reat mean,s (,f w%ariding off
tl.e attack of the fly Oln lhoLggs is clodderilg,
particularly in l(caitities obnoxious to flies.
This  (p)eratiin  consists  of  clipping  tihe
wool from  ciff tlhe t-il and  )etween the
liind-legs.    Sihoull  lioggs  sc((ur, whichil
th)y are not  iinalp)t to w-to wliden puit on
tog(,.age immedi'tel-y after I,eing wealie(l,,
and where thei-e is iim( rouIgli inoory or hlllly
pasture to put tliemi  on for some weeks,
t i             he      removal of the            wool will prevent  the
discharge renaining a-tbout tlle animial. a,ndl,
of course, deprive the fly of one ol:iect of
attraction.  Thle se  4)f docking tlie ta,ils
of ]lamibs is now iade obvious, ('2573.)
221
THIM MILKING OF EWZS.
the unmilked ones as close together as
possible, in ord-er to prevent them starting
forward or aside in the act of niilkin(,,. 
PRACTICE-SU~IMER.
the less necessary, when it is considered
t     h at                the lambs, as hIoggs, will   haye    t o be
coljpletely bathed or sseared           before being
put oni turnips in the commencement of
winter.
them with a Leicester  tup.  Such a  cross will
supply the requisite number of lambs of tile finest
quality fbr tile table, and the ewes, befo)re becomniing old, could  be fed and sold.    There is no
sort of meat so readily obtained and suitable for
the  table  ill summer, on account of its small
joints, and beiiig fit for use immediately when
killed, as lamb.   The jigat boiled, and the forequarter or loin roasted, and relished with a  thin
slice of toasted ham, miakes an excellent dinner
in a   suhorsmnier's  d ay;  and who  does   not eljoy a
cold roast rib and tshoulder of lamb, with dressed
salad, and cucumber, even in  the,huottest period
of the dog-days, when  the very sight,,f ally other
sort of mnea~t would cloy the appetite? A  shleep's
haggis has been lauded by poet and peasa-niit, and
though classed by the forner among,~t the  " pulddin' race," must  be regarded as too sulbstanitial
a dish for summner, but a laiiib-haggis is a delicacy even in that season. A lamnb's ihead and
lamb's  fry make  sweet  and   savto.iry  dishes.
Thus every part of  the lamb is eminently useful
for the farmer's table.
4001. No sheep being bred on carse and dairy
farms, and on farms  in the neqigbourlood of
towns, the process of weaning is unknown oiil
them; and oi pastoral farms, as the lambs are a
month later in being lambed upon  tlein, the
weaning is proportionally later than oil low
farms.  Lambs ought on no accountt to be kept
oni the ewe beyond the first week  of August,
beyond which they will reduce the condition of
the ewes to too low a degree to be regained before they are put to the tup in October.
4002. The milking of ewes was practised to a
great extent on pastoral farms for the purpose of
making cheese, but is now abandoned for the
good and sufficient reason-that it is injurious to
the condition and constitution of the ewes, to a
much greater degree than the profit derived from
the cheese afforded by their milk.  "The wages
paid for milking," observes  Mr  Little, "are
higher than any given for other out-door work;
the quality of the wool is hurt, and the quantity
reduced; and no part of the stock ever attain the
strength and condition which  those sheep do
where the practice is laid aside; and of course
the lambs must be fewer, leaner, and of less size,
and the cast ewes neither the weight nor in the
same condition.... About 12 or 13 weeks'
suckling is sufficiently long for hill-lanibs, and
will not be hurtful to the ewes, provided there is
time to get them into condition before winter.
At the weaning season sheep are easily hurt by
beiiig crowded into folds, and heated by running,
owing to the imprudence of inexperienced servants being sent to catch them.  By being new
clipped aud full of grass, they are then more
easily hurt than at any other time of the year."
4005. Pini ng.-The  rationale  and  cur e of  this
f at a l disease is thus attempted to be g i ven by a
writer:-" The disease called pilling, seems to
arise froth all enervated and costive habit of the
animal, which  may  be produced  by a w~ant of
proper exercise, inl conjunction with feeding ln
pastures of an astringent nature.  The principal
districts in which t hi s disease is found to pre vail,
a re  th e  green pastures    of th e Cheviot  n,),-itaiis,
the chain of hills runling through the S.W. parts
of Ruxburgh.hire, the pastoral districts of' Selkirk and Peebles shires, and sorrme other districts
of Scotland., as Galloway.   Under the old practice of.keepiig the sheep in flocks, as they are
termed ltirsels, of weaniitng the lambs in the months
of July or Aiigi,st, anid afterwards of miiilking the
ewes for 8 or 10 weeks, the pirning was uiiikii,wn
ill most of' the.e districts; but under this imode
of treatment, the sheep were trequently subject
to diarrhlea-a disease diametrically oppo,ed to
piling.  The faLrmiiers of those pastoral di.triits
have generally improved upon the  older methods
of keeping their sheel). They fi,ld it to be more
profitable to allow the whole flocks to asture
together iXdiscrimiXately aXnd -uXdisturbed.  The
lambs remain unweaned, until they wean themselves, which generally does  not take place till
the imionth of December. Bly this iimode of iiisimia,gemetit, the ewes and lambs are foilnd to be or a
higher comparative value thant all the soleul  realised by the sale of cheese made from the milk of
the ewes; besides, the ewes are slot subject to the
various accidents arising tfron so frequently collectinig them together for the puirpose of,nilking.
But lender this undisturbed state of management,
in all cases where dry astringent pastures are
produced, such as onl the syeiiitic porphyry of the
Cheviot range, the piiing made its appearance.
That  such pasture  promotes this dli.sease, is
further strengthened by the fact, that it is Encore
common il dry than in wet seaslols; and  most so
at that season of the year when, by  the influence
of' the sun), the plants are less juicy; or early in
4003. Mr Little is of opinion " that the lambs
after being weaned ten or twelve days, might be
allowed to go to the ewes, as by that time they
would almost all find their mothers, arnd would
not be able to bring them into milk, or do them
any hurt, and at the same time they would enjoy
the beinefit of being lol by them throughout the
winter."*  Hill-lamibs have a more acute inistinct
in recognisiug their mothers than Leicester ones,
and in an open lirsel they might accompany their
mothers with impunity, while, on a iowlandl faren,
the ewves would be brought again into milk.
4004. Lamnb for the table. —I think that every
farmer who  possesses sheep should supply his
own table withl  lamb in sunmmer.  I am aware
that breeders  of the valuable  kinds of sheep
grudge to use their lambs at table, and 1no doubt
the table woulil thus be supplied at considerable
cost; but there are other modes of obtaining the
end without making any sacrifice, such as purchasiug a few Black-faced ewes and crossing
* Little On the Bfountain SAcep, p. 63-5.
222 
DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS.
autumn, when the grasses which have pushed to
seed become less succulent.  This disease is not
known on the whole of the greywacke range of the
Lammermoor Hills, where  heath prevails, occasioiially interspersed with green pastures,  and d
where the hirselinyq practice is pursued.  Nor is
it known to exist in general oil green succulent
pastures, or evenli heaths, growing on calcareous
or sandstone grounids, where the nature of tlhe
food, and the exertion- ot' thle animal in procurill      ng
it, appears to (,ouiterLct the progress of the disease, arisiing firolil the inactivity of the digestive
functioln.  If we suppose these to be the predispo.'llg causes of this disease, the prevenltion or
remedy will suggest itself; either under the head
of food or treatment.  Should it be deemed inexpedieiit to adopt the mode of keeping the flHocks
in hirsels, a change of place, and, consequently,
of food, is necessary to accomplish this purpose.
The stlutary effects of a variety of food on the
animal system are well known.  When  sheep
affected with this disease are put upon a heath,
it has frequently the desired effect; but when the
animal is much overcome with the disease, its
state of lalguidness may prevent it from taking
such a qualntity of food as to produce a reaction
upon the animal functions.  The  most effectual
cure, therefore, in all cases, is a change  to a
nmore rich and succulent pasture." *
neck, d bwhich indicates breeding too n ear
akin-hhollow ba ck,  which implie s weallness in the vertebral coltnn, thereby reliidering tlhem unfit to bear lambs to advantage-ssat ribs,  which confine the space for
the foetus witliin thie abdominal  regioti-a
drooping   t(il-hei rd,  which affects  tlhe
lengtl of thle lhind-quarter, a space occupied  by superior  fleslh-baid feet,  wlich
prevent  trav e lling t  wito  e ase  als)g witleai
tl)e flock- roun ad  and coarse bone, weiei
indicates coarseness of flesh —thin or sh~,rt
coat oIf wool, wlhichl le ssens   the clip an(-l tale
profit  from it-disetstied  teat  or udlder,
wlichlp di minishes  the supply of  milk f;(r
tlie future paogeny- scnrcity of milk, i )y
which lambs, not obtaining sutfficient inomrislyment   in the early perio  d     of their existence, are stinted in growth, and  weakened
in conistitutioi —car-elessness of disp,osition,
which induces neglect of tlhe lami), particularly one of twins, whlichi is in consequence ill niursed —produci?gq worthless
lamb, by wlhiclh profits are much  ditiniished-rnissing being in lamb, a failing, which
is apt to recur in every future year casting
lamb, a propensity likely to recur annually
-rottenness, wliieli is, of course, objectionable in everyanim-nal tlhatproduces youngshortness of breatth, whiichi prevents them
seeking their food, and eating as much of
it as tlhey slhould-tendency to scouriny,,, or
the opposite, the former imposing weakness, tle latter inducing infla,,inationdcelicac,.y of constitution, which disables
tlhemi  from  withstanding  the  ordinary
changes of the weatlher —diminutive statture, or inordinate size, wllich spoils the
uniformity of tlie flock.  Such is a long
list of faults incidental to ewes, wlhiclh miiay
all be observed in the sanie flock, and wlhich
every breeder is desirous to get rid of.
4006. Wlien lambs  require to be bled,  it  is
best donie by opening the veini below the eye with
a lanecet, and the wounid should afterwards be
anioinited with camphorated oil.
4007. Imminedliately on  the lambs being
N-eaine(l, tiie drafting of ewes and( gWinters,
thlat is, separatinig those of tlhem to be dlispose(d of I't'oti those to be kept, may be convenientily (Imne.  Drafting, only applies to
a stan(lin-g flo ck of eoes-a flyin, stock
re(.Itiriiig no dri-afting, since, wlhere all are
dispose(.[ of, none obtain the preference of
bein,, kept.
4008. Tlhere are many marks of deterioration  w Iielli determinie tl)e  drafting of
,ewes.  Bs(reness o'f ha(ir on the crown of
the head, which  iakes themn obnoxious to
the attacks of fly in siummner-de.iciency
in eye-siyht, whichl p)revents them keeping
withl the flock, and clhoosing, the best parts
of pasture, anul thie bestpoints (of shelterill-shaped teeth andjawus, wl)ich disable
th)em from  masticating their food so well
as they sliluld —want of teeth, from  old o
age, whleii, of course, they cannot crop sufficient food to support their lanibs-hollow
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 707.
'l.'23
ON Tll F, DRAFTING OF EW]RS AND GIMMERS.
4009. It'is riot at all probable tilat any
flock of ewes-presents all these ojectiotiable qualities in one season; but, iiotwitl)stan(iin,, this circtirnstance, it is not in the
power of ttie breeder to draft events ewe
liavin(, an objectionable property every
year, since the farm supl)ortin(, a deteri-iiinate flock, t4e extent, of the draft depends in a great measure upon the in iiiiiber
of qood substitutes wliicli the giiiiiiiers
Ina VI 0
,v supply; and it is c'dent that no go (I
object is attained by drafting a ba(l ewe-, 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
and  takling  in its ste,d  a bad  gimnmer.
The numiber of gililiners fit to be transferre(i to the ewe  flock, should  therefore
bie, in the first instance, ascertained, and
then a correspon(dingi niumber of the worst
ewes should be drafted.
4012. Thle (draft-ewes and draft-gimmers should be put onIL the best grass the
farm affords, imnmediately after being draft ed, to fatten as soon as possible, as they
are usually sold before the time arrives for
putting lean sheep on turnips. The ewes
which have missed lamb, called tup-eild
ewes, hoaving had no lamb to rear, will be
fat in the early part of summer; and when
kept to the end of autumn become very
fat, not less than 30 lb. per quarter, if of
the Leicester breed. The draft-,gimiiiers,
and the draft-ewes which have borne lamb,
iiiay reach, by  the latter period,  20 lb.
per quarter.  The ginimners should fetch
the highest price, the tup-eild ewes should
also yield good mutton, but that of old
ewes is always dry.  Drafts are ready for
sale in September.  St Ninian's fair ihi
Northumljberland is held on the 28thl Septetlber for the  sa le  of draft-ewes,   and I
have seen as many as 70,000 in it, fat and
lean.
4010. In drafting: qimmers, many of
thle above faults may be observed in theni,
although. those arising from  lamb-bearin,r
cannot p(ossibly affect yourng, shIeep. The
faults incidental to ginimners are, bareness
of hair on the crown of the head, ill-slhaped
teeth and jaws, hollow neck, hollow back,
flat rib, low tail-hlead,  b)ad feet, round
coarse bone, thin and short fleece, rottenhiess, shortness of breath, tendency to
scouiriYIn  or otherwise, delicacy of constitution, diminutiveness of stature, and inordlin.-te size.   These faults are numerous
enoughtl, but not likely to be all observed
ill thie  sanoe y  ear,       and l ess    likely in the
sane intividual.  Most          of t    hlen   may be
g,)t rid of by rejecting females which have
lnore than  one  of tehes, and by employing
tups                      fr e e of them all.  When the external
for;n i       s impr oved,  the c      onstitution is also
strengthened.   Gimoers, when they beco.iie ewes of the first season, are likely to
be deficient in milk, careless of their
young, and produce sniall lamb; but these
f.t,ilts may  disappear in the succeedini,.
year; and( should this not be the case, the
ewe, thlough young, healthy, and fresh,
should lse drafted.   Ample drafting alone,
both of gimmners and ewes, can insutre a
solin(l, healthy, well-formed, young, and
stro'ng-constitutioned flock of ewes.
4014. I have mentioned the use of poppy-cake
for ewes (40 1.)  As the oil of one species of
poppy, Papaver sonniferut, of which it yields
froni 36 to 53 per cent, is used as an article of
food in France and Germany,* the cake left after
the expression of the oil is no doubt derived from
those counltries.  I am not aware of any chemical
analysis having yet been made of this cake, but
Professor Johnston gives the analysis, by Ruling,
of the ash of the common celandinie, Chelidonium
easuins, probably  a cultivated poppy got wild)
which is this: —
4011. Theflock-ewes and fock-gimmers
may be put together, or kept separate, as
circumstances may determine. If tupped
together, they may go together all the
season; but if not, which is always the
case on large farms where more than one
tup is employed, they should be grazed
separately, to save the trouble of separating them afterwards.   Both should be
kept on moderate pasture, to prevent attaining too great fatness before the tupping
season, which commences the second week
of October; but good fresh aftermath of
grass, or, what is still better, rape, for
about two or three weeks before the tups
are put amongst them, will not only make
* Thomson's Orgesan ic Chemistry- V     egetables, p. 430.
t Johnston's Lectures on Agricultuiral Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 401.
224
them fresi), but will cause the season to
coine on tlietyi niore strongly and equally
than without such assistance. Poppy-cae
bruised and served in trou,hs, fig. 52,
0
answers this purpose well.
4013. Ewes an(] gimmers on pastoral
fa,rnis -tre drafted oii the saiiie principles
aiid for the saine reasons as those on lowland fariiis.
Potash.'
Chloi-ide f potas;illm"
l,ime,...
M-,tgnesia,...
Phosphate of irOD,.
Phosplioric acid,
Su',pfiuric acid,..
silica,...
38-72
3-98
27-33
5-92
2-10
17-67
2-63
1-65
100-00
6-85t
Percentage of asb, 
MARKING SIIEEP.
inserted into the straight under-arm of the
nippers, the pieces nipped out rising out
of the orifice c.  The figure at once shows
how the instrument is used, being similar
to the one used by shoemakers to punch
holes into the lappets of shoes, through
which  the  shoe-strings are passed.   It
costs 2s. 9d.
4015. When lambs cease to bleat for
their mothers, they should be marked and
hiisted, not only to identify them with the
flock of the farm on which they are bred,
but as a record of the particular blood
from  which  they are descended.   Tile
mlarkiiys are confined to the ears, and
consist of small pieces cut out of the fore
or back margin, or a slit in the tip, with a
shlarp knife, or of holes punched through
with punching-nlippers, or of a combination
of both sorts of marks.  The female stock
are always marked on the near ear, and
the male on tlhefar one.  Thus, a single
round hole is punched through the near
ear of all the ewe-lambs, and a simnilar hole
through the far ear of the wetlier lambs;
and should any of the ewe-lambs be coinsidered fit for breeding tups, they either
receive an additional hole through the near
ear, or a bit cut out from either margin of
either ear,  corresponding  to a similar
nmark on thleir damns orsires, to distinguish
their particular descent in blood.  Twin
ewe-lambs  receive a hole through  both
ears.  Tup-lanibs receive no ear marks,
heir long tail serving the purpose till they
,re weaned, when they are at once transferred to thie tup flock.  Individ(lual tups
are so easily identified, and their descent
so well known by the shepherd, that they
require no marking; but where a large
number of tips are bred, a distin,gui        ishini,g
mark is always satisfactory.
the farm, or of both, on diffe              rent parts of the body.   The
:~      buist or mark is effected by a
simple instrument, fig. 340,
consistingof a wooden he andle,
an iron  shank, a nd a capital
letter, such as S.  The letter
is made of hammered iron,
thin, and even, to the cenitre
of which is affixed by one
end, perpendicularly, an iron
rod, driven at the other end
into a wooden helve, through
a ferule.  The length of the
instrument is about two feet.
Its mark is made on the same
principle as those on the ears,
the near side indicating the
'HR BUIsTING- female, and the far side the
,AoNao sFR HREP.ale sheep.  It costs 3s.
40  19. The material of which the mark
is ma.de is tar, made  v iscid by a   little pitch,
botlh being boiled together in a metal pot.
pers, of which the inverted  ollo  ole                                               pit
pers, of whichl the inverted hiollowv cone a,
4020. ThIe shleep to be buisted are put
int(o a convenient apartment of the steading, and handed out of a door, one by one,
by one man, and kept steady by another
lol(]ling the llead and rump with his hands,
-and bulging out the side to be marked, the
one opposite to himself, by pressure against
his knee.    The  buisting-iron is then
dipped by a third person lightly into the
nmelted tar in the pot, to prevent dripping;
and to make the mark vivid, the  buist
should be applied with a degree of  pressutre upon the entire surface at once, to
compress  the  wool equally,  and  then
withdrawn quickly.   The wool  must be
quite dry), or the tar will not adhere to it.
having its small end shlarpened  to an
edge, is employed to cut the hole-of any
formrn, round, square, or triangular -out of
the ears; and, to save the ears fromn being
bruised in the punching, a pad of hlorn b is
VOL. 11.
225
ON TITH MARKING OF SHEEP.
4017. Besides marks in the ears, letters
are iiiil)rinted on the bdy witl) an instrunient called a buigtin,q-tron.
4018. Buistinq consists simply of
stainpino, a letter or letters, expressive of
c
the initi,,tis of the name of the owner or of
Fig.,339.
4
I'llE PUNCHlN(.-',,'IPPERS.
r 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
All new clipped sheep are buisted in this
manner,  and  thoughl  but  a temporary
mark, being in time obliterated, even  on
short wool, it answers the present purpose
well.  To my taste, the niark looks best
on that point whichl is the roundest part of
the rib, but others prefer it on the shoulder, the rump, or the loins.  To save twice
handling of the lanibs, they should  be
marked and buisted at the same time, one
person niaking the marks, another applving the bistintg-iroin.
4025. If it were desired to contrive a
plan to make bad hay, the one just described seems to be the best suited for the
purpose.  The practice, however, is not
unreasonable, for reasons, in explanation,
though not in vindication, can be given,
and they are these:-An economical  desire exists amongst farmers  to  save  as
much rye-grass seed as will sow the land
tobe    laid down to grass the next year, which
comprehends the fourth, fifth, or sixth part
of the farm, according to the rotation of
the crops practised upon it. To attain this
object, it is necessary to allow the ryegrass to nearly ripen its seed before it is
cut down; and the easiest test to ascertain  its ripeness, is, to sweep  the hat
sma r tly along  the  heads of the plants,
a nd  see  whether  it  has  caught  any
seeds.   When   rye-grass  has attained
this degree of maturity, the clover  has
passed  it s    most succulent state, so that the
crop is altogether  too old to make good
hay before it is cut down.   To give time
to the rye-grass seed to won, the swathes
are allowed to lie for some days before
being gathered into ricks. Hay-mniaking,
arriving at the same time as the singling
of turnips, it receives the less attention on
that account.
4021. To save frequent catchin, hill-lambs ar e
marked in the ears with the peculiar mark of the
fta'm, with the puniclhiing-niippers or knife, when
they are castrated.
4022. Fig. 341 is an instrument for marking
Fig. 341.   horned sheep and cattle.   It is
made wholly of iron, and on the
upper face of the block is cut out
as a die the   capital letter  to be
used, such  as S. The    length of
the  instrument is about eighteen
inches.  It is heat ed in  the fire,
and the letter burns its form on
the h air of the face, on the horns
of the Blackfaced  she ep, and on
the horns of cattle. if heated high
it may brand several sheep before
it cools, but the  most uniform
brand is made when the iron is
heated for every sheep; and, to
carry on the work expeditiously,
two brands at least should be
THE BRAND-  used-oiie to be in use while the
ING-IRo  FOR other is heating in a fire hard by,
SIIEEP AND to and from which a person should
CATTLE.
'  carry the brands for the operator.
Branding is done on the same principle as buisting (4015.)
4023. It has often been alleged, that
Scottish  farmers  have  always  shown
little skill in the makingf of hay.   Ready
as I am  to vindicate the general excellence of Scottish husbandry, I must own
that tile allegation is well-founded.  Haysnaking, as usually performed in Scotland, would induce one to believe that the
period of conducting it had arrived unexpectedly, and the time spent upon it was
thrown away.
4026. These  reasons are    sufficient to
explain the object  and the  circua n stain ces,
but they offer  no justification    for p ur suing
a  sl ovenly mode of making lhay, sine  the
object can be attained by a different and
better procedure, which is this: —The
quantity of rye-grass seed usually required
is 1 bushel per imperial acre; and as a crop
of mixed clover and[ rye-grass varies ini
yield from 25 to 40 bushels of rye-grass
seed per acre, an extent of crolp apportioned to yield the quantity wanted, would
.surely be a more rational proceeding, than
injuring a whole crop (of hay for the sake of
preserving a few bushels of rye-grass seed.
4024  Thie practice commented on, delays the cutting down of the grass until it
has passed its most succulent periodallows it,to lie on the ground when cut till
226
it is bleached by the rain, scorched by the
sun, or rotted ,v tl-te,growth of the afterniath penetrating through the swathesputs the weather-beaten swathes t(gether as
fast as possible, into as large ricks as will
keep the liay without beatin,, and permits
the ricks to stand on the grouii(I till the
grass under tlieni is destroyed. The ras.4
ttius treated is expected to make good
bay!
ON HAY-MAKING. 
:HAY-MAKING.
them; and as the art of hay-making is
merely to expel the water from the plants
without injury to their texture, the only
danger to be apprehended is excessive fernmentation, which is easily excited in warm
weather, and will proceed to a destructive
extent, if not controlled; and when plants
are allowed to lie on the ground until they
are bleached, the art of niaking them into
hIay is virtually abandoned. Still hlay-makisn g is mniodified according as manual labour
or mechanical assistance is employed.
But  afterthe  crop has  tl       whhs been injured,
the best of the rye-grass seed is allowed to be
ehed upon the ground by the dilatory mode
of making hay usually pu,'sued. As for the
interference of turnip-singling with haymaking, it is evident that if the grass were
earlier cut for hay thian;t is. the Lily might
be secured past danger before the turnips
were ready for singling.
4027. Hay is made both of sown and
of natural nieadow-grasses.  Tile grasses
sown in Scotlanld for hay consist of red
clover, Trifoltun pratense, and rye-grass,
Lolilun perenne; for although the whiteclover, Trifolium repfena,           is sown                   along
with these two seeds. (2633,) it forms no
sensible part of  the first year's crop, and
therefore constitutes no portion of the hay.
As lhay is thus nude from the first year's
grass, it matters not whether  the  ryegrass is annual or perennial.   The annual
yields the heavier crop, but thle perennial
makes  the  finer quality of hay.   The
natural grasses constitute the bay of Englan d  a  nd    Irel and. The hay of the sown
an      d  of the     natu ral    grass        es are certainly
ver       y          different in appearnace-the  fomer
is composed of the strong and stiff stems
of the red clover and rye-grass, while the
latter feels soft and woolly, and more
odorous, on account of the sweet-scented
Yernal-gr'lss, Anthoxanthunm  odoratum,
always forming a component part.  If
both are equally well made, there is probably no material difference in their niutritive properties; but this fact has been
established in Scotland, that the sown
grasses are more nutritive for young stock,
both shleep and cattle, than natural ones,
and lhenice we may hold as true, that, made
into hay, they will also be more nutritive
for them. Natural grasses on the other
hand are more nourishing to old stock than
sown ones; andi hence natural hay is best
for cows antd horses.
4029. The hay crop is cut down either
by hired labourers by the piece, or by
the plouglimenr of the farm.   The grass
is  better  and  more  expeditiously  cut
, down by the piece, as contractors exert
themselves more and work  more  hours
than ploughlimen, who have the charge of
horses, can be expected to do. The usual
cost of cutting grass for hay is 2s. 6d. or
3s. the imperial acre.   I once let a small
patch of 6 acres of clover, to be cut for hay,
to a strong man, who undertook to do it
for 2s. 6d. the acre, but, after the first halfday's world, lie relinquished the agreement
as being too low for himn. And so it really
proved; for on examination  the clover
was found so luxuriant that it was kneed
down, that is, its lower part was  lying
upon the ground, while its upper part only
seemingly formed the growing crop.  He
agreed to take 2s. 6d. a-day, the usu.tl
wages at cutting grass for hay, and after
toiling hard for his money, the cutting
cost me 5s. the acre.
4030. The implement  used for cutting
grass for hay is the same as that for cutting grass for forage —the common scythe,
fig. 322, mounited with a bent or straight
sned.  He  is the best  scytlie-man who
keeps the keenest edge on his scytlie, as
he  will not only dn mniore work, but that
more easily for himself.  The edge of the
blade is first formed by using one of two
forms of scythle-stones, the rouniid a and the
square b, fig. 324, and then maintained by
the use of the strickle, fig. 323.  Of the
two scythe-stones I prefer the routnd one,
as the circumference of the circle affecting
a smaller space of the scythe at a time it)
sharpening the edge, the stone is more
easily drawn across the blade, and greater
effect produced by  the operator on any
particular part of its edge.  In sharpening
227
4028, I have heard farmers express the
opinion that sown grasses require a differetit treatment to be made into li,-t'y tl)an
natural ones. If the object is to obtain
rye-grass,.seed, the two processes should
be different; but it it be to make the best
ll',I,Y, I cannot see why the treatment should
be different. The nature of the plants
employed is the. same, and similar treatinent  should produce similar results in 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
men each form a convenient division of
mowers when the extent of ground to be
mown  is considerable.   On  a 500 acres
farm under a five-course rotation, perhaps
20 acres of the 100 acres of new grass may
be made into hay.  It is fair work for a
man to mow an acre of good grass daily,
and when he goes over mllore ground, it is
no good sign of the crop. On choosing
the side of tile field to make the begitnning,
the direction from which the clover leans,
aind, when it is scanty and the ryegrass
thin and upright, the point from which
the wind blows, which always determines
the lean of: a thin crop —should be chosen
for the direction of the mowing, which
should be conducted if possible across the
ridges.
the seythe, it is placed on the left side of
th   a    ith he mower, with thepoint   of the blade
resting on a slnall fliat stoe  on the  ground,
th        e  h eel        of the blade and sned being supported by thle  left handtl. Th   e scyt  he-stodre,
which     is  about  14 inches long,           is            grasped
bay one   ed                              in    te nd in tbe right band,  which it
fills,     and   is  thus use d:- Th   e  sharpening
is produced by making. sliding               d o         wnward
strokes alohng  the stone on  each side of
the ba de( alternat ely.   This    miode  of
sharpen ing is base d hen the  principle, that
the scyth      e  cut s         after th e  manner of a fine
saw, with tile teet       h         set towards the point
o    f  t  he blade,  and again st the direction of
its motion w        he n cuttingo. The stone cannot conveni ently be carried over the  whole
lencthlet              of the blad e   at one sweep of the
lhan(l, so tihat only portions of it are sh1arpeipeil at one time,  and   n      i eice   t he   a sharpen ing
belaitds at the lieel, and proceeds     downwards
to          the ponint.  aA few inct hes at the point
ale left untouched, and           to reach these, the
iiower lifts up       the blade, and holds it  ib
tile muriddle with tile l   eft ohand, brninging           it
into a      horizontal  position, with  t                   he sned
still rtilire, on its e nd  on  the  ground, and
leaning against his rump to steady it while
he coiIpletes the pro            cess by sharpening
th    e      mowint  in the  sam e    manner a s     he (lid the
blade, but with shorter strokes.  Throughou      t                   s                    p         erti o this operation, the  stone must  always
bei  tk felat          upon b o th sides of the blade,
and if this be not attended to, thie edge
will either not be to-uclhed, or it will be
too much rubbed and be rounded off: the
consequence in either case will be, to
render the saytlhe speedily unfit for cutting until it be re-ground upon the grindstone.  It is this operation which tries the
skill of the mower, in the same manner as
the skill of the joiner is tested by his
ability to keep a fine edge on his tools.,
4034., Next nmorning, if the grass be
free of dew, and if not, in- the forenoon
after  it  is  dry,Ethe tedding machine is
yoked to  scatter the  swath es of gras s
abroad    to win, wlwhicih the  m owers had cut
on the previou s  afternoon,  a aalso that cut
up to  dinner-tinae  of  the present  lay, if
,the weather is likely to co ntinue fair until
hevening. Th e  English tedling-ntachine,
-bwhiclh is represented in perspective in fig.
342, consists of  a skeleton carriage, lav-e
ing a serie     s       of revo lvi ng rakes occupying
th p ae  place of the bod y.   The  carri age is
composed -of.the transverse bar a, with the
lhorse-shafts b b. An iron stay-bar c on
each side connects and supports the shafts.
The ratchet-whleel e, attached -to the nave
of the carriage-wheel d, takes hold of the
spur.-wheelf by means of a pall, and carries it round when the machine advances,
but slips hold on backing or turning. The
spur-whleel f works into a pinion, whlichl
t 4031. B      e sides the —stones               a    nd strickle,
the mower should be provided with bits of
tlh in -leather to lay between the head of the
blade and the sned, a  few short I)roa( —
lleaded nails in case the grass-nail should
comte off, and a lhammiier to unloose anti
fasten the wedges  used in the ring and
handles.
228
4033. Of the two methods of making
hay-t-lie English with the natural grasses,
and the Scoteli with the sown ones-I
shall first describe the English method;
and then it will be seen whether or not'it
cannot, be used in, Scotland with the sown
grasses. It is a convenient beainn,ing for
bay-cuttiiig to commence in the afternoon,
as by the next forenoon the, grass that has
been ciit will be tedded while the mowers
are proceeding with their work for the
day. The grass, however, should never
be -cut when rain falls, nor should a
ot,l.ier o eration connected with hav-mak
.iDg be then conducted.
4032. The instruments,beinf, prepared,
the iiiowers are ready to commence the
cuttin,,. T*oortlireemenfokinagan,,or
z'                                              0
bead of mowers, and two gangs of two 
HAY-MAKING.
is mnounted on thle end of the hollow~ shaft  are exposed to view, theyare in the machine
h; and thouTgh in the ifigure, for thle sake  closely boxed np to prevent entanglement
of distinctness, the spur-vheel and pinion  from thlle hay falling between thie wheel
Fig. 31 2.
THE ENGLISH HAY TEDDING-MACHINE.
and pinio.:Thle two rake-lwheels i i areoff very lightrt coistruiclioii, and    are fixed
d     e ad                 upon tlthe shl.ft,   and armed wit h the
e    i    ght rakes k            k. The rakles are attached
to  the                                           wheels by ttillni,ing-ijoints m  m,   and
a       re                 held to the work by the springs I   only;
by Whiich arran,geIent,                         wlhlen an y  undue
resistance is opposed to a              rake, su  ch a s a
s    t     o    n     e     or other obstruction, th e  rake falls
b     ack                   till the obstruction las b een passed,
when                        the springs itmmediately  return it to
i       t        s         working position.  Besides the capab i l i t y                  of backing,  without t urning the
rakes, there is provision for disetng,,aginig
the                 m        when the machine i s  advancin  g.
T       h        e          machine is also furnished  withl t he
means                        of elevating and depressi ng the
c e n t r e of tle revolving rakes, and in consequene of bringing the rake-teetl  nearer
to, or fartler fr.om the ground.
iove(d over 12 feet,  and as there are  8
rake-heads, tlere wi ll be  8 x 4a 5-36 on -
tacts with the substance which is to be
lifted in a space of 12 feet, or one at every
4 inclies. From this calculation it will be
se en   that  tle  hay under the    o peration   of
this machine will undergo a process of
teazling or teddilg of  the most perfect
description; it will be separated and tossed
about until no two stenms of the plants:
will be left in    contact, and  by this expo —
sure tile drying process is effected  in a
period greatly slhorter and more effectually
than could be done by any  numiber  of
bands. Thus, if suppose the horse to walk
21 miles per hour, and  the machine to
cover 6 feet in breadtlh, we have a surface of 1_ acres nearly covered in an hour.
There are somiie variations in tlhe naode of
constructing this hlay-tedder, but not dif
fering essentially fromti the one  here figured,  which has  been drawn  fronm those
manufactured bv Mr  Slight of Edinburghi,
where the price jis  14.
4035. When  in operation the machine
is drawn by one horse, or somietimiies two
horses, and the result of the combination
of the gearing is, that the revolving ralke
makes 4-1 revolutions for one of the carriage-wheel.  The latter being 3 feet 10
inchles diameter, will pass over 12 feet or
thlereby in one revolution, and thle rakes
being 4 feet 6 inches diameter over the
extreme points of the teeth, will 4describe
a circle of about 14 feet in circumference,
and this revolving 4-L times for one of tlhe
other, the points of the teeth will pass
tilrough 63 feet while the carriag,e  has
229
t
d,
I ---  
4036. Where there is no tedditig-niaciiiiie, the grass-swatlies are tedded with
the hand or w i tli forks, fig. II 0, care,beino, taken to sliake and separate the gras.
effectually.,
403 -. In the afternoon the tedded grass
is, rake(I to,,,,etlier with - tije horse-rake.
One of the most coti)nion forms is represen.ted, in perspective, by fig. 343. The 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
body of the machine consists of a main  two side bars, c c, as also to the intermebeam, a a, and of aswing-bar, b b, of equal  diate bars d d.  The  handles, e e, are
length, and these are bolted together upon jointed upon a bolt in n and are also
Fig. 343.
THE HAY HORSE-RAKE.
bolted to tile lifting,-bar f, which rest by
noggs on tihe bars c c.  Thle axles a are
kneed.  The wileels h are of light make
in cast-iron, and tile lorse-shiafts i i, w(lrk-s
ed to such a curvature that they shall be
of the proper height for the horses' shoul(lers, when  the  body of thle implement
stands level, are bolted to the main beamns
and intermediate bars at k; and are likewise supported Iby the iron stays 1.  One
horse-shlaft is broken off for want of space.
Tile machine is armed w'thl 20 tines or
teeth t  m, &c., wlhicil are each fixed into
a separate head n, while at tile point they
are bent forward and sharpened, but are
adjusted so as not to run into the ground.
Each of the rake-hIeais n is attached to
the lifting-barf by mieans of a short cilain,
whereby, when the hlandles e are lifted,
tile barf and all tile rake-tines are lifted
from tile ground by one operation, and
when let downi again, eachl tine is at liberty
to rise andti fall a small space, as the inequality of the ground or any (obstruction
mlay require.   In thle act of working, tile
machine a-lvances till tlhe tines have collected as muclh hlay as can be contained in
the bosomi of the tines and heads, and,
4038. While the grass that was first
cut is being lcake d  with this  malo eine  across
four ridges o)n to the fiftlh, the field-workers
put the grass into small  roiind-lieadled
cocks, the size of which is regulated by the
state of dryness the weather  has permitted
the grass to beconme. If the raker has
taken a considerable start of the workers,
which is the best plan, the  latter may
make as many ricks along one ridige as
the raked grass will  adulit; but if the
workers start but a short tinle after the
230
c
- d
I
.d
b
m
"I
.4
- I
when thlis filled, the driver, by liftino, the
handles, causes the tiiies to be drawn ul)ward through ai-non,st the iron bent
stripl)ino,-rods, which discharge the contents of the rake upon the ground; the
handles are immediately let down to the
woi-kin,, position, and the work proceeds
as before. The usual price of this rake is
froin E3, 10s. to X3, 15s. Many varieties
of this iniplemetit have been patented;
but all the essential working parts of
them are t,-ikf,-i) precisely from the e-,iriier
machines, si-niilar to wl)at is here desci-ibed, and they -ire coi)iparativel expensive,
the price of the best being from f 6 to t 9. 
HAY-MAKING.
4039. Where there is no horse-rake, the
grass must be raked together in the same
manner with the hland-rake, and no nmore
of it raked together than can be ricked by
the workers at commnand.  It is evident,
however, that where the tedding machine is
employed, it is requisite to have a horserake to rake a space of ground corresponding to the extent of its operation.
Figs. 344 and 345 represent the  handrake in its most simple form and construction.  It consists of a head c d or q h,
made of hard wood, which is armed with
Fig. 345.
THE HAY HAND-RAKES.
12 or 13 wooden teeth, a or e, made
of oak or ash, and about 31  inches long.
The helve is usually made of ash, but, as
lightness is an object, its thickness ought
not to. exceed 14  inch, dressed neatly
smooth and round, except where the head
enters. This part of it is either let into the
middle of the head by a tenon, as in fig.
345, or split as in fig. 344, and enters it
by two tenons.  It is in this point of the
construction that the variations have occurred, and it is evidentthat the singletenon
alone, as in fig,. 345, is defective and weak;
hence the grounds for the variation, to
afford some  additional  support  to  the
simple tenon, and fig. 344 exhibits one
muode of accomplishing the object; the
shaft is split with a saw from  the end
backward tof, at which point it is prevented from splitting further by an iron
ferule drawn tight upon it; the fork is
then opened,  the  ends adapted to the
respective mortises, and secured into the
head of the rake.  This is apparently a
very simple mode of accomplishing the object, but it is not a perfect one.  Were it
possible to make the two partsfq andfh
free of curvature,  the object would  be
attained.   A  senmicircular  bow  of bent
ash wood has been often applied, passing
throu(gh a hole at b, fig. 345, and entering
the head at c and d, but this, by reason of
2.31
maker, they will have to follow him in his
.tracks across the ridges, and make up the
ricks as there is grass raked for the'm.
After the first cut grass has been raked,
what was cut in the morning is raked.
All the grass that had been tedded must
be put into small ricks before the workers
cease from work that evening; and, to
secure this- result always, the quantity
ted(led and mown should be re,,tilated by
the number of hands at command to put
it into ricks in the course of an afternoon.
Fig. 344.
c                            f                                                 b
, -,-      I -   m
6
its curved figure, is also. especially defective, besides weakening the lielve. Equally
so is a light iron bow of the,;aiiie ctirvature, but, instead of passing throtqlt the
lielve, it is simply attached to it, and to
the bead with a nail at each of these
points. This will be better.in degree than
the last, from the greater rigidity of the
iron, but is iiot,better in principle. Tlio
true and only movie of applying the bow
is that exhibited in fig. 345, where tl)e
parts b c and b d are perfectly straight,
and foritie(lof vei-v li,,Iit iron r(,)(l; it nee(I
not exceed a qiia;terof an inch diameter,
flattened at the two extremities, and at
the point b, into a small flat I)alni, and
fixed to the lielve and the head I)y a screwnail at each point. This part of the rake
is called the stay or brace, and, in
this forni,, is as perfect as the case will
admit of.
4040. The mode of using a liand-rake
is, on taliin,, lioltl of tl)e end of the shaft
with one I)atid, with the paliii uppermost,
the head of the rake is I)r(jected as far on
one side of the worier as the len(,tli of
the sl)aft and'the inclination of the body
in that dirertioji, with its weight on one
foot, will admit. This distance will be
found to be about 71 feet, or the half of a
15 feet ridge. The bead is then dmwu 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
lightly towards the worker, and, as the
grass accumulates under it, the other hand
assists the raking, by placing its weight
upon the shaft; and as the head thus approaches, with its load, nearer the worker,
the second hand exerts its strengthl the
more upon the shaft, while the first hand
slips down the shaft as far as to ease then
arm,  when both  hands seize the shaft
firmly and drag the bundle of grass toward
the feet of the worker, with a swing of the
body on to the other foot, in a direction
opposite to the body's former inclination.
The rake may thus be used either on the
right or left side of the worker.  It is not
every worker that uses the rake in this
proper manner, many raking only a few
feet, with a hold with both hands near the
middle of the shaft, and then stopping,
and, on stepping aside, raking the remainder of the requisite distance.   The work
is thus clumsily, and, as a necessary consequence, too slowly done.  To make good
work the rake cannot be too lightly handled-skimmning it over, not pressing it
upon the surface.
4042. The stacking of meadow hlay
should always be conducted under a rickcloth, erected on purpose over the site of
the stack.  The rick-cloth is erected by
setting up two light spars on the ground(,
on end, of such a length as their tops shall
be about 2 or 3 feet higher than the top of
the    intended stack, su ch a s a a, fig. 346,
which are prevented falling backward by
4041. Next  morning, while          the tedding
machine is teddine the grass cut bv the
mowers in the previous afternoon, the fieldworkers first shake abroad, with the hand
or with forks, the ricks that had been put
up the previous afternoon, of the grass that
was first cut, and then those of what was
cut in the succeeding forenoon. If the sun
Fig. 346.
,/ ~~ j;~je\
~>~j;~\\
THE MODE OF ERECTING A RICK-CLOTH OVER THE SITE OF A HAY-STACK WHEN IT IS BUILDING.
232
is at all bright and the air drying, the grass
that was cut in the first afternoon will be
ready to be stacked as hay in the afternoon of this the second day, while what
was cut in the succeeding forenoon will
have to be ricked again by that timie.
Besides this, what was tedded in the forenoon will have to be raked and ricke(I before evening.  What should be aimned at
is to stack as much as is cut every day,
whiichi  may be accomplished  in good
weather; but, when rain coiies, the hay
must be kept in rick until fair weather
arrives. Tile probable result will be, that
with the grass mown by piece, the stacking,
will not keep pace with the mcowing, more
on account of thle state of the weather, which
may admit of mowing when tlhe hlay is
not in a state to' be stacked; but slhouhlt(
the weather not promote the stacking, I
think it would be better to cease mowing
than to persevere in it in weather unfayourable to the  making of liay, and, at all
events, when the rain is heavy tile miowiniig
should certainly cease.
jb
r._.
~~___~ ~          __ -_2 - 
IIAY-MAKING.
after day, will carry a large quantity of
heay in the course of a week, and thle quantities passing from hand  to hand, being
small at a time, dry effectually during thel
operation, while the stack aug,nients slowly.
But if this is found to be too slow a mode
of proceedin, with the stacking-, another
cart should be yoked,  a man should fork
constantly in the fielhl, another as  constantly  bu,ild the stack, while one fieldworker is raking the bottomns of the ricks in
thle fie](], another carries the lhay upon tie
stack to the builder.  And should this extended arrang,,emiient be found to be still
too slow, anotlher rick-clothi slhouild be
erected,  aiid  anotlher stack  be  building
nder it at thle samiie time.
tlje top rope from a to a, and to one side or
the other by guy ropes, two of which, c c,
stand opposite to each other, on either side
of the stack, and the third, b b, in thle direction of its length;  thley  being well
secured to~wooden stakes driven into the
ground.  A  third spar, equal in its horizontal lengtl-h to the distance between the
poles, is lhoisted up and down by block and
tackle, dd, fron eacl pole. Tle rick-clotl)
of canvass, e, is laid, at its mi(ldle, over tlhe
horizontal pole, and, if necessary, I.sliea she
thereto; and it forms a teilporary anil safe
water-tight roof to the stack while it is
building. The lower elg,es of the cloth aret
secured to the sides of the stack by the
lines f, likle reef-points.   The canva-ss is
hoisted up as the stack rises in height as
much above it as to give room  to the
workers.   The draughlt of air under the
canvass thus hoisted is very considerable,
and in consequence the liay dries whlilst
being spread upon the stack.  The figure
represents one man in the act of forking h
lay from  the cart to  thle stack,  and
another adjusting, the hay with a fork over
the surface of the stack.
4045. Hay    stacks are  generally built
of a  square  oblon g formi, fsoul   12 to 15
feet in  width, and of    such a leSto,tthl as  can
be conveniently covered by a rick-clotlh,
whatever its length     may be.   Tle nflt nber of stacks     will t huts be   determined
chiefly  by    t s      e the size of te rick-clot.   The
body of  th e  stack is    carried to  suelt a
h1eiglht as to be proportionable to its lengtlh,
say 8 or 10 feet, on subsidence, the allowance      for  whic  slichoul   be at least one foot.
Th     e       top o f  tle    stack is of, triatnrular
form; and the ruile for the heig,hIt of tle
ridges  is that adopted  by builders  of
houses —,ne foot under tle square. When
tlhe stack is 15 feet wide, tlie square
would be 7~- feet in height, one f('ot iunler
which is 69  feet, which ouiglht to  be tlhe
heig-t of the top of a stack of that b)rea-dtlh.
The head is commenced by gradually ta.iking  in  its breadltlh  on each si(lde to the
ridging.  One  man at each end  and  a
woman to carry i!ay to both will only find
room at the finishing of thle top of a hlaystack.
Costs foi canvass,...  ~9 16 0
Blocks and hooks,...    0 14  0
Ropes of sizes,..       2  0  0
3 Norway spars, at 8s. each,.   1 4  0
Smith work,.....   0  6  0
~J4  0 0
Ini England a rick-clothi of the same dimensions costs t15, and the miouniting, ~4 more,
X19 in all; but the canvass, being tweeled,
is heavier, and mnore durable than the No.
6 canvass of the Scottish makers.
4046. The heads of hay-staclks are made
in two forms, one with raised gal)les, thle
other with pavilion ends.  Tle gables give
a uniformiii mode of thatlching, but are niuch
affected by %wind, and are, tlherefo,re, s.ited to a quiet situation.  The paviiiOII suits
any situation, and  particula,rly a   ili(ly
one.  The gable formt is shi)wn in the haystack in the stack-yard, Plate 1.
4044. An economical nmode of carrying,
the hay to the stack is for a ploughlmtnan,
with a cart and single horse, to load his
cart withl  the hay in the field, forlked( to
him by the person who builds the stack,
and the ploughliman, in his turn, forks the
hay  from  the cart to the builder of the
stack.   A  field-worker rakes the botto         st
of thle stiall ricks forked in the field, and
thlen carries the lhay on  tlhe stack to the
buil(ler fromt  t-te forker.   In this way,av
three persons working, the whole day, day
233
4043. Rick-clotlis of all sizes are made
by the niatitifacturers of canvass. In Scotland a rick-clotli of 36 feet in lenth and
Z5
30 feet in widtli,
4047. Iiiiniecliateiv after a stick of liay
I
lias been I)Ililt, a lieat V%'ill ai-ise in it corresporid]Df" tO tlio degree uf fernientatii)ii 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
eave to the top of tlhe stack, each length of
the straw being overlapped by the one im
mediately above it.   When  the thatcher
feels a lhollow or soft part witlh his feet in
the head of the stack, ie makes the part
firm with some of the bay that was pulled
fronm  the stack, to save  the  wasting  of
tlhatclh straw in filling up  such hfollows.
The straw is thus laid from  the eaves to
the ridge of the stack to a breadth as far
as the tlhatclher can reach at a time with
his arnis.  When  the  men on both sides
meet at the ridge, straw is laid along it, to
cover the terminal ends of the thatclh on
the sloping roof, and to support the ropes
which keep down the thlatch.  When  this
breadth, of perhlaps 3 feet, or a little more,
of the thatclh is laid down, its surface is
switched down  smooth by the thatchlers
with-i a supple will,w wand, and then a rope
is thrown across the stack at its end, and
another parallel to it at 18 inches apart,
and made fast at both ends, in the  mean
time, to the sides of the stack.   Other
ropes, at right angles to the first, are fast  ened 18 inches apart to the hay a* the end
of the stack, wheni it has gable ends,  an(]
are placed across the thatching when the
ends are pavilioned; and supposing the side
of the roof to be 11 feet alongf the slope, 7
ropes running, horizontally will be required
to cover thle lengthl of the slope, leaving a
space of 6 inches friom the  ridge for the
place of the uppermo(st rope, and the rope
at thle eaves  is put on afterwards.   Eacih
of the horizontal ropes  ],re twisted once
round every perpendicular rope they meet,
so that the roping, wlent completed, has
tlee appearance  of  a  net  with  square
mieshies.  As every subsequent  )treadthl of
thatchtel is put on., the roping is finlislied upon
it, the advatita-ge i~f which plan is, thlat the
tlthatchin,g is finishled as it )proceedls, and
placed leyond( dang,er from  wind or rain,
or deirangenient from  r(ol)iiig afterwards.
If tlhe stack stands N. antlI S., the E. side
shlouldl have a tlhicker thateching thl)an the
W., as being, tost liab)le to damp, and the
tthtiatcliing of iottli sitles should he thicker
towards tlhat end of the stack whlici is fartlest frtom  tle stealing, as  it will stand
Iloingest, atid tlJe process of tlihtcliiiigt should
terlnii,ate at tihe endl which  will be first
v,tlrken llptn, tihat is, neares* the steading,
t)eta.use thle  thatch  will coiiie away  utore
'eelyv wsten reawmorveil in the oippoisite directi tion fromii which it was put on.  The hori
the lhay is undergoing.  It is impossible
to prevent sucl  a fermentation at all, unless the hxay hiad been too long exposed to
the weather before  it was built;  and  a
certain degree of fermentation improves
tlhe (Iu:tlity of thle stack, by making  the
lhay,nifotlruily alike in it.  While  thje ferimentation is proceedinig thle stack subsides
in bxulk, and  after the fermiientatio)n andl
subsitdence htave ceased, the stack shoultd be
thathedlc. Buttsli,uld(ferinentati.)n continue
as hziii,,,as to affect tle quiality of tlhe hjay,
nieaiis sli(ouldl be usel to put a stop to it by
sl0orib,ng up the stack on b)othl sides wvith stout
I)osts, to allow the cool air to go into it.
4048. As a preparatory operation to the
thlatclitig,  after the reinoval of the rickclotli, the sides and  ends  of the stack
are eceatly triimmed  frotli angle to angle,
witli a sin,all increase of breadth to  the
e.aves.   TiJis ol-)eration simply consists (of
pullinig out the straggling ends of tlhe lhay,
wliiclh give a rough appearance to the sides
and ends, in order to rendler tlhemii sti,)othi;
anti its use is twofoldi-to p)reserve tlhe hlay
pulled  out,  which  would  otlierwise  be
bleached useless by exposure to rain, and to
prevent damiip lhanging, about the stack.
4049. The lheading, or tl-hatclhing  is donie
witlh st raw  antl straw-ropes.    Tle straw
is drawni  in bundle(s, and thle straw-ropes,
mnadl    e       in tirse; and yet this is a mwatter not
uiuifi'equently  neglected 1y fI arners;  and
the hla-y-stack is allowed to stand( untliatcle(I until the corn hIairvest is finished, for
watit of straw, and even  tile haly is left in
rickls in the field till jlst (on tlhe eve of hiarvest.   Straw, in somne instances, )ay be
s('.allce, bIt, in suchI,a case, rushes. and otler
taI,rovll gn wild plants. forii an excellent
sulstitute, I)(tli for tltatcli anid ropes. Fer-ns
ali,l lelathl  ari-e g(,d m-iaterials for tliatel,.
Tthe  tli,atcling,, slhould]  be carried on bI,tlh
sides of the statl-ck  simultaneously by two
nietn, and  b)e,,tui  at  the sainie endl.   The
men         t    iating mlmnted on the head of  tlhe
stack,'tie I:t,nidles of straw are f i'ked up)
to themi (),ne b)y one -is they are  needel,
and eac!l) biiiltlle is retained in its pla,ce on
thje r,,of, beside tihe thi;itchler, by!eaining
ag:LillSt'  graip stuck into t lie r,)(-,   In a
tili,~t,  roof,  the pavilion end  is  first
thiateie(l, anid aifter it the  si -les.re  covere~l.  Th'ie straw is first placed o ve   tihe
ea,'ves, tiheiu hlalidt'ul after hlandful fro,,, the
234 
HAY.-MAKING.
sonrtal ropes at their termination are fastened into thle gable, or across thle pavilion, as
the case may be.   The eave is finished by
laying, a stout rope horizontally along, the
line whlere thle roof was begun to be taken
in, and twisting it round each perpeudicular ro)pe as it is met with, and then each
perpendicular ropre is broklen off at such a
lent,thl, as to fisteii it firimly to tlhe hlay
immrediately onder thle eave; and then the
projecting, eluds of thle thlatchl over tl)e e    vtve
are cut straight along thle stack, to give
the eave a neat finishl.  Anothler mode of
rop)ing the tl.haitchl, is to place one set of
ropes in a sloping direction d(own thle head
of the stack, and another set sloping across
these, thle effec(t of whichl is lozenge-shalped,
and looks well; lbut roping in this fashion w
requires the tliatcler to place all the straw
up(,n the roof before lie guides the ropes
across its rid(,e, in doint, whlich lie imust
stand upon the ridg,e and step backwards
ipon it-a plan which allows the vwind the
liberty to b)low off thle thlatlch before it is
roped at all, and to injlure thle rid(ge by
tramnpling, and the ropes cannot be twisted
round each other withlout tramping on tihe
thlatch.
proved in Dumfriesshire by Mr Little,
Carlesgill, and Mr Miller of Forest;* but
let us see whether the sown grasses also
of Scotland may not be made into Ihay
by  the saimie process.   Suppose  that the
mowers start early every mornin,g, tller-e
is nothing but rain to prevent what thley
have mown in the  norin, to    be teddeid,
a4050  exp(-)sed to the sun awnd wino  befogre
noon,  and put  into small cocks before
eveninig; and niotwithistantdin,, the prejudice against the tedding-mnachiine ini Scotland, notlhing else than  rain  can prevent it
teddiilng the mown sown g,rasses, as well as
,the mown natural grasses, if the  formiier
are not  purposely raised for seed instead
of good  lhay —for  tlhe  tedlding,-machiine
will most assuredly not allow  the seeds to
be  retained in the plants.  The  object,
however, being to mialke good lay, that
machine, fig. 342, vill certainly ted ill a
mnuich superior mannier every sort of  m()wn
g-rasses. But whIere no te(-Iding machine is,
tlhe grass must be tedded w%itlh forks; and
wvhiere there is rnot a sufficient number of
forls, the shafts of the liand(-riakes must
be used,  as suclh, in the inverted order.
The tedding consists in tossinlg and separating the swathes into as minute a divisioni as practicable, to expose tlie grass
thoroughly to the air and sun.
4050. Hay is sometimes built in round
stacks, whlich  are  kept of a cylindlrical
formi, J15 feet in dianmeter for 7 or 8 feet
fi'om the gfroundl, and tlhen terminated in a
tapering conical top, and thlatchled.   Suclh
staLcks contain fromt  300 to 500 stones of
hay.   This forni of stack is convenielt,
when the lItay-lioise contains the whuiole of
it, but wlienii it is bisected pierpendicularly,
the lenlaining hallf is ipt to )be blowv-n over
by thle wind; or slioul(ld thle upper half be
broulit into the hliiy-liouse, the under )aIr         t
nllst be protected by a quantity of straw
Ikept down  by  heavy  articles, arid such
expedients are selldoiii done with sufficient
care to keep out r-ain and resist wirnd.  T        ile
oblingr fiorm is niost convenient for use, andl
ilost sa.fe: andl a section of such a brea(llth                   l
as cut froni top to bottom  will just fill thll     e
I.lay-hlouse (3086.)
4052. Th  e  tedded grass   is gatlh ere( fior
thle puirpose         of being  put into sliall ricks
in the following nwanner:-Tle grass is
cleared fromti two ridges c d and d k on to
tlle thlird 1, fig. 347, oil  botll s ide s of  the
tlpid ritlge, so tl,hat tale cocks are  raised o n
every wiftlh r i d ge. On   clearing th e  two
ri~lges, two workers are appointe(d to each
ridige, l aving the ridge on wlhiel tlhe cocks
are to be madtle on the  rii,igt han, to slit
riglit-hanted w%-orikers. A man a, clears tle
grass witlh a fork from  tlhe fartlhest  olpen
fuirr-ow p, to the crown  of tle fartlhest ridge
of thle t" e, an(d a field(-woirker b follows hlimi,
and rales tlhe half of the ridge ciean th)at lie
has juist cleared.  A second man, e, follows
tle fielhi-worker b witlh a  fo,rk, and tosses
tlhe gatlhered grass from tlhe crown of this to
the open furrow of the nearest ridge of  the
two, an(] the second field-worker,f, follows
hiimi aniid ralkes clean the hialf ridge lie lhas
clearedi.  On  the second or neare-st ridge,
a  tlird man, g, forks  the  accumtriulating
405l. Ti le m boe o  mn ay the regardedl  as the
.English mode of makinig the natural,grasses
into li hay, andti that there is nothing in the
process but what miay be foill,)we(I in Scotland with the same sor-t of,rasses, has been
* Pirize ELssays of the HIighiland and Agricusltural Society, vol. xiv. p. 750 and 760.
235 
PRACTICE-SUIIMMI,R.
swat,le froni the open furrow to the crown,   ri(l,e, inasmuch as lie Ihas  to  move  tlhe
hIis l. I)uinr bein,g g,ie.ater than  that of the   entire grass they hlad brouhlit froni it along
ien wlo hlave preceded lim  on the first  witlh wmliat  lie finds upon  the first lhalf of
Fig. 347.
................
X\Ms\\XE~~~~~~~~~~__i\
and mixed with  thl)at of tle other ji-l e.
They then %wheel roiund- at  tlle et,l, f tl:e
ridges to clear other two ridges o, I)C(,i,(i
the third one, of their grass iin 1e)isely tl e
same manner, on to the sa.iie ri]dge tlley had
accumulated  the grass of the former two
ridges, and which centreridg,em f   tlteii cointains the grass of.5 ridges. A difterence in
the arrang,ement of the workers takes  la)],ce
on the second set of ridges, the forker who
took tl-he lead in the fi)rmner ridg,es, and Iad
thle lightest share of the work, now becomiiies
tlhe last forker, and takes  the heaviest part
of it, and he who  had  the heaviest then
now takes the lead.']'o I)revent confusion in clhanging, the  ridgzes, the same
raker alw,,,vs follows  the samiie forker, so
that  the bard consists of  4  pairs, eaclh
consisting of a foirker and raker. Women
are quite as able to fo~rk as to rake, but
whlere their number is insufficient, men
talke  tle  forks and  women  the  rakes,
as women  use the rake better  than  men.
When only a band of 4 workers can be
spared  to  make  lhay, consisting of  two
the secollnd ridge.  A  third field-worker,
r, follows  hliei with a                                                rakie, andi cleans
lt mn isthe half rido                      e fro  t e furronv too the
crown. Andt last of all, a fourtlh man, i,
forks the grass from tloe crown   of                       this  over
the op    en    furrow of tole tiird                     rid,,e;  and a
fourth fiel si-worker,  k, cleans        t         his last half
rid,ge        with the  rake;  and  of tlek                                     he all, the
last  man,  i, is the hardest worted, the
r aker s  tlrougshout  l    hiavin c th le     osami     e   degree  and  ex      te                      nt  of labour.  Tpais, 8 laboufrees, cconsisting of 4 men witla forks, and
4 ewomen  with rake s, are requtire             d:       to
clear two ridges of grass, and t!he lei) tlh of
ridge cleared by tlhe8wr i s  ju st tle      rfeieadtl h
o f  4 sw athes       of     gra ss,  which is mor e      or
les      s he av y       accor ding  to tle weigawlt uf tlle
crop; and as miowers usually clit a breadth
of 6 feet at each stroke of the scytlic, and
each  breadth constitutes a  swatfhe,  the
space cleared by the 8 workers is 24 feet
by 30 feet, the breadth of two ridges, or 18
poles.   ln this way the band clears two
ridg,es at a time, till they realch  their end,
the grass on the hleadridge being cleared
2."36
PUTTING THE SWATHES OF THE SONVN GRASSES I.NTO WINROWS. 
HAY-MAKING.
forkers and two rakers, they nmust go up
one ridge and down tile next, to clear thl    e
two ridges on each side of the third one, btit
a smalier band than four workers mnakes
hay-making a dilatory process, and expensive in proportion to the nuinber employed.
above one another on the ground, and as
much being put together in a lheaip as can
be conveniently lifted at once, tile fork is
firmly transfixei into one side of the hIeap,
which, on being lifted up, is quickly turned
oVI the fork in a reversed position above
your head, andl planted with a sti'r,ke lupon
tlhe top of the cock, whlen the foik is drawn
gently from under it, and a sliglht lal) Ind
dress into form withl the fork on the oulltsid(le
imakes the rick neat and firm. Tile ridge is
raked clean, as the hand-cocks are erectel.
4053. The grass collected on the middle
or third ridge, is called the winrou, and
the first cocks made of it are small, and
are calledqrass-cocks.  Thley are put together either with  the f5~rk or the arms,
with narrow bottoms, anl hilgh in itmportion to tle           itr breadth, and not exceedinco,
perhaps, 2 feet in height.  As   there will
not be room on the ridge, at this time, to
put such small cocks in a row, they are
put up anywhere, not to crowd upon each
other, and to afford room for the rakes to
clear the ground around temre; and it is
considered slovenly work in a hay-field to
neglect cleariing:the ground witll the rake
which had been clEared of its grass by the
fork.  The raking at this time will not
occupy mnore thjan one or two workers, andI
the rest are employed assistiing, the forkers
to put up the cocks.   The field is left for
the night in this state.
4056. The next morning, the thliri], tlho
grass cut yesterday afternoon is tecddel,
aui(i as ilmuch ted(led in the afternooll of tlhe
grass cut early in the sanme morning, as can
be plit into grass-cocks before the eveining.
This is an easy day's work, and reserves
strengthl for the greater labour of the next
day, to which all the field-workers, labourers, and plouighmen, should be collected.
4057. Should the next morning prove
rainy, let the whole field remain as it is,
and let the mowers also cease their work.
If fine, toss over first tlhe grass-cocks to
tthe sun  and  air,   then   tedd   the   small   qlantity of grass that was mown after the tedding of the previous afternoon, andl, last
of all, scatter the hland-cocks of last evening, which, by this time, will have sul)sided considerably.   Doing all this will
occupy, if not the whlole, the greater part
of the   forenoon;  but   no    more   of   thlose   respective processes should  be undertaken
than the force in the field will put all the
luhay into cocks b)efore the eveniing; and of
thlose processes the te(lding of the swathes
omay be dispensed withl most safely.   The
first thling to be done  in the afternoon is
to put two or three of the liaind-ccks into
one.  The hay will 1no0W feel light in the
wihand; and it is surprising  how so(on it
wins after this stage, when exposedfully
to sun and air.  The usual practice is to
keel) hay a long time in the hand-cock,
firom a belief in its safety, whereas, )having
been put together in a clammy state, it
will soon contract a musty smell; but if
exposed to the air at thlis time, it will as
soon become excellent hay.  The reason
assigned for allowing it to remain so long
in the cocks, is want of time,; biit in truti~
it is to save the cost.  Tthe ricks or colls
.ishould be gently tapered to the top, without a projecting slhoulder to catch the rail,
40s55. Next morning                               the grass-co cks
are shaken loosely (jut on the ridge, for
exposure to sun and " ind; and after this
operation is finislhed, the grass which was
cut in the afternoon of yesterday is tedded.
In the afte,'n:oon thle scattered grass-cocks
are shaken up, after which tlie grass which
was teddled in the forenoon is winrowed
and put into grass-cocks, in the manner
descri-ibed atbove.  Before the eveniing, the
scattered grass-cocks are put into larger
ones, named hand-cocks, which are  b)est
paut togetlher with fkorks by men.  Tiese
iI,ave small bottonms, built tapering, to a
fine top about 6 feet in height, and placed
in  irow  along  the crown of the ridgle.
The ditficult part of miiaking a hand.-cock
is the fine form  of its top, wlhich  shonlh
also be as lheavy as not easily to be blowin
off by the wind.   The top is made in this
naniner: —Put smtll forkifsl., of loose hay
237
4054. In Ireland the grass first mown I
is dexterously %vral)ped to(retlier'witll the
11
liands and one foot into lap-cocks,.,%,Iiicli
seeiii like bundles of green sloth turned
upon tljeir moutlis, and wliieli fend off
iliucli raiii.. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
of lay, within the limits of an  ordinary
day.
and  fastened  down  with  a  hay-rol,
twisted on the spot with the corner of a
rake converted for the nonce into a ropetwister or thirow-crook, and put across the
top                         of the coil in the direction  of the
strongest wind to which  the locality is
subject, and fastened at both ends to the
hay. After this operation, the scattered
grass-cocks are put into hallnd-cocks, however small they may be;  for, to allow
scatter ed hay to remain onl the grountzd all
night to receive raini, or dew, is the readiest method of rendering it tasteless.  The
tedded grassis then winrowed and made into
grass-cocks, which closes the labours of the
day. In this manner I have led and assisted
16 field-workers, all women, to handle
upwards of 2000 stones of 22 lb. each
4058. Where a horse-rake is kept it is
useful in saving a good deal of trouble, by
entirely dispensing with the raking done
by the field-workers in following the nien
with  the forks.  The  men miay then be
dispensed  with  altogether, the  wonien
usilng the forks to toss the hay from the
two ridges on to the  third.  After the
grass  hias been  winrowed, or while  a
part of the h[ay is in the act of being so, the
lhorse-rakle cleans the ground over the four
ridges intervening between the ones containing the winrows.  This is attemplted
to be shown in fig. 348, where the lhorserake is seen moving on the four intervening
Fig. 348.
THE HAY HOR,E-RAKE CLE.ANING TIlE INTERVENING RIDGES BETWEEN THE WINROWS.
ridges between tli()se on whilch the grass
has been winrowedl The rowso f grass,stsch
al a,, left by the rake, are collected try the
workers when they put the winrows 6 an,l c
into grass-cocks, and the ground occultied
by thae  is cleaned with the  lhan(d-rake.
Dis)ensing witlh the lalbor of mnen, and the
raking imposed on the women, the horserake is a maclhine well calculate(l to econonaise the cost of hay-making.  The method
of working the rake is described in (4037)
two or three into one, at tlhat end of tihe
field most convenient  for carting  thlem
aaway to l)e stacked.   The large ricks thus
formedl are named  tran?pedpikes, because
they are built and tramn-ped, a mian buiilding,
and( his assistant, a field-workler, cairying
the lhay to liiiii from the fork of the 1.)lougliman, who is employed with hiis 1horse aged
cart to carry the colls to the builder.
Tramn)ed pikes contain  frorm  10(l to  150
stones of ljay eaclh, anti if tne h)ay is to be
disposed sof, it is delivered to the purchlaser
front the pike, whlo stacks it for liiiiself.
The reason that lhay is first pik d, wh-ien it
is all stacked at one time is, that unless it
is in a state to keep in the stackl, it is con
238
4059. As the entire produce of the fiel(I
i8 stacked at one tiiiie in Seotian(l, the
coils are placed in a state to stand the
weather for a considerable titiie, putting 
employed   in  supplying  liay  to  two
builders.   Thle  liay is preferred to be
forked off the ground instead of the cart,
because it does not detain the l(,rses in the
yoyke.   Tlhe liay being thrown down upon
the ground, tlhe cart shlouldl be constructed
to  tilt up, like fig. 175; and it is tlir(,wn off
a wlhole-bodied cart by sticking foirks under the loadl along one si(le of thle cart, and
pushing upwards towards tl,e otlier side, a
person holiding by ttie nearest whleel to prevent thie cart upsetting.  The load slhould(l
be thrown overfrom  the spot upon wljichi
thle itien stand to foi(-k, because  thle hlay
th!en easily conies away with the forkl, each
stratumn, as it u as btuilt onI the cart, lying
with  its face towards the men; whereas,
in a load thrown towards the forkers, the
strata crp()  out against tlhemn, and every
forkful mtust be )ulled away by main force.
In  building  thle bto-(y of the stack, its
b)readth need not be increased, as th.,e pressure of the to}p will cause thle breadthl at the
eave to be suffticient to throw off tlhe drop
from  the stein.  After  the bodly of the
stack has attained 14 feet in heighlt, tlhe
hlea,ling is coninienced by gradually taking
in the brea(dthl on eachl side to tle ri(lging,
whlichl is elevated a foot below the square,
after subsidence, (4045,) and the en,ds are
built perl)end(licular.  The two buil(ers and
one woman  will only find room at the
finishing of the ridging of the stack. A few
straw ropes are thrown over the ridging to
prevent thle wind blowing it o(ff. Thle stack
is left for several days to subsidle, whlich
it will do to the extent of two feet.
in  t         his   etaener.-A  dry stance                splooupli be
chosen, for a damp one  will cause tiie destrtuctioni of several stones of lhay -,t tlhe
bottom of the stack.   It slhoulht be raise(]
one foot above the ground with  large stones
inscribing the circumference of tl)e s)ace
to be ()ccupied by the stack, and the initerior filled up with  storve shivers or,ravel
beaten firmnly down.  A stance wlien made
should be  of  considerable  length,  tlhe
breadth being 15 feet, and  no harnm accrues althou,gh the stack in any year does
not occupy the entire lengthi.
4061. Upon such a stance thje stack is
built thy two men, wlho are supplied with
armfuls  of lhay  by  a  numbler of fieldworkers,  wliose duty  is not  merely  to
carry tihe hay, buit to scatter it over the
body of tl)e stack, and tramp it under foot
regularly fron      m on e end of it to the otler.
Eachi of the two men occupies hiis own
side of the staicki, andl they slhake and buiild
up wlhat is called a datce of the lha-y before
tlhem as hiighi as their breast, front side to
side, and from eachi end of tlhe stack to its
centre.  After the cenitre is reached from
eaclh  end,  the womtten  walk   utpon  it,
trampling  it, lholding  by  one anotlher's
lhandis in a, row.
4062. The hay is forked at first from
the gronlind by twvo or thlree mnen, and whlen
th e  s    tack   lhas attained  an  incon venient
lheiglht for tlhe foirkers, there are several
modes by whiich the haly irmay be taken to
a greater leiighlt; one of wlichl is, placeing 
PRPACTICE-SUMMIER
water meadow is as valuable a resource for good
hav in winter oil a dairy farm, as rich old pasturage in summer.
406-3. A height of 12 feet is enough for
thle body of the stack, after subsidence, and
a width of 15 feet is a convenient one, the
]engtl  being determiniied by the quantity
of hlay to be stacked.  One (of these dinensions?ew built, and 40 feet in length,th
will contain about 2000 imperial stones.
4070. In the vicinity of large towns it is more
profitable to dispose of the grass il forage than
to make it into haly. The average price may be
stated from  the  tramp-rick at Rd. per stone of
22 lb. I have seen it as low as 4d. and as high
as Is. 4d. per stone; but when the price is high,
the crop is deficient, and the quality bad.  The
heaviest crop of 300 stones at 8d. yields ~10 the
acre, but 220 stones is ntearer the average  produce; but grass lets for cutting ~12 or ~14 the
acre in the neigilbourhood of Ediniburgh, without
incurring any trouble to the farmer.
4064.  V ery               probably   heat may be in(icated in soic par    t of th      e stack a few
days after it is built, by a leaning, towards
that par t, heating c        a ustoeing cwnsolidation of
the liay.   Props placed against the place
wi ill iprevent the stackl subsiding inucll farther, atnd a rake p)uslhedi in here and there
into tihe stack, to the lengftlh of their shafts,
will indicate wlhetlher the heating is proceeding upwards and to a dangerous extent.
A gentle lheatiilg will do no ])arm, but
rather (rood, by reni(lering, the hiav uniform
in quality.
4071. As to farms of mixed husbandry, I have
often thought it a loss to the farmer to make his
grass into hay. The grass would pay batter to
be soiled, and the land would be retained in better heart.  I am sure if half the labour were bestowed in winter, in cooking food for horses and
cows as in making hay, even in the slovenly
manner it is usually done, it would better fertilise the land.
4072. A  crop of hay varies from  150 to 300
stones per acre, according to the season and the
nature of the soil.  On light gravelly soils the
crop is of the former number and its quality is
generally fine; and on good clay it is usually
the latter, and the plants large and strong, the
clover predominating.   For producing quantity
and quality of hay combined, a deep mellow clay
loamn may be regarded as the best texture of soil.
On thin clay, and on thin light soil resting on
retentive clay, the clover is frequently thrown ous
by frost in spring, and the hay then consists
chiefly of rye-grass, and on the same soils a similar
effect is produced  by severe drought  inii May,
(3094 and 3095.) Grass usually loses two-thirds
of its weight on being made into hay.
4073. Of the two methods of making hay, it
is generally admitted that the English affords
the best hay; and one of its chiefest recomnmendations is, the quickness with which all parts of
the process is conducted.  If we attend to the
changes effected in the grasses after they are
mown, we shall see that  the quicker  hay is
made  the better it will be.   " When  green
grass or clover approaching to maturity is first
cut down," observes  Professor Johnston, " it
contains  a considerable proportion of starch,
sugar, and gum, still unchanged into woody fibre,
as it would mostly be were the plant allowed to
become fully ripe."  But even when succulent
grass  is is left to dry in the open air, the circula,tion proceeds to a certain exent, and, under the
influence of light, wvdy fibre continues to be
formed in the upper part of each stem, until it
becomes completely dry."  And "it may even
be a matter of doubt whether the process of
change does not often proceed after the hay has
been carried off the field and stacked."*  These
facts  tend to prove that the longer grass  is
4066. TIhe tlhaLtcliing of a stack of artificial lay is the same as that of one  of
natural grasses, (4049.)
* Transactions of the Iighland and  4yricultural Society for October 1843, p. 59.
240
4065. Salt has been recommended to be
used aii,,,ongst,irtificial liay; -tiid when li-,,,ty
is in a danil,) state, in consequence of bad
meatier, salt is an excellent remedy aga,inst
1110tl](IiDess. It is sown by Iran(] by the
builders upon every d(tee as it is tramped
down. The quantity used iiiust be accordin(, to tije state of the li-,ty,, but as that has
0
nener been correctly ascertained, it must
be left to your own judgment. Perhaps
a qtia,rter of a bushel to the ton is a large
eiioii,li allowance. Salted   I)ay is iiiuch
'n
relished by.all kinds of stock.
4067. Hay is i-nade on carse farms of the sown
grasses, partly "to supply food for the horses in'
spring, but chiefly to dispose of to the innkeepers
ill tuwiis.
4068. On pastoral farms much less bay is made
than shouli be. If more means were used to
make it, the stock would withstand the severities
of winter with less loss and iii higher condition
than tl-iey (lo. It is not possible to have iiiu(,.Il
bay of the sown gras.-ies ill a bill couritry, but
water-meadows iriiglit be formed in inaiy situations where they are neglected. (1041.)
4069. The success of dairy farms depends
much on the s,,o(-k of liay they can coniiiiand- in
the winters a,nd the larger the quantity of it
from iiat,,ira-I grasses is made aiiy year, the
greater success will the dairy leave. A large 
HAY-MAKING.
allowed to stand after the plant has attained its
full stature, the less digestible and nutritious
the hay becomes; and the longer the process of
inakiiig the grass into hay is delayed, the more
woody and less nutritious the hay will be.  Every
quick process of converting grass into hay is,
therefore, better than any slow one.
If covered with "double slate," instead of
boards, the cost would be,...     25 10 101
If with "second"  Lancashlire slate, the cost
would be,.....                    31  15 10
Exclusive of sinking the posts, the value of
the coal-tar, and the cost of putting it orn.
To  save warping,  the boarding is fastened with
T-headed  nails  driven  in  the  joinings,  the
cross-head of the nails overlapping the boards -5
inch, which allows for their expansion and  con tractioni. Parallel to the joinings, and 2 inch from
it, a groove of i inch deep is cut along the utipper
surface of each plank to form a channel for raii.
Cost of thatching a 9-fathom rick with sprits and coarse
grass is:    Mowing thatch-drawing it in bundles      carting-atid laying it on,...   ~0  4 11
Ropes mnaking and putting on,..     0 1 10
Material  for thatch and ropes,..   0 5  0
xo 11 9*
The building of the stack is the same  in every
case, and these items of the cost of materials, when
they are used, should, I think, be left out, as the
manure afforded by them will repay their cost.
4074. A  very quick mode of making hay is
practised in Saxony; and it is this:-The grass
that has been cut down during the day is put
i.,ito large cocks late in the afternoon.  A strong
fermiierntaition soon ensues, which continues all
ililit iuntil the morning, when the work-people
rettri to the field, by which time the cocks have
c,.)itraced( very much in bulk, and the steam
rises briskly from them.  They are then scattered
upon the ground, and allowed to remain all day
exposed to the sun and air, and by the afternoon
the grass has become so dry and won into hay
as to be fit to be stacked, for which purpose it is
gathered from the ground  and carried  home.
The new-mown grass of the day is put into large
cocks il the evening, and treated the next day
in a sinmilar maniner.  This mode of hay-making
might be followed in this cotntry, provided we
could  trust  our  climate,  as  the Saxoins do
theirs; but here the next morning may prove
rainy or even damp, and the fermented contents
of the cocks would inevitably be rotted.
4076. The rule for ascertaining the nu mber o f
stones  of hay    in oblon g stacks, is simple:-To
the height from the ground to thie eaves add onehalf of  the height of the top above  the  eaves, for
the  mean  he;t te   ul ge             e eight;   thenmultipy   th e  mean height
by the breadth, and multiply their products by
the length.. Divide the gross product by 27, and
the dividend wil l giv e  the num    ber  of cubic yards
in the stack; and that number of yards, multiplied
by the number of stones of hay in a cubic yard,
will give the weight of the stack in stones imperial. It is not easy to state the exact number of
stones of hay in a cubic yard, as they must vary
according to the compressed state of the hay in
the stack, the age and size and part from which
lthe hay is taken determining the degree of compressiolt, which varies as much as from  5 to 9
stonies; but perhaps  6 stones may  be near the
miark in a new stack, 7 stones in one which has
stood tfor some months, and 8 stones in one  a
year or two old.
4075.  Th           e use  of rick-cloths undou
pedites the making of hay, an          d         in tl
climate of Britain they ought to be X
generally used than they are; but wh
is cheap, a permanent shed might be
the stack-yard for containing the I
tinder the cover of which it could a
tliatching. In pastoral, as well as d~
such an accommodation would be hig]
Mkr James Little, Carlesgill, Dumfrie,
given an estimate of what a shed for tb
nmiglht cost, of 45 feet in length, 16 fee
and 12 feet inl height, inside measur
dimnenisions contain 7800 cubic feet, or
yards, which, at 7 imperial stones tl
ca pable of coiitaiilg 2030 stones ix
hay, or 3292 stones of hay weight of 2
stoaIe. The shed consists of the follow
culars, and their cost:
of      4077. Tile contents of a round stack with a
the   conical top is more difficult to measure, but it
rti-   itay be  ascertained in  this way:-Take  the
height of the round part from the ground to the
eaves, and add to it one-third of the perpendi6    cular hleighlt of the coniical top above the eaves,
for the mean height of the stack.  Take then the
3    nean girthi, which, if the stack is wider at the
51  eaves than at the ground, is ascertained by tak     i ng   the  girth  at the eaves,  and also  at the
a fgroutnid, anid dividing  their sum  by two.  Square
o     the nieait girth, atnd multiply the product by the
8    decimtal'0795, which will give the area of the
4    base of the  stack.   Theilen multiply this area by
s    the mean height, which will give the contents of
the stack il  cubic tfet, divide the contents  by
27, wlhichl will reducee them to cubic yards, and
3    nmultiply tlhese by the number  of stones in the
yard, according to either of the  above  supposi
14 pests 5 feet eacih, = 70 feet, at Is. Id. per foot,
of larchlI trees 9 incelhes in diameter,.;C4  7
9!) feet of wall-plate, 9 inches wide, and 2} inchles
thick. =  671 cubic feet, at 3~d. per foot,           0 18
363. feet of 2  inchli planking for roof at 31 per
foot,.......      4 18
1312 feet         of  inch  boarding for covering the
p-lankinig, at 1-d. per foot,...        8  4
Nails,.....                          0
Carpe,,ters' labour for p;rtting up the slhed,           2 10
Levelling, siniiking, and charring pusts,.       0 16
28 gallons coal-tar, at 4d. per gallon,                  0  9
.Putting ditto on the roof 2 days, at 2s. per clay,    0  4
Thlis is exclusive of carriage fro,, the wood
to the saw-mill, and thence to  the stead     ing.
' Prize Essays of the Hi.ghland and Agriculturcal Society, vol. siv. p. 758-60.
VOL. II
241
4 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
for mowing, than  that the whole crop should be
injured by standing too long for  the sake of the
seed; and even the part which is to afford the
seed should  not be allowed to stand until the
seed is ripe, because rye-grass seed is very easily
shaken froit its stalk.  As it is mown, it should
be tied in sheaves with thumlb-imade  straw-ropes
and set in stooks tfor a few days to win.  After
that the sheaves are built in hand-cocks, and,
when these are ready, they are either taken to the
stack-yard to be threshed by the threshilg-mniachine, or  are  threshed  oii the ground.   In
using the thliresliiiighing achliine for  this purpose,
it  is  troublesome  to  clean it, so  I think
the better plan is to thresh the crop in the field
with the flail.  This may be done, it is true, in
the stack-yard, but it gets quit of the bus,hess
most quickly when done in the field; and in any
way, a favourable day as to weather should be
chosen for the operation.  Fig. 349 represents
the particulars  of the operation in a  graphic
tioens, and the  capacity    of the stack will be found
in imperial stones.
Fig. 349.
i~i -                          =
~~~-a --
,    ~:X    -        ">
~-.            "           ~- 7, ~
7
' I - -1
picture.   An outside door answers well for the
threshing-floor; and it is set upon two cushions
of hay, which afford suifficienit elasticity to the
stroke  of  the  flail.   A  field-gate is placed
lengthways ii continuation of the door, and the
large barn-sh,eet  (1740) is spread  under  the
gate  to  receive  the  seed.   The  haud-cocks
containing  the  sheaves, are  brought  to tlhe
thteshiig.-foor by a horse a, which is yoked by
the haiuss by  nmeans  of  a cart-rope passing
round -tlie base of the cock.  When  the horse
pulls, the cock slides upon the ground to its
place of destination.  A  field-worker,  b, rakes
the rick stands clean, while another, c, loosens
the sleaves, and pitches tlhem  upon the floor
242
4078. To know the contents of a coniical rick
or coll, take the girth at the ground in feet, find
the area of the circle by the above method, and
multiply the area by one-third of the height.
The contents thus found in feet reduce to yards,
and then multiply by the number of stones in a
cubic yard. But the simplest plan, ill all such
cases, is to use any of the tables published for
the purpose of saving tedious c:lculations, such
as those of Ainslie or Strachan, the latter, however, are not sufficiently extended to comprehend
stacks of the largest dimensions.
4079. When seed is desired to be obtained
from rye-grass, it is better for the hay, as well as
for the land, that four acres of the part of the
crop where rye-grass nigot abounds should. be allowed to remain a while until the seed is ready
THE TtIItESHING OF RYE-GRASS SEED IN THE FIELD.
with a fork, with  the seed end towards herself.
Two  men, d and e, one on each side of  the floor,
use the flail. Another field-worker, A, at the
junction of the floor and field-gate, pulls  the
threshed hay with a long fork towards herself
uponI the field-gate, over which she shakes and
tosses it, and another field-worker, g, removes it'
with a fork fromn the gate to the ground h. The
threshers occasionally clear the door of seed with
their flails iipoti the gate, through the spars of
which it collects on the barn-sheet below. When
the spars are filled up with seed, it is carried to
one side at l, and riddled by a field-worker k,
upon a sheet, preparatory to its being put into
sacks in, to be carried to the corai-barni and wiu 
HAY-MAKING.
the end of the hand-staff, another and a stronger
thong is passed several turns and secured, formilig thus a kind of loose swing-joilit that allows
free action to the beater in its gyration round
Fig. 350.
novred. The threshed hay h, is forked by a man
to a field-worker, i, upon the rick, which she is
in the act of building of the form of the others
o n; p is a ladder to come down from the rick,
and r is a spare rake; the basket at s ilndicates
that a driuk of beer is now acceptable to the
workers.  Thus, if one part of this busy baud of
workers supplies the other with sufficient materials, the work goes ol pleasantly and without
collision. The seed will more quickly part with
its impurities in the winnowing, after it has lainii
to dry and win on the barti-flor for some days.
After it is winnowed, it should be stored in the
granary to win. When sufficiently dry, it should
be winnowed in the gralnary, heaped-imieasured,
and laid thicker together; and in slpriiig, it
should again be wiun,owed, and freed from the
maiiy fresh impurities which  will have found
their way into it during the winter, such as cats'
and vermiin's dung, cobwebs from  thie roof, aud
dust. Whatever proportion of the seed is not required for the use of the tfarm may be disposed of
to a seed-merchant or farmer. A tfair crop of ryegrass, even when Inot too much ripened, should
yield about 26 bushels of seed to the imperial
acre, when thus treated.
4080. The flail consists of two parts, the handstaff or helve a b, fig. 350, and the supple or
beater b c. The first is a light rod of ash about
b feet in length, slightly increased in breadth at
the lower extremnity, where it is perforated for
the passage of the thongs that bind the beater
to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to 36
inchles in length, frequently also made of ash,
though a more compact wood, such as thorn, is
better adapted for it. If not properly applied,
the ash beater will very soon separate into thin
plates, which are por.ioiis of  the  concentric
layers of the wood, and their separation arises
from the beater falling upon the fiat or convex
side of these annular layers-or the reed of the
wood, as commonly called.  To prevent this disintegration of the wood, the beater should be
constructed to fall upon the ed~e (f the segmental
portions of the reed, which is easily accomplished
in its formation. The usual form of the beater is
cylindrical, but frequenitly thickened a little towards the extreme end, the diameter being from
11 to 1Ia inch.  For the most part it is attached
to the hand-staff by a strap of leather, or more
frequently of hide untanned; when mounted in
this manier, the beater is formed with two projecting ears, standing at right angles to the side
on which it is intended to fall, and about 11
inch from the end by which it is attached, serving the purpose of retaining the end of the beater
within the strap.  The strap is about 8 inches
long and  1.! iiicli broad; it is bent over the
end  of the beater, and the tails brought to
embrace the sides of it beyond the ears.  The
strap  being  previously  perforated  with  four
holes in each tail, it is bound  by a thong of
leather laced through the holes and round the
neck of the beater; the upper turn of the lacing
thong catching the ears, prevents the strap from
slippingoff.  The strap, thus applied, forms X
loop standing about 1 inch beyond the end of the
beater; and through that, and the perforation in
4081. In construsting a   flail,    a  very  general
practice prevailbs, which  is to ehave the   beater
club-shaped, or thickest at the furthest extremity
G, intended, no doubt, to give the better effect to
the blows; but when we consider the effectst
arising from the  manner of wielding  the inistrumnenit, any a(ddlitional weight at the extremity
seems )nisapplied. The greatest amou-iint of useful effect will be produced by the beater wlhen
every pliant inl its length strikes the floor with
an equal amount of momentum or fore; bult
there will be a coInstanit tendency to a larger
c
b
-243
THR HANT) FLAIL.
the bead of the tlireslier,,tiid its descents upon
the thre,,biiig-flo(,r., AnItlier mode of iiiouiitiijg
tl)e beater i-.4 bv a[)plyiiig a strip ot'iroii in place
of leatlier, wb,cli is fixe(i to t)je wood by rivettitig,
lea.viijg 3, lo(,p as before, wliielt n)tist be nicely
rounded at)d stiicotb, to irevei-it,tbe too rapid
chafing of ttie thong by whicli it i.,i bouiid to the
baiid-staff, iii tile.1-a-lilel-kaDDer as described above.
The figtire here descried exhibits the iron i3trap. 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
amount of momentum at the extremity C than at
any other point, and a club-shaped beater will
always augment this tendency —for the greater
velocity of the extreme end, during the gyration
of the instrument, multiplied  by  its greater
weight, must give an undue preponderance of
effect to that part of the beater, thereby lessenimg the general effect uponI the work unllder performance.  The opposite  snode, which is also
practised, to make  the beater thinner towards
the extremity, as exhibited in the figure, is more
consonant to the laws of dynamics, and there
can be no doubt that its practical effects will be
equally favourable as compared with those of the
club-shlaped beater.
4083. The flail as a thresher out of grain is
still very much in use in Ernglanid; but a desire
for threshing-machines is now, without doubt,
strongly evinced ill several counties; and ere long
flails will there, as in Scotland already, only be
seen in thie possession of small farmers, who
have not the means of procuring threshing-ma,
chines, or have no  accommodation for them in
their steadings.
4082. The beater of the flail used in the United
States of America rev olves il  swivel fashion
around the end of the staff. In Hollanid and
Belgiur.. the beaters are short, thick, and heavy.
In Switzerlanid flails are diminutive in size com
4084. A peculiar form of hay-rake bas been
introduced into this country from America.  It
is represented in perspective in fig. 351, and
lying in the working position.  It consists of a
Fig. 351.
THEdAMERICN HAT-RAKa
b c
THE AMERICAN HAY-RAKE.
head a a, perforated with 18 transverse teeth b b,
c c, &c., which are firmly fixed.  These teeth a-                               ire
slightly tapering to each end, where they are
rounded off to a blunt point, but chliefly upon
that side which is to lie next the ground.  It is
drawn by a horse yoked to the draught-frame
d e, at whose butts the head a a is dressed into a
cylindrical journal, and each bar, d and e, is
secured to it by a strap of iron passing round
each, and leaving it freedom to traverse upon the
journal.  The handle-frame by which the implement is guided has the two bars g and h attached
to the head a a, in the same manrier as described
for d e. Upon the lower stretcher of g h is appended the light movable frame i, jointed to
swing freely on the stretcher.  The bar i of this
frame is put in connexion with the draughitframe f, by me.ans of the connecting-rod i k,
which is jointed movable at both ends on round
journals, and strapped as before.  The stretcher
on which the frame i is appended, is prolonged at
each end to receive the catch-bars 1, on the outside of the frame y A, one of which bars is seen
at 1, jointed on the prolonged stretcher, and
serving au essential purpose in the management
of the implement.
nearly bearing upon them. In this position aiso,
the point of the catch-bars I is quite free of the
studs of the head, and, by pressing down the
hanidle-frame, the pendant i will come down upon
and depress  the teeth that are looking backward, raising at the same time those in fronm
such as for the purpose of passing over any obstruction.  When, on the contrary, it is wished
to depress  the front teeth, the handle-frame is
raised till'the points of the catch-bars press
against their studs, which will depress the front
teeth; and by continuing to elevate  the handlefraime, the conniiectinig-rod, from change of positioni in the bars i k, i l, and If, will push the pendai t i beyond the extieremity of the teeth behind,
when the front teeth taking-, the ground, and
nothing to resist the rising of those behind, -the
rake will immediately tilt over, the fore and hind
teeth changing places; but, in other respects,
everything will be the same as before. The
effects of  the  motion and tilting, it is evident,
will be, that in the progressive state the rake
collects the hay upon it chiefly in the front part;
and when the attendant sees that the rake is
filled, he raises the handles and tilts the rake as
above described, leaving the collected mass at
the spot where the tilt occurs.
4085. In the working of this rake, it lies
nearly flat to the ground; and when the draughtframe is at its proper height, the connecting-rod
i k keeps the hanging frame just within the extremity of the teeth that are tihen behind, and
244
pared to those I -have referred to; and,. in using
theiii, four or five women range themselves in a
circle on the tl)reshiijg-floor upon their knees, and
beat out the grain from the straw in short sharp
strokes, following one another in rapid succession
around the circle of tliresliers.
4086. A slight consideration of this implement
will show the effectual and convenient mannr
in which its work is performed - but for progressive motion, it'is by no means so-well adapted ag 
SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.
for collecting and depositing the products.  The
heavy head a a is drawn forward in the worst
possible position, or what is called broad-side on;
but this defect could be removed by simply applyii,g a pair of low light wheels to the ends of the
head.  Perhaps it may be owing to this defect
that the American hay-rake has of late years not
been in such high repute as formerly.
4089. The wheat crop in sunmer is in
two  states, when spring wheat is sown
after turnips, (2302,) and when no spring
wheat is sown  the autumn wheat only
exists which was sown after bare fallow,
beans, and potatoes.
4087. The hand hay-rake used in the United
States of America seemns a well-made impleme-nt.
Its head is thicker and shorter than in fig. 347
and 348.  The teeth are 4 inches clear of the
head, and are turned and fitted into their places
by machinery, besides being wedged and pilmed.
The shaft is curved for the last foot of its length,
and is reduced in size before it reaches the head.
It is furnished with two or three bows which pass
through it and       enter the head; and  they are
of use in enabling the raker to gather up a large
quantity of hay at a single stroke. Every part
being turned to fit exactly, these rakes are not
only light, but are said to be remarkably strong
and durable, seldom if ever breaking at the head
or where the bows are inserted.
4090. The state of the autumn-sown
wheat in summer depends entirely on the
sort of weather in winter  and  spring,
and  on the nature and condition of the
soil upon which it was sown.   Mild weather will cause it to grow luxuriantly; and
if it continue so for some time in winter,
the plants will probably become so luxuariant as to lie down in spring, and  become blanched  and rotted at the roots,
(2660.)   In the earlier part of the winter,
as long as the ground is dry, sheep may
safely be put upon the land, to eat down
the wheat to a considerable degree.  Should
the weather  be  wet, and the land soft,
the slhee p will poach the groun(; but, even
under such a risk, they will do much good
to the crop when allowed, for a limited
time, to eat off the tops of the plants twice
a-day, when 1hungry, and to make their lair
on an adjoining grass field.  But the winter
luxuriance is not uifrequently checked,
and even the plants destroyed,  by  the
severe frosts at ni,g,ht, and the bright sunslhine during the day in March, (2660.)
4088. A curious mode of preserving grass for
forage, instead of making it into hay, has been
tried in Germany, in East Prussia., and it is this:
-Pits are dug in the earth 10 or 12 feet square,
and as many deep. They are puddled with clay,
and lined with wood or brick. Into these pits 4
or $ cwt. of grass, as it is cut, are put il a layer
at a time, sprinkled with salt, at the rate of 1 lb.
to I cwt.; and if the grass is dry, that is, free of
rain or dew, two or three quarts of water are
sprinkled over the layer. Each laver is trodden
down by b or 6 men, and rammed firm, especially round the edges, with wooden rammers, the
object of which is the exclusion of air.  A  little
straw is then scattered over the layer, to mark
its dimensions afterwards. Layer is placed above
layer until the pit is filled to the top, when the
topmost layer is well salted, and the pit covered
with boards or a well-fitted lid, upon which is
put a covering of earth of 1 foot in thickness.
Such a pit will contain 5 layers of grass, and
should be filled in 2 days.  The grass soon ferments, and il about 6 days subsides to half its
original bulk.   The lid is examined every day,
and every crack in the earth filled up, to exclude
the air, which, if allowed to enter, would promote the putrefactive fermentation in the grass.
When the first fermentation has ceased, the lid
is taken off, and fresh grass  put in, trodden
down, and salted as before.  The pit will now
contain about 10 tons of grass, equal to 2 or 3
tons of hay.    The  pits should  remain shut
for 6 weeks  before being used, and then are
used in succession.   The  grass thus treated
has  the  appearance  of  having  been  boiled,
and its sharp acid taste is very agreeable to
cattle; and 20 lb. a-day with chopped straw
will keep a cow in good condition all winter
and 28 lb. will cause a cow to give a rich and
well-tasted milk.*
4091. Besides over-luxuriance, early
sown  wheat  is apt  to  be affected  by
slugs, Limax cinereus, in damp weather
in autumn.   i Mr Wentworth of Harlow
gives a recipe for destroying the slugs.
m   Provide, fresh from  the kiln, as much
lime as will allow five bushels to the
acre.   Slake  it two  days  before  sowing; choose  a  calm  and imiild mornring; commence sowing early enough  to
finish befo re daylight; and one man  can
sow an acre an hour, sowing two yards
at a cast." Turnip-leaves have been recommended to be laid upon wheat, to induce the slugs to take shelter under them,
which they readily do, and they are then
collected from  the leaves andl destroyed.
Of these two modes of destruction, I should:
conceive the quicklime to be the more efficacious, on a large scale, in moist weather.
* Verhandlung de$ Baltischen Vereinsfuir Forderutg des Landwcirthaschaft. Greisswald, 1842, p. 33.
245
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.
0 
PRACTICE-SUNIMMER.
with  manual  implements, or  withi  b(oth
manual and     lorse  imple  ments.   Anwoee
broadcast grain    tlev  weeding  must be peu Fig. 352. forned  e ntirely    witlc itiantis l
-       i~mplements, and the most  effec           tive one t;)r thie purpose is tlhe
sim,ple  wceed-hotok, fig. 352.  It
conilsists of an acute loo,k of i;o'I,
flattened, of tire form at (a, w%itlh
tlhe two inner edges as  fa-r set
asunder as to emlbrace the stem
of succulent  herbaceous plants,
and made -s sh)arp as easily to
cut tliirougli tllemn.   The cutting,
l!ook  is attached to a necl  of
ilon, wlichl is forged at the othier
extrem-iity into  tlle form  of a
socket, to take in  tlhe end of a
ligilt w%rooden hiantdle about fiur
feet  in leengtll, to wlliclh it is fas           t eq,-e1i by  imieans of a nail  or
scIrewI.  The neck is bent in tho
f'(rl-i tliat, wlhen thre under  sur           fie  of tlhe lhook rests  upon  the
grtoinil, tlhe lHandle shall  be so
incliined -s to suit the h!and of
a,  t ie w(,irker.  Thle weed-lhook is
used  with one hiand, the field           w(,rwer walking  upright, and
lholdingjl it by the handle before
TsrF wF-I-D- l-er in an iniclined  position  to   ooK. wvards  the ground.  The cost
of tlis implement is 4d. for thle lhook, and
2d. for te hand le.   I lhave seen a weedhook witlh its outer edge also sharpene(l,
for cutting weeds witlh  a pussh forwards;
but  suclh a one cannot  be used amongst
staniding, corn, since its shalrp outer edge
would inevitably cut their stemis.
4092. Should  the winter luxuriance
continue on the whleat until spring, sheep
will not then crop it in a uniforni or sufficient degree.   If thle luxuriance has only
commenced in spring, sheep will restrain
it then as well as in winter.   Thle winter luxuriance can only be restrainedl iil
spring, by mechanical mieans, suci as thle
field-workers cutting off tlhe top)s   itlh the
common reaping-hook; and tlhi,,I)erltisn
may be safely perfornied until the  )lant
puts forthl tlhe sloot-l)lade, perl aps                   acs lte
as the endl of April.  Tlhe scythlie, fi(r. 32 2,
may also be ensployed to  aiow (ffl' tthe
luxuriant leaves, whichl slhould ll  be d(ine at
the place they bend over. Befoire conillllencing thle cutting either with tlhe oh(,;k ()r t l.e
scythe, one (,f the imost forw-arl  plit ts
should be cut open, and thle position aind
length,f the ear ascertailied, wlhiclh will1
probably not exceed hlalf an incl) in lengtih.
Thle portion of the leaves cut off slioulid!I)e
allowed to lie up(on the ground, as tlIe injury done by thleir remnova.l will lbe grealter
than they can do to the growilng cr(oIl, and
they will soon withler.
4093. Th-e adv-ant,ages of cropping the
wheat  plant when over-luxuriant, are, tlhat
thle rain no longer hangs upon it, and the
air and li,ght have power to act u)on tihe
stemi so as to strengthen and increase tile
woody fillre in it, thlat the latter may Sull.)port the former in an upriglht position.
4094. Wheat  sown in  spring  never
grows too luxuriantly in suinlmer, andtl requires no expedient to check its growtlh.
409.5. Of thle classes of soils which produce over-luxuriance, Idry deep clay loanil
is mnost apt in a inild anutniun anil winter;
and thin clay land, upon a retentive wet
subsoil, is the most sure to destroy luxuriant wheat in Marc! (2f;(;0.)  The crop
may seem  very pronlising in early spring,
and yet by the end (,f Mareli it miay not
only be thin but scanty of plants, and
it is then too late for them to tiller fully.
Such is the explanation of what may seem
surprising in many cases as to thle cause of
thle failure of what was at one time a good
crop of uwheat.
4097. Tthe ordinary way for field —wolkers to a,rrange tlhemiselves, when weeding
broadcast corn, is for two to occupy tire
breadltlh of a single ridge, each talking the
clharge equivalent to a half ridge from tle
open furrow to the crown. On weeding,
amongst corn, the poinIt of the wa-eed-lhoolk
is insinuated between  the stems  of corn
towards  the weed to he  cut, and on its
steml being taken into the cleft of the lhook,
it is severed by a slanting cut Alp)war(ls,
by an easy draw of the lhand towa,!s t-l,
worker.   The weeds,  thus cut over  ae
left on the ground to dlecay.
409(;. The weeding of the cereal crops
in seimmer  is an  inla          dispensable                                   orperaition fo,r
their welfare. Jt imiay be condticte(l solely
4098. The principal weed wlicl ii f'ests
whieatt is tile corn-cockle or p(,,e)le, Aro
246 
SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.
stemma iithago.   Having a woody stem,
it is not cut with the weetl-hook, but pulled by hand; and it is easily distinguished
by its bell-slhaped upright pink flowers.
Its seed is black, rough, and round, and is
much objected to in samples of wheat by
bakers and corn-dealers, though, the kernel
being white, its flour is not distinguishable
fironm wheat-flour, and is reported to be injurious to it.  In dry ground is found the
long pricklly-headed poppy, Papaver aryemnone; and in strong grolln(l the hairy tare,
Ervum hirsuturn, thiou,gh a low insignifi- 
cant  plant, yields a lhard heavy  seed,
difficult to winnow  from  wheat.   Til e
blue-bottle, Centaurea cyanus;  smooth
rye-brome grass, Bromus secalinus; the
corn and common  sow-thistles, Sonchus
arvensis and S. oleraceus; the corn oromwell, Lithospermumn arvense, the seeds of
whichli contain a large proportion of siliceous matter; the bearded darnel, Lolium
temulentum, which is now rare, are all
found  among  wheat.   The cleavers, or
sticking grass, Galiumn aparine; and the
common lhemnp-nettle, Galeopsis tetr(thit,
and  G. versicolor, large-flowered hempnettle, are also found among wheat.  Any
of the natural grasses do no harm amongst
corn; their seeds, being light, are easily
blown away in the process of winnowing,
or even of threshing; but the plants formerly named all bear seeds as heavy as
cannot be easily got quit of in threshing
and winnowing, and are therefore troublesome in the barn, and  injurious to the
sample. The common reed, Arundophraymites, is not uncommon in corn-fields on
carse-laud, and, when  Inot too plentiful, is
not (lisliked, as it serves to keep the corn
open in the stook and in the stack.
Fig. 35I.
a.                  - il
.qMiTiis STEiI.RA(;H HIotSE-HOX.
247
4099. Wheat sown in rows is weeded
with the hand-hoe, fig. 266, and also with
horse-lhoes.  The  hand-hoe  is used by
field-workers, wlho each take a (drill and
hoe the ground between the rows, as also
between the plants in the rows, which
is not'so easily done as when the rows are
dibbled, fig' 290, and must be done by the
hand.  In weeding rowed corn it is necessary for the field-workers each t~ occupy
a row; and to prevent their jostling one
another, the one iIn the centre of the band
takes the lead in an advanced position,
while the others range themselves on each
side in echelon.  Where  the extent  of
drilled crops is considerable, lhand-hoels
are unable to clear the ground of weeds
before the crops advance to a state in
which it is improper to go amongst them.
Hence the need of assistance from the
more expeditious horse-hoe.
4100. There are many forms of horselhoes for cleaning the ground between the
rows of corn,: and perhaps not one  displays so much ingenuity of construction
as that of Messrs Garrett & Sons, Leiston
Works,  Suffolk; but as its  construction necessarily enhances its price, I have
seen no cheap one please me so muclh an
the steerage horse-hoe contrived by Mr
William  Siiiitli, Northampton.   It  is
shown in perspective in fig. 353, where
a a is the framing, which also constitutes
the horse shafts, supported on iron brackets,
which in their turn are supported on an
iron axle, b, as,,itdl s to pernmit the crop
hoed to pass under it. Tle axle, bent dowll
at both ends, works  in the whleels, c c.
These form the carriage  portion of the
machine.  The hoe consists of a bar  d, 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
which bears the shanks e, of six triangular duck-footed hoes, or shares, made
to embrace as many rows of corn, at the
ordinary breadth of 7 inches asunder. The
handles, f f, by which the driver guides
the hoes along the centres of the rows,
are attached to the bar d.  Thle carriage
and hloe are connected by nmeans of the
rods 9 y, which, at one end, are attached
to the handles f, and at the other linkled
on by eyes to books  in the lhind Iart
of the brackets, which support the framintig
or shafts a a.  The rods g are strengthened by others, passing under thle bar d,
and welded at both ends to the under part
of s.  WVhen the rows are plhced wi(ler
than 7 inclhes, the axle is expanded  to
the requisite width by being slipped outwards through the collar, and fixed at any
given width by the pinching screw at b.
4102. In using this  loe, the horse is  put
into the shafts a, fig. 353. Tihe driver
holds on  by  t          he handlesff, and steers the
lioe   aalon  th   e centre of tlhe rows  h, wiicle
he is enabled to do by the nmovenment of
the rods g upon thle hooks attahelied to the
brackets at a.   Sliould  the horse swerve
from the row lie walks in, tlhe dlriver
directs   t        he hoes in   their   ro ws, ulti:
the  horse  regains  his former track.  A
steady horse will not leave  the row le
is placed in, froa one end  of  the lanings
to the otler, a nd only a ste ady one should
be employed in such work as h)oeing.  A
steady nan, to steer the lhoes, is as requisite as a steady horse, otherwise carelessness will send  the lhoes thriougthi the rows
of corn plants, and cut them tlhroughl as
well as the weeds.
4103. In 1849, Dr Newington of Knole
Park, near Tunbridge Wells, the inventor
of the dibble, fig. 292, introduced to public
notice a hoe, which lie nanies a (cultiv(tor,
for weedin, and  stirring, tihe  grioiii(nl  )e tween the rows of corin.  It consists of a
shaft with a  cross-l andle at one  eti(ld, and
at the oth-er end a slhank, to wlichli is attacled a head, into wlich three or    four  or
more slhares are inserted at slhiftal)le dis tances, correslpontlitlg with  the wi(dtlh of
the rows to be hoedi, from foir to eighIiteen
inclies'apart-t-taling at one  titme two or
three rows of tlle smaller distances, and
one of tlle larger. Tle instrutienit is dlawrn
through tle,rouind by tle force of a  man,
wvhto is equil)ped in a canvass ja,tcket, to
wlhiclh. is looped a belt, ly wvlich lie drlia,7ws
by  the cross-handle.  I haoe IOt seen this
implenient  at work-, but the  -inv,entor
affirinns that  " a  man  can do two acres
a-day with great ease; that is to say, stir
and hloe an acre, fronm tlhree to four  inelies
deep, five times folr 5s., iiulch more effectllally tlan  by the present mode  of lhandlhsoeing, and at onie-fifth the expense."
ent sorts of shares used in this hoe, one a,
being the ordinary one for narrow rows of
7 inclies; the other, b, to answer the broadest wi(dthl of 18 inches.  The latter consists of a long rectangular feathler attacl   hed
to each shlankl placed in a diagonal direction across and meeting in the centre of
the drill.  The inclination of their edg,,es
allows  the  shares  to  clear  tlieii-selves
of the  soil whlile thley are cutti,ng the
weeds under the surface.  Having the biar
d  as long as the width  to which  tihe
axle may  be, expandedl,  the  requisite
shares mliglht then be affixed to it, required
to hoe the nilmb)er of rows determined on
-and tlhus the  hoes  niay be increased
in number fronm  6 to 12, and the breadthl
hoed from 321 to 7 feet; but froni 4 to 5
feet in width is the best one for doing the
work quickest and miost effectually.  To
obtain that distantce, 8 hoes at 7 inclies
wide give 4 feet 8 inclies;-(i lioes at 9 inches
wide give 4 feet 6 inches; and 6 lhoes set
248
-it three doubles as b, at 18 iocbe.9 wide give
4 feet 6 inches. The prices of this horse.
lioe,. at these respective widths, are-witli
6 lioes, f4; 8 li.oes, E4, 10s.; and 12
lioes, X5, 10s.
4101. Fir. 354 represents two differ
Fig. 354.
0
a
96
p
LONG AND SHORT SHARES FOR THE HORSE-HOE.
4104. For the purpose of forafre tlle
year following, Italian rvegr,-tss (2644,)
inay I)e sown -.iiyiongst wlie,-tt wliicli
not been sown down witli gr-,tss-see(Is, just 
SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.
side of the body pale yellow, with  two black
spots onl the mesosternum; halteres white; the
legs ash grey, and black at the tips."   The iliaggot is sllall and white, the pupa yellow, smooth,
and shining, rather more  than oiie-twelfth part of
an inch in length.*
before the last time it can be lhoed-late
in April or beginning of May -and  the
forage will be rweadv for use in May and
June. A cutting of from 150 lb. to 200 lb.
niay be expected  to be received  from
the square perclh.
4109. The wlheat-fly, Cecidomyita tritici, was
much dreaded  a few years since, and its habits
are now pretty well known.  It is figured at d,
fig. 223, greatly magnified, its natural size being
represented by the cross lines beside the figurie,
and which does not exceed a line ill lexngth,
resembling a small  gneat or  midge.  Mr  Diiiican
describes it as having " the colour of the wlole
body  reddish yellow, deepest  on  the thorax;
anitenntee dusky, eyes black; legs pale reddis.h
yellow; wings longer  thanii tlhe body,  r,ouiiided at the til, of a whitish hbue. with  iridlescent reflections.  The  antenna of  the  feiiiale b
consists of 13 sub-ovate joilits, those of the male
c of 25 globose remote joinits."-" The fly makes
its appearance in wheat fields just  about  the
time  the ear is beginning to etmerge  firom its
leafy envelop,  mnost commionly in the early part
of Ju ie.  In a calm evening they fly about in
little undulatory clouds. An ear just energing
from the shieath is generally preferred as a recepta cle  for  the eggs.   They are  introdued, by
means  of the  ovipositor, into  the fioret, being
usuall y  placed  uponi the interior  valvule  of
the corollt, just above the  stigmata.   The eggs
are placed in clusters from  2 to  20, and are
hatchlled  iii ]0  or  14 days. and after the larvm
e beg,,iii to feedl onl the pollen,  they acquire a
saffioti-yellow hbre.  Miiunte as these creatures
are, when it is considered  that 47 have  been
(ounted in oje flioiet, it is easy to perceive how
ithey mnust interftere with its impregnation.  It
is riot improbable, as  they  inicrease in size, that
they likewise attack the milky pulp destined for
the  nutriment of the grain.  At all events, the
grain shrivels aud decays, to the grievotus disappointmeut of the husbandman.  Thle loss  sustaiiied by the farmers of the Carse of Gowrie, iii
1829, was estimated by  Mr Aichiibald Gorrie,
Antnat Cottage, ifroin 61 to 16 bushels per irnperial acre." —-"  Natuie lherself has provided a
considerable  check to the multiplication of these
flies, by itaking them the prey of no fee-er than
three kinds of ichlitieuions, viz.: —Eicyr)ts in.merens, about half the length of the wlheat-fly; aiiother Platyqa.ter tipulie, which commits its eggs
to the larva of tlie  wheat-fly; and the third,
L'url ytoata penetr,ns.  Some of these icliiieuiiioiis
appear ii great numbers where the fly abounds,
a nd multitudes must become their victims."t
4105. Not later tlhatn May, sow, in wet
weatller, a top-dressing, of Peruvian guano,
2 cwt. to the acre, amongst the growingr,
whleat; or, of special manuiires, 1 cwt. of
nitrate of soda and 1 cwnt. of sulpliate of
ammionia to the acre.  I prefer  sowvin,g
top)-dressings on the grriwing crop to sowing them on the soil il,lg with  tlhe seed,
as tlhe plant is readly to takle advantage of
them imn mediately; w liereas iii ucli of special
imanures at least  nlay he waslhed down
into thie soil by rains, before the llant lhas
arrived at the stage of gr-owtlh to be bsenefited by them.
4106. The floweri)g season is a critical
one for wheat, since tlre state of tlhe  weatlher at this period, wllich is in the  begirnning of June, may affect  tlje yiel(d to the
extent of  fifty  per cent.    Shlo(uld  the
weather p)rov e  both  rai:!y  and winily
during  the whole  flowering, seasoln, the
produce will inevital-)y be scanty.   ti.in
alone, unless it be constant, do.es not affect
the produce so much as strtong,, wind-!, which,
if it blow from the same qii,-rter, w,ill seriously affect the side of tlhe ear exp4)sed to it.
Slhowers and gentle breezes dio no lharimi.
4108. The wheat  sterri-fly,
Cltlorops pumilionis, fig. 355,
derives its specific niame, which
signifies a  dwart, frin the ef                  fects it produces oni the plants
it attacks, which, lhaving their
_      cenitralshoots destroyed,tlhrow
out many lateral onies, anid selTHE WHIEATSTEM- dom  attain  aiiy consiulerable
Fiv v-cHl.oiors  height.  "The  colotur of tile
Prv.lLlo0's.    fly is black,"says Mr Duncan),
" thle  ulder.ide o' the head  arid two iiarrow
loi]gitutdintal liles iii the thorax yellow   under
4110. Altlhoughl the attack  of thle whlieat fly
was  talked  of as  a IIew plague,  when  it oc,cdirred some years since, it would appear that it
was known in Scotland in 1740, wlieti tlhe  frost
was so severe that the  Thames was frozen over
and al-  ox roasted upon it,as the observations of an
agrit-,iiltiurtl  writer  of  thle  time  if,rTns  1s.
"After this," he says, " we had a  ItielaDcholy
siglt, for as soon as the wlheat had done  bloom
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 121.
249
4107. The wbea-t-plant is much -ifrected by
casualties, both from insects and pai-asitic,,il fiijigi.
The young wheat-plant is not unti-eqijeiitly (lestroye-I by the wire-worm, fig. 253, v%,)iieli cuts
over the plants by the ground. Many remedies
Fig. 365.                   have been proposed fo get rid
ofthis 1)est, when,,o eiiii.)I(,yed;
t Aid. vol. xi. p. 372-8. 
PRACTICE-SUAIMMlER.
ing, vast numbers of black flies attacked  the
wheat ears, and blowed a little yellow maggot
wlhi(h ate up some of the kernels, in others part
of tlhem, and which caused multitudes of ears to
miss of their ftllhiess, acting ill some measure like
a sort of' locust, till raini fell and washed them
(ff; and though this evil has happened in other
silltmers to the wheat in some degree, and not
doiel much harm, yet if the good providence of
Gwed habd iot hin   dere  d  it, they might have ruined
all the crops of wlheat il  the nation."*   The
b!lck fly here mentioned is one of the ichlieuin,) flies, whichl deposit their eggs in the larvae
of the wlheat-fly to destroy them, the wheat-fly
beinig of' a reddish yellow colour; but mistaking
the pest for its destroyer was natural enough at a
tim(e when the identity and habits of insects
were bt, t imperfectly understood.
small  sportles, which are  so  numerous   and
minuitte that it is not easy to conceive any place
where they may not abound(..  They are ever at
hand, only  awaiting  suitable  conditions  for
springilg into existence.... They generally  appear in patches, consistilng of  multitudes of spores, that form  frequently so many
cases   eniclosing  the   reproductive   sporules
which float in the atmosphere around us, until
they light on some place adapj)ted to their growth.
Their extreme miniuteriess allows of their being
introduced into the substance of the tissues of
plants or beneath the epidermis.  As they grow
on the leaves or straw of corn plants, they raise
the epidermis into curious puffy blisters, which
they subsequently rupture.   These patches are
of differe)t colours, but most commonly either
deep yellow, brown, or black. The several parts
of the wheat-plantt are attacked by these parasitic pests, which  are quite distinct from each
other, having  nothing il common except  that
they germinate within the tissues."+
4111. The  wheat-planit is attacked  by  the
larva of the wheat dart-nioth, A4grostis tritici,
niuder ground, feedinig on the radical portion of
the plant, in auitumii, and never appearing above
the surface of the grouniid except at night.
4114. Mildew.-Mildew  or blight,  Pticcinia
graminir,is, forms  blackish-brown parallel lines
upon  the straw, and seems to affect the entire
plant; so that, when it is generally diffused over
it, it deprives the sap of the power to form seed
in a  healthy state, and heince the grain is either
very much shrivelled when it is formed, or no
grain is formed at all. So generally did this disease affect the wheat crop of Berwickshire in
three successive years,  1810, 1811, and 1812,
when the price of wheat was at the highest rate
during the war, that in rnany instances it was not
considered worth while to thrash it. The method
by which the spores  of the  puccilia enter  the
tissues of the straw of the wheat, is by its stomata
or breathing pores, which are numeroas. These
are closed ill dry weather, but are opened to receive the moisture in wet or even damnip weather;
anid  is a   i s    it is at this time   it is spposed, that  the fungal spores enter into the plant by the stomata. It
is certain, at all events, that the mildew only
makes its appearance in imoist warm weather,
dal&mp situations.:, and on over-mianiured land.
411 2. As re        gardsw the attacks  on wheat by parasitiu a I fsttwgi,the Rev. Mr  Sidney defirtnes afungus to
'     b e   a cellula r flowerless )lant,hd e     r ividwg its                      tautrimnenit by means of' spawn. It lives in air, and
is obropagate       d by.spores, which are flaked, or by
iioridic, so called whel      r enclosed in little vesicles.  Tio e way in which thes e              spores germinttate,
generally speaking, is by a protrusion of the
iml raer       tmembr ane, o r           an elongation of the outer,
thus lem gthenic ig out its sp awn, which is the
usuial anode;                           but the re  is another method ofgerinitiation...i..   Fungi mray               b      e said to
tcoisist of                       a miass of little cells, or  little threads,
or of both caombined in various              ways.  T he y have
e, fitictificattion  except their spores or sporidia,
of whi ch                        the methods  of attachment are singul,rly curious and beaputiful. In their respiratory
funtctio,ns, they approach to  the peculiarity of
anjim.al rather than vegetable life, for they absorb
oxygen and exhale carbo)ic acid gas.  Like flesh,
they (contain a great quantity of niitrogen;  and
the sutbtahice called fanqine, extracted from
them  by the chemnist, is said  to bear  a  near
rc.-sey-blalce to animal  matter.   They  derive
their nourishment from the substance on which
tile.y grt, w, and not, as is the case with the
lii(hells antid alga, from the media in which they
exist.  The juices, impregnated with the peculiar
principles of the matter to which any particular
fungus is attached, form its appropriate food."
f4115. A  notion prevails in England  that the
berberry bush, Ber-beris Cularis, lias the power
of causing the mildew in wheat, probably from
the well-known circumstance that  the  berberry
is itself very subject to iiiildlew: but its mildew
is occasioned by the Er ysiphe berbherides, whereas
that of the wheat arises, as we   have seen, from
a Puccinia, and no possibility exists of transiformiinig the one kind of fungus into the other.
4116. Il~st.-One  species  of  rust is found
scattered  over the  inner surface of  the outer
chaff scales, the skin of which is raised into
blister., mnostly of an oval form. It is occasioned
by the Uredo r-u!bigo, anid is of an orange yellow
co)louir, and is the worst species  o( rust, as it may
affret the produce, if moist and cloudy weather
continue for some time. The  rust which affects
the straw originates in the  Uredo linearis; and
when it disaplp)ears, the straw is not materially
41 1 3. Fungi affect both  the straw and  the
giaiii of the whleat.   The  disease  originated
by them on the straw of wheat is called  rus                              t,
froin its resemblance to the rust of iron, and in
the graini smtut and bunt.  It is a subject of reasonable il(quiry to know  the Inailer in which
fiingi originate diseases in crops, to the great
extent  experienced  in  those diseases (if the
wheat, and  " the  only  truth-like  solution of
their s'iurce,  as Mr  Sidney observes," is the
almost uniiversal diffusion of their inconceivably
* Ellis'  Modern   usbnd a f or August 1745, p. 129.
t Siduey's Bigyhts of the Ij'icat, p. 15 and 29.
250 
SU.MMIER CULTURE OF WEIlEAT.
injured, and the arrival of bright warm weather
soon dissipates the evil.  The  geuial beams of
the sun completely vanquish both, so that they
disappear in a slurprisinlg'nanuner, aud a healthy
greenness speedily succeeds to the yellow tilnts
that have disheartened the farrer.  I have seen
the leaves of wheat so intchi affected with yellow
rust, at the time of weeding, before the ear had
shot out, that the netlher garments of the fieldworkers, whlo weeded  the crops, were covered
with orange dust.  The rutst on the leaves disappears in its worst form, before that on the chliaft
scales appears at all.
s is a longitudinal    sectioe of a ol  ugrai       n of   t
wheat, in its         p rogress  toward s develo)ment,   whient
t  th e anthers  have  just         protruded beyoiTe   tlle
corolla; e is d an etebl)ty slle li inted       internally
witlh a     greenish boerder  n n te. As the grain asvagnces, the, spatce e cotstrem bts, aid(o its sub.-taLt(ce
b b, lying between the green border  n  -Lani(  tlle
outer green cuticle (a, becomes filled with inilky
juice: t is a longituidirna,l sQctioii tf a  smit-ball
taken when the stamen,s are  fully formed wiithii
the corolla, for the anthers never protrude beyomd
the corolla wheni the grain is affected with simiuit;
c is an empty space  surrounded by a dark green
suibstaniee, o o o whiclh extend(is to the outer cuticle.
Ini a very short time  the whole interior  of  the
smuitit-ball changes fromn green to white, as at wr,
the outer cuticle  continuinlg green.  The  wlhite
substaince soon has  - black speck in it.s aetre,s
at x, which gradually spreads through the  bill,
as at y.; and as the ball still alvai,ces to ma,iturity, the dark green cuticle clhanges to broewi,. as
at z.  The  green substance occulpying the  I,l:,ce
of the milky juice, at once explains  the differenjce betwixt a. sinmut-ball anid a sound grain.*
4117. Smizut or Buntt.-The disease called in
Scotland smutit, is niamed btunit ini Eniglanid, aindi
the smuit of Englllantd is t}he black ear of Scotland.  Simut, Uredo caries, is so well uniderstood i
in its appearance atid character, that it requires
no particular descril)ti,.il t'.rther tlhati that it is
a browinish black, greasy fetid powder taking the
place of the kernel of wheat.  Mr  Lawsoii oft
Elgin examiiinedI the str)(cture of the snmut-ball in
comparisoln with sound whleat, atd the differences
in their aLppearances are shown in fig. 356, where
4118. Bleck  ears.-Wheat, barley,  and  oats
sometimes seem to have their youiig ears coated
as  if with  soot,  adliering  by  soime  gullmny
substance  to  them.   Its  effect is  completely
to destroy the  grain, from the  first  initaiit it
emerges from the hliose. It is prodluced by tlhe
Uredo  seqetuet,  iii hot bliiiks of snuslilue  ii
showery weather, when the ears are appearling
out of their shea ths. Tihe spores of this fiiugus are
so small, that M.  Bauier  conunted 49 oii tlhe hiiiidred and sixtv thousandth part of a square inch.
Ileuce, a square inch coull  colitain 7,1340,000 of
them; aud if the spores are so smnall, vlwhat  imust
the dimensions of the sporules be?  The  highest
imaginable power of a  microscope could( oiily be
expected to exhibit them as a vapoury' cloud.
4119. Eel of ithe wheat. —" This is one of the
most siuguilar or living cre-atures," observes Mr
Sidney; " and were its habit.s uct tliort,ughlily iiivestigated and proved, they wouild seem aiiost
incredible.  Its attacks are confiled(l to thie ftrinaceous porti)on of the grainl, which it destroys
and replaces, produicing  the  disease-ktiown by
the nainie of ea:r-cockle, pepl)er-cniii, or pimples.
A  graini bf wheat, iiifectedl by  this  blight, assuimes  the  appearance of a black pepier-cl'ii.
The whole ear is altered iii appearance; thle chaff
husks  open,  and  the  awus  becom)ne  curiously
twisted(l, so that the ears are eaisily distiiing,iished
from a healthy crop.  Tlie grai.ii first tunri dark
green, and( tlhei black. If onie of tlieiii is divided
into two with a peuknife, it will be  comilletely
filledl with a deise, white cottony m1liss, eccilpyiiig the place of thie flour, and leaviii,g mierely a
little gltirous  natter.  lThese et,iteuts seeiii to
the eye like a quantity of fibies, tclosely p)acked
together in parallel directions; but if a little
morsel is taketi on the end of - 1i., aii(i put on a
slip of glass an   moistened, it will soon be seen
to divide  aud give a iiilky appearance to the
water.   But  iii submitting it to  a powerful
* Quarterlty Journal of Ayriculture, vol. ix. p. 269-72.
251
Fig. 1135(3.
I
e
a
w
x
x
THR STRUCTURE OF SOUND WHEAT AND OF S'AIUT                B,LLL COMPARED. 
PRACTICE-SUMIMER.
microscope, the astonished observer will soon
discover that thle cottony mass is a dense body of
living,eel-sllaped a nimalcule, whiclh often wriggle
about  with great vivacity.   Accordillgly, the
name given to thie disease is Vibrio tritici, the
eel of tile whlleat."'*   I have never seen anll instance of this remarkable creature.  It is anl infusorial animal.  Froin the investigations of At.
Ba ter, it appears tllat, after laying all their eggs,
the parents soon die; but such is inot thle case at
an earlier period of life, for after being dried and
appearing quite dead, on the application of moisture they become as lively as they were at first,
and this after a period of six years and one
month.  It seems probable that the glutinous
substance in which they are enveloped preserves
their vitality.t
4122.  Wl      ten tlhe bar     ley is drilled  or
diblbled in rows, the horse-lhoe, fig. 353, is
employed to remove  the weeds, and is a
more economical implemiient than the lhanidloe, fi,. 266. Still th     e    weeds   amongst
tlhe rows of grain must be removed by the
handI or hoe. Wlheni tle clharlock and poppy
are abundant, the lhorse-hoe is an unsuitable implement to remove them, since, on
accumulatinr between the hoes, the bundles
of weeds will be apt to be  thrown upon
tlhe rows of grain. When the lhorse or
lhand-hloe is to be used among barley, that
is, whlen barley is sown in rows, it is needless to roll thle ground after the grass-seeds
are sown amongst it in spring, (2697.)
4120. We left the barley in spring  to
its fate, iminmediately after thle gra,ss-seeds
were sown and lh,arrowed amongst it, and
thle.lad rolled, (2697.)  Barley seed soon
s)ring,s,  in   favourable  weather,   and
sends tle gernm  above ground,  in some
years, in nine days after sowinig. Notihing
is done with tlhe crop until thle period
arrives for veedinig it, and in the broadcast crop the weeds are removed withl tleh e
lhand weed-hlook, fig(. 352, or by the hiand,
thle field-workers beiiig arranged-l in  tile
saine manner as hlas been poin)(itted out for
tile weeding of whleat in (4097.)
4123. Barley inay be top-dressed with
2 or 3 cwt. of Pera,rian guano to the acre,
amongst the growing crop, and not upon
the land at thle time of sowing the seed, for
th e   re asons g      iven above in  regard to tol)dressing thje wlheat crop, (4105.) Sulplhated bones, (3233 ) to the extent of 2 cwt. to
the acre, nmay also be applied in a similar
mianner.  Of  tlhe special  manures, 200
lbs. of the nitrate of potash to thle acre  has
givern a I:avourable result.
4121. Thle weeds  that most infest tllhe
barley crop are tlhe creeping, tiluile thistle,
C izicus arvensis, tlhouglh not to the same
degree as  it does  oats.   The  cliarlock,
SinaJpis awriven.sis, frequently  takes pos'sessit,n of the barley crop  in tlhe neifghbd)urliood of large towns, thle seeds (of wlichi
are suppos.ed to be derived fromti tlhe street
mnanure, so largely used in Such lio(,calities.
Whlen this wNeedI is n,bunilant, thle  most
effectua.l way of getting rid of it is to pull    s
it up by liandl anil carry it off thle field.
Anotller  weed, wllich  s(.)metinles appears
in great quantities inl li(giit soils, is the c(lollIllon red poppy, Pa,)p(ver rliats, atiionIg(rst
wiiicli will be filun(d soilie  f the snio,Jthhlealeli poppy, Papaver dubliurz. Tlhe deep
se.arlet-coloured flo,wer (of tile forilier       tfrl,dices a strikiiig effect, even at a dlist,ance.
This weed, whewi in quantity, will have to
be pulled byl hand, like tlhe clartlock.  Tihe
seeds of thle sticking-grass  or cleavers,
Ga'iuin  aperine,  often  find  thlleir  way
4124. When barley is not sown down
with g,riass-seeds, sainfoin may be sown
amonigst it, in calcareous soils, in Al)ril; and
it will be fit for cutting as a forage crop
for cows in May or June the  next year.
* Sidiiey's Bliklts of Hlrieat, p. 84.
t Jfournal of the Ayiicultural Society of Enygland, vol..vi. p. 314.
252
aitionst barl"ey, from wbicli it is difficult
to remove tl,iem, and, even after undergoing boiling along with pot-barley, they
retain their hardness.
ON TIIE.1-UMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY.
4125. Barley is not niticli affeete(t by
the state of the weather iii the flowering
se,-tsori, since that season is so niucli later
tijan tljat of wlie,,tt, that the weather is
sel(-Ioni storiiiy for,ii-,tiiy days togetlierthat is, iiiucli rairi aiid strot)(, wind at the
ZD
sanie titi,)e.
4126. A clear liquid at times t.ransfuses from
the 1.)oiiits of the yoling barley plants, which is
iiiistakeii for (lew. Its nature has not yet beea
chemical exaiiiiiied.
4127. Barley is Pubject to tbe-attack of fungal
I,)arasites as well a.,, the wlieat, tlioiigb not to the
saine extent or degree. i Black lieads in bar 
SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS.
production of ergot in barley arises from a chlange
in structure which  commences at thle b,ise  f the
Fig. 359.   seed, and which  the laws tliat
govern vegetable morplhology aire
found in other  instalnces to pro            duce.  I may add,  that 1  hlave
never seen the slightest appear                ance of stamens in a  floret coni          r     taining ergot;  neither is tl!ere
any  appearance in ergot  of the
two cups or sacs  wiii(. are iin
the sound seed.    The  mietliods
a       dopted for preventing si,nit iii
wlieat, (2307,) may probably also
DcISEASEn BAR- preveiit ergot in barley."*  Tile
LofY tEet r aD.t   issue of this last suggestion may
be doublted(, since we  have seen that smut is a
f'tiigal anid ergot nl(,t a disease of ftingal origin.
Drinliiig  rescules  the  wheat planit, as also) the
grasses ii, )astures, from the attack of the ergot.
ley appear uonder the same circumstan ce  s  as in
wheat, (4118,) and are produced by the saimie
fungus, Uredo segetumt.
4128. Ergot, a fatal disease well known in
rye, is not unifrequent ini wheat, as also in several
of the grasses, such as ryegrass, meadow-fescue,
cats-tail, and  cocksfoot; but I had never observed the disease in barley until Mr John Lawson, Elgin, pointed it out some years ago. Ergot is
a monstrous state of the seed, not induced by
any fungus, so                      f ar as  is known, but by snome
nknolwn caus         e  which produces a change itn the
structure and form of the see(l, as is observed in
cases of vegetable morphology. It causes part
of the embryo to be preter,izaturally enlarged, to
protrude beyond the chaff, to assume a curved
form, somewhat resembling a cocks' spur, the
French for which  is ergq,t.  Ergotted seed is
black superficially, and of' a sponigy texture internally, containing oily matter, so that it will burs
like an almond at a lighted canidle.
4130. Barley is extensively attacked in Sweden by the Clh!or-ops frit, which destroys the
prinicipal,tein; and Mr  Chrisp, Rugley, near
Aluwick, mentions the effects of an  insect on
barley, its "larva living in the sheath, and feedi ng iipoii the ear, previous to its appearance from
the shot blade.   Every year," he says,  " I have
observed  iJo-re or less  ilnjury to the crop  by the
same cause, but it appears niost serious, in a lato
or wet cold year, upon stiff soils."+
4129.  Mr   La ws          on  traces th e change caused
rby this disorder in barley, in the following
Fig. 357.  manner: —" For socmle time after a
head of    barley has  assume(] its pro          per form," he observes, "baut before
it has  arrived   at   maturity, the
corolla is not more attached to tle
seed thani  if oats, if o   lmuch.  If at
th       i           s early statuewe w e examilne a bar        ley plant, it wi     ll be f bund    that the
ea  corol la may v      ery    e      asily be separated
from  the seed,   a nd that  th        e  seed
THetRK  RNEL wil app       ear                      as a naked one, with
OF BARaI EsY ve  e               the plmes of the  cor o lla on each
WITHIN THE side of it, as represented in fig. 357.
HUSK.    Now, if we remove the corolla, and
look  at t'le bas          e  o f  th e  barley  seed, we will )b  Fig 3the e.  serve this bas     e  (ti t   hain the corolla)
covered with two fine imiemiibranous
substances, in the form of a 1ea              ther, or rather like the wiings of' a
fly, as ef, fig. 3.58, growing out of
the base b c.  The corolla of,nany
plants is hairy  or woolly at tlhe
base, on the outside of the corollt,
but  these  niembraiieous  appen   e.   -Y.  d (iages,  both   in   their   sounid,
dliseased,  or altered state, are in
b It    the inside of the corolla, and corer
.4f,UND I R- tle.'eed.  Referrinig to the reln'e              sentatioii of the young ergot or
diseased seed of barley, fig. 358, we find a great
change of structure, both in the base  and its
teatlher-like appendages.  The base, in this case,
is of a pure white, and firm and polished like
eniamel. It has also assumed a differeni-t tormn. II1
a sound seed, it is a flat oval disc, b c, fig. 358; in
the diseased seed it has assumed the formii represenited by a h, fig. 359. The feather-shaped membraues have likewise changed their form, and instead of spreading over the flat side of the seed,
have grown up in two tufts, f n, one on each side
of the seed.  I think we may conclnde that the
ON TIIE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS.
41H31. The spring culture  of the oat  wto
finished a,Iccordinig( to  the  statemiienit  it)
(2499.)  Oats-r-equiire about a fortn iglht to
braird in ordinary w^ea~tlher.
4132. Thle weeding   of eats, wlhen soiwn
broadcast, is effecte(d  by  the  weed-look.
fi. 352.  Thle oa,it is tIle first crop whieli
requires weeling, ai   tihe weed that most
ilhfests it is the creepin, plume thistle, Cnicus tarvensis.   It is peirennial, and its roots
cree)ing, by whichl it easily spreads itself,
and, whlen allowel to grow will attain the
lheighlt of front (oie to tliirce feet, and waft
its plumed( seeds o%ver thle adjoining fields.
Welien allowed to flourislh -iniongst corn, it is
extremiely troubles,0ome to reapersiat harvest.
Thle plant slioil(il not be cut down  befoi-e
it lhas attainied albout nine itnelhes ini heigl!t,
otherwise it *ill  soono sprii)g again  from
the i-root, and require anuotlier weeding; and
by the  tigle it tonss attained that leiglt, the l
oats will be about one foot llig(,h.  In using
the  weed-lhook  amiionJgst oats, the fieldworkers are arranged in the sanme manner
* Joyrnal ofAztriculture, March 1848, p. 386-7.   + Quarterly Journal of,4griculture, vol. xiii. p. 208
253 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
as when weeding wheat and barley, (4097.)
A very troublesome weed among oats, in
the neiglibourhlood of             large  towifs, walere
street nianiire is employed, is tile  wild
mustard or cliarlock, Sin(ipis aryveisis,
whichl so completely covers the soil in
moist seasons, that its bri,ght yellow blossoms obscure the whole crop.   Whlether
oats are sown broadcast or in drill, the
wild nmustard, when so plentifil, must be
pulled by hand, as there is no other way
of extirpating it.  Wlien oats are sown in
drills, thie liorse-boe, fig. 353, is enlmploye(d
to extirpate the weeds; but those growing
in thie rows of the corn muist be reimoved
withl the weed-lhook, from dibbled corn, and
by the handtl from drilled.
the dart-moth,.4grostig segetltm, whose winigs expand from 1I inch to 1- inch, and which produces
larvae that attain the length of 1 b in(h, and live
upon the portion of the corn-planit below the surface. Rolling heavily at night, when larvae geuerally come to the surface, may effect the destruction of some; but as all caterpillars which live in
the earth have a tough elastic skill, capable of
considerable resistance, such of them as have not
a, stoine or other hard substance under them,
would be merely pressed into the soil, without
sustaining any material injury from rolling.*
Potash and soda,
Chloride of sodiumn,
Lime,... 
Magnesia,
Ox   ide of iron,.
Sulphiuric acid,.
Phosphoric acid,.
Silica,....
4133. A top-dressing of 2 cwt. of Periuvian guano to the acre in wet weather, or
3 cwt. where the soil is poor, will effect a
great iiiprovement in the growing crop,
and not when the see,l is sown, for reasons
giveti above in (410.-.)  Of the special
iuanures, 400 gall,ns of ammoniacal liquor,
or 2 cwt. of the sulphate or mt'iate of
animonia, applied in the same manner, mnay
be expected to give a considerable increase
of crop.
4139. Dr Fromberg determined the nitrogen
in the unripe oat, at six periods of its growth, as
follows:
4134. Oats are as little affected by the
weitlier in the flowering season as barley
is; atd both b-ling in flower about the sanie
tiiie, the weather niist assumte a stoirmy
character for days together to injure either.
ISICCR~TAOG OP NlTRO0]f].]
Il undried oat.      0.51  0.51 0.62   0.66  0.97   IM
dried     -          1.71   1.35   1.38   1.31    1.79   2.20
CoMok   tous is.                                                   t
In undited oat,    -    3.2o4  3.24   3.90 4.15|  6.10   9.58q
dried    -         10.75  8.50  8.69   8.25{ 11.'i 13.841
The steady increase of nitrogen from the  30th
July is very striking.t
4135. The casualties which befall the oat crop
are nuilmerous.   Otie complaint  is seggingq or
sedg4ing, so named in consequence of the plant
being short, the leaves becoming hard, and the
roots thickened like those of the sedge. What
the true cause of this complaint is I do not know,
for any insect that may be then detected in the
plant I regard as the effect, not the cause; but I
have cured a piece of land of its constant tendency
to grow sedged oats, simply by draining.
4140. Hitherto we  have said nothing
of the culture of rye; and the reason
is, that as it is always sown in autumn,
no occasion has  occurred for s)eakiing of
it until its culture in suimmer demands a
few observations.
4136. Oats are liable, in damp warm seasons, to
have black ears, when the entire panicles are clustered together, and covered with the black powder of the Uredo seqetum, a parasitic fungus,
(4118.)  The blackened heads do not occur to
a serious extent; but whether the disease would
be entirely avoided by pickling the seed-oat, as
the seed- wheat is, I cannot say.
4137. Besides being attacked by the crane-fly    4141. As rye runs through  its courses
in spring, (2504,) oats are attacked iii summer by  rapidly, and comes early to maturity, the
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 162-7.
+ Transactions of theC Iighltlad and Ayricultural ~ociety, July 1846, p. 329.
I
I
254
4 I.S8. Mr Norton found the composition of the
a,,h as l'ollows, in the respective pai-t8 of the
9
II
I
I
I
I
L..f.
18.35
0.30
5.13
I.ti3
0.515
13.05
2.91
58-22
100-14
St-1k.
42' 43
4.46
4.12
1.47
0.62
7.84
6.31
34.85
102.10
K..L..
39.21
0.60
4.75
4.51
1.02
27.94
9. o Ili
13-23
100.29
ch.ff.
J 5.39
2.01
4,58
3.10
1.50
9.90
7.25
56.3Zi
100.12
o.t.
31.37
0.61
6.76
2.94
0.35
lt;.42
15.19
26-05
99.65
On the 16tli July the plant was in the midst of
its most rapid growth, aiid just half way betiveen
the time when it appeared above ground in June,
and when it was cut on the 3d September.
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE. 
SUIMMER CULTURE OF RYE.
in large  quantities, an(l  especially whlile
fresh, occasious such dangerous anil itiortal
diseases in bothi mien and animiials." *
straw attains a considerable lheigh,t before
tie  ordinary weeds ma,,ike a fornmilab)le
appearalnce.   Thle  weeds most  comiiion
among,st rye are tlhose found upon li,ght
soils, as the slheep's sorrel, Rui)tex acetosella, and thle corn marigold, Chrysanthemunm segetum; and  these are  ea.s-ily
rem,,ved with  tlhe wee(d-lhook, fir. 3,52,
when young, or pulled by hand wlhen flirthier advanced in age.
4143. The correct definition of the ergot of
rye is this:-" The ergot is a kind of spur which
issues from the grailn of rye.   It is elongated and
curved, maiked  with  three  blunt angles and
longitudinal lines.  Its colour is violet of differeiit shades. Internally it has a dirty white colour.
When collected in quantities, it emnits, while flesh,
a disagreeable smell.   Its taste is slightly biting
and nauseous.   Its length is about an inchl and
a half, asiid its thickness about  a quarter of  an
inch."t  De Candolle considered it a species  of
fungus to which hlie gave the name of Seleiot:utn
cluaris; others  name the fungus ~pi,acelitt se(Jeturn; and some consider it as a morbid alteiation of the ovaritim of the rye, caused  by  the
puncture of an insect of the geinus rnusca, anid
which deposits a blackish liquid.  It is unillecessary to pursue the inlquiry into the origill of this
disease, after what has been already said on the
ergot of barley in (4;29.)
4142. Rye is so very little cultivated
in Greatt Britain, that it is rarely to b'e
seen in our fields.  On  the continent of
Europe it is, on the contrary, iiucli cultivated, as it forms tlt e  staple f  ood o    f  tlbe
p eople; aithl as a large  proportion of tlhe
soil in tloe north of Europe           is   sandy, "rye
may tl!erefore le regarded,"  as  Tlh,ier
weil observes, " as tle 211st precious gift
of God to the inhabitants of sandy and poor
countries; without it many districts would
have  been nninlhabitable."   Advancing(,early to seed, t!he flowering season is a
more critical period for rye than for any of
the other cereal crops. A white frost occurring at this time may partially, or even
wholly, prevent the formation of the grain;
and wihere this has been the case, the ear
loses colour, thle points of the hlusks pucker
up,  Iandl  they are found to be empty.
"Rainty, damp, or very  windy weather
)ccutirring about  the flowering season,"
says TIaer, " has a pernicious influence
on rye.   Occasional  shliowers  lo it no
harm, even when they are tolerably frequtient, provided that there are a few hours
of warmi sunny weather between each;
for (luringr the rain thle rye closes up its
valves, and wlhen the sun afterwards comes
out, the antliers spring up so vig,orously
tihat the pollen froms tle staymeis covers
the fielhl like a thick cloud.  But during
continuous rains thle antlers undergo an
alteration in the valves, and rot; or at
any rate icmpreo,nation does not take place;
or, if it d(oes, thle embryo of the grain is
putrtifled and lost.   It is thus that the
(disease termed thlre spur or ergot of rye is
engendered, aind that curious, blackish,
violet-c(,oloured excrescence fo rmed wlhiclh
is so well-known, and of itself appears to
bie of no consequence, but when swallowed
Potash, ~ ~
Sod(a,..
Li        ie,..
Magnesia,..
Oxide of iron,.
P'hoslpLor-ic acid,
Sulphburic acid,.
Chlorine,.
Siiica,..
4145. Dr  Taylor observes, that "some  toxicologists rank this substance among  narcoticoacrid poisons8: others exclude it from  the three
classes, regarding iL as a poison.Rui generis. A1though its effects are in some instances peculiar,
yet, when taken in large doses, the sympto ms
produced  very muclh resemble  those caused by
the vegetable irritants.  Its effects  vary according to whether it be taken in large  do.sei, or
whether its use be long continued in small doses.
The results (cf numerous experiments on animals,
and some observations  on the  human subject,
show that ergot administered in a large dose in
any form, (about 2 drachms of the powder,) is
liable to occasion dryness and irritation  ot the
tlhroa.t, salivation, tlhirst, burning pain in the
stomach,   vomiting,  cholic,  and   sometimes
diarrhcea. Cerebral symptoms, such as headachi
giddiness, and stupor, are also met with.  Tlhe
appearances after death have been, in a few cases,
* Thier's Principles of Agriculfture, vol. ii. p. 421-Shaw aTid Johnson's translation.
t Tlioiitsoii's Orgat(ic Chlemistry  Vegetables, p. 879.
+ Johlstoin's Lectures on  4gricultur(il Cheinistry, 2d edition, p. 402.
255
4144. The composition of the ash of the ergot
of rye is as follows, according to Etigelmaiiii;
that of the substance itself has not yet been
chemically examined:
45-38
16-79
1.6p,
5-34
0-314
]-44
0-02
2-36
15-60
104-95
0.3 —311
Percentage of ash, 
PRAC'lI'CE-SUIMMER.
4149. After  the plants have  attainea
three or fo)ur inches in hei(ght, the scuffle,
fig. 262, ought to be pas.sed between tlie
drills to reniove the weeds that may lha
grown.   The field-workers  then  use tlle
lhan(l-lioe, fig. 266, to reniove all weed,
growing close to and between the potato,
plants; and to  remnove any clods  thlai
occupy the spaces between,  or thlat bena
upon the plants.  After a littl e  time, tletm
drill-grubiber, fig.  264, goes  along  tih
drill, to destroy the freslh growth of weed.
4146. " The chronic effects of this poison have
been witnessed occasio,,ally on the Coritiiie,,t in
an epidemic firin, aniid they have itl somne instances
beeni distinietly traced to the admixtuire of ergot
with rye-breal.  Serious effects are not witnessed
in this country wilere rye-bread is but little use(];
and even on the Conitinienit tlhis condition, to. whllich
the niamne e)-!otistit hals been given, requires for
its produ(ctioii a very long continued  use of the
diseased grain.  M. Bonijeati has given an account of two instances, in which spontaneous
gangrene was brought on by bread containing
ergot. One child was ten years old, and it was tfound
necessary to amputate both legs  the other, between two and three years old, lost the right leg
by spontaneous separation.
4150. The potato crop is not so mucl
infested witfi the wild nmustard and radish
as the turnip; but in consequence of the
ground being, obliged to be early prepared
i n  spring, there is not sufficient time to
destroy couch-grass, and thle oat-like grass,
commonly called knot-grass.   The weeds
that frequent the  potat o ground are pretty
numerous, because the steiiis of the potato
plan ut, permitting the air to pass between
them, an(d the ground  being usually in
good  heart, and there  being  plenty  of
roomni between  the rows of plants, weeds
get up after the operations of the plough
have ceased, and  they are usually these:
-white goose-foot, Chenopodium album;
comnnion  flumnitory, Fumaria  officinalis;
iHaeg wooIt, Artemi sia veulgaris; chickenweed, Stellaria media; nipple wort, Lapsana  commnnis;  slheplherd's purse, Capsella bursa-]vastoris; ivy-leaved speedwell, Veronica hederifolia; small annual
nettle, Urtica urens; all on their resp~ective soils.
4147. " The ergot, it is well known, is largely
employed by accouchetirs to aid parturition, and
indeed to bringr it on.  Much difference of opilion exists as to the abortive powers of this suibstanice: some regard it as only acting   on the
uterus by the production of great constitutional
injury, an(1 that its effect is simply to accelerate
but not to induce labour.  In many instances  it
has been found to bring, on a violent action of the
uterus at an advanced stage of gestation, or
when efforts at parturition had  already  comumenced.   The results of experinments on animals
leal decidedly to the conclusion that ergot exerts
a specific effect on the uterus, and the observations of MAr Youatt fully corroborate  this view.
The conclusion appears to me to be, that, although
in some instances ergot, even in large doses, may
fail to excite uterine actioii, yet that.n other
cases it appears to act decidedly as an abortive,
and to origilate this action." *  Ergot exercises
frequently a fatal action on the  heart of the
foetus.   In a summary  of cases giveln by  Dr
Hardy, it appears that in 48 cases, when ergot
of rye had been given, 34 children were still-borl!t
Ergot should therefore be very cautiously giveni
to any animnal in labour.
4151. Another hand-hoeing is given to
remove the weeds between the plants, but
chiefly  with  the  view   of  stirring  the
ground well around them.  As to the setting up of'potatoes with the double-mould
board plougll, fig. 209, they require to be
set  u1], in all soils, becauise, being tubers
occupying the ground below the surface,
the eartlh slouldI be loosened and heaped
ab)out them-n; and as potatoes grow  in
clusters around the  stemii near the surface
of the ground, and Wven above it, it is requisite to cover these, as they would be too
much exposed  to  the air, and become
green and bitter; but it is possible to set
up potatoes so as to iniure them, which is
always the case when the earth is not pitt
4148. The hla,rrowing, of tlhe tops of the
drills of potatoes, withl  the (Irill-liarrow,
fig. 220, giving liberty to the potato gernms
to penetrate the ground in an uprighlt direction, (2790,) the germs may be expected
to appear above ground  in a fortnighlt or
thllee weeks ufter )eing planted, accord-ing cs
as the state of  thle weather  ha(l been
favourable to vegetation or otherwise, and
accordiig to the early or late period of tlhe
season in whlichl  they were planted; the
later the season, the quicker the veg,etation.
* Taylor On Poisons, p. 537-40.
t Murphly On Natural and Digicult Parturition, p. 141.
256
p-itclie,,; of iiifltmi-ii-iti,)ri on tl-ie miicoiis iiiembraiie of the stoniaeli aiid small iiitebtiiie.,.
O',N' TIIE SUMMER CULTURI,,' OF POTATOES. 
SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES.
con the top of the drill, and when the ploiugh      i
goes deeper than the dung in the drill. On
light land the last practice is useless, a(id
on datmp heavy land, it has tile effect of
enclosing the tubers  in encrusted drills.
Aii interesting experiment on the depth to
whichl potatoes should be earthed, was made
by  MAr  Peter  Mackenzie,  Plean,  near
Stirling(,.   "On  well-drained( land," he
says, on describing the results of the ex )erimeniit, "three modes of cultivating the
potato were tried; the dun(, used being
what   is  called  well-ina6e  farm-yard
manure.  The first was similar to the plan
usually adopted-namely, earthing up the
crop, until tile interval between the rows
was 2 or 3 inches deeper than  the roots
and duing.  Thie second plan differed only
from the first in being less eartlied, or what
may be called by some a half setting up.
The third imiode had no earth drawn to the
stems of the plants, and the earth was only
hoed between tl-he rows.  The dunging of
the crop and the distance between the
rows were equal.   When  the potatoes
were dug, the advantage of the second
mode of culture over the first was fully
more than one-third part of the increase,
and better in quality; for the potatoes
grown by the first plan would  not bring
the same price in the  imarket which the
second did.  The produce of the third plan
was nearly equal in bulk with the second,
btilt rather inferior in quality, many of the
potatoes  having their sides yFeened by
l)eig exposed to li(ght.  While growing,,
tlhe second and third lots 11d( a much more
lhealthy appearance than the first; and
wlien dlug, what renmained of the diung that
was used was well mlixed witl  the soil;
while the dunig of the first lot was dry and
little decoinposed, clinging in clusters to
tee roots of the potato t,ants wvlen they
were  dug.  It would be little trouble for
fatrmers and others who grow the potato,"
advises Mr Mackenzie, "to try the experimient on land tl)at has been well drained;
for it would certainly be a great advantage
to thlemselves if they could increase their
potato crop one-third more than is usually
grown on the same extent of ground, and
with less labour to themselves nIiid horses.
When we bear in mind the number of acres
still planted with potatoes, it must greatly
increase the food of the country, both for
man and beast, if 120 or 180 bu shels were
adide(d to everv acre in the produce of that
essential article  of food; when  we  remember the niuniber of square feet in all
acre, and if, upon every square foot, all
extra potato were raised, weighing only a
quarter of a pound, more than 4 tons would
be added to the crop on every acre." * It
stands to reason that the moderate method
of earthling up potatoes is preferable to the
verv deep one  usually practised in the
country.  For this purpose, the settingup
double-moul(d-board  plough, fig.  214,
would be better than the common doublemould-board plough, fig. 209, its mouldboards being cut away below. The earthing up is fieqiientlytoo longdelayed, even
after the plants hatve nearly met across the
drills: it should be finished before the plants
lhaveadvanced so far in growth; but still it
should not be begun until they carry their
steimis and leaves to some leighIt above tile
ground.
4153. It has frequently been alleged
that wh en  the blossoms of the potatoplant
are removed, the potato crop is increased.
The late  Mr   Knig,het s ays, that there are
facts "sufficient  to prove that thie  same
fluid, or  sap, gives existe nce   alike to the
tuber and the blossom and seeds, and that
whenever a plant of the potato affords
either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of
tlhe crop of tbilers, or an increased expenditure of the riches of tile soil, must necessarily take place. It has been proved by
others, as well as myself, that  the crop of
tubers is increase,d by destroying the fruit
stalks an(] imminature blossoms as soon as
they apllpear."  As a recent instance of
such proof, Mr W. H.  Tighe, Woodstoclk,
Inistio~giue, cut tile blossoms off one drill of
strawberry red potatoes, and left them  on
on another drill, hard by, and the results,
on the 13thl of October 1849, were, that
* Quarterly Journal ofAqriculture, vol. xiii. p. 363.
257
4152. A top-dressiii(, of 2 ewt. of Peruiaii giiaiio to the aci-e, in damp weather,
applied by hand by field-woi-kei,s near the
plants, after the eartliing up (,f the crop has
been finished, will greatly increase the produce; 48 busli,is of soot to tl)e acre Ilavle
also been foun,f of service; and of special
manures, I cwt of the sulphateof sodaan(I of
tli e nitrate of s-)da each, has had good effect.
VOL. 11.
a 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
from a n7)er;b of the drill from which the
blossomns were cut, hle  received 2 stosnes
5  lb. of potatoes,  which were all goold,
while from thle perchl of tlie other drill on
which the blo()ssoms were left, thle prod(luce
was only l stone 9 lb., a few of which were
Lad.* Since the sap whiclh forms thle tules         bers
and  blossoms is derived from  the same
.source, " the cause why early varieties of
the potato do not afford blossoms is the
preternaturally  early ilisp(sition  of tlhe
plant to genernte its  tliberotis  roots."t
Since  the time  thle l)otat(o (liseLse hlas
established itself in tlis cotintry, it hlas
been observed that tlhe potato plant puts
out blossoms les:s plenitifully thilan it (lid         il
before.   Tlhe scaiceness of tile lilossotmiing
lias not been found to be accompanied with
any increase of produce; and the result is
not surprisinrg, since plants tllhat putt out
weak tubers must put out weak blossoms,
or fail to put out any at aill.
4156. The first was suggested by Mr
David Martin  Muirllead of  Liftf, near
Dunidee, whio recommends the seed potato
to   be  cut lengtl ways,    not acronss, tl-tt some
of  tle  eyes of  tie 1 e         rose end  inay be inl
every set; that the drills be fully one yard
wide, to acll(w of thie futulre culture  bein,
conducgted in  the best mianner; that, as
soon as  potat,es are formed, tlhe slhaws or
stems sliould be bent down over  one side
of thle drill,  and tile earth broughIt over
the shaws on thle other side, as high,Ii as uintil
the drill is like the roof of a  house wit!l
the sh)aws growing out of one side of it;
that wlhen the shaws are in this position,
tl-e rain is not conducted to the potato, but
to the bottom of the drill.   The c()st of the
earthing up does not exceed above one
penny the perelh.  R[r Martin says that lie
lhas tried this plan for tlhree years with
perfect success, not lhaving, a diseased
potato all tlle time. In 1. 848 he tried alterihate drills of hiis plan with the ordinary
one, and in every case hiis plan afforded
sound, wlhile tle common onIe gave nothing
but diseased potatoes.~  Tile success of
this plan lhas been corroborated  by a  correspondent of ttie Gardeners' Chironicle of
the 8tl Septeimiber  1.849.
4154. Professor Johnston states, that
"by taking off the blossoms of potatoes
-besides the usual increase of crol)-tlhe
tops keep green till the potatoes are lifted.
'Thus much green matter is obtained; and
if this be made into mia.n,re, and applied to
the next potato crop, it is said to raise the
largest produce of tubers."+   "By every
ton of potato-tops," says Dr Froinlberg,
"we addl to the land about 50 lb. of inorganic salts and a quantity of organic mattelr, containing 20 lb. of nitrogen, or about
23 lb. of amnmonia; this being probably
the firm under whlichl the nitrogen is gradua.lly discharged in the decomposition of
organic matter."
4157. The Belgia an  plan  w    sua   s suggested
by  a  farmer,  M.  Toesbellea     Lohafa a   ot
Naour, and it  consists in cuttins  offth  le
stehb ts a s near the gro und as poss ible, a fte r
teth  flowuer ing is over, wi th a    sharp instrunnent,ucha  sucl h   as a  sickle, so as no t to disturb
in the least the potatoes  in their  be d, and
then to cover np the incised stumpll>s of
the steims with  at  least    half an i inch  thick
of earth, to  pe rhaps t w o i nliches thick. The
rationale of this process, as explained by
Dr Lindley,  is, that it kyay be  tha t  potatotu be rs, after h laving arrived at  a certhain
condition, po>ssess the power  of continuing
tlieir growth by their own proper and unassisted vitality- and this is rendered  the
nmore probable  by  the  well-known  fact
that  the flou-r which gives them their
principal value does  not descend directly
fromn the leaves as flour, but is in the first
4155. I h:ve  already  allt de ts tothie
baffling, nature of the potato disease, and
of the many opposite expedients which
have been tried simultaneously in different
parts of the country to eva(de its attack,
without success, from  (2778  to 2781.)
In the present uncertain state of the culture
of tile potato, ole is justified in trying
every plain, whlethier su,ggested by pra,ctical or non-practical nien, particularly by
the former, whiclh has been said to have
slucceedled, or is likely to succeed. Two
new plans of culture lhav;e been suggesited
* (-ardener's Chronicl, 13th October 1849.
t Knight's Hlorticultural Papers, p. 133 and 321.
: Johnston's Elenents of Ag4ricultural Cliemistry, 5th edition, p. 161. Note.
~ Dundee Courier, 28th February 1849.
25-8 
in 1849, on(-, by a Scoteliman, another by
a Belgiari.. 
SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES.
cut off, lie obtained  83  lb. of potatoes
in 55 feet length of thle rows; on two adjoining rows, of which thle stemis had not
been taken away, hlie obtained 129{ lb. of
potatoes in the samte lengthl of rowvs; and
at Lodswortli an  experililenter obtained,
undler the same  circumstances, 88 1l). of
potatoes fromn plants whose  haul,itjs  lia(l
u)een retained,  while  froiii tlhose  whlose
li.aulms had been cut off lie only received
68 lb.   Whliatever inay  have  been  the
cause which produced these oi,favourable
results, it seeins certain that, to produce
results siii ilar to  those affiriied bIy M.
L,i,iba, some peculiar mnaiagement in tlhe
culture is required; and the point to be
attended to seeli,s to be, that the liauiuis
sho,ul not be reminoved until after the plants
sl.ill hlave produced their flowers.  If Mr
Knigit's views in reg,ard to the effects (if
reimoving tlhe flowers fronm potato plants,
be correct, (4153,) M. Loiiiba's plan mIust
ohave the effect of preventing the increase
of tile crop as far as the ren(moval of tlhe
flowers gives it a tendency to increase.
instance of the nature of giium, or some
ot aer  flai    n  orga,          ev able matter  f ors ge ned in
the leaves, and  sent diownwar(d    s into     the
t,bers.  Halviin  g reached    the  tubers,   it
undergoes its fiial clang e, a     nd from  a
soluble substance is gradually converted by
their vital force into insoluble flour.  To
thlat final ol)eration we lhave no reason to
supp(ose that the leaves contribute;.ll that
tliey (to is to produce the nmatter out of
wvlichl thie tubers generate the flou)ir.  It
nusi t be observed tlhat Mr Tomiibelie Lomba
,lhes not cut (,ff tlhe steims till after flowerilg.   It is possible tha,,tt att thlqt tinie tile
leaves of the potato lhave done their work,
as far as the tubers are concerned, and
tiaat tlheir farthier duty is to nourish the
tubers.  If so, we h)ave an explanation of
the result of wlichlt M. Lomil)a so positively
sI)eaks.  Tlis plan was tried  bv Mr  Ht.
Dooville, Alphiing,ton, near Exeter, in
1849, and related by himn in the Gardeners' CIronicle of tle 1.5th Septemtiber 1849,
by whiicel it seems lie succeeded in securing
the potatoes in a sound state, even after
the leaves had indicated symptoms of the
disease;  whilst tlhose in  the  adjoining
rows, left untouched, presented a considerable proportion of disease.
4159. The composition of the ash of the potato
leaves aud stems is as follows, according to )Dr
Fromberg:
W e d Bufli.
8 ~     a.. Ieoea
33.32- 18.6.3
3.78   4.58
.     19.72
21.03    2.39
20. 4     6.6-69
4.39    4.59
1.34    3.50
6.02    7..q9
5 51 -    9.29
2.37    3.22
100.00 100.00*
4158. But the part of M. Lomba's plan
whichi is remarkable, is'that when  the
potato stenis are cut off with a sickle properly sharpened," to use his own words,
"the tubers are not at all interrupted in
their growth; thlat tlhey remain attacihed to
tlhe stem until they are rip)e, just as if the
liaulm had not been remnoved; and that
they acquire as larg,e a relative size as
potatoes which have not  undergone the
operation.  I have so ofteni observed this
continua.tionr of growth, that I can speak
po,sitivtely to its going on without the least
interruption, and trhat thle treatment wihich
I have reconmmendedl is not attended by
:mny loss whatever of size or quality. I
can offer the most positive assurances as
to this."  It would appear, thien, tlhlat the
leaves are not necessary for thle growth of
thle potato after thle plant has done flowering.  Mir Dooville's experiments were not
so successful  in establishing this point
as of that of the soundness, for, in taki,,g
up two rows, the stems of which had been
Potash,...
Soda,....
Cldoride of potassium,
e sdium,
Lime,
Magniesia,...
Oxide of iron,..
Sulpi,uric acid,..
Plhosplhoric acid,..
Silica,...
4160. Profe.ssor Johnston  came  to these  conclisiolis:-That in the leaves  the proportion of
assh diminiished as the plant grew, while in the
stem it increased; thiat the  pxrop)rtioe, of phosphliates and of silica in the  ash of the  leat was
imuch greater than iii that of the stem; lthat the
proportion of alkaliine nmatter in tije a,,h ot the
leaf remained nearly stationary, while iii the stem
it diminished as the plant grew; tlhat iii both the
proportion of silica diiniiished, while tlhat of lime
and magnesia inicreased.+
* Transactions of the Iiqhland and.gricultural eocidy, March 1847, p. 688.
JohAnstot's Lectutires on A.gricaluural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 435.
I
.I
2519
White B.ff..
st.m..
31-15 17.27
5.80      -
4.8
21.60 14.8b
19-13 2ti.98
5.(,9 6.b4
1 43 3.70
5.56 5.76
6.90 14..94
3..34 5.48
100.00I 100.00
4161. No one has yet succeeded in explaining
the origin of the potato'disease, or even what it
really is. Aiiiongst other eiideavours at explaiia 
PRACTICE-SUMMEPR.
that the mould cannot be the cause of the disease
in the potato,  the Re v. Mr Be rkeley, than whom
no higher authority exists in this country on
thie  nature of that mysterious clas s of plants-th e
fungi-expresse s  his belief in  these w ords, of
mould being the cause of the disease:-" The   de  cay " [in the potato,] writes  Mr  Berkeley,  " is th e
conseqbuence of thie  pres ence of the  mould, and not
the mouild of  thye  decay.  It is not   the habit of the
allied species to prey on decayed or decaying niat ter, but to produc e decay-a f act  which is of the
first importance.  Though so many other species
have  thi s  habit, thes     ae      hav e  not.  Te plant then
becomes  unhealthy in consequence of  the presence
of the mould, which feeds upon its juices and
prevents  the e  laboration of nutr itive  sap in the
leaves, while i t  obstructs the admis sion of air and
the  emission of perspiration. Th e s tem  is thus
overcharged  w ith moisture, and eventually  rots,
while every s ource of n utriment i s cut o ff from
the half-ripe tubers.   It would  be as rea sonable
to say, with our knowledge of the  nature and
habits of the cereal fungi, that bunt, or mildew,
or the other allie d  diseas es which affect corn, arle
the consequence and not the causes of disease,
In favourable seasons they are not developed; is,
utifavourable seasons they spread like wildfire:
in one sense, therefore, the atmospheric condi.
tions are the cause, but merely as they stimulate
into action the latent pest. The immediate cause
of disease is the fungus which preys upon the
tissues of the corn.  So exactly, in the present
illstan%tce, as far at least as the aerial portions of
the plant are concerned, the botrytie is the
immediate cause of destruction. In some in.
stances it may have been aided by unseasonable
frost, but this has certainly not always been the
case. The mould indeed would not have spread,
but from peculiar atmospheric conditions favour able to its growth. What these are it may be
impossible to say; but it is a fact well known to
every student of the extensive tribe of fungi,
that their growth, and especially their numbers,
depend more than all other vegetables on atneo spherical conditions, or what Fries has happily
called I cosmica momenta.' Even the peasant
knows this to be the case with mushrooms. Dry
4 and wet summers occur, and both are equally
barren; while in other seasons, apparently but
little dissimilar, they occur in the utmost pro fusion. A species will be most abundant for a
year or two, and then for a period vanish en tirely.  It is notorious that  this is the case in
other parts of the creation, especially amongst
insects, peculiar species of which sometimes
swarm to such an extent as to baffle the naturalist.
In the summer of 1826, for instance, Vanessa
cardui existed in the greatest profusion in Eng land, and it was traced by Mr Way from
Engl,atnd to Nice.   The species of late years has
been comparatively rare. There is nothing sur prising, then, in the fact of the immense preva lenice  of a parasitic mould.   No  one wonders
when the hop grounds are ravaged by their pecu liar mildew, because the cultivation of hops is so}
limited; but if it were as universal, and of as
much importance as potatoes, the ravages would
tion of this mysterious subject, the interference
of that singular class of beings-the fungi-has
been pressed into the service, but with as little
success as the more obvious itttermeddlit)g of insects.  That iinnumerable myriads of the sporules
of fungi are constantly afloat in the air is most
certain; but unless  they find suitable matrices
of growth, they cannot vegetate and produce
fungi.  Is the potato, prior to disease, a suitable
matrix?  Of the kinds of fungi most comtmon                            in
organic matter, the Botrytis is the lIost remarkable; and the singular connexioti of the Botr,ytis
infestans with the potato diseaseofl84.5 and 1846,
will render it ever memorable.   " To say that
the disease was caused by this fungus," as has
been observed by Mr Sidney, "would be contrary
to the best evidence; but that it attends and
accelerates it is unquestionable.  True it is that
whole fields, in a sad condition of disease, were
seen without a trace of botrytis; but in all contagion, infection, and inoculation, anomalies constantly occur.  In most cases, the botrytis was
entirely connected with the disease, and a descriptio:t of its growth will be interesting to every
reader.   The  threads of myceliumn  interwove
themselves amongst the cellular tissue.  They
ran through the loose intercellar passages of the
lower sturface of the leaf with great ease, and the
fungi emerged  through  the stomata.  It is a
retitarkable  circumstance,  however, that  this
botrytis was found to grow with greater luxuriaisce on the diseased tubers, where the tissue is
far more dense than in the stems and leaves.
That the mycelium of the fungus was contained
it the diseased potatoes, may be proved from the
following singular circumstance:-A quantity of
silk was, during the early part of the summer of
this year (1846,) perceived to be greatly damaged
by a white mould.   On submitting a portion of
it for examination, to an individual eminent for
a knowledge of ftungi, it was atoncte pronotnced
to be the Botrytis infestaris, or mould of the
diseased potato.  The mystery was soon cleared
up; for the silk had been dressed with starch
from potatoes, and proved a favouirable situation
,for the development of the fungus from the spawn
.that was il it.  Growth in such cases is extremnely rapid; and when a potato plant is at-4
tacked by the botrytis, of course the juices are
consumed by it: the elaboration of sap in the
leaves cannot go on, nor, from the stoppage of
the stomata by its threads, can admission of air,
or emission of any gas or fluid, take place.  It is
certain that the disease which destroyed such,
quantities of the potatoes in America, Great Britain, and over the continent of Europe, has not
yet been satisfactorily explained.  Further researches, in plants more recently infected, may
throw additional light oni tile important subject.
Undoubtedly, ill most instances the fungus appeared; and where it was not- actually seen
exterinally'on the leaves, it seems to have exercised an influence on the tubers, which are, in
fact, branches or steps under grounld, as every
botanist knlows."' ~
* Sidney's Blights of tAhe Weat, 145-8.
260
4162. Yet Pos;.tively as Mr Sidney affirms 
SUMMER-FALI,I,()OW.
for a part of the crop of two  consecutive
years, is conducted simultaneously: on the
fallow-break, yet the crops which occupy
the soil thus simultaneously prepared, are
committed to it at very different periods,
the green fallow-crops being sown early
in summer, while the sowing of the barefallow crop is delayed till autumn; so that,
before  the latter makes  its appearance
above ground, the former have almost advanced to maturity.  Since the crop on
the bare-fallow is delayed until autumntill the eve of commencing another agricultural year-the practical effect of the de-.
lay is to dispense with a crop for a whole
year on the bare-fallow-break, and it is
on this account that such a fallowing is
called a bare-fallow.  As an entire crop
is dispensed with in bare-fallowing, it
should impart such advantages to the land
as to compensate for the rest and indulgence which it receives-and such are the
advantages felt from it on some sorts of
soils: and the reason that the land receives
such indulgence is that it cannot carry a
green or sumtmer crop; and if it cannot
bear them, it must be operated on so as to
bear a crop that will come to perfection,
and pay  the expense of the fallowing.
The sort of soils bare-fallowed are heavy
clays; and why will they not bear green
summner-crops?   A  satisfactory  reason
cannot be given;  but experience proves
that their nature is unkindly to the growth
of bulbous plants used in a green state;
and their heavy, wet, and obdurate nature
prevents them, at any rate, from being prepared in titie for sowing sucIh plants. Could
clays be altered in their nature by  any
means, they might be employed in raising summer-crops  as well as the naturally more kindly soils; and such a change
has been effected on miany clay soils which
w ere formerly incapable of rearing greencrops, by thloroughl-draining, skilful tillage,
and liberal mianuring and limning.  In this
way the bounds of bare-fallow have been
llmuch circumscribed, and those of green
crops as miuch extended.  Still the heavier
class of clays-the deep alluvial onesohave not yet  been ameliorated to the
ldeg,ree of bearing green-crops profitably,
so they  must  continue to be  bare-fallowed; but part of even the amelioxrated
soil of almost every farm is necessitated
e.'iually excite attention. It is by these instruments, contemptible in the sight of man, that the
Almighty is pleased sometimes to accomplish his
ends. Instances, like that of the Hessian fly,
will readily occur of the immense disproportion
between the means and the end." *
4163. Although the potato plant, like the
other cultivated plants, is the abode of many
kinds of insects, yet it is perhaps less injured
by them than those plants; and I express myself thus in perfect recollection of the sensation
endeavoured to be raised by Mr Smee, a few
years ago, against the Aphis vastator as the
originator of the potato disease; but the ti uth is,
that in no instance has the aphis been seen on the
potato plant in sufficient  numbers to injure the
produce, far less to destroy the crop. The larva
of the heart-and-dart moth, Ngoctua exclaniationis, eats the haulm through just beneath the
earth, and the plant in consequence fades. It
also attacks the potato itself; and so insensible is
it of cold, that so late as the. 20th November
it has been taken out of potatoes quite alive.
When potatoes are left in the ground all winter,
they will attract all the wire-worms, fig. 253, in
the neighbourhood towards them, and of course
suffer damage.  When potatoes become decayed
under ground, scolopendrae, Lithobius forficatus,
and rove-beetles, Oxytelus nitidalus, subsist upon
the corrupting mass; and when they are affected
b y  any  fungus,  the kind  of  mi te called Oribate s
.astaneus will surely congregate for the sake of
feeding upon the botrytis and other fungi. A
rotten potato seems to be a favourite receptacle for very many insects.  " I may mention,"
says Mr Curtis, " that from one growing and
partially rotten potato, I bred, in August 1845,
128 flies, independent of many more which had
died in the pupa state, or been destroyed by
damp and inites, before I discovered them in the
vessel il which the tuber was placed, as well as
a multitude of smaller flies."t
* Journal ofthe Horticiltural Societq, vol. i. p 23.
t Journal of tlhe Ayricultural Society of Etuland, vol. x. p. 102.
261
ON SUMMER-FALLOW.
4164.. Suinnier-fallowino, is the operatioii of cleaninc, that part of the land
which does not bear a crop in tl)e season
it is cleansed, and the summer-fallow is
the I-,i,n'(I so cleansetl. Altliougi.i summerfallow OCCUI.)ies the same. divisi(,n of the
farm as green crops-turnips, potatoes,
tares-yet it may most cliaracteri,-,ticallv
be re,,ar(-Ie(i as the first preparation for the
crop of the following year - it is a traris
ference of a porti(.)ti of the land, with tl)e
labour bestowed upon it, froin one year
to another; it forms the connecting link
between one season and crop and -int)tlier.
But altliou,,Ii the preparation of the soil,
0 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
to be bare-fallowed, for want of an adequate supply of farm-yard manure.  Farms
in the vicinity of large towns may  be
amply supplied with extraneous manure,
to make up for the deficiencies of the
farm-yard;  but as most fiariiis are beyond the  reach  of such  assistance,  it
may be  alleged that  bare-fallowing, to
some  extent,  must be practised  every
year upon every farmn: though the linmits
of compulsory fallowing have been much
circumscribe,l, of late years, by the purchase of extraneous manure from distant
sources, as  giiuaniio  and bone-dust,  and
sulplhated  bones, which  are easily conveyed, and sold at prices that afford a
profit.  rThese manures, superadded to
draining and deep-plougling,, haveafforded
the power to cultivate green-crops upon
soils which were naturally unfit for thiem;
and, without such auxiliaries, soils even
suitable for their growth would have been
obliged to be bare-fallowed, to allow time
to collect the requisite quantity of m    anure.
Until manure, which is now  procurable,
is procured in sufficient quantity,. barefallow  must exist;  and  wherever  that
shall be accomplished, bare-fallow will be
dispensed with altogether.   But a natural
obstacle exists against  the increase of
manure on ftriiis tihemnselves; for it so hlappenis, that the largest quantity of s raw,
which is one great domestic source of fertilisin.g manture, is afforded by land the
least fitted for green crops; and the la          rn d
best fitted for tlhemn affords the smallest
quantity.  Turnip-soils cannot supply as
iiiucli straw in the state of manure fit to
be applied to green crops, for little more
than one-half of the tallow-break; whl)ereas clay soils affo)rd as much of it in the
state in which the manure nmaly be applied
to b)are-fallow, as sufficiently to nmanure
the fallow-break.
as time will afford from working the potato
and turnip land; and should tei e    frllowb re a k n ot likely be  worke d   for soame time,
it is better  to le t it  lie in the rough state
from the plough, than to h arrow it stnoothi;
because, dry wea t  her  ean suing, will trnhe
easily ameliorate  rough than sm ooth land;
wet weather will render rough land less
tough to work than when it is compact and
smooth.  When leisure from the turnipland permits attention to be paid to tile
fallow-break, its state should be particularly examined.   Should the weeds in
the soil consist principally of fibrous
and fusiforiti-rooted plants, they will
be easily shaken out by the harrows
in dry  weather; but should  the roots
thread themselves through tile hard round
clods, they will not be easily detached,
and will require considerable skill and
labour to do it.  Inattention to the stats
of the weeds causes much unnecessary
work in the subsequent part of summiierfallowingr. If clotis, containing portion&
of running roots, are kniock ed about in dry
weather, they may be broken into smallel
ones; but so will the roots in them, and
the land be as far as ever from beingclean. In  a case of such frequent occurrence on strong land, the best plan is to
allow the roots to grow if,r a tinde, and
the force of ve(getatior will break the
clods. or render them easily so by a clodcrusher, after a shiower of rain shall have
nearly penetrated them. A  caution in the
use of the roller  should here  be given.
If tile soil is in fine miouhl(, rolling the
hard clods will only biiurv, not break thlem.
If the soil is not firm, harrowing the clods
two or three times will break them better
than  rolling; but after a  long rest,  the
soil is riot likely to be too soft at thlis time
for thie roller. After a gootl clod-crtushinig, the land shoulA be harrowed a double
tine, first one way, anid then across that.
The weeds may  then be picked from the
surface.  It is not expedient to gathier thle
immediately, as  a grood deal of flesh soil
adheres to them. A  day or two of drought
should intervene, and the soil will then
be easily shaken free from them with the
hand.
4165. The lan d     to be  bare-fal lowe(r
dshould b e  th   e  strongest   on the farn, be
foulest of weeds. if any tiIere                     be, aind be
situa. te fartest fro the   steading, that tlhe
carriage of tihe greeni-crops to it figay                       be
the shortest distance p)racticalble. The fhllow land is the last ploughIed in winter,
and it should be so the samie as for potatoes
(2i7'33) and (2734.)  If one filrrowx-that
of two out-and-two-in, (760 ) fig. 25,has been given to the fallh,w-break after
cro,ss-p)louglhing, (261 3,) it will be as iiIucli
262
41()'6. It bas been recommended by
writers to gatlier the weeds off fallo%vland I)y a rakin,, iml)leii-ient, sucli at3.tlie
Aiiierican liay-rake, fig. 351; btit every 
,q IMMER-FALLOW.
instrument of tlhe kind will rake togetlher
clods as well as weeds, an(d should they be
carried away withl thle weeds, the launed
will be imipoverished by thle loss of its finest
soil. In collectin( weeds, the fiel(-workers
sholul be ranged in a row as when weediig corn, two on every rid-ge, and every
two to tl)row the weeds  into thle same
hlea.l); and thle heaps slhoutld be rowel as
far asunder as to allow a cart to pass between theni, to take away two rows at a
tinme. Many writers recommend the weeds
to 1le burnt on the ground.   No doubt,
weeds will burn readily enouglh when dry,
and their aslhes constitute g(ood manure,
but, for my part, I never saw weeds so
thloroiughly burnedl onl thle land, as to prevent themr  ren(lering tile land again foul.
I agree with Lord Kainmes, that it is better
to make a vegetable compost  of weeds,
than to destroy them by incineration, and
demand with him,  "Whlat  better policy
than to convert a foe into a friend?"
4169. The  manure  to  be laid on tile
fallowed            land, is that pa r  t   o f the farmyard
manure wwlici lmad been left over   i n the
courts at the time the duing was taken out
of them  fo)r thie turnips, (1999.)   The
dung that had been  made by  the cattle
and horses after that period, is now available. Whlatever compost there is to spare
(2043) is now use(]. Tlhe cle-aring out of
every receptacle  that contains  materials
coinvertilble into  manure, suichl as  aslhcourts, privies, cess-pools, liquid-nianures,
pigeon-houise,   poultry-lhouses,   ponids,
ditclhes, rubbish, and the like, is done at
tlsis timiie. These materials are compounded
together witlh the farm-yard dungi(, straw,
or compost on lhand, and  made into a large
,danglhill in tlhe  compost-yardl, Plates  I.
and II, wlhere it  should  be  prepared
to  be ready to apply to tlhe fa!low  land
by  the end of July.    The dung, is  not
fermented so nmiuchl for  beare-fallow as for
turnips, because it hlas timiie partially  t(,
decompose before tlhe wlieat is sown; bt)t
slhould  there not  bet time for  that, it
shlouldl  be fermnented  the  more  that the
wheat may not stand all winter on grounid
lhollowed by unfermented dun(.
4167. The weeds most troublesome to
fallow-lalld  are  couclh-grass,  Triticum
repens, and oat-like grass, Arrhenatherun
avenaceum, var. bulbosu?t. There is no getting rid of either of these but  by handweeding, whichl oughlt to be very carefully
done, otherwise thle breakingf off the smallest portion of the root of the couch-grass,
or a bulb of the oat-grass, leaves in the
soil the origin of a future -plant readly to
propag,ate liiany around it.   The annual
meadow-grass, Poa annua, is,a very commlon weedl in cultivated soils, but its tufty
plants are easily shlaken out of the soil,
and it only propagates lby seed.  In damp
soils, in stron(, land, the common coltsfoot, Tutsilago far:ara, is a weed whicll
cannot be eradicated.  The only way of
gettitng rid of it is constantly to cut off
the leaves as they grow lup, and the plants
will die out, or by trenchling tlle soil and
picking out the roots.  On lighlt soils, tlle
rest-ial,rrow, Oiionis a'rvensis, is a pest,
which miust also be lhand(-weeded.
4170. The usual preparation of barefallow land for laying dung upon, is to
feer it into ridges, fig. 19, (742 )  If thie
land( lhas been drained, which it ought to
be, the feering slhould( be made for casting
tlhe ridges togethler, fig. 22, (755;) and as
tbe land(I will be again ploughed fo)r the
seed-furrow, whleni tle wlhea-t is aibout to
be sowII, thze feering  for casting  tbe ridges
for receiving  tlje (daingr, shouhl be done so
as to leave a simgle ri(lge on thle side of
tlee fiel at whiwllien thle   ploughin eomerntes,
thalt when  tle land is ploughed  fuor the
41(;8. It is impossible to deteriinine I)ef)i'elialll  howv  niany  timres   ftllow-land
slioul(l be  plonghliel,  liarr(twed,  gru l,)l)ed,
fig. 215,  and  clod-crusled,  fig,.  243  and
fi,. 246, to render it clean; bilt it should
pei  re   in  liiind, to inctulr the letast  expendlituire of lal,)our in fuilly accomplislling
the object of f.llowilng,, uwhichl  is to myake
263
the land quite clean. Tt was once the
practice to work- fallow land until it was
reduced to tiie state of meal; il)ut experieiice has established that it is better for the
enstiin crop of wheat to preserve a goodsized clod upon the surface of the grotin(I
in winter, bo%vever mail the grouii,l iiiav
be otherwise ptilvei-ised.  The must
leave been very fail the Weather ret-tiai-kal)ly unpropitious, or much tiiiie wasted I
if ttic fallow-l,,tiid is not i-eady fi)r the
iiiantire by the beginning of Ati,iist, or
bef)re the chance of harvest interfering
with the process of itiaiiuriti,.
0 
PRACTICE —SUMMER.
seed-furrow, the ridges may be east to —
gether in pairs fromn one side of the field to
the other.  If the land still requires draining, the safest niode of feering it will be
that for gathering up from the flat, fig. 20,
(749,) leaving a half-ridge on the side of
the field from whence the ploughing commences, that the ridges many be whole and
uniform, from one side of the field to tile
other, after the  seed-furrow  has  been
ploughed.
4174. Another miode of manuring faillow',
land, is sowingf somie kind of r.-ipi~fly
growing plant upon it, and then plotig-,Iing,
it in. White muiistard, Sinapis alba, is a
plant which migholt be employed in this
manner with advantage. About 12 lb. of
the seed should be sown on the acre, and
after the plant has reached above 4 inches,
it should be ploughed in. The cost of thils
seed is 4d. per lb. Thiis operation is cal led
greeni manuring, and nma,y be practised
with mnany other plants.
4171. The dung is then carted out to
the fallow field, the dung hawked out, fig.
217, of the carts by each ploughman, in
heaps upon each successive ridge,  in such
quantity to the acre as is determined on.
The  quantity of dung would be more
equally laid down, or rather more discriminatingly laid down,  according to the
wants of the soil in different parts of t       he
field, where the soil is unequal in heights
and hollows, were the steward or other
appointed man to hawk it out as the carts
came to the field.  As bare-faillow land is
never so heavily manured as for green
crops, from 12 to 15 tons to the acre is
sufficient manuring for it.  At least four
field-workers should divide and spread the
dung evenly over the surface of the ground
with ordinary graips, fig. 82, and the
ploughs follow them quickly in succession
from feering to feering, in order to cover in
the dung as rapidly as possible from the
beat of the sun.  It is too common a practice, however, to spread the dung  upon
bare-fallowed land some time before it is
ploughed in.
4175. It is supposed that light and hea~t, together with cleansing and workin-g, have a benieficial effect upon soil. That these agencies promote fertility in some way, perhaps by affording
facilities to th      e union of oxygen asl d carbonic acid
with the soil, appears certain, for a smaller
quantity of manure will raise as large a crop
with bare-fallow as a greater quantity without
it; and yet this particular result is onily obtained
from a peculiar class of soils —naimely, thie.str-ong
clays, as all turnip soils actually become miore
fertile by the overshadowing of aluxuriant crop of
leaves than by exposure in bare-fallowinig.
4176. The following observations of Liebig
may explain the mutual action referred to of
the air and the soil. " In the effects produced
by time, particularly in the case of f'allow, or
that p eriod during wiich a field  remains at    rest,"
be says, in  science recogin ises          certain chemical
ac tions,       which proce           ed continuously by means of
the  influence exercised  by  the constituents of the
atmo sphere upon   the  surface of the soil. By the
action of the carbonic acid and oxygen in the
ai r, aided by  moistur e  anti by rainwater, ttle
power of dissolving in w ater is gi ven     to certain
s n covstituenuts of rocks, or of            their debris, fron
which   arable land is  forex ed; these   ing redients,
ill conrsequience of their solubility, bec-omie separated from  the insoluble constituents....
The sane     confical  s  a,-,   theme proceed  in our
arable land,  and it   isnto accelerate  and increase
these that we empitloy the mechanical operation of
culture. We ren-ew thies.urfa-ce of the soil,r ad
eindeavouir to make every particle of it accessible
to. the action of carbonic acid and of oxygen.
Thus we procure a new pro)vision of solui~ble imineral subsitanjces, which are indispensable for the
niourishmient and lujxurian-ce of a new generation
of pl.-ints...... Fallow, in its, most extenided sense, means that period of culture durinig which at -,oil is exposed to the action of the
weather, for the purpose of enriching it in certa-ini
soluble ingredeients. In a more confined ~enise,
the time of fallow may be limited to the intervals
in the cultivation of cereal plants; - fr a ma~g~
4172. I much prefer ploughIing in the
dun, in bare-fa,ilowed land in drills. Tile
drills are made in the single way, (2.389,)
across one corner of the field to the opposite one, at an indefinite angle with the
line of the future ridies.  Tae proine is
hawked into thre drills, spread by t;,)ur fiehiworkers, and covered in with thte ploughs
returning fromi miaking, the drills, very
similar to the dunging for potatoes and
turnips, (2750.) TIe duig is tliis quickly
spread and covered up, and the land remaiiis in the drill until the season for
sowing the wheat arrives.                       t
41,73. Bare-fallow land is manured in
England b~y confining shieep tupo-n it, within
hurdles, fig. 40, or within nets, fig,. 44,
204
and P,-cd ii,itti ttires or otlier f(,rttge plart,
brotigilt to tijutti. As one break of is
sufficiently niatiured, it tiew otic is
Tlii8 I)ractice is called folding, and litis
not as yet been introduced into Scotla,nd. 
SUMMER-FALLOW.
tine of soluble silicates ahd of alkalies  is an
essential condition to  the assistance  of stuch
plants, The cultivation of potatoes or of turnips
during the interval, will not impair the fertility
of the field for the cereals which are to succeed,
because the former plants do not require anty of
the silica necessary for the latter, It follows,
from the preceding observations,that the mechanical operations in the field are the simplest and
most economical means of rendering accessible
to plants the nutritious matters in the soil." *
number of heaps each cart shotild afford iin manurinig an acte with a given number of cart-loads;
but as leapn  of mat   nureare e an  indefinite standai-d of  mnea,itre, such  a table would  practically
t,pove of little service.   A  milch more  accurate
plan ts to l,umber the ridges  in an acre in each
field, ndti  tat every  part of a  field where  the
ridges atre of different!engths~ as I have recommnended in ($73,) and lay down the dung on the
first ridge in the proportion it is proposed to
manure the acre, and  by the  time the second
ridge is manured, the  man who hawks out the
dung will have found out how close the hawkfuls
should be laid down, or how large  the heaps
should be made, (4171.)
4177. Numerous weeds lurk about the mar~fins
of fields, rendering the cultivated ground near
them foul.  Most farmers allow them  to grow
without molestation in the ground not touched
by the plough, which is the narrow space along
the fences, and the triangular space in the four
corners of every field.  This waste ground being
well sheltered, and its soil being as good as that
of the field in which it is situate, and unexhausted
by cropping, grows weeds easily and luxuriantly.
Instead of allowing it to be waste ground, the
plough should turn over the soil either towards
the foot of the stone fence-wall, the root of the
hedge, or the lip of the ditch, orfrom these objects,
and in either case, the  distance from  tlhemn
and  the plough need not exceed 9 inches, by
putting the horses atri1),-that is, one before the
other in the plough, and giving the bridle of the
plough more land.  The corners where the plough
cannot possibly reach, should be dug with the
spade by the hedger.  But independent of the
consideration of the waste land lessening the extenit of every field, the weeds which grow upon it
Ahould be cut down by the field-workers in all
the fields, whether bearing green or grain crops,
it intervals of time during summner and autumn.
Besides the slovenliness exhibited in neglecti         in
to weed such places, loss is incurred elsewhere,
by allowing the seeds of syngeliesiolis plants to
be carried about by the wind.  Besides thistles,
ragweed, dock, whin, and broom, other weeds
are found in those waste places, such as the coinmmon burdock, Arctium  la(ppa, which is not the
least formidable; the hemlock, Coniumn mnaculatumn, a. well-known poisoinous plant; the purple
fox-glove, Digitalis pu7rpurea;   the annoying
dandelion, Leo,todon tar-a.xctum; atnd the great
nettle, Urtica dioica.  Il damp situations, Enoanthe crocata, water sap-wort grows; and what
is remarkable in this plant, is the fact of its
being poisonous in England, but innocuous in
Scotland.
4181. OI the varieties of green manures, and of
their action on the soil, Professor Joliilstoii has
the flllowing obse rvatio ns:-i Tpi e practi ce of
green maniirinig has been in ilse from very early
per iods.  The s e cond or  t hird  crop  of lucerne
was               ploughed  in by  th e  ancient   mtoauisas it
still is by the moder n Italianrs.  Iis Tutscan y, the
white lupin is    plo u ghed  in-i ni Ge,-sonoay, bori age
land  in Holstein, sptown  y. The poaai, s atimea
has lately been tried as a greeni mailutire in Silesia.   In French Flanders, two  crops  of clover
are cut and the third ploughed in." We have
s een,  from what Mr  Fortune ha s obCu,rse(l, tshat
the red  clover is g rown in Cthina  eltitely for
the purpose  of being plougled in (38198.) " Ini
some  parts o f the  Unit e d States, the  clover is
never cut,  but is   ploughed il as the oinly inaiitre;
in    te   s         th      e  it o    ther parts, the first crop iscut ad t    second
plo ughed in.  Il so me of the    northe elrn states,
Indhian c    rs  oni or  is sow   oi poor lands, sometimes
two or  three  tiiwes, a nd ttoured in da;rigg the
summer.  Il  north-eastern China, a species of
eor-onilla and  a trefuil are  stpecially sowti and
grown in ridiges, as a manure for the rice  crop,
Since  the  time of    the Ro tnae,s, it has
been the custom to bury the X -ittii-gs of the vinle
stocks at the roots of the viiies themsel %ves; and
many vitneyardis flouri:.h for al sue,'es,ioni of years
without aily other miianiuring. In the Weald of
Kent, the pruningis of the hop biine, chapoted and
dug in, or made  into a compost and apiplied to
the roots of the ihop, give a larger crop, and with
hhalf the manure, tlItan when they are  burned or
Liebig's Clhemtistry in its A4pplitition to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 130-3.
+ (2uarterty Jourial of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 308.
265
4180. Green weed of very delicate texture,
"found alone in protected situatioi)s in the estuaries of our rivers, is used in the til)per parts of
the Fortb, and still more -,o in the 1,deii in Fifesliire. Alr Meldrum of Bloouiliill, near St
Ati,irews, besides collecting the weed on his own
sliore,rentsthatofliisneighbours. Hefi.eqtieiitly
a.ppliesfrom 300 to4OO cart-loadsiii a single
year, and reckons 10 cat-t-loads good,aiid 15
heavy mantiriiig. Wlieii laidoiiiiiwiiiter,atid
ploughed iiito the fellow groui)d, it 1)i-o,luees. a
fine pulverisiiig effect. With tl)is alone i wlicat
crop of 6 quarters an acre has been I)i-odticed,
with - a heavy cr,)p of beans the year -ifLer without additional dung."t Such green weed can
a,s well be laid on followed ground in stiiiiiiier,
as on stubble in winter.
4178., The couch-grass, 71)-itictitit repens, is not
despised everywhere, as it is iatliered from the
land and waslied, and sold in the markets of the
mouth of Europe in bundles, of the size a s.,tiall
Hayfork would take up, for 3d. or 4(i. each; and
the horses and mules of those countries seem to
relish it as much as the boys do a stick of
liquorice.
4179. As fa,114)wed laiid is ii-siially niatitired
aloiig the feered ridges, by depositing the It)ads
in heaps, I might here give a table showing the 
beliered, by Somie practicil aei,,to er,iich the soil
a.s mt,uch as thle dr-ospin!s o/' cfttle from  a qualititq
of grieeit Jodi tlhree timles as.qreat."*
abo  t 14 inches deep;  and  I turned  it oini pletely over, whereby putt'ig up a, clean fresh soil
iii the  room  of the  fouil and exihausted mould,
whilch I was careful to puit at the bottom of the
to ielnch; and  this operation, I found, cost about
~3, l1s. per imperial acre, paying  iny labourers
withl Is. 6d. per day. The rest of the field, coUIsistinjg of about 11 acres, I wrought  with the
plough in tile usual way, giving it 6 furrows,
withl  the suitable harrowing: I manured  the
field in Auigiust; the trenichied got 7 cart-loads
per acre, the ploughed land 14. r The field was
sown in the  middle of Septeimiber, and  the whiole
ttirrned out a builky crop as to straw, particularly
the  trenched  portion,  whichie  was  very  inuch
lodged.   Ori threshinig otit both, I found thenm to
stanid as under:
4183. A  kiid(I of fallowing, techlically named
ra9-jallowiii,  is somiIetitnes Ipractied.  lThis consists ii pulvt,risitig lea grountd  in siiiminier as a
preparatiotn for  wheat  iii autlumn.   The  lea is
brokeni utip iii Auguist, or as  long  before  harvest
as to allow timie for the latd to Le worked ere
the comniiieucemeiit of liharvest; and as the object
is to re(lit-ce the turf as niuclil.is p(ssible  the first
ploughing stloulil be given with a shallow furirow.
After  the  1nd  lihasi  becoome  I-ry, it should  be
hltrrowe(il re.eatedly iii dou)ble tittes  alonig and           tw
across  the rid'es, i'i older to tear the f'tirrowslices to pie's, and to shake thie earthi fro)li the
turf.'I'lie tuif tlhei sliould  lie  some  d.ys to
dry, wheli  it iti-y be  harrowed again, if  it is
tlougiit thb-t aiiy rore eartlh (an bie  hliaken front
it.  After the tinrts; are muchi witlhered, the land
sliotl(I be (ros- ploa gbed  wsiti a    deepi flriow to
brii,  up:t bo(lv  of  nmould(, whiel),  wlhen  dry,
sh,itlldl a,.-iii be liari'wel,.a1(d malay of the turfs,
will  ie  br,,ii'lt to the surfai e, still fdi thler to
witler aiid  le. The laid siotldi tltei be ploughed
iii ridlg,es for tle seedl-firrow, t) iettiaii till seedtimie  ifter l.irvest, ty which  timie it will hlave
contsolidated atid be ready for the seed.
By  trenched wheat, 42 btusels per are, at 6s. 9d. ~14  3   5
To 2 years' rent, at  40.s. per  annum,.'4   0  0
,, expen,se of trenelhin tg,      -   -      3 12  0
,seed, 2-. bulsh.els, at 6s. Pd. per bushel, 0 16  10
,, 7 c.art-l   ds of man ure, at 3s.!9d. per
l-ad, -....  1 6 3
,, expen.se of harvesting, tlhreshiing and
marketinlg,-        -     -            1  4  0
10 19   1
Profit,..-.~3  4  4
lyv plou-,ehed whieat, 34 buishel.s per acre,
at,s Pd. per buislel,  -    -    -      ~1    9
To 2 years' reit,  at 40s. per annum,  ~4  0  0
,, 6 plotg)iitgs atid hlr.owings, at 8s., 2  8  0
,, seed,2: b ushel s at (6. 9I. per buslel, 0 16 10
, 14 ca,rt-load.s of mianure,:at 3s. 9d.
per load,   -      -    -      -    2 12
,, expenie of hl,rvesting, thiresalingand
iarlietiing,..                     1  4  0
11 1 4
Profit,      -    -    -    - ~0  8  2"
This  was  but an experimental  trlal, and the restilt wa,s certainly  ain  eticouragenimeit  to perseveraiice; but it otnly  proved   that  trenching  lan d
withl  the s     ialei might be a sut)bstitute for bare-f;llowing, it did   itot )ro,ve  that  suni'ner-fallowing
might be  dispensed with, so  antother  experiutetit
4184.  The  objection to thiis operation is, that
it sacrifices  the  pasture   after  the   ninthi   of
August.   But  as  tnuch  wheat  is sownt ii Erl2glalid after lea, anid a-s lea-wheat is very liable to
be attacked by the wire-worii, fig. 253, aid even,
partially destroyed by tlhat grievous pest, shiould
this rag-fe!lowinig ini aniy de:riee effect its dlestiruietitll, t.ihe ol:,erttioit is jiistifiable.  lit  S,otlaind,
where w'ieat is not sonya  after lea, t]he diestrictioIl of good  IpLstiire, at an early t, erio(i of  the
season, ix no,)t jiustifiable.  The expedient of iagfalloswiiig is adopted tu foriii a coijs,)iidite~i mou,ld
for whlet, wvhieii it is intended to be so)wji after
* Johnston's tEleittots of lgy-icultaral Clheomistry, 5th edition, p. 160 —2. 
REAPING OF TUPR,NIP SEED.
judgment, and several of them  have made  considerable experimenits this year.   I shlould thinik
ther e are at least 300 acres under crop (eiltivatiou  inl this way  this season in ]' 1a.st Lotliian,
while in 1831, when I comnieiced, there was not
a single acre.  I have, therefore, the satisfaction
of knowing, that I have been the nmeans ot' casing ~1000  to be spenlt this year amongst  tIre
labouritg classes iln my  immediate  neighbourhood; aud I feel confident, tl)hat shlould the se:souol turn out tavourable  irrr thle wleat crop, aild
fair prices be obtained, tliheir eniployers will  be
handsomrely remunerated( for trleir o(itlay.  I do
not mean to say that this systein will succeed on
every description of soil, as it mitISt necessarily be
of some deptlh to admit of the operationl; but there
are few districts where such soil will not be foutnd
in suflicieiit abundance to give eciirrloyment to the
populatioll of the nieigllbourhlioo].'"  l believe thle
adoption of this mode of ftallorvilg laud was,rade
a question between laindlordl and tenant, and
since the question was dec(ided  igairist the teianit,
I have niot heard of aiiy ir,st.nice of the  lrocess
being, persevered iii. I should like to see trelching
established generally  a  a. sub.'titate for sunIruierfallowiug, and also to see tlhe effect of trenichilig
onl lanu  intended tfor greenl crops; but in neithier
case oughlt the land to be takent advantage of to
bear a  crop without  maniure  at the ordinary
period of the rotation, and it would  be better to
apply a special nianure which would  check exnberai.t growth in the straw, than niot to  apply
imanure to the soil.
aii(l mai,keting,.    1  4  0
7 4 0
Profit,...    ~5  8  0"
This trial was also satisfactory, because it not
only proved that trenching with the spade miight.
be substituted for sunimrier-fallowirig, but that
summier-fallowing might be profitably dispensed
with altogetlher; but it must be owned to be
rather sharp practice to make the same depth of
soil, although its component parts were not in the
saine relation to one another, bear onie crop iroft)redi,tely after having borne another, and that
vithout iaeinure, and at a period of the rotatilon
whletn  miaiuire is usually  given  to la'nd.   Mr
Scott seems satisfied with the system; but it
ilray be asked, How long will land bear this systetr of treuclh-fallowiug with impunity   " Tlhe
advairtages of trenching over summner-fallow are,
in my,rpition," says Mr Scott, " very decided, as
it is not only cheaper, but, as far 1as I can y            et
jlrige, iiIucli more effletral.  I am so satisfied of
this,  not only  from  the  experimnents  above
noticed, but from the apparent colrdition of the
lainl after it has carried  the cr.)), tlhat I Ilave
this autumn cultivatedl  borit 120 acres with the
spade, aird the crops are at present, 1834  very
promising.   When  I first conenroeiced  I                   twas
la-ughed at by irry ineigliboors; but now, where
they see ilme perseverilng in what they considered
a very  chimerical  project, they  suspend  their
ON TIE REAPING OF TURNIP SEEID.
418(;. While  the  turniip plant is grow
in, it is subject to severalt casualties fronm
insects  and birds.    Of' tlhe insects  tiae
Cetonita aturata, green  rosecliafei, is t;)uud
on tlhe flowers, and renders tlieim, abortive.
It  is  one  of  the  nmost  beautiful of our
inse(ts, baving a brilliant imietallic green,
often  witlh  a golden or  ci,,pe' lhue.  Its
lengthli is tliree qu,arters  of an incl).   It is
f,'Izli  in  ilunubers  in  En,landi, i)ut  lhas
only b)een obsrcved o~ne, tw(),or tliree tinges
in Scotland.   The  larva  c mniiiits I,~ o(od
deal of dam,iage wlhere it prevails, bxy  feeding, in tlte s,amie way as otler cleas.  Tlhe
flower of the  turniip seed is also iitfeste(d
b)y (,lie of those universal pest.s, the  plvides.
]fig. 3(6   reil)re,ents tie  winted   itiale  of
tile  lslat-louse, AphisJ.foris-r(pa,, wliieli
attaclk-s tl.e flowers of tlhe turnip pilf t, ) lsen
r'tised fior thie seed.   It is (lull 1)pale green,
dItistecd w  itlh  w-liite; eyes, 11eaId, disc (,f' the
tlo.rax   and  ab)(lomiien va,tried  with  blIack;
feet     b     ack. Fig,. 361 represents  the wingless
* Mr Scott's Letter to thle l'er. C. Gardier, 8th Marchi 1834.
267 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
female of thle same plant-louse.  It is dull
pale green, powdered with white; eyes
the Linatia cannabtnt, variously denominated griey, brown, or rose linnet, or
rose-lintie, one of the sweetest warblers of
our woods.  There is no way of evading
thle attacks of these active marauders but
by constant watching from dawn to eve;
and thle watching will be rendered more
effectual by alleys being left crossing each
othler when the bulbs are transplanted,
to allow the watchers to pass at pleasure in
variousdirections thlrough the plot. (2479.)
~ffi
O
4189. The crop should be  cut down
with thle sickle before it is ripe, as thle
seed is very apt to shlake out; and the
best modo of preserving and winning the
seed is to place  the stems in frames  of
wood having a hlollow along their length,
to allow tl-he air to pass along; and the stems
placed on it as upright as that their buttends shall project over the lower laths of
the frame, and above one another, so as to
formniasort of thateching of stems. Thle upper
part of the thlatchingc is filled up androunded
with the smnaller stemns of seed, cit off
from the larger, and thle whole is covered
with straw, and bound down with strawropes.   When this plan is not adopte(l,
the stems are bound in sheaves, set up in
stooks and watched  for some days, and
then built in a stack, which is thatched with
straw bound down with straw ropes.  Thle
seed is threshed out by the flail, fig. 350,
when wished to be disposed of or used.
Fig. 361. July,"  says Mr Cur                      tis, "I found a multi                      tude of thiese aplhides
.~ secreted amongst
thle s lort flower  ~,' /2 ~''~J.,,?.stalks of tile early
wlhite turnip, when
a few only of tile
~:':~     ~        flowers were open.
They were  of vari THr\ T' FSS,IP-F,OWER OUS  sizes,  but all
PLAu.T-LOUSEs-.AP~IrS apterous at that pe I'LOKIS-RtAPX,.       riod; by the imiddile
tf August, ilowever, they lhadi increased to
ecry lar ge comipanies, witlh a few winged
qpecimlens." *
4190. A  crop of Swedish  turnip-seed,
when grown  fromi the seed, is considered
good wh )en it yields 28 bushels per imperial
acre; of yellow turnips, 20 bushels; and
of globes, 24 bushlels.  Whlen transplanted,
tlthe yield will perhaps double these quantities.
4187. Tlhe  turnip seed,   when growing,   is
seri-)Ltslv in ued by nj the we evil named Ceuter-oh,yiichus atssimilis, referred toill (3299.)
As wveevils are so sensitive as to fall down,
if suddenly approached, they tiay be easily
collected wlieni thtey aboundi in thie turnipflowers left for seed, t)y shaking the stalks
over a b)ag-net or clotli; and being so hard
that thiey cannot be destroyed by stamping up(u them, they nmust be killed, when
collected, withl boilitng water in a pail.
41 1)l. The dairy operations of a farm of
4fixed  liiisbaiidry are limited, bothl in regard to the season in wlicic, and thje quantity of materials by  whlichl, they can  be
prosecuttedl.    Until  the  calves are all
woeaiied, which can scarcely be before tiei
endl of June, (3838,) there is no milk to
spare to niake  into butter and cheese, but
what should suffice for the inmates of the
4188. Long  b  efore tihell                seed  is ripe,
small birds are busv in shelling it out of
the husk; and were tlhey to destroy only
what they consulted, the loss, perhaps,
would not be great; but as they spill a
great deal more than thiey consuiie, a whole
podI is destroyed for the sake of one seed.
In this. depredation none are so active as
I Journal of the Agricu,tural Society (f E,yiland, vol. iii. p. 55.
268
Fig. 360.
WINGED MALE OF THE TURNIP-PLOWER PLANT        LOUSE-A/PHIS FLORIS-R APAE.
black; feet black. "Towards tlhe end of
ON MfAKING BUTTER AND CIIEESE. 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
farm-honse; and as some of thle cows, at  breadth, and 10 feet in height, with thle
least, will have  calved  4 nmontlhs before  walls and ceiling lathed and plastered, to
the remainder are at liberty to yield milk                        Fig. 362.
for the (]airy, a quantity of milk can not   /77w~'~~~/f               7       4
be expected from them, even when entirely
supportedl  on grass.    But  thouigh  thus       f
limited, both in regard to time and milk,                  d
aniple opportunityis nevertheless afforde(l d
for every dairy operation, according to the                     
taste and skill of the dairy-maid.   Thu-s,!
butter nlay be made firol creani, or from                                      
the entire milk.  It may be made ulp fresli            I
for market, or salted in kits for fa.itlies or
dealers~~~..... C1eese ma ls be... n.ide......
(;ROUND PLAN OF A MILK-HOUSE IN!tELATO1N T'O
THE KITnCIE.,, IN A FARaM-HOUSE.
keep the room cooi an(y free of flacycee, that
no tmol,ldi,esas  be (geterated-tlie   b.a,te
of a miilk-hnouse, certain to contaorintte tito
flavoir of dill; an( ] the floor laid witl I
polisheed pavement, in  order to allowm  it ti,
be easily atnd quickly washed clean, ad.
quickly driel.
4192. The milk-hlouse and cheese-roomi
in a  farmn-liouse  ought  to be cool an(]
roomy.  To obtain thle fornier requisite,
they sliolil(l, if possible, be exposed to the
N., from  which thle air should be of the
purest description; but should any obstruction exist against thlat, tlhe roonms may face
to the E., whicll only admits the sun's rays
early in the  orninrig, when they are cotiiparatively weak.   Besides being so exposed, to be always kept col. tlre rootiis
should 1Ie situated in a back jaml,l), and
liot inl the lod(y ()f the house.   Inll  fig.
362, I liL-ve endeavoure(l to ariraii,e tile
milk-hliouse and kitclien pantry  so as to
stand conveniently in relation t(o tiekitclient
and scullery, w here (t is the kitcli(e, d tlhe
bIack kitchlenor scullery  in liclh arei erectel a boiler e, f)r lleatiiigr w iter to scaild t!he
dairy utensils, a fo)rce ptllil) to supply cold
water, and f a sink to reuioove thie dirty
watel; k, the kitchen pinitry, disconnected
froni the kitcihen by a passage and door;
im, the mnilk-kouse  liaving  two windows(
facing to the N. or E.; a lock-up closet n; 
shelving o, of stoiie around; and the dimensions 181 feet in lengthl, 12 feet in
4193. Fig. 363 is tlie plan of the clheeseroom,  situated   immedtiately above  thIe
millk-houise  atn(I  kitclin-pantry   in fig.
362, anid in whiich   k is tle stair from   tlhe
Fig. 63i.
\        o!
H                         1       |~~~~~~~~~~;
_ _:.....
i
i
ii
i
I
i
I
I
I
I-,
269
I">              tri
d I
PLAN OF CHRES'-ROO,M%f &iC. FOg A FARM-HOU.Ig. 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
kitchen to the passage g, from which the
chleese-room h is entered(l.  This room is provi(led with three windows, facing either N.
or E., withl  br(oad wood shelving m, all
round, for tleaccommodation of thleclheeses
in their various  stages to maturity, in
which tlhe wood-flooring should be nmade
to assist.  The walls and ceiling should be
latlled and plastered.   Thle lower halves
of the windows should be provided with
Venetian sli utter.s outside of thle glasssashles, to regulate the air into the roomi
when  the windows  are  opened.    This
clheese-rooni is 29 feet in length, 12 feet
in widthl, and 9 feet in height.  Thle letter
I indicates a stair to a garret above, for
containing lumber; but'sliould it be desired
to give a loftier heighlt than 9 feet to tile
ceiling,, the part of the garret above the
chleese-room might be dispensed with, and
a lathled and plastered ceiling carried up to
the roof of the house.
WEDGEWOOD-WARE M% ILK-DISH.
of white Wedgewood ware, of an oval form,
16 inches long, and 3 inches deep, inside
measure, with a mouth. Tills ware is hiard,
not easily broken, the glazing durable, and
easily cleaned. A dish of this size costs 6s.
We(dgewood, or white ware, is also made
of the form of the wooden one of cooperwork, fig. 366, with the addition of two
handles to lift the vessel by.
4194. Tlhe utensils with which a dairy
shoutld be supplie(l conmprise a large number of articles of simple construction.  The
mil'-disAhes are conmposed of stoneware,
glass, wood, metal, and stone.  The stoneware consists of common ware and Wedgewood; the wooden  of cooper-work; the
metal of I)lock-tin and of zinc; the stone
of sandstone, pavement, and niarble polislied.  Besides these simple elements a
coiiib)inatiion  of nmaterials are  used, as,
wooden vessels lined with block-tin and
zinc, and Geriman  cast-iron lined with
porcelain.  Of all thlese,  the stone and
woodelln (ones lined with metal are stationary, and the othlers movable.   The form of
all milk-dishles should be broad and shallow, for the purpose of exposing a large
surface with a shlallow depth of milk, to
facilitate the disengagement of its several
parts.   A  difference  in opinion exists,
which of those substances have tlhe greatest influence in disengaging the largest
quantity of creamni firom thle miilk. But,
independently of thle quantity of cream,
othler cirtcuinistances determine the choice
of miilk-(lislies.'Wooden  ones  require
iiucli lab,iur to keep  them  thlorouglily
clean, anil  are  the  least  liable to be
iniured  in the  use.   Metal  ones  also
require iiiucli cleansing, and are liable to
le bruised.  Stoneware is easily frangible,
though very easily cleansedtl.  Glass is as
easily cleansed,and perhaps more frangiible.
270
4195. Common  stoneware  milk-dislhes
are brown outside and glazed yellow inside, of round form, tapering to tlhe bottonm, and without a nmoutlh to pour tlje nmilk
by.  When 15 inclhes in diameter, and 4
inclhes deep, inside nmeasure, tljey cost 9d.
eachi. They are easily cleaned and broken,
and the glazing is not durable.
4196. Fig. 364 represents a  miilk-(dish
Fig. 364.
4197.  Fig.  365  represents  a   nmilk-dish
Fig. 365.
GREEN GLASS MILK-DISH.
made  of liglht green-coloured   i glass, of a
circular form, 16 inches in (liameter, and(
4 inches deep, and withi a nmothtli. It is
easily cleane(l, and easily broken, if carelessly handled. Thlie cost of a dislh of  tlhis
size is 4s. 6d1.  Glass nmilk-dIishes weere first
introduced to public notice a few years
ago, by tlhe celebrated glass manunfacturer,
Mr  Pellat, of London, an(d are now  mianufaetured by various makers. 
MIAKING BUTTER AND C[IEESE.
4198. Fig. 366 represents tl)e common tain from 2 to 8 inches of mnilk. Whenl
wooden milk-dish, made of cooper-work,  made of wood lined with zinc, block-tin,
WOODEN MILK-DISH.
composed of staves of oak and flat hoops
of iron, and without a mouth.  It is made
1(; inchles in diameter, and 4 inches deep,
inside measure; and costs 2s. each. This
is the most durable of milk-dishes, though
it requires much scrubbing when in use to
keep it clean, and the iron hoops bright,
which- they should always be.
tint, or lead, the form is the same as this.
The sandstone and marble ones, as a, fig,.
868, are each hewn out of single blocks and
polished, and placed upon upiiglit slibs;
and the wooden ones, which  suppo,)rt the
mnetallic liing, are framed al()on( the walls
of the  milk-lhouse,  and subdivided( into
sep.)arate coolers. It is only in large dairies
that these fixed coolers are usel.
Fig. 367.
4201. Dr Taylor has tlhese observations
in regard to the use of vessels imadle of zinc
for dairy purposes:-;" Zinc has been lately
used in itiakinig utensils for liolding nilk
during thie selpratio) of cream.  It is probab)le tliitt some of the lactate of zinc is
lhere formied, as well as a conl)iii.ation of
the oxide of  zinc withl  casein.  I liave
been informed that miilk and cream, which
wver e  al  lowed to stand in such vessels, have
given rise to niiausea and volliting.  This
practice would inot be allowed under a proper system of medical police.   Whlen  an
acid liquid hlas been placed in a zinc vessel,
there is a stroing clieinical action, anal the
liquid  })ecormes  invariatbly  impregnated
nwith a salt of zinc.   A  cider merchlant
ke)t for three niontlis a quantity of cidler
in vessels mad(-e of zinc.  It was (observed(
tl-lat the liquid lhad then acquired anl acrid
cand styptic taste.  On analysis, it was
found t(i contain a large quantity of acetate
of  zinc.  It hald, therefore, ibeconie decidedly poisonous."  Milk kept  in  zinc
vessels until it becomes sour, would, I lhave
271
Fig. 366.
Fig. 368.
A FIXED MILK-COOLER OF MARBLE, OR OF WOOD
LINED WITH METAL.
4199. Fig,. 367 represents a milk-dishl
made of zinc, of a circular form, 18 inches
ZINC MILK-DISIt.
in diameter, and 3 inches deep, provided
witlh a rnotitli, aiid costs,  of this size, 2s.
eac!i, the price varying 38d., more or less,
f,or every inch in the diameter.  It requires
miuchi cleansing, and is apt to be bruised,
thoughi iiot easily broken.
4200. These are all miovable dishes: a
fixedl,ne is represented by fig,. 368, mad:Ie
of stone-s,,tl.stone, slate, or  nlarbletlhe last being  tbe best materia,l, being,
cool, cleanly,        lha.n(dsoeie.  An orifice
is miia(le ini tlhe bottomii, at th-ie near side,
tllrotig!(  whlich  thiC miiilk runs ouit of  the
cooler, as also thic water whlicil lhas been
used to washi it clean.   The  dimensions
may be miiatle at pletasure, 3 feet long  and
2 feet broad b    eing, a good size; but thte
deptlh should riot exceed 4 inches, to coni 
PRACTICE-SUIMMER.
trict are constrained,  as a condition of
their residence, to abstain from the flesh of
tlhe cattle living within the same limits, as
well as froml the milk and its preparations.
aThe  inhabitants, with  a recklessness  of
auhuman life which seems incredible, carry
the butter and cheese which they tlhenlselves (dare not eat, to the nmarkets  of the
towns west of the Alleglianies, and thus
th    ere are frequently produced symptoms
of p oisoning, and even death, for which the
m     edical attendant cannot  account.  It is
also stated that the cattle from these districtts are sent for sale in great droves over
the mountains; but, in order to deceive the
buyers as to thle place whence they come,
t          they bring thlem to New York by a southerra route, and style tliem' southern cattle.'
The flesh of these animals produces, in
those who make  use of it, symptoms of
aggravated  cholera morbus.  The viscera
o (f the animals are often found diseased,
and  the  livers alnmost  universally  so.
Owing to the symptoms which have  followed the use of the beef and cheese  thus
poisoned, the American governiment caused
a medical inquiry to be instituted into the
matter, with a view to prohibit the sale."
420'. Be sides    the  subs tance  of the ves sels containing, liliii  causing it injury by
(lirect actiton, milk is affected by the poisons
taken by anim        als, beitg. aBbsourbel into their
lacteal system.  "It is g,ener-ally adumitted
thl       a     t milk meay become poisoned                                                 rwien the
cow feeds upon ]ysop, Gratiola oTcinewlis,
and spurge, Ed tphorbiu tpe     lus,  and otller
irritant  vegetables; and  this form  of
poisoning is well known   to o      ccur  in o  ther
cases in wlii(chi the cause is not sh apparent.
A   patient was  advised  by  his  medical
atie at  to d   rin to  r  the  milk   of a cow fed
on phem          lock, Conum r naculattm.   The
animal becamne emaciated, lost its milk,
and, fortunately for the patient, died fhom
the effects of the poison, or it is not imaprobable that he might have fallen a victimi to tills plan of treatment.   Nlilk also
easily  undergoes  changes  according  to
the  food of  tle aiiinial.   It  is  ren(lered bitter when the cow feeds oI1 wormiiwoo(l, lrtemesia  absinthiurn;  on  sowthistle, 8onchus alpinuts; the leaves of the
artichoke, Cynara scolymus; and its taste
is affected by the cab'bage, carrot, and all
strongc smielling plants, and tlhe effects extend to butter, cheese, and all articles of
food prepared witlh milk."
4204. But farther still, the milk of the
motlher  may become  a medium for  the
transmission of poison. "1 Twvo ewes were
bitten by a rabid do,.   I:.:lbies appeared
in them about six weeks after tlhe bite, and
they were killed. One had two lambs,
the other  one.   At first they wNere permitted to suckle.   The lanibs were subsequently attacked  with rabies, and were
then killed.  It appears  highly probable
that tl)ey received the poison through the
milk, because they were removed from the
ewes a month before these became affected;
there was no mark of their havinig been
bitten, nor is it proved that a sheep c-an communicate the poison by a bite, either before
or after it has been attacked with rabies." *
4203. But all the effects  of poisoning
may  be  produced  by milk  witlhout tlhe
cow being apparently affected lv tlhe pasture.   " In  sonie  extensive  (listricts  of
Northl America, to the west of the Alleglianies, thle lierbage hlas no irnjutrious effect
l1l)on tlhe animals wiliclh are there pastured,
but their miilk and fleshl, whenle  used as foo(d,
are poisonous to mian.   The disease  liroduced( by thle use of the fleshl and iiinilk of
animials fed in those districts, is known
iindertlie natieof iiiilk-sickness ortretitl)le.
On          account of  the prevalence  (,f  tl iis
malady in a particular locality, whiclh  is
generally strictly circtumscribed, the early
eiiiigrants were  ofteni coilpelled to seek
another;  and  those  wlho  now  venture
within tlhe boundaries of au infected dis
* Taylor On Poisons, p. 499,561, 563, and 823.
272
no dotibt, produce a similar poison. Wlien
niiik is so delic,-tte a flui(l, an(l so easily
(-,ctetl I)v ayiy (-Ieleterious stil-)stances,
great c,,tiition ou,,,Iit to be 1)i-actised iii tisin,,,
ativ Metallic vessels in ttio daii-,v wliicli
iiii,lit possibly injure its quality.
4205. Aiiotlier utensil required for tl)e
use of the milk is a milk sieve, fig. 36,9,
WiliCli CODSiStS of a bowl of wood foi-iiied
of plane-tree, leaving an orifice in the bottoiil, wliieli is covered witli wire gauze, in
oi-der to detain the bairs, on letting the milk
p,,t,ss tlirotigb it, that may bave fallen into
the itlilk-inz- ails froni theoows in the act 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
of being, milked, (2245.)  bThe gauze is
commonly made of brass-wire, and, when
4208. Unless
the mnilk-house is
'......kept   thorouyAly
clean, in its walls,
, ~~~~~~flo~ors, andslielves,
< r~~ thie nuilk will soon
become   tainted;
and, to keep them
::-____:d: clean, tile fl(,ors
.... ~~~ 1 and shelves shoulh
be made of mate   kept l-rilit  n   erials  easily  and
=r is.. m ls e t e c-  quickly cleansed.
roded b   s. uc a  iv,9inh iShelvincg is most           __            ly made of wood,
Is.-~  ~-d-  and  flooring  of
pavementorbrick.
Wooden  shelves
THE CRaM-R.    are easilycleaned,
but are  too warm  in simnier.   Stone
ones  are better, but mlist be  polished,
otherwvise they cannot be cleaned, without
bein, rubbed withl sandstone.    Marble
shelving is the best for coolness and cleanliness, and is not very expensive.   Po lislied paveiment makes a more durable,
essier cleaned, and cooler floor than brick.
AAui)le means of ventilation are required
in  a. dairy;  the  object,  however, not
beiii,  so Itmuchi  a constant change  or
a lai(ger quantity of air, as an  equality
of temperature throughout summer and
winter.    To obtain  this,  thle   win(lows, colicli fice N. or E., should not
be opeined  vIwhen  the temperature of the
air is above  or below the proper one,
wlici eli may b)e stated at 50~ Fahlrenheit,
an(i to ascertain  which  a thermomleter
omtilIit alwNays to be suspended within the
imilk-house.  The milk-hlouse  sliould  be
tlortho rougllly dry; the least danipess in the
walls  aind floor  will emanate a heavy
fuingus-like odour, very detrinmental to tlhe
flavour of milk and its preparaticons.  All
thie utensils sl1(oul(  be kept tlhorough,ly
clean, and exp)osed to and dried in the
open air. Sonme dlairyinaids are so careless in this respect, that I have seen seams
of green and yelloxv rancid butter lurkiting
in the corners and angles of churns, and a
heavy smell of dlirty woollen rags emanating  from the newlywashed wooden utensils.
kiept l)ritlt, atnsw ers tle pur      eose; butsilver
wire is muclh less likely to become  corrode(d by uise.  Suchi a sieve, 9 inclhes in
diameter, witll brass wire gauze, costs
Is. 3d.
4207. The cream, until i t is churned, is
kept in a jar of stoneware, as ini fig. 371,
aboiit 18 inches in lheighit, and 10 inclhe,s in
diameter, provided with a nmovable top,
having an opening, in its centre, covered
VOL. IT.
273
with niuslin to
Fig. 371.
keep out dust and let in
air.    Suclh a  jar
costs 8s. to 10s.
Fig. 369.
THE MIL,K-SIEVE.
4206. The creaming dislh, fig. 370, made
Fig. 370.
1'H   C'tE EAII-Sli.'IVIER.
of stonewa7re, is catllledl tte..;kiniliner  or
creanmeri, foti t       hei( — creani  (.ff' tle miiill.
It is thiin, circul-.r, bri,nd:tl(l sliallow,
hiaving, on t!he near side a s,no(,tli edlgre to
pass easily  between  the cre;an  and  the
milk, and at the uipper side, an indentation
for the tililnhb of the rig,lt liand to) rest in,
and a nmouthi on the riglit s,ide to po)urii out
the crean   - by  into any vessel.  At  the
bottom  are a  nutil)er of small  holes to
allow the   ilk to p)ass t]irotugh and leave
the cream puie andl thiclk in the skimimier.
Suich a skimmer costs Is.
a4 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
However effectual woollen scrubbers may
be in removing the greasiness of milk and
butter on wooden  articles, they should
never be employed in a dairy, and only
coarse linens, which should be washed
clean in hot water without soap, and dried
in the air.  All  the vessels should  be
quickly dried with linen clothls, that no
feeling of clamminess be left on tlhem, and
then  exposed to the air.   In  washillng
stoneware dishes, they should not be dried
at that time, but set past singly to drip
and dry; and rubbed bri,ght with a dry
linen cloth when about to be use(l.  If
dried anrd set into one alnotlher, after being w
washed, they will become claiiiiny.  The
great  objection  to  using  stone  milkcoolers is the difficulty (,f (Iryilng, them
thoroughly before  )eiiig again used, an
objection which does not aliply to marble.
No milk-house should be so situated as to
admit the steam arising from the boiler,
which supplies hot water for washing the
various utensils; nor should the ground
before its windows contain receptacles for
filth and dust, but be laid out in grass, withi
a  few evergreens.   It is said that the
odour of the blossom of the common elder,
Sambucus nigra, keeps off flies in sum,mer; but I have also heard it stated, that
the same powerful odouir affects the taste
of the milk.
4210. It is alw ays  satisf actor yto know
the quantity of milk obtained from each
milking of the cows. Whe    n the  numnber
of cows s  large, it  may be  troubles ome
to measure all the imill with a small mieasure, such as a quart; and when miuchl
trouble is imposed on tile dairymaid, the
probability is that the ascertaining of the
quantity will be regarded a trifling matter,
and  tile quantity will  be guessed. A
rapid way of ascertaining the quantity in
any commonly used vessel, is to have a
stick with marks upon it, each indicative
of a quart, in the depth of the vessel used.
When th-e vessel is a tub, the contents
may thus be very easily ascertainied by
gauging it with the stick, and a stick may
also be made to gauge the contents in quart
of any irregularly shaped vessel, by has ing
the marks on it placed nearer or farther
asunder, according to the formn of the
vessel.
4209. Milk.-Tlhe articles which engage
the  dairymaid's  attention within  the
dairy are milk, butter, and cheese; and,
first, as to milk.  On treating the milking
of cows, I have said that the milk is drawn
from the cow into a pail (224.5,) the most
convenient form of which is given in fig.
197, and the size may suit the pleasure
of the dairymaid.  The milk, on being
drawn from the cows, is put into a tub,
and left to cool; but not to become so cold
or stand so long as to separate the cream.
The tub should be placed in the air, and
out of reach of animals, such as cats and
dogs.   After it has cooled, the milk is
passed through tile milk-sieve, fig. 369,
into the milk-dishles, and as much only is
put  into each dish as not to exceed 2
inches:in depth.  To know at once the age
of milk in the dislhes, one mark or score
should be made with clialkon the dishies just
filled, to show that they contain the last
drawn milk; a 4econd iiiark is made,               at
~the same'time, on the dislies containigng
4211. Tile next business of the dairymaid, as regards the milk, is to take the
cream off it.  In ordinary weather in
summer, the cream should not be allowed to renmaini longer on the milk than 3
nilkings; that is, when a fresh milking is
brought in, the cream should be taken off
the dishes which already have 3  marks,
when the milk will be 20 or 22 hours old.
Bust sl(hould  the  weather  be  unusually
warm, thie  milk should not  be a llowed to.
be more than 18 hours old —that is, in the
dilsies hasving 2 marks-before the creamii
is taken off it. As an example of ordinary
routine, the cream of the previous midd-ay's milk should be taken off in the
morning, and at mid-day the milk of the
prcevious evening should be creamed, and
')74
the milking before this; and a third put
on the dishes containing the milk drawn
before the second milkidg, and wljicli
contain the third milkidg, or oldest milk.
If the cows are milked three titi)es a-(].,iy,
,,,hen the first mark is put on the dishes
of the evening milkinl,, those containii)g
the morning tiiilkidg of the same day will
have 3 marks, to indicate that the iiiiii.:
was from the third iiiilkidg previous, -tzid
the disl)es of the iiiid-daor second irtilking will leave 2 -marks.    t every iiiilkidg
every utensil used should be tli()i-oti,,Ijly
cleatied, and set past dry, ready for uso
when required. 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
so on; hut when the weather proves very
warm, the creaming should be anticipated
by one tneal, and taken off the two oldest
mnieals at one time; and in this way all the
cream that can be got is taketn off every
18 hours.  The reason for using this anticipation in taking off the cream is, that
tile milk should on no account be allowed
to turn sour before the creani is taken off,
because thle cream off sour nmilk always
mnakes bad butter.  Let sweet cream beconie evxer so sour after having been taken
off sweet milk, and no harm will accIruet
to the l)lbutter.  Not that sour creati  off
sour miilk is useless, or really dleleteriotis,
as it miay be ealtei with relish by itself,
as a dessert, or with oatmeal porridge.
The cream  is skinimme(d off milk with the
skinimer or creanier, fig,. 370.  Thlere is
no otlher way of taking creami off dishies
but with a skiniilier; lut in stationary
coolers of metal or of stone, a spigot is
drawn half out from a lho)le in the bottom,
on the near sile, tlirou, li which thle milk
runs slowly into a vessel below, and leaves
the cream on tile bottom of the coolerand this imanner of separating the creami
fromn thle milk is quite effectual; but, of
course, thie skiminiier miay be used f(ircreaiming the milk in coolers, as well as in dislies.
rlThe cream when taken off the milk is put
into the cream jar, fig. 371, in which it
accumulates  until churned  into  butter.
Every time a new portion of cream is put
into thie jar, its entire contents should be
stirred, in order to mix the different p)rtions of cream into a unif(!rm mass.  The
stirring is usually done with a stick kept
for the purpose, but spoons of Wedgewood
ware or of wood  or of bone, are made for
doing it.  The cream soon becomes sour
in the jar, and it should not be kept too
lohmg, as it is apt to contract a bitter taste.
Twice a-week the contents of thle jar slhoulld
be made  into butter, however little the
quantity may be at a time.  The skimmed
milk is put into a tub and nmade into
chleese; but if a cheese is only made at
every other churning, the skimmed milk
to be kept for the cheese shloultl be scalded
on the fire before it is put into the tub.
containing  vessel  is at rest. an] tihe aitators in rotative motion  lhorizontally; th(ose
in wlhiclh the containing'essel is.t -rest,
an(d thle ag,itators in rotaltive  m,,tion vertically; and thiose wherein  thle containinig
vessel is at rest, atntd tlhe agitato,r having, a
rectilineal vertical  motion.
4214. Ta!,le-churn.-In tle vclass        just
menti,nedh    stafnds  th e  t  ntal)le-liriin, r eiitirkable  fo)r its eleance  and cle ani-iiiniels;  a;d,
being  adapte(d  for  thle  li,ghiter l)prlposes
of tlhe boutter-datiry, I lhave c,,n..i%ered
it as deserving a  place ltere.   Thxis ultelsil is rep)resented iin fig. 3,'2, in lierspecticie, it)  the anost imitiill)Ovt;,rIlil, with
outer  case  t o conpain loot tr co(l  u,ater.
Tlhe  cltief part  of  this  iitenail is   the
WedgewoodI receptacle  a, f,riie(I of tie
finest and  stronges wulite glaze(l wa*r e of
that  inanufactule: they are o;f  var igtis
sizes, from  I to 4 gaihons  capacity; it is
fuirnishIed  with a varniisledl woo(i(,hn  cover
b.  Thje outer  ca,se c is;made  of sieet zinC
or of tin plate: it is 2 itli(:es wi(ler tliata
tlhe churn, fiurnishedl witl, lhand e.s c, nitd
two ears to wlhiel the iron cro.ss-tbar e is
attached by two tlhuil)-screws   e and  d,
serving to secure  tlhie cover to, thre top (,;f
the vessel. A }inass s()cket.f is fixeri in
the cover, and an ii(.n spitd(- le, arntefl with
tlhree vanes, is fitted t,, twirn in tile s,~cket;
a wooden  pulley is usua.-illy lpllacedI it  tie
position of  the wheel q cn  tle top  of thje
275
4213. Of tire v.-ii-ietie-s of ciiiirns, it i..,
only necessary to iticiitlion (iio.e iii iii(ist
C(lilill]Otl use. Ti,e
to tile ft,ul-tli of
ti. cia.ses i)ietitit,tie(-l -il)()ve,
by the 1).-itid, is now chiefly c()nfiiiLd to tiie
use of stii,-ill fariiiej-.s an(] c(,tt.-irs; I)ut wlieti
inaniiii-,tte po%,,er is eiitpiove(i -to 1).)Ov( it,
it is tise(I by iiiany extensive d-.iii-y f-,jrm,-,, r s. The barrel-cliurn, wliieli I)el(-i,igs
to tlie fir..:t class referreti to at)o%-e, aii(i
wl-iieli was so iijucti in vt)gije tip%!-,i.i-tis of
twenty years ago, is no%v I t   1-i a,,4
been sul,)erse(.Ie(I I)y tiie box-eiiiirii, %viiose
9,,,itatt)i-s itiove vertically, and -A,;,i(,-Ii I)eloti(-,s to the tliii-(l class itiei)tif,iie(i -.ib4)ve.
One sel(](.,in ees the box-clitirii %%-itli liorizont,,.ti   a,,it;,-i.tors to the second el-,tss refei-re4i to at-)(,,%,e-.-iiid it may I)e
coticiti(le(i t,l;at it is not convenient, ft,i- use
bv tlje liai)(I; and wlien use(i -,itkill, it i-s so
ii town-(Iairies, w)iei-e it isili-iven ly 1)ower.
4212. Cliurns.-TI)e various forms Df
cliiirns mav be. classed iinder four kii)ds:
-Tlio,,ze, i wbi(,-Ii both the fluid and the
'containing vessel, with its agitators, are
in rotative motion; those in which the 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
spindle, and, when secured there, it hlolds
the spindle and cover in constant connec                 Fig. 372.
bow being rather an awkward medium of
power, especially in non-mneclhanic.al hlands,
Fig. 373.    an attempt has been made
to substitute for it, the
common    winch -  handle
turning vertically. This
arrangement is exhibite(d
a    b       in fig. 372, where  h is a
a    tooth-bevelled  wheel, on
thle axle of which the
o~ Ih     landle i is fixed; and it
IF I  X   works into  the  bevelled
,~l       wlieel g fixed on  tile top
0]   l    of the  agitator spindle f,
o~j    3     in thle place formerly oc   0.F          cupied by tile pulley; tlhe
two  standards I I  being
THE AGITA.TOR.  fixed (nl thle cover  b, to
carry thle axle of thle wleel h.  By this arrangement, two turns of thle handle i produces thle same result in tlie agitator as was
done bv one stroke of thle bow; and the
motion of tlie handle beingt,  reversed at
every second revolution, thle ultimate effect
is the same as before,,ad thle manual operation is more easily effected in thle one
case thlan in tlhe:otlher. On being used, all
the parts of  thle clhurn  slhould be taken
asunder and cleansed.
THE WEDGEWOOD TABLE-CHURN I.
tiorn. Tlte comiimon drill-bow is the usual
meditini of power, the string of which beincg lIeld in teilision by the elasticity of tlhe
steel-back or bow, any inovenient backwail( or forward of the instrumenit will
cause the pulley and spindle to revolve,
and tlle moivements are effected by applyin,g thle land( to the handle of tlhe d(rillbow.  When the cover and slpindle have
been secured by the screws e d, and thle
bow-string  applied  as above, which  is
effected by bending  thle bow  until the
string is stUfficiently relaxed to allow of its
beiing laid once round the pulley, the bow
is then allowed to expand, and thle operation proceeds.   Thle drill-bow motioni         is
adlmiral)ly adapted to reversing, the mlotionl
of the pulley; for, in pushing thle bow forward by the hand, thle agitator will be
miade to revolve 2 or 3 times, the nuliber
being, in the proportion of the lengthl of
thle string to thle circumference  of thle
pulley; and in drawing them back tlhe
sanie inumber of revolutions will be perf.ormiedt in the opposite direction, and so
on till the process is completed.  Fig. 373
is a view of tlhe agitator: a a a are the
vn-nes of strong tin-plates with  perforations, b is that part of the spindle that
turns within thle socket, and c that on
which thle pulley is fastened.  The drill
276
4215. It is well known that a certain
elevation of temperatuire is acquired, by
tlhe fluid in the process of butter-maklling,
and that the process is accelerated by producing this temperature artificially, from
the application of heated water.   For tlhis
purpose water is applied externally to the
vessels containing the  milk and  creanl,
an~d not in mixture with tlhemn.   Fig. 3, 2
exhibits tlie application of tlhis process to
the utensil now under consideration, wulere
c is the water-case formed  of  tin-plate,
zinc, or of wood, at the bottomn of wlhich
is fixed a circular stand to phxce the receptacle  a uponi, tlhat the water  may be
unlder as  well as around  the receptacle.
Wood, from its non-on(Iucting quality, is
perhaps better adapted than any iimetal for
a water-case. Water brought to the proper temperature is poured into the -pace
between the case and the retaining vessel,
and if found necessary to increase or dininiislh tlhe temliperature,-part of the contained water is drawn off below by a spigot,
and h-ot or cold added to restore the requisite degree of heat. Experience seems to
point out, that, in operating  on the large 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
sufficient surface to produce the requisite
degreeof agitation in the fluid.   The twos
pairs of arms are half-lapped at the centre,
and the cross-bars mortised into them; the
dimensions  in length and  breadth being
such as to allow it to move with freedom
within the box.  At the centre, a perforation is made  through the sides to admit
the iron spindle, which, at this part, is a
square bar, fitting neatly into socket-plates
of iron let into the agitator on each side,
as seen in the figure at a.   The winchhandlef, fig. 37 5, is shipped, when in work,
on the near end  of the spindle upon  a
square stud.  In rigging this apparatus,
the agitator is placed within the box, and
the spindle is pushed through the outer
bush and the agitator, until its two journals rest in the bushes; a coupling-ring
is then screwed on to the outer busth, until
the spindle with  the agitator just turns
round  with freedom in the bushes.   To
prevent the ring fronm turning round by
the motion of the spindle, a smnooth ring
or washler of steel may be interposed between the collar and the brass ring. Various other modes of securing the spindle
are employed, but in all the object is to
prevent leakage at the bush.  To prevent
taint from galvanic influence, also, it is not
uncommon to apply bone or other animal
substance for the bushes.  This form of
dchurn nFay be enlarged to any dimiensions
to suit hand labour or power; and the only
modification  I have seen of its constructionr, whein on a large scale, is the insertion of the bars of one of the pairs of arms
along instead of across the arms.
scale in wooden vessels, n o         extraneous heat
is requ i red, theti naturally acqtiired heat
appears to be sufficient; especially if aided
in winter by the  admixture of a small
quantity of moderately heated water, and
the non-conducting quality of the wooden
vessel retains it; whereas the stoneware
vessel will be continually abstracting leat,
and giving it off by radiation, if not surrounded by a medium of equal temperature.
in wibitlt, ain      d 20   inch es in depth,  inside
measure.  Birchl or plane-tree are the best
material s for the purpose, and it requires to
be very cal refully joined so as to be watertigh,t.  It is of very small moment whether
the bottom is formed to the circle of the
agitator, or remains flat in as far as the
production of butter is to be considered;
but for the process of cleansing, the  curvedi
bottom will  present  some  advantages.
A cover of the same material is fitted
Fig. 375.         close  in  the
top of the box,
with conve                           nient handles.
The ag,itator,
fig. 375, is of
the usual form:
the dimensions
of its parts are
unimportant,
except    that
they have suffi        Taz aZ~aog o THEnOX cienit strength,
THE AGITATOR OF TH  e sent
HiAN'D-CHURN.       and    present
4217. Butter. —On  converting cream
into butter, the first act is to put the churn
into a proper state.  It is assumed,, that
the churn, when last used, was put aside in
a thoroughly clean and dry state.  This
being the case, a little hot water, about 2
quarts, should be poured into it to scald
and rinse it.  In summer it should  be
rinsed with cold water after the hot, but
not in winter.  Some people sprinkle a
little salt in the churn before the cream
is put into it; but whether it does any
,good or not I cannot say.   Thie churn
being thus prepared, the cream is strained into it through a bag of coarse linen
cloth, well kno~wn unler the  name of
cheese-cloth.  This cloth is always washed
without soap, and kept sweet by exposure
27-1
421-6. Box hand-rliurn.-Fig. 374 repre,ents one 18 inches iii length, II inches
Fi,. 3i-4.
i
ll, -
.f
Rw
I'IIE BOX HAND-CHURN. 
,.";.=.... L  i, t;U il-U,LUI-u OJ l, L11  crUIII Uy
agitation, during churning, rises 3~ or 4'.
first, ulitil thie cream has been coimpletely
broken-tihat is, red(lered a uniforim  mass,
whien it hecltL)es thiinner, and thle churninig is felt to be easier.   Durin,, the breaking  of tile cream, a goo(l deal of gas is
evolved,  wlhich  e.scal  es  froil  uniler  tlhe
cover.   Wllen the Imotion of chiurning io is
rotitory, in a large clitirn, it is continued
in tire samie  directi(on, and  not  cihangied
backwaird and  fi)rw%ar,l.   I aiii not sure
that a s&ti.~f'ctory reason can be given for
ini.kinf  the  tiotion iinif,riii, except that
tle agritati,)n is sufficient for the makinfg p
of  butter; buit the opinion  is, that  the
eniire biitter is forinme(d more siiiiultaneously; an(l thlat the backwardl and forward
iotioion. make tile buitter soft.   In tile table
chlurn descrilled above in fig. 372, tlhe 0iootionr is reverseil, because the creamn  would
not be sufftliiently agitated in a cliurn of
cylindric.al foriii, thle creaiii acquiling tile
iloititn atid velocity (if tlhe vanes  of the
agitator. After thLe crealui  has been broken,
the tuotion may be a little increased, and
continued until a clhange is lheardl in thl         e
sound witlhin thle churn, tfroi a low Smooth l
to a harshl tone, a-nl( until an  unequal res.stance is felt to be given to the ag,itators.
Thle butter may s,(,n be expected to frnin
after tlis, andl, l)y increasing, thle imotion a
little imore, it will forni  thle sooner; and,
the Iotilient it I)ecolies firm  and thle agitators are felt to be iiiipetlel, the mnotion
sliotlil cease.   Tiie ra,tes  of  miotion  in
chuarning I)btter at ilifferent times.re (of
somite iiiipi(,rt.ice, f(r, whlen perforned too
ilow, a lhn,,nr timie i  s spent in churning
4219. Imniediately on being       formed,
butter slhould be taken out of tlhe churn,
and put into the small tutb for the purpose.
Cold water is then  put into  the flat kit,
which is set in an incline(d position, and
the butter is was hed by being kneaded out
and rolled tip several times on the b),tt,,m
of the kit, amion,st tlhe water; and thlen
lumps of it are taken in hand, and ])eaten
with thie palnis of the hand alternately, in
order to deprive it (,f every particle of the
butter-milk, the least portion of which
would soon renler it rancid.  The  miilky
water is poured off and fresh poured in,
and tlhe butter is again washed and worked
as often as the water becomes mtillky. If
intended to' be kept or  disposed of in a
fresh state, the washed lump is divided
into pound   or lhalf-pound lumiips eaclb
weighed in the scale.s, and placed in sepa
4218. Tle utensils required for the use of
butter are-a small tub for puttingtlebutter
in frotn the churn; a wooden flat shallow
kit of tlhe forrn of fig,. 366, and 20 inheshe
diameter, to waslh  tlle butter in;  scales
and weiglits for weiglhing, the butter before
bein, made up in pounds and half-poundsi
a  stoneware jar for keeping sa-lt dry;
stoneware jars or wooden firkins fo>r packing salted butter in; ilouhl(Is for stamjpinlg
prints on buitter made  up for tlhe table ox
market; and covered dislhes of glass oi
stoneware, for  holding fresh   butter in
pounds and lhalf-pounds. 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
rate lumps  in tihe tub  amongst  water.
Each of these lumps is then clapped firmly
by the hand, and  mioulded into the usual
for,, in which pounds and half-pounds of
butter are disposed of in the part of the
country in  which your farm is situate.
When sold in whole pounds the form is
usually cylindrical, of about 8 inches in
lenrth; aind when in half-pounds in round
flat prints bearing a device, such as a rose,
a thiistle, a stag, a swan, or the hamhe of
the dairy.  For the table, any requisite
nueeber of the pounds should now be
moulded from the lump into small prints
bearing different devices, or rolled into
different forms of balls and cylinders, witlh
small wooden hands, figured on the face.
This made-up butter is floated in jars with
covers, in a clear strong brine of salt and
water, made as strong as to float an egg.
whether of wood or of any other material.
As to cold water injuring butter, there being no affinity between fatty matter and
cold water, the latter cannot dissolve any
essential ingredient out of the former; at
any rate, water will more effectually unite
with, and thereby take away  the milky
substance from butter  than any  instrument nmanipulated dryly with all the art
the hand alone can use.  Let the trial be
made both ways, and  their comparative
efficacy tested  by  the butter  keeping
longest sweet.  But less handling nmay be
given  to butter with  thie partial use of
the spade, which may be employed in the
first process of the washing, by dividing
and rubbing, and rolling it amongst the
water on the bottorn of the flat tube, before
it is beaten with the hands; andil it is this
process which expels the remnants of the
butter-nmilk  which  cannot  be  farther
reached by the water, and  which, if left,
would spoil the taste of the butter in a
very few days.   Fig. 377  represents  a
Fig. 377.     butter  spade  of  a
longitu   shape long used inl a
plleridairy, the face being
_    4 inches square, and
Ir fc,the handle  4 inches
___  lllong.  Thle lower side
1o,,f,,,,  tle face is t iinef
long and, 4. Haway to a sharp edge.
i n    ofound t h te iost tenacious. Tiae Dutchspade
iie handle.    un eot warp, being butter  itn,
oul't the irrlmediiate contactde of the had
4221.Ohjecions   ave  ben  ured   wich is mluchl more effective than this
hspade. It consists f a board of wood abound that
THbutter - e foot in leng f th appl 4 inches in b-treade i,
found to be  the mosngitudinallycious.   An Ther  oard,utc
use    an  imilar constrcti for washing butter witsout  the immed iate co ntact   of the  hfore  and
which is  much more effective than this held by
spade. It consists of a board of tewood   aboid.  Te instruone foot  in length and 4 inches in  breadt, wi ther.
gr ooved  longitudinalltt y. Another bois pl a rd,
of similar construction an time, wite sios  a
sinRed        u     pon one end of  tihe lowrmer oard,
terminates in a handle, which is held by
tile hand of the dairymaid. The instru ment is placed ini a flat kit, with water.
While the butter is placed by one hand
at uick intervals of time, with suchl a
p laced in the water in the vessel, the other
hrand nioves the upper board up aird down
in repeated action ispon tihe butter, which
is alternately and successively divided lay
4220. Fig. 376, rrepresents a stamp 11
inch dianmeter, for small prints of butter
used at table; as also a couple of hands,
Fig. 376.           figured with
longitudinal
parallel rid                              ged lines on
the face, for
f o r m i n g
small figur                              ed balls and
rolls of but                              ter, also for
the table.
Thle hands
THi  BUTTER PRINT-MOULD AND  are 6 inches
HANDs. long  and 4
inches 1)road in the face, and 4 inches long
in tlje handles.
279
4221. Objections have been urged
against the use of the hand in making up
butter, and small wooden spades recom,nen(led to be employed for the purpose;
and t'ie use of water has also been objected
to, as it is said to deprive the butter of its
pleasinrg Lrona.  A  won, an who has hot
claniimy hands should never be a. d-airyiiiaisl. as bltter is very susceptible of taint,
and its flavour will doubtless be injured by
tile lhea;vy smell of sweaty  hands; but
naturLially ool hIands- -ade clcani by wasling in warns water and oatmieal, not soap,
and then r inse,l and steeped in cold water,
will,:-.alae up butter freer of butter-milk,
and  imioire  solid tlhain  any  instrunment 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
from sweet cream, thoughl churning renders  its  butter-milk  as  sour as  that
from sour cream.  To have butter in perfection from sweet cream,  it slhould be
churned every day; and as a daily supply
of cream must be small, a small churn
must be used, to have butter fresh  made
every day.  The  table-chlurn,  fig,. 372,
becomes useful for this purpose.   I see it
alleged, in advertisements of table-churns,
that butter may be made in them fr(oni
cream in 10 or 12 minutes.  I have made
several experinments with such  a tablechurn, in churning cream at different temperatures, and  withl different  velocities,
but never obtained good  butter in less
than 30 minutes;  and when formed so
quickly as in 15 minutes, the butter was
soft and frothy.  I have heard it alleged
that butter of the finest quality cannot be
obtained from sweet cream; but I know
from experience that butter of the richest
quality, flavour, and appearance, can be
made from sweet cream. Were such butter
not superexcellent, would noblemen  have
it on their tables everymorning? I consider
butter out of the churn, and before it
is washed, most delicious.   It is true
that sweet cream requires longer churning
than sour; still butter is obtained from it
in from 30 to 40 minutes.  For  my own
use, I would never desire better butter,
all  the year round, than that churned
every morning in a small - cherry from
sweet cream. Such butter, on cool newbaked  oat-cake,  overlaid  with flower
virgin honey, accompanied with  a cup
of hot strong coffee, umollified with crystallise(d sugar and cream, such as the butter
had been made from, is a breakfast worth
partaking of, but seldom to be obtained.
4222, Butter assumes a textiure according as it has been treated.  When burst
in the churning, it is not only soft but
frothy, and,         on be ing cut saith a knife,
sticks   to it, and seems as if    it  c     ould be
compressed into much smaller bulk. When
churned too rapidly, particularly in warmn
weather, the butter may not be agitated
to the state of bursting, bu     t       it       will continue       s oft, and never become  firm, tlhore,Ii
w     ork   ed up wi th ev   er  so much care, aIn(l in
th       e  coolest mannter; and when a, butlp            is
draw          n  asunder  in two pieces, tFhe  each
pres     ent a     pjagged s urfac e, and also stick to
the  kn ifeth at cuts it.  Butter, in         e         ither
of       those states of softness, will not keep
lone,           whether salted  o                r fresh.   When
over-chlrned-t hiat is, when th       e churning
has been c ont inued af              te r the butter has
been forseed-the b        utte    r    becomes soft, not
unlikee tle state when it is too rapidly
churned. When properly churned, both
in  egardi to time and temperature, butter
becom     es firm with  very l         ittle working,
and is tenacious; but its most desirable
state is that of  bvay,                       whhen it is easily
moulded  into any shape, and  may  be
drawn out a considberable length before
breakig,ng. It                                     s  a r            n is only  in  this state that
butter poessesses that rich  nutty flavour
and smell, which inlpart so hig,hi a degree of pleasure in eating it, and wlhiclh
enhance its value manifold.   It is not
necessary to taste butter on judging of it;
the sm       ooth unctuous feel, on rubbing a
little between the finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of qucality;
the nutty smell indicates a silnilar taste;
and the bright, glistening, cream-coloured
surface, shows its high state of cleanliness.
4224. Besides  crean, buotter  is made
fr o          n the e ntire m ilk, wlicl   i s usually
allowed  to stand until it becomes sour,
and requires a shorter time to convert
into butter than when the milk  is sweet;
but to  obtain  butter, in  either of  these
cases, a large churn is requiredl, and tile
churning continued for a long timile, seldomn less than 3, and often as nmucil as 5
lhours.  When  the  quantity of  milk is
large, power other than hlunian, wlhetlier
of steam, water, or horse, is employed to
mcove  the churn.   Thle butter (,l;taitted
fr o m th      is     et       hod i s very go)(.  Tile evident objection  to tilis method  is,  the
4223. Whlat I             hav e        s tated in reference
to the making of butter, applies particularly to that obtained from cream alone,
and from cream in the usual state for
butter-namely, after it has become sour
by keeping; bult butter can be obtained
280
grooves passin, betxveen each other,
and kneaded thin bv the frequent contact
of the area of the "boards. By repeated
operations in tliis nianiier the butter is
considered to be freed entirely of the
buttermilk. Still ttie most expert nianager of this process cannot free the butter
of buttermilk so completely as the iiianipulation of a pair of cool active hands. 
MAKING BUTTER AND CtIEESE.
lablour imposed in agitating so much milk,
and  in  consequently  leaving  on  hand
a large quantity of butter-miilk, which,
however easily dis1t)sed of in towns, would
be a drug in thl-e country, unless given to
the pigs-or converted  into a kintid  of
chieese.  Tle metliod has its a(l vantages in
the iuniform character of the buitter Nwhicl,
it affoirds at all seasons, fr,)n the certainty
of ol)tainirug a cliurtlinig at the proper teiiiperature, whichi  is requiredl to lbe hlighier
than that of creai, bI)eilig 60~ Fahreiiiheit,
and easily obtained, both  in winter and
sutinier, by tile a(lddition of warmi water
amongst the milkl.   Clhurning fromi  the
whiole or full tnilk, as it is called, is thus
a conim)paratively simple process. Tlhe milk
is poured into coolers at first, and from s
thleni " it is drawn (,ff by siphons into vats
sufficiently large to contain both the evening and mniorning iiieals; and the vats are
then put by, to stand totally undisturbed,
till the whole acquires a sufficient degr ee
ot' acidity.  The  title required  for thlis
purpose varies a little, according to the
hleat of the weather, and thle temperature
of the niilkliouse.   Tlhe  point is ascertained by the formation of a strong thick
bIrat or scum  on the surface, when  this
becomes uneven."   All the miilk is not of
the same age, but this does riot affect the
quality of the whole. The timnes of chlurning  are these:-" The milk  of Sutnday
and Monday is clhulrned on the Thursday
morning   that of Tuesday, Wednesday,v,
and Thursday imorning, on the Saturday
evening; and tlat (f Tliurs(lay evenring,
Friday,  andl Saturday, on  the Monilay
niorlilrl." *
4227. The quiality of the salt lhas a material effec     t  on the taste of the b     sotter that
lhas been salted witli it.  Or dinary sea-salt
contains ai considerable proportion of otlher
salts  tlan  the pure salt, tlhe clhloriide of
sodium, and as  these are all bitter, tlhey
injure the taste of the butter.   " It is easy,
however, to purify the commiiion salt of the
slhops  fromt these  imlpurities," observes
Professor Joliiiston, "by pouiniIi, 2 quarts
of boiling-water upon 1 stoine or 2 of salt,
stirring tlhe whole wiell about,  no,w  ayitl
tlheni, for a couple of lhours, atnd afterwards
straining it tlirouglh a clean  clhth.  The
water wlichl  runs tl)roughlI is  a satiurate(I
solution of salt, and con tains all tle impu,rities, but may  be used for conliylon ctlinary purposes, or miay be mixed  witli tile
food of c:Lttle.  The salt  whichl remains in
tlhe clotlh is free from tlhe soluble salts of
lIimie and magnesia, and may be hun,g u) in
the clotlh till it is dry enot,gh) to be used
formiiixingwitlh tle butter, or withl clheese."t
Tlhe Dutcli  maniufacture pure salt at their
wiorks at Catwyck; and this is one reason,
no doubt, of their salted butter  being so
fine, and also so sw"eet to the taste;;nd so
much superior to the briny butter  made in
many districts of Scotland.
4225. In clhurning creamrrt or mytilk, the
residuum  is butter-milk, wlicll, whlen o()tairied in large quantity  fromi  iiiilk, is
disp)osed of in towns, converted into clheese,
or used to fatten pis; and wlien obtained
in silli.ll quanrtities fronl crean-m, a part may
be used  for domestic  plirpo)ses,  and the
reniainder mixedl with  tlhe food given to
the brood-sow.
4228.  In  thle process  of  salting, tile
buitter is spread out in the tul. after  the
waslhing, and the salt, grounrd  fine, is
sprinkled over it by little and little, and
t!he b,iitter rolled up and  ruiblbed down  with
tlhe lower  part  o,f tlhe paln  of  tlhe land,
until the wllile iass al)pears liinifoirnly incorilorate,l withi  tlhe salt.  To insure  uniform sallting, only  l,alf tle salt sliotild  be
aplpJlied at  once, a      the biitter  IUmIped
and set aside until next  day, whleni wlhatever o,f brine  or  milk  mnay  lhave exuded
4226. If tlhe buitter is intend(le(d to tIe
salted, it is somnewlhat differently treated.
After beinr washed clean a,s alcove  dlescribedl, (4219,) it is wei,hiedl ii tlhe scales,
thle salt weighled, and imnie,liately appelied
* 7lrarsactiotis of the [ligll(d,      and    Ag! icegltur,i t.cidut#, Juily  1 843, p. 24-5.
t  Jolii-stoii's Lect,ur es on.1lyr;crilturaftl Ceiistiy, p. t828
281
to tl)e lump. Practice varies mu(-,Ii in the
quantity of salt given to butter, as iiiiicii as
I oz' of alt to I lb. of butter, and lialf an
.ounce of salt to I I lb. of butter - I oz. to
I lb. is too niucl), -.-%-])icli is lile curitig
butter %A,itli as little art as saltinff lierrings. Half an ounce of fine I)ure salt is
quite sufficient for a pound of butter; and
wliieli (Itiaiitity is intended for keepingbutter, for as to powdered butter for iniiiiediate use, leaf an ounce to 2 lb. is
enough. 
uay.  o10 save sKiiiin)ed-nillk troiii souring
inl wariii -eatlier till the next day, it is
necessary to sch ll it-thlat is to  p)ut it into
a furntace pot, to lheat it sufficiently, and
theni to let it cool.   TIle fire shoulod be  a
gebit le  one,  and  thle nilk  slioul(l  be  so
cariefully  stirirel  as neither to burn nor
boil, lor be litiade warmer tlian  the fingter
can bear.   After being tlius lheatedtl  in the
onioriling, the miilk should be poured into a
tub, to.wait the  clieese-inaking  of  the
foll(iowing, day.  Thje skimmned t ilk of next
orin lillng is poured into the stiiie tub,  except abo.it  one-third of it, wliichl  is p)ut
initO, tlhe furnace pot or  anotlher o)ne, and
iniale wariii fi,r tle purpose of iheating the
entire milk of the tllu). The hleat is applied
slowly to the pot,  the milki  occasionally
stirred withl  a stickl, an-l( miade as wariii as
the  finger caci liar(lly  bear.  This  warmi
portion is tlen  )our-ed iiito thlje tub, the
corinte ts of whlich is thlere)y ils(e tSs wara
eas.iew ii,ilk, tlhat is, abotut 110~  or 112~.
Tthki  degrees  of heat just  mentionled  ax-re
atlhe ilr vagtle, but I believe no lieat is specific in scalilinrg milk, provided the uiilk
is  n,l t allowed to butrni at the bottomii of the
pot, o ir to r   l(il-for if it boil, the nilk will
c(mg(uliate instantly, t  and  be  useless for
clieese-iiiaki)ng, as thle  chleese illaile of it
p(t iuldl be hard or flinty; al(l as far as tlhe
lice.ati,g, is conicernedi, the reidly ai(d l.ractic.il test of the filgeri is sufficien-itly aceIrate.  O(i the liik iin the tuI) leitlig stirire(l,
the renilet or eariiing is al(le(l to it, nl)d it
is aillowedl to st.ind  som   time ti o cagllate,
withl  a cloth  tli-hrown  over it to retain its
te.mperature.
_       d.... t_ t. h,e ar. nl.s 1-o1l;io                 ecs 1tIIoI"U  Lijiul  i),
rel)ea-tedIly  scaldled  witlh   llht *water, and
exlpose(d to the air;  an(l, jtist b)efore  being
used, should  )e rinse(  with cold I water, an(d
a slighIlt sprinkling of salt scattered over its
b)ot~tol.    A    inew wooden kit  re(Iulires
som-i-jewhla,,t dlifferenit treatment, becatuse thle
odour  fi'o,,i  tle  new  woo,] will ilnl)art a
disag,rree:ible  flavouir  to   the  butter.   It
slould  be  filled witlh water  miixed  witlh
ga-r(len miold, or -wi,,,1il limiesliells and water,
f,or soziie (lays, and tlJe miixtuire o,c-casionially
stirre(d; atfterwlhi(ch it shio,il(lbe tllorougtily
scrul)be(l ain(d cleansed %%-itll lhot wa,ter, a-tndl,
like  an  oldI ],it,  rinisedI  witlh  cold(  water,
at(l sallte,l jutst  before  b)eini,g use(,.   Kits
ar-e lHooped  witlh ironi  or  withi willowv  ro()ls.
Tlhe iroil floops last lotllest, and  keep tlhe
I)titterilnoi'e completely friomii the air, tlhoug,hi
they ir e mnore costlv.
423t ). Bhtter     is kitte(          i t l a  raups,   tipeiurll
a-e l-essedt-ftilrmlly dwat ll p1)(;illts wtithl
ttle k,.,Llcklets, alI~l g,reat  ca,re  t.akeii tl)at
tley be particularly presse(I %witlh tihe si(1o
of' t!he foi-efitg(,er rounL(i thio circtiimference
of thie kit or jar, in substance micile s(jlid,
Ilo air beii g allowed to remain in cells, andI
tl)e surfi-tce miiadle even.  Tile surf,ice of tlhe
firtruer clhurning of butter, wliiclh lhad beeni
puit  into tle j.r, slioiild  b)c raisedI tip it(to
regular  furrows,  that  tlle new   llltllp  of
buitteir ma.iy be  coniniiigle-e  withi it.   TIo
co,il~-essing, Of butter, tlheni, into tlei  kit,
is-of lrtram(}urnt ilno)rtancle, inafsmui~ul   a1s
tle least cell of air left in its matss, or- tlat
fin,ls acecess by tile si(le of tile kiit, will win d
the butteri, tha,-t is, irailp)aiL to it a  ranicid 
MAKING BUTTER AND C[tIEESE.
steill c, (,f rounld iron rod, rising  from  eacll
1;iz.;!78.7         si(le of   tle   oval
evr an, a r   te  loor, snites at   c,
aiid afteraitta-tiniDn g
in  all  18  inelhes
}              in l, eighrit,  is  sur             ai a b v a ae r niilonte(l    by         a
i                wo(,)(denl l;an;ln~e d, ()
,       inLches iii lengtli, by
r atolic i oit is hlelI by
!ei t iier one or  bot}h
i f s c t o t -  i (is,  llad, o0) tlhe
iln,tlrlulflellt  I)qing,
easily be  (oeb a eprl.e(l ini a perIe)en1dli
asbig  jtnii   t  h-,   I'it- b ]) "esse (I dI(.)W, cuts
,lti  n stt(the  clld(l   iiito  as
_' —' ~                si,ill liieces asyou
a,,,~: cu~t,,-cu,i'1.n.     * wishi in  ti,e ttb.
4233. A calf's stonmaelh is usually ree,tl)iilen(led  for  rennet; but as  calves'
stoinachlis  are not easily obtained in (listricts wilere  calves  are  leared,  a  )ig's
stomach, whicll can be easily obtained( ona
every farm, answers the p)urpose as wvell,
and il.any believe that it imiakees the sronger
earnit,, of the two.   WhVllen tlhe pigs nie
killed (Ir hams in winter, their st(,ii,aclis
should be preserved for rennet, aul  thjey
are preparedl in this waLy: Let thle insi;                       e
skin,,f the stoma-ichls be taken out: tile (,)pcration is soTIewljat trotl)lesf;ie, t,it iii.-iy
easily be (lone by arn exp)erience(d (dairymaid.  Any curdling in it is takenl ollt,
as being unnecessary, anrtd tetidin(,. to) tiltliiiless, and the skit is w   iped cleani wi.il a
clotlh, not wasliedl.  It is then laid fliat (,ni
a table, and rubbed thlilckly oeri witll salt
oil  both sides, antl  1)1ce(Il in a (lisli for 4
day., by wlhicll timue it has iibibedtl suifficient salt to r)eserve it.  It is then hlung
stretched over a stick ielar the fire, to dry
and wonr, andl in;lie (lried state is kepl)t for
use as renliet by tlhe next seasonl.   So()le
Ieol)le place a layer of clean wlieat-straw
on tile skin, after it is salted, and roll thle
skin over  it to  keep  it opeln, and after
tying a piece of paper round it, lhang it up
near  the  kitclhen-fire to  dry  anid'won.
This is also  a g,.;)(l plan, bit inot better
than the otlier.  When tlhe rennet is to be
used, a  brinc of salt  and  lI)oilitng-water,
sulfficiently  strong  to  float an egg, of 3
inmperia.l pints to each  skin, is insi(le andlll
sieved thlronugli a cltlh, andl  all(owe(d  to
c,,()l.   Otne skin is allowed to renmain           t i n
that quantity of brine in a jar, with its
on)utli covered with  bla(-dier, for 3  (,r 4
days, wtlen the coagulatitg strength of the
brille is tested by I)oiirilg a drop or t%wo
into i tea —cuI)ful of lukewarim milk; andl
wvlieI  colsidered  powerful  etou,gll,  the
skin is taklen out (,f it, it is bottled, -iand
tigl,tly corkled for use.  The skiii is agin
salted as befoire, anl sl)read(l over a stick
to dry an(l woln, 1)d(1 iliide again ready
for use whren requlired.. Half a tea-cI'pful
of this liquid(  reinet  wvill  c-agulate  as
mucll mill; as will Illille a cheese of 15 lb.
weighlt.
4235.  Witehi tlte  imiillk is  sufficiently
coagula,Itedl,  wlicli it wvill  be in  I!tlif an
Iour,t  tloe  cuId  is cull       t ill  tl e  tll)  -it. n
k4iife.    On bl ein     g cut, tle curil lets out its
wh liey, whiicl, is (Irai,,e(l,,ff l)y  i,ie:,,is  (,f a
flat plate being  p        ressed against ti.-e curdclotlh, linien (,f,.)e)en t rii, spread lpon tlhe
curd.   As   imuiiclh  of tlhe wh,ey is  rentiove(y
in this way.Is )racticable; anid tthe curd left
is  compi)arativ-ely  (ldy, %%lien  it rec eives
anotlher cutitting withi tle cuitter, fir. 378,,atnd
thewliey  a,ga,itn expressed fi'(,mii it.  Tlie curd
is tlieii liftedt  out ()I' tl}e tul, an(l wrap)ped
into tile c,iird-el()tll wllicl, iI), tile fof>i),' of
a btunle, is pla,ced  upin a  dra,itner  simiilair
to c, fig,. 200, lying across  tlhe  ni.outl~( ot' the
tutle), andi tlle wliey is p)ressedi o()t of it by
main firce.   Ttjis is tie lablori-(ius  part  of
the  r,rocess  (;f cl~eese-nlaking;  a1, to save
bothi timiie andl lalmour- in-i lairge cliedsse  dscdir-ies,
the b)uindle of  curd(l  is pla)iced  in a lairge
clheese-va,t, andi( sub)jecc(lto toressure in tlhe
cheese-prXess, (or  und-Ier  lairge   weighIts, to
get qujit,f tle wuley.   A   cotinveinienit  miiodle
oif using a;a wle       iglit for this  puri-pose  by
One ( )eeso,n, is t(o Il, ve it  sUspeii(led  by.l
cli-ain fr(,m the end(I (f a,n iron ]ever,  whose
fiilcrutiii is aittacl}e(1 to thje p)oint of an atrmi
of wv(o(l i     jecting  froti-i an  ti)ig~lt I)ar
t)Ilced   afainst tlle         wall,  and  traversinl
ho,rizontally  on its ilron  lheel  a:it1 to[), as
pivots, to aiiny convenient p)o;.it fi)r thel (le..) siti( o f tlhe weig,hIt.  1ile clld becomlles
very  fiirm after this pressing;  ani(l in order
to red,,ee it s,all sitl} collmoarative  eais2e,
it is first cut into tlhin slices  withr a'k-nife;
and the   tlini  slices  are  ground   down
4234. Fig-. 3,8  is.-: curd-cutter, wliieli
c7onsists of an  (uvl  I!()(,p  of irl  ca  b1), 9
inclhes li(li,g andI 6 iiclhes wile, andl  I   inch
deep,' enll)acing a slip of iil(n. (of the s-tame
deptli, along its long,itudirial axis (a b.   The
283 
PRACTICE-SUMMIER.
in  size.  A tul) isplaced below the hlopper,
to receive thle cut curd as it descends from
it.  In this way one person may feed the
slices illto the loI)per and drive the macline; but the process of curd-cutting is
muchl exp)e(lited by one person feeding tle
hopper witll slices, while another drives
the handle of the macl)ine.
4238. Tlje machline is taken to pieces to
be cleaned by unscrewing thle pin b, when
the axle niay be drawn  out of the cylinder withl  thle lalge whleel  c, the  cylinder
taken out, andl the hopper b removed fromn
its seat,  by  turning  the  tlirumb-catchles
which connect it l)elow with thle firaming
a a.   Thle small pintion and the  winchhandle remain.
4230f.  The curd-breaker is represented
in perspective in fig. 379, wlhere a a is a
Fig. 379.
b~~~~
THER CURD-BRLEAKXR.
4239. The  curd,  b)eing  made  s ll
enough, is salted to pleaise  the taste withi
salt ground fine.   In SOIlme parts, as  Clieshiire and Holland, clheeses are salte(d ly
being, floated in a strong solution of salt in
water, when tile brine penetrates the newmade cheese; but this seems an uncertain
niode of giving a desired  dlegree of saltness.  After beinig salted, the ciurd( is put
into a cheese-cloth, sliread over a chieesevat, aind firmtly packed into thle vat ligher
than its e(lge; and on the curd being covere(li with the remiainder of thle sanie cloth,
tlthe vat is placed in the chleese-pliess and
sit) jectetl to pressure, upon U-iilich  a qua,,ntity of wh)ey exudes  by the  holes in  the
bottoiii of  the vat.  In a shiort lai).e of
time, 2 hours or mlore, the cheese is turned
out of the vat, a clean and (Iry chleesecloth put in, the clheese replaced( into it
upside down, and:,gain subjecte(l to increased( pressure in the press. Should whley
c ontinue to exude, the chleese niiust again
be taken out of the vat, and a clean  clothl
substitute(l-in sllurt, a clean clotl,  should
be renewed, and the pressure inreased. a   s
long as any wlicy exudes; but if the previous operations  have been pr,,perly peiformed, tlie exudation slhouild cease  in
about 12 hours, after whic!h tile pressure is
continued until the press is wanted for a
new clheese on tle se:ond day.
frame        of      wood, consisting  of two bars, Colinected togeth            er            with boards  d,  and   supporte          d  on  feet,               which are strengthenet in
theirposition by cross-bars and iron stays;
b is a hopper      support ed by the fra ole                             a,
and  occupyii,n,  the space  between tsle
boards d d. At thle bottom of tile hlopp er is a           cylinder of wp                    ood, tlfrouger which
bn iron  axl         e  passesi, which re               sts on either
end in pluimmier blocks ol tlhe bars a. On
tlhe nearest end of the axle is a pinion c,
lhaving 46 teetlh, whlich is acted on by a
smnaller pinion of 24 teeth,, whliose axle also
rests in p)lumriuter blocks on the framioe a,
anid the near end of which bears the winchhandle, which, on  being,, driven round,
works tile machine.  Thle pin  b, passing
tlhroug,hI tlhe upper part of the plumruer
block, keeps the pinion c in its place.   The
inside cylinder  is furnished  with thsree
parallel rows, place, diagt(onally on it s surface, of cuitting, teetlh of tie f,,ro  of half a
lancet cut tlirouigll longituittdinally, 1 inch
long,,  broad, and 32 it numlllber in each
row.   Thle nearest end of tl~e hottoni of
the lil-per inside is furnished with a row
of sirmilarcutters, fixed, also 32 in number,
whliichi permit those on tlhe cylindler to pass
between then when the latter is in motion.
4237. On  using this niachine, tlhe curdl
cut in slices is placed in smnall tubts on thle
boards d d; and on a slice beitng put into
the  hopper, the winch-hlandle is i             folved
round, and thie curd is cut in pieces by tlhe
teethl, not exceeding a quarter of an inc            s       i
284
into a zranulated powder by a curdbreal.:er, e,ore the curd is put into the vat.
4240. Fig.,1380 sliows the coti)lnon
clicese-Arat or che-gsart, as it is calle(l, tlle
foriti I)eliig varie(i aec()r(-Iiii,, to tlia,t a(lo )t
I -
e.,i f(,)r tire clieese. Tlte %,at is built of elm
sta.vcs, as le:),st liable to burst with 
MAKING BUTTER -AND CHEESE.
pressure, and stroigliy hlooped withl  iron,
the bottom being stronlg and pierced withll
holes, to allow tlhe whey expressed to flow
away,  and  the wooden  cover is made
Fig. 38(0.         strong by be                              ing cross                              doubled. It is
&'~ll;'!~i' i        I~f'~,2.                              of advantage
that the cover               II1
THE CHEESE-Vfit the vat ex,!!~~,;,i~':;~1,~i~   lij?/i'~actly, and that
the vat beas
iIfl   cylindrical as
possible in the
interior.   In
THE CHEESE-VAT. CCheshire  thle
cheese-vats are made of tin, pierced with
holes in the bottom aud side.
4241. Of the cheese-press the varieties
are very numerous, tlhoughl  those in il(ost
cominioii use may b)e classed undler two
kinrds, naniely, the commiuoii old stone press;
and the conmbined lever-pIress, of whlich last
the varieties are the nlist inumerous, passing  from  the single   lever, througlh tlhe
various combinations (of simple levers, to
thile more elaborate one of the rack and
levers.   An  essential  characteristic of
these last presses is, thl-t the  load, in
whatever way produced, slhall, when left
to itself, have the power to descend after
the chees      e which  is  presse(l, anei wlich sinks
as the whey from the curd is expressed.
TIIE STONE CHEESE-PRESS.
down bV smnall additions, as the Glil'(l consoli(lltes, nutil it is thlought safe to let the
entire weighlt press upon the mould, whliclh
is done by " itli(liawinig thle nutf.   Instead
of the solid block of stone de, which, wlhen
left to itself, will always produce the sanie
pressure, it is better to have one block dy
into whlicli the suspending bolt is fixetl,
and the reiiiairndler of the mass mad(e uI) of
sialler piee:, as sliowni in the figure, by
which esl  iieUl) tlhe amou'nt of free  )ressure
can be regiulated to tlhe particular size and(
state of thle cIheese; oIr blocks of cast-iroii
are sonietimes Ise(l in the form  last  descril)edl, wuicl  iie irore comlnmodious, a.iii
less liable tobe l)i,oken.  InCheslire, wlhere
chleese-presses (.f this sort are ulsed(,  tllhe
clcheese is subject totlireedegreesof pressurei
tlthe first beiiing a (lualrter of a ton, the second
lhalf a tonl, an( tlIe tlhird and last one ton.
4242. Tle  comnl on s    tonh e  cleese-press
is slhowrn in fig. 381; it consists of a strong
frane of wood, of wlicli (a is the sill, two
uprights b b ilmortilee(  or doveta-ile(l into it;
and these are connej(,cte(d alt tol) b,y the crosslhead c niortised upon the p)()stsi. A cubical
block of sto,ne d e is squlire{1 to pass fi'eely
between t.le posts; an iron stell of one inch
diameter is fixed into the up))eir surface of
the block, and the upper endl s f it beiing
screwed, is passed tlhrouglh the centre  of
the top-bar. and the lever-nuiitf is al,plied
to it for raisinig orlowerini, the block. In
eaclh end of the block a vertical gi-)ove is
cut, corresponding to the  iixidd(le of tlhe
posts; and a baton of wood is nailed  uporn
tile latter, in suclh foriir and positi(,n as
will admit the block to rise and fall fi'eely,
wlile it is prevented falling to eitler side.
Wlen put in operation, the block is raised
by means of the screw, until the vat with
its contents can  be placed upon the sill a
4243. The combliiined lever  cheese-press
of iron is represeited in the perspective
view, fig. 382, and is constructed in the
following mnanner:-a a are a pair of castiron feet, on  whichl the macline is sul)
285
under tl)e block.   Tlhis being done, tle nut
is screwed  Iackward till tlhe block rests
lightly o01  the cover of  the %,at: it is let
Fig. 381. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER,
at thle   axle carries also a pinion of 8 teethl, whlich
)illars  acts upon  the rack, but  is also hlid froIn
view in the figure.  The ratchlet wheel g
stan(ds clear of th)e top frame.   The ]ever
k is forked at the extremity., and( thle
terminations of the furcatiotl aire received
upon tlhe axle of thle whleel q-tlie whleel
being, eiibraced( by the fork of tlie ]ever,
but the lever Inovilig freely upon thte axle.
A  smiall winchl-handle I is also fitted upon
t the axle of the ratchlet wlieel, and -a  pin
seen near It is adal)ted to a perforation in
the top framle, by tlhe inlsertioin of whichl,
the descent of thle lever is checked, whlen
suchl is required.
4244. In pressing with this macliine,
the vat is placed upon thle lower sill c, and
the lever being supported on tlhe pin at A,
the winch-hanidle I is turned to the left,
depressing the rack and its sill till tile sill
presses upon  the cover of thle vat.  The
lever is now lifted by the hand, and the
pall allowed to take into tile rLtchlet; while
the lever, being loaded by the weight, will
cause the ratchet to turn, and produce the
descent of the rack.   If necessary, this is
repeatedl again and again, till a considerable pressure is produced; and if it is
wished that a continued pressure is to go
on, the lever is again  raised considerably
above  the horizontal line, and  left to
desened gradually, following tlhe consolidation of tlhe chieese. If it is wislle(-l that
thie l(ad sihall not follow the sihrinkling of
the cheese, tlhe pin h  is inserted, whliclh,
when the lever comes to rest upon it, checks
further desent.  Thea aiount ocf          pressure
is also regulated by the  disposal of the
wei,,git m  in the different notches of the
lever k. The usual selling price of tlJis
machine is ~4, when constructed of iron
as in the figulre; but with wooden framework, and  the rack and other gearing of
cast-iron, thie price is ~3, 5s.
THE COMBINED LEVER CHICESE-PRESS.
b b.  The sill-plate c, 18 inchles in diameter, is cast  withi  two  perf,rated ears,
thirough wlii(hl the feet of the pillars b b
also pass, and secure the sill to the feet,
-the cross lines in thle sill indicate channels for the escape of the expressed whey.
The movalble sill d is of the same size as
tile one below, with corresponding ears
perforated and fitted to slide on the pillars,
and having tile rack-bar f fixed in its
centre.   A top frame e is seated upon the
top of thle pillars, and adapted to carry
the gearing of tlhe machline.  The action
of the rack and its sill is effected in t!he
follo,wing nianier: —Tlie ratchiet whleel yq
is fixed upon an axle tihat has its bearings d
in the tot, firameie; on tile saiiie axle is
fixed a pinlion of 8 teethl, not seen in the
fi,guire, which works in the whieel i of 24
teethi, fixeil upon  in axle wlhichi  has its
bearing also in the top frame; and  thisi
286
ported: they I)ave a socket formed
crown to receive the malleable iron
Fig. 382.
k    -  - n
It!
i
III
b
-f'
I -
4245. After the cheese is sufficientlypressed, it is taken out of the vat, and put
into the clieese-room h, fi(,. 363, and not
exposed to iiiucli Ijeat, drou,,Iit, or dump
at first, as liea-t in,-ikes new ciiees sweat,
(iroiit,,Ilt dries tlieiii too quickly, and catisefj
tl)cttl to crack; and (laiiip prevents them
I)ar(leninf, and wonting, and causes tlieni
to contract a bitter t-,tste. Exil,ose(I to a
cool, drv, and caiiii air upon the
ni, th will dry by de,,rees, and obtain a
V a 
MAKING BUTTER AND CIEESE.
14 inches broad, or more, according to the
size of tlhe cheeses  mianuifactured, by one
Fig. 383.
firm sk1in.  The skin becolnes lh,rder by
being dipped in hot water, but I see no
advautage to be derived fromi suchl  a practice. It should be wip)ed wili a dry cloth,
to remove any moisture that niay have 
exluded  fi-om  it, and tle cheese turned
(laily.  Sonie cheeses burst, and thlrow out
a serious-like flui(l, whichiI liapper.s in consequence of whley fernmeltin  Nliiclh oughlt
to hlave been presse(d out.  A  clheese thlat
clhaniges its shape raises the sluspicion of
somie organic chian,e g,oinig  on wNitliiii it;
but if it (loes not crackl, so as to a(liiit the
air, it will soon become riple and lbe nlouldy,
and imay prove of file flavour.  Thle inconvenience of cracks is, the facility afforded
to the c!heese fly to enter and deposit its
eggs in the chleese; and to prevent tlheir
eg,ress, the crackls slhould be filled up every
day with a niixture of butter, salt, at)d
pelper, made to a pri,per consistency with
oatmneal.   In Chleshlire, whlere the cleeses
are nia(le unusually large, they are bound
withl  fillets of lineni when  reinovel  f)r
drying in the clheese-room, until their fornm
atta.it a sufficient degree of firimness.
THE   MCHES-UNR
is finished on both -ides with a knife-edged
1atli, na                          sill   the
THE CHEESE-TURNER.
il1Ch thick. Thle shlelves alre tenonedc into
andl lipped ov er thle p~osts, and eachl shlelf
is finished on bothl sidles withl az knife-ed~ged
lathl, nailedl along tile back edlge. As thle
figure represents a rack that will  co(ntain
5 chleeses on each shelf, a corresponding
nuniber of pairs  of vertical  laths k, are
nailedl upon thle back edge of the shelves.
Tlo e  shlelf-framie thus  formedl  is provided
with two  stro )g iron  gudgeoris or pivots
fixed in the side-posts at mid-lieiglit, andl
these are receivedl into correspondinlg holes
in thie outter or lbearin.  posts, so that the
sllelf-fraiue swings poised  upon  the two
pivots; and it is further provided with an
iron latchl at top and bottoni on one end,
by whichi it may be tilted and secutred with
either the shelf g or e f upl)erm o,st.
4246.  Tile  tumbla          ing ch eese-rack,  or
clee(se-turner, is at nmachiiine invenited by
Mr William Blurton of Fieldtlall, Uttoxeter, and its merits are believed to be sufficient to warrant its adoption  on dairy
filrms.  The object of the machlinie is to
save muchl of thie labour required in the
daily tturning of a, large numiber of cheeses
in the drying-roomi; an(d this it does very
effectuallly, f(or, withi a rack containing 50
clheeses, thiey are turned over in very little
more timiie tha-n would be required to tuirn
a sing,le cheese.
4247. Fig, 383, is a view of the chleeseturner, as constructed to stand alone, and
on its own  feet; tliou,li this is not tihe
best mlod~e of constructing the milacliine.
It consists of an external frame  a b c d, of
wlichl a b and c d l,Lave eachl  a cross foot
a anil d, and connected at to) by a to(prail b c.  If constructed in a clheese-room,
the posts slould(I be at once fixed to the s
floor at l)ottoiti, and to the joisting or tiebeamns overhleadl, becomiiiig tlhus a fixture
in so far as regards tlhe external frate.
Tlhe second part of the nmacIine is a moval)le fra.mie or rack, formed by the two interi(r posts e antlf, whlich are framed upon
thle 12 shelves froni e to9, whlichi are each
,4248. When   cheeses are  placed upon
the shelves, it will be found that the knifeedg,e lathls keep them free  of the body of
the shielf, and( thus permit air to pass under
them, while   the pair of vertical  la ths keep
the cl~eses   in their proper  position on the
shelf.  The hieig,hIt txetweeni the shelves is
stich as to leave a fiee space of one inch
between the cheese and tlhe shelf above it;
and whatever number  of cheeses meay t-e
lying upon the shelves, the  simplle act of
tiltiiig the frame will place every clhees-e
resting on a slielf, on its oprposite side,
upon that shelf which immediately before
287 
PRACTICE-SUMNMER.
wns a-t ore tle cl:ecse, but by tlhe tilting is
now belouw it.   Thle vertical latlis serve to
J)revent the chleeses froio fa lli g out wlhil            e
the franme is tilting  anl(    ech lcheese 1has
*nly to fall one  inchl in that operationI, or
from the one sshlf to tlthe tothler, ii a  reversed position.
4251. I have not recommended tlhe em ployment of annotto or arnotto for dyeing
cheese, because I think by it the cheese farmiers  impose lupon themselves a very
useless piece of trouble.  It is employe(l in
Gloucesterslhire to the extent of 1 oz. of
anniotto to I cwt. of clheese; and in Cle shlire, 8 dwts to 60 lb. of cheese, and it
costs fromrn ls. to ls. 6d. per lb.   Annotto
is a precipitate from  febrmlentation of thle
seeds of the Bixa( orelltula of Liiinwus.
It is manufa-ctured in two forms, one  in
2ogtys or cakes of 2 lb. o)r 3 lb. each, of a
brighlt-yellow colour, soft to the touch, of
good consistence, and comes from Cayenie
wrapped in banarna leaves, and is niucli
used in giving an orange  tint to silk and
cotton goods, but which is fugitive; and
the other kind is called roll anniotto, wllicli
is snimall, not exceeding 2 oz. or 3 oz. each,
hard, dry, and compact, of a brownish..
colour outside and red within, is broug,ht
tfrom Brazil, and( is the kind used in tlhe
dairies.   The duty on the roll kind used
to be ~5, 12s. per cwt., then  4s.; and is
now imported free.*  When employed, it
is  pult into the milk before the earning,
and it is prepared by rubbing down the
requisite quantity in a bowl of warml  milk.
Dr Ure says, that "'the decoction of anlnotto in water has a strong peculiar odour,
and(I a disagreeable taste.  Its colour is
yellowish red, and( it remains a little turbid.
A'kt alkaline solution renders it orang,eyellow, clearer, and nmore agreeable; while
a  small quantity of a whitish substance is
separated from it, which remains suspended
in thl)e liquid.  If annotto be boiled( in water
ealon(g with  IIan alkali, it dissolves mrcli
bettertlian whlen alone,and the liquid has an
orIange liue."t  All the quantity ellmploy,et
is said to imnpart 11no peculiar flavour to tle
mcheese, which,  being  acknowle(dged,  of
what utility is it?-for as to improving tlhec
appearance of the cheese, I suppose it will
not  be denied that  Stilton and Dunlop
cheese look as well on the table as Gloiicester and Cheshire.   Marigold flowers,
saffron, and carrots, are also employed to
colour cheese, and the use of these also
imposes unnecessary trouble.
4249. It will be also observed, that the
fixed external franme is best a(lapted for an
extensive  clheese-room, wlere tlhe  raclss
nmay b)e placed in rows extending the leng,th
of tle  room, leaving fr ee  passage be        tween
the r(ws.  The  widtli  ot' the                        passages requires to I)e equal to hialf the leigh,t of tle
slhelf-framiie. or 3 feet; a rootmi, tlheretb6re,
20 feet wide woul(I contain 4 rows of suclh
racks; and if the lenigthi were  equal to 10
diameters of the clheeses, or containintg theat
number in the leng,tl, the roomn would contaiii in all 440 chieeses in the best possible
condition for their being prepared for market, havitng free ventilation, and access for
thIe dairy-maid to lhnd(le and wipe aniiy
cheese at any time.  We  li —ve no experienice of tlhis clheese-rackl in Scotlan(l; but,
judg],ing- fr(om-i  its  apparent  capabilities,
thlere is reason to tliirnk tlhat it mig,hIt b)e
employed with good effect in the extensive
chleese-(dairies of Ayrshiire and Galloway.
The  price. of a portal)le raclh. as  lhere
figured, capable  of hiolding,  55 ciheeses,
425)0. Tire casualties I hlave mentione(l,
as befallingr  cheeses wlieni dryiiig, are less
likely to befal ski!,imed-n.ilk c heese, the
ilmaking of whlich  I have hithlerto been d(lescribingr, tljan sweet-i i  lk  clch eese.  The l e
are made exactly in tlhc same nmanner witlh
tlhe millkasitcoiiiesfrom itlhe cow. One (lay's
milkl being insufficient to make a clheese,
the fresll iiorning's iuilkin,, is mixed with
thlose of the  )rev iouis day, the ol(dest part
of whiiclh will lhave  tlhrowni   up  a, covering
of creaam, whiclh is mixed thtrouighI the niilk,
and tle entire gatherings are heated witlh
at  )oition  of  the  morning's tnilk.  The
rennet is alp)plied in the samie anr-ntne., b)uit
in rathler ]altger quantity.   Greater difficulty w*ill be fountd  to squeeze  tlhe wlhey
ent irelyv fi'onl the (cuird thain from. thliat of
tlhe skiiini:ied i.iilk; andl it is this difficulty
of ex,,-)i-e:sitlg -all tlhe whey out of tlemi that
render   -s e          lcheeses imioI-e liable to
* M'Cllocli's Iictiouary of Cominerce-art.  4nnotto.
i Ure's D;6cticniry of the Arts-art. Annotto.
288
feriiietit,,tn(l. bui-,st, atid lose tl)eir sliape,.
The I)est cheeses iii Scotlaiid sell froin
50s. to 60s. the cwt.
is S4. 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
work-people in the villages, and  the whey  is
given to the pigs.
4252. The dairy operations of a carse-farm are
confined to supplying milk and butter to its inhabitants.   The same  remark  applies  to a
pastoral farm,  whether  of cattle  or  sheep.
Dairy-menl  in  towns derive their chief profit
from the sale of sweet-milk and  cream, and
the skimmed milk is readily purchased by workpeople.  From  the dairy-tfarms in the vicinity
of towns, sweet-milk, cream, and butter are disposed of; and the butter-milk and skimmed
milk  sold to the work-people.   True  dairyfarmers conduct  their operations  irrespective
of the immediate wants of towns; and butter
is made  by them from  cream  as well as from
niew milk.   Skinmmned milk and new  milk  are
made into cheese; the butter-milk is sold to
Fig. 384.
flm
PNe, 50 feet.
PLAN OF A STF.ADING FOR A DASRY-FARM~.
on the same plan as is given in fig. 93; but here
it is represented in connexion with the other
apartments of the dairy and of the steading, and
not as an isolated building as shown ill fig. 93.
The boilers for the preparation of the food are
in b, which is 1 7 feet long and 15 wide; the turnips are stored in c, 17 by  15 feet; the da'ry
ntensils are washed, dried, and cooled in d, alis         o
17 feet by 15; which containsi a boiler for heating
water or milk; t  is the milk-hose, 17 feet by
15, shelved round  k, whlere the lirge churns i           is
situated, moved with power, is 17 feet by 15,
k, an apartment for containing the salted blitter,
cheese-presses, and the smaller utensils not in
immediate use, is 17 feet by  15, and  in it is,
the stair l that leads to the cheese-roomn above,
extending over this apartment,  the churninghouse, and the milk-houise, in all 54 feet long
and 16 wide; the apartment e, 30 feet by 16,
contains the hay to be cut with  the chaff-cutter
at f, and the corn-bruiser g, for bruising the corn
for the horses, both-driven by power; n. is a large
apartment, 54 feet by  15, for containing raw
turnips and uncut hay for the cows; o is the
corn barn, 30 feet by 16, situate immediately
below the threshing-machine, which, in this case,
VOL. II.
is supposed to be driven by the water-wheel ia
p, but where may be   e rected th e steam- engine, if
such power is more eligible; a stair r, in the
corn-barn leads uip to the granary, 30 feet by 16,extending over tie apartment b; the  powe   r for
working the  chaff-cutter f, corin-bruiser  g, and
churii i is derived from the wa,ter-wheel in p, and
is accomplished by a lyitng-slhaft with belts and
pulleys; s is the straw-barn, 35 feet by 16; t is
the cart-shed, 24 by 18 feet, for accommodating
6 sinlgle-horse carts; the outside stair u leads to
a second granary above the cart-shed, 24 by t8
feet; X is the iay-house for the work-horses, 11
feet by  18, having the horse corn-chest in it and
com muniication with the work-horse stable, which
is U, 43 feet by  lI, affording accommodation to
6 horses, and a loose-boz-stall x; y is the ridinghorse stable,  having  two stalls 12 feet wide;
and z is an apartment 18 feet square, containingtaco boilers-ole for preparing the food for the
horses, the other for  that of the pigs and other
purposes. The piggeries, and the byre for the
young heifers brought up to renew the cow
stock, may be erected at convenient plams.
gt u
. vI
A,
289
4253. The convenient accommodation of the
cows, and the means of containing and preparing
their food, are of paramount importance to the
successful conducting of a dairy-farm. A good and
commodious steading is, therefore, an essential
requisite on such a farm. I have already given
the plan of a convenient and commodious byre
for the cows of a dairy-farm, together with the
arrangements for containing their food and preparing it in fig. 93; but to show the entire accommodations which the steading of a dairy-farmu
ought to possess, I give the plan of one in fig.
384, where a is the byre, 64 feet long and 54 wide,
4254. T'le large churn, moved by power in,
T 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
extensive dairies, may be of the construction of
the box-churn, fig. 374, or of the common plunger
churn.  As I have already given a figure of the
box-churni, I shall now give one of the plungerchurn, moved by power, as fitted up and used in
one of the most successful dairy districts of Scotland, Renfrewshire.  Fig. 385 gives a view in
perspective of the horse-course and churningroom in relation to one another, and which is the
more clearly shown by removing a portion of the
wall that separates them. The power in this
ease is that of the horse, which seems necessary
to be adopted where no water is available for
the purpose, and where a churn only is to be
driven; for a steam-engine, which would only be
employed, in such a case as this, every other day,
for 3 or 4 hours, and be restricted to give out
only one-horse power, would be too expensive
an erection for so diminutive an application of
power.  Where  a       threshing-machine is used, and
chaff-cutters and a bruising-machine employed
along with the churn, a steam-engine would be an
Fig. 385.
_
I, Im
5,,'' =c,
PLUNGRR-CHURNS FITTED UP WITH POWXR.
economical source of power.  Taking the horse
power, in this instance, as the best in the absence
of water, a b is the lever in the horse-course, to 
which the horse is yoked by the swing-tree  at a        o;
C is the pit containing  the  bevelled  wheel,
and the four arms of the frame which support
the upright axle to which the lever a b is attached.
'This wheel moves horizontally, and acts upon a
ibevelled pinion fixed on the nearest end of the
lying shaft d, which,being represented in dotted
lines must be supposed to work under ground;
and its farther end is attached to and moves
a spur-wheel, situated  in the  churning-room,
close to the working gear of the churns.  On the
bottom of a corresponding pit in the churningroom rise two parallel frames of cast-iroi, connected together at the top, and kept asunder
by a flanged iron-bar.  The reciprocating cast,iron lever f is supported by its fulcra near the
top of the frame, by means of a centre shaft pass*ing through the frames.  A counterpoise is placed
at the short end of the leverf, to bring it nearly
to an equilibrium.  The connecting  rod g is
jointed upon a bolt that is fitted to move along
the oblique groove h formed in the leverf, and
the crank to which the lower end of the contectiag-rod g is jointed is formed on a shaft that
290
I iii ,
i
9
I 7
... "Ilr
= 
turns in bearings in the upright frames, and which
sbaft, at the nearest end, bears a toothed pinion
which is moved by the spur-wheel on d, and at
the other end carries a flv-wbeel k, to equall''3e
the motion of the leverf, nd compensate for the
itieqiiality of the resistance to the plunger-rods in
their ascent and descent. The light shears I
embrace the connecting-rod'within its forked
end at It, aiid at the other end is connected with
an a,(ijtistij,,g-screw for the purpose of ledgtbening and shortening the distance I h, and so chatiging the position of the bead of the coiineeting-rod.
The head f of the lever is mounted with a pair
of side-links, jointed at one end to the crosshead at f, and at the other with the wooden
cross-bead into which the ends of the plunger-rods
of the churns i are pla,ced side by side. These
side-Iiiiks, jointed n.s they are at top and bottom,
producennimperfectparallelmotion,but sufficient
to answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rods.
4255. When this machine is in operation, the
revolutions of the crank- produce a reciprocating
action in the connecting-rod, which is communicated to the lever, and thence to the plungers;
and it will be seen that, by moving the head
A of the connecting-rod in the oblique'groove 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
of the lever, the strokes or reciprocation of the
plungers will be short or long as the joint A is
moved upward or downward in the groove.  It
is found, from experience, that there are advantages to the process derivable from this; hence,
at the commencement of the operation, the head
of the rod g is kept at the lower extremity of the
slit at A, producing the shortest stroke.  As the
milk becomes heated, and, from  the consequent
effervescence, its bulk is iicreased, the stroke is
gradually lengthened by turning the handle (f
the screw at 1, and by thus shortening the distance I A, the point A is brought to the head of
the slit, producing a stroke of the greatest length;
and when the effervescence ceases, and the blutter
has begun to form, the stroke is again gradually
shortened, till the process is finished with the
shortest stroke.  Tihe usual rate of the plungers
in these churns is about 50 to 55 double strokes
in the minute, subject to the usual variations
required in the different stages of the process.
The price of this machine, completed with horsewheel and gearing, is from ~15 to ~18.
4259. The circumstances affecting the quantity
of milk given by cows, are the breed, the kind of
food, and the time after calving.   Thie smaller
breeds of cows  yield the smaller quantity of milk;
and the  yearly  quantity  of th l r e  large  and smlall
breed s  has  been stated to  vary fr o m  4900+ to
2400 quarts. Cows fed    on succulent  food, a s
moist meadow grass, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and new sown grasses  will yield a   larger
qu antity of milk than  hay, routs, and pasture.
Cows, with Dr Thomson, that were fed on gra~ss
or steeped endtire barley, fell off in their milk trom
22i lb. to 174 lb., and from 22 lb. to 194 lb. X
day. According to Mr Aitoni, a variation in the
yield takes place from 1200 quarts the first 50
days, to 300 quarts the sixth 50 days after calvillg. ~
4256. The variety in the quantity and quality of the milk afforded by cows is so great
that to account for them requires a knowledge
of other causes than the circumstances in which
the cows have been bred and fed. I have myself had cows of the same  breed which gave
as wide a difference as 12 to 254 quarts a-day,
and I have known a cross-bred cow give 45
quarts a-day.* I have had cows whose milk
only gave a film of cream in the course of the
first 24 hours after being drawn, whils, the milk
of others, in the same time, would admit of the
cream being lifted off with the finigers. Mr R.
Pi,got has given his experience of the yield of
milk.  A Norfolk cow gave 3977 lb. of milk in
39 weeks, beginning to register the quantity a
fortnight after calving.  A  half-bred Scot and
Norfolk cow gave 3046 lb., or nearly 17 lb.
a-dav, for 26 weeks.  A true home-bred  cow
yielded from 16 to 18 lb. a meal, or 35 lb. a-day,
9 weeks after calving.  k)r R. D. Thomtjson states
that of the cows he experimented with, one gave
from 26 to 22 lb. of milk a-day, and the other
from 23 to 21 lb. a-day on grass.
4260. The circumstances which affect the quality of milk are snore various.   The breed has!a
effect; the small ones yielding richer milk than
the large, in which respect the small Kerry cow
is superior to the large Yorkshire.  TAe kind of
cfood, hay, corn, and oil-cake, produce richer milk
than turnips and straw, and yield more butter;
and bean-meal and tares afford more cheese than
oil-cake, corn, potatoes, and turnips.  In the time
from calving, it is well known that the first milk
of a cow, called the beistyn (2248) anid (2276,)
is  much  richer than the ordinary milk which
the  cow afterwards  gives.  In  wet and  cold
weather  the milk is less rich than in dry anii4
warim; and on this account more cheese is obtaimed in cold, anid butter in warmi though not
thundery weather.  Thie season has its effect:
the milk in spritig is supposed to be best for
drinking, and lieice it is then best suited for
calves; in summer it is best for cheese, and i*
autumin for buitter-the autumn butter keeping
better than that of summer.  Cows leIssf-equently
milked than others will give richer milk, anid
consequenitly more butter.  The morring!'s milk is
richer than the evening's.  The last drawn miik
of each milking, at all times and seasons, is richer than  any other part of the milk, and much
* Dr R. D. Thomson, in his ReseareAes on the Food of Animals, p. 138, regards the qualitities
of milk which I gave at page  1275  of the  3d volume of the former edition, as extraordinary.  They were given for such; and a cow  that requires to be milked five times a-day, to
keep her easy, must be an extraordinary milker.  The Scottish pint then used to measure the milk
I cannot define; but supposing it to contain three English pints, as stated bv Dr Thomson, aud two
such pints to make a qutart, the 17 Scottish pints will make 254 quarts; and the 30, the extraordinary
quantity, 45 quarts, the terms I have now given in the context being more likely to be genserally understood than the old Scottish measure.
' Thonisoti's ]?esearches on the Food of Aniftals, p. 49 and 50.
+ Dickson On Lire Stock, vol. i. p. 226,     ~ Aiton's Treatise on Dairy Husba ndry, p. 43-S.
291
from one of bis cows I I I lb., and from the other 81
lb. of bitter from 1427 lb. of grass given to each
in 14 da s.t
4258. The value of the produce of a cow may
be estimated itt this way: a cow that yiel4ii
half a pound of butter a da-y throughout the year.
and gives 300 gallons of skimmed milk, is a good
one. Hence 182 lb. of butter at ls. per lb. is X9,
2.;.; and 300 -,,a,ilo-.is of skimmed milk at 3d. the
gallons X3, 15s,, making the value of her annual
produce X12, ]7s., exclusive of the -matiure.
4257. As to the yield of cream from milk, Mr
Pigott fiiids 120 lb. of milk gave 10 pitits of
cream; which oii beii)g raised to the temperature
or 52', by placing it before a fire or in a waterbatli, yielded 60 ounces of'excellent butter iii 40
or 45 minutes of courting. New milk, at Id.
per I)itit is equal to butter at Is. per lb.,-l qiiart
yieldin,, 21 oz. of butter, after standing in a gla,ss
n,ilk-pan for 40 hours. Dr Ttiottisoti obtained 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
richer than the first driwiiwn, which is the poorest.
A  cow, before she becoime.sa.ayii  in calf, gives
richer milk than when she' is pregnant, a portion
of the secretion which supplies the richer milk
being, no doubt, witlidrawii to support the fretus.
A  ell-.formed cowv will generally give more and
better milk than an ill-formed one.   Old pasture
will produce richer butter than new.  Cows kept
constantly in the bqre are said to give richer milk
than those allowed to go at large at pasture, but
the latter are stpposed to yield more cheese,the exercise,perhaps,pre venting thelarger depositioi of the richer secretionl. Many other circiii-um
stailces may be known in different localities to
affect the quaiitity and quality of the milk of
cows; but a sufficient itumtnber have been here
related to show how varied are the circumstances
whiihl affect the produce of the dairy, and how
perplexing it must be to conduct it il  the most
profitable way.
4262. Milk consists, besides water, of organic
substances destitute of nitrogen —sugar and butter; of al organic substance containing nitrogen
il considerable quaiitity-curd or caseini; and of
inorganic or saline matter, partly soluble and
partly insoluble in water. This is the conmposition of cows' and ewes' milk, according to Henri
and Chevalier; and of mares' milk, according to
Luiescius and Bondt.:
4261. Milk.-The phenomena accompanying the
changes il milk are well known to every dairymaid, but few of them know that the constituent
parts of milk are only mechanically comsixed;
anul this must be the case even in the udder of the
cowr, othlerwise the afterings, which had occupied
the uppi)er part of the udder, would not be the
richest portion of the milk, nor the first-drawii
the poorest.   All, therefore, that is required to
separate the different parts of milk is rest and
time.  The cream or fatty part floats to the surfa;e in the course of a few hours; in a little
longer timne, according to the state of the temperatutre, the caseous portion becomes sour; and in
a greater length of time the acidity becomes so
powerful as to coagulate the milk in one mass,
and iii a still greater lapse of time the coagulated
mass separates into two parts, one becoming
firmer, or cheese, the other again fluid, or whey.
The rationale of this natural process is thus well
giveli by M. Raspail:-" Milk, when viewed by
the microscope with a power of only 100 diameters, exhibits spherical globulles, the largest of
which are not more than 0004 of an inch in diameter, and which, from their smallness, appear of
a deep black at the edges.   These globules disappear on the addition of an alkali, such as ammnonia, and the milk then becomes transpal             rent.
If the proportional quality of milk be more considerable, it forms a coagulum of a beautiful
white coloutir, on the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid.  This coagulumin does not arise nsinply from the adhesion of the globules to each
other, but it may be plainly seen by the microscope, that the globules are evolved il a transparent albuminous membrane, which has no appearance of a granular structure.  Milk, then, is a
watery fluid, holding in solution albumen and oil,
by the agency of an alkaline salt or a pure alkali,
and having suspended in it an immense number
of globules, which are in part albuminous and in
part oily.  The albuminous globules must tend to
subside slowly to the bottom  of the vessel by
their specific gravity, while the oily globules
must have a tendency to rise to the surface.  But
the oily globules being dispersed in myriads
Cow. 3    E.e.  Mare.
J}istyn.  Milk.
Casein,....  150,'7 44.8  45.0  16.2
Mucus,....   20.0
utter,....   260   31.3  4,0  tra
Sugar of milk,..   trace  47.7  50.0  87.5
Salts,.....    6.0  6.8 )
Water,....   803.3  870.2 856.2. 896-3
1000.0 1000.0 1000.0 1000.0
Butter gives its richness to milk, sugar its sweetness, caseini its thickness, water its refreshing
property  as a drink, and salts its peculiar flayour. Of the different kinds of milk enumerated,
the superior sweetness and thinness of mares'
milk are accounted for by the large proportion of
sugar and the small quantity of casein it contaiins. It appears that beistyn contains nearly
three timies more casein than milk, and only a
trace of sugar of milk, no salts, and a large proportion of mucus; and nine times more casein than
mare's milk.
4263. Milk boils and freezes about the  s  ame
temperature as wat er.   Mil k may be prevented
becoming sour by being kept in a low temperature; in a high temperature, on the other hand, it
rapidly becomes sour, and, at the boiling point, it
curdles immediately.  The acid of milk is called
the lactic acid, which in its nature resembles acetio
acid, the a(,id of vinegar.  " The change whiclt
takes place -when milk becomes sour is easily
understood," as is well observed by Professor
Jlinstoin.   " Under the influence of the casein,
the elements of a portion of the milk-sugar are
made to assume a new arrangement, and the
sour lacti( acid is the result.   There is no loss of
matter, no new elements are called into play,
nothing is absorbed from the air, or given off into
it; but a simple transposition of  the eleimenits of
the sugar takes place, and the new acid  conmpound is produced. These changes appear very
simple, and yet how difficult it is to conceive by
what mysterious inttuence the mere contact of
,   * Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 380-2.
292
ami(lgt equally numerous albuminous globules,
they cannot rise to the surface without taking
with them a greater or less number oftlie globules
of albumen. Hence, at the end of twenty-four
hours, we find on'tbe surface of the milk a crust
composed of two layers, the upper one of which
contains more butter than milk, while the lower
contains more milk than butter. The separation
will take place equally with or without the coittact of the air. The liquid part which lies under
the crust contains the dissolved albumen and oil,
with a portion of the sugar, the soluble salts, aii,i
a certain quantity of the albumen and oily globules."' 
MAKING BUTTER AND'CHEESE.
facilitated by a rise, and retarded by a depreSsioni of temperature.   At the usual temperature
of the dairy at 50~ Fahrenheit, all the cream will
probably rise in thirty-six hours, and at 70( it
will perhaps all rise En half that time; and when
the milk is kept near the freezing point the creamu
will rise very slowly, because it becomes partially
solidified.  Lassaigne found no difference in the
ratio between the bulks of cream and whey from
the same cow, fed on beet-root, hay, and straw,
from 42 days before to 4 days after parturition,
when the quantities were 200 volumes of cream
to 800 of whey;  but by 30 days after parturition the volume of cream had decreased to
64, and that of whey had increased to 936, atid
by that time the water in 100 parts of milk had
also increased to 90.
this decaying membrane, or of the casein of the
milk, can cause the elements of the sugar to break
up their old connexion, and to arrange themselves anew in another prescribed order, so as to
form a compound endowed with properties so
very different as those of lactic acid."*
Phosphate of lime,..  231  lb.
Phosphate of magnesia,.    0.42,
Phosphate of peroxide of iron, 0-07,
Chloride of potassium,.    1-44,
Chloride of sodium,..    0'24,
Free soda,...    0'42,,
4'90 lb.
3-44 lb.
0'64,
0.07,
1-83,
0'34,
0'45,,
6'77 lb.
4268. "Cream does not consist wholly of fatty
matter, (butter,)" observes Professor Johnston,
" but the globules of fat, as they rise, bring  up
with them a variable proportion of the casein or
curd of the milk, and also some of the  milksugar.  It is owing to the presence of sugar that
cream is capable of becoming sour, while the
caseins gives it the property of curdling when
mixed with acid liquids, or with acid fruits. The
proportion of cheesy  matter  in cream depends
upon the richntess of the milk, and upon the temperature at which the milk is kept during  the
rising of the cream.   In cool weather the  fatty
matter will bring up with it a larger quantity of
the curd, and form a thicker cream, containing v
greater proportion of Cheesy matter. The com.
position of cream, therefore, is very variablemuch more  so than that of mnilk-and depends
very much upon  the mode in which it is collected."  In warm weather, therefore, the cream
should be rich, though thin. Cream, at a specific
gravity of 1-0244, according to the analysis of
Berzelius, consists of  Buttter, -Rparated by agitation,            4-5
Curd, separated by coagulating the butter-milk,   3-5
Whey,......  92-0
100-0
4265. Lassaigne obtained some curious results
on observin        g  th       e    t        of the  cmpositionl of the milk of a
cow,  which         he       examined        at ten different periods,
four of these before  and s        ix after parturition.
Th        e          mil k  examined  dur ing the first three of the
former periods, na mely,  42 days, 32 days, and
21 days before parturition, contained no casein at
all, but in plac e of   it    a lbumen; no sugar of                  milk
and no lactic acid, but a sensible quantity of
uncombited soda. The milk examined eleven
days before and just after parturition, contained
both albumen  and caseini; while milk eleven
days before parturition, and always after it, containied free lactic acid and sugar of milk, but
no free soda. The milks examined 4 days, 6
days, 20 days, 21 days, and 30 days after parturition, contained caseini and no albumen.  It
would appear from these observations that the
milk of the cow is at first very similar to the
serum of blood; and that the casein, sugar of
milk, and lactic acid, to which it owes much of
its distiniguishinig characteristics, begin first to
make their appearance in it about eleven days
before parturition.
4266. Brisson states the specific gravity of
various milks: but it is important to remark, that
it varies so much, even ill the milk from the same
animnal, that it is impossible to give a correct
mean. The specific gravity of cows' milk is
low, being 1X0324; its whey is, of course, still
lower, 1'0193; and that of ewes' milk is the highest, being 1-0409.  Lassaigne examined the specific gravity of cows' milk at various distances of
time before and after parturition, at a temperature of 46~ Fahrenheit, and the results were
generally, that at 21 days before parturition it
was highest, being 1'064; anid lowest at 6 days
after parturition, being 1-033.
4269. The quantity of cream which any given
milk contains can be easily M,easured by the.qalaotoneter, which conisists of a narrow tube of glass
not more than 5 inches in length, 3 of which is
divided into 100 parts, and oii being filled with
milk to the top of the graduated scale, whlatever
number of degrees thle thickness of the cream
embraces, will be the percentage of the cream
yielded by the milk.  Ftbr examIIple, it the cream
covers 4 lines of thle scale, it is 4 per cent; if 8
lines, 8 per cent.
4270. M. Raspail alleges that tl e dairymen *
the neighbourhlood of Paris take off the cream
from their milk, and supplyv its Ilat-e with raw
sugar, and an emulsion either of sweet alnonds
or hemp-seed.  Milk is sometimes  adulterated
by the addition of starch, and sometimes a portion of carbonate of potash is added to it to presvent it from curdling.t  I have detected magnesia
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Cheitistry. 2d edition, p. 1007.
t Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 385.
203
4264. The composition of the ash of milk is as
follows, according to the analyses of 1000 lb. of
milk each of two'cows, by Haidlen -.
42C)7. C-ream.-Cream cannot rise through a
great depth of milk. If milk is therefore desired
to retain its cream for a time, it should be put
into a (Jeep narrow disb; atid, if it be desired to
free it most completely of its cream, it should be
poured into a broad flat dish, not much exceeding
one iiivh in depth.  The evolution of cream is 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
in cream in Holland, put in to thicken it.  In
Londoin, the milk is so adulterated with water,
that some dairyinen  have adopted the practice of
drivin, their cows along the streets,aand supplying
it to their customers direct from the cow.  Both
the milk and cream obtained from the dairies in
the neighbourhood of Edituburghi are generally
free from adulteration.  The worst material put
into the milk in the public dairies of Scotland is
water.
4275. The proportions of butter yielded  by
milk varies considerably, from 1 lb. of butter
frtom 15 quarts of milk, as in Hflolsteinii, to 1 lb.
from 8 quarts of milk of the Kerry cow.t It is
a good cow which gives 1 lb. of butter a-day
during the season; and perhaps 8 or 9 ounces
a-day would be nearer the mark, as the quantity
given by the general run of cows over the kinigdom.
4271. It has been observed that the Equisetum
fluviatile, the great water horse-tail, gives the
milk a leaden or bluish colour, and deprives it of
its cream.   It is believed that the leaves of the
bulbous buttercup, Ranunculus bulbosus, is perilicious to tile milk, bult there is no sufficient
foundation for the assertion, as cows will not eat
the plant; but it is known that the broad-leaved
wild garlic, Allium ursinum, is eaten by cows,
and gives a most oflfeiisive flavour of garlic to
milk and cream.  This is an aInnoyance'to which
the settlers in some parts of Canada are peculiarly subjected.
4276. The changes induced in milk and cream
to the production of butter by agitation in a
churn, are not yet well understood.   It appears
certain that the presence of air is not necessary
to the conversion of a part of the milk into butter, since a close barrel-churn produces butter as
well as an open one.  The formation of butter,
therefore, must be purely a chemical process, and
it becomes  the chemist's office to explain the
sensible changes which always accompany  the
churning of milk.  These sensible changes are,
thle milk becoming sour, and the butter being
separated from it in a solid form.  The sourness
of the milk is explained by  the change of the
sugar of milk into lactic acid, effected simply by
a new arrangemenlt of constituents. The separation of the butter from the sour milk, inl a  solid
form, is owing to the breaking up of the envelops ot the globules of fat, and the mutual adhliesioi  of these globubtles when  they comie inito contact with each other. It is evident that this is
entirely a, mechanical effect, but it is probably
facilitated  by  the action of the acid thinning
away the envelops of the globules of the tat,
when they begin to burst.
4272. Skimmed nil k.-The co       nstitu ents of
skimned milk, according to the analysis of Berzelius il 1808, are
W       ater,      u..
Curd, not free from butter,:    ]    ]
Sugar of iiilk,..
Lacetic acid, a,Id thte lactate of potash,
Chloride of potassium,.....
Phospt'ate of potash,.
Phiosphate of limle and magnesia, with  &
I trace of iron,......
4273. " Natural emulsions," observes Professor
Johnston, "1such as the substance of the nerves
and brain, are c(niisidere(i by Miuiiler to contain
a species of chemical compolund of the fatty matter with albumen, which  has the property  of
mixilig with water.   Iii the nieries of a dead
aiimal, this compound  begins imrmediately to
decomipose, the fat retreating itiwards, aid formilig a transparent axis, the albumen gatleiiigerig
itself towards the exterior of the fibre.  Is muilk,
then, a natural emulsion, which, while in the
udder of the cow, is under the secret iufltenice
of the vital power, and which, when (Irawis from
it, begins immediately to decompose, like  the
substance of the nerves and braiii, because the
influence of life is no longer exercised upon it."
4277. Butter  consists of two elements, in as
far as its tatty natter is concerned-margarin
and elain, (1634,) the  former giving it 2hardness, and  the  latter  s oftness.  In winter, the
margarit  is ii  greater propor t i on i n butter  than
in summer, and in cool weather than in warm;
for it is possible, chemically, for elaiii to be  p)artiallytratisforiiied to margarin, by I part of liquid
elaic acid absorbing from  the air, or from any
other source, 4 parts of oxygen, giving off 2 parts
ofcarbonic acid, and becoming transferred to inargaric acid.+   Such a  transference is probable
in churning il the open air, but it does  not explain the obtaining  of firm butter in all circumstanjces, since as firm butter can be made in a
close barrel-churin as in any open one.
4274. Butter.-" Butter," says Professor John$toin," prepared by any of the usual niethods, cilntains more or less ofall the ingredients which exist
in milk.  It consists, however, essentially of the
lit of milk, intimnately mixed with a more or less
considerable proportion of casein anid water, and
with a small quantity of sugar of milk.   Fresh
butter is said to contain about one-sixth of its
weight (16 per cent) of these latter substances,
and five-sixths of pure fat, according to Chevreul.
* Johnston's Lectures on A49ricultural Chemistry, p. 807.
+ Journal if the Ayriculteral Societt if Fnyland, vol. i. p.386
I Transactions oj'th lt Hiyhlai;, and Agriciultural Society, July 1847, p. 62.
294
.How much of the 16 per cent usually consists of
cheesy matter may be seen by this statement:two samples of fresli-butter, from ci-e(tm, exainined in my laboratory, have yielded oijly 0,5
and 0-7 per cent cheesy matter respectively. This
is certainly a much smaller quantity tliaii I bad
expected. Does butter from the whole 2nilk cuiitain more 1 " I
92-875
2,80,)
3.500
01600
0.1110
0-625
0.030
100-Of*
4278. Butter-milk.-Biitter-inilk is the portion
of the milk or cream which is left by the btittl-r,
after the process of churiiitjg is finished. it is 
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
sour to the taste, thick, and consists of butter,
curd, and water.  When fresh, it is a pleasant
beverage, and the working classes relish it much
as an article of diet at breakfast. When allowed
to stand, it becomes sourer and bitter, and is fit
only to be given to the pigs, which relish it much
as an article of food.
simply in the rapid conversion of a portion of the
sugar of milk into lactic acid, which acid, like
vinegar, has the  property  of curdling  milk.
Many substances are recommended to be used as
rennet besides the pig's stomach, such as pure
curd, agreeable old cheese, the natural fluids of
the stomach, the first extract of malt, and sour
leaven. After suggesting these, Professor Johnston "particularly recommends trials to be made
of the pure prepared curd.  If we are able to
rescue the manufacture ofrennet out of the mysterious and empirical hands of the skilled dairymaid, and by the use of a simple, abundant, easily
prepared and pure rennet, can command at once
a ready coagulation of the milk, and a curd naturally sweet, or of aflavour which we had foreseen  and commended,  we  shall have made  a
considerable step towards the perfection of the
art of cheese-making."t
4279. Curd.-" The casein of milk," says
Professor Johnston, " is similar in coumposition to
th     e  fibrin   of w heat, the iegudcin              a of the pea and
bean, and the albumen of the egg, or of vegetablei
substances.  Hence  the  opinion first suggested
by Mulder has been pretty generally received,
that the cheesy matter contained in an animal's
milk is derived directly, and without any remar-kable change, from  the food ol which it
lives....  It appears that, ill the presence
of sugar, casein is capable of changing or decomnposing the fatty bodies also, and of giving birth
to oily acids o,f various kinds. Now, il milk, in
cream, and ill butter, the casein is mixed with
the sugar of the milk and the fats of the butter,
and thus is in a condition for changing, at one
and the same time, both the sugar into lactic
acid, or butryie acid, and the butter into other
acids of a fatty kind. Among those acids into
which the butter oil is convertible, are capric
and caproic acids, which are still more unipleasant to the smell and taste than the butryic
acid, and which are known to be present in rancid butter." *
4285. Curd for rennet may  be prepared in
this way: " Heat a quantity of milk which has
stood for 5 or 6 hours, let it cool, and separate
the cream comrpletely.  Add  now to the milk a,
little vinegar, and heat it gently.  The whole
will coagulate, and the curd will separate.  Pour
off the whey, and wash the curd well by kneading it with repeated portions of water.  When
pressed and dried, this will be casein sufficiently
pure for ordinary purposes.  It may  be made
s till more pure by dissolving it in a weak  soluition of carbonate of soda, allowing the solution
to stand for 12 hours in a shallow vessel, separating any cream  that may rise to the surface,
again throwinvg down the curd by vinegar, washing it frequently, and occasionally boiling it with
pure water.  By repeating this process three or
four times, it may be obtained almost entirely
free from  the fatty and  saline  matters of the
milk." +
4281. Whey.-WWhey is the watery substance
of milk let loose after the formation of the curd
by earning.   It has a yellowishl-green colour,
and an agreeable sweetish ta.te, in which the
flavouir of milk may be distinguished. The last
portion of the whey squeezed out of the curd is
whitish in colour, and contains both curd and
butter.  Almost the whole of the curd may be
se)arated, by keeping the whey for some time at
a boeiliy,   ternperature. By evaporation, whey deposits a numraber of crystals of sugar of milk, which
coinstituites about two-niniths of a per-cetnt of the
whey, the water forming 93 3 parts out of the 100.
4286. Cheese.-As the food afforded from  24
to 3i acres of land is commonly supposed sufficient for the support of one cow the year round,
by taking the medium of 355 lb. of cheese for
each cow, the quantity  of cheese produced  lty
one acre will be 118 lb., which is supported by
the authority of many  statements.  But during
the summer season, cows will afford from 14 lb.
to 20 lb. of cheese, or more, in the week, when
no butter is made." ~
4287. The  composition of  cheese  is as follows:
Skim Milk   DunlIop.    Cheddr..we Milk.
W'ater,... 43-82        38-46       36-04    40'13
Casein,...  45'04          25-87       28.98    33'48
Butter,            5-98      31-86      30-40    19-80
Ash or..        5'18       3'8o        4.58      6'59
Saline matter, }
100-02     1oo-00     100,00.o  o-o
The quantity of butter in the Dunlop  and  Cheddar cheeses is great, and it is it which establishes
their rich character.
4282. Whey is an excellent food and drink for
pigs in summner, and particularly for a brood&ouw, when  suckling pigs. It forgs a safe aperieiit
for dog,s-io better medicine can be given daily
to a pack of fox-hounds out of the hunting season.
4283. From 100 gallons of the whey obtained
fromn sweet miilk curd, 10 or 12 gallons of cream0
. miay be obtained, from which  3 lb. or 4 lb. of
butter imay be made in tile ordinary imiannier.
4284. Rennet. —Thle action of reninet consists
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 970-3.
+ Transactions of the  IiyAlsand and Ayriculti'ral Scity, July 1847, p. 65.
+ Johnston's Lectures on A.qriculturat Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 969.
~ Dickson O0i Lice Stock, vol. i. p. 237.
295
4280. Exact and repeated trials have shown
tb.-tt about 15 ga,llons of inilk are necessary for
rnakiiigaboutll lb.oftwo-iiiealclieese,aiid that 1
lb. of curd is produced frum I galloii of new milk. 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
to the appearance of the cheese.  If a little bit
of butter be worked into the curd, and the cheese
kept for three or four months, it will then be
very good-at least it will taste like ewe-milk
cheese. Cheese can thus be made on a small
scale, even from the produce of one cow." t
4288. "The saline matter of cheese is only
derived in part from the milk.  The phosphates
of lime and magnesia attach themselves to the
curd in the making of cheese, while the soluble
salts remain for the most part in the whey.  But
the cheese is cured with salt, and the quantity
added varies with many circumstances. Hence
the ash of cheese consists chiefly of the earthy
phosphates, mixed with common salt, and with a
very small proportion of chloride of potassium.
4292. Cheese, of good quality, it is said, is
made fromn potatoes in Thuringia and Saxony in
this manner:-After having collected a quantity
of potatoes of good quality, giving the preference
to a large white kind, they are boiled ill a cauldron, and, after becoming cool, they are peeled
and reduced  to a pulp, either  by means of a
grater or mortar.  To 5 lb. of this pulp, which
ought to be as equal as possible, is added one
pound of sour milk, and  the necessary quantity
of salt.  The whole is kneaded together, and the
mixture covered  up, and allowed to lie for 3 or
4 days, according to the season.  At the end of
this time it is kneaded anew, and the cheeses are
placed in little baskets, when  the superfluous
moisture is allowed to escape.   They are  then
allowed to dry in the shade, and placed il layers in large vessels, where they must remain for
15 days.  The older these cheeses are the more
their quality improves.   Three kinds  of tihea
are made.   The first, which is the most common,
is made according to the proportions just given: 
the second, with 4 parts of potatoes and 2 parts
of curdled milk: the third, with 2 parts of potatoes, and  4 parts of cow or ewe  milk.  These
cheeses have this advantage over other kinds, that
they -do not engender worms, and keep fresh for a
number of years, provided they are placed in
dry situation, and in well-closed vessels."+
h Dunlop i.  8kim                                  t     ilk.
!ahy phosphates in a 100 of ash,.. 53-38    52-64
.....     cheese,..   2 0)3       2-58
Common salt in a 100 of the ash,..  32-37    42-13
......     cheese,..   1-23        2-06
"The most practically useful result exhibited in
the above table is, that every 100 lb. of cheese
contain, and therefore carry away from the land,
2i lbs of earthy phosphates. A ton of cheese,
therefore, takes away about 60 lbs." *
4289. The form of the cheese, as indicative of
the kind or of the country in which it is made, is
not attended to in Scotland.  In England, the
double and single Gloucester, the North Wilts,
the Cheddar, the Stilton, and the Cheshire
cheeses, are recognised at a glance; and so are
those of Gouda, Kanter, and Edam in Holland,
as also the, Parmesan of Italy, and the Schapzieger and Gruyere of Switzerland.  The only
determinate form of cheese I know of in Scotland
is the brick cheese of Lanarkshire, which has
been introduced to public notice in the last few
years. The neglect of a marked form of cheese, in
the Scottish dairies, implies a want of status for
their cheeses in the cheese market; and until this
condition is complied with, the Scottish cheese
will not ta]ke its rank amongst the well recognised cheesiief other countries-it will not pass
current in commerce without suspicion and challenge of an assumed character.
4293. The country between Cremona and Lodi
comprises the richest part of the Milanese. In
Como the cows number 57,000, and at Cremnori,
9,700.  The grass is cut four times a-year as
fodder for the cows, from whose milk is made
the well-known cheese called Parmesan.  The
cows, which are kept in thle stall nearly all the
year round, are fed during summer on two  or
three crops of grass or clover, which  are  cut
green; and in the winter in the other two, which
are hayed.  " The cows are generally bought in
Switzerland, where they are generally reared at
less expense.  The calves are killed for meat.
The cheese known by the name of Parmues;an, is
made chiefly in the country extending from Milan
to Pavia and Lodi, and from Abbiategranio on the
Ticino to Codagno near the Adda.  The value of
the cheese annually made, on an average,atiounits
to 37i millions of lire." ~  The farms are small,
not exceeding  60 acres, and  the  cheeses very
large; so that at least the milk of 50 cows  is
required to make  one  cheese, and  more  freqqu iently that of from  60 to 100 cows  are put
into a cheese.  To attain this end, the farmners
club together, and lend their milk to each other
in rotation to the one who is making  a cheese.
Parmesan cheese is made of skimmed milk, which
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 1007-8.
t Journal of A4griculture for October 1843, p. 167.
+ Quarterly Journal of  gricultuse, vol. ix. p. 310.
~ Von Raumer's Italy and the Italians, vol. i. p. 173.
296
4290. Cheese may be made from the curd obtaitied in heatitig wl-jey, in the same manner as
from the ordinary curd, if the whey is not desired
to be given to the pigs III its ptire and nourishing
,state. The curd thus obtained from whey, if
not made into cheese, may be usefully employed
in feediiig poultry, which will willingly pick it up
if thrown down to tlierii in pellets.
4291. Cheese is made from butter milk. This
is a recipe for making it by Miss Neilgon of
Kirkintilloch:-" The contents of my churn I
put into a pot which I ha,ng over a slow fire.
The butter milk curdles, and the curd sinks to
the bottom of the pot. I then pour off the whey,
and work the curd as I would do tl)at of other
cheet3e, giving it salt to the taste, which is about
half the quantity given to skim milk Curd. The
curd is then put into a clean coarse linen cloth,
tied tight, and hung from the ceiling to dry for a
few weeks, when the cheese is fit for use. The
linen cloth, when hung in a net, gives a neatness 
MAKING BUTTFR AND CIIEESE.
is earned by heating iil a cauldron;and the whey
is separated from the (,tcurdi by rulling down a.n
incl,ined board, upon which the  curd is placed
before beinjg placed ill the cheese-vat.  Parmiiesan
cheeses are usually about 1  2 lb. each iii weight, m
the heavier the better, and sells in retail at from
2s. to 3s. per lb. or ~14 to ~16, 1 6s. the cwt.
not reqbire any iore s alt than h   that  which was
put in witl the curd.  It should be a twelve month
old bef(ore it is used, when it may be expected to
have a little blue mould, and be rich in taste and
mnild in flavouir. Stilton cheese sells at las 4d.
per lb., or ~7, 9s. 4d. the cwt. in retail.
4296. Besides the casualties arising from fer               Fig. 386.                mentation,
(4 2 4 5,)
is  subject
to the at                                       tack of an
tie, wl ba t tfinsect, tho
cheese-fly,
the cow, aPiophila
ofJ theE wiho6lbeclsaotsp ct        casei, fig.
oTHIE CHEESE-FLY.-PIOPHILA CASEY.  386.  The
fly is ready to deposit its eggs inthe deepest crack
it can find, by means of an extensile abdominal
tube. The specific distinguishing characters of
this insect are, in the words  of Mr Duncan" About 2 lines in length, the whole body of a
greenish-black colour, smooth and shiuing; front
of the head reddish yellow, paler yellow on  the
under side.  Thighs ochre-yellow at the base and
apex; tibive deep ochre, the first and la-ist pa,ir
black at the apex; anterior tarsi black, the others
ochrey, with  the  2 last joints  and  the  clas;
black; wilngs clear and iridescent, slightly titt'el
with rust colour at the base; liha'lteres oclrey." *
ig. 387.        TThe  cheese-inaggots, fig.
387, prodluced  frttin tlis
fly, are as large as tlhe fly,
and commonly called jum        c i fi 2        pers. " When this miaggot
beiiig) p repares  to leap, it first
I  siiffci    erects itself upon its aius,
ni s  ik ad    asrepresentediii tlhefigure;
and then, bending  itself
n t w e n i;into a circle, by briiigii)ng
TIhIE CIiERSH-,IfGGOT. aits  head  to its  tail,  it
si oo e e ld c k TE C-  pushes forth its unguiform
a r tl m.:-dibles astd fixes them in two cavities in its
anal tubercles.  All being thus prepared, it next
conitracts its body into an oblong, so that the two
halves are parallel to each other.  This done, it
lets go its hold with so violent a jerk, that the
lsounid produced  by its mandibles can be easily
heard, and tl:e leap takes place.   Swammertlam
saw onie, whlose lei:gthl did not exceed the fourtlhpa,rt of an inch, jump il this inanier out of a box
6  inches deep, which is as if a man 6 feet high
should raise himself in the air by juniping 144
tfeet! tlie  had seen others leap  a great deal
hiiglher."t 
4294. Chieshire has long been famed for the
Dumber of its clieese-dairies. S;o long ago  a.s
1808, it was estimated that 100,000 cows were
used in the dairies ot' that county, aind which
produced every year 11,500 tol., of cheese ot 60
lb. each.   The county contairns 600,000 acres,
one-third of which is ini grass; anid allowing 2
acres for each cow, the yield of cheese, at that
time, would be abouit 21 cwt. from each cow.
The produce now, 1849, is estimated at 3 cwt.
the cow, and some cows give 5 cwt.  Cheeses
of the weight of 60 lb. each lose abolut 15 per cwt.
of their weight duirinig the first year.  Cheshire
cheese sells at 8d. per lb. or ~3, 13s. 10d. the
ewt. in retail.
4295.  It is improbable that any farmer, not a
dairy n )e, wi ll try to  make. Cheddar       or a C3hesliire cleese, but many             onairy-naidis    tmany be
tempted to make a             Stilton cheese for danily ause.
Thee f    tllowing is a goo(     recipe fis r makling one.
The  cheese-vat ii a tiiu-plate cylinder, 10 itnclhes
high, 25 rounitd on the outside, without  top or
bottomn, having  the side pierced with  holes, to
let out the whey.  The reIIiiet is made  in the
usual way, only the stomnach of the lalimib is used;
and in addition to the ordin,ary quantity of salt
used in it, a lemon stuck full of cloves is put illto
the jar amotngstit, the lemon adiniiiig to the efficacy
ofthe renniiet. About 9gallonsofnewxiiilk,aiid the
creani fromti 2 or 3 gallotns  of irilk, warmiied betore
being put in the  milk, are used for one cheese.
If suifficien-it new milk  canniiot be obtained, the
night's milk and creamn are iised with tlhe mnorniing'si milk, as well as the extra. creami.  Thje rennet is put in warmIi when thet miilk is niew; anid
when it has become  curd, it is niot broken, but a
strainier of coarse linieni is laid in a clheese basket,
and the curd put into it, bietking it is little as
possible; the cross  corniers of wvliieli zae drawn
together, ani(d it remain,s in) titis way some hour.s,
until suffi:ciently firm to slice.   The curd is put
in the vat il slices, a layer of curd antid a spriniklinig of salt alternately:  thi?s is conti,ued utitil
the vat is filfl; theu a fiat square piece of board
is placed at the top of the vat, oine having, been
previolusly laid at the bottom, placing (-,tie lhanid
at the t,,), anid the other underneath.  The cheese
is then to be tuirnled over very quickly; its own
weight is a suifficient pressure; keep turning it
every two or three hours the firs,t day and two
or three times niext (lay.   It is to be kept ini the
vat three oer f-)tir days, according to tlhe firmniess
of tlhe culrdl.  When taken out, a thin piece of
calico is dil)ped  in boiling water anid wrinng ouit,
and then pinniied tit,Itly round the cheese.  This
cloth  remains on it until it is thoroughly diry.
The cheese ihould be turned twice a-day; it does
4297. When cleesee p,asses its stage of ripeness
it becmiies nioildy, itf kept  iii a rather  darnp
situation, which all ripe  chleesei should be  to
retain their moisture and flavour, and  where the
flavour is mur,li enhanicedl by the producetiont of
blue  iliould.   It is possible  to  inoculate  new
* Quarterly.tLrnal of A!/'icul-tsite. vwtl. xii. p. 126.
t  Kirby and Speuce's Istrotductioa to [Eut'omol(oqy, vl. ii. p. 283.
297 
PRACTICE-SUMMER.
cheese with the mould of old, and thereby at once
to impart the flavour of ripeiess.   This process
is easiest (lone by iulsertijg rolls oftioulded cheese
extracted by the soop or spyter, into holes previously ma,de inr the new  cheese by  the same
scoop, an instrument usually employed by cheesemoing,,ers to taste cheese.*
4302. Accordling to the microscopical observations of M.  Ttrpii, it would appear  that  the
globules of iiiilk, which in a  pure healthy state
are always large, nunierous, spherical, and alive,
becomne changed in their form  and colour when
the cow is under the influence of the disease
commouly called iu France the cocote. The cocote
seems to be the same disease which afflicted the
cattle of this country some years since, by renderiug their feet hot and sore, and their tongue,
and the inside of the inouth, iiiflamed and blistered, inducing a considerable discharge from it of
saliva in a viscid state.
4298. Towards a still ftlirtlher period of decay
than this of itiou]din-iess, cheese is attacked by the
well-known, anid, by sonie, highly-p.rized clheesemite. Acq:r s siir0 ot Lifnimis. "We often wonder
how the chlee:e-:nite is at hand to attack a cheese
wherever deplosited;  but when we  le arn  from
L,eewerlhook tlat one lived 11 weeks gummed on
its back to the poillt of a nieedle without food, our
wonder is dimiiitnished," say  Kirby and Spence.
Both clheese-miiag,g,,ots aiId mites, when numerous,
destroy chlee,se rapidly, by crumbling it into small
pieces, and by emitting a liquid substance, which
causes the decayed parts to spread speedily.  They
ma.y  easily be killed, however, by expostre to
strong lheat, or by plultging the cheese in soeme
liquid, such as whi-ky, capable of destroying the
larvae, withlout communlicating any disagreeable
flavour.
4303. This disease, when it appeared in this
country some years since, was conisidered  a new
one;  btut that it visited this country many years
ago, inay be learned from these observations: —
" In the  hot summer  of  1736, this distemper
began under the toligue, and swelled  the throat
down to the breast, whiich, if not speedily remnledied, kills in a very few hours." ~
4299. Rats and inice are remarkably fond of,
and  commnit  sad  havoc aiiioiigst  all kinds of
cheese, butt p:articularly old ones.  Nothing but
a well-fed( cat caii deter these vermin  from  a
cheese cellar, where poison cannot be employed
with impuiity.
4304. Amongst the first symptoms of the
milk being affected, after the cow has been seized
with this complaint, is the change of colouir trom
the natural one to a dirty yellow.   The globules
becomne  irregutlar in size, some  individual ones
acquiring a considerable magnitude, others shrinking is diameter and dyittg; wilst outiberib of diftiere40t sizes cl uster togethe r, and  a  few, after death,
assunme a green olive hue.  At a more advanced
sta,g,e of the disease, the globules all die, and becollie corru,gated in the edges, more equal in size,
larger, and fewer in iiiinuber. At a still later
date, the globules,ire of unequal sizes, less regularly corrugated, aid  miuc2h fevwer iu inumber,
floating about in a serlumii of a dirty yellowish-green
colour, when the odour becomes fetid.  " One canntot give the name of milk, at least of pure  milk,"
observes M. Ttirpin, " to all the liquids which come
out of the teats of a cow whose  udder is in a
state of irritation, and the interio.r of whose teats
is inifla.aed with pustules.   In this pathological
state, all tlhe functions of  the  tidder are in disorder, aiiid the three great secretions of the lynplh,
blood, and m-ilk are wrong. Their respective globules, altered in their form  anid ordinary  colour,
lose their special characters, often to the degree of beinlg not recognisable.   The particular
rotute whiiich each of these different secretions follows niear each other, in a sta~te of healtlh, they
break  throug,hI, and  thie three kinds of globules,
being  confounded  toget~ler, colme  mixed to  the
outside by the endi of tlhe teats.  The cows, sick
in the cocte, furnish those  liquid.s in that state.
It is well to kniow that imiilk containing lymnphatic anti   bloodly go,bules is not Ibuirtfiil to health.
We  think, in spite of  the disgust which it mrlay
4300. Prussic acid is:said to have been found
by Dr Witlit,g as a spontanceouls product of the
decay of unsound (cheese.  " In one experihuent, I
examiined 230 grains of decayed cheese, by digesting it in a snialtl quailntity of distilled water, and
gently distiili g the iiiixtuire.   T'rhe liquid thus
obtained  had the odour (,f decayed  chleese, and
colt.tinted ainrroniia, but not the slightest trace of
prussi  acid could be  detected in it by the most
delicate tests.'jlhis experiimenit was  repeated
with Stiltoii and other cheeses in various states
of de(.y;',)t even thie sulphur  test  failed to
show  that  iany portion of prussic acid was pre,eiit.   Lare quastities  ot decaLyed cheese are
sold t  tlhe poor iII Loiidiii, but we never hear of
aiiy  eif,-ct. like tlhose causel  by p)russic acid r                            esultig!'r ir,)  its use.   I have f      tieiid sucll ciheese
to be  ot a  irow)vii colour, of a lii,lily offeusive
odour,.tud poss1esiig ai acriul bitter taste.   The
decayed  ori.s of the better kinds of cheese, in
all sta,es  tf animal deconipositioii, andl covered
witlh  veget,.ible growtlis, are, it is well known,
eateii hy ilie epicure also without ac(cidleit.  If
prmussic acidl were pro.dui ed, as is alleged, notlhing
couldl prevent its vola,tilisation as rapidily as it was
for,edl, illie.s it was pretended that the acil was
fixed! IJlfsoitiid clieese  ialiy act as an irritant,
but its poisoious effects  ire then not due to the
presence of prussic acid."t
* Prize Essays of the Hlighland and Agricultural Society, vol. ix., p. 232.
+ Taylor On Poisons, p. 697.              + Parliamesltary Retuarns, 26thl February 1849.
~ Ellis's 1Jlodern HIusbandman, vol. iv., August 1745, p. 114.
1)98
Imported. Rome Consumption.
1847 354,802 ewt.  36(;,2;9 cwt.
1848 444,0,")2, 431,401,
The import duty, by the tariff of 1846, is 5s. the
cwt., aiid Is. 6,1. when brought from aiiy British
possessioll.+
4a'Ol. I' ie qtia-iitity of cheese imported, -,iiid
entered f.r lioiiie cotisuiiipti(-ii, w,,ts a-s f'oll(,ws: 
MAKING BUTTER AND CItEESE.
excite, milk in that state may be nourishing, if
the globules, though dead, are elitire, anid not yet
decomposed and passed to a puruilent and fetid
state...  One thing surlprises at first, if we
do not know that the udder of a cow is composed,
by  contiguity and  conirexion, of four distinct
udders, each terminating by its own teat, anid the
fiunctions of which are carried on indepenidenitly
of one another, as much as the separate breastsofa
woman-is to see the same cow, affected with the
disease, often produce from one of its teats excellent milk, and from another, situated at the saieie
side, a d(lead iinodorous milk, aid fr.im a thirdl a
purulent milk with a horribly fetid odour.  This
proves the independence of thIe sources of the
physiological functions of the four simple quarters of the udder, though  intimiately bournd by
approximation il one udder."'*
4314. Crea0n-cheese. " One pint of  creamr )einig
mixed with 12 pinits of noont-day  miilki, wvt,rtofl
the cow, a litt-le renniiet is added,  atl(l whletn th)e
curd is come, the whey is poured  ouit genitly, so
as to break  the curd  as little as  pos.,ible.  It i.s,
thevr  laid  in a cloth, aand  put ito:r sill st   c ieaue;
the cl)tlh is changed everi  lotiur  duri nlg the df ty,
ais md in 24 hiours it will be fit f lor us.  It i.ry I)e
served on a breakfast plate with vinie leaves  tit-ler
it,  andl it will keep  perfectly  goold only ot.(:
day."t  A  sillier mode is to put  rich cream il
muslin clotlh, ahd change the  clo,th until the reamii
comries to  the consistency  of  taki,ig  the fo)rmti of
a mould, wlhen serve oni vine leaves or greet
rushes.
4305. It is in the power of every farmer, whatever may be the kiiid (of farmiintg hie pursues, to
furnish his table at a-ll seasons, auid particularly
in summer, with maniy pl)easanit antd wholesome
dishes from his dairy.   I shall shortly eriuinerate
a number of those dishes.
4315. New churned unwashed butter is a great
treat to breakfast.
4306. Curds are obtained by simply earninig a
dislful of new milk. It may be served up simiply in
the diisi in which it lia.s been made, or witih grat    4ted
loaf-sugar sprinkled over the curd deprived tof
whley, which gives it the appearance ofa prepared
dish, and is eaten with sugar arid creanm.
4316. Ilatted kit is one of the pleasantest preparattionis of milk. Make 2 quarts of niew miiilll
scaldilg hot, and ponir upon) it quickly 4 quar-ts of
fresh butter-milk; let it staned, without stiiriiig,
till it becomes cold arid firm; then take o'f the
hat or ripper part, drain it iii a hair-sieve, put it,
iiito a shlape for half an hou)r, tiurn it into a dish,
and serge with  creaur and  sugar.  The  slight
acidity of this  dishl, with  thle  richness of  tIe
cream, anid the sweetnes,s of the sugar, combine
to make it a very delicious dessert.
4308. Plain cream, whether sweet or sour, is
an excelleirt accomnpaniment to oatmneal or barleymeal  porridge, (1931,) or to sowens.  Withlout
cream, tea arid coffee would lose much of their
reli-li; and so would pastry and jellies and preserved fruits.   Flour-bread, eaten  with  crearm,
makes a nice dessert.
4317. Float-wo eyi s anot Iher prepara        tion  equally
good  as hatte   d  kit, aii d  more delicate.   Pof r ir e
all the whey  drained  trom  the  new-milk cheesbe
that has just be en made, into   a scm,all lurid ace-polt;
apply a slow fire, aoid raise  the  whey  tear  the
boioiig poipoit, but iot t) let it boil, else  thoe curd
will fall to  the  bottom. Dcmipi)getlle  heatilng, a
sceum of curd  f,)riiis uiponi the surtece of the whiey.
Take  then one quiart of fresh  butter-milk, and
potmr it gently over  the scumin, and as   muhell as
unitil the  scumn l-as attainied some thickness antd
consistency.  After pIouiring  in some cold water
to lower  the tempnerature of the  whey, thereby
rendering the  scumII more consistent, skim   off thle
setum uipo) a hair-sieve, put it into a mouhi, auid
on turning it out a shIort time after, serve  with
sugar aiid creamn.
43-09. The clouted cream of Devonshire is prepaieti by strairidg t                  he new-cnilk into a slshallow
disl!, into which a little warm water  has been
previotsly- put; and after allowing it to stani-d
fromn 6 to 12 hours, it is carefully heated over a
slow fire or hot plate till the nmilk approaches to)
the boiling point; but it must not actually boil,
or the skin of creain will be broken. The dlish
is thenr removed to the dairy, and the creanm allowed to cool, when it riray be used as cream or
irade into butter.
4318. To make Irish tiro-rnilk whey, put
two-thirds  of   sweet-mnilk  into   a  sautcepan,
and miiake it boiling  holt; thenr pour in  one-third
of  butter-milk, gently  stirring it round  the
edges  of the pan.   Let the whole  comre to a
bt-il; take it off the fire, let it settle, and strain
off the whey, which makes ani excellent driink in
fever.
4310. Milk oatmeal por-ridge is more agreeable
to the palate than  water  porridge, arid when            a
eaten with creari foriris a rich diet.
431 1. Hilf-chur-ned creamn is a better accomlipaniment to o,atrieal porridge thani plain cream,
the slight acidity imparting a pleasant taste.
* Turpin, En Me'moires de l'Acadeniie Roiyale des icience.i, tom. xvii. p. 214 and 239.
+ Dalgairni's Pcictice of Cookery, p. 467.
299
4312. Cre'am may be used as an enitil-,ioii wit,S
all sorts of pre,,ierved fruits, of wliieli it
the fl-,tvour; and perhaps no fi)rrn of l
more agreeable or iiiore generally adiiiired tliait
blancntange flavoured with aiiiiotid.,i.
4313. Iced-cre,.zm, flavoured with               t)r
-vanilla, test.es ricit aiid cool in wariii weat)jer.
4307. A sour coq is a dish of nlilk allowed to
stand with its creain until the railk becorne-3
thoroughly coagulated by sourness, and the sour
ci-earii atid nlilk are eateii together witli or without
.sugar. It is served in the dish in which it is made. 
PRTACTICE-AUTUMN.
AUTUMIN.
RUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND
OP TIlE WEATI:IER IN AUTUMN.
is this which makes the principles of seasonal action  thliekeni upon  us as the year
advances  and the  autumn  to become  the
nrarvest of knowledge,as well as of the fruits
of tlhe earthi.  Nor  can one help:tdiiiring
that bountiful aind beautiful  wiisdom whiclh
has laid the elements of instruction most
abundantly in thle grand season of plenty
and,raLtitude."   But grateful as the hlus banidiian  iimust always feel for the boun ties of Providence,,so imiichi labour is
bestovedl, so i,nuclh anxiety is felt by hiimi,
ias regards the effects of the vicissitudes of
the se,asons, before " le gatlhers his wheat
into  tlhe gariner," that  the reflections to
which thle  consumniiation  of  liarvest  is
calculated( to give  rise are,  I fear,  constrained, and'even selfish.  " For as the
annual  harvest which we obtain fronm  the
earth, is received by us as  resultin,g from
tlat in which *e have a ri,ght of parol)ertv,
a merit in labour, or both uinited], wve are
lap)t to forget tile part which Nature has
in the   l produlletiveness of the year, and look
iupon tlie " hole  produce as  thle return  of
our  own calitl  anlld our own skill, just as
na-e do iii any  neclhanical  work, or iercantile speculation.   Tlh,at this is tlie true state
,of the case, is proved by  thle  habitually
prroverloial fact, theat tcie ciltiv ators of tlhe
ground, fis r tlwhat purpose  soever tiley itav
cutie saeo  at  e taklwnays  co,,plainid, g of thie
wveather, as t     sle grand ea elly bv wh lictl all
tleir lal)(d,rs are frbestrteb,ly    n (all l  their
rproducts  dimine i slced.  They  are  iowise at
be slt tlyesen llves, )ut the I   p   eary tweatlier'
never will be,,I*e,lienlt to tlheir dictates.
What withl IaiI1  liat with droughIit, wimat
withl what         wit c  olt,  eacW;  thriu s tini g
itself f,,r,%-,rd at the timre when its opt, osite  wtI,ld li-ave  been  by far t!,e  mnloro
bsenieficial, the  crop tley,et  is  alwaysXv
' below a fitir aiverag,e;' a,ltd what thsey do
get, is gottell  in'sp.)ite of  the weathe r, and
not  b.y m3eans of its co-(o)peration.  It is
ill vaini t lint the fable of tle fairmter-iinto
whose  hands  Jtupiter gave tle  imnage,nent of the weather, -anJd who, by having
4319. In  taking  a  retrospect  of the
different    seasons, we  hlave seen                  Winter
the                         season of dorFmanc,y, in  which all nat      u      r      e       desires to be in a  state o f  repose.,Spring, tile season of reviwdl, in wl)ichi tlhe
re    turning                   power of ntnature inspires oevery
created                                              being, with new vigouI,-SuSiiier,
the                          season (,f progress,  i n whic!  na t ure
p      u      t      s fforthl all her energ,ies, to increase. nd
multiply  her various prodUCtions,-atad
now                          we contelmp)late Autumni, th e  season
of fruition,  in  which nature, in  )                iriniging, tlhe individual to perfection, makes
provision tlherein  for the future  preservation   of its kind.                                  While,  howev er,  t he
na tur a l action of                 spring and sunmmer is
si            n gle,  that of autumn h   as a compoun(d
c  h aracter.                                          " TThus,  if we  follo w ou t  th e
s tdi(ly    of tthe aautuiitn in a       proper manner,
it leads  us                      to all  the re v eolu  tions th                                at
have  tismken place  in the sur fac                       e of our
Idanet; and in this way, a plant of wlhichl
w e can, in a                         few  months,    see the b)e,inming, t!e perfection, and th              e  d ecay,  b ecotmes to us an ep.)ito,ne of the system  of
growing,  nature in its widest extent, and
throutg,hi its miiost prolong,e(d duration. This
is  the  grand advantage  wh,Ilichi studyintg the productions  of  natu,'e in  their
co     nnexion,                                      and the events  and  oc ccurrences of nature in their succession, l as
o      v      e      r tl e    mere o(servations of  the ii,livid            u           a            l substane   nd te and te passin g,inoeinentt;
and it is this which gives t,, the law of
the seasons so high,Ii a value above all the
b)eautties of t!:e seasons taken in tl!ei,' inidividual character."
43'20. Autumnin matuires its produicts, in
which  tile toiling laboiirs of' the lthusbandnan,  for the preceding  twelve  iiinitliS,
find their reward.   In it, lihpe is l.)st in
the l)ossession of tle thin, lhol)ed for; andi
beca these it yield.s a plentiful                             tharvest, it is
also tlhe season for gratitude anid joy. "1 It 
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PI, 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
daily mean  temperature, for 30 years,
occurs on the 8thl and 9th of January. Tihe
greatest mnonthly imean pressure occurs in
June, and the lowest in Novermber.  Fre m
June thle monthly mean pressure declines
till Novemnber, when it ag,ain rises and
attains a second nlaximum in Jarinary;
and, again falling,  comes  to  its secondl
mi-nmum in March.  During 38 years, the
greatest altitude attained by the barQmeter
was in 1825, whlen it was 30'81 inches;
and tlhe greatest dtepression observed was
in 1821, when it was only 27 99 inches.
Oil       Mine rl
Barometer, Aneroid. Sympieso- Sympiner                                mee.:meter.
May 4, 10 P.M.   29-82         29-87-1 29-78    29-7.5
... 5, 8 A.M. — 82   —'8 21 -'78   -'75
Difference.           0         5                 ~'0
1'''   I~~~5'
Here we  hav e  t        he a neroid in
with a bright slky, and ever
of a lovely dav, still uncon
in doubt as to what is fortle
his companions  say notlin~
that, lookin,g  at  appearaii
wrote down my re,ister, I a]
wletlher this timie tlle anel
iiglgt, but at 1 r. m. I becar
that tirere was no mistake.
that at least four or five
January  1, 1849,  this  ins
given me simil ar evidence o
ritv as a forewarner." *
allu(led to, a flower-slhow too]
Chiswick gardens, and in th
very heavy rain fell. The
/orewarner of weather, thus
celleiit instrument for the farr
4325. The  phenomena  accompanying
the oscillations of the baronmeter of a general character, applicable to all seasons, are
these -A fall of the mercury witli a S.
wind is invariably followed  by rain  in
greater or less quantities.  Great depressions are followed by change of wind, and
afterwards by much rain.  If the mercury
rise with  the wind at S. W., S., or even
S. E., the temperature is generally high. A
rising baronmeter with a S. wind is usually
followed  by fair weather.   Such a rise,
however, is of rare occurrence.  Stornis of
wind, especially when  accompanied with
inmuch rain, produce the greatest depression of the nmercury.   No  great storm
ever sets in withl a steady rising baron)eter.  If, after a storni of wind and rain,
the mercury remain steady at the point
to which it had( fallen, serene weather iJay
follow without a chlange of wind;  but, on
the rising of the  niercury, rain and a
change of wind niay be expecte(ld.
Average of each
Month.
( November,   29'801
WINT?lR,. December,    29'884
[`January,.  29'909
( February,. 29-'859
SPRING,.  March,.. 29-857
[ April,.     29'865
fM ay,.. 29'884
SUMMFiR,.June,.. 29'910
.July,.     29'894
( Aug,ust,. 29-890
AUTUMN,. September,  29'872
(October,.  29-851
4326. If tihe weather, during liarvesttime, has been generally fine, and a fall of
the mercury, with a shower, occur-if the
wind turn a few points t,, the N., and the
baronmeter rises alsove 30 inches, the weather
nmay be expected to be fair for some days.
4327. Winds.-In  England, the winds
which blow  for thle greatest number  of
days together, witlhout intermission, are
the W. and W. S. W.  They blew strongly
for five consecutive days in 1840.  The
E. and E. N. E. are the winds  next nitost
prevalent.' The W. winds surge niostly by
night, and  their average  force is twice
that of the E. winds.  The E.  winids are
generally  calm at  n ight, butt blow  withn
sotne power  dtrinig the day. On an
It seems the greates         t  da ily mean pressure
for thie year occurs al-out the 9th January,
atnd thre. miniotanm daily itmean depression
t(owardis the end of Novemiiber. It is a
remarkable coincidence that the lowest
* Gardener's Chronicle, May 1849.
302
4324. In bringing our meteorological
observations to a conclusion, I sl)all confine myself to giving -,i few results of a
general nature. The mean height of the
barometer for every month of the, year,
at Green%vich Ob,-ervatory for thirty years,
frotn 1815 to 1844, was as follows, accorditig to the seasons as we li.ave all along
divided thein:
29-864
29-857
29-896
29-871
29-872
Avemge of the year, 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
average, sunrise and sunset are the periods
of the twenty-four hlours in whlichi tlhere
is thlje least wind.  An hour (or two after
noon is thle period whlen th)e wind is thje
high,est.   As a general  rule, whlen  the
wind turns against thle sun, fromii W. to S.,
it is attended with  a fa-llitii  mercury;
whlen it goes in the samne direction as tihe
sun, or turns direct troni  W. to N., thle
mnercutry rises, and thlere is a probability
of fine weather.   In highl  pressures tlhe
upper current usually sets froiim the N.;  in
low pressures it sets from thie S. and S.W.
4331. Accord(ing to Kirwan, after 41
years' observations, in tlie beginning of
every year, tlhe probability of a dry atituttin
occurrinn  is as 11 to 41; of a wet one as
11 to 41; and of a variable one, as 1 9 to
4328.  Rain.- Tlie  following  is thle
quantity of rain that fell in eaclh month at
Greenwicli,,in an average of 25 consecutive
years, from  1815 to 1839, arrange(l according to our division of the year:
4332. Clouds. -- Tle cirrus cloud is
seen at all seasons of the year, and at all
heiglhts of the barometer.  If tlie mercury
be falling its clhanges are rapid, and, on the
approach of rain its delicate texture becomes confused, and is ultimately lost in
one dusky mass, reseniblinggroundqlass.
(November, 2'49 inches.
WINTZR,    December, 2'25...
{January,   1'57...
(February,  156...
SPITNG,.March,. 1e71...
April,.  1'83...
(May,.. 201...
SUMMI&R,  June,          1'91...
July,       2-41...
Au,,ust,.  2'33...
AUTUMN,, September,'50...
October,   2'52...
4333. Thle cirro-stratus is also seen at
all seasons of the year; and is thle isurne... *   diate )recursor of rain  or wind, and of a
falling baromneter.  It is in this cloud that
halos, parhelia, &c. are formed.
4334. Thle cirro-cumulus attends a ris            ing  baromlneter.   Coloured coronca have
2.45...    their origin in this cloud.
4335. The cumulus frequently attends
a rising barometer.   If,  during, a fine
tmorning, this cloud suddenly  disappear,
and it befollowed bytthecir),o-strattuscloud,
with the wind tacking to tlhe S., the mercury falls and rain soon  follows.   TlIo
cunmiulus usually evaporates an hour or two
before; but when it increases after sunset,
and shines with a ruddy copper-coloured
lighlt, it denotes a thunder-storm.
It appears tha~t the greatest average quiantity t)f rain falls in October, and the least
in  February.    The  he-aviest  rains, or
those wlhich  yield the greatest quantity in
the gaugire, come down in tl)e sunmmer and]
early autumI'nal monthls.  In the suiiimmer,
1I inch will sometimes fall in less than
an hour in short buit impletuous torrents;
in autumn the samnie quantiLy will occupy
mnany hours in fallitng.*
4336. The effect of the cumulo-stratus
cloud on thle mercury aplpears to be to give
it a tendency to rise.  It indicates thunderguists, showers of hiail, and sudden changes
of the wind,  It is thle densest modifica-tion
of cloud, and, as it passes overhead, it
causes a reduction of temperature.
..    0-079
O-1236
0-3285
4337. The nimbus is never seen with
the barometer at great elevations.  The
* Belyille's Manual of the Barometer, p. 16 to 33.
30:
4330. Accordino, to the i3ame authority,
the number of rainy days in the same
period is as follows:
Augu.-t,
Sel)tember,.
October,.
16-3 d.,ty!s.
:: 1-1-3...
.. 16.2...
44-8 days.
41.
A,Yer,,ge of each Average of each
Motith. Season.
2-10 inches.
2-11
2-09
Average of the year,
4329. The quantity of rain that falls in
the aiitutiinal nioiitlis as we liave. divided
tbem, taking the niean as 1, is, accordin(,r
t,o 1,1. Flager,,ues, in
6
Augu,st,
September,.
October,
t 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
rainbow is thio lovely  attendant  of the
iiiutbns only.
intensely as he can depictur exquisitely,
seemii to suipply tlhe tiioral to the sentimlllnts
just expreszsed:
4338. The str(ttus is the clotiud nearest
the ground.   Calmin weather is essential to
the formiation of the stratus.  It is frequent
in  fine autumnal  nigihts and  iiiorniiigs,
sometimies resting on  the ground, sonetinles lhovering, somie hundred feet above
it. It obscures the sun until lhis rays have
raised the temperature  of the air sitfficiently to evaporate it, wh-en it (raduallvy
disappears  and leaves a clear lulie sky.
The stratus deposits moistlure.  It is called
the ni,ght clou(l, and is niost frequent from
Septeimber till January.  It has no sensible
effect on the barometer.
"A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun:
A gleam of crimson tin-ged its braided snow.
Long hlad I watched the g'ory moving  on
O'er the sofl radiance of the lake below.
Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated slow:
E'en in its very motion there was rest;
While every breath of eve, that chanced to blow,
W,Iafted the traveller to the beauteous west.
LFmblem, mnethoug,lt, of the departed soul,
To whose white robe the gleamn of light is given;
And, by the  breath of terci y, made  to roll
Right onward to the golden gates of heaven,
Where to the eye of faith it peaceful lies,
And tell to man hlis gtorious destinies."
W,ILSON'.
4341. Objects  in  the hlorizon-trees,
hlouses, and  ruins-are projected in bold
relief against thle clear cool sky of a
calm autumnalevening, at sunset.   Suchl a
scene as thlis-if gemtred, moreover, with
the radiant and lustrous evening-stardirects the niind to  thoughtful mneditation, deeply tinged with melanchloly. Who
would disturb the }oly aspiration?
4339. In laot si                                  ultr y weather, especially
after a sli,,t fall of tvhe iiiercbtry, smiall
clouds sov -etimie s su ddenly  fortt  i n a  cl      e        ar
bilue  sky,  and as suddenly  oval                                 n is: tis is
a sur          e  isign of electricity.   If the  c louds
are sithout  any  prol,ressive           motion, and
ilncrease rapidly, a stnorI, in all pa     robability,      will be in the vicinity; but if tlhey
love  hiurl riedly  t owa rds an     y  particular
iquarter  of  the heavens, tli         t stormh will be
in thle direction whiitlier the clouds are
s      eeon to hsten:   t    hese  si,rls  of thunder
are seen,  tlio,h o thee stor sul inay         be 150
iles   (listant.   In certain state  s of t lhe e
atm.sI!~ere, wdlen the cloud,,s rise confuse?dly, and( clhange their formis abruptly, it
is dlifficujlt for tie inexperienced to class
tlhem; the prevailing   modificationi of the
day, ini conniexiorn with the mr,ovemient of
the barmoneter, is, however sufficient to
establish the clharacter of the weather.
In August, it is.   10'701
, September,.    9'560
, October,.       *     7'868
Their sum,.    28'129
In November, it is.    5'644
December,.     5'599
, January,..     4'509
Their sum,.   15'752
At the approach of winter, when the hieal.
diminishes, the quantity of water precipitatted in the form of rain, dew, and hoarfiost, greatly exceeds thlt whlichl  passes
into the state of vapour.  The  quantity
of vapour goes on diminishing, wli le theI
humidity is continually itncereasing,  and
is greater in NovemIber ald December
than in tie mnonthl of January. This is the
ori,gin of the danlp cold whichi cLharaeteri:s
those two monrths.4
434(). "The splendid crimson," observes
Ir Belville, " contrasting a aitic the  delicate  azo re  of a fin       e autu mt   n3aicl sunTiset, and
the goldeln  flood  e a e              croacnli n  fi e oni     o i a the
deep!duIte of a sumiimier's slunrise, are chiefly
r-eftbrat)le to the lofty cirrus and  cirrocumttulus clou(ls. Perliaps no climate in the
temperate zO,ne caI boast, dlurin  the fiie
l>tteio(i of the year, of clo)u(ds of so many
beautiful and so v aried  forimis as Grea'lt
Britain.    They  are the produictions  of
Gre.-t Nature's lhaind, aind are anticipated
with equal delight by tie pai.ite'r, ftle iieteorologlist, an( tle c,ntemplativemicd."'
The fullowint, lines of a p)(o)et, whio can feel
I BelvilIe's 3fanutal of the Baromieter, p. 28-32.
t Kacmtz's Comnt1ete Course of MeteorologyL, p. 92.
V04 
4342. The tension of vapour in the
autiitijnal and winter moutbs, according
to our division of the year, is as follows:
4343. Prqnostics.-Tlie, autumnal floi,a
consists of Micliaelnias starwort.S 
quarries whlich run under parts of thle city.
It is necessary to exercise tlhe utlI)ost care
in eniployitng fungi, the nature of which         u
is not perfectly well iltderstood, in conseqluence of the reseml)lance of poisonous
and wholesomie species, and the dreadful
effects that have followed tlheir incautious
use.   It is universally known  that the
common niushroomi is cultivated with as
imutcli certainty by good( gardeners as any
other vegetable.   The  excellent Boletus
edtlis.has been partially cultivated in thlle
soutli of France.   Tle conimon truffle lhas
been atteipl)ted with more or less success.
l'olyperus forenttaius hla3s beeni artifie(ially produced in Germiany,  a(nd five or
six crops have beeti obtained in a year.  A
curious parasitical species, Cyttaria Darwe iii, forms thle l)rincipl)al p)art of tlje foo(l
tf the natives of Terra del Fuegro, durirng           6
itlalny mllitlis of thie yearl. Fiing(i arie niuclih
utse(d iii Australia by thle natives, especially
(of the genutis Boletus..  The large truffle,
JIylitt(  A ustralis,  (Beikeley,)  wNhiclil
attain)s a weighlt of  miore thian 2 lb., is
knownr  under the naiiie of native bread.
The miarslupial  aninials  are  particularlyv
fn(lI of fIungi, and soIme species tlhey lIuiitt
for so greedily,  d(levouring thlem  before
they burst thlroughl  the earth, that it is
very  difficult to procure  a  well-grownv s
speciinen."*    -                                       g
4345. "1Ketchup, a, liqiior made  frotn
mushroomis, has occasioned faintness, nausea, and severe pain in the abdomen, disappearintg only after soniie hiours. There
are two ways of explaining this  effiet,.
either that the individual  labours tinder
idiosyncrasy with respect to mushroomjis in
general; or that noxious fungi lhave been
gathered, by nmistake, for esculent muslhroomis.  The poisonous principle contained
in muitshiroomns is called fungin: it appears
to be of a volatile natule, and soluble in
water; for some varieties of noxious m uslhronos nay be eaten witlh impuinity, wlhen
tlhey lhave been well boiled in water andI
afterwards pressed,"+ (r pickled in salt
and vinegar.
4346. It is in autumnl that  irregularities in the functiornsof the digestive org,as
— suclh as chlolera, diarrlhca-happen, besidies the milany  (lisea-ses that in tropical
climates accompany particular winds or
weatlier.  It is difficuelt, in certain states (of
the  -ttmiospliere, to' regulate  the bowels,
eitler bv liiedicine, (liet, or exercise, so as
to effc t tle desire(! changes in the anilnal
economy.  It is possible there  niay  be
diiTereint states of atmosphere wlli act a,tsi
specific stimuiiili, aii(i produce their corresponidiing, pcuIliar, diseased, nervous actions,
whlich are further varied by the particular
state of constitution,  aInd otlier  circunistances of the patient.  There, seemns no
s4 344. Dr  Poisoning by mes        uslrooms," obs4rves Dr Taylor, "'is by no means unusual
Lindley's Veqetable Kinydom, p.- 37-9.
VOL TX.
t Taylor.- Poisons, p. 768.
u 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
other way of explaining either the recurrence of the cholera ill this country, from
1832 to 1849, or of its decided effects in
one locality more than in another.
of     Skye; the breaking of the bannock, and
the firing of afeu-de-joie in honour of the
vanqtuislher of Lucifer and his host, by St
Michael and hzis angels-an emblem of
which, in the vane, surmounts the steeple
of the town-house of Brussels."*
4347. There are four proverbs extant,
connected with the months of autumnn:
4349. An atinospherical delurision, occasioned by a cloudl comnmon in autiumii, tie
stratus, is recorded  as halving lhapl)enef;
some years agtO at Florence.  A  stratus of
shallow deptlh, but very intense  where it
prevailed, intercepted  the  view  of  the
dome of one of the churches from the spectators in the streets, while the gililed image
at the top was left exposed to view.  The
consequenee was, that the lpopulace, seeing
the  bright formi of an angel thr(ugh  the
mist, which just   the n        began to be thin
enough to admit elf the image being seen,
ascribed the a.p)earaince to the real descent
of some celestial being. Ilal tihe fog continnied till night,   there is no saying what
new miracle migh-t not heave been recorded
as the testimony to the phenonlenon was
both numerous anti respectable.
Dry August and warm, doth harvest no harm.
If the twenty-fourth of August be fair and
clear,
Then hope for a prosperous autumn that year.
September, blow soft, till the fruit's in the
left.
Good October, a good blast,
To blow the hog, acorn andl mast.
'4348. Of meteorological antiquities,
isthe feast of St Peter ad  vincula, or
Laminas day, 1 st Augulst, is said to have
been the first of the Egyptian year; and
old legends relate certain cures of disorders
in the throat, made thiis day, by touching
the chains of the saint.  On the assumption of the Virgin Mary, August 15th, it
was formerly the custom to imnplore a
blessing upon herbs and plants of diverse
kinds, which, being afterwards burned,
were esteemed a cliarni against witches.
The 1(;tli of August, dedicated to St Roclih,
was celebrated as a harvest hoiiie, a practice still kept up inll many countries.  The
quantity of knives given away at Croylan(l
Ablev, on St Bartholomew's day, 24thl of
Augiust, as noticed by Mr Richard Gough,b
olriginated probably in the story of the
knlife withl  which the apostle was flayed
alive.  The feast of the exaltation of the
Fhlly  Cross,  September  14, can have
no other connexion with the growth of
nuts in the hedges, than that it is celelr)ated.at a tiiiie of the year when they
;:al)ound; yet an ancient custom prevailed
of  going a-nutting  on  holy-rood day,
which it was esteemed quite unlucky to
osmit.  The particular time of the year
when  nuts may  be ripe has  probably
suggested this notion; as also the flinging
of apples and cabbages at one another, a
-clistom  practised  at Kidderminster- a
ceremony to commence which the bell in
the turretof the town-house used to be rung.
-The 29th of September is the feast of St
Mfichlael and all Angels.  Many customs
remain in force on this day, as the eating
;fgreen geese; the procession in the isle
Mean of the thermometer in England, in        August,.    62~'20
September,      56~'87
October,.    50W  55
Mean of  autum n, 56~' 54
Tension of va'pour for 56~.54 - 22'09.
Mean fall of rain in Eliglaiid, in        Auigust,.  2'06 inches.
Septenmber,       2'67
October,.    2'28
Mean of autumn,   2'34
Prevailing winds in England, in        August.    S.W. to N.W.
September,       N.W. by S.W. to S.
October,.    W. by  S.E. to N.E.t
The number of storms in the west of Europe,
in autumn, is 20-9 in 100.
The number of hail-storms  in England, in
autumn. is 22 in 100.
* Forster's 7?csearches into Atmospherica Phenom nena, p.299.
t Whistlecraft' fClimiate (f England, p. 54-222.
$06
4350. Mean of ttie atmospherical pl)enoinena of ailtumn are as follows:
Mean of the barometer iii England in    August,. 21;,91 inches.
September, 29,92 -
October,. 29,92 -
. Mean of autumn, 29-58 
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
in the sowing of a new crop of wheat,
while the oll crop of the sane grain is in
thle act of being reaped; and another is,
that while the spring is thle ntatural season
of preparing for the reproduction of mnost
of thle animals of the farm-, the autumn
is the one for the preparation of the reproiucti.n of the shIeep, the most vauinable animal of all, when the tup is put
amongst the ewes.
Aurora borealis observed in        August,.       217 times.
September,        405 -
October,.      497   -
There are two maxima of aurora borealis, one
In March, another in October.
Number of fire-balls seen in        August,.        69
September,          51
October,.        61
In August, when  shooting-stars are common,
then are also many fire-balls.
4354. A tendency to disease seems to
exist in  autumn in  the animals  of the
farm: sheep are liable to I)epatitis; calves
to quarter-ill; the hlorse to colic, and even
inflaiiimnation of the bowels; and stallio(iis
and geldings lose their spirit.   Perhlaps
the  nutritiousness  of  the  aftertmathexcess of nitrogen-on which all the aninials subsist in autumn, niay predispose
the animnal  systeml to secrete one  class of
fluids, and thereby induee particular complaints in the others.    if this be the true
theory, preventive  measures  slhouldI be
sou,ght  f)r and obtained; and  oil-cake
seeimis to possess a counteracting property.
A  preventive  remeily against annoyance
to slieel from parasitic insects, and cul d, is
bathing and smearing.
4351. The great event of autuimn is the
harvest, which engrosses thle entire tirme
a     Tl a ttention  of the farmner  and  all his
assistants, until the crol is secur ed b eyo nd
dahneger in tthe stack        -yard; an(dl untiln it is
secured, the fardner                      cannot   rest in quietness.
Duriig  this eventful period, the farmer
t       ough t    to lh,ok about hiym night and day,
rearding the "fae faeof t e  sky," atnd  to act
with  circuintspection.  The results of the
whole year of labour bein g   at stake,  un                       less
hie feels            that lie has  applied his nutnost
skill, and exercis        ed h   i         s best judgmenth,
duirin, the year, lie cannot be satisfied witl;
himinself.  N(one can miiore anxiously than
the fa-rmer follow this advice:      The  wind, e  in  the rain, te sun,
Their genial task have do ne,
Wvuldst thou be fed,
Man, to thy labour bow,
'J'hrust in thy sickle now,
Reap wlhere thou once didst plough,
God sends thee bread.
JAMES MONTGOMrRY.
When every straw is safe in time stack-yard,
andi he has closed the stack-yard gate for
the season, then, andI not till then, ought
thle farmiier to be satisfie(d that his task is
finished, and that ihe may now enijoy repose. The labour of lharv-esting a crop is
almost  incredible.   Only c(onc(,eive  the
entire farinaceous food of such a nation as
this, in value worth a hundred millions,
reaped and carried into safety, in miniute
portions, in the course of a single month!
4355. The sports of the field commence
in August.   The gatherings on tlhe hills
on the fianied 1 2th of Alugust, in quest of
the unique-flavoured red grouse, L~qopus
Scoticues-of which  Scotlandl should  be
proud as its only indigene find a h,n,e in
shlielitigs, which, at offler seasons, in the
enjoyment of urban  luxuries, would  be
contemiined. Partridge-shioothig,foillows in
Septemjiber, somiietimes even before the orn
is cut d,lwn-lhare-liunting find.s  ample
room by October-ant, last of all, the
attractive  "1 music" of  the pack gather
aroundl it, from hill and dale, all the active
Nimrods of the country.
4356. In  taking  a retrospect of the
seasons, we  have passed in review, we
miust own that our  climate  is far from
being genial.   The  freqiuent cliasiges to
which tlhe weather  is daily susceptible,
rentler the cultivation (f thle soil always a
difficult, and not infrequently a vexatious,
occul)ationi.  Such.vicissi.-udes, no doubt,
shlarpen the intellect of the farmner, and
the stimulus imparted by them, perhaps,
has been the clief imeans of eliciting the
3
4:7)52. Besides the harvest of the cere,,-tl
plants, that of the legumin,,)us, as well of
all the root crops, takes place in ailtuinn
for although the turnips are not wlioll
y
removed from the ground at one time, like
the other crops, they' a -re belitin to be so in
autumns
4353. Some curious anomalies in farm
Tabour occur in autumn. One is f(,und 
I PRACT'rICE-AUTUMiN.
highi skill which is generally acknowledged
,to be apparent in the agriculture  of tllis
kinlgdom.   Skill will always be sot titmlated in our insular position, whlich subjects
our at:mosplereto be perpetuallyacteld upon
1y tie leatof  th           e adjo i   nin corti        nent, anci
tCle  emo         isture          of tile surrounding ocean.
Placed thus in a fretful climate, no wonder
tlie faiirmer would        rather hl sve one of equanimity, so  t h      at            lie is sometiri ies temopted to
ellvy tle bright skies wh ich illmine the
Continent. Would le wisl alwavs to enjoy
a- beneficent climate, let him tak'e thlis advice,-" If any one has, as I have, a lhorr-(r *f icicles, and wl-ho would never have
the miiild temperature of tlhe air interrupted
by the presence of a hoar- frost, let him rntigrate with thie climate. Let lhim spend thle
montlh of January in Portugal;  Felbruiary
in tlte Madeiras; March in Spaini; April
i,, Sicily; May in Lapland; June in Italy;
July in Switzerland; Auguost in France;
Se)temlber in Engrland; October amnong
t{,e f,irests of America; Novemrber in
Crete; anti December in tlle islands of the
Cape de Verdl.  By this rotatory  motion
lie imiay enrjoy a deliciouts temperature, and
revel iii liorneysuckles atnd roses all the year
rounzcd." *   But the occupation of a farmiier
,toes niot admit of his flitting so much about.
as is liere recommiiuended, so lie must contetnit hirnmself withlthe climate, in whatever
I( 1c)aity hiis lot ig -ast.
lar,d is then in a comparatively drier state,
and may  be worked to advantage before
the arrival of  tile bad weather usually
experienced in the latter part of auttumtn.
The later  harvest in Scotland, and  thle
earlier arrival of winter weathier, will not
permit  tile inmmediate  cropping, of  tlhe
stubble after a grain crop; and I am not
sure that,  even if time did permlit the soil
to be put into a proper state for a crop,
any crop would be taken; for, according
to tile ro)tation usually followed in Scot land, the only stubble ground available in
autuilln for a succeeding  crop is that of
the oat, which terminates thle rotation, and
which presents tlhe land in thle foulest state
it is in before it is fallowed.   Tile othler
stubble s are occupied with new grass, andl
are not available for another crop. Now,
n  Englan(l  the circumstances are  dif ferent  for, indepellndently of an earlier
harvest and a stubble sooner cleared, most
of thie stubble land is bare, not occupied
witll new grass, little  inew grass  being
slowni amongst thle white crops, on account
of the large extent of  oldl grass on  miost
farms.  The stubble therefore of a  wtiite
crop, whichl had been taken after a fallow
crop, is quite in a state of freshness and
cleanliness for a forage crop; and since the
clillate offers no  injiry to suchl   a crop in
winter, the very natural desire to have a
forage one that will cut early next year,
may be g,ratified witlh certaitnty. Anrd were
the practice of aututin cultlure collfined to
the stubble of thle land in fresh contdition,
tihere could no valid obljection  be urged
iagainst it; but wihen tile practice is pursuedl (n thle stubble, wlhiclh  exhlaulsts tlhe
r(taction and tile soil at one anlld tile samlne
time, it is lhiglly objectionable it rendlers
any autumfn crol) so taken a catel c:ol;
it exlhausts the land beyond its strelltil!,
and renders it foull withl weeds to a slhalieful degree.    But  in ordinary  circuinstances -1ll autumnal crops rend(ler thle land
foul, there not being  sufficient tille  to
work it after lharvest, before tile succee(linng cropl should be sown; and also want
of timre in spring,  after  the  autuimnal
crop is removed, to clean the land for tlhe
stiliisoier green  crops.  That  thle land ai
rendlerved foul by suchl a practice may be
adduced from the objection raised to sowing tlhe artificial grasses among the grow
43.5g. Before attendirie l to the practical
oper ations of atitiluni, I slhoivld pirenmpise
tilat several crolps sown in thjis season are
inot only' treated in a way different in
Englarnd  from  wihat they can be in Sc,,,tlanld, but sonie of tlhemi cannot be sown in
Scotlandl at tlat period wiithi  imnpunity.
Most of thie forage plants sown in autumtiin
in England, for thie purpose of affording
early food  in  the  following spring,  as
crimso<n clover,' winter tares, cannot  1)e
so()wi at that season in Scotland, because
they cannot withstand a Scottishi win.ter;
an(l several planits whiichi  mday be sown
with imiipunity in England, on the stilible
ground, after tite removal of the w1iite
crl), as tlhe ston-e.urnip and rape, cannot
with imiipuinity be.own so late in the seasti1 in Scotland.  Tile harvest in England
being2, about tlhree weeks earlier, the stubb le is not only bare so much earlier, but the
.o  e-Bo fk la an Oxoraia Jn- Tohn Ttll, 5th August 1845.
408., 
SOWING TURNIP FOR SEED.
ing white crops, for the reason that they
would prevent the hoeing of those crops in
summer, whereas the land ought to be so
clean, as all the weeds in it should injure
neither thle growing crop nor the new
grasses; and it would be so clean, but for
the  practice of taking  catch crops  in
autumn; and it is actually so clean under
thle Scottish practice.  It must be owned,
however, that the attainment of a forage
crop that will cut earlv in the season is a
desideratum in Scotland; and I cannot see
that it is to be obtained, ill the circulnstances  of that country, but b        y  th e  entire
aband        onmment  of bare fallowin g, a nd tie appr      o priation  of a portion   of tile fall ow-break
to well-manured autumnal crops. I         t  is in
thi               s      way that I  propose describing th e  cultur                e     of the autumnal  crops fo r  u se in the
s u cceeding  spring, making reference at the
s     ame  time to the practice of Engl  and by
w    h ich                 those crops are usually raised.
4361. Turnips intended for seed aro
sown in  th     e     drill in   autumn ts  well as
transplanted by the bulb in spring, described from  (2476 to 2483.)  The  cultiire, up to the singling of the plants, is tlhe
Ernie as that of tihe common turnip fromt
(3204 to 3260;) and where the lan(d is dry
below  by drainage, natural or artificial, it
requires no  furtlher work  all winter; I)ut
where the subsoil is still retentive, it is expedlient to set up the drills a little with the
double mould-board  plough, fig. 209.
ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND
ON TIlE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED.
4362. I muchl prefer raising turnip seed
by transplantation of tlhe bulbs to sowing
the seed, because it is a inetlhod mlore certain of raising I)ltre seed, though it sacrifices a portion of the crop of tur,ips, and
is attended with some trouble.  It is true
that spurious plants may be easily distinguishled by their flower when the crop in
in blossom, and pulled out, but the soil in
the imean time has been enilpl(yed in growilig spurious plants to its (lisad(lvantag,e';
andt   although  there shlould be but fe"w of
thlese, there will be many genuine ones of
w eak  constitution, which  will produce
w   eak seed.  Judiciously selected bulbs, on
the otlher lhand, will produce stout, equalsized plants, and large and lealthly seed.
It is also true that bulbs cannot be transplanted over many acres, withtout sacrificing a large proportion of the crop that
should be consumed; but the comparatively
large return of seed received from  transplanted bulbs  will probably reiumnerate
both for the sacrifice  of the crop, and tlih
additional trouble incurredl in transplanting
thlem.  If this point hlas not been already
a.ascertaine(l, it shlould be made the subjllect
of ex!,eriniental inqtiry.  But even with
thle precaution of pulling out the spurious.
blossoms, many of the plants left to grow
IImay produce seed wliich will grow thicknecked turnils; and I quite agree  witlh
4358. The stone turnip, both yellow and
white, is raised in gardens for use in winter.  It is a turnip   of a  n  oblate spheraoid in
shape, and lhaving a small neck at the
shaw, and  a small filamnentous t,ap-root.
For particular reasons, the white variety
of stone turnip may be successfully raised
in the field; and the reasons are-tthat
when the state of tile weather, or of the
land, has prevented as much ordinary white
turnip being sown in time as was desired,
it is prudent to relinquish the farther sowing of it until the titme arrive for sowing
the stone turnip, whlich, sown in the early
part of August, will attain maturity and a
good size by October.  Or, when some
early turnips are wanted, the stone turnip
may be sown before the time for any of
the field turnips.
4359. The  Entglisli practice is to    inow
the stone turnip on the stubt:ble land after
a white crop; and there b)eing but little
time to work the land aright, and the crop
being, sown broadcast, it does not grow
larger in that country in the field than it
does in the garden.   All the culture the
land usually receives is a sl)aving off the
stubhble with  tlhe skim-plouglh, fig. 240;
alnd after a grubbing, fig. 21.5, thee:seed is
$04/1
slbwn broadcast. No speciefi of turn ip will
attain a large size with such culture, nor can
tlie'soil afterwards be otherwise than foul.
4360. The sto' ne turni in autumn is
cultivated in every respect As the cotiiiiion
till-ilip"as regards the working of the laii(l,
its manuring, the sowing of the seed, and
the after culturb, -both manual and iijiplement'al, as destribed frot-n (3204 to 3282,)
and need not e repeated here. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
Mir S. Trewecke of Breage, Cornwall, as
regards tile raising of turnip-seed, when
lie observes, "I have found, froni several
years' experience, thliat tlhebetter the quality
of the turnip the less is thie quantity of
tile seed, and the worse it is to bring to
maturity; while with the stringy, spongy,
long necks and bushily roots, a large quantity of seed may be saved  with  little
trouble.  I think farmers in general pay
too little attention to the quality of tile
seed, if they can get a cheap article, or
grow a large crop."*
winter tares  in Engl and i s one   furrow   from
the stubble;  but if there is  tiste  be twe en
harvestand winter, and nthe weather at all
favourlable  to field-work, the     land  should
receive more labour than a single furrow,
in justice both  to itself and the crop.  Tthe
stubble should at once be cross-ploiughed,
(26i13) then sarroweed, and the n    g a thered
up into riddles (749) before the seed is sown
on it.   The winter  tare  is usucally sown
without dung, and on r ich kindly clays the
crop will be good without its  assistance;
but land in poor condition, and naturally
liglet soils, should be imanured. Whieni there
is only titme to give one furrow in autumn,
the dung should be applied on the stubble;
but with two furrows, it should be applied
in the second p)loughIing, when the land is
ridged tap.   The reason for preferring the
second ploughing in manuring the land is
sufficiently  obvious,  since  tile  second
phouglling in ridging up would bring to the
the surface the unrotted dung ploughed
down in the first t)loughinig.
4363. By much the largest proportion
of thle turnip seed raised in Scotland is so
from the seed, antI not from transplanted
bul6s; which being the case, we may doubt
tile genuineness and strength of the vitality of the seed so grown; and, for all the
seed the most extensive grower of turnips
requires, it is in his power to raise as much
as will supply his own wants from transplanted bulbsin aconmparativelysniallspace
of ground.  The crop-sown from the seed in
autuimin will not mature its seed bef,re the
one transplanted from the bulb in spring.
4366. Whiere the tare stands the winter
well, it may  be so,wn alone, with from  2
to 221 bushels of seed to tile imperial acre,
according to the con(dition of the soil; but
a little wheat amongst it will not only pro tect it from frost, but serve to augment the
amount of forage in spring.  For tahis piurpose bluf a biuslel of wheat will serve.
Rye is very coiiimonily sown amlong winter
tares, but thile wheat plant will suppor't the
tare  plants  better, while  its  habit of
growth is more  consonant  with  that of
winter tares, as the rye will ouitgrow the
tares in spring.  Wheat is not l)easant
to stock as a forage  plant (2468,) but in
this case it will be better than (overshot rye,
and oats do not stand the winter.   Y(ii
may err in sowing tares too thiek, whrrich
they are when  the stemnis grow small, anti
the roots are crowded  on thle groiuni, in
which case the planws will rot off in da.ttp
weather, especially on naturally or arttificially miade rich soils.  If the weather an(l
land are sufficiently dry in early spring to
allow a light, roller, fig. 222, to pass o)ver
the young  tares and wheat, the ground
w ill be liiiucll iml)rt,ved for thie cutting of
thie crop by the scythe;  but if the rtllitng
cannot be then done, the crop will have to
be cut in spring on thle roughi ground  by
4.?64. Wlhen tares are sown in auitunmn,
to stand the winter, care should be taken
4       o procur e      ee  the prop er seed;  there being two
asorts of ta        res in the maarket, one called the
ecinter tftre, which shlouwl only be                        sown in
autumn, and the otlher the spiritq tare,
which would be destroyed in winter were
it sown in autumnin.  No such botanical
distinctions exist between the plants,as to
constitute a distinct species, tile winter tare
being only known by its smaller,rowtli,
and its seed-pods being more smooth and
cylindrical.  Little difference is observable
ill tile seeds, the winter variety being smnall
andl of uniform size; the sprin,, varies in
size, which characteristic lhas obtained fi:)r
it the appellation  of vetches. while the
smaller kind is called tares.  The difference of habit in the plants  has arisen
entirely front the circuimstance- of their
ha}vinig been continued for years to be sown
in winter and sprints respectively.
*.Iark Lane Express, July 1841.
310
ON THE SOWING OF WINTER TARES.
.4365. The usual cultivation given to 
and, when sown in autunmn, so quick is itf
growth that it affords the earliest cutting
in spring of any plant sown at the sanie
timte.  It has been  very successfully cultivated in the south of England, and perhliaps  the  chlalk  formation answers  its
nIature best of any soil; but in Scotland
its success is at least doubtful, even in the
most favoured spots.  I suspect that the
climate o(f that country is too ihutlid and
cold for this plant.
4369. Rape is cultivated in autumn, in
En,gland, oni the stutlble after a whlite crop
without manure, and it thrives very well all
winter, aind gives an early forage in April
or May.   It will not endure suchl treatienit in Scotland(; the land must there be
worked, mnanured, and s:wiI in the saime
manner as for turnips, as detailed frromi
(320)4 to 3230.)  Ra.pe pl,ants no(,t beiing
singled, the culture of the turnip, in riegard
to lILn(l-hloeing  ini(l the use of horse iunpleiments, is not required foir tliemi.  The
sutinier culture  of this plant )has been
detailed from  (3448  to 3451.) andl  the
cro)I tihus raised is consuime(ld in autumn.
Its vwinter culture is not muchl  attemipted
in Scotland, because turni1)s aff(,r(l a niiore
sulstantial and  certain  food  foir shl)eep,
wlhich are the only species of stock put (o
raple, it never being cut and broiught to the
steading to the cattle, thlough  it iiiiglit I)be
consunmed  by the cows in spring, whlen
probably its leaves would not inipart so
strong a taste, if any, t(l the milk anid I)butter, as turnips are known to do.  Dairy
4371. Of all known plants it is best
sulited fo1r culture on the stubble of a wlhite
crop,  an  al)p,prently  favourite  nmodle of
culture  in  Englanid  for  imiany plants.
"Ttiere," observes  Mr  Lawson, "it  ha.,
been  foiun( to succeed b)est, either tirille(!
ini summii-er in rows of from eiglht inclhes t,,
,one foot distant, or sown ini autumnn ill
broadclast (on stubble, after the corn crop lias
been retmo-ved, and witht nTo psrevious preparation  save a lharirowing or two, so that
the seed nmay be tlhe more easily covered.
In  very'tenacious  soils  a  very  shallow
ploughing is given, but in general it  is
f(,u)in  better to dispense with the plouglhing altogetlher; for tlhe miany failures whiclt
occurred previous to its culture being properlv understoo(t, are  now  attrilbuted entirely to the ground l!aving been too. mueh
loosened   anid  pulverised by  repeated
p~loughlin3gs." ~
* Lawsor's.Agricutturist's Matual, p. 154.
- 4368. The autumn cuilture of tares is
precisely the sarne as fi:,r summjier, detailed
from  (24(i4  to  2469.)   The crop  lhas
little chlatnce to be affected by the slug ir
winter.
ON TIlE SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN.
43 7-2. In England, fronm 18 lb. -to 20  lb. 
(4358.)   It is more rapid in its growtlh        4
titian winter tares, (4364.)  On light land
a crop of buck-wheat may be readily obtained after it, (3464.)  Italian rye-grass
mnay be sown with it, and will grow as
rapidly, (2644;)  and after the crinlson
clover has been  cut, the rye-grass will
continue to grow and afford an excellent
second crop.  The crimson clover has the
property of smothering early weeds, on
account of which property, it is not well
suited for sowing among a corn crop.*
4376.  The pecun         iar        y  a(lvant
tending   the  cultivation   of   the
clover are thlus summed up for 1
by Mr Foaker: —
l acre of food, cut green at.~3...1..  hay, 2f tons, at ~'4 per ton,.
1..  seed, 12 buskhels, at 40s. the bushel,.
3 loads of threshed haulhn at  30s. I
4374. A variety of thle crimson clover,
namned tardif, or late-flowering, by the
French, was introduced to notice in France
about 1836.  If sown immediately after
tile common  variety in autumn, it will
flower next season after that has yielded
its crop, and thus form a valuable successor to it.  Its characteristics are lateness
of flowering anid tallness, with vigour of
growth.  Mr Lawson says, that the late
"Sir John Robison of Edinburgil had the
merit of first introducing this variety to
Scotland, hlaving, in 1837, given a quantity
of its seeds, as well as those of thie collim1on crimson and Molinor's clover, to the
Highland  andi Agricultural  Society  of
Sc,)tland-tthe results of a comparative
trial withi whlicli were, that tile plants of
tilis camle into flow%er wlien tl!),se of tile
c, ram5ona aselre ilearl v ovrer-;           andd, ()t                   i beiing
*  Rha'   Ps 1);lt;onry  ef tFh  1ai-n — art. (Corer.
+  I,ki ~s;,,.s.t;cltT   st.; (,t!'   - S,],lJAle,,.;t.. 47
F,.i;k,-r   t)I  rev'i:z.,iJ l tlhc C. ailr.l tif i          *.sPlrBct'l;'jils, It. 16.
X3 0 0
4 0 0
10o ~od
24 0~ 6
3510 0
114 0
33 16 0
11 5 4;
Value of 3 acres,..
Deduct seed and labour on do.,
Profit,.....
Profit from one acre,.
ON TIE' SOWING BOKIHARA CLOVI~lt.
4377. Having raised the Bokliara clover,
Melilotus leucantha  major, for  seve:'l
years past, as an  ornamental plant, andl
hlaving feuind it to stand the winter,d
grow early in sprint,  I ami induced to
recommend it as a forage plant tli.tt tma,-y b>e
sown early in autumn, and cut early ji.
spring; and atlso sowini in sprint, in Apil
or May, and ready to be  cut in Atugutist,
after the first ctutting of the red clover is
over, andI before its second cuittingl,, if
there be  any,  is ready.   If sown  after
early potatoes in Scotlatnd, and(I uploni early
stubllble in Engliand a-t the end of Auguist,
the p)Iarat will, I tlhitnk, Ibe so fear advIsaniced
as to st.insl the winter-at  least it lhas doniie
so witlh mi{Je; and  althouiglh    its lherbag,e if 
SOWING RED CLOVER FOR SEED.
4o, 1.  The soil best suited for raising
seed fromn the red clover is  described ill
(2671;) as a forage plant the red cl,,ver.is
mellentionedl in (3886;) it now. only remiaitis
to relate how it slil.uld be miana,ged as a
seed-bearing  plant.  Were it allowe,l to
stand for seed, at the first cutting, wide
thie blossoms do not appear simultaneously,
the seed of one plant *wouil(d be it-ature,l,
whlile that of anothler  would be scarcely
f(.ormiiedi.  At tlhe second  ctutting tle flowers blossotmi all at once, and the pElanits all
attain about thle sanie lheiglht; and tlhe criop
then appears one of the  richlest t(lescription in our fields, in a favourahtle season.
Tile seconed cutting of 1849 was a pairticuilarly fine ()ne, an(i continued full until tlhe
early frost of October injured it.   TlIe
filist cutting in ordinary practice is delayedl
until the plant is in full bloom, and sllletimes ti'l after the bloomti hias begtan  to
decay, s( that no surprise need  be excited
owhetn a full second cutting of clonver is not
obtained after suchl treatment.  Wlent the
seed sown is imported direct fromn Holland'
or France, a full crop in the first cutting
should only be expectel, for a g;ood second
cutting ft,')Y,m suchl seed is  never,,btained,
as  whas been shIown in (2(;71.)   The loss,f
the secon(d ciltting inay tl)us be  acc( our-ted
for in cases wilere foreign seed lhas been
sown  utiknowintgly by  tlie  fin'met.  To
secure a goodl second cutting, thle first cr:ip
should therefore be  cut before  the plantt
comes into blooii l; or sheep in ad(equate
nuilibers sllhould eat down thle crol) by the
end of May  or beginning of June; alnd no
foreign seed slhould be used.   Thle secind
growth will  tlhen come away  thlickl and
witlh vigour.
cut down by tlhe frost, its roots senid up
shloots early in April.   It sliould( be cut
wlhen young -nd succulent, ifr after it ha,-s
attained tlhe height of ab'ov6 two feet, tile
stems become fibrous, and h~arshl to  t!he
taste.   The best way of sowilng it is in
rows  of  9  incles apart,  thl)at thle  land
niay receive a hloeing in spring to loosen
it ab)out thle roots for the admiission of air.
It is a p)lant that bears michiel moisture
in the earlier stage of its growthl, and is
all thle more succulent for it.
4371,8. Whlen allowed to grow up, in the
second year, the plant b)ei,ng a biennial, it
sends up six or ei(,lit steins, whlicll easily
attain the lheis,lit of' seven to ten feet, and
throw  out side  branchles.    It becomnes
covered witlh a profusion of small, neatly
formiied white flo,wers, hjaving a seenit not
unlike  that of tlie sweet scented  vernal
grass,  Anthoxanthuin  ofleratum,  wleni
miade into Iay; or of tlie woodroof, Asper-ula
oderatat, wlhen diried; —the racemes growing on and(  all)earing, in succession from s             ii
June,  until  tlje fr-ost in  Novemiber  or
Decelllber cuts theim down.   The 11oney
bee is very fotid of its flowers, andl on that
account, as well as for its own beaiuty and
stateliness as a plant, it is deserving of a
place in every farmer's arid cottager's garden.  It was introdlucel into thlis country in
183':, and at tle time cresltted a sensation
fromi its luxuriant labit of growtlh.
4379. Retd clover seed,  Tri/fo/lim pratense, as vou have seen i,l (2(633,) is not
sowvn alone anronag the gral ncro)s inll Sci,tland, a.nd  canniot tlierefoire  li-e reserve(ld
for growini,l seerl, tloogih tle rliahe                                                        iawould
in somiie sea.is:,s  aill(ow it to bec ripened.  I
lhavee (gatlhered its see(-ds in  particular seasons as fine as anty grow%,n ill Enig'laind.
4382. The red clover is inijured ly insects wlheni in bl(ooun. It is affected b)v a
wu eevil named(  Apion apricuns, iii leigtli'
abouit 11 line, the colour of thie boilv  beinrg
black.   By tlhe tinlie tlhe heads  of tlhe redl
clover are ready to flower, tlhe ai,ion (le"
posits hler eg(gs oni thie calyx of the florets.
As;soon as tlhey are hlatchied, the larva, afn
extremely  nimute  whitislh  woriii, wit i a
blick lieal. e;its its way througt,ll thle t)ase
of the  fli,,et, atid constiuies the rujlitietts
of  the  future seedl.    So extensive is tlhe
injury (cecasi:)ne(l at tinmes lty t!is croatuire,
tiJsat, iii 1  798, a cr,l1 of red clover c,ilerif,
41 acres, I)ilticiiig 1-43 tbuslhels of seeil,
was  worthl  ~4 1, 1 s. Cd.; whliile  tlhe like
4,380. In En,l,and, the rye-gra-ss, Lolium  perenne, is not in:so grea-it fay%our "is
a thr.ace pulant as in Scotlard, so tliaLt crops
of red clov er witlh,ut rye-griass are there
more commi thai    n     in  tlhe latter couinitry
altlhout,,li niot inten(letl to b)ear s    eed.   W!ere
the red cleaver is rai-se4l ffsr seed. the seedI is
s'ownl  witl,tut  -any  adtmiixttire  (,f wl)ite
clover, T,i~fliuin r epens, or of rye-gr ass.
sl'i I
O.,N TTIE SOWI'SG OF RED CLOVER FOR
SEII,D. 
ttLa(1iiig, to oe  tialllslie(l  with  thle flail or
thrashling-in.acliiiie.    Shlould  the weather
be go-,d, tllis plan  imay be adopted,  but
silouldl it prove damip, the crop slii,il(d be
miadle intO sheaves, and( set into  stooks to
won, aln(I,afterwvairdls carried to the stackyard] andl buiilt inito stacks, to be thirashied
at ainy convenient timie.
by itself ini a oltitn of tlhe dunge(l fallow
land, in Aug;ust or thie mniddle of SepteniJber
at latest, tEat it  miay acquiire sufficient
strength to standl the winter.  It  imiay be
sownit  broa,lcast, tlhere being  no use  of
drilling it, since it will grow  as early in
spriing as any  w7eed(, and will ouitstrip it
in growth.   Fromii its niatural leii(lency to
pr(oduce tiiany stalks fiomn the saiie root
anld its ipriglit li,il)it of growth, ii,,t forminrg a close tiurf, it slioutld  be sowin  thick,
antd particulariily so wlIen sown in auitumiln,
to stand tlie wiliter.  Thiree to fi,ur buislhels
of seedI to the acre will therefore  be require(l to lave  pltiits enought  iii spr)itg
fi)r aii early cutting.   If thie gr,utind and
wealtier are b)-.th dry in springi,, tie r oller,
fig. 222, shliull be l)assed  (}ver tl)e crop
to siiootlhen thie s    rfae. Thje crop will b1e
rea(ly fi,r cutting in  lay, and linl,ty yield
from thliree to five tons of fori,tge to the acre.
4384. There is little  (langer of clover
seet i lling  out fioin  its  liusk, as  it is
rathler clifficult to tlirasli out; buit tlhe ferinentation of the I)lant rec()iliiiiendeil abo}ve
reniilers the liiislk brittle, andl easily broken
by  ally  process of tNrVslling.    W iiere a
large  qlantity of clover is cultivatedl for
see&l, tile tlirasliini-m-iacii11e iiiay  be  ciii}t~l{,ye,!to t(?t-ke otit the see,l'!)it ()f a sim-all
4iiar itity a c(insi'derable proil.)rtionr iii tglit
be l,,st ini the m'-iill, so tle tlail, fit,. 350,
sliot(uld then be used.  The  fhnners. fig. 149,
will  blow  away  thle  lhusky  liilit ilatter,
wlile ttie lie.tvy see,l  is fll lig ilown the
corl-slJoat, fioiii whlichl it slioihli1 be sifted
tlirioug,i the sieve, fig. 1i2, to  firee it (,f
(lust ajl(l s.Lnd anil blind  husks, anid then
nieasureil into the bushlel, fi,,. 1 6s.  Slilotl(       a
thie fartter raise clover seed(i olily for his
own luse, lie need  not take thle  ti,iil)le to
tlhrash  thle seed out of the lhusk, i)ut sow 
it iii the hiusk-whicli pI,ln has lieen      t  sig-           ee
geste(-l  to l:revenrit lanId bec(,iiiiiig  cloveri,ick, (38,:).)
4388. Mr Lawsoin says, tlh-tt "the Italiani ryegrass is synioiillllolls witlih tlhe Loliuiri Bo-uchiatum of li]ith, wlho ini hiis zlrostoqrapia  thius
de scr ibes  it:' Spikelets aboutt tliiice  as  lonas their glulmiies, anie~l e,,mttl       n five to ten
aw ted  fl,-rets;  root pere.-ial; hative,)f Ita,ly.'
Andl fisrther, ttt'th is spte(cies differs tromn Lolium
pe-enne inl its florets being awne,l.' Like  all
otl-her platits siibjected to artificeial culture, the
Itali.atn rve-grass is pro(itletive ot iinumiier.tis sub
warieties, as a proto of which we  received. in 1838,
.sp?ecitiens of no less tlh.aLn 50 dlistiiiet qlikes, from
Mr R.,bert Arthur. wlii(ih lie collecteil iii a field
near Ni,rtl) Berwic-k.   li1 tlis couitiry, 1n0 atteutiii  ha.-, limwiever, a.s yet  lbeeii elev,ited  to the
selectjiiii anil  cultivati,on 4f aiiy variety possessinig permatnenicy anid,:tl)eriority of  character." "
4si85. Thue importat-ion  of foreig,n clover
see,ls was thus in —
* LawsoI's 4Ayriculturist's 3I(anual —,Su)plemeat, p. 37. 
PICKING AND DRYING HOPS.
stances, to pick a hop-garden, but the more
usual time is three  weeks.   In p)icking,
every leaf should be  takeni awa, andi all
tlle inferior hliops separated  fromii thle good.
4389. The composition of the ash of the seed
of tlhe Italiani rye-grass was given in (3897,) anid
the pounds of ash in  one  ton of the platit in
flower is as follows, according to the analysis of
Proleisor Way and Mr 0Oston:
lb.
17-2
5.5
3.1
13.8
3 1
1.1
8.8
3.9
81.7
138.2
4394. Hops, whlen picked, are either put
in baskets containing 7 or 9 bushels each,
or in bins  on cloths ma(le  onl  pirp,se,
laid over frames. One man takes charge (of
the bins, and every particular connecte(l
with every set of picker's-consisting of 8
or 10 grown-up persons, or of  eliidreni
capable (f performing an  equal amounit,f
labour-and  tire ground  is allotted  to(
clear 100 hills by eachl set of pickers.
Potash,.
Soda,
Chlorslde of sodium"
I;ime,.
Mnagilesia,
Peroxid(le of iron
Phosphoric acid,
Sulphluric acid,.
Silica,.
" The composition of the ash," observes Professor
Wav, "is but little altered by the presenice  of
the seed; probably, becaulse it is sniall int qua-ntity.  It is seeii that Italian rye-grass is, like
other cereals, a siliceous p)latit; anid iii(leed, iii the
quantity of silica, it reunoves from the soil, it surpasse.s eveii wheat-straw, which cointains aboiut
60 lb. iii every  toii weight.  Wheii, therefore,
the use ot' liquid mianuire is able to prodiuce many
successive luxuriant crops of this planit, there
caii be ii,, want of available silica in the soil for
any crops." *
4395. Hops  are picker  by  the  bshlel,
ar,nl are iiieasured into a- basket conitaining
10 gallons imperial.  Tle price pai(ld wtriies
w*itlh the plen tiftultness or scantiness of thie
crop, froiii 3 or 4 to  9 or 10 buisllels to tle
slhilling.   Abot-ut tlhree-lhalfpence a i,uslhel
is tl)e  isual price paid for p~icking, annd itl
fine weather, and with a goodI crop, a,i firi ly
of five will earn from'is. to lUs. a-da,y at
that rate.
4396. There  being  1 194  l]ills in thle
qnincunx, and 1031 in thle sq,uare niode of
cultivation in tl-he acre,  (3160,) and  allowinig one peck of hops to every hill, and
2 lb. to the buislhe), thie crop  will not exceed 5-1 cwt. to the acre,  whiicl,  was thje
ascertained average of the prepa-ed- cr,ps
f,,r 28 years, firom 1807 to 1835; tlii,,Igli
tlthe crop while green will weirl fiour tiles
tithlat weig,lit.   But  the  crop of li)ol)s is so
pprecarious that, at Bitisteal( in HIaliii)slsire,
a firmer grew  4~ cwt. on 10 iacres in 1825,
and(  9 tons froti  tihe same  lanil  iiin 1826.
TlIJe ge   neral averale  iln 1825 e as  108- ll,.
t!e atcre, and in 1826 it was 9 cwt. 105 ll).
The attack of insects aiid of iioul(l, (st I 84)
to (3192,) will  ima-,ke  that (liflirenice in
tuo consecutive years.    The year 1848
proved a  (,)o~t year for tlhe lop, wlile ir
1849 t!he crolp nearly failed.
4390. We left the sumimnier culture of
the  lhop in (3183;) we hI,tve now  to attend
to tile saving of the Cropr  whichi  usually
comnicaices in the first week of Septemliber.
43!)'2. Before  p>ickinlr comnmences,  the
biues are  cut  over  at 3,(et frohi  thie
gro9undl, an(I the p,bles raise(l out  of tilJe
grourinl by ii.eans (tf a lever, anal laid iil)(ii,
thieir sile in a convenient place anal positin ul)(n spltports, that the pickers lnay
re.ach the lhops easily.
4393.  The  picking,  slioulll  comnience
where thle crop is rip)est, whichl  is always
routi(i wiiere the niaue  liants grow.    It is
conlducteid )y whole  families, it being tlehe
iiiterest (;f the lioi,-ftriiier to g,atlher togetlier as many hlinds as lie cai), tlhat tlhe
pickirng, season nimay 1)e as sihort as ptossible.
One monthl will suffice, tiunder any circuiii
* Journal of the,lyricultural Society of England, vol. ix. p. 144.
315
ON TIIE PICKING AND DRYING OF IIOPS.
4P,,91. 1-fops when readv to be pi(,-ke(I
bee(,ii)e close and firm, and the seed I)ar(I
an(I I)roN%Irti on the outside, with a general
appe-,traiiee of ripeness.
4397. Iiiiiiie,diately on I)eiDg I)icke(-I.
hops are artificially dried, becatist,- they f'eel
d-.iii)p aiid claiiiiiiv, in vN,Iiicli state they
would not ]l-cep, and woiild iiiotild., Tlicy
are tli-ied in circular kiliis, 16 or 18 ftet
iii diameter, on Iliairclotli, ai),I.Iie,-ItiNt I)y
coal, coke, or charcoal. The kilii-floor 
ItI,  4If-IJI, ior b(owilig aia welgling tile
hops in the balls.
tile pol'tetl brewers alone desire the bro%)ncolosuredI lhol)s? In producing botlh varieties,  lie  will  liave  custoliiers for  both,
althloughl hie did not use a particle  of sulplhur.
4398. Great cauition is required to regulate tIle fires of the kilns; for if too
strong at first, whenl the hops are naturally
moist, they will partake  of tlre smell of
fire, and be  ilmuchl deteriorated in quality.
The fire may be increased as thle drying
rocee,ls, and be pretty brisk near the last;
tut tlhe hleat shlould not muchI exceed that
of boilinlir water, 212~  Falireillheit.   T hl        e
hlops shrink  ii bulk as they are drying.
About 13 cwt. of coal, withl  a little charcoal, will dry a ton of lIops at a  cost of
about 25s. the ton, or Is. 3(d. the cwt.
4400. The hops, whlen taken  fiecem  the
kiln, a r e   laid in leeaps on the coolinet-floctr,
not only to  cofol, ibut to acquire a  s  t.at e p f
adlhesiveniess, whliclh. thiouighi dry, causes it
to  lujp  togetloer w     ehen   squ eezed   inl tlie
hiaowd, and yet  not so. mucli as to  l,se its
elfasticity.   Tllis is an iTmportant poit in
tue pr)oess of lrel)arin,s, lsops for b).opacki ng,
for if they -ire  niot su,fticiently  (dry, they
w,ill not kee), and(] if too miiuchi driied tlhey
will beceole  birittle, l:>)eak into pieces, atn(d
be Insaleable.   Tt is, tl!eiefore, bxetter that
tliere be a few toghI parcels, to put back
again  upon  the kiln, tlan that  the  wihole
be too dry  to  injurie its  quality   materially.    The  drying will  cauiise a loss  of
wveighlt of 4 1l). at least ini tle green state
for every pounid of prep)ared lhops.
4399. Sulrplhur is also use,] in thle dryll, of hops, fi'oii the weight of a qtiarter
to one cwt. to the ton of hol)s.  It slhoul(d
b)e cautiously employed.tt first, otherwise a
fierce leat will be excited.  Tlhe,l~ject of
ursing, snil)tlji seems to be to improve the
:colour of the lioj, for it is of iniportauce
to the seller to present  lis lioi,s in  the
iarklet  withl   a light-coloured  dlelicately
gireenishi hliue.   Tile llops frh'm  Farnhlialii
have lon,g )been esteetue(l tle l)iest for their
dlelicate colour, chiefly ileiiveil fioni gretea                     t
care  in  sulbdividing  thle  pickings,  an(il
partly, no doiubilt, fronm the use of sullpliur in
the dryling process.  It is surl)rising that
purcha:sers who  are  jud(ges (of hops sub-imiit to sullphur  beiing  used to affect the
colour, unless they are glad to ein)loy it
as  a iiieans of deceiving, cnstoniers wllo
never saw  hops growing, and  know  iiot
how  thley are trealted.   Whlat  would be
4401.  Sitce thle lheat f(,r driiviig  off tlhe
iiioi.sttire froiii  1(ol)s is  nlot great, it niglit
Iperl:qs be -,s effic.aciou-isly,~loze, an,! ertainily  iiiore saifely, hy  means (,f  lot wa-ter,
instea(l of (,pen (or furnace  fires.   It liilit,
-perlispls,  e cfiecte(l by  suh ai n arrng       eernt of at lhot wN ater  al;pariattis -is is shown
in  llr, 388S, whlicl~ gives "I  vettical  sec,io,n
of a drying-h,,use and ap tbss                  wl;ere
a eai are tell walls —-; b b the gr-outnlt on  wl!..ihl
the hliotse is built; c c a pUlace ec avatc(l in
tlhe groujndI in front,,f tlhe h),,iise, in wliic!i
the  b,,iler d for hjeating  tle  alpp)ara,ttus is 
PICKING AND DRYING HOPS.
situate; f thle gangway up to the door,  adapted for the drying of hops, perhaps
stretching across the excavation; h h the  perforated cast-iron plates, like the floorlooring, which may be of any material best  ing  of grain kilns in Scotland, through
Fig. 388.
Gr
h. h
-- _.  k
ducting siipports, such ts bricks, and seen
twisted lhere  ini convolutions under  thi
floor. Tihis pipe should be conti,,ued ta
Fig. 389).
which tlhe lheat would ascend fromzi the
syste m of pipes k k, traversiiig the space
between  the dryiiig  floor  A h  and  tlhe
ground b; l is thile cistern for feed(ling thle
boiler and pipes witli water. ]'hiis cistern
is supplied with  col(l water froni a pipe,
and it is also provided( withl  a waste pipe,
to allow any water of expansion to escape.
4402.  N.As the pipes3 in this apparatus
are always open to the atiiiospliere, any
steam  or  vaI )our  generated  can   easily
escape; and it is evident tlihat, iii an apparatus constructed in a1ll its pnart.; on the sanie
level, the lieat can ievei  exceed the point
of boiling  2  at    r 212.  If the feed cistern,
eowever, le  elev.'ated at a  considerable
Iiei(,lit abo.-e tl       er, tlhe pre.ssure  oi
the waLter in the litet   ill be greater than
uiisa l, iii(l tihe b-iliig poiit will be raised
in proi)()rLi(,l  t( tlle lei;.(lit (of the supply
cisteri n.       lius  iii       appiiraitus in whlich
the boiler is (j0 feet Ijelow the cistern and
liigIiest parts (of thle pipes, thle boiling point
is 2r-0 t instea(l        of 212~, and thie                                                 oteat
teimplerature  o,)f tlhe circulatig, pipes, in
sutchli a case, mwill be 18.5".  By rtisin,, tlie
site of tlie cistern to tlie re(itinred hieigitt,
a  propo,'tioiiate  (legree of lheat  ima,,y be
obtained from the pipes.
/~~~~7'
_._:
1 ) 
,PLAN OF THE HOT-WATER PIPES.
within 16 or 18 inclhes of the stirfiace,,f
the water in the cistertni 1; mn n is tlle Ieturn pipe, whlici  should be covered witli
tlthte non-conducting felt used for coverinzt
boilers, and whliich, of an inclh in thickness,
costs 2s. the square yaird; a  a are the
walls; b b the ground;  c c the excuvattion; d the boiler; e the gangw vay; q the
door of thle drying-roomt; h h the dryintgfloor above thte pil.,es.
4403. To explain the circulation whliclh
the hliot water takes in puch pipes, we lhave
only to examine fig. 38,, wllere kkkk is
the ascendi,g pipe, as in fig,. 388, supported
and kept clear of the ground  ty noli-con
817
1
, a
a
9
LONGITUDIN%AL SECTION OF THE HOP DRYING-HOUSE.
4404. The hops are put into the bags in 
is a very goocl day's work for a man.   In
treading. thle man  beconies covered with
yellow dust, to whlich  powder  Dr  Ives
ascribes the whole virtue of thle plant.  It
nearly chokes the man, and he  nmust  be
supl)plied- witlh beer to keep his tlhroat clear.
Ho1(ps cannot be too firmiily trod ini, for the
lbetter to exclude tlhe air, for wlhiclh end
the Brah hali Hydraulic press hias been recomlmended for poressure, and also painting
the (outside of the  ba(gs.   It is difficuilt,
hlowever, to exclude  the air fron  lihps,
wliich mnakes them shrink in, and lose from
5 lb to 10 lb. the cwt., on wliici account
*,ld hiops are inot worth half the )rice of new.
Those cointaining  ttle most seed will retain
their weigl-ht the longes:, and thierefore the
plants wbich grow nearest the mile prodtiuce
the' best hops for keeping.  Damip  riuins
llops, an(  tl,ose whichi absI('iI)ed milost sulplhtir and saltpetre in the drying keep the
worst. *
4406. Whenever the  b-nes are cleared
of the ltops, thley ocughit to bse taken  off' the
po)le.s, and tlhe  p)(les  l,iledi ini a p)a(e of
safety froni wet. After thje picking is all
concludedl, the poles are stacked up iii the
grouind, to be inear at lIajd lwhent) walted.
When tlie ctilture is followedl in tle s(qutare
forni, as ini fig. 250, tley are iput  up in
cinical st,acks, withil the shi.rpeil ends on
the grouind. having f(inr legs striding over
a  hill which  shlould li)e riglit iiiidcer the
centre (if tlhe stack.  Thie trianglular ftrni
of cultuire,  fig. 251, aiiIiits  of thie stack
being suil,)(orted wilt six leg, each leg in
o tie (f the six sraces iriinti the (eiiire of
the hill, thie aex of thile st ick beilig also
rilght ab)ove tlht point.   The stcks st.an(l
firmner on  six than onr fiiir legs, atil they
also stand  clearer ()f tl!e hills., whlich  is
necessary,  that  every hill may  lie dug
aroutld.   Each leg of tlhe stack shulIld be
bound rounid with three bines, (delrived of
their leaves and twisted inito a rope, whlichl
binds the stack clise andi coinp.act, and preyvents the ploleS  beitng stolen, or a theft
more easily discovered.   The snall refuse
pol les are bound together, separatitig tlhose
which niay be used foir the yoiiiig hines of
tlhe first year, from tlhose wlichli may be
burned into chlaircoal.
4405. After being packed, andt( weig hed
b-y  tth  e       excise,  a,,ps,  a fter  renaninitg 12
lpeours,       nmav  t) e  removed  anywhere  for sale.
The niominiiial duity *n hops is 2d. per lb.,
liult       i        thth te (Idrawback               on tae weight                     tof
one poutid in every 10 lb., the duty is
16s.: 91,!. 4  the cwt. instead of 1s, 8d,
at 2,1. per lb.: this, witlh the ad(itional  5
per cenlt duty, makes tlie entire duty payablle ~ 1 7,  2.s. 91(,. thje ton, or 17s. s8d. the
cwt.   Taking  the crlop of hops at the
general average for a nimlier of years at
5  cwt. the acre, and thle duty with  tlhe
* Lance's Ilop-Farmer, p. 111-26.
4407. The following is the cost of pickin.i,, anti the suibsequient expense (on a ton
of liops tler acre, averaging 13(1 b0shels
of green Ihops to the ton, as calculated by
Mr Rutley: 
PICKIN'G AND DRYING IIOPS.
James 1.  This  act was lit-tle atteniled  to, and
nlever hiaving  been  repealed, is  strongly  contrasted by the act of Anne, which inflicts a penalty of ~20 on all brewers who shall use any other
bitter t)hau that of hops iii their malt liquors.~
Picking 1300 b,zlleln, at 8 hbushel]  for Is.,.
10 binmen at 2s.:d. ea,-h, over 10 bins com painies, of 8 pickers each,
1,l.an to, niea.;ure lhops,
1 lad to tally aind k-eep accoun~ts,
B.y, vy, andl I ho(rse to carry hops and biaskets,
Fuel for diving lisops.....
Carria,e of fuel,...
Sulph,ur,     cwt. to.a ton of bo,ps a,t 10s. I,er cwt.,
65 ya,rds o clotih for 13 pockets, at 7d. per yard,
Makitg and inariinig 13 pockets, and ink, at
2.i. e    pai..i
Treadinig an            d  pottit,g in 13 p bickets, at- 10d.
eael,
Driers, one at 6s., and an tunder one at 5a
a-day,...
5 galloiss of.eer for driers, trealers, d&c., at Is.
per gall       o n,.
Annuitial supply of new pokes, and tear and
wear of old...
Wear and  earof -,ast hlair.s, and liop bins, &e.
Men to weilh hiops. mliove loads, &c.,
Loss of time by weatler, 3 days' work,
;t7, lls. 6d,,.~ly,
Woo,d tor fuel, aned straw for stranger pickers,
Gift to ea,chi pic!ker and bi-man, at ls. each,
with lbeer,
Carriage,.f 13 pockets to L.onedon, at 2s. each,
Factor's commitaion on 13 pockets, at 4.. each,
4409. Such has been the increase of the culture of the hop since that period, that in 1835
the exportation to foreign countries amounted to
1,091,659 lb. or 487 tons 6 cwt., of whlc(, only
291 tOlns were of the growth of 1835, and 74- tonls
of the )ear 1834-tthe remaining qualntity being
made  up of old ones, together with  2 tons of
foreign.  The returns of  1848 do ilot mention
hops. l
C8 2  6
1  2  6
0 3  0
0 3 0
0  6  0
O  9  0
1 17 11
0  2  2
0 10 10
0 11 0
0  5  0
0  6  0
(  5  0
0  6  0
0 10 0
0 10 0
0  8  0
1  6  O
2 12 0
4410. Hops   may  be  used   medicinally:  a
pillow of lhops will ilnsure sleep to a patielnt in
delirious fever when every other expedien-t will
prove ineffective.  The imbricated scalesof thehop
are scattered over with resiiious spherical glan-ds,
which are easily rubbed off, and have a powertul
agreeable odour and bitter taste, aud their bitter
principle has been  tnamed Ilpuline. By pressure
hiop-hIeads yield a greell, light, acid oil, called oil
of hops, to which  the plant owes its peculiar
aroma.   The best hops are growni in Elglatlid,
and those of 1Kent afford the largest conles, and
are most productive ill useful secretedl aid soluble
matters; and those of Worcester have  an agreeable mildness of flavour, greatly admnired by many
ale drinkers.  Next to the English are the hops
of Alost in Belgium.
zC21 5 it
Duty,.......    17 12 9}
~'38 18 8s
"In blighIit years," concluides MIr Rutley,
"as muiiichi tIlore per bushel is given f(ir
picking, atn  as tlhere will n(ot be so many
hops, it will cost mnore per toil to pull the
poles; IIandl taking, it in round nlumnbers, if
we were to averilge tile cost of picking,
andI sul,sequlent expenses, one year with           4
antitlier, att ~40  lie ton, 40s. thle cwt., we
should not be very wide (if the m,ark."*
4411. " The best hops," says Dr Ure, " have
a golden yellow colouir, large cones, an agreeable
a.romna; when rubbed  between  the haidls, they
leave yellow traces, powerfully odoriferous, without aiiy broken portiotis of the plant, suelh as
leaves,  stemns,  anid scaly  fragmenits.   When
alcohol is digested in good hops, fronm 9 to 12
per cent ofsoltuble yellow tnatter inay be obtained
by evaporating it to dryn.ess. This is a good  testt
of their quality." ~
4408. The hop is not a native of Britain, nor
was it kniowii in this country till the reign of
Henry VIII., in 1.524,t after the return  of his
expedition to the Nethlierlatids against Tour;say
iii that year.  We  theretfore conclude that the
art of usitng hops was leariled during that ecterprise.  It is probable that the Dutch gardeners,
who came to Etiglatid duritig Hetiry's reign,
might have brought over some hop plants with
other roots and seeds, and that we theti availed
ourselves or the manner of cultivating this bitter
herb.  From  them  we  probably derived  the
name, which, in Gertiman, is hopfen; and lioppe,
hop, aniil hopertyt, in Dutchl.  It had tot become
a tfavourite with the people for nianiy years after
that period; for Walter Blithi records, in 1653,
this remarkable popular error, that " It is not
many  years  since the famous city of Londlon
petitionedl tliheparliameilt of Engl,and agaisnst two
nuisances, and these  were Newcastle coals in
regard to their stench, &c., and hops, in regard
they would spoil the taste of drink, aind eidanger
thle people."$  The use of hops was  therefore
forbidden by an act of parliament in the reign of
4412. The  composition  of the ash of  the hop
i:, as fbllows,  according to Mlr Nesbit:                                         Yellow
Golding  Hop. Grp lP.
Potash,..    24'50            18l-'61
Lime,..      15-55         23'75
Magnesa,..         5'63           6'13
IPhosplhate of it-on,    7-26            6-79
Sulphu,-ic acid,         5-27           4-16
Phosphoric acid,.      9'54           5'26
Carbonlic acid,.     2-61           3-:'6
Chloride of so,ditum,    7-05           3-18
Chloride of pota,ssium,  1'63'2!21
Manganese,.....            1 59
Silica..,    20-95 24'96
100'00        100'00
Percentage ofash,    9'90          i5'80
* Jourrnal of the Aqgricultiral Society qf Englland, vol. ix. p. 566-82.
t Beckni'ais History of Inrentions, vol. iv. p. 339.
+ Blith's Inmprover Isiprored, p. 240.
! Philips' Itistory of Cultirvated Vegetables, vol. i. p. 240.  II Lance's Itop-Fatr.ver, p. 200.
~ Ure's Dictionary ofthe Arts-art. Beer.
319 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
4413.  Weiglit; of  the  various  mineral  inlired'ielits,  relllsved  from  an  acre  of land  by  the
(;oldilig hlol, is as ftillow,:
-  MlVGRAL           -;        -@        n1 v,A P_shoi  acd,.                                           41
lN\R.DS1:ni.NTa.  |0 EAbli  acid.-. *.0
lb         2 1      lb. or.   lb. ol.
Potasih,               11  31   2 10        2  6    16  31
-Sofla-..     0  1..      0  1
Lime.             7  1      8 10      3 13    19  8.
M.^agnesia,.       2  9      0  6      o  61:1 51
illospllate of iron,    3  5      0 10      0  0:     3 15.t
1Sulphr icacid,         2  61    0 14       0  51    3 10
il'hosphloric acid,     4  6      0  7      0  94     5  64
{,'lorideof sodium,    3  31    1 10        0 10      5  7
1 I)o. of pota,siuti,  0 12..       0 15      1 11
1ilica,,..   9  9      2   2     0  9i   12  44
I.$      ~       44  8    17  6       9 11    71  94
Potash,
Magniesia,
PI'hlsp,hate of iron,
Sulphuric acid, 
Phiosphoric acid,
Carboniic acid,
Chloride of sodium
Chloride of potassium,
Silica (soluble)
Sand and charcoal,
4417. The import dutyon hops is ~2,5s. the cwt
ON THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS.
4414. Weight of the various milleral ingredlienlts remrnoved  froln an acre of land  by the
Yellow Grape-hop, is as follows:8
4418. The commiiion field lhorse-bean, fig.
189, it is well ktnowni, is unable to withstand the weather in winter.  A new bean
to the  agriclulture  of  this country  wa.
introduced into England  in 1825, and ij
found to standl the winter in the sotutlh 6;f
England with considerable certainty. It
is doubtful whether it will bear a Scottislh
winter, as the few attemipts which have
been made to grow it have been rather
unsuccessful; and unless thle autumn is
very favourable to vegetation, it is believed
that it will not prove profitable.
I
.;
lb. oz.
t 15
1 4
9 4
1   12
0 14
1 11
4    52
5 5
..
3 0
40 8
4411.)  This bean is called the winter,
and solImetimlles the I'ussian, bean.  It grows
to the height of 3 or 4 feet; is remarkably lardy and prolific;  tlhe seed being
sii:tll, hleavy, and  very plump,  seldom
lhaving any depression in its sides.   It is
of thle same colour of tlhe common lbean,
with a  lark-greenish spot on the  short
side, a little below the terminatioln of tlhe
small  black eye.  It  was  at first  cornfounded, but is now proved to be a distinct
variety froni the lieligoland bean.~
Mean of
ap oaoysps
in a ton
of HoI~.
lb.
29   5
27   5
7 5
2 4
12  3
25   2
2 1
4 6
25   0
13(i I
l
Yellowr
Gelding      Grape
Hop.        )lop.
Potash,... 24.83                  25.56
Limelc,....'21.59       1 *1.47
Magnesia,..   4.69        5.27
Peroxide of iroi,.   1.7.;       1.41
Y,ulp)huric aci(l,.   7.27       11.6';
Phosphoric -ic:ild,               14.47       17.)58
(,a boniJic a(id,,..17       4.54
Chloride.f sodium,.   3.42        1.1:2
Chloridle of pota~ssium,...- 4.31
Silica, *               *. 19.71         9.99
99.95       99.96
-.
4420. The only one I have heard wlho
cultivates   the winter bean is Mr Hewitt
1DI avis, Spring, Park, near  Crovdlon, il
Sutrrey, wio thinks it a valuablle crop in
soils unsuited to the comnion bean.       f
taken after potatoes, the land slhould  I)e
drille(l in thle double foirm (2397') in September, an(l the seed, from six to eight
pecks to the acre, then sown  upon  the
drills by the bean barrow, fig. 219.  Tle
* Journal of the Ayriculttral Society of Fngland, vol. vii. p. 212-18.
+ ]bid,; vol. ix. p. 145.             + II)id. vol. vii. p. 220.
I Lawsoii's AgricittU.rist's 3Ianual, p. 63.
I
I
I
f
310, -
..., 1.45,
~23.70
2.75
~2.50
3.0.5
4.10
9.00
~   2.95
0.70
27.10
21.80
99.10
10.40o+
Percentage of ash,
' a,!.
- z3
.
lb. oz.
53   91
3   2
90 o0.
25 13
17   0
O 14
14   2 -
19   5
16   3
4 15
3 10
76  12t
325   7'
MII NERAL
INGREIDIi.NT,T.
I 
'?otash,
It,,,da,
, Time,~.
i.M~agn~esia,.
il'ho.sphate of iron
D)o. alumina,
Sulphutlric acid,
Phiosplhor ic acid,
Chlloride of sodiulm
Do. potassiui,
IMa nganese,
F'a
lb. ox.
.42 61
..
54- ]
13 15
15 7i
5..7O
11  15'
.7 o
4 15
3 10
56 141
219} 13
.6 a
lb. oz.
4 4
1 1i1
26 11
5 2
0 7
3..0
3 0
3 14
..
16 14
_5 2
4415. The composition of the ash of the flower
of the hop, according to the analysis of Mr
Ftetderick Eg,gar, are as follows: —
Percentage of ash,                     5
c.-tiulatd  dr,' t         5.95 7.21 t'
calculated~~~ dr,
4416. As spent hops are uised for mannire, the
analysis of their ash, by Mr Nesbit, nvy Iproove
in-struictive: — 
PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING FLAX.
land is cleaned with the scuffler, fig. 262,
drill-grlubber, fig. 264, and lhand-lhoe, fig.
266, in spring.  It comes early in spring
into blossom, may be harvested in s(nme
years as early as July, and yields from 4
to 5 quarters an acre.  It possesses the
adlvantage over the common bean of never
being attacked by the black dolphin or
collier, fig. 335, probably on account of its
rapid growthl  anticipating thle period of
tle existence of that pest; and this discrimiination  was strikingly exemplified by
comparison in 1847, a year in which a
large proportion of the conmmrnon bean was
dlestroyed in England by this a)his.*
4425. The flax plant  is reimo ei front
the  grwounl by bei ng pul led I)  by the
roots, and not by being cut over with any
shar)  instriment.   The ullin     g  is not
atterp ted until the  plant has   don e   flower in,n, and tile seed  ha s   att ained a  ertaing
de(ree of inimatur it y  in  the capsule or bo,ld
whliclh contains it. The test of ripeness,
accordino to  Mr Hendersoon, is this:-" I
have found the test recommended by  Mr
Boss, to ascertain  thae degree  of ripelines.
that gives the best p roduce, with the finest
fibre, perfect.  It  is this: Try  the flax
every day when approaching ripeness, by
cutting the ripest capsule ou an average
stalk across, lhorizontally, and whien the
seeds have changed fromn the wlhite, lilkLy
substance which they first sliow, to a
greenislh  colour, pretty firm, then is the
time to pull.   The old prejudice in f,tvour
of much  ripening is m0ost injuri ous, even
as regards quantity; and the usual test of
the stalk stripping at the root and turning
yellow, andi tlje leaves falling off, slho-)iuld
not be dependedI on.  Where there is one'
man that pulls  too green, five  lhundlred
over-ripen."
4421. If the winter l)eani is taken after
stubtle, the land shoull be drilled in the
double manner (2397,) dunged in the drill,
as in (2433,) the seed sown on the top of
the dung by the drill-barrowv, fig. 219,
in the same quantity as specified for beans
ian spring, (2442,).and the dutng and seed
coverel over with  the double  imode  of
drilling.   Other modes of sowing beans
with  and without manure are described
frota (2427) to (2432.)
4423. Mr Davis grows turntips between
tlie rows of winter beans, and carrots may
be  grown  in  the  same  manner;  but
altlogh i AIr Davis re,gard(s the turnips as
valuiab)le for flding slheep upon them after
thte removal of thie beans, it is questiona,tile
fainning to lmalke  the lan(l produce two
crops at the same tiate.   Such a style of
frti;rliug is common in Flandlers, and it is
cai'ried there to the extreme length of groB -
i,g a greeni crop atiton,st grain, such:as
cearrts atmongst         bar ley, but the pgreen crop
iq unworthy of the nalme.   Slhoulu  the
,tonie tuIrnip (4:358) amongst winter beans
/,e (lesire(l, the beans  inay be sown  in
(double rows at fifteen inches apart, and
nine feet between  the double rows, which
wsol(d affor(d th-e ordinary room (,f twentyseven inches between the two drills of tulnips. For two rows of carrots seven feet
bet%,een the double rows will suffice.
4426. Wlhen tlhtus properly ripened, tlho
flax slhoul(d be pulled in this way:-" I
use the Dtitech imietlhtod, by catclhing a fevstems of the flax at  a time close  hlelow~
tlte bolls, whlichl allows the siortest of tlhe
flax  to escalpe.  With the next lhaniidful the
puller draws the slhort flax. and keeps tlJe
short and tle longeacl by itself, to be steeped.
in separate ponds.   It is most essential to
keep the flax ev,en at the root end, and
this cannot be done without timne and( care;
but it can be d(one, and should alwa(ys b(
done.   TIe beets or slieaves should alwavs
be stitall, equal sizeld, straight and ee,
and shI(,uhl( never  be piit ul) in stioks or
winr-ow-s, but taken to, the ponid the day
they are pulled, or the dlay after at longest,
especially in bright weatlter —for the discoloration produced by the 8sun on green
flax will never be removed till it goes ta
* Davis's FPari?"n  [ssay s)p. 6p 
VOL. 1I.
32-1
ON T[IR PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYINC.
OF FLAX.
4424. We left the flax crop after it was
weede(i, in (3115,) aDd sliall now ilesci-il)e
the niode of reiiioviiig it froni the groiin(l.
4422. After the aiitumnal diingin,-,, the
lan(l slioiild be top-dressed in sprinr wit[,
,goiiie alkaline nianure, -,Is nitrate of potasi),
-o,ood a-glies, or common, salt, 2 or 3 ewt.
to tije -,Lcre.
x 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
thie  bleacher,  and  will  #ive; him  some
trouble also."
of each downwards: one layer at a time iJ
said to be safer, and perhaps is so, although
I have tried both ways and havxe ohserved
no difference.   Thle flax slhouldl be placed
rather loose  than crowded in the pond,
and  laid carefully  strai,ght and regular.
Having an abundant supply  of water, I
do not let any into the pond till thle first
layer is first placed ill it.   I cover  tlhe
flax  with  sods laid perfectly close,  the
shiear of each fitting to tile othler   Thus
covered, it never sinks to tle )bottomii, nor
floats above thle water, nor is affecte(dl by air
or light.  It is generally watere(l in I 1 or
13 days.  A gentle streanm  sho,,!d], if p,ssible, always pass slowly over the po)oi(;
it carries off inmpurities, and d(:es not at
all impede due fermenetation.   Flood( and
inliplire water should be carefully kept offl;
and perhaps the best way to do thiis is to
make a drain or ditclh  around the pond.
The greatest cause of injury in steep)ing
is exudation of water froiii tIe sidles or
bottom of the pond.   Stripe and di-colorati, n are mostly imputed to the qtiality of
the water brought to thle pond; whlilst in
most cases the water oozing frmln the sides
and bottom of the poond itself is the cautse.
Even if such water were pxure, wlhich it
seldom is, it is injurious; bilt when  im-'
pregnated with iron or (otlher materials, it
does ilnliense liariil.  If suel! pondt(s,ust
continue to be used, the injury,,ay  be
partially amnendled by draining around thle
sides and ends, a,t 6 or 8 feet distance, and
18  inchles  deepler  than  their  bottom,
and filling the drainrs with tiles or stones,
No other thing I know of does so iuelill
injury as this springing of water  withIin
the pond(.  The Dutch test of being sufficiently watered is certain and perfect;  at
least, I never founrid it otherwise.   It is
thlis:-Try soitie stalks of -average fineiness
by breaking, the vwoody part in tw,, places,
about 3 inclhes apart, at thle n,ilddle of tllhe
lengtl)h; catch the wood at the lower entl,
and if it will pull downward freely for
thlose three iltches, witlhout breaking  or
tearing tl:e fibre, it is ready to be taken
out.   This  trial should be  made every
day after fermentation subsides, for somtItimes the change desired is rapil.  Flax is
more frequently injured by too little thtan
to() nucli of the water.    Great care anid
neatness are necessary in taking tlhe flax
out. as broken or crumpled flax will never
reach ~he mlarket.   Set thsesheaves on ende
4427. On being pulled the plant is deprived  of its bolls or seed-capsules  by
ripplinq, whichI consists of drawing  the
stems of the plant throughl the teetlh of an
iron cotmib 8 inclhes in length, set upright
upon a formn, across which two mien sit
opposite each other, and ripple their- handfuils alternately. The ripple is placed on
a barn slheet, (I1740.) Tlhe arrangement of
labour should be such tlhat the ri)pling
Mmiuld  go  on  simnultanleously witl  thie
pulling, and with as little loss of tinme   as
possible. The rippled plants should be tied
in:slheaves to be taken to tle watering'-po(ol
to be steeped.  Somie steep the bolls on
the plants, buit no good is attained tlhereby.
4428. Next  comes    the  sterping,  which
is a     moit  im)ortant process,   an   d               is the one
least iilnderstood  b  y tlie,rowers of flax in
this country. The object of steeping the
flax.plant.is, that as tliestem of flax consists
of two parts, possessing very different pro,perties -oine, the outer, fibrous, affording
-t. flax wlhich is kept-tlhe other, the inte-ri.pitlhy,tobegot rid of byferrtietntation in
-St  ing and loosening its lbolI of the fibre.
Tle aiheesive substance betwixt the two
:is m'uilage, a-nd the sooner the flax is put
into hseep                       after being pelled, thse more
mhcilheage  will obe  dissolve       d f rom  it. If
the st-eepiiig  is as  long continued as to
affect the texture of the fibrous coating,
tlhe flax will be injured; and should it not
be continued until the pitlhy matter  may
'be easily looseneti, muchl latbouir will afterwards be required to get rid of it.  Proper
steepillg, then, is not only an essential, but
a: nice  process, and  clear  instructions
,r(ling it are valuable:-" Flax is subject to injury from neglect in every process, but in steepiiigespecially. The water
brought to the poind shoul,! be pure from
all mineral substances, clean and clear.
The water from large,rivers is generally to
be preferred; but spring-water which has
run some hundred fyards becomes soft, and
will have deposited~any mineral impurities
it. nay hlave containedl;.but that immediately from  the-spr-ing,, seldom does well.
If the water be good -and soft, it is injurious
to allow it to stagnate in the ponl bef, r'e
ieing used for steeping. I-put in two layers,
4each somewhat slo pd, With  the root -ell
322 
PULLING, STEEPING,  AND  IDRYING FLAX.
against one another as taken out of tile
pondt, to drain thie water oiff tlemn thie more
quickly.    Spread the flax on the sanme
day it is taken out, unless it is iat~pens
to beheavy rain.  Lightt rain does liutle
harm; but, in any case, spread tile next
day, ft,r it will hleat ill the pile, and t     h         at
hleating will be destructive."
fl     ax altogether.   An  y     oth er crop will
abide mpore  negligence.  So w louctcr   has been
said and writtel) of  late of tbe advantage
of flax-culture, that it is to be  feared some
nmay be led to carry it to an undtue extent,
and sow it on land not fitted: for it; indeed, thiis has already beeni often (lone, and
I kinow of notiiing miiore in jutrious to tihe
tfarnier.  Flax is  proverbially  either  tlhe
very best or the very worst  crI'O  a fariier
4429. Flax "shlould be spread even,
straight: at; its lentigth, not to-) tiliek, a    cid
well  slhaken, so  thiat there  sl,all be no
clots; indeed, if possible, no two  stalks
should l here.   I hlave evter founi(l it injuri,us to keep it  long  oil tile grass:  it is
in thie steep the woodl is decomtll)()sedl; on
tlhe grass the fibre  is softened and  tile
wood  little if at all affecte(l.   I rarely
let it lie miiore than.5 days, sonietilmes only
3: one year  it had only 3 days, and  I
never lhadl better flax.  It siotuilt never, if
possible, be spread ulpon tle gi)rounid wlere
it has grown-it claps down. and thle clay
and wee,ls discolour it: clean lea, or lately
cut nieadow, is tle blest ground."
4433. I tlhik that, as far as thle farmer
is concecrned,  lie sholtl lIave n(itilin to do
witi  thle  steeling of flax, nothing  to d(,
witl its  iiaiufacture at  all, wlich  sltould
be left entirely to  the  ski.lg and pra ct ical
nmanagemene of tile  ianutfacturer,  whio
must know, nif uch better     tihat  tile  farlier,
tl)e processes best suited to lpreserve and
renaer tfe ibre beist fitted ibr  misowv   pbIrposes.  And  by fsiclt,wieg wuhat i     s termled
tite Courtrai system t  of  linanac,elilent, it is
in lis powe   to avoid al touble and ltroub l  anisk
incidentil   to tile steeping and dew-retti t,r
of tiie cnrp.    Tifis syste,ii is  siomjply tof set
up the;  seaves, oins being pulle d asn rippled,
into stooks to  be  driel, aidi, after it is soa
to  s tack  it, re ady  for sale to any pu achilaser,
or to diisr-)ose of i t in tle stoook.'The steepinc,  a    e dao  ne i after ti le plant ias beeni
dried. altlh,,uglh it takes  a longer timiie to
talke efibct; anti the steeping  miiav be superseded altogetlher, now  tlat ti,e mucilage
and p)ithi,l,aty be -iisolve,l an(d rettovedlby
a process   of lieating in steaii, whjicl lias
been iniventeti t)y an Aitiericaii gentle man,
Mr it. B. Seni'eick. - H is al~ptitson';sts
of a steaiii-b,iter an,i vat, it) wlicih is miiaintainie,l tiie flatx and wa;ei; a,temilserature
of 90~ Fatiretiieit, for 60 or 80 lh(urs, at tlie
end of wiicil timae thje flax is as comiipletely
fitted for  dr-ying  aifl I:oreakitng as'when
steeped fior 14 dtys.'Tile watler is iieated
by  tie steamii l1assing  tihroughi a cjil of
pipes  lying in'  thie bottomii of  the  vat,
wiiichi has a false peritrated bottom, upon
whiicil thte flax is laid.
4430. "Liftinq, like all o>tlher operations, requlires ca,re antd neatness to keep
tlhe flax strai,ght in its lengtl,t, and even at
tile roots.  This operation is too frequlently
hlurried and coarsely done."
. 4432. In  his conceluding remarks,  Mr
Heli(lerson shlows that lie is well acquainIted
wit6 the ntattire atltd effects  nf au              t culture:
— " Thie prioler cul' ure an(d p)reparationi of
flax requfire motre care, exertion, and expense  tila the olhl slovenly utethi,d; and
thIoJse whi, will not give: thlose requisites,
would do wisely to abstain fromt growing
4434. Tile crop of flax, after it is dried,
is balky ft,r"its' weight,,, aid yielhs ftroxl  3
to 10 cwt. per acre of 1irie(- pll its.  Fr'll
30) to 40. stones, of 14  lb. eachI, ani acre of
i- dresed'flax, is -/0sidered aIT'r(,, and,
if of jinte quality, will fetcii perhaps  290
* Henderson On thc Ciultivation of Fiax, p. I.
326
v
443 1. " If tite steei)ing and grassing
II'.Lve been 1)erfect, flax slit)uld require iio
fire; aii(i to iii-.tke it really for bieaking
ari(i sciiteiiiii, exposure to tije sun sljijuiti
be sufficiel'it    but if Lite weather be danip,
the flax totigii, and iiiust be wrotiglit tff,
then it list be fire-(iried. Sucii dryiii-,
is always iiiore (,r less injurious; aii(I if it
be 1)ut t-ii ttie kiiii iii a tlaiiip,tate, it is
ruiti(,us; it is absolutely I)i-it-iit before it is
dry. All wiio can afford it tsliotilt.1 keep
aticii flax over to the ensuing spring or
suitittier plittin- it dry into stacks, wijen
it will-work freeiy without fir(-,-Iieat." 
qt.ality, th)e seed is not of,iucli value as a
searketan brle  commodity;  tbut  thle  bolls
witly the se ed in it, sucii a        b e  it is, mnake
aotd f,ood for cattle,                    and hav e been successfursill used as stich by that ecilotent breeder,
Mr        Huglli Watson,  Keillor Farm,                            n ear
Coupar-Angus.  When the flax is allowed
to, stand1, more for the sake of obtaining,,
seed than fibre, every  8 bushels of bolls
,llay I)e expected to produce onie bushel of
cleani seed'; and the price of the bolls, after
being (dried in thle sun, is 6d. thle bushel;
It wlhichi price the fa-riners of Irelaild express  themselves  satisfied at  thle porofit
derived fromi this part of tlhe flax crop.*
fibres of flax are transparent cylindrical tubes,
articulated, and pointed  like a cane; while the
filaments of cotton  are transparent glassy tubes,
flattened, and twisted round thlleir own axis. A
section of a filament resembles, in some degree,
the figure  8, the  tube  originally  cylindrical,
having collapsed  most  in the  middle, fotrming
semnitubes on each side, which give to the fibre,
wheni viewed in a certain light, the appearance
of a fiat ribbon, with  a hem or border on each
edge. The unitbrm transparency of the filamenit
is imipaired by small irregular fissures, probably
.wrinkles arisinig from  the  desiccation of  tlhe
tube.  In conisequence of this d(lifferencee betweect
the structure of lineni  and  cotton  fibres, Mr
Thomison and. Mr Bauer wsere enabled to aice:'taini, that  the  cloth in whih(,  the  Egyptiani
mummies are wrapt is always lixieni, atnd  inever
cotton. It is clear from  this, that the opinion
entertained by  some,  that  what is called  in
outr translation of the Old Testamenrt fine lines
of Egypt, ought to be  the cotton cloth of Egyp>t,
is erroneous.  We have 110o evidence from  the
clothl  wrapt about  alicient tmummiiies, that  the
Egyptiai,s ili those early times were  acquainted
with cottonl." +
4436. The struectire of the flax plant, atd the
proporti onlts w hic         h the parts bear to ogre aanother,
is thus des-cribed by Dr Ure: —" Ii it- two pritncipal parts:are  to be (listinguiished-the: woody
heart o        r  boon, asad the etarl, (covered outwardly
with a filue cuticle,) whiceh etclosies the former
like a tube, consisting of parallel linles. In the
natural state tlhe fibres of the harl are attached
fitmly not only to the boon, but to each other, by
ln1.6unis, of a green or yellow  substance.  The
iough stemns of the flax, after being stripped of
their seeds, lose in moisture, by drying iii warm
air, frolm 55 to 65 per cent of their weight, but
somewhat  less' when  they are quite ripe  and
woody.  In this dry state they consist, in 100
part., fromn 20 to 23 per cent of harl, and fronm
80 to,-77 per cent of boon.   The latter is, composed, u,,pon the average, of 69 per cent of a
peculiar'woody  substance; 12 per  cent of a
mtnatter solnible iii water;'atnd' 19 "per cehlttof- a
body ntot soluble' in water, but in alkalime ly        w          es.
'The harl contains, at a mean, 658 per cent of pure
4438. The d e si r e t o grow  flax liias-beeot str togly
expressed, in ireland, f,'r a few vears past; and(l,
oil the  fstimullus giveln to thte subject,  b,y  the
society instituted for the purpose of proinotiig its
culture, little douibt exists that mnore flax is tglowti
at pres,lent, iin Irelanid, thani has beeii ftr imianty
years bypast, anid as so large ati imiportation took
place so lately as 1,052,089 cwt. i2i 1847, and
1,462,097 ini 1848, the probability is, tha-t the (lemia~nd fbr it will be of so permanenit a character a.
to elnc)urage its growth for maniy years to coetle.
But while the IrislI farmers have been sul>l,lied
with wholesome advice by the kind offices of the
society referred to, there have not beein wantiing
*:   Sproule Ona't he'.rowth snd Afnagement of Fra' in Ireland, p. 19, note;
t' Ure's Dictionary of tAe A4t.-;art. Flax.
+ ThomsoiL's  Or.qaiic (eniemstry - V,'gettibles, p. 849. 
PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING FLAX.
injudicious friends to mislead them into a belief
that flax and flax seed may be grown together,
both equally good,and that the flax plant is not an
exhauster of the soil. Such fallacies have doubtless been propagated  by persons unacquainted
with agriculture, —for every farmer in Scotland
who has raised flax knows, that if it is allowed
to stand until the seeds are nearly ripe, the fibre
becomes coarse.  The finest flax seed comes to
this country from Russia, and from tlhenllce also
is imported the coarsest flax. I have been informed, by an extensive grower of flax in Lithuiania, that,to raise the best quality of seed, the seed
is sowin thin, that the plants may fisd room to
throw  out b ranch es, and the fib     res then beCome
short and coarse. There is, therefore,tlhis dilemmniia
in te matter, th e r   e quality of the flax or        of the
seed must be sacrificed, for both of the best
quality cannot be simultaneously raised.   The
seed alone will not pay the expense of culture.
Seed is produced fromn 6 to 12 bushels an acre:
taking the largest, 12 bushels, 14 quarter; and
supposing it all fit for sowinig, and worth, at the
highest current price of 1850, 5Ss. the quarter,
the gross return would only be ~4, 2s. 6d. the
acre.
Alkaline salts, chliefly common salt}
and sulphate of soda,
Plospllates of limne aied magnesia,'
and a little phosphate of lime, X
Carbonate of lime,.  ~.
Calrbonate of magnesia,
Insoluble siliceo,us matter,.
4440. Aftergiv'ing tthe analysis of flax-steep
extract, with and without ashes, Sir  Robert
Kane observes, that " It is thus seen that the
steep-water dissolves out a great  quailitity of
nitrogen, and of the inorganic materials of the
stem; in fact, that it removes from the plant
almost everything that the plant removes from
the soil.  This is confirlned by looking at the
composition of its ashes, which are shown by the
following analytical results.  There are found 42
parts of ashes in every 100 parts of flax-steep
extract, consisting of
Chloride of potassium,..        3'8
Sulphate of potash,...  4'4
Carbonate of potash,...  3'8
Carbonate of.soda,...        13,2
Car bonate of magn    esia,     e.       2 th
Carbonrate of lime,..          40
Phosphate  of i ron a nd a l um  ina,.  3-2
Phosphate of lime,                   2'1
Silica,.....        5b5
42()
The steep-water thus dissolves, especially the
alkaline injgredienlts, and the phosphates of  the
plant, and hence leaves the rotted  stemis il:%
condition of almost pure ligneous matter."  The
conclusion formed is, "that the materials drawn
from  the soil by such  a crop, (flax,) should be
found in the waste products of its manutfacture,
and should be available by being returned to the
soil, to restore it to its original fertility."+
"Suppose," observes Protessor Johnston, "the
flax-steep water,  therefore, to be  returned to
the land, and even  the scutchings also, whi*ch is
rarely the case, the fibre as it comes 1troin the
mill, and even as it goes to market, would still
carry off a  considerable quantity of  "aluable
matter from the soil."  1 will add that, in prac tice, the land on which flax is sownI is  iiever
watered afterwards, and  the contents of  the
steeping pool would only put it in a bad state
for the suicceeding crop; and, besides, the expen.
sive carriage of tons of water would  be of no
use to such a crop, since the ingredients from flax
o  would only benefit  the flax plant.  To render
the water-carryitig therefore profitable, an(,ther
crop of flax should  be taken, which no  farmer
would do.  It has been stated at public meetings
in Ireland that I am entirely  inimnical to  the
culture of flax in the United Kingdom.   Now,
the sentiments I have alwavys entertained  are,
that the flax crop has been found in Scotland to
4439. Every farmer also knows that if flax is.
cultivated as a green crop, having the manure
applied directly to it, its fibre becomes coarse;
and if cultivated as a white crop, it must either
occupy  the  place of another white crop, and
compete with it in profit, or be taken after another white crop, when it must exhaust the land.
It was this last position which  flax occupied
when cultivated il Scotland; and it left such
evident marks of exhaustion  upon the soil, that
landlords  prohibited  its  culture  in  express
terms in the lease. This result is well known
to the agri(cultural communi-ity; and yet the Irish
farmer has been informed, on the authority of Sir
Robert Kal,e, that " the igneous or woody fibre,
which fiiially is converted into the linieni thread,
is composed of the same elements as starch and
sugar, and in nearly the same proportions.
Hence this fibre, which constitutes  the entile
-money value;,f the flax crop, is produced during
the life of the plant, by the elements of the atulospthere; and  the  materials taken from the
manure and from the soil are, in reality, employed by the plant in organisimg substances which do
not make any return to the farmer, but which
are, on the contrary, under certain circumstances,
considered to be positively a disadvantage. It
is therefore of importance  that it should  be
understood, that, by a proper system, the growth
of flax and similar fibre crops should be destitute
of all exhausting influence." *  The sentiments -
just expressed seem to imply that the fibre
of the flax plant contains no mineral ingredients
whosoever: an opinion at all times improbable,
and now proved to be unfounded, as may be seen
in the results of the analyses of the ashes of
dressed flax, and of its refuse, the pob, by Professor Johnston:
* Kane's Inclustrial Resources of Ireland, p. 325 6.
t Johnstoit's Lectures on Atlricultural Chemistry, 2d'edition, p. 383.
+ Kate's Industrial Rsource's of lreland, p.326-8.
5
1A. -.
8-9;
17-89
45-56
6134
21-24
100-00
. 1-29
P...,
9.58
14-12 
51-43
9-24
15-63
100-00
1-78f
Pereentag —ofashitithe(],,yfibm,.
Chloride of potassium'
Sulpbate of potash,
Carbonate of potash,
Carbonate ofsoda,,
Carbonate of ma nesia,
9
Carborate of lime,
Pliosi,hate of iron and alumina,
Pb('spliate of lime,
silica, 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
be a very exhausting one to the soil; that it
cannot fail to be an exhausting crop if raised
after a grain crop; that if raised after a green
crop the fibre becomes too coarse to be useful for
fiie fabrics; that if raised as a substitute for a
grain crop, it comes into competition with it on
the score -of profit; that fine seed and fine fibres
cannot be produced by the same plant; that if
fine flasx is desired to be raised, the seed must besacrificed, except for the feeding of cattle; and
that if fine seed is desired to be raised, the crop
must be sowII thin, and the flax rendered coarse
and short.
- 4445. In  commen cing the harvest  the
male plants are seiected first, and- they
are easily  known by  bearing  no  seed1.
The crop is reaped by pulling it up by tlIje
roots like flax; anil care should lie exercised in tlhe pulling, not to break the stemi'
when taking, a hold of the plant near the
root.  Before pulling each stemii, thle leaves
eshould be pinchled or cut, and the niale
tops cut off;  and when pulled the stetls
should be made up in snall handfuils, withi
thle roots placed  together, and tied in
bundles at three places, one near eatc-h endi
and  one at thle middle, with the simall
stunted plants found growing between the
tall ones.
4441. Flax is manufactured into fabrics, varying in texture from the coarse bagging employed
to pack cotton or hops, to canvass, litten, cambric,
and the finest lawn, diferiiag ia value between
bagging and lawa, from 34d. to 28s. the square
yard. Best Russia flax, in 1850, cost from ~34 to
~35 the toii; so that a crop of 40 stories should
realise for the acre of this coarse quality of flax,
fromn ~8, lOs. to ~8, I!s.  The fitest flax realises
a price from ~90 to ~120 the ton.
4446. The bundle-s should be carried to
the  watering-pool  as soon after  beinig
pulled and made  up as practicable.   It is
recommended  by some growers to (Iry the
plants for  a  day  before  putting   thetn
amongst the water;  but as the waterinng
only removes the mucil.atginous substance
by which thle fibre is attachedl to the t itlh,
it is evi(lenit that the  itlLcil.Lge will he (lis s,)lved  miore easily, anil  in slhortert.tilne,
when the steiti is green, than wlhen it lhas
become indurated by  dIryin,,.  The buni dies should be puit into tlie po)ol with  tie
root end downwards, ar,( laiid aigainst'eacsh
other in a  slop)ing direction,.ianl kept
hun(ler water by thie l)ressure of greten turf
laid closely above tlhem, to excludile the
light. A fermentation ensues in the course
of a few.lays, according LO tihe state of the
atmosphere, which has the effect of separating thle fibre frtom  the steili.  Alout
three weeks will be required to effect this
separation entirely; lbut in case the fereme ttati(n should be catrriel too far, and
injury be done  to thle fibhre-aiianti the inii i rious effect runs its course very  rapidlly
after it has conimiienceed-a bundle sliould
be examinted at least every  day after a
fortnight, and the fact ascertained %whethler
the fibre separates easily from  the stein,
ran.d whletlher: thle stein snaps easily asinader, whichi when it does, thle bundles sloulild
be taken imxmediately out of the water.
4442. The last notice of the htemp crop,
after. sowing:and-.weeding, was taken in
(3136,.)   According  as it is desired to
cultivate the plant for the seed or for the
fibre, it should be thlinned out in the row
after the plants have attaiued a height of
froijn 4 to 6) inches.   If seed be  chiiefly
desired, the plants shlouild statnd at 2 feet
distance in the row; and if fibre, one foot
distance will suffice-tlhe fiuer the fibre the
high,er tlhe price will be obtained for it.
4444. When the male plant is really to
be pullwed    a th e  leaves hang (ltevr  anad becomne yellow at the points, and  the skin
of the stenm assumes a white colour.  The
female plant is not ready for puilling until
tle earliest seeds begin to assume a brown
colour on the apex.
4447. As tlhe  bundles are taken,iit (f
the water, they slit,ulhl bse set iup  again,st
eactli othier, to dripi the wlter from  tleln e s
muchl  as p)ossiible; and  whlen  any of tlie:II
seemits d(lirtied with niud or otherwise, tiiey
should be rinsed in the  )ool I)efore )eiiig
326
ON TIIE PULLING, STEEPING; AND DRYING
OF HEMP.
444-3.. The liemp having the sexes on
different. plants, the entire crop ct)tiies to
maturity at different tinieq, the itiale plants
becoming mature imtneiiiately after they
leave deposited the pollen on the -female
flowers, aii4l the feinale not for three -or
four weeks thereafter.  Tiii s difference of
titite, in arriving at maturity catises.tlie inconvenience of reaping the crop at different,
times, which -must be submitted to, altlioiif,h some farti,iers reatp the. entire crop
at ue,titiie, to the, injury of the fibre. 
PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING HIEMP.
taken out.  After dripping for a day, the
bundles should be taken to an airy place to
dry; and the plants may either be spread
singly upon a piece of bare grass, or, what
is better, spread against a paling or wall
having a drying exposure.  Hurdles, such
as fig. 40, set iii) with a considerable inclination backwards, formn a convenient
erection for bearing henip to be dried.
4451. I am of the same opinion, in
regard  to      the  cultur e of henp as of   that
of f lax, that the  farmer sihould lcave notl)ing to  do with its rm    cue a    nufactur e, anl  that
all he e   should do a fter    the pulling of the
crop is to dry it an,l stack it in the best iniiner for the manufacturer to puirchlase.  The
steami process of Mr  Scl)enick (4433,) or
other means, the miianuifactiurer, no doubt,
possesses to render the cro) available to
himself, without  the  assistance  of  tie
farmer; and by suci a proce(dure tLIe farmer
will avoid all personal responsibility save
in the growing of the crop.
4448. Three weeks, and even five, according to the state of the weather, will be
required to inake the hemp completely
dry; after which it ought to be again tied
into bundles, and built in a stack and
thatched, ready to be sold to the best
purchaser.
4452. After the seeds tave-)eeni r ipp,led
off, they should be dried and tlhorog,hlily
won, with as muchl of the capsules as reiiiain
with thenm, to be giveli, after preparation, to
the cattle in winter as part of their food.
4449. The water in the pool should be
soft and clear.  Some are of opinion that
it should be soft and muddy, the mud promoting the fermentation. Mud may promnote putrefaction and heighten the discoloration of the fibre; but clear water
is evidently the best means of dissolving
the mucilage, and preserving the natural
col(ur of the fibre. A gentle current
should also pass over the water of the
pool, to carry off the impurities thrown
up to its surface by the process of fernentation amniongst the bundles, although some
growers of lieriip maintain that the water
siloail(l be in a stagnant state; but if a
slight current is beneficial to the steeping
of flax (4428,) there seemns no reason why
it should not also confer the sanme benefit
upon lihemIl), as the object of steeping both
plants is identically thie same.
4453. When  thle crop  is raised  for
seed, the seeds when ripe easily conie
out of the capsule.  Wihen  the crop  has
to be watered, the seed should be rippled
off and dried and beaten out afterw(ralds;
but when the crop is to be dried w%ithlout
watering, tile seed is beaten off the stems
after these have  bu  e en  dried for ab(ot,T
week, by being struck against somiie olbject,
as a stool placed upon a large barn, slieet.
Tile seed thus beaten out shliuldl he win
niowed, and laid in the granary to win. The
produce may be expected to be froni 2 to 3
quarters an acre, and at 38s. the quarter,
the best price in  1850, will yield from
~3, 16s. to ~5, 14s. an acre.
4454. The produce of lhemip is al)oti',
40  stones to an acre,  the crop  varyilng
from 30 to  50 stones an acre, according,
to the season and  the soil.   The h,etmip
may be expected to leae a profit of froan
~5 to ~8 an acre, exclusive of the seed
obtained in  the rippling off the capsules
for cattle food.*  Thle  best  lien18,   tioe Ri5a
Rhiine, cost in 1850, froni ~t32 to ~835 tthe
tons, so  that an acre of 40 stones  slhoul
realise from ~8 to ~8, 15s.
4450. By the time tile  male  crop is
ready to lbe taken out of the pool, the
female one may be expected to be ready
to be pulled.  Tile process of pulling an(l    i
bundlitng it is nearly the same as that of
the male plant, with the difference, that
altlhough  the  leaves  are  pinched, the
tops are not cut off tile fenrole l,!ants,
but  kept on, and the seed rippled out
of them before the steins are ultimately
bound  up for the  watering pool.  The
rippling of the  seedl will  prevent  the
watering of the female plants  until the
day after the pulling.  Tile processes of
watering, drying, and stacking ar           e the
same in both plants.
4455. The  principal lise to which hemp  is
applied is the miiaking of cordage of all kinds, the
fibre being both stroniig and durable.  " By this
c or dage," says Coles quaintly, iin his I'aradise of
Pla,ts, " ships are guided, bells are ru,ig, beds
are corded, and rogues kept il awe." A  first
I Wisset's Treatise on Henmp, p. 93 to 220.
3-21 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
rate man-of-war is said to require 80 tons of
rough hemp to supply her with necessary tackle.
Taking 40 stones the imperial acre as a good
crop, 4 acres are required to raise one toul; so
that a man-of-war consumes one year's produce
of 320 acres of hemp for an outfit of cordage!
Old cordage is converted inito paper, and therefore should never be destroyed.
labourers than usually live on   the farim, a
stificient nuhmber should  be engaged beforelland,   a  to atssist  othose o   the  far.
Farms in the iofimmediate vicinity of  large
towns may obtain the requisite numi[ber of
reapers daily, from the nearest toJi%wn, who
will go  home  to their own- l(,dgitig,s "it
night; and the convenience of ol)Laiilini   a
day's work  at g-ood wages, withlini -, few
minutes' walk of their own hioriXes, induces
most of the inhabitants of town,s,  wlho desire to harvest, to prefer eng,ag,ingt on Ifarmiis
near them; and thus  both   parties accommnodate each other.  Such reapers  are
usually paid their wages in money every
evening.
4456. I am not aware of any analysis having
been nmade of the ash of the henmp, but the component parts of the ash of American hemp scutchings, by Professor Johnston, are as follows: —
&!1__1... L    A_a L! _  At'!,. ^...........  %41+\   
3.32
19.15
3.26
26.45
2.80
45.02
100.00
14.43'
4461. On  farmis at a  distance  fromi
towns, no reliance can be placed on tlheir
inhabitants as reapers at hlarvest-work.
Labourers must therefore be liiredl, to
4remain all  the  harvest  along  witl,  the
people on the farm.  Such reapers receive
their food daily as part of their wages,
and their money wages are paid  tlhem at
the termination of their engagement.
4458. Dr Taylor says that "' the  inspesated
resinous exudation of the leaves and stems of
Indian hemp, known in the East as chlurras and
Aaschiscu, has been introduced into the country
as a substitute for opium....  In a large
dose Indian hemp produces a pleasant species of
intoxication.   The nervous system is also most
singularly affected, while the intellectual powers
remain iunaltered.   According to Mr Ley, the
inebriation is of the most cheerful kind, causing
the person to sing and dance, and to eat food
with great relish. It also excites aphrodisiac
propensities. The intoxication, which lasts about
three ho,urs, and is soiiietiiiies attended with uncontrollable laughter, is succeeded by sleep.
There is no nausea, sickness, or diarrhlea; and
the day following there may be slight giddiness,
with vascularity of the eyes.  If this drug shlould
come into general use, it is not unlikely that it
may give rise to serious accidents.   It appears
to be very uicertain in its efiects."tI
4463. The  period  for collecting tlhe
reapers on the farm is when the grain
is just ready to be cut. dowl,; for if
cut down too soon, or allo)wed to stanil
too late, loss will be incurred in b)ostlh
cases. Corn may thus be ascertained w'liei
fit to be cut down:  It miay be laid,l,,'n,
as a general rule, that corn  in a lhealtlhy
state coliIes to maturity first in the ei,r,
and then in tllhe straw;  and wlien the
straw  becomes  matured first at the root,
the grain stiffers premature decay. Wlienever the straw is observed to be fir.st ril,e
at the root, the crop need not be allo.)wedi to
stand longer on the ground, -,s it call deri;v-e
no more benefit from it; and its gmrain will
win as readily in the stook as that iunleal)ed;
4459. In the case of re-aping', I place
all the crops, whlich  have occupied our
attention hitherto separately, together, as
they are all reaped in the samue manner,
atnd therefore subject to the samte remniarks.
* Johnston's Lectures on.Ayricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 383.   t Taylor On Poisons, p. 791.
328
Percentage of ash in the dry fibre,
4457. The dried refuse of the stems of bemp,
after the fibre i,as been separated, is used as
fuel,, and niay be converted into charcoal fit for
gunpowder.
4462. To obtain additional lines for
a few days, when a large I)rea(ith of corii
becomes suddenly ripe, in consequence
of the state of ttie weather, and to enable
people to obtain barvest-woi-k wliose I)revious engagements -ire finished, a liii-ill"
market is established in every coutitr
y
towii early on Monday moriiii),,, %8,liere
reapers and farmers form eti-ageiiients
for the week.
ON REAPING WIIEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND
RYE.
.4460. As liarvest-work requires more 
REAPING CORN CROPS..~29
and wliene~er the ear is sufficiently r!pe,  sooll, it is apt to shrink, and iia~'e a l)1i~isIi
tl~e crop should be cut (1t~~vn, a~ tIi~ btI~L~V  tii~t in tIi~ ~aiiiple and ~v1ieii t()() ril.e, tlie
~vil! ~V~l) more rapidly ii) tlie ~t0t)l tli~n  cl~~fl' ()l)~1iS fr~,jn t!ie grain, ~vliicli is aj~t
~tandiiig on the ground.  Tl~e iiI()5t rea{ly  t() f~ll ()Ut on the least ~vind  aiid s()n)e
~ay )f judging ~vlien ti~e car is ii~)e, in  s~~rts o! ~`liite ~~`l~e:it ale thus very sul~ec.t
~vlicat an~l oats, is tlie state i~f tlie chaff 11  t() fill ()Ut, e~'en before reaching tlie poilit of
tlie ear, and of 2 (ir 3 iiiclies of tlie to1) of  liiaturity.  1~arley, ~vlien reaI~ed toi soiin,
tlie stra~? under tlie ear. If all these parts  als~  slirii~ks,  aiid  assiiuies it l~leaclied
are of a iiniforn~ stra~v-ycllo'v ci~loui,`itid  col~}nr.  ~liicli less 1(185 attenils tlie r(';il)feel hard ill tlie car ii0 t lie i~at, aiid ~~ricl1y  ing i)f~ oats too Soot tIlil tlic ot lier  mills.
to  tlie hand in  tlie ~~`licat,  oil being  in every ease, it is 110 neli lietter 1(1 lt'.~1f)
gra.~ped, they are ripe.  ()ii exaliliiiing  tlie crop before it is ripe, than to aliii~~ it
the graill itself, it 5111)11111 feel tiriii under  to staiid uiitil too ripe.
pressilre between tlie ilii~er atid tlluini),
when ready for rea~)liig  ir when tlie ice1     4~~5 As regards tlie ripellilig (if o;lts iii
of tlie straw yielils 110 juice on being            Fig.  90.      particular, 1\Ir NIextwisted with tlie liiigers iiiiil tlonnibs. Bar-:iiider ~Iiiri;iy,?~e~liIcy sl.i~nld be of uiiif~rin yellow eiil~iiir in.,        er ~iiil (if ~i~i4eio, iii
tlie grain anil awlis, aii~l tlie rachis sonic-             Aberdcensliire, iii'de
what rigid anil as l~ing as tlie licail no~ivcs    e        e~periineiits (i u.i~er    freely by a shake of tlic band, tlic grain is      C 9 __ _ tain niit niei ely tlie
not siotliciently ripe, nor ~vill the colour be` liatural pl~iig1~e~s to    uniforni.  ~~ lieu very ripe wheat beiids`varils ii1~eiiess, but
dii'va its ear, (ipeililig tlie chaff, beeiiininir d        the state o! tl~c gisin
stitl in tlie neck of tlie straw, and clearly               at   tlie   ~iifleieiit
indicating that iiatnre iiitends that tlie                1 stages (f ri~~'.e11iilg.
grain sloall fall out. Red wheat is less lialile            lie ciinlil ili~t ilignisli
to l~e shaken than white: but any kinil will                six- stages.  Tlie tirst
shake loi't when toii ripe, privided tlic          2        stage`(as lie li~'vest
l~lant is iii goi~d health, anil tlic grain of     ~ -      leaf a, flg. J.'(), lie    good quality; fir it is dillicult to iiiake        ~~~~   a coliling yellow; tlie
iniiiiature ~1-ain leave tlie chaff even when.            sei-.iinil when tl;e iiext
hardened, 7inil spelt wheat ins so tenaci~ius      -        leaf 6 liecanie yel    a liolil i)f its chaff that it is ditljeult to di s-        liiw  tlie tl-~ril wlieti
engage it even by tlie blii'vs i~f tlie fla, ~)~i~~)r~ tlie       c
il                           leaf  toriieil yel
in iglit be siip1~iosed, when
hg. J.5ii. it         ~,   1tliat;)(){i~\.~~   low; tlie fiiiirtli when
tlie ear and tlie eiitii e ti a` ate )f ii n if \{~~.~       tl~e ii p p eriiio. &amp;mdash;t leaf (I
yelli~'v ciilonr, the plant is no iioore than                      ~vas ye!loa  tIe fifth
ripe; but by that tillie tlie straw loas ripeticil   PR00R~SS OF liiP~NiN0 stage was when tlic
to tlie r{i(it, aii&amp;amp;l tlie ear li:is ri~iil1v hent and    IN A STALK OF OATS.  I &amp;mdash;irIs  of tlie  steni
is ready ti) (ast it~ se~ils`~ itli tlie sliglit~~t  "here tlic l~anicles e C C are &amp;lt;itt..~.l~ed ~`cre
wiiid.  Tlie  satne  riole`vil a~i~ily to  still green, tinil tlie sixth and last stage " as
barley as to ~vlieit. ~~ lieu tlie iccI- of flie  ~vhen tlic steiii tlieie bccaiiie a18(i ~ello~~.
straw is ripe, it is time ti ciit, atiil wlieii
too rijic tlie ear benils itself do" ii, ili' erg-    4466. Tlie condition (if tIiegi~iin lit ~lLh
lug tlie ontivaril ri}~~ ot aii- ils nesi-ly at  of these stages it i-i~ieness was easily I isright angles with tlie racliis, atiil tlie etitire  tiiigiiislieil friiiio e;tcli itlier, aiiil tlie grains
head is then easily siiappe(l (iff b-v tlie " iiid.  citulil be arriitlgeil iii conseciiti~ e t~riler.
in re~ard t() iiats, tiie same rl!lc a~iplies to  Such`o-as tlie rapid clian~e etI-ecteil in tlie
tlie straw; aiiil when iivcr ripe tiie dm11  ciondititin (if tlie grO iii bet~' eon tlie Ilttli
stanils aliart lriiiio tlie grain, w hid  easily  anti tlie si.~tli or last stage, that it acshakes iiut by tlic`vinil.                  9uireil tlic additiiinal weight of froiti I ~ to
2 Ib. In tlic bushel.*
4464. it is not eqtially pruilciot to
reap all siirts i)f &amp;amp;~-aia at tlie saiiic degree    4467. All tlie kill Is of eraill are cut
of lilatul ity.  ~Vlien wheat is realied too  dii'vn by either if ilie`vi i-cry siiiipl~
J'ransactiiias cif die high Ia si arid ~1gr;ciiItura1 ~vcietji, Jaiiu~ry   ~i47, ~i. 624. 
iii u ile x()riiamlton ot tlie sickle, the
curvature of tile blad(le is a point of miore
impnlortalice tliaii to a  careless  observzer
niay  ap)pear; and  tlhouigh  thle  ordinary
reaper is seldom  qualified  to ju(ire in thlis
nmatter, lie Illay feel pleased to be inifornied,
that there is a certain curvattiure that will
give to the niuscles of hlis righit artii  the
least  i)ossil)le  cause  for exertion,  whlile
there are othier curves thiat, if givell to tile
blade  (,f tlIe sickle,  would  cause liiiiii to(,
expend a  great  amount vf unnecessary
exertion iil the armn, and a consequent un necessary fa-tig,ue wvould follow.  i. 392,
Fig. 392.           irepresesitng  tie
large  smIitootk                                  edgyed sickle, hias
...... -~i'~   a curvatuire a~p                                 pr(oaching   verv
near  to  thtllIt
w which, in  tlis                                 illstrulitieiit, ma.y
be  terled th   e
exertion; and
a~       tlhro,ughoilut tlhatt
por-tion (,f tlhe
sickle  th,at per                                 fi.rils the  cut  TIIEsstfooT11-EluF..s~Cl;,.. ting  process, it
~ossesses  this I)eculiar pr1)oper-ty, frontl the
fol lowilng cilrcuiiist,ace, that lines di *erging
frorm tlhe centre of tlhe ha.ndle of the sicl,le at
a, and ] itersecting tlee       of thje etittiigedge, atll the divelrgitlg lines will fot-iii equal
angles witlh  tle  tan.zents to tle: ctrve at
tlhe points of initers,ectiotn.  Tlhis lir(,)lerty
gives to the  cuttinlg-ed,ge a  uniform  teni
.....,-.. ~, ~ v..1i ll1 r5.
T i he bla(l e, in the
C(te nilln(Il  toeoooth(l
ll(Isikle, ti s ar Iitici                               J p melly o   o l a  e     aof
inot,      but  witi s       an
tiled in gltt  of  steel;
the    teetb             are
f(,riedl        b y  striik                            itii  with a  chiselll
atn(d  lhanmmner, in
t lie  Ilalin er   of
THE   TOOTH,J) SICKI,E                         te*.
-   f*ile-cu1tting(,    tne
cuttin,   beintg,   only  on   t ive   loaN'er side;
but wlien  tle  t)ladtle  lhas  b)eeni b)enit to  thje
t)l,er finr, teiillerel  tln(] groolile   on tle
Is    t f1o(tll 1  s i le,    tlee seicatlees  ate rI)Io-t
prlli-iinently oit     t ( or tlie e(lge of tlhe    cula(le;
aei(l as   tle  striking, t' tixe  teetll  is  perfortile  ct in     fe p  ositio al oll.Iiqeye to the e-adg,e  ()f
tl          eti    blae,                                            -it                 ni antgle of  70',et 7~   tlie,
se i-fatu tes  on    thie  eeale                      tanclire  wlat is
c,talle    d   i. hook   towtrls t                                                                           thle ele,   thls
casling,, the  iiistl'iilienit tl   cut keenlly in
tha~lt (lirecti,,n,l riweui draw-n  thlrotughl  the
stand(linjg coirn.   Whieni  the I)la(le lias lheen
titus ftinlis~edl, a  wool,en lhelve, of  tlie silinplest f,)illl, is  fitted   upomI the po,,ited tinie
tbr.Xiedl tt  its root  for  tlat  pTl,(,se. q_'e
t)ootlie(I sickle  is ima,le with variouis dle,,rees
of clrilvatur ie tln(l of weigIt, b)ut cliiefly  ats
re)t'esentedl in tlio fig,ure;  aiid(i it lhas b-een
the stib) ject  of several  patet -t., chiefly *-lepeniling  on   tlie  f;(,i-iiationr  of  tiie bladle.
Onle )I' ths,se is i,ow,f sotoe years' statndliii,g, and  is  at  i l:.>rtant  one..   Messrs
S,)rly  andi Stm, of Sheffield, ar-e thie p)atenteee -, anid  the p)riniicipl.Ie  iipoil, wlhicih  their 
. REAPING CORN CROPS.
dency to cut at every point in its length,
without any other exertion than a direct
p1ll upon thle lhelve.  Were the curvature
less at any l)oint, a pressure of tile hland(
woull be required to keep the edge to tll       e
work; and %ere the curvatllure greater at
any point, or on thle whlole, the exertion
to iiiake the cut would be greater, as it
would then becomie more direct, insteadl
of the oblique  drawing or sawing cut,
which  in all cases is thle most effective,
and productive of least resistance.   This
sickle is broader in thle blade than tile
tootl,ed kind, tlhough,  in curvature it resembles it; aind the chief difference lies in
l)eing grounid on both sides, to forni a fine e
and thin sharp edge.   This edge is kept
keen by means of a fine-grained santdstone,
like a scythle-stone, fig 324  6 incihes long
and an inchl square and it is only used (on
thle under or rounded side of tlhe sickle.
Thle prices of these sickles are as follows,
according to size:            No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
447-1. Rteapers are very lig,hItly clotlled.
The miienl cast tleir coats at least, aml,,an y
thleir  waistcoats too.  If tlje hlat be laid
aside, its place is taken by a ni,ghtcap).  T,e
womnen  wear caps, nlot bonnets, -and tiheir
nethier  garlienits  will' inecomiiodle  ti,ei,i
the less in  stooping,, whieni cutting   witll
the sickle, if tied under-  tlhe knee  witl, thje
garter; but tlhe loose petticoat is found
useful in imiakinig the ends (,f the corn square
in  gathering it after the  Fcyile.   l.,mg
gowns are  now in fitslhioi, as  tiiucli in tle
country as in tlhe town; but tile old slll~rtgowni is tlhe most convenietit dress, in every
respect, for a reaper.
Soine  reapers fasten  a narrow  strap of
leather al,ng tlhe handle of thje sickle, in
ordler thlat it,ray pass in an oblique directi(on across the back of the lIan(l, witll the
view to assist tile draw of thle impilletnent
thlrough the straws of thle grain; but if the
sickle be kept slharp, whlich  every realer
oughlt to lbe able to do, sticil  a strap is
rathler an enciiimbraince thlan assistance to
the realer.  Thle sharp edge of tlhis sickle
will cut thlrough straw withli a stroke, although  thle straw  be  not  held  by  the
hand.   Froin this circumstance it may  be
supposed tlhat this is a niuch easier instrunient to cut withl than the tootlhed sickle:
atid so it really is, but the dexterous use of
eitle r instrument depIends altogether on
aibit and practice.
4472. Tbere          ar e va,rious arrak (i,efients
of lTarvest   woi id      wliielli tlhe  si ckl e  is
used; one of wuicih  is tlhe b(and-win-t iiietli,,
of reaping,, whichl  I slhall (lescril-e first. A
ban-d-win of reapers  consi.sts of seven lIersonis divided intio thiree reapers  (in ea(-I) of
two ritdge., and a bandster for b(otl, rid,ges.
The bandister must always  be a  manl, a woman not being able for tile w()rk of tiiiing
tile sheaves.  Tile reapers iiiaya.l! ie iiieni,
or,ll women, the wotmten bleing,, abl)le to cut
down as iillucI c(rII -is tlxe mhenr; but a desiralble distribution of ien and  w(,nlen in
tile band-win,netlied, is to lhave  ai mrain
and two womnleni on eacih ridge.  Tlie reasonm
for tlie band-win arrang(elnetit is, that  (:.no
miiani  catin bind tlhe crn cut by six re:il)(cs,
and the six reapers can cuLt d(wn tU (o acre's
a-day.:Banid-win reathers- are   hired  fo~r
the harvest, and receive their money wages
44 7-0.  Thle  harvest -field  will  not be
properly conducted, tinrless a person lbe appointed to sup)erititetid tlhe realiers; for to
tlone of tile reapiers can sucli a task be
deputed, as llis (ownl o(ccu)atiot issufficient
to occupy all his attetitio,n.  The stewird
is thle person wl(Io slo(l( l utndert-ake this
d(luty, unless the far,ner un.lertakes it hitmself.  It is his duty to an-noiunce thle time
for coltuntencing work, and  for leavitg it,
as also thle hours of mneals and of rest.   It
331
is his duty th, restrain the inipetiiotis, to.
iir,,e the glow reaper; to. keep every one
,in tiie best liuiiiotir-for- work; to cause tiio
groiiii(I to be ne,-ttly cleared of tl,,e ei-i)f),
and the crop itself to beju(licioitslv
The Tiian wlio fulfils all these as
they sliould be duritic, the entire li-.ir%-est,
accoriipli:sl)es no e,,tsy task, eitlier (-.f I)o(ly
or iiiind. He should not be tiloulite(I   i,ii
liorsel)acl,-, but bt,- acti%,e oil fo(tt, i,elli(lv to
keep everytliitig'in its appointed   tiiiie   iiii(i
order: for a single, iiiiiiiite's loss (,f N,(irk,
or a coiifiise(-l ai-ran,,eiiient of'a lar,,e I.- ii(I
of causes a great ],,.,is of time III t-ijo
gross allioutit of work.                              T'li.e f-.ti-i,iier, lll'iti,-,elf, when i.iot,Rul-)erinteiiding, iiiav iiiove
about oil horseback; but- "I lit)rse is a tr(lublesotiie           coiiipa.iiion to a sul)et-iiiteii(latit
wlio has t,o iiiove b,,tckwar(i aii(-l f(ir"ai-(l
behind work-I)eol)le in a liarvest-fiel(l.
s. d. S. d. s. d. & d.
C)mtnon'. 0 9 0 10 0 11 I' 0 each.
Pateiit,         1 2 1 3 1 4 1    5. 
c
ARRANGEMENT OF THE REAPERS IN A B.AND-IVIN.
froili thle crown of tile ridge-*and as the
heaviest and longest straw generally grows 
there, lie is the fittest person for taking
the heaviest I)art of the work.
the slhe:,ves larger than tlhey shiould(I he,
even so as to renider it -tllnst  iinipossil:,lo
for the bandster to nmake tlhe ends (,f tlie
band meet.   Bands too nth ficled slhoildl
never  be  bo)iin(l, as  the slheaves  are apt
to burst in being lian(lled, -andi thley  are
too larg,e to lie easily forked  about.   The
wonien,  Ihaving,  notlling, to (lo with  tlhe
making of thebands, devote tlheir wli(hle tiime
to re~ping, and filling, thie bads with corn.
4476. On  commencing  to reap  withl tlhe
sickle, thl)e reaIjer sets hler.elf ais d1, f,. 33
setting  the  feet  apl)art, iii ordler tihe  iilore
easily to 1)ow the  body dowii,.   rTle toly
oln being l)owed (Iown, its weighlt is i)-iostly
bornie upim  thie  right  leg,  as e, whlile tlhe
sickle  real)s thie  statulinir corn befoire the
realper, whlile slie gatllers it witlt  the left
atndlid. It is tlhe (luty of t!he w*(iDmeII e atdiI *,
wiwhose lio,-iaIitlles iare iext  th!e ()ol)ei frrow, to clear tlhe cor-n of tihatt ftiirri(w.  as far
as the fuiiro(w-lirotv of the ridg,be ll()oii tleir
right hand. not  only bIecaut,e  tlheirs is tlie
leadlinz tri,l,e,!),lt  becatuise the wnot d,
ellh)Ioyedi  onil tihe riti,,te to tle oi.g!~t of e,
caitnot gathler the corn  in tihe oIpei f'irr,uw
so well with  tlhe point  of the sickle,,as 
can with its rouniled body.   Clearintg the
4475.  It  is  the  man's  d(uty  to
have a band ready to lay (,own -is so(on
as the one previouslv laid (lIwtli is fille(l
with  corn  sufficient to niake  a shleaf.
In this m(-)de of reaping, no regardi  is
paid to the size- of the slheaf; whiichi being
the  case, the reapers  uniformily  make
4474. The corn-batid, fig. 394, is made
Fig. 394.
a
b
0
~
THE CORN'-BAND REAI)' Tr) ItEC'EIV','Ji  Cl,JT CORN.
by clttilng a handful of corn, anlii dividingi
it into  two  parlts,  and   I-y  Y)laiitiyig thle
corni-enl(s  a  of t!e  straw t,,getlher, aniid
twisting,  tl!eii- into a  kinot, as tit b so as
the ears  shiall  lie a:bo)ve t},e twist, away
from  tih  r eaper, wltenl the hand-l is stretelied
at lenth,tli tupon  the grourid, fronm  c to  c,
to receive the corn. 
REAPING CORN CROPS.
open-furrow being thle mast troiublesome
part of reaping, thle two women  e ainlf,       r
y ani,l d, exchange places at every lhinliig,
and( take thle reaping  (of it alternately.
The succeeding position of the reapers is
shown atf; wIhere the wouiaii, having'  cut
the corn fromI  the right taind, is accumulatilig it in a. heap with the left one, and a           d
restiug the weig,,lt of the body now on the
left leg.  After cutting Iown as far -is tlhe
furrow liad lbeen clearedl by the prece(ling
reaper, shl,e lifts tlhe severed cortn  )artly ont
her sickle and partly on her left armi, as
seen witih.q, an(l deposits it up)oIn tlhe bau(d s
b, as seen on thle band h.  Tllese are,all
the positions asstiiued bty reapers while in
the act of reaping,.   The rian -on uiakiug
the band as shown  it a, after laying it
down on tl-he crown of tlhe ridge withi the
corn heads away froti m bin as at b, then
begins to cut down the corn on tle crown
as shown at c; and by the timte lie hias
reaped an armnful for the band, it is tiime
to make  anothler  band,  as  the  wonien
from   bothl  sides will have  had  enougtli
reaped to miake up the sheaf.  Thus the
women  in a band-win each actually cut
down more corn than thle iiien, they being
continually employed inT reaping while lihe
is imiakin,g tle ba.IndIs. Such arn understandiii,g exists amon.g the itetiil)ers, of a bandwin, that,,slhoul(l any (lificeulty occur in
the reapiltg, ofbotl the ridges, suchi asa spot
of corn tiieli latid, tlhe reap)er who encounters the difficulty is iimimed(iately assisted
by all hler cminpanions.  Tlhus the bandwin reap till the two  iri'es are cuit down,'
whlen they return to the end of the field
they l)eg,an at, anil comnience upon uetv
ridges.  IBanrid-winr after bard-win do til         e
saiie till the entire number of l,aud-wins
are atgraiiilae,tci   or stented, into  their
ridges, inr tlIe salnie ordelr as tlhey were by
the steward. it c'eitz tl,e                                 cain, of
the field.
lel witi tn the                standi n g   cornlt i.s
cut, ari(l is received and  lheld up  witlh  the
left  lla1 on this s2ide, andl by  tlje standinr,
corn, besi(de it on  tlhe other.   A   creeii,,,
atzlvaniee is slowlv  mnade  of  thle  bodly t(owardIs  tlhe left, wvhich b    rin  s it  to; rest
equally on bothi legs, whl1ile successiv-e citts
are  miade witlh tlhe sickle;  an(l tl,e ad(l,itional corn tl,us acqu~iire( is still gatlercti
and supported by  the  left ha'.nId(  and1  tiie
stand(ing, corn.   The,, c on tlhe secomil
ridg,e is seen in thlii-s th,e second taXsti,.,,,
Procee(lding in  bread(this, il',,aslite1l ly tle:
stretcl( of the arrim, the  bo(ly comes to,'est
enti,'ely on thle left. leg,  while tlhe riglit i.s
stietclhed out as a balance; an(I this positint
is continued until  at,s imiuchi corn  is cut  s
can well  be kept tup) by  tihe left hianid, by
rolling it against  the standin, co,n, whien
tlle wh%ole is lifted  b)y  the  lho,k and(  left
hlad, a nd placed into the barndl to assist in
maikling the sheaf.  Tl e position o,n thie left
leg is seen in tihe worniany,; a(I tle  w-oimn-,i
g  is taking,  the quantity cut to the batb
lyitl on  the ground, to lhelp to  i.,,iake up
tihe sIheaf.   AnJy un1cut  straws   on  thie
ground are cut, ad loo,se ones swept   by
tlhe liook amtiiionigst the standing  c(rn.
44st8.  Tie great  object, in  good real)-.
ing, is to make  st-o'rt stubble, because  ino)-re.
straw is thereby gainedg t    o tie sI.  l atc  idi
less left IoI  the fiell; and    it is iieb(,ssil.le
to  cut thse  stol bsl f (,wrt, unless  the b(ody is
bIrougt ht as near thIe grorund as to allonv tle
arrm to sweep tim, sickle p        arallel   itl, it.
l'beapers who  bow thl e  b    ody do       swn fi'otn thle
naureles, abnd I  eefo  tltae legs uilirigelit, diuaw
the sickle up  t(,vwaIrds tiheir kniees, cau,,ising
t,e stubble to be cu,.t in a series of nereid.s,
leaving  the,stltlie   high Iext thel.  Thli.9
is bald v,w;srk.   In using the t(o)otlie(I htook,
tlie corn, is cut in small h,andllfuls,   iretaiInel
firmnly in  the left  liay,,d, and cellerteal in
it till  it can   contain  ino  mpor-e,  aind  i,:
thenr put into thle balnd. W-7ithi thle l)d(y
only bent forward this  instrunlmst call  I.,e
easily wielded,,.s small handfuls can alwrays be cut near the "grouniiid.  Tl.e niearer
the ground thle nmore eafs,"ily is thle sti-,atw cut;
buti'tlhe straw cuit-withi tlhe tootlied sickle,
is alwIays too firmly  squeezeel in tlie lean(l.
4477. It is noXt easy  to  d,escrille th-e
best iiiode of clittiil corn w%,ithi t:]e sickle.
In  comimietncing,,, to cu,t a s]:,eaf witli tlle
siiiootih-siceklete btle    iy is broutglit low, by
restilig cliieflv  oil tie righit leg, douible(d
un(ler tlhe body, anld tlhe left one stretchedl
out to act as a stay and(  a balance  to the
whole frame.   This first liosition is rep)resented by thle woniani e.  The righlt armni is
then  stretched aminongst the corn, and in
drawing it towardi you, near to anid p)aral
33.1
4479. Ti-lie bannister, as soon a8 one ban(I
i,3 fille(i with c(-)rn, begins his ol)eratioll-,4,
and.',ie should biiid the slieaves in this wry:,
-Goiii,, to the stubble end of tl,,o;sL-eaf. 
PRACTICE —AUT'ruMN.
with his face to the corn end, lhe gathers
the sprea(l corn into the middle of the band
with b-oth hands, and taking a hold of the
banal in each lhandl, near the end(s, hlie turns
thle shea,f as muchl rounld as to place the
corn end beyondl  his left elbow; then
crossiing the ends of the band, pulls as
forcibly as lie can, mostly with the rightt
hand, and as close to the sheaf as possible,
keeps the purchase thus obtained good with
the side of the left hand, while lie twists
the end in the ri,lit hand, round below and
belhin(l his left hand, and tllen thrusts the
twist under the ti,ghltened  part  of the
band, pushing it still with the right hand,
as far as to make the band keep a firmni hold
of it round the sheaf.  After this operation,
the corn end a of the band, fig. 394, is held
firil by the pressure of the sheaf against
the ears of corn a  nd the t wis ted part o f
the e)a nd    at b.  It i  s re(ltisite to attend
to the position of the band in regard to
the sheaf.   If too near the bottom of the
sheaf the lower part of the straw will be
too much  compressed, and the air prevetted winning  it; and if too near the
corli-end( the sheaves will spread out too
nmucl lbelow, and )e unable to stanl erect.
The slleaves boul(ld  ip on the near ridge
are carried by the ban(lster, as k fig. 393,
to thle far rii,dge' upon the middle of wlhich
they are all stooked.
Whe n  the  weather  is goo(], and likely  to
continue so, there is no objection to this
mode  of stooking, particularly now, when
but few weeds are allowed to growv anion,,st
the corn, stocks require to stand in thlo
field  for  a  compatratively short  tiime.
Nevertieless in wet, and even  daiiip wteathier, and in lhighi  sitiuations, corn is too
mtichi exposed in suich stocks,.nd (.thers
wlhich alffrd greater security against tiem
weatier shiould be  used.  Suchl a tcorm  i-s
shown in fg. 396, wlhere two) s(eaves  a
and its opposite, are taken by tlhe ban(lster, one in eachl arni, and set oi their stubble ends a little ap;trt on the ground, and
their corn ends brought tog,ethler, in suchl
a position on tlhe ridlge as that the leiigthl
of the stook shall stand  N.  and S,; aull
these constitute the centre  of the  stoc(k.
Other two sheaves, b and its opposite, are
set on otne side  of a in  a similar manner, in(dependently of,  and  not  leaning
against tleiii; (,othler two, c and its o?posite, are placed in the samie miannter oin the
othl-er si(le ofa, and so on, with d and e and
their opposites, until ten  sheaves  in a
double row of five are thljus  set, to coimplete the boily of tl,e st(ook.  A. sheaf f
is then split froni thje band to the corn
end, and l,aid astride uponi the corn t(!,I,s.f
hlalf the nunil)er constituting tlhe bodly of
the stook, in nearly a horizontal p,sitil,l,
and another sheaf is placed in a sii.ilir
nianner with its but end sttuck into tlhit
of the othler, as at f, upon thie t,(il;S of Ile
other half nutnber of the sheaves, and the
stook is then complete.  These lhtt inclininig sheaves are called hrood she aves aInd
4480. As every two  sheaves are bound
they are set tip as an isosceles triangle/,
-fig. 393, anldl foitr or more sheaves thus set
up take tlhe fsrm  of the stook sh1own
in fig. 395. All the kinds of grain are now
Fig. 395.
334
Fig. 396.
..,,~,,... —..~,~ —.,,~,,,~.... 0
A BARLEY OR OAT STOOK HOODED.
AN ORDINARY STOOK OF CORI%'.
.t. otled in1 tdhis forimi, for the purpose of
bein- mda(le quickly ready for the stack. 
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two, so that perlhaps otne bandster to every
four tlravers may be about the proportion.
act in tlhis marnner, hlii  syti:.-Ltlhy ttielna,
easily excited to fiLvour tile "1 poor wi(dow,"
" the lone  woman," or " the helpless orphlian."   There is inconvenience, too, in
placing a larg,e number of reapers on single
ridges, iniasmiiuch as, tlhe different thrater.s
having different powers  (of reaping,  onie
ctstg throuighl the ridIge far  ahead  of hisi
next   neig,hhibour,   wlhilst   others    tnay
delay cutting, out their rid,es for sev,eratl
days.   Tlihe partv  who passes  the  otliers
are bouitd to clear bothl thle filrrows of tlie
ridiges.  No inconsiderable trouble  is imipose(d  on  the steward  in  counting  thle
tlhr.aves of every ridge, and mnarking, tllelii
d()wn in a book, and( in calclulating, every
day's realping, of thiose wleo are hiired bsv
the (lay.   Thie cartingt off the stloks fi'ol
everv rid(ge causes  the  lhorses, to wtalk
dou!~le ttle distatnce in clearing  -t field.
4489. After the stooks are all set on the
ridges, the steward counts the nuiiiber of
thraves, and marks tlhemtn down in a book.
Tile thlravers tlhemselves count the number
(f stooks by pulling a straiv from  eachl as
they wallk down a long ridge to the end of
the field, wlere they re-clter a new one.
4490. Tlhr,-Lvers wtho work by the day
have their acc(ounts c(ist up by thle steward 
at thle eid of thie (Ilay's work, and paid oli
thle spot; but tlhey should( be miade to finish
tile reapiting of e-very ridge entere(l before
they are 1);li(l, oth~erwise  confusion  will
ensue in time tlrave-.book, by lhaving thtle
namnies of diflerent individuals on the saiie
ridge..  If any individlual thraver canno         t
conveniently finislh hlis ridge, lie must find
some friend( to (1( it for liiiii, to avoi(l this
conlfusion, or nolt be allowed to enter a new     i
log ridgre at thle end of the dray, butt imay
be place(l oin a sho(rt one.
4492. The  imanediatet e fsect of reitoitint
with tlle sickle, on the state of the cut crop,
particularly in thrali,ig, is thie pressiinr (>f
the str-aw and of tile sleaf t.og,ethier, and tlte
loose  andi unconnected )osition g,iven  t~,
thlc ears, whlen tle slheave-s  are   bun-  to(I
near tlhe but —enid, imucll against  thte stalbility of the stook and of its wiinning.
4491.  lIe sinmplest, way of reaping corsa
is by thle tlhrave, an(l its advantages  are,
that tile reipers are p:tid in mioney for what
they  cut dovwn, atnii  give 11o troublle  in
)1(providing i foil) fir tlhemi.   TlIrave'rs cut
cortni lo)w, aiiIl liake a c,lean sttubble, as it
is their interest to ma,ke up  the shelaf a,
fto(nIi as 8)(ossil:le, s) tlhat they sel(lorii require 
to bie re)r owvel  f        h)r   byo  war k ig.  The systemh
also aiftrdis convenient occupation for the
inhiiabitantils of towlns, wlio, by wallkino  a
4493. The powers of reaping ),) sinle'
iilindiidual.s are best exhibited in thlraving-.
iI have seten more thian one yotiung w(olilltil
cut twerity-fouir thlraves of o,ats a-(lax;
and  iiany that cut twenty tliraves, all
good sizable sheaves-for it is the old an,[
infirm  who practise tricks ini fillinrg  their, 
REAPING CORN CROPS.
sheaves.  When I mention that from eight aI
to twelve thraves are consid(lered a good
day's work, such exertions will be better
underst(,()d.  In all great feats of thravingio,
I l.have found womien superior to men, and
more erndiiring  for a len(Yth of t ime; and
withl the exception of one tall blacksmith,
who wiel(del witll uncommon streng,th an
extra-size(l scytlie-h)ook of his own making
in  his li geft h and, I    never saw a man who
cut thie lartest quantity mentioned above.
abofut one yard Wide.*  In Wore(stersh)ire,
ba,ging is  execlute(i b y ba  tool clile( 
bean —liiok,  and   the strav      is  clut  by  at
strolke instead of a  cut of the sickle, holdin(g or   collecting thile str-w in thle  left
l4and.  Tlte best b    arggets T se    a wi(sein
hlook in the  left land, to collect aint-l bring
together  the  cut wlheat ill a butdle-like
shlape  to  the ground.  Sotne  real,ers in
Scotland practise  the bagging miode  of
cutting' corn, an(]  use  tlxe  left lhand to
steady  tlhe corn wlhile it is in tlhe act of
being r Ut by the rigt.  The io(le is techniiically named  dinging-in, or  cetiin.q.  A
man practised in it will do one-half more
work  than is usually done in the common
way; but the stubble is left less regular,
and thiere is a want of tidiness in the work,
even in the most expert  hands.
4494. Reap)ingf, witlh tlhe siclkle is executed in England in a manler technically
natmedl baq.qinq, whiichl is performed in tlhi      is
manner in Buckingliamshire:-First niake
a band, as in fig. 394, and lay it down;
then, standing, in the furrow with the left
hand to the standinug corn, cut a handful;
put tle stubble ends of this handfual all
even, then grasp it in the left hand eight
or ten inches froni the endl; and withl tlh          is
assistant lay a little of the standling corn
back, or from you, and with the scythehook, fig. 392, chlop off, cutting inwardsh
close to the ground, the corn so laid off;
move thle lefc hand forward, lay back thle
corn as before, and mnake aiiotlher cut, and
so proceed-moving  left hand, one foot,
and  the  seythie-lhook  sitmiultaneoiislyacross the " land" or "rid ge," or half way
across it, if there are two persons on it:
four to five yards beitig thle usutal l)readtll
taken.   Having reached the b)realtlh intended to be taken, drop the corn  which
till now  has Ibeen held ii tlhe left haind,
ailiong tlhe cut ct)rnl which inow leans tagainst
thle standling( corn, and commnence collecting whlat. lis been cut.  For this purpose,
walk  l,ackwards over the same groun,(l
or rather ai little nearer tlhe stan~ding,
ctor-i-use tlhe left hand, the lhook, and the
riglht foot-roll over the cut corn with the
hook, and at the same tiiiie cut some mnore
wi       th tie pipoint of it, anl    eep walikite,
I)ackwa,*-i;rd-s and collectin;,, all togetlher till
you reach tlhe furrow  from wlhence you
started], wvhle!n you will find vou have *rot
-in ar!,fuil.  Lay this armful into the band1,
cut anothler left-lhandful -is  at first, and
ag,ain go on cutting in*wards; returningi
wvitlh the arrmiful, lay it in tle sallme band,
wlichl is then enough for a slheaf. Make
another b)and for another slheaf, andl proceed as before, cutting forward, and cut*ing and  collecting ba-ltckwards,   clearing
449r5. A mode  of cuttin g corn w it h the
sickle is practised in,so       me parts  of Engla,nd by using tthe stmootlh-e(dged sickle, fig,.
392, in  cutting the  straw  so  as to leave.
tigll  stunbble, the    cor n  beir, gathered  under
tthe  hand, and th e st roke s o f  the sic kle
made as in bag,ging.  The stubble is afterwards cut witlh the scythe, and carried to
the stackyard. Probably tlis practice was
or ig inally adopte d to  avoitd weeds being
cut down telonog with the valuable portion of
tile crop, which would be the Imiore ea-sily
win  an(d sooner  carried   home  without
tlem;  and  they were  mown  with  the
stubble, and( sometimes  the stubble and
t!ey %%-ere set on fire together.   It is
s(,areely necessary to condemn  a practice
whlii(1 cauises two cutting(,s of the  samie
crop; aimli it is as unnecessary to observe,
tlha,t thje system of farming which permlits
thie ground- to b.e so foul witlh weeds as to
occasion such two-handed work is repvrehieiisible.
4496. The Hainault or Flenmish scythe
o,lnty  be  regarded  as  an   interimiediate
uiliplemnent  between  tihe sickle  and  the
cradlcd-scythle.  It is liel!l in  the ri,ght
lhandi by a handle fourteen  inchlies long,
csaiipported by  tlhe' forefinger, in a leatlier
a o t w e g ).   The blade two feet thllree inclbes
in lengthll, is kept steady in a lhorizonital
epositioii, by a flat and  )rqjecting part of
the lhandle  4-  inches lotig,, acting as a
shield against the lower part of thle wrist.
Thie point of the blade is a little raiseti,
I 3(trk Laine Fzpre.ss, Atugust 1841.
o37'
y
VOL. 11. 
the form of a sheaf by the workman walking backwards, and ctitting any of tile
standing corn caughit by-tlhe hook withl the
point of the scythe, until lie reaches thl      e
point lie started from, where by gathering
and keeping the heads in a line by means
of the hook, closes togetlher the but-end
of the sheaf with thie scythe, and then,
with bothl, by a little adroitness, and the
assistance of the foot, a perfect sheaf is
lifted fromn thle ground, and placed in the
band ready for binding.  It will be observed that this operation is very similar
to that of the baggingsexecuted in Buckinglihamnishire, and described in (4494;) the
Fig. 398.
IZAPING WITH THB HAIFAULT SCYTHE.
* Radeliff's Agriculturc of Flanders, p. 121
+ Prize Essays of the Ilgahlandand Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 244.
+ Quatrterly Journal of Agriculture, vol v. p  ] 06.
cradle-scythe.t
4497. The  other- mode of cutting  corii
is w'ith the scythe.  Scytlhes are mounted
in various ways  for the purpose, anid ior
a considerable periodl has been mounted,
in Banffshire  or Aber-deenshire  -wwhere it
is extensively used fbr reaipirg —in  the
form of the Cradle-scythe.+' Of tthis formii
of imiouinting a reaping-scytlhe, there are
many varieties; but they all agree in onie
point, thlat of lhaving two slhort lie]yes, the
one branchlintg out of the otlher, instead of
the conmoni long  belve or shied.  Fig. 399
is a view of thie cradle-seythe in one of its
Fig. 399.
HE CRADLE-fSCYTHR FOR'R]BAPING. 
c
9 
or down across the blade.  Ilito this is inserted three slender teeth, following tile
direction of the blade, anid mniay be from
six to fifteen inches long: the head of the
standard is supported by a slender rod of
iron, which stretches about eighteen inches
up thie handle, where it is secured by a
small screw-nut, callable of being shifted
up or down to alter the positionl of the
standard and its teeth to suit the lay of the
corn.  Thle standard or rake  head was at
one time recommended to be made in the
segment of a circle,* for which there seems
no good reason, either practical or philosoplical; but the idea was seized uporn,
and  thile cradle-scythe, mounted in that
form, was widely distributed. But instead
of this supposed( improvement- tending to
increase the favourable opinion of scythereaping, the practice seems ratlier on the
decline; and thiere is good reason to believe, that this malforitation of the rake
niay hlave had no siuall sihare in producing
a distaste for scytlie-reapiiig as a practice;
whereas, tinder proper  nianagellient, and
a judicious choice of implements, there can
be no doubt of considerable advantages
being attainable froiii scythle-reaping, as
comilare(l with the sickle.  In setting tihe
blade, the following rIle is to be observed:
-Wlhen the framed lielves are laid fiat on
a  level surface, the point of the blade
should be from eighteen to twenty inchlies
al!ove tilat surface, anid measuring from a
point on the left ielve, thlree feet distant
froln thie heel of the blade, in a straight
E Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, Vol. vi. p. 3.
inon  scythe
withltlhebent
shed,    fi,.
322.  Wlhen
any  of  the
scythies are
to  be  used
in reaping,
the   straik,
fig. 323, atnd
tlhe scythe                              stone,    fig.
. 324, are ais
nmuchi in re THz COoMMON REAING-ScYTHz. quisitioii as
when   used
for any osther purpose. They should only
be used as often as to.keep a keen edge
on the blade.
4499. Of all these  varieties of form of
the  rleaping-s(cythe, the cradle-scytlle, fig.
399, is the greatest  favourite  amlonigst
niowers, beca.use it is found to be  most
easily Wielde(d by the arms, and  it cauases
less twist in thle lumbar reg,ion) of the 1,ody,
whliich last effect is tile greatest objection
to all tile conimimon scythies in use.  Yet it
is not easy to discover- wily the cradlescvtlhe, bo,rne  by the arms  alone iin front
of thle body, and  not ad'mijtt ing of being
balanced  in one hand, like the  other
scytlhes, shollltld  e less fatiguing to  thie
workman; but the fact is so, an/i in consequence more work is doae withl it than
with any of the otlhers. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
aheads-namely,  a lhead of three scytlieimen, tliree gatlerers, three bandsters, anld
one gleani-ralaer; obo,  leat enimly be ire gara (edi a
better arrangement, a lhead of two scvthlemeni, two ga,therers, two b)andsters, and  one
woma,,n-raker. A larger numjber of lieads on
thle latter arrangement may be emnployed on
a la-trge farm, whiile a smnall farm may emiiphoy one lhead on  thle former arrangement.
4500. The gleanings of tlhe stuibble is an
object of considera.ble value in reaping;
and to secure it f(or the benefit of thle farmer  different imipleiuents are employed.
The principal, and thle mnost eflective of
themn, is thle lhay hlorse-rake, fi,. 343; but
as it can only be used in thle harvest field
after the crop has been carried away, and
after the gleaning,s have becomne deteriorated in value by exposure to thle weathler,
the hand-rake is a mnore convenient implement during the reaping,.  Fig. 401 is a
representation of this rake, which is of
4.502. The best beginning  that can be
made of a field fior seythe-reapirng is to
mow  along  the ridg,e, parallel with tlhe
fence on the left bhand(, froni the top to the
bottom, or fromn the bottom to the t(op of
the field, as the corn happens to lie; and if
not laid, the inclination of the corn and tilhe
direction of the wind should both be from
the right.  While  one head of mowers is
opening up thle side of the  field, either
from the bottom or the top, another mniows
either headridge at right angl,es to it, in thle
direction of the wind.  Thlus two sides of
the field are opened up, leaving an angle of
the standing corn to commnence futare (operations upon.
4503. The first head, which should be
conducted by an experienced and steady
nmower, commences mrowing  at this alngle,
across  thle  rilges, as thle  scythles  iiinove
most easily over tle o pen  furrows i    nl tlbhrt
direction, laying tthe   corn  i n  swatleis at
righ,t anli,les to their line of mnotion, upon
and  towaris thle  lllowfn headriodg e-tlhe
stranges of       the        swatl s  lying  parallel  with
one anotlier, over a distance of six ridges
or thirty yards, which is as far as seytlhes
will cut straw at one sharlllpiug. To  niaintain tile essential  requisite of laying  tlle
swuaths even, the in ower  eshould not swip   g
his arImIls too muitich to the righIit in enter-ing
the ealade of tlte scythe  arongws t thle standine, corn, a s le w il l not  be able to turln far
eiotgllri round to tlJe left to lay thle swath
in tlhe proper position, buit will be short of
tlhe right angle.   Nor should lie bring  his
arms too far round to the left, as tlhe sw atlh
.will be laid beyond that  angle. and in
either case  the straws will overlap each
otler, be difficult to separate, and their
ends  arralj,ge. in  eclhelon  order  instead
of a straight line.  To  lay the straw thus
disarranged right in the shleaf, will waste
much timie a-nd labouir. He  should pr-oceed
forward in a straight line, with a steady
and regutlar motion of the arins and limbs,
simple construction, the form being precisely that of the lhay-rake, fig. 345, but
of enlarged diiiensions.   The head a  b
is five feet long, and slhould be  niade of
good  to,ugh ashl, two ant] a hlalf by two
inches; the lielve c d may be six feet in
hleight, of thle sanie material, and fi'nislied
with a lhandle e that can lbe fixed( in any
desired position, by mieans of a ferule and
wed(lre.   TI)e lielve is tenonied into the
lhead, a,tll sup:ported by thle iroii bracefc
.q  Tlhe teeth a-re of iron, seven inchles in
length, and set at four inclies apart, but
formed in the lower part so that the bend
rests on tlhe groun,d, preventing,  the points
of the teeth penetratilig and  nixiIng tihe
eartlh  withl the gleanings.   The best mnethod of fixing the teeth is by a screw-nut,
as in thle hlorse-rake, as they are thlereby
easily removed in tlhe case of being broken,
with(,utt risk of injuiring the lheadl.  It is
also advisable to have the ends of the head
lhooped, to prevent splitting.
340
Fig. 401.
b
THR HAND STUBBLE-RAKE.
4501. P-teapin(r witli tlje scytbe is best
C,
executed by tlje ii)owers bein placed in
t, 
REAPING CORN CROPS.
bearing the greatest part of the weighlt of
thle body on the rilght leg, which is Icept
a little in advance.   The length of thl           e
sweep, from the entrance of the point of
the scythe into the corn until tlhe exit of
the head of the shed out of it. is froul seven
to seven and a half feet, and its breaditli          h
fourteen or fifteen inches. Begintners with
the scythe soon learn to reap fast enonht,i
but are defective in point of  neatness;
...,/..'..,. ";.  /. /.'.
:~,,,/.,:,../,'
are the three mowers forming a head, each
with a different kind of scythle, layin,g
over thle corn in the beautifully square
and  even swaths a a a.   The  womengatherers c c c, follow by each making a
band, fig. 394, friom the swath, and layaying as muchl  of the swath uponi it as will
make a suitable shleaf, as   d  - and so
carefully as to leave the ends of the b)and
free, f,r the ban(lster to take hold of easily
and quickly.  The gatherer requires to be
an  active  methodical  person, otherwise
shle will make rough work.  The bandster
e follows her, and binds the sheaves in the
manner described in (44,9,) any two of
the three baniidstersff setting the st(:ook yg
together; and in crossinig the ridges, they
shouldt all be set upo(i tlhe sanie ridge, to give
the people wlho remove them with the cart
the least trouble.  Last of all comes the
raker h, who clears the ground between
the st,okks withl his large hand stubble-rake
i, of all loose straws, and( brings tliemi to a
bantister, whlio bindstlhem togetlier bythliemselves, and sets them in bundles at the
341
whereas, on the contrary, beginniers witlh
the sickle soon learn to reap nieat enoughli,
grasping every portion with tlhe hanid, but
are defective in point of speed.
4504. Fig. 402 slhows the arrangemenit
of tlhe  various work-people  engaged  in
scvtlhe-reaping, tlhree seytlemien being introdu-ced i)e.'ely to show the forms of the
diflereiit sorts of scytlhes, a,nd wlhere  b b b
Fig. 402.
b                -
THE MOWING OF CORN WITH THE SCYTHE IN HEADS.
side of a stook, and  not at its end, to prevent the ventilation of the air throughl it.
This is nluch better than putting thre rakings into tle heart of a slieaf, whlIere tlhey
will not thraslh clean withl the rest (of thle
corn; and as they niay contain  eartht antd
snall stones, and inferior grain from straw;s
whichl  may lhave fallen down  before  the
mowing, it, is better to tlhraslh the rakings
by  themselves.    Wlhen the mowing and
gathering are properly execute(], the rakingys shothl!i not exceed kfron four to five per
cent of the crop, wlhich is not  more waste
tlhan in reaptirng witlh the smooth sickle.
4505. Every species of the cereal grainis
may  be mown:'itlh the scythe.  Many
farmers still  believe that the scythe is an
unsuitable implement with which to mow
wheat; but I can assutre them, fromi long
experience  a.nd observatio,i  that it is as
suitable as  the sickle, anti that mown
sleaves may be  nmadle to look well, provided the gatherers are proficients at their
work. Doubtless nmowitng wheat is severe 
practicable to shake out grass from cor         n,
whlile reaping withl the sickle, as the instrumentwould constantlybe required to be laid
aside, bothl hands being required in the operation.  To cut the stlbble as high as the
grass, would make the straw in the shleaf
too short.
4509. A  judicious remark is made by Mr
Taylor in superintending hlarvest peopl)le,
that in the first week, should thle weatller
prove warnm, the workers sliouldi have a rest
of twtenty minutes, whenever fbund req1)isite; and lie ad(ds  " I find it a plan b)oth
hunlaie and profitable."
4506. A good mower will cut one acre
of wheat, or perlhaps rather more, a day.
If a stroke of thre scythe covers seven feet
in length and fifteetn inelhes in breadth, an
area equal to 1260 square inches, it will
take about 5000 suclh strokes to reap an
acre.  Two acres of oats may easily be
mown inii a (lay, tlhus indicating that a man
will mow double the extent of oats lie will
do of whlleat, or make about 1 0,000 strokes
of the scythe in a day.   Nearly two acres
of barley may be mown iai a day, time bein,g wasted in the extra sharping required
inl cutting barley straw.
4510. In using the conmmoni scythe, I
observe, in  iany plirts of the country, the
swatlh laid  up against  th e  standin t col(,
antli is gatAerd ied  wihile igi   that position.
Wiy this e rode of e  of time s       wa    thl
should be preferredl to l,Lying it fliat on
thre groun(l, it is difficult to con jectulre, for
not  a single  advantag,e does the mnetlhod
possess; w%,hile the disordered. coniditioin in
whiclh  the  corn  is  takeni away  by  the
qgatherer fromi the standing corn, contipaed
withl  lifting it ul) froln  the flat  ground,
is a sufficienlt objection to the practice.
4.51 1. The imut)ediate effect of itowing
ont the state of thle corn, is to cause  the
straws to hlook oii to one  anothler, as is
evinced by tihe difficiltyof di ilitig aitiown
:shleaf when about to be passed tlhrough,I the
Wheat. Oats  nd Birle,y.
A. ].. r.  A. u..
. 2  3   0          4  0 20
1  1 18             2  2 10
- 1  0  8           2  0 10
4508. And tole average    number of
sheaves, of an average crop of oats and
I Transactiois of the Highland  and Agricultural Society, July 1844, p. 259-63.
sickle only 1360; and yet, the lattel imiiposed upon  him a decidedly harder day's
work.  A  bandster will do niore work with
soft than with hard straw; and withl a luxurianit than a poor  crop, because he walks
over less space from sheaf to sleaf, and
from stook to stook.*
- 4507. Mr Jolhn Ta
ri-estotne, Aberdeensh
ing as his experienc
quantities of grouind
seven persons, on an
work:
By  the scythe,.
]By thle sitio,,th sickle,
By the toothied sickle, 
REAPING CORN CROPS.
wet  with dew  in thle morning, or even
nlwhen wetted with rain, rather thlan lose
a few hours' work of reaping every mnorning, or at nightfall.  Gaitins, it is true, are
very apt to be upset by a, high wind; li)ut
after having got a set, it is surprising what
a breeze they will withstand.  After being blown down, howe.ver, they are not
easily made to stand a,gain, and tlhen thlree
of them at least are required to be set
against each other; but Iwhatever trouble
ththe resetting should create, they should
not be allowed to lie on the groun(d, and
it will be found that a windy day winis
them quickly.
4513. Rye, thlough not )particularly
specified, may be reaped or mown in the
sanie manner as the other cereal grains.
Its straw, being very toughtl, miiay be mniade
into neat slim bands.  It usually ripeils a
good deal earlier than the other grains;
and its straw,being clean and liar(l, does
not require long exl)osire in the field, and
on that account tile stooks need not be
hooded.
4514. The scythie cuts a shorter stubble
than the sicklle by  2-  incies, altihough a
long stubble miay be cut withi the scythle,
whichl is useful for  a  scytlieman to be
able to (lo, whien the young grass is rank
amongst the corn; for,.in failing to use such
a cauition, the heart of the young, clover in
tlat growino, state nmay be cut off, to the
injury of the plant all winter.
tlhe loose slheaf is imiadle to stand by spreadin, out thle lower eId of its straw iii a circular formi, fromn b to c. Gaitins are set upon
every ridige; the wind] whlistles through
thlem,  and the rain  does not  ihang uponi
but passes through thiem.  Gaiting is only
p ractised in  wet  wbeather, an        d        even tiethe,
only wlieni a      ri pe cro)  is endangered  in
standing, by a sle iaking   wind.   It is coIifined      to oats, wile at and             barley never being gaited;            bec a use when wiieat gets dry,
after beita, cuit              in   a                 wet state, it is apt to
slhake out in bitidin, the gaitins; and when
barlev is sulbjected to the rouigh usage of
binding,q after being won, the lhea(ds are
apt to snap off altog,,ether: and, besides, so
much exposure, as in g.iitins, injures its colour, and renders it unifit for tlhe maltster.
Oats are p)rotected by a thick husk, anid
the gr-ain is not v,ery apt to shake out in
lhand(ling, excepting, p,,tato-:,,ats,wlhichl are
selil(,m gaited., tlhe couiitiion kindls -only being so treated.  Buit, fir my part, I would
not h,esitate to gait any sort of oats when
4515. Reapers, wlhen hiired for thle li.rvest, wlietiler to ise tile sickle or thle
,scythe, receive food, lod,giigs, and  wages.
Those whio reap by the thrave receive only
remluneration ill iioney for whIat tihey reap,
and no lodlgings or food.   The food given
to reapers in tile southl)ern parts of Scotland consists of oatmeal porridge and milk
ait breakfast and sup)per, and bread and
beer at dinner-tine wheaten bread, 1 lb.
in weight, and a drink, besides, (,f hlialf a
quart of beer in thie afternoon.  Any  of
thie people thl)at go )hoJ1e to supper, as all
cottairs on  the  faim do, receive about  f;
p)ecls of barley in lieu-thle old firlot.   In
tle lliore n4ort[hern parts, the breakfast and
dinner consist  of I loaf  of bread andtl 1
qu,art o,f beer, anid tl-je suilpIer of porridge
and imiilk, or!,~read an beer aigain.  Tle
,bread is made of oatmiieal, baked witl- yeast,
343
tlhrashing machine; and also to cause the
corn etils of the different lengths of the
straws incident to a crop to come togetlher; and tlhe consequence is, that the
corn end of a, shieaf is miore cro)wded than
the straw en( —a state conducive to quick
winning after mowing.
4512. One modle of setting up corn to
dry quicklv is in gaqiti)-s-thiat is, the band
of the shieaf is tiedi loosely round the straw,
just under the corn, as at a, fi,. 403, and
Fiy. 403.
A GAITIN OF OATS. 
largely of ale and cider," continues Mr
Buriess,  "is, perlhaps,  peculiar to  the
labourilng population of England.   Tliehe
allowatice made to theni during harvest is
no doubt well nieant, and, to a certain exteniit,absolutelynecessary; but, likeallother
good things, the boon has been very imiclih
abused in tiunierous instances. Muchl more
importance hlas been attached to it, by botlh
master and servant, than sober inquiry will
justily.   Hard work requires eating as
well as drinking, and thlat of a peculiar
quality." *
451d. Anotler ciretiestance  eintirel,
in tile p.ower of the fa~riler ljirnself to
regulate, is i       in g the   reil)er s their nfea'ls
at state          ties every    dy — rerl itoy
in tbis respect  laving.'   laiiiterial effect ii
keeping  the work of  the fiel(l in good
order;  f,)r whieniever a niieal Lrrives at the
appointed  lhour, tilere %%,ill be no flatgging
on the part of tile re.apers; biut shiotil(i it
not  arrive  whi(ent expected, thje  work is
carelessly  d(oIIe, ad  thle  people  lhav-e IIo
heart to go on.   Thle holurs tllat seenl to
be well adapte(i for tile appetite, and wliiCh
divide the dlay into pretty eqtual parts, are,
8 o'clock in thie ningriiiii, f~or  breakf.Lst,
anid start again  to woirk -it 9; dininer at 1
in the afternoon,  and ag,aini to workl at
2.  Have  a restin,-timile of a  quiarter  of
an lhour for the dlrinlc of beer -it 4, andi
then to w%,ork till  duislk —havinig  begoiun at
diisk in the imiorning, in a late  harvest, antd(
at 5 in the mnorninig in ani earlv one.   Firown
5 in the mnorning, to 7 in tthe evenling  giives
12 hlours of w,ork, an:l 2 holurs tfo  rie::tls,
wlichl is as long,- a  da,,y's wo-rk  ais r-ea-tper-s
can enidiure for a liarvest  of 3 weeks, especially in warm  weather.
4516. Considerable trouble is imposed
on the inmates of thie farm-lhoutise, in providing and cookiug food every day for a
large inuiiiber of reaLpers.  The iiiaking of
oat-ineal porridge for perilaps from  fifty
to seventy persons twice a-(lay, itiornin,g
and evenring, and thie distributing, to eacih        i
bandI-win bread alnd( beer at dinner, anda
beer iii tlhe afternoon, are attended witih
mnuchi trouble, antid  considerable anxiety
in what is d(lone,iving, satisfiaction to the
pI)eol)le.   Complaints miiay be miade that
the porridge is too tlhin, or that it has not
beent  enoughti   boiled; that the milk is
skiiiimed(  or is sour;  that  tile  bread
is not well  baked;  the beer not well
brewe(l, and, perhaps, that the whole is
dealt out in scanty measuire.   The fariier
hlas  little control  over  the  baker  and
brewver; but this rule sihould( be followed
in regard to these twvo purveyors —namely,
the bread  should  be distributed to the
* Journal of Agric-ulture, October 1849, p. 153.
4518. In order to  ]keep proper discipline among  tihe re-lpers, not  aL person
otighit to  be  )erimiitted to leave  a rid(g~e
witlhout con.sent asked( aInd  ol)tainie(l frownii
the  personi intriusted  witl    the  suiperinitend1enice;   arnil whlieni  tlhe  fo,,(l ai-t ive.;,
there shiouil(l be no  cessatio,n ()f w,ork till
the word  of  coimndiiai  is  gie-ein  by  the 
REA,tPING CORN CROPS.
snperintend(lent, who slhould be guid(led  )y
the watlch-not d(lisbanldin,, the reapers till
thle hoir of repast actually arrives, anil t
not allowing, one niinute to pass l)         beyon(4
the lhour of recoimnlenrcing work.  WVlie          n
reapers find no  advntag,e of their own              I
tilhe taken, they will be less temlpl)te(l to
take advantage of thle tine of tiheir citiployer; at any rate, they are thlen depriNve(l
of every excuse for so doiingtv.
oats a       laley, aG t     4( 6. tl   tlae for
w least.   Wllell tllhey  bin(  and stI(,l      m lid,it
tlhey cut, tihey receive  3~-d.  for ofats and
barley, and   4-t(l. fi,r wea t  per  tlirave.
In Elgln(l, mowin, costs'         s. 6fd., s.toering  Is. 6(;., liding  afre     stoeokine  J2s., aind
r.kin g  6d. a,in  aicire, in all 6s. 6(;.';  but
lhe~Lvy or h,{ oed  crop)s will   c()st.)s. an
acre.   Tlhe pJrices aire  tlhe  same, wlvet!:er
tile iimowing is fro,li or  u1p to tile stanaling
c(orn-.   In tlht country c(rni is usuallv cut
by tlhe  )iece, and wlden standing,  reasin,'
costs fromii 8S. to l1s.;  whlein  lo(tlel 1, l()s.
to  1 2s. -in  acr-e.   Tile  nmowing,  (,f  tle
stubble co,sts   2s. ain  acr-e   noreC.  T,!e
price-s  t:aid  for wh  eat  and  oa('.s  are  tlfe
satmre; andi(l ba-ri-ley, b)einigr seldolo  b(,nI- )
andI stoolkedl, is  ilownl fo>r friom  2)s. to  2s.
6d.,in  acre.   In  Scot.latnai it  is niot uniisua.l to g,iec -a sltiiip  sumtii for tlie l;arvest,
irresp)ective of  the niililer of  days it lxl:ly
last; thougljot    tlhree weels  ari-e nldertl,l
to be the durii-ationi of lhar-vest.   WVl,ell it
ends before that  1,erioM,- it is  coiv,ceive( thle
h-arvester-s lIa%-e grainied' an' advant~, and
so does tlhe fa-riiier, in the shiortniess of the
hlarvest; anlld  whleni it exceeds  tl;at timiie,
tlhe realer-s coinceiv,e  t!hey incliur a- l-(ss, -is
also does the l.trtimer in a  doul>le  senise-i ni
tile protraictedi  harvest,  NNhicl  is  niever
f-ivoii,'l)le to hiin,, and  in the ext,'a I't(o(
giver, to  the reapers.          The slumip  s,,,irs
are  to  thle  re,aper E1, 16s., tlhe  ban(.-ter
~2, 5s., and the  niowers  ~2, 14s., besides
food.
4519. As the farmt serv%anits in Sc,,tlandi(-l
cannot attenr(i to tl!eir own d(lu)estic aflfairs
whlile  atteidlintg  to  thle liarvest, all tlhe
members  of  their  families receive  food
during tile weekls the harvest is presuimedi
to lhst.
4520. The lodgin,, aff(rded to reapers
is generally aniong,st straw in the stravbarn or outliouses.   Those lired( for tlhe
harvest receive two pairs of blankets, one
pair of sheets, and a ciaff lied and holster
for every two; and  tlhose lired( for tlhe
w;eelk, one pair of blankets with plenty of
straw, thle sa.nice allowance of bed-clot         lihes
being given to  thlravers wlho canlnot go         a
to their own liotnes every night, and only
on Saturday nig(it.  It is not an unicoimmon  practice for stranger reapers, lireil             r
for the week, to purloiii part of tle b)e(lcl(tlies allowed thema, and thle only chleck
to  that  species  of  depredation  is tle
obligation to (leliver up the clotlhes bet;fre
their earnings are paid to tlieiii.  Muchl
inconvenience is exlperience(l in tlhe ste(ldintg wlen a large numlber of reapers hiave
to be accommlii(odIated at n iglit, so tlhat thotse
whio can go lihinie to thleir ownil houses are
preferred.   Separate apirtments ough,lt to
be fitted Iup for thie wonien froiii tile men.
452-3. I-Iarvesting is very selhlhm undlertaken bv tthe acre ill Sce-otlind;   old, 01. tlhe
otl,er- hI:I-n(d, in Engla,anid tlhe l'ia(tice is qutite
colliremo)z, anid  l),iece-w o,k is   ler-      alsen
by  mnen uwlio ws,ork sirngly.   TIte.dvatnt.age
to  the  inower or  reall)er  is, tlhat  lie ni,iay
l4ave  lIis  fantily   with    iiiii n; i l(  to tle
fairier, le   can easily  itispect  tlie  w,-rk
donie.  Ti~ese a(lv-itlit.ages ar-e a-tls(, at,,eIln,tint
onI tle sy.tetil  (,f tliravigl.   In  Et,Igl(ld,
foiir weeeks  are regarded as  the  "ilarve.;t
nlontlh."
4521. PReapers'  blankets  of  Englishi
mainufactuire cost at present, 18)50, 7s 91d.
a-pair; and coa.rser, of Scotlch  manuttieture,
6s.  Strong twilled slieeting, fitted fi, r tlhe
use of reapers' be(Is,feosts 9(i. a yar(l, yar(l
wide, which lalikes each slheet of 2- yards
lon,g 3s. 9d.
4524.  Taking  tle  )price  (f  bread  and
oatiiieal as  thley aie  in 1850, ana(l  as tlhey
are likely tI li)e frolil  tlhat  tiie flrwalli,
wat lii. ljier  lbi. f'(r oatilleal, iand  1 il4.  1,or
lb. for  w!lite'vlllalre d, tiei e           c,,st i;f
the foodl of  li,arvesfers wll  b}e a.s fo}llow -s:
-10(  lo-ves  ()uit (of  1  peI k,f  oatil eal,
rgives a weight to  each lI.af i f  11 2 (oz.  of
4522. Tlhe   mtoney wag es of thle different
classes (,f r eaplers as,re,Ls fi!ll,s *-Reape.s
witl  t!he sickle, nmev an(d women, receive
2s.,                 2s. 6(1. -a          owers
with the s(:ytlie get 3s., b.,iidXsters 2s. 6tl.,
and(-l wvmen tg atilerers 2s. a-dlayv.  Thlra,vers
receive  3d1. tle tlhrave of two stooks  of
345 
andl sulpl)er, tlhe nlilk being a lhalf quart
each mtieail to everv person, would reduce thie
pr-ice lIelow that of bread anil beer of aiiy
kind; tbut hlow nmucl) I do niot know, as I
hlave never observed it ascertainedl how
iiiuc!t miieal is consumed b)y eacih lharvester
in porridge.
tlheim, and tlhat being thle case, thle c(ost of
lhearvest-w%ork  is hlere  represented  fully
above the iimark.
4527.   1  hlave  repeatedly  ascertained
that. thravi.q never  c(;sts less  than  12s.
an acie, including the wages  and food to
the bandlsters.
4525.  The  food  of
reapers, of six reapers an
at 5d. eachi for oatmeal,
bread,
4528. It  will  be  observed, from  the
foregoisig statenlients, that Iliowiing is nluchi
tlile cleallest Tiode  ()f reaping, corn, on
which  accolunt it slhould be  universally
ad, pted, as liarvest expenses frinr  a heavy
itenil  in  tlIe  fariier's books, an,il every
(availa.ble  leanis shI)ould be used to lessel
tllhem.   Atiy i)lan tihat woulli deprive tlhe
-ordiniry  dwellers o(f a farmi  of  work, I
. would hesitate to recolIlend; b)ut wihen
tihe fairner is obliged to g,) into tlhe public
wari-ket (,f labour to  p)rocure  assistance in
cuttilg down  lis crp(I), lie is jistifie(l i
relying, if possible, on  liis own resources.
It is scarcely practicablle for himi to (lo so,
witlouit thliowing  his hlorses  idle  f,r  a
il(ong time; atn(l as 1o econ4i~ay is found in
esuchll  a course, the  oinly  alternative left
aliiii is to eco(lnolise the cost of IharIvestlalsotlr.   Now,  tlhe scytihe is b()otl an  ecornollical  aud  eflicient   iiil,Ilenientt,  and
c wo   bw(ever li-is uiseld it lias never relinquished
it.   A  prejuilice at first existed agai.nst it,
..on accountt otf a mlllwnl  stool;  iit looking
s) trill  as - a irel)eiel oine, and (if ti)e difficulty of Ibuilding a neat staick w-itih  (-own
sheavres. Tlhere is rolilgliness iii tlhe appearance of niown- slheaves, but it is not at all
Costs per day,..         11
Wages of 6 teapers at "s. per }  12   0
(lay, or ]2s. per week,      } 0
Wages of I bandster at 2s. 6d.     2  6
per day, or ]5s. per week, f
.Alaking the daily cost}
1 a 7 $
of a banid-win,
Oatmneal.
s.  d.
2 11
1-2 0
Takini,g 2 acres of wlheat, ba.rley,  ind oats
overhead, as a fair extent of lharvest-work,
for a ban,l-win, the exl~ense of re,)ing at
1 7s. 5di. a-day is ss. 8d(l. an acre, andl at
18s. ]0dti. a-day, 9s. 5~1d. an acre. On
reaping   tIhe  respective kin(ls-t)f grait,
barley woIIld cost tlJe sumis stated, wheat
a little 11oIre, and oats a  little less.   At
tlhe red-Iucedi wag-es t,f 10s. thje week for
reapers, anid  12s. 6tl. for bandsters, the
cost would be 7s. 6(1. anid 8s. 2d3(1. aii acre
for barley, and a little n1ore for wigeat,
and a little less for oats.
4526. Ini mowiig, the food of 3 mowers,
3  gatlherers, 3  bandsters, anr(ti toIe rakeI,
-= IO ipersons at 5d. and 71 eacIh, 
REAPING CORN CROPS.
especially when cut  )y tllrave. thle straws
are   strai,lght an(d hiar(d  pessel, lIetweell
wlliclh tlhe rain finds  its  way  into  tiie
heart of tlhe slheaves; whlile the  straws in
tthe In(iwn st(oks,  being  soniewlhat b)ellt
and broklen, and( initerlaced( on thle surface,
formni a texture  whlichl  prevents  tile rain
penetrating, and rathler serves to tllrow it
off.   Besidles this pro(perty, lilowil slheaves
are imore  perviouls to tle air thlan  reaped
ones.
detrimental  to the corn, and would not
even seem unsightly, were mowers carelul
to lay the swathls at right angles to their
li    ne  of mo    tio n, a s  by b, fi. 402;   er e
gatherers to  lift the swaths with both  hands
meeting, as seen at c; lay the armfuls even
in tile banld(s, as shown aLt d.  AlthjoughI
it is diffici-lt for work-people to bestow
their utmnost attention constanltly oil their
work, yet practice inakes proficiency in
this imianner of  liarvestin,,  as  I  have
found to be tie case, after hiaving  em.ployed the samne hands at it for successive
years.
4531. An  advantage of anotler  kind(
yobtained in  nIowing corn, is tlie very shlort
stublle left in  the field, and thle  larger
quantity  of straw carried to  the stackyard.   The following statenlent  iiay be
depended on, as being  the result of experimiient:Weiglht of        stra w  p   er  acre, wlen cut to
Cwt. qr. lb.
2 inches of the ground,    26  1  0
8......       23   1 6
12......       2l   0 2
So that a half cwt. *.f straw is left per acre
withi  every inch of stubble.    W llen  we
know  tlhat thle valne )f straw is about 28s.
per ton. (15s. per load of 36 trulsses,) we
cannot but feel surprised at tlhe barbarous
mode  of using  tile  wleat-straw  in some
places of England, by baIging, (4495,) in
first  reapinig thle ears of corn and  thlen
mijowing tlhe straw.
4529. Besides econonmy, mowing  enables the corn to be cartiedl, after it has
been exposed in the air to win, in half
the usual titme.  Reaped oats must stand
in tile stook  a fortnigh;t ere tley will
keep in thle stack; mown oats, in similar
weather, may be carried in a week.   Barley, when  reaped, is not  fit to lead in
less thlan three weeks; when  n)own, it
miay be stacked in safety in ten days.
Mowin wheat will carry in three days.
4530. Jt is an. error to believe that a
mowvin stook takes in rainu  on the contrary, I lhave frequently ascertained that
it takesin rain less I than a reaped one.  In
one remiiarkable instance, I remiienmber  a
field of potato-oats on beitig finished in cutting, tliit lieavy rain fell the next day, and
continued, without intermission, for tlhree
days, tlhe last of whlichl  was very windy,
and whlen tlJe wind (hangred firom  E. to
W.  it fairel1.  About  one-third of thlis
field lla(l been reaped witb tlhe sickle, and
tile reason thlat iiplemient was ulsed in it
at all was to give a little hlarvest-work at
tliravillg to a few elderly men and women,
cotta.rs and hinids' wives, whlo, lhaving to
attend to young children, could n(ot undertake thle regtilar work of a harvest-field.
Inipressed  with tle conmmion belief, that
mown sheaves mulst take in rain, I went
to the field after tile rain lhad ceased, to
ascertain thle state of tile stooks, never
doubtingt they would be soaked, wilie thle
relped( olnes wohl(l )be comlparatively dry;
but thle fict was tlhe very opl)posite none
of thle iiiowii sleaves l)eiig wetted to tlhe
heart, -while tlhe east side of the reapedl
ones were soakilg to tile b)ands.   On consideration, I accounted for the difference
:.  tllis way:-In  reaped, sheaves, and
4532. The pro )ortion wrlichi tla e st raw
and grain!)ear to each  otlher cannot be
statedl witlh sufficienit accuiracy.   I lhave
received the followin,, statemiienlt of their
relative  weighljts  in  tlie  neigliboiurlhood
of  EdinburghI, fr,-iim  Mr Andrew Gib)son of thle  Deain Fa-rmn, whose  siiperior
farmlsing is well  knowll:-Fl'OiI ai crop of
whelat, of 40) bus!iels to the acre,  or of
2600 It)., at 65 lb. per  )uslhel, tlie str-aw
will weighl 9 kempl)es  of 44,0 lb  eacll, or
39(;0 II., affording  just  one-half  nm.ore
weig,hItof straw ti,ain of grain.  Fronm a
ci-ol) of barley of 60 bunhels, uei,hing
56 lb. )er buslhel, (cr 38360 lb. per  ace, thje
weigiht of straw is 7? kemples, or 38)80 lb.,
beig  )one-tenti, of less oeigit  (,f straw
thtan of grain, (I 911.)  Fronm a  cr(,i1 of
60 hslhels of oats, at 4 5 II-). per bultshiel, or
2;70t) Il. )er acre, the  weif-,ht of straw is
8 kerp)les, or  35,20 lb., being one-tllirdi
nmore weeighlt of straw tlhani of grain.  Tiese
are all average quantities.   In  ordinary
317 
-          ---- wv...X.       V     ~      a~t - a,  *s- eiii (   w vei~i 0 wSt~
per acre 31761 lb., and the strtaw and
cllaff 6428 1 lb., or rathler more than d(ouble
the weiglit of straw to the grain.  Double
the weig,lt of straw to the grain may tlius
be regarded as near tlJe truthtl, at a distance
froni larvae towns, whlile  in their iiiimied    iait            e neig,blbonrh)ood ttle      grain  bears a
larger  proportion to the str          aw.
wla t,g,, (, a elglll; "        I sttu-o *) ae
'a  B l     t,,w  t.id,laff    ble and roots
sqa re ),-lira. 0     i all acre.         Otl Iln.liere.
lb.                  lb.
I 9              3932                 13,3'i30
52;O.505   0         2(),570
HeIe the  difference between  the straw
anid roots is aga,iitn about  1 to  2  and 3.
Pr(,fessor Jolitistonl mentions tlhat, according  to  the  experimients  niade  by
Hlubek iii the ag,ricultural garden at  Laybaicl), tlhe slieeps-fesctie and perennial ryegiass left of roots in the soil thlree tilmes
tlhe wA-ei'llit of tle liay produiced in the samje
year; an(i in old pasture the roots are four
tti)es as lie:ivy as tlhe  Iiav yieldel by it.
Even after the r(oots hlead been tlIorougl,ly
(i rieil, tlley weigliie(l h)tlf as  lIeavy  aga,ti
,as the cro(p.*  The results of the fireg,oing
tables indic:tte tlhat the roots are firom  21to 3 timies I:e,avier tlhan the stravw of the
o.at, witlh soiime surprising exceptions
4534. Coniniected with tl)e proportions
of the different p)arts of tlhe same crop, is
tle relation  wlhiche t      he s tul)ble  and              roots
left in the,round(I bears to thie straw and
grain carried off it.   Alr M'ILagan's expxerimnents enai-ble  mne to state tlhis relation in reference to oats sowI1  broadIcast,
drilled, and dit)bbled; and the results, wlhich
nigh,t lhave been expected to be various,
are surlprising anid ainomn'alous.  Thius
Weighit of  Weighit ofstul       Plants ii a straw an(l ciff ble aid roots
square yard.
on -nll acre.   Oti all acre.
lb.          lb.
26         6050         1.9,360
49         8470         27,830
75         41140        2),040
120.)96i;0     10,5s8o
Here  extraordinary differences               br,ay be
perceived  between  the  case  where   75
plants grew  upon  the square  yard,  thle
stiubble and  roots weighed  six  ties the
weighlt of tlje straw and claff;  andl that
where 120 plants grew in a sinmilar s)ace,
the straw and  chaff, and thle stubb)le aind
roots, were nearly equal in weighlt.
4537. Tlhese  same data afford( us the
avera,ge gross weighlt of tlie prodluce of tlje
entire oat crop fr()m tle comnparatively
si11all weight of the whlole of the seed
sownI. Tlhus:
G rai n,              3479
Dibbled.   Straw and chaff,    7260
Stubble and roots, 2 1,704  ton.  cwt. lb.
32,443= 14  9   75
. _97
(Grain),.2 974
Drilled.   IStr.,w and chaff.      58;:16
Stubble anid roots, 19,007
27,117 =  12   8 41
* Jolinston's Lectures on Agricnltural Chlemistry, 2d Edit., p. 746.
DIILED). 
wliereaIs  iliieli waste   is occasioned  fihimi
np  or(lillnary  crop  passilg froti0 o3e  Ilalsl
and process to aiotlier, b-)efore tije  ultitiute
r  esult is alscertaied.   Such  colll)aris()lls,
lhowever,  sll(oul(l  inculcate  carefl.nItess  ill
all tlhe operatiols colillectel  withl tlhe fiel(lculturie of every cirop).
DIBBLED.
Plants....col
Nimber of  Weiglt of l                      I inma             b~instrisedln ri o ne       se
' square ~grai rais e d i      o6  t,, of 40 lb  in fold.
a':t square yard.                 ac re.;" fol      d.
4{   9   11,700          31159        96   2 )40)
75  l5.,4             0 2118    j 53             72
120... 5      -           94          132.
4540.               DRILLEI).
Plants' t~i~e 
I Nutber of    Weighlt of   11nberof  In  I,, a          0.3025         7)       234b      sIels of   toeaf          e
in   grains, raised in  rino   an  0lbpeinfl.
square 40l.te
ya>;xrd.\ a square yard.               acre. fold.
__I            __i
lb.
32 7..500                3025         7-5      234 i
53        7,";00         3 (;3         91       150  i
78        5.6) 00         2420         6o         72
94        6,9'            3025 -       75i        73 
140.                      2            175  71...
i      *08  -. -     2i75         771 
4542   As  regar(ls  these   results,  MAr
M'Lag,an  truly  reui.arks  thlat  they "are
most capricious;"  jitiliciously oliservs
thlat  " there  is  onie  thling, tliet  striike.s
5me  as  curious  and interestinr n a       miiel,
tlhe great p)reponilerin,ce of pickles iea ise'l
wihen  (only  2  Iickles  were   )ilt ilnto tlie
lhole,  conmpared  to  tle  res,ilt  l"en  3
wer-e put itl.  Onie p)ickle in  at hiole gave
a  uiucli better yield tlhai  tilree.  MAi,,Iit
we  not   arigue  froi   tliis, tlhat, if dib)blidng is to be  miiic lractiel, it wvill  be
b)etter to nmake iliore li,les, 1li(l  put fewei
seedis inito eachl  lhole?   Tlhere is solihe confirnuation(,i of this fromt  the results oltaineill
fromn broa(lca.st, where tlere is a  grati lual
increase of protiu(e accr ding to tlhe (tuaiitity sowni  owin, I Sul)l)o,Se, to tlhe seedls
I)eing  imore equally  distribitte(l  over tlie
groundil."
P111s   N     ber f Weit o          IN ber of
, squarle      - -tin. raised,   grain on an 4    rlbpe
.!
"r              a'        40 lb. per
y~d. a -qtuir~ y~.;"ere.   a
lb.
1 9       5,100          2117,53
52        I",Ooo          3113         78
68        8,700           36,32        91
87...          36:2          91
Boussijigault's 1-itral
4543. " Tle rest  of tlhe  fielIl," coiltiiues Mr  M'Lagani, " not  experlilmentedl
on, was s(own thle same (lay as the parts )ol
wvliiclh the above observationis were mad(o
at the rate of 4.  bushels to the acre.   It
was in full ear oil the 9thl anid 11 tlh July,
3atid was reaped on tlhe 8thl of Septemnber.
r  Economy, p. 486-7-Law's translation.
Clover,
4539. In prosecuting tlhe experinments
instituted by hlimi to an en(d, Mr M'La,an
obtained tlhe results desider-ated ill (3532,)
wlhichi were the amiouinlt of produce in grriain,
and that was as follow s ini oats:
4541.
BROAkDCASTr. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
I also sowed some at the rate of 22, and
31 bushels to the acre.  It was also a
good crop, and was nearly as soon ready
for reaping as the rest of the field.  I'
made several observations about the tinme
the corn came into ear, and found that it
came into ear according to thle thlickness
of sowing, tile thlickest sown being firist in
ear, and the drilled portion being always
the most forward.  The  thinnest sown
had strong straws and magntificenlt heads,
but I was obliged to cut tihemn before they
were  ripe.   Althloulgh  several  parcels
were cut on the same (lay they were not
equally ripe, the thinnest sown always
being, greenest."
Drilled in one —,qtare?rd
*  Inrerase  of.
Seds -    eeds   Stalk*  St-dIks tby
sown.    brairdled.  cut.   ttllerinig.
144     139        578      439 = 4-15.
432      408       854       44(i 2-'i..
864      798    1132        33i4 =  1'41..
A.
Average,       480        4s48     855       406 =- 1-90..
Drilled in one square yard.
144     137     540      403 = -3'94..
432     407      711      3U4 =  1-74..
81)4    795      798        3  = 1'00..
480     446     683       237 =  1'093..
4544. In continuation  of the experinients recorded of Mr Hay of Whiterigg,
in (353:3) and (3534,) he obtained thle
following results in yield of straw from
ditbbled  and  drilled grain respectively.
Thus, fromn-  -
4548.'These figures  instruct  us Ithat,
where  the'seed is sown  tiin, tlhe dlisposi tion of tile plant to tiller increases; whlich
shows tlhat tile soil endeavours to support a
definite proportion of plants, according to
its ability as regards its state of fertility.
We see that, wlere tile seed is suppliell so
scantily as  144 to the' square  yartl, or
696 9630  to  tile acre, wlicll is about  1
bushlel to the acre, (1856,) that tile tillering in tile wlheat plant takes place to tile
extent of about 31}tilmes tlhe plants brairded
fronm  the seed; in thle barley plant fr'lli
34  to 8 times; and in the oat plant  ab,ut
44- times.   At  2 buslhels of seed to tile
acre, thle tillering of wheat  is 1-  tinle
more thanl thle plants brairde(l; of barley
from  2 to 3  tilnes; and of oats al)out 2
tilmles.   With  3  bushels of seed  to tile
acre, wheat  tillers scarcely at all; bIarley
about 12  miore titan tile pJlants brair(led
and oats about  1 L miore than the bra,irsl.
Tile average tillering ill all thle instances
of wlheat is abotit 1I to  tile  braird; of
barley about twice tile braLirl; and (of oats
about 11 tillIe more  thlan  thle lbraird.  If
any  conclusio(l  can  be  drawn  fromn  tile
foregoing  statements, it appears  to  be
this,-  that as tlhick  sowing, brillg,s  tile
crop sooner to maturity, it is best atdapted
for a c(ol(l, late seaso)n; anid as-tlill s8)wing retards tile riprenill  (of tile crop, it is
best s8lited to a finle seasoni.   The claracter of tile season must  be taken  as  tlhat
presented at tile tine (of sowing, and tile
juidicitaus farller will proporti(on thle qullantity of seed to be sown accordingly.   Tile
,bled in one square yard.
Inerease ot
9eed.    Stalks  stalki by
brairded.  cut.   tilleri,.g.
97       330       233 -  3-40  times.
296       43'9      143 =  1-48..
616       614.. none..
336       461        188 =  1'37..
Drilled in one square yard.
144     105     343      238 = 3-26..
432 327         507      180 ==1-55..
864     652     680       23=  1-04..
Average,     480     361      510     14           9 =.1-41..
Drilled in one square yard.
144     83    680    594 - 7.90..
432 318 934 616 - 2-93..
864 747 1225    478 - 1'64..
Average,  - 480    384    946    563 =- 2.46..
Dibbled in 4ne sq(are y4-rd.
144     129    5,q8    459 -4'..
432     403     806     403 - 20..
864     8#00   1042 21.2 - 13..
Average,    480      444     829     3=   1-86..
850
4547.
POTATO OATS.
Dibbled in one square yard.       -.
144 133         603 464   4-46 times.
432,407     821    414 -  2')1..
864:   823 915           92 - 1-1 
Average,    480       45;5   780    345 -  1'71..
Average,
WHEAT.
mown.
144
432
864
Average, 480
4545.
BARLEY.
Dibbled in one square yard.
144 95 3.30 2.35 -  3-47..
432     335 668    333 =- 1'99.
864    687    1002      315 = 1-44..
Average,    480      372     668     294 - 1-79..
4546.         HOPETOUN OATS. 
t4u.ii     A IIt21, 1 zIIUL, aLt itiu palln iii LIie
hands; as also tlhe biennial spear-thistle,
Cni cus  lanceolat-ts, tlhe spines o()f whlich
breaking in the flesh, inflict  acute  p)ain
wlhen touchled, and are exceedingly troublesottie  to extract.    The  only  safegoard
againist suchl  accidents is the wearing  of
gloves made of slheep-skin), calledi sAearers'
lloves, whichl only cost Is.  the  pair; )ut
it is liziore pleasant for tlhe work-l)eople
lwhen the corn is so free oif weeds as to dispense witla "loves.
afforded from 14 to 21 thiick stroig stalks
fromi each liole.  The broadcast  measured'
3 feet 4  inchies of leighIt, including  the
roots; the stalks were  smaller; and  21
of tlien  weighled one eigltit of an  ounce
less than thle sanme nunilmer of the dibbled
fromtt one htole.' On the 15tlh of June, both
lots of whieat were in the, ear.
4550. A  crop of wheat varies by soil,
situationl, and  season,  froni 20  to  56
bushels aii acre; andi the weighlt varies
from thie samie causes froni 59 lb. to 68 lb.
the busihel, (1856.)
4557. It  is in  reaping a field,  as in
plough,ing it, that sliort rid-es waste mutcli
tinie iii l)assing froiii one  end (of tlietii to
the (tlier; antd  frequenitly niucli tiiiie is
also lost in going fromi one field to another.
It tends  to econorise  tilne,  wlieii an
acre or so of a fiel(l happens to be left
uncut, after all the band-wins  have C(oiiipleted their stented qiiantitie.s, to take the
troop of reapers at once to an(,tlier field
than  remain  in  the one  tliev are  in to
finisl-h the small portion left, whicL  can lie
cut up by the  part of tile hllinds' f.Laiilies
wlho cannot  und(ert.ake  retgular  harvest.
work.  Slhould suclh I portion be left ait tl.,e
end( of a day's work, it is IImost ecoiJnoIi.ical
t(" workl a little longer anid faster to,(.iiplete the field  liefore  leaving it for the
evening;  htit if found imopossil)le to c,,rnplete it, thIe reapers siouli-,l nuot eturnii to
it in thie mn)rnin,ll  but liroceei to.L new
sfield, and  leave the renmnant to be reaped
by the odd hal-ndgs I have nmentioned.-:
4553. It    is as easy now,    1       o850,       t        o r aise
32,bushiels of.whieat on an acre, as it, was
30 years ago to raise 24 bushels; to raise
54 buislels of barley as it was to raise 42
bushlels; -Id  to raise 60)- bushels: of oats
as it was tto raise 48 bushels.
4554. Ini like manner, it is as easy to
raise now, whleat of thie weight of 65 lb.
the liusliel, as it was then to raise it at 63
lb.; barley now of 56 lb. the bushel as it was
4551. Barley varies in produce by tile
same circuimistances, fromii 36 to 60 buislhels
an acre; and:l its weig,hit froimi 50( ll. to 59
lb. the busbel, ( 1911.)
4552.  Tihe  yield of  oats varies  in
similar  circumiistances -even  more  than
whieat or barley, from 30 to 90 biushiels
an acre; and its weighit- from 38 lb, to 48
lb. the bushel, (1930.)
4558. Harvest - generallyf -o'minence 
PRACTICIE- A UTUMN.
with  thle  reapiing of thle winter  wlheat,
wlicli  llany be ex)ectedl to be effe(ted by
tile en,l ()f July iu Engla.nd, alil tile nli(ldie,)f August in Scotlanili.  During  ily
recollectionl thle liarveest co(Illences earlier
in Secotlalll tliani it did,  hlieis tlhe lbegilnitlg of Sepl)teniler was the usual period.
Beans are never re.ady for tljle sickle until
all the cereal grains  lave been reaped.
allowed to become ripe; when we consider that
by  cutting this  soonier we  shou-ld  produce  an
increase ot 1.5~ per ce,nt of flour, and realise an
inlcreased value of 7s. 6d1. upon every quarter
pro)dutce(d; atid that we  should produ('e food for
1,362,857 persons over and above whalt we  now
produce, and an extra annual income of L.512,491,
and when we consider that  this increase would
be so mruch added to the wealth of the country
that it is equal to the proceeds, at three per
cent, of an estate worth L.17,083,033; anid that
the illecrease of our polpulation denmands an increased sulpply of food, I would ask, wlhat is our
duty in this case! " I
4559.    That one period of their age is better
than asothler for reapilig grain crops has been
proved by carefill experi ments, Illade by Mr Jolhn
Iallalnal, North Deightois, Yorkshire.   Without
enterilng inlto their details, I give  only their
results.  Of wheat reaped at various ages, the
following were the advanltages and disadvantages
derived:No. 1, reaped qutite qreen on 12th August, and stacked
26th August, gave a return of L.I 1, 17s. per
acre.
No. 2, reaned #y:eez on 19th August, and stacked 31st
Aui;gust, returned,.] 31, 6s.
No. 3, reaped r,w on 26th August, alid stacked 5th
September, returned L. 14, 18s.
No. 4, reaped not quite so rwei  on  30th  Augu,t        i
and stacked 9th September, returned L.14,
17s. 4d.
No. 5, reaped ripe on 9th September, and stacked
16th September, returned L.13, 1 ls. 13d. per
acre.  lHeice,A loss of ~1 14 8 per acre on No. I compared with No. 5.
0    8           N..    2..      No..
A gain of 1 6 4..   No.3..      No.5.
.. 1.5 8..   No. 4..      No. 5.
..    3  1 0..   No. 3..      No. 1.
4563. Upon one occasioni I  cut down  a few
stooks of  p)otato-oats when quite green, thotjglh
full in the ear, to allow carts to pass    to a placed
destined  for the site of a  hay-stack, and after
standing till the rest of the field was brought
in, they were thrashed with  the  fla~il by  thiemnselves, and the saml)e produced was  the  miost
beautifully silvery grain I ever  saw; but not
having  iimade  the  experiment with any view to
impl)rovillg the crto), 1 pursued the ilnvestigatioln
no farther, and cannot say what effect would
have  been produced upon the quality and quanitity of the nieal.
4564. There are various ways of  stooking or
rshocking corn besides those represented in figs.
395 and  396.   In Ireland, a safe  pIlan againlst
wind' and raini is practised In clustering the
standing lshesves with their tops close together;
and after placing two hlood-sheaves almiost in a
perpenidicular positionl, with  the stubble endl
uppermost, these are lashed together by  a wisp
from onle hood being passed under the band of tlhe
other.  Stooks are  alslo  set, w ith  the  standi ng
sheaves in tle form of a cross, across an open
furrow or sheugh, and covered with four hoods
meetin-g with their bnit-ends in the  middle.
4,560. Wheat reaped  a forttight before it is
ripe   gives  an  advantage   on   every   point,
namely:In weiglht of gross lprod(uce, of..    13i per cent.
..    equal im.easutres, nearly...
equal number of grains, nearly    2 
Iin q:l'* ylt and valuie, above..     34                              e
In weighlt of straw, above...    5.
Other ad(lvantages are, straw of better quality, a
better chlance of securillg the crop, and a savilng
in securiligi it.
4565. In Ger arlacy th     e rye  is stooked it a substa46tial Oani  elegaoet form. The   sh ea ve s are all
mad e  as large usl  a  man can onely car ry one.   In
eforveii)g the  sto ok, one shieaf is  set up having
two  baclids, a nd aroatigd it ii    a circle, a little
asunder, are  placed       e ight   sheaves   with their
head s  mieeting together, and one lare st heaf acts
as    a  hood to te   ohe oth ers.   Tlhe hood  heaf is plieIpared in this way:-It is placed on its buit-eind
uipomn  the ground, and the straw is  broken d own a t
the baMrd flnrme the  outside  of  thee   sle af  to  tile
cenitre, and arranged  ini a circular  fern:i, after
which  the shelf is lifted by two  mnen), Wvho p.lIa-ce
the  circularly spread   otiut s traw  s as  a   thathiug
over the heads of the st   anding se d eaves, w   ith its
btit-ernd  projecting  upwards.'l'he straws are
then nieatly trimmed around  the stook, making
them  cover every  sheaf equally, and  reasetiig
nearly to the banids of the stanidinlg sheaves.
Stich a, stook will ward off aniy quantity  of rain),
and resist any force of wind.   In eight days tlie
rye is ready to be carried, but it lies broad-band
upon the ground several days before being thus
bound into sheaves and stooked.
4561. Oii the other hand], wheat, reaped a
,onth  before  it is ril)e, gives  a:i  a.dvanltage of
twetity-two  per cent  in  weight of straw coinmpared witlh the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in
every other poinit, narmely:In weighlt of gross produce,..   I1 lsi per cenit.
equial measures, above....
....  equal number of grains, above ]3..
In qual'ty and qualltity, above..                      t..
4562. Some of these may seem trivial advantages anid disadvantages wlheni conifined to the
area of a sinigle acre; but when computed oni the
exteut of ground  iiiider wheat culture  iii the
kiugat om, thle          resuflts ire striking, as exemplified
by Mr Ha.nnare. —" Wheni we consider that there
are in Englanld anid Scotland about 4,000,000 acres
of wheat grown annually, producing 12,000,000
quarters of graini, of which  three-fourths are
* Quarteiy Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 22-37; and vol. xiii. p. 170-87.
3.52 
RE.PING CORN CROPS.
Carmylie, in Forfarshire, in 1827 or 1828.  It
clips the straw by a series of scissors, anid places
the  cut straw  upon  an  endless  web,  which
deposits it on the right or left itatid in a coutitnuous swath.   It also requires horse power  anid a
man to manage.
4566. An effectual way of keeping sheaves
dry and exposing them to the air is practised in
Fig. 404.              Sweden,  by
thrusting the
end ofa small
pole six  or
seven   feet
li'~!. ong, a,fg.
404, into                  toie
tI gro ud; and
sh.7      ing one    shieaf
b upon the
shre, wit,,success,;,an     l costakive, wih
f'' i its butr. Aend
standing oni
the, groupd,
others  c c are
spitted upon
the stake at
the bands,
para llell tos
< 1    a _  by Mard aove
w_ Back_ ealh otvine
t ill the'stake
'fi.:-y_.        of Kcliting with
'i~  their heads
*:: K~.downwards,
~'~~i  ~~~~~to throw off
shrre, wi~~~~~~th sces  *ratl      h   ociein.
eed   i~/- are- abundant/.,.:~'This p lan  has
on'>.g~.:'~'   I,";, been t rie d in
== —-= —   w~ell Irvin'e
'~ ~   ~ "~~ — ~ —:~:~ ~~of King                                   causie, in
THR  SWDISH TOOK.     Kincardineshire, with success; and I should conceive, in
fields surrounded-with. woods, and where larch
weecinigs are abundant, the plan an. excellent
one for winning the corn well and fast.
4570. The  next machine, as to its timne of
exhibition, in 1832, was that of Mr Joseph Matii,
Raby, near  Wigtoll, Cumberlatid.  IThe  cutter
is a disc of a regular polygon of twelve sides,
and the gatherer a revolving drum with rakes,
from the teeth of which a comb strips the straw,
which then drops at one point of the  inaclilie ini
a continuous swath.   It requires  horse power,
and a nian to guide.
4571. The country where the reaping machine
is most in use is in the western counties.of tlihe.
United  States of America.   Tlhere the large
fields of wheat, in the prairies, are obliged to be
reaped with machines, manual labour being too
scarce, and in consequence too dear to secure the
eharvest.   The greatest varieties in the fortn of
this machine may therefore be observed, and are
i n use, in that country.
4572. No doubt exists but that the  reapitg
machine can cut down a grailn crop at a cheaper
rate per acre than any implemenit used by  the
h and of man; but, beyond the mere cutting, the
gathering, binding, and  stooking will still liavto be accomplished by laboerers.  Even iticluding the binding and stooking, Bell's machine lias
proved that corn may be cut down  by it for 3s.
the acre.  Such a machine is expensive to purchase-not less, perhaps, than L.30-and  iimore
than one will be required on a large farm; yet
their original cost may beredeemed, by ecotnomy iii
titme and labour. in the course of a few years.
45X3. As to  the extension of the use of the
scytle, Mr  Ta~ylor is justified in believing that
" the practice of inowi,,g grain is slowly gaining
ground, and will in all probability continue t,,
do so  until it be universally adopted. In thle
northli-easterti districts of Scotland, the scythe lia,s
been in general use for upwards of twenty years;
and inumerous are the individuals of mny acquaiittauice who have had twenty harvests leaped by
the sickle before the scythe was introduced, and
who are now as clearly convinced  that maowing
is at  improvement in reapintg, as the woodein
two-horse was  an improvetnetit on  the twelveoxen plough of their fathers."
4567. To instance an opposite extreme, the
barley in the souith of England is never stocked
at all, but left on the  ground  as  mown  in
swaths to win, and carted home to a large barn
like hay-a  more  slovenly and objectionable
mnode cannot be imagined, of treating so delicate
a grain for colour, and one so easy to germinate
as barley.
4568. I shall not say much on reapinq macchines,
as none have yet been generally used in this
country.  The first one was presented to public
notice by the late Mr Smith ofDeanston in 1814 or
1815, and afterwards exhibited in an improved
form in 1837.* This machine cuts the grain by a
circular disc, and gathers it in a continuous swath
on the left hand with a revolving druin.  It requires horse power, and a man to manage the
horse and machine.
. 4574. A curious statement was made at tle
council meeting, ill March 1850, of the EIglish,
Agrictiltural Society, by Mr Dyer, to the iinteii;
that, tur the last tell years, lie had observed  that
a  remarkable  corresponidenice  existed  in hiis
crops between the inumiiiber of grainis of wheat iin
the ear, and the number of bushels of wheat owl
the acre. Thus, in his crops  the average  numiber of graitis in the ear had been twetity-eighlit,
while the bushels per acre produced  had also
been tweinty-eight. He did not mean to express
Pa4569. The next one         was produced        by t h e pRev.i
Patrick Bell, present minister of the parish of
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultutral Society, vol. x. p. xi. Preliminary Notice.
VOL. 11.                                                                                 z
353 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
his belief that this was a general law, but merely
referred to it as a curious circumstance occurring
within his own observation.  At the first consideration of this remarkable statemient, general
experience would seem to support it; for it is
known that a thick crop produces small ears,
and a thin one large ears, and that the numbers
of the former make up for the size of the latter.
Thus a thick crop might have forty ears on a
given extent of ground, which, at thirty grains
to tile ear, would yield as much produce as a
thin crop of thirty ears, on tile same extent of
ground, with forty grains in each ear.  But, as
Mr Baruch Alinack observed, if the ear alone
were taken as tile criterion of the crop, one of
these crops would have  ten bushels i'iore of
wheat upon it than the other, which would be
an erroneous estimate, since both contained 1200
grains.  The correct mnode, therefore, he  coIInceived, would be to count the average number
of grailns in the ear, and the number of ears in a
given space.  Mr Dyer had remarked that he
sowed three bushels to the acre, consequently, in
Mr Almack's opinion, two remarkable tfacts were
proved. First, That as he generally finds as many
bushels per acre as there are grains in an average
ear, it follows that he usually has about as many
wheat ears per acre as there are grains in a
bushel of wheat.   Second,  That  as he only
obtains as many ears of wheat per acre as there
are grains of wheat in a bushel, and as he sows
three bushels on the acre, it follows that he
sows three grains of wheat for each ear that he
obtains.  Hence it would seem that the rule
would only hold good where the number of ears
per acre are the same, or nearly so.
4582. The  stems, cut as directed, are
then laid evenly upon  the band(, whiietlher
of straw-rope or of  p)ea-lhaullmi; atnd thje
size of the sheaf very  miiuclh depends  on
the length of thie steis.  Sliort stetmis wiil
not bind together in a thick shoeafl nior wsill
a thin sheaf of long stells stantd well up —
right upon the ground.
4575. In reference to the portion of the crop
left in the soil after harvest, M. Boussingault
observes, that " all the world acknowledges that
the residue of the crops that enter into a rotation compensate, in greater or less degree, tor
what is carried away in the shape of harvest, and
that in some cases they even add to the fertility
of the soil, for in growing crops that leave a large
quantity of residue, it is precisely as if a smaller
quantity were taken from a given extent of surface." *I
4583. The bandster follows the reapers,
and binds the sheaves in the mianner he
binds those of the cereal grains, and sets
up the stooks in regular order in rIows,
composed of four or niore sheaves, each pair
set  together on end.   A  bean-stook is
never atlemptedi to be hllooded.  It is of
importance to keep bean sheaves always
on end, as they then resist miost rain; f(,r
if allowetl to remain on their side, after
being blown over by the wind, the least
rain  soaks  tlhemn,  and  the  succeeding
drought causes  the pods  to burst  and
spill thle beans upon the ground.
ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND
TARES WHEN GROWN FOR SEED.
4578. Beans, whether sown in drills,
p3:979,) or in rows on the flat, (3980,) or
* Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 478-Law's translation.
4k
354
broadcast, (3981,) are only reaped with
the -sickle; and the instrii-riietit is used ill
the same iiianner in e-,teli ca-,,e-tiiat is,
tl-ie steii)s are field steady by the left liaiid
bein,,, pressed P,-iliiiwards a(,ainst titein,
and, altiiost cotiiiii,, tinder the iri-ii, are
cut witli the point -of tire sicile 1) tire
y
1-iglit li,,tn,l, tile real)er stel)piti,t,
as ttie work I)r()ceeds. Tlius, as e-.teli steiii
requires to be cut sel)-,,tr-,-ttely, tl)e real.)itjg
does not pi-()ced very quickly wlieti
crop II-,Ipl)etls to be stron,,.
4579. Wlieti the liaulm is sl)ort
sii.iall, it is not unfrequei)tly I)ulle(i tip by
the roots; but as, the barn i' tl)ereby tiia(le
very filtliy witti dust, pulliny,;Iioul(I ne%,er
be practised.
4580. The sc the niigl)t I)e. used iii
y
reaping beans, but the operation is so
liarsit to the arms that no reaper likes it -I
and, besides, ttie s,teiiii3 are (lifficu'.1t to be
collected ariglit by tije gatlierei-.,
..4,581. When beans are soivil bv tlieiii                                 I I
selves, straw-ropes are laid down Ott tli(-,
ground for bands: when I)e-,tse are so%vn with
them, their liauliii makes excellent bands.
4576. The le,,uminous crops, having
c
,either stiff or trailing stems, are reaped in a
' n - h t'differentniaiitierfromtliec'
sot ew a ereal.
1, 4577. Wlienever the stenis and pods of
beans becoiiie black, ttie crop is rea-dv to
be reaped. -
4584. Wlienever tlie. straw and p(,,dL- of 
STACKING CORN.
pea8e become brown they are fit for reaping; and in seasons whlen the straw grows
very luxuriant, it is cut down  whilst it
retains muchl of its greenness.
field, before  it will  keep in  the  large
quantity comiposint,g a stack or int a barn.
Tlhat timie depends  mostly on tlhe state of
tlhe  weatlher; for if ti, e air is dry, sllarp,
and windy, thle corn will be  ready ih  the
shortest tinme; whlile in close, misty, damp
air it will  require the long,,est tinie   an(l
it depends partly on tIe state of ril,eniess
or con(lition of the corn  wlhen reaped. On
an avertag,e, one week for wheat, and two
weeks for barley a3nd oats, will suffice to win
tleemn.   In tis respect niowing manifests
a decided fsuperiority over reaping, intas nmui'tc as iiiown wlieat is ready lor tlie
stack in tlhree to five days, and ba,rley a-nd
oats in eigl,t or ten-thle chlief cause of tlhe
difference being  the loose ali(l  open  state
in wlfichb  mowina    places  tloe straw, wh)ile
the straw reaped by thse sielle is much
compres se d  i n  the lower part of  tlhe  sle.lit
wlhichl   most   requires   exposure.    Tle
celerity of wiT, nii),, is an imnportant milatter
in effecting  the safety  of tlte bcrop,  as cr aiy
bee  observeed  fron  an idastant rce ay dur c e(I tIy
Mr  Jolbn  Tayl or it )  tlie harvest of   1841.
"eOn   t       he 28-9tl w of  Se (te ter, I lhal 30
acres of oats  cdrtedi  and  stacked, t    thichlv
hiadi been cuit!y thle seytlie the preceding
week.   On  tlhe evening  of  tlie  2!)tli it
began  to rain" and  continued very r aitiy
f,r twelsve days, dujring  wlitell hiarvestint,
was at a stanul-still; and lhad tlje produce
of tlhose 30 acres been reaped by tile
sickle, it woulh   urnqiiestionabsly lave b:)eeni
exposed  to  tlhose twelve  da-tys' rai n, and
tlhereby mtiuchi deteriorated." *    I  lha-e
milyself observed mnany sirmiilar instances.
w 4585. Non           e  but tle sickle can be used
in reaping pease, -as thie trailing sterns of
tlhe  plant  would   inevitabitly  entant,le
tlhemnselves around tle hiead of tlje seythje.
Thje reaper pulls straiiglht tlje lying s etns
with tle left  hand,  while tlhe  l,,)ilt of
tlhe sickle is used by the righlt to sever t!he
plants fromn  the ground-thle reaper stepping Ibackwards - niost of tihe llauts comting up by thle root.
4586. Pease are riot bound at first, but
laid on  thle groundl in separate bundles,
whlere, after winning for some tinme according to the state of the weather, thte bundies are rolled into an-oblong form, and
made firm by a, wisp of its own -straw
acting asa binder round the midldle.  Tlhe
bundles may be set tog ethler in pairs to
form  a sort of stook, or left singly over
the surface of the field.  Pea bundles are
bound by women as well as men.
~ 4587. Tares are most easily and quickly reaped by nlowinig with  the seythe.
Thley are separated in bundles after the
imowers,  by  thie  gatherers, and  placed
asunder on the grou(nd to win, and afterwards bound in a similar mannrer to the pea.
. 4588. Such is the diversity in tile lUxIIriatce of the crop of beans in different
seasons, that the cost of reaping  them
varies fromi 4s. to 7s. an acre.  Pease cost
3s. 6d. an acre.  Tares cost 2s. 6d. an acre.
4591. MIere dryness to the feel does  not
constitute all  the qualities requisite  for
making  iiesv cut corn  keel) in  tle stack.
The natural sap of the plant iitist not only
be  evaporated  front its outsi(-de, but also
fro(l its interior.  The  outside Imay feel
quite  dry,  w1ilst tlle interior  namy be
redoih1tnt of sap; an(l tlle know ledg,e of it.s
condition  constitutes thje whiole difficulty
of judg,ing, whlethler or n,t  corn will keep
in  the  stack.   One  criterion  exists b)y
whIlichi it  imay be  ascertained(  witlh  crtainty, in thle straws  beingr lo(se  in the
shteaf, and easily yielding,,  to tlie pressure
of  thle fingers, and  in  the  entire  sle,af
feeling  liight when  lifte(l off  the  grotitld,
by  the hanjd  thrust  into  its  middle.
4589. In some seasons, suchl as dry and
warmii ones, pease an(d taires may be as
early harvested as the cereal grains; but
beans are always late, andl somtetimnes not
liars-ested iuntil thlree weeks after all the
other crops have been housed.
ON TiHE CARRYING AND STACKING  OF
WI!EAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND
PEASE3.
4590.f It  is necessary that reapedI corn
remain for some timiie in tie stook in the
* Trantactions of the Highlansd and Agricultural Sooiety, July 1844, p. 261.
355 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
beyond the band: for if the sheaf is dry
and light in the heart, it must be so on the
outside.  In the'winning, the sap of the
straw of the cereal grains is no douibt con)verted into woodyfib)re, as tlatof the grasses
is on being converted into hay, (4073.)
wlheels, and the axles greased; and the
ropves sliould be attached to thl)e carts.  Tihe
forks fit for pitching tihe corn in thie field,
and from  tl)e carts to the stacks, sihould
be ready for use in the field and in the
stackyard.  Negligence and( want of foresi,ghit in all these particulaLrs indicate imiprovident management in the farmiier.
4592. Tile winning of corn is comparatively an easy matter wlhen the weather
is  dry;  but  in win(ly  and  slhowery
weather, the stooks are apt to be blown
down  and become wet,  and  incur the
trouble of setting up again at the first
recurrence of caliii.  Wheni the air is calm,
(lull, danip, and warm, every species of
grain is apt to sprout in the stook before
it is ready for the stack.   When much
rain falls, accinpanied  with  cold, the
grain becomes sooner ready than the straw
for the stack; and, to win the straw, the
ban(ls are not unfriequently obliged to be
loosened, and the sheaf spread out to dry
in tle wind and sun; and, in like manier, the sheaf should be spread out in
dry weather, when a large proportion of
young grass is mixed amongst barleystrawv.  Corn wins in no way so quickly
as in gaitins, fig 403.
4594. Tihe tops or frames for placing,,n
the tilt-carts, fig. 175, are a lighit  rectaingular piece  of  framne-wvork  represented
in fig. 405, where a, b are  tile twno llaiti
bearers,            fitted  to  lie across  the   pieloenents of the cart.   The  foremost  one *.
is slighitly niotclhed at a and b, fig. 4(06;
and the hiin(d one rests against tlhe 1)ac;kboard  of  the  cart, its top  sides e,  fig.
175, being  first taken off. A   flair of
sliglht side-rails c and c, fig. -405, are al
4593. While tile first reaped corn is
wilnilig in tile field, the stackyard should
be p)ut in order to receive the new crop,
by removing everything tlhat ought not
to be in it, such as old decayed straw,
whliclh should( have been used in time for
litter: weeds, which in many  instances
are allowed to grow, and slhed their seeds,
and  accumulate  to a slhamefil degree
during summer, such as strong burdocks,
thick common  docks, tall iiettles, and
rank grass of every kind: and the larger
classes of inmplements too are there acconiinodatted, to be afterwardls dispersed and
exposed  to the weather, for  want  of
shed(s to keep them in.  Where statliels,
fig,. 132, are used they should be Iut in
rel,)air.  Loose clean straw should be built
iIn a small stack on one of the stathlels, or
other place, to be ready to make the bottoinings of stacks as wanted.  Drawn
straw should be ready in a stack for thlatchilg the stacks of barley as they are built,
in case of wet weather occurring.  Strawropes should be piled up in the hlay-hlouse,
ready to be used in thatchinrg.  The tops
or frames should  be  put  on the  tiltc~;rts; the corn carts should be put on their
plied on each side,  crossing the bearers,
and notclled upon and bolted to them w    xit h
scirew-bolts.  These are: again crossed I,x
two rails d1 bxelhinid, and by- thlre   more  e, e
in front; and as these last pro ject over ti|e
b,ack of the horse, they are moa(le in ar-li
formii as seen by c d c, fig. 406;, to gie
Fig. 406.
c~~~~~
a       >)                 b
TRASVRS  SCTON F I{ FM.~
freedom to his motions. OF TIle FRAME. e
freedomn  to -his motions. The extreino
I
I-I
f
i
I
i
i
i
i
iI
I
I
1.I
fI I
II
I
I
-11,
1:
356
Fig. 405.
........
i'F
i               i  d I
' I
.1 I
4.1
1i
I
I
kl.
I I
b
c
i
i
II
f -,
a
e
THE CORN AND HAY FRAME. 
STACKING CORN.
4595. But the common corn or lhay cart
is a more convenient and efficient -vehicle
for carrying the grain crops into the stackyard than' the tilt-cart with the franie, iiinasmuclh as the load is more on a level wAitlh
the horse  draught, and, the body  beiing
dormant, the load is not liable to sl,ake witlh
the motion of the horse.  Fig.  407 is a
pe rspective view'  of  s uch a  cart.  Lii,i,tness being an object in its constructio(,
the shafts a a are usually nmade of Baltic
fir, and are about  17 feet in length, of
length, from outside to outside of the front
and back rails, is uisuallv about 101 feet,
and  the breadth in tile same manner is
about 7~ feet, affording a superficial area
for the support of the sheaves of corn of
76 square feet.  A  simple and effective
mnetlho(l of securing the frame to the cart
is by means of the b(,lts,Aff, figs. 405 and
406, iii the bearers, the front ones passing
thtroug,hI the lead-rail of thre front of the
cart, and the hind one through the top-rail
of the tail-board.
Fig. 407.
THE CORN AND HAY CART.
which 6A feet go for the horse yoke and
101 feet for the body, measuring over the
cross-heads b b.  These are secured to the
shafts  by  the  iron standards  passing a
through them and the shafts.  Thleirsides
are supported by oak standards c c; and
these in their turn, along with  the iron
standards, support the inner top rails d d,
dd, 12 feet in lengthl, and the load-tree or
rail e.  The outer rails.ff f f, also 12 feet
long, are supported  by  iron standards
resting on the  extremities of the cross
heads 6 b, and also by those of the broad
load-rail e.  Thle extreme breadth of the
outer rails is 7 feet, and as the outer rails
support thleslieaves of corn over the wheels,
andi are 12 feet in length, it will be see         n
that the superficial area of the cart for the
load is 84 square feet, which is greater
than  that of the top-framlie of fig. 405.
The  twvo front cross-railsf f over tlhe
horse's rumpare arclied, to give hiimju free domn of motion.   The body  is usually   f
close-flooretl, besides hiving a low ledge boar,tl running  inside  the standards c ce
to  keep  in  tile corn  that  iitay  have
shaken out of the sheaves.  Corn carts are
not furnished with  wheels of their own,
the body  being  set upon those belo  nging
to the tilt-carts. The load-rail, 9 inches
broad, is convenient to sit upon in driv ing,
and to  stand uponI when  forking tlie
sheaves in unloading. This cart is easily
converted into a dray-cart by  simply
remiioving, the  framework, which  slhould
then have  t!he standards c c based upon
two lonigituidinail rails, instead of being
mortised in to the slhafts. In such a formt it
is emiinently useful in carrying large tinber. It weighs 8 cwt.
357
4596. A corn and l'iay cart, siiill)le in'
construction, but possessilig complete efficiency' and greater safet'y froni upsetting
tljati the fornier, was contrived by a fariii't, Robert 11 bertsot), was iiitroduced in 1832 in tlie. %N,-est of Fifesliire,
and of wllicli fig. 408 is a ,iew in i)erspeetive, witti its wl)eels -in(I axle in ftill
working order.    The sli,-tfts and  bodyfranie of this Ca.rt iiiy be considered as
identical witli the one jtist describes"
wljicii, without the upper Aorks, is tlle
sii-tiple dray-cai-t. Upon this bo(ly-franie
is placed the foi-e and baci.: cross-lie,-tfIs (I
and b, projectino, beyond the I)o(I, tl'
0 y jeir 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
extreme length being 71 feet.   Tlhe other  these are laid a longitudinal rail on eacli
and li,ghter cross-rails areapplied one before  side, and two similar portions of longituand anotherimmediately bulhindthe wheels,  diiial rails are also laid on eachl side,
and the whole bolted to the shafts.  Upon   extending from the fore and  back  cross                                          Fig. 408.
'ORR CORN AND HAY CART.
.    OBBRTSON',' IMPP.OVID CORIQ AND HAY CART.
head to the whleel-rails; over these longitudinal rails is laid another light crossrail behind, and tlhe parts all secured with
bolts.  A  light frame dd is raised upon
the fore cross-lhead a a to a hleighlt of two
feet, with two iron stanchlion rods at each,
and these surmounted by an arched rail,
which is supported against the pressure of
thie load by two iron stays from the shlafts.
Th)e outer longitudinal rails, being cut by
thle whleels as above descrilied, are connected again by the arched iron bars e andf
e, whichl are bolted at thle ends to their
respective rails; and these are connected
by the broad load-railf, the arlches risin,g
sufficiently high to allow the wheels to
have freedom to turn below the load-rail f.
A  side-board g is also raised on each sidle
upon the body-frame, and under thle loadrail, extending a little before and behlind tlhe
wheels, thus preventing the sheaves fromrn
comin(, in contact with the wheels.   The
body-framne is floored over in the usual
manainer, and the space betveen the body
and the inner longitudlinal rails is filled lup
with narrow hing,ed flap-boards, which prevent the loss of the grain that may have
been shaken out of the sheaves into the cart.
4598. The forks already   described  in
(1420) ar e   only fi tte d to be  used  amoiing
loose  straw.      Those used in  the loadin   of
corn require  to  have  long sliafts, not less
tlhan six feet. and  stmiall p~ronIgs.  Suchi a
leng,tlh of slhaft is required to lift the slheaf
fromi tlhe ground to  thle top  of a  loadeed
cart,  or  from  the  loadI-ra,il of  the  cart to
the top of a stack.   Thje fork   used in thle
field  slhouh(l lhave a strong  stiff  slha.ft, as
tlhe load on  the cart is at no great eleva,tion.   That for unloa(ingi, the cart to the
stack  slhouild  be  slend-er and elastic, as
many of tlhe sheLves hlave to be  tlierown  a
considerable hleighIit atbov-e  t!he lhe~.l.   Thei
prong.s, lein,, smiall, jist retain lIlolIl of the
shieaf, without being, so (,eel.)y pierced into
the  batud as to  be wi tlralwt%%,tn fr,),mi it wvithl
ditri(,ulty.  A  (leep and firill lhld *with  li(,ii,,
prong,s rendlers  the  p)iteiliingr of a  sileaif,I
difficiult  miiatter; an(l if one of tile p)olns 
happens to be b)enit, or -a little tuirned up at
tile point, thle difficulty is nimuch inrea.-:e(.
The  best fork for tlhe p~erison)  on thle top of
tile stack to  use, in atssisting, thle b)uildler,
is the  sliort sta-ble-forik, of  tlhe  formii, but
of slhorter pron,s than fig. 1 1 0.
4597. Carts of this construction possess
several advantages: from their simplicity
is derived chleapuess; and from  the load
assuming its full breadth over nearly the
whllole floor of the cart, at the lowest possible position, the centre of gravity (,f the
whole ()load will be very clOnsiderably lower
than in that of the formerly (lescrilled( cart,
and still more so tliaii on the t,,p-franie.
This last quality produces greater stability, and reduces  the risk of upsetting,
besides affording, a greater facility of load
358
in,-. There -'is also the advanta,,e of its
c
ea-sy converai'loii into an open dray-cart, for
Icarrying:,tliilber or the like, I)y reiiiovin,,
tli.e tipper framework. It weiglis j ewt. c
4599. Tlie loa(l,; of corn.-ti,id 1),,iy ()ti the
carts.-ire f-,tstetie-I "-itli rol-)es, wliiel, siloill(i
be ni-,t(-Ie of the best liettip, soft aiid 1)li,-ii)le.
They cost, 41(i. per 11). -Ropes -Lre either
single or doiii)le, -tii(I I)otli -ire i-e(iiiii-etl )ii
ttie  fariii.           Dt)tible c-.trt-rol,.es  ai,e;30
to s  lotil,,trid single  oiies li-,tlf' tlit)se
len,,tiis. The lon,,est double rope weigtls 
STACKING CORN.
rather more than 11 lbs., and costs 5s.
The single ones are used on ordinary occasions, when a small load of straw or other
bulky article is carted to short distances
on the farm; but in harvest and hay time,
double ropes are always used for security
to the lead.  Thle double rope is made fast
to tle corn-cart by first doubling it, and
tlhen measuring its nmiddle froiii thle centre
of the cross-lhead of the hiind part of the
body of thle cart to its extremiity on both
sides, where a turn or two are taken round
th)e iron standards and the cross-lhead by
each div ision of the rope, the ends of whlichi
aire then passed in the inside of the upper
cross-hleads, and brought over them to the
outside.   Each division  is coile d   up by
holding the rope in the left hand at about
two yards from the cart, and handing the
remainder in coils with the right hand until
t le end of tlhe rope is gained, wben the coil
is maside to take a turn alonig the loose part of
tlhe rope in its middle, and then the loose
part still remaining is slipped through one
l()oop of tiie coil and passed over it so as to
make a loo) knot, which holds the coil susIeo(ledl fi(mn the cart about tlhree feet from
the  r,rund.  Fig,. 409 represents the rope
ground, a s    earthy  matter, of  whatevier
kind, soon causes them to rot. Whetn
w%%etted by rain they should be spread out
in  the air to dry. On being loosened
when the lead of corn is to be delivered to
the stacker, they should be coiled( up
before the load is disposed of, and  n(t
allowed to lie on the ground(l till tlhe'cart is
unloaded.  A soft rope holds more fillhnly,
is mnore easily handled, and far less apt to
cut than a hard one.
4600. S traw-ropes are  made by means
of thle implement named thre throw-crook.
Various forms of this instrument is in use,
an(] one of tlhe most common is represented
in fig. 410, whlich is made of a piece of
Fig. 410.    tough, ash, about 31 feet
tlong, thle  bent part  of
which is thinned off until
it is capable of bein)g bent
to a curve, and is tliere
retained by the iron stay
at sl     a; thle part b bein)g left
loo  of     projecting  beyon(l  the
allb       stay, for the  attaclhmentlt
of the first end of thle rope
ttheat is to be made.  Tlhe
end c  is furnishled  with
F    ferule and swivel ring, by
whichl it is eitler attacled(
to tlhe person  b)y a cord
passed rewlnd tlhe waist,
or held in the lhand.   In
using this inlplenient the
rope-Imaker is stati(),nav,
OLD THROW-CROOK. tistl.I ly sitting, besid(le tile
str.wv; anl  thle spinner, witlh  thle tlnlwcrook,  lIloves  b-ackwards  as   the  r()I)e
extendls.   In its actio,n this forn  of tlhrowcrook is  attended witli a jerking  miotion,
wlhen tile left lhand hlolds thle swivel c, and
the  rigllt  otie revolves  thle  inlstrunlent
rounld tile shlallnk. Thle direction of-c b is in
thle line of tlhe rope, and thle twist given to
thle roIe is eflected byv the revoluti(ln (of the
body of tlhe ilnplerlelIt around  tlhis line, inti
generating whliclil a pull is given to the rope
at two opposite  points  in thle circle of
revolution, whichli    may be greatly  nelltrnlised by thle spinner causing botlh  lands to
revolve in small circles.
coile(d antd suspentded, wlten not in use.
Wlhen a ring is fastened in the cross-hjea(d
of thre cart, tle middle of the r)pe is passed
tiIloilgil the rind, and a turn taken round
the extremity of thle cr(,ss-llea(l on each
side of the cart, as alove.  Cart-ropes
last  according to tlhe care bestowed  on
tllem.   Whlen  used  with  thle corn-cart
they slIould never be allowed to touch tl            he
59
Fig. 409.
COILED tJP CART-ROPE.
4601. Fi,,. 41 1 is a form of tlii-ow-crook
in u,,;e in the A,esterti counties of Scotland.I
it is iised I)y lj()Idiiiop the wooden liollow
cylii)der b in' ttie left liatid. The end of 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
cross-head is a hollow box or case adapted
the rope is attached to the hook, and the
Fig. 411.    iron spindle a, in contin                  iation of the hook, is
imadle  to   rev(lve  by
means of the handle c,
which is attached to one
end of thle same crank d
a     to which the spindle a
is. In theory, the strain
upon   thle   instrument,
while in  action, should
be along the spindle a,
fromn  thle  hook  to  thle
crank d; but in practice
c    it acts in a line from
the hook to the handle
ANOTHER FORM OF C,  caiising  an  uticom
THROW-CROOK.  fi,rtabl)e strain upon the
left hand, wl);ile the rilght one works the
ecrank-liandln with difficulty.
4602. I think thle best form of throw    T ig. 412.   crooki is represented  in
fig. 412, where tlhe straini
of the straw-rope is in a
straight line from the
hlook a, along tlle spindle
a     e to the handle d.  The
left  hand    holds  the
swivel-ring  c, and  tile
right hand causes tlhe part
e b d to revolve round the
il vb         line a e d by means of
tlhe handle b, which is
covered %,with a l oose hlol                 low  cylinder of  wood,
the rest of the instruTH, BEST FORM or) m ierit  being  made   of
THROW-CROOK.  iron
to contain the machinery, consisting of fi ve
light spur-wheels, about six inches dianieter, placed as seen in the case c d. Of these.
the central and the two extreme  wlheels
are mounted upon axles, whichl  teIrminate
in the hooks eee; the other two  wheels
being merely placed intermediate, to pro,duce revolution in the three principals in
one direction.   A  winch lihan(llef is fixe(l
upon the axle of thle central vvlieel, on tthe
side opposite to thle hooks; anii( to prevent
the nmachine froii mnoving  with the  titrain
of thle ropes, a few stones, or other w%eigl,ty
substances, are laid upon the sole-f:ilie
The macline is then put in operation ly
the driver turning(, the lHandle,  a,,l tiie
three ropeinakers, echl with a quantity of
straw under his arm, commences lhis ro()l,e
by binding a few straws round the lio((,k
appropriated to lhimself.  He thlen pr),cee(ls
backward, letting out tlhe straw  as lie
advances; and tlhe rope ta,kes the twist,
until t!,e length required is copl)letedl,
when each mian coils  tpl) his rop)e inito an
oval ball.  Tlhe price of a spiinner is froi
~2, 5s. to X2, 10Os.
4603. The straw-i-ope spinner is an
instrument of rec-ent introlluction to the
farm, and is of considerable importance in
facilitating, the lprocess of straw  ropemaking  on large farims.  Comparing  it
with thle ol( and priinlitive instrument, the
thlrow-crook,  fig.  410,  the  ad(lvanta,ge
is considerable, inasllmucli as two persons
are engaged in the making of one rope
with the throw-crook; wlilerea3, with thl           e
spinner, four persons are only required to
make three ropes, thus effecting a saving
of one-third of thle time occull,ied by the
old practice.  Fig. 413 is a view of this
machine, consisting of a sole framne aa,
with an upright post. b ten(,nel  into the
sole, and carrying the cross-head c d. Thl e
860
Fig. 413.
I.I -<
Lli
THE STRAW-ROPE SPINNER.
4604. Anotl)er fort-yi of tlii,,; iiia(.-Iiiiie is
that wliieli is stral)l)e(I to tlje l()(ly of tite
driver, lie nioviii(, -,iw.-tv fl..(.)Ill tile st.,ItioI)arv  ropeiiialerg.   Titis inet)io(I is
w  itli inconvenience,   especiall                        t(,)  tite
y
driver, wlio, liavin(,,, the ii,.,-iciiiiie
in front of Ilis body, the li,-in(lie t-,eiii,, -it
I
the end, and tlie machinery consisting of 
closing tile left hand(l, lets out the strawv
gradually between the thlumbl) aind the fingers, retaining it till sufficiently tw%iste(l,
whlile thle righlt lhand is eugage(l suplplying smiall p)o(rtions of straw in equ.il and1i
sufficient quantities to ninkle the r(ope imnif(orin in thickness tlirough(lut, the twister
drawing away thle rope as fast as tie spiniier
lets it out.   Wliere the rope is let outt
unequal]y, it breaks at the simall  ).iart;
wheni twisted too much, it snaps asln er;
when not twisted enough, it comes asundler
at any place by the least hull; andi whetni
tlhe twister does not keep thle rope strai,Ight
as fast as it is let out, it twists into loops,
whlichl are not easily miade straight again.
Fig. 414.
4607. T        he ord    inary leagtl    of  a. strawrop)e  foi  a   large stacl  ilty o      )e tilakeg -it
tlhilty feet.   Counting every  iliterriip.)ti(nD,
a stro aw-rope    of tlhis leing 4tl     1     wily ta le fie
minutes  ile ti    l         ((kin- -ftlintii is,    t u Iel
an(di    twenty ropes in ten  lotis.  A t-'s
w-aes, 20(-., ani(! a  w(omiian's, 10(l.,  aking
tovgetler  2s.  6d, will makl.e  tlhe, colst (of
mal~lkinlg a   sinile  I'()pe  jiist  ()te  f'llin
As   tlhree sp)inniers let  ouit to  o(re twister,
and(  as   a   imjachin,e  sp~ins  as  fi,st  is  a
thlrow-crlook(, tl~e  co,st of        liakn  each
rop)e  witli the  imiaciniiie, fig. 413, w%ill  1~e
as   nlicli less  thiaml   onie  tertili,.x  as tl;e
savinig of tiie wagres of tw-o twister's.
4608.  In  using  the  thl w(w-crook  the
spinner  sits,  wh-ile   -itli-  tlhe Slinlit((imachinie lic walks ba -ck wr,l titil iti cililtg
up  the  i.ople walks  lirwiri  agai  ti t tle
imacline. where I!e is rea(ly to lI)e"iil til sp)il
again. Incouvenietncesatteii( t ic use If ti,e
niacihine, fig. 413: wleni ()(i1 of tle Sl'i'es
breakls hlis lope, lie is tliowin n (lit of wurk
till the otlhers  begin a  rew  (,ie;   nl all
the spinners  nitist let out  wit!h  tl)e sanle
velocity, othlerwise a longer anll i sI f'tec, alteil
a harder twisted atl shoriter rope -will I~e
imade at the salte tiue.
All loose straws and othler material sliould
be swept away fromn the walk i; whIic lr
4606. Thc best sort  of strawv for roie.e  is
tha.-t of the  commnnon  or  AnguIs (,ait, wljich
b-eing,   sof't  andI plIiable, 1111tke2  IL fil'111,
Smllo(o)tlh, smiiall tou,ghi rop)e.
THE PROC]L~;. OF MAKIN%G A STRAW-ROPIH,.
4609.  Fig,. 415  reI)resenits a stratw-rol e 
4610. Aniong t"l' o in u((s
of corn, (4479.)  Fig. 416 represents a
bunclh of dirawn,straw.
4610. Amono   tlhe otlher tliings required
to be in a state of rea(ldiness betflre tle crtop
is ledl illto tile stackyar(l, is straw dirawnI in
parallel  reeds  and  1))1ii1(1I lip  ill lu)ncil4es.
Straw is dr-awn a ud buiched in this  miiani  ner:-Tlie str'ltw  wa,ts mowe(d in  tle straw barn, (1763;) anld in c(otllllenciing to draw
it, the imian takes a wis) fromn tlie imow, and
i )laces it across his bol ly, and after ni.aking            n
the straws strlairlit filst with  oiie hand,and(i
then anotller, lie takes lold of eacil enld of
thle wisp, andl  on  speadillg out  liis  aiItss
separates   tlhe  wisp   into  twl)o  portilons.
Brinlging lbotil l)an(ls togetler, fhe lays ld1(1  l
of tile severled (i    is  w itli tle left llalIdl, and   n
on  talkinIr iol(d (of its  otlier end  witll tle
ri lI)t  ra,s tilCe straws  asini(lder, as before.
Bring ing  again      botlh  ihands  togetlher,           mie
gl,es tllrolgll tlhe sallie p)rocess, at1(l as often
until lie sees tllat thle straws are pa.-rallelei a       co
lsti li~~dt,   e lln lIe lays (     tl he tlle now  idrawn
wisp c-lrefully uponI  the floor of thle barni.
4613. Thle carts, forks, straw, anid ropTes,
being inr readliness at tlje stead(ling, and the
corn  fit for carrying to tlhe stacvkyard, tlle
first thing is to pro i(le an    efficienl t person
to fork thje corn in trie field to the carts;
ani,l a  miian is the best for  this  work,.is lie
is able not only to wieh(l  the sheaves wAitl
ea-se, )liit possesses dexterity to i, lace  tlhemii
in tl)e position)s  imiost  conv%enient  fo,r  tlie
carter to builli! tlhemn on tlhe cart.    Th)rowilug, tbe slheaves in an inliscrimiinate nlanner, or too  quicklly uplon  tlle cart,  mai-ikes
thje work  tlo e,sier for tle  -fi,rker; while3
the cairter hlais tlhe aldlitionli- tr-ouible of tuirningr t!he sl}e-aves to arratng,e tlhemii as a ](,,d,
whlien hlis footiting tipoi the car-t isatlest ii.secutre. A les.so two o(r three liillnlltesiniicuiirie(l
in any  wi av, in load(ling  eachi cart, ima,,kes  a
conisiderab.ile 1loss ulpon tlie day's  ork.
4614.  In  carrying  tle  crop,.off   tie
grotinil, tile ol.iect is to do as little in. juiry
ats  plossblle to  tile land   witli ti 1 cart-wileels,
particularly t t   tlise yoiL)g grass; for  wlcrli,
reason, as well aIs fo~r foillrilng ani iiineri1riti(,
guide, tile ]rises sltiluhl wa,,ltk in tie  o)petnfiirrow b)etween  tlhe  iidge.r, while tlxe
whleels  )a      ss al()iig,  tilir   fuirrow'-bIr)iow,
(738.).Wh'llenl  corn'} is  cut   withl  uani(lwin  reaiers  tlhe;  stleks    f  two  rMl:es
eing plaled         on   olle, tlhe   cart cleastle  pr,(duce  4,f tworidgtes; ani(d tle Same
may   b-;e  the case   withl   the  iiiowrn  corm,
provided  the  baiidsters  are  instructed to
4611. Tie state  of  the straw,  a,nd{ tl,
kind, retller tile dralwilig iimore or less easy
antl exl)e,litious    Wlmell it hlas been miuchel
br,lken  in  tle thlrasliig, it  relq1lires tile
im(ore draw sing  to iiake it str-aigriit; anid of
aill tle kiuls o(f straw tlliat of wheat, beiyngk
long    at1l striong, is thle  l(Ist easily  and fi
quickly l'rwn, (1 964,) barley stiraw I)eirng w
tlle sliortest anll th)e ilo,st dlifficult to draw,     ((
(I9(;8.)   Olt  straw is tile most pleasant
(f any to( dratw, (1972.)
4612. After  as  tmuca  l.as beenl dra wn
and ltid doNvn as to m-ake a btuInilh of 
eon as the hiorses can  convelnien)tly dlr:'t,
12 full  s-ooks  beingr a  go,,d loail.  1)efore  fitiisliing, it  slloul(i  be  ascertainel
that the load is,neitlher too lig,lit llo(r
too  lheavy  upoIl  the lhorse's  1,aclk;   nli
if  thle  cart  lias  been  e%veily la,leti  iccording  to its forin, tlhere is no  -isk (of
either  inconvenience  being  felt )by  tle
sliaft-horse.  A  load thlus )built wvill ltive(
the buit-en(is of all  tlhe  siheaves on  the
outside, and  thle corn en(ls in t!,e iliisitde,
as may be seen at f e g in fig,. 417.
loss of timie is. involved in disregardin(,~ tlhis
ordler of removal of tlhe sheaves tl:a  iigillt
appear  w%ithlout consideration, for if tiie
centre slieaves are taken,away before the
en(l ones, not only iiore force is requiredl
to do it, but tle end ones will likely fall
down ini the exertion t           o extricate tlne ce4tral ones; and if one  sile of a stook is
talkeii away b)efore the otlher, the remiainingx, side will fall down.   In eitlher case
thle slieaves %ill be reaclhed by the fork witlh
inconvenience.  Whlen st,okis hiave stood
long upon tIe ground, tlhey require more
force to reimove thlem froili the ground thlan
those which hlave stood for a shorter tile.
4618. Tlhe  ropes keep  the  loalf  fromll
joltin, off  the cart ul,on  thle road,  ad in
crossing,  gaw-cuts on  tlhe olea1-i ilge of tle
fiel(is.   Tllivey are  tlhirowii   ac,oss tlhe l1a(1
diag,onlly t    o t  lye olqosit  e  siftis es at ttie,
froet of thae c.a t, anii are er-l is ilit,ile;.ist
to eacr h   shlavft, tloe fo tker  oii the gio(ii
lbol(lintr oi  t le slaevnt    illie  tte  l,lugsiileli
on the frer     gives  efincacy   to  tlh  rople, I)y
pullig it ig tit,jt  froii betlince (l   tralslit
on the e  slieaes to u     make  tlug the ii to(i iofirnm.   The  crossing of  t!he  r(pes at I tie
cent,re p)reents the loal splitti           g -astu ler
over  tihe sidles of  the cart, wlle  sl)akeu
alorn  thie  road.   Sot,me l)1ouglillen llr,~k's
to sii(,w their dlexteritv in  Ilimiilitig' load(1s
of corn,  I)y  bri,ing tlje~i to tile s2,(kyardI witlhouit tiJe assistance  ()t' r](l,eCs; lI,:t
tlhere is  n-o use  (,f runningi,, tle r-isk,,f losit](, tinlei  I)y be  a kin g tlle (  lod l(    st-eIIingi, the roa,(l with   siheavees..Slcil a  latte,
even with the assistance of r(o)'pes, attellnledi
the first load  I tried to btiild.   Wlien thle
corn  is  mown, a woman  slhouild be  erai
46 16. On forking gaitins fromt the field,
the                  y iuust first be bound  int    o slheaves,
wllici is done by loosening the slac          k  b  and(
fii)i                           i      i its tying, and slipping i t  down t he
bo,ly of tlhe gaitin to the proper place,  antl
tlen b)ini(liing it in the inantner of a sheaf
wlhe:i reapled.  A  number of hands are reqtiiedi to b)ind gaitins as fast as they are
c    irrtel  off,  and             they are IoOt stooke(  wleen
boutnd, nor left scattered oin the ridges as
tliey                        stoo(d )efore, but are laid in hleaps,    wit lih
tie corn                       enedss away fifroi tlhe c art, on alterate i(ridg,es, as near tle furro          w  ) row a s to
be miiost cotinveniently l)laced for the i-k,rker.
461 7-. A  corn-cart is loa,-leI withe shieav-es
in tlhis \vay  -Tle bu,dy is first fille(l witih
slieaves lying with thieir bit-eiids t(vwar(ls
tiie slhaft-hlorse's rlilip at one end(l, antid tlhe
back-end of the cart at the otlher.   Wlien
these sheaves come to the level of the fraime 
..... tj,st>r C;t~vt telr corn Wille tile
nieii are at dinner.   This is the easiest
plan for tile horses, in wlicli they will work
thie lon,igest day's work with less fatigue,
thloug,l it ufisually occupies an lhour of tie
best part of tile day before they are ag,ain on
t!re road, whereas hlalf an hour, spent in tihe
othier case, is sufficient for the nien to dine,
and the horses to feed on corn. Sonie horses
are apt to take frighit, whien the bridles
are teniporarily slipped off thieir hlead for
thle purpose of taking the bit out of thleir
niouth, to allow thiem to eat the tares withl
freedomi.   Such an occurrence is doubtless
the resuilt of bad breaking in.  To avoi(ld
it, in the case of a hlorse known to be easily
frighitented, thie bit should be fastenel with
a small strap and buckle to the near side
of the bridle.
4623. In  setting a         loaded cart to  the
sto(4l or stfathele of  a stack,   it slaoulte  be
studied to  let the  plos glh male tn   l heave tle
advanetag,e  of any laina  gaoi ng ite  forl in g
the  slueal es  fromn  the  cart.     Tle stack
slhould be buiilt in this way:-Set ulp a
co(uple of slheaves atainst eachI otlher in tlhe
centre of tlhe stathel, and anotlier couple
against their sides.   Pile  otlher slheaves
against  these in rows r ouintd tlhe centre,
with  a  sl(op dIow nwardis  tow,ards the  circutuiference of thje statljel, eacli r(w beil,
placed lhalf the leigtli of time slie;af beyond
the inner one,  till  the  cicuniiiference  is
c(,mlpleted-I, %when it sllou1l(i I~e  examined;
an(l wilere any slhelf pr)esses too lhaid  il)on
another, it slld li e relieved,( attll  whlere
a slackness is fotitnll, a slheaf slhotld be introduce(l.  IKeepiig the ciicniiifeieiice (f
thie stack on tlhe left la(nd,l tlJe stacker lays
thle slheives  uponI thie (litsitle I(w  r-()ounid(
the stack, placing each slieaf witl hlis lhatids
upon the liollow or interIiediaite spiace between two of the  sltear  es laid in the preceding row, close to tlhe last one, and p~ressing
4620. A  load o  f tare s     is brought to tlle
steadinig fresh in tbe morning, for tihe horses
enmployed at leading.  Tares are not fit for
lhorses until the I)odls are pretty well filled
with grain, as prior to that state they are
apt  to purg,,e and weaken  thiem, wvlien
working,, much ill tlhe ca-rt, which they are
obliged to do when carrying in tlhe corrn.
4621. Wls ile tlo e first c         art is going to
and loading in the field, and returning  to
thje sta.ckvard, tide builder of tlhe stacks
collects hiis forks  and  ladders,  (1743,)
and trinmmier, fig. 418; and lhis assistant, a
fiel(I-wt)rker, whIo pitches tile slheaves conveniently for  him  on  the stack, fetches
a few straw-ropes, fig. 415, and a  hand
rake, figr. 345, into the stackyard. The
4622. In filliti,- a stack ai-d, the barley
t,            y
beiii,, first thrashed tljeir staclzs slioti)d be
placed nearest the barn; and wljeat I)ein,,
ttie last thrashed, tiieir staclis are placed
on tije statiiels round the outside t.)f the
stacl-zvard.  Oats bein,, required -it all
I LI
se,-t.son:s, tl)eir,:tacis ii)ay be 1.)Iacett anywliere.   Tiie stacks of pease and beatis
eitlier fill up ttie lieart of the stockyard at
last, or are placed in a'conveiiient place
oii the outside. 
STACKING CORN.
it withl bothli his knees, as represented at h,
fig. 417.  Whien tile outsid(le row is thlus laid,
Fig. 417.
row, along, tlhe band3 of  the outside  oine,
witlh a few slieaves crossing onie atnotlher
in  thle centre, i-iake suchl   a stack  c)111pletely  hearted.   Where  long  wleat  is
ra-ised, as in the Carse of Gowvrie, whiichl
olten re,acles fromi.5 to 6 feet iii lengthl, tlhe
stack should be at least 18 feet in dliallleter,
to give r)oln t6afew shleavesfor tlhe heartill.
4f()25. A  stack of 15 feet  in breadthl
is ratlher too  muchl for the carter to f)rk
lealy slieaves across to the stackler, wlieni
thle  stac(k  hlas  attained  thlle  leirlit  of
lls lica(l, atid wvliei tlhe load  in tlhe calit
I)eonoles as  l,w -s  thle  load-ral.       [ite
,staicker sllouldl always receive tlIe sIl( ha  es
.vittin tsy retleli, as  lie cannot rise fi (lilt
l iis ki;ees to  takle tlhetim witio,ut niuc lis ]()s
(of timle, and witilout the  risk of  makin
-    Id ul "rk.   To expedite  the  buildinig, a
fiel(l-,oirker k sliould stanld on thle stack,
to receive the shleaves on a slort fork l-froinm
the cairter, and to tlhrow thlem to tle stickler
in tle position thley tre wantedl  by  1i1, as
the slyeaf l is shown, in order to savi%e  Iimii
the trouble (of turni,ng tleiii.  By a little
mlianaugemlient, the fielil-worker iiig,ht receive every sheaf as thle carter 1)itelies it
from hiis fork  up,n lher fork; and, to -inevent  it fallintg f'rom  tile fork, she  slit,til l
catcll the comiing shieaf at the  ban(d witli
her fork;, at which point the  sleaf is balanceil, -and most easily wielded, being its
centre of gravity, and thirow it in its proper
position a  little before and at tile  rigiht
liattd of  the  stacker, withi  the  but-end
always poi-lting to  tile  circumference of
the stalkl.   Thlat  thle work  may go on in
tlthe most re(ular ()r(ler, tile carter silhould
pitchi thle sheaves froini tile cart just as fast
as the builder can ttse thleni, and 110 faster,
having only one sileaf itn reserve on tilte
stack in advance of  the builder-for any
iimore is of no use to hiin, and lie nmust leave
tihem  behind himii.  It will  also be easier
work for the fieldl-worker, as  %ell  as for
the   better laying  of  thle sheaves to  tlhe
builder,  that  slie is able to use  the foik
equlally well withi  the  righit and tile left
hand, as  othlerwise slie will  be olbligei  tli)
swing andl titrow -  tite sleaves across lieself for hlalf thle roun(l of thle buildlittig,;,f
the stack.   The  field-worker rem)ainlls 4,Ti
the stack  as long as slie has  a f;ootil)t  ti
hand the sheaves to tlhe builder.
an ins ide  one is  made  witl sheaves whose
but-ends rest  oni  the bands  of tlhe  outside row  as seen  at i, tlhereby securing
tlhe outside slheaves in their plI,ces, and at
the same  time filling ui) the body of tlie
staclk  firmly witti sheaves.  A  few  Dlore
sheaves  may  be required  as an  innmost
row, to niake the lheart of tlie stack  its
hig,liest part.   It is of inmmnenise benefit to
a stack to hav-e its centre well filled with
siteaves, as it is the lheart sheaves wlhiel
retain tihe outside ones in their places in
the circle, witlh an inclination  downw-nar Is
fromii tie cenitre to the circumference; and
it is this inclined position of the outside
sl&eaves tih~at l)revents the rain finiding a
passage  ulon,  tle straw  into  t!he very
lieart of tthe staclk, wlhe'e it would easily
find its way, were  tlhe sheaves  iincliieed
(dowIxnwair(is to tlhe cenitre of the stack, and
where  it would s~oin spoil the corn.  The
slheaves tlhat are so:,)oiled are said to hiave
taken in p-ie~t-wtet.
4624. The riinumber of rows of siteaves
required to fill the body of a stack, depends on thle length of thle straw and thle
diameter of  tlhe stack.   For  crops  of
ordinary lerlgtil of straw, stilch as from 4  h
to 5 feet, a stack of 15 feet diameter is
well adapted;  and in whichi one inside
3G~
~__~~~~~~~~~~ -
THE BUILDING OF A STACK OF CORN.
4626.:As each cart it unloaded, the 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
stacker descends to the ground, by meaens
of a ladder, such as fig. 143, an({ trims tlhe
stack, by pushling, in with a forkl the eld( of
any sheaf that projects further than  the
rest, and by pulling, out any that may have
lbeen placed too far in. As the stack rises in
hleight withl  cart-load after cart-load, the
trinlniung cannot be convenierntly done with
a. fork; a half-inichi thick flat board about
20 inclies in lengthl, and 10 inches broad,
naile(d firmly to a long shaft, fig. 418, i         s
Fjg. 41c. an   appropriate  instru       A 41AK  iRim en. t for beatinr in  the
/   \  project     ing en  ds o  f  the
sheaves, and giving the
d s    The   body of    tle stack  a uni                   form roundness. It seems
fore,  \    to be c onsidered    by bulild                   ers necessary to make the
\\ 4    \ sta ck swell out a s    it pro        in   s   1 ceeds  in h  eigh ht, i f we
ni maytina  jdue  fro on  common
fractice  but no su ch  ex              t   pedience is  necessary for
atldrolw i ng  off thle  drops
of raein fro        f the eave,
bas th e     eave i  tself,  oni
the stack  su bsi din g a fter
A sTACK TRIMMER. being built a few  (lays,
projects sufficiently out to throw off the
drops.  The leg of the stack slh(-iuld, thlerefore, be carried up perpendicularly. As a
stack of 15 feet in diameter should ultinately stand 12 feet high inl the leg  to
maintain a due proportion, an allowance
of about one foot for subsidence, after
tlhe top is finished, is generally made.
Tlhe  lheight is measured with the ladder,
and allowing 2 feet for the height of the
stathel, a 15-feet ladder will just give the
desired measure of the heiglht of tlhe leg
before  the top is built up.   Fig. 420'
represents a stack built upon a statlhel.
the same angle as a common roof, one foot
lIelow tlhe s(qutare, as explained in build iug the tol) of a hay-stack, (4045.)
Tlhe  bevelled bottoms  of  the  sheaves,
acquired by standing in the stook, answer
tlhe slope of tlhe top pretty nearly.  Tile
lheatting of the top of  a stack  sl}()ul(l
be attended  to particuliarly, as  on r.ini
o btainingi admission  froni the top of a
stack it cannot be preventedl desctriding
thlrou,gh its entire lheart.  After thle are,
of the top has contracted to a space on
whlich 4 shleaves only can stand uprigl,t,
they are so placed erect, witl tl)eir but-en(is
gspread a little out, a-nd tlheir tol).s gatlhere(l
in so as to complete the figure,f thle cotle.
These top sheaves are held in their p(,)sition against the effects of wind, Iy iiieans
of a straw rope woun(l round  theml, the
sends of which are fastened to tlhe stack.
4629. Whlen stacks are  built on the
ground, stools of loose straw are madle for
them to stand upon, to preserve the sheaves
at the bottom receiving injury from  the
dampness of the ground.  A  stool for a
stack is formed in this manner:-Stick a
fork in tlie ground, on the spot where the
centre of the stack is desired to stand, us (11,
fig. 419. Put a quantity of dry strawv round
MAKING THE STOO, FOn A CORN-STACK.
tlthe fork, and  sli LakC it up  w itli a fork as
tlje litter     of L lhose in t    stablie is shiakefo,
and then spread  it out in etopl  tisickress
over thle areaL the stack slhall occupy.  Tliel
taking a long fork b, witlh tlle ra(lils of tile
stack ntc-itciedl llpon its slhaft, etl!,race  the
shiaft of tle  upright foirk a  I)etweeti its
prong,s; and pu)tshi in and  p)ull (,ut witlt tile
foot tile St.'aw, so as ini walkiiing r.,titndi the
circumference of the stool to give it thle formi-i
of a circle, e, c, d, b, hxaving, a diameter
equal  to twice  the radius  notclhed upon
the slhaft of the fork.
4627. The eave of the stack is formed
according to the niode in whichl it is to be
tliatchled.  If the ropes are to b)e placed
lozenge-slhaped, the cave row of shieaves is
placed just within the topmnost row of the
leg.  If tiJe thatching ropes are to run fromt
the crown of ttie stack to thle cave, the
ecave shleaves are lia(le to project 2 or 3
inches beyonid the topmost row of sheaves.
4628. In building the top of a stack,
every successive row of sheaves is taken
as much farther in as t( give the slope
366
Fig. 419.
I a
c   -         --- 
STACKING CORN.
4634.  The thatchling of a stack is done
in this inatine  -  I shall first descril)e the
lozenge-shlaped   thatching, as  being  tlhe
most common: On the thlatchler as('(elding
to the top of the stack by  means of a la(lder,  \wllichl  is  iminiiedliately after  ta,kert
away  b)y an assistant, a btuin('h or t\-o ()f
dIraw,ni stra\w, fi(r 41(, are  forl-el tI, to
hxiimi by   one of  lhis assistants,  a  fieldworker, wlhichi lie kseeps beside him belsiit(I
a,rai.,  stuck into   tlh e  t(p of t ihe   statck, as
noticed in c(,vering tl)e lh.ay-staclk, (-104.9.)
The straw is first latid upon the  e,tve, h)ey(,ndi( wlichl it projects  a few  inclhes, ani(l
tl[er   in n  serlaving anner Slu g,werais to
the  top. Wallfere a h ut -end of  a slte-f projects, it sliouhiil 1be beaten in, aindl whlere:L
hlollow occurs, a butit-end of a shieaf slilotd](
be drawn ollt, or filled  up witlh a little additional straw.  In this imannier the stra-w
is evenly laid all round  tle  top of  tiae
stack, to tle spot  whiere the  tlhatclher  began.   Supposing  lie  has  tlhuis  )ut tl)e
covering on the top of the stack, fig. 420,
t630.  Sheaves cmt with the                  sickle loavIng a more uniform stubble end than when
miown  with tie  scythe,  are more easily 
built illto a staek, and  give it    a more
handsome  atpoeara     nsce;  but  being close,
exclude the       ext ernal  air, and                     c annot be so
soon  stacsie(l.  A    stack of mown slheaves
is rouashi but open, and can be  put up in
safety in a state of daml)tness which would
be disastr ous  to shorn shleaves. bWhe        n
shteaves a re           qiuowIi by inex perience(n lean(ls,
a ceonsiderab le qu antity    of gr ain is exposed
on the outside of the stack, owing to tlhe
straws lhaving, been irregularly laid in
the swath and into the sheaves; but with
dexterous imiowrers the quantity tlhuis exposed is very trifling, and will only hal)pen when the wind hlas blown in a directionl contrary to that in which the crop
has been partially laid, and yet not sufficiently strong to turn it completely back.
463 a. A rough stack of mown sheaves
may easily be made smooth, and free from
projecting ears of grain, which need not
be lost.  A  man can dress a stack in an
hour with a scythe-blade fixed to a forkshaft, causing the shorn heads to fall on a
barn-shleet spread on the ground to receive
them. A field-worker should assist in shifting the shleet round the stack, emptying it,
and carrying it fromn stack to stack.  Such
a shaved stack is represented by e, fig.
143.
4632. Seldom is leisure found to thlatch
stacks as long as there is corn to carry ill,
and the finer the weather the less leisure
presents itself.   A  damp) day, however,
which prevents leadifngc, answers very well
for tlhatching,, as the thatch straw is not
the worse of being a little danip; but in
heavy rain it woul(l be improper to tlhatch
ani(l cover up so manaiy wet ends of sheaves
as the top of a stack contains.
4633. The  mnateria.ls should all be at
lhand before conimmnencing the tliatching of
stacks-(-rawn t)uncites of straw, coils of
straw-ropes, lIadd(lers, forks, hland-rakes,
and graips.  To get on with the business
quickly, a nman and two assistants are requiired for echl stack-thle most convenient
aiil thrifty assistants being field-workers,
who fetch straw and ropes when wanted,
supply the thatcher with straw, and tie
the ends of the ropes.
THE LiOZENGE MODE OF ROPI,', THR COVEltING OF
A CO RN-STACK.
367
Fig. 420.
a
all round to tlte line from a to 1), I)eforc
closin,, up wliicii lie makes tlje tol-) a,. coiisistiiig of -.t small btindle of well-tit-awti
long straw, tied firii)ly at one end witli a
piece of cord; the tied end is cut sqtiare
witti a knife,, as siiowti at a; and the loose
end is spread upon tlje Covering and forms
7 
thrust against it into the ground.  HIe tlhen
mounts and starId(s upon the ladder at a requisite hleiglht above the eave c, where lie
receives a iiiinimber of coils of ropes, fig. 415,
fromn his assistant, which lie keep)s before
him   between  the  steps of thle ladder.
To give the tlatchl-straw smootliness, it
shoul(-l be stroked down with a long supple
rod of willow, before the ropes are successively  put  oil.  Hiolding  on  by  the
loosene(l end of a coil of rop)e, lie throws
thle coil from where lie stands on thle ladder above c d(o()wn towards the direction of
d to the ri,ght of the top a, to hlis assistant,
whlo, taking, it in thle hatnd, allows the
thatcher to  coil  it up  ag,ain lipoIn hlis
lIandl, witlhout  ruffling  the  covering of
the stack, till as ilucll of it is left as to
allow her to fasten it to the side of the
stack, whlile the thatcher a(ljlists its position parallel to the rope lie formerly
placed round the top a, and( the round of
whliclh is seen at e.  The  thiatchler then
throws thle newly coiled end in the sanie
direction of d, to the left of the top a,
whlere, o(n his assistant takin,g hold of its
end(l, hle retains the rope in hlis hlands byv
the (louble, and adjulsts it in its position
parallel wvitli the fornmer rope rou(nd a, and
keeps it thlere till thle assistant pulls it
tirlitly d(o)wn, tand  imakes it fast to the
stack like tlhe othler end(l.  The return of
tlhis la.st ro)e is seen at q.  The reason
tlihit thle tther is obliged to thlrow down
thle rope at first coiled, and to coil up
again the second end before it is throwndown, is, because, were thlle ends of the
ctt~, i jueeb iht1) in       tirle Jeg, anc   (i~ leet
hiigh ill tlhe to.p, 10 ropes on eachi Si(-e ar-e
quite sufficient to secure  the tlhatel.
4635. Tlhe ends of tle ropes are fastened1
to the stack by pulling a stmall handfuil of
straw from a slheaf a little oCUt of the stack,
awind     ing part of  the rope  round it;
and thje ball tlhuis formed is pusled(l tlhroughl
between  the rope and  tbe stack,  whlic
keeps the rope as tiglht as would a kniot.
4636;. Windly gusty  weather  is very
unfanvourable for tlje thatcliqDg of stacks,
the tlhatcliing being ruffled  up by  ev-ery
gust.
t
4637. Anotlher inethod of ropinlg( tlhe
thatclhing of a stack is shown in fig. 421.
F lig. 421.
11
THiR NET-MEi.;SIH,l(fDE ()F R           tCOVEING OF
A COIX N-STACIK.
The straw is put )n in precisely thle same
manner as described for fig. 420. The
ropes are then all  crossed over the crown 
STACKING CORN.
of the stack, and are so arrangedl as to
sulbdivi(le tlie top into equal simiilar triangles, as 6 a c, c a d(, antl tlheir ends are
fastened into the side of the stack.   The
ropes, at their crossing over the top, are
fastened together by a rope, which is tied
above them, and cut off in the form of a
rosette, as at a. Thle ropes whichl cross these
are either put on spirally f,rom the top a,
till they ternilnate atd, asrepresenited in the
fi,ure, and to whichl form it is well adapted,
as every turn round the perpendlicular rope
bri-in,gs the horizontal one to a lower level;
or separate  ropes  are put on in bands,
par-,'llel to the eave, and twisted round each
ecrown-rope, ai t equa l  i      nt          ervals             of space,
fromn  the top a to the eave-rope ef.  This
,odle of roping  requires fully more ropes
tlian the last,netliod, though the crownropes miay be fewer in nurnber than shown
iby a b, a c, and a d; but it perfectly secutres tlhe thatel, against atny force of
wind], and is therefore well adapted for
exiposed situations.  It is not unfrequently
to l,e seen in the Highlands of Scotland,
and in other northern counties.
of short  straw  is placed upon  tlhem, to
serve  as a   cllietio  fOr  the  ropes  to re st
upon, and whichi is pllt i  nt o its p lace a fter
most of  thle covering, has been laid on.
The ll    i       thater ten  p)e roles  imiself tipon
tthe top   of this  hard bt intcle,   owlere te receives tile ropes   a s  the y a re w -ianted,  oni
the prongs of a           long fork, on beinf, tlrowe  n
up to  him.  Some dexterity is  required
to  thlro-w  a ceoil of straw-rope fig. 415, t  o
the top of a stack.  The  best position  t     o
do it is to stand as far fro     )m  tlne s tack
as to see tlhel thatchr entirely clear  of
it s ha-id; and then, takii-g a   coil  by
tcle soall end, pitch it upwards          witlh  a
full sweing   of  the  arm, parallel to      the
coverini g   of   tlh e     stack,  touwardls  the
thatcliher's f eet, and  li  e will catcha    it firmly
on  the prongs  of thle fork; i    f aint eed  at
a sigier level or to eitlter sidle, the  tork
will be  allnost  certaiii of  missing it, the
critical position of tthe tlpatclhel not allowing hin thle freedoa    of i s   oe(ly, and only
his arms.   He  tlylis receives, aftnuber of
coils,  and places  tleii at  lois feet.   Uncoiling th e  )alf f   a, ioe, r bii y c,oiling, it on
lis right lhan(l,  the tha.-tclier throws  the
hand-coil over the eave to hiis assistant, who
lholds on by that end while he throws the
other coiled'  half down in exactly thle opp(isite fdirection, across tle t op of t he staclk,
to  the otlher assistant, who lays  hold of
its end:  then   botlh assistants pull  tlhe
ends of the rope, the  tliateler tapping it
firmnly with the fork, and tlhe en(-s  are
fastene(d to tloe oltposit e sides    of the stc.
One  assistao nt lliay  suiffice, by tying first
one e,,d of tlhe roI)e, in-l tlieii the otlher;
but witli two atssistants  tlhe roping  is not
oinly c(X)nducted witlh greater celerity, but
iunelh  miiore firnl)y.   Thutis rope after rope
is tlirown, at equal intervals of space,  to
tlle numniber of 30, fronm  c to  d, e, /;  before the to,p of the stack  is  sufficiently
roped.  The ropes, wlherie tlhey cross at the
to), are tied together witex a piee of'strawrope, to prevent tlheir slipping off.  A ladder
is placed upon the tlhaLtclingi,, down  whieli
the tlatelier tlheni descendls to the gr(,lunid.
4638. Anotler imonide          of ropine, the
covering of a stack is applicable to all
stacks wvliose eave is formed of a row of
mheaves prqiecting beyond their bodies.
It is isli()%Yw in fig. 422, and was once in
Fig. 422.
THE BORDER IT:THOD OF COV:,I.G AND ROPING( At
CORN-STACK.
conmmon' use in Berwicksliire, but now
seetins confined to Nortihuiiberland.   The
first tlhin, done, is to put a strong eaver,)e rotilul the stack, below thle projecting
row of slheaves fromi a to b.  Tlhe straw is
then p)ut oii in a similar manner  to that
last descrilbed, but rather thicker, and it
is imadle to i)r(ject farthler down thlan the
line of the eave-rope.  The  top)s of the
fiuising slheaves of the stack are pressed
down,  tand a somewhlat large hlard bundle
VOL. II.
369
46'9 Atiotliei- itietliod of tliateiiiiig
stack-s, most coiiittioti iii England, is tl)e
inserti(,n of liatififtils of well-dj —li.wti wheat
F,traw into the buts of the sheaves on
the top of tl)e stack, and wljicli are kept
dowii with stobs of willow,-,, or,,zewed on
with tarred twiiie,. being in iiiiitation or
2 A 
PRACTICE-AUTUAIN.
the thatching of cottages.  In this method
no straw ropes are uised; and, finished by
a dexterous thlatelier, it gives the stackse
a renmarkably iieat and permanent appearance.  I am not sure  that this niethod
would  resist  the force of much windy
weather, thoulgh its smooth surface would
detain the  sniow upon the tops of the
stack a much less time than any of the
roping,s described above.
4643. Th-e difficult part of roping, in fig.
422 is in finishingi the cave, lWhiclh, if well
done, looks reiiarkably neat; ibut, if otherwise,   s a very sloven ly appe    arane. The
eave is finished in this  way:r lle ealverope having  been already   put up, the e nds
of  the rope s  are  loosen ed frobm  t     he stack,
and passed fitoln below betwe en    the eassero pe and the st ack, and, oI being brotlit
upwards, are  passed  behingi      the  rope,;
themelves, abtut  8 or 9 inches  a bove the
eave-rope, They  e nd  of the first  rope, silppos e  c d, being thus fastened, the  ppart  (,f
tthe  tlatchl  stprojw whichp prtjects lbeyiond
thae ave is  )rollut   (t horizontally al])ng
its face; and the second rope  c e, on beitng
loosened  fi'm the stack,  is placed over  the
horizontal straw, ef e   beftre being passed belo w
tthe  ave-rope, and then brought up  ards
and assed behind itself, as tlhe first ro)e
was. The    end of  the first rope,  ang  that
of the second, as also the projecting
thatclh straw, are thlen placed horizontally
along, the fitce of tlhe easve; and the tl;ird
rope cf, loosened front tle stack, is placed
over these, and  also passed below the
eave-rope and broughIt up and passed
behind itself like tlhe two preceding ropes;
and thus every rope all tlhe way  round
the stack, at both ends of thje 30 ropes, are
treated.   In carrying   tlhe ends  of  the
ropes round the eave, they terminate suCcessively till tlheir length is  exlhausted;
and it will be observed  that, while tlhe
end of  one rope fails to go beyond its
length, tlhe end of another one  is gairned,
so that tlhe band of ropes along tile t.hce (of
the eave remiains o,f  the  samiie  breadth
round the stack.  When ropes are so ],,ng
as to 1)econie cumbrous, they are b)roleni
off.  The last finish is madle by b     ring.~
the ends of the 2 or 3 last ropes alongt  lie
face of the eave, behind the 2 or 3 first
ropes, wlere the finishling, commniencedl.  Th(e
stretelh of the ropes between the eave ai,(l
top are prevented fri'n being  shiaken with
the wind  by  4 or  8 ropes  being  put  on,
as a h b, and i k and i, are, and which ill
4640. It is seldom that the tlhatclhing. of
a stack is finished whent  the straw anl w
ropes  are  first put  on; the  obiject of
thatching  being, first  to place,  in  ti      le
shortest time, as nmany stacks as possible
beyon(d dang,er from rain; so that nmost of
them are covered to a safe state, and the
finishling is left till more leisure is found,
and until the stacks subside to their fullest degree.  Stacks to be early thrashed,
such as those of b)arley, seldom receive
finishing at all; and iiany farmers only
finislh the outside'rows of stacks, and some
particularly so only if conspicuously seen
from  a public road.   It is  a mark of
slovenly management to leave stacks unfinished in the tlhatching, and in windy
weather unfinished stacks are liable to be
stripped of their thatching altogether.   It
is excusable to leave a few of the stacks to
be  earliest  thrashed unfinished  in  the
thatching; andfor tlhe same reason theymay
safely be built on stools instead of statliels.
Btet finis ming sh ould  b e  th e  rule, an  d  i t is
inexcusable to neg,lect it when both weatlher and time permit it to be done.
4641. Tbe finiislhin,, of tlhe thatching in
fig. 420 is done in this mnanner:-A  rope
is spun  long and  strong enough to go
round the stack at the eave, froiii k to 1.
Whlerever two ropes from opposite (lirections cross tlhe eave-rope, they are passed
round it, and, onl beinig cut short with a
knife,  are fastened to                   the stack    in the
mnanner described  in (4635.)  After all
the ends of the 20 ropes are thus fastened
to tlhe stack, the projecting part of the
thlatclh at the eave is cut with a knife all
round the stack, to the effect shown along
,d, b, c. Of all the modes of thatclhing, I
me none more-efficient and better looking
than the lozenge shaped.
4642. T)e modeof fi nishi ng the  tiatcl-ch
:g of  fig. 421,is this:-An eave-rope,
370
e f, is flrgt put round the siacl. Tlje
crown-ropes a b, (i c, a d, are passed at
eacii end rounl the eave-rol)e ef, and -i.re
fastened to ttie staclc iiiiiiiediately under
the straw projectiii,, front the cave in the
-      11
iiianner  described in (4635.)    The I)rojectiiig straw at tl)e ea%le is cut sliort witli
a knife, in ttie fashion sl)own froiii b to (I. 
STACKING CORN.
fact quarter the top of the stack, on their  down  to  thle ground  to  cool  my feet.
ends being fastened to the eave-rope.         Heated whleat is bitter to the taste, (1 85.9.)
4647. Partial  lheating  is induced in
the  compressed part w here  stacks lean
over soon after being built. To prevent a
stack leaning  to one side, pro)s, imade  of
the wee(lings of plantations,  should  be
loosely set around it, to guide its suibsidence, especially  if it  las been  rapidly
built; but in  using props,  thle caution;is
requi s i t e, theat, if one is pcausled harler in
than tlie otlhers, it uill cause the staick to
swerve  fronm it.   Sonie  staclks begin to
sway the miiomiient tlheir top is finishIecl, when
props slotiuld be  ininiediately set to keep
tlhemn upright.      l     it ~.. ~
4644. Of the cereal grains, barley is
most liable to heat in the stack, partly
owing to the soft and moist quality of the
straw, and partly because clover is always
mixed with it; on which accounts, it is
advisable, in most seasons, to make barley
stacks stialler than thle otlhers, both in diamieter and heig,ht, and to build them upon
bosses.  Muclh care should be bestowed on
building barley stacks to heart themi properly, which is the best expedient to prevent. hleating.  The least heat spoils barley for nmalting, and it should he remembered that malting barley always fetches
the highest price in the market.  Besides
injuring tlhe grain,  heating compresses
barley straw very firmly, and soon  rots
it.  When a single stack only is seen to
heat, it mlay be instantly carried into the
barn and thrashed, the ventilation attending which will cool both grain and straw; 
but when a number show symiptomts of
leanin, to one side, about 24 hours after
being built, or exhibit a depression in the
top, a little above the eave, you may suspect heating not only to have commenced,
but to have proceeded to a serious degree.  Incipient  symptoms  of  heatiing
are when moisture is observed on any part
of the top of a stack early in the morningdelicately indicated on cobwebs-before
the  siun  has  evaporated  it, or  when
heated air is felt, or steamn is seen to rise.
Heated barley lubricates the tliraeiingmaclhine with a gummy matter.
4648. To push  a prop  firmnly into a
stack requires-tlhe stieng,tlh  0f two  men,
one to puill backwards betw-eetn  tlje stack
and the prop, with both lhands clasped
upon the outside of  tle proI,, tle  otlier to
puslh forward  with the shoulder pilante(d
ag,ainst the outside of tle prop, immiiediately below tlhe other iman's hands.
46i49. As a safeguard aga,Linst lheatini,
a structure of wood is erected, around and1:
upon  wlichl  tlhe stack is buiilt.'il,es;e
structures are in Scotland niamied  bosses,
wlwhich  signify hollows; and the object  of
using tihem Is to occupy tlle space  uhliichl
would otherwise be filled witlh tlhe collected
hjealds of the sl,eaves of corn, witlh a volw(i
into  whichl air slhall  b)e conducted from,,
the exterior of the stack. Wlhen stacks are
built on bosses erected on statl.els, fig. 132,
the air finds ingress into themi tirou(tgh the
fratme-work of tie statliel; -I)ttwlien built
upon tlxe groun(l, a conduit, in the form (cf
a tressle, is fo)rtmie(d of wood-work, by wlhich
the air is led into tlhe interior of ttie
stack. Whten suclh tressles are pli.ced at
botl, sides of at buss, a ventilation is maintaineed tlhroughi thle body of the stack.
4645. Oats are less apt to h1eat than
barley, tliough their heating is stronger.
If thle least sap remains in the joints, of
the stra'w, oats will be sure to heat in the
stack.  Heating gives to oat straw and
grain a redllish  titige, and  renders  the
straw quite unfit for fodder, and tlle grain
bitter and unplalaLtable, bothl to:)rses as
corn, and to people as meal.
4650. Thie mlost comrnon  formii of b)ossis a thlree-sided pyramnid, formed of tliree
small trees, weedings of a plantation, of
larchi (ir Scots  fir, tied together a   ti!e
sill,ler ends, and the thicker ends plaedl
at eqi.tl distanices up(n tlhe statlel ew. tle
ground.   Fig,. 423 represents oin  of eisee
coIIIIIonii bosses, wlhere the three trees a.re
tiedl together at tiie top, at a, standing
about   8  feet  in  lheighlit  and  a   feet
371
4646. Wheat seldom heats, but, when
it does, the lieat is most violent.I1 never
saw stacks of wheat heated btit once,
when they wei-e f,)olisl)ly led into,ttie
stockyard the (I-,iyaft,erbeinwreal)ed. I
6
cast down one of those heated wheat
stacks, and such was the intensity of the
lieat that Nv-as frequently obliged to come 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
.under: from  each other; and b b are
fillets of wood nailed on the trees, for tihe
ground it requires two tressles as well
as the otler sort of boss,  to  complete
the ventilation of the air within the stack.
This has  tl)e advantage  over  ttle  other
kinl, of supporting the top  of thle stack
eveniy, whien it subsides  upon thle upper
end of the prismi, relieving the body of the
stack of the weighlt of its top.
4652. Other means tlhan a boss are
employed to fornm a hlollow in thle lheart
of a stack, by  setting, the upri,ght sleaves
whlich  forim thle fo)undation of the stack,
arouiid a long, cylindrical bun(lle of straw,
firmly wound  withl  straw-rope;  and as
the stack rises in heighlt, the  bundle  is
drawn  up through its ceutre to tle top
where it is removed, leaving a hlole thlrough
the heig,ht of the stack.   This hlole creates
a current of air tliroughl the stack, allowing  the  hleated air  to escape,  whlile the
cool air enters  fromi below by means of a
tressle, or statliel.
APYRAMIDAL BOSS AND TRESSLB.
purpose both of retaining  them  in the
pyramidal foriii, and of preventing  the
shleaves falling, into the interior of the
boss.. A tressle c, about 2 feet high, is
l.l(,ed on one side to conduct the air into
the boss.  The inconvenience of this formi
of 1)0os is, that, as the stack  subsiles,h
the slharp apex  a penetrates throught  the
sheaves lying above it, and, in tlhus disturbing their arrangemenet, disfigures the
form of the upper part of the stack.
4653. In wet weather  corn is built in
sm5all stacks even   in  tl)e stackyard;   and
should        the weather prov e settled wet, a
dry  momiient should be seized to put 2 or
3 stooks i ntoe  what        are called hatc-h?ets
in the field, that is, sca ll stacks btuilt by
lhand, by ei   person  standeint  on  tle grotund.
Sofetimes corn  is built   onn  a lieadridige rof
thje field, instead of  being carried   theo tle
stackyard, as tlle sanie strength of  ieti
a nd mrho se s will stacrk iiore corn  tllere in
a single f ine  day, than wlien  it      is carried to
th ie sta.ckyard;       and  th e  stclksderive    inore
ben efi t frorii    the air in  the fiel(l tha inui
tle yarth. T   Such stacks are also tltathe dier,
in tsee field,  and  carriedl  to thle tli-rasliingreaclrine  (lnurin, tle  w     inter.  It is rliot an
uncotiiiiioti p)ractice of  sotime fariinet s to
build a portioll of    their cro) in the field
every yeur;  but  tle practice is  not  colnlk ien(lO.le in ordinapy circum stances wics,iu
besidles tiie trouble and waste  created in
carrying straw for tlhatclh to the field, iranchl
confusion aind loss atre exterienced in carrying tlxe corn to  the stea-idintg in winter,
wIheni sotie of it cannot fail to be slalken
ouit of the shieaves, and(] wheni tile stacks
wanted cannot, pertraps, be  broutilt in
for a tract of bad weather, or tllrollluh deep
sin, v.  A  sciheine miay be justifialble under
peculiar  circumstances wlichi  would  be
wrong, in ordinary practice, and the buiilding of stacks in the field is one  of thiemn.
4651. Fig..424 represents a form of boss
Fig. 424.        whichi I prefer to
tlhis. It consists of
3 stems of trees,'~'~~,~~ of weedings —7
feet Ion,, liehtI to      - iliyspufm        ge tl            ler in             the form
tQ the stathe l wit~iinof a prismz, "lionte
side is 3  feet in
width, by fillets of
wood of thatlengthi
*:                    Tbeing- nailed to
* I themn.  The prismi-i
.is set on. end, aind(
on  a statlie1 only
requires to-be nail=~.... ed to it at tl,e bot:'~~   ~:-~~   tom; but as a far   A,PRISMATIC BOSS.    tlier means- of sta-tbilit~y,,spur from eaclh tree should be naile(d
to tlle, statlhel within the prisnm. - On tlhe
872
Fig. 423.
:.. IL
a
b
b 
STACKING CORN.:
in of thle corn, and wvitli the tlhatchlin,, of
the stacks, are finished.  It is left for a
long time littered with the refuse of the
tlthatching straw, wliich, when it becomes
wetted with rain, is not only  useless as
litter elsewhere, but soon heats, and causes
an unpleasant odour around tile stacks.
Tile spare straw should be removed, after
it is of no10 use in the stackyard-that to
the  straw-barn  which  is  drawn  and
bundled, and that to the sheds of the hammels which  is loose, to be ready as litter
for the  cattle  whichl  will soon  occupy
ttheeni for  their  winter quarters.    The
ground should then be raked clean.  After
this cleaning, the air will become sweet,
the stacks  have free circulation  of  it
amongst thenm, and the poultry will have
the opportunity to pick up every particle
of grain that may have fallen upon  tile
ground.   After such a  necessary act of
cleanliness  is done, the  stacklyard( gate
shouldl be closed, which brings the labours
connected with the ingatliering of the crop
to a termination.
4654. TIa e bundles of peas          e are,    t urned
in the field till they are win, and they
become smaller by being tied with a wisp
of their own straw.  Pease straw is very
apt-to compress in the stack, and to heat,
and should therefore be built with bosses,
eith,er in round stacks or oblong ones, like
a haystack.  Tie largest stack I ever saw
was one of pease, at Beauchamp in Forfarslhire, which was 150 yards in  length;
a  tressle, under  which a person  could
have walked upright, was erected through
the entire length of the stack.   When
pease beco,me very dry in the field before
they are led, tlhe pods are apt to open an,d
spill ttle corn, particularly in sunny wveatller; and to avoid such a loss, the crop is
usually broug.lht quickly into the stackyard, and built on bosses.
4655. Beans are a long time of winning
in the field ill calm nweather. As it is
desirable to have the land they grow on
ploughed up for  wheat, they are not unfreqiently carried to a lea-field and sto(ked
upon it, till ready to be stacked.   Being
hard and open in the straw, they keep
pretty well in small stacks, thloughl not
quite win; and the risk of keeping is worth
running in dry weather                        after nhuchl rain,
when the pods ale very apt to burst and
spill the corn on the ground.  In building
both lease and bean stacks, the sheaves
are laid down with their corn end inwards,
and  tramtied with  the feet;  and  tlhe
stacks receive but little trimnling, the
pease none at all, the beans  with  the
back of a shovel, fig. 83.
4658. Where rough grass grows on a farm,
such as on a bog which is partially dry in summer, I would suggest its being mown and
sheafed, for covering stacks. A day or two spent
in mowing such grass, after the harvest is over,
are well spent, even at the rate of wages  and
food of ordinary harvest-work. Not only does
such vegetable materials save the drawing of
clean straw when it is scarce, but of itself forms
good covering for stacks which are soon  to be
thrashed; and by the time it has served the purpose of thatch, it becomes dry enough to litter
courts.  Bog-reeds, 4 -,4undo phragmites, might
be used in the same way, where they do not find
a profitable market  as  thatech  for cottages.
Every year I caused  a large quantity of such
materials to be mown, immediately after  the
reaping of the harvest was finishled. The reapers
enjoyed the work as a sport and relaxation on
the winding up of the harvest, and the produce of
their work added many tons to the manure heap.
4656. The thatclhinf o(f peaseand bean
stacks is conducted in the sanme manner
as described for those of graini; but less
pains are bestowed in finishing them off.
As, however a good deal of corn is exposed on the outside of both pease and
bean stacks the thatching, is not unfreqiently broiught down their legs, and kept
on with straw-ropes.
4659. " The soil of the great  Nankitn cotton
country," says Mr Fortune, "is not only remarkably fertile, but agriculture seems more adva-nced,
and bears a greater resemblance to what it is at
home, than i any part of China  I have seen.
One  here  meets with  a farmyard  containing
.sstacks regularly built up and thatched, in the
samne form and snailer as we find them  iii Enigland; the land, too, is ridged and furrowed in the
same way; and were it not for the plantations of
bamboo, and the long tails and general costume
of the natives, a man might almost imagine himself otn the banks -of the Thames." *
4657. I woutild advise vou not to imitate
the practice of those farmers, who, because
gratified to have their cro)ps safe in tihe
stackyard, seem regardless of the state inl
whiichi the stackyard itself is left, after all
the operations connected with the leadlin,
* Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 126.
373 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
for stacking.   It  requires turiilg  andI
mnoving several  times, in preparing it for
the stack; and these should be d(one gently
and in the dewr, to disturb the seed as
little as possible, as mnany  of theIm will
be lost, altlhoughrli the plant does not
easily spoil when lving on the  grouitl.
To allow it to be early carried, it slhouldl
be built in small stacks with bosses,
(4651.)
4660. Tile b)uiekwlheat is a plant remiarkably dependent on the weather.  It
requires dry weather  immediately after
being sownI, and it springs up during the
time of greatest drought.  But after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain for
the development of its flowers.   During
the long time it continues in flower it requires alternate rain and sunshine, to enable
the flower to set.  Tile flower drops off in'
thunderstorms, and they wither in violent
easterly winds.  After flowering, the plant
again requires dry weather to bring the
seed to maturity.
4664. A   considerable  diversity  or
opinion exists as to the productiveness
of  buckwlheat —Thiier  considering  20
bushels an acre an extraordinary crop
very rarely to be obtained; while Mr
HTlewitt Davis says that lie has reaped 70
quarters from  12 acres, wvhlich is rather
more than 46 bushels an acre.+
4661. "TThe ripening of the grain is
very unequal," says Tliher, "for the plant
is continually flowering and setting. We
must therefore cut it at  the  timle the
greatest quantity of grain is ripe.   It
sometimes lhappens that the first flowers
do not set, or that they produce nothingo
but barren seeds, destitute of farina, while
those which come out later yield better
seed.  But the grain will ripen, and even
the flowers set, while the crop is lying on
the ground after cutting, especially if rain
fall.   This occurrence is therefore considered favourable." 
4665. The s traw of  bu c kwheat   makes
excellent fodder for cattle, as long as it
is fresh; and the green plant, when raised
with inanure, affords such a forage in
sumnmer as causes a great increase of
milk in cows, but it products a stupitying
effect on tlhein. The green plant is also
a valuable manure for wheat.
4666. No grain seems so eagerly eaten
by poultry, or niakes them laiy eggs so
soon and abundantly, as buckwheat.   It
is also relished by horses anmongst oats.
Its ineal fattens both poultry and pigs.
Its flour makes go)od unleavened calkes,
whiiclh niust be eaten fresh, as they sooln
turn sour.  Its tblossomi is consideredl, in
Flanders, to afford the  best  food for
bees.
4662. In the south of England a considerable period of both hot and dry weather
is necessary in autumn to harvest it.  It
may lie reaped with the sickle or with the
scytihe, or it mnay be pulled tip by the roots
-which last method is recommiiien(led by
sotiie, as less likely to shed the seed wien be
fully ripe.  In dry weather it slhould be
reaped early in the morning, or late in tlhe
evening when the dew is upon it,and should
not be loved too much in the day.  It iiiay
be tied up in sheaves, or niade into buttndles
like pease; but, in either way, it should
be protected from birds, which are very
fond of the seed.
4667. " lhe farina of the bueckwheat is vellow, like the pollen  of' the cedar," says M. R,aspail. "1 The grains of its fecul: are so sinall that
they rarely attain to.00(04 of an inchli.  The cellular texttire which conitaiins them breaks  down
under the pestle into angular fragmeilts of.0055
to.004 of anu inch iii size, whi(ch, by their facettes
and their yellowish a)ppearance, resemble fatty
grailis.  By a cert-ain degree of macelation the
grailis of tecula may be rendered discernible
the interior of these fragmrenits.+
4663. Owing to the thick knotty stems
of the straw, the green state in whiich it is
cut, and the late period it comes to liarvest, a succession of fourteen or fifteen
fine days are requtiisite to dry it sufficiently 
* Thaier's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 484 -Shaw and Johiisoii's Translation.
1 Davis' Farting Essays, p. its68.
+ Raspail's OrT,utii Chemistry, p. 122.
~ Parliamentary Return, March 15, 1850.
374
ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT.
46(;8. The import of biickwljea,t, for the year
ending 5tli J.-triuiry 1850, was 308 quarters; atid
of blickwliea't nieal 1095 cwt.-i.~ (3472.) 
HARVESTING MAIZE.
colour, but it should be left standing as
long as the weather is favourable for rip)ening; and even an occasional day's rain or
frtst will not daniage tle grain.
4669. When tlhe stems and discs of tle
sunflower beconme withered, and thle seeds
shinriing and dark-colouredl, the plant is
ready to be removed  from  the ground.
It miay sinmply be pulled up by the roots
-which in a strong crop, however, may
requilre considerable force; but the stetn
may be easily cut over at the ground with
a shlarpl) sickle, fi,. 392.
4674. When r i pe, t he  cobs should  be
pulled off tle stemi,  tlaro-wni into  tlhe cabt,
and carried to  the barn, wloere  it  should
be husked as quickly as possible, else thle
grain  will  becomne musty.   Tlhe  cobs
should not be  pulled off   a t o ne  time in
larger quantities than what can be hlusked.
Six peop l e  in tgle field-men, womlen, andl
boy s  wil l, in one hour, breahk off the col)bs
with a downward  pull, from two rows,
and throw themii into heaps on the ground,
from one acre of nmaize.,The same  number of people  require the same timne to
cut off one acre of the stalks by the
ground with a sharp knife, and lay them
in smnall heaps.  The pulling off the c(obs
and the cutting down  the stalks are done
simultaneously.   Carts  tlhen follow,  the
cobs are thrown into thlem, and the stalks
are also removed to the dung stance.
46f0. Tlhe discs are afterw%ards easily
cut off tbe stemis witlh a sharp knife, and
the seeds must be rubbed out with any
suitable instrument, such as thle Ame          r icans use for rubh-ing out the maize.  Mr
Lawson informs me that from 30 to 40
bushels of seed, per acre, may be deemed
a fair crop  of  sunflow er.  These will
yield 50 gallo(ns of oil; the refuse willmake  1500  lb. of oil-cake;  and  the
stallis burnt into ash will afford half
a ton of potash. Professor Johnston mentions that the seed yields 15 per cent of
oil.
4675. The  husk is  taklen  off in  thlis
nianner:-In tl)e evening of tlhe day thle
cobs  are  brought from  the field,  tlhree
people, for every quarter of mniaize to be
husked, sit down  iii the barn floor aga.inst,
or if the hleap is in the middle of thle floior,
around tl the heapl, with their backs  to  the
nmaize, an(l a  two  bushel basket before
every four of thlem.   Putting  tlhe hland
behind, they pick a  col) of  imiaize frotmi
tthe lieap, bring  it before  them, puill off
tlh e huslk, sl)readl it open, and whisk it ~:tt
ly the jerk of at little pointed stick, lhel(i
in thle righlt lhand, and thlrow the lhusk (it
the floor before tlieiii and thle Iea(l of maize
into the basket.   Whlen tle lieap of liusk
before  tl,eiii rises  to i  about two feet in
)heighit, the peI)ple faice al)otit and sit ilport
it, l)aving t!e llaliz-e and the baskets bef,re
themt, whlen  tlhey tliruw the lie-ads (f niaize
into the baskets, and the liii.:ks over their
slioutil(ler up)on thle lhealp.  Two nmen cryll'v
away  thle baskets  as thl)ey are filledl, alid
erlpty thleni in a coiner of the b)arni.
4671. " The seeds of both the common and
dwarf sunfl,ower (3475,) yield an oil little inferior to that of the olive tor domestic purposes,
says Mr  Lawsotn.  " Iu Portugal the seeds are
mLade into bread, as also into a kind of meal; and
in America they are roasted, and used as a substitute for coffee; but the purpose for which they
seem  best adapted  is the teeding of domestic
fowls, plheasanits, and other game.  The greatest
objection to their culture is, that they require
very superior soil, and are a most impoverishing
crop, parti(cularly the taller growing sort, l]eliai,thtus annuus; from  which circumstance the
dwarf species, Heliaiithus Indicus, has been preferred by some cultivators in France, whb  assert
that, as its dwarf habit of growth admits of a
greater number of plants being grown on a given
,pace, it is not so uilich inferior to the other i l
quantity of produce, as, from its appearance, one
would be led to expect.
4672. " In        addition to     the uses above mentionled, so)mne French authors  assert  that  the
leaves, either in a greeni or dried state, formn excellenit fbod for cows, and tlhat they are greedily
eateni by thlemn.  The stemiis also forni good fuel,
aindi yield a considerable proportion of potaslh.*
4676. So long as tlle hleads of maize nrc
kept in tlhe ba.rni, it is slufficient  to turn
them,ver occasioT.ally,    raising what  is at
the bottom of tlhe lheap to the top.  Much
4673. Abot       i       t the 10th  of Septetmber tile
eintire planit of the imaizeassumiies a dry straw
* Lawson's.Agriculturtist's 2aiatual, p. 292.
375
ON HARVESTING THE SUNFLOWER.
ON HARVESTING 31AIZE. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMIN.
air existing among  tile  heads,  there is
no danger of the grain heating,; bIlt it' not
turned to change tile sides, andl let the
daminp out, tile corn will ac(iquire a niusty
smell. So treated, they will keep for any
length of time.
4683. Ill (etailing tile culture of  byuckwlieat, ilaida, and imiaize, nmy object is not
to recoirnimend themi  as  constituent crops
of tile faril —for  I greatly fear  none of
themii will  finl  stichi a  climate  in the
Britishi isles as will allow  their full  (levelopluent-and c)onseqllently, their product,  whatever it timay be,  would  not
compen sate    f,r tile  labour  anlid expense
bestowed up;)n tiheir culture;  but, as thle
pot        ato cann ot ov  be depended l  oli to
yiel4   a tcon.stast returni, I would  direct
youir attention to sucli cropS as tlese, that,
should you  possess s(,.)ie ftvoiired spot,
enjoying a good soil  and(i genial  warmtlh,
you mighIit enideclvour to, raise one or all of
tilemii, a..d raise a supplyv of food for
the poultry.   Tli.it object is of less imiiportanice now, in  1850, that tile price
of oats and barley lhas descende    d so low,
as to be only a little mlore than a lhalfpenniy
per lb.,  %ilereas ia:iize  lhere is tlhree farthinigis.  Tle ordinary grains of your own
rai,ing  ma-y  therefore  now be given to
poultry without stint, as the chleapest food
you lhave to give themii.
4677. The grain may be talken off the
heads, when in a fresh state, by pressing
or rubbing them against any blunt-edged
instruienrt, and after iraving been gatihered
two or three months, they may be beaten
out with a stick or flail, fig. 350.  In
America, I believe, the!leads of tiiaize are
put into a trough like a cart body, hlaving
both ends open, and a numiber of aluger holes
perforated in the bottom,  and on their
being beaten with a stick by a man at each
end of the trough, the grain falls tllroughli
the auger holes into baskets, or on the
floor.  One bushel  may  thus  be beaten
)ut in ten minutes.
4678. After the grain has been beaten
from the lheads, it should be kept in a dry
place, whilere are both light and air, alnd
frequelitly turned over; and here it niay
be kept for any lengthi of timie, if free of
damp, and taken away as it is ground into
meal, which o(ughIt to be used fresil, otilerwise it soon1 becomes sour.
4684. Thle average quantity of nutritive matter derived from aIn acr  of miai,ize yielding thirty
btsheIls ani acre,  or   1800  lbs., is of husk or
woody fibre 100 lb.; starcil, sullgar, &c., 1260 lb.;
glutel, &c,. 216 lb.; oil or tfat froill 90 to l170 lb.;
anid salinie imiatter 27 lb.+
4679. Th-e produce is about si.x quiarters an acre.   Tile bushel of nin,ize weigitis
60 lb., and affords 1 00 lb. of mIaize bread.*
4680. Thle llusks of maize may be used
to stuff mattresses, to make (loor-Inats or
brown paper.   Ttle pitih of tile cob makes
excellent fuel, and tile produce of an acre
will furnish a ftimlily fire-ligilting for a
whole winter.   Tile stalks, when burnt,
afford tile best siioking for lihamnis.   Tlhe
leaves, 1as taken off ill suinimer, whlen dried
make a hay of thle finest (odour.
4685. America is the  great field  f(-r the culture  of  mliaize, and  otf tle Ulaited.States,  Kentucky,  Tenni,essee, anid  Ohio   raise   Imiuc-h  the
largest quaratity uf aiv of the otlher c.ounties ii the
States.    The   qu,anitities raised iii the  entire
Uniion were as fbllows:      In 1841..      387,330~,185 I)ushels.
... 18f42          4    44!,;2!.,2-i (i...
... 1184..      494,618,306(...
...1 844..       421,(5,000..
... 1845.. 417,f399,000...
4681. Tihe produce of an acre of maize
may bt., estitmated thlius:
4686  The  monley  value  of  tle  pro(iduce  of
1845,  417,899,000   bushiels  at   25   ei.ts, is
104,474,(500 dollars; alntl  reckollilg 5 d(illars to
I...1 Britisih crreicy, tile anmotiit is 1..20,l194.900.
The qtuantity of Illaize raised, as cotiparel with
wheat, is in the ratio of 4 to 1, o0  accollit of the
growing  fo(uduess  of the  people  for it as an
article of food, iimre tlhani for exportatioii.~.
1 t8  8  0
1 15 0
0 10 0
~10 13 0
4682. Pouiltry fed on maize acqui         ire a
* Keene's F,,e.t flJr Fzar,,ers, p. 8-16.
+ Johnston's Lecteres on Agr.icultural (C.et, istr#, 2d edition, p. 928.
+ Journtil of A.riculture, MIareh  1850, p. 360-2.
376
lii,,Il-fl,-ivoured flesli like the plie.-Lsaiit.
Wlieti so fed, their eggs are of superior
colotir and flaN,()ur. H-.tins are in Iii,,Ii
c
repute from pigs fed on niaize. 
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
4690. Thle  Jerusalem  artichoke, Helianti us
tuberosus, occupies the saime place ill thie botanilical system as the suntiflower, (3475.) Its leaves
ale rough; stein six to tell feet ill height; root
tuberous; perennial; native of Brazil; introduc'd
ill 1617. Seldom or never produces its flowers,
which are yellow, in this couitry, except the
tubers be carefilly removed wheli they begin to
form. The name Jerusalem is a c-)rrplstioii of
Girasol-turniig to  the sunti-ai imputed  property to this genuiis of plants.
4687. "' Almost all the grains of the fectula of
the maize," observes M. Raspail, "are damaged
by the nmill, on account of the great hardness
which  the seeds acquire by drying, front the oil,
the gumn, and the sugar they contain.   The
greater part are agglutinated together, and present the appearance of a cellular texture, with
small meshes.  They are folded, and more or
less wrinkled  aud irregularly  ronunded.   The
largest of tlhemn scarcely exceed.000,98 of an
iuch, and but few are so large.  But it; instead
of examiuing this fecula as it is found in the
farina, it be taken out of the unripe seed when
the perisperm is, so to speak, yet milky, tIle
grains have a totally different appearance. They
are perfectly spherical, smooth, aud entire; and
it appears  to mie that  more fecula could be
obtained, by expression of the seeds  a little
before they are quite ripe, than by grinding the
ripe seeds.  For by the former method the unrutItured grains fall to the bottom of the liquid;
while in the latter, being torn and bruised by
the mill, they give out their soluble substance to
the water, and remain suspended in the liquid,
being as light as simple membranes.  This is
the reason why  Parmentier, who analysed  the
farina of maize by the second mode, obtained so
little fecula from it."*
4692.' When  the butlbous roots of the  Jeruisalem  articlhoke  are  bruised  and  expressed(l, a
nmucilaginious liqtidl is obtained.  Whelk lhea,ted
to  212~,  this  lIquid  coagulates so  strongly,
that it iiiay  be  eimployed  to  clarify  other  liquiids." ~
4688. The import of maize, for the year endlng 5th January 1850, exceeded that of 1848,
being 2,249,571 quarters; but the import of
Indian corn imeal decreased in that period, being
102,181 cwt. (3495.)t
4693. The ashl of the tubers of the Jeru.salem
artichoke, according to Boussiiigault, consists of
the follosi,g  ingredients:
ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICIIOKE.
4689. Althouglh some farmers raise tlhe
common Jerusalem artichoke to feed their
pigs with, and as a relish to their horses, for
which purposes it is well adapted, I lhave
refrained to recomnlend it for culture in
the fields, because when it gets p(ossession
of the land no weed is so difficult to eradicate.  Where a piece of ground is detachlied, and  is not  appropriated  to  a
better purpose, tlhis plant niiglt l)e cultivated; anid its culture is in all respIects
like that of the potato on the fliatt gi(,und
in every third furrow of the ploiugii, (2 74.)
Its stemn rises froti six to ten feet in heig,t,
and when it has withl)ered it is cut off, and
the crop raised out of the ground by niealis
of the spable or graip.  The tuihers niay i)e
pitted, but are snore conveniently st o red
in an  outhlouse when  in daily  use  by
stock.   They should be cooked  before
being given to the pigs.
54x.7
traces
2'82
2'21
(;'39
13'27
1!j7
]5197
100'00
6.0011
Raspail's Organic C(hemistsy, p. 120.    + Perliatnentary Retfers, 15thl March 1850.
: Lawson's Agricilturist's Ma,inual, p. 234.    ~ Thoiiisoti's Orgaric ('iessistry-y  Vegetables, p. 843.
Il Jolihston's Lectures on A4gricuttiral Chesistry, 2d editioii, p. 31;4.
377
4691. " Before the introduction of the potato
into this cotititr%.," observes Mr Law.,oii, " ti),e
comm,)ii Jerusaleiii artichoke was lie](] in iniieh
esteeiii, as;.t is even yet on the C,)iitiierit. Fowl.-,
particularly pheasants, a-re reiiiark-,jbly ft)ijd of
its tiibers, as ar,-                swlite, cattle, liare., rabbits. The tillers are I)rodticed in coiisi(leril)le
quai)tities; and a.,i tl)ey are not liable to be injured
by sliglit frosts, their Iiiiite(i cultivation, instead
of potatoes, for fee(iiiig the above iiieiitiotie(i live
stock, bas been recojiiineiided.   Tltey might a I so
be planted in woods and waste places, on goo(i
liglitish soil, not too iiiuch rbaded, as winter fooll
for gone. The tubers, as is well known,.ire
also eateii at t —tble, cooked in various ways."
Percentage of ash in the dry state,
ON TIIE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO TITE
C-RAIN CROPS.
4694. Of late years the opinion seems
to gain gr(,und, that birds do itioi-e goo(I
to the f,-triiier -ind f),ar(leliet-, by dcvourii-ig
desti-ticti%-e insects, tli-,in li,-trtii in e-.ttlig and
si.)illiti,,evei-vkin(lofseed. Acl(,-,,;ej-observatioti of tfie Habits of bii-ds ii)ay leave 
suclh frutits and seeds as are found to tlheir
liking in the products of thle gardens and(
tlhe fields.  This being thle real state of
the case, let us consider whichl of thle birds
are mnost destructive to grain in the fields.
h1ammer  anti( others, dlevour  consi-derable
quantities of tlhe newly sown see(]-corn,
particularly  oats  and  barley.  After  the
breediingi, season it feeds on the  ripelning
seedIs of  beans,  pea,se, wliea-t, (,ats, andi
barley, wljile dulring tlhe  autitmin it feeds
on tile stlublble lanbs; and at this seasonr it
sits as c(lose  as tite skvlirk, iltlhoug l it is
usiiallyseoy.   It (loe s  not obiyit to visit  the
nev-sown fwelalt (on tase fallows ant( afte r
potatoes.   In winter it be comes  relnarkally fat, anin  is supetr io   s ran article of
food to mOst  of our snall  birdIs.   "It
coau ( l, harw-lv t)e siupp)osedi," (rl )serves iMr
Kn1p itll) - rt tis    Iaircr-, not  larger thiaii a
lark, is c-lal)le of' dIoing serious injury;
yet I  tilis illorninigi  witnesse(d  ai rick  of
lb  iey, st.an(din)g, in a(-etaclie(d tield,entirely
strippe4l of its tha.teiiin, wvicil this buintin,, effected by  seiziti,, the end of  the
straw, andi deliberately (dr.atwing it out to
search  fi4r any graian thel  ear  miiiglit yet
contain; tlxe blase of tle  rick being  entirely suirroundeled by tlhe straw, one end
resting,, on   t,lie  ground, and(  the  otlier
ag,ainst t!he snow, as it sli(l down   from
thie suiiiiilit, aini ireg,tularly placeed 1ts if by
tile lIatiad; an~l so, conmpletely  w.1s the
tllatcJli,,,, )lulle(I (,,f, tl.-t,tlie immnediate
r em)iov,al (,f  tlle  col,,r blet-antle  necessary.
Ttie spa-rr(,w alnd  (,tlier bird-s  b)urrow into
tie stack, atn pilifer tlhe corn ~  but tlte (leliberate o)leratiot, of iunr(o)fing the edifice
apllpears to I!e  tlhe lalbit of  tlhe buniting,alone."    Suchi a ciretizitsta,iime as  tlLi'
s!,,wu s tl, r'isks wl%%,Iili st~acks bIuilt  in the
fieldi rilli, whlen tley  nilg,,lt lave  been
safely secured in the stackyardl.
4695, The greenfinch, Linaria chloris,
in the seed season, accompanied by their
young, brood, will attack almnost every
sort of seed thlat is ripe or ripening, butt
are more particularly destructive to turnipseed and flax, where these are grown, ald ai
to oats amnong the ordinary grains.  Oatt
fiel(is, and even whieat fields uear woods
and hedges, suffer considerably, the greenfinci  l)eing a great eater, its 14ill beiigl a
sel(ll,ti idle, shelling and miunclin,  fiot
stinrise to sunset.
40'.96. Tie yellow-lhamtmter, or yellowyite(, EmL beriza citrinella,  p)refers for its
,.'n eitini,, grain alib  seeds, larticularly
.:tts; an   in niew-sown  fiel(ds of oats, as
wvell a1-s wlhea,t, it il.-y be seen busily picki:.j,  up  the g,ra in from  the nloliietit it is
S!,lni till lthe  )eri,iod of its braiirdin,g.   By
a. utulii), wi den tile brood()(s are re,,t'edI aniid
t,le corn cro)s3 be,gin to ripeni, tlhey assein%!e   %itti  sp:u'rows  ani  ce)rti-l),inti,s,
.a),l otier  itlunderers, whichl  le.ave little
il,,tlgsi(le tlhe  hlelges 1,,It emipty  lluskls o)11l
tiiestaullitig straw.   Wlen ifeeling ill tile
stubljle tiells, they adivance b)y very slbiort
levis,  "vitli their breasts nearly tolicliinga
tlhe   ri)un(d   lwhen a)pp)relLensive of (langrer,
(cr,,uci    noitiioililess;. and  wlien   alaililel, 
,ive intimuation to each othler by  miteanis of
tlheir ordinary sliort note.  rThey are gene 
TO  1ill ti 51allC, i  wvas  obliged to (litle oii1
larks  for  want  of Illore substantial  fare.
nie of thieir cow%-s for a fair songster; t'r();l
l  whichli  lias arisen their  usual  pIroverb —
a  cha]ijnch  is ucorth  a cow.   A  conillilloi
woikll,ain will give as tiiuIhli as 16s. fir a"
clhaflitchi lie adnires,.and  will  willingly
live on bireltl and water to s.tve the il(,iiey
for  this pI)urplose."*    The  )easanrtiy  (,f
tlhis coilintry dlo not re,gaid tlje so)g of  tlhe
cljaffincl, as renmarlkalbly attr.'cti ve.
4700. The grey or brown  linnet, rose
lintie, Linaria cannabinta, does imiuchli imore
daliia,ge  to  corn  tlian  is g,eterallly  suppIosed(l.  In  thle first place, it visits  the
pXatclhes of fields of turnips left to Iripetn ftjr
seeld, (4188,) an(l then freq uents the newly
sown   turnip-fiel(Is.    Wllen   tlle  youliig
fatiiilies beg,in  to wvanler  in small  cosisiI.anies as  the grail li)ecoiiies ripe, tliey
devoutir larg,e qiiatiities  of  the  standin,g o
conri, voraciously living uljon it fioni  tlhe
mo)ient it begins to whiteii unitil led to the
stackyard.   After this period the smallel
finliilies associate  in  larger  flocks, frequently conil)iiiing  withi  thie  greenfilclhi,
sanid slsist on  the  stubbles,  until  the
autuiint  wheat is sown, whien they frequent
the iewly sown fielis and thini the see(lcoIrn  in detached  patches  so niu(ai, tliit
the scantiness of the braird is aseribedl  to
tile attacks of s5i01e grilb.   This liliniet,
however, is easily seared by wvatchIing.
4702. Thie   liouse-sl-)p.riroi, Palsser dlomesticus, is     a  well-kaown Je      l     wenatsr  it
otir c,,n-fiels.         As   tle  icrop ril)ens,  it
feeds ua(c,       grslain.ilad cease,   wicl it
abufintleiettly   sobtains (ditrin g avr sevearr     wll ee ts
in autumn er)i   (n  thle  stanidiin,g 2  c(.)-n, cIi-id  lessa
l)rofusely sslll)oIae(I ini cwg      int er    wien  it
se.rcelies  the stubbles.   A-s Btifibn olbserv %es,
In, bte(specas llow tole so ader i  seel-tilie,
aAd  tile rierin haipr-est;  tley lolet tefr(  t el
t!irasli,-: -it  tlie  oarist)s, anii   thle p-oullterer
wliern  l e sca.tter-s  griaiin t,) liis fow,ls;   tlhey
v'is<iit t l(!e p.*ige(,n-lt(oIt an1 lpiel,'e tlhe c'j.twi
of tlle y(ungllp  )igeonis to  extract tlle fi od.'
It  is  sup p)se~l  tllat  a  sp)arr ow  eats   its
owI1  Iweig,it  t~f c'orJn every  day,   widlein it
canI  get  it fo>r  thje talz               i-g; andP, uffit i
e'stini:ates tlJ:it at Iair (of sp)arrows  %%,ill e.t
20 lb. (of corni ev-ery year.    Wliden as  i,iaity
as 30)00 Ilmve                /,eef cal 1t ol nle  fitizi ill
a sintgle  (da-y  with at inet, one  nily calc -
lte fi'o,)ti suc     dta l  the quai-,ntity vf  grain
they  consumne on a  singl,e farmi.+
4701. The chiaffinelh, slhilfa, Frinjilla
coelels, fleqkents,  tle vici a ity of lonises              in the
auitumon, seairchiing, for fvo(d in tlhe fie(lds atnid
1,irtirvar(Is, wliich-Ii consists of seedis of various Ivinds, but e.-pecially of oa,ts and wle.att.
As  the wiznter a)proacies, they collect ini
lalrge  flocks, anid associate with greenfinclies, grosbeaks,  yellow-haniiiiers, and
sparrows, ainl other speciesof this order fiequentilig the ftrmyard, and settlingonroads
* Beclistein's Caye Birds, p. 183, note.     t Qucaterly Journal of-Ayriculture, vol. vii. p. 284-98.
4703.' Tljese are tlhe pIrincipal  snimall  oT
passeriine birds which  infest the c(orn-fieldts. 
PRACT['ICE-AUlTUMN.
Others of a lar,,er diescription also frequient
such haunts ali(l amliong, t!iese the coiiiitnon
pheasant, Pk'isianius colchicus, is accused
of coninliittinitr great havoc amongst grain
crops.  Its tritle lIabits are thus described
by Professor MAIacilliv ray: " Its favourite
plices of iesort ire tlhick plantations or
tangled woods by streamns, where, among
the long  grasses,  brambles, and  other
shrulbs, it passes the ii,ight, sleeping on the
ground in siummner and autumn, but conimiionly roosting  on  tije trees in winter.
Early in thle morning it betakes itself to the
open fieldis to search for its food, which consists of the tender sl!oots of various plants,
grasses, bulbous roots,  roots of grasses,
and Potentilla anserii-a, turnip tops, as
well as acorns and insects.   In autumn,
and the early part of winter, it obtains a
plentiful supply of grain,  acorns, beech           4
mast, and siiiall fruits.  In severe weathler,
however, especially where great numbers
are kept, the phleasants require to be fed
withl  grain, when they learn to attend to
the call of the keeper."   In the natural
state, and  in small  numbers, pheasants
prefer  insects and  the young  shloots of
plants, to corn, of which they pick at a time
only a few grains; but when senii-don)esticated, and congregating in large nutimbers, thley assume the habits of the domiestic fowl, and will eat and trample down extensive patches of the growing corn, in the
immediate vicinity of their preserves-and
this they do between thle ripening and the
reaping, of the crop.  Thle reniedy against
their destructive effects is to restrain tlheir
numll)ers within Imodlerate  )bounds.  Ti'ljeir
numblers have miultip)lied treatly in Scotland withlin Ilv recollection,  tlfl atie now
certainly too numerous even for sport.
4705. Thle wood-pigeon destroys the
growin,g crop in this mtianner,,as described
by  an  eyewitiness:'-"Tle  woo(I-pigeon
has a weak bill, but nature has provided
her with very strong  wingrs; when the
flock, therefore, settle upon the lying portion of a Nwheat field, instead of breakiih,
off the detrts and carrying tthemi a      way,
they lay  tlhemoselves  down  upon  thleir
breasts upon the grain, and  using  tlheir
wings as  they beat out the pickles
froin the ]leads, and then proceed to eat
them.   The consequence  is, that, the
pickles hiaving, been thrashed out  upon a
mattitn,, of straw, ai great pr,portion of
thlemt fall down  ttzroulzgh it to the ground,
and are lost even to the wood pigeon: in
short, tlhev  do   not eat  one  picklle  for
twenty whichl they thirashi  fi'om  the stalk,
I  have repeatedly watched  this process
from behind the trunk of a large willow
tree, growing  in a thick-set lhedge on the
edg-e'of a wheat field, andui seen the operatiol) go oil witlhin a couple of yardls of me.
The 1.pi,,eonis descend first singtly; but, havin(g left.a watclier til)(,ii tlte ]ligh,est tree
in tle neigh!)orleod, te VIIwole flock are
soon at  work otl the'samte spot, and the
loss of grain to thle faLrmiier is very great.
Thjey are al.so gluttons  in  quan,ittity."t
This bird las increasedl to ilcre(litble Dllnlbers irn  Scotland1 within  thle last thirty
years.
4 4704. A fa.r more destructive!,ird, in(lividually, than tlhe plieasant is tlhe tinged
dove, or cusliat, or wioodl-)igre, n, Cm              ehttbai
palumnbus.   Its powers of dlestruction iilay
be estimated  by  the  wh lolesale levy it
nmakes on the products of the fiel(ls an(l of
thle woods, ias thlus enunierate(d Ily Professor Maacgillivray: Fromi its roost in the
larger brarnchles of ti-ees, " it issues at sunrise to search the ol)en fields for its food,
whlich consists of seeds of the cultivated
cereal grasses-wlwheat, barley, and  oats;
as well as of leguminous plants-beans and
* Macgillivray's Britis  Bisrds, vol. i. 1. 123 and 263.
t Burn Murdoch's Observations on Gam~e,p. I 1.
380
I)ea,se, and of tl)e fle](1-iiiii,,;tar(I an(] el,a.rlock. In sprin,, it also feeds on t,lie leaves
of the turnil), and the youn,, I)Iai.les
of the red and  wliite clovers. At this
season, I have several times found its
crop distended with the farinaceous roots
of Potentilla anserintt, obtained in tire
I)Ioiiglied fields. This root is Iii(,I.ily nutritious; and formerly, in reasons of scarcity, was collected in the WestHi,l)laiids
and Hebrides as an article of food, an(-l
eaten eitlier boiled or roasted in the iie-,,i,t
asl-ies. In siiiiinier they eat grass, an(i
otlier vegetable stibStaDCeS; in atittiriin,
grain, beecli-iiiast, acorns, aiidle(ruiiiinoti.-i
see(Is. The I)eecii-inasts and acorns they
swallow entire, their bill iiot beiii,,, siiffi                                    zn
ciently strot)g to break ttieiii up." *
4706. The cotiliiion I)arti-i(ige, Perdix
cinerea, doiil)tless devours (,rain in the 
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
fields; but hlowever plentifully it inay breed
in any locality, it leaves no markls of its
effects upon any cropl, and is always at
favoured bird with people in the country.
learnt that the wind first barealks a staclk at
thle cave, anil not at thle tol), wliile, on  the
othier hland, the top is thle very pairt tile
rook al]ays breakiks into, because it linows,
probalbly l)y the siIell, tihat thje liea.ds of
sheaves stand a,ccuiiiiilattel tlier-e. Tlese a.re
all facts whichl  I hlave iiiyself ()iserve( ofi
the riook, and they are sutlicient in iiiiniber
to support the assertioii tha.t it is.a lesttrnctive iir(l to tlie tfarm. At th)e salne titiie, the
rook, in mnoderate nunibers, w(,uld do n,,
mnaterial injury in thlje fields, and it is only
pwhen it is nourished in excessive iiuiiibers,
inr large protected rookeries, tlhat it di,,es
sensible injury.  It is no palliation iof their
in jury tlhat roolks do no greater,  inj,,ry in
thle neighlbourlhood of larg,e rookleries thlain
elsewhere, for, alt liougli  they iiiay not fee(I
near their rookeries, they must go to fili(l
food somewhere.  He  who asserts that tlhe
rook dofes no lfarm t o  crops, and  fdoes goot
alone by the renmoval of insects frol  the
soil, must either  be a prejudiced or ilaccurate observer of its!arbits.
4th   0  i. The rolok or                       crow, Corvtn filugilegus, lhas      a      b ad replutation  amonts,st            It' rmiers, an,( not without  cause;  fr h o lwever sedulou sl i  t      will follow the ploil,gh
and          parrow, in search of worses ald insects, as  lonhg  as it has to support its
youn s,   there is no doubt  that,  after that
period,  it becomes  omnivorotus, and will
eat anlytlting that comes in its way.  It
will pick mieat clean off tlhe bone-it will
pick hlorse-flesh), as lont  as it is fresb —it
will  eat fisli-it   will go  to the  sea-coast in
searlch         of shell-fish, when tod  ines     sc arce
on the land   it will carry off anli  eat
the stray ee, s it isay  i       al)penii     to f ind at
the stea(lin- -it will eat t hle  boiled  pottatoes
and oatmiieal porridge set down for the
poultry-and when a bowvl of barley brotlh
comes   within it s            reach,                 it will soon ellpty
it, and          f    oi the sooner,  tlwe thicker the barley  i s         in the broth- -it will eat the boiled
barley and pease out of t he                       h      orses' maslftub-it will              take         up the y              oung plants of
potatoes after  they have sprouted:  for
tltheir  own  sake, beieng  tles in  a sweet
state, (28(09,) and not nberely  itn search
of any illsects ia themn,  as I        hla   ve ) art icularly (leterminied —it will p)ull up  the
yosng, plant s of turni -)s, to  et at  i nsects
that ieay     happen o           to     be n ear ti.eir roots in
the mannure, and it is  poor  congsolation  to
the faritige  to be tola the d at tl   e        pl ant s were
le.s:trove,l tl,at insects might be captured
-it w.ill e;,t fruiit off the trees-it will
aili-flit upon liil corn (of all kinds, andii pick
aindi; sw'at('l, O lt    hiadli os e inore tloae  it  can
elto       andacu,I i,l,tys aleso onu stoaks  of corn, and
pullls,iut t}, ears, an(d eats tlhe grain —
it will ffy to,L grre;t distance to eat tlhe
crowberry, -Etnpetrumn nigrum-it will
break into tlhe heads of stacks to get at the
grain; and(i in this respect Mr Waterton is
inotcorrectwlhen he saystlhat,"in winter,tl!e
roolkswill Lttackl thle corn-stackswlhicht hae
lost part ofthieir thatztch by ageile of wuind."*
And lie takes tlhe occasion to rebujke the
farmers ot Yorlkslhire for b)eing slovenly in
delaying to repair the damare (one by the
wind; whereas, if he had observed  more
closely and accurately, hle would have
4708. As to insects  existin,   in  tlie
ground, tliere must  be very  large  numiiibers in it every  spring; and of  t!)os8e
which miglht do lharmii to crops,  t!at  are
removed froiii the soil, by whatever  iiieans,
the agents  that  remove  them  save  tl.e
crops to that extent.  But it does no)t fbllov
that, because insects always exist in the
soil, they must necessarily inkju,e tle cro,l,)
sown in it; for, if thiey did, since insects
always inhabit tlhe soil, the crops  woultl
invariably be  injurecl to the  sa,ne extent
every year —a result not in atccoI'daniee with the experience of any far1ner.  My  belief is, that it is only when
insects increase in any year, by circumiiistances unusually favourable to their existence, beyond wlhat  their ordinary food
will support them, that they subsist on tle
sown corn to an injurious extent.  That
some corn is every year devoured Iy insects in the soil is a ima,tter beyond douibt,
and  the  loss  not l)eing  estii,la)le  antiy
season, it is not complliaine(d o,f.
* Journal of A,4griulture, July 1844, p. 505.
381
4,'09. Many devices ]five been foriiietl
to scale destructi%-e birds from corii-field.,i
and green crops, and the most common
one is the scarecrow. Scarecrows are
made of various forms and materials; but 
P  cPRAc'rcICE-AUTUMN.T.
we all know  that every tatie-doolie or
slioy-hloy  is  liabited in  the  simtilitude
of  men  or  women.   Pieces  of  bri,,ght
tin  are  iiiade to  flicker  in the  sunbeamis, at the end of a string.  Lines of
threads are hooked on from one object to
anothler.   But as soon as birds become
famiiliarised with the permiianent form of
any scarecrow, it loses its terrors.  The
contempt shown for them by birds is thus
described by Cobbett, in his own peculiar
mannter:  "Shoy-lIoys,"   he   observes,
"exercise their influence but for a very
short space of time.  The birds quickly
perceive that their guardianship of the
treasures of the farmier is a mere sham;
and, like the sparrows in my neighbour's
garden at Botley, they will, in a short
time, make the top of the hat of a sloyhoy a table, whlereoni to enjoy the repast
which they have purloined."
serves, for  the  *)irl~)se of (lestrovin,,
pleasants and  other  Ibirxls.  Duringi, the
last spring, (1846,) two  blackcockis were
sent to mtie for examination froiii the extensive preserves of a n,,bleman in Scotland. They  had been fi ound dead  oni tile
ground.  A  quantity of arsenic  was discovered intermiixed  witlh oats  and the
shoots of the l.trchl in the crops and gizzards
of each bird, and arsenic also existed in
the  pectoral   muscles  and soft  (orgians.
There lhal been previously It very large
destruction of gamie on  the estate, as it
was inferred, front poison. Tltere is hardly
a doubt that, when the animal (lies soont
after tile ingestion of poison, and (ibviously from its effects, tile flesh would be
poisonous to man, althouighi it n-ighit re,quire a large quantity of  the flesh to  produce a fatal result.  Professor  Cl-hristison
reports a case which renders this opinion
highly probable." *
4710. Poison has been recommended for
the destruction of sparrows, but in taking
their lives by this means, the lives of valuable birds might be destroyed at the same
time.  Where ivy is plentiful, in which
sparrows delight to harbour, a net has
captured as many as 30()0 in one day.
Sparrows are easily shot with a gun loaded
with sparrow-hail, when congregated on a
bare piece of ground, lured thereon by a
favourite sort of food being strewed upon it.
4712. Gunp owde   r i    s         the m ost effectual
means of any of scaring birds from fields,
(2809.)  Rags  steeped in a solution of
gunpowder, dried, and placed on the windward side of a field, will act as a scare as
long as they last, but the renewal of them
is a troublesome businie,ss.  I contrived an
apparatus, whlich  I n3amned:, rook-buttery,
to keep  ulp a fire  throughout  the   day,
witit little trouble. It is seen in persip)ective in fig. 425.   It consists of a cir                 lFig. 4'2.4
4711. In regard to the use of poison in
killing birds, Dr Taylor makes these observations  in answer  to the  important
query, "Is the flesh of poisoned alimals
poisonous    This is a (question which it
is necessary to consider, because p(oultry
and game  are not unfrequently pisolied
wilfully or accidlentally, and in this state
they may be eaten uiisuspectingly. It is
well knowni that grain is often saturated-l
with a solution of arsenic for agricultural
purposes before it is sown: if this grain
be eaten by poultry, it will destroy tlieiii;
and a question may arise as to the effects
which thle flesh of the animals so poisoned
is lialle to produce on man.   In other instances, poison hlas been placed in the way
of these animals with the malicious object
of destroying them.  Thus oats saturated
with arsenic, or with that poison intermixed, have  been placed in game pro
Taylor On Poisons, p. 164.
S82
THE )LOOK IJATTEITY.
cular plate of -str(-)ng titi, a 6, eigliteell
iiiclies,in di.,ttijeter, upon the circtittifei-eiiee
of wliicti is roldered a tioop of equally 
-1i *'l-;  UvllJuu izs411 U~                4-U4y.
over and held upon the touch-hiole of each
cannon, by a bit of copper-wire attached
to the carriage.   The  nlatchl-thlread is
made  longer and shorter as the time is
determined on between the discharge of
each cannon; and to d(ispose of it for this
purpose, the central pbart of the plate a b is
divided by perpendicular partitions of tin,
so arranged as to form  numerous alleys,
along whichl the matchl-thlread is made to
traverse at that lengthi as to burn it down
in timne to reach the touch-hlole at the given
hour.  Plate a b is affixed to a circular
board e, nine inches in diameter, tiidi one
inch in thickness; and in its circumference
are attached three legs,  ff, whichl support the apparatus in tripod form, at a
height to elevate the apparatus above the
standitng corn.  The battery is placed in
the part of the field most frequented by
the rooks, and whiere it may Iest be seen.
Suppose that  the guns are loaded  and
the mnatch lighted at five in the mlorning,
and that by eight at night it is timne to
cease firing, which  is fifteen  hours, in
which tiiiie tlhirty-seven and a half miinutes will require to elapse between the
discharge of eachi of the twenty-four cannons.  Suchl dishiarg,es are miucih mnore to
be depended on fotr regularity thian the
firing e,f any fowling-piece by a herd-boy.
In addition to the discharges of tile gulns,
if a piece of woollen rag,, steeped in a solution of gunpowder an(l dried, were placed
in a cup of tin at d, immediately below
the lantern of tihe cover, and set fire to,
the smoke arising from it would still filr
4713. No, wild birds are so tlestri.,,ctive
to standing corn as the I,)oultry of a] I Iiinds
at a farmstead. Hens pull dowi-i  tije
standing stalks of corn, aiid, aftei, sli,,ikiii,,
a few grains otit of an car, leave it all(i
pull down another stalk; -,iiid wliere tije
corn is laid they scratch the straw an(]
ears witti their feet, a,iid cause niaiiy niore
grains -to cotyie out t,liati they cotisuiiie.
Turkeys, bein, tall, are fully iiioi-e (lestrtictive than lieiis, and are le,-,s e,-tsi.l.)r
satisfied. Geese pull down standing cori),
and i)ibl)ie the grain out of tlje ear; atifl
being stotit I)ii-d,.i they niuticii the cai-ii
prettv clean of tlje grain.,t-, but they traiiipie laid corn quite flat, and entirely (lestroy  tlje stra%N,.          Duck-9 usti.-illy content
t-lieii)seIN?,es in shovelling off the ground the
grain the fietis and turkeys leave spilt, but
they also trample laid corn flat. The
cointnon i)izeon,.s rest inticii on the I-,ti(I particles of ,Cjeat, and I-)ick t.lie grains clean
otit of i.lie ears 1.)y stialitig talent in their
bills, wlin nuriibet-s of ttie grains fall between the straws to the -,rotind, (1606.)
in
4714. The only means of saving the
growing crops near tlje stealing front
destruction by tiie I)oiiltry, i-i to cojifine
them all within tije Heading for -,t
period before tt)c corn is ripe, until it is
cut down, as they do comparatively little
liartti to stooks. An excellent and coijvenietit place to coiifliie tlieni in stiniiiier
is in the court 1, in the Ground-l)lan of
the rteadino, on Plate 11., which should
c 
-A.l'  I N.
tiiie; l)lt (nily tliose g,iiinmers and ewei
~iw ltei wichl! have I,cln s5itel~t(l t'io tho te (l.rafted
onces  (40o7)  riie  I)lit to  the  tlt).  In
a siiiill flock, whlen boIoli gililllers and ewes
do not exceed in nuiiiiiber i,liat one tup can
serve, thley -ire classed together to be served
by thle sanle tup; bI)ut in larger flocks the
giiiliiiers and ewes are kept separate dur in,g  the  tnpping  period, and served  by
different tups.
be, covered over witt) netting,.  Tlhe slteelp
nIets, fig. 44, %%ill aniswe ile pl,se Iv
Ilasllinig thiei- e(dg,es t(,getl,er, ad stusp,)endling tlhem.is -,i,h  s to - all(w it l)er son to
walk under tlhem.  Subliivisioiis coull be
mnatle botlh in tlhe slhed D as well as in tile
court, by Ineans of hurdles, fig,. 40), to keep
tile different sorts of poultry separate fi'om
each otlher.   Food: and  water must be
given them  daily  while under  confinemient, as well as sand andl gravel to swallow, and dry earth or ashes to burrow in,
and no  Ilarili can overtake themn.  If a
unumber of the courts of the lihaeniels M
were  covered  over  witlh  nettin(,        they
wouldl form convenient divisions for separating  the different classes of  poultry.
Thus the farmier possesses ample  iteans
of accoinniodating  the  poultry  in  the
steadlini,, at a season when it is not occaIied by the other stock, and thus saving
the crops of the neilghbouring fields froiii
destruction.  The value of all the corn and 
straw destroyed by poultry may not amount
to  iiiucli in value, and  it will cost as
miluchl, andl more perhaps, to maintain tlhemt
underconfinement; but the neglectful managemenet evinced in allowing the poultry
to roam at large wlhen the temptation of a
corn field is near, is discreditable to every
fariler.
4719.  oth thec   e wes an d  gimmers
should have been for two or tlhree weeks on
fresli gra,ss, or rap)e, before  the tup is put
to thmen, in order to bring the season upon
thenm more quickly and simiiultaneously,
.(4011.)
4721. A  -shIearling tup (925) will serve
60 ewes or gi,~niers, and an aged tup 40;
and  these  numnbers should never  be exceeded when produce is desired to be strorong
and healthy.  Wieni tups are too fat they
become  lazy, and  serve  thle ewes reluctantly; and whlen such is thle case  with a
favourite tup, lie slhouldl 1)e 1)lt with a few
ewes into a smal.ll pad(lock of grass,  wlhere
he will have little occasion to travel about.
Giroiniers are miore restless in the serving
than ewes,  on which account,  slhou,l  an
aged tup serve them, he slhouhlli ree-i'e the
fewer  nuiiilber.   Tups thlat  have served(
ewees long  are apt to bec(mine spavined in
the lind hocks, in consequence of hlaving,
to sustain the great weight of their carcase
in tlhe act of serving.
4715. Whleni the 8th to the 1Itlh of October has arrived, thle tups should be put
ailongst the ewes for the purpose of t~roducing lamibs to slupport  the  standing
flock of the farm, as also for disposal in
the market.
4716. Tlhe ewes now  tupped Tmay be
expected to Ilannb (2546) about thle 8thl to
Ilthli of March following-tlthe period of
gestation of the ewe being 5 moinths, or at
least 151 (lays.
4722. Tup-lioggs (924) are  never allowed to serve ewes or gilaomerfs, not liavinig attained  maturity in any particula-ir;
tlhoughI one is at a timile made to stimuiiilate the activity of an aged tup; and(
wlheniever  lie dares  appro.-alcl a ewe, le
is drivrlen off by tlhe old fellow.  To  In)event him effectually from serving  a eue,
a piece of clotlh tiamed a bralt, or aproli,
is sewed to tlle wool below liis belly.
47 1 7. Abouit tlhe l-eginning of October
thle skin on the flanks of tlhe tups (924)
b)ecraies red, whichl is best observed whlen
the animal is turned u; and(] this redness
is thle certain and only symptomt that the
tuip(s feel the desire to serve the ewes.
4718. The   ginemers, (pt24)      as         we     ll as
the ewes, (925) are put to the tups at this
384
4'i 20. Bef,)re the ttips are put to the
ewes, the under part of their brisket is
coioured with keil or ru(i(ile, (35,1)1,) in
order to let the sliel.)Iier(i kiio%v which ewe
lie has sern,ed by le-,tvir,,, tl)e red niark
of the keit upon her riiitip. The ),-eiliDg
requires to be daily renewed when the
tuppiijf, is active, and wl-ien the weather
is dainp.
ON PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE, FtWr,,S. 
TUPPING EWES.
When particular ewes are not desired to
be served until a specified timne, a piece of
cloth is sewed on the wool belhin(d them, to
hlang over  the tail.  When fastened on
below thle tail, as is sonmietimes done, the
ewe is interfered with in making water.
4727,. After 3 weeks hliave elapsed from
putting thle  tup amiongst  thle ewes,  lie
should be witlidrawin; as lambs beg,otten
80 long after the rest, will never coincide
with thje flock. After serving, tups slhould
be put on good pasture, as they will have
lost muclch of their condition, feeling indisposed to eat their ordinary quantity of food
during the tUpping season.
4723. Tups are.not selected for ewes
by mere chance, but for suchl  quatlities as
mnay improve those in tlje ewes.   WVlihen
ewes  are  iearly  perfect,  they  may  be
selected for breeding tups.   A  good ewe
flock shlould exhljibit thlese characteristics:
-a  strong  bone,  whilch,  supporting   a
roomy frame, affords space for a large
lev elh,pmient  of fleslo, — an abundance  of
wool of  good  quality,  whlich clothes all
the body in inclenient wea,tlher, and insures profit to the Ibreeder, —a disposition
to fatten earlly, whlich enables tlhe breeder
to dispose of hiis draft-slheep  readily,and prolifcacy, whichi increases tlhe flock
rapidly, an(d is also a source of profit.
Each  one of these properties  is advantageous in itself, and wlhen all are  combine(i in the same individuals, the flock
has attained a highib degree of perfection.
4728. The ewes and gimmers may now
be put together on such ordinary pasture
ias the farm affords.   Durilig thle autumnal
rmo ntlhs they will find plenty of food on
such; and for thle winter, a roughl pasturefield should  have been reserved  for them.
When none such has been reserved(, they
will require a few turnips every day; but
you sllhould bear in mind, tihat  afat ewe
always bears a small laml), (25(65,) and is
very subject to inflamniiiatory fever after
lambing; and from the re(overy of which
will probably have a scantiness of nmilk.
Swedishl turnips produce fatness on ewes
more readily tlhan othler kinds, so that whlite
turllips should be reserved for them shoulht
they receive turnips at all; but tile rough
pasture is greatly more for their advantage
than any turnip, and a little oil-cake, 1 lb.
a-day to eaclh inl addition, will bring them
tihrough  any I)eriod of severe weather.
4,24. In  selectinig  tups, you  should
obs erve     whethler or  no     t tl)ey possess  one or
morte of tile above  qualities, in which  tle
ewes may be deficient; and] if they do,
tlheir union with the ewes will produce in
their pro,eny a higher degree of perfection
than exists in the ewes themselves.  But,
should tlhe ewes Ie superio,r in all points
to the ttl)s examined, no su.chli trips ouglht
to be used, as they will certainly (leteriorate
the progeny, part of which  will have to
mnake utp the future ewe flock.
4729. Ok   carse, dairy, ared pastqral farns, on
which oilyv wethers are reared, as also on farmtis
ini the ineiglhbotirllood of large towns, nio staiding
flock of breedlilg ewes are kept.
4730. On pastoral farms on which  breeding
is pursued] a standing rule should be, not to put
tlhe trips to the ewes till such a period that the
laminbs may ijot appear in spring before a sufflcienicy of tood is foiitnd to support the ewes.
472,;. Most of the ewes will bse tuppe(d
by tlle second  week  the top  has been
amolngst thiem an(l in the thlird week thl)ey
will all be served.  It is likely that sonmei
of the first served ewes will return in season, and will have  to  be tiupped again
Ianioligst tle last served, the se.:son returning on ewes in a fortnight.  Whlen ewes
(o not return in season, it nilav be concluded that they are in lanib;,.n(d thiose     e
wlich  ag:in exhibit symnptoms of season,
after being served again, at an interval of a
fortnighlt,will not likelylbe in lamb, and will
become tup-eild or barren ewes, (929.)
4731. On t he middle district of mounltain  pasturage, the Cheviot breed is chiefly bred in Scotland; vid their tiippiing season is from the 15th
to the 22d of Novemiiber, with  the expectation of
receiving lambs from the 15th to the 22d of April.
4,32. A few days shiouild always be  allowed
to elapse before the tups are put to the gimmers,
because, being less able than ewes to endure the
hardlships of lambing and of giving suck, their
lambing seasoni should be the longer postponed,
until the weather is milder, and the pasture
yields more nourishing food.
2 u
4726. It is the duty o(f tle she)lpherd to
VOL. II.
385
notice wliat ewes are tupped in succession,
and wljicli of them return in season, that
lie may know the succession'in laiiibing
of every em-e, (2546.) 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
having occurred amongst both lambs and ewes
are of rare occurrence, and confined to seasons
of unusual severity.
4733. The number of ewes or gimmers to a
tup should be 60, but where the graling is more
tliatl ordinarily steep, a smaller uro,)o-tion of
ewes would be advisable.*
4737. Letting oftups.-Breeders of tu ps, besides
disposing of them out and out at stated primes,
by private bargain, appoint a day in autuihiii for
letting their spare tups for the season, by auction,
to the highest bidder, on the condition of being
returned in good health and condition at the end
of the tupping season.  Times 1 have seen, when
~50 have been obtained for the use of a Leicester tup for the season, ald  60 ewes were  the
most he could serve; now ~5 is iiearer the mark,
not because tups were so much better then, but
because fine tups are now everywhere to be found
in the country.  This mode of disposing of extra
stock is a good one, both for the breeder, who
thereby realises an annual profit, and  for the
h irer, who thus finds a suitable opportunity for
improving his flock.
4734. In regard to the  m       anag ement of Blackfaced sheep on the highest mountain districts, the
following observations of Mr Little are very sensible:-"  Taking the seasons on an  average," he
says, " since I     had anything to do with sheep
and  t he average     of       s ituations whe          re I have had
Opportunities of making observatiolLs, I consider
the 27th November as being the m o         s        t proper time
for letting the t caps       to the ewes. Those whos                    e
situation      s        ar e favoura bl e     for an  early lambingti         me, might let the tups to the ewes  a week
sooner; but very few breeding mountain stocks
will derive     advant age      by their being let so early,
a      s w ha t i   s gained  in  size and  strength by th e
lambs is lost in conditi,sl by  th e       ewes. Besides,
there   i     s a greater risk of bad weatheer  and less
grass, than when the lambin g              season is ater. Il
bad situations, a t      few day  s  or a week later in the
lambing-time ought to be preferred, as safest for
preserving the cond itio         n of th e        ewes       an(       ] the lives
of the lambs  and although the  lambs  should        th     g  o be      a
little y  ounger,         they can be  allowed to suck a lit.
tle   longer, as the ewes  ar   e  a b       l        e to afford milk,
,wi    thout injuring    themselves, when the land is
full of grass,        than iin a barren spring.  Besides,
those   far     mer s         that  hav e  l eas t  grass in spring
have most      in autumn,an    d this br ings th em nearly
on a level with farms that have early grass,
taking the whole year round. Whatever time
the tups are let to the ewes, all the ewes that
are intended to bring forth lambs the same sea.son   ough              t to be let to  at  the same time, as the
obest time for the young and lean is certainly the
best for the others....    Every shepherd
knows that, among hill sheep, the ewes are much
more kindly to their lambs, and careful about
them, when they are themselves in good condition and have plenty of milk, than when low in
condition and scarce of milk. The later in the
season that lambing-time is, thev have a better
chance of being in good condition, and having
plenty of millt; and it rarely happens that the
older lambs are the best at weaning time."t
4739. It is necessary         to explain to you that
tri4nmiTg, or  dressing, cbo fsists in   clipping awby
with the  shears  the points      of the  locks of wool
over  all the body, where  they are  considere d to
injure the  appearance, or to  affect the   s ymmetry
of the sheep; a nd the clipping is c arried  to such
a degree that, on close-woolled sheep, such as
the Southdown, the trimming is exercised over
the entire body, so as to produce apparently fine
points of symmetry in those parts   of the sheep
in which it s   n turll      eceit is naturally deficient.  Thi s is nothing
less than intentional fraud, to take in the igiiorant and the unwary; for no judge can be deceived by it, and no one aware of the practice
but must discover it at once.  The eye of the inexperienced might be deceived by it at first, but
the handling will dispel  the illusion itnstantly.
Sucki a practice is countenanced at all, I suppose,
for no better reason than is the hefting of cow;
(2250) of their milk, because it is a cust)m.
For the sake of fair dealing, it is hoped that this
fraudulent practice  will be  forthwithl abaindonied.
4735. Thr     eescore ewes will be enough   for        one
tup, and tups should never be longer than four
or five weeks with the ewes, as every ewe tupped
later than that period is injured for the ensuing
-season, and her lamb never turns out to good
account.
4736. When overstocking mountain pasture
prevailed some years ago, so scanty was the food
for ewes in late seasons, that thousands of lambs
were swept away with a fatal mortality, and the
ewes also perished through the dire disease of
the hunger rot; but now, when mountain pasture
is stocked, like other pastures, according to its
Capability, not only is the stock maintained on it
all the year round in better condition, but Fsuich
-ases of epidemic death as I have mentioned as
* A Lammermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep, p. 73-4.
+ Little's Practical Observations on Mountain bSeep, p. 74-5.
386
4738. But the sheep thus offered to be let
ought to be presented in their natural rtate
-that is,washed and cared for in every possible way, as to food and shelter, but not
trimmed, for the purpose of imposing qualities on
them which they do not possess. Such a practice cannot be too much deprecated; and I ant
happy to say that most of our Scottish ttipbreeders possess more integrity than to be lured
into it. The English breeders, however, have
fallen into the snare, and carry it to such an.
absurd pitch that a novice even, of the points
of a sheep, could easily detect one of their
trimmed sheep.
4740. The yellotts.-Tlie yellows is a complaint
towhicliewesaresubjectina,titumn. Itisja.tin.
dice, exhibiting yellowness of the eye, the mucous
membranes, and the uritie. Bleediiigand ptirgitig
with aloes and calomel, are the appropriate reme 
BATHING SHEEP.
dies.  Fat draft-ewes which have fed some time
upon aftermath  are most liable to the disease.
Inflammnation of the liver is the cause, in which
the pain of the affected part is very obscure, and
t        h         e natural laniguage of the sufferer not very e xpressive;   nor is the symptomatic fever marked.
Here a striking analogy is noted between the
l o w e r animals and man, inasmuch as th ere is
generally a                        sympathetic  pain in t he right should      e       r, so strongly  marked, as  often to be  mistaken
for the principal disorder, and                          treated accordingly.     Whenever you observe,  therefore, a
lameness                           of the right leg of an y  fat  sheep
on foggage, you may                       suspect th e   existence
of                            yellows, and examine the inside ef th e  eyelid, and observe whether any yellownes            s      exists
there.
4743. I have already said,  (947,) that when
sheep have access to salt, they are,lever knowii
to be affected with rot.   I have little doubt, that
had oil-cake been put within their power in such
a wet land cold sunmer as 1817, they would have
escaped  the oihalady. Change of pasture   from a
wet to a dry situation mllay be the means of cu-tr.
.ing  the rot, at aln early  stage of  the d isease.  All
lan d that has bee n irrigated i n sunnimer, and produces a rank growth of grass in   aututtmn, sh oulf f
be  avoided by sheep   as mtuch as a pes til ence.
S    oft   spongy so8il, clayey, a nd neve r free of' ewoisture,      in its natural state, will affect saheep wiLth
rot w h e n   grazed  upon i t. Draitning wouild recld    er such land sound; and sheep-drains have miiade
many pastures so, that were formerly subject toth e  complaint eve ry year.  When  the  rot is iaeevit:oble, sheep c annot  be l  ong kept o th e sae
farm, but must be sold in the course of a' few
months; and the safest flock, in such circuimstances, is a flving-stock, especially of ewes, for
they are the most easily affected with rot.  Liime
has rendered land sound, which was subject to
rot even after it had been  drained.  Suddeni
frost and thaw, alternately, in sprizlg, produce
rot, according to the old proverb         Mony a frost, and mony a thow,
Betaken mony a rotten yow.
4741. The rot.-The rot is a serious                       disease,
causing the death of numbers of a flock in a
short period. Deficient food in summer, and a
flush of rank wet grass in autumn, injure the
health and constitution of sheep. In the wet
and cold season of 1817, when sheep could not
obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and
when the autumn arrived, accompanied with a
flush of wet herbage, I knew a farmer on the
Cheviot hills who lost 300 Cheviot ewes in the
course of a few weeks by this disease.
4742. The early symptoms of rot are very obscure-a circumstance much to be lamented, as it
is in the first stage alone that it admits of cure.
"The  animal is dull," observes Mr  Youatt;
"lagging behind his companions, he does not feed
so well as usual.  If suspicion has been a little
excited by this, the truth of the matter may easily
be put to the test; for if the wool is parted, and
especially about the brisket, the skin will have a
pale yellow hue.  The eye of the sheep beginning to sicken with the rot can never be mistaken: it is injected, but pale; the small veins at
the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are
filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with
blood.  The caruncle, or small glandular body at
the corner of the eye, is also yellow.  Farmers,
very properly, pay great attention to this in their
examination or purchase of sheep.  If the caruiicle is red, they have a proof, which never fails
them, that the animal is healthy.  If that body
is wtite, they have no great objection or fear-it
is generally so at grass; but if it is of a yellow
colour, they immediately reject the shleep, althou,,ghl hlie may otherwise appear to be in tihe
very best possible coilditioll; for it is a proof
that the livetr is diseased, and the bile beginning
to iiiiigle with the blood.'Thlere is no loss of
cotiditioin, buat quite the contrary; for the sheep,
in the early stage of rot, has a great propensity
to fatteii. Mir B3akewell-','as aware of this, for he
us.ed to overflow certain of his pastures, and when
the water was run off, turn thiese of hiis sheep
upon theta which he wanted to prepare for the
market. >They speedily became rotted, and in the
early stage of the rot they accumulated flesh and
fat with wonderful rapidity. By this miiatnaeuvre
4745. Inn)nediately after the tups are
plut to the ewes, arrangements are made
for a part of thle sheep stock to be prepared
to be fattened on turnips (901,) antd the
preparation  consist s  of bathing them with,
or in a particular liqulid. I have said that
~ Youatt On Sheep, p. 445-62; Quarterly Journal of 4yriculture, vol, v. p. 503, ud vol. vL p,
331-34; Parkinson On Lite Stock, vol. i. p. 419.
he used to gain 5 or 6 weeks'on his neiglibours.1'
4-744. Flukes.-Tlie liver of rotten sheep always contains tte well-known aiiirnal tliefluke,
so named from its striking resemblance to a
flounder. Its nature has iiut yet been sati,,factorily. examined. It was named Fasciola by Linnmus, and Distoma hepatica by Rudolplii. lt4
intestinal ducts contain great numbers of gra-iiis
off. pale red colotir like'and, which aresuppo.-ed
to be its eggs; -Ilid as no difference of sex has
beeit observed, it i believed to be a bermaplirodite. It is supposed that its eggs find their way
to the grass, Irwin which sheep receive them iiito
their ston)acii, aiid thus are supposed to find their
way iiito the liver. The eggs are' found iii'tlie
biliary ducts, in the intestinal canals, atid even iii
the dung of healthy, sheep; and they swarm iti
the dting of rotten ones. The ducts of a single
liver have been found to contain. more tliaii a
thousand, while the gerins are qiiite iiiiiii.inerable.l
ON TIIE BATHI',%G AND SMEARING OP
SIIEEP. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
sheep are affecte(l l)ya troublesome insectthe keb or ked, or sheep-tick, fi,. 308,which increase so mucli in nunmbers, as the
wool grows, as to be troublesonle to the
shleep in a4tuan;  and were means  not
taken to re    e teni, the annoyance they
would occasion would cause the sheep to
rub themselves upon es eryjol:ect tleycoultd
find, to at degree to tear their fleece, and
deteriorate;'s  value considerably.
in the proportion of 1 lb. of tobacco to
20 slheetp, it is put into  a boiler with ]
quar t  of        water  to  each 1 lb.  of tobacco,
and boiled gently for several hours. The
tobacco is then wrung out, and  the liquor
taken out of the boiler; and the tobacco
again returned into the empty boiler with
half a quart of fresh water to each 1 lb. of
the original weight, anti boiled as ]on, as
any colouring matter is obtained from it,
when it is wrung out anti tl-rown away.
The water boils in to 1 quart to the 1 lb.
of the tobacco, and forms a decoction nmuchi
stronigier than an infusion.
4746. Another reason for bathing sheep
is, that on experiencing so great a change
of food-, as from grass to turnips, cutaneous
eruptions are apt to appear on the skin,
even  to  the  exhibition  of  the  scab,
(1071,) Xwhichl deteriorates the fleece even
more than the rubbing occasioned by the
ked.  In severe cases of scab, bathing is
too nild an application, mercurial ointnient being required.   When lambs are
rubbedl witl:-!.'tliis ointnment, inflanmmation
will elsuie if warm weather follows, though
eves stand the application nimucli better.
B]ut I believe that spirit of tar by itself,
or dlilutted with a little tobacco-liquor, is
as efficacious and a much safer remedy.
4751. The tobacco-liquor is put into a
tub, and the solution of soft soap is intimately mixed  with it, the sulplhur being
put in last, and the whole mixed together.
4747. Thi-e-,liquid to be used as a bath,
to be of service, should conbine the properties of killing the ked with certainty,
and(l of preve.nting eruptions on the skin,
without injiiyt to the stapl)le of the wool;
and both these ends are attained by the
use of tobacc iqiior and spirit of tar, the
formnier inlsta:y destroying the ke(l, and
the latter actin   as a preservative to the
skin, (1070.)  Tlhe bathli is necessary for
all classes ofhtlieep to kill the keels; but
the spirit of ta r is specially useful for sheep
bought to fatten on turnips, as travelled
sheep       are almnst always affected wi tt l    cutaneous e ul)tions, an      d particularly theBlackfaced breed direct froni the hills, after they
lhave been on t'urnip)s for some time.  As
a matter of:fety for a sound an(l clean
flock, every i;eep  that  is  purchased,
whether for feeding on turnip or increasilig the flock, slhoulld be bathed immediately
onl its arrival on the tfarm, and before it
nixes withl tlhe standing flock.
4753. Tihe spirit of tar is measured into
a wine-glass fromi a greybeard, and poured
into the flask of bath when about to be
iused, in the proportion of half a  % iiie-glass
to 1 quart, and the mixture stirred.
4748. The -materials used inl the' bntt
are tobacco, spirit of tar, soft soap, and
suliphur. The- tobacco is best in the state
of leaf, but I understand it is illegal for
tobacconists to sell it in that state.  Taken
888
4749. Tlje soft soap is also used in tlio
proportion of 1, lb. to 20 slieep, and it dissolves ttioroii(-,Iily in a sufficient quantity
of warili water.
47,50. The flour of sulpbur is inixed
witli the soap in the ]proportion of 2 oz. to
20 sbeep, witli wljicii it combines, an(I
assists in preserving tlje col.our of the wool
froni the staining of the tobacco-liqiior.
4752. A tin flask easily bolding one
quart, and provided N%,itli a Handle and long
sl)out, small at the end, is used to pour the
batli alODg the sledded wool of tl)e slieel),
and is represented by fig. 426.
Fig. 426.
A BATH-JUG.
4754. Some people mix stale liu-rnan
uritie with the bath to n)ake it stroDger, 
BATHING SHEEP.
c, its greatest widthl being across at d. The
legs e e, are 18 inches high, attached by
means of iron bolts passing through their
upper part and the frame of the stool, and
secured with nuit and screw.
' 4755. This is an effective bath, and
inexpensive, the tobacco  being  3s. 6d.
per lb., a bottle of spirit of tar 6d., soft
soap 5d., ard sulphur ls. per lb.-e  ak ing              the
cost 5s. 6d. for 20, or 2~d. for each sheep.
4757. Dry weather should be chosen for
bathing sheep, else    the rain will wash
away the newly applied bath.
4756. A  useful implement  in bathing
sheep is the bath-stool. fig. 427, whici         4
Fig. 427.
4 758. Coarse aprons should be worn by
those who apply bath to sheep, it being a
dirty process.
4759. Tile bathing is conducted in this
way: The sheep being penned, one is
caught and placed on the stool upon its
belly, fig. 428, with its 4 legs hanging
through the spars, and its head towards the
shl)epherd, who sits astride on the seat. The
staple of the wool is divided by the sliheplherd with the thumbs of both h.lands, beginning at the head and ending at the tail of
the sheep; and when he has made one shed,
an assistant, a field worker, pours the liquor
from the flask, following the hands of the
shepherd in their passage along the shed,
which he keeps open from the tail to the
head of the sheep. Fig. 428 shows the
bathed sheep in a different pen from the un
e~~~~~~~~~~
THE BATH-STOOL FOR SHREP.
is made of the best ash.  It consists of a
seat a, for the shepherd to sit on while
bathling the  sheep,  1  foot  square;  a
sparred  part 3 feet long, has a frame
and bars 30 inches wide in front from b to
Fig. 428.
E.~_ —
I&ATHING SHEEP.
bathed; the process ofbatliing as described;   measure,  the  greybeard containing the
also the tub of tobacco-liquor, the quart  spirit of tar, and the wine-glass, all at hand.
389
but spirit of tar is more powerfill than any
aimmnioniacal gas. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMIN.
on  which  account  their bathing  ought
to be conducted with great care, as  a
t wist or rack tivenj   to the body in catclitig, or in lifting  then  hastily  6ff  tlhe
ground, or in putting tlhemn recklessly upon
the stool, ma y caus e them   t  cast  latisl; iand,
in case    o f s uch a n accident, the sooner t1lev
are bcat hed after  beine, tuppe  the better,
tthe body te  o  t  e, a   e            then ot  ein    uc  uner tle
influenc f  e    of tse ooctus. I aof  not aware thiat
any clase of        ewes casting  t hleir lamb can
be traced to this particular cause, but it is
certain  that injury to the body of a.tiy
female in tlhe period of gestation is lial)le
to cause abortion; and tlere is  no reason
why injuries sustained at bathing should
not produce that effect, as well as otlher
occasions of inju'ry.  I dare say this particular source of injury to ewes  has hitherto
been overlooked both by farmers and slhepherds.
4760. The sheds ma(le are one along each
s     ide of the back-c-boe, one alo     ng t he ribs on
e     ach side, one al)nn, each s                 ide of th e  belly,
one                        along the nal)e of the neck, on e  along
eacll side of the neck, and  on          e  alon g the
co    u           liter.  Frotti  these sheds the bat h  will
s p r ead                    over the whole body. The s heep is
t u r n e d    on its sides and its bac  k, to o btain
e     a      s      y      access to these  several parts. W hen the
slheep                      is vying on its back on the stool, its
l     eg,s are not             tied, so the       assistant s hou ld be
a        wa      r    e      of receiving a       kick  from tl e  hlind
feet on the face,                    or Ool the flask.   Some
liquor is puit on the tail, head, scrotum,
inside of the thlig,hIs, brisket, root of the
neck, and  top of the shoulder, because
these are the I,arts most likely to be affected by sca-b, and are chiefly. the seats of
the nidi of insects.   The slhepherd and his
assistant will batlh 40 sheep in a day.
4761. Shortly after bathing, the keds
will be seen adheIing to the points of the
wool, dead; and thle fleeces of those sheep
vwhicih have been niulch infested by  this
vermin will be speckled thick  with their
b~)dlies.  Sheep exhibit different effects by
keds: those which recover from a lean to a
better condition, on change of food, are
miiost liablxle to be overrun with them, as
some cattle aire with lice when impr. ving
ir condition on turnips, ( 1375.) On this account the kedi mitay be expected to increase
riapidlyoni shee which lhve been somiie time
on  turnilps, and  lIence the necessity of
batlhing slheep before putting, tlieri on tuirnips. i  tggs are iiiost liable  to  their
attack, because, pel'haps, they get  most
rapidly into co)ndition after being weaned,
and because tlhey bear the larg-est quiantity of wool, (3942.)
4764. The tups (928) are bathed innmmediately before or after the ewes.
476.5. A syringe has been  recomnmendied
to be used to bath shleep, because it can be
introduced amongst the wool without disturbing the adherence of the staples of the
fleece, whichl shledding must dlo. No doubt,
fleeces that have been sl)edded are mole
apt to be blownI asunder by the wind, but
only for a  shlort time, after which1 they
recover their cohlerence; and  the uncertainty of knowili,g whethier or not the whole
body hlas been covered with the bathi whlen
applied by a syritng,e, more than counterbalances any  advantage thle fleece  iiay
derive  fronl  being kept  entire.   Fronm
the viscid nalture of the bath, it is probablle that a  syringe will not eject tihe
liqui(l at all times with the same effect.
Such an instrumnent, in tlhe hands of a rude
operator, niglit teari off piles of w(oo(] unhi(tiddlenl to view, and1 even al)rade the skin.
I am. (lisposed to believe that thle nmanual
operation of batljhinig  will  not easily be
superseded by niechlanical nieans.
4763. Ewes (925) slhould not be bathed
till after being tupl)ped, as the sniell of thl   e
batlh imiglit counteract the efflitiviumi of the
season, andl deceive the tup; ittil its effects
upon the skin may even prevent the season coilling, in a regular course upon the
ewe.   Be the effects of bathl  what they
mnay, the safe  practice is not to batlh
flock-ewes  till  after  being   tupped;
Soo
4762. Tlolltls (924) are bathed first,
because, bein,, put e.-ii-ly oti ttiriiil-)s —say
tlje iiii(l(lle of October-ti'iey should be prepared before the ewes liave returned froiii
tiie tiips.
4766. Instead of b-,itliinL, slieei,) in tljis
Tiianiier,wljich is one ofloii t,-indiij(,, it lia.%
been recommended to dil) tliei-ii b(-)(Iilv iii
ttibs cotit,-jiii'n., a I),-Itl)-liquor. It is evident
that any litltiid, to be,,il)l)lied witli Certainty
to Llie entire body of the slicep tliroti,ii its
I —
wool, nitist be as liriipi(i as water; and,
liencel -ill dipping compositions are t-lis 
BATHING SIIEEP.
hlas contrived a  dipping mixture, wliichi
kills vermin  in sheep, and is said to improve  thle wool.' The  mixture is sold in
packets.   A  packetfuil is dissolved  in 2
imperial gallons of boilitg water for  10
minutes, and poured into a large tub, contaiming 40 gallons of cold water.   To thlis
is added 4 lb. of soft soap, and thle quantity
will bath  50 lloggs.  It will destroy all
kinds of vermin in shleep  in half-an-hour,
but at wlhat cost I lhave not lheafd.
4 67. Mr Bigg's slheep-dipping compositi),l is sold at 9d. per lb., or in casks of
100 lb., su-fficient to dip  500 shieep, for
~3, lOs., lwhich  is r.athler niore tliai  lII d.
per  shleep,  and  is thlus  a  chleap  application.
47 69. The apparatus in wlicl the shleep
are dipped( is shlown in operation l)y fig.
429, wliiclh consists of a wooden box for
Fig. 429.
foir use.   Thle apparatus may be conveved
t o any,2ieeti  w)lace  on c.alst-iron     tlieeis,
and hioIse slafts might also be attacled to iL.
l,lIlin;: tlhe hatli,..q5 feet iTn len,_,tll,it to,)
atili 2 feet.9 ilielies ini  widtll, -iiii 31 feet
i,i 1lt,g lI at bottom  and 2 teet in wi(dtl,
giviig tle box a prjectioil at the topl over
tlle bottom  of 9  inclhes.  Tilis box will
easily contain  100 gallons (of thle,ipping
li(qui(l. Close to tile rig,ht tpper e(ge of tlle
box is a drainer, 18 inclhes in widttl, consisting (of spars of wood; and below it is
an  itclined  plane  the  lower  edg,e  of
wlichl passes tlirotugh thle side *)f the box
and conveys the  dropped  liqui(l iito it
aga,,Lin. Tle slleep are slil down an irlclitled
piane into the pen.  Thle pent is 8 feet in
lengthl, andI 4-  feet in widtli, and capable
of containing  10 or 12  iloggs  at a time.
A  wicket at thle end of it allovs the shleep
to go out.  Its floor is boarded and grooved,
to allow the liquid (Iripped frorm  tile shleep
to run to an orifice, from whichl it is drawn
off b'y a cock, and again put into tile box
4770.  Three men and a field-worker are
requiired to use thje apparatus, andl they Con~duct thlje pro)cess in  this  niannier -Every
shleep is hleld by two men, one onl each side
o f  th e b ox.   One mran lholds tbhe lteal with
tlhe left hland, and the two fore-legs witlI
tlhe righIt; the otlher liolds by tlhe two llindlegs. Thiey dip tlhe entire bo(dly of tlho
slheep, witlh the back undermost, witlh tlho
exception of the headi, in tlhe batlh for a
few second-Is.  They tlheni place the slheep
upon  the drainier wlhere  the  fieldl-woloker
squeezes tlie batlh out of tlhe wool witli lier
latnds, wliel returns i!~mediately into the
box  by  the  inicliniedi p)lantie lelehw the
drainer.   Thje slheep is tlieni slid down on
its side (onl the inclinied plane into the p)en
391
solved in large.quantities of water. A
solution of corrosive sublimate will easily
kill keds and liarden the skin, and it is
a-s limpi(i as water. I would not myself
enil)l()y any composition that contains
arsenic.
4 1'68. Mr Wilson, clieiiiist in C-ol(Istreain,
--    -a
-li-IF'P-DIPPIN(i 11111.,K-.,I,US. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
4774. Now the practice of smearing is unsupported either by theory or common sense; for
why should  plastering over  the skin with  at
-adhesive substance  protect the body from cold,
while its natural clothing of wool is incapable
of affording  it the warmth  required?   Does
not the plugging up of the pores of an animial's
skin ilijure its health?  Why should an external application to the skin promote the growth
of wool, which derives  its sole stipporl from
the body of the animal?  No doubt, very lean
sheep may be  iiijiired from the  nuite(l effects of
rain and cold; but sheep il such condition are
not sufficiently covered with wool to protect
their leain bodies from  the elements.  Commno
sense suggests that a thick covering of flesh and
fat on the bodies will withstand cold and throw
off rain better than tar, while the natural fuiictions of the skin will be preserved; that a thick
covering of flesh and fat will promote the growth
of wool  better than butter; and that  a thick
covering of wool, flesh, and fat, will ward  off
cold  and rain better  than any substitute  that
man can               apply. Food a nd  shelter, then are
alone wanting  to free hill-flocks from the filthy
process of smearing; and it is satisfactory to
observe hill-farmtiers arriving at the conviction of
the insufficiency ot smnearingil, as an equivalent for
food and shelter. But still mountain sheep, like
all others, ought to be relieved from the aninioyance of vermin.
by  the  field-    worker,                                where it remains for
a  time  to    drip th     e  bath    out of the           wool.
The third man catches and brings the sheep
b    ai to   the ben  at the    box, to be bated, fromt
the  enclosure in which                 they are          confidned
t)y hurdles, fit,. 40, or inets, fig. 44. In this
way three men and a boy dipped 28 scores
of lhtgg,s ill 7 lhours at Paston, Roxburghlshlire.  This is quick work, and is a great
saving of timie and labour, as also of bath.
Cheviot bloggs have clipped 6 lb. or 7 lb.
of wool after such dipping,, and the process
bids fair to supersede the bath of tobaccoliquor and spirit of tar described above.
4771. Wilson's  dipping  liquid  being
poisonous, care is necessary in putting
away the last portion of it which is not
used by the slheep, so as none of tile pigs
and the poultry may be poisoned by it. I
am  not acquainted with the comllpositionl
of this dipping liquid, and tlerefo-)re cannot recomniend it on its own merits; but
MIr Wilson's dipping apparatus is a most
convenient one, and may be used with any
dipping composition, and  has evidently
been constructed from practical experience,
and does not impose a peculiar mode of
dipping to suit its construction, as other
apparatus does which I  have  seen, on
which account I have noticed it in preference to other forms.
4775. But another circumstance, extrinsic of
the farm, tends to force the same conviction on
hill-farmers, in the desire of the woollen manufacturers to obtain wool free of extraneous matter,
because it suits their purpose better in causing
less  taste in the manufacture, than the  wool
ordinarily supplied from hill-farms.  The waste
in scouring and dyeing wool that has been smeared
is one-half; and wheni it is smeared with tar and
butter, it is five-eighlths of its bulk.  Hence the
low price alw ays  offere d by dealers o r  meas h rede
wool.  It might be impolitic to relinquish smearing entirely, until other  means  have been contrived as a substitute. The sudden abandonment
of smearing  might endanger  the health and  conistitutioni of hill-sheep.*
4772. Wherever sheep are kept as a standing
flock over the winter in the low coun,itry, bathing
is requisite; and when sheep are bought in to
be put on turnips in winter, as is most frequently
done on farms in the rieighbourhood of towns,
bathing must there be also practised.  On carse
farms, where no10 sheep are kept, the process is
unklown.
4773. Hill flocks are prepared for the winter
by putting substances upon the skin, riot merely
for the )purpos.e of killing veriniti, but of protectimg their bodies against the effects of severe cold
and rain.  For this latter purpose a thin liquid
will not suffice; it must have such a colnsistence
as to withstand mielting by the niatural temperature of the body, and washing away by the most
drenching railis.  The substances which possess
those properties in a high degree are tar and
butter.  The tar itself would effect both purposes,
as its pitchy tenacity prevents its mneltilg at a
low teii)perature, and rain lhas little effect upon
it; but the butter is added to ineutralise the
caustic effect of the tar iupoii the skin, aid at the
same time t. encourage the growth of the wool.
Wheii the skin of a sheep is covered with such
substances, it is said to be smeareld.
* Prize Essays of the Ilighltand and Agricultural F)ciety, vol. xiv. p. 652-62.
t Ibid., vol. xiv. p. 62-3
392
f salves ill
evince the
ni, blcatise
sitation iii
titutes f-r
e iiiaiitif'a(, —
arks of' Mr
of a iiew
farmers, it
consists ill
uglit to be
oni the eir soi-t, atid
iinoyed by
,], but will
-a,t,-,ne,
lieatliertheniselves 
BATHIING SIIEEP.
position as when the first shed is opened from the
ear aloig the upper part of thle ribs, and about
5 or 6 ilelies fromi the back, to a little below the
loiii boie, the mixture, which should  be poured
in double quiaiitity, may run towards the middle
of the back, aud it will serve to saturate all the
wool left unopened towards the back.  Other 3
long sheds oii thle side, 2 on the edge of the belly,
2 oli the shoulder aud ueck, with a little salve on
thle breast, between the thlighs, and the front  of
the hip, will siufice for oiie side.  Tlieii turn  up
the other side of the shleep, aud lay it exactly in
the same positioln as  at first, that is, with the
back  lowermost, to facilitate the liqiidi running
towards it, which it will readily do.   Tlihei pour
oil this side  as was done oii the other, always
takiilg care not to carry the sheds  towards thle
tail farther tlhan i ii  li hue drawni troimi the top of
the loin to the miiddle of the thigh. The desceut
froiii that lille beilg towards thie tail, the liequid
will fiud its way to that part.   The  priucipal
object to be attended to in the above  process is
to keep the exposed parts of the anulii as ficee
of sheds iii the wool as possible, which will thus
be done, aud yet thle whole of the wool be sufficiently saturated with the  mixture." *'Tlie
hien der part of a sh)eep bears the  coarsest wool,
anud as the sheep always exposes that part to the
stormr, atd as the top of the back is lmolst exlposed
to falls of raii, these particular parts beilig kes-t
free (f sheds, the wool will there scarcely  be
tlirowii open by  the  wind.  Whlen usilg this
liquid, the shepherd should l,rotect his legs with
a leatlhern apr,li, aiinl  a ml a  aud a boy will pour
70 sheep ill a day; but wlieii ever)tlliug is coIInveliently placed, aud no delay occirs, they will
fpour 80 in that tihue.  It should be  remarke(d,
lhowevel, that all atniial oils give a browii tilige,
aid  nmos,s-water, wlieni employed to wash sleel)p,
gives a blue tilige to woolbotli of wli4,hl colouns
lhave  to be  got rid( of in mnanufacture, though
neitlher mnay i.jutre the texture of tlhe wool.
0 3i
5. 
8 9
13
1 6
l 9]
0' d.
I lb. arsenic, at 5d. per lb.,...    d  5
12 lb. butter, at 3i per lb.,..       3   9
3 lb, black soap, at 3d. per lb..         ()  9
2 bottles of best fish-oil, at 3s. per gallon,
5 11
These, mixed with 60 quarts of water, will batlh
100 sheep), at a cost of rather iiiore than i(l. a
sheep.'This salve is made in this maiiiier'" To 12 quarts of water add 3 lb of black soalp;
and wlleti it comes to the boil add 1 lb. ot arsenic,
aiil let the whole boil together for 10 mlilnutes.
Tihen add  12 lb. of butter, and 2 bottles of fish                             -
oil, andl boil the whole  5  mliiutes longer, stirriug the mixture  all the time.   lThen pour in
ats much water  as to ilake 60 quarts.  Wl hei
used, a ittle is Iheated at a time in a pot, as it is
too thick for use wheni cold.  It should be poureid
on the sheep out  of a tin teapot, anld a long
handled tin-ladle should be used for stirriug ltip
the mixture in the p,,t, aud pouliritg it into the
teapot.   The last quantity of the miixtulre slhould
have a little water added to it, as it will becoiiie
too strong  by reasonl of the depositioni of the
arsenic to the bottom."
4710. The  thlird of the salves was prolposed by
Mr Joseplh  6tewart, Leslie, ill File, a  1,'rattical
sllepllerdl.  A   letigthteiied   experience  ill  the
smeari,.q of sheep h]as  conivinceed hiimi titat the
greater numiiilber of the suibstancees usuall.y eiii',loyed t'r that ptrpo   se a re   more or  less iai jix i -i
7us, botll to tse wheep ali(t thei r    wtool. Scc ell he
considers to be the effects of tar, tiipeltine, tobacco-juice, aind  arseniic; anid as to arlsenic il
particular, lie raegards  it so deleterioLus as to  l,e
inadmnissible inito  any  -hlcep silve —ian  ol, lnioi
with which  I coiicide.  lie  has klowtn shleep,
after beinig smnear-edi witll a salve,  o-f wliil(  arseiiic t oi-i-iere a p)art, remaini ilt;a  duill aiid  i,thlrivi,,g state all wiinter; anid wlie,i tlhe uise of
tlhe salve  was persevered ill fur  3" coisetcu-iitive
years, the shee,) lost t~leir teetlh.  "'o avo,il >u'
all evil, le hl-d recouirse to simipler  subtaues
ai(i f'ou t  hat a Imlixture of oil anid  t:tihj,w, ini
equial  p)r.portios, aniisweirs the ls ose  well.
These  mtiay be used  tlone, or iln adiixttire with
a smiail qiiav.Itity  of' tar; btit lie conceives that
the oil anti tallow  of themselves  fte)rm  the  b)e,t
salve tur  slieep that  has hitherto beein tried, aind
4779. This salve, when liquid, is put on  the
shleep in this inaiiiier:-"'' The  sheep shoutld be
laid on  the sineariug-stool, fig. 427, ill such  a
* Prize Essays of the IHiyhland and AIgriculturail Society, vol. xiv. p. 67-8.
393
more and more to the citects of the weather.
They will also run about impatiently, and beconie heated, and then become cliilled by the
first blast they afterwards may encounter. R;iiii
makes vermiii more active, and the annoyance
created by their increased a'ctivity is almost fit
to render slieep fraijtic.
4777. The three following salves are recomnietided, -stid considered improvements, by the
farniers of Peebles and Selkirk sliires, on those iii
conimon use. The first, at the price of grease
butter in 1850, from 34s. 6d. to 36s. per ewt., is
as follows:
i lb. crude white arsensic, at 5d. per lb.
28,b. butter at 3 per lb...
5 lb. black-soap, at 3d. per lb.,
i gallon turpentine, at 3s. per gallon,
This compound, with 60 quarts of water, forms
a salve tor   100 sheep, -tiid costs so'tliiiig less
me
than lid. a sheep. The water being heated,
serves to keep the salve in a liquid state during
the time it is applied to the slieel); and too much
attention cannot be bestowed on stirring the
mixture, as the arsenic is apt to fall to the bottom;
and on spreading the salve eveitly oij the skin.
This salve was proposed by Mr Ba,llaiityiie, liolylee, iii Peeblessliire, and difrers from that adopted
by the farmers in 1833 by the addition of' the
turpentine, which, having resinous properties, is
said to keep the wool closer over the slieel).
4778. Anotl)er of the salves consists of the
following ingredients: 
0                                                       p                            -        -.   - -
--        -       -. - -             -.
--    -    --      —.        -I-                            - -0 
-.                    -:    -     —    0
C -
--  -< C -                               - C        C
-                          -       C             -                          C    C
-    C -                       0
C - -    -                      C             -                                C
C               - C                                                   -    C C
C -   C                                        -   -  C
—
-                       C                 C C                               C
- - C
C C C C  - -    - -    - -                           C                               C                   C       C
C ~~~~~~~~~~C C                  C C -                    -       C -
C    C          C C        C C C C    -
0                                                C    C' C                        -. -        C    C           C    C
C                                                     - C        C    C                       C -    C
- C       C                   C -          C        C C    -
-       C                                        -       -          Cf
C                                                                      C               C            C
C    C - C                    -                   - -    -                  -                 C
C C    C    C                         C C C     C        C           C -
m   ~~~~~~~~Cs~
~C    0~     C~       CC           C-     ~            -     C        -C       C     0  It 
- Z5          CC, 
lp
I
Zs
e
Q
Z,
41
S,
m
Eli 
top),     ilicelies wide at  bottom, anid  2 feet 31
inches iii depth.   The cover  consists of sheetiroi, curved to throw off tl.e raili, aid the fodder
is pIt into the rack by throwing ol)en the hatch
a, in the cover.   The  refutse frtiom  the  fodlder,
suchl as hay, talls 1ipon the trollghis b 6, iiiade also
of sheet-iron, anid  iiiay be  eateli by thie shileep,
and at a11l events save(d froiii beitig tr,,ddeti ilito
the grouiid.  Tihe trioughs are provided withl  a
hole at each eid to allow the rnaii  to dratin off,
and  ini,ht be used  iii dry wea.tlier f,)r holding
salt, oil-cake, or cori for thie (lay.  Thie  alachine is mouiited ol  axles and wheels, aind Illay
be moved to aiiy desired spolt.'Thle ironi supports
and  axles  beijig malleable, thle impileimet i              s
rather costly-beiiig L.4, 4s.-bibut its streiigthi
and durability ntmust be great; ad( perhaps it
may  be  imade  for less molley  wlieii it comies
into general  use, whichi  it certainly deserves
to be.
allet lie   tl~)l(s-              urtl  n t   jlen! out
ulp)ot  tle  surf.ice.    TI)e[,l(glIsh             oulo
t:I;te  ill  a   feer-ing,  fig,.  1.9, of  as   naintiy
drills as  c()vers  al(oit tw,o ridgIres; andi in,
goillg lip tile o)Itside  (idill lie splits it, andin  returiillgui   Iy  tlhe  oiitsidle drill  oni tlie
otlier siite of tlhe feeritng, spl,its- it also,
tlkl-rowilng  tlhe p(t.)t-toes olut of tile  glroud,il,
in lIotli cases,  to hiis         rligt   h,l —bxut  iio
f.atster than  a band   of,atlierers,  (,f fieldwork1sers,    cani gathler  tlierii in  I>askets.
Feerinig  after feeritig  is  tlhus  niade,  and
tlle potatoes g,-atlheredl
4791.  Tlle   gathllerers,  c         hiefly  fieldl workers,   buit assisted  Iy hiredl  wolileni,
labo)iirers, o0  l)oys and( girls,  wklieni tlJeir
niiiibers   are  itisufficieiit  fir  the  wiork,
follow  the   plougl,  etell  proviled  with a
rotniiil I)askliet witit  liaihd(le, fio. 2,35;,iiiil if
tle.se  ire  nit sutfficient  in  iiiiiiiiter, twv)
gatlieirels fill a  laslket hoet"eeli tlieili, into
wliicli- they gtl her tie ptitatoes  as fast  1s
tssiltle; anro  as  soon as ally bi-sket is filleil,
it  is  taken.t1l1 eiimptied  intto tle  c.ilrt,
loosened o   in n. convehti eut  )art   of  tle fiell,
to receive theni. Iii liihlit a.id cleaii soil, tile
erot,ltoes eatsily pa.rt fir(ii it, anil atre:,reeosably  1n1(1 quiiikly pickel   ui); but ill  hea.vy
s(iil, inzi in all sils  in  f5iil coniit.ii,n, the
ploligli-fl-irow is ap)t to  turn over  entire,
taii11  the l(tat(;es to be encl(oseil wvitliiii it —
ill whii   cicase a stout fied-'Ivwiker s,lioiill
prece(le  tlie  gatlerers, atid  folilow'  the
p)Iolo-lI wvitli a sltiiil c         -,m!,ion  -grip, fig. 82,
an, sliake the furrow loose,  andI Iree  thre
lotatl,es frolii thle solil an(]   the liatilnis f(r
thle gatlherers.   Every tlhe smallest potato
4788. The harvest-work of a farm cannlot bIe sai(i to be  completed u nti l  the  i)ot.tro crop l has bee   d   bt            a     e      n  the aken Oe  a rofr 
anXd secured ag,ainst the winter's lrost. By
Oct(ober the I)otatoes nliay he expected  to
be re.a(y  for lifting.  Potatoes indicate
their fitniess for leing, lifted by the de(.ay
of the 1ha.ulms; for, as lont  as thjese -ire
green,  you  na-,y   conclutide  thie  tbl)ers
ha.,ve not arrive(] at mi~aturitv.   In an e-arly
seasonr ptt,et(ies r ipen) Ibefore Octobser; and
allt hol~ghll tlhe  weatli.er slhouild tlen  contiiiiie fiine, tlhe best pan   is to let tlemi) remaini ini tlhe griountd( uniitil all tie  graini
croi)s arie li,ari-vestedI; I)ut ini or(iniary seasons the corni is cut (lown, and carried before  the  potatoes  are ready  for  lifting.
ON LIFTING POTATOES.
t. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMIN.
should be gatliereil, not only for thle sake
o(f econonly, but of relioving a weed fiomnl
tile  succeeding,  crop.   Tlie  gathering
slholldl not be contitlued so late in  the
evening as thlat tlle  lpotatoes cannot be
easily seen, nor should i  t be persevered
in in rain.
persevered  C  4  C
X,,Jc~L
4792. After the field has been gathered
of its potatoes in this nianner, the harrows are passed over the ground a double
tine, to bring up tlhe concealed potatoes
to the surface, and to shlake the liaulms free
of the soil. The potatoes thus after-gathlered
are usually reserved for the pigs and the
poultry.
Mr  Lawson  of  Elgin.  It consists of  6
malleat)le iron bars, the outer ones o of an
incll square, the inner ones lhalf an inichi in
diameter, joined  tog,ether in tle fornm  of
a brander, 26 inches lohg from a to  b; 5
inchles in breadth froni b to c, at  the fore
part, where is a plate of iron; 27 inches
in length from c to  d; and 18 inches in
. 4793. Wlienever the field is cleared of
thle crop, thle hlaulius are gathered by thl     e
fieli-workers and carried to thle compost
stance,  to be  converted  into  nmanure,
(2042;) and these are the only (lirect return
which tle potato crop niakes to thle soil,
except the part whichl happens to be consumied by the cattle on the farm.
Fig. 432.
C?'5~'.
m/~g
THR POTATO-RAISRi ATTACHED TO A P LOUGH.
breadth  from  d  to a.   The  openings
between the rods will  thus  be  rather
more than 3 inches at the widest end of
the brander, between a and  d.   This
brander is attached to the right side                 of
the head and stilt of a plough,I in lieu ofg
thle niould-board, by thle screwvs e e, the
fore end b c being, placed close behind the
sock,- as seen at (, fig,. 432, which shows
the phgloi,h  mounted  wvithl  thle brander,
lhaving its upper aig,le e, 8 incles, anil the
plane of its face so bent (down as to lhave
the lower angle (I only 4 inches above the
sole of the plough.   The mode of operation of the brander  is, that while tihe
earth  partly passes  thlroughl  it, and is
partly pushed  aside by it, the potatoes
are  left exposed  upon  the surface  of
the ground on the right hand  of  the
ploughman.
4795. The  gathe           rers follow this plough
with baskets, the same  as  the  common
plough —but some of themi munst throw the
lha1ultmis upon tle  gatl-ered ground  which
lies to the rig,lit hand of  tie drill tliey are
gatlherinig  the potatoes  from;  and  tle
reason wily thjis mlst  I)e  done is, tlhat,'rs
soon  as the p)otatoes  wliclh lie  on the  sturface are g,atlhere(l, tlhe plou,l rllietlurns, ain(d
proceeds tliroiglh tlhe remiainiing partof  tle
drill  in  whic[h tie  potatoes lie, still tlrnit), thie eart!} and po,tatoes to tlhe  right
land.  This second(l operation raises to tlhe
surfaice any str-,ay potatoes wlhich the first
rmay not lhae turned  ullp, and wh,Iiichl tle
women gather.   This plIough,  pil%-erises
the soil in an extraordinary  degriee, anid
scarcely le:;ves.  single potato in it.   Mr
Lawson observe.s,  "I  have never bef)re
been able to clear miy fields of potatoes so
396
4794. A   sitmple  instrumnicit, figr. 431,
wlhichi miiay be substituted ini the p)loughi
for tlie imould-board, for turning  the potatoes out of the ground, was contrived by
Fie. 4!'1
THE POTATO R.AISER OR BRANDER. 
LIFTIN'G POTATOES.
effectually as by this implement, or at
nearly so smnall an expense." *
1ias   t l)oasglt  the crop  in  th e groutnt, the
potatoes are measured, fig. 168, or w,ei;,,lied
frOn' thje b)asket on  tlhe  sp)(ot into saclks, and
delivered out of the sacks.
potatoes are taken up by
manual labour, it is done
by means of thle potato graip,  fig.   433,   tlhe
prongs of wlichl are flat tened. To use this graip
efficiently being rather
severe work, men are
employed to lift the
potatoes witlh it, one
nan    talking   a   drill
close beside that of hiis
fellow-workmieii, while
2   gatherers,   woinen,
boys, or girls, to every
nian,- pick up tlhe pota toes  as he turns them
out of the ground, and
put themi into tle bas kets.
4802.  Whlen  thle  farmer lifts tlieiii to
send to t!je London mairket  direct  froll
th!e fieldl, the potatoes are first separalte(l
by wire riddles, thlrollgh whichil tlhose ili(ler
the stipulated size, 1  incli in dlianmeter,
pass,  andl  thlle othlers are  imeasutred into
sacks andl carried directly  to  tlhe  ship's
sidle.  The potatoes wlhicli fell thlroughl the
riddle are taken lhomne by thte farner.
4803. The  potato-riddle  is  nmade  of
wire,  in meshles of from 1-3 to  1~ inchl
square, andl wlhen riilniied( withl oak, costs
2s. (;d. eachi, fig,. 160.
"PS  s   nian,- pick up the pota                  toes  as  lie turns them
4    l2f out of tlhe ground, and
t ot put themn into tlje bas                  kets.
THE POTATO-GRAIP.
4797. In using this graip, it is inserted
into the side,.not upon the topof thle (lrill,
and below, not above the potatoes, withl
a push of the foot; and the earth thuis underminied is turned over into the lhollow
of thle drill, exposing the potatoes to view
upoli tlhe inverted spit, from whlence they
are gathered of.  The men thlen pass the
prong,s (f the g9aip here and there thllrough    l
thie soil, to exhnume and expose to view
every potato lurking, beneath it.
4804.  Potatoes  are  most   comnionly
ma tniale  up  by  nieasuire in  Scotlan(l into
whlat are termed bolls.  Tle boll is agiven
wei,ght, whlichl  varies withl the clistomi of
the district.   They ought in all cases to be
sold Iby weight.
4805. The boll  weighs    2  cwt. or lco
stones of 14  lb. to tlhe stonie, in  somiie parts
of the country, and douible tl,lat  weigl,t in
otler parts; wlhile in seIne I.)laes it is as
muichl as 40 stones.  Tle lightest weieht is
called the single, and the lea-vier one the
double boll.   It is sutrprising lhow (litficlit
it is to  introduce  a  unif,lrii systemii of
weighits and m easures into a country.
4798. In  this  manrner,  I man  and 2
wometi  will take uip, of a good crop of 80
bolls of 16 stones or 2 cwt. per acre, 20
bolls a-day, which will cost   6s. per acre,
or iatlier iore tIan 24d. per boll, at tlie
followinll  wires: -I1    an 2s., and 2 wotmen at Is. eachl per daiy, without food. The
btll of 32 stones or 4 cwt. will cost, near
towns, 6d. for lifting.
4806. The  produce  of  )otatoes  varies
amazingIly, accordin,, as the season is very
dry or wet.   Even  before  the exi.stence
of the f.ailuire, it vaIried fromii 30 single bolls
or 60 cwt.=  3 tons, in at very dry season;
to 120 bolls 0r 240 cw t. -- 12 tons to tlhe
acre in a  moist, growing one.  The disease  hias caused a still,reater variety in
tlbe quantity.
4799. Potato-graips cost 2s. 3d., and
when lhan(led 3s. each.
4807. The price does not vary withl the
quantity, a scanty crop seldoml  excee,dit,I
6s. the siugle boll of 2 cwt., and tle plentiful one not tander 4s. Since t~lie disease
the price  lhas risen to 38s. tlle small boll,
wlhielh I lha-ve paid for good seed.
4800. When a farml-er lifts the potatoes
on  hlis own  account  to be disposed  of
afterwards, they are put  into  the  cart
witihout measurement or selection, and carrie(l directly to the pits.
4808. Taking a medium potato crop at
60 small bolls of 2 cwt. each, or 6 tons,
* Quarterly Journtal of,4 Agrculture, Yol. viii. p. 551-2.
i
I
I
i
i
1
397
4796. Wlien
Fig. 433.
4801. When lift 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
and a medium price of 5s. thle boll, it yields
~15 an acre; and allowing 40s. an acre
as the cost of all the labour connected with
the disposal of the crop, the return is still
~13 an acre-a large slim; but it ought
to be remnembered that potatoes, when
entirely disposed of, leave no nianure on
the farmii, while they require more than an
ordinary quantity to raise a crop;  and
they also itincutir considerable trouble in the
delivery, and, being a perishable cominodity, cannot be preserved beyond a given
tinme.  Since the occurrence of the disease,
no particular sunt can be relied on from thiis
crop; and in consequence its culture has
Isecomie an uncertain speculation.  Henceforwai,d the returns from  this crop must
be left out of calculation.
4812. The proportions of the component parts
of the potato will be found in (1255) and (1256.)
It s    nutrient properties ar   e  mentioned in (1254,)
(1259,) and  (1260.) Its inorganic constituents
are given ill (1257),and (1258.) The composition
of  the  ash of  the potato leaves and stenms is
stated in (4159) and (4160.)
4809. Where farm-servants have potato
ground given thetm as part of their wages,
their crop is taken up with the rest of the
field, and the cost of taking it up falls
upon the master.  Where they receive a
stipulated quantity of potatoes, instead of
a given space of ground, it is delivered to
them as taken up from the field.  The
quantity stipulated for is 7 or 8 bolls, of
32 stones each, or from 28 to 32 cwt.  The
quantity should be measured or weighed,
but the body of the cart is usually made
the instrument of measurement;  and I
believe they prefer taking their chance in
this, well knowing the quantity is never
under the just amount.  Of the two moties
of payin, servants, in prolific seasons they
are well  supplied  whlen  the ground  is
planted for them; but in bad seasons they
suffer privation, which they bear patiently,
knowing that the deficiency arises from
no circumstance over which their miaster
has a control; and those who receive a
stated allowance every year, suffer in a
bad year by deterioration of quality.
The former class of servants have always
a direct interest in the quantity, and bolh
have so in the quality of the crop.  Since
the potato failure, instances have occurred
when it was out of the power of the tiaster
to pay the stipulated quantity to the ser- 
vatits, and a coniprotitise ltas been substituted of ~3 in tit-,ney, or of 3 bolls
- 24 stolles of meal, of 1 4 lb. to the stone.
Those who had the ground plante  Ld tal on                                o
claitim on their master on account (of the
failure of the crop; but some allowance,
I believe, was made in most cases.
4813. Potato-starch may be converted into a
substance having the properties of tapioca. All
acquaintance of mine in Forfarslire, the late Mr
James Scott, Beaucha-tip, raised large quantities
ofpotatoes every year before the appearance ofthe
disease amongst them; and instead of disposing
of  them  in  the  bulk,  converted   them into
tapioca. For this purpose he erected machinery
in  connexion with  his  thrasling-mill steamengine, to grate the potatoes into pulp, and to
wash the starch out of the pulp. The pulp was
afterwards dried in till vessels in an oven. The
tapioca thus obtainled was put up in paper parcels of a pound weight, and sold to a house in
Glasgow at, I believe, 8d(. per lb. The delivery
o f  t he  tapioca at th    e slipping   port of  Arbroath
was a great savinig of cartage, compared to what
would hare been the delivery df the potatoes ill
bqlk. The refuse of the manufacture, consisting
chiefly of the fibrous matter of  thle potato, was
retained to give to pigs (1b93) and farm-horses.
4814. The fectila of the potato presents very
varied forms, and no other knowu kind acquires
so large a size, observes Al. Raspail. "lWhen
first obtained from  the organs of the plant, it
exhibits concentric wrinkles on its surface, which
disappear when it dries. The largest grainis are
about'0049 of an inch in size. The most comiimon size is from'004 to'0015.  They are, oval,
contracted il the middle, like the cocooni of the
silk-worm; gibbous, obscurely  triiigular, or
rounded, and  the smallest are  spherical.  The
potato is the only plant whose fectila is used for
culinary purposes,  as it ca m be obtained at 
cheaper rate than ary other. To extract it, the
tubercles are washed and scrubbed, after which
they are rasped under a stream of water, which
carries the  raspinigs to a sieve, through wlhje
398
4810. 1: niay ))'int, on liftin(r the crop,
In
that a few potatoes proa,e an acceptable
gift to the ]one cot-woi-nan wlio works in
your field-,;, or whose daut,-Iiter fulfils -the
tn
useful office of field -worker.
.4811. Tijose wlio desire to plant unril)e
potatoes as seed, sliotild take ul-) the quaiitity required before tl)e ltatilm indicates
a ripened state in -tlje general crop. Perlial)s the s.iinall I,:ctatoes of the crop woiil(.1
answer tlje purpose, as they are the latest
efl't)rts of tije potato-I)earing, fibres; not
stliall potatoes as sticli, t3ince-tlie' entire cr(.)p
iay consist of siiiall potatoes, and be fully
ripe, and as ut)flt foi-'seed -W tile fully
ripened lar,,,,est ones. 
LIFTING POTATOES.
cylinder revolves and takes the potatoes  witlh it
tllrollghi tile water; and as the potatoes filnld their
way along its ielilned bottom in the water, they
are  taken up by a  twisted  sparred inclined
pla.ne, whichl carries themn to the openingf in its
boarded end, c, to a level of the edge of the box,
over whichl they run down the  inclilled plane ot
the slide 9, which conveys  themn as  far a:s A,
ahere a tub, barrow, or basket, is placed on the
ground to receive themi in a tlhoroughly  wyahsled
and clean state.
meshes the fecula alone passes into a vessel placed
below.    Wheni time  operation is finislhed, the
water is poured off, and time fecula is repeatedly
washed  uiitil the water  carries off no soluble
matter; after which it is dried ill the stiul or ill
a stove.  This fecula theni has the appearance of
an impalpable crystalline powder, lhaving a white
colouir with a bluish tinige. T'lhe grainis are less
altered  in this  than  in  any  othler variety  of
fecula." *
4815. Fig. 434 gives a view in perspective of
Fig. 434.
4817. The peculiar advantage of this machilie
is, that in turning  the  wiiich-haiidle e to tlhe
right, and keeping the hopper d supplied wvith
dirty  potatoes  it washes  them  aid  thlrovws
thlemll  out clean in a continuous streamn to the
bottom of the slide h.   On turnling  thle wi,ch —
lha~idle e to thle let, thle potatoes are retained
witliiii the cylillnder, until the washing is effected
as completely as you desire; and tihen, )by turnilig it to tile right, you get quit of the  potatoes
ilnstantly   In mlachilles heretofore ill use, the
washillg process is stopped to fill and  enmpty the
cylilnder, which must be raised out ot' the cistern
for those purposes, anld lowered again into it, by
a tedious and laborious process. Thle price of
this machine is L.3, 10s.
4818. Potatoes are generally given to cattle
in an unwlashed state; and when they are taken
up in dry weathcr fromn dry soil, but little carth
adlheres to them; but in rainy weather they cannot fail to take away mnuch of thie soil, IImot of
which the (attle are obliged to receive.  With
such a washier as this, tihe quota of potatoes given
to the cattle miay be washed every day inl a few
milnutes; and it oug,ht to be washed without fitail.
an excellent potato-washer, which was exhibited
at the Ilighlatid and Agricul:  ural So( ietv's Show
at Edinburgh ii 1848, by Mr Richard Robinson
of Belfast.  It consists of two cast. iron frames
a a connected together by mealls of three round
malleable iron rods.  In the forks of these fralies
is inserted a wooden box or cistern 6, wider at
the top than at tile bottom, to conitailn the water
to wash tile potatoes.'lhe cylinder c, having a
larger diameter at C than at the othler end, is
sparred with fillets of wood  fastelled oli with
iron hoops, at such distances as to prevelnt potatoes slipping through between thenm.  The cylitnder c is hliiug on the box b by ineans of an iron
axle, whlich passes through both ends  of the
cylillnder, and  turns up)n  plllIllber-blocks, the
nearest end being extended as far as to allow
the trough q to be suspended between the box
al(d thle wicli-liandle e, which i.S sulpported on its
extremlity.  The hopper d receives the potatoes,
which pass over a grating in its iiicliiied bottom,
thro,ighl which any earth or sand  falls to thle
grotiud. 
4820. " Dr  Pescbier of Gexeva ha s    detected
the presenc(-e of mItucous sugar and of guim in the
potato.   Timis  explains why it is capable  of
uiidiergoilig the viniouis termenitation.  The acids
contained iui potatoes in the natural state were
ascertained by  Eiihiff to be  a  mixture of thie
tartaric and phosphoric acids."
4821. " It is well known  that a spirit cal be
extracted  fr~.iiu  potatc(es.    Frolm  this  spirit
Messrs  Bertillhii  aud  Guietand  extracted  a
volatile  oil, whicll M.  Pelletan found  to be  a
colourless limpid liquid, having a strong smell,
hlot acrid  taste, very  soluble  in  alcohol, aud
obviously conitainiiig miiuch alcohlol."t
4816. Th         e        w asher is used       in this mantner:Water is poured inito the box b uniitil it is nearly
full.  The potatoes are then put illto thie hopper
d by means of a shovel or basket, antd after passing over the gratinig finid their way inito tlhe
cylinder. On turning the witichl-lha-,dle e, the
* Raspail's Or.qanic Ch enistry, p. 111.
+ Thomson's Or~(vnic CAetnistry —Veqetables, p. 481 and 842.
399
a -; A
I
THE SRLF-DKLIVXRING POTATO-WASH
4819. " Wlien potatoes are boiled, they lose
froin I to II per ceiit of tl-ieir weight.   I'lie
juice wlii(,-Ii niay be separated 1roin them!is
sweet-ta-ste(l. TI)e ineal is iiisoluble eveii iii
boiling water, though potato-star(,-h forms a
ti-aiispareiit solution witli liot water. Tl)iis it
appears tbat, by boiling, the albumen, fibrous
matter,and starci-i cottibiiie togetlier,aii(i foi-tit
aii insoluble coiiipouiid." Sitiil)le as the process
seems, it is iiot every co(.k wlio can boil a potato 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
for pitting small  quantities of potatoes,
and is ell a dapte  d fior small fqrkl s and
cottars;  tle  prismatic is used for storing,,
largOe quantities.   For botl sorts of pits,   a
situation slhelter'e(d from  tlhe  n(orth  winid
should be selected; and tlhe ground as (-dry
of itself as to absorb the rain as fast as it
falls, or as Inmuchi inclinel as to all],w surface water to run away  quiickly.  The site
slhoiuld be conveniently chosen for op)ening
tlje l)its aLndl al-Jlitting carts to tlhemn, at thje
corner or sidle )f a field, so as not to interfere
with its workl in winter, and as  near tlhe
steading as possible.
482-2. r remember  seeing potatoes that  had
lain iieglected for some time ill a damp corner of
a meal mnill, which seemed like lu;Ilps of brown
semi-transparent resin, and as light in the hand,
the                           skin being tranlslucent though as rough as iii
t        he                   natural state.          On boiliig a f ew,  I  found
t      h      e       y regained the ordinary imeially character of
a     g     o     o     d      potato, and tasted as well. Thi s  incident
oc           curred before the appearance  o f th e    failure.
4823. Tle object of storing potatoes is
to place thetm  ieyondl tlhe reacll of frost.
No difficulty is found ill doing so in tlhe
earlylv part of winter, whien  tlhe temperatare is iiierely low, and not frosty, and f
vegetation dormnant.  Potatoes may thlerefore be kept in almost any situation in t!he
early part  of winter; but if damp  is
allowved to reach  thlem  for  a letigtli of
timie, they will rot; and if the air finds
access to them  in winter, the frost will
not only reachl  them, but veg,etation will
be awakene(l in tthenm  in early sprilng.
To  place  themn  effectually  beyond(  tihe
influence of the elements, they should be
stored in a dry place, and closely covered
up; and no mode aflfords bothl  requisites
so completely as ordinary dry soil.
4825. A conical pit o,f potatoes is
formed in t      his i ianner:-If the  soil is of
ordinary    tenacity, and not very  dry, let a
small spot of its surface  be  smiiootlhened
with thle sp9pade. Upon tlhis spot let tlle
potatoes, as they are taken out of tlhe ceart,
be built  by lhand in a conical  lheap, not
exceeding  2  feet  in  lleigl,t; and  the
diameter wlhichl a cone of that  lieiglht will
occupy, so as not to impose muclh trouble
in piling up the potatoes, will be about  6
feet —tlat is, 1 - foot in breadth to I foot in
lheighIlt.  Tlhe  potatoes are  tlhen covered
witlh a tlhick tlha,tchlinig of dry clean straw
-not drawn, as is too commiionly the case,
but brok~en.   Eartlh is then dug  witlh a
spade  fronli the ground  in the form of a
trenchl  around  the pit, the inner edge  a,
fig. 435, of the trench being cut as far from
4824. Fig. 435 exhibits the two ordinary forms of pits, one conical, the other
prismatic.  The conical form is employed
Fig. 435.
THB CONICAL AND PRISMATIC FORMS OF POTATO-PITS.
the pile of potatoes as will be the thickness
of both the covering and of the earth to be
put upon it, whliclh  mavy be about 1  f(ot.
The first spadeful is laidl llloni tlhe lower
edge of the straw, and r 11n1(-l thie lheap ()f
,ottitoes in a circle, thle earthl being ch1opped
fine a.Liil beaten  %l,wn withl the spade, to
render it as iiiijetrviolis to cold as 1)ossible:
and the drier it is, the less effect will frost
400
ON STORING POTATOES.
t y ~/k,\. \?,X* i",)~,x,'?,. "."
hlave upon it, and penetrate into it the less
distance.   Thus spadeful after spadeful
of the eartlh is taken from  the trench, and
hleaped  on  the straw above  tlhe potatoes,
iunt.il the  entire cone a /,  c is formed.
wlxich is tl!en beaten  sinootlh and  r-ound-I
witlh t!ie back of  t!he spatle.  TIJe  sli-.rp
apex o-f the cone at b will be al)it 3 feett
3 inches in ],eig ht, and  tle diameter  of 
-... jv~ un litjl[  LUlOtl 1ll cellars or outhouses; for, independent of the heat,  the
probable dampness of tlhe cellar nmay cause
many to rot; and constant exposure to
tile air, if not directly conducive to vegetation, will cause -,is mulcli  evaporation
of tlhe water of tle p)otato -is to produice
considerable shrinking.  Until, therefore,
experience discovers a better plan, the old
one of pitting mnust be followed; and if
certain bad efiects have been experienlced
by  ieating, in consequence of the heaps
hlaving been imade too large, modificatio.ns
should be a(ldo)ted in thle construction  of
pits to avoidl tlhe evil complained  of.   I
thlink tlhat, if potatoes are placed in lheap)s
of the (lilmensions I lhave mentioned above,
they will run little risk of lheating.
its sides and ends d h and d e, instead of
round, as in a conical heap.   The hei,,gllt
of thle pile of potatoes sl(,ould not exceed
2- feet, and its breadth will sprea~d oult to
about 7  feet; and allowing 12 inches of
tlhickness for thle straw and eartll, the hleiglt
of the finished pit will be  31  feet, and
breadtlh 91 feet. The direction of a lon,
pit slhoul(l a,lways be N. and S., to place
both its sides within reachi of the sun's rays
in winter, to couniteract the efifcts of frost.
4828. It is found tlhat, whleni freslh potatoes are lieaped together in large quantities, a certain degree of lieat arises, wlhich
increases as imuchl  as to awaken veg,etationi
in thle potatoes; and one p1roof of suclh                      heat
hlaving, existedl is evidenced  )by thle long
sprouts in thle Ileap wlell ()pened in sprilg.
Tile tilick coverilig of dry straw upon tlhe
p(tatoes may be  thle means  of retaining
thle ileat tlius evolvedl, and( Ilence it hias
beeni st,ugg ested( to leave openiligs alonge
tilje ridge of thle 1)it for tlhe hleat to escapl)e;
tlhe openings to be left at intervals thirougl
uIprig(llt bunldles of drIawnI str,aw, held togetlrer by cordl, an(l Clt square on thle top,
before thle eaitlli is thlrown llp and beate         n
down  near tl.e ri(le.  Thlese straw cliininteys may b)e sene at i an(l k, fig. 435.
e4830. I b  lft i s  diffi cult  to  explain tle (lifferent efiects  wlici the satine mode of,pitting
produces   now that  it did t went y  years ago
and upward(Is. Tlheni, let the pits  b)e fortmed
ever so l       a rge, and the cut-sets lheaped on
the barni-floor ever so highl, either for a long
or a slhort period, not a wvor(d was heard of
failure; but if tlhere is any truth in tlhe
conjecture, that the failure is ascribable to
the or-(diinaIy nio(ide of pitting, the conclusiont is irresistible tlha-t soImie chlang,e 111ust
lhave  comie over  t!he potato itself, since
there is none in tlhe p~ittinlg.   Whiat, then,
we all want to know is, chy whole  potatoes  lheatt now  ill the pit, and cut ones in
the barn, when no such effects were seeni
twenty years ago? Since no satisfactory
answer  can be given  to this question,  let
the pitting of potatoes in winter, and the
2c
4829. To )reserve potatoes cool in the
pits during winter, it hias been reconIiended to miix earth among,st tlhem andt  t           o
have no covering abolve tileni but earth,
in inmitation of thle state thley hlappen to be
left in thle ground all winter, whlen found
VOL. 11. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
treatment of the cut-sets be changed to
suit the altered condition of the plant;
but the adoption of a safe change in practice should not induce us to neglect the
circumstance that causes the chlange, nor
content ourselves with secondary causes,
although a remedy may seemn  hopeless.
This leads us to revert to the rationale of
the potato disease, which hlas been already
discussed in (4161) and (4162.)
4835. The soil m,ost protective of the
potato against disease is mnoss.  Out of 32
cases of the cultivation of the potato inll
noss in England, only  5 suffered  iiiuchl,
and 17 little, while 10 escaped altogether;
of 31  cases ill Scotland, none were bad;
of 41 Irish cases, only 2 suffered iiiuchi,
24 little, and  15 escaped; and of Welshl
the one case escaped.  It would seem that
peat mixed with other miianure3 acts to
some extent as a preventive, 2 instances
of escape occurring in England, and  1.5 iul
Ireland; while no example of failure oceurred in Eng,land1 and Scotland, and t,ut
4 in Ireland, and 1 in Wales. The conclusion is in pure well-drained peat moss,
potatoes suffer very little from disease.
4831. As long ado as 1843, a foreign
cultivator "found thlat, five weeks after lie
had harvested a crop from a field planted
with diseased  I)ota.toes, tlety began  to
undergo a d(Iry corriuption; and that, even
if, externailly, they hlad a sonn(l appearance, they had int(o rintlly a number of the
blue spots, called stagnation spots, which,
when the potatoes were boiled, remained
hard, were rejected by cattle, and which
could not be used for the manufacture of
brandy, as, besides being unsuited for the
purpose, the potatoes would not go through 4
the crushing-niill."*  These are precisely
the characters of the disease observed in
our own potatoes, and they afford infallible
means of detecting the existence of the
disease.
4836. On  heavy  land the disease is
considerable. In England 129 cases suffered much out of 163, only 34 escaping;
in Scotland the result was better, 16 cases
escaping out of 27-, the suffering  being
much in 11  cases; but in Ireland there
was no escape, and 11 cases suffered Im uchl,
and the same was the state with Wales, 2
cases suffering much.  And where  the
heavy land was also wet the proportion of
siffering increased: in England it was as
153 is to 34 which escaped;  in Scotland
16 to 17; in Ireland 13 tu 1; in Wales 4 to
none; and on the whole 186 to 51. And
if to these rich land is addedl, the proportion of loss rises still higher, as 237
to 44.  The  conclusion is, that potatoes in
very rich, wet, or heavy land are exposed
to disease in a miost dangerous degree,
as 272 to 9, unless the land is very dry,
or the climate cold, or the planting performed in tile autumn or very early in
spring-so that not more than I crop in
30 can hope to escal)e in such land.
4832. As expedients have been adopted,
during the growth of the potato, to evade
the disease on the stems and leaves, and
by consequence on the tubers, as has been
particularly  mentioned  from  (4153) to
(4158;) as many expedients  have been
adopted in the pitting to ward off the
disease from the potatoes themselves, but
none as yet have succeeded in doing so, far
less in staying the plague, after it has manifested itself.
4833. Of such expedients dry materials
have been miixed with the potatoes in the
pits-for no one has entirely condenned
the use of pits-such as dry sand, sawdust,
dry pow%dere(l peat, ashes of various kinds;
and if any of these really prevented the
wet rot, they had no power to retard the
progress of the dry rot.
4834. Ventilators of various kinds besides those of i and k, fig. 435, have been
recommended in pits, with  the view of
evaporating the moisture from the potatoes,
* Journal of.Agric#lture, Marcli 1844, p. 395.
402
and preventing the rot. Suoll ventilators
are conduits for air made of latlis and
slabs of wood, and of pipe tiles; and
altlioiigh in inany cases-,tliey apparently
checked the first syniptonis" of tlle (lisea,e,
yet wliere the disease jwas decidedly acti Nre,
they proved as ineffective as tfie expe(lients mentioned above.
4837. On light land the results were
Ithe Opposite to those -on the heavy - in
England the num' ber of escapes being 313 
SOWING WHEAT.
to 79, which suffered muchl; in Scotland
12g to none; in Ireland 48 to I; and in
Wales 20 to none, the proportion of great
disease  being about  one-seventhl.   The
conclusion is, that in England the chances
are 313 to 24 against the appearance of
much disease in li,ght lands, unless planting is late, or mainuring excessive, or there
is a heavy wet subsoil: that is, not more
than 1 crop in 13 suffers much  in light
land,  if nmoderately  nianuired, planted
early, and resting on a dry subsoil.  In
other parts of the  kingdom  no failures
occurred on light lands, except in onle instance near Londonderry.
w hole mat ter    may thius be slimmed w uap tlhatover-luxuriance,arisinygfr(on  whate vter
cause, wtPas high,ly favourabuleto thieprogresca
of disease, and vice vers(!.*
4839. Mv belief is, tlat, if we ever shall
be able to clheck the vi,.ulence of the
potato disease, we ought to be contenlted
to raise  small cro ps,  comrarel with     wliat
we were for many years  accustomed to
do before the disease appeare,, witlh smiall
quantities of  well-pr-epar-e(d manure; and
altl!oiighI such a methi(d of cultivation will
not give tlhepectinianmy returns wliielh l!ave
hiLlherto been,leriired from tihe potato, we
mulist dispense  witlh large crops  -iyj(l large
profits, for the sake of again enjo,ying a
pleasant  constituent of the dinner table.
Overgrown potatoes, forced  with  inordliniate quantities of ptitrescenit manutre, are
as unpleasant to the palate as precarious
to the purse.
4838. The connection between manures
and the potato disease is not so easily
traced as is the case of soils, the experience of cultivators being of the most opposite nature.  "No  doubt can exist as to
the cause of these discordant statements.
Tihe circumstances under which the trials
have been made have not been the same,
and therefore the results have also been
different.  Or, as has commonly happened,
effects have been ascribed to  mianures,
which have in truth belonged to other
and  unsuspected causes."   As  regards
guano, the inference is, that, under all circumstances, twoo crops manured with guano
have been saved out of three; that, if
applied to autumn and early spring plantedi crops, it is ad-lvantageous, but that it is
dangerous in late planting.   Thle conclusioii arrived at in the use of farmyard
manure  is, that if used abundantly, in
a very rank condition, and especially in
this state to late planted crops, it is an
extremely  disadvantageous  application.
Ashes are a safe mLn.ure, when applied by
itself, in the proportion of 27 to 4, and
when il mixed with farmyard dung 54  to
15.  Saline manures have not been productive of injury, and are perhaps beneficial.  Waitlhout manure the results are
favourabl)le.  In Englanl, 32 cases suffered
much. for 96 which escaped; in Scotland
I suffered for 11 that escaped; in Ireland
1 for 7; and in Wales 1 for 2: the whole
giving 35 cases of suffering for - 16  which
escaped.  Nothing is discernible in favour
of salt;  nor does  sea-weed indicate       a
better effect.    The  conclusion of the
4840. " When potatoes are exposed to the
action of frost, it is well known that they becone soft, and acquire a sweet taste. This taste
is succeeded by a sour taste, owing to the rapid
evolution of acetic acid, and  the root soon passes
to putrefaction. From the experiments of Einhot,
we learn that the sugar is formed at the expense
of the mucilage; for the other ingredients were
found in potatoes sweetened by frost, ini thle usual
proportionh He  considers this sweetening process as connected with the vegetative powers of
the root." t
* Gardeniers' Chronicle, Feb. and March, 1849.  + Thornsoi's Orqanic Chemitry Vegetaest, p.481.
$ Parliamentary Return, February 12, 1850.
403
4841. Since tl)e removal of the duty, a coinsiderable trade in the import of potatoes has at-itsen
with Hollaijd, Haitiburg, Belgium, a,iid France.
In 1848 the quat.itity iniported was 940,697
owt., aiid in'1849 it, increased to 1,417,863 cwt.:
ON BOWING WHEAT IN AUTUAIN.
4842. 11 How ceaseless is the round of
rural labour!" may the poet truly exclaim,
for no sooner does, the f,-i.riner secure one
crop tliari lie cf)ttiii)eiiees to sow a new
one; atid liis efl'orts iti autunin are exerted
to pr(-pare as iiiiicli land to sow witli wlieat
as lie possibly can.
4843. We left the working of summer
fali()w after tiie land was diinge(l, (4172 -)
and wlien it was' to receive no Iiiiie. It iv
now our business to finiali the sutiimer fal 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
lowing, by sowing whleat upon the land
so prepared for it.  The  first process is
the levelling of the drills whiicii cover the
dung, by hliarrowing tlhemt across a double
tine; and, if the land  is strolig clay,
anothler double tine will be required across
the first one.
4848. The land being, thus )repared for
tlhe seed, the variety of whleat intelidede to
be sownl just now should havtve been. selected
in tilmie fromn your own stock, or l)urchasedI
from that of another.  It is quite l(ssible
for a part of the new crop to be thrashed
out for seed in timne for sowing in a-utumniti;
but those who sow early in autumn will
not  have  thle  opportunity of  procuringtheir seed in this way.
4844. After tle land has been lharroved
level, the root weeds that niay have been
brought to the surface should be removed,
but the surface weeds will soon withler in
the sun and air.
4849. Some farmers prefer sowing wheat
on fallow land in September; andl where
there are much  bare fallow and  strolig
land, tlhat month may  be a proper season to
beg,in.  The ot~jectioii is, that, should tile
later part of autu mn and the early part of
winter prove  mild, the wh eat pl ant will become proud (2660,) before cold and frosty
weather set in to check its growtlh.  October, in my estimation, is thle best period for
sowing wheat, as it avoids tlhe risk of proud
growth, and also of biad weather setting in
at the latter part of November,i after which
no wheat stshould be sown until tlhe
spring.
4845. Tle lan(d shiould( then be feered,
to!)e gathered up (749,) into ridges; and
if tlhoroughlly drained, or naturally dry,
one gatheringi-up will make  a good seedbed-l; but wet land, to lie safe all winter
in thle ridg,e, slhoull b)e twice gathered-up,
(764.)  The second  gathlering-up,  however, sliould not be plouglie(l immediately
after tlhe first, but such an interval of time
'slotiuld elalpse as to allow the land to subsi(le, and the  subsidence  will be  much
accelerated by rain.
48446. Slhouild the fallow land have had
tlhe dung  spread  upon  the surface, and
ploughled in with feered ridges, thle feerings
li.ad  )een made to leave a half ridge at tihe
side of the field, (4170;) whichl, now that
the land is about to be gatlered-up for
the seed-furrow, is converted into a whole
ridge,  to be  uniform  witli' thlose of the
rest of the field.                               a
4850. Buit altlhouiglh the new crop  were
secured in good time to afford seed  for
sowing in autumnin, it is better to sow o]4Ml
wlieat tlhani new in auitumnn.  New wheat
will germinate quicker in the most fa-tvoirable circumstances  of soil and   weather
than old; but it is more easily aflected by
bad weather, and by insects; and in consequence its braird is generally  neitlher 8o
thick nor so strong as froni old  wlheatthat is, from seedf of tlhe preceding year;
for very (,ld whleat may Ihave lost its vit:ality, even in thle stagck, or f je  bee n imuchI
injured1  by  tile weevil,  (1S8.59,) ill  the
granary.
4847. But a practice las comne into use
since thle introducti(,n of the grubber, fig.
21 5, wviilih possesses advantages on strong,
landl, in certain circunistatlces, whllichl is, to
)ut the sown wlheat into the groound with
the grilber, upon the gatliered-up ridges
which!lad covered in thie dung of the tallow, instea(l of gathlering-up the land again
for a seed-furrow; and( to finish the work
with  a d(oulle-tine harrowing  along tlhe
ridges.    WVlhen  the grubber is contemplated to I)e so used, the land slhould hlave
l)een feered fior ga:tlering-up in the summter
fallow, so as to finish with full ridges over
the field, as the contemplated grubbing
cannot alter the forimi of ridges.   When  a
tough  waxy clod is expected to arise on
plougling strong land, rather wet below,
for  a  seed-furrow,  or.when  unsettled
weather prevails, the grubber will keep
404
tire (iry atiieliorated soil upon the surface.
and accelerate ttie seed-tinie considerably.
4851. The varieties of wheat well siiite(I
to be sown i,.i autuniii are so iiiitiierotis
that a, few iiiiy be found a(lapted f(-)r
every locality. Hiinters wheat, has long
been a f.,tvotirite in Scotland, on -i,it
classes of; soils. The Ciiidliaiii'white
,",Ijea.t is,,-i favourite in m.any parts of the
kin,,doi-n, oil ttie best loanis.. Both belong
to tlit,, class of wheat represented ]In fi,,,.
I,-7.       ITpon   iuferior soils it is always
safest to sow a red wheat, which, although 
SOWING WHEAT.
realising a lower price in thle mnarket, will
a l w a y s    yield a larger increase.  Of tl   the red
w       hleats the Danzig creeping hlas ltilong stood
tle                       test as a  lhardy, tillering, and  prolific
variety. TThis wlheat belotngs to tthe second
cl       ass, represented in fig. 178.   As no  spec    ific                  rule call  be Iaidt down for  a  s pecial
va        riety of wlweat        to be sown  in any given
locLlity,  youi must exercise you       r        ow n  judgiment,                                           on hearing thee opinion s  of farm ers in
your                                              iieigghborlrhood, as to tl e  varieties
b     est                  suited to your own  locality.
Wherever the land is harrowed as fine as
mieal, in autundn, the rain never fails to
bitter its surface into aicrist, and the  fr ost
to heave  i t up  in spring   like  feryie ntedi
doug,hb, in which action the  plants iare
raised alon, with the soil, and left on tile
surface almost drawn out by tlhe roots, after
the subsidence of tle earth on  thle frost
becominig thawel by suinslhine(2660.) Such
an effect can only occur where a considerable quantity of rMioisture, ready to be acted
on by frost, lias been retained  by tile suil)soil  immnediately under  the  surface-soil.
Draining  is the only safeguard  against
the young wheat plant being thrown  out
by frost from the grouindt in that particular
manner.
4853. Wlieat may be sown broadcast,
drilled,i        and dibbled in autunn, and  there
is no p eculiarity in  exercisin m either      process at thi s season.  Sowing  broadcast is
don                        e by the siand as las already been describ          e       d in (231 9)an 230 and (2320,) and with a
umacline   i        n (2333) tnn  d  (2334.)   Th  e
drilling  is effecte    d by tlee mac hines represented in figs. 205, an(d 206. Tlhe dibbl    ing pay  l    te exec ate(d  by the                                   d iacleines
represent      ed in figs. 291 and 292.  Broadca o           st sowin g is still most comnton in Scotlan,td.   Drillin(g is the  usual mnethod in
Engl-and, as also in tlle neigh-bourllood of
large towns in Scotlanid, b)ecausc that form
of sowing,, permaits the surface weeds being
most easily,lestroyed by inechlaniical means
amoni,gst growing crops.
4856. When land is naturally strong
enough to grow whleat, and yet is somnewhat soft, and as wet below as to make
it probable that the plant will be thrown
out, (26(60,) ribbing with the smiiall plough
(2626) and (2628) is a better i'ode of
ploughing it, to make it retain the plant,
than comtmnoni ploughing.  The wheat is
sown broadcast over the ribs, and hart-owed
in with only at double tine along, (2696.)
Tfle ribbint, gives the seed a deeper bed
in the  soil than oere hlarrowing, and the
plant a deeper hold in spring; and it  has
one advantag,e in common witlh the grubber,
of moving only the dry surface soil for the
seed-bed.  Ribbing can only be practised,
however, on land that  has been ridged Up
for sotne time, as tlhe small plou,ghIi goes
too deep, and nmalies the drills too wide on
new-plougl-hed land.   Ribbing is never*
attempted on land tlat has not been ridged
up, the siiall plouighl being unfit to turn up
land in a hardened state.
4854. Thje finisliing processes of lharrowin,,, described from-i (2352) to (2358,) and
of wLter-furrowilig (2361,) are conducted
in the saiiie mianner now as in spring;,  but
with this difference in autumn, when water
is mniore likely to stand upon tllhe land, thlat
gaw-cuts ( 779) mnust be made  witl1 tile
s)ad(le, fig,. 237, in hollows on thle surface,
andl  across  lieadrilges; for,  Ihowever
tlhorolighlily drained land iiay be, chlannels
nmust be provided( to carry large falls of
rain quickly away. 
4857. Anotlher mode of preventing the
tlhrowing'out of the wlheat plant  on soft
land, otherwise well adapted for wheat, is,
first, to feer the land into ridges, fig. 19,
sow the seed broadcast between the feerings, cover it witlh a lighlt see(t-furrow,
w ithli thle cominioni ploughi, eithier gatlieringiup (749,) or casting it (755,) according
to thie texture  of tile soil, and leave the
land unlharrowed anLiid rouigil all winter.
4855. As regards the l;arrowing, it is
of ipnportance to leave the wlheat land all
winter witlh  a round large clod  lupon tihe
surface.   Suchl  clods afford shelter from
witi(l and frost to the young planrts, and,
when gradually mouldered by frost, also
serve to increase the deptl     h  of the loose soil,
and give the roots a better hold of, it.
4858 As tire ground is de sired to be
left in a rough state all winter, no  use
oughlt to be made of tlhe roller in
autumn.
405
4852. Wiieat sown in autumn is pickled
in the saiiie niaiiner as that sown in spring,
(2308.) 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
the subsidence of the land before being sown
with wheat, because  that plant always
thrives better in soil in a firm state than
when it is as loose as the plouglh leaves it.
4859. The land that has grown beans
is the next sowvn with wheat in autumn
after the bare fallow, with the exception
perhaps of the small space which had been
occupied by the summer tares, and which
may be in the same field with the beans,
so that both may foriti one break to be now
sown with wheat. Tile land after beans and
tares is usually feered and gathered-up
(7 49) for the seedl-furrow at once, and sown
immediately, as the season is far advanc                ed
by the time the bean-crop is carried in
and stacked; but the seed-bed is in a better
state for wileat when the soil is allowed
to subside for a few days before the seed
is sown.
4863. Wheat is sown in autumn in a very
slovenly manner in many parts of    Ireland. T''ie
land  is sown in  th         e    state   in  which it is left
on taking up the potatoes, without being
ploughed,  grubbed, or dug, and  the seed  is
covered with shovelfuls of earth taken from the
trenches or shoughs between the lazy-beds or
ridges. The large crops grown after such treatment are surprising.  Th e deep trenches for med
between the narrow spaces of ground forming
the lazy-beds keep the land dry all winter, and
this may be one means of safety to the crop from
the injurious effects of  undrained land.   In
Martin Doyle's opinion,this mode of sowing wheat
is better than the English one of sowing upon
the ploughed land, because it " gives far better
and deeper covering to the seed, and thus prevents the plants from being thrown out in the
the spring, as frequently happens after severe
frost, and when the seed has been imperfectly
earthed by the harrow, and also allows a moulding to the plants in spring, if the ridges be then
harrowed down, as they ought to be, previous to
heavy rolling, which is a most important operation."
4860. Where the soil is strong, and the
ridges sufficiently round, the grubber may
be used on the bean-stubble, as onr the
fallow-land, to let the wheat, sawn broadcast, into the ground; for which purpose
a 4-horse grubber will be required.  The
grubber succeeds in such a case very well,
as far as the wheat is concerned, and it
hlas the advantage, in a late autulmn, of getting throiugh the work expeditiously; but
on strong soil, not thorough drained, and
il a comparatively flat state, grubbing is
not the liest preparation for wheat on
b)ean-stubble;  because  the  seed  incurs
the risk of rotting in such soil, left in
that state all winter, and the soil itself is
apt to beconie sour, from- which  effect
the l:nd would scarcely recover, even if
bare-fallowed the succeeding year.   Soil
thus grutbl)ed requires of harrowing only a
double tine along the ridges.r
4864. " It is very common also in Ireland, to
sow wheat broadcast on lea, ploughed with as
flat and thin a furrow as possible, and to cover
the        seed by means of the  s pade and shovel, from
the furrows previously ploughed as deeply  as
possible, for the purpose of yielding earth enough.
The clover leas, as well as the rich old pastures,
are almost universally treated in this latter way
for wheat, where this is the chosen crop in Ireland."                                      -
~ 4865. I have said that wheat sown in autumn
requires-to be pickled to protect the crop from
smut, as well as that which is sown in spring
(2307,) and that arsenic is a dangerous iligredietkt to employ il  any operation of  the farm,
(4785.)   In corroboration of the comparative
inefficacy  of arsenic as a pickle for wheat, I
may adduce the following account of experiments
made  on purpose  to  set that  poiiint at rest.
"Public attention," says Mr  E.  I. Dturden,
Dublin," having been called to the employment
of arsenic in agriculture, by a letter addressed
by Dr Fuller, of St George's Hospital, to some
of the medical journals, I forward you some
remarks on the subject, containing the results of
the investigation of a commission appointed' at
Rouein in December  1842, having for its object
to determine the best process of preventing the
smut in wheat, and to ascertain whether other
means less dangerous than arseniic and  suilphate
of copper (both of which are extensively  employed in Great Britain,) were productive  of
equally good results.  Thle labours of this cor
* Martin Doyle's Practicv al sbandry-art. Wheat, p. o501.
406
4861. The land that has grownpotatoet
after wliicii wheat is usually sowii, (2699)
miist be plou,-,,I)e(i for a seed-furrow, as upon
the drills in wfii(,-Ii the potatoes were
grown the grubber cannot be'employed
to advanta,,e, that iiii")Iement leaving the
aiirf,-tcci in the same foriii it found it. Only
one furrow is gi%,eii- after potatoes, and it
is a (,atlierinff-ui), (749) if the soil is at
all and a casting (75.,-)) if of liglit
te,xttire. It is better that the soil have
-tiiiie to sul-)sitle a little, aitliou,,! the usti.-tl
I)ractice is to sow the wheat iipon it as
soon as it is plou(-,Iie(l.
C)
4862. 1 have frequently recoiiiinended 
SOWING WHEAT.
mission extended over the years 1843, 1844, and
I845, and the experiments were repeated two
years following on the farm of M. Fauchet, one
of the commission, at Boisguillaume, in the departitietit of the Seine  Itiferieure.  My  friend
M. Girardin, Professor of Chetlistry at Rouen,
and corresponding member of the Institute, took
a very active part as a member of the commission,
and drew tip a report on the subject, a copy of
whiich he presented to itle, and to which I aIII
indebted for the information I now forward to
you. As long,, ago as the year 1779, M. Duihamnel
du Moniceau, in his Eleine~t,ts of A.,.r;culture,
noticed the employment of arsenic by the farmers
of France for the prevention of smut; and whilst
speaking of the dangers arising from the use of
arsenic far this purpose, expressly points out
the dangers arising from the partridges, pigeons,
&c., eating the poisoned seeds, and thus endangerinig the lives of those who used them for food.
It would appear that, in the 10 years from 1830
to 1840, there had occurred in France 235 public
accusations of poisoning, out of which number
1 l0 were against individuals connected with
agricultural pursuits; and it was considered that
this arose from the readiness with which they
were enabled to obtain poisons, especially arsenic,
for the purpose of steeping grain," (4711.)
* 4867. It is interesting as well as useful to
ascertain if the different plans of pickling  the
wheat exert at influence ont the produce of the
grain. and the weight of the straw; and the
conclusions drawn from the results obtained
were, " that il all respects it is advantageous to
employ only sound  wheat; for seed: that the
wheats least productive of grain were those which
were steeped in arsenic, lime antd:isalt, and lime
alone: that the wheats most productive of grain
were those which were washed in water treated
w ith sulphate of copper, sulphate  o f copper  and
salt, sulphate of soda and lime: if the washing
with water was favourable to the production of
grain, its weight is remarkably diminished: the
heaviest wheat of the same bulk or volume is that
which has not received any preparation, and next
to that the wheat treated with sulphate of soda."
4868. Now, as sulphate of copper is as poisoinous
as arseniic, it ought not to be used; atnd sulphate
of soda, glatiber salts, being innocuous, should
be preferred; and, when  associated with lime,
it proved an  alnmost infallible remedy.  But as
in no  case did  the crop escape smut when  the
seed employed was ripe, which is the usual state
of seed wheat, especially for sowing in autiuin.
it may be said that there is in reality no specific
or  radical  and  infallible  remedy  for  smut.
The conclusions on the entire experiments are:" That it is best not to sow seed without  steepiig: that it is best to make use of the sulphate
of soda and lime process, inasmuch  as it is more
simple and economical, and in no way iinjurious
to the health of the sowers, or  inimical  to the
public health, and that it yields  the  most  productive and soundest wheat: that as arseniic,
sulphate of copper, verdigris, and other poisotnous
preparations can be advantageously replaced by
sulphate of soda and lime, the use of the poisonous
preparations should be interdicted by the Government." ~
4866. The means used for testing their efficacy
n protecting wheat from smut, we         re -w heat
gathered before arriving at maturity whilst the
perisperm was still in a milky state: unripe
wheat gathered when the perisperm was solidified, but when the epidermis was still green:
wheat gathere d when  the g rain and ear were
yellow, but when the grain might still be cut
with the nlail: wheat gathered when  the grains
had acquired their hardness and transparency:
perfectly ripe wheat, not smutty, nor having received any preparation: smutty wileat washed
in pure water: smutty wheat plunged for two
hours in a solution of suilphate of copper and salt:
smutty wheat prepared with sulphate of copper
alone: smutty wheat prepared with arsenic:
smutty wheat prepared with recently slaked lime:
smutty wheat prepared with  lime and salt:
smutty wheat prepared'witlh sulphate of soda
and lime. Of all these means none prevented
sititut but the first four, with wheat gathered
before it:had become perfectly ripe. The remaiuinig! are placed below in the order of their
efficacy:
4869. With regard to the use of sulphate of
soda, perhaps 1 lb. dissolved in 2 quarts of water
would answer for 4 bushels of wheat, and  the
grain then dried with powdered quicklime.
Sulphate of copper and salt.
Sulphate of copper alone.
Sulphabte of soda and lime.
Lime and salt.
Arsenic.
Washing with pure water.
Lime alone.
llence " that sulphate of copper is one of the
most powerftl means of preservation from smut:
that linme produces but very little effect, and its
use is even less advantageous than simple washing of  the seed  in water: that common salt
exerts a very marked influence, as the substances
with which it is associated  acquire  a more
4$;70. In  usitig old wheat for seed, the pro.
bability will be that many grains will have been
deprived of their kernels by the wheat weevil,
Calandra granari(t. In steeping the wheat in
the baskets in the  process of pickling, it is a
good precaution with old wheat to stir tip  the
grain in each basket  withl a stick, anal skim off
all the grain.s that float to the top, which the
empty husks will readily do.
* Gardener's Chronicole, 6th January 1849.
407
decided beneficial action than that which, they
possessed alone; for instance, lime then becomes
very efficacious, and sulphate of copper produces
better results than when employed singly: that
arseiiie does not possess anything like the destructive action on the smut which is generally,
supposed: lastly, that the mode of steeping the.
grain in a preparation of sulpliate of soda and
lime is really very efficacious." - 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
.. 4.
1 lit
0 1
0 10
3 2i
6  6
13 0
4871. It is said that "in granaries the perfect
insect may be destroyed by sorting the grain
into coinical heaps, when the beetles cluster at
the top, and may be taken away iu great quantities." *  I have observed it somewhlere stated,
that boards covered with pitch  suspended  in
graniaries will inevitably drive the weevils away;
and to keep them away the boards have only to
be repainted with the pitch.  The remedy, being
a simple one, might be easily tried.
Seed wheat, 3o  tenths (.375) of a bushel, at 5s.
per bushel,....
Time of a woman hoeing ruts on the drill, 7
hours, at 10d. per day of 10 hours,..
Tiine of a man sowing the seed by hand, 5
hours, at Is. 8d. a day,..
Time of a man and horse covering the seed, 4
hours, at 8s. per day,....
This mode would be much better perfi,rnuel if the
ruit were made on the top of the drill, anid the
seed sown in it by a miiachinie similar to the beandrill, fig. 2.9).
4872. Mr Hay of Whiterigg in Roxburghshire
continued his experiments with dibbling, (3533,)
with the view of ascertaililing the comparative
expense of sowiing broadcast, in drills, and with
the dibble. For this purpose hlie divided in the
autumn o-ef ]849 two acres of summer-fallowed
land (4164) into four portions, each of which was
manured with 8 cart-loads of well-rotted farmyard manure, and ploughed in on 4 ridges of 15
feet in width each.
a1  4877. The  last portion of ground,  containing
half an acre, was drilled ill the saiiie imn-ilner as
the last mentioned portion into  30  drills,  and
wheat sown on the top of the drills with Newinigtoit's dibble, at the rate of 4 tenitlhs of a bushel
(.4) of seed to the acre, and the cost of sowing was
as follows:                                             a. d.
S     eed wheat,  2 tenths (.2) of a bushel, at 5s.
per bushel,                                 1  0
Time of a i,,an dibbling, 41 hours, at Is. 8d.
per day of 10 hours,.....    0  9i
1  9i
Cost per acre,...           3  7
4873. One of these portions, containing half an
oacre, was ribbed (2626) into 40 ribs at 18 inches
apart, and sowin with wheat by the hand (2319,)
at the rate of 1I bushel to the acre, and harrowed in the usual way, (2352.)  The expense of
'the sowing was as follows:
Seed wheat, 7} tenths (.775) of a bushel, at J
per bushel,.....~
Time of a man and a pair of ho,rses, sowi!
harrowing, atnd water-furrowing, 4 horses
8. per day of ten hours,..
T o m asng,      4878. Some interesting results were obtained
at,
a i  3 2k    by Mr F. King, Thedam, in Essex, on a simtilar
species of experiment.  The following  are the
7 1      results of planting  1 grain of wheat to 9 in
Ct p14 2    one hole, allowing 4 holes to the square foot, and
taking 14 square feet of ground for the experi
ment:
-S —,a
z
56
56
56
56
56
56
156
56
56
4874.'The tenths of a bushel are most easily
obtained by having a measure which contains the
tenth part of a bushel, and such a measure will
always be found a very couveisiesit oniie ol a farm.
.5
E.
,i X
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
4875.  Another of  the  portions, containing
half ai acre, was also ribbed with 40 ribs as the
above lot was, aud sowni with wheat, on the tops
of the ribs with Newiigton's dibble, fig. 292, at
the rate of 5~ tenthls of a bushel (.525) of seed
to the a(-re; and the expense of the sowing was
as follows:
ob 
.3
lb. oz.
3 6.
3 91
3 12i
3 13
3 6
:~ ll~
3 2
2   2
Io d.
Seed wheat, 21 tenths (.275) of a bushel, at 5s.
per bushel,......               1  45
Time of:,,ian dibbling, 6i hours, at Is 8d. a  day of 10 hours,......            1  1
2 St
Cost per acre,.....    4 11
It will be observed in these results that 7 grains
to the hole give the largest  suinber of ears of
wheat, 358 in the 14 square feet; but it will be
found  that that number does not weigh  heavier
than the produce from 3 grains in the hole; and,
besides, the 3 lb.  11  oz. weight of the ears from
the 7 grailis in the hole is in a somewhat precarious position, as the weight above and below it is
3  lb. 6 oz. and  3 lb. 2 oz.  respectively.  The
heaviest weight of ears, 3 lb. 13 oz. from 5 grains
in a hole, is also in the precarious  positioni of
being next to   3 lb. 6 oz.    So that on  th e whole
I would prefer  the produce  from.4 grains in the
4876. A  third portion of ground, containing
half a.) acre, was drilled up in the double way
(2397) into 30 drills at 24 inches apart, and
sowed with wheat along the top of the drill in a
rut inade by  a field-worker      with a hand-hoe, fig.
266, at the rate of 71 tenths of a bushel (.75) of
teed to the acre. The expense of sowing was
as follows:
* Maunder's Treasury of Natural Hlistory-art. Weeril
408
Cost per acre,....        -
Cost per acre.,..
i
.;i I
. ir
Z
z
A
r-:
'ii 
t,,&
. S
,6.
Z'
56
112
Iii8
226
2.1.,'O
336
1 392
408
504
I
I. 4
1 1
-i.
;4
205
250
286
301) -
304
301
,i58
244
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
312
3(i 
SOWING BARLEY.
hole, as being likely the steadiest result of any,
silice it is as much as 3 lb. 12' oz., and it is sitluated ill the safe position of beilg sul)ported by
the high weights of 3 lb. 1 I I oz. and 3 lb. 12 oz.
When the seed is as thickly planted as 9 to the
hole, both the iiimiber of ears and their weighlt,
dimiiiishl very rapidly.
barley from (2690,) (2693.) Tile finishing
process is tiie saimie as described in (2696;)
and iu (4858) is mientioned  tie state in
wlichl  the ground(I sh1ould be  lett for  tlhe
winter.   Whten sown atfter  beans,'I refer
to  (4859) aind (4860,) and after potatoe,
to (4861.)
4883. Barley whiclh has stood the winter produces a iiiucli heavier grain tlhan
wlheni sown il spring.
4879.  I mentioned  in  (2702)  thlat
barley cannot stand the winter in Scotland as wheat does, but that it (loes so. in
the warmi calcareous soils in the southl of
England.
4884. Barley  nlay be sowin in aiitniiiiii
as  a  f)rage  planttt for  early  cutting=,  in,
sp)ring:,, fo,r  wlIi('ll purpose it sllhould  b.e
sown as earily as the enl of Auglust or the
beg,iiiiiin,,g (t' Sel)telbl)er.   Ttliier iimentio,ns
a,   vwlriety of b)arley, n.tmedl the Sit)er-ian or
quadraugul,tar  inake(l  barleyy,  IIordeurii
coleste,  lwhich   possesses   l)ro,erties  of
tthis nature to a  reliarkal)ie (ldeg,ree —as
wlhen sown early, likle aututitnaI.l c(rn, it
AItas been cut several tines in the course of
th!e  sniiimer, antd  in the  succee(li'ig yeair
yieldled al    good  crop);  l)ilt  lie  regarls
this account of it as  exaggerate(l.   Tlis
l   variety re(iilies aS riicli, fertile, well-tilled
soil, and  " it is  distingu,lislied fr'ln  otlier
bar   ley  l)y  its  plants  beiing  filler,  inrore
lbushly, andi puttintl  foirth nlore bl ales, even
wheni botli kinIlsare growli (,n tile sallies(iil,
and the plants sown at eqIual distances froltl
eachl  otlier.    Tlhe stems  whicil bear  tlhe
ears are ililcil tljickler tliai  tlhose  of llarge
barley.   Tihe  ea.r  is long,er  tliali  tllit of
sillal -)barley. anl contains a g,reater llllt)er
of gaians."*   Thiese  are all valuable r)perties in a  furag,e  plaut.   Its  griail  is
reckonedl as valuable as rye for biead andtl
(listillationi.
4880. When       tl)e         win ters are npil and
the spring dry, as in the soutlh of France,
Italy, and Spain, or where the snow lies
deep all winter, and the suin is )owerful
!minierLliately after the mieltingo of tlhe snow
in spring, as in.Russia, Poland, and Nortl
America, barley may be sowni in winter.
Wlherever the winter consists of alternate sniows and thaws, and the early part
of spring is wet, as is the case in Eng,land,
Scotland,.ind Ireland, winter barley is apt
to suffer from those vicissitudes, and the
-spritg,y-sown barley becomes a much ilimore
certain crop. In the southl of Europe, barley
is grown for tlhe horses; but no such inidtucemetit exists fbr its growtlh in winter in
this country where the horses are better
fed on oats.
4881.  The  six  and four-rowed, or
square-hleaded barley, is wlhat is ternmed( o
winter barley, so   tlmt tie Scotcli bere or
bigg, fig. a 180, shioul(I be the sort best
suited for sowitn, in autumn.
4885. I (),serve(l  in 184.1 a ratller singular practice   ini thje  ineighiboti-urhlo(,,l..f
Ediilnb)urgh, ini a fiehi belongin    g to a  cowfeedler, whl h ad  sowi' it witli tlle ordlinl.rly
flatt-e.arel  )ariley, anti as  the ground)(I was
richl tle  crop grew luxuriaintly.   Instead(
of  tllowving,, it t4) grow, le  ciut tile lherba.tge
for green t;)(,d f;r hiis ce)ws, andi  tlhen gave
thje afteritiatll liberty to grow  f4,r grain,
wl'icll it di(l ini  abl)()ut tliiee weekls after
til,egeer-all hiarvest, atn,! yet il,good timiie
to t)e  re.aped  ati(  carr-ieil ini go>d order.
Tle  la,test  after  miLtli was   thlin  on   the
ground, btit tlat froti  tlje filrst cuttitng, wu
4882. If you determine to sow barley
instead of whleat after beans, potatoes, or
tares,-for 110no one would tiink l,f substituting the fornmer for tlje latter onl tile ba re
fallow-the cultuire is precisely thle sanefle
as f,r wlieat describedl in (4845.) whlen teie
land is to be feered for louglilg; (r in
(4847,) "lien tlhe grlib)er, fig,. 215, is to
be used insteat, or in (4856,) wlieii the
lanl is to be ribbeil insteadl of Ipli,nglel or
grubbed.   Bairley iiay be sownII broialcase                        st
by hand or miaclhitme, (rilled by illicIlinre,                    or
dibbled by   macihine, as ins ancell in tlhe
case of wlheat in (4853,) and of sprin,g g
* Thier's Principvies of Aqriculturc, vol. ii. p. 430.-Shaw and Johlinsonii's translation.
409
ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN. 
72 ~ ~ ~ r 
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than one variety of whleat  together, because baklers aver tllat thle flour is in
a better state to mnake good bread from  a
mixture of two or thlree kinds  of flour
thian frojn one kind.   I believe there is
niucli truthl in this opinion of thle baklers;
butt their object wvoultl be iiiore certainly
obtained  were  thle  varieties  of  wheat
known  to prodluce  tlhe best flour  whlen
liixe(l, mixed  tog,etlser  in  proper  proportions before bein,g g,round  inito flour,
thlan if tlhe samne vtrieties of whleat were
sown  iii tlhose lrop)ortions in thle field;
for, let us sow whatever seeds we pl)ease ini
the fiel(l, we cannot be certain of obtainingt,
froiii tlieni returns in any giv en proportion
to tli(se sownII, and the uncertailnty  incre:ases as thle varieties of thle seed sown s
are in(icrease(1 in numbers.
4895. Tlle  most    commii)on    miiixtuires
grown on tihe Continent aic  wili eat an el rye
for Icread, wlhich  is sbiid to  be agreeal)le
and               nutritious, an(a tl e  ixtre   i s calle
mneslin.   Fl-at t)atley and (ats aire   t    rrwin
tom,etiler, tlhe oats alwvays l)I'-edoinatitui,
and  botlh are said to  give a  lrge  yiehl.
Some persons  add stlrilig  rye  to  tlheir
mDiitixre on lighit soils.   Tlse mllst c,an)mllol
nixture  of cereal s  and  legtime s     is tlgf at   of
oats  antd  *etclh es, wlbiell tmoakes goo(l  i'(t(d
for c a tt l e   wient pred )aesl:itii tcle cyaf
cutter, whiethier tile crop be all(,wcd to
rip)en or be niown in  at grieen  staie; antl
bothi  barley  anid  spring"-whicat atre atlso
sown  withi  vetclies.  Pease in sill,   uantitiess are associated witl     h s  p ainn-wilea. i an
the quantity of whlea-t, it i~ said, is n,,t tiere.
by (Iiiiiiiishied.,  On sanily soils, 1,ease  are
associ.atedl withi spring(-rye.  ()n calcailre(,us,
cla-yey, anid meag,re soils, it is usut-al to sow
beans amllongst oats.   A miixtuire of I,eais,
veteles, an(d oats -ire grown  tog,eti-her l'or
tlhe plurpo.se of a green  fhoo  fo,r ca,ttle, and
goes b)y the   iai;e  of  beanis.,  It is cut
wlhent lihe seedIs be,in to form, anDl ill s-(,me
countries tle lhories  aire enitirely.fed on it.
T!le clara(cter of tlre miixturtei  is tleteriiie(I
1,y  tihe na,turie of the soil: in cla-yey so,ils
tile beaniis  aire inicreasel in  quianitity, and
in tile lighI)teir soils ii,,e vetclhes are  used.
Vetclhes ar-e al-iso  mixed witlh buticlwheat,
wljeni tlhe crolp is to be cut in a greet state.t'
48!)4. It is quiite correct in theory to
ex)e(t atr enlarged yield  by sowing  (liftercut  varielies  of grain  togrethler, since
(lifeiretit  varieties  of l)alints takle different
kin(Is.ald  qtiatitities of ingredients  fromii
tlie.so(il it) (lifferenit pro)()po-tiores; aniid tlhe
tlieo,ry is tLlie  lloeC  strikingly  illustrated
b)y  gr,,win pla    nts tog,,etl!er of  very  (liftfelit  natiures, sueli  1is  tile  cereals  and
legrlules.   E'x1).erieii(,.e slpts the tleoiry
as I)cill,, correct tllius far-:  buit  tilet), to
ol)talii  tile  fill results (f  the  tleory  in
practice, tie clifferent s(,rts of'gra;iwll gIirown
tt,geLlier itiust reach  iiiaturity at tIle saime
tirue, otherwise  one  variety will  be  iiin
* Johnstori's  xp,)eriinental A4.qricilture, p. 16.
t Thiier's Principlea of,lyric,ulture, vol. ii. p. 486-9-Sliaw anid Jlohnson's translation.
turn. 
ble of the grain  cropl is gener.lly niot in
a fit state to receive thle nianure, before
undergoing  tile process of  cleansing by
mneans of  thle  ploghl,  thle liarrow, an(i
thle grubber,  as  the ltnd  for a fallow
crop ought to he; a-nd, in Scotlantti(  at
least, too shlort timte intervenes  fromn  tl,e
li.harvest of the grain cr(-ps to tle (occllrrence
of bad weatlher in the early part of winter,
to permit the land to be cleaned iin a satisfactory n.niier.  Hence  verv few cases
can occur in whlich  the stulbble  iiay  be
manuaireti in Octotber, for a cer)p) tlJtt is to
occupy so imiportalnt -a 1)osition as everv
g reen cr(p dloes.  This is one reasonI, andI
it is a silfficient one, whly so few cases of
autumnnal  p)lailting takes  place  in the
potato; an(l thle obstacle to it is to be rigretted, since in the fe.w cases attemptet(l
t   lthe result lhas proved advantageous.  Out
of 64 Englishi and Welshl  retturns of the
crop of 1849, 53 were in its  Lvotur and
only 11 against it; an(i no )bad(l cases were
reported in Scotland, wile thiere were 4
good.   Tlhe  conclusion arrived at  was,
tilat atttnmn  planting was a greater safeguard  froimi disease  tlhan tih,at of early
spring.  In England, tle aiuttiini plantetl,
awithl  that of tiJe monthls o(f January an(i
February, was l)etter in thle ratio of 13 to
11; and in Scotla,nd, Mareli maavy )e taken,
after thie antuimin, as the hest nii)e tli, tlhe
ratio of loss s)eing, only, 1 per cet.'.lie
general conelitsio,n  over  the ki ngdomt, iii
1849,  was  that  the earlier the  potato
Potato oats alone, produced, per acre,
Hopetoutn,
Early Angus,
Kildrummie,
Dutn,
Blainlslie,...
Grey Agus,...
Safdy-see(t changed,. 
Sanidy- seed uiichan ged,
5 of ttopetotini anid I of Kildrummie pro  diiced, per acre,
5 of Hopetoun ad I of Sa. ndy,
b or tlop)etoun ard 1 of Early Angus,
5 of Pota,to anid I of Early Aigus,.
5 of Potato and 1 of Sandy,
* Transactions of the Ilighland and Agricultural uSocietty, July 185(), p. 316.
Finnie, Swanston, near Edinibtirg-l; andI
the followitng table slhows thie results of
some of hiis experimiients:
Bushels.
59
52
62
. 62
61
56
51
49
45
68
64
61
,53
53
It is tlius seen that mixtures  witlh  the
H,,petoun produced lar,er crops than (lid
the Hopetotin alone, and their effects were
the ol,)Il,,site upon tlhe potato oat.*
4897. We constanitly real ini tile foreign
corn  reports of  miiixedl whea,ts, thje different grad(es being  fotir-Wlhite, Higlmnixed, Ied mixed, anid Re(d wlieat.,  The
Wlhite is a mixture of pure wlhite whleats.
Tile lligih mixed lhas a very small nmixture of red. Tlhe Red mnixed lhas erhaps
a third of red wlieat in it; arn(d the Red
wlheat is a mixture of red whieats. in
Upper Poland, wliere the finest wlhea-t is
raised, it is nearly all whlite, or all Higlh
mixed; and as the soil and climiiate 
tFFECTh OF SPECIAL MANURES.                       413
plantiiig is perf~~rtned tlie better, and tlie  Tl~e stubble should get one furro~~ ~~itl)
later tii~ wors~.                               tlie  pl~~ugIi  in  tlie contrary way tlie
ridg~s ar~ for~ued.  ~Iarr~}~ving along an~l
48~~. A ratl~er u~jex1~ect~d corr~~l~ora-  acioss ti~e ridges a d~}uble tine slioulti
ti0~) lias been givel), in 1 &amp;amp;~5(), Of a curious  then be gi~eIi, anil a~iy ~vee~ls that niay
and iIlII)ort'int f;~ct observed iii ~46'-tIi;tt  l1;Lve been brought t() tli~ siirfate l'y it
di~ease~i p(itat(~es lilly be safely`Lull ad-  5ii0Ul(l be gathered ofi.  If t iieie is iiiie,
vanta~eoi'sly used for se~il. Mr Bei~jaiioin  ti~e grul)iier, n'g. 21;), sii(illid le used acflis~
Sini~Ii ~~f ~~T1~kii0gli;Liii, Berlsliii'e lilaiited  tiie liliges til c'~t ijito ~~ieces tl~e furrii~vs
very ~~zuck (Ij$Ca$Cd ets 1f ash-leaved kiil-  iio.'iile by tlie pl~iu~lo  biit sliiiiilil tlier~
neys or tlie 18th of Mardi, ii) drills.5  hut lie tiiioe for this eflicient ()I)erati()n,
int~'lies deei~, aoiil tlie crio~i`vas talen ~l)  tiie la~itl  110 liSt lie lirilleil up in tli~
sounil a'od rilie (in tiie 2il of Ai~gust, witA-  iliiul~le ~vay (23.97) in preliliration for tlie
out (liSCl18C  while siiunil sets if asli-leave~l  dii~ig.  ~~lie far~tiier (ilieratilins gi 010 IS
ki~l~ieys and others, a Ooixeil lot,`veie  stated iii (274.5) and succeeding Joaraplanted iii Febri~ary as bef~ire, inil on  gr;i~~lis.
1iei~ig token up in Al1~01st ~ere foioiid to
be ~nuck di~eqsed.   ~~ry rotten late po-    4902. 1 tliiiik it advisable to use whole
tatoes ~vere planted iii Noveiiilier 1849,  potatoes f~r seeil instead (if cut ~ts, iio tlie
6-~ i nc!its (ieeii, covereil first ~vitli two  aiituiion  fir ~vliicli tiie small one5 ~vill
indies  if earth, then Ily a layer (if baif-  aiis~ver tlie piirpiise ~v~ll, (27;39~) and tlie
dec;iyeii ~veeds, aiiil lastly by e'irtli, aiid  time will be saved that would 1ia~e been
tlie crii1) ~vas taken u~i in tlie liegiioning of  occupied in tiie ciittiio~.  ~`be whole 11(1Au~ust n.'itkout disease.  A blacksiiiitli iii  tatoes niust lie jilanted in tlie drill at wider
~~Tokii~gl1a11i, Abraliaiii Le~vis, exiocrienced  intervals than cut sets are,-frooii 10 to
tlie saiiie results on tlie 8tli of August  12 inches asunder.
1850.
49()3. Macli attention is required at tli~s
4900. It is tlie opini(in of Mr Snoitlo  season, after comiiiitting any crop to tlio
that diseaseil sets are oioiiclo lietter for  griiuiid, to have ~uiface channels cut ~vitli
jilanting than 501111(1 ones.  Tlie fiiriioer  tlie spade, (77.1),) wloerever there is a
5()'iil riit ~viien tlie live part lias begun to  li(ill(i'v in ~vliicli tlle least chance of water
gro~v  tlie latter are a1it ti) reiooain hard,  iioay stand for a tinie, as also acr~iss tlie
flesloy anil brittle, ev en when tlie ne~v  lo~v er liendridge iiito tlie adjoining dit~li,
eroji is ripe  and lie tliioiks that, in  or outfall of tlie field.
tlie foriiier case, there is an effort of
nature to tlir~iw off tlie disease.  On
this   Pri~fessiir  Lindley remarks, that   ON TllE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANlYRES.
it is possilAe that tlie oii~irbid noatter
"loicli cau~es disease inay (!isapj)ear in tlie    4994. For a~Very long period in tlie
geiieral ilecay iif tlie tuber in tlie one case,  practice of agriculture, no iitlier iionoiure
hod iio'i~' rciiiaiii 1
Oncliangeil ill tlie other,  was put upon tlie soil biit what was obprelialeil tii seize ii1i(i~ tlie liaiilin as 5(i(iU  tamed froioi tlie straw of tlie cereal cr(iI's,
as otis rc:lily tii receive its iiifliience.  At  froni tlie leaves, liullis, and tubers of tlie
ltast, iio better exilan;it&amp;amp;iin of t1ii~ curious  green crops, niiil from tlle dung viiided by
fitt pi~~eiit~ iL~elf tii us at jiies~nt. biot  tlie iliffeient kinils iif aniiioals siippoi teil
lie fict itself is cert~nly, iii jiractice, very  ii~i~in tlie faron as also tlie iiiaterials obvaluable.             q                 tamed froiio tlie streets, and houses, noiil
stables aiod byres (if towns.   flie oioanuie
41)01. Tlie oiietlioiJ (`f jilanting potat~ies  made uji(in tlie faini ~vas, and lias al~~avii
ss{it}~i?e{~j1\?~}~~1iiac~l5 prccis{lY but as del~  ~~$~~~~{i1~0~'olji~}~{~all~~~~~~t,~~0~i0i~~~d~~ f7~~~~~(~O1~(~(
(274.5) to (2754;)  there  called street  or police manure.  Tliose
w ill not be tune to stir tbe land so noucli  manures served to support the beast of
iis is recoonmeuded in (2733) and (2734.)  the soil, as long as farmers were contented
Gardeners' CAronicte, 17th August, 18~0. 
knew that no suchl material could be procured from towns, but at an unreasonable
cost.  It is tlhus that bone-dust was first
employed to extend the turnip culture,
and at a later date guano was purchased
at a high price, to attain the same end.
In prosecution of sitnil.-r ends, at a still
later period, maniy simnple substances.have
been used with a view to evolve the peculiar
properties of each of the many varieties of
plants cultivated; on whichl account thlose
substances have obtained the name of special or specific manures, (205.)
4908. In consequence of the great number and varieties of the special  manures
wll, ich have been presented to tlie notice of
farmers by chemists;and others, spatce will
not permit me to relate even a small proportion   of the results  whliclh lare  alreiady
been  obtained frott    thei r    appli cation in
muiltipliedl combinations to every  species
of crop raised on the I'ariii. -Suffice it to
examine only the la;rgest resuilts ol)tained
from each of thje crops, wlhetller tle imaniure
was applied sin,ily, or in comibiniation with
others, or withl fiarmyard manure.   It will
be  riglit, hlowever, at thle satne time, to
shlow  in a  distinct  manner  thle relative
value, as nianiures,of farmyard d ung,,g,iiano,
botie-dust, and( the special  iiianires; but
before proceeding, to state particulars, it
is necessary to reminid you  of the coniposition of farmyard manure, gi%ven in (2025,)
(2028,) and  (202!),) and of  that  of tlhe
urine aofanimals in (2094,) (2096.) (210'),)
(2101,) and  (2102 )   The  analysis  by
Spareng,el, in  (2094,) gives  the  general
composition of tlhe fllii(l and soli1 exerements of aiiiinals; an(l thle analyses  by
Boussiii,ault w%ere evidently  miad(le fir'o
drilp)ting freshl dulng, unlike thle  state it is
usually appliedl to the so,il; but tlhe analysis p)aMde ary  Ir Ricllardsoi  wa s  fe(nl thrinl
yard dung a;s it is applied to tlhe fiehi, an
is therefore  the  most interesting to  tlim
farmer. It will be found in tlze ace(omipanying table,  wlhere all tlhe constituents
4906. Time hars not yet   e cideided  lvlfic
one of the special  manures is  tl        a e mos                   t
beneficial to   all        t    he crops, altlhough, doubtless, sotm-ie one does possess that property;
nor lias experienc         e        y e t proved wlhetlher
special manures  -,re           equ ally beneficT ial in
all soils, situations, andl seasons; but sufficient time hias already elapsed to decide,
that the special manures in wlhich certain
ing,redients preponderate are not only more
beneficial  generally  than  those  wlhiclh
want those constituents, but are necessary
for tiie healthy development of plants. Tle
.-..., "I,
nianitre as the special manures tljeiiiselves. - 
4905. Let it be understood that I do not
place farmyard iiiariure, botie-diist, and
guano in the category of 91)ecial manures,
as they all possess properties wtiicit -benefit in a Treater and le,.is degree every species of crop; nor should I call those
manures -special wliicii leave avowedly
been concoete(i as substitutes for borie-dust
and -uano.
6 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
are conveniently given in proportions to
one ton of prepared dung.*
capable  of  dissolving  in   water.  T!hese
observations wfill, of course, regulate us in
the inanageiient of tile'mnidden.' Whenever  any moist  orgranic  miatter  ab)s(-I,bs
oxygen, its clenmical union witlh its cairboi
gives rise to an increase of telperatiiire,
whichl increase  enables tile surr(,ndin 
portions to absor) oxygen  mnore ral)i(lly
than tlhey otherwise would do; these p)aits
iiI their tutirn become heated, inud thlius tihe
influence extends through the entire miass,
the atimount of lieLt being I)roporti(ilable
to  the size of the  mass,  its  degree  of
moisture, andl quantity  of air containe(l
il   its interstices.  By careful managemient
you can retard or accelerate the feirisentation of your' niilden' to almiost any extent,  fioli  scarcely any  cihange  taki,g
place, to so great a ratpidity as to eTdilanger
the wvhole taking fire from the lieat evol ved.
Thle most profitable way  for dung, to ferment is slowly but steadily, so thlat, by the
time it is required for use, it will readily
cut with  a spade  like soft cheese, and
exhlilit a uniform rich brown  colotur, an(i
elsiit no snioke  unless  the air  be  very
frosty.  Duriti,  fermentation, tlhe  azote
contained  in the various constituents  of
the duinglill unites  with hydrogen, and
foirms asmrmonia or liartshiorn, whicili beiing
very volatile, is apt to escape  withi the
watery vapour andl other gaseous prodiucts
of  decoimposiition.  Various  nieans  liave
been of late recommendled to prevent thiis,
but none of tihem appear to nme at all satisfa.ctory, and, I l)elieve, have  not  as  yet
given very satisfactory results when appliied to practice.  The  best conditioll for
f a' midden' to be in is, when it contains a
sufficiencyv (f water to cut moist, an(l vieldi
a little liquid by pressure, but not eno(ughll
to  run from it spi,ntaneouisly; this is easily
effected by (Irininig the' iiii(lden' stance,
if in  the colirt, so  thlat  all superflluous
aoisture runs off into the drains, whlicl, tf
course, must lea(l to tlhe liquid nianurietank, from whichl in dry weathler it should
be pi)lpleel up and scittered uniformly over
the'mialden.'  In  this state of moisture,
scarcely a perceptil-le quantity (of ammonia
is lhst, as it all remains in solution; and
I believe that this plan will  be found in
all  ceases to be  superior  to  every other
hitllerto devised for preserving farmyard
dung."* 
Water,..
Organic matter, containing 16-584 Ibs.
anmonia,...
Potash,
Soda,
Linme,
MNlagnesia,
Alumnina,
~i'angaiiese,
'eroxide of iron,
Silic;,
Car-bonic acid, with earths,
Suiplhuric acid,
Phospimuric acid,
Chlorine,
Sanld....
('Carbon,
Alkaii, and loss,..
Any  otler remarks                 regarding farmyard
pants,e than  wlhat  are contaitne d  in these
references, supposes the duing to be in thie
best state for applying to the land, wlhiclh
is the sappy  richl  state,  neither too wet
nor too dry; the utility of wllich is tlhus
explained  by Dr  Henry  R.  Madden:  "Wieniever dead orga,nttic matter, either
animal or veg,etable, is exposed to air in
a mvoist state, it absorbs oxygfeni, whiichi,
by  enitering  into  combination  withi  its
carbon,  destroys  its  original-  composi  tion, and gi%es rise to the production of
various  iiew compounds, wlicil  in their
turn suffier deconmposition  by  means  of
freslh supplies of oxygen  bein;, abs()rbed,
anti so on in a continued series, until the
whIole mass is reduced  to clemical  comii  pound(s of such stability as to resist thje
further action of oxygen under ordinary
circmnstances.   During  this series  of
chianges, thle various solid compounds are
, converted  first into fluid and tlhen into
gaseous products; whlichi latter, by eseap  ing, into the air, become lost.  Clheinists
are  much  divided  as  to  wlhat precise
amount of decomposition is requisite to
tender organic matter in a proper state to
become  food  for plants;  all agree  that
decomposition  mustt  lhave  commenced;
somie maintain that it must be comlpleted.
My  own belief, founded on extensive ob  servation and not a few experiments, is,
that all the products of decomposition, in
every stage, are available as food for
plant,, provided they are either liquid or
* PAilosophical Magazine, July 1845.
415
In one ton
1455-104 l.
553-504...
7-481...
(j. ,,, i 7...
21.427...
4-3-i7...
trace.
trace.
4-(i23
62-51;5
1 1-3!)3...
7-5-1...
17-4(-il;...
7-2io...
71-702...
1-926...
7-282...
2240-000 lb. 
the greater )l-art of its anmnoniacal coinpounds.
Num,ber of bushels per acre, which
shlould extentd along the preceding
0-     O:4'*;          yards ont a drill.
:         0    11 10  2   13   14   15   16
3.    4840  484  440  403:7 2  345  320  302
35    497fi  497 452  414  38l2 J 355 331  311 I
34     5124 1 512  4f;.5 427  394  36fi  341 320 1
33 52 5       |i 1528  410  440  407  377  352  330 
32    3544.5 1 544 49.5 4.5;3 418        8'i8 3f;3  340
31.5620   562.510 468  432  401 374  35,,1
30.58083.58() 528  484 446 416  387, 36.3
29    i60011  6()  41   5({)0  41()2 422  400   375
28    6222,;22'i65 518 X  478, 444 414  388l3
27.  ('453  6 4.5  58';.537  49'i 4fi0  430  4031
26      7()1  1670  609  558  515  478  441;  418
25    6691  (i96  633   580  536  4971  464  435
24    7260  726  66;0  6i05  558  518; 484 453
4911. Below are four of the analyses of
Peruivian giuano, exilibiting tile largest pro portions  of amnioniacal  compounlids and
,eartly pIlosl)lates, ouit of 44 analyses of
speciiiienis imported in  1847,  1848, andi
1849, by Messrs Anthony Gibbs and Sons,
now3, 1850, the sole 51 importers of tlhe true
Perulvian  guano,  (3351.)   I say of tlie
true, because otlher varieties are iilmorted
froni Southl  Animerica, from  Bolivia. and
Clhili, wlichl are represented as tihe Peruvian, altlioug,hi they are more nearIly alliedl
to the Iclhaboe than it, (3349):
Perti-  Peru                     vi.an.   vian.
Water,..  16.16      8.88
Org~anic matter and } 57.13588
,lts ofammoria,}
Sand,...17    1.36
Earthy phosp'hates,   19.46   25.27
Alkaline salts,.   6.08     5.67
100.00 iOO.UO
Aniriolia from  100} 18.94   17.86
pa'ts-,
}'erti -    Peru vian.       vian.
11.24      8.97
,55.17   57.64
1.46       1.12
27.8i9   23..58
4.24      8.69  -~
100.00  100.00
1Il.' 7    1 f.56
4910. Professor Way hlas analysed( suclh
a great variety of guanos since thle analyses
(of Professor Jol)inston  ill (83349,)  thllat I
iiiiist abs tract:t few of hlis results, as tlev        y
will b)e foun(li highly i  nlterestin,,, to  th     e
fi-trer.   Frolil  the  sniall qulantity  of
guanto tll.at iilay now be exlected front the
Afr-ic,an  coaIs t and  fronm  Patagonia, any
other kzin(1 thin thle Peruvian nee(1 not attract thle attention of thle farnier, at whatever pTrice it may be offered in the mnarket.
Anothler  considleration  beside   quantity
renders ally gila,no  but the Peruiviin of
little value to tile farnier, whiclh  is, tilhat
as gtiuano is chiefly eiiiployed for the sake
of its aininonia, tile African and PatagoiLtil  kiinds 1 c eiig  comiposed(  chiefly  (of
p1hioslpliates of lime, are not suitablle-as substitutes for thie Feruvian, whlliclh  contains
4912. The followin, tablle cfintains an
analysis  of  Ang,amos  guiano, a  vatiety
wlhlich comes  from Peru, and is ki(),n
there as a recent deposit, ani( is collectedi
bxy liani(l.  It is v'er-y r-iclh it) amniI, and-.
somewlhat whiter in colh)r than  tl)e ordinary Peruivian. Thje otlier analyses are
each the best specimen of Ichaboe from  11
specimens, of Patag,onian frotml 14  speci 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
mens, and of Saldanlla Bay from 20 spe
of it.   We thus have the explanation wliy
the manufactured guaios hlave not proved
so efficacious as the natural production.
Pata- Saldangonian. hia Bay.
27.0  15.27
2f8.5  23.28
6.0    3.07
41.5  49.01
......
4915. It nmay be convenient to have a
table shlowing tile quantities of guano applied  to an acre,  when  a given  smiall
quantity covers a certain numnber of yards
along tile top of a dri'll, at a given distance
from another drill.
Number of yards Number of yards along
along a drill in an   a drill, manured with
acre at those dis-  1 lb. of guano, equal to
tances apart.        1 cwt. the acre.
4840                   43
4978                  44
5124                   45
5280                   47
5445                   48
5620                  s0
5808                   51
6008                   53
6222                   55
6453                   57
4913. Of true guanos,  tile  important
constituents are ammonia or its elements,
phosplhate of limie, andl potash;  and of
the remaining constituents  tile water and
sand are valueless; and the sulphluric acid,
the linle, the chlorine, and the soda, can be
easily and cheaply supplied  by gypsum
and commnon salt.  Estimating the essential elements of Peruvian  guano at the
market price, and taking its average composition from tile numerous analyses mentioned above, its intrinsic value per ton
should be as follows:Ammonia, 17.41 percent,=388 lbs.at6d.perlb. ~9 14 0
llflimh.pte,} 24.12..   540.     d.    1 13 9.
Potash.    3.5......71  21d...    0 14 8
~12 2 5
Thiis table requires this farther explanation.
As regar ds the   t hird  col umn, a n e xa mple
will best explain it.   Stl)pocsing that 1 lb.
of guano extends 43 yards along the top
of a drill which is distant 36 inches from
the nearest  o ne, then  1      cwt.   will be given
to  the  acre; i f 2 lb. a re thus spread  along
the same 43 yards, then 2 cwt. will be
applied; if 3 lb. then 3 cwt., and so on
for any  number of  cwt. desired to be
given to the acre.  When  the drills are
closer set, the lb. of guano will have to
extend alhmg(, a greater number of yards
to afford  1 cwt. to the acre: thus, at 2,
inches asunder, the pound of guano will
require to go along 57 yards of a drill to
give 1 cwt to the acre.
Thle only other substances from wlichl amiiionia!mlight be easily slupplie(l, are tile
touriate and sulphate ofatm(,onia. Muriate
of,amli,,nia, being at least ~19 per toIn, is
too expenisive for ag,rticuiltural purposes;
andl even the sulphlate of amnmonia,.'tt ~12
per toil, is dearer than Peruvian guano at
,1lC per       to l, f or whics   the farmer                           ibuys
ammonia at the same price as that afforded
in the silpliate —while lie gets the phosphate of lime and the potash for the extra
(is., between the value of the phIospliate of
lime and potaslh,,2, 8s..5d., and  the
balance between the above sulmi and
~ Io.*
4916. Ini applying guano, it should be
kept inl miind  that all see(lIs, and  sets- of
tubers, when placed in thle drill in contact
with it, will be injured, and mIost likely
deprived of their vitality.  A  portion of
earth  slloutl(l tlherefore always  intervene
b:etween the seed and the guano.
49 1 7. It is also useful to renmember, that
a  tol)-(lressing  of guanllo to a  crop will
oftenii convert tihe loss that would accrue
front it to a sensible gain, and therefore
no farmer slhould grudge to try  a topdressing of guano on any  crop, if tlhe
weather is favoumble for   its application,
which it only is whien in a nmoist con&li
4914. Uric          acid beind, only obtainab)le fro()  one  or two  sources,  suichl  as
tile solid  urine of serpents, or tile dun,, of
8ea-fowl, wlhiclh latter in fact is guano,
Professor Way considers giuano a manure
of its own peculiar kind, and that it is
impossible to produce a perfect imitation
* Jourrnal of the Agricultural Sooiety of Enyland, vol. x. p. 202-25
VOL. II.
417
cimens.
AngaWater, 16.29
nlo!)'
Organ",.. iter and' 58.84
S.Itsofaliim,blllal I
Sand,. 3.29
E"r"'Y'O' hates, 14.69
Alk.li.pe'.,.I't.s,.    6.89
100.00
leba
boe.
26.5
41.0
0.3
28.7
Number of
inches between the
drills.
.36
35
34
33
3'2
31
30
29
28
27
Ammonia,
2 D 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
tion; because all organic manures, of wliatever kind, become inert, or even imisclhievous, in the soil in the absence of rain or
sensible moisture.  All mineral manuares
are supposed to act upon organic ones, so
as to extend and equalise their action, and
thus render tihemn more durable in the soil.
20th May 1845, upon wlheat sown on the
27tlh September 1844, wlhicll lhad been
h      e manured with   13  cwt. of   rap)e-c ake dust
to the acre, at  a cost     of w3, 5s., and obtained on the 24thj Septpliber 1845, 48
btis~lels of wheat of 52 lb. to the buisiel,
and 440 stones of straw.']lie ld thla.t
had  been manutre(d  w'.tl  the raple-cake
only yielded 363 busllels of w%l-Ielt elf 54
lb. to the bushlel, and 390 st(nes of straw.
The increase realised by the dressing was
therefore  1 1  bushels of wheat, aind 50
stones of straw, incurring this loss:  11- bushels wheat at 5s.,. ~2. 16  3
50 stones straw at2d.,.     0   8 4
4918. I~Vheat.-Having  thus cleared
the way in explaining the nature of the
manures imiost to be relied upon  by the
farmer, and mnade a few general observations on their imode of application, it is
now time to consider the effects of the
special manures upon the crops commonly
raised on the fariii, and we shall begin with
wheat.
3  4  7
Deduct value of nightsoil,.    3  $  0
Loss,     ~0   0  $
The soil was a moderately heavy clay, restin, on a pure red chattery clay, very
difficult to work, the pick being obliged to
be used in its drainage, when it afforded a
good deal of under water. Thtis experiment was made on rising groundI with a
considerable acclivity to the S.E. Previouis to being drained, the ground  was
very wet; and now it is of superior quality,
and of milch increased value.  The soil
was to undergo subsoil ploughIing  in the
ensuing winter.t
4919. Mr Alexander F. Gardner,
steward to Mr Fleening, of Barrochlian,
Renfrewshi         re,  applie d.5 cwt. of rape-cake
du       s t         to the acre, at a  cost of 33s., as a
top-dr     essing, on th e  12tlth o f May 1843, on
w hite  Hunter's  wheat,  sown   in October
1 842, and obtained 4844 bushels of wheat
o        f 62  lb. to the           bushel, and   1224 stones of
s t r a w    from the               acre. That which received
n        o         dressing yielded 3 2  bu shels of wheat of
6        2  lb., and 824 stones of straw.  The increase   produced b        y  th e  dressing was theref o r e 161           bushels of w  heat,   and 400 stones
o        f          straw to th e   acre, affording a profit
thus:
4921. He  tried the effects of a salt,
saltpetre refuse, ol)tained  from  pow(dermills, of which hlie appliedl  3 cwt. to the
acre, at 14s. the cwt., ait a cost of ~2, 2s.
to the acre, and obtained  57i buslhels of
Hopetoun wheat of 532  lb. to the b)ushel,
and 354 stones 4 lb. of straw.   The ground
not  manured  with  the  saltpetre  refuse
yielded 40 bushels of wheat of 541- lb. to
the bushel, and 217 stones of straw. Tile
increase of crop derived fromi the dressing
was 17i bushels of wheat, and 137 stones
10  lb.  of straw.    The  results  stand
thuis:
The soil was a stiff loam about 9 inch'es
deep, subsoil stiff yellow till, full of small
stones, superincumbent on sandstone, had
been thoroughly drained, and dug. The
wheat was sown after potatoes, which
had been manured with 36 cubic yards of
farmyard dung; was reaped on 15thl Septemniber, and weighed in the second week
of October.*
4920. Mr AlexanderJames Main, steward to Mr Wardlaw Ramnisay of Whitehill,
Mid-Lotllian, applied 13 cwt. of nightsoil
to the acre, at ~5 per ton, at a cost of ~3,P
Si. an acre, as a top-dressing, spread on
* Transactions of the Higqland and.qgricultural Society, July 1844, p. 238.
+ Ibid., October 1846, p. 406 and 422.
418
. X4 1 3
3 6 8
7 7 11
1 13 0
X6 14 11
Deduct cost of rape-cake,.
171 busbels of wbe
137 stones of straw
X4 7 6
1 3 9
1 1 5 113
2 2 0
X3 9 3
Deduct the value of the salt petre refuse, 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
This experiment was made on thle same
ground as on that of the preceding experinent.  Thle wheat was sown in October
1846, after potatoes that had been iiiantured
with 20 tons to thle acre of farmyard dung,
and whiclh completely failed.   The topdressing was sownII broadcast on the 18th       i
May, and thle crop was reaped on thle 1st
of September'l847.*
stated as a means of  e omparison with tlet
alb(ove result.  It. was 41  bushels of wlieat,
of 60.l lb. to the buishel, and-224 stones of
straw; but as this result. is less tlhan thje
produce of  thje same field whiclh lhad receive(l no  top-dressing at all, we would
be induced to conclude  tl!.t  tle  larg,er
quantity of saltpetre applied at once as a
to-)p-dressing, had lhad an  injurious rather
than a beneficial effect.+
4922. Mr John M'Lintock, HIarley
Works, Glasgow, tried the effects of using
a siiinilar ingrelient, pure,altpetre, (nitrate
of soda,) as a top-dressing at two  distinct
peri(-ds of tlhe same seaso on otle saniie
field of wlieat.   Thle first top-dressing, was
made on tlee 17th April 1843, on wheat
tlhat hlad been sown after potatoes in 1842,
withl 28 lb. of saltpetre to tile acre, and
thle second of 56 lb. was applied on the 6th
of May on whleat sown after turnips, and
thle cost of both applications was 21s. 9d.
an  acre.    Thle  produce  obtained  was
52 buslhels of 59  lb. ofwhlieat, and 321
stones 6 lb. of straw to thle acre.  The
part of thle same field that was not topdressed, but had been nianured with guano
for the turnips, and with 10 tons of ash
dung for the whleat, yielded only 44 bushels
of whleat of 58 lb. to the buslhel, and 225
stones (of straw to tile acre, giving an advantag,,e to tile top-dressing of 8 bushels.
of wlheat, an(l 96 stones of straw, which
niay be stated in this manner -
4923. These instances  ive tle effects
of  the application of single substances.
Mr Main tried tbe effects of tlhe combl)ined
action of  nighitsoil and nitrate of sodat on
wheat: 1l cwt. of nighitsoil at 4s. = 6s.,
and 1i cwt. of saltpetre at 19s. 6d. tile
cwt. = 29s. 3d., at a, cost of ~1, 15s. 8d.
an acre, produced  55 bushels of 53 lb. the
bushle. of wlieat, and 363 stones of straw.
This expserimient being a part of  tlhe one
related in (4.921,) wtere the part undressed witlh special  manures gave 40 bushels
of  wileat, and  217 stones of  stra-,tw, tle
increase received by tlhe topd-r-lessing was
15 bushels of grain, and  146 stontes of
straw.   Tlie results were thus:
8 bIshlels of wheat at Ss.,.    ~2   0  0
96 stones of straw at 2d.,.        0 16   0
2 16  0
Deduct the value of the saltpetre,  1  1  9
Leavinig a profit of      ~1  14  3
4924. Mr Main tried the effects of tlhe
combined  actions  of  several   s)ecific
2manutres on Hunter's wlieat, whllich was
raised on lighlt clay soil, resting  on an
imnpervious clay subsoil, many parts of
whlich  was full of stones, and naturally
very wet.  It was drained in 18406 at 17
feet apart, andt 2 feet deep, and a beneficial  clhange  was  tlIe   consequence.
The field is bounded  on thlree sides withl
woods;  thle exposure  is fromn  S.W.  to
N.E., and there is a'gentle acclivity in
the line of exposure.  The  land "Aas bare
fallowed after being drained, and umanutred
withl 18 tons of tfarmv.yard (lung, and 6 cwt.
of rape-cake dust an nere.  TI'e  whleat
was sown in tle autumnt of 184i6, anld cut
on thle 10thl, and weiglied on tlhe  5thll of
Septebiler 1847.   Thle special inianures
consisted of
The soil was sandy h   lie avy loam, and  ilad
been drainedi in 1841 to the del)th of 22
inches.   Tlhe effects of this  experiment
would lhave been miiore satisfatctory had a
top)-(ressitn(, of bsoth tlhe quantities of saltpetre at. one of thje above periods been
ma(le withl a view to compaLrison, but as
rauch  as botlh the quantities, namtiely, 84
11). of saltpetre, -it tlhe samiie cost of 21s.
.9d. per acre, was top)-dressed at one of the
above periodls-namtiely, tlhe l7itlh of April,
on whieat tlha-t was sown after potatoes on
the  7thj Novemiber 1842, on deep sandy
ltatn of another field, wlhose produce iamy be
* Transactions of thle Hiqhland and Agricultural Society, March 1849, p. 492 and 513.
t Ibid., January 1849, p. 416 and 437.                  + Ibid., March 1849, p. 4,92 and 631,
419
15 bushels of wbeat at 5s.,.                X3  15,, 0
146 stones of straw at 2d.,.                  1 4 4 
4 19 4
Deduct the value of the manure, 1  15- 3
A profit is left of X3 4 I+ 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
Benes, dissolved,.  104 lb. at 7s. the cwt., L.O 6 4 o
ulplhuric acid,.52..atls...           0 5 61
Carbonate of potash,  26.. at35s...    0 8 1it
Carbonate of soda,    17.. at 12s...   0 1 9t       e
Carbonate of magnesia, 60.. at 22s...                    0 1            9            D
L.1 13 8
Thlis mnixtulre was  not applied, froni fortuitous circumstances, until the 31st May
1847,  and  drou,,ght  set  in  iiniiiediately
tliereafter; but the produce obtained  was
4-4' bushels of 52 Ih. of whleat, and  263
stones of straw, wliile the land that was            w
not top-dressed only gave 454  bushels of
52-2 lb. of wheat, and 202 stones of str.aw-        b
the difference in favour of the top-dressing
being 9i bushels of wheat, and 61 stones
of straw.   The result stands thus:-us
9D butshels   of wheat at 5.,.    ~2  7  6
61 stones of straw at 2d.,.      0 10  2
2 17  8
Deduct the value of the manure,   1 13  8
A profit is left of     ~1  4  0'
Lotlhian, tried the effects of nitrate of soda
on barley in 1843. The field in which
tle experiment was tried, at an elevation
of 600 feet above the sea, had a soutlern
exposure, and the soil of nediiunm quality,
o   e  of   a  depta  of  8 or 9 inchles, sufficiently
free for green crops, but rather having a
tendency to clay, with a  rete ntive  stb.soil.
It ha d bee      n furrow-drained  at 18 feet
apart.  it grew turnips in 1842, soaw.nurel
wie t        fa rmyard  dia an,, an d with a  pro)ortion of  dairy dung procured     frowl  Edinbuirglh dairymen. the whliole crop being
carried  o)ff  the field.   Commlinon  Scotelh
barley was sown on 14tlh April 1843, after
thIe   l       and  3areceived tw o plotigLings, and
was reaped on the 1st Septemnber.   The
top-          dress ing wa3 appl ied on th e 13lh May,
an.d benefited bv rains inmediately after;
I cwt. 11-~ ll,.;,f nitrate of soda  was applied to tlhe acte, at a cost of 22s., and the
crop reaped w-ts 60 bushels of 56 lb. to
the bushel, and 316 stones of straw.
What received no top-dressing yielded 49
bushels of 56 lb. to the bushel, and 7?12
stones 4 lb. of straw to the acre, afforaing
an increase to the top-dressing of 11 bushels
of grain, and 66 stones of straw. Tlhe
balance stands thus:
4925. Barley.-Mr A. F. Gardner obt'tiined at Barroclian from a soil, upon the
si-le of a hill with a southern exposure, of
lig,lt brown loamn of medium quality, restillg on stiff strong till of great depthl, lyin,,
between trap and sandstone, tlior,l,ugllly
draiitlel, trenclle(l out of lea 12 inches i         b
depttli with the spade, at a cost of ~3, 6s.
8(1. an acre, anti  aranured with 3 cwt. of
guano to the acre, at a cost of ~3, 15s.,
a produce of 64 bushlels of comliion barley per acre, of 54 lb. to the bushel, and
321 stones of straw.   The ground with
whichl the expeLritental lots were cotnpared
was dre.ssed withl 2 chlaldrons of quicklime
slake(l wiii water, in wlhich coilimon salt
hiad b)eeti dissolved, and with  2. cwt. of
Turnbull's dissolved bones  in  urririatic
acidl, ainI the return was 484  ) bushlels (of
barley of 554 lb. to the bushel, and 220
stonlles of straw.   The guano procured an
increase of 154 bushlels of grain, and 101l
stones of straw.  Thle cost of'T'urnbull's
mianure not being given, I am  unable to
estimate the profit derived from the guano.
Thle barley was sown on the 14thl April,
tol)-dressed  in  the  beginning  of  May,
reaped on tlhe 25thl August, and weighled
on the 15thl October 1842.+
4927. It is interesting  to comnpare the
eflects of the  clieap ingredient saltpetre
ve ry
at Whlitehlill applied it to aw soJil of mzoderately strongf  claly, restinlg  in a retentive
subsoil, hlavingr an inclinlati{on and an e~xposure to thle S.EC. Tlle ground was very
wet before b(eingi drained, and is now quite
(Iry. Since tie driilg, the   soil   bears fair
crops of turnips ansd Mlost luxuriant oats
and barley, orv the latter of which the presenrt experiment %as i,sade.  The saltpeti-e
refuse was applied on the 27th Aly 1845,
at  only 1  cwt. to tlhe acre, to try the
effects of a small quantity,. at a cost of
]-Os., and vielded on the  20tlh Septenmb~er,
61~ buislhels of barley of  50i lb. to  tie
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, p. 496 and 532.
t Ibid., July 1844, p. 230.                    + Ibid., October 1844, p. 312-13.
420
I 1 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d., X2 10 3
104 stones ofstraw at 2d.,.      0 17 4
3 7 7
Deduct the value of the manure, 1 2 0
Leaving a profit of X2  5 7++
4926. Mr Jolin Finiiie, Swanston, Mid 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
4929. Both barley and oats were steeped in different solutions before being sown
by  Mr  Gardner at Barrochan, and the
effect was to lessen the yield of grain lIy
at least half a bushel to the acre, whlile
the steeping  increased the quantity  of
straw at the miost 80 stones to the acre.
buslhel, and 495 stones 6 lb. of straw to
the acre.  What received no top-dressing
produced 55 bushels of grain of 51 lb. to
the bushels and 291 stones of straw to the
acre. TThe increase caused by the topdressing was 6I bushels of barley, and 204
stones of straw to the acre.  Tile results
were these:
4930. Oats. —I shall state the results
of guano front oats, before specifying  the
effects of any Of the special manures.   r
Finnie, Swanston, applied 2 cwt. 1 lb. of
g.uano to the acre, at a cost of 1 2s. the cwt,or
24s. an acre, which produced 741 bus els
of Blainslie oats, of 42-1 lbs. to the bushel,
and 400 stones of straw.   Without  theo
top-dressing, the crop was  48 bushels of
oats, at 42-  lb. to the bushel, and 223
stones of straw, the increase by the (Iressing being 2621 bushels of oats, and 177
stones of straw. Tlhe results are:
6l                          bushels of barley  at 2s.9d., ~0  16 11
204 stones of straw at 2d.,.                             14  0
2 10 11
Deduct cost of manure;.         10    0
Leaving a profit of     ~2  0 11*
The costlier nitrate of soda of Mr Finnie
left the larger profit; but the increase~ by
the saltpetre refuse was large in proportioIl to the cost, and was larger than that
from the nitrate of soda, by E1, 13s. 3d.
But the nitrate of soda produced grain
56 lb. per bushels while that fromn  the saltpetre refuse weighed only 501 lb.
261  bushels of oats, at 2s.,.    ~2  13  0
177 stones of straw, at 2d.,    1 9   6
4  2-  6
Deduct the cost of the manure,    1  4  0
And the profit is    ~2 18  6
The field was elevated 600 feet above  the
sea, consisting of soil of scarcely medium
quality, having a S. exposure, and easily
affected by drought.  The oats were after
pasture, succeeding a crop of barley, inmniediately preceded by turnips, which had
been mnianured by Edinbu'gh street imanure,
and the thlird part of thle turnips eaten off
by sheep.   Tile oats were  sownI  on tihe
20th of Marchl 1843, the guano applied on
the 13thl of Mlay, rain immediately following, and the crop reaped on the 20thl September.+
4928. The combined effects of a mixture of nitrate of soda and salt on barley
was tried by Mr John Proudfoot, Pinkiehill, Mid(-Lotlian, on good deep loam, on
a gravelly subsoil in very superior order.
It had carried wheat in 1842, and the
barley experimented on in 1843, so that
it was the second white crop in succession.
One cwt. each of nitrate of soda and salt,
at a cost of 26s., was applied to the acre,
and the produce received from them was
62 bushels if barley of 57 lb. to the bushel,
and 276 stones of straw. Tile ground that
received no top-dressing yielded 56 bushels
of grain of 57 lb. to the bushel, and 256
lb. of straw, showing an increase by the
top-dressing of 6 bushels of barley, and 20
stones of straw. The increase is not large
either in grain or straw, but the land was
in superior order, and could not be expected to be fstimulated to an extraordinary
degree.  The results stood thus:
4931. Mr Charles Chalmers of Monks+
ilill, applied, on the farm of iRothles Brisbane, in Aberdeenshire, one.ial manure,
sulphate of  ammonia, on  Scots  barley
oats, on the ] 8tl of May 1843, to the extent of 2 cwt. to the acre, at a cost of
~2, Is. 8(1. an acre; anal the yield was
8112 bushels of oats, of 41- lb. to tihe
bushel, and 473 stones of straw.   The
ground that receive] no top-dressing, yielded 53- bushels of grain, of 43 tlb. to the
bushel, and 321 stones of straw, showitng
* Transactions of the Hiqhland and Agrulturalt Society, October 1846, p. 407 and 423.
't Ibid., January 1849, p. 434..: Ibid., October 1844, p. 313.
421
6 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d.,
20 stones of straw at 2d.,    -
XO 16 6
0 3 4
0 19 10
1 6  0
XO 6- 2t
Deducting wbicb from the costI
of the manures, I
Incurred a loss of 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
an  increase on the top-dressed part of
27-3 bushels of oats, aiind 152 stones of
straw; but the oats were 1s3 lb. pier bushel
lighter.  The balance stands thus:
as a top-dressing on Early Angus  oats,
and the produce was 751 bushels of grain,,
and 804 stones to the acre.   The undressed portion of the ground produced
70~  bushels of grain, and 608 stones of
straw, so that the increase fromni the topdressing was 51 bushels of oats, and  1:)6
stones of straw.   Thle result was thlus:
Deduct the cost of the manure,
5~ bushels of oats, at 2s.,.   ~0  10  6
196 stones of straw, at 2d.,      1 12  8
2  3  2
Deduct cost of the manure,.    0 18 ~ 9
Giving a profit of    ~1   4  5
The farm is 200 feet above  the sea, four
miles distant from it, and  has a S. exposure.   The soil isa light loam on a nixed
subsoil, but sufficiently porous to admit of
being thoroughly drained, in the autumn
of 1839, with stone drains, 30 inches in
depth and 32 feet apart. The land bore
in 1840, potatoes; in 1841, wheat; in
1842, turnips. Thle oats were sown on
the 20th March, with  the  drill-maclhine
across the ridges, and top-dressed on the
10tlh of May 1843.+
The crop was much  lodged, which may
account for the  li,,ghtness of the grain.
It also constituted a crop of seven years
rotation, whlich terminated'in two conse'cutive white crops.  The field sloped to
the S.*
4932. A combination of simple salts
was tried on Sandy oats, by Mr  A. F.
Gardner, at Barrocllan, whlich were the
nitrate  of soda  and  the  sulphate  of
soda, of each   1 cwt. at a cost of 9s. 10d.
al acre; and the crop produced was 78
bushels, of 40 lb to the acre, and 303
stones of straw.  Thle undressed ground
gave 61  bushels of grain, and 240 stones
of straw, affording an increase of ] 61
bushels of oats, and 113 stones of straw.
The result was: —
4934. As a clhangte of  top-dIressing,, Mr
Prouidfoot, Pinkiehill,  Mii-Lotllian, applied 12 bushels of bone-dust, dissolved
in 292 lb. of sulphuric acid, at a. cost of
~4, 6s. the acre, on  a lighlt soil, resting
on a gravelly subsoil, on  thie 24th April
1843, upon oats after lea, at an elevation not exceeding 100 feet above the sea.
Thie crop yielded was 80 bushels of oats,
of 42 lb. to  the buslhel, atnd 376 stones
of straw to the acre.   The undressed part
gave 68 bushels of grain, of 43 lb. to tlhe
buishiel, and 320 stones o,f straw, affor(in,
an inc,'ease of 12 buislels of oats, and 56
stones of straw-thius:
164 bushels of oats, at 2s.,. ~1 13  0
113                              stones of straw, at 2d.,  0 18 10
2 11 10
Deduct  th     e      cost           of the manure,    0  9 10
Leaving a prsofit of            2                 0
The soil wa  s stiff alluvial loamn             of good
depth, th       e        subsoil  of stron g  yellow  clay
lying on trap and sandstone.  It had been
drained nine years, and lain somie years
in gr        ass,  worth  e2 the acre. The ground
wasi trenched with the spade in tlhe spring
of 1843, 16 inches deep, at a cost of:~4
all acre, the turf being laid on the bottom
of the trench, anal the subsoil brought up
to the top.  Thie oats -were sown on the
20th of Marcli, top-d(ressed on the 6thl of
May, reaped on tile 8thl September 1843.t
4933.  Mr  Johln  Dickson,  Sauglilton
Mains,  Mid-Lotlhian, tried  a  conbination of nitrate of soda anld common salt,
48 lb. eachi, at a cost of 18s. 9d. an-aecie,
4935. An instance shlould be given of
the effect of a variety of substances lil)olli
the oat crop, and I shall take one friom tlhe
* Transactions ofile Highland and A4gricultural Societq, July 1845, p. 31.
' Ibid.,July 1844, p. 241.  - Ibid. January i845, p. 364-6.   ~ Ibid., January 1849, p. 435.
422
X2.15 6
1   5.4
4 0  10
2 1   8
xi 19 2
Leaviiig a profit of
12 buhels of oats, at 2,.,.
56 stories of straw, at 2d.,.
Xl 4 0
0 9 4
1 13 4
4 6 0
X2 12 8~
Deduct cost of the iiiaiiure,.
Incurritig a loss of 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
plactice of Mr A. F. Gardner at Barrocllan, who applied, on thle 20th of May
1845, tile following substances:
bushels of beans, and 172 stones of straw.
Tihe result is thiis:  11 1 bushels of beans, at 3S.,    ~1 14   6
172 stones of straw, at 2id.,      1  15 10
P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~12soesruvitaw un,.. 10at ~0d 10  0                - 
3 10 4
Deduct the cost of the manure    0  6  0
Leaving a profit of     ~3  4  4
The field had a gentle inclination to the
S.   It was trenched with  tile spade 16
inches deep, in the spring of 1842, ollt of
seven years' old  lea, which had   been
dra ined at  20 feet apart, with tiles, apro
made  p er fectly dry.  Tile soil  is partly
moss   and partly          sand  or gravel loar,
w Maich                were ixed  together  in trenching.
Besides this, it was dressed with 23 clialdrons of quicklime, slaked in water that
held commnon salt in solution, in the  proportion of I cwt. to tile chialdIron of linie,
before the beans were sowni on the 6tlh
March 1843.  They were top dressed on
tile 6til of May, and reaped on tile J st of
Septernber.t
Peruvian guano,.
Animal charcoal,.
Dissolved in stilphuric acid,
Commnon salt,
Silicate of soda,..
Horln dust,...
at a cost of    ~1 13  8
on black Tartarian oats, on tile O1til of
April, and obtained 703 bushels, of 414
lb. to tile bushel, and 3,6 stones of straw.
The part undressed yielded 47 bushels of
grain, of 38 lb. to the bushiel, and  242
stones of straw, indicating an increase by
tile dressing,s of 233 buslhels of oats, and
134 stones of straw.   The results are:
23i bushels of oats, at 2s.,.    ~2 13  6
134 stones of straw, at 2d.,.   1  2  4
3 15 10
Deduct the cost of the manure    1 13  8
Leaving a profit of     ~2  2  2
The soil was drained moss, from  8 to 12
feet  in depth, resting  on a sandy clay
bottom.  Prior to 1844, it hlad  lain in
grass for two years; and ill tile spring of
that year it was trenched with tile spade
two feet deep, laying the top-spading at
the bottn                                         omof the trenc, and bringing up
thle peat to tile surface.   Tile peat was
burned into asiles, wliicl) were splea(d over
the surface, and raised a cr(oi) of 25 tons
to tile acle of turnips.  Tile surface was
pointed (over witil the spade in spring, and
tile oats sown upon it.   To supply tile
want of clay, the silicate of soda was tried
as foruler experience lhad found that silicate of potasil gave a strong, clear, shiining straw on imoss-land.*
4937. Mr Gardner tried to top-dress
beans with a variety of special manures,
suchi as,
cwt. lb.
Animal charcoal               2  0 at X0   8   0
Dissolved in sulph;[ric acid,  1  0..  0 9   4
Sulphate of magnesia,.      0 56...   0  2  6
Commnon salt,..    2  0...   0  2   0
Nitrate of soda,..    1   0...  0 16  0
at a cost of     ~1 17 10
and  obtained a  crop of  693  buslhels, a,r
4
583  lb.  to the  l)uslel, anid 629 stoi e. o
straw; tlhat w!iclih was not to)-dressed
yielding  58~   buslels, of  58~ lb. to the
buslel, and 483 stonies of strav: showing
an increase, Iby the alpplication  of tile toI)dressing, of 11-1 btislhels of  beans, and  146
stones oftrte2
stonies of straw. The result is:
.  111 blsl.lels of beans, at 3s.,..    ~1  14  6
146 stonies of straw, at 2id.,     1 10   5
3 4 11
Deduct the cost of the manure,      1 17 10
Leaving a profit of     ~1   7  1
The soil was a stiff loam resting on sandstone; was drained with tiles some years
4936. Beans.-Mr A. F. Gardner, at
Barroclian, appliell 4 cwt. of gypsum, at ait
cost of 6s. an acre, to beans, and  reaped
67-1 busilels, of 64 lb. to tile bilsilel, and
663 stones (of straw to the acre; wilereas
tile grounid tihat received no top-dressing
yielded 56 bushlels, of 63 lIt). to thle bushel
of gra.in, and 491 stones of lhaulin: shiowing an increase by tile dressing of II!
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 18, 35.
t 1bid., July 1844, p. 242-3.
423
cwt. lb.
1  0 at XO 10  0
1  0 - 0 4 0
0 56 - 0 4 8
1  0 -   0  1  0
I 0'  0 12 0
1  0 - 0 2 0
23i bushels of oats, at 2s.,.
134 stoiies of straw, at 2d.,.
. 11-1 bti.liels of beaiis, at as.,.,
146 stories of straw, at 2id., 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
ago, and has a gentle declivity to the E.
It had laini in grass some years, and on
being ploughed in spring the beans were
sown broadcast, top-dressed on the 21st
of May, reaped on the 8thl of October,
and  weighed  on  the  12tli November
1845.*
15 tons at 5s.,      ~3 15  0
, 1 cwt.,..      0  4   0
56 lb...     0   7  0
gnes ia, 1 4 ib..     0   1 3
cwt...   0  0  9
0   1  6
28 lb.    -..         0  4   0
at a cost of:    4 13   6
4938. Pease.-Mr John Hannam, North
Deigliton, Yorkshire, tried the effects of
gypsum on pease as an auxiliary to farmyard dung,.   The soil was a thin limestone, worth 16s. the acre, thle prior crops
being wheat rape-dusted, swedishl turnips
with manure, and barley with rape-dust.
The pease were taken in lieu of clover for
a change, and the land for them received
4 loads of farmyard dung to the acre; and
the top-dressing of 4 cwt. of gypsuni, at a
cost of 12s., was spread on the 10th of
May 1842, and when reaped yielded.51It
bushels of pease, of 61 lb. to the bushel,
and 253 stones of straw; whereas that
which received no top-dressing gave 4134
bushels, of 61 lb. to the bushel, and 2054
stones of straw-showing the advantage
derived from  the top-dressing to be 943
bushels of pease, and 471 stones of straw.
The results are:
9] bushels of pease, at 3s.,.
47~ stones of straw, at 2id.,
4941. A coarse variety of the p(,tatt(,
called Coinaughlt cups, afforded Mr Gardner a large return fioti a combination ot
imanures as auxiliaries to farmnyard dung,.
Thus, with
1 19 0
0 12 0
~1 7 ot
4939. In the same experiment, pease
were tried by Mr Hannam with a coinmbination of a half cwt. of nitrate of soda
and I cwt. of thle sulphate of soda, at a
cost of ~1, Is. 3d. an. acre; and the produce was 474 bushels of grain, of 61 lb. to
the bushel, and 262- stones of straw-giving a less satisfactory result than with
gypsum alone, by only covering the expense.
15 tons  at 5s.,   ~3  15  0
2 cwt..          0   8  0
huric acid, 1 cwt.   0  9  4
wt....        0  1  0
1 cwt,..      0  5  0
It'   ~    ~    ~    0  4   0
esia, 1 cwt..     0  5  0
ilia, I cwt..    015  0
3 cwt.        I.    I10  0
ata cost of       ~7 12   4
the potatoes were planted onl the 5tlh  (r
May 1845 and, when lifted on tlie 8tlh of
November, procduced  21  toris 15 cwt.;
while 30 tons of farnmy.ard dung, at a cost
of ~7, 10s., only produced 13 tons, 5 cuwt.
-A —isin(or the above comiibination an ads an?
4940. Potatoes.-Any simple salt, applied as a top-dressing to potatoes, produces but a trifling effect beyond what
farmyard dun!g will always produce; but
a combination of special manures, as auxiliaries to farmyard dung,, lias the effect
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 19, 36. -
t Ibid. March 1844, p. 200-1.                 +!bid. January 1845, p. 409, Table C.
42-.r
of increasing the crop to a setisible de-ree.
using acombina tion of such inati ures, Mr
F. Gardner,, at Batroctian, has been
eii,ibled to produce large crops of,potatoes. Thus, with
Farmyard dung,
Animal charcoal
Sulphuric acid,
Carbonate of nia
Common salt, I
Gypsum, I cwt.
Nitrate of soda.,
he planted the potatoes on the 29tli of
April 1844, applied the spe(,-ial Manures
.alon,,,with the farmyard (itin, and produced, upon very stiff clav loani, on tlie
t-tli of October, 20 tonq, 6 cwt. 19 lb. on
an acre; while 25 tons of farmyard (luiifat a cost of E6, 5s., only produced 14
tons, I cwt.-giving an advanta(,e of 6
tons, 2 cwt. 19 lb., which, at E2 the tot),
is CI2, 4s. 4d. an acre in favoiir of the
special manures. The crop itself stands
thus:
20 tons, 3 cwt. 19 lb. of potatoes,
at X2 per ton, I.        X40.7 0
Deduct costof manure, 4 13 6
Leaving a balance of X36 13 6++
xi 9 3
0 9 9
Deduct the cost of the manure,
Leaving a profit of
Farmyard duiig,
Animal charcoal,
Dissolved in ship
.Common salt, I c
'Sulpliate of soda,
Horti dust, 2 owt
Sulpitate of magii
Muriate of amino
Peruvian guano, 
Animal charcoal, 2 cwt.,.         0  8  0
Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 cwt.,  0  9  4
Horn dust, 3 cwt.,...   0  6  0
Muriate of ammonia, 2 cwt.,.   110  0
Sulpl)ate of soda, 1 cwt.,..  0  5  0
Carbonate of magntesia, i cwt.,.   0  5  0
Common salt, 2 cwt.,..   0  2  0
at a cost of     ~6  5  4
and they produced 20 tons 9 cwt.; wlfile 30
tons of farmyard dung, at a cost of ~7, I Os.
an acre, only produced, in tloe same fiel(l,
13        tons 1 cwt.-giving, tile a(lvantage  tod
thl e  special manures of 7 tons 8 cwt., wlliclh,
at         ~2 per ton, bein(g  a fine potato, is
~14, 16s. an acre in favour of the speciaL
nianures.  Tle case of the crop itself stood
tihus
14 ton s  5 cwt. 60 lb. of carrots,   ~21    8 3
at 8Os.,
Deduct cost of manures,.       4 16  0
Leaving a profit of    ~16 12  3t
4 944. Mr  J. M.  Aynesley, Fern Hill,
Tockington,  raised two  varieties  of the
carrot on clayey  loami, a foot i,  delptli,
resting on stiff clay-a soil not quite suitable for the carrot.    The  varieties  were
tlhe AlteringhIam  a-nd the wlhite  Belg,iani.
"Thle Alterilnghanm w  as miianured w Aitlh 6
buslels of common salt, and  54 btuslels  of
soot, att a cost of t2, 2s. 6d1. anr acre, aiid
produced 22 totis 8 cwt. 64 lb. of carrts;
comilpared  with 24 tons of farmyard  -dng,
at  4s. the ton, ~4, 16s., wliiel  pr(-(lIced
21 tons I S cwt. 6(4 II)., giving  nii a-(dvaiitage of  10 cwt. to thle sl)ecial iianuires,
whlichl, at 30s. the ton, leatves a  )r()tit of
J5s. per acre.   The case of the crop itself
is thlis
4943. Carrots.-Mr  Main, at  Whlitelill, trie(d to( raise carrots withl othler  tianure  tlian  farmy.ard  (dung  alone.    Tihe
soil was li,,ght satd(ly loam, resting on san(l
and( gravel.  T''le inclination of tle field
i-as  fr(iiii N.E.  to S.W.   The fiel(d was
louti,glied friom  *,ld lea in 1844, and oats
taken; ii-i 1845  it was  in turnips, manured  withl  farmtinyar(l dung,  guano,  &c;
iun 184; it wa.s ic oats  ai,nuin; atd in 1 847
turnips antd carrots.   In uisinig botlh farm
4945. The   ohite  Belyi(s   n        carrot ao
also mainu,iitred witlh 6 buslels of common
sailt atndi 54 1!misllels of soot, at a cost ()f
~2, 2s. 6d. an acre, and produced 29 tons
* Transactions of the Jiqgtand and A4gr?icultnrael Society, July 1847, p. 25 and 27.
t ]bid.. March 1849, p. 502 and 533.
I
20 tons 9 cwt. of potatoes at ~2 =-~40  18  0
Deduct cost of the imianutires,.  6   5 4
Leavinig a balance of      ~3 4 12  8*
22 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb. carrots, at 30.s., ~33 12 10
Deduct the cost of the manures,.    2 2 6
Leavinig a balance of       ~3. 10I 4 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
the  crop  was  pulled   at  thle  end  of
October.
8 cwt. 64  1b. an  acre; compared  witlh
those  raisedl  froil  24  tons of  fai myard
dlun,r whiiell  )rodiicel 28 tonis 8 cvt. 64
lb.,  giving tlhe a(dvantage to  tile special
lmanures of just 1 tonl on thle acre, or 30s.
of l)rofit.   The crol) yieledgp
4948. In a simnilar experiment withl 20
tons of farmii dung, and 6 cwt. of Peruvian
gIIanio, sown upon tlle drills after the crop
was up, thle produce was  25 tons 3 cwt.
6,  lb. of Swedishl turnips, whlile that qtlantity of dung alone produced only 21 tons
7 cwt. 71 lb. —giving an advantage to the
g-guano of 3 tons 15 cwt. 108 lb., which, at
1 0s. the cwt., is i1, 18s. 3(. of profit an acre.
Tlhe crop was sown on tlhe 4tlh of June,
and pulled at the end of October 1844.t
29  tons 8 cwt. 64 lb, at 30st. m e44a     2 10
Deduc(,t cost of the imaniures,.     2  2  6
Leavinig a balance of         ~42   O  4
or ~10, [0s. thle acre more in favour of
thle white Belgian thati the Altelitilghani            c
carrot.   Il bothl  crops the seed was sowIn
on tile 19tll of April  1842, and  pulled
froiii tle 4tlh to the 21st of November.* 
494.'. A  combination of special manures produced as miiarked an increase in
Swedishl  turnlips as in potatoes.   Mr  A.
F.  Gardner, at  Barroclhan, applied the
fillowing, special manures on imiediuim loam,
after a crop of (oats from lea, in 1845:
4946. Lord Lovelace, in 1843, gave a
shlort account of liaviig raise(l in several
years, but particularly in  1842, 43 ton
306 lb. of reil cairrots on thle acre, witlh l                                    i
cilbic yards of faiinivarld dtng  alone.  Tle
only peculiarity (f' thle cultures seems to
lhave been thle subsoililng to the depthl of
15 ilnchles between the dr-ills.
Farmyard dung, 15 tons.at Ss.,  ~3 15  0
Peruvian guaIno, 3 cwt. at 10s.,.  ] 10  0
Attitnal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s.,.  0   8 0
Dissolved in muriatic acid, 1 cwt., 0 9  4
Carboiiate of magnesia, I cwt.,.  0  5  0
Sulphate of soda, I cwt.,..  0  5  0
Sulphlate of ammionia, 1 cwt.,.  0 16   0
Horni dust, 3 cwt. at 2s.,..  0  6 0
Common salt, I cwt.,..  0  1  0
at a cost of     ~7 15 4
wlhiclh  produced  46 tons 17  cwt.  6 lb.
of  Swedishl  turnips  ais acre,  of  value
~23, 8s. 6d., at  10s. tle  ton; compared
Wit4l  30 tons of  ftriiiyar(l  (lung at  5s.,
s~8 15s., whlichl  pr((duced 34 tons  5 cwt.
80 lb., giving  the advantage of  12 tons
11  cwt.  38  lb. to thle  special Im,anures,
atooulinting to ~6, 5s. 8i1. al, acre, at 10s.
tle ton.  Tle value of the crop itself stands
thlus
4947. S,wedisht turnips.-Tlhe power of
guano  as anii auxiliary  to frtiiiyardi dung
in raising, a crop of turnlips is considerable.
Mr  A. F. Garliier, at Barrool(ian, ap[,lieda
18 tons of farm daiug to tlhe acre at 5s. the
ton, ~4, I Os., and 3 cwvt. of Peruviatn guano
at 10s. tlhe cwvt., ~.1, 1()s.  togetlier iiak-l
ing- a cost of  ~6 tlhe acre, 1)ro(luce(I, in
1844, on stiff  clay  laili  tligat had,(I beel{
tr-ellclied vitIt tli(', sp tlt 16 inichies deep in
tlhe winter of  1842-3, 34 tons  1!9 cwt. of
Sw edlislh tuirnip)s; coi,parede w,itli 29 tolls
1-0 cwt., ira,ised w itli 35 tols (of f-.titaiyard
dungi at 5s. thle t,mi, at a cost of ~8, 15s.
al acre-givitng an a(lvantage of 5 toilS 9
cwt. t() thle gauoi, lvicll, It 1OS. thle ton,
gives  a  pi)ofit  of  ~2,  14s. 6d(.  aii acre.
The croip itself stan(ls                          teitus
46 tons 17 cwt. 6 lb.Swede.s at IOs.  ~23 8 6
Deduct the cost of the Inanures,.   8 15  0
Leaving a balance of        ~14 13  6+
34 tDt,ls 19 cwt. swe(les, at 10s.,   ~17           9   6
Dedtuct cost of the miianiures,.     6   0   0
Lea,vinig a balance of          ~11   9   6
4950. With  15 cubic yards  of  frian..
yardl (lung, at  5s. thle yard, ~3, 15s.; 4
cwt. (of Peiruvilan gliantno, at 108. the cwt.,
~2; and 17 Iutsliels of bolne-dust, at 2s. 6,1.
tlhe b)ushel, ~2, 2s. (;41., Mr Rolb)ert Elliot,
Hwardgrave, DuiiIfi'iess.liie, Iratise(l 28 tons
9  cwt. of  Sweilisli tuinips an  acre, in
i v      hiere ws the,alance left l-y thle f ar iioyar dtl
dlut aLlonle wvaIs Z'f  thie aicre.    TlIe gulaino
was s,)wn 1i})t)jm thje top of tihe  lIaI- d        ung
ahotig tlhe driill onii tlhe 13tlh of Ma-.y, anjd
Jourilal of the Elnglish  A4iqiculturel  Society, vol. iv. p. 270.
t  T'ransactions of the tliyghl(lnd and   Agricultural Society, March 1845,'rable G.
+ Ibid., July 1847, p. 29.
426 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANUIRES.
well as on  the Swede,  an(d witlh silimil,r
good results.    The m.Lnures we-re tljese
1849, at a cost of Z7, 17s. 6d., the value
of the crop,at 1 0s. the ton, leing -t1 4, 4s. 6d.,
leaving a balance, after deductilg,, the cost
of thle nialiures, of ~6, 7s. al acre, alyd
nlaking  the cost  of  a  ton  of  Swedes
only 5s. Gd.*
Farmiiyard (duniig, 15 tois at $s.,
Perut.viatn guano, 3 cawt. at ] Os.,
Aniiumal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s.,
Dissolved ill suilpl)luric acid(l, I cwt.
Carboiiate of magnesia, 1 cwt.,
Suilp)late of soda,, I cwt.,
Mtiria-te of ammj,oiia, 1 cwt.,
Comiimon salt, I cwt.,. 
Potash, 28 lb., a t 28 s. th e cwt.,
torill dust; 2cwt. at 2s.,
at a cost of
and  tl)e pro(lucQ was 42 tons,
11). Comnpared  witLi 31 tons  (bt
30 totls of  ti-iiiyard dung, at
at a cost of 327, 10s. all aicre,
tage  accruing  bxy  thre use  of
maniures  Awas 11 toils 17 cw t. 1
the totn, amiiouinits to ~4, 15s.
value of the crop itself is tlhis 42 tonls 17 owt. 10 lb. Jones'
yellow, at 8s.,
Deduct the cost of the mnanures,
4951.  Yellow turnips.-Mr Johln Finhie, Swanston, tried sin,gle special nianures
as auxiliaries to fariiiyard dung, on a sol i        l
of ratlher goodl quality, liaving a retentive
subsoil, at a depthl of 12 or 13 inclies. The
field is exposed  to the  N., was  under
wlieat  in  1842,  precede(d  by  l)potatoes,
raised  withl tfirm  dlutg  and  Edliiibiir,gh
street manure in equal proportions.  Skir-,
ving'spurple top yellow turnips were sowini
on the 15thl of June, the special manure
sown over 16 tons of (dung, at 5s. tie ton,
~4, spread' alonig the drill, a(nd the turnips
were pulled on the 1st of Noveliiber 1848.
Thuis, 12 tons of dung at  5s., ~3, and Il
cwt. 67 11). of (ammoniacal salts, at 20s.
the cwt., ~1, 12s., togethler iiiaking a cost
of ~4, 1 2s. an acre, produced 33 tons,
6 cwt. 13 lb; and whlich, comipared  v witli
the produce of 16 tons of dung, at 5s., ~.4,
25; tons 4 cwt., gives an advantage to the
sipecial nmanure of 8 tons 2 cwt. 13 lb. at
8s. tle ton, of t c 3, 4s. 9d. an acre, over
and above the value of 4 tons of dung. The
walue of the crop stands thus
4954. On tlhe farn  of  Bal,r,rav, in  tlhe
parish of Applegartli, Dtiiilfi'iessliire, 29
tons 3 cwt. per acre of yellow  bullock
turnips  w,ere r-aise(I by 35 cubic yards of
farmyard Idung, at a cost, at 5s. tlhe y.ard,
of ~8, 15s. aii acre.   The c()st of Iraising
tle turnips was thius 6s. 4d. the toi.~
33 tons 6cwt. 131lb. yellow ttr- I 13 6 6
inips, at 8s.,
Deduct the cost of the manures,     4 12  0
Leaving a balance of      ~8 14  6t
4955.  W/lite teurnips.-Mr J(oh)n I/nnani,  Nortli Deig,litoli,  Yo,rkslire,  tried
experimiients withi special iiiaiiures b,th  -is
substitutes tfr and( as  aiixiliaiies to f-rriyard duni,g.   Thie best sulbstitute was /,urnt
bones,  2 quarters (of whlicli ani acre, at a
cost of ~2, Is., produced  25 tons 1 7  cwt.
1 ll. of Matsoii's whlite-glot'e tini-    ps,  of
243 goo(l ttiurnips to each p)erchl; wile tilhe
groiiund tIjat lhad none I)ro(luce,l olly 1 6tolis
1 cwt. (tf smlal,ll bullss-thle advaintagre obI)tained bly the b(iles beiiig 9 t,iis 1(; cwt.
I1 lb., t (is. the t,,n, ~2, 1 ]8s. 91. aii icre. As
an auxiliarytofatrniyar(I duig,, 12 blI)slielsof
bone-dust anld 6!,uslielis of r(ipe-,eeIke (lust
to the acre, at a cost of ~2, 6s. 9l. pr4(luceld 26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb, of 228  i lurilps
to tlhe pJerell, tnd secured an advatagie  of
10 tons 14 cwt. 5 l1., -it 6s. thje toi,. ~3,
4ii52. It may be mentioned  liere, that
amiinioiiacal liquor, obtained fromii the g,asworks, is of greater or less value as it is
obtaine(d fiom the particular k.inid of coal
tlhe ga,ts is extracted from.  The purer tihe
coal the gas is derived fronm, suclI as t!e
cannel coal, usel at Etlinburgit, the amt)inioiiiacal liquor is less riichI in useful inlglrelienits than from coal of a more bitursinols
character.  Hence tlhe ami inoniiacal liq iu,r
of Newcastle or  Lon(lon is better tha.,n
tlat (if Ediniburgl.
4953. Mr    A. F.  Goardner, at Barsoclean, tried the effects of a comiibiniationi of
special manures on Jones'yellow turnip, as
'Transactions of the Higihhisn(i and Algrieulteral Society, Marci 1850, p. 237.
+ Ibid., October 1844, p 316.       $ li(id., July 1847, p. 31.      ~ Ibid., Marchl 1850, p. 238.
427
X17 3 1
17 18 10
X9 4 3++
Lea,ves a balaii(-,e of 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
48. 2d. an acre.   Thle cr,lp itself stands
thius in value:
Organic matter,..    16.3
Inorganiic matter,..    63.9
Water,....    1918
100.0
To conpare witle this, 20 tonis   of fars yard
dung, fermented until  uti t could be c ut  witlo
a  spade,  were applied  to  the    a c re, at a
cost of ~t', and it produced   31 tons of tel rnipls, gi ving   an advan tage  to  tloe special
nlanure  of 6 tonls   8 cwt., whicl, at  6s. the
ton, realises a  profit of  ~1,  18s. an acre.
The                       value  of th e  turnips was  3s. 2d. the
ton.   This manure  cons ist         ed of      Organic iimatte r,.      24.71
Inorganic matter,.. 10.06
Water,....   64.96
99.73
4959. Som e curious a   nomalie s were   ol)tained by  the use of tthese alkaline    pho s -
plhates.   We lave seen tlat 4 cwt. of tlen
produced  37  tons 8 cwt. of  turnips; but
when an addition of     10 tons of   f.tfarmyyard
dunig was made to that quantity of: the
phospha,es, the produce slhrunk to 26 tons
the acre. nakin  the value of      tlie turnip
3s. 2pe. tte ton: 26  tons were  also  produced
by 8 cwt. of the a lkaline  phosphates alone.
wtlichl made the value of      the tcrmi)ps   2s.
10(d. tlhe ton.   But whlell  10 tons of fare myard miatnure were added to 8 cwt. of the
aslka in   liane pospat es, th e  produce was increasedI to 31 to-)ns-tlhe samiie amount as
fro m         2 0  ton s  of frtnyarad dtng alone. The
value  of e  te turnips, fron the  lung alone,
was 3s. 2dl. the ton,  but tile (pdllc g and Il2osplphates combined, increase  d tljeir val ue to
4s.  Hence w*e sl(otl(e i conclude, thlat alkaline phosplates and farmyard duing, should
not be combined, but a)plied separately. In
like mtianner eartl!y sulllihates, prepared by
dissolving  miiasgnesian limieestonie in sulplluric acid,.and 20 tons of farn;va,rd (Idung, each
separately, produce 31 tolns of turniips; but
when  co~,miped, the  produce  f.ills to 26
t,,ns, and increases the  value of the tuirnips to 4s. Id. the ton.  The sulplha-tesare
composed of
26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb. globes, at 6s.  ~8   0'6
Deduct the cost of tile illallure,        2  6  9
Leavinig a balance of         ~5 13  9
The soil moderate limestone, worthl 24s.
per acre, exposed on all sides.   Former
crops —grass pastured withi  sheep, whleat
rape-d(usted, and oats rape-dustel.   Thle
turlnips were drilled on thle level on the
4th of Jully, at 12 incilIes ala.rt, and pulled
on tlhe.5tlh of November 1842.*
Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5.,      ~3 15  0
Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s.,     1 10  0
Allimal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s..    0  8  0
Di.isolved in inuriatic acid, 1 cwt.,   0  9  4
Horn dust, 2 cwt. at 2s.,..    0  4  0
Commuxioni 3alt, 2 cwt. at ls.,.    0  2  0
at a cost of     ~6  8  4
produced 34 tons 11 cwt. 48 lb. of puirpletop white turnips.  Comnpare this with the
produce:-of 30 tons of farmyard dung at
5s. the ton, at a cost of ~7 10s., 33 tons
14 cwt. 32 lb., and the special manures
have  only  an advantage of 17 cwt.  16
ll. an acre, which at 6s. t!he ton is wortlh
5s. I d.  The  value of the crop itself is
this:
34 tons 11  cwt. 48 lb. white, at 6s., ~11  7  4
iDedsclt the  cost of the manure,    6  8  4
Leaving abalance of        ~4 19  0
The Soil was me(diumni loamii.  The preceding crop was oats on trenclhed- lea. The
special manures were sown uipon the duilg
in the (drills, on  the 2C6thi June, and  the
turnip)s p)uilled on the 12tlh of Novemiber
1845.+
4957. Hybrid turnitps-Mr Tlhomas L.
Colie,ck, Ea.st Dent, n, Newcastle-oni-Ty ne,
applied alkaline phosphates witlh am7?)monia,
the pihospliates being prepared by dissolving bones in nn excess of stilplhuric acid,
and tneutralising, by ineans of an atlkali; 4
cwt. of wlhicl) at 8s. 3(1. thle cwt. at a cost
of ~1, 13s. an acre, produced 37  t,)lls 8
cwt. of hlybridl turnips, niaking thle cost of
the crop 10d. per toIl.
* Transactions  of the Highland and  -.4riceultural  $ciety, March 1844, p. 171.
t Ibid., July 1847, p. 33
428
4956." These special iiiatiures,
8 9
12.7
99.6 
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
and tlhey alone make tile value of thie tur-  acre.   The  value of thie  crop  itself  is
nips only is. 9d. thie ton.                      this:
36 tons of nmangol(-wnrzel, at 10s., ~18   0    0
Deduct the cost of the nianlure,         4  15  0
Leaving a balance of         ~13  5 ~t
4960. Tlie turnips were sown in
May and pulled in Decem'ber 1 847
-tie  four  preceding  crops  leing, in
1843,  turnips  manured  withl  farimyard
dung; in 1844, barley; in 1845, pease instead of clover; in 1846, oats.  The soil
is formned from the dlisintegra.tion of tile
upper red congromerate of the coal series.
The neiglhl)ourhlood is principally formedl
from tihe clay slate of the samie series.  It is
consequenitly a strong, wheat soil, worthi
40s. tile acre, and is considered a tolerably
good( turnip soil.  It does not grow a fine
samiple of wheat,  and(l is not  yet dry
enou,igh b)eneath for tuirnips, to be eaten off
withl  shieep in winter.  It is sufficiently
dry for ordinary cultivation witihout furrow
drainage, the outburst of water  hlaving
been taken off by cross drains.*
496 2. Lord I.ovelace raised, at Oakhia
Park, lar,e (rops of      lon, ree d     manlg oil-l -
wurzel —in 1831,s  i as ruca  as  58 t,)saii 8
cwt. 60 lb. an acre; and on an   average  ~f
12 years from  1831  to 1842, both inelutsive, the quantity was  47 tons,  190 cwt.
59 lb.  the  acre.  In   1t341  and 1842 lie
raised 42 tons 3 cwt., and 43 tons 2 cwt.
of tlhe  orang,e glol)e variety to  the aicre.
As  the  cultivation is peculiar, I sliall relate it in iis lordslhip's own words.  It
autitumn,i  the  stuibble is mnanured  with  15
cubic yards of farm-iyar(d duing and ph,ltu,,he, l
downi.   "In April  the ground is rid(gedI
at a widtlh of  3 feet, by a  double   miiould1board going out anti returningi in the sa1t21e
furrow.   The subsoil  plougll- follows iliillediately along  the furrow, and stirs tlhe
ground 15 inches deeper; and the remaining 15  cubicyards allotted to  eachi acre,
in all 30 cubic yards, are put in tile treiichi
and covered in  the usual miiannier.   Tlhe
miiang,o(lI is sownI on  the newiv  f(,rmelel
rid]ge withl the tuirnip-drill, about  tlhe en,I
of April or beginingi,, of May.   Tlirce or
four  weeks  afterwards  the furrows          ari-e
subsoiled, (so that tle field is tlrlou,ily
stirred) and the plants are left to standl,it
intervals (in the lines) of 14 to 18 inieies,
the lines being,, 3 feet apart.   I %%ill only
add one word le)ore about thle seconiid silisoiling.   After tlie  plants lave  com)ie  11),
and are five or six weeks ol(l, if you examine  them - you will find tlha-t even tlheni
their: fibres are nearly  m)eetiln; tlhe  suibsoiling  in  the  initervening  fuirrow  tlent
heaves tip the  rid(,es on w!iicih  they aie
growing, and they seeni to float lp(l tlio
soil: (lirectly afterwards, I  suippose, they
dive down in quiest of  furthler  inourislimietit.  The plants grow so rapi(dly Ias to
take entire possession of  the soil, and the
shiade of the leaves prevents  tlhe  gro%,,tli
of weeds; conl!seqienitly   no hi(eilngti, is
requisite after they liave been  once  tillnedl out  to  tileir proper  (listane.'Ti'   v
are  taken tip in  November, anil  1 i, e
4961. Mlanqold-witrzel.-Tlhis is a root
but scantily grown in Scotlandl, andl the
source of our  iiiforaiation regarding its
produce   iiiust  be   derived   from   the
experience  of  Englishi  cultivators.   On
light  land,  b)eing in  part  a  shlifting
s:tid,  Mr  Pusey  of  Pusey, in  Berksliire, -associated  special  iiianures  withi
13 loa(ls of fitriiiyar(d dung; and althioughi
M'r Pusey  (ldoes not give  prices at all,
I  slall  estinate  the  various  manures
at  the  usuI.l  cost,  tand  say  that  the
ilun( wis worthl 5s. the loead, at a cost of
~3, 5s. Ian acre; 7 cwt. of rags at 4s. the
cwt., ait a cost of X1, 8s. an acre; and
3 cwt. of guan( at l0s. the cwt., at t cost
of ~1, I Os. an acre, eaclh  of whichi  pro(duced(.6 tons of iiiang(rld(1-wtrzel an acre,
niaking  tile valule of thle crop  2s. 7d.
)er toii.   Wiili 26 ani(l 13 loads of fartmyard duing an acre,  281 and 274 tonls of
Inangol(l-wtirzel  vwere  p)roduced  respectively; and witlh  no  manuire  ait all, 15      g
tons an acre were obtainedl-so tlhat the
special manures seciire(l an advantage of
8 tons over tlhe farinyari mnanure, and 20-L
tons over what received no iiianire.  Estimating inangoll-wurzel ait tile samie price
as swe(les, ]Os. the ton, the pecuniary advantage over the produce fromn the fatrmyar(l duing is ~4, and over that frolii tihe
ordinary state of the soil, ~ 10,  5s. an
* Transactions of thie HigIhland and A4ricultural Society, January 1850, p. 141-62.
t Journal of the Elylish Ayrica'tural Soiety, Yol. vi. p. 530.
429 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
been kept till June, or even July, with
care." *
Mr John Finhiie, Swanston, applied'l cwt.
11 lb. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of 22s.
an acre on the 13thl of May 1843. Tihe
grass was cut on the l10thl, and  weig,,ed
on the 15th July, -it 344 stones an acre;
while that which was not top-dressed only
yielled 181 stones-givilng an a(lvantage
to the top-lressing of 163stones, which, at
6d. the stone, for hlalf- made lay that year,
was ~,4, ls. 6d., leaving a profit of t:2, 19s.
6d. an acre.   Tlhe crop itself stoold thuss:
49063. Tires. —Mr John Finnie, Swanston, applied 1 cwt.  22 lb., of am6moniacal
alts,           t      at a  co  st  of c1, 3s. 11d. an acre,
and obtained a csttin, of 1143              stones.
The ground that had not been top-dressed
yi eld ed 967        stones, so  that the top-dressing  gatve      an                    increase of 176 stones, which
a          t 1ld. tihe stone            is 18s. 4d.,  incurr ing
a -loss of 5s. 7i       a      d     n an acre.   Tle cr op it.self      st ands        thusi:
1143 stones of tares, at I id. per stone, ~5 18 11
Deduct  the cost of  the                        m anure, 1  3 11
Le avi ng a profi                       t of ~4 15  0
Thle fiel     d w  as expo sed to t     e           S., and consisted of very lighit soil incumben                            t on
greenstone.  Io a 1841 it was under turnips,
tmanured         w ith rich farmyard dunes and
oEdinburgl-,   stre        et manure; and the  third
part of         the crop eas eaten od the ground
with sheep.   In 1842 barley succeeded
the turnips, and was sown down with grass
seed.  In 1843, the grass seeds: not succeeding, they were ploughed  up  on  the
29tlh of Marchi, and the tares sown on the
1st of April following, with a mixture of
four parts of tares to one of oats.  The
tol).dressings were applied on the 12th
of May, and the tares mown on, the IOth
of August.+
344 stones of clover hay, at 6d. the
stoe....... 17  4  0
Deduct the cost of the manure,.  1  2   0
Leaving a balance of       ~16   2  0
The field was  exposed  to the S.  and  the
soil  was  eigrlIt or nine  inches  in  ldepth,
easily puiverised, but  having  a slight mnixture  of clay, and  resting, on a -retentive
subsoil.~
4966. Mr James  M'Lean, Braidwood,
top-(dressed clover and  rye-grass with  3
cwt. 4 lb. of guano, at a cost of t'3, 18s.
7d. an acre, on the 7tll of May 1842; the
grass was  cut on  the 24th of June, and
the bay weighed and stacked on the  5tl
of July, the produce being 3981 stones.
The  ground  that was not  top-dr essed
yielded 125 stones, so that the top-(dressing procured the great increase of 2731
stones an acre, whlichl, at  7d. the stolne,
gives ~7, 19s. 6d(. an acre, and a profit of
.~4, Os. lid., after deducting  the  cost of
the nmanure.  Tie crop itself stands thiis:  398. stones hay, at 7d the stone,   ~12 12 5
Deduct the cost of the mnanure,  3 18 7
Leaving a balance of  ~8 13 l0 1
4964. Mfr James Melvin, Bonnington,
Mid-Lotliian, sowed beans and  tares togetlier in 1843, with 16 tons to the acre of
farnlyar(l dung, and top-dressed the ground
afterwards with 1 cwt of sulphate of soda,
and 56 11). of nitrate of soda, at a cost of
13s. 9d. an acre, and the produce was 1760
stones.   The part  that  received farmyard dung  alonie produced 1632 stones,
giving an aldvant-ige to the top-dress;.n,g,
of 128 stones an acre, which at 14d(i. the
stone is 13s. 4d., about the same amount
as the extra cost of the special in manures.
The crop itself stands thus: 1760 stones of tares, at I id. per stone,  ~9  3 4
Deduct the cost of the mnanures,.   0 13 9:
Leaving a balance of    ~8 9 7+
Animal charcoal, I cwt....  ~0  4   0
Dissolved in sulphuric acid,  56 lb. at
9s. 4d. cwt.....             0  4  8
Horn dust,  1  cwt. at'2'.,          0.        3  0
Carbonate of magnesia,  14 lb. at  5s. 4d.
per cwt...                     0   0  8
Sul,,hate of soda, 213 lb. at 5P. per  cwt.,   0  1 3
Conmmon salt. 5$6 lb. at is. per cwt.,      0  0  6
Sulphate of ammonia   28 11). at 16s. cwt., o  4   0
Potash, 21 11). at 24s. per cwt.,.      0  6  0
Carbonate of soda, 21' lb. at 8s. per cwt., 0  2  0
at a cost of       ~ 1  6  1
I Journal of thie English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 21.
+ 7rarsactions of the fiylhland and Agricultural,~ociety, October 1844, p. 314-5.
:  6Ibid., January 1849, p. 439.   ~ ibid., October 1844, p. 314-17.    1 Ibid., July 1843, p. 30.
-430
1 4967. Mr A'F' Gardner, at Barroclian,
applied the following special nianiii-es:
4965. Hay of clover attd rye grass.  
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
This mixture produced 931 stones 4 lb.,,
while tle ground  that received no topdressingl only produced 331 stones 12 lb.,
giving a balance in favour of tlle t(opdiressing of 599 stones, wlicil at 4~1l. the
stone, or ~3 tlhe ton, are wortlh t'l 1, 4s. 7d.
an acre, and, after dleducting the cost of
the manures, leav e         a     profit of  s9,13s. 101(d.
an acre.   The crop itself stands thus:
Tlhe grass was cut on thie 12tl, of Jt;ly,
and tlle lhay stactled( and weigl)ed on  lhe
1.5tl of Augtust, at 497  stones an a,cre,
wlhile the undressed part only yiel(iedi 228
stones, givitng an advantage of 269 stones
to  the  mianures,  at 4~d.  the  stone, ~5,
Os. 10(l. an acre,  and, after deducting tiheir
cost,  leaving  a profit  of  ~3, 11s.  11I1d.
an acre.   Thie crop itself stands tlhs:497 stones hay, at 41d. the stone,.  ~9   6 4.;
Deduct the cost of  the  m anur es,.    1  8 1). 
Leaving a balance of    ~7 17  6+
931 stones hay, at 4'd. the stone,  ~17  9  1
Deduct the cost of the manures,.   I 6 1
Leaving a balance of   ~16 3  0
The  soil was medium  loani.    It  was
cropped  in  1843  withi  potatoes, and in
1844 withl  barley sown  down withi grass
seeds.   Thle grass was top-dressed on tlehe
28th of April, cut down  on the 26thi of
Juine, an(l thie hlay stacked on the 28til of
August, 1845.*
4970. Rye-gras.s  seed.   Mr  Charles
Stevenson,  Redsile, East  Lothiian, t,lidressed tile second year's rye-grass for
see(], growing on red clay restinig on stiff
clay.   The farm is three  miles from  the
sea, and elevated about 100 feet above it,
and  the exposure of tis particular field
was partly N. and(l partly S.  It was furrow (lraine(I in 1837 at 36 feet apaIrt, witlh
tiles and stones placed above thieni.  Thle
preceding crops were in 1838 bare fall(ow;
1839, wheat; 1840, turnips; 1841, harley; 1842, lay; and in 1843, rye-grass
for  seed.   The top (iressing, nitrate  of
soda, 1 cwt. 67 11)b, at a cost of ~1, 15s. 3(1.
an acre, was applied on the 7thi of April,
the grass cut in July, and the l,hay weighedi
when niaturely won, at 320  st(snes, while
the part undresse(d only yiel(led 174 stoiies,
giving an aidvatitage to  thle top-dressing,
of ] 46 stoniies an acre.  Taking the price
o f lay at.8 the           ton         e,
the  advantag,,e was  ~2,  14s. 11(1., an(l
after dedlucting, thle cost of the nianure,
the profit was 19s. 8d. an acre;  but  the
crop was worth nlore as one  of rye-grass
seed, the quantity not beinm  mentioned by
Mr  Stevenson.   The crop itself, as lhay,
stands thus:
4968. Hay of ten years old lea. —Mr
Gardner made experiiiinentsoftop-dressin(gs
of special manures on old lea, varying in
a                ge from 3, 6, 10, 15,              to 30 years,  the
results of whiicih are all instructive, but I
shiall confine myself to two of the  most
successful  instances.  In  1843                        l     he topdressed 10 year old  lea with half a  lihindredwveiglht of nitrate of soda, at a cost
of 8s. 9,i. an acre, and obtained 5331
stones of hjay; while that which received
no top-dressing yielded 401 stones, g,iviing
the special ma-,nure an advantage of 1321
stones to tile acre, at 6d. the stone, ~3,
6s. 3d.; and after (leducting, the cost of
the manture, Ss. 9d., left a profit of ~2, 17s.
6d. an acre. The crop itself stood thus:533.z, stones of hay, at 6d. the stone,  X13  6 9
Detfuct the cost of the manure,.      0  83 9
Leaving a balance of     ~12 18  0
Tlhe crop  yielded  325 lb.  of lhay  fron
every 1000 lb. of the grass cut green.t
y,Dat  4!d th e sto ne,.  ~6 0  0
st of thfe manure,.      1 15 3
Leaving a balance of;C4 4 9~
4969.  Oni  eleven years   old  lea, Mr
Garnlier.pplie(l tilese special  manuires as
a   top-diressing   on   the   23d   of  April
1844:-. 
Peruvisn guano, lI cwt. at lOs. thlle cwt,  ~0  15  0
..nimal chiaicoal,   wt..            0  4  0
Muriate of anmmonia, 56 lb. at 16s. the cwt., 0  8  0
Common slt, 5, lb. at 9d. the cwt..      0  0  4
Gypsum, I cwt.,...     0  1  6
at a cost of      ~1   8 10
4971. These  are  the  larg,est  retuirns,
from tile respective crops etiuniuera-ted, I
can find  rec,rdled; and it  migh,t hlave
proved interestingL and instrictive, I)y w.ay
of coinpar-isoni, hdii I giv en tlhe snmallest
returns  also,  and  wlich  I  would  willingly  have done  had space  i,een avail
' Transactioi,s of the Hiqhland and  4gricultural Society, July 1847, p. 20.
t Ibid., July 1844, p. 240.         Ibid., March 1845. Table B.      ~ Ibid., October 1844, p. 334.
131
20 stoiies ba
Deduct. the co 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
able.   It woul tend  to no good result
to(        dr aw  g ener al conclusions   fio,m   thle
few ca,ses tlhat lhave  been adduced; but
the effects of certain classes of special
miiainuries are so obvious, upon every species
of crop) they were a)pliedi to, thiat no llarm
can accirute fr-oIml noticing tl)erai.  It seems,
tlien, tlia.t all special manures cont'ainin,g a
large p1roportion of nitroren, such as rapecake, sulplallte of amnimonia, tourliate of
ammiiiionia., nitrate of sodla, and  suchlike,
reduice the weight of the grain they p,ro(lice, while they increase the quan tity of
botli grain and straw; whliereas chlorides,
suitsh~tes, soda, mnag,nesia, bone-dust, and
tlhe like, increase the weight but  deteriorate tlhe quality of the graini in conmpI,rison
witlh ordinary farmyvard nmanture.
the observed effects of different manures; and
the influence of the seasons.   What renders results still less available is, that " the careful
sifter of experiments," as Professor Johnlston well
observes,  " must bear all such things in mind in
comparilng results, aid in attemliptilg to reconcile
such as differ, or  to extract  general rules and
principles fromn  such as agree.   The  maker  of
experimelits, als,, imiust neither be surprised nor
discouraged if a series of trials which has cost
him  thought, trouble, and expense, should, by
the chances of one unusual season, by the unsuspected colindition of his land, or by other  accidenits, be rendered wholly abortive.  Such  accidents form one of those numerous sources of delay
to which the progress of scientific agriculture is
peculiarly liable, which have made its advance so
slow, many of its steps in advance so doubtful
and insecure, and have disheartened and driven
from its service many useful and talented men."*
To my view, the prospect of using  the special
fmanures as they ought and might be used, is very
distant indeed.
49)72. It may prove useful to give a list of the
chemical  and  commercial  names and current
price of the various sorts of manures recomimenided for use. It is useless to specify the quantity to be applied of each to the acre, as experieice has not yet determined the point with certaility; and it is equally unsatisfactory to state
the qulantities used by every experimenter on
every kind of crop, since the ingredients were
only used experimentally, and such qualitities
cainnot therefore prove a correct guide tfor others
to follow, and mighit rather have a tendency to
mislead.  The best results hitherto obtained are
the only safe olies the attenitioln can be directed
to; and.-ases of failure would perhaps have i-ene u
equally instructive: but few of these are recorded
with tire same degree of caidour as the inistance        s
ofcomipara,tive success.  A lot time muist elapse
ere certaility can be attained in a m          atter adoiaitting of such a variety of quantities, and in the
mean time every farimer must experimenit tfor
limself iii his own peculiar circumstanaces.  The
time will 1no doubt arrive wl)en a large accunmulation of facts will indicate the substaiiLes most
to be relied on, and all others will be rejected;
and then the young farnier will reap the advantages secured to him by the experienice of his
experiimenitinig predecessors.
Agricultural salt,     Sailed rock-salt.  Is.  cwt.
Carbon,ate of am nioia,                  Sal volatile,    50s. to  56s. cwt.
Carbontite of mniag nesi.,..           508. cwt.
Carbo..ateofpotaslh, An.ericat potash, 28s. to 42s. cwt.
sodiu,     Soda crystals,   8s.  cwt.
Clloride of  ts)dium,,    Conne on sa lt,  Is. 3d.  cwt.
Aliuriate     of  am mn~lmiat,                Crystals,       28s. cwt.
Muriate of po ashl,                         13s. cwt.
Nitrate of potaslh,    2fitre, Saltpetre,  2.9s. to 30s. cwt.
..   soda,..           16s. cwt.
Silicate of p~otash,..      6.6 to L.8 ton.
Sulplh.ate of ammilo Ili,,,                                   15s. to 18s. cwt.
Sulphlate of lime,         Gylpsu;.,       2s. cwt.
..    magresia,    Epsom salts, 8-s. to 10s.  cwt.
..  0t.iols,..           12s. to  14s. cwt.
. soda,         Dry salts,       4s. to  6s. cwt.
Plho~plhate  of am.monia11,<t,..         5S0. cwt.
Plhosphate of soda,..            25s. cwt.
:ALCINXD 5sANURES.
iened kelp,       L.11 to L.12 ton.
.     4a to 5s. cwt.
Burnt   clay,     2d. bushel.
..  coal,       2s. 6d. ton.
..  peaty soil,.4'3 ton.
..   peabt',    2d. bushel.
..  sods,      5d...
..  wood,       6d...
..  sea-ware,  5s. to  6s. cwt.
Peat  charcol,   4)s. ton.
nomina     l.
Bone  blachk,    20s. qr.
,N gRAL ACID  NAN URES.
Oil of vitriol, id. lb.
Spirits of salts, 14d. lb.
MiATURAI, MANURIES.
L.9 to L.10 ton.
African,        L.8, 10s. ton.
..         L.6, 10a to U. ton.
4973. That a long tinme iiiust elalpse, ere the
special Isiitiures cait inispire the saute confidence
in their t-ffects as is already placed ill those of
ifarimyard diuing, botle-dtist, anid Peruvian guaiio,
will appear froimi the following cousideratiois: -
the influence of the varying quality of fharmyard
diiiig on the results ot comlparative ex)perimients,
in wlhich it is-o0ne of the ingredients eimlployed;
the previous treatment ot'the laid; o0ne iigredieiit
coulinteractilng the action of another; the Limne,
inmailier, and formni of the application of the ingredients; the physical condition of an inigredienit, its state of chemical action, and its teisideicy to decompose in a given soil; the different varieties of seed causing  discordances in
* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 71-2.
432
4974. I am not sure that the folloiving substances as iiiaiiures cotiipreliend the entire number presented to the notice of the farmer. The
prices in 1850, 1 have endeavotired to obtain as
correctly as possible from authentic sources.
SALINE MANTJRKS.
Peruvi.-tn guano,
leliaboe guaiio,
Pat.,igo,r.iai, guano, 
Lance's carbon,.          12s. qr.
.h. lumlius. L.4 ton.
Turnbull's lt s,                         4s. cwt.a
* *    prepared                     4s. cwt.
bones,
Nesbitt's mantlres,..         L.7 to L.14 ton.
Spence's   prepared                       L.8 ton.
bone m,nlire,''
Superpliosphate  of}.lSuphated bones, L.6, lOs. to L.8 ton.
Iiine,
Urate,                 Dry sewerage,   84s. hhd.
Animalised carbon,   Atimal black,   3s. cwt.
Ditto  dissolved i}i                     9s. cwt.
sulpburic acid, 
Nighltsoil  prepared                      4s. cwt.
with tih ells,                                                  wt
Nightsoil  prepared                          cwt.
witt gypsumn,                          4s. * 
Whieat manntre,..         L.8, 10s. to L.9 ton.
Animal charcoal,..          i8. to 6s. 6d. cwt.
-Pereentat{ ot
impurity.
Carebopatd of ammonia,   44.09   amnroni,
55.9c 1o carbonic acid.
41.60.fmagnesia,
....magnesia,2
36.58.{ carbonie'acid. } }
potash, with va
. purible prtie   ons
3966l ( soda,
..60 p- ser   of t            carbonic,  sua
02cent of     { p{ phuric acid silici
.'acids, be sides sail                                     phiur.
po:itash, carbonic
.  ulpi  acid, wit } sl                   pofasl I.  55.00. pha te and silibnate
Pearl ashes,. 25,21 {of potash and ihn                                    l.purifies.
21.81 6f soda,
..-  soda,,   3.nriaed  
15.43 p. carbonic acid.
9 66.8 J soda,
Clfloride of sodiumi,3 96   soa
60.34  I chl  orine. acd
Mutriate of ammonia,amia 2
66.11 {  muriatic acid.
52.53.fpotassium,
..   poa.Eusht,        11(tgllpnt~z~i 
...  potwsli,  47547  cl {hlorine.     }  40
Nitrate of atmmonia,       2.9aimda
60.641I.nitric acid.
4,6.56 Jpota,shi,     
53.44  1   nit ric  acid. } l
36.60J oda,
..soda,
6.3.40 l,nitrieacid. }  5
42.29 amiioni,,
Phosphate         of ammonii      }a,
57.71 { phosphi'ic acid.
44'.38 jlime, 
55. (i2. phiost-horic aci~d,}5
s~d,   17.88  soda;,
20.40 ] pho,sphoric acid.
Silieate of pota.sh,         50.54 fpotas,,I.            5it
49. 46 {.ii,i acid. )70
8!'-;,48.f ammonia,
Suiptate o amni~!ii   60.52 tsulphiuric acid. } 
~.         3 ~~~~~~2.90 limne,
4(,;.31 id
..~~~~~~67    magnesia,
32.40. tilphjuric acid.    l
34.07  po,tas,,b
potash,,           4
45.93 ~.sulphiuric acid.   4
sd,43.82!soda, 1
56. i8' {suplphuric acid.
Soda ashi, 48 per cent of soda.
Klsat10 to 30 per cent I   __~
Iof eji-bonate of ot.
RXFlJSER MANURES.
NVhlte oil refus.e,      Whale blubber,   5s. to 7s. ton.
Se.l oil refuse, Sea          l blubber,   5S. to 7s. toii.
Rape-cake,    L.5 to L.5, 10s. ton.
I Rape dust, L.5, 10s. to L.6 ton.
Pollards,                   Fie brai,        4s. 6d. cwvt.
Si;gar refuse,..           20s. to 40s. ton.
1torn dlist,                                 2s. cwt. 
Sa.ltpetre reftse,    Gtunpowder reftse, I 2s. ton.
Amiiotiaical liquor,        Gas watcr,        ld. gallon.
Silpluric   ie,         Si7phated twash,  16s. cwt.
Cihloride of lime,      Bleacher's refiise, 28s. cwt. 
S,a-p asles,           Soap-boiler'srefuse, los. ton.
Coal tar,..                                  id. gallon.
Gas lie,..           7s. 6d. cloldiiron.
Rag le,..                                    ls. 250 gallon5s.
Woolleni rags,..           L. 4 to 1, 4, lOs. ton.
ShIodv,..          20s. ton.
Cropping.s,..          8lominal.
Singeing du.st,..          nod                                                   miaal.
Flax waste,.oasinal.
Taiiner's bark,            Waste bark,    fd. ton.
4975. Ini the nomeniclatuire of the substanlles
enumerated iii the first section of the above list,
it will be observed that they assume a strictly
chemuical character; btit they are not entitled to
such a dlistinction, as the salts sold to the farmers for the purposes of maiiure are not the pure
neutral salts which their namnes indicate, but
salts in a crude state, containing impurities of
manufacture.   The  pure salts of those names
would be far too expensive for farmers to employ.  The cruder ones, being mutch cheaper, are
VOL. II.
12s. qr.
L. 4 ton.
4s. cwt.
4s. cwt.
L.7 to L.14 ton.
L.8 ton.
2 R 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
they would receive a much steadier custom. I do
not suppose but that chemists could make up the
mixtures better than the farmer; and were a
skilful chemist to make  up prescriptions for the
land as honestly  as he does for patients, or
for the domesticated animals, I am  sure  lie
would establish for himself a large and lucrative
trade; because farmers would much rather receive
a manure already made  up, ill which they canL
confide, than run the risk of mixinig one, in the
doing of which they might commit a serious mistake.  But as manuflactured manures are  presented to the farmer at l)reselit. hlie has no alter
native but to have every sample analysed by a
chemist, in no respect connected with a manufoctory; and even then hlie has no positive assurance of receiving the stock in as pure a state as
the sample.   Every other trade  that deals in
pilverised articles is in the same unsatisfactory
state.  No  one is even certain of purchasing
genuine oatmeal in the shops; and as to tea, it is
adulterated beyond endurance with the leaves of
other plants; and  they who purchase ground
coffee receive a large pr.oportiotn in it of chicory.
When I mention that many of the saline iligredienits, enumerated above, are rendered  heavier
by the addition of water, even  to the extenit of
14 per cent, I speak no more than the truth, and
adduce sufficient grounds to warn  the farmers
from purchaasing manufacture d compo unded  pulverised mixtures, whose composition cannot be
estimated by sight.
Agricultural salt,
Bone-dtust,
Clark's desiccated compost,
I)aniell's manure,
Dutch ashes,
Guano, foreign,
.   Potter's,
Gypsum,.
ltutus, Lance's,
..   Turnbull's,
Lance's carbon,
Lance's manures,
Muiriate of a-mmonia,
Nitrate of potash,
..    soda,
Poittevin's desiccated compost,
Rape-dust,
Soda ash,
Sulphate of atmimonia,
..     soda,
Urate       ~       omo,
Watson's compost,
4978.  The  above is a f   or midabl     e  a rray of
auxilia ries               to farmyard dung for t he coeitemplation of the farmer. Without a classification, he
would  f     eel        bewildered amongs                        t them;  and even
when classified, te    ne        o                         an       the names of  any of the manufactured ones  afford him  no infoimatio  n as  to
t heir compon      e dt ingred ients.  The         natural  ones
are m      ost          to be relied on, as      they afford both
stimulating   an    d  fertilising    m    aterials.   The
saline       are       generally impure, as may be seen
in  comparing  their prices with those of the
genu     ine s  alts  in the shops of the druggists. The
r         efns  e             manures are           numerous, and,  being generally cheap, may be employed to advantage in
composts, o      r separately.  T he m anufactured ones
are also   a numerous t ri       b      e, and        from their very
number ar     e  apt to excite suspici  on. I have myself tried at least one of those to be found in the
above  list, and         found it do as   little  good  as
so m nuch bl          ack         m ould     applied beside them. Even
the famed Liebig's manure has proved a failure;
and recent decisions in the courts of justice have
proved that  gseles                                s and inexpensive mixtures
h      ave been sold to   farmers b earing the naomeofgood
manures containing valuable ingred ients. We
have only to look at the composition given in
(3351,) to learn the nature of many stuffs which
are pas      sed off s n atur al g uano. Th                     e great objection t       o c oncoct ed manures is, that you can have
no reliance on th          e effects  t o be produced by parcels of them obtained at different times, or even
from different parcels obtained at the same time.
Those made up in large quantities at once, and
in a limited time, cannot have their ingredients
cormixed with the desired degree of precision.
tence one small parcel produces one effect, and another quite a different effect. Were chemists more
intent on supplying farmers with well-considered
prescriptions, setting forth the proportions which
:genuine ingredients should bear to'one another,
.-and indicating the crop each mixture is
intended to promote, accompanied with such
instructions as the farmers  themselves might
ma'ke up the mixtures in safety-than in conicocting compounds for sale, they would confer
far more valuable service oii practical husbandry
than they have hitherto done. They might not
thus make so much money in a given time, but
4979. In applying all special manures, certain
rules should be followed.   It is the safest practice to avoid bringing the seed sown in imnmediate contact P,ith aiyv special manure, so that
a portion of soil should always intervene between
the manures and the seed.
4981. But saline special manures, being easily
dissolved, are most efficiently applied to the
crop  after  the  plants have  developed  their
leaves, and in the form of a top-dressinig.  In
very dry weather, the saline ingredients will
rather injure that promote vegetation, so that a
time  of rain, or of heavy dew early in the
morning, should be chosen for their distribution
over the soil.
4982. Substances in a hi,ghly soluble form, such
as the  sulphates, nitiriates, and  nitrates, owing
to their solubility, ought to be sparingly applied
each  timne, but repeatedly, say in two, three,
four, or f i ve applications,  in o rder to pr oda l e
their greatest practicable results at the smallest
expenditnre of materials.  This point still wants
elncidation, and can only be made practical by repeated experiments undertaken by farmers with
this sole object in view. Three to five years of such
a course of experiment would put us in possession
of indisputable data for future guidance.
434
4977. The weight of some of t-liese manures by
the bushel is as follows:-,
P., b..h.1 lb. lb.
. 70 to 80
42.. 44
: co.. 65
.    - so
40
: 56
. 65
.        80.. 84
. 56
' 28
. 4,5
70
:        65.. 7o
.       i 75
.    80
.        18
.. 56
.        60
. 70
. 60.. &5
.    50
. 40.. 45
4980. Earthy special manures should alwavs
be sown upon the ground after it has been drilld
up, whether they are used as a substitute or as
an auxiliary to farmyard dung; and the saliiie
manures may be treated in the same maiiiier,
when desired to be so used. 
SPECIAL MANURES.
proprietors have a  curious kind of rich weed,
which the y  cut into  small square bits, and s ell at
a very high price for the growing of plants in
pots. This is obtained chiefly from the pond.s
and lakes in  the vicinity, where the  ~etumbiunt
speciosum grows. This soil is so much esteemed,
that the price for the best kind is I dollar feor 3
peculs, (3 cwt. 63j lb.) and for the second best 1
dollar for 4 peculs (4 cwt. 85 lb.) The interior
sort has frequently been sent to England in plant
cases from Cantoli."
4983. Every one has heard extolled the great
industry displayed by the Chinese and Belgians,
in collecting special manure for every species of
crop.  Mr Fortune gives a very good reason for
such industry on the part of the Chinese: "Firewood," he says, " is so scarce in the country that
a great portion of the straw, cotton stalks, and
grass, which would go to manure tile fields, is
used for firing, and therefore the plain of growing
manure for the land is forced upon the farmers
by necessity.  The plan of using manure in a
fresh state,instead of allowiig it first to decay,has
doubtless been found, from  long experience, to be
the best for the young paddy (rice.)...
Prawnus and fish of various kinds are frequently
used for the same purpose, and in the same way."
4987. Niglttsoil and utrine.-" For crops in a
vigorous  growing state no kiiJd of manure is so
eagerly sought after  as iiiglhtsoil, a,ili every tra veller in Chinl  has remarked  the large cisterns
or earthen tubs, which are placed in the  most
conspicuous and convenient situations  for the
reception of this kind of manure.  What  would
be  considered aii intolerable  lnulisance in every
civilised town ill Europe, is here looked upon by
all classes, rich aad poor, with  the utmost  complacency; and I am convinced that nothitng would
astonish a Chiiianiaii more than hearing any one
complain of the stench which is continually rising
from these maniure taniks.  Almost every Chinese
towi  is placed on the baniks of a river or cainal,
and  thle water is not only generally led arouind
thle walls, thus foriiiit:g a kind of moat, but also
through uiaiiy parts  of the  city.  Long clumsy
boats are placeil in different parts  of the  towip,
into which the niighlitsoil and  urinie are emptied,
and conveyed froom thence into the country. The
fields in the neighbourhood of cities are generally
supplied with it by Coolies, who go every morn,ing to market loaded with the produce  of  their
farms.  Each brings home  two buckets of the
manure, slung at the ends of his  bamnboo pole.
Il n England it is generally supposed  that the
Chinese carry the  itightsoil and  urine to their
taiks, anid leave it there  to undergo  fternmeiitation, before they applly it to the land.  This, however,is iot the case-at least not genierally. li tlhe
fertile agricultulral districts in the north, I have
observed that the greater part of this stimulant is
used ilk a fresh state, being of course  sufficiently
diluted with water  before it is aipplied- to  the
crops.   Axid there  can be little doubt  that in
this the Chiniese act perfectly right, as the manure
must be  much  inore efficient in this state  than
when a great portion of its ammoiia has passed
off into the air.   The Chinese, as far as I could
learni, have no mode of disinfecting their manture;
but ttheyseem to be perfectlyaware that, ifallowed
free access to the air,a greatlossmustresult,owing
to the gases which are given ouet and dissipated.
Without waiting, theni, for fermenetation or putrefactioti, the mlalure is at once applied  to the
growing  crops.   On the afternoons, or in cloudy
days, the labourers are seen carrying water firom
the nearest polid or canlal to the manture tax)k,
ofoir the purpose  of diluting its contents.  Thin
beiug done, thley fill their buckets, attaching one
to each end of their bamboo il  the  usual way,
and carry them off to their destination.  When
this is reached, each man takes a small wooden
ladle having a long bamboo  hanxdle, and with
4984. Black earth.-" Burnt earth mixed with
decomposed vegetable matter is another highly
esteemed matiure, and is common in all the agricultural districts. During the summer months,
all sorts of vegetable rubbish are collected iii
heaps by th e r oad sid es, and  mixed with straw,
grass, parings  of turf, &c., which  are set oni f           ir     e,
and burn slow ly for           seve ra      l days, -until allbthe
rank vegetable matter is decomposed and the
whole reduced to a black earth. It is then
turned over several times, when it presents the
same appearance as the vegetable mould used in
gardens il England. This manure is not scattered over the land, but reserved for covering the
seeds. and is applied in the following mianner:When the seed-time arrives, one man makes the
holes, another follows and drops in the seed, and
a third puts a handful of the black earth on the
top of them. Being principally vegetable matter, it keeps the seeds loose and moist during the
period of germination, and afterwards  affords
then nourishment.  This manure is used  mechanically as well as chemically in a stiff soillike that of the low lands of China, wihere the
seeds are apt to be injured in the process of gernmination. The young crop thus planted acquires
a vigotir in its growth, which enables it to assimilate the matter which forms the strong soil, and
to strike its roots firmly into it."  This practice
is analogous to the oiie of putting powdered charcoal near the turnip seed, to retain and collect
the moisture about it in dry and strong land ill
dry weather. The Earl of Essex tried charcoal
in this way with success.*
4985. Oil-cake.-'" What  is commonly known
by the name of oil-cake is broken up and used
ill the same m-anner as the vegetable earth, and
is also scattered broadcast over the land. The
oil-cake is the remains or refuse of the seeds of
elifiereint plants, slch as the tallow tree. various
kinds o>f beans, and of the cabbage. There is a
great demand for this im:ture ii all  parts,of the
country, and it fo.,rns a very considerable branch
of trade both by sea and  land(].  Brines, shells,
old lime, soot, ashles, anid all kinds of rubbish, are
also eagerly bought up by the farmer for the purpose of manure."
* Journal of tlte A4gricultural Society of Englanid, vol. v. p. 280.
435
4986. " la tlse Fatee gardens near Caiiton, the 
PRACTICE-AU rumi.
this lie scatters the liquid over the growing crop.
A strong stimulant like this would probably, in
other circumnstances, have an injurious effect;
but, by using it only when the crops are young
and luxuriant, they assimilate its gases, and a
most marked effect is produced upon their growth
and productiveness.  This kind of liquid msanure
is generally applied to wheat, barley, and all the
cabbage tribe, and other garden vegetables; but
not te ri(e, which is always flooded during its          O
growth.  This manure is sometimes used after
putrefaction and fermentation has taken place,
and even in this state it is very efficient.  In
the gardens near Canton, it is often dried and
mixed with the soil taken from  the bottom
of the  Lotus ponds, and  used  for growing
plants in  pots, or  for  enriching  any  particular tree which  may be a favourite in the
garden." *
4988. Dr Radcliff mentions that, in Belgium,
the urine from the cattle byres and horses' stables,
collected in the manaure tanks (2062,) is enriched
by the addition of rape-cake in the proportion
of fronm  2000  to 4000  rape-cakes  of  2  lb.
each  to  38,000. gallons of urine,  and  also
with  the nightsoil from privies-the mixture
beii,g applied in given quantities to the particular cro(p, varying fronm  10  to 21 tons to the
acre.t
4990. Charrting peat.-M           r  A. Gr ant, Galson,
Stornoway, Isle   of Skye, gives  what    seenms a
good way of charring pea t, without incurring th e
trouble and  expense of drying the mo     ss. in to
peats before charring.  " When beginig  to  cut
thso   e  s od, " he  observes, "I  take  a ira that I
know to bme  a n  asytive steady spadesman, and se t
him to cut a         sod riglit   across a given space,
When he has advanced five or six sods I set
another  to  follow him, and so on until the r e   are
as many  as the  space will g ive    r oom to work on.
When the  whole are star ted, i trwill be seen that
there is an equal distance between  each madn,and
that if one works less th an another, he is iqimediately cut out by the man f o llow ing him.  This
he will  hardly seubmit to, and the conseqtuence   is
tha t  they  all   work  regul arly,  and  a t the same
rate as your best man, who is their leader.   The
sods  should be  about a foot  square, a nd if the
weather should  b e dry, they will  buri l  in about
ten days or less; but if it has bee n showery, you
must take  up the sods    a nd place them in small
heaps, along the space dug to dry. Whe n dry, the
fires    s hould be lighted  at th   e distance of about
ten yards, in a st ra ight line  along th e space.
The size of the fires will depend  on th e dept h at
which  the wsods were        cut, and the   qua ntity  dsi
well as  the  quality of the  charcoal   will depend
on the  st a te  of l e s  so ds w hen burning. If the y
have been wet wheto t he fire s wver e lightepd,although
they will burin, still the fire cannot penetrate so
fast into the cenitre of the sod, and the consequence
will be that a great proportion will be reduced
to ashes before you can cover your fires. As
soon as the fire begins to break out through the
heap, and you see that the whole mass is properly liglhted,you  must begin covering the fire
very carefully with wet peat, beginning at the
foot, and rising gradually with it, until you have
the whole covered —just in the way a potato-pit
is covered-aid if the work has been well done,
very little smoke will escape; but if there should,
you must put more cover on that particular spot,
4989. Dutcht ashtes.-Dutch aslhes produce extrao(rdinary benefit to the clover crops in
lioll:inid and Flanders.  They are derived from
burnJing dried baked peat in Holland, in the
following mannier:-" In Holland there are two
kinds8 of turf or peats used for burnitngsiamely,
tlhose cut as in this country from the bogs, which
burni easily, but give a whitish kind of ashies,
which are of little use; and another kind, more
generally used, as being more durable.  Having
witnessed the mode of making this kind," says
Mr John Mitchell, Belgian Consul, Leith, " I
shall here describe it. At those ditches or ponds
madel  by cutting away  the common  peats, or
upper part of the bogs, men are employed in
dragging from the bottom, by means of long
sticks, having hooped bags at the end, the soft
portion of the peat under water, which they pour
out on the adjacent ground, where the water is
allowed to drain off. After exposure to the air,
this suibstancue becomes in a few days sufficiently
consistent to be cut into pieces of the size of a
common building brick, which are dried for use.
The ashes from this kind of peat are of a yellowish-brown colour, and are of the kind so much
prized in Flanders that-carts go regularly round
to the various lhouses where this turf is used,
acid carefiully collect all the ashes that can be
obtained."+ A proverb is known in Flanders in
these terms:-" He who buys ashes for clover
pays nothing; but he who neglects doing so, pays
a double price."  Their composition is as foltows, according to Sprengel:
* Fortune's Wanderings in Chlina, p. 308-13.
t Radeliff's Aqriculture of Flanders, p. 49 and 90.
+ Prize Essays of tle Hi(hland and Agricultural Society, vol iv. p. 108.
~ Johntston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 629.
I
i
436
DuTcm At;Hj,.s (grey.)
Best Worst
quality. qqtllty. quality.
0.2 0.2 Ol
1.0 3.9 0.4
13.6 13.6 6.1
4.9 1.6 3'9
6.6 5.4 4.1
I' 0 4'. 3 0.2
7.2 6.4 3.4
2.0 0.8                        1.3
4.1 6.4.5; 5
1.2 3.0 0'5
4.5 3.5 4.1
47.1 55.9 70.4
6.6
100.0   100.0   ioo,lo~
Potasl,
Soda,
Lime,
Magnesia,
Oxde of iron,
Oxide of manganese,
Sulphuric acid,
Phspboric acid,
Carbonic acid,
Chlorine,
Alumina,
Silica,
Charred turf, 
SPECIAL MANURES.
hodt-in which manner many tons per day may
be done in one kiln.  Thus rendered brittle, it
may  be rapidly crumbled  by a water-power
crushing-mill.  And as turf and water are both
plentiful about tile granite, this rough powder
might be sold to the farmer at a lower price than
lime.  Turf is the best fuel for the purpose, because it gives a low heat, and the lower red heat
it has the tenderer it becomes. But whlere
farmers have to burn it in the limekiln, at a distance from the turf country, the coom used for
lime will do very well, requiring less than half
the proportion used for limestone; and it need
not be in the kiln above one quarter the time
required for lime.  But it must go directly into
the water whilst red hot, else it will harden again
in cooling.  As soon as it is hand cold, it may be
drawn out of the water, to make room for more.
The finer it is crushed before mixing with the
lime, the better.  It might even be burnt upon
the ground in heap, with cinders and coal-ashes,
and a little coal to light it, (like clay burning;)
and when red hot through, the water is thrown on,
to quench it; but there would be some parts not
red hot when the water reached them, and these
would not be much softenied, so it is better to use
a kiln' if-within reach.
4991. Burwzinq day.-Burning  clay was  in
great vogue iu Scotlanid about 30 or 40 years
since, when- all the clay districts in summer
seemed to        b e covered                with smoking heaps. Like
every impulse of    the kinda,  the fires sook subsided
but illn Eglan  d    the  practice is conti nued in many
part    s. The     re  a       re two modes of burning clay
sods -ia    large kitlhs of sods, and  in heaps-the
latter being the simplest and most economical
method, and is the one practised in Suffolk and
Essex. The chief thing to be provided with is a
good body of fire before any of the clay sods are
put on, and the sods are laid on in the form of
coniical heaps so as to regulate and restrain the
fire; and when all this has been done, little attendance is required at thle heaps. The expense of
preparing such clay ashes per 100 loads, has been
thus  estimated by a veteran  clay-burner,  Mr
Poppy, of Witnesham, in Suffolk. Digging and burning sods at 9d. per load,  I,.3 15 0
Filling, Is. 6d. the 20 loads,...  0 7 6
Carting, 3] horses and 2 iien...  0 16 0
Filling and spreading after burning,..  0 15 0
Carting ald laying on over 2 acres,..   0 16  0
L.6  9  6
Being ~3, 4s. 9d. an acre, allowing 50 carts to
the acre.
4993. A ton of this powdered granite, mixed
with a ton of fresh lime, being heaped up on a
thick bed of earth, and closed in all round with
earth, leaving the top open, water is to be poured
on gradually, enough to slake the lime entirely,
and then all covered in, the bed of earth at bottom being about 2 feet thick, and round the sides
8 or 9 inches, making good the cracks produced
by the swelling of the lime in slaking.  After
two  or three days it may  be  uncovered   the
granite and slaked lime well mixed up with more
water to a soft mortar; and again all covered in
close with earth. In this state it may be left two
or three months at least, and better if longerkeeping it always wet and soft. When wanted
to use, the whole heap should be well mixed
together, including the earth, which will be
impregnated with solution of potash.  It is
then fit for spreading, or mixing with other
maniures.~
4992. To prepare Granite  tanure. -  Mr  J.
Prideaux of Cornwall recommends the burning
of granite where that rock abounds, in order to
obtain its potass fotbr manure.  This, being a niew
masnure, would require to be tried at first on a
small scale.  From its slow solubility its effect
is likely to be rather in the weight of produce,
for four or five successive crops, than striking the
eye at first.  The silica it contains, combined
with tile potass, is likely to stiffen the straw of
wheat and other grain; and it would seem to be
especially suitable for the peat soils, upon the
granite, they being deficient in its ingredients,
potash, silica, lime, and alumina.   The granite
itself is ix too hard and comipact a state to yield
to the weather fast enough for the purposes of a
nature.  But this hardness is not difficult to
reduce.  By turning, whilst red hot. into water,
it is rendered quite brittle and crumbling; and,
being then mixed with fresh lime and water, is
made much snore susceptible of decomposition,
and easily yields part at least of its potash. The
surface granite, already softened by the weather,
will not do, having  already lost a part of its
alkali; the chiplinigs and fragments of the solid
stone, accumulating at the graniite quarries, may
be heated with turf in common litmiekiltis, and
raked down into water as fast as they get red
4994.  Rape-cake and Rape-dust.-Rape-cakes
should be of a yellowitsh green colour when new,
but they become dark on being long kept. They
shouldl( be put past in the apartment allotted fobr
their accommodation in a dry day and on a dry
clay or wooden fioor-asd, except by their weight,
they do no injury to wood; but they should  be
nieatly built up, free of the walls, in case they
should  draw  damp from them.  The air, and
especially sdamp air, should be excluded from the
apartment, as it is the cause of  mouldiness, and
of losinig their light colour. New-nmade cakes
will heat a, little after they are built up, but
after the sweat they have had  in the ship this
will  not be great-; and to prevent lheating as
much as possible, the small dust  of the cargo
should be kept by itself.
* Rom-shire Advecrtiser, 14,h July 1845.             t Gardeners' Chrornicle, 1844.
+.Gardeners' Chronicle, 9th December 1848.
437
and beat the xvhole down smoothly with the back
ofagpade. Inth'tsway-youwillhavea-largepro-
portion of fine charcoal, and very little. will, be
burnt to asties.",' In:other' places, such as
Lancashire, kiliis of sods: are  Constructed
for the charring of peat, and the fire is comnieiieed in- them at the bottom by means of dried
peat.t 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
oxygen, burning at the same time both the sulphur of the sulphuret and a part of the interposed
carbon, forms  sulphurous acid, whi ch  is gi ven off,
and  cartbonic  acid, of which a  cert ain portion,
remains combined with the       lime, and thus helps
to displace the sulphur. In a future memoir, M.
Caillat proposes  to examin e  and  compare  the
ier a   s s tas       ct     ie          emineral  substances  contained  in legumi l
plants growing on soi ls  of like nat ure, but some
of wh ich have, and o thers have not been quaniurye(
with  gypsum; and lie   expects to show tha t it is
pr o bable   th at gypsum naturally finds its way  in to
the crops which it occasions to  grow so quickly.'
By  the  bove method of  trea  ting    plants with'
nitric a cid, the si lica, which  lies  in  the  tissiue
of the epider mis, was i solated   a s  completely as
possible: it was perfectly white. By examining
silicious pellicles taken from some grasses, which,
as is well known, contain a great quantity of
silica in their epidermis, s" I found," says M.
Caillrat, " that this silica, moulded in the  cells of
the skil,,  is very cur io usly d    isposed. It exists
in little plates, from one to two hundredths of a
millitmietre broad, according to the plant, packed
side by side, but whose edges are not smooth,
but itndented very regularly, and thus articulated
laterally. This organisation of the silica, which
has not, so far as I am aware, been yet remarked,
seems to me to be worthy of the attention of
physiologists." 
4995. It is not likely that you will have occasioli to keep rape-dust-that is, rape-cake after
it has beenii crushed to powder; but in case you
should wish to keep it in that state, the mode of
doing so is as follows:-It should not be put
together in a thick heap, for, however dry it may
seem, and however dry it may be kept, sooner or
later it will heat.  When  put by dry on a dry
floor, it may be three weeks or a month before it
will heat; but if damp it will heat soon, and the
heat will become insufferable to the hand. Whenever it begins to heat it should be carefully and
slowly turned over in shallow bills to cool it.
When heated to excess it becomes burnt as black
as soot,.anid gets into lumps like coal-ciniders,
from which it is not easily distinguished, and in
which state its efficacy is impaired. Many throw
rape-duist into a corner of a cart or turnip-shed
where pigs and fowls field their way to it, and
where it is constantly exposed to the moisture of
the air; a practice to be avoided.   You should
purchase none but newly crushed rape-dust.
4996. Gyposum.-In  the  firs   t   part of          his inquiry      int o the way in w    hic h  gypsum acts when
e                  m         ployed as a manure, M. Caillat has endeavoured to shlow that the method of calcination usually
resorted  to, for the purpose                                     of obtaining the inorganic parts of plants, gives inaccurate results.
The weight of the ash does not represent the
miner     al parts: in consequence     of t he              high tempeature to which a p  lan t is exposed when calc                          ined,
th ere  is a loss in the     vquantity ofa  n   early all its
inorganic components; and the  snliphates especially are, to a great extent, either decomposed
or destroyed. M. Caillat, by treating plait.q,
such  as lucerne,                  cl over,  and sainfoii,  witha
di luted pure nitric  acid(, succeeded  in elimina ting
nearly the whole                     of the miberal mat te      r         s present;
so much  so, indeed, that, when  the pulp was
afterwards washed and burnt, not more than onefifth per cent of ash was left. This small residue
consisted of silica and a small quanti;ty of peroxide of iron, both of which are insoluble in the
acid employed.   This method  of proceeding
always gave more  mineral matter than could be
obtained by calcining an equal quantity of the
same plants; and it has been thus ascertained
that there exists in many vegetables, especially
in thle leguminous plants used as fodder, much
more sulphuric acid than has been hitherto supposed.
4998. Shell-fi.h  and  Shells.-Ground  mussel
and oyster hlells are used as manure for turnips;
but double  the quantity does not produce the
saiiie effect upon the crop as bone-dust; perhaps
it would require 40 bushels to produce the same
effect as 16 bushels of bone-dust.  One use nadee
of shell-dust is the adulteration of boile-diist.
Whelks, cockles, and  mussels, 16 bushels per
ac(re, the bushel weighing  I cwt., have been employed with sulccess to raise turniips. Such matz.
ure is obtaii,lable by those residing near a rocky
shore, where llo fi.hiermen have their haven-for
thl. re they gather find use such  shell-fish as bait.
4999. Shell-marl.-In   somiie  parts  of   the
c ountry, as  in Forfarshir e, this substane is
found in collsiderable qtealtities associated   wit h
peat. It occurs in beds in deep peat-bogs, liiied
above and below with a l.-ayer of very fine iiiettious clay.   It is takent out of thie bogs by  means
of a boat  mounted with a dredging aspparatuis.
When of fine quality, and in a, dry state, it is as
white as lime, not ecrumbling- (lown into po,wder
like qliikliti~e, but cuttin,g sornetleinlg like cheese
with  the spade, and ad(h1eriig in large Ilunmps
whent sp)read. It is applied at the rate of frozen
40  to.50 bolls an acre, the boll  containing  8
cubic  feet,:iii(I c~,,t.t  9d. the boll, making the
inaiitiritig ~1, ]os. to ~1,17s. 6d. an are, exclusive of carriage.  When applied  to laItd as
lime, it is beneficial; but, as is too often the case,
when ap~plied solely as a mnaniure, in quantities of
35 to 45 ctubic yards an acre, it never fails to be
imiishlievo us. It does not easily iiijiire flew tresh
land; but when repeated  frequently as a sole
manuring, I lhave seen old land reduced to suchi
4997. M. Caillat has ascertained that the loss
of sulplhric acid in the process of calhination
arises from a partial decoil)ositioni of the sutlpliate of lime.  When, for examnple, he mixed a
kniiowni weight of pure  biurut sulphate of lieiiie
withi wheat starch in the form  of paste, and
calcined the whole, the residuary a.h did not
yield as much silphlric acid as the sulphate of
limne used cotntailedi.  He also toiiiind, by aniiothler
direct experiment, that sulphate of lime, colnverted into sulpliuret of calcium by the action of
organic matter at a high temperature, became,
in part, convertedl into carbonate of lime, under
the influence of the oxygen in the air: this
* Coinptea Rendus, August 1849.
438. 
SPECIAL MANURES.,
ing is a description of a machine that has proved
itself useful.
a state of pulverisation, that the foot, with a
stamp, sank into the ground as deep  as the
ankle, and raised a dust with the stroke. "Applied to lands followed by severe cropping,"
remarks Mr Headrick, " it has reduced  them
almost to a state of uitter sterility, which they
have not recovered to this day."*
5001. The soot-sowing machine, from the limited supply of the article upon which it operates,
can never be ranked amongst the most important
class of machines on the farm; still, owing to
the powerful efect of the manure itself, its due
distribution is of importance, and, from its extreme lightness, it cannot, without disadvantage,
be sown  by the hand.  The machine  here described was the production of Mr Main, factor
to the Marquis of Dalhousie.+  Fig. 436 is a view
in perspective, the hlorse-shafts being broken off.
5000. Soot.-So ot i s a       goo d top-d   re     ssing for
grass, though it renders pastaire rather distasteful
to cattle. Being a very dirty article to distribute
by the hand, any machine that distributes it
broad-cast will prove useful on farmns where it
can be easily obtained in quantity. The follow
Fig. 436.
THE SOOT-SOWING MACHINE.
The machine consists of a bed-frame  a a, to
which the horse-shafts b b are attached, and is
mounted on a pair of low wheels c c, fixed upon
and turning with the axle, around which  there
is built a wooden cylinderd,flinted lotigituditially.
A  chest e is appended to the body-frame, aund
descends so far as to half embrace the cylinder
d. and is surmounted by a semi-cylindrical cover,
which is left out of the figure.   In the interior
of the chest is placed a cylinder of sheet-ironf,
perforated(  all over  with  holes  of  half-inch
diameter, and as much apart, giviig to it the
character of a riddle.   The cylinder is closed at
both ends, and has a trap-door on one side,
hinged, ati(l secured at each end with hook and
eye.   An axle of iron passes quite through the
cylinder, having journals that rest in two jointed
bars 9g; and oiX  one end of the axle, produced
beyond the bar q, is mounted a wheel A.   The
axle of the carriage-wheels c carries also a wheel,
and the two are connected by means of the intermediate wheel i, thus producing motion in
the perforated cylinder, as well as in the fluted
one that is carried by the axle.   Tlie purpose of
the perf,,rated cylinder, into which the soot is
first delivered, is to separate stonies or other hard
substances that may be mixed with it; that of
the fluted cylinder is the distribution of it from
the itaclime; and that of the hiiged cover to
prevent it flying off during the agitation by the
first cylinder.
* Headrick's 4aqricult ural Surrey (fFortfrsire, p. 406.
+ Prize Essays cf the Ilighland and Agricultural Sciety, vol. xii. p. 535.
'4S9
50012.. The operations of the soot-machine are
effected thus:-A charge of soot is put into the
cylinder, the ebest clo.ed, and the machine put
in motion. By the revolution of the upper cylinder, the soot is separated from the stories and
refuse with which it is always mixed', and so
passes into the lower part if the cliest, from
whence, by the revolution of the fluted cylinder,
regulated by a brush extending the whole leingth
of the cylinder, it is distributed in an equal TillillIner upon the ground. When the soot has been
discharged froiri the upper cylinder, the cylinder
is raised from the chest by means of the kneejointed bars g g, and when so elevated, the trapdoor is opened, and tl)e stories and ot,lier refuse
discharged, preparatory to the next charge ofsoot.
.5003. The machine constructed as above described, ba-s been found liable to the iticoii vol'ience of easing to perform its wonted duties, by
the soot being converted into a paste by the action of the revolving parts of the machine, whenever the soot happened to be datnl); but which
has been efflcttially rectified by the adoption of
broadcast distributiiig-wlieels, in pla,ce of the
fluted roller. The bottom of the chest is conseqtiei)tly closed, except the orifice for each wlieel,
all the other parts of the machine remaining as
they were; or by a proper adjustment, the inter,media.te wlieel i is left out of the construction.
It is al,;o to be observed, that the distributing 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
orifices for soot require to be about 1I inch
diameter.
Phosphate of lime,   556.752
Phosphate of nmag nesia,..   3.256
N cr al os.    59 008 =  phosphoric acid, 27.669*
b004. No correct analysis of coal-soot has yet
been niade; but as long since as 1826, Bracconot
made the following oie of wood-soot: Ulmin-a hydrocarbon, not well defined.  30'20
Azotised matter,......  20-00
Carbonate of lime, and a trace of carbonate of }
magnesia,...                                  4
Water.........12'50
Acetate of lime,......   5'65
.. potash,....... 4-10
.. magnesia,...... 053
.. aimmonia,..... 0-20
Sulpate of lia me,...'00
Carbonaceous matter, not soluble in alkalis,.   3-85
Ferruginous phosphate of lime,...   1-50
Silica,......  0.95
Asbolin-a peculiar acid and bitter principle,.   0'50
Chloride of potassium,.....  0'36
100'0'i
5007. Mr Lawes has established os, the east
bank of Deptford Creek, near  Greeniwich, very
extensive works for grinding to powder  these
false coprolites or phosphates, to supply farmers
with a valuable substitute for gulano, under the
accepted liame of" coprolite inmaure."t
5008. Dried rarcases of animtals.-l t is known
that large quantities of the hides of cattle and
horses are imtiportedi into this counitry annually fromn
South America.  The carcases from which those
skils had been taken are left to be devoured by
birds of prey and wild beasts, but their bones
are collected and exported to this country.   I
have recently learned that the flesh of these carcases. is now not to be lost but is dried, most
probably in the sun, and sent to this country for
manure.   Thus  we  may expect  that  a large
amount of animal  matter  may soon be made
available for the nitrogenous enrichment of our
compost heaps.
5005. Coprolites.-In the lower region of the,
lias at the Aust Passage Cliffs, on the left bank
of the Severn, near Bristol, is the wellknown
bone-bed,  where  two, beds  of lias, each from
one to two feet thick, are densely loaded with
dislocated bones, and teeth, and scales of extinct  reptiles  and  fishes, interspersed  abundantly with coprolites derived from  animals of
many kinds.  C)pro)lites are also dispersed plentifully through the strata of many other parts of
the lias, as on the coast at Lyitie Regis; but
neither there, nor in the bone-bed at Aust Passage, is a sufficient quantity accessible at a cost
that would repay the digging for the express
purpose of collecting these miieralised fragments
of skeletons and focal balls of digested bones for
use as a substitute for recent bone-dust or guano.
Geologists have long been acquainted with the
abundant occurrence of rolled fragments of the
bones and teeth of large quadrupeds, and of
many marine fishes in the tertiary beds of gravel
and shells, called crag, in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; and in 1846 an abundance of
the ear shells of whales, in the crag beds of
Felixton, on the coast of Suffilk, together with
large quantities of rolled pebbles of phosphate of
lime, then supposed to be coprolites, were  found
among the miscellaieous gravel and shells that
compose the bulk of the crag formation.
5009. A large skin trade also exists from the
cattle of the Ukrainie, and there the  carcases of
the cattle are boiled down for the sake of the
fat, wlhicil when collected is sent to this country
as tallow, and the flesh thrown away.    The
tallow collectors, however, may be induced  to dr y
the boiled flesh of the oxen and separate it from
the bonies, and send both to this country for marnure, as well as they do the tallow in coimmierce.
5010. Oting to  the very lo   w price o f mu tton
in Australia for several years past, the colonists
have been induced to boil down  the  carcases of
their oldI slheep, after depriving themu of their s.kin,
il order to collect the tfat and export it to this
country.  They in igh~it dry the boiled flesh, separate the bones, and convert both into art article
of commerce ftir this country.   Thus large quantities ot  the richest animal  manures  may  yet
reach this country trom abroad, of  much greater
value than niaijy of  the compounds offered at
home as manutires to the notice of the farmer.
5006. The   following is an analysis                          of coprolites
by Mr T. J. Herepathli of Bristol:  Water,..    3.400
Organic matter,.    trace
Silica,...   13.240
Carbonate of lime,  28.400
PhoMagnespliate, irof &.,  53.730 - phosphoric acid, 26.615 a
Magnesia, irot,, &c. I
Sulphate of lime,   0.736
Loss,... 0.494
100.000
The idea formed by Dr Buckland with regard to
the nature of coprolites is probably correct, and
the supposition is borne out  by the following
analysis of the bone of an ox, which the coprolite closely resembles in coniposition, when  the
bone is deprived of its fat and moisture:-              I
.5011. Sugar refuse.-The  following  analysis
of sugar ret'ne was  made by Professor Joli,hstoni,
fobr the Leithli Stigar-Refiliuig Comnpaniy, atid the
Messrs Schultz have kindly furnished me with it.
Water,
Organic matter, (refuse blood and sugar,
conltaining 1'06 of ammonia,).. i
Common salt, sulphates and phosphates of l
potash and soda,...
Phosphates of lime and magnesia,
Carbonate of lime,
Insoluble silicious matter and alumina,
,* Jornisal of Aqriculture, July 1849, p. 74.. 
t Journal of the Ilyricultural &ciety,f Liyl:ed, vol. x. p. 520-3.
440
60-26
1 20-77
0-77
i;.67
3-55
5-98
100-00
It will be observed that the percentage of water 
SPECIAL MIANURES.
one  g.allon of the  Kitug's Scll,i-trs' Pa-i,l sewerage at Loitdoii affording oIIly 85.34 grails of sli
matter.'I'lhis qilaitity of solid iiiatter is p)artly
soluble atd partly  iiisoliuble.'IThe  s,Ililtle p)ortion weighs 74.80 grails, and cout.t~iis orf     Ammonia,...    3.'9 grain.s.
Sulphuric acid,...62...
Phosphate of   ime,..    0.29g          a
L,ime,.....   6.05...
Chlorine,...       10.00...
20.25...
Potash, soda,' soluble animal
and vegetable matter,.   5355...
74.80...
The insoluble portion weighs  10.54 grains, anid
contains of —
Phosphate of lime,..    2.32 grains.
Carbonate of lime,..      1.94...
Silica,....     6.28...
is large, on which account the carriage- of this
refuse to a distance is expensive; and the process of depriving it of a part of its water would
be too expensive. The quality of this article
varies according to the mode  of manufacture
pursued.
5012. Aniinal clarcotl.-Sugar refiners use a
large quantity of animal charcoal; and as it becomies necessary occasionally to separate  the
filer particles by riddling, they dispose of the
latter for manure, which is found valuable as a
top-dressing for grass, and might, no doubt, be
used with turnip seed to absorb moisture around
it in dry weather in strong land.
5013. Sewerage woter of towns.-The water
flowing from the common sewers of towns may
be regarded as a special manure.  It must cointaim  many very valuable ingredients, suchl:as the
contents of water-closets, the draiiiiiigs from
kitchens, and the washings from imany sorts of
manufactures.   The  Metropolitan  Sewerage
Manure Company was established in 1846 for
the purpose of delivering the water from  the
sewers of London to parties in the country who
mIight choose to employ it as a. manure; and the
efficacy of such manure is believed to be great
everywhere from witnessing the effects produced
on the Craigentinny mneadows il the iieighbourhood of Edinburgh.  There, the irrigated mneadows are begun to be cut for green food for cows
in April, and continued at intervals until the
end of November.  As a natural coniseqiuence,
the worth of the soil has risen il rent from 30s.
and ~.6 an acre, to ~20 a-year.  It is imagined
that the sewerage water ought to have the saume
effect on arable as it has oil grass land, but such
a result by no means follows; and a stronger
instance of disbelief inii its good effects on land
under the spade, cannot be given than the siniple statement  of the fact, of the  vegetable
gardeners of Edinburgh not using it as manure
in raising vegetables, though  many  have  the
opportunlity of doing so if they choose.  WVlierever a run from a public sewer passes through
their gardens, they convert as much of the ground
into a meadow as the water will fully irrigate,
to supply their cows with green food; anid every
gardener keeps cows where he has a byre to accominodate them; but, to raise vegetables, they
purchase cows' urine and cow and horse dung
from the cow-feeders and livery stable keepers,
at a large price.  For example, they pay 5s. the
toll for tlhe dung, and from 44d. to 6d. the butt
of 102 gallons for the urine; and they apply 60
tons of the dung, and as many gallons of the
urine in proportion to the acre, during the season, at a cost of ~15 an acre.
5015. The sewerage   wate r of T,ouidon is not s
rich as that of Ediinbulrgh. Thus, lle ga,lilon  ol'tile
clear liquid of the EdiniburghIi sewer., evaporated
to dryness, gave 117.05 of solid matter, o'f which
78 grainis were soluble, and conttaitnetl of      Ammonia,...    4.45 grains.
Suliphuric acid,..          3.00...
Linme,....      6.84 
Magnesia, trace.
Chlorine,-.            1        2. i0.
Phosphate of lime,..06...
27.45...
Potash, soda, soluble animal } 50.55
axnd veg;,etable matter,  I
Tlle  insoluble part  weigh ed  39.05  grains, the
animial matter [Fredomiinatiiig, andt contaile(I of      Phosphate of lime, coloured 1
with icon           it  ~~6.6i grains.
withi ir-on. 
Carbonate of lime,..     2.7...
Magnesia,...      0.25...
Earth andi sand,...   29.5...
39.05,...
5016. The  cartage of 560  tons of water, in
proportion to I toll of fertilisiiig ingr-edlients held
ill it, is so) expensive that it is proposed  to distribute the water over the land by iieais of' castiron  pipes,  laid   perinaileitly eiiiler  grouiid.
When  a  fariii is  proposed to be mn uttiire(l with
the sewerage water of townls, instead  of solid
dung, a. systenm of pipes is required rto tie laid
down in every  fielhi il coiiiiecti,)ii with a   retai
pipe, wlhlich originates,at a  tankk at the  steadlug,
and throtughi which the liquild  mtianuitre  must be
propelled by ineanis otf the steam po,wer Wahich is
used for thle purtiposes of thie fitri  at the steuad
5014. To cart sewer water to a distance is
attended with more trouble and expense than it
is worth.   To avoid  the  inconveniene,e  the
Sewerage Manure  Company propose to pump
the water fromn the sewers by ineaus of steaniengines, and distribute it for miles into the
country through iron pipes, at 25s. the 100 tons
of the water.  Now a very smtall proiortiolli                           of
the bulk of the sewerage water is solid miatter —
44.
Pbospliate of I-.me,.. 2.32 grainq.
Carboiiate of -lime,.. 1.94...
Silica,....      6.28...
1 O.:,, 4...
In large quantities, these proportions oiily aff,)rd
I toii of oluble and insoluble matter in, 560 tons
of water.
7,'3.00 
How lo,lg woiild tliis  uantity of water be  iii
subsiding, aud where are the drains that would
convey it away ill tine, even  although assisted
by evaporation?  The othler hlalf of the mianure,
274 iiielies, should perhaps be applied at two diff5erent feriods of the plant's growthl-that is, 13i
-jihes at eacli timne, equal to about a half of the
average fiall of rain over the country. But along
with all this watering, we must  reineiiiber that
the raiii has been fallinig iii its wointed quantity,
still further retarding the absorbing pr(operty of
the soil, and testing the conducting power of the
drains.  This simple statement of the effects of
applying  a very  limnited  quantity of  sewerage
water is sufficient to show the impracticability
of the scheliiie, as regards arable laud; aud if 15
toIs of inainiire are prescribed to the acre, whlich
oughlt to be to do justice to thle crop, the above
1results would be increased 50 per ceut.  But if
less than the smaller qualntity is sufficient for the
purpose of inaiuriuig  aiy crop  oli arable  land,
wlhat is the quantity of sewerage water just  n-ecessary to produce a givenl crop?  I visited AMr
Halrvie's dairy at HUnudred-aere-hill tarn,. iii the
iieigl)bourhlioo(l of Glasgow, oii the 3d of August
1850, to see the mode hlie has adopted of (li.tributirlug liquid manuare, by ineaus of pipes through
whichl it is propelled by a steam-eilgiie.  lThis
was  the instance adduced before the Commnittee
of tlhe ioHouse of Commons  iii 1846, of a  sIccessflul apl,!ication of liquid iiiantire by mseaus of
pipies, by  the Metropolitaii Sewerage  Mjanure
Comiipaiiy, whlien they ha(l their bill before  Parliameit.t+  Tli cases are not quite  ainalogots,
as Mr  Hlarvie applies cow  urine directly  upon
tthe land.  lie has, iii sumnmer, 400 cows giviig
miilk, whicli are tfed on grass, in pasture, for four
lhours every daiy, aud  iii the byres receive twics
a-day a (r-y ImaSh of distillery diraff, (1277,) alld
twice a-day a driuk of distillery dreg, (127:3,)
thaere called pot ale, both at stated hours.'1Tie
Steam.engine as above,..               L.  25'0  0  0
560)0 yards of cast-iron pipes, 3 inclhes dia  meter, at 2s. 6d. the yard laid dowin,             700   0  0
,,avutire tanttk. as above,....          79 10  0
Ilose, as above,......                           30  0
Cr:tles,,.....           8  3   4
5          per  cent  for contir                                                            rgentcies,..  52 6 8
Amount of outlay,        L.1120  0  0
Thalt is, L.2, 16s. ini the gross, or  2s. 9 Id. yearly
interest per acre.*
.5017. Thiat li(tiid  man tre proves beneficial to
the  grass  lain(d  o,f the farmii, anid that sewerage
water has raised the valuie of miieadiow land  in
the  leighbotirhood of E~tiibtirgh very considerably, is beyonid  doubt; buit that tlhe sewerage
water of towns is a proper application for arable
lanild anywhere hals by ino ine'l,s yet beeni proved.
Let  us consider  the  probable  effects of using
sewerage water uipotn the laniid whilich onily coI1taiiis 1 toni of fertilisitig matter ini 560 tonis of
waiter.   It is desirable  the tuirnipf) latnd(  sholuld
receive  20  toIIs of farmtiyardi diiung to the  acre;
tb!ut let iis take 16 tons as near-er thre quantity oii
the average.   It is alieged tlha-t every kind of
manuiiiiire ill a, li(quiid foi-rn is mutich inore effective
tiitian ini a solid. one.   This is onily assertion —we
have nio I-troof of it.   No doubt, we believe that
pla nts  only reeive miianutrie inuto  tlheir textuires
in a:sta-te of s,,lttion; atnd ini-as far as the soluble ingredients of the miianutire emtiployed arie coIIcerniedl, they mnty be takeni tip by the p)lanits in a
shorter timiie than wlheni apttlied ain a solid formii.
Bat  there is *1o reaiso-l for believing th-at, when
tlhe solidI miranture is dis-solved ini the soil by raini
water, it is less accepta-ble to  planits  thani if it
had been a.pplied dire(tly it) a state of solution;
bec —auise, if we puit greater faithi iti the dissolved
iia,iire stippelied bv oir.-elves, we  niliust prefer
ouir owin agency to that of niature, and  believe
I Nouith British Agric;lturist, Marchi 7, 1850; and Transactirons of tle Hiyghllasd and Agriculturai
i'ociet.q, July   1850, p. 332.
+ Report-Metropt!itan Set'avie.sIanure Coo'puny- 13th Jutly 1846.
IOl.?.   I       U,~:~; 
SPECIAL MANURES.
greatest part of  the  urine  is  conducted  by
drains to a large tantik, but part of it imust be
carried away with the dung, which is wheeled
into dung-pits, and part poured upon  the  pasture field.  The  urine ii the tank is kept in
motion by means of an agitator, worked  by the
steam-engilie  when  the  pumips are  in action.
The pumps send the urine to the highest part of
the ground, where large reservoirs are erected
to receive it, and froiii which  it is conveyed in
pipes to certain conveniiet points, wliLere it rises
to the surface, aiid is distributed over the ground
by mieans of hose-pipes, which extend  to great
legthls and are remiovable at pleasure.  AlLthoighl i
the urine runs fresll into the tank daily, yet it is
as old as to be ill a state of incipient decoimpoSitioii, as is evidenced in the reservoirs by  the
rising of gas bells to the surface, before it is
applied to the soil.  It must therefore be of considerable      strength, and yet cainnot be iiearly so
strong, as the liquid manure used in Flauders,
where it is applied to the arable land.  A  ta.-ik
containing the urine, as it runs frorn the stables
and byres when voided by ainimals supportedl on
greeii food, holding 30,000 gallons, is enricled
with froti 2000 to 4000 irape-cakes of 2 lb. each,
to every  1000 gallonis, atnd a large qiuantity oft
thle conteuts of privies obtaiiiel friom  the towns,
and 2480 gallons of this rich manure are applied
to the acre. -
dre,l parts of wheat grown on a soil manuitred
with cow-dna  ig, (a         dnan ure co ntaining the snallest
quantity of njitro,geni,) afforded only 11 95 patt.s
of gluten, and 62.34 parts of  aiiiylin or staireih
while thle samiie qn,anltity, grown on a soil
manuired witlh lhumain uritie, yielded   the lllalxi mulmi of gluten —namiiely 35.1 per cent, or nearly
thiree  times  the quantity......   It is
obvious," hie ouvcludes g,   "theat by  cellectiing both
the solid and liquid  exremlents  of ast aistl fofl
upon the produce *t  a certain surface of lantid, we
are enabled to s;upply to it nearly the sairie
quantity of  nitrogen -is that  coi>taitied in the
originial produice.  Thus, we supply to the land
a certain quantity of  ammoniia. in addlitioi to
that which  may  be extracted  fromii  the   atijiosplere by the plai,ts growing  upon it."  t  It tlhus
aplea-rs, that to depliive dung of' the tirinie whiceh
accomnpaniies it, is to red(ler it less valuable as 3
manuire; and although  uirine, in the form   of'
liquid manure, be  more valuable tlhani (tunig, it is
so at the expense of the duntig.  A  fartmer who
would only ermiploy the urine as a ima.,tiiure, as Mr
Hlarvie does, an.d dislpose  ot the  dutig, nmay enirich hiis owni laid, providedI lie has the (omi,mantd
of a sufllcient quantity of  uirinle; buIt he  wo,tldl
thereby so much imp(,veri.l  the  lanid to ~}~i-h
the dung  lie sol]( wouild be applied.  O:31 a dairy
farmii, sicl as  Mr  Ilaavie's,,.-n(.h: systemii miiay
be pursueed; but in ordinary  farminig it seemfs
questionable practice to  deteri,orate the  valuie of
the dutng by separatinig  the urinie fiom-i it inito a
taik, as    may be interred from tlhe  statements of
Liebig given above.
5018. The urine is distributed over grass,
turnip land, and garden ground; and as far as I
could judge of its effects, I would say that the
ground  was  under-manured, and  inone of the
crops were remarkably good.  Such a system
seems practicable oni a large dairy ftarmn, but not
where the command of a large quantity of urinue
cannot be obtaiue-l.  I ami satisfied that sewerage water could not have prodluce,l even so good
an effect as the urine, by distribution from pipes.
5020. Coa,l ashe.Coal ashes consist in geaeral of litmie, ofteni ini a state of gypsum, witi inagnesia,    silica, alumina, a n l oxide of iron, mixed
with  a v.-riable  quantity of bulky  andl porouis
ciniders, or half:burnled  coal.  Its c(,-ompositioni
is  as  follows, according  to  the nature of the
coal:
5019. Of the comparative utility of dung. atid
urine in suipplyiiig nitrogeni to plants, we have
the authority of Liebig for saying, that  "the
solid excreinents  of men  and animnals contain
comparatively very little nitrogen," and that the
uin-ie of cattle, horses, and sheep, containts  far
m       ire  litrogenl  than  their  solid  excrementxs.
" Now," he continues, " as it is evident that the
nitrgten of plants and seeds used by aiinials asi
food iuist be emiployed iii the process of atsinilIti.i, it is natural to expect that the solid excretneuts of these animials will be deprived of it
in proportion to the perfect digestioni of the food,
and ca.n ouly cotitain it when mixed with secretio        saS f rom  th e liverl ad illte.iti roe.r.  Utider  all
circumsta l nces, they must coota in less ncitrogen
than the food.....  The liquid mariure
of animals inust,'on the other hand, be of tl)e
higlhe.st value with respect to niitr,gen, because
it conItains all or nearly all the njitrogen originazilly present in the food cotnsumitled."  Liebig
gives a striking instance of the different effects
of dtiung and urine on a wheat crop.   "One hlut
(a rtyre.
Thm,,las.
455
43.9
3.2
3.3
1.4
1.7
0.1
0.3
99.4:
Coal, ashes are  admirably sulited  for  absiorbing
atn y sort of liqiidl iliatilire, and of first preserving
aiid tlhei inpl)artiug it to any crop it iia.y be ttpdressed  il)poi.  Grass lands derive  tmuchl  advaittvage frotii such  a topl)-dressitig, atid wlhei  applied
to strong soils, it hias  the effect  of  prot,utcit-nitig a
favourable p)hysical clhang,,e uponi thiemi, (2803.)
* Raicliff's  g.qriculftre of l'lansers, p. 39.
tf Liebig's Cheinistrg  in its A4).li caition to A.4ricultre, 3d edition, p. 50-3.
+ Joliiston's Lectures ons Ayricultur(l Chtenistry, 2d edition, p. 632.
4-43
tienne.
hier.
62 1
.5
6
8
3
16
...
100
Silica,.
Altirnina, iii,oliii,le in acid.-,
A-lun-iiiia, soluble in -tci(Is,
Oxfdo of rtianga-tese,
O.xide of su!l)buret (,f iron,
Stilvliui-ic acid,
Potisli and soda,.
502 1. 1,Vood asliey.-" Wood ashes lixiviated 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
with   cold  water,"  observes   Liebig,  "contain silicate of potash in exactly the same proportion as straw, aidtd.1at, ill additioti to the salt,
it contains cotsiderable quantities of phosphates.
Differeut kinds of wood ashes possess very uneqial value as manure.  Thus, the ashes of the
oak are of the smallest, those of the beech of the
greatest value.  Wood ashles tfrom oak contain 4
to 5 per cent of phosphates; those front the beechl
contain the fif'th part of their weight of these
salts.  The quantity of phosllhates in the ashes
of firs and pilies amounts to from  9 to 15 per
cent; the ashes of the poplar contain 164 per
cent, and thoseof the hazel-nut tree. 12 per cent.
With every 100 lbs. of the lixiviated ashes of the
beech, we furnish to the soil as much phiosphates
as are coniitaiiied in 460 lb. of fresh human excrements.  According to the analysis ofSaussure,
100 parts of the ashes of grains of wheat contain
32 parts soluble, and 44.5 parts insoluble, or altogether 76.5 parts soluble and inisoluble phosphates.   The ashes of wheat straw contain in all
11.5 per cent of phosphates.  Thus, with every
100 lbs. of the ashes of beech, we farmish to the
field phosphoric acid sufflcient for the production
of 4000 lb. of straw, (calculating its ashes at 4
per cent, according  to Saussure,) or for'000 lbs.
of the grains of wheat, (cal('ulatiing theil ashes at
1.3 per cent, according to Sanussuire.)  The dry
fruit of the horse-chestnuit yields 34 per cent of
ashes, possessing a simiiilar comipositiont to the
ashes of maize, and of the grain of certain kinds
of wheat." *
quarters, or 104 bushrels, an acre; and its
straw to about a third miore tlhani the usual
quantity. Such a result set otlher exl)eri-'
mernters to work, but no one  has as'yet
been abl-)e to reap similar advanitages: front
similar  experiments as  Dr Fo rster obtaine d
from his; and it is doubtful, in the present
state of  our  knowledge  of the subject,
that electro-culture will be prosecuted
further for  a time. Still, it is requisite
that I give  soo ee account of f th e    means
emiployed for obtaining, the assistance of
the electricity of the air;  but, before doing,
so,  it will  be  satisfactory to show the
relation which exists betwixt  the electricity of the air and of the eartlh-and I
cannot do so better than in the words of
Mr Williamii Sturgeon of Manchester, wlho
has bestowed imiuch attention to the subject of electricity in all its bearings.
50 24. "It may not be out of place to
remind those not accustomed to the study
of electricity,"  observes  Mr  Stturgeon,
"that tlhis active element of nature is so
universally ditffused through every part of
the terrestrial creation, thlat it becomes an
occupant of every part of the eartl!'s surface, and of the shlell of air that stirroiinlis
it.   This general  definition  necessarily
leads to the inference that all tlhe various
objects which  clothe the surface  of the
eartlh-suchl as trees,slirtbs,plants,flowers,
an(d crops of every kind-partake of this
electric distribution, and that each iiidividtial object is possessed of iaore or less of
this extraordinary elenmeit-or, in electrical lagntgage, that each is possesse(l of its
natural share.  It must not be understood,
however,  tlhat this natural  distribution
conifers upon different  ol)jects an equal
share, eitller in proportion to their ni.lllitudle, weight, or shape; but, on the econtrary, that each olbject contains a  s;Ilare
peculiar to itself, according to its (ieg,ree
of susceptibility of receivin,g the fludl, (or
accor(ling to its capacity.  But wh:li:tever
may be the quality due to any individual
a)biect,  under oirdinary circumistances, it
beconies ex(quisitely susceptible of disturbance when the circumstances  vary, and
whether these be of natural or artificial
ocecurrence.  A disturbance of the electric
fluitd, in any lbo(ly, iiiay be  accomtplislhed
either  by abstractions, additions, or  by
5023. That  some connection          exists            betwixt the growth of plants, or the germination of tlheirseeds at least, and the evoluttion of the electric fluid, has been satisfa?ctorily  demonstrated ~by  M. P,uillet,
who discovered that positive electricity
was given out fr'om plants when germiinating, (127.) As a consequence, it has
been  suggestedi to renider available  the
influence of the electric agency, in raising
plants on a large scale on the fields of tlie
farm-.   Dr  Forster of  Findrassie, near
Elgin, was the first to draw tlhe attention
of agriculturists to this subtj~ect, in 1844;
and in that year lie publislhed the reslilts
hxe obtained in the electro-culture of Clevalier barlev, which was increased to 13
* Liebig's Ckemistry in its 4Application to Agricelture, 3d edition, p. 184.
444
ON ELECTRO-CULTURE.
5022.'- Any material that promotes the
ve(-,etation of plants may be regarded as a
special manure. In this view, electricity,
m,lieii applied practically to a crop, may
be classed anioiig,,;t tlie-special. manures. 
-  -. _..,......
certain rang,e of locality."
various objects which constitute thle vegetable clothing of the land are now in precisely the same electric condition, bein,g
continually positive  ad  neyg(ltive  witlhi,
regard to each other.  An olak an(l an ash p
tree, for instance, though  bothl  in their c
ordinary or niormal electric states, -ire not
endowed withl tlhe saiiie (leg(rree of electric
force, one being positive to the ()tlher, and,
consequently,  the latter ney ativ  to  the
former.   A  sinlilLr inequality of electric
force occurs am(ingst growin g plants and
their  manures,  andl  even  aiiiongst the
vartious  eleltients  which  constitute  the
latter, no two of tlhem   )einig  irecisely
alike at the samie tiiiie.  The noniral productionts of tlhe earth also, as decidedly as
those  just noticed,  dis)lay  a  diversity
of  electric  action  atciongst thenpselves,
no-two of themii being, found alike. Henice
the )articles conistitutitn,, eaclh and  every
variety of soil ar-e endowed % ithl a peculia-r elec;tric foricea c ircumstance   of imiinmense inl)ortance iin the comiitenr)lation of
the *egetable  plhysiolog,ist, and carefully
connected witlh all electro-cuiltural operatio.,.
.5026. "I,  Anothe r grand law o f  electricity, to be nioticed by tlhe electro-ceuititral
plhysiologist, is  the. fol-lowiig: —In  all
cases of electrical disturbance, whether thee
fluid be  in  the act o  f absolute   transfer
frotn one bod y  to   another,  or traversit,
conducting   ch aineit in th e   char  acter of
curren ts, or spreading itsel f     ovder stuiifacest l a  o f moist   lnd or tt!per conl uct ctilln,
isatter, the transm tission  is unliforllly flom
the positive to the negative parts;  fo~r in
no case   can the fluid  be tIrasnmittedl ji  oi
a neoative       to a positive boah yr,  nor fiowsl li
negative  parte  t o a positiv e  prt of    tlthesanme  body. Hence it i  s cs tha t tose  p,rts
of  tlpe erillleconpldutor of an  electyrinl
maclline, wlbiclh aere i n the a ct of  receivinel
fluid from tlhe revolvinig glass, are negative
wit l resect to t  l  the l atter, altlioul, at thei
saite  tin e, the  reiti ote  parts of th e  col a -
dtictor be positive to all sutrrouning bolies,
and whlether they be dlelivering,, the fluil
-is fast as they receive it or not.    Tlierefor-e the primile conductor is electro-polart,,
un(ler a,lliMciircumtistanciees, wlhen thle machine.
is at work.   Noiw7. a1s this is a,niversal law
when electric fluid( is transmitted fi,mi ()ne
body or oblject to ain(thter, it follows  that
the electro-positive st-ate of the a   oir, cl)ltigous to growing plants, causes tlhe latter to
becOIIe electro-polar, even w.hen tleyare in
the act of transmiittitn fluid to the groundetheir uipper parts b)eing negative relatively
to the roots,  wlhilst'the latter, in tlheir
turn, are,pos(iti-e to the contiguous manuor
5025. "i Whlen the electric fluid is  in
abundance aintd in  motion, it is accoinpanliedI Iy a develolpmnent of  lieat wlhich,
ill somie cases, is of sLufficient intensity to
fuise the Jllost refractory substances. Electricity, like lheat,. has its conductors and
noni-con2dtuctors, but in sortie cases they are
different for the two kinds of force.  For
instance, charcoal is a good conductor of 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
table tissue that is forme(d witlin and upon
tlhe surface of the larid."
and soil, to which they deliver np  the
fluid-lor rather such portions of them  as
are not retained for thle expansion and
growth of tlhe plants —as faithfully as the
leavres and stems receive it from the air."
5029. These observations of Mr  Sturgeon will enable  you to understand the
principle  upon  wlhicli the electric  fluid
nmay  be miade  to operate onl vegetation;
an(1 tlle only thling that  now  remiains  to
irender  electro-culture intelligible,  is to
describe  the miode  of erecting  sucll an
apparatus as shlall secure the corlnallad of
a greater sulbply of thle electric fluid to ilie
crop tlhan it wouldl naturall y receive fromii
the atnlospliere.  Mr Sturgeon's apparatus
is silmple, and  its arrangemnent  l,ay be
seen in fig. 437.  Dr Forster of Findrassie
erected his apparatus in the line  (of tle
nmeridian, fromt  an erroneous ildea  that an
electric  current  is constantly  -moving
round the globe in  the direction of E. to
W.   In thlese latitudes, tlje E. winds prevailing in the spring, and the W. winds in
sunimimer, Mr Sturgeon erects his apparatus
in tlhe direction of N.E. and S.W., and
N.W. andl S.E., in order that the entire
apparatus may receive those winds as near
to thlle ri,ght anrgle as they can.   Thle compolient p:arts  of the apparatus consist of
poles a 6 c d, fig. 437, which shlould l)e
Fig. 437.
5027. " From  thlis train of reasoning,
we ar e led  to s    ome of the most  interesting
points  in v e geta ble   )hysiology. Tae
electro-polar condition of plants qualifies
tlieni, in  an    eminen t  degree  for the  perfBorn)atce of those opera      tions     which develop electro-hemlical  phenomnena;  and
wprhat is v        ery  remarkable, the laws of this
beautiful branch of electricity are rigidly
enf orced and admi rably  counplied with in
the dec,mposition of carbonic acid gas by
tlleir foliaceous part s; for, in th is p roce ss,
tle electro-positive ca rbon  is dra wn to the
electro-negative poles of the plants, in precisely the same  mann1er as any electronegative  )ole, artificially made,  would
release the carbon from the oxygen, and
selec     t it in preference.  This remar kable
f.gct, based  as it is on tle strict principles
of electrica l actio n, not only establishe s a
correct view of the modus  operandi by
wh-i(h plants are enabled to acquire food
tliro,ugi tile instrumentality of tljeir foliage, but appears to be well calculated to
give a clue to ev-ery operation by whjichi
vegetables bsecome nourislhed and elaborate
tlheir food, in all tlhe variety of strucetture
thiey so atbundanitly-and beautifully assumie.
But as the electro-physiology of tle- vegetable kiingdom nhas never yet been expl(ore(d
beyond  the liumlble  exainination of an
operation only, any fartlher remarks on a
isubject so imperfectly understood would
be premature in this place;  although no
doubt can now remain respecting the influence of electric forces in rearing, ad(orning, and giving, full development to every
class of vegetable structure."
e
a                                     db 
:::;:..::J
ELECTRO-CULTUP,E APPARATU7S.
fixe(l at least 15 feet above  the groundI,
and they may be of any sort of w oo(d, and
s easoned or not.  Young  larch trees would
form good poles  for thle purpose.   Thle
pole c is set N.E. (I)f a, and (I is S.E. of 6.
The tols of tlre poles a and c are  colinected by the wire e, and those of b aid ((
by thle wiref; and as one wire sl5iti(l be
not less than 9 inc,ies above the otlher, the
poles which bear it should lIe raised.as
hligli abIove the other poles.  Thie  ires are
twisted round thle poles and brought d(Iown
into thle ground, to connect withl  the svs
446
5028. " Contemplations on e]6ctrocl)etiiical forces, tliiis tlisenciimbered of
complexity, lead, by easy gradations, to
many recondite operations of nature, an(I
to the discovery of those Hidden actions
by;wliicii the ever-vavin(-, transformations
of matler are accotjil.lislied. They are
-.fell calculated to afford a clue to those
ato,iiiic operations wliicli, in silent seelti,sii)n, 9;elect ttie appropriate materials, c(inVey tticiii to their destination, and elaborat,E-ttieiii in the structure of every vege 
ELECTRO-CULTURE.
tern of wires under ground.   Thle under
groun(1 wires conniect thle poles in the satme
mananer as those above ground; the dotted
wire g i coinnectinig the poles at and(I c, and
k h conlnecting d 6. In ord(ler to spread tlhe
fluid over a larg.er surface, collateral wires
are made to diverge at right aligles firotmi
each  sid(le of tile principal  wires q, h, i,
,and k.  Thle ground wires should(l   be sunk
at least 3  or 4 inchles under tile surftce, thlat thle fluid nlay be thle ilore easily
diffusedl by tlae moisture of tlje ground.
Thle wires slhould be of copper, because of
its superior conducting chlaracter, and its
capability of witllstanding thle d,amp air
and  moist  ground.   The  upper  wires
slhould be elevated as higiil as practicable;
and as tall trees are conductors of electri-        i
city, tile apparatus should not be erected
near trees.   Such an  apparatus  would
answer for a space  included  witlhin  50
yards  square;  but  shlould  thle poles be
placed at a niUcli greater distance,  thle
wires will be apt to stretch and bend down
fronl their own weight, on wlhiclh account
it would be necessary to place another pole
at the centre of bisection I of the ground
and upper wires.  Tlhe apparatus            sioultd(
be erected early in spring, iiniiiediately
after thle crop has been sowtn-and it may
be erected on grass land( as well as among
tile cereal crops; andl every repetition of thle
apparatus of tlhe above dimensions nmay be
illade to comprehlend any extent of ground
desired. 
ground wire and exterior to it at the ends
of tlhe enclhse( Ilot, was nmuchi taller, had
stronger stemiis and bla,tdes, andI of  a far
deeper green colour than any other plot of
oat s  on the fiel(l." Tile  influent e wa s per -
ceptilole o n the crop        is far  as tlie fourtl
ridgSe icestwaard, and exterior to thee  * ires.
As  to tile rol,  the w rley, ci    te  riidge  within  tle
wire, even on those parts of it exterio,r to
tle  plo t    enclosed, was  the finest  barley i n
the field; but  the olour plsas only  a'seure
shade deeper tlhani tl)at of tlhe otlier parts
of the crop.   The first ridge  outside  the
wire was obviously the next best; but tthe
distinction  here N+as nothing like so finely
mar ke d a s i n thie oats."   Tlae straw of tle
oats w as c6 inecHes tall er  under tle inflrenuce
of tlhe apparatus than that beyond it; al)(I
althoughi the gr,ains were in no respect
superior, tlhe numbers of them on e,achl stalk
averaged  50, while the rest of the fiel]l
only a,veragt,ed, 35. The barley also  showedi
a superiority, but not  muc,.  The apparatus  erected in Sir  Thomtias  Traflfrd's
field of oats, sown on ijiosslaz,id not
tlhoroughllly dried, gave a  rreater lengtl) Of
straw of 10 inches, in the early period of
its growtlh; but at lharvest the entire crop
was a fine one, nmeasuirin,g 7 feet in length.
Within thle Wires a splendid  crop of tlhistles had sprung  up.  At Kirby  Lonsdlale,
tle apparatus was erected on a green field,
anid thje result  imay be best  appreciated
when described in tlhe epnhali-,tic provincial
style of Cumberland, by Willi-m Miickai(l,
,one of the hinds, —" Wy, I niver sa t' lilke
in o imie life; it beat o t' otlher eet fielh( far
enough.  John  Hodg,s(%l help'd ta maa't,
en when we cam  tet thick spot, lie sedl,
'dcam t' wires, t' gerss is sa thjick I can
hardly nmaa't.' En I's sure it calpt owgllt
et iver I saa; tllat it did." At Casterton
Hlall, the apl)arattus produced  "1 no imiiprovernent; or, if any, very slight."
5030. Since it matters not wlhetlher the
ground wires receive thle electric fluid by
imea,ns of tlhe upper wires or the poles, it
occurs to me to suiggiest that imetallic ro(Is
miiight be iused inisteadl of the wooden poles,
ian(l (lisp)ense witl  the upper wir es altogetlher.  A  few slharp points  wouldI convey alhundance  of electricity to tlhe rods
or pillars.   But perlaji)ps the cost of tlhese
rods would  be niore than tl-hat of tile poles
and wires, and any suclh difference is a consid.eration for ecoinomy.
5032. The conclusions tlhat nay!,e legitimiately di-awn  from  tle use of electric
wires in cultivation -ire, tlhat in cold, dry
easterly winds, t!je brg lrld becomes so' dry
and  latrd tliat, atltlioii(gII tlie air be clharged
with tile  ectric flcicn,t tote dry urofii n d ctin
neither  receiv-e  iior dIistribuite  it:  thlat
wlhen the air is dry over the crop, it oflers
1 considerable resiistance to the dispersive
tendency of tlhe flujid, so  that the p1o-iints
of tlhe leaves and stems of  the growing
crop cannot obtain  sufficient  quantity of
o031. Mr  Sturgeoni erected, in 1845,
suchl an apparatus on a grass plot in tile
Botanic Garden of Manchlester;  but no
Iperceptible  influence on  tile grass was
known to occur.  He erected another on
the farm of Didsbury on barley and oats,
tile thlird crop fromi the fallow one;  and
"tile ridge of oats, bothi within the under
447 
PRACTICE-AUTIUMN.
tile fluii to stimulate thlem beyond ordinary
vegeta:tioll; and tile only part of the crop
tilat dles receive it in excess is that imn)ediately rottud eachi  pole:  that genial
siowers, laden witli electric matter, soon
saturate tlhe lund withl moisture, renderingi
it a good conluctor, and sltl)ply it abundantly withl  the electric stiiiiuluis: adnd
that m,iist air, lo()sing its insulatig,, quality,
lIecomes  ini(,re uniformly  chlarg,ed  witlh
the electric fliidi to a great lheight abovee
the surface of the land, ali(l yields it witliout,easure to the pointed and slharpl)-edged
leaves of thle corn and grass, as well asi
otlier conductors more elevated in their
vicinity.*
5.035. Liebig,'s idea is, that as lydrogen,  oxygen,  illtrogren, and carbon,  are
liberated in the decotmiposition of animal
matter in t!he soil, and as hydrogein }as a
predloiiiinating, affinity for nitrogen, amamonia is formed in the s oil, in  wtich  the
roots of plants re ceive  i t in both the  gaseotis and salinie states,  thje latter  being
formedl by the union of aimmonia witlh carbonic acid, generated  by carbon and  oxygeni, and easily soluble in water; but wlile
the roots of plants tlhuis receive ammi-iiionia
as it is formiied in  the soil, part  of  tlhe
ammnonia  escapes into the atmnosph-ere, and
returns to tlhe soil witlh the rain, for the
use of  plants-tlle (iua.ntity received directly  frojii the soil being greater  tlh.'mi
that brought back a(rain by tlhe raini. Tihe
inorganic constituents of plants are  derived directly from the soil.t
5033. I do not suppose  that electroculture can be extensively practised, even
if experience shlould prove it to be beneficial, because it cannot be prosecuted near
trees withl any eflect; and( the trouble and
expense of putting up, taking down, an            d
repairilig the  apparatus every  year, is
attended  with more inconvenience  than
cain be followed out as a system.   To a
limitedl extent, however, it does seem suited
to practice.  It mignlit promote the gmowth
of a p.itcii of turnip seed, (2476,) or of a
small field of clover seed, (4379,) or a part
of the potato or turnip crop.  It migilt
aels) prove useful aronud gar(lens.
5036. This is a very probable  mnode by
which p la nts  rec eiv e  tleir a n itrogen, all
essential    elemnent  of tlheir existence;   but
if it be strictly true,  it seem     s  t o a practic     hl mind an over-straining of the subject,
to press uponi farmers    the absolute n  ecessity      of      prreventin g any  escape  of ammonia
from  tlpeir duiig lieapfs.  It appears that
plants r-eceivte   more  -,ammonia from  the
soil tl)an fronm tlheatmosplhere; and astlhe
atmosphere supplies  nearly all  the ammonia tlie cereal crops require, it is no
stretch of improbability that the soil contains as much -,, is they do require.  If these
inferenices  be  correct, the  necessity for
incurring the expense and trouble of using
the  means  of preventing  the escape  (of
ammonia into tile atmosphere is not  very
apparent.
t5034. Tlhe  ratioale  of the applicatio        n
of the sT)ecial moranct pres       is sialIe, if tlae
views propolunded of  t heir      action on plants
be c(,rrect.   You have             a lready                s een  that
everypla         f     tt is           ntade  up            ostte of two  states of att       er, tlae one organic, the otller iniorgeicic,
(1.98.)  Thie ortganic portion is  sa i d to                   be
taken by the plant fiomi the atmiiospihee
alo)ne, becaise its elemennts, oxy,en, lhydIrogert, nitrogen, an( carbon exist in the attioospliere in a free state. It is not suippo-se(l, lhoweveer, tlhat plants derive their
nitr(,gen froen the nitrogen as it exists in
the atmospliere, lbut in the state of amIonia.   Tlte nlitrogeln (of thle air is considere(l necessary only as a diluent for the
oxygenl,  andl its  cliaracter  of inactivity
* Journal of Agricultutre, Marchi 1846, 271-96.
t Liebig's Chenmiztry in its.Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 41-59.
148
preclti(ie,,; it from beinc, acted on by the
oi,,,ans of plants.
04N THE RATIONALB, OF TIIB APPLICATION
OF SPECIAL MANURES.
5037. Mtilder's views of- the manner
in wliich ttie ammonia of the manures is
produce(] in the soil,'are tliese:-Tli-,tt.
several organic constituents of the soil
n-,tniely, the litiyiiie, uliiiic,,,eic, ci-erlic,
and al)ocrenic aci.ds-after being cotiit)iiietl
with aitinio-nia, ai-e taken up in solution
by tlie. itoots at-id assimilated by, I)],-tnts, c)n
tlje rouiid that ttie - coiiipounds wliieli
tiee aeids foriii witli. anionic are very 
lal.Ivvulw Vt) k'ill).lJ  lIAli~   ~ L   q~Jl~.)  l-tJlitlt)[!   U-L
causation between any two products whose
presence is necessary to eachl othler.  Tlue
experiment of Mulder, shiowing, thel luxuriance of plants growni in a mixture of
charcoal, aslhes, and  luhnic aci(l, superior
to thlose grown in mere charcoal arnd aslhes,
and, at the same time, the larger quantity
of ammonia produced and assimilated by
the former,.apparently tends to solve two
problems at once."*
cess  of lly(lro gen, whicl,  being ia  ttle
Ilascent states, 1h.ts all its proper-ties tin w ea-keiie,l. It is, tiioreover, set free amiiidst
a          ( Tey id poro,us otgaicg  strnbsta           0       natece,
witli a, limlite(d atccess of air, and at a low
tenrelperayture-condlitioll s essential to effect
tlhe p.i()dl ction ()f amsni)nia, ana( to pre  ent
thap t of iitiic   ai, whic li s        t l     atter substance
isc(,lationlyghugdin thle lheatof the tropical
re,,i(n.s.'The decaying organiic m)atter sets
fre      e c,arbon, iyd  s,lenioxnyoen, anid a         little
oitrogen. Tle carbon, obeyit,g its                  stronw,e           st
ten-iency in this conditio   foon,-rs carbonic
wcifl, in so far as it can fin(l ()xygenl eno c    ei,     e i
pre,sent ity tofe cair,    e    w     rici  is contiilually
ciircslat        in                trg              thlrou    te porous soil.   Tlec
eiiall rema inder of    carbon, if                                                a sufficiency
of oxygen   cannot be pirrcuired, will IcoIIbillat,  a      o        te mwitlr dyart rf the    rdrog  en; an(l  ence
tile. quantity of carbtirette(I liy(irog,eii in
Ita'rshy places and stag,,iant waters.   Tle
reinmaintder of the lyidr-og eni t.akes the nitrogt~ren, sitmiultaneously libera-te(l fromi tlle
pllatnt, aind also from its intitma-,te miixture
witl tlhe Iitrogen in the atmiosplheric air;
an(l tlhus ammonia  is ft)rmenl.   This atli,n i;i, thlle extraordinarv affinity of   iwhichc
f,r liiiiiic, ultic, and  crenic acid(s is very
well klnown. combines  itimed(liately withl
lart of the d(ecaying sul)st.ances, vwhen still
in a state ()f lhmus, eitlher extracting (               or
I.ro4dcit,g hImi~ and  ulmiic acids, witlh
whichl it fornis liuniate and ulmtuate of anmnonia, so  extremely soluble in water, angv
fit for progressive decomposition  within
5039. In whatever way those organic
constituents of plants,  the nitrogen and
carbon, are derived, there can be little
doult but thtat  teir inorganic constituenats
are der-ive(d frtonm thze mnirneral ingredients
of  thle soil, whiiclh, however, must first
aissumie tlat state iiu whlichi they are most
easily dissolved by water, as a condition
in wi'hicli the r(oots are enabled  to absorb
tliem for use.   While describing the cul tivation of each plant, I hzave specified its
inorganic ingredients, that they  miight be
directly referred to wlhent I came to speak
of tlje u,se of special nmanuires; the theory
beilon, that the knowledge of thie comnposition of plants, and of tbe soil in whiel
they best  grow,  indicates at once  the
exact composition of the special mannre
wlhielh slhould best  promnote  the  growth
and nmaturing of the plants.   Fromn the
vast'variety i1 tle proportions of the com-ponenit Iparts of different plants and soils,
it seemns almost impossible to  concocIta
special nmaiiure that shall produce a given
* Journal of A47icltlture, October 1845, p.  0.
TOL. 11.
2 p 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
commencel suich an investigation, and has
already )published some interesting particulars on the composition of wheat clays.*
result in each. case;  but it is evident,
where the comnposition of both plant andl
soil is unknown, nothing butlt chance can
guide the application of a special inainure.
At any rate, -until the composition (of all
the cultivated plants, and of the different
characters of soils, have been ascertaitied,
no fixed formula of particular manures can
be prescribed with certainty. -
5042. Possessing such aiinalyses of plants
and soils, agriculture would be made  comparatively an easy art, as appears  fronm
these observations  of  Dr Fownes,-" If
we were in possession of a set of ana-lyses
of sufficient comnpleteness and extent, both
of the proximate organic and miineral constitients of all such  substances, the piro-'
paortion of water, and other things —this
informiation, combined witih  a klnowle(dge
of the gross weight of such  crol)s, raised
on a given space of ground, would- enable
us to mnanatge matters that thle nature of
the food and the extent of its supply should
be duily apportioned to each class of plants;
and that, instead of annually loading our
lands with nauures, frequently at a great
expense, whose mode of operation we little
understand, and inl which it may. happen
that those very  substances wanted  are
deficient, while othlers, already redundant,
are supplied in injurious excess, we slhall
be able to proceed in a more systeimatic
manner, and give the quantity andl kind
of food required, and no more." t'
5040. Much of late yea      rs        h     as been done,
and is now doing, by chemists, to ascertain
the composition -of the cultivated plants at
every import        ant period  of growth, anda                             a
great deal n     tore has yet  to b e ac complished.
But it                  is feared that the proportions;a of
the min                    eral           ingredients of those which
have been already subl)jected to analysis
do not exist in the plant in", the state the
analyses represent them to us, nor are best
suited f    o     r abs or ption  into the  plant. Th e
method of obltaininto, the mineral copstituents of the plant by burning, seems to
imply that all the inflammable mineral
substances must have been destroyed by
the fire along with the large vegetable
portion. -Hence the quantity of sulphluric
acid is probably always represented below
the mark; -and such a result alters the
proportion which the rest of the ingredients bear to one another.  Tlhe only
way of- practically remedying such a defect is to apply a larger quantity of each
ingredient than the apparent wants of the
plant indicate.  Each inorganic matter is
certainly essential to the wellbeing of a
plant; and although its proportion  may
vary relatively to tile other ingredients, it
takes its place according to some fixed law.:
5043. 1 have no doubt but  that much
of th pae  manur e  laid ulwon the land is g iven
by farmers without o meatured ideat of wlat
it aays constituents should produce; a  nti had
fa rmyard manure been other than    a mn,aterial containing a       lledn    o the ingredients of te
plants  rais e d on a fiarms, manu y more failures
than have actually occurred in crops wonlhi
have be en    experienced  by the general body
of farmrs  2    u  w er.  But h oweve r  e asy it    may b,a to
apply  manures, after the c omponent part s
of plants  and soils shiall be kinown, as
lo ng as  the  limited  kIii owledge e on those
particulars exists,    manures s  ulilst continue
to be   applied  i n   that r e sa e manner  tlhey
have hi-therto been, with sucelh gradual imiiprovement as the lighlt of progressive
investigation and inquiring  experiments
shall direct.   In the existing state  of
knowledge, it seems incredible to the p-ractical farmer that, after all::the expense lie
has incurred in purchasing the best constructed implements,-and tjhe trouble lie has
bestowed on workin- the land with them,
* Transactions of the IHighland and Agricultural Society. July 1850, p. 281.
+ Journal of Et&.gih  qyricuturai Society, vol. iv. p. 535.
450
5041. The analysis of soils is a tedious
and dilatory process, and ere everyvariety
can be analysed, at,,es must I)ass away.
But soits indicate distinctive characters
wliicii caniiot be -mistaken, at least by
practical agriculturists (332 and were a
iiiiiiilte analyses of -eacit class made
from specimens. selected -from -localities
fanied for the  kinds of cro's which they
p
raise, a standard for each class,: iiiight
be established lwhicii initlit answer -all,.
practical purposes-for -references  Dr Tliowas Anderson -of Etlinburc,,Iil, Chemist- to.
,the Higliland and —Agricultural Society, has. 
t, aivi T.,ULJIJI  nl lIUlll WlIII'I
they meet with in tile sap of tlhe plant. In
regard to some sul)stances, sulLI as potasli
and soda, tlhe sulphu'tric and the phloslplioric
acid(s,  this  last  function  ap)ears to  be
especially  inmp)ortant.   These substances
influence all the   emdical ci lan ges wh licli
go on jne in th e  iates ior of  tae  plant,  and
wllicl modify or ctause its growth.  Tie
samOe  is true of the  nitrogen  wtlich tlhe
plan t con tailns.         ThTljis elenientary  ody, in
the forait   of  albu men, or soetme otlher  of the
nunmerouis protein  coinl)ounids wlhichl  occur
in the sm,epa tr)esides  o ver or  tales  part in
almlost every inoportant transformniation)
wlhiclh the organic matter  of  tlhe living
vegetahle undergoes.  Tlhus it is always
abutintliatly present  wliere the  starchl of
tije- seed oyr of the tuber (as in  the grain of
wlwheat or of  the potato) is dissolved aiid
sent  tip to fee(l  the  young  shloot;  a,d
again whlen the soluble substances of the
sap are converted into the starch  of  the
grain, of thle tubjer. or of tle  b)ody or pitl
of the tree, onie or othler of  tlle protein
conibinations is a.lways found to be present
on thle e,ot where tihe chemical change in
transf ortllati(,n is going on.
incredulity; and if the soil is only capable of affording the nmineral ingredients
of the plants, well wrought and well supplied with manure as it may be, the farmer's exertions must be valued at a small
amount; and hlence the consideration arises
whether thle sanie, or even greater results,
ma.y not be attainable with less exertions
than have hitherto been bestowed upon thl          e
land.  Let clienists decide thlis point, and
in'lhe mean time thie farmer will conduct
hiis practice accordij,g to the dictates of
his own judg,ment.
5044. Out  of the unifori  m ass            of            the  u    or ofarmy.iard manure lid  under  the ground, wital
the addition of special  ones, plants have
epae fntin the poer of converting te materials they
receive into the  ingredients  wlich  the
functions of thleir particular parts elaborate.
Tliose materials act on plants at different
times, anid in different parts of the samte
plan t, accor(lir,g to th-ieir respective natures,
as tlhus propoundiled by Professor Johnstoi: —" Thley all form, more or less constatitly and abundantly, a portion of the
fixed and solid matter of the plant, taken
as a wlhole,  Thiev may not be foulnd in
any one part of th.e )lant, when separated
carefullly from the rest; buit in tle solid
parts of the plant, taken as a wlhole, tlhey
are all and always to be nmet witlh.  WhIen
tlhus deposited, tlhey beconme fo-r the most
part dormant as it were, and for thie time
cease to perfcorm an active clhenmical finctio01 in tlhe general growth, thiouglh, as vessels or cells, they may still performi a
mechanical function.
5047.'" Besi(les these general fimections,
the several substances found  in plants
exercise also special functi(ns in reference
to vegetable life and growtllh'.  Tlis nitro.
ge(n is most abulndant in the sap of young,
plants, t.akes part i.n most of the changes
of (or.anic ciilpoinds whichl go on in tle
sap, Intd fixes itself, as the pI.nt approaches
smattirity,in greatest abuiidance in the seeds
and in the gree~n leaves. 
PR,ACTICE —AUTUAIN.
the stemi, in the case of tlhe grasses  aind
corn-yielding, plants; but whlat ciemrical
functions it peiforiis, if any, in directly
promoting veg,etable grow tli, we can scarcely as yet even ventutre to gtuess." *.
5048. "bb   otash an(  soda cireulate ivn tle
sap,  influentlce   clhemiiical  clhangi(es v'er-y
iniich, andI reside or fix tlhem)selves  m-iost
abuiidiantly in green -ind fleslhy leaves, and
in builbous roots.
5055. You  tlius perceive that about 11
mineral ingredients are removed from the
soil by the crops  sutlly cultivated on a
farm.  But of these, four-silica, alumina,
liag,nesia, an(l iron-are usually found in
abundance in all ordinary soils, the peaty,
the sandy, and the chalky being thle exceptions,and all thliesearelimite, iii extent. The
lime is supplied to thle soil as a necessary
ingredient in thle prosecution of good lisbandry, so that only 6 substances require
to be replaced which the crops carry off,
and  these  are  potash, soda, Itiag,nesia,
phosphoric acid, sulplhuric acid, and clluorine.  Let us therefore ascertaini,  froll
some authority, how much of these ingredients are removed  from the soil  by a
single ordinary crop of each kind.
50.51. "ILime is very important to
healthiy  vegetable  growth,  as practical
experienice ha.,s lon,  testified.    Amnong
otler dluties, it appe.rs to accompany the
)llosplioric acid in the sap of plants, and
to deposit itself in combination witlh organic acids (oxalic, &c.) in the leaves and
bark, and withl  phlosphoric acid in some
seeds and roots.
5056. Wheat.   -   Mr  Prideaux st ate s
that the following quantities are r emioved
from an acre of soil by a crop of wlheat, of
25 bushels of grain, and 3000 lb. = 1 ton,
6 cwt. 88 lb. of straw, a moderate crop:
5052.  " Maanesia   appears  a-lso  to
attachl itself very mnuchl to )lphosphoric acid
in the sap, and fixes itself in combination
with the acid principally in the seed.
By  the i n. 0 y the s    traw.
Ib.         lb.
PotashI,.,      7.15        22.44
Soda,..       2.73         0 29
Magnesia,.            3.63          6.89
Plhosphloric acid, 15.02 5.54
,Iill,lultric acid, 0.07             10.49
Chllorinie,.. 0.00                  1.97
28.60      37.62
Gross weighit to be returned to an acre,
5053. " Chlorine-tithe  chemical  function of tlhis substance in the sap is less
ulnderstood even than that of the other
sulttstances above  mentioned.   It exists
chiefly iii combination with soda, and is
much  more abundantly present in some
l)ants, and in somne parts of p)lants, than
in others.  Though, as I have said, its
imtmued(iate chemical function in the plant
is not unlerstood, it formns a most important c<nstituient of the plant, in to far as
tile after uses of vegetables in the feeding
of ait-imials is concerned.
By the grain. By the straw.
lb.          lb.
Potash.,..        7.24       10.29
Soda,..      4.32         0.92
Mag.esia,.       3.97         5.25
Plhosphloric acid,     20.74         5.02
Sulphitric acid,         0.05         2.66
Cllorine,..        0.02         1.58
36.34       25.72
Gross weight to be retuirnied to an acre,
5054. "Silica exists in thie sap in a
s&l.uble fori,, gnd deposits itself chiefly in
thle exterior portions of the sterns and
leaves of plants. It is supposed there to
serve as a defence to the plant against
external iiijury, and to give strength to
' Johnston's Ezperimental igriculture, p. 9-11.
452
5049. "Sulphuric acidi is very influential in  all chemical  changes, is found in
most cases in those parts of tlle plant in
whicll potash anid sodat abouin(l, and deposits a portion of its suilplhur wlherever the
compoundi(Is of nitro,-en formi a notable part
of the substance of the plant.
5050. " Phosphoric acid exercises also
miuclh   influence over tlhe chemical clhang,es
of tlhe sap, and finally fixes itself in greatest abundance in the seeds and other reproductive parts of tlhe plant.
76.22
5057. Barleiy.-Tlhe quantities removed
fi'om. the atcre by a crop of 40 buslhels of
barley, and(I 2650 lb. — 1 ton, 3 cwt. 74
lb. of straw, are as follows:
,,t.1^.
lb.
17.5.3
5.24
9.22
2.5.76
2.71
1.60
62.06
5058. Oats.-A crop of  50 bushels (>f
oats, and 3800 lb. = 1 ton, 13 owt. 104 
RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.
lb. of straw, take from the acre of soil the
following quantities:-t
By' the grain. By the straw. Total.
lb.         lb.         it.
PIotash and soda,       10.88       64.78        75.66
Magnesia,.     3.52         8.&95       12.47
Phlospi:oric acid,      14.48        5.38        19.86
Sulphluric acid,         5.28        9.95        15.23
Clilorilne,..      0.35        8.51         8.86
34.51       97.57
5063. Cabbagfes.-A crop of cabbage 20
tons, 8 cwt. 4 lb. carries off froin an acre
of  the  soil  these   quantities:  -Potash,.                                       1( 
Soda...-.           184
Magnesia.....      54
Phosploric acid,....    112
Sulphutric acid,...            192
Chllorine,.....      52
Gross weight to be returned to an acre,.    699
5064. It will be observed from these
results, thle much larger quantity  whllichl
the green  crops, potatoes,  turnips, and
cabbages, remove  of the nlineral  ingredients from  the soil, compared with that
which the grain crops, wheat, barley, and
oats, carry  away-tlthe  proportion  being
4 tilues as much.   This is a result which
observation alone would  not have anticipated,  because  the  expanded  area  of
foliage whlichl the green crops present to
the air, would lead us to expect that their
nourishment is derived more from the atirinosphere than the soil; and, on the other
lhand, the cereal plants, hlaving  narrow
leaves, should depend more upon the resources of the soil thlan they seem to do.
But this apparent anomaly imay perhaps
be expla,itied in this manner:-Thle green
crops weighing so very iniucli heavier than
the grain ones, froml  three to eight times,
they ought, as a matter of course, to take
a larger quantity of  inei-al ingredients
from  an acre of soil; and as all platnts
require to alisorl) a larg,e quantity of water
daily, in order to lkeep the saline ingredients within tlieiii in a constant state of sollition, it seecis necessary that the green.
crops sliould be provided with a large systeiti of leaves to enable tlheli to draw, bothl
throullgll the roots and from  thle  atiiiospliere, t lie larg,e supply of water whlichl they
require to have in order to hold in constant solution the larger quantity of the
saline in,gredients they contain.
5059, Beains. —Beans, of a c
buslhels of  grain, and 2800 lb. =
cwt. of straw, carry off. from a
the soil, tllese qfliantities: —
By the grain. By the straw
lb.         lb.
Potashl,..    13.(;0       90.21
Soda,..       4.30(       2.72
Maglesia,.     3.15        11.38
Plh0ospIhoric acid,    15.20        12 32
Sulphutlric acid,       0.40         1.85
Chlorine,..       0.30         4.35
36.95      122.83
Gross weight to be returned to an acre,
Potash,
Soda,.
Ma,gn-e.sia,
Phosplhoric acid,
$uiphluric acid,
Clhlorilne,
5061. Potatoes.-A crop of 8 tons of
potatoes, andi 1000 lb. - 8 cwt. 104 lb.
of  tot's, will  remove  fiolii an  acre  of  tlhe
soil the following  quantities:                  By the tbers. By the tops.  Total.
lb.          lb.         lb.
Potasli,.. 222.56       510.44     273.00
So,da,..      7.44        2').27':i6.71
Magniesia,.    21.08        12.76         33.84
Phlosplhl,ric acid,     50.20        13.72   6   63.92
Sunipbo-ric acid,       54.4,        12.38        66.86
Chllorine,..    17.04          22.19       35).23
372 -0      140.76
Gross weight to be returned to an acre,.    513.56
.5062. Turni?ips.-A  crop of 2
turnips, and 1850 lb.-= 16 cwt.
to)s, will carry off tlhese qua,ntit
arn acre o)f soil:
58 lb. of     5060. Now let  is see by what means
ies fromn   these respective ingredients are to be  re            turiiel to the soil.   "The  best supply of
l l lb.   phlosplioric acid for tile farimer," observes
231.48    Mlr Prileatix, " will be bone-dust, because
34.07
27.74     thle fossil phosphlates, such as thle coprolites,
2 54.57   tlihoughl chieaper, are so uncertain in streiigthti
Ssilplir~c acd,    46.2  38.81 85.05                  aes
61.W      that  lie would never know hlow niuch llie
2    was using,.  Genuine  bolle-dust will con
4"90  wtain about 25 per cent of phlosploric acid,
and will require  one-hlalf its weighlt  of
11) the b.ibs.  By the top.    T
.-'. d a,,.   1.lb.      lb. I
Potashl,..    142.66          88.82
S,,-da.,..      17.31          16.76
~ Magnesia,.     18.16          9.58
Pilosthlioric acid,      25.77 t       28.X0
.S,,lIphiur'.c acid,      4(6.24        38.81
Chlorine,..     12.24         49.75
262.38       232.52
teross weight to be returned to an acre,
453
132.08
5060. Red Clover.-An ordinary crop
of re(-] clover takes these quantities frorn
ani acre of soil:
Gross weiglht to be returned to an acre,, 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
5069.  Wheat.    The  cost  of  raising
wileat with these  ingredietlts on an acre
will be as follows, according, to the prices
attached to the list of the articles enumierated in (4974.)
salt, and one-third its weight of strong
sulphuric acid to soften and render it soluble; and these will also more than supply
the sulphluric acid, the soda, and chlorine.
If the lime used on the landi does Ilot contain sufficient magnesia, it may be put in
at very sniall cost, either in crude sulphlate
of magnesia, Epsoin salts, or in the bittern  residual liquor of  the salt-works.
The potash is the miost difficult material to
procure economically.   Foreign pearl ash
contains about 50 per cent, and is rathler
dclear. Foreign potash is a little cheaper and
stronger, 60 per cent, but not so readily             procurable dry.  Wood-ashes, whliich contain
about 3 i)er cent of potash, vary also, and are
not easy to get sound-and genuine. Crushed
granite, averaging 7per cent, digested with
lime, altliougt ti tlhe materials      are i-exhaustible, is not yet in the market."
L.0 19  3
V  o   5i
0  4  7:
0 2  6
0  4  5i
L.1 11  3~
. 5070. Barley. The cost of
acre is as follows: 35 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt.,
50..              salt,  at  Is. 3d.  pe r cwt.,.
100.. bone-dust, at 2s. 6d. per bushel:
50..  suiphuric acid, at Id. per lb.,
40..~ magnesia, at 10s. per cwt.,
5071. Oats.  The oats cost  this  per
acre:
5066. The grain and the straw of the
wheat crop enumerated above, containing
201 lb. of pliosplioric acid, will require
80 lb. of bone-dust, 40 lb. of salt, and
27 lb. of strong sulpluric acid, and which
aswill also mnorer than supply the soda, the
sulplhuric acid, and the chllorille. Of brown
sulphluric acid 40 lb. will  be required.
The 29  b11). of the potash, of which threefourthls is in the straw, rnmay be obtained
froni  50 lb. of potash, or 60 lb. of pearl
asi, or 5 to 10 cwt. of coimmon wood-ashles,
or from 12 to 16 cwt. of crushed granite.
Hialf a    wllindredweiglht of         crude stulplate of
magnesia will supply 10 lb. of imiagnesia.
L.1 12 It
0 0 5A
0 4 7t
0 2 6
0  5 4
L.2 5 0i
5072. Beans. The cost of the beans per
acre is as follows:
L.3  6  os0
0 0 74
0  6 4i
0 3   5i
0  6  5
L.2's 5i
5073. Clover.   The   red  clover  cost
p          er a cre this:
5067. Thuls, for every
1 lb. of phlosphloric acid,   4lb. of bone-dust,
2 lb. of salt,                             2           ansa    tls   e   w.                              1
we ha-,ve to take.
2 lb. of sulphuric acid.
(tie soda,
Clearing also.         the sulphuric acid,
the clilorine.
v lb. of  potash, we  nearly 2 lb. of foreign potashes,
have to talie.       I or fully 2 lb. of pearl ash.
1 lb. of iagliesia, we   15 lbs. of crude Epsom salts,
lhave to take.    Ior 1 gallon of salt-works bittern.
5074. Potatoes.   Potatoes  cost  this
amount per acre:
L.8 15 6
0  1  5
0p14 lapr
0 8 0
0 15 2
L.10 14 1li
5068. Hence, the above crops will re-'
quire thlese ingredients per acre:
{
P   Crude
B. one- Sulphuric  Sulphate of
dust.  acid.       magnesia.
lb. lb.   lb.
80 40                 50
100    1 50           40
80       40           60
110       55           70
36       18          22
256     128          170
220,  11i            140
448. 224         270
I
5075. Turnips.   Tutirnips
much per acres:
462 lb. of pearl ashes, atll6s. per cwt.,
110..  salt, at is. 3d. per cwt.,..
220...  bone-dust, at 2s. 6d. per bushel,
110..  sulpliurie acid. at 0d. per lb.,.
140..   magneesi, at 10s per cwt.,
I
454
barley per
L.0 11 3
0 0 6i
0 5 94
0 3 li
0 3 61
L.1 4 3
LO 17 41
0  0  2i
0 2 1
0  1 I*
0  1 II*
L-1 2 81
P-,%,l
lb.
C)o
35
. lf)O
2(18
.54
546
. 46:>,
210
C..-.
-it.
lb.
40
1 50
. 4f)
55
is
128,
110,
1 224
cost tilus
i Wheat,
1  B I,,Iy,:
i Oats
i Beans,:,:
I Ci,,,,er,..
i Potatoes,.
if Turiiips,..,
I Cabbagu,,.
I
L' 8 (,'
0 1 II
0 12 7
0 fi lot
0 12 6
L.9 1   7,i 
ROTATION OF CROPS.
journ on, the  coast of Peru,  that  the
greater  part of the  azotised principles
of plants originates  in  the aninoniacal
4 esalts whichi exist or are fornied  in  thle
nlanllre."
L.3 7 6
0 2  6
1 6 Oi
0 14  0
.1  4  1      n
L.6 14 2
;  5078. It would  seein  that wheat  and
grass require thle most nitrogen of any of
tlthe crops;  wheat appears to require five
.times more than it contains, and witlh  a
deficient supply'of this element, it yields
poorly   botlh  in  quiantity and  quality.
With plenty of nitrogen, especially in tile
form of liqui(l' manure, rye-grass, and particularly- Italian rye-grass, has produced
large crops, up to  50 or 60 tons on  the
acre inna year.* The value o)f the saline ingredienits in procuring tlhe nitrogen from the
atmosphere is tbus asserted  by  Boussingault: " Sueh is their ascertained influence,
that tobacco, barley, and buckwheat sown
in soils absolutely without organic matter,
but containi ng saline substances, and only
imioistt,-ied with distilled water, producedl
per'fect plants, which flowered and friiited,
and yielded ripe seeds.:Whence it follows,
tlhat: tlhe presence of s-alinie matter fatvours
rernarikably the assilllilation  of the azote
of the atinosplhere during the act of vegetation."+
5077. TThese are tlhe quantities and cost
-per acre of thle mineral ingredients required  to raise thle  crops  enumnerated
abouve, and tl)e quantities are understood
to be as nmuclh as would suffice for thlem to
be substituted  for farmyard  dullng;  but
as farnoyard  manure contains all these
ingred(lients, besides those which were stIpposetl to be supplied by the soil itself, it
is better lhullsbandry to afford to thle soil as
liluclh of farm  manure as can be spare(d
from the dung,ills of thle farm, or procured
elsewhere, and  to employ  thle  special
manures as auxiliaries to it; and  confidenee ma.y be reposed in them possessing  properties which will secure a uniformity in the growth of the crops, year
after year,  %which thle precariousness  of
tl.e seasons is apt to ilterfere with when
farmnyard dung is en,lloyed alone.  Thl              e
farmyard dung supplies a sufficient proportion of nitrogen, which excites growth
and formnis the most strengtlening constituent of tlhe food of animals, and also of
carbon which is requisite to give the crops
firmness.   It is said  thlat thle roots of
plants do not abs(,rb car!onic acid, and
perllaps not directly; but as they absorb
large quantities of water, and water is
sel(iolll or never found devoid (of carbonlic
aci(l, thle body  of tlhe plalnt cannot fail
to,btain carbt)on thlrough  thle instrumnenta.lity of tle roots.  The experimlents of
M. Gazzari, tend to prove that roots naturally exercise, in their conitact withl solid
organic matter, an incontestible absorbent
actisonl in imlparting ssolubility; and these
observa.tions of M. Boussingault are founded on probability, that "planlts possibly
draw  froni the  atniospliere niore  thanl
a,,rriculturists  commonrly  supp(se; and
thalt thle soil furnishles, indep)endently of
s,line and earthy substances, a proportion of organic mnatter larger than certain
physiologists  adrnmit.    Tlhere  is  every
reason  to believe, front what  I  could
learn  respecting guano, during my  so
Gardetiers' Chli,o rodee,  2d Deceniber 1 848.
t Boussiigault's 1?ural Economy, p. 454 and 490-Law's translation.
455
. 5076. Cabbages.  - And tbe, - cabbages
cost this per acre:
5079. Upon the wliole subject of special
.matiures, tije rationale of their -,application
tii-ay be based upon tlje,ce-rtairity of tl)e
'fact, that alaiZ,-,e pr,?dtice will be obtained,
if we only return to the soil the iiiii)eral
constituents of tile crops we cultivate, in
cotiit)ination Aitli iiiti-o,,,ctious subqtance.,;,
and the materials sliotild be in a st,-ite
to, beconie fit for assimilation by plants.
ON THE ROTATION.OF CROPS.
5080., Experience has demonstrated,
that one crop. after another of tl)e same
kind, Lre,-ttlv reduces the fertility of all
classe'of  s'oils.    Tijis conclusion niiglit
be drawn fi-oiii re,-tsoii'as well as expei-i-eiice, since it is reasonable to suppose that
crops of the saii-ie kind take tl)e saiiie sort
of food,out of the sat)-ie kind of soil. Ex —
I)erietice. has also (leiiionstmted, that one
crop after aiiotl)ei, of a different kind, does
r,ot materially reduce the condition of 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
soils.  This de(duction, thlen, seeim  fairthlat thle condlition of the soil is l)est ani-tintaimed by takin,g (lifferenit cr,)los after one
another; ainl, as every crop  tlio,gli of
different kind, and dlerivig sluplport froi        fg
the soil, assists in exlhauisting it, a, libnit
must be put to the niimi)er of crops tlhat
should follow one anotlher.  Accordingly,
in practice, a lilmit is placed on the nunoiher of crops taken in sucecession, of whlatever kin(], and tliis nunil)er and succession
is called a rotation of crops.
5084. Witli a choice of suclh a  va:riety
of plants, possessing various powers of exhliaustion, tljere slhould  be  no difficulty  i-f
ai-r,-t,,irig a succession of tlhemn, as  lea.st to
deterior.te, and best to suit every kind of
soil.   Tliere would  be no  difficulty of  fix inig a succession in an abstract view of.L
rotation; btit sucl}  a rotation  cainn(ot  be
iput into  l)iactice,  as thle  cultivati),ii  of
certain plants is dependent on  local circunistances.   For exalilule, in thle nei,,ghbourhlood of large towns, potatoes, turnips,
carrots, are cultivated  niore withl  a view
to  supply the wants  of their inhbitarts,
tl0an the  natu re of th e   soi l; a nd stocko
a re not pastu re d tere i   n  sutmher, becxuset
the grass is usually cut  for green food,  or
made  into hiay and  sold.    But  tiioughl
circumstances thus operate to miiodify the
rotation in certain localities, t!he princiiples upon wlhichi atll rotations are basefl
may be followed everyvwhere.  Thie great
object ic  adoptin g a rotation   at  all, is to
preserve the  land froml deterior     ation; and
as grains must be raised on every species
of ar-able soil-not only because tlfiey constitute the clhief food of  mtian, but  because
tley also provide  provender an(l litter to
livfe-stock in winter, botlh  wlichl  are r-equisite for  their h-ealtli and  comfort  in
thtis cold and damp clinmate, as also are
green crops in wkinter, wlhen grass cannot
be obtained,   the only  practical  imio(dIe
known of counteracting  the deterioration
of the soil is to raiise, between the exii,austing crops, others wlichl require manure in
imlmiiiediate contact uwit~h tlhemii to raise tlhenl
to perfection, as is tlhe chlaracter-of the greei
crops; and suclh an alternationr of crol)pitng,
just constitutes a rotaltion. All crops exlhauist the soil less  or  more, so  that it is
necessary to pursue an enrichitng courgse of
manurinig, that the crops by tl!- end of tlte
rotation mtay not  be able to  exhaust all
the manurie tiat lhas been at),i!)ie( in the
courrse of it.   Stclh  a course of croi)piing,
or rotation, is of general apl,lication.
5081. Tleough all crops derive support
fromn the soil, one kind appropriates food
in a different (legree to another, and even
the same  crop  takes  food  in different
quantities, accor(ling to the state its product is allowed to proceed.   In practice,
different crops are cultivated for very differeut purposes.   One  class is cultivated
for thl)eir seed, called corn or grailn crops
-such as wheat, rye, barley, and  oats;
in which class may be placed beans an(l
pease,  which,  although   cultivated  for
their seed, their straw and habits diflfering, take a different sort of food.   Other
kinds are cultivated for their roots and
leaves,  an(l are  therefore  called  green
crops, such  as  turnips, potatoes, clover,
tares, &c.
5082. Every plant that grows ripened
seed taxes the soil more strongly for its
support  tlhan that  whlich  only produces
leaves and  bulbs.    Hence  the  cereal
grains tax tlhe soil more than clover or
turnips;  and  yet if green crops  are
allowed   to  mature   their  seedl,  thley
tax thlje soil even  more  tlhan  the cereal
grains, since, being,, I)iennial, they are the
lotiger timie dependent for support.
5083. Practically  we  mnigh-t arr.ange
thle cultivated plants in the order of thleir
probable power of exhausting the fertility
of the soil in this manner.   The cereal
graints, perliapls, in this succession-wlieat,
oats, barley, rye; then  flax, potatoes;
next the soviwn grasses, whlen niade into hay,
in the green state, and tares; legumtninous
plants, as pease and bea.ns; the root-beariny pl-ants in this order-carrots, parsnips,
Swedishl  turnips,  yellow  turnipl)s, niangoldl-wtiirzel, white tirniis; clover when
cut, as also lucerne, saintS;il, and c:'!is(on
clover; the sown grasses, wheni pastured;
456
and the least exliaiistin of all, perii-inneiit
pastui-e of the natural grasses.
5085. It is true that the -aiiie sort of
gr,-i,iii or green crop can be raised on the
sartie soil, for years in stiecessioil, N'Vitilout
apl).-ii-eiit detei-i(t-.-ition of tiie,z4)11 - lut it
must be done bv tije instrumentality of
inanure..        The Pev. illr  Jaffray i-aised 
ROTATION OP CROPS.                         457
~1~eat for ~e~~ral years in 5UCCC55I()fl on  dered depen~ent on tlie stite of tbe
his glebe, at Dunbar 1 i~ast L~~tIiian I~y  i~~arkets  t)iit tiie l)rofit fr~~ii~ tlie )i~i~C(l
~j,plying i~ianure to tlie Soil every year.  I~usbat.{iry is n(~t iti~inediatel.y de1~eii~lei~t
TI~eoretically, if t!ie ingredients taken fr~~~ii  on tiie i~iaikets, sinee tiie f;iriiier t)Iee(l~,
tI~e soil by ai~y crop are restored to it tl)C  rears,.1I)(l feeds tlie $.i1I)(3 an1I~1;tis, ~11(l if
Soil will not l~e leteri~~rated.  This theory  any j~rofit is oI~taii~able at.)i)y pCI~i~(l (}f
is being put t() tlie test it tI)C present  tiie uiiiii~al's life, I;e recei~'es it.  E~~ratime, 1 850, l)y ~Ir J~~Iin Dickson Sau'~Ii-  neous food 1?i;~y assist tl~e C~()l) in l~~'(~~luct()fl i~Iains, near Ldinburgli, oli a fi~?e~aere  ilig a gre(~t~r I}rotit, biit it  iii~y  hot
field, in ~vli~c[i ~`Iieat is t() be sown for  ~ieeessarily 1}rodiice a profit in licu of a
five successive years; aii(l tlie effe~t of tiie  crop.
crop upon tiie soil, ea~~li year, is to be
ascertaine~I l)y analysis (~y Dr Aiiderson,    5087. Those wlio purchase stoek to
Cben~ist to tlie lliglilin~l an~l ~grieultiiral  suit tiie ~uailtity of f~~o(J they iais~, lilly
Society; and such ilianLire is to be a1}1~lied  raise C~()l)5 of every kind`vitIiOilt a 1')t'.tto tlie soil every year, colitaining such  tion, tlie olily liiiiit to their  l~liin beitig
ingredients ns the ailalyses shall have  tiie e()i)iiil;iii(l  of iiianure: l~ut they ~`~lio
sho~vn to li~ve been taken froiii tile soil  fi~llo~v such a plan are is (le1)eii(l~iit (iii
by the preceding crop.                    tlie purchase (if extraneous Iiiiiinie is (in
that of stoel  and if tlie iiiniiurc eaiiiiot
5O8~. But aithoagh no donbt exists of   be obtaiiie~l, their plan caiiiiot lie piirsiiuil.
the ability to raise tlie sanie grain in  tlie  Such a lilan caiinot lie gelierilly fi,lI(i~i til,
same soil in successive years, l)y iiieans of  f~r if all farii~crs lilircliased iiii;~t  if their
i~anure, a regular course  (if cropping is  iiianures exti'ai~eiiusly, ~vlie:e  ~vii(ilil  tlie
incunibent to be estalilished on all farnis  n~anure be found to sup~ily tlieiii ill? iiiil
which follow  tlie niixed husbandry of  if all puieli:ised stud  t() Coiisiiii.0 tlje
crop and stock.  ~ given iiun~ber of iitoek,  increased cr~ip riiseil liy tlie c~ti'.'.'iic~ius
raised every year, requires a given quan-  niaiiures, there ~`oulil be  iii lirceilers  ~f
tity of food every year; and that quantity  stuck, excelit iii tlie l)iistoral distiicts, hid
cannot be secured but l)y prosecuting a  tlie.~e could li(it su~i~ily a suthciciit iiuiiilicr
rei~ular course of cropping.  It is evident  (if aniiii:ils.    Si) tli;it this sigiiificaiit f~ct
that, if an inordinate extent of any (inO  ought hut to be lost ~iglit (it by tlie
croji be raised iii aily  0110 year, it must  farmer, that ~vlieiiever lie dc1ienils  uplill
be d~ine at ttie sacrihce (if as   ilucli  (if   tlie iesouices (if  liii, own iai'iii. lie ~tust
aiiotlier crop, ~vliicli`voul{i Ii ave ~icciij~iei1  ad~ipt a regular course of croj)jiing
the usurped groun~l; and if tlie one criip is
as requisite fir tlie sulil)(irt (if tlie stuck    5088. In every riitation of ci'opjiing,
as      i,                        l~    )     ~i   einianent p~~uie 5110111(1 be left  (lilt  (if
for want  of it.  Fiir exaiiiple, if iliore  consiilernt;iiiii, liecause, being an iiiicliaiigc
grain than usual, and less green crop, is  able COil(litiiiil (if tlie (ill, it caniiiit be ciiiraised in one seasoii, tlie ordiiiary nuiiiber  liriced iii t riita.tiiin, ~vliicii iiiiplies a fieof stock ~v ill either suffer ~vaiit, by beiiig  queiit return iif tlie soil to tlie jiliiii&amp;amp;'Ii.  A
stinted of tlie requisite qii:intity if green  large priipiirtiiiii ()f l)ei'il:aiiciit lilisLIlie lillS
fo(id, or jiait of tlieiii iiiii~t be s(ild, to suit  ~onsiileialil~ iiiflueii~e iii iletti iiiiiiii'.g ilie
their nuiiibers to tlie fiiid raised fir them.  rotatiiin Oil tlie nialile laii~l, wl~i~li iiceil
If they are stiiited (if fiod tliey will be-  not be long uiiiler grass  and this is
come (if less value; and if part are sold,    C0l111l1)iil j~i.icti&amp;amp;e  iii Liiglaiid.   I))iit it
tlie pr(iportiiin iii tlie breeding of tlie stuck  should lie iiirile iii iiiiiid, (hat ~vlere a
is destioyeil,  tail ~~ill i e(jiiiie tiiiic tii re   considei jbie jii (ijiortion (if tl~e l~inil i&amp;amp;~
ciiver tlie nunilier.  Iii reality, tl~e regular  iin~ler tlic pl(iiigli, a large (liiailtii.~j of
syst~m (if lii~eilinif, anil tlie legulti s~s   ni~innie slii?iilil be 1ipli~d to it it i.iiC hue,
teni of liiisbaii~lry, ~voul~l biitli lie ilcstriiyed  aiid that hell iieiit ly.  So tliattlie~'racti -
by tlie reckless  iiiniiv..itiiin.   {[`lie iiiixed  cal efibet of liaviiig olie large pi~rtiiiii   if
liusl).ii~iliy iiiust tlieiefiiie lie iiinint~iiieil  a fli lii iii j)ei iiianeiit gr.'ls~.`lnil aiiiitiici in
by a regular rota(iiin of cropyilig.  If  aralile culture, is to criip tlie grIssy p(irextranei~us food is purchased  iii lieu  of  tioii easily, anil 1 lie arabic portiiiii Se' erely.
raising a crop, tlie profit wouhi be ren-  ~Vliereas, it would be better for tlie dura 
PRACTICE-AUTUMn.
bility of  the  entire  soil  to undergo  a
uniormll and easy mode of cro(pping.
may              be practised for a few years on wornout land, until it is brought illto g,oodl
condition, when it mighit be relinquished
for a better.
5089. Rotations for  strong land. —Let
11s 11ow consider  tlre  several  ilodes of
rotation practised in the different classes
of soils f oun      t             in this country,  an(o ugler
time dliflerent systems of lhusban(dry (34)
puirsued; and  I  shlall  first,ive a  few
instances -of rotationi folldhwe( on  stron,
so,ils, andl you  slhould keep in nmind that
we are supposed to be farminig 500 acres.
5092. The  followinig  4-course rotation
is   very   coimmon   in   En,,gland.         Onefollrtls of the aral)le land is in fallow-that
term, in all the  rotations,  iliplyi,ng  tile
period  wlhen  the manure is applied-oisehalf in corn, and  one-fourth in grass.
(Potatoes,.  10 acres.
First year,   125 a      Tares, I..
fallow, str     acres inilTurnips,. 50
fallow, j ~~Beans,..30...
,Bare fallow,. 25...
Second year,             f Winter wheat, 75 
wheat anld >125... <Spring wheat,   20...
barley,                Barley,..  30...
Third year, Hay,                        25
125... Clover, 20...
grs FoPastureth..a  80...
YurWhyeat,f  95..
wheat and   125...   What, 
Feed oats,      30
oats,...
5090. A  2-course rotation is practised
oni a few strong clay,s in Enflanl-, wlhic
places lhalf of tlhe aralse land under each
mlletlIber t)f the rotation.
First year, wheat, with manure,   250 acres.
Second year, beans, without manure,  250g...
500
The  grass land  is permanent  inead(low.
The lisaniire is given to tle wlseat; but
thle land, being naturally fertile, does not
requlire issucil manure at a timie.  Witls so
mucli wlheat straw for litter, and lhay and
bean-lhaulmin for foddler, part of thle imianure
Illade by  the working and otlier stock is
put upon  tile meadows wliicli yield hiay.
Thle  land  requires to  lsave naturally a
good staimiina before it canl bear so frequent a cropping withi whieat.
Whleat is a  commnon  crop after clover
in England, rare in Scotland.  The beans'
are  ilantured  in drills. Tbe potatoes
are  imjanured, as also  tlhe  tares.   The
turnips are well manured.   One-fourtlh of
the land requiring maanure every y ear,
and lhalf of it under corn, the farnm cannot
provide  the  manure  required, so  somiie
must be purchlased.
5091. A   3-course  rotatioll  puts  oletlsirtl of thle arible laid in fallow, a thiird
5093. A  4-course r-otatiorn is practised in
Scotland(  in tlhe neiglhborlhoo(d o(f towns,
whlere  manure is  pl)entiful.  It hIas onefourthl  of  tile land  in fallow,  one-half
Bunder grain, and one-fourtls in grass.
J          r Rag fallow,    56Potatocs,. 30 acres
First year,  125  cr.  Tares,..  10.
fallow,               Turnips,         65
Beans,.. 20 
Second year,             Witer wheat   8,,...
wheat and   125....   Sp)ring wheat,   15..
barley,               Barley,. 30...
-- Third year }          lH ay,         40...
Fthir}1'5... Clover,.'5..35
grass,
Pasture,. 50...
Fourth year,.5ot,15
~~~{Oats,.
under corn, aind a tlhird i; grass.
)           ( Potatoes,.    10
i |T~res,.  10)
Firs-t year, T,e,                         1
fl o w, 1661 ac. lTurnips,.    50
Ii~ |i0W Beans,.40
J           {. Rag fallow,    5rz
Secondl year,                            I J6;4
wheat and 166z...  Slpring wheat,  20
rarley,                 l}arley,. 30
Third y'ear               C(ovei, 20
166?... ) l1ay,. 50
grass, 3
1, P asture,     96a2
5,0                      500
Tilis will answer  a poor clay-lIoatn, and
on  still iuferior claty oa.ts slioiuld le taken
insteal (of whleat.   Tile b)eans on tile poor
lsnid will be best raisedl on drills, and receive a little lmalsure.  Thie tares sloul(li
alssi ha.ve  isanure.   Thle potatoes sliouldl
lh.aLve but little on the stubble.  Thje land
stl~mu  b)e well wroughlt for the turnips,
and lse maniured for tlsemis.    Thle wliole
rotation, beingr, an easy one for tle soil,
There need be no beare fallow in the neighbourlhood of a large town.. Field potatoes
beinfg IJow a  l)recariouIs crop, early  garden varieties are planted on farnss, and the
grouind is more. early cleared for wileat ill
auitunlii, (4788.)   The turnip break  is
458
500
500
acres.
...
...
...
...
...
...
500
500 
I -- —.,... l-                                               Rt
( Winter wheat,  20
< Sprinig wheat, 30(
B  aarley,.  50 
H ays,..  20
Clover,..  15
Pasture,. 65
Pasture,. 100
Potato oats,     60
i Common oats,   40
500
The potatoe   s, tares, an(-l  turnips  are all
minanlired.    No   bare fallow is  requlisite.
Tle lhay is confined to whlat is reqilire(l orn
tlhe  f,arln-tlhe  cutting  clover beillg )!,:oe
useful  in   suminier,  anud  tlhe  I)ea-stiraw
anlswers  partly  for  hay  in  winter.    A
few  swedes  iii tlJe fifthl  year, along, witli
thle beans and pease a little mnanll-ed, will
be found useful, and keep  thle land ii coInditi)n by thle imanure.   Tlhe swe(les slbould
all be pIlIledl and stored in thle autuimn, to
allow  tlhe landli   to l)e  sownI  witlh wilet
along withl  the  bean  alnil  )ea landl.   Tilis
rotation iiiiglht be  iiad(le a 7-couirse  mlle,
by  extendingi,  tlhe grass   period  to  twvo
years; a.lil s  tle st5oc(l wuoll(l be  ilIeleasedI
by the extension  of          p astllrage,  tle tul-lip
break  Illiilit be  11)ol-ortilolllly extenTdled
ini tlhe  fiftll  year,   bv  a  correslp),ldilig
t  liininutill of tlhe b)eais  alnd pease, or iy
tlie  I1),pr)esssionl  alto,retller of  the ipease.
lTiis is L good(  and  prolitable rotation on
good stroj,,g soil.
T,lIe potatoes, tares, and turnips are all
m-anurede, wlhiell it is n,,w  qiuite possible
to be d,ne by the assistantce of bone-dtust
and guano  to th,e turnip crop.   Tlhere is
no necessity for a b-are fallow,  thle s          oil
beinig better occupied witlh a green crop.
Wlien thle lanrd  is soiieewelat strong, a few
be ans witl  manure nay be  substituted for
a like extetnt of turnips.   The lhay iiiighlt
be c(lnfine(    r to the  w ants of tle farmn, and
tie cautting clover extendedt               i ll                             e the s.me
prs rortion, or it miglnt be thrown  into tle
ipasture of the fi                          rst year.   Some of tlee lea
o   thi e     last year miglt  be ra(g-fallowed,
(4183,)  a       n        d w leat t akenr insteade of oats.
Tlhe  5-course  rotation i     s a pr)ofitable ne
at a distance froin towns.   It tmig,hIt be
mo(dified into a 6-courSe rot-atioii by extendling, the second years' pasture into t!he
thjird year.  This last course is-a good o()e
f,r  tlie mixed  husbatn(dry, -s  it affotds
plenity (cf pasture fcir thle yoing stockl, and
thle oats yield very abundalltly after a
thiree years' lea.
5096. Reli  clover  fitils in           thle  neirlb509l5.oo(l of  to6uses  wliere  tle   4-e)un rise
r)t-ti,,n li!as b,eenr h,ng arld colstal,tItlvy 1,1lowe(].   TliJe  4-ecourse tlherefore  lias Ieen
molifi~ed  into a f; ) an    7 couirse r,,tati(n,
whilic: lJl:  hae sueede(d  ini restoring, tle
gri wtli of t!he clover —at le.st shlell is thje
c.ase ini tie tieihl)(,urlhood,, tJf  Dundielee. Tle
4-course    li-ts  been    mtodilied  into a-  6course, wljiilh pits two-sixtlis of the ftarmii
undfergr-eeni crop, tlhree-sixths   unde'rgrain
and  onie-sixtlh ill grass.
5095.  A            6-course rotation, otlier tlian
the one I- hliave just m -tentioniedl, is practised
.,IV
Second year,
wheat and    1 00...
barley,
Third year, 11 00
gr-ass,
Fourth year, } 100...
gra —ss,
Fitth year,   l...
oats,    1.
50O
..o
..o
o...
..o
..,
.,.. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMIN.
(Cuttia ng grass,
P'asture,
{ Oats,
Beans  dr-illed,
Swedes,.
Winter wheat,
F   yiftli year, tC2....1
grass,        2 
Sixth year,      21. 
oats,     J2...
OSeventh year,             B
beans and     62-...
swedes,
Eigl,tlh year, } 62-1
m-'heat,      "'"'"I
Poteatoe,  dunged.
WVIhe;at, half]dui)ged.
'I'Turnips, (lunged.
Batley, hialf-dunge,d.
Clover.
Oats, half-dunged.
5097.  Tre   4-c(,urse is chlanged  into a
7-c()uise,  tlhus, wliich  gives  two-seventlhs
of the farmi  to greeii c-ro, thlree-sevenths
to grain, ain(  t  0o-seveintlis to grass:    First year,     Prtatoes, decayed.
Seconld..      AWhieat, half-dunged.
'Jhi,'l...'T'urnilps, dunged.
Fourth...       Brrley.
Fio th...       ('(,vloer.
Sixth...    P'astur-e.
Seventl...       Oats, half-dunged.
Tlhoug,h  tle clover still reverts in five aniid
seven years, tihe frequent mantrin,,s  keep
the land  fiesli, and clover  is well known
to tlhrive on   land ain a fresih state.
Thle  bare  fallow is limed.   It and  tlho
potatoes are dungedl.   The  turnips in the
third vear are hlalf (lunged.'Tle whleat
after beans and tares, and lialf-dui)ged turnips, will lnot be too strong to sow down
witli cloveer.  The beans in  tlhe seventh
year are haif-duiged-l in tlhe stulbble, and
the swedes dnigedl in the drill.   This rotation requires good soil to bear so iiaiiy
corn crops, but its yield of straw is
aiple.  The latnd slhould not get sickl of
clover once in X years.
5098. On the fine very strong land of
the Carse of Gowrie, a 7-course rotation
has been followed for  mnany years.    It
puts two-seventhls of the faril into fallow;
four-seventhls  undler  grain;  andl  oneseventhl in grass.  It is this:  First year,  liallow, dunged and limed.
second...  Whjeat.
Third(l... Barley.
Fourth...  Clover.
Fifth...  Oats.
Sixth...  Beanis and pease, stubble-dunged.
It will be observed, that two white crops
follow in barley and whleat; and the reason
for this deviation fromn good farmning,, is,
that fallow wheat is ti)o strong to sow
down  w%ithl clover, while the clover is always good after lbarley; and that barley
always proves a good crop, anid exhibits a
fine samnIl)le, after whleat.  Clover does succeed better after barley than whleat; still
the rotation cannoilt be recommiendled on
principle, atid in practice it would be better, I think, to change it. 
5100. Rotations for  light soils. A   4course rotation (5093) cannot be sa-fely
practised on lighIit soils, even with  a ComllFmand of niannure, these being rendered ilnmost effete b)y the t(oo f'requ(tent action of
the ploughl.  Their best eflects.ire produced
by consolidation, under grass. Near towns,
thle necessity  of raising,  green  crop)s, as
the imost remunerative olnes, subjects every
class of soils to the plou,g,hi: and tlie change
of miianiure and crops on the sa.miie I)ireakl (if
land, is the only plan that can be aidopted
to perpetuate  the active p)owers of  the
soil.
First year,  I100acr        es.' F     ares,
fallow, Iu n is
X             I ~~~urnil,S,.
Seconld year,                %  WViiiter w heat,
wl-eat aniid    100...      Spainug wheat,
barley,   J      a r i.Lley,
Tlhird y-ear,   io
clover, }          y'
Pastuire,.
Fourth year, 10
grass,..
Fifth year,     loo       5 Potato oats,
oats,'f    Common oats
S00
5099.  An  8-course rotation puts  tlihreeeilitlis  of  the   fitirm   in  fallow,  foureighitis in grain, anid (ione-eiglhtli in grass.
Thus:b
~~ii~ ~          ~o,ear. 8                                          la,. 1
Fit Year,llow  -        Potatoes,            acres.
efallow,   -.    a.   Bare fallow,    54 
Swhedat,   }            621... { Winter wheat,  62P1...
*ill wd   } 62s,?   {l~~~tlrniP~~s   25...
bean, tur-                                                     a     
',rirdi year,(         Beans,.    27..     Ffhy            0.       oaoot,           6
anip r- and  62,1...  Turnips,.    25...
nips, and
tares,,'     Tares,.     10
Fourth year,             Winter wheat,   37
wheat and    621...   Spring wheat,    10            O
barley,              Barley9.    15...
On light soils this rotation will not supply
460
Pi rst year,
Secon,i...
TI.ii-fl...
Fourtli...
Fiftli...
11.3 xth...
20 acres.
1 7,...
25...
1621
2 "'
'221
2"'
.401...
621..
2'
500
500
5101. The 5-cotirse rotation (5094)
is therefore most coniiiiodly a(iol)te(i on
liglit -oilq, and the pr,)poi-t'ion of its crol)s
are of course the same in ligl)t as in strong
soils.
1.5 acres.
I 0...
7,,i...
1 2.5...
2.5...
50...
lo...
15...
75...
100..
60...
40...
Soo 
ROTATION OF CROPS.
sufficient mnanure to diung  thle entire f'-llo     f
break.   Otn graLve:ly turiup s(oil, 300acres
in  tlhis rotation are  utlal)le  to  muanure
niore thlan 40 acres out of 60 wilichl was
the fallow divisioss, even withl  a good( crop
of I,otli tulrni)s aind straw.   Extraineous
iianure will thlerefore require to be  puirchlased for  thle  reliaining  20  acres, andn(
fortunately  bothl  guli,llo  and   )one-(Ilust
are  eminently' sstitalale to sucle a soil
for the raisilg, of g-)o(o greeni crops.  It
is worse than useless to bare-fallow  suclh
soil.
fa llow,  tlhree-sixtls in grain, and one-sixth
in grass.
Fvi r-st year,     Potatoes.         100 acres.
Seconid...        *\ heat.         10...
Third...           Tuirnips. 100...
ilourth...        Barley              100...
Fitth...C         lover. 1f)...
Sixthl.......    Oulratps. 1 00  
Sixth... Oats.               0...
600
The potatoes were inanufaictred( into tal)ioca, (4813) and the refuse given to pigs.
ThIeir failure  would  scarcely  low  warrant  sucll an extended  culture as, this;
aii(l yet, in 1849, a f-armier in Wig,tosislhire
1en ti, rede to cultivate 92 acres of p)otaLtoes
on  a  fctn iIrm  of 260 acres, an(d follows 1)
rotation.   Cattle are bough,t in  to consutie thle turnil)s.  This 6-coulrse rotation
is aL g,o(oId one fbr keeping the land cleanii.
5102. But a prefi~rabl)le rotation to tlhis,
on liglht soil, is. 6-coutrse otie, obtained
by exten(ling thie grass (livision to 3 yeears,
whliclh will reduce t!he fallow  break front
100  acres to 8313 acres, and  extend  the
grass fronl   two(-fiftlis to one-half of the
farm.   It would  be advisable  to  curtail
the potatoes to 10  acres, and  extend the
proportion of turni)ps to 67A acres.   I consiler tills rotation as tlhe best for the pursuit of miixed  litisbandlry, as it seenis to
balance the relation of the crops and stock.
In  adoptinig thlis mn-odifica,tion,  from  the
5-course  shift,  it  w%ill  be  aldvisable  to
diiiinisli,  a little, thle number  of cattla
l)re(l on the ftarti, and to increase tha.t of
tlle sliee), as of these tlhe ew%es are.nearly
inlelclelndent of  turnips,  sail  the    olewhie
flock is alimost indeienilenit of  straw, in
iniiter-wlIsichli is a colsiuleratioli, as the
niitiber of acres of straw  "will now be redtice(l from two-fiftlhs to two-sixthls of the
fitrnl; but the  isielioratinlg ri,tation isiay
sustain  tlIe grotss  alilolint of  1)otli straw
and green croip.   A 6-coutrse shlift, on lit,lit
lanil,  gives one-sixthl  fallow,  t wo-sixtlls
gritia, an,I thlree-sixtlis grass.  Tiis rittatiol!iis.eses thle ad-lvantage of beirog e               xtended  t,o Llty lengtlh Iy rel)eatiiin  tlle
grass;  1b)ut -anr  ii(i lie extesi,tin  in  thllis
direction ilnterposes a barrier a,grtinst every
-thler crol:p but itself, l)y re(dicinige tlhe ftlllow down to notlhing, and ocutil)yilig t!he
entire farisi.   Even a itiotlerate extension
of giass wohiltl too ii,uchi increase tlhe sltiinler l           (rovi)ion,~f tlhe stock, wviliie it diiiiishie(ld s miuheli their winter food.
5105. Adlher-ence to a good rotation  colducts  tle   o peratios  oft thle fwrwith   witl
reeula rl ieity inede ea se;   but a    sla,tvisli  alheel eice  to  aniy g).rticular rota   tion eile
want of  ju lidg eit. Tile  jlEveit a,s lt
at all ti6 ues to be  exercised accortlile, t circiu msta,ece.s, and  tlhe (aractrof t  ere  seuc,na
and dloeliiciatiitts   tlwits iti(nt a rc o t (eetn  cilli
iiiost pIol)al)ly benefit )otlh tlhe s(,il and i,.
occupier.  A  le,,itiiiiate iiiotle of dev-ia-ting
fir(,)  a rotationl is tliis: —Tlie ii wh     ich
grew  a crop   more  ex!iaistin,  tl!,'m  ti!o
rest in tle course of  on,e riotatioii, sliol(.1
be.ar ain a~lileli,,lrtilg crrop ill t.lie foilhNwillgr
onle.   Foir exaoille,      where  potatones (r,ew
in one rotation, tiiriils slhouldtie sul c    ituted in the  next; ai:(l  1otatoes, in like,
iia-ier, mlay  followv turnips.  Aln  iiiterclhange,f soil  shoul(l  take place between
the  different lkitils of  turnips, st) tl-at
swNed(es t,eiin,, more severe  Ulp)n tl~e land
sh,ouldl alternate  with tle  wliite  tt u-iii).
The i)are fallow  oln strong, land slionl!n alternate witlh a greeeni (croI,; and so shI-,till
barley  witlh  w!te-t.        Ev7eni  a  se,e.'er
course is at  tithes  justifiable, such  as
taking  wlhea,t  after    lea, whlere  t!here is
reason to suspect  that oats will fail.   A
root crop o,f a (lifferent nature, such as
mangold-wurzel, or carrot, or even  cab
461
5104. If the clover division were exteii(le(i to tiji-ee years,pasttire, the expenses
wotilil I)e diiiiinislie(l, -,tn(i  the I)i-obat)ly yiel(i -,t larger I)roportiotial retiirii. i
Sticii,t iiio(lific,,ttioii wotild convert the 6coiir,,:e iiit,o -Lii 8-c(.)urse rotation.
5103. A reiiiarliable 6-course rotation
w-,Ls ft,)Ilowed on the f-,triii of Beatieliaiiip,
in Ft)i-larsliire, I)y the late Mr Jaiiies Scott.
Tiie fai,iii consisted of 600 acres, and the
rotation dividett it tlius: t%%,o-sixtljs into 
PRACTICE-AUTUMIIN.
bage, sioulhl alternate for a season  w itih
t          hlc             ordinaryy roots cultivated.  Wlleu  any
c    rop ftails-alid cc()ver soinetimies do es-it
shiould be plo)ugilel up, and anotler of a
different ki(nd taken ill its stead.  Potatoes
often fail; they should be ploulied( up, and
turniips sul)stituited. Sometimes the swed(les
are  Ilestroyeli by insects; then let wilite
turnips be taken as a suibstitute, or late
rape, or bare-tfallow the land for autumn de
wheat.   In short, whenever one crop fails,
anothler useful one shiould be substitute(d
in its place- for if tile soil is not ocetipied
with a useful crop, it will be soon taken
possession of by a hlost of weeds.   Wllere
a clialltge hlas been forced lipon the rotation,
a field miay be imiscropped to bring it agai       n
under the rotation; and of all means of
miscropping a green crop is the safest, and t
with  additional manure will recover tile
tone of the land sooner than any  other
device.
rcediately before the formation  and  diirithg the
cotntinuance of the blossoms; they dimiiiiislt after
the developmnent of the  fruit. Substances  co)ntaining a large proportion of carbon are excreted
by the roots, and absorbed by the soil.  Through
the expulsion of these matters, uniifitted for iititritioc, the soil receives again  withi usutry the carboH whieh it had at first yielded to the young
plaits as food, in the form of carbonic a(idI. The
soltble nlatter tlhus acquired by the soil is still
capable o f  decay and putref action; a nd, by un -
dergoing these processes, furnishes renewed
sources of nutrition  to another  generation of
plants, and becomes humus." ~
5108. Tle  powe r of plants    to excrete  from
their roots has almost b       een  totally d enied. Mr
Alfred Gyde of  Painswick in Gloucestershire,
instituted experiments to prove that plants expel
no excrements from their roots: His opinion is,
that though plants have no power of selection,
but take  into their texture   a ny solution offered
to their roots, the   y have little or   no power of
a,gaini excreting it; that any excretions are only
of the true sap; and that plants watered with
excretion receive no injury from it.~ It canniiot
be denied that plants do excrete substances from
their roots. As Liebig affirms above, that they
excrete substances from their leaves and blos soms, why should it be deemed incredible that
they excrete matter also from their roots I In dependently of experiments  made ul)oU plants
placed under unnatural circumstances, the sense
of smell alone is sufficient to prove that plants
excrete sensible substances from their -roots.
Examine  the newly turned tip ground where
potatoes, turnips, carrots, have grown, and  the
peculiar odour emitted by each of these plants
will at once be recogiiised arising from the soil.
The raspberry bush and the nmint have a very
powerful odour. Indeed, the peculiarity of the
odour at once determines the plant which has
been growing on the soil.  This existence of the
odour will not be explained by saying that plants
only excrete simple sap, since, sap being alike in
all plants, and not distinguishable from water,
the odouir must proceed from something that has
been elaborated by the plant from the sap. There
is nothing incredible in the excretory theory;
for if the excretions from the roots are vegetable excrements, it may be easily imagined that
the excretions, once deposited in the soil, may
be as prejudicial to the plant which produced
them as would be the excrement of an ani.
mal presented to it as food. But the objec.
tion to this view is, that it does not explain
ali the.- phenomnenia of rotations, and there-1
fore  cannot  be received  as a  satisfactory
theory. Its great difficulty is to explain why
the excretory  matter from one race of plants is
not decomposed, and disappear from the soil, ]ong
before the recurrence of  the samne kind of planit
in the succeeding years. The excretory matter or
matters being organic,  they can have  no power
of conservation, more than other organic  sub
5106. No practice of husbandry requires, in
my opinion, explanation by a satisfactory theory,
that its principles may be properly understood,
so much as the rotation of crops, but as yet no
unexceptionable theory has been propounded.
The first was that offered by the late eminent
De Candolle, founded on the discovery of Brugmnantis, of the excretory powers of plants, which
were corroborated  by the experiments of  M.
Macaire.*  De Candolle's theory was, that the
roots of plants imbibe soluble matter of every
kind from the soil, and necessarily absorb substalices not adapted for their support, which are
subsequently returned to the soil by the roots as
excrements.  As plants cannot subsist on matter
which they eject, the more of this matter the
soil contains, the less it becomes fit to support
plants of the same kind.  This excrementitious
matter from one kind of plant, however, may be
taken up by other kinds from the soil, and even
rendered again fit for supporting plants of the
former kind; and if the latter kinds also expel
substances from their roots which may be appropriated as food by the former kind, both kinds
of plants will improve the soil in two ways.t
5107. Liebig at first adopted the theory of De
Calidolle, but afterwards modified his assent in
these terms:" Transformations  of existing
compounds are constantly taking place during
the whole life of a plant, in consequence of
which, and as the results of these transformations, there are produced gaseous matters which
are excreted by the leaves and blossoms, solid
excrements deposited in the bark, and fluid
soluble substances which are eliminated by the
roots.  Such excretions are most abundant iim
* De Candolle's Phyosilogie- Vegetale, vol. i. p. 248-51.           + Ibidi., vol. iii. p. 1474-1520.
+ Liebig's CleiistPry in its application, to Aqrictitttre, p. 33.   Edition of 1843.
~'ITranstactions of the Higlsand and Agri'cuitural,Society, October 1843, p. 80.
462 
ROTATION OF CROPS.
stances, against the favourable antecedents of fermentation and putrefaction, heat and moisture.
theoretical provisions.   One point in theory th. t
shobuld agree with practice is this —that in no4
case is it possible to expect more organic matter,
anid particularly more azotised organic matter,
than the excess of the sa-Lmie natter contained ill
the manure which is consumed in the course  of
the rotation. By acting upon another presumptioll, the productiveness of the soil would be illfallibly lessened.  Hence, it may  be inferred
how closely the study of rotations is conniieicted
with ~that of the exhaustion of the soil."
5109. It was then conjectured that different
species of plants require a particular nutriment
that wheat, for example, requires a different
nutriment from barley or oats, or from any of the
green crops; and that, if it were cultivated perseveri,ugly for a number of'years, it would entirely
exhaust the soil for wheat. Upoii this idea the present barren state of the northeri coast of Africa,:
and of the island of Sicily, has been attempted to
be explained. It has been conceived that tihe coinstant growing of wheat in those counltries, to
supply thie wants of the Romian people, after they
relinquished their own agriculture, impoverished
the soil to its present condition.  Deprived of
manlure, most soils will become impoverished by
cropping; but we have seen (5085) that whieat
may be grown in succession on the same soil, if
manure is applied.  We have no proof that n          o
manure was applied to the raising of the wheat
for the Romans inl Sicily and Barbary.  Tlhe
progress of botanical physiology soon made it
appear that the organs of each plant derive their
many juices from substances which concur in the
nutrition of plants generally.  In effect, plants
the most opposite in botanical character and properties, alimentary as well as poisonous, will live
and flourish onil tile same mound of earth, and
on the  same  manrure.   Such  plants  reciprocally withdraw nourishment from one another,
which could not occur did each species need different elements of nutrition.
5111. The sentiments of ht. Botissing;,utlt,
regarding tlhe  positio n       whic h  the  mineral   i,giedie5its should take in deciding on a rotation, are
sound.  " Professor  Liebig," he  observes, "i ia
insisting with the greatest propriety oun the useful part  played  by alkaline  bases  and saline
matters in vegetation, has  shown the necessity of
taking inorganic substances into serious  conisiderat-iont in discussing rotations.  It is long silce
I camiie to the same conclusion  myself; but it
strikes me that, to  be  triily profitable, suich  a
discussion mu.t necessarily repose on aialysis  of
the action of plants which have grown ini\the
same soil, and been manured with the same
dung, the contents of which inl mineral elements
were already known.   There is in tact a kind of
account-current to be established between the
inorganic matter of the crop  and  tl,hat of  the
manure. Although I give every credit to the
fidelity of the analysis of vegetable ashes that
haves been published up to the present time, I
have  not felt myself at liberty to  make use of
any of them in the direction which I 1 now indicate. I have not thought that it" would be
fair or reasonable to contrast such heterogeneous
compounds, as the  ashes of  plants grown at
Geneva and Paris, under such dissimilar circumstances, with:those  produced ou   a  farm of
Alsace, where the point is to be explained, though
the results of this contrast had reference to a
particular species of agricultural  phenomena.
And then my  business was  not mierely with the
scientific question; the  nmanutacturinig or  coumlmercial  element  in  the  consideration also
touched  me.  I lad to ascertain how  I was likely
to stand at some  future time, did I presume to
act upon the conclusion to which I came.  There
was nthilng f,r me, therefore,: but to ana,lyse  the
ashes of thie several pla,nts which entered as elemenits into the rotation followed at Bclhelbroiiib,
but coiifil,ing my inquiries to that portion of the
plant which is looked upon particularly as the
crop-so much of it as remains on the ground  a-id
is turtled il again, of course,  taki!ng niothiing
from t he soil."
5110. As opinions stand in regard to a theory
of the  rotation  of crops, M.  Boussingault's
opinion appears rational. "That there is no absolute necessity for alternation of crops," hlie observes, " wheu dung and labour call be easily
procured, is undeniable.  Nevertheless there are
certain plants which cannot be reproduced upon
tile same soil advantageously, except at intervals
more or less remote.  The cause of this exigence
on the part of certain plants is still obscure, and
the hypotliesis propounded for clearing it up far
from satisfactory.  Oiie ofthe marked advantages
of alternate culture is the periodic cultivation of
plants which improve the soil.  In this way a
sort of co)mpensatioti is made for exhlaustioin.
The main thing to be secured, in rotation ofcrops,
is such a system as shall enable the husbaiidiiaii
to obtain the greatest amount of vegetable produce with the least manure, and in the shortest
possible time.  This system call be alone realised
by employilg, il  the course of rotation, those
plants which draw largely from the atmosphere.
T'he best plan of rotation in theory, is that in
which the qualntity of organic matter obtained
most exceeds the quantity of organic matter
iitroduced into the soil in the shape of mature.
This does not hold il practice.  It is less the
surplus ainoutt of organic matter over that c:         hntaimled inl the manure, than the value of  this
same matter, which concerns tl-he agriculturist.
The excess required, and the form in which -it
should be produced, must vary widely according
to locality, commercial demand. and the habits
of people-considerations  wholly  apart  from
5112. To  t hes e pr actical co nclusions  has M.
Boussiingauilt arrived on this subject. " Ill reviewiiig the chiief poinits examined," lie says,"  it will
be seen that, as far as regards orgalnic  nmtter,
the systenis of culture which, in borrowing mnost
from the atmosphere, leave  the inost a-biiiilaiit
residues on the land, are thiose which  constittite
:the niost productive  rotatioinis. ill respect too
inorganic matter, the rotation to be advaiitgeous,
to  have  an enduring  succes%& ought  to be  so
managed that the crop exported should not leave
463 
PFACT[C E-A-T AUtUIN.
the dunghill with less than that coiiztaiit quantity
of        iniiieral siibsta.iices which it oughlt to coiitaiiiy
A crop vlwhich abstIacts from the gruiii)ld a inotab)le
proportio i of Onie of its mineral eieiieiits, slihoild
not be relpea.tedly introiuice(d iii the coulise of a
rotatiol,  which  depends oil  a g.:ve i  d,se  of
ma.iure,,,,less, by  the eifec,,f tlitie, iiiieral
elenmet, ha.s been accumuiilated iii lie land.  A
clover crop takes up, for exaitrlle, 77 lb. of alkali
per acre.  Itf the fodder is colsuiiied on the spot,
the greater portion of the potash and soda will
return to the Trianure after passing through the
cattle, and the laud eventually recover nearly
the whole of the alkali.  It will be quite otherwise if the fo(ldder is takeii to market; anud it is
to these repeated exportatiolis of the produce of
artificial meadojws that the failure of clover, as
observed it, soils which have long yielded abundantly, is undoubtedly  due.    Accordingly  a
means  has beeii 1froposed, by M. Schattenuiann,
of restoring to thiese laids their reproductive
power, by applying alkaline msatiure.  If, under
such circumstances,  carbonate of soda would
act as favourably:is carbonate of potash or woodashes, the soda salt, in spite of its commercial
value (8s. per cwt.,) might prove seviceable, and
deserves a trial." *
flowners, an-  P.pvery  som?ifertm, the
O~ l~illl 1,oppy."   Liebig, ilientitiots tile condlition f,fthie c(untry arnind Naples, wliilh
is faita ed for it s fruitf ul corn-lanid, th at, tle
farmts  being  situated fi'om  eig,hteen to
twenty-foir  nliles  distant    fron)    one
another, and  between  tlhein  tlhere being,
no road(is, atndI consequen)tlv  no tiranspoi —
tation  of manure, nevertlheless, corn lhas
been criltivate( on tltheein for thousands uf
years witll16 lt a ny manure-tlhat is, witlhot
any p)art of that wvhichl is annuall y r-emoved
fromi the soil beingr artificially restored to
it.  lie also mentions that tlhere,ire large
districts in Hungary-on  which, since  tlhe
mnelllory  of mian, corn and tobacco  lhave
been cultivated in alternate years, witlout  thie restoration of the mineral ingredients carried away  in  the  corn  and in
tile straw.   In ti e western  )arts of  t~e
United States of Amiierica, whleat to the
extent  of 50 bushels  per acre  1ha,s been
grown on thje samne soil without manure
for 16 years.
5114. What the iiin,redient, or conibination  of il,,gredients,  is,  which  imparts
fertility to a soil, is unkitowti to us;  and I
suspect tlhat the inost elaborate analyses
of constituents will afford us no  intfobrmation.   Lie)ig,  adimits that  the physical
conditionis essential to the fertility of a soil
are  usually neg,lected in tlhe calculations
of thile  clletilist;  and  a  miere  clietitical
analysis is tlhus of very sublordinate vilue,
because the existence of  all the  ilineral
iiieanis of niotirislitmieiit in a soil does not,
necessarily indicate  its value.   And:1tlhouighl  tlhe  chemnical be comb)ined(  uwith
tile mechanical analysis, which estimate:,
tilhe unequal quantities of imtixed iingredliints-such as coarse anil fine sand, and of
clay and vegetable inatters-andlt    data ibe
thereby  filrnished  lupon  whlichl  to  foirti
iiiore  accurate  conclusions, than  by  the
atnalysis of (onle class of ing,redients; yet
no chemist can tell us, bly itiere analysis,
tel,etlier or niot a soil is capable of sul)e.  rtiig tle cultivated cro(ps for an ililiilitel period, withlout the use of ianuiries.
This lli,ty be c,ncludled froiti what Lieliig
states of the ]and in th)e vicinity of Vestivitis, whlicih may be regarded 1s the ty)e
of a fertile soil.  It  is ilerived from)  the
disintegration of lava, and cannot possibly:
5113. The fertile state of the soil is a
su1!;ect intimately connected with  tlhat of
ilmanures wlhen arable culture is undler consideriation.  Soils imay be fertile by nature,
(,r iiia(le so artificially, bv means of manUires.   Exaini1l)les of thle natural fertility of
t!he soil lha,ve been ob)servedI in mantyv parts
(..f the globe.  " I lhave seen," observes M.
Boist~ingtrault,   in the t,alle-lantds of tIIe
A nles,   wheat  field(s whicl  had (  vieldedi
excellent crops tannuially  for  luore-  tlhan n
two centuiries.   Maize  iimaty likewvise  be
conti nually reproduced  upon  tlle  same t
gril(otni](I without    inconvenience.  This fact
is well kniowni in the southi of Europe;
a nd(i tlhe greater portion of the coast of
1Perui hlas produced nothing else, fronm a
late anteriorI to -the discovery of Amnerica,.
Fturtlher, potatoes may comne  againi  andi(
agaLini tipon the same soil: tlhey are inices,san,tly cultivated at Santa F6 an(d Qtuite,
a,,,l nowhere are tlhey of better qti:,lity.
I,,l:iXo.111d sug, r-c III -lay  be b,'olgilt
uil<ler tlle sallie categOry.  In Europe the
Je1'usaleiii artichoke produces constantly
in ~tie saime place. To this list migih t Ibe
addled, accordin)g to the recent researches
of i1. Braconnnot, the bog-rosewithi double
* Boussingault's Rural EBconomy, p.459, 490, and 501-Law's translation.
464
ON THE FL,,RTILITY OF SOILS. 
FERTILITY OF SOILS.
owing to its orig,in, contain the smallest
trace of vergetable muatter; yet every one
knows, as lie observes, that when lava or
volcanic ashles have  been  exposed for a
time to the influence of thle air and moisture, all kinds of plants grow in tlhemn with
the utmiost luxuriaince."*  Wethlus see, by
Liebig,'s own shlowing, that we cannot deterinine the principle which imparts fertility to s,,ils, since the existence of all
the mnineral meanrs of nourishment in a soil
d;)es not necessarily indicate its value, nor
does the want of vegetable matters render
it less capable of yielding luxuriant crops.
genial.;,bit, fort unately, we lave  thie leans
wfhic ppartins  a ten)uorarv fertility, wthich
has tie effect of  prolucint,i larn,e crops front
most  of our soils; ansd it is generally at tained by miianiuringr so liberally as to afford
more  no urishment to the plants than l they
appropriate to tdeir use; and  the res idue  is
retained in tve  soil as a store for future
use,   a n:  s a  mteapo s of  establishing    a pe r Inanenit fertility., The process by wlhichl the
soil retains the  sol uble ingredients of man ures has been w ell     illustr a    ted by some
recent experiments  of Professor Way of
London. He   ascertai     ned that    s and and
gravel retained only the  mechanical ad mixture of liquid manure,  and tlat the
soluble  ini,redients  passed with  the water
i sun   solutioh  unclhanged;   but  the case  witli
clay  was  quite different; and there can be
no  dogbt  that the  prope rty of soil    s to
remove  colouring  matters, and organic
matters yielding  odours, from sunlution, wsa s
due to  the cl ay co ntained in t them,  and it
had the  powert  of retaining tlheb al kalis.
If a quantity of amnionia, hig,lhly ptung,ent
to the smell, was thrown upon a filter of
clay s o i l,  the  water first  cohing awar y
would be absolutely f ree of amnlonia.  So
with  the cairbon ates of  potash and soda.
This is ca valuable  proterty of   so ils,  intasmuch  as i t  rent(lers  raini una ble to  w iash
out of thlem those soluble in,redienits, form ing a  necessaryy condition of vegeta-tion;
an(] even tlhoqe compounds,- when  introduce(d atrtificially by  miianure, are laid hold
ot and fixed in tlie soil, to  the  p reclusion
of any loss eithler bv sisiin or evapora tion.
But miore tit.n  this, such a propeity of
clay  does   not only affect  alkalis and
thteir crbxu nates, but all salts  of   thlose
bases, witlp wha  tever  acidt tle  a re  coimnbinied.   Thlus sulphlate of  ammiliionia, on
being filtere(l thirouighi clay soil, left its
ammrionia  belhind, arni the suil)l, uric acid
obtained was found combined  with limne;
lhence sulplhate of limie had been formded.
in tlhe process,, and brought away -in the
water.    Lime was  thus destinted, in the
economy, of nature, to  be-tthe  miieans by
which tlle salts  m-iniisteriilg to veg,etati(m
because loca-lised and  distributed tlhroughi
the soiI,'rnd retained there until they wero
r equlire~i for v~egetation. There w as no prov ision, howevrer, for thle salts of limle thzemxselves, sulp-hate, muriate, and nitrateof lima,
5115, Whatever may  be the principle
which  imnparts natural  fertility to soils,
observation teachlies us that climate is an
all-important element of  fertility -not
heat            c e oerely, but also the corresponding
periodic and adequalte  suppl       ie        s of moisttre.
lesose who can view nature withl a comprelhensive  glanice, and  apart from  local
pIenos  enta," observes Huinib                oldt,- "may
s      ee, fiomi the polesto tbhe equ                ator, organic
life        and vigour gra dually aufbgment                     with
tohe agmentation of  viviftyinghseat."  The
satce idea lie  thus expresse                         s more  beautiftilly: " The carpet of flowers and of verdiure spread over the nalked court of our
planiet is unequally woven; it is tlicker
where thje sun rises highin tlhe now cloud —
less heavens, and thinner toward the poles,
in the less happy climes where returning,
frosts often destroy tl)e opening,, buds of
spring,, or the ri)ening fruits of autumn;"
and more forcibly in these terms, " It is
unidler thic burning, rays (f a tropical sun
tlat veg,etation displays its mtiost majestic
ft)rms." t   That the constituents of  the
atm3osphlere, as such, have no share in  ttis
fertility, is evident frozn the faLct of its
c(,nstait movement causing an equal distribiiti(,n of the gase(ous food necessary for
tlhe/:rowtlh of plants everywlhere, so that
tle tropics do not contain mtiore of it than
tihe cold zonies. We of these northern
latitudes miiay therefore feelin,gly exclaim
w itlh I.iebig-: "Yet hlow different appears
to be the power of production of equal surfaces of land in these re,ions!"
* Liebig's Chemistry in its applieation to Ayriculture, p. 116-18, 3d edition.
I Humboldt's A.spects of ~~ature, vol. ii. p. 8-29.
VOL. II.
465
11 5116. W- bav no soils iii, this country
that will bear,exliaiistin(-, crops coiititi,uallv
without -nianure, because our climate is uti
2 a 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
passing thlrough the soil unchanged; but
quicklime, when dissolved in water, is removed by the clay; and carbonate of liie
in solution is so effectually removed, that
hard water may be softened by the process.
h we must rese of ammnouia,
relation to the
base contained
1l alike whlen
This property
onbfite  sT,"  sarrs
;ions in miiantnrade to suit thle
ias been sl)own
e in rep>a.iring
%velly soils  not,
lay will be exive of Inaniirie.
f this descrip)manure.' On
; applied  more
quantities than
g to the reteiihe manure for
ely deposited."
in made to the
~es a power of
e process. It
i a fresh state
What otherurine of sheep
dich the success
) is justly attliie soil to arrest
with organic efobservation."*
5117. It is not to be supposed that the
separation of the salts in solution could
go  on indefinitely by filtration. O    n the
contrary,                                    the  limit was soon reacheed;  and
t h o u g h                small in           quantity per cent, the
power                     of retention in reference t o  th e  bulk
of                      the soil was great. It  wwas f ound  that
p     u     r     e clay would absorb, pe   r iea ps two- tentlhs
p      er cent of its weight of atllnoniai-that is,
1000                     grains  of  soil  would   separate    two
g r a i n s    of ammiiionia, and   wel l    cultivated
clay                     soil would absorb twic e a s m uch. If
s     uch                soil is cultivated to til e dept h  of 10
inches, an acre would be cap        able of retai.iing                     two tons of ammonia, a  quantity that
w    o    u    l    d    require 12 tons of guano to firnish.
N     o     w, one-sixteenthl of this power would
suffice for the preservation of the    ammon      ia of a            large dose of guano, and  was therefore                    a power of grea t activity.  Th e  extent
of the power of different soils, and        for
different   of the             alkalis, was ascertained;
and the power wasdecidedlya          chemical one.
5118. In desiring to ascertain the effect
of those principles on ordinary manuring,
it is obvious that if there is a provision in
the soil for the retention of the salts of manure, and for thle ammonia and othler products of the decomposition of aninial and
vegetable matter, the soil is the proper
place for those decompositions to go on;
and, no matter how  remote  the period
when the crop should be taken, it would
be perfectly safe to get the manure            in to
the land as soon as practicable after its
prodluction.  Again, the equable distribution was a point also which seenle(l of coinsiderable importance; for, if it was an absolute necessity that a new class of compounds was found in the soil immediately
the manure reached it, it would seem to follow that those compounds furnished the elements of nutrition toplants-consequently,
we should seek to produce them by every
means in our power.  Liquid manuring,
wherever practicable, is an effectual way
.f securing this distribution.  In the case
of special manures, such as chemical salts,
much simplicity  is  introduced  by  the
* Journal of the Agricultural Soci
5,5
3       1
lb.
1,~9
36.,,
523
232
1313
2403
1Z09
I!
466
5119. Another source of fertility to
soils is the quantity of residue left in the
soil after the removal of a crop, such as
the stubble and roots of the grain, the
leaves of the green crops, and the  herbage
and roots of grasses. Experiments over a
rotation of four years were instituted  by
M". Boussingault, to ascertain the quantity
of organic matter left by the residue of
the crops taken, and, the results were:
I. 4
lb..
112
1i67
178
30
387
~2995
2608
lb..
14
4
2
46
186
140 
JItU,tU; 41[U,T)IIIW!JLb    11 il   niJI quantity
t     h      a     n       one half of the manure originally put
into the ground.
ever consiaeraole In quantity, could do no
more than lessen the amount of exhlaustion
produced; in which case its usefild iiflleuce, however real, would pass unnotice(ld,
were it estimated by  the produce of the
succ eed ing  crop.   If, on the contrary, a
crop hlas been  but  slightly  scourging,
whether in consequence of the smiallness
of its quantity, or because it mllay lhave derived from the air the  inai(r part of its
constituent elenmenits, the useful influence
of the residue will not fail to be conspicuous."
- 5122. It is easy to perceive, from the
preceding data, that, what with the organic matters and thie ashes, the  land is
mnore than supplied with all the mineral
substances required by the several crops,
it produces in the course of a rotation, even
of lengthened duration.
5123. The  large quantity of organic
matter restored to the soil, by several of
the cro)ps in the series, explains how the
rotation may be closed without  its being
found indispensable to supply aiiy additional manure in its course.  It seemnis indubittable that, withl(ut this addition of
elementary matter, the fertility of the soil
would decline much  more rapidly than it
does; the residue of eaclh  crop is nIothlling
more than a portion of the crop itself restored to the ground: it is as if we only
carried off one portion, the larger portion
of the crop, and returned another portion
green.  We " learn that the visible appreciable influence of the residuary matters of
preceding, crops upon  the luxuriance of
succeeding onies does not result solely from
their mass,, even  supposing each to be
pomresseai of equal  qualities;- bu6t they
have a favourable influence out of all proportion  withl its quantity;,agn(l, this depends especially on an influence exerted
on the soil by the crops whlichi leave them.
5125. The  o nl y wlole, therefore, its our
power to render the soil fertile, after it lulls
first been dIrained and wrought, is to ginve
it good manure more in abundance of every
kind o)f ingredients tiJan are removed  from
it by the several crops would amt)ounit to;
for, unless  the imaurue is in excess,  the
soil will Ibec.(rtie sterile under tilersee
cropping whlichi thJe cereal trains usually
inflict on  the  arabtle  land.   Witlh grass
lands in pasture, the effect is diflerent, for
constant pasturage  increases the fertility
* Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 458 489, and 501-Law's translation.
5124. "The excess of mineral matters
introduced into the ground over those that
arise with the crops-an excess thatought
always to be secured by judicious manag,emenit-eurichles tile stoil in saline and alkaline principles which accumulate ill the
lapse of years, just as ve,getable remains
and azotiset  o:rganic principles  accumilate under a good system of rotation." * 
* PR.-ICTICE-AUTUMIN.
W!liich  at tlie same  time contains tle.eartlhy
and alka~lite saltsa,-alllimoniiaeal salts, anit  ml   niatter  in  a  state  of: putrefaction,
hulmus already foriiie(-.l, and  veget.atble re-main3 in a state of transformation.
of the soil.   In  tlhis process,. tlhe grass
plan ts tlhemselves  niust have solnie effect
lip(ont the soil,, for it is evident  that tlie
ground cannot receive so ii tucli matter back
into it, in the forni of dun,g and urine voidedi
by the aniiiials skilkported on the grass, as
lhad b)een taken from it in the form of grass,
sinlce the animiials fittenled on  tlhe  rass
must carry off a considerable  proportion
of its products.
,   5129. "In  valuing a manure, it is necessary to take into consideration not onily
thlle quantity  of n.itrogen  furnished   by
analysis, but also the state in whicli that
nitrogren exists ik  the  nianure; also tlhe
state of the anmmloniacal salt, or of the puitresc(,ible antia.l matter, and  thlle state of
thte soluble aitmoniacal salt, or-of the ammoiniiacal miagnesian phosphate.
5126. Whlateyer functions  tlhe lhumus
may )erformi in the soil in regard to vegetatioil-and great.diversity of.opini.oln ex.
ists on thle sub.ject amnongst cliemists —practically, thlere is no doubt of thle fact thlat,
the nearer tlhe soil of tlhe field apprIaclies
in clharacter to garden   tuld, t he  best
of whichl  conutaias a large proportiern of
Ihumlius, thle  more fertile it becomes.  M.
E. S(uberain, in his treatise on humuns,
describes thle part whichl  nanure plays in
tlhe inourishlment of planits; and his sentiilQIe ts are these:-" Tlie.woody fibre, which
n~elrgoes (decomposition in contact witl
air and moisture, is converted into,:humus,
annd at tile                   same time e.furni s ies car b(onic
tciti,                                             which is perhaps  absorbe d;by  t he
rioots of plants.'  Thie proportion of car-bton
i  litit-U12s1 SaLnd  annures never exceeds:.56
to 57 per cent.   This is the extreme limit
*wl,ichl  the decomposition of woody fibre
can attain to  in contact  with air  and
moisture.
-  5130. " Tlhe analyses of fermented duing,
wh-Iicia h  h ave  hitherto    been, mg ade are  defective,.ia tliatt imley ona ve  not taken —into calculation ts e loss r esul ting from the action
of can-bonate  of lime oon  th e  satts with an
aiiniioniacal base, during thie drying, of
tile man ure. Th e re sult  is, that  tlre tables
wwich    thve c bpiteen published, representing
tepreoportion of nit rogen  i n manures, give
-only approximate,results.il   Tle ctilpa'atire value: ofm —i~anuires ca.nnot be estimiated
by,;,inllply.,reckoniing tle quantity of nitro.g   affo:rdle   by analysis;, beatuse, on  the
one hand, the nitrogenous mna~tters are  not
the.only active principles of manures; anl
on..-tlhe other hand, because tlhe  ralue   of
mjanures depends much on tihe state of the
nitrogen contained in tlem —-and,i colnsequienitly, it is impossible, to fram-ne a table
of equiivalents for manures."
5127. " Pure lhumnus contains 21 per cent
of nitrogen, wlhich. appears to. be essential
to  its composition.   ilumus  is scarcely
alt.eie(l- in. contact  withl  air.:. Hunius,
scarcely soluble of itself in water, acquires
solubility by its comlibinatio)ni *with  litele;
but the principal. ag,ent of its. solution- is
the caironiate of amnmionia, whicli reacts
equally on free lhumuiiis,.and on lhutmutis comii1binedl withl calcareous matters.. Iumnils
rendered soluble is absorbed  by tlhe r(ots
of plants;.it serves in a, direct miannier, for
tle nourisiment of the plant.: Humiius has
.u~lso a. favourab.le. action on.v-egetationl,by
attracting and retaining tlle lmloistutre of
the air. and ammlonia, by fa(,ilitating  tlh.e
s(lution  of. the   eartlhy phosphlates. by
amielior.-Lting the. pihysical qualities of the
soil, and by moderating and regulating the
Jeconmposition of dlecaying aninmal, matters.
51-31.:Ve -left. the young pigs at their
btweaning state  in (2861,)  and  m ientioined. the  iprolable  nunilber that  iiiiglit  be
di s)ose(l of every year  from   two brood
asfw  afar:sulpp)lying tlie far li-use withi
pork;. and hani,. (2866.)  At whatever  age
tlhe..pigs are disposed of, (2865,) and wha.tever-nunmber of brood sows are kept, (.2867,)
thle yoiung pigs wheli weaned are. putt into
thle couIrt, Plate II., and supportedl until
tfie. milk of the. so; I.as.dried, up, and als
.sufficienit food is. ready  for thliem  in the
grass fields.
.. 5.132. Newly weaned pigs ought to receive nourishing diet; and if weaned early
1.in the..eason, tli.arger proportion of it
468
. IGS.
5128. "Manure par,,excellencel.,is tb,at,: 
thleni away.   From 5 to 7 stones are the
favourite weights for polrkers, and pigs are
worth most money at thlat period jnil proportion to their weight.   Sonie, however,
nmay prefer  o drive tlhem to  itarklet to
dispose of them; and in thlat case they
teilst be driven to it, or to the nearest railway station.  Whlethler or not yoil ever
senll( pigs to market, you shouldt( be iaile
acquainted withl  the niode of niaraging
themn  upon  the road.  It  is a comiiiiion
opjinion  in thle country, that pigs will
neithler lead nor drive-ailand the oplinion is,
no doubt,  founded on  observation; but
they may-be managed by an appeal to the
appetite.  If the drover walk before his
drove, having a small bag( of beans under
one armt, and drop a bea.n now and tliJer
uipon the r-oad, hlis eager cliarge will foll(,w
ln hin in searchl- of the desired iiiorsel.  An
old steady dog followitg thle drove will
easily )revent any straggling into fields;
but a yIungtl  one, from  his eagerness for
work, will annoy the piigs much i)ore than
assist thle drover.  In summnier, pigs, wh en
fdl iven, shlould(l get leave to drink at any
brook or ditlch on thleir way,  or 1iltuek
grass on the way-side.  In tlie niarket-field, pigs are retaine(l in their stances )by
ldroppitng beants now  aiid tilen aroni(l a,
circle circumiscribirng, the drove, whlen they
will place their heads outwards to 1)ick lip
the   beans, aind are easily kept back by a
tap on the nose with a switclh.  I lave
seen large lots of pigs mianaged inii this
5way at tle g,reat fairs of Newcastle-uli(I)lTyne.  It is said by seamen thlat the  est
mode of slhipping live pigs is to attlenpt tc
I)Iaced at opposite  sides of t.liel,c'otirt, each
lierd will keep by themselves vided
both get plenty of food, which the ou,,Iit
Y Lto receive as Ion,, as tire remain iii the
n
court. For fear, or in case of' ii,-tri-elliDg,
the yotlnf,-,er litter itiav be,l)laeed in-otie of
the brood'ones b'                    11.1, as it is nt)t
likely:tliat both will be occtil-)ied at the
saine time ky the brood sows. Fa.iling
tliese- the youii,,er 1-itter ni-,ty by..pitt into
tle feeiiiii,,, sties- d',, and should all tiiese
be also occupied, which is'Iriiprobable'
they can be put into an eni Ipty, liainniel
M or N, or even'into the O'Ut-liouse
5133. Whenever green food becomes
abundant oii the fartn iii the beginning cof
June, the elder of tile yotin,, pigs Should
t,
have a rin(, I)itt into their ii(i,,:es, (2869,) to
prevent them di' (,in,, iii ttie grounds and
g-   n      -
turned out durin(-, the day in a (-,rass field
-giviril, them soriie food liefol-e Itire go,
and afte-r tliey- return liome iii the afteriioon. On being (]riven a few times to a
grass field, an-d lierded for a few d,-tys at
y (I I IV
first, qrid iiot'annoyed b' d"o,,sl) t,])ey'II
willingly go'to it in the morning aii(i tiainain all day grazinc, but will desire to
return lioine early in the afternoon, as I)igs
love to. retire early to their litter, even in
the longest an(I Hottest dttys- 6-f suninier.
Notwitlistatiding their early r6tirettient to
bed, pi(,,s are not astir so earl' iii the
iiioi-ilitig as poultry.
5134. It is tlie'practice'in sonle places,
to coii(ine the yontia   )igs constanti I in
n I y
courts durinc,, all the suiiinier,. andisuppl  
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
prevent tihemin getting upon the gangway,
when they evince a determination to run
along it, and in doing so gain the deck.
live pigs in Great Britain in 1836, at 18,270,000,
and the value of one-third of them at ~2 each,
and of the other two-thirds at I0s. each, made
the sum of ~18,270,000.*   Of this number  a
large proportion belongs to Ireland; and as large
herds were no doubt sacrificed there in the year
of dearth, 1847, it is questionable that the number
has yet been regained, with the uncertainty
attending the culture of the potato.
51306. To judg(e of pigs, we have only to
put Inany of the rules fior judging of oxen
into practice.   On  looking, at the pig,
fig. 438, we are convinced of the nearness
Fig. 438.
5138. The number of pigs presented for sale
at Smithfield in London, in 1848 and 1849, in
each month of the year, was as follows:
b
a ~     ~~~~                                Apil.s.v  288              14
viEW OF THE SIDE oF A                                         FAT PiG.
which the fi)rm of a well-made fat pig
approachlies that of a fat ox.   The rectangular wooden frame a 6 c d placed against
the body of a fat pig is nearly filled up       in
the same manner as is the frame by that
of the ox in fig. 296, the only points of
dlifference being in the hind quarter, where
tiie pig usually droops ratther siddenly to
thie tail, as from e to the tail, as also the
lamns fall in more suddenly to the houlgh,
as from the tail to f, than in the ox.  On
looking at the pig both from before and beliind, the carcase appears of a rounder form
than the ox, the square  frame on being,
applied hlaving spaces at the angles more
so than in figs. 297 and 298.  On looking
tlown on thile back of a pig, as fig. 299
does on that of the ox, it will be observed
that  the body carries its breadth fully
from  the shoulders to thile hlaunch.   The
hand is of little use in judging of a pig,
as thile skin, being, generally thick, and always tighlt, does not easily yield to the
touch; although in a good pig the skin and
fat yield on the pressure of the fingers, anal
regain their position by elasticity inimed(iately on tile removal of thle hand. Tl)e body
should be well covered with lon(g lairs lying
c l o s e                 to the slkin. The  s hll ouldler, h o,ks,
back, behind the sloulders, andl the flanks,
are points which are well filled up in a
good pi-g.
1849.
1185
1247
1820
1840
2193
2322
2040
2200
2310
2085
2116
2139
23,497
1848.
.    2435
.    1935
.  2225
.   2818
~ 2581
~ 2641
~ 2350
~ 2443
~ 3153
~ 3140
~ 2326
~ 1649
29,596
.  30,125
The  falling off in the  numbe rs b etween 1847 and
1849 will be observed to be 6628, no doubt
owing to the circumstance I have alluded to
above.
5139. The num ber of   foreign live  pigs  imported into London, duty free, ill 1848 and 1849,
in each month of the year, was as follows:
January,.
Feb uary,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
August,.
September,
October,.
November,
December,
1848.
I...
~...
.20
55
116
8
199
448t
It will be observed that the trade in foreign live
pigs into London is very trifling, though  an increasing one.
5140. The number of live foreign pigs imported, duty free, into all the ports of the kingdom in 1847, 1848, and 1849, was as follows: —
1847,....    12 42
1i848...                 2119
1849,....            26.53  +
Even for the whole kingdom the trade is a trivial one, but it indicates an annual increase.
5137. Mr M'Queen estimated the number of
* M'Qtieen's Statistics of the British Etpire, p 23.
+ Bell's Weekly Messe'enger, January 1849 and 1850.
++ Parliamsentary Retarn, February 1849 and 1850.
470
January,.
February,
March,
April,
May,
J une,
July,
August,.
September,
October,
November,
December,
1849.
1
4
o..
19
9
2
104
302
290
243
409
128
1511
1847, 
MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
ficial, according to Mr  Youatt's opinion.  He
says that measles "sadly injures the quality of
the meat, rendering it insipid, flabby, pale, and
indisposed to take the salt. We should say that
the flesh of measly pigs is positively unwholesome, although perhaps there are no cases on
record in which it is proved  that  bad effects
have resulted from the use of it." *
5141. Indigestion. —Should indigestion appear
in the y    oun g  pigs when coto fiised in the court,
fromn  the  cause indicated ill (5132),                        a fter salt
had been used, the following drench should be
given to each pig:-carbonate of magniesia, 1 oz.,
tincture of rhulbrb, 2 drains, tincture of opium,
i dram, warm water, 12 oz.  This is sufficient for
8 doses, which ought to be administered to all
empty stomach.
5146. Dr Taylor remarks "that the flesh of
aninmals over driven, as well as newly killed mneat
in general, is liable to produce violent gastric
irritation, and even cholera."t
5142. Every one has observed that the tails
of young pigs are always curled, but very few
know that the curl is always to the right, and
very rarely to the left side.
5143. "The skin varies in density in different
breeds of swiiie," observes Mr  Youatt.   "In
some of the large old breeds it is thick, coarse,
tongh, and almost as impenetrable, in comparisonI, as the hide of the rhinoceros; while in miany
of our smaller breeds, and particularly in those
which have a considerable admixture of Asiatic
blood, and in the Chinese pigs themselves, it is
soft, fine, and delicate, and bears no slight resemblance to the skin of the human being. It
is not to be wondered at that tile structure so
delicately organised as the one we have been
describing, should be subject to disease.  In the
hog it is peculiarly so; many of the most serious
maladies to which he is subject have their seat
in the skin."
5147. We  left all the young  broods
of the domesticated fowls after they were
hatched, from (2880) to (2932,) to be
cared for in the progress of their growth
in summer.  I have still a  few observations to make on their managemient after
the hatching season, and on the treatment
of eggs.
5148. Hens.-The practice is that  the
liatchlingofthecommonfowl shall notextend
beyond the end of August or beginning of
Septemiber, and should not be carried beyond
that period, unless mnore than ordinary care
be bestowed on the rearing of the broods.
The chickens then hatched will be in excellenit condition fo)r Chlristmias and New Year,
and be valuable in a pecuniary point of
view, shouild the farmner chioose to avail
himself of such a market.   Btit for the
farmer's own use, and tile presentation of
a delicacy at hIis own table, beyond  the
power of miost to have. thle hlatchiIig, may li)e
continued  until the  coldest  weathler of
winter arrives.  T'liis  I lhave  already
alluded to in (1617.)  The inatural hatching of fowls prioceed(.s  nost successfully in
spring and early autumn, tlier-e being a
cessation in tile war  Ilmonthls of June and
July.  It would be well to attend to this
i hint from nature, thouglh of course it is
quite possible to contitnue the hlatching in
the warniest imontitis, by preparing cool
retreats for the broods.
5144. MIange.-" This cutaneous affection,"
observes Mr Youatt, " which was formerly attributed to want of cleanliness, or to some peculiar
state of the blood, is now generally admitted to
arise from the presence of certain minute insects, termed Acari. It is identical with the
scab in sheep (1071,) and the itch in the tluman
being."   The  hog does  not appear to suffer
much from the mange; the pustules are usually
chiefly developed under the armn-pits, and on the
interior of the thighs, and from being siitiply red
spot      s at f irst, rub  into large  blotchiy sores.
Where the miianlge is recent, a tolerably strong
decoction of tobacco or digitalis will often prove
an efficacious  wash for the diseased parts, or a
solution of corrosive sublimate; but if the eruption is of long standing, al ointment of sulphur
and mercurial oiutmtent, ill the proportion of
I oz. of sulphur to I drachm of mercurial ointimietnt, carefully and thoroughly rubbed into the
skill, must be resorted to."
5145. Measles.-This is rather a subcutanieous than an actual disease of the skill, coiisisting in a multitude of small watery pustules,
developed between the fat and the skill.  Its
appearance is of reddish patches somewhat
raised ablove the skill, on the groin, the armpits, and the inside of the thighs first, and subsequevtly oai all parts     of the b ody,   and is seldom
fatal. Flour of brimstone put into apples out
of which the cores have been scooped, given to
pigs every day to the number of five or six, after
having fasted for three days, and continued for
five or six days, is very likely to become bene
5149.  Notwithl)standing,  all  the care
bestowed on fowls, thie lhe will   iiiake her
own nest andl bring  out broodls in the corn
fiells, at the root of lIe(lges and under thle
cover of shrubs.  After being  nissed for
* Youatt On thle Pig, p. 98, 102-3.
471
ON THF. I.K.ANAGFMFNT OF FOWLS.
0
I t Taylor On Poisons, p. 555. 
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
a time, the hen will return to the lboiitestead with a fine healthy br)ood, all alike
in size and colour, to establisli her rilght
for subsistence both for herself and nunierous progeny; and joyous is the welcome
she receives on hler return home with her
treasure.  When such a brood is broughIt
fortlh, as long as there is plenty of food for
theil in the fields, the hen will rear them
there- in preference  to  bringing  tlhemn
home,  an(l when  they  do  return, the
chickens will be strong and well fledged.
But when the hatchlin, has been late, and
the food is comparatively scarce, the return of the brood will be early, and the
demands  for  attention  to their  wants
the more clamoroils,
mon  practice  is to  wleltin a: lar,e tub
otser iWore than one  lien, withl  its  mouite
raise-d at one side a little fro!ii tlie o'ro(lnd,
wlichl allows  as  muhell lig,hit to' enter tihe
tub as to let the liens see to fig-ht withleach
otier, wlhen their scallps are o)Iten b)ared to
tlhe b)one, and-one of thieim  probably pveck-ed
and traiil)leil to deathl.   Soile writers recomyimiend thle liens to be indulg,edi in their
desire for hatchingi, buit as  1nlost layiiig
bens hIave a desire to sit whien thie  ovari um
for the time has been eniptied  of its conternts, the  iinumiber  of  broods  %wokild  be
increased beyond tlJe powers of thie liousehold to superinitend withl th)e requisite care,
were this desire generally,ratified.
5152. A  hen will  lay eggts whenl she is
tending her brood, and  if slie has chosen
a nest for liersef, slhe will leave the brood
when-tlhe desire for sittingtr overt,alkes lier.
Buit if hler roost bIe known, and  the eggs
regularly remove(ld, the desire for sitting
vwill still come upon hler, at thle ai)p()inte(l
time; and thlen shle must be treated as just
directed, to remove the desire.
5150. All fowls tha~t venture to hatch
their broods  in the fields are liable to
be destroyed  by vermin, and  many  an
anxious motlher-lhen, after feeding, her
brood for some time, has been destroyed
with all her young ones, by the ruthless
fox.  But as far as concerns myself, so
highl  do  I value liberty to fowls, on
the score of health, and strength of body,
and flavour                  of flesh, that the occasional l oss
of a                       lien and  her brood would n ot i nduce
me                       to deprive fowls of their liberty.
5153. Alutunmn is tlhe season for selecting the lhens for la,yinlg  e(,:(s in winter'
and tlhey ouglht to be youYng, I)ut -of  dlifferent ages, that a succession iii the layin g
may be  mnaintained(l.   Hens  readilv ta.ke
to thle nests made for thleni at tthis season,
evincitng 1no desire to  betake  themselves
to the fields.
5151. Many   cruiel  experiments  are
exercised by, country people to prevent
hens cluclking, when they do n()t wish them
to sit on and hatch eggs, such as dipping
themn in water for a few seconds, pulling
featlhers froin a particular part of tlleir
body, and such like barbarities-all alike
ineffectual; at least, I never hleard of a
single instance of their success.  The only
effectual plan  I  know, without  giving
bodily pain to the animnal, is to place thlem
in darkness,  and there deprive tlen,  i        of f oo d
and wat er  for two da vs and                               tweo nig,ts,
and, in obstinate cases, for the third day.
The simplest means of accomnplislhilng tills
is to procure a nunbher of light-omadie tubs,
each just large enough to hold one lIen
within it when standing on her feet, with
its top and sides pierced with holes to let
in air, but to exclude brig,lt li),-lt, which is
done by giving the holes such an inclination
as to prevent them being directly seen
tlhrouglh. Such a tib, placed mounitti downward over a single lien, in a quiet out- house,
not in the lien-house, for thle titne specified,
will remove the desire to sit. A not undom
f5154.  Autunin is the season of mioultin,g for ft)wls.  The  only care thley relquire,
in thlis peri(,(ice visitatioln, is to keep tlhein
wariii at nigh lit.   Tihe nig,hlits of Se)tembler
become. clhilly.
5155 Eggs. - Ilensbegintolayaboiittlie
beginning of Mareli, and( colitinue to the
I)beegiinning (of October.   Tliev (lo not layv
every day, that is, every  24 lioilrs, SolIe
layillg every othier day, an(d sohe miissing
one  day in thlree.   TlIey  lay  about two
10dozen of e,,,s.at one  periodl, tl,en cease
for two  or tihree weeks, nai agaili  lay
otthler tuwo  dow-en, a nti  so on for tlie ni(tdmber of monithis  mentioned.  Of tll tliese
mionths, they  lay  most  conistantly.n
Marchli anid(] Aperil.  After eaierl  1.eliod of
latyinig they are inclinied to sit.
472
1 5156. Oiie of -tlie - (rally dutiei of the 
~a'JtstJ    ~)  vAI~JU~Itl  ~,tJl tlW    ~VlLItJL,tel  (L   Ofi1'.It,
under shelter, is not unfiequently selected
by themselves for tlle purpos            e. Rut  t hey
p r e f e r    to lay elevated above thl   e       ground,
s     u      chl as in the mlangers of stables, in  a
t r o u ghl of a                shed-or lnhanl el, in  t he strawb     a      r      n on                          thlje top of a  iiiow of straw, in a
s    t     ack              of straw in  the stack- yar(l,  on     a
compost dung —ill, or u)on the t                   op (,f t he
w     a      l      l of a     stable, byre, or otlouthouse, un(ler
the                        roof. leWhen nests are mal e  in s lich
p l a c e s as llens would theroselves p      refer,
the                 y are much more likely t o b e  frequented
by the'm thlan wlwhen a                            detei-rmiination
is taken to make nests for- tlethem.. One
reason,                     perhlaps,    for their )preferenc e t o
the                         manger of tle work-hoi se sta ble is,
t         hl   a t, in picking uip the grains o f  c(orn, left
t         he    r     e by tlthe horses whlile t   he l atter  ire at
work in                                          he the firelre lff or taeher graorde tle
nost c(-nvenient place'whseen the pressure
for laying overtakes tlhemi.
observeks, "belongs  an  individu         al t)eciili.rity in  tle foriit, colocuir, and size of t!re
e5s slhe layin    wlwlic  neveri  vateges (rlu ritig
ther wlole lifetime,e so long (   as  slie  reniaitws
in healty,  and  wleic is       as i ell kiwlerc
to  those wo aret  r   in  tle  habit  ()f taeigg,
ler produce as  tlhe  lhan(lwriting  (f their
:nearest   acsainta  nce.        Sonle hietis lIty
snioothi cream-coloure(d e....s ()tlier-s r(oii(lh
clhllky,  granliilulated ones.   Tlhere  is  tlhe
buff, tae sanow-wslite, the          pltherical, tlehe
oval, the  petr-slil-ape  l, as   d the eto plati-cally  egg, -sllped  egg,.  A    f,irlniier's wife
wlho interests  l!erself in  the   m'.ttter, wvill
tell you  witi) precision in l(),king over
hler stores,' tli,as  l     -,aiid Iy  suche  a
hieni'-a  favourite perhlapisl)-' tlhis by suchl
anotlher;' aind it wou()tild I)e p()ssilble t!hat sJ.e
counI  fro oin so tlhro(i,,diout the wlhole tl()ck
of poultry.   Of course,  the  greater  tlhe
numiiber kcept, thie grea,ter  b)ec()ies the difliciilty in learnirlg t lie!nrecise mar.Ik s  o of eacihi.
Fr-oiii at basket of tlirty eggs, gathleredl il
a ftrityad-l astlhey camie t,)lIrn(l,  eleven,
laid ly  otne ()r two,ens           h,osee ra,e we
were  (lesir-)ms to  continue,  wereselected
in a,I)()Ilt  t.'o lninutes!)V thle f'ienid   wl.0o
supplp)l ie(d Us witlh tlienll. If f(,,ur (lozen eg,gs
lai(d  I)y  i(o mI-ore tlhai t)u1   (liftereiet hienis,
w%vere p:)ult t,t ),Itl(])III On a t.lile, tlhe cliaices
arc tliat it w,,hl  I)e as easy to  s,ort tlerm
as the four suits ini a oack  of c,rds." *
5158. The lien-wife sloul( visit every
niest, anid co'lect the egg,s every (lay; and
thle time for-collecting thie largest number
of e,ggs, andi disturbingo the poultry t!he
least, is in the afterni)on l)etween 2 andi 3
o'cl)ck, before tle birds beg(in to retire to
roost.  A nest-egg slhouild b)e left in eve(ry
nest, as it is an establisle(d facet-tl.it i)etIs
prefer to) lay in nests containing  eggs to
those whichl are empty-not becaulse lIens                           iis
will sit the earlier or closer for that. Eggs
are most conveniently collected in snimall
lan(d-baskets, and  a short lilght laddler
Dixon Oni Ornamizental and Domestic Poutry, p. 152.
5161. Wletlie       r eg gs are  used t  l,ome
or -disposed (of to tle e,g-merch ant they 
niaterial is niore agreeable  than a  wet
one. In tr-utlh, ainy substance that will prevent thle air entering the pores of tlle shell,
together  withl any  means that will prevent thle yolkl adhlering to thle shell, will
preserve  lthem in a sweet staLte for a colisider-able time.
z~v   v   b i~t~~ct  *811egrg~s  tiiey
are  s(ll to  thle  (lealers  every  week,
will(o gabout the country with panniers
(,r boxes, andc  )urchl)ae, racks, and take,
tlhem to tlhe exporters in the nearest seaport town.  The price  thus received in
sutinier is very low, not exceeding, perliaps  4d. per  d(ozen-a price  unreniiunerativre for  thile troulile  bestowed  on  the
fowls.  At the most abundant seasoni, eggs
are never below  7d. i)er l(lzeli in Edinb)urghl; and in winter, it Cliristiias, whien
the confectioners use large nutlilbers, ttiey
are as hlighi asfroni 14d. to i8d. per doz        en.
5164.  T'urkeys.-Altlioughi the turkey
lhen is a watchful mnotlher, thie brood will
require  daily tendinig fromn cold blasts  andi
heavy  slhowers, until  tlley  are   robust
enoutli,, to  witlstandl  the  weather, wljich
may be in fiv,e or six weeks.    WlIen thle
disposition to lay overtakes her, thlje lien
slips away  fromll  hler poilts and  forms a
rude nest i    der a I)anl, or aiog weeds;
and altlhouighl  tlhe e,rg be remiiovedI every
timiie slhe lays  it, s,le will continue to lay
in the samne nest until tlhe con-itenits of lier
ov,ar'iulmii are exliauistedl, (2906,) not 2ee(ling wlhetlher or not a nest egg is left in lher
nest.  Tur-key egYgs are juistly regarde(d as
a delicacy.
5162. Whleni e,(,,s are desiir e(l to be sent
to  a  distance  for  thje  purpose  of being r
l.tclled(l, tliey 1shoul(1  not be  simearedl, and
s11ilo111  be packed c(;n ecld in liall(-wo(dsaw —
Ilust-not in fir savw-(lust, lecalse of its
smiiell of turpentine —or ill bin', in sniall
lboxes or caskls,sell s  as oystier bar)rels,wiicli        h
sl,,)1l(l be as little agitated as I)ossible.
5163.  To  render eggs  a renmunerative
iteil ()f farmn econoiivy, tley slioulil lbe preselvel(I freshl, ulntil ilie scarce  season arrives  wlieii thiey realise a f,tiir price, suchi
uis 8(l. the llI(zen.   It is easy  to preserve
e,,s  in  siuintiier, bv first siliearin,, tlelil,
w-lile still  warili,   itli buitter or  inelted
sluet, nl then  pa-cing tlleili ol  tIle siall
eiid ill lba.rrels iii salt, oats, or mieltedl suet.
S-ilt will iI)mpart a  salt  talste  to  e.s,. if
fi-esli ()lt sl,  insniea-red   withl  biitter, are
p;akekd  ill it;  -llt certainly  niIt if  first
sim eared  vwith butter or suet.  Oats f)rmo  a
good packing, and  ilmay be afterwards used l
.5165. The turkey should not be allowed
to sit to out a secoi)d blood,,is tile
I)ii-ds will be too late to. be of use the same
seas,)ii; an(I in wiiitei- the cold will be al)t
to dwai-f their growth, whatever niay be
tlle care I)estowed on their protection.
.51 66. G(es,,,.-Gosliti(,s -ire easily iriurc(l witi) ll,,Lllstorles -ttid I)eavy raii,.s, until
tliev-,,ii-e five, or six weeks ()],I, an(I ()Ugllt
to I)e l(oke(i -tfter an(-l placetl in sl)eiter
until the storti,i etibsitles. A I.-iter I)j-oo(I
of geest-, iiiav easily be brou(-,Iit up tliroti(,Ii 
MANAGEMENTT OF FOWLS.
and contained, like the vitreous humour of the
eye, in all extremely  thin mnemitbratne, divided
into cells; the yolk, a thick and almost solid
yellow nmatter, enclosed in a peculiar memnbrane;
this mieiubranie, by two ligamenits, called chalaqr-,
is tie(l to the membrane of the albumen, antd tlitus
the yolk is kept in the centre of the egg."
the winter, and will become fine large
birds by  thle Miclhaelnias  of next year.
Thle  goose  egg  is seld(lom   eatern, being
strong tasted.
5167. Ducks.-Ducks are great layers,
droppinig an egg alntost every (lay.  Tlhev
consinenice at the begitinin,, of April, and
cease in July.   They are very careless
layers, leaving, their eggs whlerever they
seek their food; and thlese, on being discovered by thle pigs, are clamped up as
the miiost delicate nmorsels that tfall in their
way.   To secure the egg,s of d(ucks, the
birds  should  be  examined(l befo re l,eing
let out in the ni(:)riiing; anI(I those indzlicating  hard  with  egg  conifined  in the
house till they have laid, an-d afterwards
set at large.   They are easily examined
by  sulspending them in thle left litad by
the witngs, anid suimply applying thle points
of thle fingers of the right hand a little
under thile tail.  Ducks sltotuld be hatched
neither too early nor too late, as they cannot withstand coldt when young.   Many
people  enjoy the fla.vour of a new-laid0
duck egg.  They are used in cookery as
freely as lien eggs.
5171. The constitution  of  these various  parts
is as fi,llows, as appears from  an analysis  ot  I)r
Pl out.'lhe shell or the common fowl consists of —
:Carbonate of lime, with a little of carbonat e of.7
magnesia,.....
Phzosplhate of limiie and magne.sia,..      1.
Animilal mn.atter,.....            2.
100.
5172. The  atembrana, according to  Hatlerett,
consists of coaguilated albumen. 
5173. Thle white or albumnen coagulates into a
firm wlhite solid, wheni heated to 159~ Fahirenileit;
a,iid when evaporated to drynress, leaves about
14 per cenit of albumen.   Dr Bostock has slitshown
that it contains also a little  mucus.   The conlstitutioI of  the white, accordi  ng to him, ise
Water,..          80.
Albumen,..          15.5
Muctws,...          4.5
100.
Dr Prout obtained, by combustion, the following
fixed constituents in I000 grains of the white of
egg, froin three diffelent eggs:Sulphuric acid,..    0.29    0.15    0.18 grainLs.
Plhosplhoric acid,..    0.45           0.46  0.4.
Clhlorinie,...   0.94    0i.93    0.87..
Po,tash.,sodla,.-nd carbonates } 2.92    2.9)3   2.72
of potashi nd soda,."
Lime, imagnesia, alnd thle car')
bonlates of lime atnd ni-  g 0.30   0.25   0.32..
nesia,...)
.516)8. Pigeons.- Thle dove-cot  slhould
be exam-ined as frequently, all summer
and autusmn, as probability implies that
young pigeons are to be obtaitned.  Youngi,
pigeons grow% so rapidly in warm weather
that, unless  the  time  is  considerately
marked when any particular pair will be
ready to be taken, they may  have  become sufficiently fledged and taken flight.
M.  Mtilder has proved  that  the  suilphur and
l, hostyhorus are iin the state of suilphur anid l)iosplioruis, atid not ini thtat of ac,id; anid tliis waas to
hl ave   been   expected,  fromin  thle  well known
alkaline reaction of the wuite of anegg.
.I 69. The ipigeonis should be regularly
fed withl thle poultry, aind, over and above
tl)ey will go to the fields in search fior a
variety of food, such as all the species of
grains, turinip seeds, and seed wheat, and
upon the stubbles ill autumnn.
5174. Dr Proutit's analysis of the yolk of an egg
which  was  lIard  boiled  in  distilled  water,
and weighed 316.5 grains, gave thtese results.
WVater,..   170.2 gatins, or 53.78 per cent.
Albumen,..     55.3..   17.47..
Yellow oil,.     91.0..    28.7.
316.5       100.10
Accordit)g to Planche, 1000 parts of yolk  of egg
f uriishli, at an averag,e, 1130 parts of o)il.  T-ils oil
consists of stearin O10, anid of elaiu  90 parts; the
stearin is white and solid, atid does  hot stain
paper like oil.  He  found  this  stearil) atid the
tfat of fowls to agree very  nearly.  The  elaii
possesses the character of a fixed oil.  Chlevieil
foiuntd two colouring matters ini the yolk, tlte one
redl  and  the other  yellow.  Lecanu, besides the
stearin  aid elain, extracted  froin the yolk a
crystalline itiatter. which melted at 293~  Fiahlirein
5170. "The eggs of all birds," says Dr Thomson,
"so tar as they have been examined,have a strikiig
resemblance to each other. They consist of four
parts,- the shell, which is white in the eggs of
the common fowl and of many other kinds, but
is-ofteni coloured or spotted of various colours,
so as to give it a beautiful appearance; the mernbrhna pata-))inis, a thin transparent pellicle, irnmedliately within the shellI-at the great end of
tile t,gg this membrane is detached from the shell,:
leaving a certain distance between them, which
is filled with air; the white or albumen, a glairy
liquid, consisting of albumen dissolved in water,
475
4.90 4.72 4.57 - 
PRACTICE-AUTUMiN.
heit, and  which ie  considered {s of  the  same
iature  with  cholesterir  from-i  the   brain.   Dr
Prout determiiied the quialitity of fixed constituelits iii 100 grailis of the yolk, by i icineration, in               i
three differeiit eggs, thus: — 
Suiphtiric acid,..    0.21    0.06    019 grains.
Piosil)hioric   acid,..    3.5n  3.50    4.n0 t* 
Chhllxrimle,...    0.39    0.28    0.44..
Potash, soda-, and tihe car-  050    0.27        0.51
bloates if potash a nd sods,t 0*'0
Lime,   mag nesia, and  the.
cairbonates  of  lime and   0.68    0.6l   0.67 
inagnesia,..
5179. The source from whence is derived the
bones of the chick while in the egg, is still an
object of research.  At the full term  of iiiciiba tion important changes in  the c iontitutiIoI of th e
egg  are  completed.   "The  albumen," as  Dr
Thiomsont  observes, " has  disappeared, or is re duced to a few dry  membiianes, together  with
earthy inatter.  The yolk is considerably reduced
in size, aild is taken into the abdomen ofthe cilck,
while  the animial has attained a weight nearly
equal to the original weight  of the albumen,
together with  that lost by the yolk, minus the
loss of weight sustained by the egg during ineubatio')n.'lihe alkaline matters and chlorine have
di,minished in qualitity, while the earthy matters
have considerably- increased...  During
thIe last week of incubation,  the yolk has  lost
most of its phosphorus, which is found in the
animal converted into phosphoric acid, and, combined with lime, constituting its bony skeleton.
This lime does nriot exist ii the recent egg, but is
derived from  some unknown source during the
process of incubation.  Mr Hatchlett made the
curious remark, that, in the ova of those  tribes
of animals the embryos  of which have bones,
there is a portion of oily matter; and in those
ova whose embryos consist entirely of soft parts,
there is none.  In whlt way the oily matter contributes to the formation of bone it is impnossible,
in the present state of our knowledge, to conjec,ture.  Nor can any source of the lime of the
bones be pointed out, except  the  shell  and it
would  be  difficult  to determine whether the
shell loses lime during the process  of incribatioD." *
5176. The specific gravity of   a  new-laild egg
ovaries trom 1.080 to 1.090; an  egg, therefore, is
h eavi er  th an sea-wa,ter, the                    specific gravity of
which is 1.03f0.  When kept,  eg gs                   rapid l y lose
weight, and become.-pecifically lighter than
water, this is owing to  the dimimi-tion of bulk
in the    c ontent    s          of th e egg; the c onsequence of
which ist, that a portion ot               the inside   of the      egg
c omes to be filled with-air.  Dr Pronit kept an
egg two years, and found that it lost weight
daily, at an average rate of 0.744 grains.  The
original weight was 907.5 grains, and atter two
years' exp,),sn:re to the atmosphere, it weighed
only 36:3.2 grain.s.  The total loss amounted  to
544.3 grains, or considerably more than half the
original weight.  The losg in summer was somewhat greater than in winter, owinig, no doubt, to
the difference of temperatuire.  Wlheni al egg is,
therefore, employed.as a test of the. str-enigth of
brine, the newer it is, the stronger is the brinle
that floats it.
5180. M. Raspail, in investigating the  nature
of animal albumen by the microscope, as exemn plified in the white of  an egg, observes, that
" the albumen of  the pnillet's egg is composed of
an  insoluble and  regtilarly-organised texture,
which  contains in its cells a soluble substance
much  more  susceptible of alteration  than the
te xture is. Cllemis ts  hald previously   ackn owledged the existence  of         an albumen soluble in
water, and of another  whic   w was insoluble; but
])ad not remnarkel that thiese two sorts of albuinen existed together il  the white of eggs,  and
they had considered this substance as, variety
of the insoluble albumen....        But the ilsolible substance of  the white of an egg is renidered apparent only by degrees, and accordingly
there is a period when it' can scarcely be distinguished in this  respect from the soluble substalice, antd this is when the egg is fresh-tlhat is,
recently laid.  Iletice, as I have already poitlted
out regarding the vegetable textiures, the textuires are forilled  by the aggregation of tile partices of the soluble substance, or, ill other words,
tlhe soluble substance is converted by solidificatioln into tlhe parietes of cells.  All- these circum -
5177. The relative weights of shell alit membrarle, albiiuieii, and  yolk, are very  different.
Stlipposilig the original weight of thIe egg to be
1000 grains, Dr  Prout foitid the  relative  proportiolis, ill 10 different eggs, to be as follows:-.
Shell ault riremtbrane 106.9, albumenii 604.2, aind
yolk 288.9 grains.
5178. Wheni an ego is boiled in water, it loses
weight, paiticularly if it be removed from  tihe
water when boilitng, allot be permitted to cool in
tIle open air.  The water will be tound to contain a portion of the saLliis-t constituents  of the
egg.  The loss of weight fromn boilinig is not coilstant, varying from  20  to 30  grainrs, sulpp,Si1g
the original weight to hlave been  1000 grains.
The quantity of saline matter          tobt ai ioed by evaporatilg the distilled water in which all egg was
boiled, amounts, at an average, to 0.32  grainis.
* Thlomsol's Chiemistry of Animal Bodies, p. 446-55.
476
It is strongly alkaline, and yields trac-t-s of a.11 the
fixed pritieipiesfotiti(i to exist in tire egg; but
the carbonate of fine Is  inost abundant, and - i,.4
obtained by evaporation in the t'orm of wllite
pow(fer.
5.34 4.72 5.81
3175. Wlien we coinpare the flxed constitueiits of the wliite and yolk, we catitiot avoid
beiiig struck witli the difference. The white
contains a niucb greater quantity of fixed alkalis tl    f any other fixed constituent wliile
in ti.11?I,,Ik- the most abundant constituent is
phosplioric aeid, wliieli amounts to from 3.5 to 4
grains; or, if we suppose it to exist as l)hosphorti.,-, it varies in diffvreiit yolks from 1.55 to
1.77 grains. 
MANAGEMENT OF FO,WI,S.
stances establish a complete analogy between o
gluten in vegetables and albumen in animals." *. 
operation. Since the.l  I h, ae seen a small  prac~
tica.l treatise on thie -art wi   h deserves  attenitioii, iiiasintuch -as by  the u~ of proper in.tru1 O e u e at metts, ad  appropriaite appliances fbr Secriiiig.
the aniimial while under the operation, the opera.
tfor.ay g ltherough thle pirocess of capotiitgr  byt
himself    with certaiioty, and wsitlr comparativelyi
little  pain to the au.niml.   The    c hicken is  plaoed
with its left side.dowuwards, anjd secured-iin that
positiOn by. a strap  confining  the  wing.s, and(I a
lever holding down the legs a little asubnder. An
incision ij $theui made in  tlhe side  of tlhe clhicken
with a peculiar torm of knife; and leil(l open.
by a pai.r of blunt hooks to allow the testes to
be seetn.'These are-tlhei remnoved froii their seat,.
one after the other, by nmean's of a sco wh1p Which
divides the membrane that covers them, aind it is
provided with a nioose of horse hair, whose action,
operating as a saw, cuts asunder  the ligatures
which binid themle:to the back-bone. The operation
is represented so certain  thatfifty chickens  may
be cap-eed without. killing Xmore  than one or
two.
5181. Of the nature of egg and of seed, the
origin of animal and of vegetable iiidividuality,
and of the natural analogy between  theiii, M.
Raspail thus expresses himself: "The egg and
the seed are cells detached from  the texture of
the mother, in consequence of ani iiliuelce of an
opposite kind.. This iiifluence may proceed from p
an external body which we call the male, or
from an internal cause which we altogether ne-.
glect to n.otice. The egg and the seed may more
particularly. attract our attention, in consequelnce
of their fortas and dimensions; but the slice of a
polvpus, which becomes an entire animal, and
-the fragiment of a potato, which produces a:
complete plant, are sufficient, to teach,s. that
the generative faculty is preserved by the whole
organlic system, and that the whole  orgaiiised
being is complete in any one of its cells." t
5182.  Putrid egqs." Dr  Marchal  has  reported a case in which four persons were seized
with well-marked symptoms of.poisoniing,.after
eatilng for their supper some eggs which were
decomposed.  One mian appeared to be in. a state
of comtia, from which it was difficult to rouse
him:  his -face was livid, his lips blue, his eyes
open and fixed, limbs flaccid, and  respiration
slow.  His wife, brother, and one of his sonis were
affected, although in a less degree, with similar
symptomts-conomplaining of vertigo, weight and.
pail iii the head, pains in the limbs, and disincliuation to move.   It appears that the eggs
wlhichl had been eaten in aspudding had a dil.sagreeable and slightly putrid  siiell, and the
whole of these persons were taken ill sool after
the meal.   The  symptoms  were not those of
irritation, but -uf narcotism: they all recovered." +                                                     
. w588, Chichdkens intended  for captens  may  be
operated upoa:.-at.any age,  tlhougll betweent
two. and three.months old is considered the iio.t
favoura-ble time.  Old f!wls seldom  survive tlhe;
operation. At five or six nmontlhs old they are
less liable to lrave-the  t-estes burst in- the operation  than- youuger oites,, but. they are more apt
to bleed to death than those  fromn two to  foir
months old,. They very: seldom  die  after  tlhe
operation, unless they have received some internal injury, or the flesh (of the tlhighl has beeni cut
through, I'lhe. wiv.es. aind,.daughters   of tlhe,
potuitry  farmers Siu. Sussex, Essex, aaid   Herts
constantly practice the art of caponin yg.
.l389. Previous, to the perfiyrixiance of the  operation,: the clhickens mnust be ke-,pt entirely witlhotit
food. aold-even water for about thirty-two  hours,
as tlihat time has beenascertained by experiumeit
to be the best  to secure  the greatest  clhaice of
success, by causing the bowels  to be eimpty, adul
lesseiiiiig the teudency to bleeding.
.5184. The value of the poultry, dead or alive,
inipoirted into this conlltry ii 1.49 was L.31,79:5,
and the duty paid oni them was  L.1771.  The
duty froni 13ritish possessioits is L.2, 1 2s. 6d. per
cent ad r(lorei, aud L.5, 5s. fromi foreign countries. II.e  t
5190,. Thie effiec~t upon a.chickenl beingronverted
intot a caponj is, hi aboeit a twelvemionth, nJearly to
treble or qu.tdrtiple th-e sizeof tle bird,. It has been
ascertained that a p'ir of- capons vt thie De,rkinig
breed oecee reached  tlhe. einormitous  weight of  2.5
lbs, a weigl-ht t.fr superior to the majority of tar.
keys.   The  capoin  gei,erilly  brilig.s  double  or
treble. the price  of coiiiinonp.I)ouiltry.
5185. The importation of foreign eggs into
the kingdom was as follows, in iinumber-'
1347...    77,4 5,4f;7
1 843.8...   8.097,277
1849,...    97,90.3,151
5191. Thie writer reimarks thlat, "iii regard to
the feeding of capoins, we wish we could say imuch
ill tfavour of the mietropolitanr, or even of mainy of'
the provincial  feeders.   The  fine  large  fowls
which are seen inl the  poulterer's shops  have
i iudergonie  the  process of castration, antil thei
they are placed iln some dark place, enclosed ii
coops, and erainmed..withl barley or otlher meal,
formed  tinto a paste by means  of' hot.liquor; and
* Raspail's Oryanic GCemnistry, p. 243-4.      + ]bid., p. 75-6.     + Taylor On Poisons, p. 562
~ M'Queen's Statistics of the British E,mpire, p. 25.
11 Parliamentary. Retu rns, 15th Marclh 1850.. - -.;~.Ibid., February 1849 and 1850.
477
5183. Alr M.'Queen estimates the value of the
poult.ry, rabbits, &e. in the kiiigdoin iii 18.36 at
froin X9,000,000 to X]0,000,000.~
.3186. The d-iity payable on -be ini ort
I p                   of
forei-ti e-gs is 10,lgd. on 120 in iiiiniber,,.-iiid,on
those froin tli6 British possessions 2 —',I.Irl
5187. In'(2.')Si') l,meiitione a ir-etliod ofconvertiiig cock chickens into,capons b. le 
4PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
return to their haunts and carry off one
after another, until a  large niniibcr he
abducted.  The season in which hlie is most
active in his predatory excursi(ons is in
the summer, when hlie has his young cuibs
to  support; and  he  does  not confine
his roamnings to the shades of night, but
will almost boldly frequent the steadinlus
in the afternoons when the animals are at
pasture, and the people at work.   Just
before the poultry ao to roost, he frequently
pays a visit to the steading, and snatclhes
up a goose or a turkey, and runs off withl
it to  his earth.   The  abduction  is so
quietly done, that the fowl  may  not be
misse d  until next tsorningr, unless it lhappen to be a particular  bird, such as  the
principal cock, oldest gander, turkey-cock,
or peacock. Contrary to his practice with
lambs, he does not carry off the yoIIng( of
poultry if hlie can conveniently lay 1-hol( of
the otlder bird.  TIhe loss must'be pput tip
with; for, whatever precaution the farmer
may  use in spring foir the protection  of
his new-dropped lambs (2545,) he would
acquire an  unenviable ch a racter a mong st
sportsmen  were h e  to lie in wait  withl  a
gun  for  a fox.   But such watchin g would
at  any rat e  be  useless, fo r the foux is too
c unning to return to th e s ame pIlace for
some timie to try his chance at another
capture; and he takes care to keep off a
rival from a distance; so that the missing
bird is almost certain to have beeni stolen
by a fox from the nearest covert. Foxes
scent hens and turkeys to their nests in
the fields, and carry thiem off. On losing
favourite birds,  suchl as  a turkey-cock,
Chinese gander, and young peacock, I
have discovered their remnains, chiefly the
feathers, in the coverts in the neighlibourlhood, where the foxes had fortimed their
earth for naniyyears.  Like the dog whicli
buries his bolne, the fox buries his plunder
in the earth to presertve it fresh.
this mode of feeding is repeated several times in
a day. The consequence of this overloaded crop
is, that the bird becomes indisposed to move, and
is half pat to sleep, and is soon quickly covered
with tntawholesoine fiat. The capon feeders are
very murch belied if they do not go farther than
this: they mix ardent spirits with the paste with
which the bird-s are cramnmed, and that and the
darkened place in which they are confined dispose
them to be stupid and half asleep, and they become literally bloated  with fat.  The process,
however, cannot be long continued, for fever mit    st
of necessity ensue, or apoplexy will carry off the
bird, or the whole of the carcass will bereddened
and spoiled by the redundancy of blood."
5192. In regard to determining the sex of eggs
noticed in (2883,) this writer says, " As in breeding with a special view of making capons, male
cDickens alone are required, those should be selected to set under hens which produce malesnamely, such as have the sharpest points. The
men who were formerly employed in the reariing
of game fowls were so expert in their selection of
the male eggs, that we knew one instance of a
breeder employed  by a Mr  Stoerer of Nottinghamn, who out of 13 eggs would select 11 fr                    om
which hlie undertook to produce male birds."
5193. " It is rather singular," farther remarks
this writer," that the emasculation of the young
gander has never been tried in this country, for
there is no reason why as perfect a capon (if one
may be allowed the expression) should not be
made of a gander as of a cock.  It is a practice
followed in some parts of Germany and Russia,
and in the latter country particularly inl the town
and vicinity of Larko-Lelo, we once saw a flock
of goose capons, the lightest of which must have
weighed 15 lbs. at six months old.  The Russiatns, however, entertain a  strong  prejudice
against making capons even of fowls, on a religious principle; but this is, like the majority of
prejudices, founded in ignorance and superstitioi."'*  The same may be said of caponing the
male turkey, (2958.)
5194. Mr Cantelo's hydro-incubator was exhiibited in Edinburgh in 1850, and I observe that
it has been improved in construction since I men -
tioiied its operations in (2948.) The tray in
which the eggs are hatched is now covered with
a plate of glass instead of water-proof cloth, and
immersed in water at the temperature of 108~
Fahlir., and beside being a safer receptacle, it
affords the opportunity of noticing the process
of incubation from first to last. 
5196. The  Polecat.-Polecats or  foumarts, Mustela pvutorius, visit steadings
under iiiglit, and if a hole in the door, or
a slit iii the wall, by whichi poultry enter.
be left olpeni, they will creep inl  and comimit great havoc  alsiong,  the  grown-iip
fowls, sucking the blood and leaving  the
carcasses. It is only by the negligellce of
thle lenwife that they can find access into
5195. The Fox. —The common fox, $7ulpea rulgaris, is the niost formnidable dIestroyer of poultry. If undisturbed, he will
* Practical Instructions in the Art of making Capons, 16-28.
478
ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO
POULTR.Y. 
al,,tacwII tI,U Llti. l I orKsllrentlali, ot
the name of John Featlierstone, by nieatns
of steel-traps.  liHe liad  21  slinall tiraps,
whlich lie always  kept  clean an,l brighlt.
On coillniencing his operationls, lI)e traced
thte tracks of thle rats along  the floors to
the tops of the walls, leading commnl(nly by
the corners of the apartments to the p.rtitionl walls, whlichl  thley surmounte(d b)elow
the slates.  After he hlad discovered their
different runs, lie niade a nuillber o(f smll
firm  bundlles of straw,  wvliicli  lie Ipliced-l
ag,ainst the bottom of a wall in thle apartnments in whichl rui)s hlad been traced upon
thie floor, and(l also upon  tlJe topis (f tlhe
walls whlere runs were observed  Tit(ler tlie
-roof.   ie used 7 traps at one  plac(e at.a
time, and a greater nul)ber (of budi(les,,f
straw were used than  iiierely to  conceal
the numniber of traps at  eachi Iplace, eina)ioyinIg lis entire iiiiniber in three l)laces,
at a little distance fiolli e,acl   ( otlier, anll
in  different ap.artients.   The traIls were
set in a row,  )el'jinid tlie bundles of straw,
and not  allowed  to spring at first, a111
ahitedi withl  oatmeal, scented withl oil of
rhioditni, withl  a little chaff strewed,,?ver
tthem.   Tl,ey were  thus baited  for  two
days, thle baits being renewed as soon as it
was discovered,  by inspection, that thley
orhal been coiinsulte(l.  On these days, le(IIle
were prevented  as much  as possible frollli
frequentiing  the alpartnients in whlich  the
traps were placed(, anid d(logs were etitirely
excluded.  iteimoving thle cleck froiii the
springs on tlhe thlird day, ajid arming  limiiself with  a shlort stout  stick,  liaving  a
game-bag   slutig  across   his  shoulders,
T5198.  But unfor tunately  weasels  do
!iair-ii as  well as good, in  killing young
,,otlt-v, by sucking tleir llood-a civicken,
a dwckling, or a gosling, being in an  uiisaft pli,ce, if basking in the sun at the bottom *,f a dry stone-wall facing tlhe soutil.
Tlhey steal eggs too. One day I observed.
a weasel crossing a road at sonme distance
fi'om  thle steading, rollin,, an egg before
it witil its fore-paw%s.   On allowing it to
l)ocee(l, I traced it to a lot of felled trees
-it the road-side, amongst wlhichi it hlad
accumiiulated a store of 17 7len eg,gs; and
it nitist lhave done so in a slhort time, as
the e,ggs were all quite fresh.
i)ot i,iiii awav. On iiiaking a spring, tlje
weasel seized the mt, bythe tltroat; and
tile strugf,le between tlietn was
%-ioIerjt, the rat was soon silenced in (leatli.
Wlicii a weasel takes up its abode in a
not a iiiouse dares reti)ain in
it;, -irid if a 1.)ole is placed front sucli a
,-ta,ek to ti'le win(low of the granary, tl-ie
%%,ill fin(I its w-,iy into the latter, and
effectually (leter anv.rat or niouse froni
el-iteriiig or remaining in it.
1, il 99. The Rat. Rats, liowever, are the
most troublesome verniiii, because they
Harbour in the steading. They not only
ii)aIle every I)Iace tl)evfreqtient dirty, but
(ii..glistiii,,l so. Tlinjisjliiet' they do in
r, y
ctittiri,, lioles in boarded -floors, in under      In
niiriing stone pavenient,,R, gnawing Harness,
c()nsuniin(, and wastingevery edilble
and killit-ig liens and pigeons wlieti sitting 
0PIAC'ICTlCE -AUTUIMN.
Featlieistone  w:is  son the alert; and the
iioiiieiit lie heirl tle click of a trap lie ran   i
to  it,  reiiioved  thie  bundleI  of  straw,
knockedfl thle rat on the leatl if alive, tihrew
it otit ()f tite trap, i,et it again,  replaced
the bundlle, bagged the rat  all in a few
seconds  anid  thien  resiume(il  the  waitclh.
In tlhe course of the (lay, fio,nornioni            5ti
to afternoon,  lie la(il collected  385  rats;
and,  illowing every trap to lhave  done
equal execution,  eaili,a       c cauglh,,t miore
tlianii 18 rats.   lie b)argaiied tfi)r li. a rait,
and hiis food; antl in tillee layivs lie earne(ld
in nioney, ~1, [2s. lI(-I. All tlhe rats were of
course not cleare(l off by this capture; but
thley received siuch a ti,iuiig, as to prove
conripa.r. ively liarituless fo)r years.  Featherstoiie's first b)usiniess, onl the (lay following the capture, was to clean eachl  trap
bri,ghit, i.efore setting out on his journey;
and lie seeiiied to place greater reli.ance on
thile cleanly state of hlis traps tlhan on any
othier  circumnstance- and  thierely,  n:o
doubt, the suspicion of tile rats was allatyed.
of partition walls in stea Tns.  hav rec()i,ii,eiided tlheiin to be beamii-filled ( 1687;)
an.d undler the floors of apartments I lhave
alslo recomnmiendited a mode of constructing
floors  (1681,) and of  laying  pavements
(16s7.)
5204. Togetal         er witi building up  the
tol)s of partition walls,   I believe  there i  s
no   way  of scaring   r ats anid lice  friomn
a steadin,, so  effectually as l}y cats.   Let
one or twvo cats be  bIr(oughit up in different
par sier i n t    ts f   a steaing,   cordi ng to its size
.and if situaite at a distance from dwellinglhouses, thiey will becolie   vi,ilant acuards
ai,ainst these veriitm; and if tle  steadlin,
is very near, thle  lhoiise cats will perlhtaps
frequent it sufficiently often fori  thle   purpose..Wh'Ijen k-ept in- tite steadhi,g, let eaclh
cat rec eiide aily, a  t its   ownait poarticuilna r
place, anid at  sated     louri, say  11  o'clol
A.M., a ohess *f  new  milk  and porridge,
when it will at tendl to receive  it as  tihe
liouir airives; land l e t  eaci hlave  a s oft,
warm, colefnprtabble bee l   mad e  for  it in soine
quiet sbott of the steodi  ng. At  niIhlt, and
early  in the  noerning, they  will watcii and
lcurit on   their respectivse beats; a nd in tire
cosurse of 71 shiort time, provided access be
freely aflbordled to eveery apa-.rtment of t!,e
sctentsdinf, the beriiin will bi e  s-el,iii a nd
imiore seldmn seen, until  tlhey  disappear
alt(,e~tilel.  Cats are qulite  common -about
st t(litllrs andw stal-)les; but  they are gen erally neflected (of ftood, on tsie erroneous
idea tlrhat, i f fetn they becon ee l azy an d will
not lutit.  So fnir firom tlis being  tlhe case, a
regularly  fe( cat ialske s ta  e best hud ter,
be-cauAse it tmloen hiints for spurt; an  ant not
feelin g apresse(a  by  lhunger, it wil l watcel
at  tlje saim-e spot for  lhours.   Being  i3
stollt condition, from its daily wholesone,
firod, it feels  itself strong,, eloughi to enco,unter  aniy  vernlin, andi(  will   destroy
nlnbers, in tlle c. lrse of a day.  A st.arveil
cat, on tie otIer  lhand(l, wlichl  lhiuints fi.
food, eats  the fir,st pr'ey it -c atnes,  anl,
gorging itself lies dowvn to rest, in accrt'dance wvitlh  tlle lhabitits of thle ftbline race t(
whlielc it natnrally  belongs; miiid nieglect
a  cat  of  fo-od-  let it  depeni for  suib
sistenlee entirely  (on its  own powersand lhiunger in tile long -run will prevent
its watching altogetlher.   The great use  of
the cat is to scare awa-y, niot devour verriain; and, when oblli,ed t o leave  tIle steading in searecli of fi,,,d. it will Illost likely
.5202. Besitles sucl  mecail         niica      l means,
others hIJave            bee n (levise(tl fir   tliee destruction
of rats.   It is sa-il thlat coal-tar smeared
arouilto tlwe   iolutil of           their  holes                        will
irivie trletm  away   Poison is a fav,uerite
instriiii ent for tp e    (iestrcti),ns l of talis veroiin. waitbht flesll clqoI       ted iup   withil arsenic,
or caro,,nate of b)arytes, is reconiiimetlenl.et
by one I)l,aty; and   a salt   larr-ing, so t.i:e(l
is rec(,I,IilmI ie(n -e8s strOnglY Iy by  anotlher.
Tlhe follo)wig,  is a recipe  f)r tiakin,, rat
1l,)h sl.l)orous poison, wlichl, it is sai, has
provetl efficacio,us: TI'alke of lard  or d ripping   1 lb., o(f phosphorus 1 drac h              m,
spirit (of wine l    gill.   Put the wl,ole into
a clean pint bottle. Melt thlemi,gradtiall,
Ily iliiiiiersing, thle bottle ini a ba-tth otf hot
water.   Wlden  dissolved, corrk  tlie'bottle,
andi(I iiicoral)oj,te  thie iig,retlienits  1,y sl,akiig.   W~iei  coozl, pour  off  the slirit  of
,%ine.   Take  flour and  rub wvlhite grated
suJgfar ini it, and miake, a, pa-ste witlh tlhe
contents (,f the bottle, iiielte,l.  Divifie tire
l,ti,p o,f paste intt, two portions.  Flaivouir
onle with  a, simall quantity  tof t!,e *oil of
rho(diurim;  tie  othier with  o)il  of  anise.
Makle b)alls of botlh Ijortiolns of the doligh, of
tl~e size of manrbles ea!.  Plac     e tlhm in;  thie
way at nii,lt whlere rats miiost frequent.
480
52()3. Asa iiie-,ins of tl)e, prevention, of
at,i lu(l(,iii,, -.tnd bi-cedin,, ut
t,,,)oii the topo
1 Z5 
ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY.
go to thle lien-house for anii egg, to the
liatciling-hiouse for a young  chicken, or to
tilJe dove-cot for a young l, )ige(on.  It will
even  lhunt thle fiells for galle.   I have
caused inly greylioun(ls to ruIll (lown and
worry  many a cat in tlhe fields.   Tije
truthl is, miost peol)le will nlot take  tl       ae
troubl)le to feed a cat daily andl regu,larly
in tile steading; and thlje consequence is,
that none  will remain in it, to destroy
and scare away vertniin, wlhen food can be
obtailled niore easily elsewlhere.
with  inrjeustice; but it sonwetime  s c arrie s
off a clicken or duckling,  a nd s   uicks an
egg that miay hlave  been drop  ped abroad."
Tle  Proferssor        melate s  s everal  miarauding
anecdotes  of  thie lmalglpie  fromii  various
author ities, and one is from the work of  thle
late Bishop  of Norwich:   " The femrtale
was   observed t o  be the a wost  active and
thievisilh, and witni.l very unt ratefail; for
although tle  children about the house  had
often frightene ats  a d o   h  a wks  fi oin tihe
spot, yet sdie one day  sei zed   a chicken,
and carried it to tile top of the l10use to
eat it, wler h e  te keillenit iiiinediately  followe(l,
and, oIavin, restcue(l te clicken, brough    t
it salely down   in her it eak; and it was
re marked that the poor little bird thlough
it mnade a  great noise while the imiagpie
was  carrvinw,i it up, fwas  quite  quiet, and
seemued to   fe e l no   Iain  wldile its taotwher
was  carryim,n it down."*    Two  striking
anecdotes  a re related by  Mr Weir of Boii    -
head: Mr   Wark, faraner at  Hardeilld,"
lie  observes,  "told ie that his brothler,
upon  his property  of Old Hall,  in  the
parish of Dunlop, shot of   te leg      of   a
tnagpie as she  was  carrying off a        chickell
fromii his house.   She was not seen during
the winter and spring, but appeared again
in summer.   Lame though she was,  she
still carried on  her murderous operation.
One day lie perceived her in pursuit  of a
duckling;  it imminiediately ran to the water
f(.)r protection.  So intent, however, was
slhe upon its de,3struction, that she ventured
too far in after it, and got lherself so wet
tlhat, before sle was aLble to rise in the air,
lie knocked lher  down withi a stick.  A
few years  ago a boy told ime, that while
le  wvas tenidin  Illis castle, lie heard several
](loud screanli-s in a, young plantatioln in tile
nei,hlbourlioodl.  ]eing anxious to ascertain tle cauttse of the noise, lie inlmediately
ran to tlje  place  wlieiice it proceeded,
aliid, to his  astonishment, lie  beheld  a
magpie standin,, upo)n the back of a hare
alimjtst lhalf-grown, picking  out its eye,
tije otlher lha,ving, been turn out before his
arriva<l."t
5205. The Greeks used to tie buncles
of rue under tlje wings of their fowls, to
prevent cats worryilng tiheii, as cats, it
seeelils, lhave a strong, aversion to that llerb.
5206. Rooks. —Rooks,Corvusfrugilegus,
watchl  fbr stray e,,,,s thiat imiay lhave been
laid aiiioiig the litter in thle courtyards, or
near the watering pond, and carry tllellm off
it tlheir bills.
5207. Tle carrion crow, Corvus corone,
also carry off eggs and young poultry;
but  it s sart in effectin     g tlhe destruction of
poultry is simple compared with tlhe CuI1ilng andl vigilance of the miagpie.
5208v. The fMayagp           ie. Tbe babits of tcle
ila,,pie, Pica melainoleuca, are  thus  de,scrib)ed by Professor Macgillivray:- "The
foold o    t    as e          cs of                  the (agpie cnsists of testaceotus
tiioll tsca, slums, lardsv,  worns, youIg bi      r      ids,
er sal. ssall quadrupeds, carrion, somnetimiies
grain, and fruits  of  diflereint kinds,  in
Searcll of whljiclh it frequents  tlhe fi(elds,
ledg,es, thickets, and orclards, occasionally visits tlhe  faritiyar(l, prowls  aimionigi
tlhe   stacks, p1erchIes on  the  lhouse-t(o)),
whljence it sallies at timres, and exaltlines
tire tlunt,ilill and places arotiund. Altlhough,I
it!searchles for larvle and w%,ormis in thle
t>l(mghliedi fields, it neverventures, like the
r,,,k anid several species of gtulls, to follow
ti-e ploug,hI as it turns over each successive
ffir,i(w.  It has been accused of t)ickiil,g
tij,, eyes of lambs and sickly slheep, I think
* Stanley's lianiliar IHistory of Birds, vol. i. p. 251.
+ Macgillivray's b'ritishi Birds, vol. i. p. 566-72.
TOL. 211.
481
2a 
482
REALISATION.
5211. The causes which have operated
so to diversify the systems of farming ill
this country are perhlaps these:-Shleep
can occupy the whole range of pasture froili
the mountain tops to the plains.  Cattle
are confined in their  pasture  from  the
secondary mountain  tops to  the plains.
Hence,  the highest nmountLin range is
occupied solely by sheep, anal thlere, in consequence,pastoral farms which breed sheeli)
only are found(; and these are thie lhardy,
mountain, lheath-slheep, commlonly called
the Black-faced breed.   From  tile high
elevation of shleep pastoral farmns, they are
necessarily subjected  to much wind and
rain, occasioning both wet and cold; and
were it not that the tops of mountains
face differentdirections-one part affording
shelter and comparative warmth, while the
opposite may e   experiencing the fie rcest
onsets of the elements-such farms would
be unfit to be inhabited by even the  most
hardy breed of sheep.
5209. ON  t        ihe  supposition that the pupil
i       n p ractical husbandry hios aicqm.ire( d a  cothpetent knowledge of f.earyin,         to conduct
XI farm on his own  acc:)unt, by having
fcmliliarised himself  witlh      the   entire rout ine of oper ations  tlhrouh,iout th     e       f our
seasons upon a farit, under -.n intelligent
farmter, and by havin           g  consulted the  instructions cont        ained  in the pr eceding pages,
as a safe guie ie in leading, i   him to a nticipate
n and u      nderstand  the  several operations as
they had occ     urr ed, the time has arrived, in
pursuance of the object I had in preparing
this work of its being useful to the young
farmer, for me to point out to him the
particulars to which he should specially
direct his attention in looking out for a
farm for himself-in judging of the land
tn bargaining for the lease —and in providing, the stocking for his farm. Beyond
these, it may be necessary for him to enclose and drain the farm, and to erect
farm-buildings upon it; and in case he
adopt any kind of farming which undertakes the breeding and rearing of livestock, ihe should be made acquainted with
the correct principles upon which the
breeding and rearing of all the domesticated animals may be pursued with success.
5212. On looking at such a farm with
the view of taking it, the ground should irn
the first instance possess diversified aspects,
and not  one long    stretch of  inclinat ion
e i t her to  the S. or N.; because, in winter,
even the south face of  a hill will often be
covered deep with snow, while the north is
almost clear, where  the sheep will subsist
on the young slhoots of the hleatlher. Steep
slopes are also of use in winter, as the snow
cannot lie deep upon them. The geological
structure of the surface should be attended
t o. O' Where debris covers  the  rock  the
subsoil will be porous, and the pasturage
green with little heathler; and  whlere no
debri s  o ccurs, hee rock,illbe covered witl
peat-eartlh  andl heatlher, encouragel by
the presence of water constantly descending upon the face of the rock. Such water
proves useful in giving origin to springs
of pure water, which are grateful to the
sheep in the drought of stun ner. The
rocks on such farms are generally of the
52i10. The            farm        s   of this country occupy
ev ery available sp                     ace of ground, from the
tops of the            hig h       est mou ntains,         to the
lowest level of the plains. On adiversity
tf ground  imnplied  in       s       uch a     wide range,
it  is not to      be expected that  the saume
systeml of farnin,, can be prosecuted.  On
the contrary, in consequence of such a
diversity, the different kinds of farniitg
I described from (36) to (51,) and the
operations adapted to each, which I have
treated  in  detail  in  their  respective
seasons, have long been pursued with equal
skill and success.
f)N THE DIFFERENCES IN THE'IIYSICAL
GEOGRAPILY OF FARMS. - 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPhY OF FARMS.
primnary formation, and lwhere grantite or
clay slate prevails, debris mnay be looked
for; but neithler gneiss nor mica slate is
usually covered with debris, and only with       5
peat-eartlh.
5215. Were arable  culture extended
flirther than it is on such farmiis-upon tlhe
best haug,h grotund, for example, and on
thle slopes a(-djacent tltereto-and a c(tllnlodious steading set down, both cattle atll
sheep mig,lt lbe raised withl aldvantage as
well for thle tenant as the land, inasniucli as,
whlere pasture is judicioullsly mana.ged in
sullImner, by a proper adlmixture and distribution of stock, it raises a plrportio,llally
large quantity of food for both cattle anil
sheep, tlian for eitlier alotie.  Slieep foilow
and bite tile pasturage closer tlhati cattle,
and thle grass springs up afresh after the
shleep.  But, to derive thle greatest advantage from suchi an arrangeulent, thle land
should be drained, and tle pastures eclclosed, to allow of the confinemolt of the
stock in one place until  the grass grow
in anothler.   Such an arable pastoral farri
eshould  have  as  much S.  exposure  as
possible, which will  be  determined  by
the circumstance whether it is on thje N.
or S. of a high inountailn rang,e.  Tl.e
direction  of  thle valleys in  whiclh  tlhe
steading  should  be situated is a point
worth considering, —f(,r as our greatest
winds are fronLt thle S.W., an(1 thle greatest
colds fromn tile N.E., every valley runtning  S.W.  to N.E. will be muclh more
exposed, both in winter and sumiter, thllan
ill any other direction. A plantation thlrown
across such a valley both above and below
the arable land would screen it, tlhe steading, and tile farm-house effectually; and
tile shelter besides  of a  higher l1ill to
windwardl, )or to thle N., ought not to be
overlooked in choosing suchi a farml.
5213. S           inc e       sheep can   ourpy the whole
rang,e of farm grounds, and cattle only
frorn tlhe secondary  hills to tlhe plains,
it follows tlhat both sheep and cattle ma'y
be reared on  the second description of
pastor.al farins, (36.)  The farills occupying t. h)wer range of hills than thje..preceding,  lhave tlheir surface diversified with
large round-backed lills, suited to afford
good shelter to every kind of stock.  And
as hills cannot exist without corresponditnog
valleys, valleys possessing considerable
!,readth, and  abundance  of lhatiglh land
ailong the banks of a river, are well slited
to tile rearing of cattle, either by tlhemselves or in comnpany with sheep; but in
narrow and steep valleys, slheep alone
should be preferred. The shieep best suited
for such pasturage are tlhe Cheviot and the
Soutlh(ldown breeds, and the cattle are the
North and West ti,ghland breeds, (35.)
Instead of rearing both cattle and sheep on
such f,arms, cotntimonly either tlhe one or the
otlher is preferred, the cattle being reared
on those having most low grounds, and
slieep lhaving most hig,hI grounds. Even
where extensive haugsis are found, sheep
are often reared in preference to cattle;
and few store-niasters desire to be trouibled
with bothl cattle and sheep breeding, where
accomtmodation for stock of every kind in
steadiugs is limiiited, and v ariety of winter
food not abundant.
5214. On  reviewing  such  a farm, it
should possess as mtuchl  green pasture as
possible, wliichl it is enabled to grow by
tile subjacent rocks being of slaty structure, suchli as greywacke slate, and slate
clay, thlroughl  tile fissures of  wliichi tile
water passes as throu,ghl a porous subsoil.
Tie less debris thlat covers tlhose rocks tlhe
drier will be thle pa,sture, for water passes
mIore easily thlroulgh  tlheir slaty structure
than thieir debris,  whichl consists of a
larg,e  proportion  of clty.;  Wliere  debris exists, extensive portions (of flat surfatce illay be expected to be occupied by
swamip18 andl bogs, whlich  grow hleathlerbut wlilch, however, may  be easily dried
by  drainage, the fall for drains  being
483
aniple, and drain pipe-tiles affo,,-ding an
easy itieaiis of fillin,, tlieiii.
5216. On the slope of the ground from
the fo(-)t of the secondary mountains into
the plains, will I)e found tile site.,3 of all
the -systetiis of farthing in.practice, witli
tile exception of tile two ii-ids of pastoral
fai-iiiing which we have just I)OOll consi(iering. Tli.esoiiotisucliatsioperet3tsoii
trap alone, red saii(l-,itone -itione, Mountain
limestone al()iie, or on red satid6toije and
limestone containing pr(jectin,, eminences
of trap. Such a situation is eminently
adopted for,growin,, turnips; aiitl accordingly we find rev.-iiiiii,, there tile mixed,
p
(49,) the dairy, (45,) and that system of
faritting practised at" a distance froin towns, 
REALISATION.
iii wlichl no breeding, of stock is attempted
48.)  Generally  on such slopes, though
diversified by unilillations, the soil on all
the different kinds of rock requires d(Iraining; alinl vwhere it does not, tile dry soil
consists of travelled gravel a.nd san(d, constituting the debris of rocks broiughit froimi
a distance.
in the  bes t state  of lhealtl on the  farm -all
tlhe year round, but  whien disposed of,
bemaing  in fine condition, wo u l d    fetch larger
prices; wThile in the  low country, they
would be    quicker  fed badthI on pasture  in
sumimd rer, and  on turnips in winter.  Tire.
carse fatrming, cannot be materially altered;
and thle farning in the neighiboutrblood of
towns  must  preserve its peculiar  chiaracter, as long  as  thel    demanad for straw,
liay, grass, potatoes, and  turnil)s, continues.  Whlile milk and buitter and chieese
are  wanted, th e  dair y  f      arming   must  be
pur s ued.  The only ciange, thien, that    can
be effected in the genieral farming of the
country, is thie extension  of tthe  mixed
lhusbandiry whlich  includes  tle  breedinig
of cattle and sbeep, to the extinction of
that species of farming wlich avoidis breeding and subsists on the purchasing of cattle
and shieep from pastoral farnis. It iii.ay be
deeimed impracticable  for farmers to become breeders of stock in the low couintry,
as long as pastoral farmers breed stock, and
dispose of thiein before they are fit to be
slauighitered.  I ain  not of  tl)at opinion;
because, altlioughI a farimier breeds stock
cn  is own farm, lie need not necessarily be
prevented  puirchlasitn,, stock to fatten in
winter on turnips raised on all lis fallowbreak; or in suimmell"r, On pasture or soilii,,
grass.   Besides, whiere  breeding,  cannot
withi prop)riety be adopted, as on carse farnms
anti thiose in the iieig,hil)ourliood of towns,
cattle lh.'ie to  be pur clased to be  fetl on
turnips on carse friisr; and botlh cattle and
shieep may be. profitably fattene(l, in the
neig,hibotlio(r d of towns, on the tirnips a-nid
grass whlicil  liave  not been sold to  tlie
townsl)eo)le.   Thlius  a   large  demand.
would always be foiund in thle low country
for tihe stirplus stock of thle pastoral fa.rmis,
curtailed as these would necessarily  be by
an extension of aralble culture.
5217. On the plain, towns and villages
aie fot)uI.l on thIe miarg,ins of rivers wlicli
-ae mc itkin, thleir way to the sea or to an
estuariy.  The soil is either thiin clay or
gi rvelly-botli  travelled  materials-but   p
resting Up)ol  diluviial clay, itipervious to
water.    Diaining( is absolutely requisite
to render thle soil fertile; and tlie farmLin,g
tlhere is generally dlifferent from   that on
the preceding, locality, occasioned by the
deimands froiii the towns and villages
tlhe iinhliabitants (,f whichl derive all their
vegetable tfod  fromn thje adjoining farmis
-ll  gardlens, (42.)
5218. Wlhere the plain extends to the
I).inlk of a large river or estuary, the soil
cii.aniges  to a  uriiforiii ni)ass of alluvial
strong clay, unfit for any of the precedin,g
ilioiles of culture, andl  is cultivated in a p
rlnanner  peculiar  to  itself, called  carse
,liitng, (39.) Suchi soil requires draining;
l)tit, even aifter being drainedl, it is unfit to
be worked, or even iiie(l(lled with, iii wintei, in raiii, snow, or frost, (on account of its
unctuous  aluiiiniiiis character.   It  will
grow  tiurinips after being, (lraiiied, but'Will
not receive shieep upon it in  winter; ar(lnd
lhence no shieep are bred onl such land.  It
cannllot 1Ie pastured in siummer, in a wet
season, il case the suirface be poacihe(l witih
thie beasts' feet; and  hlence no cattle are
Iire(l upon it.  It is chiefly devotedl to the
iaiing  (of grain, straw, and liay, whichi it
d(loes al unnlantly, and is well adapted( for
thle soilingr of cattle in haminels, inl suiiiiei, upon the clover whiichi it grows in
yluxuriagce.
5220. In e,addition to tlcese views of tile
)lIhysical geogr.ap!iy of a i-armn, %,lien it is
exa.milined, other circumttstances  aff-ect  its
vl u,llfe, siicib s.s of tlie following character:
The land1 may  liave suchi a steep inclina.-tion
as to requiriie increased strenigthl to work it.
The soil imiay be too strong or too loose.  It
ma1,y be in too wet or too dry a state.  Its
natura.l condition may  be poor.   Thje fielhls
miay want water in suinnier, thioigil there
miay  be abiundanice of it  in winter   or
spring,.  The water may  be only supplied
5219. Suchl  are  the  various physical
causes whichi liave given rise to the d(liffereit modes of farming, practised in this
c,)iiitry.   No  change can be introduced
iiito tlhe pastoral farming(I of either sheep
oir cattle, except thie extension of aralble
cilture, for the purpose of raising a sufficiency of winiter food.  Were this done.
tle st(ock wo04d.  xot' only be maintained
484 
CLIMATE.
torrid,  temperate,  and  frigid -  namtes
exclusively indicative of different degrees
of temperature.
from the surface, instead of fromii springs.
Tlhe fences may  be either iniudiciously
formed,  or in  a state of dilapidation.
The position of the farm, in respect to
exposure, to the N. or S; the form  of
tlhe surface of the fields, wlhetlher each
slopes in more tllan one direction; whetlier tlhe farmii is exposed in an o)en
country all round, or sheltered on one or
all si(les by natural or artificial objects;
whether coal and linme are far off, or near
at lhand; whether thle market town  is
,listant or near, and whether it possesses
the means of sup)lying  a  considerable
quantity of itiautire; whlethler the roads
are well planned(l, and kept in good repair,
or a railroad is to be found within a reasonable distance;-what effect all these
circumstances of a physical character, in(lividually an(l collectively, have ulpon tlhe
money value of thle land, it may not be
easy to determine; but that they have
such  an  effect is most  obvious to the
understandin(g. 
5224. The  torrid zone  contains  the
space inscribed by the ecliptic, and  coiiipreliends 2o~ 28' on eachl side of thle equator, or one belt of 46~ 56' in breadth.   It
is the  hottest portion of tle g lo be,  tle suar
being over thle zenith, and the tmie.Ln temiperature rangint, fromt 84.2~ to 78.8~ Fallrenheit.
5225. The  temperate zones  lie one  on
etach side of the tropical, embracing a range
of latitude in e.Lclh lhemnisplhere of 48~ 4', and
extending to latitude  06~ 32'. Its mean
temtiperature varies fromi 78.8~ to 39.9-.
5227. Withlin 10~ of tile poles tlhe temperatture diflers little; and tile same is tlhe
case within 10~ of the equator.   Thje mean
temperature of different years varies very
little near tle equator, but more and niore
so as tlhe latitudes approach tlhe poles.
5221. ThIe state of tlhe climate is too
little attended to by fartriers whlen they
are on tlje outlook for a farii; and yet
thleir dlailyexperience teachles them that climate hlas a marked effect upon vegetation.
5228. Tlhuis tlhe templ)era,tuire of the aiir
diiiiinislies gradually froiil thle equator to
ttilh e poles.  rThis (liminrution is fobul(l to
take place in an aritlhmetical progression,
whlichl is, that the ann ual temperaturi-e of
all the latitudes are arithmetical mneais
tetwceeii the nmean annual  temperature of
the equator and the poles.   Th-is law was
first discovered by  M.  Meyer; and by
means of an equation foulnded on it an(l
afterwards rendered iiiore simnple, Mr  Kirwani calculated tlhe mtean annual temiiperatture of every degree of latitude  betweeni
the equatoir and thle poles, and of every
monthl of the year.
5222. Tlh            e           distribution of leat over the
starface of the globe constitutes climate;
and as every place is affected by the distribtition of lheat, every place possesses a
climate in commiiiion with every otlher place
in simnilar latitudes.  Thiis constitutes tile
.qeneral climate of tlle place; but every
plI-ce also possesses a locail climate, occasioned  by ttie particular conlfiguration) of
the locality wlich affects tlle distribution
of lieat,.and wllichl inay ren(ler the local clinate better or worse thiani the general one.
5223. General climate is measured from
the equator to the polar circles in spaces,
in each of wlhiclh the long,est day is l,tifan-liour long,er thl)an that nearer thle eqljator; and from the polar circles to t!he poles
it is measured by tlhe increase of a month.
Thle breadtlhs thius assumed for these sitaces
are qcaite arbitrary, as is most of tle zones
into wlhiclh tle surface of tlhe gh)be is subdi%-ided, and these zones are classified into
522.). It appears,  from   thlese calculations, that, of thle annual  miean ternmperatuire
of tie tiiontlis, January is tlje coldest mnonth
in all latitu(les abiove 48"; and thlat, in
latitudes below thlat, August is the warmest month.   In the northern hemii.slphere,
thie temperature rises-froim about the utiddlle
of January, slowly at first, more  rapidly
in April antid Mav, to reachl  its maximumilln
485
5226. The -,i.qid zones eacli cotiipre              f,
liends as iiiaiiv degrees front the poles.is
I
the tropical zone exteii(is from the equator
-naniely, 23' 28'. Their niean teiiiperattire varies froiti 39.9' to 31'.
ON CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS. 
REALISATION.
point in July and August, when it begins
to fall agairn until mid January, when it
is at its mininimunni.
below zero; while in tlhe Faroe Islands,
in latitude 62~, tlhe ponds and lakes never
freeze in winter, the winter temperature
being only 40~.
5230. The difference in temperature
between  the hottest and coldest months
increases in proportion to thle distance
from  the  equator.   At  the equator the
miiean temperature is 84.2~; at the ecliptic
it is 78.8~; at Paris, in latitude 48~ 50' it
is 51.4~; at Lonlon, in latitude 51~ 31',
it is 50.7~; at Dublin, in latitude 53~ 23',
it is 49.1~; and at Edinburgh, in latitude
55~ 57', it is 47.4~.
5235. One of the grand characteristics
of a maritime climate is the small difference
between the mean temperatures of summner
and  winter.  At  Edinburgh  tlhat difference only amounts to 19~, while at  MIoscow, on nearly the same parallel of latitude,
it is 50~; and at Kasan, in latitude 56~, it
is as much as 56.3'.
5236. "The climates of different parts
of the earthl's surface are unq(uestionatbly
owing  in great  measure to their position
with respect to tille sun. At the equator,
wlhere the sun  is always nearly vertical,
any give n part of  the  surface receives  a
much greater quantity of light ald lheatlt
than an eqal prtionprtion  near trle poles;  and
it is also still more  affected by tile sun's
vertical    rays, becaluse   their  patssa    e
tlrolughi the atmosphere  is slhorter tian
that of tlhe obli(ue rays.  As far as  the
sun's  mean altitude is concerned, it appears from Simpson's calculations, that the
heat received at  tlhe equator in the whole
year    is nearly 2l times  as great as at   tlhe
poles; this proporti  on being  nearly - tle
same as that of tlie meridian lheat  of a
vertical sun, to the lheat derived,at 231~
from  tlhe poles, in the middle of the long,,
annual day at  the poles.   But  tle difference is renderedl still greater by the efbect
of  the  atmlosplhere,  which intercepts:
greater proportion of the  lieat at tlhe poles
than -elsewhere.  Bout,uer  has calculated,
upon the sul-)position of the similarity  ot
the effects of lig,lit and lie-,t, that in lalt.
450, 80 parts of 100 are  transmitted at
inoon in July, and 55 only in  Decell)ei.
It is obvious tlhat, at ainy individual plalce,
the climate in summsiiier- must appro)acii in
some degree to the equatorial climaitite, tlhe
sun's altitude being greater, and in winter
to the climlate of thie polar reg,ions."' 
5231. The hottest temperature which
hlas yet been reg,istered for the open air
was thlat observed by Buckhlardt in Upper
Egypt at 117~, and the lowest by Captain
Back in Northl America at 68.8~ below
zero, the difference between the two cases
being 185.8~.
523.9. Modifications of temperature occur in accordance with a difference of config(uration of the earth's suirface.   Were
tlJat surfatce uniformn, the power of the soil
to abl)sori) and radiate hleat would be everywhlere alike, and( the climtnate of a place
wouhl depend on its geographical position:
tile isotliernial lines would all be parallel
witlh  tlhe equtator.   But tide diversity in
the surface causes the soil to be dry in one
plice, and  swampy  in  another; to  be
h-iere a nioviing sandy desert, and there an
uimbrageous forest, all whlich cause  corresponding varieties  in climate, in proIoiLtion as the surface becomes heated in
different degrees in one or other of those
conditions.
5233. In penetrating  great continents
from the sea-coast. tlhe tetnperature botlh in
summer and winter becomes extremiie, tle
mneatn between them  )eiiing great; and there
ar                                                 t e )laces wloiel  witl  dittrent  latitudes
have nearly the same mean annual temperatiur e.
5237. But, hlow  interesting soever it
may be to know tlhe annual mtiean temiperatuires of places, thley are not stffiient
to make  us acquaintedi- witlh thieir climate,
as it affects the products of  the  ftrm.
These mean temperatures are derived from
5234. An  island, a peninsula, and the
sea-coast experience a miiore templerate and
equable cliiiiate-tthe summiers less sultry,
tlhe winters mniore mnild-thlan a continentt.
On the Continent, at Konigsb)er,g in-Prussia,
in latitude 55~, the cold in winter is 18J
* Polehamptoli's Gallery of Nature and Art, vol. iv. p. 42.
486 
CLIMATE.
observations made on thermometers placed
in thle slhade.  But as our crops are not
placed in the slia(le, and are exposed in
the day to the full force of the sun's light
andl heat, and at niglht to a iiiuch reduced
and it iiiay be a clill temperature, what
we desiderate, before we can determine
the iLgricultuiral clinmate of any place, is a
series of olbservations from  thermometers
pliced exposed in the open air to all tlhe
influences of the weathler day and nighlt,
sutiimer.-id winter, from whlich we may
deduce, not mean temperatures, but actual
teiiiperatures occurring in any mnonth of
the year during, the day and the night.  A
comparison of miean temperatures will, 11no
doubt, let us klnow whichl  of two places
enjoys the greater heat on the average of
days or mnontlhs; but it does not tell us
the greatest and lowest degrees of hleat felt
at thle place in the course of any season;
apd it is this knowledge that most interests us in the cultivation of our crops.
We know that a given numbler of days, at
a certain temperature, are necessary to
bring a certain crop to perfection, and
that another certain temperature will destroy tlhat crop; but the nieant temperature
alone will not tell us whlethler or not that
crop will thrive in any given place.
5241. In  South  Ame rica, mnaize comes
to maturity in 92 days, with a mean temperature of 81.5%, or 7497~; or ill 183
days, with a mean temperature of 59~, or
10,797%.
5242. At Maracaibo, near the lake of
Vale ncia, potat o e s require   120 days,  with
a mean tenmperature of 78~, or 9360~ tco
ripen; and at Antisana, they require 276
days to be in tlhe ground, witlh a mean
temperature of 52~, or 14,352~.
5243. From these and similar data, M.
Boussingault cones to   th olue    cs o ncsio    that
' tthe duration of vegetation a ppear s to  bel
in the inve rse ratio  of   the m ean  temperature; so that if we mul tiply the nune beu of
days during whiclh a given plant grows in
different climates, by  th e maea n  teblperature of each, we  obtain  numbe r s th at are
nearly equal.   The result is not only remarkable, in so far as it seems to indicate
that upon every parallel of latitude, at all
elevatio ns a bove   the   level  oSf the seac, the
same plant receives in the course of  it s  existence an equal  quanktity  of leat; but it
may find its  direct a pplaication b y enabling
us to foresee the possibility of accliniating
a vregetable in a country, the mean temopeiFrturre of the  sever al mon tls of wlicvl is
known."   In cotming to this conclusion,
we   perceive thlat M.  Boussingault does not
take the mean temperature of the year of
any place, but that of thie seasons in
wllich- the  particular  crop  cultivated
grows, and which, in truth, comprehends
all the temperature of the growing period
of the crop.
5238. Tlhtus, at Venezuela, according to
M. Codazzi, whleat  requires 92 days to
ripen at Turmero, at a iiean temperature
of 75.6~, whichl is equivalent to 6955~;
and a liundi(ed days at Truxillo, the mean
temperature beingt, 72.1~, whichl is equivalent  to  7,210.    Now,  in  Scotland
neitlher (of these amounts of temperature
would suffice to!)ring wlhea-t to lperfection;
for, suti)l)se wlheat to tie sown in autumiln,
and tlhat active ve,etatioii c(ommiiences at
the 14tlh of February, it cannot  be expected to be real)ed before the 15tlh of
Augutst-tlhat is, in 182 dlays; and- as the
iiean tettl,)eratue of Edinb)urghrll we  llave
seen  to le    47.4~, (5230,) the  nutemler   of
(leg,rees of lie,at requiire(l to ripen it would
be 8625%, heing  1670~  imiore tlun are
re(qiiried at Tui-imiei-o, anid 1415 more than
at Titxillo.  But if we take tle case of
spling w*heat, the difference will be still
grea,ter; fSr, suilp)ose it is sowI1 on the 14tll
of  February, wlhen veg,etation begitns to
quicken, it (cannot be expected to be reaped
before the 1st of Septemtiber, wlhich is 198
days, and at 47.4~ of mean temperature
487
it gives 9385', being no les,,; than 2430'
more than is required at Turmero, and
217.5' than at Truxillo.
5239. Boussingault informs us, that iii
Alsace, witil a mean temperature of 590,
whe(it requires 137 days, or 8083,P to
ripen; at Paris, witli a mean temperature
of 56', 160 Llays,. or 8960'; at New
York, witli a nie,-tn temperature of 63,0,
122 days, or 7680'.
5240. In Egypt, on, the batiks of ttic
Nile, witli a mean temperature of',O',
barley requires 90 days, or 6300', to ripen;
at Santa F6, de Bogota, witli a mean
teiiiperattire of 58.5', 122 days, or 7137'. 
REALISATION.
. has a close connection  withi  that of  thle
air inmediately above it, and is inainly
affected by the extent of the thiermometri cal variations in  the superiiiciumilbenit;ir
in tile course of tlie year.   In tlhe higls
latitudes, where the variations of the teli perature of thie air is  great, the  variable
depthi of temperature in the groun(d is c(nisiderable. Al.  Arago found tl)tt a tiiertiiotometer!)ulied at 26- feet un(ler the surface at  Paris  did not remain absolutely
stationary.   Below  a  limiiited distance,
however, under the surfaice, tlhe  temiipeiture ceases to be  affected by  varia,ti(,is  ini
thle templ)eratuir-e of thie general at-iiiosphliere,
and tihe point wlere the affection ceases is
called  tlle  point of  invariable  temnpera.ture.  III climnes of great constaLncy, thle
point of invariable  temperature  will  be
found  near  tlhe surface, and about  tlh,e
equator the point is about tlhe surface.
5244. Another conclusion arrived at
by M. Boussingault                            is, "that plants                       in
g e n e r a l,                         thlose of tropical countries very
obviously  so, spring up, live, nand flourish
in temperatures that are nearly the same.
In                                   Europe and    ill  North America,  an
annual lplant is subjectedt to cliniateric influeince s                              of tle greatest diversity. Tile
c erea ls,                                                           for example, germinate at fromm
43~                                 to 47~  or 48~;  they get through the
winter alive, niaking no progress; but in
the spring they shloot up, and tile ear attains mlaturity at a season when tlhe teml)erature, whlichl  has risen gradually, is
somewhat steady at from  74~ to 78~.  In
equatorial  countries things pass differently:  the  germination,  growth,  and
ripening of grain take place under d(legrees
of heat which are nearly invariable.  At
Santa Fe, thle thermometer indicates 79~
at seed as at harvest time.  In Europe
tile potato is planted withl thle thermometer at from 50~ to 54~, and it does not
ripen until it has had the heats of July
and August.
5247. Drainage raises the  temilperatujre
under tile sur-f,-ice-tlhat is, it petriits tie
temperature of tlhe atmosplhere to  penetrate deeper into tile soil.  In one quoted
case, in a garden in Hampshire, tile teniperature of the hleavy soil was saidI to have
been raised 15~ by drains of 4{ feet (leep.t
But drainage not only permits tlie Iheat to
penetrate deeper into thle soil, it enables
tile soil to  retain it a longer tiiiie.  In
March l1850,  the telnl)eratnre was  very
low-for 7 nighllts  out (,f tile first 18, tle
tlthlermollieter sunk to 26~ —anld yet tile following, table shows  a greater  degree of
warmtlh, -it 1 and 2 feet in depth under tlile
sulrface thalln for several years pieceding in
tile saiime mlontlh, by  1.17~ at  1 foot, atnul
1.44~ at 2 feet:
5245. " Germination, and the evolution
of  those organs  by w hich vegetables perform  tleir functi ons  in the soil and in the
air, talke pl.ace at temperatures that vary
between 32~ an       d 112~; btit the most the                                       2 importa nt epocel oftheir life-ripening- generally  happens  within mtilev smaller lim,its,
and  wloiclf        indicate the   clim ate best
adapted to tlleir cultivati       aio n, if not always
to their growth......   In hiigh laLtituides, the disappearance of vigorous vegetatiol in plants  may depend quite  as n oluch
on intensity of winter coldis as on insufficiency of summer hjeat.  Tlie equable cliiniate o     f  ttl e equatorial regio n     s  is therefore
much better atlapted  tMeai tiant of Europe
to determine thje extreme limits of temperature between whiichi tle vegetable species of different kinds will attain to nmaturity."*  Following up tlhis'idea in regard
to the plants of tlhe farm, the extremes of
the temperatures of thre following plants
may be stated as under:
2 feet deep.
41~.46
41.9'3
41.71
42.14
311.37
4.;.55
4 1.0;;
41.74
43.18
Wheat  from  780 to 44~
Barley,...  80~... 59~
Potatoes,...  78~....52~
Flax,..  74~... 54'
5246. The temperature of the ground
* Boussingault's Rural  tEco nomy, p. 647-59-Law's tr        anslation.
t  Gardeners' CAroi'icle, 20th October, 1849.
L
I
488
1 foot deep.
41'.41
4 1.4(i
3.1).24
4 1.,,55
37.7 t)
4 4.47
4 0.-12
4 1.16
42.33
Aleazi of inlarcli, 1838......
11      1 8 ", 9......
11 I ft4O......
11               11 1844......
1:               11       ll45......
I 11 1114C......
11               11 11;47......
Mean of these precedii,L, )
years.....................
Mean of the first 18 days I
in Alarcil 1850.........
5248. One great cause of tlio reduction 
iasent-to a more rapid( evapl,iratioli  nllt er
diminishled pressure,  and to the iiiteisity
of nocturnal ra.diation.
froni a suirface of w ater, and tlht  from
,oartlh completely s.atutrated, in the  mliontlh
(f Aiugust 184.9, and tund(ler a temlpIerature
of,3~ to 75~, tle following were the  resllits:
5250.  As thje teniperature of the atiiiosphlere constantly dimiunislies o(n asccn(ling
albove the level of the sea, thle teliipcratirtIe
of congelation   illSt  be  attailne(l it a certain  lhei,rlit above  every  lttitulle; ctlsequenitly, imoltiuntains which iel r tl(eir lielils
ab)ove  tlat limit lnllist liec  coNeie(c  withl
perpetiual  snow.    The  Clevaiti(tll  [f tle
frozen regionr varies acc(or(litig to the latitude of the place, being, at all tlimies Igligest
at  tlhe equator  ail(l lowest  it tlie p(oles.
In   thle hin,li       er           lre,iotns (f tlle it tslosl)llee,
especially withlini tile tro,lIics, tile leiillel'ature varies  but little tlii-uglm,,it thle %h,Iiole
year; and l,entce, in tlhose  ril        clitl,iztes,
the line of perpetu-l congelatioi is stro,ng,ly
and dlistinctly inaikel.   13But in  c(;,iuntries
r-emiote from tile e(quator, the  bo(,in(alr,iy of
frost descends atfter tlie lhea.t ()' siniiiier,
as the influence of winter   pre vls, tlius
v.ayinig its position over a belt  of sotie
conisidera-,ble dep)thl.
Evaporation frnm  Evaporation fron
the Water.                 thle  I,art.tli.
.590inich...161  inch.
..531.....97...
.452.... 070...
.472.....               051...
.4(iO.....(.51...
.433.....047.....(
.370.....              051
3.308...           0.5.8,
We see from tile above with whliat rapidity evalioration goes on whien the soil is
completely satuirated.  On the first day it
is niore tihan one-fourtih  of the evai o         r-e
tion fromi  tile suirfa-ce of water; b)it                 it
diminiislies, anl( at tlhe enti of seven (l.ays
it is scarcely  one-seventl.   When  the
surface l)ecomes dry, tile evaporation is
almost inappreciable.   On thle second day
the uppe r layer of soil is dried, unider tie
-above teniperattire, to thle depthi  of onetetiti of an incil; and( at tihe end of eight
days, lIlaiits of whichiel the roots extend
only to tihe (lelitli of foiur iticlies begin to
sufler, an(l re(lquire waterit,ng.   Froiii soine
ol)servations iiiatde hy Hale.s, on tl!e animount
(f evaporation  froii  soil, lie conclulded(
that it was in the  )ro(I)ortion of 3 to  10,
as compaired withil that fromi  a sutrfiac          e           of
water." *
* Gardeners' Chronricle, Decemnber 1849.
+ Kaemtz's Coniplete (Curst (Jf AIleteoroloi,y, p1. 211-16.
1st day
2d...
Bd...
4th,...
5th...
6hth...
7th...
5251. BeyotndI the line of c()igelation
is anothier, whliich   forms  thle  b,iil-,-l'y- of
tiie ascent of visible val our, and tliis l)(oilnt
it is obv%,iouls m1ust b,e less liabi)le to cli-ange
than the  )oinit of contgelation.  At  tlhe
equator tle hligilest  p,,iit of vaipouir is
28,000 feet, at thle p)ole 3432 feet, anid in 
silililir latitude.   Tlhe isotllerllmals of  700
and 30~  Fahlr. were  in  N(-)rtll Alnerica
froril 30~  to 57~ N. lat.; in Asia, fromn 30~
to  50~ N.  lat.; but  in Europe, froni 30~
to  71~  N.  lat.   Tile  Britishl  Islands are
placed alniost in tile centre of the latter
Zone.   Tlie isotlherllmals for January  give
a general direction  from N. to S., instea(l
of fi-oIl  W.  to E.,  as  mighlt  hlave  been
iinferied.  Between  thle Shlietland  Islands
and thle soutliern coast of England, except
CorInwall  and Devon, there is  no  differentce  in  tile  winter   tenmperature;  but
between the E. coaLst of Ellgliand andi tle
W. coast (,f li-elaind the difference amounts
to abol(ut 10~, tlje foIirner being at ant averag,e of 35~, tile latter probably 4.5~.   The
coldest  portion  of  Britain  extends froni
tile Naze to tle Firtli of Foirtl, coiiiprisii]f,
to tlhe *west all tlhe Pennine cliain: in tlis
district an average  temulperature of  35~ t.)
et~  prevails.   The  average  directioln  (.f
the isotlerim.als (,f tlhe lhottest miontlh (Jully)
is froiti S.W. to N.E.  Tile hiiliiest SuiiIiiief
telmperature  in  tlhe British  Isles - i(dicated by tlhe isotlhe eriiiail of 64~-occuirs iii
tthle ceiitrial p)ortion of tlie S. coast (of Eng..
lanli(,  tile  l(west  in  tlie  N.W.  parit  of
Sc(itiand, iiand( thle diffeirence tappears to be
at least 10 ()~; wliile tile differejce between
the   W. allIl E. coasts is!iiiicii less.   Tlhe
is,,tl,erlital ()' 6'2" extei)nis  to  Lincoln,
fBimlgil am,llI    andl tlhe  soiitliernmiiiost  portionIs l f Watles.  All Irel-alIdl, Wales, thle
niorthierln  lart of England ali(I Scotland, to
525.v3.        E 1)                       e              tlesatiern aboe   tile surfacet as
thle s-,ile e-ffect in d-Iiminiiiisliin-  temnperatiure
ts -scetlt in latitu-le.    "1 Sa,y thiat the altititle of, tl.e 1m(ailtaLini unider tlhe e(uator,"
observes  Alr  Auli(lie,  " ul)pot   wlichl   the
seals,nall  acti,ti is  (lisp)layedl, is  a  little
lmlole thauln tlilree m-iles.   Thleni, estimiiating,
ini r,    [ iiniu-il)ers, one foot  of  altitude oni
tile  iiitint:iil  will   corresl)ondI to  about
16,000 f)eet  on  tlhe  miieridlians-tlhat  is,  a
sill,,,e fo4)t  of elevation on  the  inmotntain
is eqtivalenit, in (liff(,reitee of teii,peraituie,
to al,otit tliree mniles, or more nearly thriee
minuiites (,f a dlegri-ee in latittilae, -lt tlherefore 20 fe(et are  equal to, a  wlhole  tlegtee;
andli wlheni onie o)nice artriviN-es  at tih, lle tlea
temperature  of Lond-lon, 400 feet mtiort;, of
* Encyclopedia Britannica-art. Climatc, 7thl edition.
owIIn meri(:fian, we slal'l find that eachi one
eJxpTresses,  I)y  its  vegetation,  all tile
varieties of climate b)etween  it anid the
pole; a<nd tlhus those lolty mioutnitains become meanis  o)f far miore extensive inforllmal tiol tiaii   places wh,Iiicht are  situated
nea-r tlhe miain  level of tihe sea, and( more
especially than plainis, whlichi, wlheIn their
surfiLces are nearly flat, lhave 21o story to
tell, butt tlhe same uniifor111 atid miionotonouis one, fo(r m'any miles."   "Uponi eaclh
pairticuilar r(cl; of tlhe rapi(d slope of tile
Cor(diller-a," observes M. Hiinmbol(dt, " in
tihe series  of clilna,tes  sup)erimiposed  in
stages, we finid iniscrit)edI tle laws of tlhe
(decreiase of cal()ric, and ()f the geograplic,al,litribution of'   ve,,etable toriiis."
t Mudie's lVorld, p. 132-6. 
CLIMATE.                             491
tlie foot of tlie IJiglilands, lie between tlie tlie radiation of heated plains of considerisi}tlieri~ials of (~) and 6O~.  North of tlie able extent, tlie nature i~f tlie c~,lour of tlie
Miglilan{ls tlie teiiiperatiire is very C()fl-  r~~eks, tlie thickness of tiie forests, tlie
siderably l~~~'er, Inveriiess having olily ii~~ii~ture or dryiiess of tlie soil, tlie vicinity
7'.  Tlie author tlieii alludeil to tlie  of gliciers, tlie i)revileTice of!)articiilar
~nfliienee of teniperatnre on tlie di~tribu-  wiiitls, li~~tter ()r col~ler, moister or ~li~ier,
ti{)ri of plants, tlie distiicts of ~vl1ieli lie  tlie accniiiiilati~}ii of clouds, are s(i lilaily
hal found to be strikingly ci~rroborative  causes which tend to ni~~dify ti~e iiieteoi~,of tlie geiierai correctness of liis isotlier  l~~gical c~~nditi~}ii i~f a country,`vli:itevt'r
n~aIs.                              be its ge~~grapliic;il I)()siti()n.  Iii no otl~er
I):irt ~,f tlie gl~ii)e is tlie diiniliuti()1) ()f
5255. Ni~twitlistanding tile n~ar~eil in  teiiiper'iture oceasi~~neiI by a rise of level
terest coiiiiii~inly attached to tlie sulject of ab~~ve tlie sea ini)re reiiiark.~l~le thai
general climate which we have been ill us-  aiii()ng eqilitorial iiiountain raliges  aii~1
tr~iting, tlie characteristics of tlie /OC((/  it is 10()t without astonislinient tli:~t tloc
cliii~ate enguges tlie attention of tlie ~~rioer  Lur~~pe;iii, leaving tlie biiriiiiig dis~i~icts
lionel onore tloun those if tlie general eliiiiate  ~vl1icli j~riiiluces tloc banana and ciicoa niot
of tlie coulitry which lie inhabits.  Local  toee, fre~ueiitly reaches, in tlie c(~nrse (if a
cliniate onay be ilefiiied to signify that fe~v ii~iurs, tlie buireii regiolis which are
peculiar c~indition (if tlie atnoospliere, ii~  covered ~`~itti everlasting snii~v.
regard to heat, a~oisture, and wind, ~vliicli
prevails in any given ~ilace.  T!ie diversi-    52.57. There is a plienoiioeniin`vliii'li
fleil character which it dis~ilays lias beeii  lias a iii;iterial eflect 010 li~cal cliiiiate-tlie
generally referreil ti t lie coiiibi ned o~)era- dartiiig if ciili 1 pnlsatioi~s down`varils friiiii
tioio if several iliffereiit causcs, which ire  tlie u~iper regioli (if tbe atniospliere, azoil if
~ll, l'.iiwever, reilucible to these t'vii-~1js-  ~variii piils'ttiiiiis u1~u'ards from tlie earth.
t(iflCC Prom 11~e equator, aiid h~i~1tt above  This i (liffelelit fr~iiii radiant heat.  Poilsatite i~ve1 oJ ilte sea; so that latitiiile ind  ti()105 of teilipelatule aie det~~ted loy a
elevatiiin fiiriii tlie gre:it liasis of tlie la~v  reeently-discovere~[ instruioieiit calleil tlie
of loc;ii clinoate  and tlie niiidihcations of   ~t/t~.iosc?J~e:iiod although  tlie exjieiitlii~ la~~ l~y otlier c~iiises lia~ e generally  nielits " itli it lia~ e a~ yet not been suffibut a liartial and liiiiited influence.         ciently nuiiieriius t() insure iii\lilicit ciiiifl                                     den ce in Its 1 i(ii~ ers, tlie experience iit all
52Sf;. Tlie climate of every individual  wlio have paiil attention t() tlie varietie~
coiintiy noay be regarded as local, in refer-  of circuilisiances " hid  affect local cliiiiate
eii~e to tliatofall otbercoiintries in tlie sanie  intiiioates tliat iiiany iiifluences exist, iii
degree of latitude.  Thus, islniods are  tlie atiii~ispliere, to pr~iiliiee eoiiiplicateil
".irnoer than continents.  T!ie E. ciiast of  effects which eaniii}t be indicated by tlie
all eiiiiiitries is colder than tlie ~.  Tlie ~.  iiistruinents iii coiiiiiion use.*
eii~st is n~oister than tlie E.  C(iuiitries
lyilig ti tiie ~~indward of great railges of    5258. F roni all these facts and reasioniiiiiiint:iiiis, or extensive forests, are wanner  ings, it ii pl~ears that a slight diflereiiee (if
ian tli~ise to leew aril.   Siiiall seas are  elevatioii iii a iiioiontaiii~ius district (if 1 lios
~`arii'er in sutanoer and colder in winter  eoiiiitry, ~vliieli lois so high a Iiarall~~l (of
tliaii piirtions of great oi~eans, they being  latituile, iii.'iy iiiake a eiinsiilerable diflbraffected by tlie c~indition of tlie surrioiiiid-  ence (iii t lie liical el iiiiate  aii~l tlioit, ~itlier
lug loud.  Low colii?tries ire`varnier tli~n  tliiij~s i.e iii:iiiiing tlie sanie, tliiit foiroit
lii~li, and le~ el plains tliaii iiiountainous  " lii~li i~ lii~lily ele~ ated lias a git.ttor
regiiiiis.  Places situate{l u'iiin tlie  able  eliaiice if beiiig affected by changes (if
mountain chain, neai ly in tlie saiiie lati-  eliin~ite than olie ion a lo~~er le~ el, ~et
tuile anil at tlie sanie height, have ~iften  liocal eirciiiiist:inees have a ina'erial iiiflu~ery diffeient ~liiiiates.  ~ lo~ tenipei.itiire  cioce ~n ieiiilei ing t lie geneial positiiiii of
~~liieli would be pro~ icr to a Ii lice 1 erfeetly  aiiy in riot less desir:ilile, stieb as, V iciiiity
isolated, is necessarily itoodifi eti by a,ciin-  to a l:ike or noarslt, ~ir a lee~j~ard pliSitilili
~oderable nuniber of cireunostanecs.  ~ bus,  to a Ii ill or large wood on relereioce to tile
~ Enc~cThpcdia Britannica-art. Climate, 7th edition. 
liLl-gut;1- I'Ie I);tsEC~s o1- I11 Wlielll 110 large
lake *ir woo-l exists, is very little subject
to violent winds.       In exposedl   s        ituations,
the sinow lies long,,  and thie %winds  are
keen;   while in shjeltered  positions the
snow  soon  disappears, a-nd the wind  is
gentle.    These  clifferent  circumstances
pio(.tuce a  sensible  effbet- on   tlhe local
cliolhlte of a  small country like Great
13iitalin; and varied as it is ini its pllysical
geograp,lhy, and surrounded on all sizdes by
water, they lav,-e tlhe effect of (dividIini,, the
cout,tky into as many climnate-s as there
are varieties of surface and diflc-reices of
p.ositio.)n.  Suclh local inifluetces, in  most
seas,,ns, hlave a greater effect (on the time
of;,,i-(wthj, quantity and(I (quallity of the
pro,luce of the eartl, than tlhe general
climnaLte  of  the country;  altlhouighi the
l,-tter exercises a p)redomiiinating, influience
in somne seasons, by excessive hieait or rain,
so as to overcome all local influences, and
to stamtip a generality of character over
the season.
as  1l riIs, nave renaereel  tle Soli alrer In
e,May "i tl.an it could have been, previously
to its liaving(  been enclosed and drained
and cultivated; and.it must conlseqliiently
absorb and retain much mniore of the wariii
sumnier rain (f(or but little usually flows
off) than it dlid in ain uncultivated state;
and as water, in c-4oling, is known  to( give
out miuclh helat to surrounding bodlies, illicll
warmth  iiiust  be  co(iiniunticatel  to tllho
groun(l, and tis cannot fail to affect  the
temperature of the following auttiiiin. The
warnm auittumnal rains, ill conjunctio,n with
tli(se of siii:miiiner, iimtust necessarily operate
powerfully  lupon the  teinperature  of the
saeceediet,e winter."  Hence, a wet  sunimner antl -litlllin are succeedled b)y a nil(d
winter; an(l  when  NE.  winds  l)revail
after  tlhose wet  seasons,  the  Awinter is
always cl (rdi(l v i(ind etol(, l)ut witlhout severe
,frosts;  proloblaly, in part,  owiit, to the
groulnd  ii.)oni tlhe opposite sliores  of  the
Continelit alul of tllis country being, in a
similar state. Thle fact  adduce(  ly AiMr
Kiiighlit in slol(rt of tilis opilii(n is that
of thle c(olltiiiii  lalurel witlistianding the
cwinter, ni,twitl~stat(ldinig its being placed
in a lii(gli anid exI()ose(l sitiuation, and its
vwoo(d  ii(,t I)eilgtr  ripene(l  in  Nove-)iber.
t iii ll,ft,sil r  tiie grolund," continues  Mr
KIlit, " t) co(ntain  less  water  in  the
coiiiiienceiiieit of winter, on accoiint of
tthe o()eratiotns of the drains  al)ove-lllentionedl, as it alm)ost always will an(l generally niust do, mtore of the water afl(,rde(l
by the dissolvitng snows and( the col]( rains
of winter will le necessarily absorledt  by
it; and in the end of February, however
52'j'9. I they here,t(l%,ert to a generally
received opitiii-)n -,among, Barriers and others
who'are nation expose(] in the air, that the
Weather of Gre,-tt Bi-itaiii ltas cli,-in-,-,e(I
iiiateri-,tllv witijin the iiieiiioi-y (,f the 1.)resent Generation. I aiii (ieci(le(ily of this
opinion I observe tlia,t Alr Kiiiglit,
tijo late eiititient I)otaiiic,-il pliysiolo,,ist,
expressed himself on this select in there
worries:-" My own liabits and I,)tirstiits,
front a A-ei-y early period of my life to the
pre,serit titiie, ( i 829,) have letl nie to expose
myself itiucti to the weather in all seasons 
this  subject.'The  temperature of  tlhe
locality ihas a considerable influence on all
crops.    Tile late Professor Playfitir assuntledl  that  the  lowest  temiperature  it
whlichl corn yvill vegetate  is 4()0~, aind that
coIni will iiot ripenl below a  teiiiperatuare
of 48'. I-le propose(d to  (late  thje vegetating season fronm  20tlh Marcli to tlhe 20tl
Octoler, anad considered'.)6' as the  mieani
teniperature of a good vegetating seas, t.+
It iiiay therefore be  assumiied, thlat if tile
utmean  tenil)erature  of a  place, letw een
Mareli adtl October, is below 50~, it is niq,t
likely to bear  goo(l  crops.   Theil altitt!e
of a pIlace affects its telplerature miateri
ally.   We  liave seeni tl.hat anii altitudle,f
5904 feet iiiakes a diflereiee of 1~ of iieinii
teiii)eriatuiire- iiakiiig tle eflfect of  eltvatioll the same,   an increaise o)f l.ititu(le.
b'llis is a point wlicli is very liable to  be
overlooke(d  in the interioir l'i the couJiitry
whiere  an elevaLtiol is iliselsibl)y  gafille,l
iiiucli beyonil belief. Tile (coullltry iiiav
appear pleasant, andt everytling indlit'ative
of a good climate, l)bit, ol itnquiry, it iiiivybe ft)iinl to bt)e (600 o)r 8(,)  feet ab)ove  tli.e
level of the se —-an eleation in  wili(clh
whleat will not ripeii, and  at whlichll evetli
barley will be a precarious crol, iii iiilly
sea.sons.  At  siuch an elevationi it is iitt
iimn)rolbable that one or two crops nmay i,e
lost in the course of a lease of 19  years.
In stilch situations, tlie daily ran,ge of tihe
telmperature is great, descending  low at
5261. Sitnce elevation of position ab-)ove
tle sea is a mnaterial elemetit in deterimiininig tile local climate, it is of some imiiportance for you to ascertain thje lheighIit (of
your farim  above tile level of thle sea.   If
you know thlat l)yotlier iiieans-naniely, by
trig,olioinetry-tlie infornlmation is sufficient
for your pu rpose; but slooul(e yoa neot be
acqitaititel witlh  its elev,atioli, whvlichi is
uisutally tlhe case witlh farmers, tile  niean
ljeighlIt of tlhe baroineter will  ascertaini it
bxy a series of simnple oliservatiotns, tna(le
at a giveen timtie, ov-er a yea-isror iore. For
examipl)le, " tile stuni tif one year's ob-)serv,ations, miiad.eat 10 A.M. ad 10 P.MI. ill 1827,
was  21615.4t0 incelhes; andi( this niuimber,
dlivitle(1 by  the inut,l)er of  observ-ations,
730, or twice the numi-ber of days in tlhat
year,  gave  29.(;10  inclhes as  the mean
hxeigzt,r cllangreall)le l(),int of the  t)aroiiieter." t    -No)w, t akilllg  tlhe, miiean lheiglht
of tile -bariom(ieter.tt 29.948  incelses at  the
mliea.nIi  level of the sea., wvhiere the  atlltisphl}ere always inidica,tes tlje greatest den,sity, deduced fromii niine yeairs' observations at the miieatn tempilera,ture of the air
w itih a rantge fr-oni'28 incelhes to 31 inclhes,
it is seen that tile instance add(iticedI ab>ove
of  29.610  inichles,ives.338  of anii  inchi
less thiatn the mean, wIich, by the table
itl (86) indicates an elevation of thje place
of observation of about  265 feet  above
* Knighlt's IIorticultural Papers, p. 307-9.    + Quarterly Journal of Agiculture, vol. iii. p. 3
+ 7Tran.actions of the?oyal Society of tldinburyh for 1800.
fromthitleir extenlsive groves of-oaks.*' 
UU)tJtIlll tiiU Utatitl OLC   UIV[I'lt  k'L- i
friend,  wlho is well  acquainted  with the
part of the country in which the  farm is
situate; or any one well versed in farming
will answer tile purpose.
intervals-is deserving of inquiry; also,
whether the locality is affected by vapour,
thereby experiencing  more  cloudy than
clear (lays.  The lowness or highness of
the dew point has a material effect upon
crops.  The relation between local climate
and the growth and productiveness of the
different crops, you thus see, is deserving
of your utmost attention.  What  effect it
has upon tl)e money-rent of land it is not
easy to determine; but that land so situate is of less value than that which is not
affected by such local influences, cannot
admlit of doubt.
5268. On judging of the soil, the subsoil requires as much attention as the soil,
and it cannot be reached but with a spade.
Pits must  be dug through soil and subsoil, to ascertain the nature and texture of
both, and whether they are similar or dissimilar in character. Most commnonly they
are dissimilar; for, although they  may
have been originally  sinilar, cultivation
and the application of various ilnanures,
and the eftrcts of the roots of grown)ing
plants, will hase so changed the properties of the upper soil as to render it quite of
a different character.from  the  subsoil.
Froml  the niaturle of the deposit in the
Carse of Gowie, it is probable tlat the
agrictiltural soil anl subsoil (344) were
at oboe timte sitmiilar, and that ally,litference remiari-ked now is tile effect,,f cultivation only. Tlte following analyais
of the  (sil and subsoil bly Dr  Andlerson,
Clhetist to the HIiglland and AgriculturaLl
Society,  of a soil farned  by iMr Walker
5263. Land cannot be judged of at all
seasons, or at any given period.  It may
be covered by snow, when it is shrouded
from all inspection.  It may be saturated
by rain, when it is impossible to walk over
It.  It may be hard frozen, when it w                      ill
not yield to the foot or the spade.  It mlay
be covered with a crop, when the texture
of tile soil cannot be examined.  Practically, the soil cannot be examined when
placed under any of these circumstances.
5264. When  the soil is well known,
perhaps the best season to inspect a fiLtrmn
is just theft,re harvest, when every species
of crop is in the fullest luxuriance-in
which case you do not require so much  to
know tihe nature of the soil, as the coindi- 
tion it.is in; and if it be out of condition,
5267'- I should nientiou, that it is con-,
,sidere(I atfiongst farniers a dislionour-.tble
act to look at- a farm -until you are assured
it is in the market, by the- Iiiowle(l(,e that
the tenant-is to leave it, or by,tdvertise.ment in the newspaperotlierwise it is
an unfeeling act, and regarded as equi,alent to takin- the farni over his lie-,id.'
el
ON THE JUDGING OF LAND. 
JUDGING OF LAND.
Rannie of Inclhyra, on the banik of tile
Tay near Errol, will shIow what I have
just stated:-                                     i
easily ren,dered fertile, and kept so b)y the
tiunuerouis  Tnatnur es now at   comamudtitll.
What is on the retentive subsoil, requtires
draining before it cail be  rendered  pernianentitly fertile withl any kind of niallitre;
but, onll being drained and mnanture(l, it is
capable of yielding, good crops,  whlether
green or of grain.
ISubsoil.
2.17/ 1
1.0450
,1.2756
1.3938
6;.2303
0.0396
0.2680
...
0.02)OO
14.2470
61.6358
6.8270
4.5750
99.7032 -
Potash,
Soda,
Litne,
M agnesia,
Peroxide of iron.
Suplhuric acid, 
Phospll1oric acid,.
Carbonic acid,.
Chllorine,
Alumina,
Silica,
Organic matter,
W'ater,..
5271. A  thin  hlard clay is (often ni)et
witl,l and allnost always on a retentive
subsoil.   Tlis invariably  requires (raining and  manuring, and at first, even after
the  draining, requires  much  labour to
render it loose and friable.   Ultii,ately
it becomes a tolerably good soil, and will
bear fair crops every year, provided it is
liberally manured in  the course  of  tlhe
rotation.
Tt will be observed that the soil contains
mnore potash and soda than the subsoil,
which hlave no doubt been added to it by
the ing,redients emnployed as manure.  This
soil has never been known to have been
limed, and h}ence cultivation  has taken
away a portion of its lime; and the same
remark applies to its magnesia. No doubt,
also, that cultivation would decompose a
part of its peroxide of iron. The silica
would be inicreased by cultivation, and so
would the organic matter even in greater
proportion; and the subsoil may be sllpposed to have always more water in it thtan
thle so,il, part of thle moisture of uwhichl is
constantly exposed to evaporation.  (457.)
.5272. A  thlin loose  soil, resting on a
reteative subsoil, is also often,inet-'witlh.
It requires  draining and  manuring,. but
not so much  work as the last mientione,l.
It is weak in constitution, anld hungry as to
manure, nor is it easily satisfied-iiot that
it hlas capacity to take a large dose. at a
time, but will take it'frequently.  A little
mixture of the subsoil by trencli-plotgl,iing,
doe s  it muchl  good, and  ultimately,  lly
kind treatment, in eating off turnips witl
sleep, it will carry fair crops.
5273. A  soil is not unfrequently  met
witl  wlhilc h   is  deep  enotughi, in as  far
as the  opera tion of the  plough is contlcerted, but is of -)lack colour.  It is (lem f,
very soft, and apt to be carried forward
on tlie breast of thie plougl.   The  straw
grown by this soil is thjick  enouglJ, but
soft and  brittle, and apt to lodge in wet
weather; and  thre graint, tlhougi l, sufficiently al)unllant, is  thi ck-skinned and liglt.
Sucf s   a soil, tloug h deep, often  res ts ai)ont
retentive clay, and is easily affected by
wet, althlioughi it will withstand drouglht
for a long timne.  This soil Ihas at one tinm
been a  vmi(.or, and yields crops  readily at
first,  but  dloes niot continue  to improve.
It is muclh improved by thior(,ugh-ddr-.iniig,
and trencl,-plouighing the subsoil anmongst
it.
5269. A considerable diversity of soil
may be expected to be found on most
farms.   Thtose  whiclh exhibit thle most
unifo rm soils are on (liluvial deposits, as in
the Carse of Gowrie, as also peaty soils
on high pastoral districts; and tlhe greatest diversity is presented by sandy and
clav soils, bothl whlichl may be found in the
sa;ie farm.  Diversity of soils is no oobjectiou to a farm, as it admiiits of variety in the
rot+ation (,f cropping,, a chlange of crops, and
a  clhlance for tlem to meet tale exigency of
a difference in seasols. To possess a diversity of so,il in the miiost convenient formii,
they slhould occupy separate fields.
5270. The soils commonly met witlh in
far, us are, a tolerably deep clay loamii
restilig on a po(rous or a retelntive subsoil.,
Tlat whichl rests on a naturally porous
subsoil is a good soil for every kind of crop, 
whether green or of grain, and mnay be
* Transotions of the Higiland and.A9ricultUIral Society, July 1850, p. 296.
4 tY5
soil.
2.8001
1.4392
0.81300
1.0200
4.1;700
0.0911
0.2400
O.O.,00
0.0093
14.0400
6.i. 1954
1 8.5508
2.7000
99.8364
52,i-4. A -soil of quite an opposite cliaraster may be.fouud-a sliarligmvel tipoii a 
REALISATION.
will  be found  the  tliinnest, and  in tlie
)holli,ws tlie'tihickest part of thle soil.  Tlhe
s)a(le thrust into the bottomii of an open fur row will slhow at once *hlietlier the soil is
thick or thinj; an(i if thick in the furrow, it
cannot fail toE be so 4)li the rilg,e.  It is not
easy by words to describe the chlaracters
of a. good or bal soil, or to point out the
distinction in regard to tlieir state of fertility.  It is only their phllysical prolperties
that  we  can ascertain; and  as  I lhave
alrealy giveen these very  minutely, froIni.
(333) to (343,) they nieed not be repeated
lHere; and to judge of these the land requires to be  in  the ordinary  workable
state-not saturate(d with rain, nor ftozen
hard, nor burnt up withl drought.   All
clay soils feel hard, or rather firni un(ler
the foot; loanis feel soft.   Smootli deep
soils feel as in walking over a thick carpet, and( thin soils as over a thin one on a
l,ard floor.  Soils in hrigh condition  (349)
possess friability; in poor condition, tlhey
are either hard or too loose.'  The  miark
of the foot in soil in good condition is soon
obliterated, by the elasticity  of its parti cles;  but when in poor condition, it is
eithler indelible  or remains  a lotg tinie
impressed.   In low condition, soils seemi
ibleached   by  the   weather,  are,,,ore
diversified in colouir, are  in, wa.it  botlh
of  labour and manure, andl are generally
foul withl weeds.   Very thin clays (350,)
lilahungry, (351,) and (leaf soils (3.5;,)are
of doubtful character, and yiel  returns
only accor'ding to the artificial conditii,n
into whichl they are put.  As to this coniditiori, it will be requisite to ascertain whether
or not they have beeni dirainted, wrotulght,
an(l lirne(l, and well  farriie(l; anil if thley
ldhave  been so treate(l, and still indicate
weakness, want of stamnina, exlhaustioiii, or
a bleachedi appearance, it may  l,e concluded that thley wvill bear little irll)provenient; but slhould they hlave been neglected
under th-ese syiil)toiiis, d(raining,, limaniuriilg,
and good tillag,e iiiay iiake tlhen  assume
a muchl better aippearance in the courslle of
a few yea,rs.
gratvelly aporous subsoil,  wlhlih is adnmirfably
;al.apsted  to raise turnips witlh  bone-duist,
forms tl e best lair tor shleep) on turniips in
winter, anti(i,ever tktils to lay thick fat on
tlhe kl(idieys.   Botih sti-'aw aitl grain fromii
this s,,il, tho(ugh'l niot   abundant iii quantity,
arie of fti,e quality.
5275. The most uncommiion soil is a deep
uictuouis clay of  uniforimi texture, botih
on  thle sitirfce and  under the  reaclh  of
the  plIoug,l.    It is caipab)le  of growii,ng
lar,ete cltr(ps of  gr ain       and           straw, anwl is less
ad(lt,ted for green crops.   It is difficult to
wor-k, thjougthi  this  l,)rope,.ty  miight be
greatly.altered by draining.
527,t. Aniotler kintl is  deep,  dry,  ric           hi
allli-ial Idleposits, eithleri in flats along  tlhe
banks of rivers or in the bottomii of valleys,
conistitutil,g   lirLughi-lan(l.    Tl,is  soil  is
equally fit to grow grain and green  cr-opS,
is  easily  imiainitaine(d  in  a ligh,  state  of
fertility, an(lis easily wroug,hIt.  It requires
little or no drainingi,.
5277. A   tlin peaty  soc             il    is foun( l in             ci
larg,e extent upon  iniany of our pastoral
falrl, anil( is imuheli imipr-ove(d in its capalility to grow natural pastuire by  sheep
drains l,(,)i  and(I urader thje surface.  WIhien
so) drainedi  it is ren(dlere(  sounid lan(d for
shleept; whlen not, tley are apt to take the
rot up)on)t it in certain seasoms.
52,8. Bo, egy soils  ar        e             also met witl
to pretty lairge extent in. parts of  the
couniitry in  hollows, whelIer  (on a h,w
level or elevate(d pl)aiin.  They are of no
,,se to the )lo,,gl,, or f,,r live-stock, titntil
first drained; al then ni,i)st of them yield
lirg,e returns in,lain, green crops, or
in. mieado(w.
5279. Pure san(Is are tnet with itl certaini pairts a(l'oinitig the miargin  of the sea,
or (oii estul-aries.  WhIeni cultiv-ated. witli the
pIolog,,  they yield( pretty go.l crops witli
a constant supi)ly of iiianuire; and( wihden            a      y
iii lasture, supply a short sweet  lierlba,e
f,r -heep.
5281. If a considerable  variety of soil
exists on tie farin, it slioulil be observedl
whletlher they occupy different fields, which
is a fav(ura-l)le arrangeiiient, or whliether
the same  field hlas a great  diversity of
tithem, whlichl will  be found troublesome.
Thl:e amount of thle good  and bad soils
496
:)280. All tljese varieties of soil are
ju(I,efi 4)f in  tlje sanie nianner. Every
field must be walke(I over, and when
diversity of surf.-ice exists, the knolls and
Hollows iiiust be traversed. On the knolls 
ESTIMATING THE RENT.
thte public road.  Shelter by high land or
woods fioiii thle N., wlhence come cold winds
and  frost; an(l from  thie SW.,  wlience
blows  the strongest  and  most sllaking
wind.  Market town of a moderate size to
supply tle luxuries of life.  Coal and lime,
and extraneous manures, at a shoit distance fioin a railway station,a hiicli if on the
farm, so  muchl  thie  more  convenient.
Grin(ling-mill of whieat and oats in the
vicinity.   It is barely possible for  one
farm  to possess all these advantages, and
it is not  possible  foir every fairm of  a
country to possess them all; but the more
of  tlhemn  are conjoined,  the better for
the farm.  It is not easy to determine tihe
difference in thle mnoney value, caused by
the presence or the want of all these conveniencies, but it cannot fail to be considerable.
should be summed up separately, and seen
which prevail.  If the bad only occupy
from a fourthi to  a        thir d     of the whole, the
fairm may be re ardet  as a good  one, and
its character for excellence will descend oii
tile quality of its good soil; but s houl d
half of it be bad, the proportion is too
great for the good soil to do justice to itself, and assist the bad; and where the
p roportion of bad increases beyond the
half, the value of tile good falls very
rapidly.  Whether on good soil or bad, it
is better to succeed a slovenly farmer than
a tolerably good one:- for the latter has
sufficient skill to make  the land do  its
utmiiost, with the least means of ainelioration, and to wear it out, and no state of land
is so difficult to recover its tone as when
worn out.  A  slovenly farmer may leave
the land ill a dirty state, and unpleasant to
the eye, but he has rarely the skill to wear
it out. But tlhe fortunate chance is to succeed a farmer wlho has l)roug-,ht his farm
into, and has kept it, and leaves it, in
full bearing.
5284. All the varieties of soil mentioned
above are to be found on the various sorts
of farms existing in this country.  It is
not to be supposed! that the value of all
these soils is to be estimated on the same
principle, since some only produce grain,
and others only support live stock; but
whatever may be tile nature of their products, it is clear that the value of every
soil must depend  up,,n their qmldity and
amount.
5282. Part of the farm may be in an
uncultivate(l state, which is not the most
()I)jectionable part in a worn-out  farm.
Its soil will be fresh, and will be brought
to bear well sooner tlhan  old  worn-out
land.  This portion may be useful in permliittiug the older land to lie in grass to re(-ruiit for a longer period than an ordinary
rotation, w*hereby it will recover its tone,
aii(l bear better crops afterwards.
5285. TIle  fixed niloley-rent of arable
land may b)e estiiiinated l)y taking the gross
fiaiount of corn the  farmn is capable of
growing, and  the numbl)er of live stock it
can  fatten in the course of a year; and
delducting tlherefrom the expenses incidental to cultivation and the care of stock;
and  on allowing a reasonable percentage
o(n the capital invested by the tenant, thle
rema,linder is regarded as the sumiii pa,iyableto the laindlor(l in rent; )but as this last
Siilln, onl this supposition, woulnl va-ry accor(ling to seasons, a Uxed  one  is subl)stittite(l in its stead, as the rent to  i,e
annually paid for thie farm.  This mode of
estiinitifng thle rent is applicable to carse
farmiink, to farnis in the neigh,bourhlood (,f
towns, and at a distance fromn towns whereI
the nmixed husbandry is not practised.
5283. The tm ost desirac)le                     aspphoiitments
f     o     r             th   st,rei of nih          xe(d lsusband(lry to possess
are these:-Extent from 200 to 800 acres.
Scil, deep  light clay-loam, cap able     of
n)eatri dn,  n turnip  s  and wlheat, ineTulbent on
: naturally porous subsoil.   A  turnpike
anil a parish road crossing at its centre.
Fields  rectangular, and  com)iprelienditng
fr~lll 20 to 30 acres  eacl.   Fences  Of
thorns l!e(lg,es.  Ground gently slopiln, or
ulall,-tting, to  the S. Elevation  not
exceed ling, 200 feet.ab)ove the sea.  Water
fi'olli  srt, or  rivulets, accessilble to
every field.   Steadinjg situate near  the
centre of the farm, capacious enoulghrll to
contain all tile cattle in winter, anl coin*enient for every barn-work.  Two  or
three paddocks near the steading for
ca,tIves, &c.  Comfortable farm-llouse and(
neat garden, not far from the steading, and
VOL. IX.
497
ON ESTIMATING TIIE RENT OF A FAITM.
5286. The fixed rnoney-rent of a pas                                2 I 
REALISATION.
toral farm may also be estimated by the
gross number of stock, whether of sheep
or cattle, or of both, the farm can support
in the course of a year; and in deducting
the expenses attending the rearing of the
stock, and a percentage on  the capital
invested in theni, the remnainder is the
rent due to the landlord.  But as this sumn
would also fluctuate, as well as that in
the case of the arable farmrn, the practical
result is either to pay a fixed suti annually, or a sumt per head for all the stock
the land can support during the year.
duce upon which  the fluctuations in price
can b   e  m ad  e  to b ear is the  grain, whether
it be of  one  kind or of a ll the    kinds
usually  cultivated on the  farm. Whl   eat
was a t  first   cho sen as the grain   wthose
price should regulate the fluctuating psortion of the rent;   because,  althoepgce   the
absolute fluctuations in its price w ere
great, the relative fluctuations in refer,encie
to   the  P   pric e  of th e  oth er  sorts of grain were
not    so great,  n ot exceeding 100 per cent.
But  on many farms  no   wheat -was raised,
and thee possessors-of thhem were naturally
apprehensive that the price of a grain
which they did not  cultivate  would  not
fairlyrepres ent t he pr iceexigible o n the sorte
or sorts of grain which they did raise. At
tlhe same time, the price of wheat could
not be disregarded, as it no doubt fixes
the relative prices of the other sorts of
grain; and that species of grain, besides,
constitutes a large proportion of the crop
of the -kingdom. All inconveniences  in
the matter were disposed of by adopting,
the price of the three grains most comiimonly grown in the country —wheat, barley, and oats —and their cumulative prices
per  quarter afford  data  by which to
estimate the gross value of the grain raised
on the farm.
5287. The fixed money-rent of a dairy
farm  may  be  estimated  by the gross
:amount of butter and cheese it will yield
.in the course of the year; and, on deduct-ing the expenses attending its manage:ment, and the percentage of the capital
!invested in it, the remaining sum should
.be given to the landlord in rent; but, as
in the other cases, a fixed sum is named
for the fluctuating one, or a sum is payable
-ifor~every cow the farm will support during
~.the year-in which case the landlord has
ithe farm in his own hands, and supplies
(the cowvs with food.
5288. TI)e fixed money-rent of a farm
for mixed husbandry may be estimated
by taking the gross amount of the produce
in grain, and of the draft cattle and sheep,
.and wool sold; and, after deducting the
,expenses and percentage of capital, the
s    to be paidl in rent is found.
'by taking the gross aitount of the produce     59.Btarn   adetrl   rn
.in grain, and of the draft cattle and sheep,  tefutaigpieo  ri  sstsatr
.and wool sold; and, after deducting thetonihrlnlrnoteat Whnte
,expenses and percentage of capital, theprcsikveylweierfonacx
sum to be paid in rent is found.
5289. Were the price of farm-i,roduce
-a fixed element, a fixed money rent would
be most convenient for the tenant to pay,
and the most equitable for the lan(llord to
receive; but as price has fluctuated to an
inordinate degree in the course of years-    i
from  1771  to 1842  that of wheat"' hlas
absolutely fluctuated 3(;4, of barley.eLr
and of oats 314 per cent-and as pric's
~has gradually fallen from the end of thle
war ill 1815 to thle present tinie, 185(),
iit seeims reasonable, on the part of the
tenants, to desire to have the rents so
adjusted as to become thle true exponents
.of the  fluctuations  iiin price -  often)er
.at least than the fixed. money -rent hlas
hitherto been, if it cannot certainly be d  o ne
;at all times.
5292. A  compromise  seems necessary
to meet the cases of both parties, and it is
effected in this mlanner:-I,et one half of
thle estimated rent be always paid in cash,
and the other half  i n grain, the valute of
which at the cumulative price per quarter
of wheat, barley, and  oats, fixed by  the
fiars, or the general average prices of the
country, shall be equal in amount to the
half-paid in cash at tihe ti me the rent was
estimated. The grain half of the rent will
498
-529,0. Th-e onl. Partcif the. farm-lpro 
ESTIMATLNTG THE RENT.
fluctuate thereafter with the average price,
as it rises or falls.   For example-supposing the rent of the farmn had been estimnated at  ~1000  a-year, and that the
average prices of grain at the time were,
for wheat 40s., barley 22s., and oats 16s.
per quarter, so that about 1 28 quarters of
each sort of grain at those prices respectively would make up half the rent, thus:
lhe Rent,....       1000  0 0
In Cast,.12... ~6 0 0
In Grain   Wheat, 128 qrs. at 40ts;256  0 0
Barley, 12,..  22s. 140 16 0
Oats,  128..  16s. 1012  8 0
128    78s. 4-)9 4'-:499 4 0  999 4 o
and, calculating these at      the current prices,
thie total value o f t he  prod uce is aseertained, and the  r    en    t determined which the
far m c        an a  fford to p ay.  Although  they
estimat e the rent  of the land i n its existirng condition, they judge, besides, whether
the land is capable of producing more by
better farin)]Dg, and give the rent a latitude ill the offer to be made.  Upon this
last uncertain  element,  however, nmally
rents have been offered beyond the intrinsic
value of the land,m and when seasons becomne unprolitious, or prices fall, or the new
tenant proves himself an indifferent farmer,
the rent he promised is soon found to be
too high for his skill.
In future, no change would take place in
the ~500 paid in cash; but the ~499, 4s.,
rised from the 128 quarters of each sort
of grain, would vary every year, more or
13ss, with the average prices.   Or, the
conversion of a money rent into a grain
one nmay be done in another way.   Suppose that tile ~1000 a-year is 25s. the
acre, then 78s., tile cumulative price of
wheat, barley, and oats, per quarter,: 8,
the bushels in a quarter,::  25s.:
2.564 bushels of eacil kind of grain, which,
at the respective prices per quarter, give
24s. I 1 d. per acre.
5295. "One glf thechi   ef argument  s in
favour of a constant money   rent," say s  an
intelligent  writer  o n  this   suhject, "in
opposi tion to  e ve ry kind of  fluctuating
rent, is this that, however ill the former
Iay be  adapted  to the times, or    howev er
widely it meay differ from th e  nlaturalurent
of the farm, the tenant, from knowing its
exact amount, can regulate his other expenditnure a c cordingly, a nd  the proprietor
receiving such rent    kno ws exactly  wha t li e
has to spend. Nowv, as to the tenant, it:
appears to us that lie is better enabled to
regulate his expenditure by knowing the
quantity, or nearly so, of his produce-say
the number of stacks of wheat which he
must lay aside as rent —than by knowing
the sum of money when he is yet ignorant
what proportion that sum will bear to the
gross return from his farm.  As  regards
the proprietor, again, we conceive that
the virtual value of his income is fiily as
ste ady when  made up of produce-rents as
money-rents.  Thjis resuilts froml the fact
that the staple products of the country,
such as corn, butchers' meat, and wool,
are the  chief regulators  of the  value of
money.  Tihus, if tile proprietor s income
be regulatedl by these, or even  by  the
most important of: them, h'e liay calculate
on being. ale always to obtain out of it
pretty nearly thele same quantities of  the
necessaries, and even of the luxuries of
life.  But eaten if it were someadv antage,
in ordinarv cases, faor both partiesltt know
the amount of money in place of produce
h llsethey have to give and receive, such
knowledge would be of little  consolatioln
to thle tenant, when that money becomes
double of what he would  hlave to give, or
5293. The rate of interest on money
sholld( enter as an element in the calculation of rent; because, the rate of profit
derivable from the capital invested in the
farm should vary with the general rate of
interest.  Titls, if the farmner expects 15
per cent on his invested capital when the
rite of interest is 5 per cent, like other
reople in trade, lie slhuld be content with
12 per cent when the rate falls to 4 per
cent.  If the rates (If profit and interest
lear a different relation ii the country,
the  facnder,      of c rurse,                 m eust subunit  to the
general conditions of tralde.
5294. But rent is seldom estimated by
sucli a roundlabout Tiletl(ld, since experien(e litas taiughlt p)racticll niment to comlle to
a conclusion at once, as to the caupa.Lbility
of every soil, in, the condition they view it;
and it is this criterio,n (,f thie lilaturity of
their juid,gmnetnt that stamps an intrinsic
value,ii their advice.  Tiiev estimate the
acreable amlllunt of grain wlhich the land
will produce, and the quantity of stock it
will support, in the condition they see it;
499, 
REALISATION.
to the proprietor, when it is only half of
what hlie would have to get, were a new
bargain to be made.   Thlat such  cases
have often happened with farms let in
fixed money-rents, during  the last half
century, no one in the least acquainted
with the history of British agriculture will
deny.  There appears, therefore, to be no
sulch advantage in'a constant rent over a
fliuctuatin,, one, fromn tlhe sure fixedness of
the one over the variableness of the other,
as to make us prefer the former, if the
latter can be better proportioned to the
iiieans of paying it.
engaged in  raising c orn,   a grain-rent
seems almost indispensable for it, to protect both landlord and tenant from the
great fluctuations which beset the cornmilarket.
5300. When calculated in the manner I have
described, rent may be regarded as the natural
value of the land.  It is based on the  supposition that the land is worth the sum at the time
of the estimate.   It also takes for granted tha,t
the farm is complete in all its appointments —
the house, the steading, the fences, and also that
the land is in fair condition. It may also be regarded as a rack-rent-that is, the highest value
the land can bear at the time.
5296. "Tile propriety of making tile
rent fluctuate evidently depends meluch  on
the duration of the agreement whether as
origintially determined, or as tacitly prolonged.   Tihe natural rent of land for a
single season can be calculated with a probability of sufficient accuracy to justify
the (ffer and acceptance of a fixed rent for
it.  For a period, however, such as that to
which leases usually extend, it is difficult
to estimate rents with  ain approach  to
acculracy, even  duriing  the most  undisturbed progress of legislation and of agriculture.    During   the   extraordinary
changes which  this country has experienced  in its a,ricultural, as well as comaminercial, political, and  social  condition
within the last half century, the calealation of rents for the period  has been
little else than wild conjecture, and the
pecuniary condition  of  proprietors  anid
tenants hlave in many instances been reversed.
3301. But when these appointments are incomplete-the house  bad  or   awanting-the
steading incommodious-the fences dilapidated,
or the land in wretched  order,-the rent  must
be modified to suit the particular state of the
farm. What proportion of the rent ought to be
deducted for a bad farm-house, a bad steadinig,
bad fences, it is not easy to decide; but from
2s. 6d. to 5s. an acre may not be unreasonable.
And for bad condition of the soil, from 5s. to IOs.
an acre is not too great a deduction, since it may
require from L.5 to L.10 an acre to put it into
heart. The estimate of the deterioration by
such exigencies, in the shape of pecuniary deductions, converts the rent into a covenanted
one, and it assumes that character also when the
tenant undertakes to build, or fence, or drain;
but when the landlord undertakes to supply the
deficiences, the  covertanited rent is still acted
upon, because it is a covehuaniited one, and a percentage is paid over- and above  by the tenant,
as the deficiences are all remedied; but whetiever the entire rent, including the percentag,
is payable, it becomes the natural one.
5297. "It is  obvious  that excessive
gain or loss to either party-both  prejildicial to the advancenient of agriculture
-would have been avoided, or at least
greatly imodified, had rents been proportioned(t  t the balance of income ove            r expendlitutre, out of whichl  balance rent is
payable.  Tile necessity of making renits
fluctuate was thus most felt where leases
were granted.  It was therefore in Scotland, andi the parts of En,gland where this
iiode of tenure prevailed, that a system of
rent regulated by the price of grain originatel, and still exists to a considerable
extent." *
5302. Both the natural and covenianted reits
may be either Conistantt or fluc-tuatiing; and I have
shown above that the partially fluctuating renit is
the tafest for the tenant.
of arranging the grain
re, (5292,) is not quite
udes the value of  the
o be regulated by that
ough a correspondence
no do ubt be  observed,
i between the'values of
there  is often such a
heir prices in differenlt
rent calculated from the
tationi of that payable
tural rent payable for
5298. A carse clay-farm being entirely  fromn the other.  The na
Josrnal of AIriculture, January 1846, p. 137-9.
500,
.5299. A pastoral.f,,trm ha.3 nothing to do
with a grain-retit, its principle of real
being so'iiiucli money per acre for tiie
pasturage or so much money per head for
every sheep or ox it can support. 
ESTIMATING THE RENT.
true and proper elements in the calculation of
fluctuating grain rents; and in like manner, in
calculating the fluctuating rents payable on
cattle and sheep, the average acreable value,of
the  stock-feedinzg crops  throu.qhout the.odutity
ought to be taken rather than the average price
per stone of beef, mutton, and wool. I do not
say that this plan would entirely compensate for
the great depression of price occasioned by free
foreign imports.  I think it would  not; but it
would certainly cause less loss to the tenant than
any system of grain rents iin existence, and nmlch
less than any existing constant money rents.
stock is the value of the stock in the market, or
the value of the stock-feeding crops, such as
turnips, grass, hay.  The market value of               the
stock would be extremely difficult to ascertain,
since stock are brought into the market at all
ages, and in all conditions, and both dead and
alive; but the value of the stock-feeding crops is
as easily estimated as that of grain itself, and
their fluctuation also as easily estimated as those
of grain. On these accounts, the value obtained
by selling the stock-feeding crops to be eaten on
the ground and in the steading, ought to determine their portion of thie rent; and this mode
would have the advantage of being a simpler
guide than the value of the stock sold in any one
year, because their intrinsic value seldom corresl~oids exactly with the money received for them.
5306. The difficulty of determining the statistical facts of the annual average acreable produce of grain and of stock-feeding crops in each
county, is the only considerable obstacle to the
adoption of this theory of grain rent in practice;
and it is evident that, until those facts can be
ascertained, it will be impossible to institute the
system of grain rent recommended.
5304. From what has been said, it is price
alone -that has hitherto been attended to in regulating grain rents. " This we consider a glaring
defect in the system now followed," observes the
writer formerly quoted, "as applied to the pre.ent, and more especially to what we hope will
be the future state of our grain markets.  We
consider such a system in many instances to be
unfair to the proprietor, and in others to the
tenant.  It is unfair to the proprietor when the
crop of the county, and  therefore presumably
that of his own property, exceeds the average
quantity of many years' crops in a greater degree
than its price falls below the average; and for
tile teiianit, when the crop falls under an average
quantity to a greater degree than its price rises
above the average. But, suppose the fluctuations
in price to be exactly the reverse of the fluctuatioiis ill qulantity, the present method is far from
being a proper one for adjusting rent; because,
were the price to fall in the same proportion as
the acreable produce increased, the tenant ought
still to have the same  invome from his farm,
which beiniig obtained at a smaller outlay, he
would have a greater balance to pay rent from a
large cheap crop than from  a small dear one.
Hence the presenit system of grain rents is particularly unfavourable for the landlord when the
crop is abundant and cheap, and equally so fior
the tenant when  s(carty and dear.  Its only
proper and justifiable tendency seems to be, to
give the proprietor a share iii the benefit from a
rise in prices, when the rise is iiot produced by
a deficiency of crop, and to protect the tenant
against the  entire loss from  an  unlooked for
reduction of price through an iinuIndatibn of foreigni corn."' This latter casualty the tenant
was guarded against by protective duties; but
now that they are removed, no such guard exists
to protect him from any and every casualty that
may befall price.  Thie sooner, therefore, that the
mere element of price, in estimating grain rents,
is abandoned, the better for both landlord and
tenant.
5307. It may be well to recapitulate the advantages attending the recommended system, as
well as to meet the objections against it.  1. It
would give the landlord and  tenant their just
shares of  profit and loss from the  general i n.provemert of  agriculture, without influencing the
gain or  loss  due to the tenant for his peculiarly
good or bad management..  2. When his land is
let on a constant money rent, the lanldlord's only
benefit    from the  i nwar d produce of    the country,
on account of general improvements in agriculthhre, depends on the  frequent  disproportionate
increase in the value of money. When it is let
on the pr esent   mode of g rain  r ent, an  increased
pro duce by such m     eans  is rather a  loss than  a
gain to him, by its reducing the price, of grain
more than that of other commodities, and, consequently, it lowers his rental more than it raises
the value of money. I see no reason why the
proprietor should  not share with his tenant in
the variations'of the productiveness of the soil,
whether occasioned by the weather or by the applicationi of scieniee, as well as in the variation
of the prices. 3. By it landlords would derive
the additional advantage of choosing  skilful
tenants, who, by increasing the produce of their
farms, would raise the average produce of the
district, and consequently establish the means by
which their rents would  be increased.  4. An
inestimable benefit would result to the commuinity from the- adoption of this practice, by giving
proprietors a more immediate pecuniary'nterest
in increasing the produce of their estates, and of
the country around them, as also by its thus creating a strong inducement for them to reside on
their estates.  5. By proportioning their income
to the state of the country, such a mode of relits
would deprive proprietors of the most plausible
argument against granting leases, and would,
therefore, inidu(ce the practice, with its numerous
good consequences, to be greatly extended.
5305. The only remedy for this danger, which
is inow imminient tunder Free Trad(le, is to take the
acrea.lse arera.e of the county, as well as the average price of the regulating grains, as the only
* Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 145.
'501
5308. The only objection against the proposed
system is, that by reducing reiit as the average 
REALISATION.
produce diminishes, a premium on bad farming
would be established.  Such would no doubt be
the case were  the rent merely to vary with the
produce of the farm for which it is paid; but
when it is mainly dependent on the produce over
a large district, the objection is not a good one;
for the influence of a scanty crop of one farm in
reducing the average of the district would be so
small, and the loss fromi it to the farmer so great,
that the increasing productiveness of his farm
would be as much an object to him as any other
system of payment, and it would thus present
no temptation to relax his energies.
5312. Not unfrequently one sees in the  newspapers schemesforcalculating the value of agiveii
crop  p       er  acre by the p rices  as they fluctuate.
When  s uc sh schemes are intended for Englaiid,
wheat alone is the grain used as the basis of (calculation.  Such schemes usually display little
ingenuity.  A pivot, as it is called, is fixed upon,
and it is any sum which  the  concocter  may
choose to adopt. As the price of wheat rises or
falls one shilling a quarter, the rent for a given
number of bushels'per acre rises or falls two
shillings, and as the produce increases or diminishes by one bushel per acre, the rent rises or
falls three shillings per acre. Such is the usual
sliding up and down, backwards and forwards,
of all the schemes referred to, which are evidently
based on no principle whatever; are as imaginary
as any scheme can be; and are inapplicable, as a
general rule, even to the circumstances of tiw.
most limited districts.
5309. After so lengthened an exposition of
the grain rent, it may be deemed superfluous to
adduce any more instances of it; but the one
enunciated by the late Dr  Coventry, having
found  considerable  favour  amongst  agriculturists, it may be proper to mention it.  He constructed a formula on the produce of oats-the
species of grain most commonly cultivated in
Scotland -and the terms of the formula were:
Divide the produce per acre in oats by two, and
multiply the product by one-tenth of the produce.
Thus:  Take the produce of oats at 8 quarters per acre.
5313. The old rule of dividing the produce of
a farm gave one-third to the landlord, one-third
to the labourers, and one-third  to the farmer;
but it is now well understood  that the tenant
does not receive as much  of the produce as the
landlord does, nor so much as the labourers and
other costs  demand.   While the profit of the
tenant has diminished, the  rent to  the  landlord  has increased, and so have  the costs of
management.  The tenant has been most liberalto the land in bestowing increasing  labour and
manure upon it, whereby its fertility and productiveness have been very mliuch promnoted, ar, i
the landlord has thereby profited largely by a rise
of rent. To this liberal spirit of the tenanitry is to
be ascribed the high state of cultivation which
the land in Scotlanid generally exhibits.
That is 3.2 quarters per acre for rent, which at
1Hs. per quarter, gives 51s. 2d. in money per
acre for reit.  Carrying out this rule to various
amounts of produce per acre, it appears that
land capable of yielding 10 quarters per acre
pays half its produce il rent, while that which
only yields 2 quarters per acre pays only onetenth of its produce in reit.  The principle upon
which this great difference il the proportions of
produce is founded is, that the cost of labour in
managing land which only grows 2 quarters per
acre is fully greater than that of labouring and
managing land which yields  10 quarters per
acre, whilst the return is only 1: 5.  Now it
seems but fair, that if, with  poor land, the
tenant has due  allowantice  afforded  himn, on
account of its inferiority. the same consideratioin
shouitld be awarded  to the landlord, on account
of the superiority of the land hlie has to be let.
Were  this principle carried to an extent much
beyond 10 quarters, too great a proportion of
produce would seem  to accrue to the landlord
for rent; but it might, perhaps, hold good, to
the extenit of productiven'ess we are accustomed
to receive ill this country.
5314. I think that the county  average, or
Fiars pices of  grain, a s estima ted at  present iii
Scotland, give  o nly a r ude  approximatiore  to the
real average of the  e ntir e sales    in t he conty
for the season, which arises chiefly from  the circumstance  that about  one-half of  the  grain
remains unsold  at the period, February  aii
March, when  the averages ar e   taken.   Shoitll
any utnfanesee change take place   thereafter ia
the irospects of the succeeding crop, it is evidernt
that the latter half of the grain may be sold at
a very different price from the previous half.
Even in districts where the rents are not regulated by the value of grain, and where coniseque    rtly   no   desire  cII exist to depreciate its
v alue, the   grain thrashed in spring and  summer
is of better quality than that thrashed in the
early part of the winiter, and farmers generally
sell their lightest and least valuable grain in the
early part of the season. lt is well known that
wheat orly becomes fit for grinding by itself
after March, and thence  realises a higher price
and altlioug,hlI it shrinks much in the stack after
that period, it does not so more than it would
have shrunk in the granary, and being  sweeter
5310. One advanta           ge  this rule is said to
possess is, that should the capability of the land to
produc - what is estimated be correct, the mnode
by which the quantity taken for rent is apportionied, will be found never to charge the land
more than it can fairly be conceived to bear.
* Quarterly Jour-nal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 545.
502
grain one, is by the same rule as that alreadv
given,in (5292.) * 
Whi-ch divide by 2 is 4
Multiply 4 by'IIU of 81.8
And the amount is, 3.2
531 1. The conversion of a mone Iy rent into a 
OFFERING FOR A FARM.
that his rental should be as much diminished as amounts to the interest of the
money required to put the farm in order.
It is true that hlie has a perfect right to
present  his farms to the  market in any
state  li he pleases; and it is also true, that
tenants  will be found to take  farnis in
every state of deterioration; but in such
circumstances, no lease  can present  the
slightest guarantee for the regular  paymnient of rent, or for the respec,ability of
the tenant.  It were to be  desired that
every proprietor would put his farms into
proper order, as regards the buildings and
fences, before offering  them  to  be  let.
Such  a course would redound to his advantage; for a complete farm will conmmand a higher proportional rent than an
incomplete one, and it will enable  the
tenant the better to pay thle higher rent.
5315. Although a more just striking of the
fiars could be easily devised, it would be unjust
to alter the mode entirely, until all the existing
agreements, which depend upon the fiars prices,
had come to an end in the course of time. Until
that period arrived, it would be incumbent to
continue the striking of the fiars as at present,
while, at the same time, another strike should
take place at the end of the season, when it
might reasonably be concluded that all the grain
of the preceding crop had been disposed of.
The average of the two strikes should regulate  the  terms  of  new  agreements;  and
after it was understood that all the old agreemeaits had terminated, the fiars ought then to
be struck at such a season as would embrace the
sales of all the corn of the preceding year and
crop. Ma.ny years ago the fiars were struck
both at Candlemas and Laminias.  It may be
insisted on that the proposed change would
operate more in favour of the landlord than the
tenant; I would say, be it so, if justice is thereby
better dispensed.
5318. The conditions may affect many
subjects; but those which are inidispensable
are, when the farm-house requires extensive  repairs or additions  to render it
suitable for the wants of the farm; when
the steading requires additional accomnmodation in confornmity with the size of the
farm; when the fences require completing,
or renewing, or extensive repairs; and
when the farm-roads require to be put into
a serviceable state.  These are all  subjects which it is the immiediate duty of
the landlord to put to rights. If the offer
has been estimated irrespective of these
particulars, it is but right that the tenant
pay the  landlord,  over and above  his
offered rent, the legal interest on the sunii
required to pIit them right; but when the
r ent  has been  estimatel on  the econdition
of a  complete  farm, the tenant ought
not to pay any interest on the sum required to put the farm in the  completed
state.
5317. That any conditions accomiparny
an offer arises entirely fro(in the state of
the tfatn. Where the buildings and fences
are in go,ol order, no conditions in an offer
are requisite.  But as farms are generally
presenerileI in the market-with the house
in bad rellair, or thile steading inadequate
or incolnilo(lious, or the fences  incoiiipleted or in a state of disrepair-conditions bec(oiie ilperative.  T(oo many proprietiors seein to think that a farm may
l,e sent t  i, market in any state, and yet
expect slich  a rent as if a.ll its appointiiients were in the b)est order.  It is evidett, liHwever, that no proprietor  hlas
reas(,nable,grounds for expecting a rackrent for a f,trin in an incomplete state.  If
lie will spare hlis own pocket in coimpleting
the buildings and  fences, it is but ri,lght
'503
an'd fresher from the stack, it is worth more
money in summer from it than from the granary.
ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM.
5316. The common practice for the
candidates of a farm is, to present totlie
landlord or his agent a written offer of the
:rent willing to be paid by them; andsliould
.the farm be complete in its appointments,
no conditions are specified; b ut, should any
of them be incomplete, the offer is generally accompanied with such conditions,
as si-jall either cause tlje landlord to com1.)Iete tlieyn, or sliall fix the rent in accor'd.-ince with the actual state of the farm. -
.5319. Otlier conditions may also be requisite wliieli are not indispensable, sucli
as the tliorotiLI-i drainage of the farm; the
formation of a lar,),e drain or outlet for tlje
drainage, wliere sucli is necessary; the
improvement of waste I.-ind; tljt substitiition of one sort of power to the tlirasliit)giiiacliiiie for another, as steatij or water for
Horsepower, WileD -tiital)le btiildint,s are
required for the cliadge. These all cotistitute permanent jtnl)roveiiietit,.i l'ii tire
fari-n, -tiid belong rather to the landlord 
tenant, but would reserve hiis capital so as
to enable him to put the land in thle  ighest state of fertility, by the purchase of
lime and extraneous enrichlingT manures.
The draiining, and thle improvemtent of the
waste latd( would soon repay thenmselves,
while the expense of the erection for the
change of power would also be repaid the
tenant, by tlre saving in the wear and tear
of horses and harness.
ceated  offer   is  above  tloe next hifp,oiest.
Of tale two modes of aplction, the prindate
one  is the less satisfactory to tl!e canndidates, because they are purposely kept in
tl-he dark and in suspense, and tlie unsuccessful ones ]lave generally no intimation
sent them of   the  inoue  of tlf e concealed
contest.   Durin g th  e period o f concealment the most  unfair influences ma y ltave
been exercise(  in favour of a particular
candidate;  and suclh a  one, if possessingi
capital at-d skill, may have been  induced
to raise lhis offer to tlie pitclh of some -adl'venturer, whlo will offer any amount of
rent to secure thje possession of a farm.
In accleptitng of monev offers, propqrietors
virtually yield tlle v,aluing of tlheir properties  to otler  I)arties-  iiplyin)g that
they are tlheitiselves iniconmp etent to value
tileir own land: thxat a strang,er fromii a
distance, wlio knt)ws notling, of the soil
of tlhe district, of its fariiing, its pecuiliarities, is milore competent to estitoate the
valu"te  of hiis lan(dl tlhaii himself and hiis
friends, wlho have lived  uip)on it all tl-eir
davs.  It  is griev,oas to see proprietors
tlhus acting as if they cdi(I not know wliat
to do with, their poroperties; and sucli as
predicament doubtless airises from the ev,il
wlhiclh I formerly pointed out, of pr oprietors  generally  neglecting, to  lllmakie
tihetmiselves acquainted   with  tileir pr(,tbsion at an early period of life, (543.)   In
every ()tlher pr()fession, the (is'oser of
goods puts a value upon them, and wl,en
1he finds he cannot pr4,cure aL puirchai,ser at
the price lie hiad fixed, lie lowers it to suit
5320. Offers are thus received by the
proprietor  from any nnumber o          f        can(lididates
tha                t                             niay choose to ofler for t he f armt.
Whle                n       all tle candidates are o n  an equal
footing, as to the amount of rent offered,
and                        as to respectability of  cl aracter,  the
one whlo                     specifies tle fewest conditions   on
t       h        e        proprrietor to render tile fa r ti conmplete,
is accepted as tenant.  It  i          s         not prob bable
thaeat all the cand(idates, or  an        y  tw o of
th em, are equal in  acapital,         skill, and  respectability;  but, generally, tl       e on e  w hl o is
willing                                          to take the farnn as it   stands, a a!d
o ffe r s tl)e lhig,est, or about tlhe highest
r    ent, is sure of being         acceepted, a nd all
con      n ditions are as imucll     avoide     d a s  poss       ibile,             as if it  is not the business o f tl e p roprietor to put  hi.s farui into clomplete order.
ThJe                      accepted offer is intimate d  to tile    successful candidate by letter from th        e  p roprietor                                          or Vhis agent.
5321. Tlis I think at favourable opportunity  for niakling' a  few pertinent remarks on the mode  usually chosen by
proprietors to present their farms to miar 
COVENANTS OF LEASE.
landlord.   Such  a  collision  migi,lt hlave
bl een avoided by lirevious inquiry itlto thle
character. of the candidates, or by  following  the course of letting a  TIrm  reconiimended above in (.5322,) but  ni,t by the
strietest conditions, witllhout inquiry, that
could be  imposel.   WlIen suchl  an event
llal)pens, the pr(pl)rietor is niore desirous of
obtaining an inordinate r-ent tllan a respectable tenant; an,l if lie thlerel)y finds lilliiself in difficulties, lie )has limiself or hlis
ag,ents alone to llazne.  Honlest tenants
require no conditions  biut, ais the woili is
constituted, it is necessary t(o insert iestrietions  in  all  bargains  about   tris
extending over  a series (of years.   Siucli
conditions as  are actually  coiicocted  by
leg,al advisers are minutely liarassing to
tiJo tena,nt, simlply because tl)ey -are inapplicable to the chlarac(ter of tlje particular
farni; and  wlherever a set of colnditions
are  kept  stereotyped for the forms (f an
entire estate, and have been  l-raw   li, by)
persons unacquainted witl  f.-iiiiiiiig, thley
are  certain  of  being inept.  E;icli fariii
oughIlt to ihave  conditions suited to itself;
and altlhoughl  thley niay be rather restrictive, a good faiiiier will nriot be  l(iin  in
coiiecludinig a liargain, knowing( tl.hat suitably  restrictive  coIdlitions, like   godl
penal laws, are only tla,plicable to oflenders.
th       e  public fdemand                   and opinion;  but  le
never demeans himself by askling-, lhis cltstomiers wlhat thiey will give for lhis goods.
Suclh a custom tlhe country chapiinan only
is in tlhe hiabit of following.
5322. By far the most dignified course
for a lan(led proprietor to pursue, is to
put a rent on thle falrm, whlich hle is sure
any industrious ia nd  skilful te,snant could
pay, and fix such coniditionis of lease as
will protect the farm from the effects of
avarice, while affording, atmiple liberty to
thie skill and j udtlgmenit of the tenant, and
then invite fa.rmers to become candlidates,
not as valuers of land, but as capitalists
uhlo can stock the farm, and as farmers
wi-hlo can manage land skilfully; and, front
such who have offered themselves, select
the one who has tile most  capital,  the
best skill, and tlhe greatest respectability.
W~ere such a system generally adopted,
instead of  the  prevailing auictioneerinu
one, I am persuaded that better farming,
would prevail, a more generally diffused
respectable  tenantry  established,  rents
more easily and surely paid, labourers more
steadily employed, and  a better understanding, and,reater cordiality exist between landlord and tenant.
C.325. Tlhe conilitions of a, lease uay 1)e
soon adjusted, if botli parties arle desirous
of mieeting, on  fair  terius, or in  terils ()t
coii(liti(,ns previously understoodl  I etween
tlhe  larties.   But ini mai.ny c.l,es, after tile
rent lias b-,een a.ccel)ted., (Jn the und(lerst.anding tlitt tl!e conditions exliliitedl were uliii(h,jecti(nal)le, the cand(lidate enjdeav(nlos  to
ineg,otiate foi otlher conditiollns, wlichl will
serve, in  hiis estimation, to mitiga.te  the
renit l i hee    las  offered, and  which lie  feels
co(nscious  thle  farimi cannot  hay.  Allowantces for draining are stil.ulatedl f,r, -and(
is a pioper subject for neg(otitiatiIl it first,
3piwen thle farm requires it.   Thle  steii(lingtl
requires nlore extensive repairst             t.la   tle
outgo;ng teinant is bound to u!1.ioldi; alil
even  -atdditiots an(l alter'ati,,ns ar e  sugesteil, sucl a-s thle relnoval of  tlhe l.rsefiicor-e, and tlhe erection of a  bi,iler-tiouse
and caliney-st lkofi stea.mi-engine for tlie
tltrashi)g-nill,  or thle  ctiistrluctii)n if  a
dani  f;r a water -wheel.   A   new  set l,f
feed.ing   li.lnitiels  are   requirel,  (or tlhe
courts fitted  up  withl  turiiip-trouglIs for
.5323. ON large plroperties, tole term         s  of
lease are usually pi'inte(l, and a copy is
given to every one wlh() clhooses to apply for
it, wlhen looking at a farmii.  Sliaotld any
of tlie terms  be  deecine(d  olijectio)lalble,
thiey are coniienite(l on wlhen thie,ffei, is
given in, and t!he alterations desiired inidioated.  On small properties, the coIn(titiolns
are obtained verbally or in writing from
the proprietor or lhis agent.
.5324. In   eany  )    rinted conditions I                             aeave
seen, the covenan,tts are mniclh  too strict
upon tenants, -is muchieli so -is if tihey imliust
be rog,ues.  Precautions are rno doulbt reqiiisite between stratn,ers —for can(didates
for farmns %.ill I)e found -Ls unprinciniael as
to ofler any ainolinit of rent, andl accepjt any
conditions of lease, to get possessiiii of a
farmti that is in goodI order; and, whlen they
hiave gained p,,ssession of suclh  vantag,eground, give incessa:nt troublle  to their
505
ON NEGOTIATING TtlE COVENANTS OF TI-IE
LEASE. 
not as a riglJt, t)ut on tie ground of goofl
feelin, —tlhe gamie miglht devour as  nluchi
corn andI turni)s as they please,  witlholt
a coiiplaint being, uttered by  the tenants,
whlethler thley he sportsnmen or not, (4703)
andl (4706.)  Teniants whio grudge(I to Iay
for a gaiiie-certificate  and the duty on
sporting, dog,s,: wouldI have' themselves to
blame if tlhey were inot sportsmen; but they
would takle good care  that no  poaclhers
caiiie near tliem.  Witliin thlese two years,
l.ares are place(1 on  the same footing as
rabbits, an(-l may be shot without a license.
~, ttiot..~  ~iTAs  uttt.~ Etlt   Lt, lJutulut J 16  tio)ll 1 LO
the other offerers.   Had tlhey, whlen thley
gi.ve in tlheir offer, ullderst)o(,d these were
to be conce(ded, they would all leave  been
plalced  on  the sanle footing; but  it is
scarcely fair  towar(ls  thlem  to make  so
large concessions afterwards to one party,
since tlheotliers might probalblylhave offered
bioee tlarge ly,              whiad  tl e      d had  reaso      n to
believ,e that prop(-sitions, wlhich  involved
the outlay of so liucli money, would Ilave
beeni favo,urably received by the lanidlordl.
5326. It is customary  in leases, for tlhe
landlordl to reserve for himiself the right of
oi)eni,ng  quarries  or  nmines,  of  ilak.ling
r,,:i,s, of  entering  into  woods  tlirolliite
fiel's, arid of (loinig anything on the faril
tlih:t wouldl benefit. the estate, withi tihe pri —
viso of giving  dat.,age to tihe tenant wihere
hlis cr,,p or tlhe lanld is injure(l.
5328. Tlhe p)erio(ds at wlichlthie renit is
pai(l are specifically hientioned in the lease.
Thle most  fitvo,uraltlle ternis for thle tenianit
re  C.aii-leimas a,,l Lamnlaas-Febrtiary
atnd Auglist.   By  Can,dlelitas, tile  air-ier
hias hla-d tilile to 4lislotse of a great pxart (if
lhis corn;  antd  by Laminas he  las  sol,l
o(IF liis ftlt  cat,le, shieep, and wool.   Botli
these  teints  b)eing  intermediate  betwee;l
Whlitsuntda(iy  and  AMartinnias —May   an,t
No%-eilller —wlhe   the  lhlf-year's  wages
of  the  farit-serantts, field-workers, and
lIali,urers, becerne ~iIe, lie escapes too many
]lrg,e demmdn(is at aniy one teriim.  Irn  En-j,
lant, ren-its  are p.aid at  Lady-(lay and
Micliaelni,is —Apiii and October.
5327'. Rteserva,tion   is al,s,o miiadle  fror
lutinitiiir  anl  sliotiting  grane for  the  landtloid   itnl  hIis  fiiendIs.   Tle  qllestit,i  of
gaile  lias  litlheito  caisedl mniay  hlearthbiiiniii!is  bIetwemi  Itn(dlori(l  anil ten.tiit;an
iiiuel, ()f wlIicli, I am  p)ersiiadle(l, hls;iriginated ili tile severe  restrictio,ns imposed
on-  thie  tenan ts  against  killir,ng  gtmtie   o            n
tlheir  friu-s,  wlho  know   that  thle  crol)s
tlhev  rauise  feeil  the  game,  andI  yet  are
(lel)ar:'eli firoiii sporting amiiingst tlhen.   I
ni sure tlhit tenants are desirotis to wvitness
tie sp)(rts of thle field, and   gratified ini seeilig tieir lanillrd atid hlis  friietlls partaikili,, of tlieni  iii a  iitanly  way.    13ut they
naturally  feel  displeased  at  seeing,  their
5329. 0110 of tlle I)I-iticil-)al clauses of a
til,"t  %vilicii to the eroppir),r6
of tile falls'. It is custoiiiai-y to bin(I the
teii-,tilt to fellow ft 1).,trticiil,-ir i-otat'on of
crof,-pin(-,. Siieli a i,e,,iti-ictii)ii is iiiiiiii(-al
zn
to tile ten,,tt)t's interests, and niav eveti
1)1,OVO  detrimental to the firm. itself. 
h  ilsb)andry under thje five-course slift, o(ne
of 20) or 25 years, and under a six-c(u)llse
shlift, one of 18 or  24 yeatrs; and  for all
eight-cotirse shlift, suchl as a  carse  clay
fariii, 16 or 24 years.   The adlvantag,e of
such  an arran(gelienit would  be, tlha,t as
tlie samnie fields woulil be in tlme same or
similar crop at thl)e end of thle lease as ait tlhe
collmmencemient, an easier comiparison coiulil
be made whlethler or  not the farm were in
better or worse c(,nilition at the end of this
lease thlan at tlhat of the f)riner; a result
wlhichl  would enable thle landllrd to dh,terniiie whethier the land woiuld be iiiiprove,l
undter  a different course of cropping, or
tonly under niore skilful inanaigenletit.  Iii
thle latter case, a better tenant wuioildl be
an acquisition to the estate, whlilst in tlhe
follfiier, a clhange  of r(otati(on would effect
thle iiiltroioveient witlh tile same tenant.
possibility of advacttg,e )eint, t        ake n (f tle
la nd,            ah ile  it shall not  interfere witi  the
fo'ee  agency                    of  thte fsarmeer;      aand  it        is this
-thia       t no t wo gr ain crps sallal follow eaclf
oti)er-tlhe land growid  t, grain and green
crol)ls     talternately.    Wit tl this restriction,
it is i thepossible to inj        ure the lanu(-, provided
tlo     e  f allow-cr()ps  ar e  adequately  an eacured;
and a,ltlhougl  it              i          s as e,asy to ifeglect  lllanurint, tlhose ero)s  under  the  least as tile
nost severe rlestriction, til       e  s     u caltar  ay elecek,
tlat                     igreetv c rop s   will  ntot  grow withwout
mai,-inur-e, is alwaytvs in  ft,rce:]gainst  the
tenant.       By  suc      i a c ulase, thie tenant is
not bosutind       to f   sl loav any  sys em                  o f  rotation; but as  lie nmust  takle a green  crop
Ietween two corn ones, lie cannot Iossilbly
follov t   severeri rotatio tn o    lhate l half tlse
land( ini corn; and lie  ill sO()on find tlaat le
b,aile,t sustai        i tlde la nd     in               eein eart  withl tlte
cr()(rtion  of a   corn. withllout           p         lurcl)asi)ng
extrl,teous mianure, and  tlat if lie does
not leel) the land in  lieart, the  mteans of
psaying,- llis rent will rapitliy decline.  Toward(Is thle latter ejid of tlhe lease, it is
proba,ible tlhat the tenant miiay take advantae of the lan(l, b)y (leclining to purchase
extr.anLeous anuii,ire, especially if lie wishes
to quiit tlhe farnl.  To meet such  an exigrency, it b)ecomnes  necessarv   to  imopose
sev-erer (lemiantds ul)on Ixilll on tile suibject
*)f anlllinllgi,; and mo)re,over, still without
ilsisting   upon  any  particular rotation, it
wiill be sufficient to stiplulate tlhat not less
than a given pr()portion of the firml slhall
be left in grass, laid d()wn  with  a  grain
crop, after a mianured fallow one.   Wlhen
.5331. TI)e con(-Ii,,,ioiis of lease are (,eiierally the saiiie f4)r all the fariiis of
an estate, except -t                                             Iariii
contain stron,, clav soil; ])tit t(-, be' rt,,,ally
betiefici,    to,soil it is clear tli,,,it all c()ii(litioiis sliol.ii(i I)e I)I.,I(ie suitable to; tile
cii-ciiriist, —inces of the iiitlivi(itial  f.,iriii. I
aill CoD%'it)Ce(I treat iiiat,.eiii,ioYi to tiiis iii.,ttter ceases i-i)atiy -t. f,-ti-iii io I)e ill-fai-ttie(l,
-iii(I disappointment and loss of ctil.)it,-it
to iiiat)y a good fat-iiiei-. A weak soil
cannot ciltitit-e the of -,i,  strt)t-it,
:n
one, nor a deaf soil stil-,port st(,,cl like
sliarp one; eacii class of soils i-eqrii-es illfferent treatment.-wliy, tljei), should -ill be
placed under tike saiiie conditions?  Siiiii 
every  lease, and seemn necessary  for tlhe
protection of  the landlord.   In cases of
nmiscropping, by taking two corn crops in
succession, a penalty of ~5, or ~10  all
acre, over and above  the rent, is thlreatened; and a large fitie is reqliired(i for this
purpose, otherwise the advantag,e gained
by miscr(opping woul( 1)e very considerable.  An obligation is nmale  iiiperative
upon tlhe tenant to remiove from lIis farm
at thle tinie specified in tlhe lease, witihout
tlhe exhlibition of the usual  leg,al instriiinents of dismissal; otherwise  the ejectmnient of a tenant reluctant to  leave liis
fariii niglit be attended withl) niucli troulble
and considerable expense.   Thle subletti(ng
of a lease to another party is prevciite(ld,
as  well  as its  assig,nation  to  trustees
for I)elioof of creditors; an(l wlen-eithler is
permiiitted., it is by consent of  the  laindlord-whlichl are )iroper restrictions, (otier wise thle farmr might be alienated firiom the
proprietor for the wllole course of a lease,
5fr the benefit of plarties witlh wlioiii lie
hias no concern.
5332. There  being no rotation of croppintg on a pastoral  farm, except on  the
stuall portio(n of ground available to culltuwre,           tene number  of year                    of f  tlhe lease
mtay be  left indefinite;  but  should the
farmn retain its stock,) whletl!er of  cattle
o)r slheep, until they  tre  two  or  tlhree
years  old, the principle  for  calculating,
tlhe duration  of  thje lease migh,t be  the
multiple of th(ose periods; buit usually
p)astora,l ftrms halve not so  on,ng leases
:is ara)le, there  b)eing  a nlittual desire
between landIlords atnd tenants to a(lidjist
rents accordingt, to  the  prices  of  stock
and wool every 7 to 14 years.
5333. Otler clauses, in re(gardi to cropping, besides those relating to  rotatiison
afn(l general iiianagemient, sucli as classing
flax among thle corn-cr(ops, are soinetiiiies
intro(lutcei  into leases;  is.lso in reg.ard
to nianuring.    Half  iiiantiriiig on  tile
(i;Lt-stulible  in auttiiiiti, or in tlI;e drills
in  spring,  will  suffice  for  pease  and
bea(ns; but it is too muchl exertion fo,r arny
land, even in tlhe highiest lheart, to lirodilce
a crop of (oats, then (of beans, and  then of
whleat, withlout  niaiiure.    Potatoes  are
somnetines prohlibited being sold off a fariii,
untless dung be brought in return, as they
leave no refuse for manure;  but being
,u,,upt, uiit-ier i-e8Li-icLions, Ltiall follow
r,ucli a depreciatory system.    Ttie good
ttiat woulti arise of discriminating, tlte
In
capabilities of f,-trtns, and also the propriety of choosing the tenant and. not the
rent, is tlius clearly made apparent.
5335. III II-el,...iid, leases are fi-eqtielltly
(-,ra.iite(,l  f(.)i- a loyi    series ()f ye t 21
to 31 ye,-ii-s-,-ICC()Illf)atiie(I iiiost coniiiionly
Ni,-it,ii a life tiiiie of soiiie y(,tiii(, pi-in(-,e or
oi- (.)I' tlirce ))et-sons iiieiitione(i
in as they    lial)l.)eti to (lie.
It is pi-obabiv ()wiii,, to this ]()n,.,,Ilie.iiatioii of llis 1)1-(,PertN, I)y the lir(il)r;.etor, that
tl)e feelin,,, (,,f pr(pi,iet,()rsilif) so sti-on"ly
exists in the iiiinds of the li-isli teii.,iiit,-:.
5336. The subletting (-)f f.,iriiis is gone 
actin bg iil the  spiritc  df tlh e national  clsar -
acter,  lhas  mnuichi confidence  ini tlie  imii)lied  faitla  of e lis ihn (nlord's fanily, ill
retiurn for wlicho tl e landlord detmanI   s    a
rent inl a simiilar spirit; an(d the coiisequences  lhave  been  all in  Ithvour of  tihe
tenant —for, if the lanid lhas not been so well
fairned, the  teniant has  been   the  more
enriclhe(l. Altlhough,I I am suire thlat tile
lease is ini(dispenisab)le in Scotland( an(I Ire]an(d, I am not sure tlh.t it would  produice
similar  efle(ts in  Enghm-,tnd..  However
this nmay be, let the p)trties most intereste(d
discuss the quest,ion betweeni tlheimiselves.
loniig permitted in the irisli leaises, and its
effects were worse even  than subletting,
inasniucli as its tendency is to) fill a property  withl  poor  tenants, possessing  as
little skill as capital.  To ob)viate tlhe evil
consequences of tle system, those proprietors whlo lhave to support their tenants on
the p)oor-roll are itipelled( to eject thljem
in nlumiibers; otlherwiise, tley woulul retain
possessioni of tlie land, and pay  o10 renit.
Time alotie will be able to counteract the
effects  of so  otjecti(onfadble           a system          e,s the
subdivision anid the subletting of land.
5338. In tlhe northl of Eng,land leases
are coniiiion, and upon conditions pretty
similar to tlJose in Scotland(l.  In the midlitl and solutllern counties leases are the
exception, and tenancy-at-will  thle rule.
A   strong  aversioni  exists  in  Scotland
against tenancy-at-w%ill; but, fromn tlheianner in wIlieli it lhas worked( iii England, it
cannot be so utiimitig,ate,i in evil as represente,l.  Famiilies offirtners hlave s,jturne
ip,tii thle same tfarms for generations, and
have betome in the end inidel)endent yeoiiieii.   Any  systellm  tlhat produces  suchli
effects  cannot  be  essentially  btad; andti(
ba(l it hlas certainly not beet for the tenanit's iniiterests, othlerwise tihey would ihave
eileeavotireil, long ere this, to lhave got
rid  f it  and( I question mIuchi that if the
alternative of their presenit conditi(on, and
that of a lease were  )placed before thliem,
the  majority of  the  farniers  of  England  would  wish  for a  cl!ange.    The
question is, would they lave beein happier,
5340.  Altlioulh   a     tenantcy-at- will
avoids all these iinconi-eniencies, a lease
is of benefit  to the ternant, by  insuiring
5339. Thie lease is not witlhouit its allh)y.
It b)inds the ftmily of. deceased tenant to
the  f.Lrn, whIen it imi,,g!t b)e for  tleir  initerest to give it up) and'l (dividie their patrinloniy.  It iiay p)rove  injuriou,i to an unfortunate tenanit, whlo canniiot ap)l)oint a
trustee over it to wind  utp h-is affairs il
the mnost economiiical way.  It ienders the
position of the tenant uinpleasanti, whlen  it
binds hinl to a  Ient  fixed in  conf'(,riiity
withi piices miuich  atove  whiat lie is likely
to reeeive. in the future.   Tt cauises a  sudallen rise of rent (t the treriiination of an
ilnprovahl)e lease.    It tenipts an  inijutlicious tenant to expend more of hiis iiionev
upon the  improvemiienit of  land, tli.ta  it
affords hliiim timiie to ieceive it all I}ack'
ag,ain.
*.     f*        X* 
REALISATION.
him a certain home for a given number of
years-by affording hillm, most probably, as
much tinme as to receive back what lie
may  have expended upon  the land-by
securing to him the fruits of his enterprise
for a given time; but as to the political
ind(lependence said to be afforded by the
lease, I am  doubtful that  a tenant  in
Scotland is any more of a free agent
than a tenant in England.
proper  system pof oluctatin,  rents wouvd
praictically the as useful in cases of tenancyat-toill as on lease.  Such a system seemts,
however, in a theoretical  view, to be most
required on leases; and its establishment
would therefore, we think, remove the
most  plausible  argument against  that
practice." *
5342.  Many  trifling  conditions  still
exist in leases, indicative of the spirit of
feudalism -  one of which is the payment
of kain or crone fowls.   If the lndhrloid
desires to  lhave the fowls for  domestic
use, the will have a mnuclh better choice of
good   poultry, of all ages  anmd kinds,
amongst those who  have poultry for sale,
than in kain fowls.  From  the general
dislike to deliver kain, the fowls ale frequently delivered old and lean, and when
objected to, the  shatme of detection, followed  bv worse feelings, is felt by  the
tenant ever after. It would be well to
abolish the paltry impost altogethter.
5341. In reference to the application
of the grain rent to a tenancy-at-will, I
wouldagain quote front the writer to whose
opinions on this subject I have already
made so many references.    "What  we
wish to point out is," lie observes, "tha t
the injustice of fixed rents is most generally felt in cases of farmns let on lease,
and this, in our opinion, forms the only
strong argument against leases; and therefore the establislhment of a pr(oper system
of fluctuating rents  would,  besides its
other advantages, be the most effectual
way of extending throughout England
this tenure, which, even on a less perfect
system, has been of immense advantage to
the agriculture of Scotland.  We do not,
however, mean  to say that it would be
useless to adopt such a system in cases of
tenancy-at-will.  The rents in such a case
are often allowed to remain, nominally at
least, unchanged for. generations, so that
they become as ill suited to the times as
those of tenants on lease.  The loss, however, from fixed money-rents at will is
chiefly felt by proprietors when rents are
naturally rising; for they, being felt generally as a harshi measure, do not raise the
rents of respectable tenants, howeverjustly
they are entitled to do it.  On the other
hand, when rents are naturally falling,
tenants-at-will  g,et  reductions,  thought
their rents may be nominally continued at
the  original  amount.   Tenants-at-will,
therefore, need not suffer heavy pecuniary
loss from a fixed rent, as they have always
the alternative of quitting their bargains
shoiuldl there be no reduction.   In suclhi
circumstances, liowever,'tenants are in an 
ignominious state of dependence on the
generosity of their landlords, and these, on
withholding tile customary and necessary
reduction, have a ready means of getting
quit of tenants.  It thus appears that a
* Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 139.
sio
5343. Personal services, such as driving
coals for the landlord's use, are still iiiiposed in leases. Such a service is conveiiient for a I:tn(liord who has no A,orkhorses of his own, and is re,,arde(i as
trivial by tire tenants, if demanded at
a time when field-labour is not tir,,,eiit.
Such a service, iie-,,ertlieless, ought to be
convertible into nione'y at the option of
the tenant, ratl)er than of tlje landi()rd.
5344. In Scotland, the public burdens
on land are pai(i by the proprietor and
the- tenant has nothing to pay but his
stipulated rent. In Enoland, all the
public burdens are paid by the tenants.
Of the two methods, the Scottish is much
the fairest for both I-)arties, it beiii(, no
more than reasonable that the proprietor
should pay the burdens of his own I,-tnd; and
it is certainly unreasonable to itiake the
tenant pay those burdens, wlien lie li.-is no
voice in the affa-irs of the county. It is
triie that the amount of the bur(lens is
talien into account in deterniinin,, the rent
at the cotiiii-ienceiiient of the but
as they vary considerably', and are always
on the increase, it is, not possible to know
what their aniount will become, by the
termination of the lease. If the burdens 
Wiletlier  the outgoin,r tenant las a claimI
for cohipensaoltionf in sucel a     case, depends
uIodi  circuntistances. If he tl  tenant  oaid
as  ntchimd  reint for the  land it was   fuilly
wortlh at the  co,mmencemnet of ahis lease,
and no rise of prices lhad taken place durine  it,  I should   s ay that    tle landlor d  is
oblimgated  to llim, and should mre lu e    lilin
sotme  cortapen sationn for itis lil)erallity to
tlre land;  bu t if le got  the  farm at a low
reit, accordinsg to th e  terns of  an itmIpro viin,
lease, and prices i-ad risen  in the interval,y
then I say lie has llo claim for coft l pi ertsation.  Ie }as enjo)yed  tlhe possessi(,n of
rent less thtlan tle rack-rent, ann  tte rise   in
price, wlhichl w ou(l( of itself liave raised the
rent  durint,  is entirre   l ease. Wlere  the
tenant lhas voloutarily unt lere eta1ke0 be uitldilgs, fencing.'utd (iraining,,even by,ljis landlor(l's consent, that landlord wA ould le  unreasonalble wlho wouldl refuse hiiii all coImIpenlsation.   Buit all these niatters  ought to
lhave been settled in tire lease, and it is onily
within tlhe covenants of tlhat doctinlelct that
tthe " rig,h-t" "of the tenant siimuld he found.
Tlhe claitmi of "1 right" is spxecially put
f)rtlh f)r t!he teni.atnt-at-will, in order to
induce lilia tol iinlproi e lhis farm; but suichl
an expedient is  but a  poor substituite for
tlje security  conlerred  by a lease.  TIic
struiggle, thlerefore shIould be for tlhe lease,
aind not for the  "1 tenant riglit."
tion of thie covenants of a lease. Taking,
a general view of tl)e subject, according f
to  lly niotion, in regard to any " rilght "
connected with land, it niust be conferre(id
by statute, or by special contract betwixt
thle owner and the cultivator of thle soil.
Unltil, therefore, an Act be passed conferring it, or an agreeiient be entered into by
landlord atid tenant, no " right " can exist
in mny opinion.  It will be timne to talk of
a   " riglht" after it hlas been conferred, but
the attemnpt is miade to have the:' righlt "
conferred.  I.et us therefore see what thl         e
"righlt" is wliich is demanded, and wletlier
or not it be reasonable iii itself. 
5347. I  urnders tand thlla      t th      e righl t
claimed in England                                        for a st"ateate is that,
rlenever thle  tenant slall liave laid out
tlon            oney  pt upon lis tlandlords l anld,  wlhilc
lhas obviouisly improved it, lie stiall have
tilJe "rih,it"  to ni     ake            adis landlord reinibrirse di   If the aiouniit when            ine leaves tche
fratre. For exailmple,                if lie slwall lay out
nmoney  in  erecting,  buildings,  formiing
fbnces,  nlaking   farimi-roadis,  draining,
liming, maniuring,, and so forthi, lie slall
b)e,reiinbursed. for one and all of  these
ouitlays whien lie leaves the fainm, or whleni
lhe dies. Tlhe claitn dloes not in its terimis
seemii unreasonable, but thle obvious question arises, wilence caine it thlat he incurred thiese outlays-? Did he lav out all
that sumii of money upon another's land,
witlhout hiis consent being asked andl
granted? If the consent were askedi and
granted, then the landlord tacitly became
5348. The "tenant riglit" claimed in
Ireland is of a different nature, its pretenision being of an extravagant character,
and if granted would virtually render the 
REALISATION.
tenant thle proprietor of the soil.   I l.ave
seen the claiiii ptlt in thlese terms:- i-          arle
advoca tes of' tenant ri,l,t'        cill             t                 iii  ilt,e ty
to sell their possession to thle i)llest                                    ohidder.
They state that by thle electi,,n (of Iuildings, draining, andi otlher i111)1ovelllecnts,
thley lhave exlienile.l thleir capital on  tile
lan, whlichl they lave a rigi,t to be rel)aid;
or,  if they  hlave inot tidine thlese tilings
themselves, they have paid to their pred(lecessors in the octccil)aicy of thlese farms
a  suii of nioney for p)(ssessioni, includling
tile iluproveleiilts wliicil  tile f(,rller occupier may hi,ave mia(le: anid for this thley
expect compensationll.   Tiley (leiiiand, not
only compensation f,,r  nv  improvements
whichl they iiiakle, Ilut also for thlose whicih
have been  nmade eitlier by themselves or
their predecessors,  aid  thley re(tuire  the
legislatllre,  in  any  act  whlichl   may  be
lassed, to provide security for bothl.  This
renailers  the  question  bothl  difficult  and t
comiplicate,l,  ati(d  tile  difficulty  is  still
more  increased  by  tlhe fact thlat, at  the
preselnt  rent  of  lanil, tlie mere'tenant
ri,ghtt' whichl  thle parties in possession believe  they ihave  iac(tuired, either by  the
improvemnents  wlichl  they hlave made, or
for which(  they lhave given  colipelnsation
to tlheir predlecessoi,s, would pliroduce nothling, and tllt in many cases the possession of tle farmns wtildlM  not be accepted
even  as  a free  gift."    Thle  relation of
laiidll()i(l  to tenantt  in  Ireland  is  )y no
nieans in a:, satisfictory state, but it is not
by suchi claiiiis as these thlat it will ever be
ameniled.  In Ireland, thle tenant is too apt
to get into the notion  that lie is all but
proprietor of the grouiild lie occupies, and
to act accordingly.
tion for the delivery of kaiii fowls, which are
also called flying customs. Iu some districts, a
customary payment in produce is  made by the
lessees  of  fisheries; and in the  more  remote
atrts   of S r,otlsnd, it i.s understood that there still
exist customary returns in produce of various
kinds, which, being regulated by the usage of the
district, or of the barony or estate, cannot be
comprehended  by  any general  rule.   When
treating of rents in question with regular successors, it was recommended that such returns
should be  made convertible into money at the
option of the lessor, and tlhe lessee ought to have
the same power."t
5351. The uanal peri o  d of entry to a
farm in Scotland is at Wlhitsunday antl
Martinmas, or at  the separation of tlh,
crop frotn  the ground.  These terms  (,f
entry are not equally favoura,ble for tlhe,
tenant in every species of farming. Entry
to the houses and grass at Whitsunday is
convenient for a;  tenant practising minxe(d
husbandry, as it enables him to sow turniips for his stock in winter, and to fallow
iand for autumn wileat. Were le to enter
wholly at the separation of the crop from
the ground, he would  have no turnips folr
his stock but what he purchased, eitlher
from tlie way-goiing crop on the farm or
elsewhere. Entire entry cannot be given to
any incoiltlg tenant at  Wlhitstindlay, as
lie canr,ot enter the ground on which the
way-goin, crop is growing.  The second
entry at Martinmas enables  the in)-conter
to ploughi the stubble land(I in time for the
ensuing, green crops.
5352. Entire entry at thle separation cf
the crop from  the ground, is convenient
enough for the tenant who  ibreeds ili( live
stock, as lie can purchase tlhemn for wintel,
accorditng to tlhe opportunity afforded  iiii
to purchlase straw for litter and turnilis
for food, eitlher fronm the way-goilig cr0op
on the  farm  or  elsewhere.   The carse
farmer, and tlhe one in the neiglhbotl'h-ioo(,
of towns, would also final this a conv-eniient
enroug,ih term of entry.
5349. "A  inute of lease,like ni ssive letters,
niust be stamrped before action will lie, and it is
recommiie.ded that, befi,re possessioi)n a formal
lease shall be executed." *
5350. "Whlere the return in kind made by the
tenant was meant to be consmined in the houl.ehold of tlhe lailnlord, it consisted lnot oily of
grain, but of other protluce.  This retlurnl was
calledl cana or kait), whichl has been deemed to
sigilify merely a certailn annual preselntatioln.  In
more ancient leases, fed cattle were payable.
Culistomi wethliers and fowls are specified in the
style of the tack given by Dallas.    In somee
leases, comparatively modern, there is a stipula
* Fariners' Law,yer, Appendix, p. 223 to 331.
+ luntler's Law of Landlord and'enant, p. 634-5; and p. 835-9.
512
ON ENTERING TO A FARM.
5353. A d, —tiry fariiier fiti(Is it inost convenieiit to eiiter -it Wltitsiin(lay, leaving
tl)e gr,,iss in summer, -iiid the I)ower to 
munlinch  ma,nure as  will  do justice to  thle
land  iii sumnrmer; anrd  its effect  upon
the  farm  is, thlat, slhould  thle  in-colling
tenant nrot have capital beyo(nd thle stock in,-, of thle iarmii, he cannot purchase a suffi
ecient quantity of straw and nianure, and
botlh hlis st.ockl and  his land Ilust suiffer
privation to that extent.  It is trlue lie caii
bring his own way-g,,oingeroi),if lie be leav i nmg one fatrm to go to another, to the new
farm;  but  unless tlie  two farmns  are
near, it would be impracticable to carry a
crop, and build it in the stackyar(l, at a
season  whlen  everybody is too  busy  to
render himi any assistance. Ii sonme cases,
the lease provides that the out-going, ten aint is obliged to offer half tlhe crop in
N,-atlation to the iii-coming tenant, or tle
landlord-ani  d  slhould  either refuse  the
offer, hle is at li},erty to sell it; and in
othler cases, a private agreement is niade
for tlihe whlole crop between tle in-conming
Tanl olt-going tenants, irrespective of the
lease.  The purchlaser bears the expense of
ecuttiug dowIIn and carrying in the part of
thte crop lie las ptreliased.  In  any case,
tl,t inr-comling tenant is placed in a worse
otositi,n b)y ilis tliai by steelbow, whiilic,
in niy opinion, i's a principle that oughlt to
he  generally  adopted  in  reference  to
stratw- and.( (Iungino,  except Inear townls.
una as t   vr                        s, -. — -                              -.. lu     a
goodl stipulation for tlhe in-comner, as it is
quite )ossible  for the oiit-goer to eat the
new grass so, bare witlh hiis stock, by Whlitsundav, as to  deprive tle iin-coiier tlhe use
of it for) sev'eral wveeks after tlhat termi.
5357. Ti)m out-going tenant lIas always
n wav-,oing, crop, wlich lie can dispose of
in two ways-one wlhen lie must leave thie
straw in steellbow, the othl)er whlen hlie can
,iispose of  the entire  crop  as  it grows.
"By  a  declaration  that  the straw xand
mianure  are steelbow, it is assustied that
they are given by the landlord, and( are to
Ibe returned  to lliiii; or, wihat is  equiialent, delivere(l to tile in-coming telnailt, to
wvIlho)l thIe lan(llo)r(l li.s conveye(d his riglht
to teiiatei.   A  sufficiency o            f       matniuirte, anid
of tihe ilnateriatls for its fc.,'matim:r, are tlhus
permanentll y Itretained o,i tlie farm."i. *
5o39. W)  ien t}e way-goin?' crop is  (dis-  st     a      n O         na tl
Ip,sled of Iby iitilic sale as it grio!s, the
sale takes place a few days bef(i,e tlhe crop
slIo:z!d b1e cut, dlown;  aind f(r tlhe conv-en i -
ence of purelcasers, the fiel(is aiC divided
into lots  coimprelhending  two  or imiore
rildges, according to their lengtl, the lot
53(;O. In regard to tile sumr  obtained
for a crop as it stands, the value of tihe
graini (lepends on the price likely to be
obtained for it in the market in the ensuing  winter.  The  ia-coming tenant who
* Hir;ter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 264.
5358. Th,e steelto,w  s a great bDoon  to thle
in'-colorinig  tenant, it beirin  equivalenit to
h.-i; )ossessinig as miiuchl imor, e capital, at tle
.urty to hiis farimi, as tile straw aind diing
he receives are worthi in ni)oeyv-for, without then, lie would(I hve to pluIrchaise bJothi
silnsewllerc.
VOL; II.
2 K 
REALISATION.
enters as a beginner, will consume most of
the oat crop in supporting his nien and
horses, and in sowing the oat-breakl of
the succeeding crop.  Th)e crops are estimated by the acre, and after deducting
the expense of reaping, carrying, stacking,
and thrashling, the value per acre of the
grain  is ascertained; and  that of thle
straw is worth  so muchi per quarter of
grain per acre.   Suppose, for example,
that the crop of wlie.at is estimated at 4
quarters per acre, andi is worthl  40s. per
quarter and tile st,rtw  I O0s. per quarter,
thie value per acre asill stand tlhus:
4 qrs. Wheat, at 40s.,.. ~8 0 0
Straw, 10s. per qr.,..   2 0 0
~10o 0 (
5362. There are a~lwavs  questio ns of t
minor  nlagnitude, tlhough of   importan ce
between thelandll ord ant l out-going tenant,
the settlement of wlhiclh are usually maflde
over t,o the in-coming tenant,  as being the
party m ost  affectel way taeni. These cotsist of the state of thle f      ences, of the gates,
of  the  steading,  an d of  the   dwelling
houses, all which the ouit-goinfg tenant is
bound to leave in tenantable repair. Tile
most pleasant way of ascertain ingi, the fact,
whether these are left according to the
terms of thie lease, is by airbitra(tion, undertaken by friends nmutually chlosen by
the out-going and in-comiing tenants, with
power to the arbiters to appoint an oversman, in case of a difference of opinrion arising between thiem.  When  the fences and
buildings are obviously in a tenantable state
of repair, the business is soon settled; but
when otherwise, the arbiters appoint tradesnmen, acquainted with the respective sorts of
works, who are paid to inspect the state of
the particulars under arbitration, to calculate the costs of repair, and to report their
opinions in writing, or in evidence. Thle de creetof the arbiterscontaining their awards,
results in the out-going tenant paying the
expenses of repair to the in-coming, who
thus beconies obligated to leave the same
articles in a tenantable state for his suc cessor.  These are the ordinary subjects of
the arbitration; but any other, such as the
value of the way-going crop, may also be
arbitrated by the same parties.>
5361. Whenever the way-going crop is
sold on its foot, and it has been cut down
and removed by the purchasers, the inIcoming  tenant  enters and ploughs the
stubble  land, and  the out-going t enant
tak         es hi s         departu    re; but  when       the straw
is held  iln steelbow by the            farm, the      out.      going tenant has a right to  be accommodated  in t        a the stackyard and the steading
-until the crop is thrashed and delivered,
for which purp     ose    he must hav  e  the control of the thriashing-mill,  it     s much of  the
workhorse s table as will   hou         s         e as   many
horses as the thraslling-mill requires-and
if it be moved by power, as many as will
be r equi   red  to   take     te                 l graein  t o market;
and ais        many cottages as shouhld be occu;pied by one man and at least three women,
-to take charge of the crop for thrashing
and sending to market. The out-going
tenant must not thrash his crop faster than
the in-coming one can consuime the straw
with his stock, to save it from waste; nor
must the in-comiiing tenant use thle straw
more slowly than will allow the out-going
one to have cleared the stackyard by the
Wlhitsunday following, when lie leaves the
' Parker's Notea on the Law of! Arbitrations.
514
farm entirely by giving up the keys of the
corn-barn, and witliiirawing Iiis workpeople and Horses from ttie liotises and
stables. Not iinfrequently the in-coiiiino,
tenant undertakes for the outgoing one
the thrasliiiig and delivering of the crop
to market, on paynient for ti..e trouble.
I Is. d.
Deduct reaping per a(-re, 10   0
- carrying, - 6   0
- thrashing, Is.'per qr., 4 0
1 0 0
Value of the crop per acre, JC9 010
In like maiiiier w.itli otlier sorts of grain.
Tl,je value of oat-straw may be taken at
5s. 6d., and of barley-straw 4s. per quarter.
5363. The greatest difficulty wliicli the
young farnier experiences, on assuniin,, the
management of a farm, is in distributing
andajustinglabour. Toaccoinplislitliese
correctly, both as regards the work and
the laboui-er, a thorough kyiowledge is.,requisite of the quantity of work that can
be performed iii a given time by- all tl)e
means of labour, animate and mechanical,
usually employed. It is the deity of the
young former to have acquired this know 
ENTERING A FARM.
ledge with all correctness; for a skilfil          l
distribution of tile workers enables the
work to be performed in the most perfect
manner in regard to the soil,-withli the
smallest exertion as regards physical force,
-and with the greatest celerity in regard
to time; and a judicious adjustment of
workers to one another, places every one
in                a      position to!)erfterm his own  share of
the work and no more, (60,) (66,) and (69.)
~ 61                12 3
5' 18 9
10 0 0
Woges.
z'27,508,fi75
4,243,772
15,000,000
~139   7   0
160 2 2
24 v  v
Total value.
,fl39,31;0,00
27,218,416
48,4J,0,000
"The foregoing tables," observes Mr Burness,
"fully bear out the truth that  a sitilarity of
practice has not yet been esta-blishted in the three
kingdoms, sufficiently clear to be recognised  as
3 h f np a c mon index to the state of their agricultural
industry;  that differences exist, lot only  at
varian c e  with scielnce, but of a character and
magnitude affecting the health of the empireidifferenees, too, lot only:between:  the long' degraded sister country and England, but also between England and  Scotland.  Every  laboui-er
of Scotlanid, it will  be perceived, returns his
employer, from the comparatively poor soil of the
north, L.20  annually more  than  do  those of
England from  her richer soil; and were  the
fertility of the soils equal, the difference would
'be still greater.   But, eveni as it is, such a difference for each labourer is obviously a national
shortcoming, which ainollits to a stutn equivalent
to little short of Old Euglaud's rent-roll.  In
Ireland, again, were  the whole of htier produce
divided among her agricultural laboturers, allowing  nothing for  tradesnien's accounts, titlies,
rates, and  the interest of capital  inllvested by
landlord and tenant, it would not advance them
to a level with those of Engla,nd."*  It would
scarcely seem credible, did the foregoing figures
not bear testimony to the fact, that one labourer
to 159 acres of arable laud produces an ainnual
value of L.107, 3s. 5d., while one labourer to every
seven arable acres in Ireland, produces only L.1 4
of yearly value of produce.   No wonder  that
paupers swarm in Ireland!
5364. There are few things thlat strike a practical man more forcibly, in comparing the agriculture of England and Scotland, as the distribution
of the  work-p eop   l ae il the fi   elds.. In England,e                   it
is not uncommon to see them ed aployedeist several
fields of a farm at the same time, and the ploughs
working scattered here and there. Now, the great
i.rinciple kept in view in Scotland, as regards
the employment of the work-people of a farm,
is to concenti te the energies of them all as
eunuch as possible. Many operations require the
*conjoint labour of the teams and field-workers,
a~nd when so employed, they are confined within
a given space of the same field, that the work
may be performed in as short a time as possible;
and it is not possible to accomplish that end
unless the labourers, of whatever kind, are so
distributed and arranged, that one party shall
push on another, and should one individual
flag, those who follow are prevented proceeding
in their work. When labourers are scattered
over different fields, doing different sorts of
work, as is too mush the case in England, no
emulation can arise, and no effectual superintenidence can be exercised; and the consequence
is that less work is done, and not so well done.
In Ireland the case is still worse, for there no
methodical arrangement of the labourers in the
fields seems to be attempted, or at all understood.
I  5366. In regard to the establishment of steetbow, Mr  Hulnter says that, "the noted statute
1449, c. 17,,laid the foundation of an importaint
change upon the condition of the tenantry of
Scotland.  By it the tenant was  secured iii possession against  purchasers,  creditors,'and  all
singular successors of. the landlord.    But the
terms of that statute prove that, at the date of
its enactment, the cultivators were ii a degraded
state.   They are called in the statute'the i)uir
peopel that labouris the  grund,' which  eniphatically conveys  the idea of the wait of capital
and skill. - Although there are indications, previous to this period, that the tenalntry were in
possession of a certaini portion  of stocking, and
of the implements of tillage, yet it is difficult to
ascertain the precise nature of the right in them
which they were entitled to  claim.   There is a
probability so great as to approach to certainty,
that the cultivators were of tliat class  who  PWte
afterwards called steelbow tenlants, which, if now
altogether extinct, was  practically alive until
late in the 18th cetury.'These tenants rceived
from the laudlords, upon their entry,imi', -ie ets
of husbandry, cattle, and grain, atnd were bound,
5365. I have recently seen the following statements by Mr  W. Burness of London, of the production  atid value:mof each  class/ofilabourer        s in
each of the kingdoms of the empire:
Arable acre- to
ea.ch labouter.
England,...    13             17           30p
Scotlald,...    19,            17':3710
Ireland,...       2             4             61
eache wo.
.ah ploughmn
* ~~~~Pst ploghm~  "ure.    Toal.
England,...    50            74           124
Scotland,..,    50            44            94
Ireland,...    26            41            67
A.ble acres to eah   Plt.Ttl
common labsurer     Patr.          ol
England,...    30            40            70
Scotlaltnd,...   159          142           301
Ireland,...      7            10           17
Arable aer.e to   r-tare.     Total.
eah boy.
England,...    84           109           193
Scotla**d....    84            77           161
IrelandJ,....    11               16            27
ecwro En,. P~ t'.        Total.
England,...   3 1           459           810
Sc,,tland..         186          166           352
Ireland,...    11            16            27
* Journal of 4.qrica#ture, July 1850, p. 450.
515
V.I.. of the p
d.::f..bl.-,,s
t.,h Ib..-.
X77 14 0
107 3 5
14 0 0
IPat"
. Ttal.
England,
Scoti.rid.
Ireland,
L.b..-
1,000,000
170,000
2,ooo,ooo
England,
Scotland,
Ireland, 
REALISATION.
upon the expiation of the lease, to return the
sale number and quantity in equally good coe -
dition.  A qualified righlt of property was thus
possessed by them.  Cultivation by such mean3s
almnost always exists in an early age of society,
as may be gathered from  numerous facts.  I a
Greece, the cultivators were apparently of this
class.  Ini  Rome, the coloni 7pirti(arii must be
ranked under it.  And oil the Continent alinost
ally other class was unknowni, not only dur ing
the nmiddle ages, but in some of the most civilised
natious downv tona very recent period.   In many
o       f the provivnc es of    F rautce and Italy they were,
under the irame of miettayers,              the  sole cultivator s,
so late as the end of the last century; and the
treatises oi French law abound with rules for
the guidance of the contract.  In those Eastern
countries wliere agriculture is considerably advaticed, tifs mi'odie'bf culture is practised.  Trat(-es
also exist of'its haviug been known in England,
tfir ancient leases were formerly cited, by which
bothl live stock and grainl were thus conveyed to
tlie lessee. Iii Scotlaii(l, a similar state of minaners
iust be  lelumled  to have iinduced a sinmilar
restilt.'it Whlile the technical tertm steclbowwhichl si'tifies int the Teutolic, goods placed on
a tfrm  ori';/ttached to it-establishes  the existe,te of this species of contract, yet there are,
ill the earlier records, fewer certain notices of it
tlhat mighlt have been expected.  This probably
t ro-e from the fact that, as all the tenants were
ranked ulder this class, the execution of a lease
implied that i mple ments, cattle, and  seed were
to be furnlished to the        ten ant." *
5363. Decenmber 1849.-Supposing that entry to tlh
fall,ow-break is at Martinmas, and  to the grass land and
houses at Whitsunday, witll thie exception  of the  bsrns,
statclkard, anid two  cottages, retain ed  by the otut-going
tenant,  for the convenience of managing  the  way-going
crop,  the  first  exp,ernse  incurred  is  the  ploughing of
tle  fallow-tiieak, whiii.l, if done by hired labour, will cost
8s. per acre, bi at if don e b    y  the goodwill of  neigshbaurs in
a' "plouhlin,-day," whicli is the  etistom of the countlttry,
and is regarded as the earnlest of  a lhearty welcom.e to  a
stranger, the cost will conlsi.st of,le anld bread to ve.rvants,
and a dinner to their masters, say 90 persons at 2.. (id.
eachl,..Z...     11   5   0
5369. March 1850. -A
ing-nmarkets, for  tl,e  eng
s ervatnts fir one  year,  fro
with co       st of a.les, 
The  mneni lhired shou
stepCher d,   cat t le-n
plougrlneii, a nd a     st
oddl lhorse.
Select 11 w,-,!,k-horscs, fro
at   3O a.-piece,
A brood-mar-e in foa-l,
A lharness.h1orse, 5 or 6 ye
6   Sets   of worl-eh aartess, e0
following articles:    2 Bridl es, 2 collars,'
breein lllg, 3         baek-b0
and  I           pair of sl3ort
cart ar d 2 pairs of t
and  1 trace belly-l
banlds, I leading-ch:
of cart- ropes,           long                  7
plougl re ins, 2  tIos
set,..
4 Set of  gig-hau rnes s,
bridle. and stall-col
I Corn tutn fo,r wor-k-lho
1 Corn tuni for riding-ho
10 Wlhole-bodied single-l
2 Tilt-carts, at I'12,
6 Corn-carts, to  moun
cart-axles, at ~C3, 1
2 Cart-frames, at 30s..
6 Stretcher-s for tra(-e-hi
6 Iron ploug,hs, at zC4,
6 Slides tor plo)ughs. at
2 Iron s,mall plotughs, at
1 Iron doub)le iimould-bo
2 Iron sctufflers, at 50s.,
6 Pairs of harrows, with
at 42s.,
1 Carr-iatge for harrow.,
6 F,l.l sets of swi,,g-tre
extra olle,
3 Long swin,g-trees, for
6 Feer-in.g poles, with ire
1 Pair o>f lharr-ows for g.-,
1 Finlatyson's Srubber,
2 Two-hoi,rse rollers, of r
1 Presser roller, 2-whee
1 Mlheelbarrouw,.
1 Broadcast so,wing-miia
1'I'urnlip double.drill so
1 lB(one-duist anld turIIip
ingR mXachwine,.
7 Graipls for dun,,, at. s
4 Spreading g,-;ips, a,t 2
7 Lim.le shiovel,s,.t 4s.,
2 D)itchling slhovels, at 4
3 I)itclfi,,g spades, at 4!
1 liedge spa,de,
1!)utceh I!oe,
7 Staable fo)rks, at Is. 6,1
2 t,on,z  do.  at 2s. 3d
4 lial'-long do., at Is..
4 1'ield and stack 0orlks,
3 I)u,g-hawks, 1.withi 
prongs. anld i with
bvy-e, at 4s.,
2 Mud hioes, at 2s. 4d.,
I Metal tr,-ug). for -igs
i Hle(ge-knife, large,
1  Prun,ing,-kinife,
.5367. Having valued tle farmn; nmade
up your mind as to the rent it is worth;
niade offer of the rent, ai(l been accepted;
agrreedl to the conditions of a lease; subtitted qliestiols  of arbitration between
yourself and the otitg,oing tenant; waited
lintil t-he  periOdi tliat entry is given to
at least a part  of tlhe  farmi; tie  time
las  arrived  to  purchase  the  requisite
stocklint,r.  rTo give  tlhe inost  practical
view tf stocking, a farnm, it will be necessary to enumllerate the imnpletoents (of
Iuslanti(ldry retquired to be pturcli se(l at successive periods, until entire entry has been
fully obtaineil, and thle live stock and cor          e      d
re uired at starting, to suit a five-course
rotation  on  a firta of 500 acres.   The
prices of -ijutpjle' ents mlay differ in differenit places, acerdig as tiey a   re t)tircliased
at sales, oxr frotit an iliiI)leltient itiaker and
manuit,ctllrer.  I iave given the prices of
new ones i/u Edin)urglhi, and it was necessary to state a price in order to   ake the
st.temntet  intelligibleC
48   0
;   0
3 10
I  10
100  0
24  0
21  0
3   0
0  6
25 4
o 12
5 o
3  1o
5 o
12 12
3 o
4  4
o 7
o   7
1  7
7 o
24 o
6 10
1 o
12 o
6 10
11 10
1  1
o 8
1  8
o 9
0 13
o  4
o  2
0 10
o  4
o  7
o 7
0 12  o
I..  6
, withi divisions,        1 1  0
. I.                0 7  6
...        0  3 C
Carry forward,;C741  8  6
* -unteres Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 40.
I.,il6
1 0 0
310 0 0
30. 0 0
25 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
6
6
6
0
0
ON TIIE STOCKI.NG OF A FARM. 
STOCKING A FARM.
Brought forward,    ~1975   5  6
7} qrs. oats each, -  75 qrs., at 16s.,.       60  0  0
i Year's poor-rate,...       10  0  0
5372. June 1850.   3 Scythes for mowing grass, at 10s. each,           1  10  0
8 alay-rakes, at Is. 6d. each,..       0 12  0
1 Hior e ha,y and stubble rake,..       3  15  0
1 L,ng ladder, 20 feet long, at 9d. per foot,       0 15  0
2 tlalt-long do., 12 feet long, at 9s.,.       0 18   0
6 Short do., at Ss. each,...       1 10  0
1 Shleep erook....       0 3   6
Ian1    laing-st)ol,..            0 10  0
2 Tubs lor pickling wheat, and for bath for
1i0eep....      0 15  0
2 Pickli,,g baskets, at 3s. each,..      0  6  0
2  Pair of woel-l:e.ars,...       0  6  0
1 Beamis, scales, aid weights, for wool,.        2 10 0
1 Buis,idg.-ion anid t.ar-kettle for sheep,        0  3  0
2  Ilairges, atnd skewers for  sheep when
slaughtered,...       0  2  0
5373. July 1850.   2 Potato-graips,....        0  6  0
9  lraskets for   potatoes, at.,..        0  6  9
10 Turtip-hoes for wilnien, at Is. 2d. each,. 0 11  8
10 Weed-looks for wteding corn, at 6d. each,          0  5  0
4 Rope-twisters, at 2s,...       0  8  0
5374. September 1850.   6 Straw-recks for cattle in courts, at 10s.,         3  0  0
1 Turnip-rammiiei-,  14s., and  trocliar, 3s.
6d., for cattle,....              017   6
1 Tutrnip-etster for sheep,...        5  0  0
1 Do. cattle,...              1 10  0
6 Turni.-piclters, at 2o. each,..        0 12  0
6  Kitives fi,r topping asid  tailing turnips,
at  Is. 6d. eachi,..           0  9  0
2 Hay-racks f,r sheep, at 30s. eachl,.       3   0  0
20 Sheel)-troughs, at 6s.,...        6  0  0
300 Net-stakes, at ld. each,..        1  5  0
20 Sheep-nets, at 7s. 6d. each,..        7  0  0
1I iallet for driving stakes,..        0  2  6
1 Driver  for stakes,...        0  5  0
1 lay-knifte,....        0  3  6
1 Chaff-cutter,....       8  10  0
2 Stable lanterns, at 35. 6d. each,..        0  7  0
3 Othlers, 1 tor steward, 1 for shlephlerd, and
1for cattleman,...        0 10  6
1'iorn for blowing at fodder titme,.        0  2  0
1  )rill-macline for sowing corn,..        7  0  0
3 Qrs. 5 bush. of seed-wheat, at 45s.,.       8  3  0
5375. May 1851.  2 Sows, 1 boar, and 4 sihotts,..      1(   0  0
14 Calves for rearing, at 25s.,..      21  0  0
Oats for 6 pair of horses 1 year, from April
last year, at 34 qrs. per pair    204 qrs.,
riding-horse, 23  qrs., in all -   227  qrs.,
at 16ls.,.....     181 12  0
Seed-oats, 100 acres, at 5 bush. per acre -
62] qrs. at 16s.,....       50  0  0
Seed-wlheat, 40 acres, at 3 btih. per acre -
15 qrs. at 45s.,....     33 15  0
Seed-barley, 50 a-res, at 3 bush. per acre 
18 irs 6 bush., at 24s per qr.,                  22 10  0
Clover seeds same as last year,..       51  1  0
Lime for one year,....      20   0  0
Tolls,.....        5  0  0
1 Year's poor-rate,....       20   0  0
1 Do.  ro-d-money,...        5  0  0
1 Do. schoolniaster's salary,..       1  0  0
1  Do. assessed taes,..    210  0
1 I)or.  i.surance,...       110  0
1 Do.  mtle-catchling, at 7s. 6d. per 10 acres,        1 17  6
1 Do. blaciksmit.h work fo-,r 6 pair of lhorses, at
60s. puer I-air, also for riding-horse and
other jobs, 60s.,...                     21  0  0
Oil, grease, and lar, for one year,..       2 10  0
B1itla  fatr sheep, 440 sheep at 1l each,.        2 15 
1 e2 Mony-wagesof      0 en-se rvlnts forthe1stye:~r,  74  II 0
2 ro. *f 8  women, ~f6 ealch fir the 1st year,.     4.   e  0
Do. of otiler field-workers in sunnner,.       5  O   0
Corn for 8 nien,   year,...      24  0 0
Oats foxr horses froml lMay to hiarvest,'45v qrs.,
at lus.,.....            36 0   0
Carry forwr ard,     ~2747 13 11
rBrought forward,
IBreastin~g-knife,...
Grindstone,
Axe,....
1 Saw,....
I Sledge-hammer,...
Hatdd-p icks,  C
Ms  tock.....
Iron foot-pick,
Small stone-hammers,
Ironl lever and wedges,
Tair-kits,
2Oil-tinls...
Cows' ba,nds.
BIl's cihain,,...
Im per-i.l bushel and strike,
i l)ouble-quiart, or tenth-buslhel measures,
Sowing sliers,....
lluskies for c.arrying seed, at 5s.,
Corn-sa,clis, at Is. 6d.,
! Stasble-pa.ils,..
ll,hrse-shleets, I at 20s. and1 I at 10s.,
Set of Phlem,.es, Blood-stick,  Clyster-pit
an.:d Drinlk-horn,
Pump and trouigh-,
Borinlg rod and spirit-level for draining,
ss5370o. April 1850.-TThe tillage land of 500
acres will be apportioned in this manner:      100 aicres of new grass.
100..  2-vear (ld grass.
100..  oats.
80 acres turnips.
100..  10..  potatoes.
10        b.tre-fallow.
100     ( 50  *.  barley.
* * 1 50..winter and spring wlheat.
500
Grass-s eed s  7      lb. of red clover, 5 lb. of  white
clover. 1  buslhel of perennial rye-grass per
acre, wl, over  100 acres, gives of     W4T ite clove r, 4 cwt. 52 lb., at
52s. per cw t.,..       11 13   0
Red clove,-, (; cwt. 28 lb., at
6i8s. per cwt.,.                                 21  5  0
R ye-grass, 18 qrs. 6 lb., at 20s., 18  3  0
51  1  0
Slay for thorses          o rntil they go to grass  at the  end
of MIav, 5 ton,,t ~3   per ton,.  15  0  0
Oat3, 41, qrs., at 1fis,.                       32  0  0
4     Tons  4  cwt seed-potatoe s, a t X2 per    ton,    8  8                         0
2en's wages fror n Marel   i unwtil May  26, 1850,,   28   0  0
7       Me,, 8 weeks, at 10s. per week, 
Field worliers, froml      do.  to do.,  7.                  0  0 
Blacks.,.ith's work, from do. to do.,.       3   0  0
5371. May i850.Share of the expenses of arbitration on fences
and buildings,..                       2  0  0
Cost of 120 lb. Swedlishi tu?nip-seed, at ls. per lb.,  6   0  0
..   30 lb. vellow, at Is. per lb.,.             1 10   0
9..0 lb. globe, at 9d. per lb.,.       3   7  6
12 Tons gulano, at ~1l,                               120  0   0
200 Bu,shels bon,e-dust, at 2s. (;d. per bushlel,       25   0  0
Poultry,-geese at 2s. 6d.. gosliings at Is., tur     keys at 3s., voting tuirkeys at Is., duc:ks
an.d  l)ens at  Is.,  and  ducklings  and
ehickens, 6d.,..                       5   0  0
1 2-yea,,r old colt or fillv, for the drautglht,      18  0  0
I I-year (,ld do.    do.          do.,.       12  0  0
1 Siort-lorn buttll,...      25  0  0
.9 Siort-lIor.. cow,s, at,.'14 each.,              126  0  0
20 Shlort-horn, calves, p.art unweanled, at ~2,
15s. each,..55   0  0
20 Sho,,rt-horn, 1-year old steers and iieifers, at
~6 each,....    120  O 0
120 Lei,ester   ewe, and their lambis, at 45,s. each. 270   0  0
160 Leicester ewe and wetlher hloggs, at32s. each, 256  0   0
2 Leicesterttlsps..                  10  0   0
g;ervants' corn pail at May 26, 1850, in advance,  10 Serv;ants at 1 qr. 1  bush. barley each,
I11  qrs. 2 binsh., at 24s.,                   13 10  0
8 bush. pease each, -  3 qrs. 6 buh, at 26s., 4 17 6
Carry forward,      ~1975  5  6
517
I
I
I
I
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
7
1
1
2
2
2
20
2
2
1 
REALISATION.
Brought forward,    ~2920  6 11
28 Pairs of reapers' blankets, at 7s.,.       9 16  0
6 Porridge kits for reapers, at 3s. each,.      0  18 C
6 Milk tins, 2s. each,...       0 12   0
6 Small-beer barrels, 3s. each,..       0 18  1
1   Gantress for large beer barrel,.            0  3  0
Joiner and mason's work  for 1l year,.      10  0  0
Tenant's siare of the expenise of drawing out
thie lease,...'   10  0  0
Half-year's rent, paid Lammas 1851,.    625   0  0
Reapers' wages upon 200 acres, 5s. per acre,        50  0  0
Incidental expenses for 1l year,..      30   0  0
1 03657 13 
Brought forward,       Z2747 13 11
5376. To Harvest 1851.Thlrashling machline, with  hummeller and
bri,iser, 6-.iorse water power,.        140  0  0
If of high pressure steam,. ~210
If of hlorse power,..      120
Dressing-fanners,....       7  0  0
I Biarn-steelyard and weights,..       6  0  0
1 Ird-hun eit rflller,.     O.            0 10  0
60 Corn-sacks, at Is. 6d. each,..       4 10   0
1.'ack-ba).row, with wheels,.       1 10  0
2 tlat-d-barrows for lifting sacks of corn, at
10I. each,.       1  0  0
4 Barn weightsforfillingcorn,atIs.'6d. each,         0  6  0
2  )at wire. riddles, at 2s. each,.. 0  4  0
2 lBarley do., at 2. 4d. each,..       0  4  8
2 W heat d,., at 3s. 3d. each,..       0  6  6
2 Sieves do., at 2s. 6d. each,..       0  5  0
1 Slapl-riddle, at 2s.,...        0  2  0
1 B3arn-stool....             0 3  0
1 Wooden hoe, for corn,...       0  1  0
1         lr,e barn-slheet,...       0 12  0
2 Cliaflf-siee's....             0  7  0
6 Barni brooms...     0  3  0
2 Cornl shovels, at 3s. each,..       0  6  0
6 Saclk needles. and clew of twine,.       0  2  0
1 Fturnace pot and grate,...       1  5  0
I Meal ark,.....       3  0  0
10 Cwt. of oatmeal att.9s. 7d. per bag,.      4 15 10
Carry forward,    ~2920  6 11
little  leisure  for any  amusement  until
they-are finished.  I will suppose, then,
you have all these things to do, and in doing
them they must be undertaken in the order
I have enumerated them. I say nothing on
the building of a farm-house, the form and
appearance of which being a matter of
taste, with the exception of tlhe working
part of it-tlhe kitchen, scullery,  milkihouse, and  cheese-roomn-on  wliiclh  l)y
sentiments have already been expressed
in (4192) and (4193.)  Let  us proceed,
then, to the erection of the steading, whichI
of course  must  b)e suite,] to a  500-acre
farm of mixed lhusl)a,ndIry, the kind of
farming we proposed to follow (52.)
5378. The sum actually passed through
the hands of the new tenatnt in the first
9I  year after entry to the farm is ~7, 6s.
3-id. per acre, and that actually laid out by
liiii isabout ~5, 15s. Qd. per acre; beside
the sum required to furnish his house.
ON  CIIOOSING  THE  SITE, ON BUILDING,
AND ON THIE EXPENSES OF ERECTING
THlE STEAD)ING.
5379. In ordinarycircumstances, after a
farner lias stocked and  fully entered  on
liis farm, lie hlas little to do but to      miandige
it inl  the  best imianner in thle iil()de of
far.lling,, lie hlas cliosen, or been obliged to
adiopt, (52,) antl very few  farmers lhave
tile ol)poltunity of laying, out a farimi entirely fro(lu its commencemient; bhlt although you may  not be involved in the
necessity of (riginating a farm, it is not
ilmpr(obable thlt the one you have engaged
may require either a new  steading, new
encloisures, draining, subsoil and trenchplough ing,,- or waste land to inmprove-in
which case, you slhould be able to meet
wiichlever of those exigencies i!ay occur.
I hlad to meet  themn  all;  for o0  the
farm of Balinadies, wlhich I occupied in
Fori-farsliire, I liadl to build a new house,
new  steadinig,  form  new  fences,  construct  eiiibanikmellnts,  make  new  farm
roa.ds, tri-encli-plotigli, and  improve waste
land-.  He  wlio hlias  iiimire thian  one  of
these operations to undertake, will find
518
5377. During the expenditure of the above
sun-is, tl.e followi,g products have been sold
off the. farm: 2Years clip of wool, 270 fleeces each year,
- 540 at 6 lb. each - 3240 lb., at 1,9.
per lb...;Cl62 0   0
1.50 Sheep sold at 35s. ea' h, 262 10   0
20 Sheep died, sold for 10  0   0
20 Fat cattle, t zCl5 each, 300 0   0
Pigs sold,.. 20 0  0
5 Cwt.'cbeese, at 50s. pe; cwt., 12 10  0
767 0 0
zC2890 13 11
.Aaking the balance of outlay to amount to
5380. It is,t necessary condition, to its
proper use, that every steadin,, be conv-,
nientl,iv placed on the f,-triii. To be moi-t
conveniently placed,, in theory, it sll(.)Ul.l
stand in its centre; for it can be i)i-ove,l
in geometry, that, of any point witliiii
the area of a. circle, tl)e centi-e -is tl)e
nearest to every point in tl)e circuitliference. In practice,  liou,ever,   eireti.iiistances,re,,ttly modify  this theoretical
principle. For example, if an -,ibtiiid,-iiit
supply of water can be easily obtained for
the iiiovino, power of the tlirasl)in -i)ia            41                                   9
cliine, the steadit)g inikv I)e place4.1, for the
sake of econon-ilsing horse labour, in,t
more reniote and liollow spot than it
should be in other circumstances. For
the, purpose of conveyin,, the iiiai)ure
downhill to inost of the fields, sonie think 
BUILDING THE STEADING.
thile highest ground near the centre of the
farm as the best  site for the steading.
Oth,ers prefer the lowest point near the
cenrtre, because the grain and green crops
being then carried downhill to the steading,
the laborer would be less than carrying
themi  uphlill, and they are heavier than
the grain crops and manure. In selectiiig, either of these sites, it seems to be
fo,,rgotten that loads have to be carried
bothl to and fiorm  the steading; so that
either position will answer, provided there
be no steep ascent to or descent from  the
steading.  Tile lower situation, however,
is iiiore consonant  with experience and
reason  than  the higher; though  level
ground affords the easiest transit to wheelcarriages.  It is desirable for the farmhouse to be situated so as to commitiand a
view of every or most of the fields on the
farm, that the farmer may have constantly
a b)ird's eye view of them; and if circumstances permit, especially a plentiful slupply  of good  water,  thie vicinity of the
farm-house  should  be  the site for the
steading; but if a sacrifice of the position
on the part of either is necessary,  the
farm-house should give way to the convenience of the steading.
several apartments containing the livestock should be placed, in respect of distance to it, according  to  the  wants of
the stock for straw, in order to save
labour in its carriage; for so bulky and
heavy an  article as straw should in  all
cases be moved to short distances, and not
at all from any other apartment than the
straw-barn; so that the thrashinq-nzachine,
(1738,) which deprives the straw of its
grain, should be s o  placed as at  once to
deposit the straw into the straw-barin,
(l690.)  The stack-yard, conitainiing the
unthraslhed straw with its corn, should be
contiguous to the thrashiing-iimacliine. The
passage of straw from  the stack-yard to
the  straw-barn  thrtugh  the thiraslhingmachine being directly progressive, it is a
material consideration in the saving of
time to place the stack-yaLrd, tlhrashinigmachine, and straw-barn in a right line.
5383. Differe nt classes    of stock require
different quantities  of str aw, to  maintainh
tlhemt in the same degree of cleanliness and
condition, so that those classes which  require the tnost should be placed nearest the
straw-barn. The younger stock, including
those in the hammers  N, requiring most
straw, receiving it largely for fodder as
well as litter, the courts which tfiley occupy
should be placed contiguous to the strawbarni, one bcciipying each side of it.  The
older or fattening cattle requiring the
next largest quantity of straw, the hanmmeels  M which they occupy  slhoulh1 be,
placed next to the courts in nearness t(}
the straw-barn.   Hoises and cows requiring the smallest quantity of straw, the
stables O, and byres Q and Y, may  be
placed next farthest in  distance to the
lhairemtels from the straw-barn.
5381. On referring to the accommodation required  in  the  steading  for the
cattle in  (1082;)  for  the  horses,  in
(1389;)  for tihe  pigs, in  (1574;) for
the poultry, in (1598;) for the grain, in
(1678;) for yoiiiig calves, in (2271;) for
farrowing sows, in (2845;) and for the
wool, ill (3940,) in the respective apartnients shown in the ground-plan in Plate
II., I need here only refer to those places
for tile iiio(le of fitting up each of these
apartimeiits, an( shalill proceed to enunciate
the leadingt principle on whichl these arran,gements shlould be imad(e; and being
siluple, it will best be und(lerstood when
lookin,,g  t the ground-plan in Plate II.
5384. Tile positions of other two apartmenits are necessarily determined by that
of  the  tlhraslliiig(-maclhine, the one  being
the upper barn,  which  contains the unthlrashled corn from  the stackyard, ready
to be passed through the mill; and the
other the corni-barni, which receives the
corn immediately after its separation fronm,
the straw  by the  mill.   The  granaries
should be in direct commnunication witlh
the corn-b,aln, to save the labour of carryin, the clean corn to a distance. Fig. 133
shows the relative positions of  the cornbarn and granaries on a larger scale than
5382. Straw being the bulkiest article
on the furr, and in diailv uise by every
kind(l of live-st(ockl, and, altliough hleavy anid
unwieldy, liaving to be carried ann  (listributed in smltl quantities by bodily labour,
it slhoul(l h)e centrically placed, in regrard
to tihe st('k, k id at a short distance from
their respective a)artinents.  Tile strawOarn, its receptacle, should thus occupy
the central point of the steading,.  The
51,9 
REALISATION.
the plate, where x is the corn-barn, m and
p stairs to the granaries, e e, fig. 130, r tll  e
wilndow in the corn-barn, t the chaff-hlouse,
atnd s the  straw-barn.    Tlhe  granaries
should always  be elevated above  the
ground, to keep the grain in good condition, and is enables  their floors t       o f    ormu
convenien t  roofs  fo r  c   attle or cart-sleds.
The  elevation which thle granaries give  to
the building should be taken advantag,e
of to place them s3o as to shelter the cattle
courts from the N. wind in winter; and
in order to afford the warmtlh of the sun
to the cattle, all their courts should be
,)pen to its light and heat. The courts being
open to the S., and the granaries foriiming a
screen from the N., it follows that the graniaries should extend E. and W. on the N.
side of the courts; and as it has been
shown  that the  cattle-courts should be
placed on each side  of the strawv-barn,
it also follows that tlhe straw-barn, to be
out of the way of screening the sun from
the courts, should stand N. and S., at
right angles to the S. of the granaries.
The fixing, of the straw-barn to the S. of
the granaries, an(] of course to that of the
thraslhing,-nmaclhine, the position of tile
stackyard is necessarily fixed to the N.
of both, where it is favourably situated for
the preservation of the corn in the stacks.
construction is a secondary consideration,
and theproperaccomnnodation for live stock
ought never to be sacrificed to it.  For,
suppose thlat, by inallequate accommlllIodationi, cattle thrive by los. a-head  less in
tlhe course of a winter, tlhan tlhey wolltl
hlave done in well constructedl curts and
lhainimels, and suppose that the farliler is
prevented realisitng this sli21 01o  tlree lots
of twenty cattle e'ach  of different ages,
there is an  tinnual  loss to llim of L.30;
and  had the capital sum,  of whlichll  the
annual loss of L 30 is tile yearly interest,
been expended  in constructing tile steadingt, in tlhe best maniner, thle loss  would
not only have been averte(l, bult the cattle
would have been in mIuchi better health and
condition to slaughter or to fatten 111 grass.
So little is siell a result anticipated in constructing stedluings, th.lat in mlany parIts of
tthle country, the cattle courts arie p)laced
within a qtuadrangle, the soultlIeril range of
which prevents the rays of the sun ever
entering, tlleiii; andl on account  of  thlat
peculiar form tlhe clilly air rushles over tlie
corners of the roofs into thle courts in wllirlwinds, which, if acconmpanied with rain or
sleet, is sure to engender in the cattle thle
nmost insidious diseases.
5387. It is easy to aIpply the prin(it)le
spoken of to the constriuction of steadinrgs
suitable to all thle othier oilloes of farniiitg
besides tl)e mixed lhuisban(dry.  For exainpie, the steading, for the arable  )art of a
sl astoral farmi, wlhere its extent is considerable,  shouldt be  arranged as  (one for an
arable fairm situnte at a  distance frotn a
town, as in fig,. 55. iMlost of thle straw bein,g
required for the stables q and i, thie strawbarn e is placed nearer tlhern than to the
byre 1,-tlhe young stock of cattle, slhould
cattle be bred on tile frli, beiig accomniiiodated in a n appro)priate steatling with any
number of couirts-suclh as n andrl fit in fig.
95-by itself, not far off.
5385. The leading, principle i nvolved in
tile above arrangement is as coniprellensive as simple, and is applicable to every
size and kind of steading. But, obviously
correct as tbe principle is, it is seldom
adopted in practice;  and I niay safely
assert thlat tile greater tle deviation from
tileprinciple, tile less desirable steadingsbecome as habitations for live stock in winter.
5386. One  reason why steadings are
not constructed on correct principles is,
possibly architects who sup)ply plans are
unacquainted practically witlh thle use of
the respective apartmenrts of stea(lings;
Lnd  they comiiluonly bestow  too  much            5
attention  on  tlheir symniiietrical  proportions, on conlstructing tllem at the least
possib)le co)st, and witllin the least space,
as if a few square yards of ground( were of
mncelI valle in the country.   No  doubt
economy is enforced (on them by reluctant
piroprietors, as well as by poor tenants,
when either have to construct thle steading at their own  cost;  but economy of
520
5388. 11;7'liere the -trat)le part of a p,-,istoral fariti is small, the steadiii(, should
contain all the stock in
95 represents steel a steatlin,,                                   b is
the,,,traw-barii near the courts m, wliicli
contain the cattle that coijstitiie tile
largest proportion of tile straw in fo(itier
and litter. Tlje. stables d and I aii4l I)vi-e
h, are situate f-,irt-l-ier off, -.is they require
less stranv than the courts; but to i,eiidCT 
BUILDING THE STEADING.
as experience an,d reflection may hlave saggeste~l' altlhouigh, the plI-n imay h   iave ap
peare(I -%vell enoulglh adapted for the  pUI
pose, but w!hich niay have overlooked many
essential particulars of accoitomodation aind
comfi)rt.  Tlhe contractor cannot co)iplain
whlen he is paid( for the w-,ork lie liis actually
executed. An ordaiiied surveyor, ionmtiially
chosen by  )otlh parties, then Tieasures the
ework, calculates its several )parts accor(din,g to the  i)rices stipulated for  witli the
contractor, and (lrawvs up  a report of tlhe
avalue of e,ach kind of wm'rk  the total suiii
constitutingt  thle cost (,f tie  farmstead.
Inistalinents of laymient are iiiadle to the
contractor at siuch p)ei-,i(lIs of tlie work as
w ere ii,aree(l upon.   This plan  ilay give
you  no  chleaper steading,,  but  a deiarer
one thlan the connliion plan of contrictinig
by a slun)I) simi; but cheapness shoul(l not
be tl-e princilp)al,l ject of buiiliing a steadling, that being the conveniience of tlie wNorkpeople, and tl)e comforlt of the live.struck.
the carrying of the straw  to tlhose still
imore convenient than is shlownii in thle plan,
the straw-barn b mighlt lbe ma.de as miuclh
loniger as to allow a door on each side of
it, outsidle the couirts m, to afford access
to the straw fromii the imiore  distant  of
those courts.
5389. Opl a carse flrm tle st raw is the
chiief ing,-re(lient at tlhe steading,-, and  tile
principle means of using, it are the horses,
of whtichi a large nuliil)er is r-e(quiired on
suclh a farin.  Tlhe  statble f, fi,. 96, is
placed near tlhestraw barni d, to wlhiclh two
dloors give access outside the courts  1, in
wlhiclh the cattle p,ass thie winter, and( a.re
also near th-e straw.   The byre i is at no
great distance.
5390. The construction of a dairy farmi
steadinjg is peculiar, as is sliown in fil.
384. Tlhe principal part of tlhe stea(ling,
thlje byre a, is so situate as to be near tlhe
cooking hlouse b, and the foddler house e, in
whlichl the hly is chopped by means of the
cutterf, and whlich is necessarily colitigliotis to the movingi power iatp.   Tie straw
being iiinost used by tl-he stables w  and y,
the straw barn s is placed near theni; and
it wouldl there be also near any  Iaanimrels
thl)at miight be erected in thle open  space
within the ranges of thle buil(ling, for tlhe
young quieys conling forward to renew the
stock of cow s.  Th e byre                    a  is situate    a t
no great(listanice from the door of thestrawbarn s whicill affords it litter.
5392. o7wlhat I      miean  bty  essent ial   rticularks of  accoliollatiorl  and'cotifort in
a  steading a re    sucl ias these:-in gi tinds
a  f oot or t wo oe or e length to a stad)le or
byre, by wlhiclh eacll animaiiil mai y hlave two
or tihree inchles nlore rooll plater      lly i lel
it would en    jov  nloto ease  and  comftrt. A
.joy more e-yito an
wist(Iiov,    instead  of looiing tos  tlle eclr
noritl, msay bde sta(le witlh  as mcn iel ease to
look to  the  warnl s      u,;oitlh.  A   sky-light
nig,iht be icoade in tlte roof, to aff(eo r  st g i-l
ienwlilt lig t to a ilace that  -oili( otlserwise
be dark;  an ad(litioinal  dri-aini to remiove
moisture  or effluvia, wlhicli, if left  tiidisturbe(l,  migh,t cause considerable annoyance.  A  door oi)eliiiing, one   way ivaste.ad lI(l
of tthe  otlper, feay di    rec t tl he d franult of
air to a quarter wl)ere it can do no lIaikm.
A  door imiad-e of a whole piece, instead of
being dlivided into leaves, miiay imiake a
chamber gloon,y; an(] tlhe leav-es o)f a- (];,or
formed(  horizontally, instead of verticalIy,
wlhen left open, i)ay give security to an
apartment  against tle intrusion of  every
pa-sser-t)y.   Tlhese and  numerous  snell
siall conveniences may be obtained (during
tlhe construction of a  steadiig,  -,'itlholt
wlhich it  would want  much of its coreinodiolusness and coiiifort-dand NwlNiiell it
would nlost likely want, were tlhe f5irt~er
bound by a contract to a specified suimi.
5391. The  best  way  of  buildinr,  a
steading  is not  to  ce,ntract for  it in a
slump sumii, because, whatever alterations
nmay be ma(le during, the p-,rogress of the
w;ork, the contractor mighi,t take advantage
of the change, and cli-argie wlhatever lie
clhooses for them, without your lhaving a
check upon his undefined rates; nor, for
tire same reasonis, should tlhe  miiasor, car)enter, and slater w~orks be contracted for
siepalrately in the slutlp.  The prices per
rood orper yard(. atnd the quiantities of              each
kind of work, should he settled beforehand
wuithl the contracictor.  The advantage of
this arrangemiient is, tlhat the work will be
finis.hedl acc(,r(diing to thie views and tastes
of tlhe paarty for whose use the f,i,ristead
has b)een built, lhe laving used1 the power
of ailptig such  slilght niollificati(ons of
the iau, during the progress of the worlk,
521
,5.39,3. Before the pi-ices ()f work to I)e 
REALISATION.
execute(l can be fixe(l on between the eniiloyer and  contractor, specifications  of
every species of work should be drawn up
by a person competenIt for the task.  A
Nvague sp)ecification,  couchled  ini general
terius, will not answer; for whlen work
co,nes to be executedl iunder it, too much
liberty is given to bo)tl parties to interpret
tlhe tcriiis accordiing to tile interest of ealch.
Hence  arise disputes, which  ma.y n)t be
easily settledl even  on  reference to  the
p)ersIn wl)o drew up thle specifications, -as
lie tI(ssib)ly by that time niay have either
forgotten Ilis own  ideas of thle iiatter, or,
by iliti,atin,, hIis original intetitionis, iiiayv
so affect tlie interest of bothi parties as
rathler to wi(lenti tlhatit repair thle breach. Far
better have every parlticular embodied in
the specificatil,lns, than liave explanations
an(l miodifications to miake afterwards.
are reduced  to a standard of 12 iilchs.a
Rublble work- is always charged by tlie
rood of 36 square yards.  Ini measuri-ng
rubble, allowances for levellings conlnected
witlh joists, b)ondI timbers, and wvall-plates
are now  abolished.  As  to  hewn work,
ribats of dooIs and windows, sills, lintels,
corners, copes of  chliiminey-stallks, skews,
aid(I wall-lIea(l copes  are  measured andl
plricedi Iy tie lineal foot.   Coursingt,, climney-Ihea,l aisller, and every othier work of
similar  description, is imieasuired and priced
by the superlicial fo(t.  In inside work.
pavemiients, fla.ts of stairs, and heartlhs, are
imieasuired and   priced  by  the superficial
f(o;ot.  Steps and jalnbs are priced by tlim
slumiip.  Stone skirtings are measured anrd
priced by  the lineal foot.
5395. The following specifications are  applicable to every size and plan of steading; and aS
they accord with my own experience, which has
been considerable onl this subject, I submit tlhem
wi th the gre atest confidence.   They em bra ce  tie
particulars of   mason work, carpenter work,
slater work, plumber work, sinith work, anid
painter and glazier work, which are not d,awn up
in the phrases usually employed in specifications,
but are illustrated by examples and by the elucidation of principles. Proper specifications could
easily be drawn out from  the data furnished
here.
5394. The principle of the measurenmcnet
to be ap)plied to the work is anothler itermi
to be emil)odliel in the specifications.   It
is too  utch  tlhe practice,  in  some parts
of the c(oIutitry, to tolerate a loose  mode
of uleastiring,  work; siuch  as                    iudeasuring
,voids, as the openings of doors and win dows are ternled, that is-oil nieasuring  a
wall  for thle ribble-work, to include all
thle openiings in it, and then  to me,asure
the lintels tind rillats anlI corners.   In like
nianuner, cliuii ney-to)ps are  niensuire(I  all
r(ollnd as rubble, anlll tlen tlhe corners are
iiieastire(i over and  tab)ove.   Now  tlJe fair
plan.,I)viously is to measure everv sort of
workc by itself:  whlere rlubblle is, let it be
iiieasured for rubble; anlll wiere liewin work
is, let it be measturedl as suchl.   Tlhe hlewn
stones  assist the rulbble  bluilIlin,, and as
tley co,st i,,ore at tlhe q,,arr,y tIhIiii rublsle
st(roes, let:t fixedl pri(e be settledl for them. aco
Thliis tlhe w'lork a(tuially i(one w,ouIl be paid
fol; and more s!ouldi not )be pai(l, let the
price (of thle workl be wlhat  it In:i.ly.                            I
ati, gla(l, liovever, to addl that the practice
n,,v, in -ill the towns of Sco.tlan,td, is to
mieasuire,ll work  in  iiett mleasure; thjat
is to, s,v, in imiea,suiring, rulll)lte work  tile
cub,icatl contelits of bt)otli rul)l:)le antI lewn
worlk  are miieassured-l, a,ii(i t!he daiyligh,t of
all vwis,ls tltlltcteT.  Tii, exeel)ti,IllS are,
in  thie        waell   press es, fire-l,la( es, vindow-ll(
b s       -in.~sil flles  o3f chlimneys arie incluled
in tile!,,e(asutremitent.  All  waills al,tve 18
inclmes tlxick are re(duiced to a standil,rd of
2 feet,.anl -,all walls below 18 inches thick
5396.  asnon-work.The fir      st t hin, to  be
done in  miasolii-wrk is the digging a!fthef a uridtations of the walls.  Whe the  site of  the s teah ding
is not obliged to be chosen on a rock, the depth
of the  foutidatiots of all the ou tside walls snhould
never be  less than two feet.   Judginlg by usual
practice, this a wr.nay ite  cois idere d nis  inordinate
depth, and ais iencurring  much expense in b uildit), an u.necessary  quaitity o  f fIo u ndati on wall,.,
which a.re  imublediately ater to be buried out iof
sight. Btlt this irdeltha is necessary oin accoupit  t,f
the drilaites whicrh u ioulld  be stable arbore u an   the 
outside walls, to keep all the floors dry in winte;r 
actd it is scarcely possible to  keep  them  dry
with draiins of le-ss depth tlhaii 30 inches, which
aff'ord  the water  a clhanniiel of 6  inelhes beloir
th     e  bott  sta of  th e  foundations.    Tte groundyfloor of dwellic tg-lh fuses neay be kept  in a dry
state by elevating it a considerable height above
the ground; but suich ai cexpe(ien)t is imiipracticable in a steadinlg where niost of thee,partmiients.
beiiig occup)ied  bv live stock, must  be kept as
near as possible oni a level with the ground; anid
it is Hot woodI-floors alone that nmust be kept dry,
but those of slheds, barns, aindi byres, wi(ethIer
made of coitpoqitit., of c       auseway, or of earth.
The injurious  effect,s of damip in  tle  fl,,irs oF
stables, byres, and13 hIainilels, on the  coiieition tf
the  aiuiirials inhabiting them in winiter, or )f
barns on the state of the str.Lw, cm)i',i,,r l]ay iii
them, are too  much overlooked.  Its malign  influeeice on the h,ealthi of animiials, or in retarding
522 
Stratified rocks, such as sandstone, not retainilig
the water long, form drier substances for a foulldatioii than ally of the amorphous rocks or clays.
Pure sand is not always dry, and is apt to fori, m,
in some situations, all insecure founidation. Pllre
gravel is the driest of all foundations, but not
the moot secure.   Fromi the nature  of these
various substauces,  excepting  the  gravel,  it
would appear that no wall founded on them can
assuredly be kept dry at all seasons; and tlierefore drains are necessary  to render and keep
them so. A foundatioin umade in a bank of evenii the
driest gravel will prove damp, unless the precautioli of deep draining betwixt the foundation and
tire rise of the bank is resorted to). Rather than
choose a site for your steadirig which is overhung
by a baunk, make  a deeper foundation onl mnore
level ground, aind  draiu  it thoroughly, or eden
build some height of waste wall, and fill lip a
part of the grouid that is low around the steadillg.  I have experieniced the bad effects of diggirig a foundation  for a steading ill a rising
ground  of tolerably dry materials, and also the
good effects of filling up low grounid at a part of
anotlier steading, and have found the air in th        e
apartinents of the latter at all seasons  miruch
aiure agreeable to the feelings than in the forilier.  The bad effects of the former  I endeavoured to counteract by deep draining, but it
was not so effectual as in the latter case.   I am
therefore  warranted  in conicludiug  that  dry
apartmnelts are mniuchi more healthy for anlimals,
and better for other things, than are those which
feel cold and daiirp.  A cireliug of substantial
draiiis around the steading, between it and the
bank, will render the apartments to the feelings,
in a short title, in a comparatively comfortable
sta te.
5401. To te st  if rubble wnasose ry is well  built,
step upon a levelled  portion of ally course, and,
on setting the feet a little asunder, try by a
searching motion of the legs and feet  whether
arny of the sttonies are lo-)se, and whichever is so
rides upon others.  Wh-ere a stonie ripes, it has
not been pr(o)erly bedded ill mortar.    T(, ascertaini it' any hollows are left, pour a bus k,tt'ril of
water  oni the wall, and  those places whiieh have
not been sufficiently packed with  small stonies,
will iririediately absorb it.
53)7. The outside walls shouldbefounded with
stones three feet il length, two ill breadth, aud
eight or nlilue inches in tlhickness, so laid, in referecee to the line of foundation, as to forml a
scarcemerit of six inches on each side of the wall
above them.  The low walls may stand on one
feet above the grounds All the gables, of the
external walls, and all the internal division
.;,,hould rise to the pitch of their re,peetive roofs, aiid be filled tip to the sarkiiig. The
front arid side walls of tite large coiirtc. -trid
bulls' liainitiels, and the stjbd ivisioii walls of the
Courts of the liainiiiels, should be rai.ed 6 feet,
and the f'roiit wells of the liaiiiiiiels, its a,lso those
of the cows' and calves' cotirts and pig-sties, 5
feet above the;ground. All tl)e wells which
carry root's -sliotild be beaiii-filled vvith rubble
wot-k, as a precaution against the lodgment of
vei-miii, (1681.)
5400. The external fronts of all the outside
walls, as well as those of the front walls of the
courts and baijitnels, sliotild be forced with ltaiiit)ier-dre.,cse(i 7-ubble in courses, not exceeding 6
inches in thickness, with the vertical and liorizoiital joints raised or irawn iii  liollt,w. Or
the rabble work iiiay be iieatly siie(-ked, and
carefully drawn in with a quarter inch kev, -ind
pointed. The t-)ps of the front and subdivision
walls of tl)e cotirts aiid lianiiiiels slit)llld be
finished with a copinl of liaiiiiiier-dres,,ed rotiiidheaded stones, 12 ii,ches in diameter, firmly set
clause together iii goo(I Iiiiie inortar.
5402. The Width of all the dt)orr shotild be 3
feet 6 inches, and their lieiglit 7 f4eet, wine
the exception of those of the workhorse stable,
corii-barii, stra,w-barn, and saddle-hor.-e stable,
which should be 7 feet 6 inches in height. The. 
~,GL  i'ioo1UV el IllV       i V1 llll.11Ing  Tliie  oiller
withouit the coping; but the stone coxpilug
makes the strongest finishing.   The fiues ifron
all the fire-places  and  the boilers  slihould be
carried up  12 inches clear ill the opening, and
have chimney-stalks of broached ashler, 2 teet in
heiglht above the ridges of the respective  roofb,
2 feet square, and furnished withl a droved checkplinith and block 12 inlches ill depth.   Wihat is
better is, to make the flies of fire-clay tubes, 10
inches in diameter  iluside; and  at this size
they can be put in at 10d. per linieal foot..
going out and in may not strike against them.
5405. Tihe corners of the buildings shothl(t be
of bro,(ched a.,hler, neatly  squared,  2  feet in         i
leiigth, 12 inches of breadth in the bed, ald 12
ilches in height, having 1 inrch chisel draught
oni both fionts.  The wvindows and doors should
hA,re a.,hler ribat., the outbands 2 feet in length,
anidl the  iiibaijds a.t least  two-thirds of  thie
thickness of the walls, and  both 12 inches of
brealith in the beis, and 12 inches in height.
I'They sliould have 1 inch of the front, 5 inches
(of  il)g,,itgs, and  4 inches  of  checks,  clean
droved.   rlie tails of the ontband ribats should c
be squared a(nd broached.   Thle doors  of the
work-ll(r.je aud saddle-horse stables, upper and
cort-baris, hhay-lrouse, bulls' hanimels, byres,
aild calve.s' hotse, should have  droved gibletclle(-k%, to petrmit them openling outwards.  The
window sills slioull  be  droved, projec(tilig 1-l2
ilnci, aund  6. or 7 iclihes in thickness.   Tihe
lintels of bothl  the doors  and windows  shlould
hlave I il(ch of the frout, 5 inches of ingoinlgs
clean droved, anld be from 14 to 15 inches in
Ileight.
5412. The riding-lhorse stable, if laid at all
with flaqs, shouldI have them  4 inclhes tbick, of
droved acd  ribbed paveulent behind the travispostsr, halgving a c urved   water-changooel conmmueiicatiarf  with  a drain outside.   T he travis-posts
of            the work -hor se  stabl e s hould be provided with
drove      ed sto e sockets - 12 inches in thickness,and  18
inch0es  square, thouid  ed on rubble work, a18 d a
droved cuirb-.stine should be  put betwixt the
stone sockets of each pair of lhead and foot travis-posts, provided with  a groove on the tipper
edge  to receive the under edge  of the lower
travis-board. Fo        r       the better ridda1ee  of  the
urinie fron  the work-horse stable, thiere should
be  a d(roved curved wb ter-channel 6 inches     in
breadteh,  wrolghtli    i n freesto ne,  18 inches in
breadth, all the length of the stable, with a fall
at least of 11 inich to every 10 feet of length.
The water-chainnel in the cow-byres, and in the
feediinig-lhouses, when sucli are used, shotuld be
of droved cuirb-stotnes 6 inichies thick, 12 iniches
deep, and( laid ini the bottom with 3-inch thick of
droved pawvement, placed 6 inches below the top
of the cturb-stonies.
5407. Tlae holes in the byre-trall, tlhrongah which
the titrilips are snpplt,ie(l, when such are  used,
shiould be 20 inches square, with ashler ribats,
flushi sills aid lintels, liavinig broached fronts and
droved giblet-chlecks to receive their shutters.
5408. The side corners of thte arched openinqs
of th  cattle-courts an,  hanleinels, aind those (of
the paJrts of thle cart-shed, should be regular out o
and intbaiil, 2 feet inii lellgtlh, 12 inchles of breadth
in thle bed, and 12 iniches in heighlt, alud dressed
in a mainer siiiiilar to the otilher corilers, but
should be clhamfered on the augles.  The  arches
5411. The gates of all the cattle and liammel
courts should be liuiig on the droved ashler corners wl)en close to a liouse, but oii droved biiilt
pillars wlieti iii connection with low court-walls.
5406. Tlicqkeirs should be broached wlien stich
are use,i, having I iiieh cbisel-dratigl)t oii botli
.iiiar,,,Iiis of the frot'it, and the inner edge with a
4-iiicii clieck-pliiitli, leaving aii inch of baek-rest
uiider it.
5413. The w,.7ter-troqhs,;hould not be of less
dimensions tbaii 31 teet iii length, 2 feet iu
breadtli, -tnd 18 itielies iii deptli over all; and 
SPECIFICATIONS.
they should be clean droved outside and inside.
Wood or pavement iiay be substituted for stoiie
wheii that caliliot be easily obtained.
composed  of water-worn  fragmc.mits o- tlc )rimitive anid secondary as well as,' t,l-2t)( ks; butit
rounid boulders of mitiiaceonis sanidstolue, usually
fouiid ill gravel pits, are  iunfit tor ctauseways,
being too soft and slaty. A better stolije is.squared
trap, whlether of basalt or greelistoiie, imnbedded
in sand, such as are used ii the streets of towns.
The ready cleavage of trap-rocks into couvejieuit
square blocks render thein valuable depots, where
accessible, of miaterials ft;,r causeways and road
itmetal.  The floors of the pig-,ties and  )poulti'y
yards should be laid with thick, hamnier-dressed
joilnted stones imbedded in limie mortar, having
brokei  glass in it, upoii a bed of 9 inches tiuck
ot ssiiall brokeii stoiues, to withstanid  not only
the digging propensities of  the pigs oni the surface, but to preveut verimin  gaiiiiiig access t-Ioit
below  tir. ugli the floor to the poultry. The
areas of taie cattle  courts,  a ndw    f loors of tbe shieds,
lhaiiiiiiels. s,itrw-bari, and cart-shed, wiil be firilt
enough witlh the tearth beaten dowin.
5414. The  liquid  niature diaings should  be
9 inches in height anid 6 inches in width in the
clear, with droved curved sills andl hammiier-dressed  covers.    Glazed  earthenware  tubes  with
spigot and faucet jo)itts are beginning to be used
for conveying the liquid mamlure to the taiiks. A
stonie 2 feet ill lenigth, 18 inches ill breadth, and(
8 or 9 illches it thickines-,witli an opening tlirouigh,I
it, giblet-checked. wi ll contai a gratin7.q 15 inches
in lengthi and 9 in(ches in breadth, withi the bars
one inichl asu iider, at tlhe ends of the liquiid-maniure
drains in the courts.
5415. Thie bo)ttomn of thefeeding-troug~hs in the
byres, courts, aund hamimels, should  be of 3-iiilch
thick  flag-pavemeitt, jointed  and  scabbled on
the face, or of wood.  All tlhe window-sills in the
iiiside should be fiuiihed vitl  3-iiicllh droved or
scabbled psavenmenlt.
5418. A  mnethod of making  the floors of outhouses, recoiiiiended by  Mlr Wad(lell of  Berwickshire, deserves attention.  It is this: Let
the whole area of the apartment be laid with
smiall brokenii stoiies to the depth of niiie lclie..
Above  these let a  solid body of masonwork, of
stone and lime properly packedl, be built to tlhe
aheight of 12 or 14 inches, according to tlle thickhee ss of the substance which is to form the upper
flotr.    Thle lime, whichll  is applied  next  the
walils, should be mixed withli broken glass.   If a
compositioni  is to form  the floor, it shi,uld be laid
on 3 inc(,hes ill thickness above thle  masonry; butt
it' a,phaltunii, I iiinh thick will suffice, the (iiffereeice in the height  being miade  up in the  niav vulry.*  This plan of Mr Waddell's seems  weil
adapted for making a solid and secure fotiiidatiol
hagainst  verlilin, tor.the  pavizig ot  the several apartments mentioned above   but it is ti,t
so well adapted for wood-floors, either as a preservative  agaiiist  damip, or preventive  agaitnst
vermini, as the p)lani described in (16181.)
5416. The  walls in, the fronit of the courts are
intended to be quite plain; but should you prefer orniamental structures, their tops  may   be
finished with a 6-inlch droved cope, 15 inches in
breadtlh, with a half-inch wa,-hitng on both fronts;
and with  a droved base-cotkrse 12         inches iin depth,
having a washing of' 1  inch: tile pillars of  the
gates to the larger      courts IIy be of droved ashler,
in c       ourses  of  all octagonal torm, of  15 iinclhes in
thicknless, and 2 feet by 2 feet, with 12-ilch
base, and(I a 12-inich checked  pllitl and block,
built at least 18 inbches higher than  the wall:
and if' you p reter an outside hianiginig-stair to tlh,
wool-roomii, the steps shouldl  be droved 3 feet. 6
iniches clear o,' the will, with 6 inches of wallhold: and you miiay su,bstitute droved crow-steps
on the gables for the broached,kews, with an
inch back-rest under themii.  Crow-steps, in mny
opinioU, are,no oriiaiiieiits in any case, ill a steading.'T'lley are only suited to a lofty castellated
style of building.
5419.  Hai       seen  several  sorts  of  concrete.
4nused ii'hie floors o0')arlis auldl cotta,ges,  I aut
owlV ot Uol)pllnllo thiat aniy suchl (,comiposit]iou  is uinsuited  to thle purlpose, aind is far it'ro  durable.
5417. F'lors, and causeway.  anid roads.  The
floeors of the cow-bvies, work-liorse stable, stalls
of the ridiig-lhorse stalle, passage of the calveu'
house, gig-liouise, iuipleleunt-lhouse, hay-house,
anid tilril    trii) e, s liotild be laid in causeway
with 1htlimim - ressed  squ1tiaed whinstone, )up)on a
soli0 sltria (t,t' f ai(, oii a bed otf broken stoiges,
12  inchies thlick  uiinier it.  lThe floors of the
boiling-houses sihould be laid witlt 3i-inceh paveieit jointited  and  scabbled  on  the  face, also
uponii  12  in( lies thick  of bhiokeii stoies.       A
causeway, 13 feet in!:)reaItlh, should be ni:le in
the large court K, Plate  1I., to the  c,,r,-barui
door, round to the gate at tlhe woik-liorse  t1bele,
for the use of loaded carits fromn the bairti wwith 
declivity front the wall to the dung, area  0l *2
inches in the  10) feet.   Causeways are usuallif
fobrned  in steadilugs  with  roiund  hard  stoiines
found on the land, or in the channels of rivers,
or oii thle sea-shore, imbeldded in sarnd.   In those
aituationis  the  stones  are  always  hard, bering
b5421. Anothler  miode of causewayixlig is wooJt
pavrement. Portionis of the streets of l,otidloii were
laid witll. tlis kiind of pavement, the blocks haviiilg been previously  subjected to the process  of
Kyali.iinig, and they imade  mnooth, clealti, quiet,
causewaying; but its surface becam-e so sliLppery
in wet weather, aindi miaytiy acciden. t,s hi'qlpet~iiig to horses, it was reliinquiished fzr, (rdiniary
causewayinig.  It can scarcely  be  said to have
had a fair trial, bec.auise, beinig confined to a smiiall
space at one place,  the dirt brought upon it by
the wheels of the carriages  froli the   naceadaIaised streets in its vicinity was  the real  cati.e
* PrIize  Isa,of h It' HI;yhl'id and Agricultural Socety, vol. viii. p 373.
r,)2,5
5420. Asl)lialt floors not beiiig -uitable fr
dw,L-Iiiiig-liotise,,,, or for any ai)artnieilt III a -stellidiiig, I do iiut recuiiiiiieiid theiii. 
REALISATION.
of the slipperiness,and not from any substance that
arose from its own surface.  But however unstic cessful it may have been on the thlronged streets
of a large city, it would be a dlesirable mrethliod ef
paving the road round the large court K, Plate
II., the straw-barn, work-horse stable, hay-house,
cow-byres, passage in the calves'-ihouse riding horse stable, gig-house, boiling-hous.es, and tur nip stores.  It wo,uld be expedient, when used in
a stable or byre, that some other substance thant
sandI be put between the blocks, as it would ab.
sorb the urine too rea(lily.  Grout formed of thin
linie atd clean snmall gravel, or asphalt poured
in betwveeii the blocks, Bmight repel moisture, as
has been tried according to Mr Similms.  Gutta
percha would be a mo,st effectual binding for
the wood blocks.  Dr Ure says, "that slipperi ness is not a natural defect in wood paving. The
accumulations on wood pavement are drawn from
the proximate wear of granite and macadam.
In granite, the imperfect structure admits of the
constant oozing of dust and filth; in mnacadam,
the surface is always wearing into dust and slop.
In very hot or cold weather the stone paved
streets of London are proverbially as slippery
as glass, whilst slipperiness in wood pavement is
altogether obviated by cleanliness; and that may
now be insured by the use of Whitworth's cleaning machine, which has already been successfully
tried in some of the principal streets.  It is inmpossible not to perceive the great amount of
suffering and loss that may be saved in horses
by the wood pavement.  Cabmen and omnibus
drivers assure us that, in the winter season, for   a
month or two only there is very serious cause of
complaint, and then there is as much or more
danger onl other pavements; whereas, during the
sumnlmler months, the advantage of wood over all
other pavements is immensee. Thie great mortality
of horses in the streets of London, from overdriving during the hot weather, is well known;
so far as wood is concerned, the reduction of
effect must necessarily decrease the destruction
in a greater ratio than even  5 to 2.  The
strength of wood pavement may be estimated by
the fact that, in Scotl:nd Yard, in London, no
less than 78,000 tons per antnum of traffic goes
over -the wood pavement there, where it is confilued to a single carriage line-a test of the most
critical description."  I Wood-paving could be
done in the country at a lower rate than any
incurred in towns.  To prevent slipping, small
sharp gravel is occasionally strewed over the surface of Rtegent Street, ini London; and it seems
to answer the purpose.
5423. Fine smooth    durable pavement is   made
of the beautifully stratified beds of the inferior
grey sandstone, a rock nearly allied to greywacke.
It.is a rock of fine texture, hard, and impervious
to water.   It occurs iil abundance oln Lord Panmuire's estates at Carjjiylie, il  Forftarshire; and
it is shipped at Arbroath, from -whence in conisequience it has received  the appellation of  4rbroathl pareinent.  Hard flags from the counties
of Caithness and Orkney fbrm very durable,
though not always even pavement. Like the
Arbrouatlh pavement, it requires very little dressing on, the face.  The Caithness pavement is, from
its hardness, obliged to be cut on the edge with a
saw; the Arbroatlh pavement  is dressed with
common inasonks' tools.  Pavement is also formed
of the stratified portions of  the sandstone of the
coal-t'ormationi. Mlost. of the foot  pavement of
the streets of Edinburgh is of this  kind.  Its
face requires to be wrought with tools, and( its
texture admnits water.   Arbroath pavement costs
from 2d. to 4d. per square tfot at the quarry, according to the thickness. Both it and Caithness
pavement cost l.s., and common  stonie pavement
8d. per foot in Edinburgh.
5424. All the roads  around the steading, and
especially where carting will pass along, should
be properly made of a thick bed,of not less than
9 inches, of Lmall broken whinstone metal, carefully kept dry, with proper outlets for water at
the lowest points of the metal bed, and the metal
occasionally raked and rolled on the surface unitil it becomes solid.
5425. Foot-paths of gravel or small' broken
metal, should be made to the farmhouse and servant's houses from the steading, where these are
not situate along the road-side. Stich foot-paths
afford much comfort and cleanliness in winter.
5422. Another method still of causewaying is
with Dutch (linkers, a very hard brick made in
Holland, of about the breadth and thickness of a
man's hand.  They are used in that country in
paving roabis and streets.  They are set lengthways onl edge and imbedded in sand, and so laid
as to formt a slight arch across the road.  Most
of the great roads in Holland are paved with this
brick, and more beautiful and pleasant roads to
travel on cannot be found anywhere, except per
* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, Supplement-art. }Vood-paVing.
t Clement's Custo*s Guiide, p. 67.    -
526
liaps in the Itea-t of -summer, wben they become
olipressivelv hot. I had an opportunity of seeing
a part of te road near Haarlem laid with these
clinkers, and observed, as a part of the process,
that, as a certain piece of the ca,.-,,ewayitig was
finished, bundles of green reeds were laiql lengthway across the road over the new laid bricks, to
temper the pressure of the wheels of the carriages
upoii the bricks on going along the roads, until
the bricks,hotild have subsided firmly iiito the
stratuin of saiid. As the cl iiikers are they
can be laid in,t. variety of foriris, some as a bea utiftil kind of Mosaic work. I'lio import duty oii
Dutch' linkers is Jos.per I OOO.T   The price of
clinkers in London iii 1842 was 35s. per 1000
No me "tioii has recently been made of their i,IL
port, ii' the Pitriiameijt-,try returns, probably be
cause they are now made in England.
5426. Di-ains.-No steading-can be dry and
comfortable within its walls, unless a. well-cotistructed drain is made to encircle all the outside
walls. In the grouiid-plan oftlie steading, Plate
II., the Iiiies of draitis, and the d'-.-actions they
should run, are shown by the directions of the 
SPECIFICATIONS.
arrows.  The outlets of these drains should be
as far removed from the urine tank as practicable, and fall into a ditch or rivulet at a level below that of the tfoundation of the steading.  The
drains should be dug as far from the walls as to
be   clear of  the   large   foundation   stones,  and   as
deep as to be 6 iniches below their under face,
and                           as narrow as practicable. If th e  foundations are 2                       feet deep, the drains will thus b e  30
in        c    h    e    s deep.  They should be la id in tl e  bottom
w      i       t      h drain pipe-tiles of the siz e   fitted fo r  m ain
d r ains, and be filled to the t                         op with brokenl
s    t    ones                 like road metal: for these dr aisits  are not,
l      i      k       e field-drains, intended only t   o receive water
after it has filtered through loose soil; but bes     iles the                                           water they may receive fi o m th e  soil
b    e    l    o     w, they must receive all the  rain  water that
m         a         y          fall in the course of the year fro m th e  eaves
of the back                                             part of the roof of the stea di ngg  fo r it
is not                         to be expected that the expense of erecting
r'nes                          will be incurred for  that part of t he buildiJg,                                                    so that these drains must not  only take in
hat                            water  is  presented to  them   below th e
gr oun d, but also what they may collect from the
strfiace-and it is on this account th           at I    recom.meed for their conduit the large ma ir-drain
pi pe        -tile.                Being situate very near an d  under
the protection                     of the high part o f t he steadi gngw          atll, the small stones which c     over th em will
n        eve             r be distqlrbed nor rendered impervious to
w.tter.  1 express                                     myself  thus con fidently  on
this pioit, after experience of tli          e effic(acy of    such
ilidi:,s t',ar,eveal~r yetras.
5432. Trap-rocks are  empl oyed    in building
houses, where sa ndsto ones  ar e scarce.  Whiadsto,e
is objectionable, inasmuch as it throws out dampness in wet weather, and the walls require to be
lathed and plastered on the inside, to render the
house even bearable.  Frequently where  whiistone is near at hand, and sandstone can be obtained at a little distance, the latter is employed
as corners, ribats, and lintels, though the contrast of colour, when the stone is nearly white,
betwixt them is too violent to be pleasant to
the eye. If sandstone, therefore, can be procured at a reasonable cost of carriage, you
should give it the preference to whiiistone, for
the sake of comfort to your live-stock in their
habitations in wet weather. You may, indeed,
choose to incur the expense of lathing and plastering all the insides of the w alls of the steadiing; but a lathed wall in any part of a steading
will be apt to be broken by accident, and is, on
that account, al unsuitable finishing for it.
5427. The kind of stone which should be employed in the biilding of a steading must be deternimed by the mineral product of the locality.
Ill all localities where stone is accessible, it
should( be preferred to every other material; but
whliere its carriage is distantt, and of course expensive, other materials, such as brick, must be
taken.  In large flat tracts of country, stone is
generally at too great a distance; but in those
situations, clay being abundant, brick may be
easily made, and it makes an excellent building
material for walls-and now that the duty on its
manufacture has been entirely reinoved, it will
be a cheaper material than it has ever been.  Of
stone, any kind may be used that is nearest at
hand,  tlhough  some  rocks  are  much better
adapted for buil(ling purposes than others.
5433. The worst sort of building- stone are
landfast boulders of the primitive and trap rocks,
which, although  reduceable by gunpowder, and
manageable by cleavageinto convenient shaped
stones, incur great labouir in their prep;tration
for building; and even after the stones are 1)repared in the best mtanner they are capable, their
beds are frequently very rough, and jointings
coarse, and the variety of texture and colour
exhibited by them, render them at the best iunsightly objects in a building; but thev make a
strong wall. When of sandstone, boulders are
apt to become splintery, and are unsuited for
associating with lime mortar.
5434. Carpenter work.-Of the specifications of
carpenter work, the first timber that is used ill
building consists of safe-lintels, which should be
4 inches thic(k, of silch a breadth as to cover the
space they are placed over, and they slhoui(ld have
a solid bearing at both ends of 12 inches.
5428. Of the primitive rocks, grey granite
forms a beautiful and durable stone, as is exemplified in thle buildings in Aberdeenshire, Cornwall, and Newry in Ireland.  Gneiss, mica-slate,
and clayslate, do not answer the purpose well.
''They give a rough edgy fracture, frequently rise
too thin in the bed, especially in the case of
clay-slate; are not unfrequently curved in the bed,
and at the samw timue difficult to be dressed with
the hammer.
543.5. The scantlings or couplet for  the roofs
vary ill size with the breadth of the building.
When the buihling is 18 feet wide, the scatitlings
should be 8 inches broad at bottom, 7 inches at
top, and 2I inches thick.  Those for 15 feet wide
buildings should be 7 inches broad.  All scantlin gs should be placed 18 inchles a.part fronm centre
to centre, upon wall-plates 8 inches wide by l1
inch thick, firmly secutred  to bond-timber built
into the tops of the walls.  These dimensions and
527
in the neighboiirhood of Dundee, is a beautiful
and durable building-stone.
5430. All the sandstones of the coal formation
form excellent materials for building, as ii exeuiplifted in Edinburgh, and many other places.
5431. The limestones make fine buildiiig-stotie
-from marble, as at Plymouth, to the cai-boiiiferous mountain limestone, to be,eeti in many palrts
of Ireland; but, in case of fire, all limestones are
apt to be calcined by liea,t, as wa,;; exeinplifled ill
the cathedral at Armagh, before it was lately
repaired.
54"9. Of the transition series, greywacke
makes a beautiful building stone, as may be seen
it, ttie houses at Melrose. The old red sandaitoiie, though -t good buildiiig-stone, has a di-sagreeably sombre aspect, as seen at Arbroatb;
but the iiiferior grey Maidstone which prevails 
REALISATION.
port the floor of the upper-barn, forming the roof
eof the cori-barn, should be clean dressed, to prevenit the adlherenxce of dust.
distance~s of scantlings3 are su,itable f,r  a roof of
blueIsla tes.   For a  tile-root tle  s,:,-,tliiigs;ire
placed(l 2 feet apatrt fioin ceitre to ce,tre.  For
roofi,g  wth giey-slates, which  are lheavy,  the
scauttli,gs should be:,' iniclies thick.   Withl tiles
atid grey-slates thle rooft require a higher pitch
thaii witl blue slates, which is giveli by making          b
thie scaItliugs 1 foot longer.
5442. In some parts of tlhe country, and particularly in East-Loftliann, the floor of the cornbarnii is made of composition; but in order to leave
a part of the floor clean upon which to winnow
the graii, a space 12 feet square is usually left in
the middle of thle floor.  This space is laid with
,sleeper-joisting, 7 iiiches deep by 24 inches thick,
arnd 18 inches apart from  centre to celitre, supporting a flooring of deal 2 inches thick, grooved
and tongued.  As  a precaution agailist verriun,
as well as the enjoymelt of,cleanlinuess while
winnlowing and otherwise handling the graiul, I
would always recommend an entire wooden flour
for the corn-bari, to be laid down in the imann(!r
described in (1681,) and represented ini fig. 129,
P4:36. Tlhe balks.of au 18 feet wi(le buildilg
h(lil(i be 7.. incelhes broad by  2i inches thick,
awli for tlwe 15 feet  on e, 7 i          aches  by  2L inches.
I3  both cases  the  balks should be  of the lepl,sth
of ozie of tlhe scanitlings, which will bring,, its positiol  so  low (ow2 of n     the uca otli nbgs a5 t              o be obr as  ly
a litte more than 3 feet above  the wall-heais.
I1 is geinerally supposed  that one balk is sufficieiit for the sup)ort of the scan-tlinigs; but I
wotil,{ always prefertwovbalksto one, as in fig. 129,
andi- the oinly objection to the two is the expense.
Whieni two balks are  employed, the lower one
will be abcot 2 feet, an(d the upper one about 5
feet above the wall-heads.
5443. The  windows of the stables should be (,f
the form of fig. 107; those of  the byre as in fil.
77;  and those of  the  granary as  iii fig.  13'.
The astroa!al.%, if Iiot made  of wood, may  be,jf
cast-iroii or zinuc.  Cast-iron astragals cost 1s.,
and zinle 9'd. tlhe square foot.
5437. Wheni the slated roof is adopted, there
should be a r-idge-tree 10 inllles broad by 1                  in         t        r
tlick; antd the tops of the scantliYgs should  be
strotigly secured to the ridge-tree by spike nails.
Wheni a tile-roof is preferred, it is sifficienit that
the tops of the scaoutliings be hialf checked into
eaclh  otlher.
5444. The exterior doors, 71 feet higlh, should
be of 11 inchl deal, grooved, and  tongued, anid
beaded, having three back.-bars, 7 i,nches broad
by 1l  inch thick; those of the corn-barn, cowbyre, and boiling-lhouse should  be in two  lorizoutal leaves, that of the upper-barra in two vertical onies.
5438. Trie whlole roof should be covered with
sarkinq,    inchli thick, and clean joitited.  A tile
roof requliles tile-lath, 14  inch  square, and 12
inches ptpart, exceptilug  at the  eaves,  wlhich
slhoull  h:Ltve a boardinj,g  fro,-i 15 inches to  18
inches broid, Id   i inch tlhick for slates. Tilelathi is also emp~loyed with grey-slates.
5445. If desired, small windows of one or two
rows of paines may be placed above all the outside dours  ini which case,  the  voids  of these
doors shlould be made  proportionally highi, say 8
feet.
5439. The pe,tnds should  be 8 inches broad,
acud  1-,l tlhick, properly backed  to receive the
sarkii,g or tile-latlh  of thlJ respective  sorts of
roofs.  Thl, eqfltks shIould be II ilthes broad, by
3' iuch s thick.
5446. The inside doors should be 7 feet high,
of  icihli deal, with three  back-bars 6  inclihes
broadl and 1 inch thick, grooved, and  ploughed,
and beaded.  They should have checks 6 inclie
broad by 2.1 inchles thick, and keps and facings
41 illches broad by - inch thick.
5f40. The joists of the flooring in the p-trt of
the buil(diligs that is 18 feet wide should be 10
iiclieis lee) by 2& imtlhes ii thickness, placed 18S
iilches asiitiler fro,n centire to cenrtre, and hlaviyg
a will-lhold or rest of 12 iielhes at each end.
Where the beaiiiings of joists exceed 8 feet, it is
at i,.re secure ati(d economoical plaii to lhave
I!earns, instead(l of battens, laid across  the  butildiug, 13 iilbhes deep, aid 61& illches iii width, with
at wall-ldlIl of 1 2 inclhes at each end. Uponi these
sli)utlil I-rest j )ists 7 inlheis deep, atid 21 inches in
bre-tiItli  ii(l riot lnore than 16 iiiclies aplart fronm
ce,!tre to cenitre, (Idve-tailed iiito the beamtis with
a h1!0l of 9 iiiclies at each ei(l.  These joists are
best  uilt oult of Me'el lo,  of first or second quality, theI dlif-reuce  of price  between the two
i;alit;es obeiig:31. Lhe cubic foot.
5447. The traris board inq of the  wor-k-horse,stable  should be  11 inch thick, 91- feet  long,  I
feet 6 inches hig,h at the fore acd 4 f5.et 6 irnchles
high  at thie heel posts, dowelled  in  the joints
witlh oak pius, and of an ogee foriii on the tol,
let into a  2-iicll deep groove  ini the heel-post,
and cope(d with  beadiug.   Thie heel-posts slhould
bhe  6 inches  square,  beaded; the.f ore-posts, oa
both sides, t  ieches by 2b   iclih es, and bwtai fixed
at the  top to rantees,  6 inches deep by  2 iniches
broadl.   The  sile-walls of the enid-stails shiothl(I
be  fitiishedi ini  the  sanme mtianiner, and firml y
secured to  wall-straps and  bornd-timiibers.
5448. The travis boarding) of the ritling-ldwrse
stable sliholllt be  of the salie strength  as just
described; but the hleel-posts should be turned
5 fteet high above the grou)ind, with ralotul(led  caps
atid balls, atid let from  18 ilches to 2'' feet iiito
the  grounud, througlh a. stoi    e f r.me 18 inches
square and 12 incltes thli:.k: firily-V built with
a~1. Til                    he flof o f  th                    ee u)per awthl ced:ra-barn
a t gr:ral  aries s,,Z,1ftl'   be of  1k i,,elh  tlhick, of red
osr  w;Asitc'~,',:Jtl blotteits, grooved  alid  tonigu e,,d,
:;.,d *ve.l seas,~eIl  wlhen  wro)ught aid  laid,I.   The
..undr iide f' t[le fl,,,r, andi1 the joists wllich  sup
.508
11 
SPECIFICATIONS.
stone and mortar.  The fore-posts should be 3
inches in diameter on both sides to the height of
the travis boarding.  Heel-posts, as in fig. 106,
are also made of cast-iron, which cost 22s. each.
5460. Wooden ventilators should  be placed
uponi the roof above every alternate pair of horses
and cattle, on the stables and byres, of the form
and dimensions of fig. 81; or they may consist
of 4-inch deal, 6 inches square, in an opening
above every alternate stall, and furnished, on the
upper part above  the roof, with  bent tubes of
lead, 6 lb. to the square foot, or with zinc ones of
the same dimensions.  The zinc ventilators vary
in price, according to size, from 4s. to 7s. each.
S449. The hay-racks of the work-horse stable
should have a hardwood rail, 3 inches deep by 2                      f
inches wide, and the spars of fir, 2 inches broad
by 1I inch thick, placed 2} inches apart.  These
spars should be put on both front and bottom.
54.50. The lhay-racks of the riding-horse stable
should be of hardwood, and placed high up, with
rails, 3 inches deep by 24 inches wide, and
turned rollers, 2 inches diameter, set 24 inches
apart.  Cast-iron racks are frequently used in
the corner of the stall, and they cost 15s. each.
5461. The ceilings of the stables, boiling-house,
granaries, where tile are used for roofing, wool.
room, and hen-house, should be lathed with Baltic
split-lath -i3 of an inch in thickness.  "Laths
are sold by the bundle, which is generally called
a hundred; but 7 score, or 140, are computed
in the 100 for 3-feet laths; 6 score, or 120, in
such as are 4 feet; and for those which are denominated 5 feet, the common 100, or 5 score."*
Lath is also made of home wood, usually Scots
fir, sawn up into I-inch plank, and split irregiularly with the axe, and, when nailed  on,  the
splits being kept open by means of a  we dge; but
this species of lath should never be used, as it
does not stand.
5451. The mangers of the riding-horse stable
should  be of rounded battens in front, of full
breadth of the stalls, placed at a convenient
height above the floor, and bottomed and lined
with 14- inch deal.  Cast-iron mangers cost 15s.
each.
5452. In the  work-horse              stable, corn-boxes are
placed in the near angle of the hay-racks.
5453. The stalls of the cow or feeding byres
should be made of 1I inch deal, beaded, grooved,
and tongued.  They should be 6 feet long, and
4 feet high, with 1 inch beaded coping, let into
heel-posts, 5 inches to 6 inches diameter, and
held to the wall at the head with a 2-inch fillet,
and iron holdfasts on each  side.   The  heelposts should either be taken to the height of the
byre-wall, and secured to rulitrees, 6 inches deep
by 2  inches broad, or fastened ilnto the ground
with masonry like those  of  the  riding-hlorse
stable, (5448.)
5464. The  entrance to the   piggeries sh ould  be
furnished with doors of 1-inch deal, of two thicknesses, crossed, as in fig. 125.
5454. The doors of the feeding holes of the
byres should be of i-inchi deal, of two thicknesses,
erossed.
5465. Since the introduction of railways, a
style  of roofing, capable of affording  a great
space in width at te stations, has been adopted
for many purposes where room is required tinder
one span of roof.   This end has been effected
by rising the truss, upon which the scantlinigs are
made to bear by  means of screws.   Fig. 439
Fig. 439.
5455. The stairs from the corni-barn to the
granaries, if of wood, should have 11 inches of
tread and 64 inches of height of steps.  A stair
or trap of similar dimensions may lead to the
wool-room, from the straw-barn L, Plate II.
5456. The floors of the granaries, upper and
oorn barns, and wool-roomi, should hlave an aingu'qxr skii}tiIyg around them, of 3 inches by 3 inches.
enI
5457. Should the upper barn, or granaries, or
wool-room, be ascended by outside stone stairs,
they shoutld be furished with plain 3-inch iron
railing, cari-ied around  the outer edge of the
steps and platform, with a hardwood hand-rail,
or be enclosed with!-.ilnch deal lining the whole
height above the steps, and properly framed.
represents the section of a trussed roof in wood,
where a a are the walls at the required distance;
b is a beam  of wood  stretching across the void,
and having a bearing of the breadth of the wall
at each end; C C are couples held together at the
I upper ends by means of a clamp placed ou each
5458. The interior of the hcn-oluse should be
fitted up with rough  4-inch deal shelves and
divisions, and roosting-trees 3 inches deep by 2
inches broad.
* M'Cnlloch's J)ietionary of Cootnerce-art. Lath.
529
5459. The doors of the hen-house should be
of II -inch deal, beaded, grooved, and tongued.
5462. The riding-horse stable should have
saddk-brackets of 4-iiich deal, firmly supported,
and two piiis let into rails 6 inches wide, and li
inch thick, for each horse. The workhorse
stable should have two similar rails, with 17arge
and small pi'tis for each horse.
5463. Every court and hammel i3hould be provided with aqate.
a
a
A TRUSSED ROOF OF IVOOD.
2 L
VOL. U. 
REAI,ISATION.
s468 In neas,:!ring carpenter and joiner work,
the ratters and(i sa.kitg are  measured and priced
byb  the ul)erficil l ar4, alid allowance is made of
18 inchles by the leiigth on peaiuds  and flanks.
Balks are also imieastired and priced by the superficial  yard.    Wall-plates,  ridge-rods,  valley
pieces, peand trees, lead fillets, &c., are  measured and priced by the lineal foot, in addition
to the rafters and  sarkings.   Bridlings for skylights, chliimney tops, &c., are also taken in addition to the rafters.   Joisting is measured and
priced by the superficial yard-the length taken
from the gables, and the breadth including the
wall-holds..The wall-plates of joists are measured and priced by the lineal foot.   The bridlings at the hearthlis are slumped.   Flooring,
deafening boards, anjid rounds, are measured anid
priced by the superficial yard.   Bond  timber,
wall standards, and  lath, are also measured by
the superficial yard.   Window sashes anid cases
are measured and priced by the superficial foot,
and an allowance of 8 inches is made to the nett
daylight width, and 2 inches to the height.
Window fastenings, as soffets, breasts, elbows,
and shutters, are measured and priced by the
superficial foot; architraves, facings, and copes,
by the lineal foot.   The ironmongery connected
with the joiiier-work is estimated by the slump,
and ought to be charged with the cost of putting
on.  Doors and theirfinishings are measured and
priced in a similar mainner to the windows, but
no allowance is made in the height and width
of doors.   Skirtings are measured  and priced
by the lineal foot, and shelvings by  the superficial foot; and the price should include  the
supports.
side, and screwed firm with bolt and nult, and
their other ends are checked into the ends oft the te
beam,  a      nd held  down by   iron straps.   At tihe
centre of the beam b, two trusses are placed
against each other in a cast-ironi socket at one
end, and their other ends mortised into the
oentre of the couples at c c. An iron rod, furnished with a head, is passed through a hole at
the upper end of the couples at c, and its other
end through a hole in the ends of the trusses, and
the centre of the socket at b; and on this rod being
screwed tight by means of a washer and inut, the
beams, couples, trusses, and rod are braced so
firmly together that the whole forms a; rigid
structure capable of resisting the downward
pressure of the roof.
A TRUSSED ROOF OF IRON.
represents the section of a roof constructed with
these materials, where a a are the outside walls,
a c are cast-iron flanged bars, serving as couples;
malleable iron rods a b, b a, and b c are linked
upon an end of the trusses at b b, which press at
their other ends, spread outwards both ways to
make a long bearing against the centre of the
couples a c; the ends of the malleable rods pass
through a cast-iron flanged bar at c, against which
the ends of the couples rest, and are screwed up
with a nut upon each-the effect of which is that
the rods a b and b b are brought up above the
level of the tops of the walls, and the couples,
rods, and trusses are so braced as to form a rigid
framing, fit to bear the weight of the roof.
5469. All the varieties of fir timber imported
into the country are employed in the building of
steadings, and the kinds most used in localities
are obtained from the nearest seaports.  Along
the east coast, Memel logs and Baltic battens are
used for all such purposes; while on the west
coast no timber is to be seen, in the construction
of steadings, but the American.
5467. Such a species of roof is well adapted
for certain parts of a steading.  On a dairy farm,
a large byre, capable of containing all the cows
of the farm under the view of the dairymaid at
one time, might be so roofed in.  A byre trussroofed with wood has been erected at the homefarm of Miss Edmonstoiune Cranston, of Corehouse, near Lanark, which contains 48 cows, and
its ground-plan is given in fig. 93, and again represented, in connexion with a. steadirig for a
dairy farm, in fig. 384. A feeding byre could be
constructed on the same plan. The thrashingmill and straw-barn might be contained under
one such roof, affording abundance of room in its
width to the water   or steam power, to the   clean -
ing of the corn in the barn, and to the straw chaffcutter, and crushing-rollers, i the    st   raw-barn. A
roomy and airy granary could be formed under
such a roof.  Great accommodation could be
afforded by means of such a roof to numbers of
cattle all winter, and to sheep in the most stormy
period of the winter on pastoral farms; and such
an apartmnenxt would answer for dipping sheep in
.summer, and bathing them in autumn.
5470. Norway and  St Petersburg  battens,
being cut to proper len gths and    breadths, form
che ap and durable timber for a l l far m purposes.
The price of the St Petersburg is, for red from
$d. to 3'd., for white from 24d. to 3d. the lineal
foot, and the Norway are a shade cheaper. Both
red and white wood battens make excellent floors,
and plain deal doors for inside use. Stich flooring
is beautifully dressed by the planing machinery
at most of the principal seaports.
5471. Memel  logs are admirably fitted for
joisting, windows, outside doors, and all buitside
work, it being composed of strong and durable
fibre, imbedded in resinous  matter.   It sells
from  Is. 9(. to  2s. 3d. the cubic foot.  The
greatest objection to its use for small putirposes
is its knottiness, on which account the Norway
battens make  handier  small  scaniitlings  and
cleaner door-work.
5472. The American red pine is  excellent
timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. Though
530
5466. The same end is attained by means of
iron bars, rods, and cast-iron trusses. Fig. 440
Fig. 440.
r-  -0 
SPECIFICATION,S.
longer, it is seldom or never of so large dimensions
as RMemel log, and fetches from Is. 8d. to 2s. the
cubic foot.  It is fitted for beams, joists, scantlings, windows, and outside doors.
may be that the white wood battens are derived
from that tree; but the red-wood kind has, proba.bly, the same origin as the red-wood of the
north of Scotland, which is a variety of the
Pinuat ilvetr, the horizontall of Don.t
5473. American yellow pine is well suited to
all inside work, and  especially that which  requires the highest finish, such as bound-doors,
window-fittings, and  mantel-pieces.  No wood
receives plaitit so well.  Tihe logs are generally of
immense sizes, affori,ding great economy of timber
ill the cutting up.  Its price is, for small sizes,
I        s.          6d., and for large ls. 10d. the  cub ic foot.
5480. The yellow pine is the Pinus variabilis
or Pinus mitif of Michaux, which towers in -loftiness above all its compeers. It grows to the
gigantic height of 150 feet, and must require
great labour to square it to the sizes it is brought
to the British market.  ~
5474. Swedish I1-iinch plank makes good and
useful timber, but its scantlings are not very
suitable for farm-buildings.  I have seen stout
joists for granIaries made of it, with a A3-inch
cleft taken off the side for sarking.   It forms
excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for
giangways.  It sells, the white wood from 5d. to
lid., and  the red from  6d. to 7d. the lineal
foot.
5481. The larch, Latix Europ&ea, is a native
of the ravines of the Alps of the Tyrol and
Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a
rush, to a height exceeding a hundred feet. The
larch forests of Athole are extensive, and were
calculated by their planter, the late Duke of
Athole, to attain to a great size of timber, and
return a large revenue after a given number of
years. +
5475. In the interior of the country, at a disI once from seaports, howne timber is much  used
in farm-buildings. Larch forms excellent beams,
but its scaitlitgs arnd- joists, though durable
timber for rough work, are apt to warp. Well
grown Scots fir of great age, and cut down in
the proper season, if not as durable as the larch,
forms good timber for rough purposes.
5482. If woody matter be protected against
the combined action of air and moisture, it may.
be preserved for an indefinite period; but if ex-.
posed to them, the case is very different.  By
degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged,
and the carbon predominates more and. more..
Being formed of one atom of carbon, and one
atom of water, as soon as woody matteais submitted to the action of a somewhat elevated
temperature, without contact with air, it experiences an internal reaction, which tends to separate the atom of water from the atom of carbon.
The water vaporises, and the carbon remains in
the form of a black granular residue.  The cells
of woody matter contain different sorts of substances tending to organise, and these are mixed
and modified in many different ways.. In the
want of ventilation, we thus. see that timber
must have a tendency to decay.
5476. All the ti mber I                    have referred   to is
derived from the trees belonging to the natural
order of Coniferce, or conie-bearinjg trees. The
Scots fir, Pinus silvestris, is a well-known tree
in the forests of this country, and few new
plantations are made without its aid, as a nurse
for hardwood trees. In favourable situations it
grows  to a  larvae size, as is evidenced in the
Memel log, which is- the produce of the Scots fir
from the forests of Lithnania. I have seen Scots
fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, of as
strong quiality and large size as the,,best Memel,
and much less knotty; and sold from Is. 6d. to
2s. per cubic foot.
5483. Now, if any means could be devised by
which the substances in the cells of woody matter   could be de p rived of the ir te ndency to organise, when in contact with the air, timber might
be rendd  ered permane ntl y dur able.   The  solution
of the  corrosive sublimate of  Mr Ky an, and that
of the c hlorid e        ii o f zi  of S ir William B iurnett,
have both a tendency to preserve the natural
structure of the wood. The rationale of Mr
Kyan's process is this:-The  cells of wood,  aid
particularly those of the alburnum, contain the
sap of the tree, whigh, in its circulation, reaches
the l!aves, where its watery particles fly off, and.
and the einlarg!ag flatter of the tree, called "the
alburnum, rema%ins, Berzelius, as lon)g ago as
1813, found that the addition of corrosive Eubli
5477. The Swedislh plank isof thespruce, H4bw
excelsa or communis-a tree which, as treated
in this coultitry, comes to little value, being rough
and( fill of knots.  Inspection of a cargo from
Sweden, which arrived at Hull in 1808, convinced( the late Mr  Pontey that the white deal,
which fetched at that time from L.14 to L.15, 10s.
the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common spruce,
the pl:aiks having been recently sawn, and a
small brauch left attached to one of them.*
5478. Wahe e ther the Norway pi    n       e is the same
species as the pine ill the forests of the north of
Scotlanid, I tao not know. I observe that some
writers speak of the Norway batten as of the
Norway spruce, called by them Pinus.4bies. It
* P,)ntey's Proftable Planter, p. 41, 4th edition.
t Quarterly Journal of Ay4gr.culture, -vol. xi. p. 530; and Prize Essays of tile Highland anl
A.riceltural Society, vol. xii. p. 122.
:~ Prize Essays of the lilytlarnd and Aj'ricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 165.
531
3479. The red pine of Canada is the Pinus
re8ino,sa, and is a durable timber for all out-,
door purposes, and for long logs requiring to
span wide spaces. 
5  REALISATION. 
'mate (bichloride of mercury) to an albuminious
solution  produced  calomiel, (protochiloride  of
mercury) which readily combined with the albumne.t, and produced an insoluble precipitate.
This precipitate fills up all the cellular interstices
of the wood, and becomes as hard as its fibres. I
have not heard lately of either of those processes
of preserving timber, so I suspect they have not
fulfilled the expectatio)is formed of them.
less tiles are smooth on the surface, compact
and rinig freely' when struck, they are porous, and
will imbibe mioistutire in winter, and decay by the
e.fects of fro,t.   The duty onl the manufacture
of house tiles was removed in 1846.
5488. Of all these methods of covering a roof,
slating with blue slates has the best appearance,
is the most comfortable, most substantial, and
even most economical in the  long run.  Tile
roofs, on the contrary, are constantly requiring
repairs, and are most expensive in the long run.
Grey slates, being always heavy, incur a great
sacrifice of timber in the roof.
5484. It is from the Soots fir, Pinussilvestizs,
and spruce, Abies excelsa, that tar is obtained in
the largest quantities.   The tar of tile north of
of Europe  is of 4 imuchli superior description to
that of the United States, (4781.) It is obtained
by a process of distillation, which  consists of
burning, in a simothering  mnianiler, roots  and
billets offir timber, in a pit formed for the purpose
on risiing grotund, and covered with turf.  There
is not much tar used on a fares; but as it is eumployed for many purposes, the implemenit-house
should never want a barrel of tar.  Tar is now
imported duty-free. 
5489. Blue slate i s derived from the  primitive
clay slate, and, when compa ct, does  not absorb
moisture, but when  not so, soon becomes covered
with mo-s and decays.   The principal quarries
are in Wales, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Ciumberland, Argyle, and Perthshire.   Tihe Welsh
slate of Caerniarvonshiire is.smooth, and often
large; and when thin, is apt to warp in the
changes of temperature.  The  English  slates
are not so large as the Wel!h, but equally good.
The Argyle  Easdale slates are small, heavy,
very hard, waved, containing cubes of iron  pyrites, and their durability  is endless; and  the
Ballahulishl, though also  small, are smoother
and lighter, containing cube pyrites, and equally
durable.  The Perthshire,lates are inferior.
5485. Slater-wor7.k.-Blute slates should be
selected of large sizes, well squared, and have
ai overlap of two-thirds, gradually diminishingingi
t-) the ri(lge, and be well bedded and shouldered
with plaster-lime.  The slates are fastened to
the.arkin-g with malleable iron nails, weighing
12 lb. per 1000, after being steeped when heated
iii linseed oil.  These nails cost 3s. 4d. per 1000,
1300 being required tfor a rood of 36 square
yards.  Cast-iron nails were used until a fe,w        q
years ago, and they were also boiled in oil.  The
zost otr blue slates iii towns, including carriage,
nails, and putting onl, is L.4 per rood.
5491. Grey slates are derived from  the in.
ferior grey sandstone of the old red sandstone
series.  l'he finest quarries of them are at Carrnylie, in Forfarslhire, belonging to Lord Panmure.   The Arbroatlh pavement, as it is called,
is from  the same rock; and on being set  ou
edge in winter, when taken out of the quarry,
the frost causes it to split into slates; so that
when little  frost occurs ill winter, the output of
slates is limited.
546t;. Grey slates require lathing like tiles,
bult not being of a unitform size like tile, they
are assorted in sizes in the quarry.  Thle larger
and heavier slates are put next the eave, and
gradually diminish in size to the ridge, and the
course at the eave is laid double, slate above
slate.  Every slate is ihug upon tie lathl by a
.4oodeu; pill passed through a hole at its upper
end, and the slates are overlapped at least onethird.   Grey  slates  should  be  bedded  and
shouldered either in plaster-lime or onl moss, the
latter making the warmer roof.  As grey slates
are not adapted for pavilion roofs, the peauds
should be covered with lead or zilnc, but the
safest formi of grey slating is with upright gables.
The ridge is covered with freestone ridging-stone,
,vhil  cost Is. per lineal foot.   In Forfarshire,
grey slates cost L.4 per 1000, 360 being sufficient   o
for', rood of 36 square yards.   The putting
on, dressing, holing, pins, and nails, cost 15s.;
mosw Is,, and lime 3s,; in all, 19s. per rood.
5492. The pitch of a roof varies with the solt
of slating.    I blula ti angu  the rule  is, to have
the height  of the roof  one-third of the   breadth of
the building, outside  nieasure; and when large
Welsh slates are  employed, the pitch is reduticel
to oiie-toburth. Old-fiashioned houses have a pitch
of the square; that is, the height is equal to half
the breadth of the building.   In grey slating it
is fixed at about one foot below the square. In
tiling, the pitch mnay be lower than even ill blue
slating, and is determined according  to circumstances.  Taking the rise at 7 feet, on a breadth
of 18 feet inside, the scantlings shouldt be 13 feet
long each, and the balk as long, on  wvlUs 2 feet
thick. Taking   the rise at 91 feet, the scaiitlinigs
should be 14 fBet long.
5487. Pall-tiles  are  laid  on  lath  1I  inch
ISquare, to a gauge of 10 or 11 inches; and 576
will cover a rood of 36 square yards.  The overlap shouh l  i;% inches; bedded and shouldered,
and  thie  under  joints  pointed with  plaster
line.   There should be 3 or 4 course of slates
alotg all the eaves, and  the  flanks, peands,
anid ridges, are covered with tile.   The cost of
putting oni, pins, and lime, is 56s. per rood.  Un
'532
5490. Blue slates are assorted in sizes at the
quarry. The sizes at Baiigor, in Wales; vary
from 36 inches in length to bi inches in breadth.
The weight varies from 82 cwt. to 12 cwt. per
1000.
5493.'Slater-ivork is inea.-,i,red and priced by
the ro'od of 36 square yards, and tile work in a
similar" inanner. Ridge and pea d tiles are 
SPECIFICATIONS.
measured and priced by the lineal foot.  In
pointing skews with mastic or Roman cement,
the measurement and price are by the lineal
foot.  Ad allowance on slater-work of 9               inche s
is made at all the eaves, and 18 inches on
peands and flanks, and 3 itcolhes at the skews.
from a -sulphuret named blende, and a carbonate.~
named calamine, in the mountain and  magnesiani
limestones.  The most malleable zinc is derived
from Upper Silesia, under the name of spelter;
and is sent to Hamburg and  Belgium to be
shipped for this country.
5499. In measuring plumber-work, the lead
on roofs is by the superficial foot, and the price is
according to the weight per foot. Where a
variety of prices occur, they should be slumped
in common, and charged per  cwt.  In ordinary
cases, 3s. per cwt. for putting on is a fair price.
Conductors, and pipes of every description, are
measured by the lineal foot, and priced according
to weight. Zinc on roofs is measured by the
superficial foot, and priced according to weight.
Rones are measured by the lineal foot. Brasswork is priced by the slump.
5494. Plui)iber-tcork.-TThe flanks should be
covered with shleet lead, 18 inches broad, weighin;, 7 lb. per square foot, the peatids with 6-lb.
lead, 15 inches broad.   The ridges should be
covered either with droved angular freestone
ridge-stones, or with 6-lb. lead, 15 inches broad,
supported  on 24 inches in diameter of ridgerolls of wood.   Platforms and gutters should
have 8-lb. lead per square foot.   In cisterns
l,,ad should be 8 lb. in the bottom, and 7 lb.
iili the sides and ends, per square foot.  Rain
vwater-spouts of 41 inches in breadth, and condoetors of 24 or 3 inches in diameter, should be
or 6-lb. lead per square foot.
5500. Plaster-work.-The  plaster-work of a
steading, not requiring to be ornamental, should
be simple.   The ceilings of  the  riding-liorse
stable, boiling-house, wool-room, and hen-house,
when tile-roofinig is employed, should be finished
with two coats of the best haired plaster, hard
rubbed in.   The walls of the granaries, cornbarn, work-horse stable, cow-byre, boiling-house,
calves'-house, wool-room, gig-house, and henrhouse, should  be finished with one coat, hard
rubbed in.  The walls of the riding-hiorse stable
should have three coats, hard rubbed in.  Plaster-work is measured  by the square yard, and
costs for orne coat 3d., for two coats fronm 4d. to
4id., and  for three coats from 5d. to 6d.,Ah.e
square yard.  Cornices are lmeasured and priced
per lineal foot. Pit sand should be used  in making plaster, the alkaline matter of the sea sand
injuring the surface of the plaster even after it
is dry, unless  the sand  has been thoroughly
washed in fresh water.   At the same time, when
sea-sand  has been  thoroughlly  and  carefully
washed, it makes  the best work.  D)rift- saiid,
above sea-water mnark, is the best sort of sand,
but mnst be thoroughly washed in fresh water.
5496. Rain-water sp         outs,  or tones as they  a               re
commonly               termed,   may be made of wood, castiron, l    ead, or z inc.  Wooden                on         es may be made
out        of      the         solid, or in slips nailed together.
When mat de out of the    solid, with iron  holdfasts,b
they cost Is;       an d  wh en          pieced   together, 6d. the
lineal foot.  Tie        c    onductors from  both kinds cost
8d. the  lineal foot.   Wooden   spouts should  be
pitched inside and painted outside. Cast-ironi ones
are heavy, and they cost Is. 9d. per foot if of
4' inches diameter;  and  the conductors, of
from 2 to 4 inches diameter, from 9s. to 17s.,
or 9 feet in length each.   Lead makes the best
spiout, but is expensive, being  Is. 6d. a foot.
Zinc ones, on the other hand, are very light.
Stout 4-inch zinc spouts cost 7d. the toot; and
a 2g pipe, as conductor, 6d. the foot. The lowest
part of the ipipe-conduit should, in all cases, be
made of cast-ironi, to ward off accidents. Every
sort of water-spout should be cleaned out at least
once a-year, and wooden ones should have a
coat of paint annually.
5501.,Snitli-work,,-All the outside  door.s, inclading those on tlhe feeding-holes at the byre,
should be hunig with crooks  and  bands.  The
crooks should  be fastened into the  ingoings of
the-ribats with melted lead.   The larger crooks
and bands cost  10s., and the smaller  $s., per
pair, according.to weight.  The inside doors
shoulh  be hung with T hinges, 18 inches long,
and the opening -parts of the windows with 9-inch.
T hinges.  The former are Is. and the latter 9d.
a pair.   The outside doors should  have good
10-inch  stock-and-plate  locks, which cost  5s.
each, except where there are more than one outside door to the same apartment, in which case
all the doors but one can be fastened  by bars
from the inside.  The inside doors should have
the same sort of locks; the common stock-locks
are  not worth  the  rmoiney.   Thumb - latches
are convenient for openting and  keeping shut
doors that do not require to be constantly locked,
such as of the corn-barn, grainary, boiling-house,
cow-byre, and lihen-h,l,se.   These  latches cost
from is. to Is. 6d. each.  A wooden bar of hard.
538"..
5495. Sheet zinc has been substituted of late
years for lead, but with no advantage in use or
workmanship;'but the cost is about one-third.
The zinc put on flanks should weigh 22 oz., and
costs 6'gd. per square foot. The peands have 15-,
inch sheet zinc, weighing 22 oz., and costing 6 Id.
per square foot. The zinc covers for peands and
ridges'are Bo prepared that they clasp by contraction, and thereby hold on by the wooden
ridge-rolls. Zinc is not suitable for gutters and
valleys.
S497. The lead of commerce is derived from
the ore galetia, which is a suiplitiret of leadyielditig 87 per cent of lead, and 13 per cent of
sulphur. Galena is found in the largest qiiantities in the transition limestone. The galena
lead mines of Derbyshire, Durliam, Cumberland,
atitl —,,Yorksliire, are sitti,,tte in limestone; while
those at Leadiiill.-, in Scotland, are in greywacke.
Great Britain produces the largest quantity of
lead of any country in the world.
.5498. Zinc is derive<l in the largest quantities 
REALISATION.
outside doors and windows,  all the gates of the
courts and  lihaiiiiels, and the  water-troughs in
the various courts, ift'n made of wood, should receive
thriee coats of good paint.  Painting costs 3d. or
4d. the square yard, but three coats can be done
for 8d. the square yard.  The best standing colours, and they happen to be the cheapest too, are
grey, s$one, or slate-blue: the l:ist seems to be
most commonly preferred, thoiibh the stonie colour  is the most cheerful.  Greiei is dear, and
soon fades; and red is distasteful in buildings.
White-lead and oil are the principle ingredients
in paint, and no colouring matter has power to
preserve timber from  the effects of the weather.
5502. Various descriptions of nails are used
for the different parts of work in a steading.
The scantlings of the roofs are fastened together
with double-doubles, which  cost  5s. per  1000.
Deals of floors are fastened down with flooring
nails 16 lb. weight, and 4s. 6d. per 1000.   The
bars of the plaiii-deal doors are put on with 10lb. nails, which cost 3s. 6d. per 1000. For finishilig, sinkle-flooring nails at 2s. 6d., and  2-inch
sprigs at 2s. to 2s. 3d. per 10()0 are used.
5508. A substance called lithric paint has recenitly been  found to a nswe r well  f,r country purposes. The  lithie, which  costs  2id. per lb., is
ground to powder, and  mixed  in a certain proportion with cold  coal-tar,  and  the mixture
is applied  with  a brush.   It deprives  the
coal-tar of its noxious smell, and hardens it
into a durable paint in a few days.    Such a
substance may answer for painting articles at
a distance, such as field-g.ates, sluices, and the
like; but it is not agreeable to use at the
steadinig.  The painting  of doors and windows,
and other things, is very much neglected about a
steading.
5503. As a security against burgfllary, iron
staunchleons, seveii-eighliths in diameter, should be
fixed onl the outside of the windows of the cornbarni, implement-house, and hlien-house.   Such
staunlcheous cost 3d. per pound.
5509. White-lead of commerce is a carbonate
oflead,orecruse, artificially t,rined from pure lead.
It has lonig been  iade at Klagenfurth,iii Cariiithia,
and  large  quantities are also manutactnred il
Englaiid. Its composition is 1 equivalent of lead,
I of oxygen, and 1 of carbonic acids; or by
analysis, of lead 77.6, oxygen 6, and carbonic
acid 16.4.
5.504. Iron is found, in this country, in the
coal formination.  It occurs in alternate beds with
coal and sandstone.  It occurs chiefly in two
states-that of sulphuret, clay over stonie, and
of carboniate, black-baud. Since the discovery of
the black-band and-the hot-blast, the smelting of
iroin has been mnuch facilitated, and its quantity
ill the market greatly increased. Cast-iroit usually
costs from 8. to 10s. per cwt.
5510. These specifications are followed by the
measurements of the different species of work required to execute such a steadinig as is relpresented in Plates I. and II. I should mentiou
that the prices of the respective works are put
down at those usually charged in Edinburgh for
similar work, and that the carriage of all the
materials used is included.
.5505. Glazier-work.-The windows of all the
'alpartinelits should be glazed with best second
crownl glass, fastened with fine putty.   It costs
6i1. per superficial foot.  The panes in the windows  of a steading should not lbe large, both
oil acci,hit of the smaller cost of a small panie,
aund of the additional security afforded against
intrusion by niumerous astragals.  So  great  a
change has taken place in the use of glass since
the removal of the duty in 1846, that the kind
best fitted for a steading has, perhaps, not yet
been determined; but this I may say, that, glass
being now so cheap, the best and strongest should
be used for all purposes.   Rough  plate-glass is
so thick and strolng that it may be extensively
employed in the roof, for affording light to apartmenits, instead of windows.   It costs  Is. per
superficial foot.  Ptissell's patent glass tiles cost
8s. per square yard.
Cubic, ot
Stiper fici
ticns, re
at 252s.
S$iperfi,i walls, 2
Superti,i
foist thic
Lineal, c
Lineal, d
m,,nut e
Lineal, d
igs, at
Lineal, p
feet by 5
Linieal, s
tie areh
2s.,.
Lineal, c
the cart
5506. A skylilht iii blue slating is made of a
frame fastened to thie sarkiiig.   I} tile-roofinig,
tiles are matle oni purpose to hold a palie of glass.
Iii grey-slatitlg, a hole is inale iii the slate  to
suit the size of the pante.   A dead skylight  of
zilc, to answer every ki,d  of roofilg, costs 4s.
Pan tiles of glaMIs cost about Is. 6d. each.
*i ca*el           7  4   0
orner on one end of
shzed, at 2s.,..    1  2   0
Carry forward,      X1260 15  6
5507. Painter-work.-Tlie outsides of all the
534
wood, to open and shut from both side, is a
coiiveitietit iiiode of fa.,:teiiii'ig inside doors. The
upl)er-barn door, Lf two vertical leaves, requires
an iron tay-baiid to fasten it. The doors of the
riditig-horse aiid workhorse stables should be
provided with sunk flush riijg-hazidles and tliumblatches, to be oiit of the way of catching any
part of the hariiess. The inangers of the ridinghorse stable, and the upper rail of the liay-ra.ek
,of the workhorse stable, should be provided
with riligs and staples for the stall-collar-sliaiiks
to pass through. These cost 3d. each.
5511.
..i
8
P4;  3302
10 1
MASON-WORK.
82 23
43 21
4
100
1068
2297
.15
72 
SPECIFICATIONS.
Brought  forward, X      1280  15   6
14    Lineal, pillars for the calves'
sihed, 1 foot 6. inches by 1 foot
6 inlehes, at 4s. 6d.,..    3  3   0
16   Lineal, corners for gig-house,
with giblet checks, at 2s. 6d.,    2  0  0
10   Lineal, segmental arches with
giblet check, at 2s. 6d.,.     1   5  0
652   Lin ea    l, ribats                          for doors and
wi ndows, at 2s.,..  65   4  0
510   Lineal,  sills and  lintels for
1 doors and windows, at 2s.,.           510  0
176                                       Lineal, corners for the open                   ing.s to the lhamm Is, at 2s.,     17 12  0
64   Lineal, pillars  between  the
openi      ntgs,  at        is. 6d.,   6.    8    0   0
114    Lineal,  egmental arches o    ver
the   openings,                                         at 2s.,..   11  80
231    Lineal,          corners of the gates                       in
t7 ervalls  of th e hamreels, at
2s.,..  232   0
36    Lineal,  pillars between  the
gates, at 2s. 6d.,.    4 10   0
107   Lineal, steps in doors, at Is. 6d.,  8  0  6
70    Lineal, corners of gates  in low
w alls, at 3s. 6d.,..   12   5  0
112   Lineal, corner                                                          i          ls, sills, and lin                   tels of fe           eding holes in the
bvre, at 2s.,..   11  4   0
90    Lineal, hanmer-dressed ribats,
sills, and lintels  for                                     narrow
aperture     s            in  th e barrs, atl s.6d.,  6 15  0
36    Lineal,                                     c orners  of  chimney
stalks. -it 2s.,.            3 12  0
30    Lineal,  coping  of chimney
stalks, at Is.,  110  0
316    Lineal, of skews on th      e gables
1 4"        by 3", at Is. 6d.,.   23 14  0
200   Lineal, of coping on walls for
sloping ro,ofs, at 2s. 3d.,.   22  10  0
991 6 Lineal, of semicircutlar coping
on the tops of the low walls,
at Is.,..         49 11  6
5   Lineal, pillar in pigs' court, 1
foot 6 i..ches by 1 foot 6 inches,
at 4s. 6d.,...    1 2   6
360   Superficial, pavement on floors
of enlgine-house, &c., at 9d., 13  10  0
738 6 Superficial, of  pavement  in
ridi,,g-hm-'se stable and gig —
house, grooved, at 10d.,.   30 15  5
37   Lineal, of channiel in riding                   hor.se stable. laboutr only, at 3d.,  0 9  3
144   Lineal, stone sills for the divi                  sions of the byres, at 2s.,.   14  8  0
111   Lineal, ofgrupe in the byres at 2s., I  1 2   0
1   28      6    Superficial, rubble ill the walls
of g,ngway, 2 feet thick, at 180s., 16  3   4
5     6          Superficial, rubble on the foun                  d,ations, reduced to 2 feet
thick, at 7X.,.      19   8
28          Stiperticiia, lhanmmer - dressed
arch for the gangway, reduced
to i foot thick, at 3s. 6d.,.     4  18  0
16   Lineal, corners for the gang                  way, at 2s.,..    1 12  0
24   Lin)eal, ring pens, for the arch
,of the gan,gway, at 2s.,.    2   8  0
26   34      3    Superficial, causeway  in the
byre.s, ~alves'-house, boiling                  h1ouses, out-hotises. turnip                  stores, hav-llotose. work-lhorse
stable, passages, &c., at 54s.,   72 15  6
106   Lineal, drained gutter stones
in work-horse stable, 14" by
7", at2s.,..   10 12  0
50   Lineal, stalk of engine-house,
tapered, base 6 fet square,
.5at 15s.,..   37  100
25 Lineal, base for the pedestals of
the engine stalk. at 2x. 6d.,.    3  a   6
20   Lineal, droved plinth on  the
top of the engi,,estalk, at 3s. 6d., 3 10 0)
16 Lineal, droved blocking for
the eng~ine stalk, at 2s. 6d.,. 2 () 0
Carry forward,       ~1774 19  8
Prought forward,       ~1774 19   8
3 pairs clhimney jambs with
lintels, lhearths, and shelves,
at  30s.,...    4  10  0
2 boilers for boiling houses,
with furnace doors, branders,
&c., at 60s.,..            6  0  0
Building in the two boilers, at
42s.,....   4  4   0
28 club skews for gables, at 2s.
6d.,...      3 10  0
28 stones for hlieel and fore posts
in the stables, at 5s. 6d.,.    7 14  0
18 stones for heel-posts in the
byres, at 5s. 6d.,..   4  19   0
20 stones for stakes in  the
byres, at 5s. 6d.,..    5 10  0
32 malleable iron gratings for
drains in the courts, at 5s.,       8  0  0
32 stones for the gratings, at
6s. 6d.,...   10  8  0
5 stone troughs in the courts,
at 42s.,...   10 10  0
Allow for jobbing, for other
tradesmen, &.,..   10 10  0
327 Lineal, corners    of building, at
2s....   32 14   0
Amount of mason work,           ~1883   8  8
5512.                 CARPENTER WORK.
581   Superficial,  of  3-inch  thick
safe lintels over voids, at 9d.,   21  15  9
55   Lineal, dressed breast sniiiimers
for shed roofs, at Is. 6d.,.    4   2  6
33   l,ineal, of  biid(le  beamts  for
stairs to granatries, &c., at Is.,    1 13  0
38   Lineal, of strong dressed beams
in barn  for machinery, at 2s.
fd,..             4 15  0
2857      6    Supeificial,  roofing and sark                ing rafters, 6* inches by 2i
inci,es, and  16 inches centres,
priice to iticlude fillets, at 3s.
6d.1,..  500  1 10
od1803   7   Superficial, ties of rafters, 7
incehses by 2i inches, and 16
inches centres, at 2s.,.  180  7  6
1114    4    Superficial, balkIs 5 inchIes by 2
inchles, and  16 incies  cen               tres, at Is. 6d.,..  83 11 8
2438   Lineal, wall plates  6 inches by
14  inch with  billgates, 2 feet
4 apart, at:d.,..  30   9 (6
944    Lineal, ridge and  peand  bat               tens, at 3d.,...   11 16  0
96   Lineal, val: y pieces, 11 inches
by 3 inclies, price to include
cuttings, at 9d.,..     3 12   0
22   Lineal, vwlley pieces for shied
-roofs, 9 incties by 2 inches at
tod.,.~hc.6(. 0.  011  0
631     1    Suleerficial,  of  joistilg,  10
inches  by  24 itielies, and  16
inches  centr-es, for gr-aniaries,
&c,  price   to  ineltitle  for
dwa,gBgs atld wall plates, at 3s.
9d.,..  118  6  8
90      6    Superficial, sleeper joisting, 7
inclies by  24 inclies, antd  16
inchles ceinties, price to include
for wall plates, at 2s.,.   9   1  4
666    3    Superficial, 1* inchl, ploiughed
aa;d tongued flooring, at 3s.,    99 19   0
24     8    S,.perlicial, flooring, for dove              co., at 3s,...   3  14  8
361           Sulperticial, lath  on  ceilings,
at 6d.,..   9   0  6
140           Stilserficial,  of   wall  straps
secured  to bond timbers, at
Is.,,...    7  0  0
54 8 S-,pei-icil,  of  windows  for
stables, glazed, &c., at 2s.,         5  9 4
Carry forwvard,      ~1095   5  3
585
Ptj  
REALISATION.
5    >  8;l      Brought forward,       ~1095   5  3
273 2 Superficial,  of  windows   fior
~byres, at 2s.,...    27  6  0
260   Superficial,  of windows  for
granaries, at 2s.,.. 26  0  0o
1123 6 Superficial, of 11 inch, plain
deal doors, grooved, tongued,
and beaded, at 6d.,.   28  1  9
346 6 Superficial, of 1  inch thick,
plain deal doors in barns,
stables, &c. at 5d.,..    7  4  4
64   Superficial, of 1*  inch, plain
deal doors to gig-house, with
framed styles, rails, &c., in 2
leaves, at Is.,..    3  4  0
731   Lineal,  door   standards.  f6i
itches by 2i inches, at 5d.,      15  4  7
440   Lineal, door facings, at 3d.,.    5 10  0
516   Lineal, door keps, at 3d.             6  9  0
214 6 Lineal,  lining  for ingoes  of
doors, 12 inches broad, at 5d.,    4  9  4
719   Lineal, corner beads for win           dows, &c., at 3d.,..    8 19  9
48   Superficial, of plain deal doors
to feeding holes, in 2 thick           nesses doubled across, at 9d.,    1 16  0
117   Superficial, li inchtravisboard           ing in riding-horse stable,
dowelled, at Sd.,..    3 18  0
117   Superficial,  1I  inch, beaded
deal lining on end walls of
riding-horse stable, on fixtures,
at fid.,...    2 18  6
350 2 Superticial,   ~  inch   thick,
beaded lining on walls on fix           tures, at 4d.,.             5 16  8
68   Lineal, 1 inch, beated coping
on top of lining, at 3d.,.    0 17  0
63    Superficial, 1 inch deal travis
boarding in work-horse stable,
at 7d.,.   19  6  9
237 9 Superficial, 1 inch beaded lin                               -
ing on end  walls, ~&c., on
grounds, at 6d.,..     5 18 10
886 6 Superficial,  t  inch  narrow
beaded lining on walls on fix          tuies, at 4d.,.   14 15  6
220   Lineal, 1 inchl beaded coping
on lining, a-it 3d.-.    2 15  0
156   Lineal, beaded liee)-posts of sta          bles, 6 inches by 6 inches, at
Is. 6d.,.   11 14  0
156   Lineal, beaded fore-posts in 2
pieces bolted together, at Is.,    7 16  0
143   Lineal, top-rails for steadying
hleel-posts, &c., 6i inches by
24 inches, beaded, &c., at 9d.,   5  7  3
144   Liteal, of spars over the top of
top-rail., at 3d.,..    1 16  0
45   Lineal, angular pieces for heads
of divisions of riding-horse
stable, at 3d.,.     0 11  3
54   Lineal, rails for pins in work          horse stable, at 6d.,.    1  7  0
84   Lineal,  lhay-racks  in  work          horee stable, price to include
the seed-racks at the bottom,
at Is. 6d.,..    6  6  0
676   Superficial, 14 beaded deal di          visions of byres, at 6d.,.   14  8  0
153   Lineal, of strong top-rails for
divisions, with grooves, at 6d.,   3 16  6
128   Superficial, 14 inch lining on
end walls on grounds. at 6d.,    3  4  0
34   Lineal, of top-rail for lining at
6d.,..    0 17  0
95   Lineal, of feeding-troughs for
byres, at Is. 6d.,.    7  2  6
200   Lineal, of hardwood stakes for
do.,at6d,,...    5  0 0
788   Superficial, of spar divisions
for calves' cribs,  including
doors and framing, supporting
them, at 6d.,..       -   19 14  0
910 6 Lineal, skirting on grounds for                                     d         i                         11
Carry forward,;C1374 16  0
Blrought forward,      ~1374 lIq  0
granaries, cortn-barn, &c., at
6d.,...   22  15  3
679    Lineal, of  feed ing-tr otaghs  i n
Courts and hrammels. inclutid        ing lded of rublle, as 2s.,.  67 17  0
36 oineal,  straw-raclis ill  sheds
under  g c ranaries, at Is..49a fti.  1 16  0
7 luffer Spoard  veitilators  on
tops   of roo,fs, at 21s.,.   7  7    0
2 wooden trap-stair s to  grana        ries, &c., ea ch abo ut  18 feet
long,  with lin ing,..     6  6  6
1 wooden trap-stair to wool        room, 18 feet long, with hand        rail on orls side, at fi63s.,.    3  3  0
5 5-barred gates, with dia-gon        als, e ach 9 feet by  5 feet high,
for  courts, it 40sc..           10   0  0
1 5-barred gate,  8 feet wide,
and  5 feet high,.   1            10  0
20  5-barred  gates  to small
courts, 4 feet wide  and 5 feet
high, at   20s.,.           20    0  0
8 strong  wooden    sliding-bars
for part of  doors, at 2s.,.    0 16  0
1 hardwood swivel-bar, with
iron nmounting for  gig- house,      0  10  0
1 large corn-bin in hay-ly ouse,
with padlocks, hinges, &c.,         3  3   0
1 corn-conluctor to do., from
granary above,.         I  0  0
1 small corn-bin, fitted up in
window of riding-hlorse stable,
with padlock,  &c.,..    1  10   0
3 saddle-brackets with pins,
&c., at 7s. 6d.,.                1 2    6
14 sm,all mangers fitted up in
work-house stable, at 3s. 6d.,    2  9   0
30 strong pins for harness in
work-horse stable, at 6d.,.    0  15  0
24 iron hooks for work-horse
stable at 6d.,.             0  12    0
2 turned heel-posts for riding        horse stable, at  18s. 6d.,.     1 17   0
2  tu.rnied half heel-posts in
riding-horse stable, next the
walls, at 7s. 6d.,..    0  15   0
18 heel-posts for byres, each 4
feet 6 inches long, at 6X.,.   5   8 0
4 half lheel-posts for end walls,
saml,e length, aL 4s. 6d.,.    0 18   0
20 pieces of wood for bending
top of the stakes to the wall,
at Is.,.    1  0   0
Fitting up 20 small manger and
has racks for calves' cribs,  at
5s.....      5 0   0
Fitting-up the interior of  the
doveot,..    7 10 0
Fitting  up the interior of the
hlen-lhouse,..    710   0
Fitting  up  the interior of the
hiatclhing-hotlses,..    7  10   0
2 straw racks in large courts,
at 30s.,.                      3 0   0
6 pair strong crook-and-band
hinges for the gates of courts,
at ls.,.                      3 0   0
6 strong fasteners for the gates,
at 2s. 6d...    0 15  0
20) pair crook-and-band hinges
for  the  gates of the  small
courts, at 5s.,    -..     5 0   0
26 fasteners for the gates, at Is.,    1    0  0
6 stock-locks for doors to hattchi.
ing-houises, &c., at  5s.            10 o
6 pair crook-and-banid hii,ges
for  tie  lhatchling-houses, at
ls. 6d.,.0                       9    0
38 stock and pilate Ioeeks for adi
the other ollter doors, &e., at
5s.....     9 10 0o
38 thumlb latches for these~
doors, at Is.,-...     1 18  0}
Carry forward,.~1590 18  9
636
a;
I 
li 
TIlE FARM-HOUSE.
Brought forwvard,    ~15o90 18  9
46 pair strotg crook-aid-band                      aa
hinges for these doors, at 2s.                                                                                   d
6d.,..                 5 15  0
2 pair strong crook-and-banid
hinges for gig-hiouse doorS, at 
108.,..-    1  0  0
12 pair crook-and-band  hinges
for the doors of the feeding
holes, at 3s. 6d.,..    2  2  0
12  iron  fasteners for these
doors, at Is. 6d.,..     0 18   0
3 cast-iron hay racks for rid ing-horsestable,at 15s.,.    2  5  0O
3 cast-iron niangeis for riding horse sta-le, at  2s.5.   0
18 manger rings, at 3d.,.     0  4  6
6 rings, hleel pst.s, in the rid ing-lhorse stable, at 31.,.      0  1  6
20 seals for byres, at 2s. 6d.,.      210  0    g
Jobbing for the other trades men,   furnishing    nias)ns'
sheds, scaffolding, &c.,.    15  0  0
supply good home tiniber iiistead, the cost will
steadings thati is coniniotily to be futiud, it beiiig
deductions as can be estimated iii nioney at
Amount of carpenter work,  ~1620 19  9
SLATER WORK.
Superficial slating, at 80s.,    ~350    2   2
...... 1i917 0  0o
i. 3.      ~2258 16  2
rdiinate sum for a la(ndlord to pay
siug withl the best foreigin tilub(er;
n every respect iii the most couI
1795
1943
288
3      2       a        s1
ON TllE FARM-IlOUSE.
trpiuglts, a t  8d.,      f
7 brass sockets for the trotiglis,
at 2s. 6d.,.
Amount of plumber work,          32
5518. Itis not lv ilitention to say anytliing here 011on thle co,lstruction of tl/e fa.rlihouse, as  I  have already exlressetd imy
opinion  of  the  arralngell)ent  wliichi tlhe
working patrt of the house sliotul(1 a-sllllle,
to he convenient for the work to l)e done,
and  as far separated  froii  the 1ar-.t *,f
the house occlpied by the filrler' fitlllil v
as to avoid disturbatnce to tiheii.  l ii fi.
3862 is represented the grotlll(i-ptan of  theo
back.jamnb of the hlouse, in which is sii tute
the kitchlen a, the scullery d, tlhe kitelien
pantry k, and thle 11ilk-lioius.e i)z, aI,1 I(ckup closet c for ciitainiing, articles inl (laily
use in the cookery.    By  ascentiuig the
stair k in  fig. 8638, the  story  al,,,ve is
reached, ill whiicl-h is the clieee-ri1o0i1 A, a
store-roolln d, t"vo bed-closets ft)r servanrts
a and b, a  water-echlset i, and a stair to
the g.arret 1.
b515.
634  6    $
815 3 8f
5516. Th e e xpense  of building a steading of
these  dimensions and  specifications must be
considerable anywhere, anid particularly so if
the prices of work, materials, and carriage, are
taken at the rate usual in large towns.  It will
amount as follows:
X1883 188
1620 19  9
a-5o0   2   2
297 14  5
23 11 2
~4175 16  2
5519. In  connection  with  the  farinlhouse is tlhe subject of locks.  It is very
poor ecolnolny to use ill-miade l(,cks in any
537
551:
17 19
53l1
112  3  9   Making the cost
wor-k-lhorse stable, &c., at 3d., 10 3 10
Amiiount of plaster work,;~'23 11  2 
teliJpted to be picked, tells it lhas been so;
calinot go wroig;  tlasts a lifetiue witliout
replairs,  atil afltrd(s utinsl.)eakable  secuirity.
One peculiarity of tis lock is, thlat it lhas
a nuiil)ner  of liolts, every  otie of  whicAl
must be  lified  before the door  will op)en,
each   bolt l)eing a security  equal to any
clltnoil lock.   Aniotlier peculiarity is its
detector, by wlichl any atteiip)t to pick or
open  thle  lock  by  a  false  key  is iniiiiediately notifiel on thle next applicati,un of
the pr(iper key,                     noiwica  will not    open  thle
l)ck.   It, liowever, itiakes tlie lock again
serviceil)le  )y  b)eiing  turned  the  wr ong           o
way, whichl no false key is capal)le of di)oilg.   Thie lock  hlas coltmouly  six  bolts,
or tullgbleIs,   d                           a detectoup; a,(i the r(lorinaly cllnces a-.,aiiist aniy key I)utt its own
olieningl it is 720.   But tlhe  hleighit of the
sli)irtest step in thle key is cl)pab)le of beilg.tlteresl  twentty   times,  so  tllhat  tllhe
ciaciiees against o)petling tlhe lock may be
iltcreseil tio 14,400: eLci t,f the six steps
can lie as  laly titiits altere(l, sot that tlhe
clihtices Imay I)e increased to 8(,400.  Tlehe
detector cati lie alteredl ten  timies, so t-he
clilatices are  increa.sel ti  864,0()O0.   Furtlelei.                  stil, toe bill-tise  (arf tle li,cks, aid
tile -ipes  (of tile lteyts,                              52v be easily igave
of tllree (lifltrent sizes, so that tlhe  lumil)er
of clminces Jin,v Ie iniea,tse(l to 2,592,000.
Ini still l arger l.cks, tihe clxi-nces  ma-,y be
increasecl tt, 7,776,000.   Tije corni-bsarn,
granaries, ileal-clhest, hietn-hiouise,.anl(d imiipletmlenit hliouse, outglit all to be pro)tected
with suchi locks.   I do uot stlpose that
5521. As a good supply of water is an essential
comifort to every farlmhotse, I shall describe  the
sitikiteg of a well, ae rd the  construction of a usefal rain-water cisterni. Of so much importanice is
osie good    well on a farm, that  a cons  iderable
expense should  be incurred rather th an  want, at
ally season, so necessary a beverage as water  to
Inall anid beast. I!i trap anid other amorphous
rocks, little  water iiaay be expecte d  to be  tbulnd,
antd the labour of sinkinig by blasting with  gun.ipowder  rethders  a well surk in those  substances
a ver y expenllsive uinidertakil.  Wheii   there is
probability of finidinag wa ter is    stratified  rocks
under   trap, the lcatter may be    penetrated   by
boritg with a jultper, withr    the view of formintg
aar  Artesia t  well; but befo re such a   project is
unidertaken, it tliould be ascertained beforehall
that stratified rock  or diluvtium exis-ts below th 
trap, and(I that the dip of either is towards  the
site of thie well.   Wlhen insuperable  obstacles
exist aga,-inist finidinig water t)n the spot, perhaps
tlhe better plane will be either  to go a, distanee
to a higher elevation, where a commoni well may'
succeed ini fieldinig water, aid  then  convey it to
the steadinig, by  ineanis of earthenware, iron or
lead pipe; or to descend  to a lower site  anwl
tlhrow the watter up to the steading,, by meanis  of
a water ram, ( 1 i.) Eitlher of these planis tnay
be  less expensive, or more  practicable,  than
borinig through a hard rock to a great depth.
The well iii Ba,iiib.,roiugh Ca~fstle, iai Northuimberland, was sunk  upwards  of 100 feet  through
tra~p to the sandstone below.; anid at Dunidee, a
bore wz   inasale through trap,:700 feet,  to the
iifirtrior sandisto)nie below, by ineans of its steamenginle, to obtain water ifr a spiiiiiing-mnill.
* Chubb On the Construction of Locks, p. 15.
is clheap) in the long,-run?.*   I lhave used
one with six tumbtl)lers for several years in
tlhe outer door as a clheck-loclk, whlichi cost
ine 15s. witlh twvo keys.
5522. In gravel anid sand, a well may be 
with dry rubble inasoijry, anid drawii ill at the
top to two feet in diamneter.  WVhenever  the
building is filkislied,the water should be removedl
soun th e  wel         l           with buckets it'  the  quantity is
smeall, alud wit h a  punp if it be larg e, to i  tl low
the bottomi to be cleared of iaud and stonies. A
thick flat stone, reaching from the side of the
rinig to beyond  the  cenitre, -lhould  be  firmly
placed on the ground at the bottom of the well
for the woodel) pump to stand  ipon,or for the lead
pipe  to rest   on.  It a wooden pump is uised, a
large flat stone, having a ]hole in it to embrace  the
pumnp, should be laid on a level with  th)e ground
uponi the rinig of the well; bnt if a lead pipe is
preferred, the flat stone should be enitire aiid c,)ver
the rilig, and the clayey earth thrown over it.
5523. In very unctuous clay, suich as is found
in carse laud, water is dificulat to be obta.itied by
digg,,itig to ordinary depths; but as silch a con    stetry is usually situate near a large river, or oti
the side of a broad estuary, by digging to the
depth of the bedi of the river, soiiie sand will
most probably be foutid through which tl)e water
will fijid its way to the well; and though bracki.sh
in the estuary, it will probably comie ilito the
well sweet enough tfor all domestic purposes.
5.524. Wells duig in stratified rocks, sulch as
sandsto,iie, may  be supplied with water at the
mioderate deptlh of perhaps six or eight feet; but
amongst regular strata as niuch risk exists of
lositig water as in obtaining it.  To avoid disappoinitimient, it will be necessary to pu(1dle the
,eamis of the rock on that side of the well iu
which it dips downwards.
5527. The cost of digging a well in clay, eighlt
feet in diameter  and  sixteen fteet deep,  and
building a rillg three feet in diameter with
dry rubble  masotiry, is only L.5, exclusive  of
carriage and the cost of the pumps.
35525. The substance which most certainly
supplies water on  being dug into is diltivial
clay, a substance that forms the subsoil of the
greatest extetit ofthe arable land of this kingdom.
This clay is of itself impervious to water, but it is
always intersected with small veins of satd freqiienitly colitailling mica, and interspersed with
nulmerous small stones, on removing which water
is foutid to ooze from their sites, and collect in
any pit thlat is formed in the clay to receive it.
The depth to be dug to secure a sufficiency of
water miiay not be great-perhaps lot less tIan
eight feet, or mnore than sixteeli feet; but when
the clay is homogeneous arnd  hard, and there is
little appearance of water, dig,giig- to ul)wards
of4O feet ill depth will be required to fiid water.
I ktiewv a remarkable inistaiitne of a well thaitt was
dug in such  clay in Irelatid, ill which 40 feet
were penetrated before any water was found;
butt iminediltely beyoind that depth, so large a
body of pure water was fitutid in a smnall vein of
sand, tlhat tile diggers escaped with dtifficulty
out of the well, leavillg their tools behlitid.  A
force-puiup was obtained to clear the well of
5529. It niay happen that a well has to be
suniik ii. filue saiid or loose gravel, when the ordinary nimode  of sinking and  of building the rinig
will iiot answer.  For such  a                   case, Mr Jaoties
Wilsoii, Bi,Jnhill, Dumitbar-tonishire, has  obliginlgly
senit imie the specifications and mode of  diggiiig
and btuilding,,, which lie  follo%-ed iii making a
well isl san4d an(d gravel.'I'he diameter' of the
well to be thiree feet six iiichles inisile of tihe
building, and the buil(ding,, ii-stead of' rubble, to
be of diroved ashler, eachli stoie 8 inches broad
in  the  bed, 12 inches deep,   lbotit 213 inlches
long, ill the chiord of  the arc of a circle  on the
one side, and 17 inches long in a straight liue,
on the othler side. The outside of the stonies to
-,,             -i weiis.
5528. A lar(,-Ii punip of from 15 to 20 feet in
length cost.-; from L.3 to L 3, 1 Os., and a lead
one I,.2, 10, with Is. 2ti. per ]iiieal foot far pipe
of the deltli of the well. The wooden I)uitip
will last I)erliap,4 twenty years, and the lead oiie
a lifetime, witli ordinary care: and the lead at all
times is worth sotiietliiii,6,. 
REALISATION.
altogether about eleven feet six inches, when the
water flowed  in so much I could not proceed
further, and it rose to its level of three  feet
eight inches.  The building went down steadily,
and did not seem to be ai eiglhthl of an inch off
the level at which it was first set.  Other four
courses were tlhen built, and  the covers put on,
aJld the pump-framnie erected several  feet from
the side of the well, where an incliie(l plane and
gutter had been formed  to carry off thie water.
The pump  I use is a copper chamiber, four inches
in diameter, with brass boxes, and a two-inch
lead pipe attached to the chamber, and laid into
the well through  the side of the building about
two  feet below  the  surtface."  This may  be
regarded as an expensive method of forniing a
well, and it is so; but it is clear that, iunless the
ring is made of stones well connected together,
the building would not siiik without dislocation;
and it is not possible to dig sand out of a well
of considerable depth and build its ring, by
means less expensive tlhani this.  It will be seen
that the truer the circle and better the workmnanship of the outside of the ring, the building will
subside the better without risk of having the
stonies displaced by rubbing against the sand and
gravel.   This method of sinking permits the well
being made deeper, if required, at any future
period; and this method of building renders  the
well accessible at all times fofr;repair.s, by affording steps  in the angles of  the octagon, for
plumbers and others, as the means of descending
and ascending the well with ease.
b    e  f    or med ne  atl y to a circle, and their inside into
and octagon. Beds to be square;                ends properly
b    evelled andl'wroh glt c orrectly to a mobtld; each
course                    to contain 8  Ston es  of equal  size   a  ring
board to be formed          of willow,   oot      to taste the
water, 8          o inches   broad, l' or 2                inches thick,  and
half an  inch larger tlan th      e           outs id e  ircle  of t he           o     ieire the
isto oes.  The ri   big-boar   c oul d          al be made stronger
ill two courses of four pices of equal size. Itn
buil ding upon the rimg-board, the first course o                             f
stoles to hav         e  the ce   mdtres of their  face raised
perpendicular to   the  inside  o    f the riwwg-board.
The cenitres of each stoie of the second course
to be placeh  over    the joints of the precedilng
cou          rse, and also perpendicular                     t    o the inside of
the ritng-boar(l. The inside face of each stone
being a straight line, the inside diameter of the
well being 31 feet, and the ring-board being
correctly made, the inside ends of each stone will
be back 1I inch from the centre of the face of
each stone in the course immediately above it,
'and so on with every course. A small stick made
as a gurage at one end, of 1 I inch length, will be
found halndy for setting the stones.  The outside
circle must be most carefully made.  The upper
course to form a square instead of atl octagon for
the covers to rest on, and to slope to one side, to
carry the water (X~ the top of the well.  The
covers to be droved, and in three pieces, one of
'which to cover the building on one side and half
of the well, and -to  be: half-checked where  the
other two stones meet it in the middle, and they
are to be half-chlecked into it, also half'checked
into each other where they meet ill the middle,
and to cover the other side of the building. One
of the stones covering a portion of the well to
have an iron ring in it, by  which  to  lift it
freely out of the checks of the other two stones.
The joints of the covers to be filled with putty
well mixed with white lead, to prevent water
from the surface getting into the well.
5531. Raini-water fordomestic purposes is col.
lected in cisterns.  The form of a roia-l.'5? cistern, represented  by  fig. 441, I  have  found(
useful for allowing the undisturbed deposition
of itnpurities, and  at the same time  the quick
flowiug off of the purer water, without disturbing
the deposition.  Let a b c b be a cistern of stone
or wood, placed at a convenient spot of the steadiig or farm-houl)se, for the reception of rain-water.
I have found that such a cistern, of the capacity
of 12 cubic feet, holds  a stufficient quantity of
rain-water for tile domestic purposes of an ordinary family.  A cistern of 2 feet square at the
base, and 3 feet in height, will just cointain that
quantity; but, as the size of ail ordinary washtub is 2 feet in diameter, the space between d and
d must be made 2 feet 6 inches at least, at-d the
height of the cistern b would be 2 feet,; but if
more water is required than 12 cubic feet, tlhen
tile height should be 3 feet, which gives a capacity to the cistern' of 18 cubic feet.  Suppose the
cistern represented in the figure  to conitain 18
cubic feet, tlhen the  area of a will  be 24 feet
square, and 6 3 feet in height, silupported on two
upright stolies d d of the breadth of the cistern,
and  2 feet high.  Tile cistern  may either  be
made of a block of freestone hewn out to the
dimnensions, or of flags, of which the sides aire let
into grooves in the bottom a:lld into each  othier,
and  imbedded in whlite-lead, and fastened together with iron clamps., having a stone movable
cover c. Or it may be formed of a box of wood,
securely fastened  at the  corniers to be watertight,' with  a cover of wood, and'resting oil
the stone supports  d d.  Stone, being  more
;5530. The method of sinking the well is thus
described by Mr Wilson:-' I had the stonies
dressed, droved to a mould as specified, and all
ready before breaking ground, when I made  a
rod two inches longer than the extreme diameter
of t           he ring-board; describ ed  the circle on the
surface                           with it, and gave it to the labourer as a
glange, that he might not take out any  more
Said and gravel than was necessary to let the
ril,g-board in with ease.  I had about five feet
of gravel, which I should always like to go
through before laying il the rting-board.  There
were then two feet of find sand, when water
appeared by taking a shovelful out of the cerntre.
I then ordered the ringi-board to be put in and
levelled, and built upon to the top of seven
courses, filling up as it was built the back of
each course with fine sand, loosely put in with
a shovel, to steady the building  when sinking.
I then commenced  taking-, gravel out of the
cenitre with a short shovel, and a bucket with a
rope attached to it to be drawn up with a winch
and handle.  In about three hours of an afternioon there was about a foot of water. Next
day I commenc'ed taking  out a, barrowful of
Ban.id,aLid two or three bucketfuls of water alternately, till in otuier three hours I had got down
4
540 
WATER-CISTERNS.
durable, is of course preferable to wood  for
a  cistern  that  stands  out ill the  open air.
- Fig. 441.
pletely out by the washer n. The waste water
runs away through  the air-trap o, and along the
drain >.  It is more convenient to have  two
small thain one large (cisterln, as, while the water
is rising ill the olne, that ill the other gets leave
to settle.   The cost of such a cistern, witl droved
stonies, and to conltailn 18 cubic feet, with tile
right to say, il  comnmendation of  this  formi of
water-cistern, that il  no case have I known the
water about the plug to be frozen, in consequence,
perhaps, of thie non-conducting power of the miud
il  the bottom of the cistern. The rod i has sometimes become fast to the iceoln the top of the water
at 1, but a little boiling water poured down by the
side of the rod through the hole ill the cover, by
means of a funnel, sooii freed it from restraint.
5532. Water for domestic purposes is known
as hliard or soft. Most wvater from sprinigs is hard,
auid that in rivers soft; because, although miost of'
the water of rivers is derived from springs, it becoiiies si,ft by long exposure  to the air, when it
deposits the materials that miake it hard. Water
is hard  when it holds in solution certain salts,
t.articularly sutlphlate of lime, (gypsum,) and the
carboinate of lime, even in very small qualitities.
Water c'ii dissolve 5 -6 part of its weight of gy)pstnsum; but, according to Dr Daltoii, Buz6 part is
sufficieint to rendler it hard; and Mr  Cavendish
says, that 1200 grains of water colntainilng carbbosic acid will hold  ill solutionii 1 gratil of limestoiie.  Limestone is iiisolutble in piure  water
but water  containing carbonic acid in solttioli
cican dissolve it.  Water is said to be hard wlhen it
will not dissolve buit decompose soap.  Soft water,
oin the other hand, does not decoimpose, but coiii
biles ea,ily  with soap  and dissolves it.  llaiwater-is not so fit as soft for many culiniary puirposes, such as makiug, tea and boiling vegetables.
It is therefore of importance for you to know
when water is in a hard or soft state., By placing a few  thin slices of white soap  in a  cleant
tumbler of the water to be  examinied, its htt(rdpess will  be indicated by white flakes or curdy
particles around the soap, the effect ofldecoimposition, the acids of the salts in the water  comttbininig with the aikali of the so,ap and leaving
the fatty matter.
A R       AI N;-!,~'i'SEt CISTERN.
A hollow copper cylinder g is fastened perpenliicularly into the bottom a, having its lower
end projecting 1 inch below, and its upper 3
inches above, the respective surfaces of the bottom.  The upper end of the copper cylinder is
formed to receive a ground truncated cone of
copper h, called a plug or stopper, which is'moved
up and down with a lever k, by means of the
copper  rod  i.  The  plug h must  be made
water-tight with grease, the rod of which passes
through a hole il the cover, to be connected with
the leverk, whose support or fulcrum is fixed ont
the cover.  These partsare all miade of copper,
to withstanid rusting from the- water, with the
exception of the lever, which may be of iron
painted.  The rainwater is supplied to the cisterni by the pipe e, which desceuds from the raiinwater conductor, and is let through a hole in the
cover.  The water is representel standing as
high as 1; but in case it should rise to overflow,
it can pass off by the lead waste-pipef, which is
secured and movable at pleasure ii a groundlwasher n, whose upper end is miade flush with
the upper surface of the bottom a.  After tlhe
water has entered the cistern, it gets leave to
settle its sediment, which it may (lo to the
height of the upper end of g.  The sediment is
represented by in, and wheii it accumulates to h,
the cover c should be taken off, and the wastepipe f removed, and the cistern cleaned conm
* Reid's CAenistry qf Stature, p. 199.
541
5533. "To discover whether the lhardniess be
owiing to the presence of, limestone or  gypsulmll,
the following chemical tests," says Mr Reid,
"may be applied: A  solution of the nitrate tot
barytes will produce a white precipitate  with
water  conitaininiig either gypsum or lime-stoie;
if limestone hlave  been present il  the v;ater,
tlhe. precipitate  will  be  dissolved,  and  the
liquid rendered clear oil adding a few drops of
pure. nitric ascill; if the presence  of' gypsum
causel the precipitate, this will not be dissolved
.by the nitric acidl. A solution of the sugar of lead
may be nised in the saIe way, buit the nitrate of
barytes is, preterred." *
.5534. As to a practical remedy for hard water,
boiling will remove the lime. The carbonic acid 
REALISATION.
in excess in the water is converted into the
gaseous form, and the carbonate of lime then becoming insoluble, falls to the bottom of the vessel.
Hence the incrustation of tea-kettles.   If the
hardness is caused by gypsum, a little pearl-ash
or soda (carbonate of potash or carbonate of
soda) will remove it, and the lime of the water
will also be precipitated with the carbonic acid
of the pearl ash or soda.
tracted form precludes easy turning in the deepest
part of the water, none of the rest of the horses
can be permitted to drink at the opposite or
open end of the pond.  A much better frinrm of
pond, I conceive, is with an open side, having
the opposite side fenced, and the water supplied
clean at the Upper en4, and made to flow imlimediately away by  the lower.  At such a Fpond a
number of horses can stand in a row to drinik at
the samle time, and easily pass each other in the
act of washing the legs after drinking.  As  to
the depth, no hiorse-pond should ever exceed the
height of the horses' kniiees.  The water slololli
on no account reach their bellies; for although
I am quite aware of ploughmen being desirous to
wade their horses deep, and of even wishing to
see their sides laved with water, to save  themselves some trouble in cicallinig, that is iio) reason
why you should run the risk of endan)gerillg the
health of your horses by making the pond deeper
than the knee.  (1417.)
5535. Water  as a beverage would be insipid,
and even nauseous, without the gaseous and saline
matters usually found in it.  They give a natural
seasoningi- and a9 sparkling appearance to it;
thereby rendering it niot only agreeable to the
taste, but more wholesome to the stomach. Every
one knows the mawkish taste which boiled; ater
has when drunk alone.
5536. As I am on the subject of water, a few
words may here be said on the making of horsepotIds. When a small stream passes the steading, it is easy to make a pond serve the purpose
of horses drinking and washing in it, and the
water in such a pond will always be pure and
clean.  But it may happen, for the sake of convenience, when there is no stream, that a pond
should be dug in clay, in which case the water
il it will always be dirty and offensive, unless
means are used to bring water by a pipe from a
distance.  If the subsoil is gravelly, the water
will with difficulty be retained on it, on which
account the bottom should be puddled with clay.
Puddling is a very simple process, and may be
performed in this mannier.  Let a quantity of
tenacious clay be beaten smooth with a. wooden
rammer, mixing with it about one-fourth part of
its bulk of slaked lime, which has the effect of
deterring worms making holes in it.  After the
mass has lain for some time souring, let large
balls of it be formned and thrown forcibly on
the bottom of the pond, made  dry for the plirpose, and  beaten down  with a  rammer  or
tramped with men's feet, until a coating 6 or
7 inches  in thickness is formed, or more, if
there is plenty of clay.  Then let a quantity of
clean gravel be beaten with the rammer into the
npper surface of thle clay before it has had time
to hliardenii. Should the pond be large, and the
weather at the time of making it so dry as to
hardlell the clay before its entire bottom can be
covered with it, let the puddling and gravelling
proceed together by degrees.  Above the coating
of gravel, let a substantial causeway of stonies
and sand be formed to resist the action of the
horses' feet, alnd which, if properly protected at
the ends, and finislhedI on the open side of the
pond, will withstand  that action for a  long
time.  I have seen a pond recommended to be
made, into whi(h  the horses enter at one end,
and pass throughl it by the other.  This is a conveitient shape of pon0l, ill as far as it admits of
the uninterrupted passage of the horses thro,cgh
it.  But it is liable to serious objectiontis.  Beimg contracted laterally, the pair of horses which
first descend to drink will (ccupy tile greatest
proportion of its whole breadth, anld while in that
position, the succeeding pair must drink the
muddy water at their heels; and, as the con
542
ON COTTAGES FOR FARI%f-SERVANTS.
5.537. It is as necessary to obtain good
accoyiiinodation on the farm for the farmservaiits-tlie numbers and duties of wliotyi
I have already enumerated from (55) to
(69)-as for the - fa-riiier liitiis(-,If and his
stock. Until a few years since, I)o, w e v e r,
the dwellings of farni-laboui-ers tli'(1 not
receive tl)at attention, from either landlord or tenant, to reii(ler them coiiifortable as they ought to have; not,  I
believe, from any disregard to%N artis the
welfare of that Useful and indispensable
class of servants, but chiefly because, tliev
themselves iii:i(le no f(irni-,,i,l cotiil)laint - of
the state of the accommodation afforded
them, and seemed contented %%itli sucli
botise Is as the t, 1.)rovi,(Ied tlieyoI)taietl
y 91,
a situation under a goofl master, and on a
good farm. The general character of the
]finds' houses some years ago i)i,-iv be
learned from these remarks by Dr Gilly,
'Vicar of Norliam, in Nortliiiiiil)erl,-iii(,l:
" Tije general character of tl)e best of tl)e
old-fashioned liinds' cottq,,es in tl)e
bourliood is bad ai the best. They lia%,e
to bring evervtliinl, with tlietii-partitions, window-ii-anie', fixtures of all kinds,
grates, an(] a substitute for ceiling; for
tl,ey, are, as I have already called theme
mere slieds., Tliev liave no byre ft)r tli(,,iicows, no sties for their 1)i(,S, no ptitnps or
weil,Q, nothing to promote cle,-tniiii-e.,is or
comfort. The a,%,era,(,e size (if these
is aboiit 24 feet by 16.    They -ire (I.-ii,k
and unwholesome.   The windows  ]() not
open, and many of theta are not lar,,er 
IIINDS' IIOUSES.
tservnants, is to a(]( pt a uttifornl plan, lpotl
wticnl -               ill a e r e  I,utilt.  The practice is not
founded on s(;tnnd  l)'ineille, nor  even  on
expedienDcy; because it inmplies thlat fiml'ilies consisti ng o      f     e very dlifferent    tiul iiers
sshould, nevertheless,          be    accojiini,(Iate(l
within silil         ar s)aces.  Instea,il, tletrefore, of                      a   faimil y  a cco tii nodating  itseif  to
tthe size  of the cotta    ge, the   c()ttage   (ugi,it
to be  adapted  to tlhe size of tile  1.1rn-ily;
and there is n         o      way of fixing tlhe lIrlilitiOIonsS between t            he cottages and  their  iiiniates but by building tlhem  with diffcreit
extents of acconiniodation, for i.aiiies ()f
different nuimbers.    This is the only r.tional course to pursue; and in pursuance
of it, it is as easy to build a given inutil)er
of cottages  on  different  plans, as  (on tlhe
same lan.    Follow, ing out this principle,
I sl)all give a nutn,ber of plans, suited to
families of different sizes, taken from practical examniples, but modifie(l, in  somie instances  to suit  tiy own  notions  of  the
conveniences,  comforts, and  nice       ans    of
cleanliness whichi  suchl dwellings   should
possess.
than 20 inches by 16.   Into t!,is s)ace
within the slie(i are crowded 8, 1(), a-n(I
e         v         e         n 12 persons. lov tiheyev lie dllwn to
r       e       s       t, hlow tthey sleei,, lhov ttey can ppeserve cofmmo                    n decency, lFow uonutterable
lhrrors  are aoi ded, is cbeon,d - a ll conception.   The   case        i s tIg,ra  at leld   fi                 en tlaere
is a young woman  to be lodg,ed in tlhis
confined space, who is no t a  hilectber of
the         famnily,   but is  hired to do tle  fieldmork, for which e   very  linahe  is!eound to
provi d     e a'fe    o gale. It slaocks every feeling
of propriety  to think talat,                        in a  room, and
withini such  a space  a        s  I have been describing, civilised beitygs shoul     d  be  herding
toge ther, oaitrout a decent separation of
ag e  and       sex.          So lo     ng                             as tge aricultural
sgystem  in      t his  distri ct    requires the lind to
f         ind room for a fellow-servant of the otler
s:x in his cabin, the least that morality
andI decency can demand is, that }e should
have a second apartment, where the unmarried female, and those of a tender age,
should sleep apart from him and his wife." *
I hxave seen many houses of this description upon farms, but now they are becominig fewer every year. Whlenieyer a lease
is renewed, if'thie cottages are in a bad
state of repair, they -ire amended both by
repairs oln the outside, and( better accoIImmodation within; and when so bad as not
fit to be repaired, they are pulled down, and
others of a greatly amended form and appearance are built instead.   This is now
the rule under- adoption by landowners
generally, and the contrary  conduct  is
liappily the excel)tion.
5539. Objections lave been  made to
accotmmiiiodating a family in one roon; but
the force of tlhe objections entirely (letpends
upon tahe num ber of the f.mily.      I n s()me
parts of the country the  lhind's family irediay
consist of limself and wife only, in wlichl
case  a si ng l e o roos n and  a single  bed aill
suffice  for ts eir acconi nodation. Iin  othier
parts the Iiitid is oblig,ed to liave a feli,ale
to work in tlje fields as a  fiehi-worker,
whien a bed mnist be procured Ior lher. In
tlhis case, at least two beds are required in
the lhouse; and even these mnay be accommondated in one roon.   Fig. 442   1iows
5538. But in the case of some propriet)rs, the desire for buildingver.y fine large
cottages is mianifesting itself; and such a
spirit ou,ghit to be deprecated as well as
the very opposite extremne whichl Dr Gilly
condemins. A larger hlouse tlIan a hind can
well fiuriishi  is a burden  to  hin; and
whatever l,art lie cannot furnish, becoines
a dirty Itiltiber roomt, or is let to some
stranger in the capacity of a boarder-a
very objectionable c;asS of persons on any
farmin. A liouse thlat will just accomnimodate the numiber of persons of his hlouseholil is whiat the h-ind wants; and the object can  only  be attained  by  building,
cottages of differenit sizes.   The  usilal
practice, wheni builling cottages for farm
X,.-,-'!  d      c -
~-.,''.,
,, 1___  _0..
~-,.,
Gilly's,Appeal on Behalf of the Peasantry of the Border, p. 19 and 20.
543
Fig. 442.
PLAN OF A.SMAT-L HIND'S HOUSI& OF ONP. ROU31, 
REALISATION.
b edls wouldtl require wooden partitions to
separate m fronm n; and i would require one
along,, thle back next p, and at  thle en(1
next o.  If this cottage were of thle sa.mte
size  as fig,. 442, tlie room  d wtould  be
equally largee; but  thaLt the lobby  5 is
t a ken off it, to iiiake up  for wlhich  the
size should be 25 feet in length, and 15 in
breadth.
the ma,nner of accommodating two beds in
o)ne r,(l,wi: a   is thle door  of entrance;  b    tlle
bt,rce; c thle door into te roo   d; e is the
wfie-]lcer;           f    the          windowb of the rooon; g
tlr      e ln,rlt e-rnck for loldinge the crockery,
&c.; / tle dresser; ialnd k are tlhe two
l)eds, i  enterint r  fio   f, thle room    i  d,  and k
fbo-l)d       tle sm all roo il  n, pr ovided  witlf a
tih dsr          o, *which  is divided          b          y    a partition
b          e tween this room              and the store-room  1,
wbiiclh is entered fromi the p(mrc       i          h by the
dtlor in.   Thle apartment n  lhas a  door
llined o  n tule corii er of th e bed    k,            i        f a
bomx-te(, and  on  the  %%all if not  so.   If
tl                             the beds ab           ie box-berds, wlich isnthe most
comninioi forrm, tlhe itnmates at nigh!CIt will
be  sulfficiertly  separated,  the   inarried
couple enter-ing( tlhe bed i f,'omi tlte apartmenit d, an(] tlhe fielh —worker k froni tlle
smiall clialnber )z.  Slhouild tlhe beds be of
tlie tent-bed(  form, withl  curtains, farthler
separaito(n  miglt    be effected by a wooden
partition between  tlhe  two beds, and at
tlhe ends of k next I and d1, and at tlhe back
of i next 1.  Suclh a cott.atge measures  22
feet in lengtl,, and 15 in brea(dtlh-giving,
tlhe floor of d a spa,ce of 15 feet by 11~,
wlh-iclh is enough for three adult persons.
5541. Box-be ds  are objected   to     by
medical aden1, as they  are   too con fined and
inconv enient  in formt   wlnea 2   a n y of  t,e
fatily are sick. Modifi    cations  in tbeir
fornl  may be  effected a liefly   by  favinia
tEle bac k and ends to opien on lsinges, an,l
tile top made meovable,  to promote ventilation, as well as to      allow freer access t.
tle           patient. Curtain s  suspended froxmovable rods, made to draw forward iii
front, instead of sliding I)anels, lhave beeii
recommended, to screen tlhe person dressill,, andtl undressing, whieni tle beds do not
occupy separate apartmiients; but were ttie
beds arrani(ged in tlhe miianner represented
in figs. 442 an(d 443, suclh a contrivance
witlh tile cutirtains would not be required.
It is qulestionable, however, that box-bedIs
will be voluntarily relinquished by farn
servants, and certainly not so uintil every
cott.lagye is aiccomminiodated witlh fixed beds;
an(d if these lhave the alcove form, wlhiclh
most fixed beds lhave, thiey are equally
inconvenient for a sick patient as tlhe boxI)e(l it,elf.
55-40. Even three beds migh,It be aecominlodlated  in one  roomi, as  shown  in
fi,g. 443, wliere a     is the  entrance door; b the
Fig. 443.
,~,',    ~~,~~~~,  4 
~. ~.....~. —---------
~     —........-9    d
5542. But it must be owned tlhat, whIere
more tlatn one bed is required in a hind's
hli(ouse, a separate room for it is better thlail
any arrangeuleent that can be nmade wit'll
the beds withint one room, and the feelin,r
of security and seplaratioin is Iiore satisfactory in the second apartment.  Fig,,. 44i[
)'[,AN OF A LARGE HIND'S HOUSE OF ONE ITOOM.
)(,icli; C thle door of thle apartmient d; e
tle fire-place; f the window of thle roo;ii
, the pl.ate-rack; h the dresser; i m n are
tliree beds, so arranged tlhat m enters fromi
the roomni d, i froni the small closet entered
by the door 1, and(l having the window k
(ivided between it and the store-room o,
whichl is entered by the passage p, where is
a door, and has a bed in it, n. Box-beds
would makle a complete separation of their
occupants by being so arranged.  Tent
5"
Fig. 444.
c
e                     - b
11
f
PA
PL.A,N OF A 110(:Sk  IVl'l'lf'I'Wll Kll,llll. 
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I t:
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tv
'01 
REALISATION.
ornamental style than hinds' lholises need
be, the constructi(on combines ornilaent~elt
with use; and now that the duty is taken
off building bricks, the uppier story,
the rooms of which partly occupy the
roof, might be mtnade to have a lighlt and
elegant appearance, and yet not be expensive, if built with  brick.   Pairs of
cottages, of whatever construction, should
not be built so close together as to give
force to a current of air between thelm.
5550. Too frequently little attention is paid
to the  state of the site in which hiinds' houses are
built. They are very commonly built alonig the
side of the public road, open to the gaze of every
passenger, and in the way  of accidients  to  the
children; and their floors slider tihe level of the
curve of the road. They  oughit to be awav from
a public road, and their floors ought to be elevated at least one foot above tlhe sutrfac(e of the
ground. Fig. 447 gives a section of the imianniier
ill which  the tfIln          Fig 44.            dio        O    tis
da-tioil  6f Ihi I s'
houses oughlt to be
i l v ul s e i  constructed  where
:   a      a is tihe  pavement
of  the fl,)or of  the
a sleeping-room;  and when 0!theground  restring  illptIi
will never' be kindledinibroken  st,)iies to
the:: wkeep it dry; b the
broad tre felled
footpath alo)nig the
SECTION OF TIIX POUNNATION front of  the wall;
OF A HIND'S HOUSE.        ~ the surfbee of the
ground on the road, some illc hes below tile level
of the footpath; and d the draini to carr-y awasy
the water that niay chance to tall uptxon thlie ftot path. A border of earth inay be made along
the front of the house, and a fentce of lo,w lhedig ing placed between it and the footpath, wiizli il
that case would be mnade where the read c is.:
5547. A second  sittino,-room  in a lbind's
house is   an unnecessoary a       w)pendage  to it;
it will never   b e used as st       h        hel.         W en il
th        e  seco nd st ory it  will be converted into.
a sleeping-roon; and  when o n the groundfloor,  into  a iieal or potato store,              beside
the beds that may be put into it. The fire
will never be kindled in it, and it will become damp and cold.  It is only when the
labourer is a fixed resident, holding
directly under tlhe landlord, that be will
furnish his second room in the groundfloor comfortably, and warm it by occasional fires.
5548.  Single  cottages  witli a  groundplan such as figs. 442 and  443 would cost
about ~53, thus:  82 cubic yards of building.    ~14  7  0
151 square feet of hewn stone.       7 11  0
Roofing and slating...      16 16  0
Joiner-work and furnishings.       14  6  0
55.51. Much comfort may be promoted within
a cottage by a few simple means kept in view at
its erection.  One of the  means is to have the
fireplace il the centre of the house, acid not in
the gable, because the imason-work absohr)bs  inmch
of the heat from  the fire in the latter p)osition,
and dissipates it into  the open  air.   A  doib:.e
cottage secures the advantage of a central  lieat
completely; but if the fire be at the  end of a
long room, even though it should be in the cenitre
of the house, the remainder of the room will de.
rive little benefit from it: the fire should thlerefore be in a side wall.   No door opening inito a
room should be near to or on the same si(le of the
apartment as the fireplace.  Oii these conditions
being laid down  to architects by  lanidownters.
cottages would  cease to be the uncomfortable
dwellings which many are to their occupahts.t
~53 0 0
If such cottages are made double, they
might be erected for ~X00.  Such a cottage as fig. 444 would cost about ~63,
and in the double form perhaps  o120.
Figs. 445 and 446 are in too ornamental
astyle for farmns; but in a plain style and
with the accommodation afforded by them,
they could not be built under a considerable sum more than I have mentioned.*
5552. No part of a cottage requires so miict.
attention at its erection as the cliunivey-ftor a
smoky  house to a cottager,  who  has only  onu
chamber with a fireplace, is positive torture. ThX
subject of chinmney-btuildiing, I am a-ware, i* a (ifflcult one, but from wyhat I cain observe, I- thinkl
chimneys       are    cmad e       too short an d  too wide.  A
wide chimney affords room for both a desceniding and ascending  current of air, and  a short
chimney  weakens  the  draught  ma.terially.  A
long chimney with a contracted trip shouild therefore be expected  to carry off  the  smoke freely.
Tredgold says of  the contracting of a chimney
5549. I do not approve of ash-pits,
privies, and pig-sties being placed near
dwelling-houses.  It is highly proper that
these accommodations should be provided
for the people, but certainly not close to
their dwellings.  The trouble of walking
a few yards to those places is well con'pensated in avoiding the nuisance that
would be experienced in the vicinage.
' Transactions of thle Highland and A4gricultural Society, March 1850, p. 275, and Jan. 1848, p. 202.
+.Journal of Ay,riculture, July 1847, p. 1."
546
Tile offices to eachl  cottage  may cost about
./15. 
HINDS' HOUSES.
near the bottom, "it is like contracting the aperture of a pipe which supplies a jet."  The contraction depends on the size of the grate for the
fire; and this being kept in view, Tredgold's rule
for the contraction at the top is the following:Let 17 times the length of the grate in inches be
divided by the square recot of the height of the
chimney in feet, and thle quotient is the area for
the aperture at the top of the chimney in inches.
For example, suppose that a grate is 15 incehe                                 s
wide, and the chimney 36 feet hliglih-17 x 15 -=
255; and the square root of 36 is 6; therefore
255 divided by 6 =  42i inches is the area of the
top, and the diameter of a. circle of 42i inches in
circumference is 54 inches for the contraction.
5555. The ventilation of cottages I do not
interfere with, as the door is geiierally left much
open in them during the day, and were they
furnished with the windows given in figs. 78, 79,
and 80, which they ought to be, (1134,) the toul
air at any time could be easily got rid of. Back
doors are generally objectionable in cottages as
causing disagreeable draughts even whets they
are shut, and violent slainniiiig of the other doors
wlhen they happen to be opened in windy weather.
5.553. The contraction at the top may be made
ill this manner:Let fig. 448 represent the sec-s
Fig. 448.           tioni of a chimney                                can, the height of
Ij     >~ ~      which  above the
a   ~.       -           stalk is fromn a to
a~; b is the con                                traeting cote with                                in it made of iron,
the lower part of
~~ ~~~~whiich is rounided
off, as at d d; the
upper part at e 
'    being made  aiigu                               lar upwards, with
the view of facili                               tating the passing
of the win(d over it
in an upward direc                               tion. The chimniey                               top, if constructed
a     ofthis form at first,
might answer as
METHOD OF CONTRACTING   well as any can
THE TOP OF A CHIMNEY.    put up afterwards.
5556. The following are the prices of building
materials for cottages iln England
MJfason and pla.ter work:tr-inch stone wall, properly pointed,  ~7 per rood superficial.
Bevel stone paving,..  7d per foot...
Bath stone for dressings, delivered'
friom the quarry to the builder's jIs. 4d. per cubic foot.
yard,.. 
Best duchess slating, withi malleable  32s. per squae rood.
metal nails,   I                    32s. per square rood.
Lathiing-with best deal laths, "ren-y
i  der, float and set,".  Is. 4d. persquareyard.
Render, float and  set, or render,    s. per sqre yard
float, and twice whiten,. per sqre yard
5557. Carpoenter anrd Joiner work:
Couples,        9 inches by 3i inches. 
Putirloins,     6..    4..    of sound dry elm at
Wall-plates    7..    2..       2s. per cubic  foot,
fFl(ringjoists 8..    2..      incitiding  the Saw Lintels,       10.. 4               i,g.
Bond timber,  3..    2..
of yellow deal at2s.
~oor frames, 3,.    4           i8d.  p)tr cubic foot,
CHIMNY.  pu  up  fterwrds.      Door frames,   3..    4             nluigtesw
', including  the  saw                                 J i,;g.
hi of white deal at 2s.
Rafters, 3..            2..   14d. per  cubic foot,
Ceiling joists,  4.     l. 1~..  including the  saw                                J it~g.
The landings and bedroom floors to be laid with inch white  deal flooring:boards.
The partitions on the landings to be I inch white deal, braced.
5554. In certain situations, and in certain
quarters of the wind, a down-draughlt of smoke
is created in the chimney.  Those situations may
be in the neighbourhood of tall trees, at the base
of a hill, or in the lee of a large building, againist
which, if from one direction, and over which, if
from another, the wind may be reflected against
or  bend in a downward  direction uponi  the
top of the chimney.  The only safeguard against
such a contingency is the placing  a top upon
the chininey-head, or upon the can represented
in fig. 448; but in the latter case the iron coine
b should not be angled upwards as at c, but made
Fig. 449.         level, and it shoul   d
be placed as much
lower down the can
c o          e-  &  j \c   as  to  allow  it  to
take in the top.  Fig.
449 represents such a
top recominmeinded by
a Tredgold, where a is
the part for fixing it
TOP OF A CHIMNEY FOR. to the can or chimney PREVENTING THE DOWN- head; d the cover,
DRAUGHT OF SMOKI~.   made circular or coni
The valleys in the roof to he laid with 6 lb lead. All exter nal woodwork, and all internal usually painted, tQ be well
pr med a,nd hlave three coasts drab. Th'le windows to be
glazvd with leaded lights, in diamonds, and each room
to lave a casement to open. t
5559. No cottage can be kept dry at the foundation, even with drains, if the rain-water is not
carried off  by  spouts.  It would be expensive
to make, and troublesome to keep in repair, a
rain-water cistern at every cottage, and it would
require a large one to supply the wants of a
family; and were snore than one claimant allowed
to each cistern, it would be a source of endless quarrels.   A  good pump  is all that is
necessary to supply  water to hinds'  houses,
and it is a necessary of which they are too often
deprived.
* Journal of A,4griculture, July 1849, p. 45-50.
547
cal. for preventing the down-drntight oftbe air
from above; and c c are the angular edges for
directing the wind upwards according to their
angle. The top may be made of tliiii tnetal of
any kind, and painted black. Kites' (of Loiidoii)
diamond deflecting cbimriey-top has been highly
recommended by those who know it.'
5558. Plumber and Pairter wo?-k --,
t Weaver's DesiqnsofOotta#a. 
aIl Ullg j.Oo~   1 ut (X L,L[IIt, I'L  1tl lltO u *', il
,siicie  the  teiia.iit nirus  thle  oisk  (f losit,ng
llii  cr()p  anl st;ek l)eif'le tlhe builidings s can
eltt.il hire.  Tile premiiiiiium  ()f iiisiiraLiice for
fart sls-blilli4iings is  2s.  -;d., ian    f(or  fitriiIl',,ses  antl lIii,ds'  liot.-es,  2s.  I.er  ~1()0
vale; t     ead tlere;are, b)esidles, 3s. per ce s                  int
of' d,ity.
aihlli lat,tor is -t hand, a   fire  mj1av be
extingtuishied whlile a,-m Was  miounting ~1
horse, in oI(ler to searchi for a fire-eng,ine.
As it is not iin  liy Ipoier to  describe this
iachline. or giv e a  figrure of it, not  iaving
seen it, I shJ-aIll ielate -,II exp)eriment  that
was iiad(le withl  one  befllre a party at the
Gas-wvorkls, Vaixhall, Londoii. "  IMr Plillips explained tihat tlhe aigent l)y whlichl lie
soug,llt to aeceoip     slis hIliject wa-s a mixture of gas  atndl  vapour.  A fter  several
experinments onl a. sill scale, to show the
success Iec hiad atta-ined  b)y  tliese  means,
the iattenitin of tlte coplli)ialy was direetefi
to a c(lli)artniielt  of a  large  olen il)iltIiug, qiuite 20  feet hii(gh insi(le, w,l~icll wa;ls
fitted ui,l wit ll partitions  ani(  teilipoIrary
jOistiag, of lighit  wo(w,l, well  soakled  itli
pitehl and tnrI)eiitine, andi overhliung  b)esides
witlh ri.g,s  an(i slhavings  soaketl in  like
ttanner.   The  torcli was  al)plieil to this
erection), intd the flamries,. wh-ichl  a.seii(le,l
imm~edlialtely, at lengtil roarel witli.I N-elieiiacece whlicl  lrt(ve tihe sectltoitrs  bacl  t3
a distalce of 40 feet, anti(  wi.s alrealy I)eyotnli tle pI)ower  of  water.   The  in%venttor
then  br)gti it  fotrwar(l  one  of Ilis  lantlnea('m lles, aud  threw  out  a  voluinie  (,f
t  gaseolls vapour, whleli, in half  a iiiirnite,
entirely suppIressed a1ll flalne anti Ciliibustiotn; ad tO  sli(,w)  tlh:t the  -,-al)oir w!iicl
bi' nw filleil the sl~ace was  qtuite  ltil(xiolls,
rt r Pliillipts l,itll0eilel  into) the  lt,ft, anlt
)passeti andI rej)assed tliroiigrlh  thle iii(lst (of
it withl  a liglite(l calndle in lislhant      The
macliine with  wliichl  tli's effect  was accoiiiplislied was ratllier lairger than a good
556l.?. Wire-ev9,ne.~. —I ai    surprised
l,(w  fire is extinguisledl,it farmn-ste-,dinrs,
w liieli contain soI,! iiiti    lfla,:iiioi,alle iiiateliails, sitice IIo fire-eng,ine -of  any desCription is lket,t on a farum.   Tle  tord iirn y fire.en,,rines    a,IrIe getle,'tl,.Iy -It at  l-geat,]ista,,('e
tom "'a  rilis-l,o,t  ne i               arer ti an. tle      mfee, gest
townii,  at(l l)r(,1abiy  nlot niearer —  tin  a
lruce towin.   Tlis i)ei(lr, t           wte ca,ee,  it is pecliiarlv  interestini,,, to  f.armiiers  to  learn
,tlha.t a qtiic'k aii]i efficient -iieatis of extinguiislhirg  fire ]ias  Iltely  lb)eeni aininouniiced.
It hias b)eeni well  saM,  tl,at   ", e  are  so
much arccsto',nedl  to regard.(l wvater  as tlle
oily a-vatilablle  maiterial  wlhicli cai lIe eiiipl,)ve(l in                       t ts e   sf ctu;fl aigratti)n tllis tthe    a
;cientific mai.-n  lhas!litlerto been d(livertefd
fromii dlevising    mea    ns  of  al),lyiing, otlher
well-known ai,genits t,():sessin~  the  samrtle
),o)wer;  ati(  vet  water  is  bulit at feebXle
,1ilV, even;ixien it canii le  lIa(l,    llile tlle
1l.Xa1l1g it,It colrothan  in v(,  %-es suclh hIeI —vy
tr,til costly  tpl):Llr"t:i.s, tlilt it can scarcely
be calledI avTaila-blel, unless in (cities. As  f'or
Xomtry1 V houss.S vtil3lazes. 5or rural property,
tl.at may l   e saidl to be, I)y ou1!,resent arr:~ugremllents. consignrled-l to.alimost inevitable
destruction  in case of fire-"   A  small jet of
u':~te.  tkli,o-tOwi  Oi'l,  larg,e miass of hreated 
INSURANCE.
sized cofee pot, and (lconsisted of tlhree tin
cases, o)le within anothler, and  nmutually
coniniunicating,.  Tllere was a small quantity of water in the bottomi of the iiiachine,
and in the centre case  was a coiiposite
cake, of thle size and  colour of peat-conta.initg, in the niidd(lle of it, a plial of siilplluric.aci(l and chloride of p.)tassitiii. In
order to pIt the iiiachinie into action, this
plhil is broken, and a gaseous vapour is
generated so raplidly and in suchl (iquantity
thl)at it iiiiieldiaitely  rushles out  from  a
lateral spout witli grleat imnpetuosity.  Mr
Phlillips explainled( that a iiiacliiiie of any
size couldl be nIad(e according, to the pl)ttrp)ose for whlicih  t was intended, and thlat a
conl-any was at len,gthl  for-ned to carry
tile inventionr into effect, their office beiiig w
a.t No. 105 Leaidenliall Street."
5565.  Cow-clubs.-Tliese clubs are a
sort of insurance against loss; but I presume that insurance with cattle insurance
comipanies are intended to supersede them.
Cow-cll)ubs were established and are supported by labourers and hlinds who possess
cows, and to whom the loss of their cows
vby calving  or disease is a very  serious
atffair.  I once knew a hind thrown into a
greatstate of wretchedness by the loss of his
cow, upon wl,ich his larg-e faiiiily depended
mainly for support.   The  fiollowing  are
tlhe rules of the " Brocklesby an(i Little
I,inLumber Cow Club":   The  object of the
club is to secure each memiber, lby a systemn
of mutual assurance, from sustaining individually the whole loss arising from the
death of a cow-thle loss being thlus divided amoiigst all thle members.  Rules:
A  treasurer to be appointed, who shall
conduct the business of the club, and withi
whom shall rest the decision as to the admission of members.  Each member to pay
to the treasurer, on thle first Saturday in
every calendar mountl, his subscription (in
advance) of Is. for each cow he may have
entered.  Any  member  whose  cow shall
die, to be entitle(l to receive from the club
thle  slium  of ~10.  No  allowance to be
mcade to any rev thber in  respect to  any
cow atbove 12 years of ag,e. Whlen a cow
dies, the  kskin to b)elon, to the owner of tlh
cow;  but if the carcass can be sold, the
iltoney to le I)-,id to the funditls of the club.
If a cow (lies in calving,, the calf to belong
to the owner of the cow.  Any  member
neg,lecting to pay lhis subscription for tlhree
5562. There are five s izes of   this
inacline made, varving  in price ftrollm t3
to ~7 each.  Eacel  chlarge for eaclh size of
machine respectively costs from 4s. to 17s.
Thiey seem suited to all farm buildings.
5563.  C(ttle  ins uranece. -  Since the
ravages by plel(ro-plneoemoiia atorcn(gi,st the
cattle, and   tiae sn       s,ll-pox a moa                    ngst the
slneep became                              so prevalent,  a    Cattle Insurnc a      nce  Co pany was establisl h-ed in 1844  in
London, for thje protection,f individual farmers agaienst the l oss      of           sto ck by disease.
An  attempt failed some years a(g,o to
establish at company in ScotlandI'iavinig
a similar object.   By tlhe regulations  of
tihe Company,   it app ear           s  ttht tle stock
desire d to  be insured ar           e  inspected by a
person appointed by  tihe Comopany, and
on their value bxeintg  tlhus fixed, tlhe premiutii is paid.   Tile premium  is 43(l. in
the pound, in ordinary cases, of cattle, and
in that of pieuero-pneumonia, it is 6(l. in
tle poun,l.  Hig,hi-bredstock pays according to agreement, andl aaiinials are not insure(I ulder six Imonths old.  Slheep pay
Is. in tlhe poun(l, and  upwards.  Horses
employed  for agricultural purposes pay
7~(1. in the pound, and upwards. Hackhieys  and  carriage-lhorses, 81d. in the
pound; draugh,lit-lhorses, 9!d. in the pound,
and upwards.  Entire I,)rses, ls. in the
p}OUnId, and  upwards.  Glandlere,l horses
by agreement.  The owner of tlhe stock,
in case of loss, receives tlhree f(ouritlis of
the atnount on  wlichl  tle  preaium  lhas
been  paid, and orne-fourtlh of tlhe produce
549
of the skin and carcass. He may. add to,
substitute, or exclianae liis stock under
certain regulations. The office is in ttie
Strand, London, and a,,ents are to be
found in ttie country.
5)C)4. Hail-instti-(znce.-Tlie f,-irniei-s'
crops, since 1840, leave also beat insured
a aitist the loss incurred bv liaii-storiiis,
9                                       r
bv one of the Fire Coriipanies of London
in tije Stran(l. Sotiietinies Hail does niatei-ia,l damage in En(,Iand, especially to
tlje proprietors of liot-liouses; but in Scot)and, sucli a source of loss is of rare occurreiiee. In Aufust 1850, However, a hai,lstortii occurred in a part of Foi-fai-sliire, in
the iiei'llibourliood of the town of Brecliin,
w[iicli (ii(i iiiticli daiiia(le to t,lie crop on the
eve of bein,, cut down.
c
't 
REALISATION.
succesive months  t, be deprived of all
benefit fromn the club, and to forfeit what
lie may have previously paid.  Any member leaving the district, or ceasing to keep
a cow, to be entitled to receive froni the
treasurer his proportion of the funds then
in hand, after dieducting therefrom  ~20,
which was given by Lord Yarborotigli to
the funds on the establislnient of the club.
A new memnber to pay on his adnmission,
for each cow lie may enter, suchl  a sum as
may  be  the proportion  of the general
funds to which each cow in the club would
be  entitled,  after  deducting  therefrom
Lord Yarborougli's subscription of ~20.
If the funds in the hands of the treasurer
shall at any time not be sufficient to pay
the allowance for any cowvs that may die,
the members immediately to make up the
deficiency.   The montlhly subscriptions to
be discontinued at the discretion  of the
treasurer, whenever hlie shall consider the
funds in hand sufficient as a gliarnintee,
until reduced by deaths or othlerwise.  On
the first day of January in every year, the
treasurer to mnake out an account, showing his receipts and payments during the
preceding yea r, and tile balance reriainin
in li  hands, and cause the satlne to be
printed, and a copy supplied to eacih miemiiber.  It will be observed, from tlhe terms
of this club, that these clubs are necessarily confined in the field of their operations.
5567. On  contemplating the enclosing
of a farm, the question naturally arises to
inquire the purpose for -which it ought to
be enclosed; and the  o nly conside rat ion
that w ould satis fy the inquirer is, whether
or iot  the farm has any stock to confine
within  given  bounds? If  thiere  were
no stock, it would be difficult to satisfy
the mind  that any enclosure  is   re quired,
as is the  case with  the  carse  farmtis,
on which   they ar       e not wanted; andt
even if there were stock, no enclosure
within the boundary of the tarm seems
requisite,  if the far m co nsists e ntirely of
pastureOlad.  Thus, then,  the neces  sity
for enclosure is questionable where there
is no pasture; and where  a ring-fenice
exists around tlhefarm, it is all that is requisite to keep the stock within its
bounds. It does seem reasonable that
a ring-fence is requisite, both to prevent your own stock wandering upon
your neighbour's farm, and his trespassing upon yours.   Whenever we  associate, however, the co-existence of arable
culture and pasture, a subdivision between
the one and the other seems at once n-cessary, even if the arable land were kept at
one side of the farm, and the pasture on
the other  but slsould the two injternmingrle
tlhroug-h-out the farm, there seems as  much
necessity to subdivide the smaller spaces
occupied by eachi, however numerous, from
each other, as were the two formerly supposed large  divisions separated, eacli of
which occupied  half the extent  of the
farm.  An  enclosure of arable land from
pasture seems as necessary to confine the
stock upon  the pasture, as to prevent there
trespassing upon the arable.
55C6. The buildings of the farm beingt
thus providled for, we must look at its surface, and fin(ling it unprotected from trespass from  the want of fences, we must now
turn our attention to leave it enclosed in
the best manner, so as to place the fieldss
in the most convenient relative p(sition to
one another  for work in regard to the
steading, as the central depot for lal)onr,
and to give them that fornm wlichl is found
most economical for condluctiing the laboiur
thlerin.  But before p)roceedini, actually
to lay off andI formn the different kinds of
fences, it will be useful to consider the
principles  upon  whichl  fields  slioulhl be
laild out in aspect and form, and to inquire e
into tthe nianner fences operate as shelter
to crops and live stoclk.
550
ON TIJE PRINCIPLES OP ENCLOSURE, AND
ON SLIVLTER.
5568. Tije necessity for a ring-encl(,)st.ire
beiii,, tljiis satisf.-tctf)i-ilv impressed iipoii
tl)e ni I,ilil, the extent of siib(livided enclosure niust depend not only iil)on the particiil,-tr,3ysteiii of arable culture to, be
pi.irsue(I upon the but wlietl)er the
reai-in,, of stock is to be associ,,tteti witli
it. Iletice enclosures are of two kinds
one a r;nq enclt-)stii-e, wliieli (-()nstitut,es tl)e
b(,iiti(l,-trv iii-.trcii of a farm, -,in(I separates
it fritit every a(Ijoitiin,, fitrii-i; the ot'lier
indiv;dtta,l enclosure, wliieli stii-rtiiiiids
every fielil ep.-irately; ati(i every otliei- sort
of enclosure is a modification of t.,Iiese, t%%,o.
5569. Carse fari-iis, -ind farnis in the 
PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE.
immediate neighbourhood of towns, which
are not devoted to the rearing of live stock
in summer,  as  well as pastoral farms,
which afford a large range of pasturage to
stock, do not necessarily require to be einclosed in subdivisions.  It appears to be
sufficient protection for them  to be provided only with a ring-fence, and with
fences along the sides of the public roads
that may happen to pass thlrough them.
In practice, carse farms are seldom  enclosed, on the idea that the ground is too
valuable to be occupied  by any sort of
fence; but this is shlort-sighted policy, in
as far as public roads are near them, and
the  walking of  travellers across  them.
To the neglect of enclosure may be ascribed
the existence of the numerous foot-paths
wlhich cross the fields of England.   At
most, tihe subdivision of clay-land farmns,
and those near towns, need not be carried
farthier than dividing them into as many
portions as there are members of the rotat     i      o     n      of cropping pursued on each:  so that
o     n      l     y        dairy and mixedh-lusbandry  farms
require    to be subdivided into individual
fields.
5573. The fences should run parallel to
the ridges; for whenever this parallelism
is neglected, wedge-shaped ridgees,, or butts,
as they are technically termed, are formed
at one or both sides of the fields. On account of the inequality in the lengthls of
butts, much  more time is consumed  in
working them than a square piece of
ground of the same area.  Butts are therefore highly objectionable in fields:: but as
it is scarcely possible to have full-length
parallel ridges on every field of a farm,
they are unavoidable. Butts should, however, be put on the boundaries of the farm.
5570. The  position of a ring-fence is
easily determined, which  is that of t           he
boundary  line of  tihe march,  whether
between two farms of the same estate, or
between tihe lands of two contermninoi      is
properties.   On adjoining properties, the
ring-fence is usually a mutual one, maintained alike by bothl proprietors.
5574. To preserve neatness and uniformity in the ploughling of the fields, the
fences should run parallel to one another
in straiyght lines.  A  straigrht fence along
the  crown of   a round-backed ridge of
ground, affords excellent shelter to both
sides of it, whetlher it ran N. and S. in
the direction of  the ridges, or E. and W.
across their ends. A fence occupying
elevated ground bestows milore shelter to
fields than in any other position; and such
a site should always be chosen for the
fence, and particularly for a thorn-liedlge,
as it will escape the cruisljing power of a
heavy fall of snow in a lhollow.  But it
often  lhappenis that  the  lower ends of
fields cannot be enclosed in straight lines,
a rivulet or hollow between two rising
grounds giving their termninations a serpentine  form;  in which case  the fence
5571. Thie individual fences, on the
other hland, are laid off according to several considerations, as, slhould the farm contain a variety of soils, clayey and sandy, a
leading fence should divide  them, so as
eachl sort of soil imay be enclosed accordin(r to the system of lusbnadry best suited to it.  Tire clayey land will bear the
best corn-crops, whl ilst the sandy will yield
the best green crops and pastures, and
rear the best live stock.   Should the season prove unfa.votrrable to the one class of
soil, it iray be favourable for the other;
and wileni the imarklets for corn are d1epressed, those for live stock may be brisk.e
A ila)py juxtaposition of'a variety of soils
on the same farm  serves to maintain its
value p)ermanently, awlridst circumstances
that mighlt nituchl depreciate a farm entirely
composed of only one kind of soil.
551
5572. The line of a fence is determined
by the direction to be given to the ridges.
The ridges should always, if possible, run
N. and S., to allow both their sides to derive equal benefit from the solar rays. On
flat ground, this direction may easily be
assumed; but the inclination of the rising
ground nia be E. and W. and as water
detained on the surface of the ground, for
lio' ever short a time, nia do more niischief. than the solar ray o good to both
sides of ridges at the same time, the diroction of the ridges should follow the inclination of the ground, to allow the most
rapid ezress to surfacewater. Where the
ground has an inclination both N. and S.,
the meridian line should be preferred.
Where the inclination is complicated, as
many ridges should take the N. and S. direction as practicable with the other above
mentioned modifications. 
REALISATION.
cannot  be  large.   Taking   250  yards
as a long,enoughi  fuirrow for horses on
strong clay, the breaks would be squares of
13 acres  each; and  as  inany of  such
breaks could be placed togethier, to forma principal division of tile farmi, as tilere
are members in thie rotatit)n of cropping,
(.5080.)  But a field of 285 yards square, oni
loamy ground, beinig only ab)out 16{3 acres,
is too small wihere live st(ckl are reared.
A field to contain 25 acres, giving it the
shape of a right-an,gled parallelokgrai, thle
direction of the ridges being N.  and S.,
and the length fixed at 285 yards, its
breadth should extend to 4241 yards.
must  follow the waving course of tile
rivulet or hollow ground, in order to preserve a channel at the lowest part of the
ground, for the surface-water coming  at
times fromn both  slopes.   A  serpentine
sfence   in  a        hollow affords mo re shelte           r
than a straight one against the win(],
which always comes with force in the line
of a valley.   A  rivulet, or large ditch,
necessary for the conveyance of water,
should run parallel to the fence, and not
across an angle or middle of the field,
where it becomes a great hindrance to
work, cutting short the ridges on both
sides of it into butts.
5576. A rivulet or hlollow between the
sides of two fields, causing irregular butts,
when the fence between thenm takes  the
line of the hollow, the parallelism of thie
ridges and fences of both fields miiiilit:be
preserved, by running a fence on each side
of thie hollow ground, and slhutting it out
from the fields, and planting it.
5575. Tile shape of fields is greatly
determined  by  llnav(oidable  obstacles,
natural and artificial.  A windiing, river or
valley will give an irregular line to the
fence at that end, and the inarchi-fence
may ruln in a direction to cause butts;
and another end or sidle may abut against
an  old  ruin,  plantation, or  precipice. 
Where no10 such obstacles occur, the corners
of all the fieldis should join at right angles
with one another; because the plouIgh can
approach nearer to the square corners of
a field, than to two obtuse and two acute
angled corners.  It is demonstrable that
the shlape conducive to the greatest economy in labour is tlhe sqluare, because frequent turnings on short ridg,es waste much
time; and inordinate lengthl of ridges fa-t
tigues the horses beyond their strength.
Tile average strength of tile horse  is,
therefore, tile nieasure  of thle  greatest
length of ridg,e that secures tile greatest
economy in plou,liing tile field in every
direction.  It is, I believe, near the mark
to say, that hlorses can draw a plou, gh
through cultivated  lea-grtound, which is
the firmest state of the soil, for 250 yards,
without requliring to take breath. But as
ground already t,louglled is of more easy
draug,lt than lea, 300 yards in tile one
case may l)e as easy work as 250 yards in
the other.  Tile average is 275; and as
there is more loose groiund than lea to
ploiughI, 285 yards nmay be taken as the
proper length of ridge on light soils.   But
clay.-soils are of hleavier draughit, so that
275 yards nmay be taken as thle average
lengtll of ridge for all soils.  Thle square
shape mi,ghit be profitably atlopted( on clav
farm, wihose extent being generally small,all
tile break of land for ealch kind of crop
Ploughing stubble for bare fallow, October 1849.
Loss of time
Length of    Time taken       Time taken          per acre
ridge In    to plough a      to plough an      cmpared
yrds.        ridge.            acre.  w          ith the
standard.
Hours. Min.    H ours. Min.        Hours.  Min.
319          2    40          8      0          Slosdard.
290         2    30          8      20~         0      20*
280        2      25 8    21                    1)   21
139          1    15          8    45            0     45
102         1                 0 9    30         1      354
45         0      30        10    45           2      45
37         0    25 10    54b.      5&
78         1      0         12     4          4        4
66         0    5i         12    13           4       13
Second plouphin. for barefallow, Januiary  1850.
280       2     20 8    4                  Staitdard.
172        1   30         8    261         0     22k
l1o)       0    55         8    52i        0      48
112        1     5        9   22           1     18
86        0    50         9    23          1    19
137        1   20         9    25          1     21
182        1   48         9'i4i       1     30i
37         0   25 10   54                  2.   50
First plouqhing after turnips, April 1850.
292        2    30        8    17          Standard.
280        2    25        8    21      i   0      4
2f)3      2      0        9    32          1      1]5
101        1     5       l0    3           1     46i
141        1    30        10   18         2 L
552
5.5 i-7. To sliow the great waste of time
in plou,liing sliort rid,,es, I will state tire
results of some experiments made for i-ne
to ascertain it by Mr Hay of Wliiterigg
in Roxburglislii re, on land in different states
of cropping. The results were the followin,, on ridges of 1,5 feet in widtli.
5578. From these rtatenients it woiii(I
al)l)ear, that the sliorter ri(iges generally
take lod,er titiie to be ploui,lied tliaii the
0                       0 
iroii za L 1 o [.) acres is large enouglh, accoriitig to tlhe extent of  tlie farimi; tlhotiglh tlfe
ncbe of (nraugllts beinig ireant orn tL  large
tarn tie  sie  to  ie s oftle fields si(ud eld,ear sagome
pioportion  to tlieii. Tile exact l-I)'.,rtio-n I
amii not prel)ared to define, altliotg,hI I tliink
thiat less tl)an  10,acres  ni),aile  ttloslialil:t
field  for lIorse-llbouri to be ela   ll, oye(i  in,
an d al or e tllan  40acres too  larg e i   one fs,r
quick desp)atcl  of g   ork. Tle p    size   (    t  f irmr
miiostini dellratd(,,for miixee( lul)aiiiiliy,is ()50
acres, wllcl give 4 fields of 2.5 acr es, e qual
to  1 00 acres, leor eai(h sd   toeiemer of a rotation
of 5 cro)s. Placin      t tll    e s ale kid of cro),
and  especiallvy greeni crop anlt grass, in
iiiodlerately-size(l fieldis-say  (of  25  acres
eaclh-()n different  [)arts of  tlhe  thr, and
most robl)ably in different k1in(Is of soil, a
good crop in one of  the fields *will almoist
be  insured every season;  ad  t-lie whlole
htlbour of tl!e farm being, for the tinie, confinied to one miodlerately-sizedi fiel(l, a go.(M
season for p)loiiglling, tlhe land, an(] a. safe
seed-tinme and lha-rvest for its cro), seem- to
be placed within the Ipow er of tile f-,irnmcr
agtainst  anv great   or  sut, len cIhan e   qf
weather.   Thie  satme iiiozleo of  reasl-ninlgr
on tlie size of fields may be al.)I-)ied to any
otlher sort of fari-ngio.
------   -— sstz    D-IFU' it;'luu'uL  u'v''-YI it,'1 llcr
that short ridges take long,er c(ompl )arative
time to be plouglhed than long ones; andl
therefore, wlheii fields are to be set off for
enclosure, the rid,-es oughlt i,ot to be sliorter, if practicable, tlhan fromi 280 to 800
yards, accorlding as the soil is str()nger or
li,ghter.  As instances of anonmalies iin longi
ridges, I  may  iiention, in experinienlts
made for me by Mr M'Lagan, younnger, of
Pumplherston, Mid-Lotilian, tlat ain acre
took only7li ours40minutes to be plll,Iel,ge, 
with ridges as long, as 570 yards, wliile
one withl  420 yards tookl  S hours 24 m         o    inutes, and anothler withl  250 yards, 9 hours
36 mninutes.  I hlave knowvn a lr,ge fiel(
of 60 acres, two ridges of 10 yards in ti        el
breadth of %whichi occupied an acre, and
was therefore 484 yards loi,g; but it was
inconvenient  in  nmanv  resp ects to be
worked, I)otlh in tinme and: lenthti), as well as
for thie horses and work-people.
5579. Slhouild a public road, or cainal, or
rtilway, pass tlhrouglh a farimi, the fence
,should be placed- on eaclh side of thiem;
and shlould an old plantation, quarry, or
buihiing, stand in the middle of tle land,
before it is enclosed, thle butts occasioned
by tlhemn should be placed next tlhe
obstacle.
5582. The position of fields is a matter
of so0me  il,lorta.nce.   I )have  sihl tihat the
ridg,es shoulld ritin N.  and S., (5572.) and
thlat  abouit  3()0  yards are (,f  snflicieiit
lentgtlh for the ri dges, (55 5;) anl)l -.s tl~e
fields in general  aire of thje best size  for
economy (if l.al,oi)lr at 25 icres, (5581,) andl
with a foriii as uear-ly appIroacilill to  tlo
5' 80. A public road along, enclosures is
a great conven~ience to a farm, and it mn.ay
save  the  miaking of one or mnore frirtiiroads.   Easy access to antl fronm tlhe            fields
,to roads is at great  etre,s of mai-intainiin,2
the hlealtlh and strengtlh of horses, and,  of 
. REALISATION.
sqia,re as is comp)atilhle with these premises
(557, 5,) it follows tlhat the fields shlould be
place(-i withl thleir sli(rter rid(],es or breadth
N. an(l S., and withl  thleir len(rtli E. an(ld
W.   Were  thl)ey placed thloughtlessly the
oliposite way, the ridges to run N. and S.
would eithler be 425yards long, whicl would
lI)e t,o long for thl)e horses; and if imade to
lie E. and W. one side only would hlave
time benefit of the sml.
acres, (the size of tthe  fielss,) and which cannot rear    much st ock-s ingle fields should
correspond in  numbe r  with  the members in
the rotation; and should a smaller auantity of grass or green crop be at    a ny t ime
wanted  for  a priarticar pur pose  t  han a
wl(he field, a teb4porary fence   might be
lsed in pere fernce  to enclosing the farm
into very small fields. With regard to
fariis of considerable  extent on soil of
various textures, quite a different element
fronm the preceding case enters into the
consideration that determines the  number
of the fields. On encelosing,, a farm, where
mtchl) stock is raised, the mere economy of
labouring each field is not so much an
object of solicitude as the welfare of thes
stock; and as stock always thrive best on
fresh pasture, and when only a few of tile
same kind are lher(led tog,etlher, it follows
tlat each inclosure slould no(t l)e of large
exteint-perlhapsnotexceeding 2i5acres —so
that 285 yards by 425 yards would embrace an enclosure of convenient size for
the grazing of cattle during the summer,
and the feeding. of sheep on turnips in the
winter. Suppose, titen, that the enclosures
contain 25 acres eacl, and that the 5-course
rotation is followed, a  farm wiith  2 eniclosures to each member of the rotation
would contain 250 acres, which is as small
extent of ground as the mixed husbandry
can  be  a(dvaranitagi,(eously practised upon;
and with 4 enclosures to each  member of
of tlhe course, the farm would contain 500
acres, and 6; enclosures would give 750
acres  wlhiclh is as larg(e an arable farm as
most farmers have capital to stock.
5583. Mouintain-pastuires,  exclusively
devoted to tlhe tise of live stock, should be
enclosed in large divisions, bec,aise cattle
and s!heep are generally reared  in large
numi bers  on  i)astoral  farms.   Moiuntain
live stock possess more active habits, and
lhave a stronger instinct to search for f(o od
than those of the plain; and as the hlerbage of tile mountains is rather scanty than
otherwise, stock there require amInple space
to roam over in order to satisfy their wants.
5584. Altlhough very small enclosures
under constant cultivation are unwilolesome to grain crops, two or tlhree smnall enclosures of from 1 to 5 acres in grass, near
thl)e steading, are alniost indispensable on
every farm on whichl live stockl is reare(ld.
Tliese iiiay be uise(I by tupis whlen out of
season,-by calves wlhen weaning froni the
niilk,-by ewes whlen lanibigii,,-by mares
and- foals for a few weeks until the mares
reg,ain tlheir strengthl,-by  a stallion  at
grass,-or as lHspitals for sick an(l convalescent taniiiials.  Siili stiiall field(s are
miiii eilore useful and valuable in grass
thian under- the plou,igh.
5586. In enclosing any farm  intende I
for tlhe iuse of live stock, access to go(,l
water should never be overlooked, tlhoug''l
it too often is.   Shlould a rivulet not  be
within reachi, spring-water should be  ob)tained eitler by siniking- wells, laying pipes,
or niaking colnd(its.  Tle bestpasture will
never iriprove tlhe condition of live stock
witlhoult good  water; and  without  an
abundant  supply, g,raziers will  not lire
even thie liest graliss fi(r cattle and horses,
tlhotugil thiey mtiay for slheep).
5585. Tl-e  num!n,er  of fields depends
partly on tihe size (of tlhe f.Linm, and partly on
tlhe rotatiol of crop)s carried on in it (500O.)
The interior of pu-re clay-lanid firms devoted to the ra,ising of corn alone, espl)ecially of lwheat, sliould be no  imore  subdivided than to lave a fencedl division for
each course in tle rotation of crops nia(le
uip of convenient squa-re-slhaped fields of
the extent dleternmine,l on in (5575.)  To
stibbdivitle a cl.ay-l.iii(nd fLriii, on wichl 110no
stock is reare(l inl suniiiier, into sitlalli fieltls,
wotil(l be t(o devote an  unnecessary waste
of.rotrund to fences.  To save expens e in
woikili, anil waste of grotii)(l in fences, c
on smtaller f       oinrs (f loaiiiy soils tlhatn 1 2.5
ac-res-vliicli are mnade ul) of h times tlhe
number of iiieni)bers in a rotation  of 25
554
.558 i-. The evils of eiicl()sino, fiel(is very
e_l
closely leave I)eeii iir,,e(I azainst enclosures
alto(-,et,lier;  aii(-l it that the ei-()ps
are liable to be.i:,iore iii-itired I)y beiii(,,
lo(-I,,ed in cotifitie(I fields tliaii iii open ones', 
PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE.
The allegation is qu'te true; but it applies rather to an -abuse in practice tltan
against tbe principles of enclosing.  Close
fields, of wlatever size, sloil(l always be
kept in grass for stock; and in order to
avoid their flies, a slIed (l br larl)ouring in
will greatly prevent their attacks.  Even
as regards corn, a sheltered field ripens
the crops earlier than an open one, %whiclhi
may arise frott  thle forciitg influence of
heat  witllin  an  enclosure -  a fact well
known to all gardeners  wlio foirce vevegetables altid fruits, but wliiclh  injures the
quality of the grain in cotp)arison  withl
open fields.
5590. This view explains the particular mode
of enclosing land, (onice distinguished by the  name
of  it,field and outfield. which prevailed in this
coultry until a late period, an] miay yet be seen
on  the Continent ill full practice.   The distant
part, which was solely appropriated to pastelrage
by the stock, was called the outfield. The nearer
po-rtion of the land, which bore  tlhe grain and
vegetables for the cultivators and their ftamilies
and dlepettdettts,,attd the fodder for the cattle in
winter, was called the it fi,ld.  Cultivation was
never practised  oni the outfield, no,r were  the
stock ever permitted to enter  the  ijifield.   In
this way a very strong line of demarcation was
drawn betwixt the occupatiotis of the shepherd
and the husbpandan, which ia'maintitaied even
to this day.    It was partly on  this account,
perhaps, that the agricultural Egyptians held
"every shepherd an abomin ation" unto them.
5588. From  tliisknown f,act it hlas been
alleged that c(onfine(d fieldls produce greater
evaporation by tle confinjed lheat in tlieii,
and  thereby supl)erindclIte an  unusual depression of temiiperature.  This mIlust  be a
theoretical objection), fbr it is obvious that
evaporation will  be miichl  imlor e promoted
by exposure to the wind than by  confiiieinent within fences.*
5591. The broad distinction  then established,
betwixt the rearing of stock and the culture of
grailn, served to conceal trom  cultivators  the
- valuable  fact that stock afford great facilities
for  fertilising the soil.   As long as  this fact
remained uinknown, cultivators did not imagitte
that the food of stock should be raised oli ciiltivated laid, and nimuch less that it could be raised
most einottotiically in conjunction with their owa
food.   Wheniever it was perceived  that grain
was more productively raised by the mnieliorating
iinfluence of grass  ot the soil, that  grass-land
supported nmore stock when occasionally Zvopped
with corn, and that  the  exuvie of stock  could
imnanure laid better than the art of nman, the systemn of outfield anid %itfield was broken tip.   The
aicient ring-tencee, that onily surroiunded the cultivated land, was then removed to the boundaries
of the  possessioti, and  in its stead were  constructed suitable enclosures for the different crops
raised itu regular succession.
..5589. As one object of enclosing land is protectiog to  p lan       ts,   wet he    nr trees, graiis, vegetables, or grass, againist the depredations of men
and animals,  or a protection  to  and place of confinemeit  for domn e sticated animals, the  use and
n ecess ity  for     enc losures cofld  only  have                  been
feit aefter mankitin     d  h ad m ade cons iderable progres                  s in the culture of land,  and experienced the
ct,isequei t dulepredations committed upo         n c     rops.
D       uri ng the p astoral state of society, when men
wandered about in communities, and made  a
fixed abode at one place onlly                    lo  as long                       p  as ature
sould be  ob    tained tar   their flocks  and  herds, they
tentded      their       s    tock night                  a        d aond day around  their
own  -h abitations.   Whe re p asture was plentiful,
they pitchetd upo         n  a c onvenient spot Nor tloeirselves,        and  constructed an enclosure to-confin-e
their       stoc k  i    ba d urin g the night. The  enclosure
servedt the double purpose   of reli                      e      ving the nightwatchels of the shepherds, arld of             protecting  the
stock against the attacks of wild animals.   The
grounid nearest their dwellings was first cultivated for grain.   No enclosure was thought of
for protecting t            he grain  crops, as          Ilon,  as the
stock were teuded by dav aad folded by night.
Iu time, however, as the  cupommunity incr          eased                   is
numbers, culturle encroachled  ipon the range                           o      f
pasture, which, in co~ise(quenjce, became  more
sca.inty. T'lhe stock  became  nrgent f'r too,t
whilst the tendfinig of themn became  more difficult as the shepherds enrgagted in cultivation. A
fence then was reqluiisite around the cultivated
ground, to fend off the predaciuns attempts ot the
stock.   tlence the probable  origia of enclosing
cultivated land.
5592. Enaclosures *were thius constrl uted  on the
boundaries of possessions by  the  imiost ancient
nations.   It is probable  that  the lower part at
least of Egypt was never a pastoral country; for
the great fertility  conferred on its soil by  thie annual rising of the Nile would renider agricuiilture
the first object of  the people.   Accord inigly, we
fired it recorded as lohg siiice as abouit 2000 years
betbre Christ, Abramii - went to  sojourn in Egypt,
during the famiiie in his owin land, w"here lie  had
many herds and flocks, and was otherwise wealthy
in gold  and  siilver.t   Extensive   canials were
foriied, to convey  the waters of  the Nile to irrigate the plarts ov thle counitrv it did not naturally
overflow.   The condition of Greece in regard to
enclosures  waas exactly as  has been described;
and  f'ronl the laws which governed  the linits and
landmarks,t la]nded property, it is probable that
fences were  onilv erected on the boundaries of
properties like a  riing-De. ce.+  The  Romanls  never
enclosed! their  pastuire-lanid to conifilue their  cattle.    They plaited  fenc(,es round gardens, orchlards, atild meadows, anid also round  parks  for
the colnfinielmenit of wild  aniimiials; but in other
Sittelair's Code of 4gr;culture, p. 171.                 -t Genesis, xii., xiii., and  xlvi
+  Potter's 4ntiquities oj' Greece, p. 155, editiita of 1697.
555 
REALISATIO'.
respects their la'ids were elclosed muchl in thl           e
same mainer as by the Greeks, with a riug-feiice
round the bioundary of the tarmlL; and they employed various kiitds of f'tces tfor this putrpose.*
a hill.   Whlole  fitrms are lii)affected by wind
when emb;tyed amidst  eucirclitig h-ills; atnd be
the means of shelter great or small, the  advan
tages derived from them are sensibly felt.   As
an itnstance of the  benefits of shelter afforded
by even a low wall to a park, from  the cuttilng
eftfects of thle sea air, fig. 450, on the opposite
page, shows you one on the estate of  Gosford,
belonging to the Earl of Wemyss, ill East Lothian,
better than words can express.   The  wall, and
the  wood  immediately behind  it, are  of  the
samle heighlt; but in a few yards only inwards,
the wood rises to a considerable hleighlt, which is
effected by a simple contrivaiice,iiamely,the peculiar form of th-e c(pe ot the wall.  It is raised
like all isosceles triangle, by whlich the wiiid,wiheii
it beats against its side, is reflected upwards into
the air at the same angle.   Had the cope been
flat, the blast woutld have cut off the tops of the
trees in a horizontal direction.  But without the
wood such a tform of copilig would afford similar
shelter.  Stippositig land exposed on th e   to p o f a
high coast, where  the winid generally sweeps
along the surface of the grouinid, inijuring every
plant it blows against, by a mome ntum a(quired
in passing over imtiles of oceani; were a wall built
on the top of the crag, at a proper distance from
its brow, and of a proper height, lhaving a cope at
the angle referred to, it would deflect  the wind
upwards, and ca~use it to lose most of its momenturn before it ag,aini reached  the grounid. Such a
wall, or such a belt of wood, or such a plantation
without a wall, if projected on a large scale, and
planted  near the top of a sloping precipice, or
other rising ground, would shelter a large extent
of  country against the prevaiinlg windsl; and
were  such  barriers placed in lines, ill suitable
situations, across the country,  not only its local,
but its general climate, would be greatly ameliorated.
.5593. Mosthe    er of t ie m odern   tat ions of Europe
still  enclose    their llaull d iu tieh ancient method.
Property is s o m much      s ub:livi dedl in France by           the
extinction of the  law ot primogeniture, that in
at least ofe ha lf   ok tleat country, all to the east war(l, no field encali,osires                                 a re to be seeu-a few
suarch  stonles, a ditala, a          row           of trees,       or parti cular s        ingle      t    rees here        aid there, marking  the
boundaries of tlje small estates.t Tllroughout
Germany, Blhegia, Switze            aierad, and Spain, eft closures        are onl     y           found  ueuar fa im-hiouses and
villages, t    he bul the        l      th de corn  beitg raised on ex tensive u       teencl osed grounds.  I                                    bhae  seen a tract
of wheat  in Bolhemiiia, as far as the eye could
reach,                           without a single leclce in sight.  In Lonmbardy the enclosutres consist of thle                ditches which
conve         y  th e  waters of irrigation  to tle land. On
the         o    ther hand, the lannd        it Hollg                        and abd Belgium
is so  much enclosed with trees and hledges, that
in manly places,       the fields   seem   hal f  choked by
themr.   The same rem dark nle arly         applies                       to tthe
soutl  of Englanld, wh er         e         omuc h   e       valuadble groun(d
is         occu pied by                       beautifully  luxuriant, but greatly
ov           e rgrown hedges.                                 a fr Jorhn Grant of Exeter
states, that            he has ascertained by  measurement
that i e Devonshire alone the hedges are suffi cient
to encompass the whole of Eniglatid, being 1651
miles,-subdividing olily 36,976 acres.+  The   high
mounlds in  th at           counety, if extended     ih line, womild
reach  from London to Edinburgh. The  land in
Ireland, particularly in the province of Ulster, is
also very much subdivided  bv turf-dykes, which
are generally in a state  quite Unfit to coeafilue
live-stock.   It is only ill tlhe inorth1 of Etngland
and the best cultivated districts of Scotlantid, that
enclosures, suited to the improved state of agriculture are to be found.   Thiere, farins are not
onlly completely enclosed, but the size of the eniclosuire is made  proportionate  to  the uses to
which the soil is applie(d. There, growing crops
of all kinds find shelter fromi the vicissitudes of
the weather, and protection againist animals; and
the live-sto(-k themselves enijoy peace and plenty,
as a recompense for coafinement.
5595. Inistances are not awanting to prove the
advantages derivable   to stock atid crop from
shelter. o'lce benefits      d erivable  frsorn plantation
are far more extensive and important than those
from stoiie walls, in improving land.  " Previous
to the division or tle common   moor of  Methvei
(in Perthshire) in 1793," says Mr Thomas Bishop,
" the late venerable Lord Lyiiedochi antd Lord
Metlhveni had each secured their lower slopes of
land adjoiuing tile moor with belts of plan-tationi.
The year  tf,llowiiig I entered Lord  Metlhveii's
service, and in 1798 planted abouit 60 acres of
the higher mnoor-grot.iid, valuied at 2s. per acre,
for slhelter to 80 or 90  ac res set apar-t ftr ciultivation, and let in three  divisions to six indtlividuials.  TILe progress made in inmlprovinig the land
was  very slow for the first 15 years, but thereaf'ter went on rapidly, being aided by the shelter
derired.J'ore. the gr-oweth (f the plaintations; and
tile whole  has  niow  beconle tair land, bearinig
annually crops of uats, barley, pease, potatoes,
and tuiriiips;  aud in spritig 1838, exactly  4(
years from  the timee of putting IowI1  the said
Itlanitation, I soldl 4 acres of larel andft fir (average growth) standing tlhereini for i:220, which;
5594. Another object itl enclosing land is to
afford shelter to plants and aiiiinals against the
changes of weather.  That a. feuce affords shelter miust be a tfact cognisant to every one.  Feel
the warmth  of a  walle,l garden -the  calnm
under the walls of even a ruini, compared to the
howling blast around-observe the forward grass,
in early spring, onl the souith side of a hliedge compared to that ol its other side-and listen to the
subdued  totne of the wind under a shled to its
boisterous noise in the opeii air.   Sensibly felt
as all these instances of shelter are, they are but
isolated cases.   In more extended spheres, cottages stand in a calni in the niidst of a forest,
come the wind fromra whatever quarter it nmay.
Farmn-steadiugs lie snug under the lee-side of a
* Dickson's Itu.sbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 330.   + Youtig's T7rvels in France, p. 392.
+ Journat (f tte Alricelttiral Society (f Enylad, vol. v. p. 424.
556 
SItELTER.
witn the value of reserved trees., and average   mit of Shotley-fell, 16 miles W. of Newcastle
amtoult per acre of tliiiiningts sold previously,   upon-Tyne, Mr Burnet  of Shotley-bridge engave a return of ~67 per acre "*  On the sum-  closed 400 acres of moorland with high  stoile
Fig. 450.
TIlE SIIELTER AFFORDED BY EVEN A LOW WALL AGAINST A CUTTING BLASI.
walls; and he croppedl the gronund in an easy
iaiiiier for the soil.  The laiid was tlhus kept ini
good lhecart, but the soil beiiig very  poor, stock
advanced but little, atd consequently the land
would ilnot have let ftr above 6d. an acre, even
inder the best management, and( after all that
had beeln done for it; bht the central part of each
field was put withini  a plaintatioii, aid the iiiiproveinent was then siurprisiiig.  Thle cocks-foot
grass grew three or foir feet high, an(l the yl)ntg w
cattle were iour times the steiit they were bet)ie the l10(d swas  lante4.t  B3esides affordigng
shelter, plalntations beautify the appearatnce of
the cointry.  I"Tlie p)Ilantatioii of Miioirton in
Ross-.hire,"  observes Mr M',ackeiizie, "has alreadly, iin 11136, aiid will yet in a greater degree
iiipl)rove the clim.ate of tihe sirrriundigii district,
* Qearterl#.li urni l qf.4griculture, vol. xi. p. 327.                     It- li,d., vol. xii. p. $1.
.+ l'rize E  ssa.oys of thie lliyghl(nd oand.lyic,[ltetr;,t,S.,c.;t.. iv V. I-43.
557'
- f,.  ~:g
as well as afford shelter and warmth. Alreaay
the plantations relieve and delight tlhe eye, atid
spread a beauty and freshness around  the seniie.
Muirton formerly looked  a bleak and barren
wild, while the opposite highly cultivated estates
of Brahani and Coail were the delight of every
passing traveller; but with these it may now vie
both in riches and beauty.   The hiill of Muirtoni
as a pasturage was ii:,t wortli 6d per acre,
whereas, by the expellding of  a small sniiii, it
may be expected to realise froi Inas. to 20s. per
acre of- yearly rent, fromn the date  tof plantiitniig,
even at the distance of eight miles, as  Muirtoni
is, from the slhippsiigt,-pla(es of Beatily and Di'gwall.  Besidees the pri(ce of the wood, t!-      e value
of the enclosure as ~ wit-tering for slheep wvill be
considerable." +I 
REALISATION.
injury.  The ground  should be bare fallowe(l, cleanted  tlhorout,hlv of all weeds,
limed early, and manured about a month
or six  weeks before  tl-he  planting  coimmences, in the same manner and order as
these operations are I)erformed upon barefallow land, (4164.)
5596. The permanent fences of fields in
this country are constructed of only two
materials, thorn hedges alnd low dry stone
walls.  In places, turf walls are formed for
permanent fences; but they are only nominally permanent, and unless protected them.nc
selves, are easily breached by every kind of
stock.  They will stand sole years with
a plantation one otne side, and protected
by a deep ditch on the other; but even then
they are only an obstacle, and, at best, a
temporary but not permianenit fence.  A
species of permanent fence has of late years
been introduced in the wire-fence, which,
however, from the nature of the materials,
cannot  be  deemed  a permanent  fence.
There are various temporary fences, as
palinars, hurdles, nets, dead hedges, and a
combination of two or more of these, which
are all useful in their respective places,
but not as forming permanent boundaries
to fields, and much less to anT estate.  I
shall first treat of thorn-hledges; and as different operations connected with them are
done in different seasons, I shliall take them
in the order of their seasons.
5599. On comniencing the enclosing of
an entire farm,  the longest  lines of the
fences  should  be  staked  off,  and endearours made  to fen ce  those fields first
which are to  be frillowed, so that when
theycomie into grass the palings may be put
upfor the use of the grass and the fences
at the same time, all(l thus save  the temiiporary fencing for thie grass alone.   In the
case of one or two fences of a single field
being only required, the ground should be
fallowved, whatever crop tile fieldl may be
un-ler; but it is evident that, if tihe ground
tobeoccupiedbythie hledge is fallowedalong
with the field which is to be fenced, or the
one adjoining it, the operation will be executed more easily, and at less expense than
by itself. Tile longest lines will run E.
and W., that direction being tie length of tile
fields; and when one Ion, line E. and W.,
and another at right anliies to it, N..and
S., near the centre of the farti, are staked
ofr, the others will afterwards be set off
with comparatire ease from both sides
of these lines. Tile base line is the one
that runs N. and S. as that is the direction
the ridges are considered best to take, and
was determined in (.5572,) and should be
first staked off; and the E. and W. line
is set off at right angles to it.
5597.  Winter.-Winter- is the most
proper season for commencing the plantingi
of thorn-h)edges, imnied(liately after tlhe fall
of the leaf in autumn; and the- operation
may be conducted throughi the winter even           i
to April, when the weather is favourable
-that is, when there is no snow upon or
frost in the ground, and the soil not wet
with a great fall of rain, so as to poach the
ground when it is worked.  Moisture in
the ground is requisite for the pr(,per formation of the hedge bed and bank, and
therefore thorns cannot  conveniently  be
planted in summer, or in dry weather inli
spring. But altloug,li tile season of plantingmay be extended to so late a period of the
spring as April, the young hedge will thrive
the better the sooner it is planted in winter.
5600. The N. and S. base line is best set
off  wit     h a  pock et compass, allwinforthe
var iation   of the needle, which in this countryatpresent isalbout 27~ W, The meridian
line mig,ht be marked off by the shadow of
a pole at mid-day upon the ground, by the
watch; but as no sun imay appear when
you are desirous to prosecute the enclosing,
tie compass is the surest guide. Tie lines
are setoff with feering poles, fig. 18; and the
riglit angles of one lile to anotlherbyan optical square, which costs 21s., or by a crosstable, which mnay be purclasel for only   7s.
6d. The fixed length of the lines are miiost
easily measured with a good  talpe-line.
5598. The ground should be prepared
for the reception of the plants.   The usual
state of the ground chosen for planting is
on lea, and I believed it the best myself at
one time; but experience has since shown
me that the g,rass grows upon the face of the
ditch, and even thlroug!  the inverted turf,
up amnongst the young plants, much to their
558
ON TIIE PLANTING ANI) REARING OF
TIIORN-IIEDGES.
5601. A lan(I-nicasilrin,, cli,,Iin will, of
cotii-se, answer also r this purpose, but it 
PLANTING THIORN-HEDGES.
is not so convenient as a tape line, which
is easily rolled up and kept in tile pocket.
Such a line of 66 feet in length costs 6s. 6d.
The best constructed chains I have seen
are those made  by MIr Thotmas Gorrie,
wire-work nmanulfacturer in Perthl, which
consist of offal rings, instead of circular,
and of three rings instead of two between
the links.  Three rings do not catch into
one another as two  do; and  when of
the oval form, they are not nearly so apt
to stretch as when circular.  Withl brass
handles, such a chain costs 14s.
5603. If it be desired to set off a parallel
line of fence at that time, or at any future
time before  the thorns  are  planted, let
three poles c, d, and e, fig. 451, be set
up in the line of the fence, and let the cross
5602. The compass indicatin,, the nmeridian line by setting up one pole at one side
of it, and another in the direction of the
needle, the line of fence can be drawn
,traight by means of the feering poles;
*c                       i4
!'                                        ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:
-- -..-..   -- --  ido                 b    s
I                                                         3n
I................................. ~.................-.-..........i
i  d                                          r
~.....................
....
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ *.
b I          t                  - — r-        
THE PLAN OF SETTING OFF FENCES PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER.
table be placed nearf in the line between
c and d.  Let q, hi and i be poles set and
adjusted to one another by the cross-table
in the line f k, at right angles to c u, f k
bteing the breadthl of the field, which distance is measured by thle tape-line or a chain
so as to containt an even numnber of ridges of
givenl breadth; because, a fractional part of
a ridge, or a whole ridge left at either side
of the field, after it has been plouglhed will
prove inconvenient for work.  In like manner, let tile line 1p) be drawn from the crosstable placed at 1, by setting the poles in, n,
o, p.  Thlen set a pole at q in a line with
the poles p k, and measure the distance betwixt q and u, along the line r s t, with the
tape; which distance, if the two previous
operati(lons have been accllrately conducted,
should be exactly equal to tile distance betwixt f and k, and I and p; but should it
559
and on the point being known whence the
fence is to riiii E. and W. at right angles
to it, the cross-table is placed on it; and
liavin,r got the line of poles in the N. and
S. line of fence tlirou,,Ii tl)e siglits of one
artn of the table, the siglits on the otlier
artti will direct the line of fence, which
is fixed by setting up other poles. Before
talin,, out the poles from the one line,
drive stakes in the line to preserve its
direction; and after the other line, has been
straightened by the ]poles, drive stakes iii
it also for the same purpose.
Fig. 451.
a
prove greater or less than either, some error
must have been committed, which can,orly
be rectified by doing the operation over
again. The arrows show tlj"e directions in
which each line should be measured. Great
accuracy should be observed in running
these lines of fences parallel, for if they are
not so at eacii successive line of fence, the
deviation will prove %,ery considerable betwixt tl)e first and last lines.- Three poles
only are enil.)Ioye(i to set off the lines f k
and lp, the c,-rouiid beinc, supposed to be
nearly le%,el but w liei-ever from an inequality of ground you lose si'llit of one of
the poles, as many more should be eniployed a-9 to have three always in vje%v at
one tit-iie. When a DeW line of fene-c is
desired to be -et off I)a,rallel to an ol(i one,
the line a b represents the, old fence, and
the cross-tat)le is placed at about six feet 
Fig. 452.                                                    geucraily  a
J 
g,enerally  ac quiire(l a girthl
of stemi at tlhe
roQt of l iIcill;
a lengtll in all
of  3  feet,  of
whlichl the root
ileasurIes one
foot, as il fig.
4.54, whliclh  is
(n  a scale of
1I   ilcli to 1
f'(iot. Piceke(i
I)lants of that
ae,re   I- 12s.
6l. Ic er 10Io0;
()', as tlhey are
taklien  out  of
tl)e lines, 10s.
6d. As tlhornis
arIe alwa3ys
tralnsp1lanted1
too tliiclk ill
the    nursery
lines, to save
(dra-w tlietli Ilp
sooner to tall
plants, I would
a(1,ise   tlheir
bei,,g     purciased   from
tie nursery at
tlat  age,  the
3'ear bef,re
tley  art  in
Fig. 453.   It  is  18  inclhes  l(In,  in  eaili
armi,  an(l  3  feet  lolg(  iI  t lie
lelve.    It  c,,sts  5s. ((. (,      r
6s.  A  shrat l-:   u Iillg-lifll-]silife to
each miiain, t,)    prepare the tliorn
plants  wvitli:  it  ec,sts  2.   (r,t
3s.   A   (litclier's  lIox-ti,  fie.
453:  its  nie  is  tf, ()ti:,   i,t
the  (bottom i   al     sil    (,lf tlae
ditchl, anlll to lteait tie  fif1                                                         soe (tf
the  liedte-lsbnk.    Its  f1(n('  ii
1 fiot  i)rot(l alibl 1  I          )t I,,  all                                                 te
wvitli a t.ilaeriiir l{,i,it. inil                                                   i;.
helve is 2   ileclie;  it            Il,l.nr
It  costs,  No.  5,  4s.           This(                                [
i. s a                                                 Ouseful shri)vNel  oi,n  every
fill-'Ilim        r           ein ) u  tlie
:A D     I        TtCH ER'
Imr.. otto;tis of dunglI~ills, ill soft
A HAND-PICI(.                                    taken1
a  u~~~~~~~~~~~eftil sliuvel  iii everv        that nge, the~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
i~~~iriii for cleatlilig  lif)  the             vear   befure~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* Withering's Botany, vol. iii. p. 561.
uT
-.15
I
Fig. 452.
A HIAND-PICK.
A GOOD Tltt}RN  PI,. ANT. 
PLANTING HEDGES.
chlange  of  arrangenent.   Whlen fewer
bands are employed, thle men must change
fromii one portion of the work to another;
and wlien nmore, oce will at times be comparatively idle.   The work never goes on
so well, or so reagularly, as  when  eachi
takes and keeps by his own particular
part of the operation.
tended to be  planted in tlhe fence, and
laid in lines in garden  mould, or deep
dry  soil.   By  tiiis process  the  stenis
will.acquire a cleanier bark and greater
streng,,thi, and the roots be flirnislhed with
a larger number of fine fibres, whichl will
greatly promote the,rowtlh of the young
he(dge, and repay the additional  trouble
bestowved on  the plants.   But  when the
p)lants are not so treated before they are
pIlante(l, tle bundles, containing 200 plants
each, shouild be immediately loosened out
on their arrival from thje nursery, and the
p)lanits s]ieughed iiz,-tlhat is, spread out
thin and upright in small trenches in  a
con venient part of the fiel(i, and in dry earth
well  heaped againrst them, to protect the
roots fro m the                            frost,  and to keep them
freshl until planted.  The plants are taken
from  tl)e sheughs when wanted.
5607. There is nothling peculiar in the
dress of the hedger, except in his shoes. In
winter, lie shlould always wear clogs, having
soles of wood, with  upper-leathlers, and
shod with iron on the sides and sole, for an
easy tramp upon the spade and foot-pick.
Such clogs cost about 5s. per pair.
5608. The ground along which the line
of hedge is proposed to be planted should
be surveyed before a commencement is
made from  the starting point, and if the
surface is uniforml and level,  the work
may proceed at once;  but should heights
and hollows intervene, preparations must
first be made  to convey away  the water
that might stand in the hollows after the
hedge  has been planted.   Fig. 455 will
Fig. 455.
- b
_~~~~~~~1 dd
PiAN TO) PREVENT WATER LODGING IN THE HOLLOWS, BEHIND THR BANK OF A HEDGE.
rise in the ground, the  bottom should  be
.te ade  (leeper in  the risinig-grotund(l to let
the water 1run to the lowest Ipoint, tlhat one
lr:lini-   tmy convey away as  mnuch water as
as  is priactical)le.   The  conduits,  in all
slcli cftses   should  be founded as  low as
tle li)ottoIml  of thle ditch to be  talken out,
6heaving   a sole,  ides,  andl  cover built  of
stone;  an,1 the airea of the conduits shjould
l)i iililc  t,h  ctii,,l;tii the largest quantity of
walter tat twill ever flow through them.
TfIe'ro.ii(  beliind the hedg(e-bank b b is
te;l,re-:seteIt  as falling toNLwards the hedge.
ecTo  ireveit the  unller-w-ater  percolati,ng
front this gound to the oh edge, a conmmon
drain shiold be  inadel  ini thle hea,dridge
2 x
e   v-ey anii idea of what I miean. in whichi is
r ep)resente(d tle inequalities on the -surface
,f the,irund;  and altito              itlh ia tlJese  seemn
close  to(,etlher in  the  figue,  thiey   may
!le supptosedin  reality to  u(idl.ta            te  in consi(lerab-le  distances.   The   )arts  of  tlhe
fi uriie are these: a a is the linee of lle(lge;
6  the   tol) of  the lielll,e-bftrrlli,                                   p d.arallel
to tie lie(lge; cc the bsottomii of tim (lit(-,,
exp()"sel to view lby tlhe  reilnloval of  tlls
sile, f tle  itc,  also the coiduits  d                                                                (I
f     VOr conveyin, ti e water trl1     el.in-d the
hel,,e- a)aI:k  b b; e is a covered dIrain' fro,m
,ile I)ottoiii of the ditclh, at thie ]()west p)oiint
of tlhe lowe.st lhollow. W liere tlhe holilows;
in the dit(,-Ih are onlv separated b)y I siall
VOL. II.
561
560c). With all the materials provided,
the worknien must also I)e ezillaed. The
nuniber of nien required to plant a liedfe
C,
is tlirce-oiie, the lied,,er himself, and two
assistants, who have each his duty to perform, and,Qhould be kept at it without
6 - 
REALISATION.
about  three yards behind the hledge, at
least 4 feet deep, and filled withi drain-tiles,
and its outlet imiade to discharge itself in
the hollowest point to reach the drain e, or
elsewhere, if more convenient and efficient.
A conduit of dry stones, lhaving an opening
of 16 inches in height and 12 inclies in
breadthl, with sole and cover, will cost in
building Is. 6d. per rood of 6 yards.
will probably lie as straig,ilht as practicable.
Place a rather heavv stone here and there
upon the cord, to prevent the possibility of
its being shifted from its position. With
the common spade then rut the line of
he(ld,e-bed behind  the cord, with your
face towards the ditch that is to be,  tak. —
ing, care to hold the spade with a slope
corresponding to the side of the proposed
ditch, and not to press upon, or to be too
fLr back from, or cut tile cord.   Then
take  tile wooden rule, and  placing its
cross-lhead along  the cord, set off the
breadth of the ditch at right angles to the
rutted line 4- feet-first, at both ends of
tthle still stretched cord, and  then at intervals; and mark off those breadths with
wooden pins, which will serve to check
any important deviation from tile true line
along the length of the cord. Now, take ulp
and stretch the cord anew along this other
side of the ditch, by the sides of tile newplaced pins, in the same manner, and with
the same precautions as with the hedgebed; and rut the line with your face towards the ditch, sloping the spade to the
inclination of its side.  After mnarking out
the ditch thus, secure the continuation of the
line of the fence by means of tile standing
poles, and then remove them and the pins
along thle new length of the cord.  The
ditch thus marked out is ready for the
formation of tile thorn-bed.  When about
forning the thlorn-bed, that end of the
line should be chosen for commencing tile
work which best suits the  hand of the
workman who is intrusted to make it.
Thle rule for this is, whichever hand grasps
the eye of the spade should be nearest the
thorn-bed, and the workman should work
backwards.  The ordinary practice is to
take the eye of the spade in tile left hand.
.5609. If the line   of fenc          e i s          to be
strainght-wlhiclh should always be the       c         ase,
if                natural obstacles do not      interfere  to prevent it-let the poles be set up in as
straiget a line as          possible, from one end of
the fence to the other.  Sphould the surface
b    e  level, th  is line can be drawn straight
with the greatest accuracy; but should
elevati      ons and h   o     llows       intervene, howev er
smalls great  care is requisite to                        p reserve
the straiglhtness       of  the    line,    because the
ri sing pa rts  of the ground are  apt to advance upon the true line, and th       e  ho llows
reced        e fro m it,  especially when the
inequalities are abrupt.   Surveyors  use
the theodo      lite to avo id this error, but it
may be avoided by using plenty of poles
to be s         et no t  fa r  a su     nder from one         another.   In ca         se evi l- dis   posed  per sons
should shift the poles in the night, and
thereby alter the line of fence, pins driven
in, at intervals, into the ground, will
preserve  the line.   Having  set plenty
of poles, so as to please the eye, take the
reel and cord, and, pushing its pin firmly
,into the ground at the end of the line of
fence where you wish to begin, run the
cord out its full length, with the exception
of a small piece to twist round the shank
of the reel. Be sure to guide the cord
exactly along the face of the poles at the
bottom; and should any obstacle to your
doing so lie in the way-such,   clods,
stones, or dried weeds-cause them to be
removed, and the ground smoothed with
the spade; and then, with your face towards the cord, draw it towards you
gradually, with considerable force, until
it ihas stretched as far as it can, and
then push the shank of the reel firmly
into the ground.  As the least obstritc,tion on the ground will cause the cord to
4eviate from  the true line, lift up the
:stretchedl  cord bv the middle about 3 teet
from:fileground, keelsing it close to  the
faces o/f tile pl0es, and let it drop suddenIv
to the ground, when, by its elasticity  it
5610. In forming the  the  thorn-bed, raise a
large, firm, deep spadeful of earth with
the common spade, from the edge of the
ditch next the line of liedge, and invert it
along that line, with its end tow ards the
ditch.  Having placed a few large spa(efuils in this manner, side by side, beat
down their crowns with tile back of the
spade, paring down their faces in a line of
the slope given to the first rut, and then
cut back their crowns with an inclination
downwards and away from you, forningian inclined bed for the theeon-plant to 1le
upon, as sliown Ify tlhe angle subtended
562 
PLANTING HEDGES.
attention to these adaptations of means to
ends is one cause of failure in the rearing
of thorn-lhedges.
5612. The prepared thorn-plant is represented by fig. 4.57; and it is prepared
in this way.   After  removing a  inituber
of the small branclies witlh a knife, grasp
the steili of the full plant, fig. 454, imnmiediately above the root, firmnly in the left hand,
and cut it across beyond the lhandl, with a
slharlp knife,witlh an inclination towards tile
top of the plant as at a fig,. 4.;7; and tlhe cut
Fig. 457.     tlhus,nade will be about
6 inches albove the root
an,l fibres.  Cut away
the long, points of the
tap-roots  b  b  b, and
any  other  straggling
and injiured  roots, and
even  inkiured  fibres
but  preserve as miany
of the fibres entire as
p)ossible.    Bturn tbe
tolls thus  cut  off, or
bury tlhemn deep in the
A TlIORN-PLANT, PRE- groundl; as they easily
PARED FOR  PLANTINGU. vegetate,   and   are
quickly blown  at-out  by  the wind, and
beconme a great annoyance to sheep in the
wool. Take great care, in frost, to cover
up the prepared roots in earth until they
are actuallypl)anted, for if the roots are in
thle least affected by frost they will not
vegetate.'1'le safest plan, in frosty weatlher, however gentle, is to take but a few
plants -it a time out of the lines.  In dry
weatlier in spring,  put thle roots  of thle
prepared plants in a puddle of earth and
water, in a sha(ly place, for some hours
before layingo, them in  the tlhorn-b)ed, and
their  vegetation  will  thereby  be   much
quickened.
THE THORN-BED.
11alce other spadefuls at the end of those
li,Lt lai(l d(own, taking  care to j()in all the
sl,)a,lefuls so as to lake one contii ned l)ed,
as al)ove described, and to proceed thus
along the lengthl of the cord of 70 yards.
5611. Whilst the hed,g,er is thus maki,,g the tliorn -bed, his two assistants prerare the thorn-plants for planting.   The
1,lants are  assorted, according  to their
sizes,  as  they  are  picked  out  of the
bundles made up as they were taken from
the  transplanted lines, reconiiiiended in
(5605,) the advantage of which is, that
the plants are thereby suited to the situation they  occupy.   On  exaimining  the
plants, they will be found to be both stout
and weak. The stoutest cannot derive sufficient nourishment in the thinner an(l poorer
class of soils, however well it may  have
been prepared for their reception; whlilst
thl)e weak ones will thrive well in good soil.
From  thjis statemeut,  it iinighlit be coneludJed that weak plants are best adapted
to all classes of soils.  Not so; for however well weak plants miay thrive in good
soils, stout  lants will grow  much better
than  weak  in all soils; and  were  the
soil  all good(l, the most profitable  fence
would  be obtained  fromn  tlhe best and
picked plants.   But  as every tarm possesses soils of various degrees of fertility,
altlh(ough the class of its soils may  be the
saiiie, an(l as platnts in a stout and weak
state are usually mixed together, the most
prudlent  p)ractice is to put  the weaker
plants in tlhe lbest soil, and the stouter pla,,ts
in tle w%orselk ind)f soil, thussgivin, achlirance
of success to both sorts of pl.ints and soils;
or else reject tlhe weak planrts altogethler,
which  wouhlt  enhlance  the cost of  tahe
plants.  One means of rendlering the weak
plants strolig, is in transplaaiting tlheml  in
good soil, andi allowing, themn to remai            n
in it until they lhave -acquired sufficient
strength  to be planted  out.    Wa  t of
565
by the line c 6, fig. 45;,'. In like manner
Fig. 456.
55613.  Wlheni  ootlh  the thior,,-bed and
plants are prelpared, the assistants lay thre
plants in tlie be(l.  This is dore bv pressing eacIh plant firmily into the  mould of
the bed at c, fig,. 456, with the cut end of
the stem-i projecting not more than a quarter- of an inclhl beyond the front and upper
edge o,f the tl,,)rii-;bed, and witlh the rootend lying away frl,t the dlitcl, at distances
varying  frorn 9 to 12 incles-tlhe 9 inches
being, adlapted to intbr ii or. land, and the 12
inches to good soil. WlIilst the two a8
sistants are laying the plants, the lh olgedgr 
REALISATION.
takes up all the finer part of tlhe niould
nearest the tlhorn-bed with  the ditelier's
shovel, fig. 453, and dexterously inverts it
above the laid plants,securing tihem  in their
places withl  a few pats of the shovel.  The
two assistants should not lay more thorns
than carl be entirelycovered with soil before
evening,, and, havirng finished laying  them,
they follow the lhedg,er, and d*ig and slh(ovel
up with the spade all the black mould in
thle ditclh, tlhrowing it upon  the roots an(d
stenis of the plants, until a sort of level
bank of earth is formed over thenm, as at
d, fig,. 456.  In doing this, one of the assistants lifts all the soil across the breadth of
thed(litcl, at a, working backwards; wllilst
the other works  forwards, face to  face,
shlovellitng up all the black mnould  he  can
find, wIiethler in a loose or firm state, in
the ditchl.   Whlen  the lie(lger has finished
covering tle plants with mould, and whlilst
the assistants are proceed(ling, to clear all
tlhe miould friom  thle ditch, lie steps upo)n
the top of the mound  which they  have
tlirown up above the plants, and, with his
face towards the ditchl, fireily compresses,
with lhis feet, the mould above the plants.
space of time, but the earth may  be rendeerely  as  hard  by fros t a s to be  unfit for
workine, the next day; and should thoe
frost prove severe and-I continuous, and the
worlk be altogether suspended. the plants
thus left exposed will inevitably perish.
In frosty weather  the  plants should  be
laid  on the  thorn-bed only if the   forene oon,
the  afternoo        n in w inter bein, too short to
allow time to lay plants, and to cover them
too  with a  sufficient quantity of earth.
In such weather it is better to leave off
work altogetler, for the frosted eartlh will
chill the tender fibres. When the weather
is fresh, and  not too wet, the plants  may
be laid in the afternoon in spring. In, wet
weather the work shlouldl also be suspended, not only on account of the clog,g,y state
of tlhe ground for good work, but tlhe impropriety of the men witlhstanding  much
rain in winter.  The finislhingof tlhe top of
the lhedge-bank will be more uniform, and
look better, when a considerable leng,,th is
finished at the same time, than when joininigs are visible at short intervals;  but in
frosty or in wet weatlher, the sooner a piece
is finished, the better for the cleanliness of
tihe labourers and the condition of the
soil.
5614. When anymanure is proposed to
h-e given to the thl,rn-plant at this stage of
tie operation, the tie-i to apl)ly it is after
the lhedger lhas la.id tie soil above  the
ilanits, anil  lIefore thie larger portion hlas
i)een put on by his assistants.   The mianure slioull] be well prepared, and as nielich
granulated as i)(,ssible, to miix intimately
witl  the soil, whlich slhould be prevented
subl)sid(lin(,, for if it crack lby tlhatt during  e
winter, ttle frost. may enter to the injury
of thle lIlants.   While thle ledger is compressing the mould, hlis assistants straw the
nmanure over the compressed soil.
5g 16. The r ul e observe d       for tle (el tl
of a clitch that stands well is one-half its
brea dth, and tle width of the botton m onesixth of the  breadtle at     the top.   In tile
case of lnedge-plantiig, tile breadth is       4
feet;  the depth is therefore 2 feet 3 inches,
and the width of bottomy 9 inches.  The
]iedge-l'),nl~ is always broader  than  the
ditch, being about  5 feet,  the soil lyin~g
loosely upon  it; and  tlhe perpendic ular
lheighIit of the bank is less tllan the depth
of the ditchl, b)eing, 2 feet.   These are, in
general, convenient dimensions  for a ledge
ditchl  and  bank, where no constant run of
water has to be acconloda-i(l,-ted in the ditch;
but should tlhere  be, tlhoughli in winter
only, it sl!ould be na(de plroportionably
capacious; for, if not, the water will assuredIly make  it so, to the dangrer of the
tlhorn-bed. Ditelces broughlt to a point at
tlhe bottomn.are  obljectionable  for ma,-ny
reasons.   They do not  afford  sufficient
materials to formii a  mouind for the voung
tlhorni-plants; they  are  easily  filled  up
witlh  tlhe moiildering, of ea-rtlh  fromn the
sides,  and the decay of vegetables; and
when water gets into  them, the bottom
5615. By the timiie he I-as finished tlle
compression, all thle moul(l will lhave been
taken out of the ditchl  by thle assistants.
Wlien no nmanure is applied at this time,
antd after tlhe soil has been fallowed and
dunged( in the.utnin,n this is a good time
to apply  limne.  Walien the thlorns hlave
received this quantity of earthl ahiove them,
and thle linie covered withl a sprinkling, (of
earth, the plants nuay be considered illn a
safe state fronm the frost; but it is not safe,
in frosty weather, to leave them           f ev en f or
night,t. with less earthl  upon thlem-for
I)lants may not only be frosted in tlhat slhort
564 
,Jl. 1 Il ~ I i IG,O   IL iJ I1    vIL i. IJ. VU
bee n  in a friable  state; but with  a hard
subsoil the work is  not   so  easily  dlone.
The w tahedpick is  almost always use   d to
rais e  tlh e  last  4 or  5 inches    of the bottom
of the ditch; and in removing the soil the
same  arr angement of t   le  men  i s maintained, only  tllat the lhandpicker works
forward. Whiilst tle assistants  are   picking and slhovelling, the hedger again
tramps dow n  th e  to p of    the    bat in k, before
throuing up   the last por tion of  e   arth.
Tle poorer   the  covering  of clay is  over
the bank, it is tlhe better for the purpose
to resist the vegetation of small seeds.
Tlhe  beating tlhe face of the bank with
the back of the shovel is absolutely necessary to produce a skin to resist thle action
of the frost, and prevent the mouldering
of the eartlh into tlhe ditclh. The necessity
for  th-ie beating  of the face shows  the
expediency of projecting the plants but a
very short  way  out of  the bank, as it
might injure  the  points of  the stems.
They mi,hlit be alnmiost buried in the bank,
and still tlhe yotung sprouts will easily release themselves by the force of vegetation.
WIiilst the two assistants are preparing the
cord for anotlier stretch of the fence, and
and raitting off both sides of the ditch,
tlhe  lheler  puislies  back  or makes  up
two or three inches, less or more, of the
crest of tle bank with his shovel, to make
time finished top parallel witlh the row of
thorns; and after  lie  has gently bea,ten
down tile front of the top into a rouinded
form-, tle planting of tlhe th-iorns is finished.
Fig. 458 gives an idea in section of the
ter as being the nmore efficient impletment
for suchl work, and less laborious to thl           e
worklman.   Let  one  of  the  assistants
loosen the subsoil with thle footpick, fig.r
247, as deep as hle can go for thle tramnp,
working(  backlwards,  and  using  it  as
directed in (3149.)   When thle picker has
thus  proceeded  a short way, thle other
assistant lifts up with his spade whlat  has
been loosened, and thl)rows it upon thle top
of thle niould above thle thorn, upon d, fig.
456, takling care to place thle subsoil so
thrown up continuous with the slope upwards given to thle face of thle bank.   He
also throws some on the back of thle bank,
to cover the whole of tlhe black mouldI with
the sutbsoil, and endeavours to make  tlhe
shape of the bank] uniform.  In doing all
this, lie works backward, with his baek to
tle face of the footpicker, and  standing f
upon thle subsoil lwhich has been looseiied
ly the footpick, tihoughi his back would be
to tle back of a lian(lpicker. He paresdown
the sidle of the ditclh nearest his righlit hland,
which, in this case, is thle opposite one from
thle hledge.   Thle hedger follows tlhis last
assistant, working  towards  himn face to
face, and mnoving forwards, slilovelling up
all tie loose earth left by the assistant's
spade with tlhe ditchlei's slhovel, throwing
it upon the top and fully upon tlhe friont
of the mndiotn(, rejecting  all  tlhe larger
stones, paring down the side of the ditchl
at his riglit lhan(l, and miaking, tlhe bank
equal and snmootlh, by beating the earth
upon  its face firmlyv.   Slhould tlhe subsoil require no pickin, at all, the two 
REALISATION.
work when finishled. I have introduced into
this figure the direction the conduit takes
Fig. 458.
I a
IC
i 0
when formed below and through the hedge
bank into the bottom of the ditchl, in connection with  the sul-)ject treated in fig.
455.  Here df represents the line of the
conduit in section, thle outlet of whilch is
seen near thle bottom of the ditch at d.
grollnd allotted for the planting, as from
a to b, to c, to d, and to e.  An  arc  has
to be described between  two of the nearest of  thlose points, and  there  are thlree
ways of describing tiheml.   Fronm  b as a
centre, with a radius greater than half the
distance between the points b and c, sweep
an arc at f, and from c as a centre, with
the  same radius sweep anlother arc intersecting thle first in f; and then fr(oll f as
a centre, still with thle same radius, sweep
the arc c b.  In like mnanner an arc of thle
same radius may be swept betwixt  c and
d, d and e, and e and  b.  This rule gives
no pre-determlined arch, furtlher than its
radius must be greater tl)an half the distatice between its extremities, but it is one
wlhich presents a pleasant curve to the eye.
5620. In ordinary cases, when two lines
of lhedges mieet, they intersect one another
in a  point, and  at  tlhe  crossing, form  a
junction  of  4  fields by  thleir  c,,rlIers.
Slilolld thle land not be of Imuchl value, or
thle particular situation be  lluchl exposed
to thle weathler, it ligIlt be advisable  to
make a clump of planltilng of a stellar forni
at the junction of thle folur corners.  Besides thle mneans of shlelter, Slleli a rollnding  off tile corliers of fields is uiseful to
their p)lotugil,ing.   It is  however,  first
necessary  to  ascertain  the  (qlantity  of
ground  that can be conveniently spared,
althou(gh it is not worth wilile to enlcl(ose a
smaller space thlan a qtuarter of an acre, and
thle larg,est  space  need not  exceed  one
acre in the low country.
5622. Anotlher plan is to fix the heiglht
of tile segmllent of the arc, deter mined    by
a point, beyond wlriel thle lliege sall not
al)proaclh towards trie centre  of the ground
a.    This rest ri ctioon l ray be ne cessar y in
some cases.   It is (lone Itv at once  fixing,
the point g, whlichl  giv,es t!hree points, d,
g, and c, through- wlhiclh  the;re muiiist
pass.  Its cenitre is forlled Iby joiniingy d;
whlicli b)isect, and  from thle point (,f b)isectioni raise a perpendicular; also jo,in q c,
wlhichl bisect, arid  fromii the p)oint  of  h,isecti(onii raise a  perpendicuilar, and fromn
the point as a centre wilere the twfo perpenlicllarls intersect at h, sweep  thle arc
d C, witil tlhe radius h q.   Thlis rule is
5621. Sutiposing   the space is  (determined-, its erncl(osllre is (lone in thlis Ian-         ir
ner: Ascertatin  tlhe point  wilere thle two
lines of le(Ig,es wotultl  intersect,  an(]  fix
a pole  thjere as at  a, fig. 4.59; aiid fromt
it mneasurie -in equial distance  wite a tape
566
FINISHED HEDGX-BANK.
MODES OF DESCRIBING A CURVE IN THX CORNZR OF
A FIELD.
5619. Large boulders will no doubt be
found in ttie subsoil, wlien it is of clay,
most of wliieli niay be removed witli the
footpick, witli the assistance 1)erliaps of
a,n iron lever, na,,iied a piiicli or crow-bar;
but tlie'lar,,est ones may be immovable by
In
sucli iiieaD —, Wiien gtitipow(ler should be
Used to reiid them to I)icees. 
PLANTING HIIEDGES.
founded( on a corollary to thle 1st Problemii of the 3Od Book of Euclid.?
themselves totlhe inequalities of the ground,
and form, on the whiole, a suitable figure
for tlhe purpose they are intended to serve.
Curves in fields sliould be made conformable t o the  plough ing, of thle adjoi ning, land,
for, if such adaptation be  not attended to,
land may be    lost to tillagie in   tile  acuteness of the curves.   After  large pins are
set to si hows the  general t orm    of a long curve,
or series of long c urves, sdmaller ones should
be  empiloyed    to fill up the seagm ents between the   larger,       which the cor( stretched
upon the face  of all the pins will sionw,
asnd           tile s  f        beuty of  te i cures    ay be
preserved by small pins with laoola   ed heads.
If a curve  on a ditclh is  required,  the ruttinoc  of the breadth of  the ditch, as also   t he
making of the tlhorn-bed, should follow  the
cord in its curved position; but great care
is requcisite to pres erve  tlse t wo  sides of a
curved ditchi parallel; for if the crossheaded wooden rule is not held as a tangent
to each particular part of the curve which
the ditch is to lave, the br eadth  of      the
ditch will vary conlsiderably in  different
places, and  its  form iwill  be   twist i.
The hedge-b)ank will then be deprived of
sufficient covering at places  where  tile
ditclh is twiste(d into broad anid narrow
portions.   Tthere is  no error into which
labourers are so apt to fall as  this: they
measure, without thinking of  the  consequences, at any angle across a curved ditchl.
5623. A simple rule, wlhichl practical
gardeners employ  in drawing  one  line
at  right angles  to  another,  is  this:
From tlhe given point, measure 6 feet along l
tlle linle, and forn the samie point nieasure n
outward 8 feet; fromn the furtlier end of
tle 6 feet, neasure 10 feet towards the
end(l of the 8 feet, and the point where the
8 feet an(l 10 fbet meet is perpendicular
to the given point.   This rule is directly
founded upon the celebrated 47th Propositioii of the I st Book of Euclid.
5624. The  t   hird meth o     d  is this: Let
I be the point intended to determine the
curve between d and  e, equidistant from
each; then set off tlhe point i also equ-idistant from d and e, and join i I; from any
point on the line i  as a centre describe -,n
arc of such radius as shiall palss tlhroutgh l,
btt will fall anywhiere witlini danti e. Draw
d o at righIt angles to the fence (1, and make
d o equalat to i 1, then find a point p on the
line d o equidistant from o and i. Join i p,
and produce it towards k, and from  p -,s
a centre describe t!he ark  d k, which will
touch the larger circle, of which k n is ailso
an arc, accordling, to Euclid], 3d Book, 11
Prob.  In lilke manner, tiie arc em  can
be d-lescribied by first (Irawinig en, at right
ang,les to tlhe line of fence e, and proceed
as beforie.  If tlje lines of fence run at rig,lt
an,_les to eaclh otlher, tlie -,trcs dk and e m
will have equal radii. Thjis is too intricate
a miiode of  dIrawin,, curves  for practical
puirp)oses, but it is wvell tlxat your ing,enuiity
shiotuld be exercised in ev,er-y possible way,
that you may never be at a loss to apply
exphedlien~ts  accoi-dingi  to)  cir(umiistanciees.
This  method,  however, enables you to
fortmi curves of different  size.s, in situations wlhere such may be required on  account of obstructions.
5626. A very common practice-recommend(ed l)y most writers on liedges-is to
leave  a ibroad scarcenient in'front of the
tlhorn-hed(l, because it is niecessary to supply
tlieyoiung,, thlorns witlh toisture. It isalleged
that the sloping face of the bank conveys
away the rain that falls into thle ditch fiornom
the plaTnts. And wvhat altlhoughl it does? The
youDng thlorn dloes not imbibe moisture by
the point of its stem, but by the fibres of its
-roots, which easily obtain it through the
mound, the earth of whlichl is loose enough
for the traynstiissi,n of rain.  But  ind(lependently of tlis, a scarcemeint is evidenlltly
so excellent a contrivance for enlcouraging
the growth of weeds, that it is impossible
to clean a hledge well where there is one.
Earthl from the bottom of thle ditch may,
no doubt, lbe occasi(o)i,ally tlirown upon the
scarcement to siiiother the weeds; but its
,accuiiiiilal.tioii there must be limited to the
heighlt of the  thorni-bed, and weeds  can
Duacan's Elremettts of Plane Geomnetry, p. o7.
,567
5625. In sett.in, poles for sti-ai,,Ilt lines,
orditia-i-y ac(-,iii-acy of eye will suffice
but in settiii, tljei-ii in ciir%-es, wliere
geo!llctrical ones cannot I)e ititro(-Iitced,
consi(iei-able t.-iste is i,e(juii-e(I ]-)y ttie
I)I.qt,.nej-.          Siieli can  ()t)lv   I)e forriie(I
by sett,"t), tip Jai-(,e I.)iiis, ati(i bv jii,igiii(,, of
tl)eir beatitv I)v,l.lie eye, so tli-.tt tire sweeps
iii-.ty apl)e,-tr t,,,,.,.ttirally to accoii)tiio(late 
REALISATION.
grow as well upon this earthl as upon the
scarcement.  The appearance of fig. 460 is
Fig. 460.
IV>
c 
not look well, trench a stripe of ground with
tlhe spade, in the intended line of tlie ltedge,
at least thlree feet in breadth, pointing  in
dung, and raking in linie in adequate (juantities somle time before the perio(l of plantilg.  When that time arrives, stretchl tlhe
cord in thle middle of the stripe, guiding
the curves with  wooden  pins.   First,
smoothen the surface of tile ground with a
clap of thle spade upon the cord, and then
notchl deeply with  it by the si(le of the
cord, drawing, the earth towards you. Into
this furrow carefully place the roots and
fibres of the tlhorn-plhmnts, with their cut
stemis, fig. 457, leaning against thle cord;
and, supporting the plants in their places
with the left hand, fill up the furrow with
earth with a trowel in the ri,ght hand. Press
the plants firmuly against thle earth with the
outside of the foot placed in a line with the
stenis, and fill up and miake  the surface
level with the si)ade.  After thle removal
of the cor(l, press  tile groun(l with the
row of tlhorns between both your feet, and
finish off thle work  with a  rakle.   In
hplanting orn,amental hledges, you should
beir in  mind  tlhat, for whatever  purpose a hledge may be wanted,  the thorns
should always l)e planted on the natural
surface of the ground; for if set in tratelled earth, unless it is of considerable
bulk andl deptlh, they run the rislk of being
eithler stunted in growth, or of all ogetlier
oetisiliin,g for want of nourishment. Thorns
iught be Iliante(l in this manner  in the
fields, and where tlhe soil is deep and dry
thle plan is goo(l, and the plants will no
doubt thrive; but in shallow soils, however
dry-and especially where they are damp
below-even thlough drained, the plants will
mnost probably not thrive.  I observe that
most of the thlorns planted along the si(les
of railways, for fences, are planted on the
surface; but time is yet wanting to show
whether or not  they  will thrive  in all
cases.   I suspect they will not, for draino ing  is very imperfectly attended to  on
railways.
5627. Wltere part of a ihedge is desired
to be carried across a water-course, an
arclh or large conduit is often made to span
it, its sides banked up with so,-Is or earth,
and a quantity of mnoul(I wlheele(d upon it,
to formi the tlhorn-bed.  I have seen such
structures, but do not approve  of tlhe,
because hie(dge-banks on stone buildin(g do
not retain sufficient moisture in suimmer to
support even young( tlhorn-plants.  If tlhe
nature of the ground will admiiit of it, it is
better to plant tle tllorns on the surface of
the ground, as near as possible on each side
of  tlhe water-conrse,  above flood-miar-k.
Tile water-clhannel, probably dry in sum11mer, wlhen tlhe fields are (onlv  used for
stock, can be fencel witlh paling; or, whlat
is a better lence, if stones can be procured
at a reasonable distance, a strong dry-stone
wall, witlh large opening,s in it to allow tle
water to pass tlhrou;,gh in winter    Tle
openings can be filled up in summiiier with
a fbw tlhorns, to keep in slieep.
5629. Forest trees oughlt never  to be
plantedI in tle line of tlhorns, for it is q,ite
impossil)le, even  witlh the greatest care, to
rear tlhorn-l)a.n,tts, to become a good fenice,
urnlder their drip.   Tlo(rns are very  imnpatient o,f -eing  overslhadlowed by taller
trees;  and trees planted on the top of a
mround, betwixt  double hedges not only
5628. If it is desired to plant a tlhornhedge on thle top of a. sutik-fence, or along
thie e(lge of a walk by thle side of a slhrub-ie
bery, (or to enclose a sllrul)b)ery or a clumnip
of trees in pleasure-g,roii4id or latwn, thl e
plants slit-ull be assorted and prepared as
directed ab(,ve (5611); but instead ofraising aiountd, whichl in suchl situations would
568
BAD EFFECT OF A SCARCEMENT.
sufficient to condemn the use of tl-e scarcemeiit in any hiedge-work, w*lere tlie weeds
5, on the scarcemuent a, vie in hieighlt and
vigour witlh the thorn plant c itself. 
r.,l.;. (JJL,..~"...ki&rJJ/ llaUll.Jtl/ y  all   [LI1U   i
f)ld writers on agriculture, as being the
best means of growing tinlber for the navy,
and giving shelter to fiel(ls; and even a
recent writer on tiiiiber seems to faourl                                   r
the plan of planting the oak in lhei(gerow,
as if that tree could not be  sufliciently
gnarled fo(r naval purposes, and ren(lere(d
thlick in thje bark for tan, in otherexposed
situations whlere they could do no injury,
ratlier than in tlhorn-lledges.t
nl(intils after the pruning, it exilillited
.5630. Where tilorns are made to fence signs  life, aud put forth most vig(Irous
5630. Whlere tl)orns are made to fence
plantations, thley slould bI)e planted onI the
outside of thle mound, tlough  fatcing tlje
N., that tile air may hleave free access to,
themt; and no large forest-tree should be
planted near behind tleim.
in sill;)jgr.
e5tr3.   Tle   pri 1 ning
2or aenl gowl  youlrnlg
l gees o(,n~ists (,f (.)ly
onIte  (,l)eration-s     wvitc/h                       in~,.   S8 it(.l-ing is  the
lo ppin,g    off'  st]traggling
'   branc!ies    tlj-at    grow
,more  1)i-;)i iien tly fro-mn
a hed.-e tlian,i ti]e resti
aiid, in (loill]" tl~is, the
extre te  I)()i n t s (,f mani.iiy
()f  the ot(ier brianclhes
L3              are  als(, cuit (,fF.   ThLis
THE  S%.'ITCHING-BILL. oper-ation       i is e )erformied
5631. It is not unusual to see beecll nmixedI
witl  thorn as a  ledlgre; bult beec!i is nowhlere a terror to live-stock in fields.    Tle
sweet bitiL (RIos(i cal,ir.(,)t(o, is fleqleitintly
mixed witli tbe thlornt  ann(  no doubt iiioparts a deliglltfuil I)erfiime to the.ii i.after
a slhon        er in s ulm ller; luit it soon o-erio,tnnes
tlle thlorins near it.  Tlie CIab) aI)ple (Pi' its
Imalns)  also displaces  tliorTis  in  lle,lcpts.
We  hlave onlv to viewv  the lCdlres  ilr tlde
soitlherin counties of Englandl, t(), 1, c()ilvince(l of the ioxi otills effects ofiniteiiiilxil,
othler plants withl  the tlhorn.
5632. Sp)ri?-.g. —Our attentioii hJaIs I)eeni
occupl)ie(d withl  tlhe fetncing of a wll,Ile fa1iiii
vitli tlhorn hedges; and stuch  an ()I)eratioe
ae  Mattlew On Yaral Till)er, p. 359.
I Kames' Gentleman Fairmer, p. 283. 
570                               REALISATION.
witl1 tlie 5witel1i~ig-l~ill, fig. 4(t1. It lins a   clay on a tilly subs~~il-in every case let
ciirve~l l)lil(lC ~ ijiclies l~~iig,  ind 14- iiicli it ~row, and let it afternards bejudieiously
br~ia~i; a lielve 2 feet 3 inelies in length         I~runed, and tlie assurance of experience
and its weight alt~getlier is aboit 21 ib.           i~ that you will possess an excellent fence,
It feels light in tlie liajid, nnd is used {)itlj    a~~~ a beautiful hedge, in a nIucli sliort~r
a1i u~)ward stroke, turniiig back'vards over-        time than tlie usual treatn~ent by hedgers
bead.                                                will ever produce.
5634. hedgers have a strong predilec      5635. I have given, in fig. 46 2,arepre~
ti()ii to use tlie switcliin~- bill.  They will,                 Fig. 4(~2.
`vitlion t ci~ulpiinctiou, s~vitcli a y(~ung hedge
at tiie eiid ~f its first year's existejice. No               b
new i~lunted hedge ought to be touched
`viti1 a knife until it is at leost two years
old-the great object being to attain enlargeziient of tlie Y()0t5, that they niny
search  al~out freely for snpp~irt; and tlie
(lilly way a plaiit lias of acquiring large              -
i'oots is by iiieans of tlie growth  if its
brandies and leaves in surniiier, sufiporting
their healthy functiiiiis.  ~veii bey{~nd tiie
age Iiieuti~in C(1 above, tlie ~iruning~kiiife
slioul~l scarcelv be ii~C(l
lied~e has aequire(l tlie height siifh'eiei~t f~ir
a fence  iiiid not freely then, but only to
check tlie in~ir~linate growth (if soIlie (if tlie
braiiclies, and to preserve equality in tl~e       a
size of,tlie plaiits.`J'lieie can lie u~i (l(iul)t of
-                         ie
x\~~Y~~~)"~~'$\~\""'\'\$)~'~%'~~z ~\\"~~~~"`~"`$`~~`~`~`&amp;\"\\\"~`
y(iuiig r~~ots i  ie(ges, wien we oiscrve
tlie very puny stenis wl1icli iiiucli 1 ii'u iie(l
hedge`always
y()niig     5         1}ieseiit. Pot,1 oxpei ence aiid ol~sei~ aii~~li  li~i~ e stti~tied
ine, that t() tlie abuse  f ~iriii0ing sli~iul~l tie A c~,i(hL'cTLv ~`v!Tcii F!)`1 n()i)N nEo'.'F.
ascribed iiiost ()f tlio ile;itlis of~oun,q lie(l?e~   Cii tit I!)!) (it ilie a' erige licilit which a
plants, and~tlie Ci (1! seqilelit iiiiiiitiei' (if  i~)5  yi)iin; licii~'e 5110(11(1 ittrain, in reliitiiin to
observai~le iii olil lieil~'cs    No d(iiilit tlie  tlie liei'~lit if its licilge-baul and tlie de1ith
tli(ii ii plaiit ii, lil~Lced in a`~ i(lC I 1i~C (if  (if its (litcli, l)~f(iie it ii, s~~ itclieil up, and
siiil anil Si tuatioii, anil it is reasiii~alile to  al though  &lt;ill tlie 1ilaiits will not, in that
e~pect tli'~t it will  I Ow lietter iii 5(iri0C  tinie,  lia'e  ilillivillually  acquired  the
situati~iiis than others   biit having l~ad  stren~~k of that relir~sentei1 iii tlie cut-,
favii;ii'alil,e (il)liortnnitie7? ()f i~bscrviiig tlie  still tlie form  aiid ~iiitline of tlie liedg~'.,
rearin,~ ot tli(ii'ii lie~lgcs in a great ili~ ersity  trace'  l)y tlie letters a I) itil(1 b c, n~ay be
(if s(iils~ fi.(iiii tlie liglite~t i~i'iivel t() tlie  obtaiiied.  This form  is given to tlie }il,ant
li~~i~ iest cl~iy &mdash;&lt;iiid ~` eli lii peat iiiiis   I  by switching tlie face a next tlie ditch
can atlii'tii that rati~inal iiiaiia,i~enient will  with a slii~lit hatter towards tlie top, b,
enilile tlieiii t() liec~~iiie a giloil feiice, aiiil  which  is iii (ire perl)en~licul;ir-iiiore like
c(intiniie 5(1 iii any soil, tlioii~li niit in any  a ~ alli,d fence tli~n tlie face behind, frorii
sitiiatiiin ~ such as aiiiiiligst under- water.  C to 6-liecaiise tlie 1 ilaut in that part icular
I~et tlie  ilaiit have peace tii firow till it  }iart slioulil be ei';ciiiiraged ti  diver tlie
lias acqnii'eil  a ciiiisiilerable  degree  (if  ti~p ()f tlie lieilge-liaiik with its lowest
natural  sireiigtli,, tal~ing  a  l,iiii~er  (ir  braile,~lies, for tlie diiiilile lilirfiose; of lire5l~iii Cl  111(0 t(i &lt;ici'iiii C it, a( ciii iliiig (i tlie  ~ eat in  ti (sIi~isscs lifilili it, ind (if keeping
circ~iiiistaiices in " liicli it is jilaceil-ac   dii'vii tlie`veeils iij iiin tlie haul, as also
((irilig it iii tlie sliiirt'est tiiiie iii il~'e'i  of fi~riii in  a slii1iiiig fice friiiii tlie level (if
sailily lii,'~iii, tlie iii)ist ic~#j~i1 ~if ill siiils,  tlie itrilailil at ci, ti tlie to1~ (if tlie plailt at
and taking tlie loiigest tiitie in piiiir [11 in  6.  A lieilge of such a sliiijJe will not inly 
Lii sucii a case tlle young p)lants miust be
pruned in s)ril)g by the relioval of all the
injliie(l parts, witll a pruning-knife, but no
niore.   No niatter tlioutli tlhis necessary
pruning leave the yount,r hledge in an unequal state-soiae of tlhe plants being iiiuchli
crushed, whilst others have escapedl injury
-let it grow-; iand altllough  tlle prined
plants niay not overtake thle othlers, these
latter canII be afterwarils p)rune(d to a proper size one year earlier than tlhey would
lhave been, lhadl no accident befallen the
hledg,e.
5638. The  only sort  of pruning suitable for so strong a hiedlg,e i.s cuttiingj it
down; and there are two  mnodes of doing
tlhis-orne by leaving  the stemi~s an(d som-le
of the branches at a certirn lheigl,t fro-m
the ground, the otlher  b)y  cutting, ofl all
tle brancles anD( thle steitis to wit!in a
few iricl)es of tlhe ground.   Thse formner is
called b,eaglsting over, the latter cuttin,
down,
56037. Tlhere are comnionly two forms
of hed(ges found on  firms  in  Scotlaind.
One is the pointed or )(hog-mane slitpe, as
shlown  in fig. 462; the other is thle iilore
natural  foriii of the plants,  assunmed by
lhaving leave to slhoot up their tops, whjilst
tile  lateral  branches  are  switclhed( off.
Tto(ligli tllese two forms are also found in
Eingl,land, the country of luxuritant hedges,
otlher f(,rrms are met with-iiiany picturesque  in thle extreiiie, but otherwise not
(lesilable, inasmiucli as hledges withl large        6
ex).1iiided  t0I)s  (occuply  imuchl   valuable
gr ound.  Wrere sucl at l,road(-topl)ed fori  ml, r
allo,wed iii somie p)arts (of Scotlan(l, thlje first
winter-'s siow wo-oild inevitably crushl the
lhedgl,e douwn to thle ground.   Of thle two
forlJis referiie(l to, eitlher iiiay be adop)ted  i
accordilng t(o ciirciiiustatices.  Aloiig botlh
sid(les of a turi ri)ike rode, the low liog,-niliime
is imost adt isable, to allow the flree acttio
of th         e wiii( upn the roa(l.  A  lheighlt of
from 4- feet to 6 feet will suffice for tlhe
pur-pose.   The niatural mietilhod is admiir
every year thus reii(leridg it,elf more
atid  iiioi-e unfit for a f'etice.    Tn  observinc,
this i),-t,tural teddenev in Hedges, the
I)e(l,-,er should corisl(-Ir, tlj,-tt the tiloilliplant is not in its ii,,ittii-al state wlieri 1)1,-ice(I
in Iiiie as a funce aloiig the si(le of a field;
-in(], consequently, if iie desires to retain
it as a fence, lie list i-estr,,iin its tendency
to become a t,ree. He li,-is all this iii  liis
power, and niay e%,en iii,,ilie..an old lie(ige
restiy)ie its youthful liabits by %iell-tinied
priiniiig, for such is the accoiiiiiio(-Iatiii,-,
iiattire of the tliorn-plaiit.
5639. The instrument wine wliieli a
lie(l(,e is breasted over is carried a
idg-kiiife, aii(i is like
4(;],; but the bla(ie is soiiie%-ii-lit isli(.)j-ter
'tD(I stroii(-,ei-, and tlje iiijl)leiiieii.1, -,II together
Heavier-. It is ued wine a. siti,,le   b-.ickliaii,le(i  tipNA-ard stroke. I't c (),,i t,,i fi-t)iti  3s.
to'is. 6(i. On statit),, this
I)I-ice, I i)tav   remark   that it Solely
tlie (Iiiilitv  ol'tlie                               Tije coiiiilloll Eilgli.,:Ii
cost only 3s. a-I)iece; but tl)e pri,[.).-ibility
is, that a good day's worl Cannot be got 
REALISATION.
out  of  1  in  1I) of tiler; wllerea,s  tihe
Sco()tcli-niade  7s.  6,1.  bills  will last  for
years, give satisf-Tction all thle time, and
prove tlieiiiselves thie c]teapest instrumIents
in the end.
branches amnongst  those of tile plant Iyond it.  On  tlie stemi being- severed, tne
lhe(dg,er seizes its lower end witlh lhis
gloved hand, and, withi the assistance of
the  knife  in thle  other, pulls  it asunder
from  the adjoining  plant, and throws  it
endways either on tlhe  lieadridg,e beyond
tlhe (litchl beside lhinm, or upon tlhe lheadridg,e of  the field b)elhind the hedg,e-banik,
whliclhever place may lhave been selected for
carrying away the tliorns fromi, to be made
into a  dead-ledge. Standing  up  at the
far side  o f tlhe sloped cult of tle stem,
there  may be a small splinter  of wood
anid bark, left by  the last stroke  of  the
bill, tlhouighI witlh  a dexterous hand this
seldom lappens; yet, to give  the cut a
finished appearance, tlje lhedg,,er cuts off the
splinter neatly with hiis bill, hield in both
]Iands.  All tlhe lateral branches growing
from the stemi are cut off in the same manner as far back as the top of tlhe liedgebank, with an inclination corresponding
to tlhe slope of its face, so that the backmost  brancl,  preserves  about  the same
lheig,lt above the top of the lhedge-bank as
tie stelii in front does above the liedge-line.
The finished breastiiig miay be seen in fig.
463, wlhere the slopinig cuts are  shown in
Fig. 463.
5640. On (letermininig tlhe aige to breast
over  a  lied,e, its steIus should  Inot be
stronger than a liedgercan cut tl-lroulgh with
one hand by two or three strokes of the
breasting-kiife.    The  hledger,  on  cormmnencing, this operatio)n-using the knife
in his right hand, andl co(vering his left with
a hliedger's leatlier-g(love-stands  on the
hledge-bank, near the iedg,e, with lhis face
outwards, arnd his riglit lhand to the hled(ge
to be  cut  dlown.  After  cutting a  fews
thlorns in any way at the end of the hedge,
to niake room for liiiiiself to stand upo      n  its
bank, lie commences cutting the principal
stem of the pltanit nearest himt, at about the
lei(rht of his knee above thle ground where
it is growing.   In  cutting, lie uses the
knife, by first miaking a firm cut upwards
upon the stemn, tlhe klife perhaps penetrating to tlhe heart; and if not much exceedin,g
1 incll in diameter, lie may cut it tlhrough tf
at one strolke; but tlhe generality of the
stems will require more tlani one stroke,
althlough  I lhave seetn a hedger, of by no
means great personal strenrtll, cut tlhrough
thicker stems at a stroke than liis appearance would indicate ability to do.  But
supposing the first stroke to penetrate about
an inch, tlhe next one is given in a dowrn —
ward  direction  to  meet thle  inner end
of the first stroke, s(, that a wedige  of the
steiii nimay be cut out. The wedg,e flying, off,
thle next stroke is given in the exact line
of tlhe first, and  it will mo(-)st probabllly
sever the stem; but if not, anotlher at tlae
furthest corner  of the  cut, and on)e,it
the neirest, wvill senil the knife tlrull.
All tlhe cuts iiadle with a view to reiliove
the  weldge-slalpe pieces are comnilaiativelyv
liglht; I-)ut tlhe upw'ar,l cuts  intedeile  to
sever tile stetii are giveii witll firce; atl( ian
b tll sorts (of sti,okes foll,wv fast, until the
steii is cut tllrourll    I n renewilig each
str'(tke. tlle l,eilger's left lianil is readly, the
lii(illlerit tlie knife is  hrut "llt in front  fof
liis Ilo(ily, to receive its back  )etweenl the
lti~gr-s  n,itl tilIi Ii), as a res;t ati(l a guitilie
flii  tle iiext stroke.  TtIe cit steiii, will
citlier il r,Ii,l, n ~l,vi (Ii en,l 1,11,1l thle groiunI id
helidiil tl-e line (,f the loeclge, or will ibe
keit s.asipendied, by tle interlacitng of its
f   ~~3
,572
A BRFEASTED OVEI:t TORN-HEGE. WJ'IH Tile
lHEDGE BANK  NDI) F.ACE %vOR)IN I)O',~N,
tlhe m-tin stemii -at c along the otlier stems
frio   c              -,pw.iards  aMe  t!he hiedge-bank.
Tthe lheti,,er i)1(,cee(ls in tills ni'ner uintil
tie entire  lie(](ge is out down.    The cost
fosr brea-sting over a he,lge is about  4d. per
rood of 6 yar(ds. If the stems, suclh  as at
c, re stt-ong an  d }11   the ciittint),-lbill nay
lb)e used for  tie stemns, and the  brcastingknife fol thle b)ranclhes.  A pair of hedger's
gloves costs Is. or Is. 6d.
.5641. Breasting is best suited to a com 
L11     Jle(lge,  an(t  uses   tlo
axe  witli bothl  lianifis,
and  directs  its strokes
a s      witli thle  carpeniter's
c s(,miIi(o.)r  axe.          TLe
twigrs are  first removed
TIIF. HEDGER'S AXE,.      --
iitfan li i)Ti   a   xy thle  bieasting-knife.
The cutting strokes aire  ill Tad(le upwards,
anid tle ol)structiiig tiiil)er is wedged  o(ut
in pieces.
~ i slJl    ra         l          i  pieces.
lengtlh; andl thle bill alto,,etlher  ueighs  6  lb.
It is used exactly in
tlhe samne  man,tner as tlje
b)reastinig-knife;    but
being, so miucli liheavier
in itself, and  eciipl(yed
on str-onger pl)ants, it
requires greater  labour
to wield it.    It costs
,s.   C(.,  the   ligihest
plrice  of  suichl    inistrumiients.
5(645. In all tlhese cas,S,i' cutting over
the stemns of thle thljorn-plaiits, the  incision
slopes upward(s froiii the face towards the
lbick  of the  lie(lge.   Tlie  cuts  on  the
,,r()wing  stemis are  made l1y the  lle(lger
not in tle plane of tlhe linc(, of tlhe lhe(ge,
buit at a c()lsiderabl)le angle,] to it; so that,
wlheni the cuts are viesred in the direction
in wlhichi tlhe  le(l,er!,rocec(ds in cutting,
they are not visible, whlile from the opposite
direction they almost face the spectator.
5643. In  cuttinlg downii -an  oldI ]heduse
witel ttlis bill, thle lelger stands upon tihe
sile of thle ditch  uni(ler the line of lieilge.
Firoim  this lI)osition the strolkes are given
upwardls, but near  the grouinl at firs,;
and, to give freedom to the hledger, lie first
uses the -ireasting-knife to cleair away all
thle small branicles tlhat grow  out  of and
aroun(l  tihe  steiii  t)  b)e  cut  tlirougli.
Witliout  this precaution, thle  operatiling
lhaid of thle lhealger iiight be sevelely Iacerated by tlhe strag(gliig branches.  Tlis         e
steni bein, thlick, iiimany strokes wil  )e required to cut it thlrou,ugh   ad ii many of tllese
will have to li)e,iven ilownnwards, to cutt
away the wood in wedg,es.   Tlie left h)andd
is used to rest ald guide tlhe bill, as it (-liil
in the case of the lireastiug-kniife.   Wlien
severed,  the stemis  are  laid  upon  the
griiound, on  either or  bothl  sides  of tlhe
hled,e, as the thorns may  afterwards be
requireil.   Tlhe cost of cuitting, down  anl
old hedge is 212d. per rood of 6 yards.   It
5646. Hedg,es are  wofnilly  lisDa inaga,edo
in the cutting, in  mIrany p)a rtts of tlie country.   Witlout fuit-ler considleration than
saving the expense of'-   paling.to guard( a
new-cut-dIown  lhe(ldge, or  in ignoranrtce  of
tile metlhod of nlaking   a  dead-lledge f'ont
tlhe remiiains of ani ol( livec one, the stemiis of
an oll, heIge are ()ften  cuit over aibout 31
feet highl, to  renai   n ai s the fence.  The
consequence( is just uw hIat      iglt  have beent
anticipated froni the lknowvn lhabits of the
tli(.rn —a  tlhick grow7tl) of yvoung   twig,s
wlhere the lhedge  wa-s cutt over;  autd thie
nltimiiate effect is, tlhat of a yoIng hllre
.staniding, at f3 fcct abo ve the groundl uipon
,ii;:
li.
ii,
i
r
.i
i1:
il
THE CU'I'TING-BILL. 
REALISATION.
5648. HIithierto the pruning and cutting
have proceeded on  tile supp(osition  that
the lhedge cut down  would  make a sufficient fence when it grew  up again; but
this will not be tile case if many of the
stemins are as far asulndler as to leave gaps
between tlheii, even after the young  twigs
shall have grown up.  In such a state the
pruned hedge will never constitute an efficient fence without further assistance;
and the mode in which that is rendlered is
termed plashing, which consists of laying
down  a  strlone  annd  healthy stem  froii
the one or the other side across the gap.
On  cutting down  the hledge, where  the
hedger meets with a gap which cannot be
filled up by the ordinary growthl of the
young stems, hle leaves a healthy supple
plant standing beside it, on the side of
the gap next him, that, when plasled, they
inmay all lie in the sanme direction.  After
the hedge is cut down, the hedger plashlies
the stems he left standing in thile following
mantier -Commencing at thle end of the
hedge  where he began to cut, hlie first
prunes off, with the breasting,-knife, all
the branches from the stem, cuts the stemin
of the proper length for the gap, and then
makes  an  upward  cut  in it near  the
ground, on the opposite side to the direction  towards  which  the stem is to be
lpiashed, but 1no deeper than is necessary to
bend  it to  the proper position, which
should  be as near and  parallel to the
ground as possible; for, unless the stems
are laid as close to the ground as to fill up
the gap from the bottom, there is 11o use
of t)lashing.  The  plashlied stein is partly
kept down either by a snag on the stem
onl the  other side  of  the gap,  or  by
wattling it before and behind two or three
steins, or by a hooked stick driven into the
ground near its point, and partly by  a
wooden  wedge,  severed  in  cullttinlg  the
hedge, inserted into the cut, %which is defended from  rain and air by  a lump  of
clay.   Plashing is represented in fig. 466,
where ed is the first  plaslhe(i  stemn, cut
nearly tlhroughrl at e, and laid ailon, near
the ground. across tile *gap Invhic! extends
beyond d;  b at is a stemi passing, across t!re
large gap b c; k is the wedige of weod insertedl into the cut of tihe plaslsed stemw ba
to keep it dlown. Thle stem b a extends
b~eyondl tile immrediate gap freon b to c,
5647. But another mistmanag,emenet is
in the mode of nmaking, the cults when
hedges are cut down. The bill is too
often used to hack                 dowen the  stems, instead of           to cut off the bryannches; and the
consequence  to the               stems is the opposite
of what is right —the branches, worthless
when severed            f rom the lhedge, being  cut
off clean;     w      hil e th e to p of the stems, upon
which depend  the fieture f       ence, are sphattered            to pi eces.   This barba                  rous work
is occasioned by giving a downward instea(i      of an   upward  stroke  in           cutting            off
the      ac e                                 the branches fro  the steins. Fortunately
for the owner of  the hedge, the  natural
habit of the plant in part counteracts the
mischievous work of his own hledger; for,
hacked and split as the stems are, they
nevertheless push out young twigs, and
conceal, though not cure, the injury the
they lave received.   The difference in the
effects of the strokes in cutting a hedge
well and ill, is thus truly explained bv Mr
Francis  Blaikie:  "A   moment's reflection," he says, "rwill show that it is impossible for an edge-tool to pass through
a piece of timber without causing a severe
pressure against one or both sides of the
wood, because the tool occupies space. The
teeth of a saw drags the clhips out of the
cut, and give the space requisite for the
tool to pass, but an edg,e-tool can only
pass by pressure.             In cutting th, e
stem of a he(lge  or young  tree which is
grossing upright, if the blow  is struck
down, nearly the whole pressure fatlls on
the stub or growinkq stem, which is shattered to pieces, while the stem cut off is
left sound; bult when the blow is struck
up, as it should always be, the effect is
reversed, the stub is then left sound and
smootll, is cut clean, and the stemi cut off
is shattered." The advantage of the proper method is, that " when this latter practice is adopted, the wet does not penetrate through the stub into the crown of
the roots, canker  is not encourag,ed, and
the ytun(_  shoots grow up strong, andl
healthy, aim able to contend against the
vicissitudes of the weather."*
* Blaikie On Hedges, p. 33.
574
bare stakes.   TI)e only plan, therefore,
to iiiake an ol(I lied(,e a valuable fetice, is to
cut it over near tire ground, and form a dea(lI)edope witli the part cut off to protect it. 
PLASHING HED)GES.
since there is no nleans of fastening it  of the stem a; but hlad thlere been a means
(]own at c, and its end is wattled in front  of fastening it at c, it slhould have been
Fig. 466.
~///W/////gg/2g/mgiW
THX PLASHIING, AND LAYING OF AN OLD HEDGE, AND TIlg WATER-TABLING OF A DITCH.
continule a fine hledge perhaps for  500
yea,rs."*
cut off there.  It will also be observed,
that thle stem e d originates at e and not at
d, tlhough the gap is really beyond d, and
iot between the stems c and a, because
no offshoot was found on a to leave for a
plash; and had there been, the stem  e d
would  have been cut off altogether, and
the plashli laid across the gap a d from the
off-shloot of a.
5650. Imune diately connected  w ith tlie
pru.ning of lahedg,es is p   spring  i s the scourtink  of the ditch   s the  i cs serve to  keep
thiem dry, and the repairin#gof the hedgebanks.  A ditch which conveys a pretty
constant stream of water  imiay  lhave as
muchl  mud( deposited in it as to require
scouring before the space about the roots
of the he(dge is able to accommriodatte all the
matter tlhat slhould be scoured out of it.
In this case, as muichl mutd should be
placed between  the  hledge-roots as  can
conve n iently lie,  wlaicl will  ser ve  thle
double  purl)ose of  easily getting rid of
part of the  mu,1-l, and of doing(, good to the
lhedge by  tlhickiening, the soil around  its
roots; an(d the rema,itnder should be placed
on the ditch lip on  the ljeadri(ige, to be
removed at leisure for other purposes.
.5649. Plaslhing lhedges is mnuch practised in England, where it is frequently
very neatly executed; but I cannot help
thinking thiat many a good hedge is there
needlessly cut down  for the sake of being
plashied.  Plaslies are there laid at all possible angles, and twisted into all possible
forms, as if to prove that the tlhorni plant
can withstand every possible torture.  I.
cordially agree witll the following, sentiments on the practice of plasling, and tlley
a.lso  tell  lus the Ilistory of tlie origin of
nmost of the gaps to be seen in hledges.
' Plasling,  an  old hied~ge,"  says  Lord
Kanles, "an ordinary practice in England,
mlakes, ind(eed, a good interimi fence, but
at the  long  run  is destructive  to tlehe
plants; andl, accordingly, thlere is scarcely
to be nlet witil a complete good  hledge
whlere plashling has been lon,g practised.
A cat is said aniong the vulgar to  have
nine lives.  Is it their opinion that a thlorn,
like a cat, may be cut and slaslied                              at
witlhout sllffering bv it?  A  thorn is a
tree of long life.  If, instead of being llassacred by plaslling, it were  raised and
dressed ill thle way hlere described, it would
5651.  But  the  more  usual practice is,
tlhat, wlhen the  ditch is to he  scoured out
in a tlhorou,Igh manner, the lhedg,e is at the
same  tirne I,rtunedl, and  the  hedge-la~nk
repaired.'1'he  propriety  of comiibinintg
these works will be rendered obvious frotm
tlhe f(,llowing, considerations: After the
process -of  weeding, Iedges  has been conducted for some  years  by remioving,, the
grass fromn the side of the  ditch, and tlhe
weeds as they spring up on the face of
the hiedg,-e-banik, tlhe eartlh will  be  founld
remi,ved inuchl below its orig,inal ipla=ce in
all soils.    The  incessant   actioni of  t!le
* Kames' Gentleinan FarIner, p. 283.
575 
PREALISATION.
length, and lays them aside for thle hedg,er.
Thle lhedg,er  then  places  these sods with
th t le sl)ade uponl   tlheir edge onl the  notch,
with  the grass side  outward(s, anl beats
thlem to the bank, making them all of thle
saiiie width  by  paring, their upper edge,
and keeping them in a straight line   The
sods unite to each other the more quickly
and firmly when their ends are cut acuteanigled, instead of square-inot onlyin their
thickness, but in tlheir breadthl-as is partiallysliown atfff, fig. 466,wlwhichl represent
the faces of thle sod c, fig. 467', wl,en set.
The reason for putting thle grass side of the
so(ls outwvards is, tlhat the sods miay adlienr
and grow to tlhe bank.:; for if they wern)
put on with the grass side inwards, the frost
of the ensuing winter would  c.ause thleni
to slide down; and there need be no ap.
prehension of injury to the hledgle from that
growth of the grass from  the sod  whene
it is  set at some  distance   below  the
led(ge-roots.  This is called the set-sod.
While the lhedger is engaged  in setting
these sods,  the assistant raises others  6
inches broad, 4 inches in depth, and of the
leng,tli of tlhe spade's face. After a few of
these smaller sods have been made ready,
the liedger lays them, so as to break joint
with the set-sods, with the grass side
downwards,  upon the  upper edgte of tlhe
set-so(ls; beating tleni flush with the face
of these, and pushing  them  under  the
th orn-roots.    This  sod  is  called   the
taible, and is seen in section at (/, fig. 467,
and in face fronm  h to q, fig. 466.   Tle
reason for placing, thle grass side  of tlie
table downwards is to  prevent the gras3
griowing, immediately among~- tile roots (if
the tliorns  wlhence it could not be remove I
without  frustrating the very purpose for
which  the  water-t.abling,  was pierforniec',
by taking, away the earth from the thornroots.   On  the hedger proceedilng with tlih
tabling, tle assistant throws  the  parings
of thle sid(les and the scouriiin, of  the bottom  of the  ditch  uplo)i the lhe(l,de-bank,
behind  the  table-sod,  and  among,st  the
tltorn-roots, to fill up  every vacant space
lie obseirves.  T!,is filling  up is seen fromn
at     to a, fig.  467I; and i  fit. 46, froti d, e,
c, 1b, k, to i.  Water-t.il)linir itself costs
2(1. per roodl of 6 yarfd, and tle scouring
of tle  (litcli additional, icc,,r,ling to the
rstate it is in at the timiie, ad the difficulty
(,f  &tdp o  ite i   sCuing, awn rter -tablak,m
scoulring,r andl repairing, hledg~e-banlk, m~ay
at.sIslhel                 e fe,i an(l,f rtail and snow occasionallv, upon tlle  inclinedl  surfilce  of  tihe
le(lte-I)ank,   tensil)ly cooperate  vitlh the
wee(lini, to reanin-e thle  soil flol      t t he   ro ot s
of a lhe,lg,e. Tlhe coiliibined effects of these
causes al e, tat i   n e        thil e   stl e  roo t s ate left
too  t)bare; and if tlle deficiency  is  not
reeie, itc,    will  cause the wllole                 hed,ge               to
be slsaten to t           he roo t   s byeverywin(d that
1)1l)ws.'By looking back to fig. 463, it
wN~ill be seen tlat the soil lias been removed
f'onlt thie he(d,ge-baink, and tlhe bottomi of
tlle ditchl filled uip to the extent indicated
below tle (lotted iine b c at, fromn the centre
of  wllicli space  tle  root  of  tlhe lhedg,e
I,r(jects -t c.  The deficiency of the soil
can be easily su-pplied, and  it is done by
watter-tabvling.  Water-tablig,  can  only
be  executed  in tlhe best mianner after the
lle(]ge lias been tlhorough,Ily pruned.   It is
begunii by miiaking a slharp notclh witlh the
,sp)ale, 3 inchles  deep, in  the  si(le of  the
ditclh, ab)out a foot below tlie root of the
tloris, at c, fi,. 467. Tihe ledger tlen pares
Fig. 467.
awsiay.all the ea-rthi to thalt depth from  be)(low
t Ite  thlorn-r,,ots to  the niotelh, preserviiln,g
tile  pl(,per  inclinationi  of tile side of  the
dlitelh.   If tlhe side  of tlie  ditcl) is  fotind
wotrni a1tway to a  greater  (leptli ttimn  the
require(d  )ar-ing,  earthi  slould  be   rather
p)lt on  tlihn  taken  awvay  froiii belowv thl                   e
root of  tile detg e, as seen    b             e tween e, the
,lt)tted liniie, antiid tile so,Is c aind d.   In tile
mean tiniietl)e lhe(I gr'er'sa,ssistaiit-for watertaibling,  is lilost  t.-.xedlitiously aind  better
(l,  e by tw,, ilell tlitan  oie, ini pr(,poirtiol
to  thle Iilbtiber, tl')ogi(   the lhedgI,er  might
(lo all  tl~e  w1ork l Iiiself-tl!e assistat.-li
raises s(I,,s fi-'o   the best  )art  of  tihe  botton of  tl.e ditcl, 9 inchies brioa(d 4 inches
tlhick, atind  of  thle  dep)tlh of  the spade  iI1
576
TtI,9.MODE OF WATER-TABLING A HED)GE-DITCHI. 
WATER-TABLING IHEDGES.
be done from 8d. to Is. per rood of 6
yards, according to tlhe tenacity of the
soil.
5655. Tlhe  Inying of young  twigs is
Ianagted muitichl in thle saime way.   Tile
old soil is removed from thje gaps, and is
replaced  by  thle  coinpo.st.    A   stout
twig, is  brought  down  from  the  steln
on eacih side of the  gap, cut  short and
notchled, and  lheld do-)wni amtongst wellrotted dung by a hooked stick, and covered
witlh the compost eartlh. This process is
attempted. to be represented in fig. 466,
wliere i is the laid twig from the old stem
h, lheh( down by a hooked stick. After
tthle layer has completely taken root, and
the young shloot is growing withl  Vigour, its
connection with the old stein  should be
severed. It is obvious tlhat this plan will
fill up a gap no larger than can be occupied
by one shoot from each side of it.
56G52. Water- tabling,  renovates   thie
grow tli of thiorns, re-esta,llisles tlheir lold
of tile bank, as no wind  can slake tlhem           ne
to their roots, and encourages thle spring,ing of shioots arolun(dl the incise(l l)arts of
tie stelils and braneles.   It is not needed
where a hledge has bleen Ildian ted on a scarceient, because tile illoulelleing, of tile earti h
from  tihe  plants  is  I)preventedI by  it;
but the advantag,e is ulore tilan counterbalanced   by   tile  ellconrl,,elllent   tlhe
scarcelllent afordls to thle g,rowth of weed(s.
(5626.)
5653. It is possible tlhat in the oldest
hledges, wllenl  cut down,  tlhere Imay  be
gaps of suchl wisltl — s cannot lI,e repaire(l       d
by plaslhing, so tlllt otller exl,e(lients Inust
be adopted to fill tilell up, andl two present tlhenIselves to notice; one by laying
young shioots froml tlhe old stemls into the
gaps, and thle otlher ily filling,, up thle gal)s
withl  young   thlorn-plants.   Tile  laying
cannot be done in tlje same seasonl witi
the cutting down of tlhe lhedge, nor ulntil
tlhe young  slhoots are  pretty lon,;                                blut
young  quicks  nay be planted  i.lilnediately  after thle water-tablirng  las  been
finishled.
5656. I observe farmers removing the
ordinary   lhedge-bank  behind  a   tlhorniedge to make compost of; but        thle    practice is highly injurious to the hiedge, even
after it  has grown tip, by exposing  its
roots, which grow chiefly in the ban], to
wet and frost. If a lhedg,e is cut down
w hose  bank   has  been treated      in  this
manner, and the roots  left  unprotected
by  the removal  of  the branches  above
them, it is possible  that a few niglts of
severe black  frost will kill every  root
nearest the surface.  I have no doubt that
particular plants of old hedges are killed
in this imiannier, without  the cause being
suspected by  the  farmer.   When   time
hedlge-bank has  been thus removed, and
the lhe(dge cut down,  provisioni shIould be
immiriledi,ately  made to protect tlhe roots,
whliel  iiiay be done by  covering  tlhemn
w itlh the scouring  of  the ditcl. If the
dlitchl, scoured  to  its  nsual size, cannot
atIlrod  sufficient mater-ials to answer  the
purp)ose, it shiouldl   be  miade larger. A
l)w turf-wiall as  a  backing, obtained at
lhani(i or    brouhtfi-om a distance, malkes a
nreat ledge-t)ank, and saves a good deal of
soil.  Even a  double lhedg,e-bank, or  a
largre  single  one, sliouild be  removed
withc, a          s a   ny of the best roots
*vill  have  reaclhed through its  extreme
bjreadtht.
5654. Whlere youn,g quicks are to  be
plalnted amongst  old  tllorn  roots,  thle
scouring, fioni tlhe (litcll sll(:uld Inot be piut
on thlose places, but ratiler tlie old  soil
remove(l froili tilellI, and( spread  bellindl
and  between  thle (1)1 roots wilere are no10
gaps.   New and freslh s(oil sl,,uldl be pre1pared foir tlhe purlpose, ly mixiilIg moutld,
decayed -vegetabl-es, anl lime together in
a conmpost; anrd, wllen ready folr ise, put
into tile places forlmerly occupied by the
old soil.   The youn, thlorn plants are prepare(l  as  in fi,,. 457; and(l on a trenchll
Il)eingi formed for tlilel in tile new comllpost
elartlh, in the line of tlhe old lie(lge, they
ire laid iplonu rotted farmyard dung, and
thle  earthl  bronglit  over thle  dung  and
plants, anr(l beaten down; and should the
weather prove (dry, or likely to l econle so,
tlley should be well watered.  Th11e yolung,
plants will grow rapidly; and to preserve
tlilemn from all annoyance, plrune away any
straggling twi,gs fromi thle old stenis.
vol,. I.1
577
)65 i-. The buds of the young lied,,e that
was planted in the early part of wiiiter will sliow syiiil)tonii of lif6 el-ii-ly iii
spring, by exliibitin, curious til-i'stei-s i)l.'
m
mould upon the face of the bank. Tije
2 o 
REALISATION.
blisters at length  fall off, and  expose
the bud.  In miost cases, assistance should
be affo,rded the young bu(ls to break their
prison bonds, by removing the blisters witlh
the finger or a small piece of stick, after
which they will soon burst into leaf.
5660. T     he h ed ger meanwhile  takes his
st atio n on tlIe l ine chosen for the deadhledge to occupy, which is either immediately behind the lhedge-baink or one foot
froin the lip of the ditch in front of the
hledge, according to the side on which it is
intended to fence the hedge just cut down.
If placed behind the hedge, the dead-lhedge
should not be set upon the top of the hedgebank, as cattle anid horses would then easily
reach over it, and crop the young slhoots as
they grew up, but should occupy its foot.
5658. When it is determined  to cut
down or breast over any hedge, the operation should not be done at random in
any seasonl or year.   It should  not be
done in the depthl of winter, nor when the
field is in grass or is c(,inig into grass,
but only wvlenr going  out of grass; for,
lihedges being specially inltendled for fences
against stock, it wo(iul(l be absurd to reimove tl)elli %%hen they would be of use in
that respect.  Still it will  scarcely  be
)ossil)le to avoid  giving  inconvenience
to one field or anotier, as it rarely hlappens that two adjoining fields are under
the sanie member of the rotation; and in
the case of old grass fields, it is not possible to avoid it; so that the most that
can be studied is to avoid cutting down
the hedge as long as the field in which it
,grows continues in grass, whatever may
be the state of the field adjoining.  The
compromise between two grass fields is
.this,-that, when  the ledge of the one
going out of grass is cut down, tliornis are
furnished for a dead-lhedge to fence the
other that is still to be in grass.
5659. Let us now proceed to construct
a dead-hedge.  A hedger and an assistant
are necessary to construct it, whichl is
done in this manner:-The assistant, protected by gloves, cuts the severed stemis of
thorns into pieces of about 3 feet in lengtlh
with the cutting-bill or axe, figs. 464 and
-465, according to the strength of the stems,
which, when very thick, had better not be
employed for this purpose, the branches
they afford being better adapted.   He
lays one cut piece above another, until a
bundle is formed that he can easily lift
from the ground, taking care to add small
twigs to it to thicken its substance, to compress it with his foot, which should be
shod with a hledger's clog, to make lthe
pieces composits the  bundle                     to adhere to
each other, and to trim it, by notching
the  loti,er twigs  in with  the  bill  to
improve the appearance of the bundle.
He  thus makes  one  bundle  after anfther.
laid up forms a lean for the first bundle.
When the hedger is ready with tile trench,
his assistant hands him a bundle with a
fork, which should be long-shafted, to
enable him to reach over the top of the
breasted hedge, when  the  thorns  have
been laid in front of the le(lge; but if
they have been laid upon the head-ridge
behind  the  hedge, which  they  shliouhl
always be, when  to be usedl there for a
dead-hedge, a short-shafted fork is the
most convenient.   The  hedger  receives
the bundle with  his gloved hands, and
places its but-end into the trencl;, pushing it
578
5661. A dead-bedge should' be constriated so as not to be affected bv the prevailing winds of the locality, otherwise,
it may be torn and even upset by -,t high
wind, for which reason its head should slope
in the direction the dreaded wind blows.
5662. The first thing the beder does
In
is to la a spadeful of earth a,ainst the
y                      -n
fence from which the dead-bedge is to
run, and the trench thus niade in the
ground should be as large as easily to
contain the lower end of a bundle of
tliorns, as a, fig. 468. The first mouiid thus
Fig. 468.
THR DRAD-HF.DGE OF THONNS. 
PALING.
with his clogged foot, and making its head
slope from liiimii. A  tranip of earth is then
raised with tlhe spade, and placed against
the but-end of thle bundle to hold it firm.
Thus bundle after bundle is set up firmly
by the hedger; andl after a few yards have
been thus set up, lie cuts in all strag,gling
sprays with the breasting-knife, anil chlops
the top and outside of the bundles into a
neat form of dead-hedge, hIaving, perpendicular sides and a flattisli head(.   All
the thorns of a stIrong hedge will not be
constumed by a dead-hedie of thle sanme
length.  A  dead-hledg,e will last as long
as until the pruned hledge agaili becomes
a fence, after which it may be used as
f,itel.  The figure does nrot represent the
d-ad-hledge in so mlassive a form  as it
really has, but by giving the ground in
s,ction it distinctly shows the position of
one bundle with another.
n
I11
g
er
le
d
Ih
d
d
tre
t
a
pt
tn
8howa ja fig. 469, where a a are stakes a dead-hedge of thorns.
Fig. 469.
Fig. 470.
5665. A  very cotmmon dead-fence for.
protecting helges and grass from stock in
sprin, and sulmlmer, is tlie coCmmon wooden puli~lg, fig. 470.  If tall gr(owi Scots
fashiotned from the longer b1 incl)es of the
tops of trees; or, shlould the tops be too
small to afford sufficiently strolng stakes,
these should( be procured froni sawn timhler,
41 feet in lengthl, andl about 4 incl)es in
tlhe side, and after being pointed, driven
in line into the ground froni  4 to 6 feet
asunder,  according to  the  lengthl  and
strengtlh of thle tops.   The sanie principle
which  deternmines thle inclination of the
bundles of a dead hledge, in thle direction
of thle heaviest winds, is followed in setting
the tree-tops in stake-and-rice.  They are
set in that direction on their but-ends ilpoI     n
the ground b, at an inclination of about
45~ and each (ne is wound  alternately
before and behind the stakes as far as it
reaches.  A       neat and st      sint firtish is given
to stake-and-rice, by nailing a single rail
of paling along, tlhe top of tlhe stakes, as
'K...
fir, 8 ilrelse  iar (ail.iieter c n ve nincu  flo
at  no  great  listaeil, or is  grp,wn  Ul)oul
tlhe  proIe,'ty of  vlkicit thje lie,lg,es are to
formii a fence, more lhandy mi-aterials for temiiporary fencing, of youngt  thorn liled-,es  iiee(
not be desiredl. Trees of tliat size will cllt
up into  deals, wliichi, besidles  the  otutsidle
slabs, will divide up the iliddle for rails of
3- inchies broa-d, and] perhap.ls 24 feet  iin
length.   Tlhe  samite  trees, quartered,' will
make  stakes  whIicil, if  cuit off  at 41 feet
in length, and  po,initel, are  fit f(or  use.
Weedilas   of  plant ations, eiti,er (of Scots
fir or lartel, are als- very  co,nvenient for
cuittingi   up1) into  iatling, eitlier entire  or
sawn up  the m-iiddle. A palinig should
579
at c. Any sort of bruishwood, provided it
reaches from one stake to every alternate
one, will answer for stake-and-rice; anid,
if the bruslhwood be naturally slhort, the
stakes can be set the closer together.
'I'llE hC         l131O               N ~V(I)s';;   I,LI. tG. 
REALISATION.
be  on  the same  site as  a  dead-hedge,
behind the hedge-bank or on  tlhe ditch
aip, (5t;60.)    Stakes, as a,  slhould be
driven by a mallet, fig. 41, 12 incies into
tile ground at 5 or 6 feet asunder, and
whlere hard, a hole may be made  by the
foot-pickl, 247, or thle driver, fig. 42; and
such stakes will support a paling, of 3 feet 3
inches in hleighlt.  Two rails are sufficient
to fence cattle, but thlree are required for
slhee).   To give  additional strengthl to
the fence, the rails should be nailed on the
face of the stakles next the field, and made
to break-joint, so tlhat tlhe ends of all the
three rails shlall not be nailed upon thle sh,e
stake; nor should the broad ends of tlhe
rails be  nailed  togethler,  eveti  tlhougl,,i
thinined by the adze, but broad(l and i,ar1'() v
ends together as at b b b, tliat tlhe wNeilt
andstrengthi of thle rails lilay )e e(tlalisc(,l.
rfTo in make tlhe paling secure,. st.ilke sllol tld
l,e (Iriven as a stay ii a sl(,I, ii)  (liretion  belhiid  the  rails,  ai(ll na(ile(d  to
every  tliirdl  stake.     Tlhe  upper  rail
slould be nailed near tlJe top of tile stakes,
thle lowest e(dge of the lowest one 6 inchles
from  the ground, and the upper edg,e of
the middle one 20 inches above tije ground.
Tihe best iiails for paling are what  are
called " Scotel  made stout paling, nails,"
from 3 to 3i inches long.   Suchl a paling,,
where wood is not scarce, costs  Is. 2(1.
per rood of 6 yards.  A  stout one with
three rails, whlere wood is not plentiful, 2s.
per rood.  In the Stewartry of IKirkcudbriglht wood is so chleap that a paling of
4 rails, wNithl stakles at every 4 feet, can be
puit up for 9d. or 10d. the rood.  Chliarring
the  points of the  stakes, for paling or
stakle-anid-rice, no doul)t incurs somie ad(litiotnal expense, but it renders tlieiii mucIch
more durable.  Painting tleni  withl coal
tar,                       and letting it dry, as fa r  a s  tiev ey are
driven                                            into  thile ground, is perlhapl as as oo(d
a                                                means of presersation.
5667. Lord Kaies says, and tilere are
f.-trimets wh71i see,, to adopt  the op)inion,
that " the lhed]ge is fenced fro'm  cattle mn
tile  o   ne s  ide by tle ditch; but  it is nevessary that it   be    fenced  on both  sides.  The
ordinary  method of    a paling  is no     sufficieot fence against cattle; the most gentle
nmake it a rublinr,-post, [not if there be
a rubbing-post, which there should atlways
be,] and the vicious break it down  wantonly witth their lhornis.  Tiie only effectual
remedy is expenisive; but better no fence
than one that is imperfect.   The  reineciy
is two ditches and two he(dges, with a hirih
miiouind of  earth between them." *    W'e
are left to infer from this that a Ipalin)
is not sufficient protection to a bedr,e, bl t
that two  ditches and a  inound are..k
fence on botlh sides of a yoting hedg,,e, (r
one new pruned,  is absolutely necessar';
and the sort of material it should be  construte(i of depends on the facilitv or (lifficutlty of obtaining it; but whl-ateever may
be thle material, a fence made of it is a
clleli better protection to a young  hedge
tlhani any number of dry ditches.
5666. When turf is plentiful, it may be
employed to.fence one side of a young,
hedge.   Let a, fig. 471, be a turf wall 4
feet ligh, 18 inclhes broad at the h)ase, an(l
12 inches at the top, coped with large turf;
and b the soil thrown out of the ditlch c, inclined upwvards towards the top of thle tn                    b      ef
wall.  For confining Cheviot and Blackfaced sh1eep, and cattle, a short stake and       e
* Kanies' Gentleman Farmer, p. 278.
580
single rail of paling will be required along
F 4 7 1.
d I
I'L-TIIF FEN?CE TO A HEDGE.
the toI.) of tli(,, w,,ill; I)tit Lei(,-ester slieep
%N,,ill I)c et)rifitie.1 witlit)ilt a i-ail.
5668. Sttnzn?e?,.-Tlie attention mliicli
lic(iges require in istiniiiieil is confined to
qceed'n,.9; btit the operaton is a very
inif-)ortant one, riot only as re,,ards the
liedr,es ttieiiiselves, I ut also the con ition
C, 
WEEDING HEDGES.
of the fields near them.  I am ashamnied to
say that this department of farm-work is
much neglected.  Tile hedger himself canl
do little to tile weeding of an extensive
range of fences; and he is, besides, called
away, in summer, to many other sorts of
work which lhav-e no1 relation to his own
occupation.  The field-workers, who assist
him  in weediing, are engaged at field
labour; and it is only at intervals that
they can be spared froan their necessary
avocations.   I  have  found  it a good
plan to employ old men, who are unable
to undertake ordinary labour at ordinary
w-ages, in weeding hedges by thle piece;
and if they are diligent, it is surprising
tile extent of fence they will keep clean
during a summer.  Old women might be
employed at the same occupation; and
an aged couple might enmploy a part of
their time every day at this sort of work,
with advantage to the farm and their own
pecuniary means.
hedge-bank; and in order that it may get
between the hedge-roots its face should be
narrow.   It costs 3(1. per inch along the
face.   A small useful implement is the
Fig. 474.      LI
fig. 474. It isforiied
from  a   piece  of
hooked stick,  cut
from any bush or
tree; bult it may be
made of iron.  Its
use is to pull away
the weeds between
5670. Tile  manner  of tts ing  these  implem.ents is this: —Thle  hedger steps into
the bottom of tile he (ge- ditch witl his face
towards the  hedige, and o having in his right
hand  th       e  cross- gead  of th e  l le( ge-spade,
and resting its he lve  in his left above  the
socket, he works the spade in a horizontal
p(osition, removier,, all   the,rassey and
other  plants growing   on the sace of   the
hedg he-bank below tihe li ne of titorns along
thie  entire    s    ide of  the ditcl, and pushing
tleihe  into thi e  bottom.  If thle tlyorn-bed
was iornmed of  turf, the g rass below t he line
of a young  ledge  may be expected to be
pretty strong; but if  made o n  followed
ground, tche w eeds,  i f not  few, will not be
stroni,g. Whatever may  be the state of the
weeds, they  slho ulo   be      removed froin  tilhe
young  liedge, i n  time to )reoent     them
scntterin,g their s eed; f or wlhicl) end tle
weeding should be  undertaken as early in
the  sueTmmer as possible,  not th erely blefiore
the weeds  come into seed, beit betore they
arrive at the blooming  period.  While the
ledgoer t akes  the  lead of weedingi t ler lek
of ith e    lhe dge -ditchl below the ledge a fieldworler follows hai di   on te  e  ledtge -bailk,
anid  removes the we eds wit  h tile Dutchl
hioe along its top  and face, stirring  tile
whole surface, but not deeper than is necessarv to remove  the weeds.   Such of the
weeds as fall on the top of the hedg,e-banik
get leave to lie and rot there; whilst those
on its face, iminmedliately behind the lhedge,
are drawn through between the hed(glestemiis into the ditel, with tile crooked stick,
by each of thle field-workers who follow the
hedger in the ditclh, and the fiel(I-wo,rker
on tile top of the hedlg,e-banik.  Tlxe fieldworkers take their turn at the Dutchl  hoe,
5669. The impalements are but few that
are required for tile wee(ling of hedges.
They consist of a hledge spade, fig. 472,
having a thin cutting face, of a rectangular
Fig. 473.    form, attached to an iron
shank  terminating  in  a
socket, into which is in                serted a helve, 2 feet long,
with a cross head.   This
spade is held horizontally
in both hands, and is used
to cut  away  the grassy
face of the ditch below
the line of hedge; and to
prevent the hands cotliing
in contact with the bank,
the shank is slightly bent
into a form to preserve a
parallelism  between  the
line of the spade and that
of the helve.  The liedger
alone uses this imple                iment.    It costs  4s. or
5s.  Another  implement
is the conmmiion Dutch hoe,
TH,C DUTCH HOEZ. fi(,. 478 3w with a helv e 5 feet
long, with a cross hea(].  Its use is to remove the weeds from the top and face of the
581
THR ILEDGE wEED-ITOOK-, the hed,,e-roots, into the ditch, that have collie down by the
Dutch hoe fi-oiii the hedge-baiik.
Fig. 472.
THE HEDGE SPADE. 
REALISATION.
as it is severer work than using the crooked
stick, which merely saves thle hands and
fingers of the workers being scratched by
the thorns in reaching the weeds between
thle stems.  I could never ascertain tll       e
cost of weeding a young hedge in that way,
as it depends on the quantity and state
of the weeds; but I remember an old man
taking on the job one summer at lId. per
rood of 6 yards.  He first used the Dutch
hoe along the bank for one yoking, then
tlle hed(ge-spade for another, and completed
the clearing the space previously gone over
of weeds with the crooked stick.   Were
the le(ldges constantly weeded every summer, thle cost would be very much below
this suni.  When the hedge has attained 3
or 4 years old, it so overshadows the face
of the lhed(ge-bank behind it, that few if
anyv weeds get leave to appear; so that
tlhe hedge-spade  in front, with only  a
skimmingi of the Dutch hoe on thle top of
the hledg,e-bank, is all the work required.
When thle hedge has grown to cover thle
hedge-bank entirely, the Dutch hoe is dispe)sed with, and only the hedge-spade is
used. Tlhe same(old man undertook tislatter
work at~d. per rood of 6 yards, so that the
spade-work is about half the amount of the
wliole-whichli, I dare say, may be near
the cost in hedges not allowed to be overrun with weeds; and where hedges were
origiially planted in fallow ground instead
of on lea, and' where they are weeded constantly every summer, the weeding would
cost a great deal less than this sum.
5672. Numerously  as these crowd to       -
gether to take shelter in hedges, there are
other intruders which ins,ert themselves
between the thornfplants, and, acquiring
strength from the protection afforded them,
at length overcome their protectors. Of
these, the most destructive to lhedge-plants
are the  crab-apple,  Pyrus  malus, which
easily makes room  for itself with its  stiff
elbowing  branches;  the  sloe, " Prunus
spinosa; common dog-rose,  Rosa  canina,~
and even the  favourite sweet-briar, Rosa
rubi.qinosa, placed as it is in a lhedg,e for
the sake of its odour-botht these never fail
to injure  thorn-plants, as  far as  their
spreading arms  can reach;  the broom,
C'ytisus scopairius, and  wlhin, Ulex Europaeanbotlh displace tle ithorn, and, on themselves dying out by old age or severe frost,
leave unseemly gaps; tlhe common brambtle
or blackberry,  Rubus fruticosus, and the
hazel-leaved bramble, Rubwts corytil!lius,
being powerful climbers, completely overrun thorns  in  many  parts of England.
The common barberry, Berberis vwlgaris,
is a well-known intruder into the liedges of
En,lanid.
567 3. Weedis (r,owing  in tlhe bottom and
on the sides of dit(ches cause the w:ater to
fill up the bottom with sediment,  and to
break dfwn d  t lhe siles.  Ationo    these tbo
beautiful yellow corn-flagi,, Iris pseitdacoris, takes up) its station oni tle sidles of
ditchles, andi (dir-ects  the wa-ter to the opposite sile; tile wa,tter-cress, Nasturtium
ofcinale,,g()ws in the bottonm of ditches,
and arrests mudti( in its progress.- down tlhetm,
but  will only grow  wliere  s)ring-water
flows; the  colnitiioni Ibutter-bir, Pet,isites
vul./tari.q, with  large  expanded leaves,
occupies a prominent position on tlhe ditelh
side.   Dr  Hooker rela,tes, that " the ea-rly
flowering,, of the plant induces tihe Sw e(islh
fartmers to plant it near tleir bee-lhives."
Tlhe  redl caniiiary-gras.s,  Phalaris  ilrundinaeea, with its  creep)ing  r-oot.~ tuiftintg
here and tlhere, proves  tr,)ubles,,miie in  unridiuly  liardeniTng  the parts  of  the sides of
ditches where it grows; the reed meadow
5671. The weeds  wliicli infest hedges
are numerous, many of whichl are comnlilion
to themn andl corn and pasture; but others
are chiiefly found in liedg,es, suchi as the
sticking-grass,  Galiturn  aparitne;  great
bindweed, Convolvulus sepium, a creeper
abundant in Et;igland;  Bislihops' or gout
weed, Egopodium podayraria, whiich resists eradication; ground-ivy, Glechoman
hederacea, a creeper;  liog-wee(l, IIeracleum  spondyliu7ni, a coarse rank plant,
growing  from  4 t(o  5  feet in hleighlt;
!neadow vetcliing, Lathyyrus pratensis, a
strong creeper withi yellow flowers; cenwmon  hedge-niustard, Sisymin;rium  o  fficinale, flowers very small, pale  yellow;
woody nilghtshlade, Solanum  dulcamara,
in  nloist situations; lied-ge-woindwort,
Stachkys silvatica, flowers purple, wliorls of
about 6 flowers; up)ri,ght hledge-I)parsley,
582
Torilis anthriscus, fruit densely clothed
witli incurved bristles; zig-zag trefoil,
T2-ifolium medi?tm; tufted vetch, Vicia
cracca, witli fine bluish-purple flowers;
and liedge-veteli, Vicia sepium, with large
leafets. 
THE HAWTHORN PLANT.
grass, Poa aqutatica, acts a similar part to
the canary-,grass; the floating meadowgrass,  P.Jluit(nS, floats its long narrow
lea ves       down the stre.ati of water in the
dit      ch, retarding and stagnatting it;  the
curl-leaved dock, Rumex crispus, strikes
its   roots down the side of the ditch; while
the I)rooklinie,  Veroiica  beccabunga, is
found ill the direct water-course.   T        il  e
only mode of destroying weeds  in ditches
is scouring the bottom, and  parinig the
edges with  the common  spade, and extracting  the roots of the obnoxious                     plants
growing in botlh.
5677. The common hawthorn is a very variable plant. Mr Loudonj enumnerates not fewer
than 30 varieties. Of these, 7 differ from the
species in the general form and mode of growth;
2 in the colour of the flowers; 4 in the development in structure of the flowers; 3 in the time
of flowering; 5 in the colour of the fruit; 1 in
having the fruit woolly; 5 in the form of the
leaves; and 3 in the colour of the leaves.
5678. Of these varieties, the one I would prefer for field-feticing is, I believe, diqpnous.  The
colour of the young wood is dark purple; that of
the new slioots also dark purple, spotted with
minute white specks; and that of the old wood
dark orange-purple.  Bark smooth and shining
leaves dark-greeni and shining on the upper face;
spines dark purple, of medium length, fine, and
sharp; the stea s close together in parallel rods,
stiff, and  upright.   Flowers rather  large, and
haws, dark-red; neithel plentiful. The plant is
hardy, and will grow in any sort of soil, from
clay to gravel that is not injured by stagnant
water.  Near stagnant water it becomes covered
with lichens and moss; wCill not thrive unider the
drip of trees, or in company with other plants.
The height varies from 15 to 45 feet.
5674. Mr Curtis gives a hint about
destroying some species of weeds in hedges,
which seems to derive its importance as a
mneans of depriving the turnip-fly of a liarbour in the early part of the season, before
the sowing of tlheturnip crop. "Somebenefit," lie observes, " might be derived from
destroying these cruciferous plants, Eryaimunt allearia and Condamzine pratensis,
to which the Alticce (2390) are so strongly
attached, for they grow in abundance iii
every hedge and mneadow.   They appear
long before the turnips come  up, and attract and give support to the parents of
the future swarm-s that are to sweep away
the crops of the farmer.   As these plants
often flower at the beginning of April, and
prod-ice thieir leaves at a much  earlier
period, it is almost certain that they nurse
the fly, and are its great resources for food
and nourislinient in the earliest (lays of
spring.   The  lledg(e-mustard(l, and other
cruciierous plants on banks and road-sides,
are quite under our control  and it is a
duty which we owe to our neighbour, as
well as to ourselves, to keep our fields and
hledges clear of cliarlock alld every other
weed of that family, all of which harbour
the turnip-fly."*
5679. The hawthorn is a long-lived shrub,
and, in some situations, attains to a considerable
sized tree.  Thus,at Duddingstlo, in the beighbourhood of Edinburgh, is one which, in 1836,
was 43 feet high, the diameter of its branches
44 feet; at a little above  the roots  I0OJ teet in
girth, and at 3 feet from the ground, 91 feet. In
Forfarshire, at Kinnaird Castle, after being 120
years planted, is one 45 ieet high, 40 feet in diamiieter over the branches, and 35 inches across
the trunk. It is growing on a sandy loam or
clay.
5680. On account of the beauty and fragrance
of its flowers, the hawthorn has been a fl t vof reD
plant among all nations. " It is said," reoma iks
Mr Phillips, "that the  hawthorn fl owers not only
regale  the spirits by their odofr, but that they
have  the power also of counteracting poison.  It
has been miade the pha   ppy  emblem o    f Hope,
because the young and beautiful Athenian girls
brought      branch es of    hawt horn flo wers  to decorate
their companions and friends on their weddingday, whilst  they carried  large bo ughs of it  to the
altar. The altar of  Hymeni was lighted with
tot(hes made    of  the  wood of this tr ee, a nd it
formed  also  thle flarebeaux  which lighted  the
nuptial chamber. The Romans had also bedecked
themselves with branches ot hawthorn wheel they
seized the Sabine women..  On the first of
Ma)t, our ancestors never failed decorating with
it the Maypole, which was permanently fixed in
or near every town and village in the kiniigdoinm
and the boldest youth clinmbed to fix the garland
of flowers on the top; whilst others, less courageous, hung festoons and wreaths of flowers
5675. Tli  plant        commonly us ed in the hedges
of this country  is the common  lhawtlorn), Cratm. us  oxyacantha, or sharp-thoriied  cratoegus.
The  generic ntaimie is derived from the Greek
x~.r,~, meaninig strength, il reference  to  the
hardness and,t trength of the wood.   It is the
aubdp[ine or aubjpin, whitethorn, of the Freuch;
the hayledorn, or hedgethiorin, of the Germans. ~
5676. It belongs to the natural order Poittace&of Jussietu; to Iosacece, tribe  RIiomacem, of De
Caindolle; to Jcosadi-ia, Di-Pertta-qinia of Linumus; and to the natural systeni Periq(ynous
* Journal of the A4yricultural Society of Eaglaand, vol. ii. p. 206.
583
Exqens; alliance Rosales; order Pomacecu;
getius Cratcegus, of Liiidley. 
REALISATION.
in the arts, because it is seldom found of siifficient size, and is, besides, apt to warp.  It weighs,
when green, 68 lb. 12 oz.; and, when dry, 57 lb.
5 oz. per cubic foot.  It contracts, by drying, 1 of
its bulk.  It is employed for the handles of haimmers, the  teeth of mill-wheels, for flails and
mallets, and, when  heated at the fire, for calies
and  walking-sticks.  The branches are used in
England for the heating of ovens-a purpose for
which  they are  very proper, as they give out
much heat, and possess the property of burning
as readily when green as in their dry state." +
" The hawthorn is manufactured into clubs for
golf-playii)g." ~  Combs were formerly made of
the wood, particularly from the root. A decoctionI of the bark yields a yellow dye, and, with
copperas, is used to dye black.   "The timber of
the hawthorn is often spoiled through inattention
after cutting. If it be allowed to lie in the tree
it soon heats, and becomes quite frush (brittle)
and worthless.  It therefore ought to be instantly
cut up into planks and laid to dry." 11
throurgh the gar      land,  and twi                 ned them round the
pole.... This rustic amusement was evidently introduced by the Romans, as we see in
it the remains of their ancient games, Floralia,
that were instituted ill Rome as early as the
time of Romulus, and which the Phoceanis and
Sabines observed in even earlier days."* The
hawthorn is the badge of the clan Og,ilvy.
5681. The tradition regarding the famous haw  thorn at Glastonbury (C. precox, a variety of the
oxyacantha) is thus recorded: "To the S.W. of
the town is Weary-all-hill, an eminence," says
Mr Nightingale, " which, as the monkish writers
inform us, derived its name from St Joseph (of
Arimathea) and his companions resting here
when much fatigued in travellinlg through the
country, during their pious mission in England
for the purpose of preaching the Christian 1.aith.
Here it is recorded that St Joseph fixed his staff
in the earth, which immediately took root, and
ever after put forth its leaves on Christmas day.
It had, we are informed, two distinct trunks till
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when one of them
was destroyed by a Puritan.  The other met the
same fate during  the Great Rebellion.   The
blossoms of this tree were esteemed such great
curiosities as to become an object of gain to the
merchants of Bristol, who not only disposed of
them to the inhabitants of their own city, but
exported them to different parts of Europe.  The
probable truth with regard to this tree is, that
it was brought from Palestine by some of the
pilgrims, there being a species of thorn which
blooms at Christmas, a native of that country."t
5684. The ancients were acquainted wit]) the
hawth          orn as a fence.   The Greeks called  it ycantha, or fire-thorn. With r egard  to  the alnti -
qtiity of fencing with thorns in our own country,
it is probable that fields were fenced with thorni
before Qtl6en Elizabeth's time, and  not so late as
the end of the 17th century; as appears from a
quotation by Marshall from  Fitzherbert, when
the latter complained, at the beginning of the
16th century, of landlords enclosing, and thereby
shutting out their demnesnes and meadows froin
the use of their tenants. If According to Dr
Walker. the first hawthorn ]ledges planted in
Scotland were on the road leading to Inichbuickling Brae in East Lothian, and at Finl,-arig at the
head  of the Tay  in Perthshire.   They were
planted at both places by Cromnwell's soldiers. **
5682. Tile haw of the hawthorn is very apt to
heat when put in heaps.  It is frequently, notwithstanding, sent in large sugar hogsheads, and
so great a proportion becomes heated, that not
above 1 in 20 germinates when sown. It ought
to be packed in not larger quantities than bushelhampers.  When sown, it does not germinate
until the second spring, and, on that account,
nurserymen are in the habit of decomposing the
pulp of the haw by mixing them with sandy
earth, in flat heaps not exceeding 10 inches in
depth, and which are frequently turned, to prevent the haws heating.  Game, and many kinds
of birds, particularly the thrush tribe, are very
fond of the haw; and, on that account, the hawthorn forms an excellent low stiunted underwood
for the protection of game.  It, with holly, Iex
aquifolium, and the dog-rose, Rosa canine, forms
an  almost  impenetrable  barrier  against  the
poacher.  Peasants, in many countries, eat the
haws; and in Kamschatka they are fermented
into wine.
5685. Other plants than the hawthorn hlave
been recommnended  to be used for fencing fields.
No  doubt  others, such a s the black-tlsor, the
crab-apple, w     the  beech,  the elder, and  all  the
forest-trees that bear prtuiniiig, might torni such
a fence as to mark the division of one enclosure
from another; but unless the plant so employed
is furnished with spines, it will prove a very illefficient fence againat the outbreaks of cattle and
horses, irrespective of the trespasses of evil-disposed persons.   The holly?  Ilex aquiJ;blitm, is
the only other plant that possesses the properties
of  a good fencing plant. It is durable, firm,
stands pruininig, is highly defensive, and verdant
alike in all seasons; but, being very slow of
growth, it would require a long time to attain a
sufficient height for  a fence, and, in the  mean
time, would incur much expense in its protection. It will, therefore, never become a suibstituite for the hawthorn for field-fenicing, however
beautiful a fence it may form  near a dwellinghouse or  shrubbery.  Thn  cock's-spur thorn,
S683. " The wood of the hawthorn is very hard
and difficult to work.  Its colour is white, but
with a yellowish tinge; its grain is fine, and it
takes a beautiful polish; but it is not much used
* Phillips' Sylra Florifera, vol. i. p. 261-4.
t Beauties of ELyrgland and Wales, vol. xiii. part i. p. 504-5.
+ Lolndon's Arboretum et Fruticetumn, vol. ii. p. 337.
~ Cruickshank's Practic,al Planter, p. 394.     11 Sang's ATicols PIlanters' Calendar, p. 89.
~  Marshall's Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. i. p. 46.       * * Walker's Lssays, p. 53.
584 
THE HAWTHORN PLANT.
Cratmeus crus gqalli, and the Virginian thornw, C.
Virginiana, have been proposed; but  neither
possesses aiiy properties superior to the (olIlllioli
kind.  The juniper, Juriperus comnitiunis, and thl           e
whin or furze, Ulex ELuropea, have been recomi amended.   The wliiii does lnot stand severe frost.
Ill the sprilig of 1837 almost every whiii-liedge
in Scotland was destrol ed from this cause.  Tlehe
tala plant, a small tihoriiy shrub, a native of South l
Amierica, has been recomiimended as a good fieldfence; but thlere is much doubt of its thriving in
our clitiiate. Iii Germaty the lioriibeam, Ctrir.iw,us
betulus, is used as a field-feice.  In Ho,llalii,  it
seems that nurseryimen have ready-meiade hed.es
for sale.  " We have seen," says Dr Neill, "tilhat
a Dutch merchant, retirilig fromll business, l            iiiay
purchase fruit-trees whicll will yield him  their
produce the very first year; we found tlhat li            he
may  also suirroiiiidi his garden and  shrubbery
with r,ady-formed hedges!  We observed niaiiy
lines of different evergreen and deciduous shrubs, A
usually eiiiployed for this purpose, trainied lhedgewise in the nursery; and these, like the frtuittiees, being firequently removed from olne spot to
another, may, almost without hazard of failure,
be transferred to a  considerable distance, aud
replanted." *   I have seen the common spruce,
Abies excelset, clipt ilnto very neat hedges.  Hlin-i
doostan possesses a great variety of plants fit for
field fences, but whether any one of them would
thrive in this country remains to be proved.  It
is probable that the  temperate region  of the
Himalaya may afford some useful hliedge-plant.
s tone wall never grows we  ll, and, i n consequence,
becomes an eyesore; and a, wall founded oil loose
earth will remain even but for a very short time,
oil atccounit of the unequal subsidence of' tle earth,
anld the consequent sinking of the  stonies. A  3
feet stonje wall,  founded  upon the  hard ground,
belliind tlhe hedge-bank, with a single rail of paliiig raised  behind it, until  the hedge get up,
wo-uild ni.ake a better fence for sheep and cattle.
Aniother  miiode of plantinig a  thorni-hedge is to
build a stonie wall, in which are left holes, about
two-thirds  of  its  height, through   which the
tlhoIrIns grow which hxad beeni planted in the banik
of earth behind it.  This is also an objectionable
imiode, inasmuch as  the plants, whose roots are
ramifying in the bank, have  no support for that
portion of  the stem which grows  horizontally
tlhrough tile holes of the wall; and  the consequent
leverage of the part of the stem which grows upright before the  face of the wall shakes tlhe roots.
Anid shIould  the horizontal stem withini tle lhole
rest f;ar support upon the wall, its weight and
motion sooII bring it down, if' constructed of dry
stonies, or shatter it, if built with mortar. Tlhornis
have been recommended to  be  planted  at  the
bottom of a wall without  a bank, but with a ditch
bef'ore it as a fence to the hedge, with a palilig
o01 its lip.  If a stone wall is built in such a,situation, there seems no  use at all for the  hiedge as
a fence; and if a turf one, surely  the thiornis will
thrive better with a bank of eartli behintd them
than at tble bottom of a turf wall.
5687. On  considering  the state in whichl  the
fences  are usually kept, it must  be  admitted
that the plan  of enclosing  the  lan d is  genlerally
good;  but  the fences are  not c     ared    fo r   as
they  miglt be.   The lo w  country i s sufficiently,
abnd mnpl e,  iw  many  plaes, too densel y fein ee dtoo
much ground  being  o ccu pied, to  the  detrimect
of  tle  crops growing within them.  A slight
glance  at the  smiall e nclo sures of  Englaad wil l
convince  a ny o ne     of     this, tlough   the smiallest
ei(olosieies  are perhaps  occupi e d by meadows o t
permanent  graass.  In the nJorth of Ireland tlle
enclosures are too small, though tlhere the uniiiversal pra,ctice of small holdings better justifies
the prevalence of small enclosures.   Tle uplanid
districts are very deficient of enclosures tl,,oighout the kinlgdomn.  Most  of  the hill-fltiniis have
even no march-fences, the narelhes being mi,arked
out by natural objects, such as  the water-slie(d
line of a hill, the course of  a riviilt.t a r-aviIe,
or even cairnis of stones.   The great,esideratum, however, in such farms is slhelter, Fehich
cannot be afforded by any single felice i11 suchI
situations.   The shelter  of up.lan id districts c,,ain
hardly  be  accomplished  but  ont a s(c:le tlmat
would renjder it of national  iprlane;  f)ir tl]e
attempt on a comparatively small  p-roI~er-ty wv,tl.](
co,nfer as  much benefit on tlhe Ipr,,peirty )ll each
side of it as on itself, anti the t,irolri-et(,r (,f a,
large estate would riot ilc1C11  t]ee gieat expelJe
of sheltering it entirely. It w,,ll Ie I,esila!,e
were proprietors  of  iil)laliil (iitricts t, l-;xe.
mutual understanding on thlis sil,ett:.,n,] i 1':s
could then be adopted  svhich  — u, lud have  tle
5686. There are various ways of treating the
hawthorn  as a  tence.   In  Yorkshire  dtouble
hedges  are  not uncommon,  the plants  being
planted in double rows upright in a irench in the
soil.   Double  hedges were  not uncmmonio  iI
Berwickshliire and Roxburghlshire some years ago,
but no  new ones  have  been added  to  these.
In Norfolk, a high bank is thrown  up, withou            t
a wall, tfrom 6 to 7 feet inl hleight from the bottom
of the ditch, and the thorn-plants are set into the
top, among the crude earth taken out of the bottom of the ditch.  As might be expected in such
a plan, it is not uncommon in that country to see
the face of the bank, with the quicks in it, washed
down by beating rains; and as the roots enl earge
and the bank inmoulders down, the young plants
hang their heads downwards  upon the f!ce of
bank.  The reason assigned for the adoptioln of
this objectiolable  practice is, that there is no
wood iii that colluntry to form temporary  fences
until the tlhr-ns grow; and, being set upon the top
of a steep bank, they are out of the reach of caittle from the bottiln of the dllitch.  Where  fli         a       t
stones are plentiful, a sheltering fence is fbrmed
by enclosing a space of a few feet in breadth between two) walls, and, on filling it with earth, an
upright hedi.oe is planted in it.  Such fences may
be seen in Devotisltre, where flat stones of' the
primitive clay-slate are obtained in abutndance.
A 2L feet waUl on the top of the bank behinid the
hedge, which had been thrown out of the ditcl,
with a colping of-turf, is recommended.   There
are objections to this plan: a turf coping on a
* Neill's Journal of a hIorticultural Tour, p. 204. 
REALISATION.
at the roots, when left exposed for want of
water-tabling, in consequence of the wind acting
on them, by the leverage of its high stems, that
after it has been  cut down it dies for want of
power to putislh out new stems. Such is the sort
of treatment which thorn-hedges generally receive.
effect of sheltering a great extent of country at
a  comparatively  small cost.   Were  extensive
surveys taken of the form of alpine colIunItry, by
engineers well acquainted with  tile prevailing
wiids there, anid coimpetentit  to suggest lines of
fences which would be sure to check their course,
estimates could  be  miade of the cost; and no
class of engineers seems better suited for the
purpose than those engaged in the trigoiiometrical survey  of the couilnitry.  When  the thornfences of the counitry are  minutely examinied,
they will not be foznd always in a usefill state.
S,)me are allowed to grow in a raimbling state,
carryiig a heavy head anid exposing bare stems
near the ground; others are tfar advanced in old
age, anid about to decay for ever, or covered with
liclienis and mosses; fall of gaps, filled Aip with
slabs, palinig, or loose stonzes; occasionally overflowni with water, which gets leave to pass off of
its own accord, which it can seldom do it) winter
before anothier flood overtakes it; completely
overgrown with every weed  that gets leave to
rlied its seeds for miiles around; almost overconie
with wild plants, which have usurped the place
of the thorns; so hacked andli hewed with the
hatchet, that the greater part of it is a blong
time of recovering the butcihery, whilst the reinainder have died in conisequence of the rainu
descending the split stenis and rotting the roots;
so overlaid with plashizig, that the already halfaniputated stemns die in a short time; suspended
by the principal root, after the earth has been
washed away from it into the d(itch; cut over too
high, where  it has put out innumerable twigs,
whilst the stems below are quite bare; so shaken
Fig. 475.
i.
THY HAWTHORN BUTT       4/LS'-PIsY,//~Ra
,:
TiHti HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY-PIRRIS CRAT[GI.
586
5688. The only accident incident to young
lhedges il spring is scorching from the sun.  It
is occasioned by the sudden evaporation of hoar
frost, in a calmin atmosphere, from the young leaflets
of the hledge, by a powerful rising sun. The
suddeni evaporation causes so intense  a cold  as
actually to destroy vitality in the tender shoots
of the plant which have just burst into leaf; and
the consequence, in a few days afterwards, is in
the  young leaves and tender shoots seeming to
have been severely scorched by fire. I have
frequently observed this scorching, to a partial
extent, on the east sides of hedges that run N. an d
S., the side next the rising sun; but in spring
1841, the affection was so severe  and  exteiisiv,
that not hedges only suffered, but large beecl,trees of upw'ards of  100 years  old, that came
early into leaf, literally died in the ensuing
winter. A l-edge so affected will be leafles.s all
sunmer at the part scorched.   It ought  not to
be switched until it has perfectly recovered its
vigouor.
5689. The thorn-hedge is subject to the attack
of maniy insects, though the effects are different.
One of these is the black-veinied white, or hawthorn butterfly, Pieris cratcegi, a, fig. 475, ail in 
THE HAWTIIORN PLANT.
may then be sown upon a prepared mound, as on
thle prepared level of  the ground.   The plant
grows very rapidly, and soon becomes a fenice
from its spiny armamiienit.  It should be switched
into the proper form of a hedge when young, to
prevent the straggling fo)rm of growth which it
is very apt to assume. When allowed to grow
at will, it attainis a mature age in a few years,
and then dies out, or it is hastened to its end by
the frost. The whin does not like very good
soil.  I tried  to raise a  hedge   ulponi a snt:all
imounid of file black  mould, but failed by  the
young plaltts dyinig out.  My object  was to ha,ve
a whlini hedge for drying  clothes  upon, as that
plant exposes the most convenient and sa,fe  siirftce, by its smoall spines, for receiving clotlies  upon) it. The plant likes to push its roots into a claiy
subsoil.  The whin forms a cheap fel',ce around a
plantation, and it forms a good  innir.e for  younIg
trees not over-thickly planited, and is well ada pted
as ulnderwood to afford shelter to game.  The
late Mr InIglis well described the utility of thle
whliil plalt in these words: "In returning td
Wexford by another road, I was greatly struck
by the gay effect produced by  the fuize, or, as
they are called in Scotland, the whiin hedges,
vhichl formn the only enclosures iIl this distri(,t.
The fturze hedges  are very general in lreland,
alld are much preferred  by  the people  to anly
other, anid not without reason. lt parts of tile
country wvhere turf is scarce and  coal dcar, the
furize is a ready and abundant fuel.  Nor is this
the olly use to which it is put- the tender shoots
are mia,ishied, antid given as food to the horses, and
the  refuse is mixed  up, and used as  manure.
There is still another use of a  ftlrze he(dgilig:
when full grown, it affords, in raiiny weatlier, a
shelter to live stock, which neither thorn nor
any other hedge affords; for there are no droppinigs fromti a furze hedge. This is a fact of which
an1y pedestrian mlav agreeably convince himself;
if cautght iin a shower of raini, in the  nieighbourhood of a ftirze enclosure." t
sect unknown in Scotland, but frequent in Ellgland, and at times so numerous olu the Contilejut
that its flight has been nmistaken for a slihowver of
snow.   The caterpillar is seen at b, of a' dtlld
yellow colour at first, but changes with nioultiligs, and is produced  from  yellow-coloured
cylindrical eggs laid on hawthorn shoots, and
reldered waterproof by a coatillg of strolg varnish.  It devours the leaves, and, whiile so eimployed, lives in society under the protection of a
silken web.   Other lepidopterous illnsects di         osfigure our ledges by defoliatiqn, such  as the
figure of 8, or black thorn iiiothli, Epsemza cPrrulocephala, whiose caterpillar is 2 inlc(hes lo)ig, ot' a
yellowish-green colour, with 3 pale stri,es.  A
s,ill greater pest to our hledges is the brIowntailed motl, Porthesia auriflua, whloseca terpillars,
of a dusky colour, with 2 red lines on the back,
and a white streak on the sides interrupted  at
intervals, occur sometillies in such number        s  tlat,
in 1782, their webs were gathered( in one day by
the people of; siugle parish in the neighbourrhood of Lonot,ll that of Clapliamin, to the amnounllt
of 80  btushel.-.*  Another species of the same
genus Porthesia chrysorrhea, yellow-tailed moth,
lives on a great variety of trees aud shrubs in its
caterpillar state; and among tlhese is the hlowthorni, to whichl it otteti causes extensive ilijyhy.
The small and beautiftl ermilie mnothls, so readily
known by  their  p)ure white coloutr, generally
spotted with black, ofteii leave  the fruit-trees,
which are their habitual resort, and attack lawthorn hedges.  The caterpillars live iin society,
and form a common tent for themselves by dirawmig a number of leaves tt,gether, wvlich affiord
them  at once food and shlelter.  Having  coi1suiiied the foliage of onie spot, they move onl to
another; and the devastation is ofteln so coimplete
thatthe hedges, for miles, presenlt the al)pearance of winter sprays covered with a cottony
web.   The  two species  most  to be  dreaded
are  Yponomeuta  padella  and  Y.  eroniyinella.
They are miore commoil  ill England  than in
Scotland.
5f691. Mr Fortune mentions a curious method
which the Chinese have iii protecting the yolung
bamboos from the ravages of thie wild boar: " A
piece of bamboo wood about  8 or  10 tfeet lolig,
anud rather thicker than a tan's airmni, is split up
ith e middle to withlin a fourth of its leligth. This is
tmade fast to a tree il the bamboo thicket, and at
ani atngle of about 45", the split part  being left
loose; a cord, a'so made of bamboo, is fabteiied
to it by one end, and the other is led to sonie
convelnient place out of the tilcket, where a man
is stationed.  Wlhen the boars come  down in the
dead of night to attack  the yoing shoots, the
manl pulls the rope backwards aud forwards,  and
clauk, clank, c(lauk goes  the bamboo, produlcing
a loud  ( and hollow sound, whichi  on a quiet eveiiing  may  be  heard  at a gretlt distalce.  rI,le
allinifils  aire frightened, and niake tff to their
denls ill the hills."+   Our  crow-iniil., (or glent
rattles,  would  probably   prodlIe   tile   aillie
effect when sprung in the llalids  of  a  5totit
watcher.
5690. As hedges of  whin, Ulex Europea, are
common in the upper and poorer parts  of the
country, it is necessary to say'a few  wordis  o
tlhem.  Whliis —or fturze, as the planit is named
iii Englai(I-are  very frequently sowni uponi the
top of a turf mound constructed for the purpose,
because the young plant is out of reach  of daniger, and requires nJo temporary  fencin-g for protection, and where, generally, turf is plentiful.
The plants grow well in such a situation, strikieig
their roots (]own through tlhe mound  into the
ground below, for the sake ot'meeting with inoisttire.  No douibt, the sharp spines of the plant
attract moisture fr,,m  tlie atmosphere as well,
as the structure of the plant is well adapted for
caustin,, thie raini to trickle dowin the branlches to
the roots.  Iii raising, a  wbliin feniee, all tlhat is
required to be done is to  sow the seed, which
costs Is. p.er pounid, alo)ig the line of fence, ill a
small ruit mnadle with the cormber of the halnd-lhoe,
fig. 266, a,id coverel over withl a rake. The seed
* Quarterly Journal of A.rictilture, vol. xiii. p. 155.
t Inglis' Ireltisd, vol. i. p. 50-1.            + Fortuie's ll'anderinqs in Clhina, p. 179.).
587 
(lry-sLoiie  ayKes  are  )UllLt  Dy  ori(llnary
masonls, who, beiing accustomned to the use
of lijie-iiiortar, are not acquainted with
the bed(ling- of tlhe loose stones of a dryv
dyke  as firimly as  tlley  slhould be, arind
therefore are unfitted to build suchl  a (dykle.
A  buildler of dry-stone dykles slilluld be
broughit tip to the profession; and when lie
hlas acquired sklill lie will bjuild a sihbsttl- o,
tial oiie, at a moderate cost, wlhich  will
stand uprighlt for nmany years.   A  proper
sort of stone is:-t g,reat assistance to the
builder  of  stone ldykes,  flat thlin  ones
being, the best: but flatniess and thininess
are not the only requisites; they sliotld g
also  have a  rough  siirfiice by  wlhich  to
adlhere to one another in thle wall; and
no  tiiateriail, o)i  this accIount, is so  well
adapted for the purpose as thle stones derived fiotti sandstone  botulders of gravel
deposits,  wlhenr  split withl  thle pick  into
flat pieces of tlhe requisite  tlhickness on
being taken out of tlhe ground, wliicli, oni
being, exl)osed to thle air for a shlort timie,
becomie dry and hlarld.
so ~lat sucII a  (tyke  coss y    us. lene tu
yards, or Is. for every yard in length, or
~f, 9s. 6d. per cul)ic rood, or 3s. 7d. per
cuI)ic ya-rd.   Tlje best way to contract
for thie erection of stonie-dykes is by the
rood of 38(  cuibic yards, whvlen every
templ)tation on  tle part of thje builder to
lessen  the  breadth, and nmake  thle leart
of tlhe dyke lhollow, will be remnoved.
5698.  The  line of fence  being deterniiine(i  on, it is mra-rke(d off  with   a  row
of stakes  (driveni firmiily into  tlhe  grotitid.
Tlhe tuppler soil, to the depthi it leas been
ploughIie(-d, is retro vet fromn the line to
forlii the  foundation of tlhe dyke;  and it
iimay  be diriven  a-tway  iniim;iediately, and
not lie in  tl)e  builder's way,  or it slsould
be  formted into  a   comnpost  witil  liiiie,
near tlhe  spot, for  top-(-dressing(, griass.
Wietn  tile  surlfce consists of  ol(d  finniii
tlhick sward,  tlhe dyke may  be founded
5694. Dry-stone dykes are  measured
by quatrters-tlthat is, quarters of a yard
of 9 inches eachl.  A  5-quarter dyke  is
thle luslal mneasuie of a fiel(l-fence, that is
45  inclies,  or  3  feet 9  inches to  the
under side of thle cover upont whichl  the
col)e stones stand-tlthe  cover and  copestones usually measuring 12 inchles, so that
the dyke stands altogetlier 4 feet 9 inliches
in hlei,ght.  The dyke, whlen fiishe(l is
measured by the rood of 36 square yardls
upon its face under  the  cover, so that
5696. The tools of a (Iry-stone dyker
are few an(] inexpensive, consisting only
of a i,iiasoii's liaiiiii-ier, a fi-aiiie as a gau(,e
for the size of tl)e dyke, and cords as
guides for ttie -tr,,ti(,-Iitness and thickness
of the dyl-ze. A ditclier's sliovel, fif-,. 453,
is also tiseful to llilli in PUttiD(I tlle Sllivers
of tire stones to,,etlier into Ijeal)s, to be the
n-iore e-isily removed by carts.
50'9 4. A dyl-:er cannot work in wet or
in very cold weatlier, as liaiidlin(, stones
In
in a state of %%,etness is liurtftil to the
b.-ii-e lian(i; on wliieli ace(tints, dry-stone
dykes are coninioiily built iii suiiinier. 
STONE-DYKEF BUILDING.
for  thlem  out of  the  build(ling  stones.
These  particuilars -ire worthli attendling to,
to save  unnecessary  trouble  afterwards
in reumoving  or bringit,g stones, to the
annoyance alike  of  the  dylier  andl  tlhe
farlller.
up)on it;  biut in folrniig fi,i( nd-,tions, it
should be I)orne in inin(i that dykes.re
apt to sink in soft earth of every kind,
to its injuiry —not  nierely b)y curtailing
its!,ei,ght as a fence, but by twisting its
structure and causing it ultimately to fall.     f
Whlen thle soil consists of vegeftable?mould,
it slhould therefore b)e removed altogethier,
and  its  intrinsic  value  in  a coiiI),tlst
will amply repay the trouble of remiovingw,iw
it.
5700. The siinplest nod(le of coiinveyiii
la.rg,e!)ouldiers is  upl,oti a sle(lg e, sl,(l)d
witi, iron,  wlhichi is i)etter  tl)an  pltti(,
tlieiu, in  aund taking  tlhein out (of L ceiiiimon c.art, the bottom an d sides  of  whlicl,
are  al)t to  be broken  )by  boulilels.   A
pair  of  horses,  yv,kel   as iii a I)Ioui,(i,
will  draw  a  very  ihea;vy  l)(,ultle  ilij)(ln
suchi  a  sledge,  on  thle  oi(dini-ry  surfice
of  thlle  ground.    Whlen  imany  orili.nar.
stones are driven  for  buildiig,s, of anlv
kind,  thle carts  should receive an  extll'
bottoming, and liting with  deals of ciimon  Scots  fir, or  of  w%illow,  whlicl is
better than any otlier sort of wo(od, as bei)(g
softer and less lial-)Ie to split.
5i9o9. After th e    fonundation has  be  e
formed  b  the removal of  the resarbe th                    n     g, tl
stonies  shoulld be laid down  on both side
as near the line o/ffoitndlzttion as practi
cable, for it is of conrsi(lera,ble impif)ortanc
to the builder tlhat tlio st,,nes 1be nea
at hand.  Wh1eni the st,ones are I-lid eve
as far off as two yards, from  the founda
tion, the builder loses timiie in  tlhrowin
them nearer; but, on the other lha-nd, n
stones should be  emnptiedl from  tlhe car
into the foundation, as thev will h1av-e t
be removed by the Iltiilder hefore ihe corn
moences his work.   L-lr,,e boul(ler-sttone
form excellent ma,teria,l for the foti-ndatiol
of stone dykes, and should be  laid clos
to the foundation lefore tlhe buiilding stone
nzre brou(,ght. In laying dolwn the stones
the crti-ter:.3 shliold be instruicted to put dow~
18 tons on each side of 30 yards leng,t
of the foundation; and when boulders ar
also put down, allowance should be niad
F
5701. Every  I)reparationi  beiig,  tlhus
made, two  builders  p)rocee(l t(o the work,
one  opposite  thle (,thler-thle best  nubiiier
to niake the best work, and they assist each
othler withl stones whlich one wvtuld 1iot be
able to nmanage.
Ih    5702. They  begin by  setting ui) the
e   franme, fig. 476, at one end of the dykle,
e  whether it commences  against another
Fig. 476.
/{r — Wo  
Iiii. IULJIL)IN(' A  I)iiY-STONF.  DYliE.
589 
REALISATION.
fence, or at a gateway into the field which
the figure is supposed to represent, in the
foundation of the proposed line of dyke.
Tile frame is made of thle breadthl) and
height of the proposed dyke under the
cover; and is set perpendicularly by the
plummet attached to it.  Acorresponding
framie should be placed beyond the point
which is fixed for one stretch of building,
or two  stakes driven into thie ground,
having the same inclination as the sides of
the franme, to answver the purpose of a
temporary one.   On  undulating ground,
a space of half a rood, or 15 yards, between the franies, is a sufficient stretch
of building at one time; but on level
ground a rood may safely be taken in.
The cords are then stretched along the
space,  and  fastened  to the outside of
each frame, to guide, as lines, the building of the side of the dyke straight, and
to gauge its breadth.  The frame is held
upright and steady by a stiff rail, having
a nail driven through one of its ends,
hooked on to the top-bar of the frame, and
the other end with a stone laid upon it,
or pushed into the ground.
5706. A  sn encheon should  be formed
of in-band and out-band stones, hammerdressed, and firmly bedded upon one
another.
5703. Whlen the dyke begins with a
scunchleon, as in this case, a large boulder
should be chosen for its foundation stone; 
and if there are no boulders, a large stone
should be selected and dressed for the
purpose, as no better protection can be
given to the end of a dyke-and especially
so when the scunclheon forms one side of
a gateway to a field.  Another boulder, or
large stone, should be placed at a little
distance from the first, and smaller stones
used to fill up the space between them,
until the buil(ling is raised to the height
of the boulders.
5707. The  covers   should pr oject an
inch or two beyond the face of the dyke,
to protect the top. They should be two
inches tlhick, and without a flaw throughout their length, which should be two feet
at least, that their weighlt S)av keep.) them
firnm and their size cover a large splace of
building,
5708. In  forming  the  cope, a  large
stone should be placed at the end of the
scunclheon to keep down the cover, and
act as an abutment  for  resisting  the
wedging down of the smaller cope-stones.
Another large cope-stone should  be set
at a short distance from it Ulpon the joining of two covers, to keep them secure.
Thinner  stoties should  then be  placedl
between  these on edge-and where they
domeet, a stone should be  wedged in by
strokes of tile hamiiier; but the icedying
should  be  delayed  until a  considerable
length  of coping is  finislhedl, thle better
to  resist their force.   The  cope-stotnes
should be nearly all of the same hleigt.
On  finishling the face of a dyke,  small
stones  sh oul be  firm ly we dge d in with
the hammer, where room can be found,
5704. Gr eat  art is requir                            ed in laying
the small stones, and it is this art in
dyke-building whiilc detects the good from
the bad builder. In good dr-y building,
the stones are laid with a slight inclination
downwards, fi'om  the centre of the dyke,
towards each face, and to break balnd with
one another; and to supp.)ort their inclination, small stonies slould be wedged firmly
under thjem in the heart of the dvke;
whereas Stones that are laid flat admit of
no  wedgingr to heart them, and  receive
none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out
in both faces.   The inclination causes the
590
rain wljich inay bave found its way down
through the top -of the dyke to be thrown
off by botti sides.
5705. The stability of a dyke is mucli
assisted by leaving what is called a
thorough-band stone, I)Iaced across it -it
about I)alf-way  ul) ttie  buil(lin,,.   Ttie
cover also acts as a tliorougli-I)atid at the
top of the dyke; but in layin,, tije cover,
the levelliitg of the dyke to foriii its bed
should not be made of very small and vei-y
thin stones, as is too often tije case, as
neitl)er have stability, are easily I)i-olen,
and are constantly in dan,er of slif-,I)in,, out,
fr(,tiiundertliecoverandcope.. Tiiorott,,Iiband stories are frequently left pr(jecting
from one or both sides of the (lyie by
soiiie builders, merely to indicate that they
are tl)oroti(,h-baiids; but the practice is
objectionable, inasmuch as any projections
serve onlyas stei)pin,-stones for trespassers,
to climb over the dyke. 
STONE-DYKE BUILDIN G\
between the beds and thle ends of thle gap is easily fenced with a bunchl of tlhorns
larger ones.                                 or %hliins.
5713. Such dykes as I have been  describing, of 5 quairters io lheighIt, will fence
horses  and cattle  and  LeicesYter s!heep,
but will  not confine ]3Bla(k-faced slheep,
and scarcely Clieviots.   For thlese, higher
walls niust either be  built, or expedients
used t o nf4,tke ordinary otne confine tliena.
Somie of'these expedlietits are  sl,wn in
fig,. 477, wlheie part of an or(litiary (lykse
5709.  In building a stretch  of  dyke,
siiclh as the rood above  referred to, it is
cutstomnary to carry up the buildiing at botlh
ends, as well as at the middle of tlhe stretclh,
to tlhe levelling of tlhe top, before the interimedliate spaces are built alp, because those
primary parts, being built tlhus inldepentdently, act as pillars in thle dyke to support
the intermediate building pluiinb; and they
are also convenient for pinniing thlle c()Irds
against wliile the intermediate spaces are
leing built.
5710. When  a few stretclhes of ldyke
lave thus been finished, thle surplus stones,
it any, should be removed, and laid where
they are wanted; and should thlere be a
deficiency, stones shlould be imtmediately
brou,ght, to allow the builders to finish one
stretlch  before they proceed to another.
The debris of stones caused by the hamlme           er
should be taken to the roads.
withi its cope is seen; andl trley c(onsist o-o
occasional cope-stones a b c d an(l e, set on
edge to a considerable hieigh]It, say 9 inclhes oi
12 incites, above the ortlitiary ones.  Upon.
these are placed either fillets of wood along
notlches formed on their top, and we(lged
into them, as at a, b aand cs, or a stron, rope
of straw is laid sotnewla at  loosely o ver tiho
notclhes, to   daingle in  the wind,  and to
form   a sc are to thle sleel), as at c, d and e.
Another ex   pedien t  is, wvher e  a singleface(t d yke i s  built aagainst  rising oround,
consistipng  of  plantation or of  cultivater
land, to soew a fe   w seeds of whined     ol
broom  in t he so il be hind  the ldyke,   and
the plants in time stp reall over tlwe copestones.   Wiere a gooll stones fopr covers are
sca fce, and turf  is tough    an(-l heathlery,
tlick turt, cut of th e breaith of      these
top of tthe  dyke-an(  laid fir mly  ande
inertly on with cope-stones upon tthe turfs,
wlichl afford thetm a firtii bed-will raise
a  dyke  a suffici ent height. A   m(nr e  pertmatedyt exped ient  tShan e ither      of these,
wlere tthe  dyke   is built of  lalge strong
stones froma s   t  eo  a  quarryo i s to erect a wire
f e nce upon the  dyke, by inserti)g upriget
wrout,lgt-iron standards into  the covers,
and stretclhing three rowss of wire thiroug,hI
and across tlhermi.  Such an addition costs
from 8d. to ls. 4d. per  lineal yard.  Or
stakes might  be driven along- anid close to
one face of  tlhe dyke, in leng,tlh to reach
above its covers to receive  tlhree rows  of
wires.  Where thlinnings of plantations are
abundant, this is the cheapest, though less
5711. Tlhese are all thle particulars to
be                       attended to in building dykes f or ordin     a      r     y fencing,; but              modifications are somet    i    m    e     s     introduced into their form to serve
a                        convenient purpose. For   example,     an
opening                                         should be left under the cover of a
dyke, of a sufficient widtlh and lheighlIt
to allow sheep to pass from one field into
another,  wlhein  thle  passage  between
tlhemii by road may be a considerable distance.   Wlhere  a  passage exists  between thje fields iby lneais of a gate, no
suclh opening should, be made, but only
wlhen the two fields are entered by dliffirent farm-roads.   IV~len tlie opening is
not used, it should be stopped up with
thorns or a wooden board.  An opening,
of 3i feet wide and 3 feet hig,hI will suiffice.
5712. Anotler  c()nvenience         is          t o leave
a gap at the top of tlhe dyke by lowering
its cover, and removing, the cope at a
place wlere a passag,e is occasionally required for foot p,,Lseng,ers.  By doing, this
the dyke may be salved from  muheli injury'.
A gap near tlhe top of the dyke  may be
useful as a stile ini tlhe line of a foot-path,
or at tlhe side of a cover, for holunds and
huntsmen to pass with ease; and lhere the
whtipp)er-in may stand on tbe out-loolk for
a burst.  Wlhen not constantly in use, the
-..7-   I, t., —.    -                       - I
591
Fig. 47i-.
- -i,                                                   -.
I.   —. I. —  t - I,,.,,  iH
F,XPEDIE.NTS FOlt ],\CItFASIN(; T[IF, lIFI(;HT I)k'
A DitY-SI'ONE DYIi,,. 
REALISATION.
dural)le plan than the preceding ones withl
tlhe wires.
sllp)ly -,ll tlhe fieldls witli waiter from it by
means of a spoilt into trou,,lis.  This exp)ediect I hiave successfully used.
5714. Wfhlen dlykes run at ri(ght angles
to one anotlher, and are erected siulultineously, tiley should lbe built in connlection;
but whlere a new dyke c(,imes ag,aiust anothler, the old one shouldl not be touclil,ed,
and the new built firmly beside it.
5718. Where the ground is firm, and
no water but shelter is wanted at t"-)at
sp)ot, the dlyke should be built curve(l, to enclose as)ace between them to lbeplan,t ted with
trees for ornament and shelter.  The land
Ihere will not be wasted, even should it be of
th e finest quality; because the corners of
f,ur ardjoiin,g fiel  l     s always contain ground
that cannot be reached )by  the          ohlgh, as
may be  seen be tween i, k, I and in, fi. 480;
Fig. 480. while the plouigli
hl           can   pass   alo ni r
such  curves  aa
near as to,a,
straight    fenc,,.
m{               In building  ci   dykes  may  cross       vatures in (lykes,
t'"e ^nr   obuilders charge a
half  more   per
4,anrood   than   for
in* t aplain work.  Sucli
A CLUM.P OF TREES WITIIN curves  in dykes
TIlE MEETING OF DYKES. are niad(e by the
same rules as those furnished for  hedges
in (5621.)
5715. Where two (lylkes cross, and  the
place is natuirally wet, or water  may l)e
easily broughlt to it, a watering-pool there
would  serve  four  fieldls, and  the I)pools
should  be f(rmedI before  the  dykes are
built.   Thlere are two ways of fericingsclih
Fig. 478.         a pond:- When
FOUR wthe rouind is fird      ml,
and   the water
shallow, the two
dykes  may cross
..... <y- 4at the  centre of
FORME  1  — the poa d, as in fig.
R  G           b478, h,avin   holes
in tlhem to allow
the water to pass
L~^             tltrougl, to firi-i a
wateriin(g-pool  in
FroUR W.ATERINCG-POOTs
FORMlED BY TWO DYKES  eachl field, as at (a,
CROSSI.NG.         b, C, an(i d.
57.!). A stone dykle is in the highlest
state ()f perfection as a fence immediately
f rom thle lr ands of the builde rs;  but every
day tltereafter  the effe ct  o f the  atmosphere
upon tee stones,  at all se ason s, s lad the
accidents to  whlicll they are  lisable  by
wt resp ssess     of individua ls  and the strength
o f s tock, rend er it   necessary to r upalll
their  rep,tirs frequen tly; and  this  consideratimon slould cause  the best t lnterials
and wpork- anslhip to be  se lected  for the ir
ori,nal erection.   Dyles  slhould  be inspected every year, before the    stoeck  tale
possession of  tlhe  p)astlie fielhs, and repaiared, (3570.)   Wlen tile  repairs  are
no0t extensive, the most convenient  nmodle
of slI)pIyiin,, the stones to tlhe (lyker is
to l]>osen a cart-loa(d of themii lher-e and
tlhere, aind provide him w itlh ai wvleel-lbarr-ow, fig. 87, to take the stones fro,m it to
tlie particular spot requiring repairs, as lie
wvants them; and wlhatt lie does not requiire
are left irn tle cart to be  l)routght away at
once.  Wihen stones are laid down, it beingi
impossible to estimate the quantity exactly
required, those Dot  required are  alnost
certain to get leave to lie upon tlhe ground
5716. WVhIere a pond  alreatdy exists, arn(I
its water is too deep for dlykes to traverse,
the dykles most terminate at its elge, and d
convert  tlhe  ponil  into  a  w.iterinig-po(l           p
common to foor fields.   Wlieii the pl()d c,
fig. 479, is  usedl  by  only one field  ait  ai
Fig. 479.          titne,  it slotul(n be
fenced froiii the
other tliree fieldls
by mea,ns of lhuir:__-       _ _dl~es, ("r l:''lie" go at
f, g, and  h;  and
wlien  it  ll-tl)ens
to   be    uisedI  by
inore   tla on   one
fiel(d att a tirl-e, a
paling   should   lbe
ONE AVATElRI.NG-P(tOL C{}M- rull   acF()SS   tlhe
,o0N TO FoU,t I~IIELI) s.  t),bes-:i(es tlhose
in tlhe fields not oceupllied 1,y the -stock.
5i 71 7.  Wllere the (:grouin(I is firimi, atndI no
I)rosl)ect  of  ()obtaining  at  watering-pol, oo
the (dykes slio,-ul(l )  ma(le to cross, iand a it
well snk in a corner of one (of tile fields,
with a pumip in it of tsuch   ei:lis' as to
59 
WIRE FENCES.
for the greater part of the ensuing season,
fromn the reluctance to waste time in doiiing
such an insignificant job at a busy season,
as the removal of a few stones.
5720. Dry-stone dykes are not nearly
so picturesque objects in a landscape as
thorn hedges, nor do they aflord so mnuchl
or so comfortable shelter to stock, (10)13.)
They are easily and quickly erected, however, in a country where the  materials
suited to their construction are abundant;
and after being completeld, they satisfy the
mind of the farmer that little trouble will
be experienced from  them for a series of
years to conlie.
5721. A sunk fence cannot be said to
have been formed until a single-faced stoiine
dyke is built against the firm ground, after
the earth had been taken away in front of
it; and no better means can be employed
anywhere for supporting a bank of earth
likely to slip down  than by building a
strong single-faced dyke against it. Such
a face dyke may be built, including the
quarrying and carriage of the stones, for
fid. per lineal yard.
5724. Another method of securing a
straining-post underground is shown by
fig. 482, where a is the post of the sme
Fig. 482.
5722. A good many years since, I first
saw a wire fence at the late  Sir Alex.
Mulir Mackenzie's, at Delvin.  The structure was neat, but tlhenii very costly; but
now tIllat wire is manufactured on a large
scale, on purpose to construct this species
of fieldi fence, the price of wire-fencing
lias been greatly rediuced, as is the case
with  all manufactules for  whichl  there
arises a large deniaind.
5723. Wire-fences  consist  of  three
parts  the straining-posts, the standards
or intermediate posts, and the wires.  The
str(tini,ng-posts are made of wood or of
iron; and in the country, where wood is
cheaper than iron, the former will in most
cases be clhosen, altliolugll it can bear no
comparison with iron in (durability.  A
simple form of straining-post is showni in
fig. 481, where a is the post 7 feet long,
and 6 or 7 inches in diameter at the
smallest end, is put into a pit 3 feet deep;
b is the sole 6 feet long, 3 or 4 inches thick
and 6 inches broad, whichl takes in  the
VOL. 1I.
-I
4=
l(.q]
6
593.
post a( at  6 i,]s' i-one   tihe elsl,' and  l}as
1 nloteli cut it~, it   uj,1 e'  suiifale  nea,r the
I"i',. 4 81.
a
b~
STRAINING-POST, WITH SOLE AND STAY UNDER                 GROUND.
other end to admit  the strut  d, which is
also notched and nailed into the post about
4 inches below  the surface of the ground.
In setting the post into the ground, the
earth is firmly rammned in  upon  the sole,
and about the strut.
ON WIRE FENCES.
.r,~~~0.
~ 5N
I.....
STAN'N-PS, IH ~4NSUNR;RU
STRAINING-POST, WITH PLANKS UNDERC.RD-UNM]
size as tlhe preceding, at the back of which
at the bo)ttomit, is fastened a plan k b, 2 feet
long, IO, inches broad, and 2 inches thick;
and another plank  c, of the same  dimtensions, is fastened ill front of the post about
6 inches below the surface of tlhe ground.
The earth is then firmiily raminmed in until
2r 
REALISATION.
made of wroughlt iron, fig. 484.   Whien
wooden strainilig-posts decay thley must be
removed, and in doing which the  whlt)le
fence must be taken down.  Iron posts,
such as a, obviate this inconvenience  by
being permanent.  They are I; to 1 inchl
square, andl cost from 2d. to 2 -d. per  lb.
Each weighs fromi 32 lb. to 40 lb., according to the heighlt required. The extreme
posts require a stay, b, in addition, which
costs accordillg to its weighlt.  The cost of
a straining,-post is this:
it come    s  t o 12 inch es of the   surfac e, when
another plank d of similar dimensions is
placed opposite to the plank c, firmly into
the ground, and then the three pieces of
wood e are tig,ltly driven in between the
planks. This is considered a very secure
node of fixing, a straining-post against
the tension of the wires.
34 lb. at 2d. per lb.,..    ~0  5 
Boring in a stone 2 holes, 31 inches deep,
and 2 inches diameter, a wlhinstone,  0  0 9
5 lb. lead for batting, at 2d.,.      0  0 10
~0   7  3
Boulders answer for blocks,  if not  under
10  or 12 cwt.;  and those  which  have
rounded tops   are  best,  inasmuch  as   a
greater  depth  of earth  covers  them, to
the benefit of the grass growing over
them.
5727. Mr Binning Munro of Auchinbowie, Stirlilngshire, uses only iron straining-posts and iron standards, and considers
them  as cheap as wooden ones, even at
first.  His strnfining-posts are  round, 2-t
inches diameter, with stays, and weigh
68 lbs. Thle standards are made of 1I
inch by i inch bar iron, with 6 holes for
the wires, and weigh I0 lb. each, and they
are not squared at the ends, to admit them
being put into a small hole, as  is commonly done, and which weakens  the iron
where it should be the strongest, but are
kept broad and fiat; and the hole is made
for them, and not they  for  the  holes.
The  straining,-posts have a hold in the
stem of 6 inches, the standards 4 inches.
After the posts are put into the holes,
these are filled with round gravel and
melted sulphur run amongst them, at 2d.
per lb., which is better than lead, because
it does not shrink as lead does, and become
loose.
-8TRAINING-POST, WITH STANDARD AND STAY
A REX GROUN'.
;the others, is placed in the pit, having a
piece of wood,  b, 2 feet long, 6 inches
broad, and 2 inches thick, nailed to the
badk part of the bottom; e is a standard
driven into the ground, at 4 feet distance,
and the strut d is nailed at one end into
a n        oth notch near the top of the post at c, and
at the other end to the standard e, near the
ground. Both the posts are fixed in the
,ground before the strut is nailed to them.
5728. The intermediate posts should be
made of larch, and the thinnin,gs of plantations are suitable for them. For a fence of
31 feet in hleight, the posts should be.5 feet
lon,, with a diameter of 3, inches at the
smallest end. In ordinary fencing, they
may be used with the bark on. They
should all be clarred, which is done in
4
I,
I
i!
:. i
11-1
-i
i
594
5725. A third method still is given in
fig. 483, where a similar size of post a, to
Fig. 483.
c
d
'N
7 —
.'5726. Another sort of strainiDg-POSt I"S
Fig. 484.
.A W.-ROUG.HT-!ILRONSTR LINING-IPOST. 
WIRE FENCES.
this manner:-Lay  two  trees of little
value parallel, about a foot or fourteen
inches apart, upon the ground.  Between
them collect chips and brushlwood, and set
fire to them. Lay the posts directly across
the flame, at the part where the surface of
the ground will touch, and turn them from
side to side until they are ready.  They
are then simeared with coal-tar as long as
they are warm, that as much as possible of
it may be absorl)e(l.
always to  be  rejected.  It  easil y bends,
and remains so from, vwant of elasticity;
and it soon oxidises, even  wlien painted.
5734. The following table exhibits  tlhe
comparative qualities of these wires, as
tested by the nulifier of pounds each kind
sustains before breaking, the leng,tlh being
10 feet: —
No.. 8 broke with  590 lbs. without rptibl
No. 6... 844...V                   Stretibl       y
No. 4.      1269      J       stretching.
5729. Intermediate posts have a sufficient hold of the ground at 21 inches deep,
and will support the wire sufficiently when
st 7 or 8 feet apart, in a straight lihe; but
il curves they should be set closer, and
always within the curve, to mneet the strain
vpon the wires. The staples for supporting
the wires are partially driven into  the
osts before these are set into their pits.
.A nnealed Wire.
No. 8 broke with 605 lb., stretched 4. inches.
No. 6...     8:32......      3...
No. 4...     1282......       2..
Prepared Wire.
No. 8 broke with 955 lb., stretched I inch.
No. 6...      138;0......   I...
No. 4...      2163.........
5730. The wires used in wire-fencing
are of different kinds, and bear different
names.  They are named common, prepared, charcoal, and annealed wires. The
common is the ordinary wire of commerce,
and is the kind which has hitherto been
mostly employed  in wire fences.  It is
made from the coarser sorts of iron, and, as
its name indicates, bears a corresponding
relation, both as regards quality and price.
Cloarcoal Wire.
No. a broke with 1274 lb.  t
No6..6  stretched the same
No.6. 4...               as the prepared wire.
.No. 4...26b6...
5736. The cost of tlhe different kinds ot
wire of the same size, from Nos. 1 to No.
6, is the same.  No.  I to No. {i of conilnloIn
wire costs from 8s. 6di. to 10s. 6,t. per
butindle; the prepared is 2s. nmore, and the
charcoal 2s. nmore than the prepared.
57,31. Prepared wire is made from a
finler description of iron, is more carefully
manufactured, comes out il longer lengths,
is consequently superior in quality, and
bears a higher price in the market.
57,32. Charcoal  wire  is the best and
strongest of any of the qualities made.  It
is drawn  fromr. charcoal iron, prepared
chiefly b)y wood-cliarco-al, which  is freer
from the impurities known to deteriorate
the quality of iron, that exist in a greater
or less degree in all the fuels nsed in the
manufacture of the other descriptions of
that material.
55 37. The  number of wires    employed
in a fence depend on its  height, but the
ordinary heignt of 3a   fee t requires; wires
to smake  the fe nce csrnn fine  sheep   and lathbs.
Fig. 483  shows a po rt ion  of a   fen re lavin cig
6 wires, t he  two  upper ones above d being
of No. 4, and the four below it, No. 6 wires.
A not uncotnmion arranigement of the wires
is to make the two uppermost No. 4, the
two undermost No. 6, and  the two initermediate, No. 8.  The  upper wire is first
strained, aged then the lowest otie, and the
intermediate ones are taken in succession,
the tensi,,n of the  upoper one being  thie
guage to the others.
5733. Annealed wire is the common
wire softened in the fi~rnace, and sent out
in that state. It is Purchased at the same
price as the common, and is in some districts used in preference, fro,t, its being
softer and more easily handled than the
other. It is, however, the very worst
that can be put into a fence, and ought
11,95
Coy)tnion IVire.
5735. These are the Nos. Used in wirefences. Eacii bundle of wii-e is nia(le up
of (;3 lb., and each I-)undle runs tlitis:
No. 4 extends from 14 0 to ISO yards.
No. 6.......     IBO... 2100...
No. 8...... 280... 300...
5738. As to the cost of wire., fencing, an 
REALISATION.
instance  may  be given of a fence  constructed  in  front  of  a  plantation,  (of
curved  and  irre,gular forni, of  wooden
posts and standards, 31 feet high, iaving
6C) wires,  and  extending to  C)(i5 yards.
The two up)er wires  were of No. 4, and
the fosiir lower of No. 6.  The un(dern-ost
one was 6 inchles fromii tile ground; til e
secotn(l, 11;  thle thlird, 161;  the fourtli,
23; the fiftli, 31-, and thle liplermlsost, 42
hicles.  The cost may be stated thlus:
they will ever  supersede  tlhorn  lhedges
or st one  dyke s  oIIl  farms.  They   a bord
no  shelat er to    stock,  and,  appearing insig,nificant to restless cattle in tlhe fields,'
lhave  been attempted to  be leapt over,
and tale cattle,  not       m    arckin - tle lei,ht
well, have  been    cauwh it  by  the lupper
wire  in tle groins, to the ir serious injgry.
Thoey are well  adapt ed to tile  fetdcipgu
of plantatioius until  the trees grow  sufficiently  igth for pasturage undler them.
Thsegrazings of pastoral farms  migh,lt be
subdivided by thern, nmulch to tlhe advantagre of both the stock and pasture.  Thley
would form a cheap  mutual  marclh-fenice,
even with iron posts, on large hill properties. They might be used instead of paling
for protecting young thorn lhedges, until
they grow up to be a fence.
3; straining -posts and angle-posts, at I s.
9d.,.                   X 3  1 3
17 stays for ditto, at 4id..   0  6  0i
31) small posts, at 4id.,..   4   1  5I
1400 staples, at Is. per 100,                0 14  0
10 bundles No. 4, prepared wire, and 1I..
b,unidles No. 6, at l1s. 6d. per btundle,  13  2  6
Wages for fitting up,...   8 16  3
Equal to C65 yards at 10 id. per yard, ~30  1  5u
5743. Wire would make a neat fence
between the plateau and a small grass field
in frout of a farm-hlouse.  Movable Ilurd(les of iroin uiglit be conveniently used to
confine a sheep or two to eat up thle grass
of a small plat and save tlhe trouble of
cutting it.  Top-dressing the grass in this
manier is preferable to cutting it with the
scythle and carrying it away,  to the inmpoverishment of the soil.
e, at 8s. 6d.,.. ~1   5  6
1.  2  6
ig                     posts,                                   o.   0 10  0
bored and fitted,.   0  6   6
stones,..   0  6  2
t..i1   0  0
Equal to lld. per yard,  ~4  10  8
ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS.
5744. It is not safe to have no fence
betwixt arable land andl a rivulet.  However peaceful and beautiful such a stream
may be in summer, the baugh ground on
its margin is subject to be  overflowed by
sudden  floodings in  winter, wlen suirchlarged withl  melted snows,  or dammed
behlind piled shleets of broken ice, at the
up-breaking of a  stornm.  It may, therefom e, b        e of servic e  to  you  to be  made
acquainted with t!he meanrs, in such circumiistaniices, of  )revenitilg,, sniall streams,
wlien floo(ded, fi-'oi   reacliing plouglhed land.
W5lere Ilatg,hs    are  kept in    penrmc-n i ent
pa sture, col-paratively   l ittle i     njury  is
sustainiedI finOlll flooding,rs, but rather benefit
fi'om  the deposition of alluvial   matter;
but  to  be  prevented  plouglhing  land,
from the chiance of the soil  being,, carried
off by water, is an inconvenience which
no fa-trner should entduire.   In one season,
Thie stones being heavy, and  the posts
sLrong, no stays are required, and  the
ironII work is put down at cost price and
labour, the entire work having been done
l)y country smniths.t
5,41. The durability of wire fences is
greater than siiglit be oxpected.   They
stood upon  the estate of  Torrance, itl
Strttltiearn,  for twelve years bef(-)re retiring repairs, and then soime of tlse standards were renewed(l, while the wire would
stand for six years to come.   On  othler
estates they have stood nearly ten ye ar s
without repair.  Were the posts inmale of
iron, they  iigl,ht stand a lease withlout
repairs.
* Transactions of the Ilqlland and( Agricultuisal Society, March 1850, p. 244-62.
t Journalt of Agriculture) July 1850, p. 428.
596
5739. Tliree wires abon-e the lieiglit of
a ttii-f or stone dylce cost about 7!d. per
12
Iii,,eal yard.*
5 i-40. Mr Biniiin,, Munro's account of
n
the cost of erectin(,- a wire-fence witli iron
c
I)osts, per 100 yards, is tliis:
3 I)un(Iles of wi
for posts,
Boring and fittin
St,-a;ning-posts
Making hole.3 in
Other expenses,
, 51'42. Itisnot,-Ltallprobable,tliatilowen.'er diirably wire-feyices may be erected, 
EMBANKMENTS.
two  acres  of wlheat  on  a  fine  baugh
belonging  to  myself  were  completelyv
carried off, soil and crop, by thle sudden
eruption of tlhe small river Viiiny, in
Forfarshire, caused by  tile d(alililiniig of
thle ice at a, turn of the rivulet in the
b)reaking up  of a severe  storrn.   Tlhe
devastation seenled irreparable; yet in a
shlort tinme afterwards, ill spring,  there
being abundant depthl  of alluvial soil inl
the liaugli, thle large holes made, and tthe
banks  of soil thrown up  hy the water,
were filled up and levelled, and  the soil
plolghedl, nanured ag,,ain, aud sown with
turnips, as if no suchi accident lhal occurred
that season.   To prevent thle recurrence
of similar catastrophes, I mnille a small
embankment  along  the  wliole  line of
the stream, at every place %where it was
possible for it to overflowv, and wliichl conipletely defended the soil from similar lharm
in future.
serious character than if their had  been
no embankment at all.    The best policy
is to give the river sufficient room to flow,
and also to remove all sud(lden turns  in its
course, against wlhich tle water may
strikle witlh force, or  be  deflected withl'
violence against the opposite  bank.   I.et
all the curies of the    emabad i kmeaty, wlethler concave  or  c(onvrex to  the  river,
present  surfaces along, which the water
will flow in  iunbt)roketn sweeps,  altltoul,Il
these may   not  be  in  conformity to  tlhe
natural form of its clhatnnel.  Beside the
embankment, tbe  fo)rtn  of  the  channel
slhould, be made with easy sweeps, by
takling(, away  projjections of tlhe bank   oni
one side, and filling up deep bays on tlhe
otlher.
.57-46. The  line of  the embankment
should be marked off with pins, and  tthe
turf raised along tlhe breadth of ground to
be occupied by thle enmbankmient. In
raising  the turf, tlhat intended to cover
thle face  of the embankment  next  tl-he
streani should  be at least  I foot square,
unbroken,  and tough; and if the river
bank  does not afford turf of this descriptioii, it must be obtained elsewhere, and
brought to the spot.   Thle turf to build
the  face-wall may be of any description
possessing tenacity at all.  The turf for
tlhe  sloping-bank  sliould  be  cut  with
bevelled  edges,  so  that each turf may
overlap two lower turfs with two of its
edges-tthe  one  edlge, thle lowest, overcoilappingt down the slope of the bank, the
gothler with the flow of the river.   The
propl)er and relative position of the turfs
tbeing settled,  tl)he embankment   shlould
begin  to  be constructed  at  the lowest
point of the streami, and carried up its
course.
5745. To determine the dismernsiofns of
an  e        mb-banlnkent a(apten   to  thm e peculiarities of  thle           locality, you           should   beforeband aiscertaien, fsomi                                          t tle best eavileince
you       can  obtain, tlbe hiqhest point to                                         lwhich
the water of t!ie rivulet had ever reached;
and  if your embanklment is made I foot
highIer than that point, your land imav be
considere d  as bei lue   i rlaced  i       n safety.  The
next consideration is tlhe distance  of the
site       of th e   e mbannkm ent from w the ma rgi n
of ttl     e        w ater.   In  every place where the
bed of tlxe streami is narllo w, and where, of
course, the flooded current will attain the
greatest heighlt, the enmbaniikient sl!ould not
only be higher, but fartlher removed fromn
the streanm. Where thle bed of tile streamti,
on the other hand, is broad, and tlhere is
ample space for a slow though deep  current, the  embankment  may  be  safely
placed nearer the water's edge.   But thje
safest plan in all cases is to afford ample
space for the water, an(] much loss has
been occasioned by contracting the clannel
of a river too mu ilchi by et.)anlkments on
opposite sides of it, from a mistaken desire
to reclaim pieces of larid from tlhe river
bank; forgetting that, in proportion as the
river is increased in depth, by confinement
between  enibainknnents  on  botli  sides,
its power to (lo mischief is greatly increased — as  mlch- as even to overcome
the strengtlh of the embankment, when the
injury committed will be of a much more
.5747. I shall suppose  that the turfwall a b, fig. 485, shall be four feet ini
lheilght, next thle field; theni a breadth (f
6 feet from b to c being the  base of  the
slope of the emlbankment, may give sufficient stability to the structure, and slope
to tlhe fLe. The line b c, however, will vatry
witlh thle nature of the ground on the river
bank.   In a stee) pirt, less slope nliay
stuffi(ce; and ini a sudden and narrow lollow
it  may be  necessary to fill it tip altogetler, to make the batk  uniformly even;
and tlhe slope may hlave to be built up
597 
REALISATION.
with a gentle acclivity. from the very edge     5748. The first operation in the actual
of the water.                                construction of the embankment is build
Fig. 485.
.-STONE D'YK AGAINST A RIVULET.
ing the turf-wall a b, the sods of whichl are
laid with thle grassy face downwards, on
thle  same  principle  as  briealkin(,  ban(di
in miasonry.   As the wall proceeds, earth
is taken froni the field in spadef'uls to pack
behind it, and to fill up the contents of
tlie embankmenet  included  within a b ce.
This earth should be free of stones, and, if
disposed to rise in luiups, shlould be chopped  smuall  with the spade  before it is
thrown into the space, and thien cotipressed
firmily witli a  wo()odlen beater.   After a
sufficient q,uantity of e.-rtli has been placed
behind the turf wall, the turfs of the slope
c a  are begun to be laid at the lowest
point c, where the fir.st turf d, withl tlhe
grass-side upiliost, is made to grip under
and abutt against the sward e of the river
bank, by a notchl  cut out of the latter with
the spad(le-thle object of tile notcll I)eil)g to
fix the edg,e of the turf under the sward,
to prevent the water getting 11ho11 of it anld
carrying it away.  Anothler turf.f is ina(le
to overlap with its lower- e(ldge the upper
edge of the turf d, just laid; and tile eartlh
is brolughlt behind it with a trowel, or with
thle hand, to the inclination of the slope
C a.  In like nianuer, the turfs g, h, ailAl
i are laid one after thle other, till the
top of thle turf-wall b a,  is reached Iby
the top of the slope c a, where a thick
turf k, with the grass  ilpulost, is nia(le to
cover thle top of the wall an(l of tlhe slope
at the s;ame time.    lWhen the turfs are cut
s(quare, and of the saiiie size, whIch  they
slloull scrupulously be, they are quickly
and evenly laid.  The wlhole of thle tiurl'sh
are then beaten firmily dowvn with the back
5i50. The cost              of makingan  embankmenit 4 feet high in the wall, 6 feet broad
in thle b)ase, and  casting, tlhe turf for it, the
materials being all at  hand, is  Is.  5d. per
rood of 6 y.ards.  If  the turf  has to  be
brou,l,t from a distance, the trouible of its
carriage  devolves   upon yourself.    The
cost of bulil(ling thle face-dyke  5 quarters
highl  is  8s. per rood  of 30 lineal yards,
and  the  quarrying and carriage, of  tlie
stones will each  be  as  much, or rather
more-perlhaps 9s. per rood.
598
of the spade. It will be seen, from this
description, that thje building of the turfwall a b slhoul(l be in advance of the laying
of the turf upon the slope c a.
5749. In conjunction  with  the  turfwork, the building of the stone-dyke, I m,
may proceed  and finish the whole embankmient  at once.   The dyke required
here is a  sinmle-faced one, with suitable
cov,ers and a strong cope; and it will serve
greatly  to  strengtlhen  the  enmbanikmiient
against the pressure of the water.
5751. An emlbanknment for this purpose
slhotlnld be constructed as early in thle season as  possilble, to give  the turf timiie to
grow to,getlher  before the earliest flo,od in
winter.   Sliotl(Ih tihe sunmmer prove very
dlrr, the turf   m-ay  beceonce  brt)w%n, when
water should occasionally  b>e thrown upon
it with  a scoop frm  the rivulet;  tindl in
any sort. of season it is!ossible that: turf
here and there will (lie, wl)en it shl,,uild be
immiiediately remnoved and a fresh one sub 
FIELD-GATES.
inside slope should be one perpendicular to one
of base: for sea-baxiks, where the waves do not
rise higher than 4 feet, the thickness at the top
may be 6 feet, the slope on the land-side 12 foot
for every 1 foot in height, and on the sea-side 4
feet to I foot in height. The slope on the land
side must vary with the height of the waves, and
should be increased to 21 base to 1 foot of perpendicular height: the slope on the water-side
should be still more, in proportion to the rise of
tide: for every increase of a foot in height the
slope niust be greater, so that when the waves
mount to 10 feet in height on the water-side, it
should be 10 feet for every foot in height. When
the  earth with which  the  embankments are
formed is of a gravelly or loose nature, it is requisite to carry up in the middle a wall of clay,
or some impervious material; the system of puddling is now generally adopted, by which the
percolation of the waters is prevented."  In consequence of the unprecedented floods in August
1829, the Isla, in Forfarshire, was embanked out
after a long period of annoyance.
stituted in its place.   Until the  turfing
becomes converted into a thick and tough
sward, it should be frequently inspected,
and every gap in it plut,g,ed up, whietlher
occasiolie(l by accident, such as the feet of
cattle trespassing frown tlhe opposite side,
or the burrowing of aniimals, sucli as rabbits or water-rats.   By thie'succeedin, season tihe grass will have g,rown luxuriantly
upon  the slope, w hen it ti,ny b e Il   tuiion early
in summer, to give it time to grow thicker
before winter. After this period the earth
will have become quite firmii, and the e11bankmenit will require notlhing miiore than
a general supervision every year.
5752. Should the embankment cut off
the river as a ilneatis of watering the stock
in the fields, a pool should be firnied at
the lowest part of each field, thle bottom
of which should be dug below the ordinary level of the water inii the river; and
should the subsoil consist of gravel, the
water will ooze thirou,gh it fromll the river
into the polnd; but shlioull it be of i          cnperviouis clay, a conduit formed  by an
iron pipe should be laid from  the water
in the river to  the pool.   In case the
river overflow  to a  height ahove  the
surface of the field in winter, the end of
the pipe next the pool should be plugged
up for tihe winter, after the stock have
retired fri'oi the field; and when lthe field
is not in grass, the plug should remain
undisturbed in the pipe.
5754. " Within walls of embankments, provision should always be made to let off the landwaters.....'lThe simplest form is a clapper or valve, hung at the top, and falling over
the opening of the pipe or trunk of discharge,
which is kept closed as the tidal water rises and
presses against it. Sluices are at other times
u    sed,  which slide up and down in the    frame;
and the ordinary lock-gate either made to revolve on a pivot, or to shut like folding-doors
against a fixed frame. The passage through the
wall consists of either a mass of masonry or a
pipe of cast-iron-; for culverts the latter is generally preferred.*
57.55. Immed(liately in connection withl
enclosures and fences are field-gates; antl
their proper construction is an important
element in their agreeable use, and in their
durability, irrespective of the material of
wlhiclh they may be constructed.
5i753. The sort of embankment I have been
describing is oniily applicable to small rivulets
which have little water in them in snummer; but
in case of considerable rivers, a much nmore substantial eiubankineut will be required, to parry
off their inundating efforts at times.  Such an
embainkinett is described, in general terms, in
the following words by a competent writer:"When  rivers which pass through low grounds
are to be enibauked or confined, that thle floods
they bring down iimay not innudate the adljoining
lands, care nmust be  taken to make  the banks
sufficieiitly strong, as, the force ilncreasing as the
embainkmeiit  is raised-in consequence of the
stream  not being able to expand itself ini proportion to the increase of water-the more it is
allowed to spread, the less occasion is there for
stroung barriers.  The slolpe of s(uch embanikments
should not be less than twice their height; and
three times are nlecessary when the rivers they
coufilue are affected by the tide, or subject to the
force of the  sea-wave;  the thickness at top
should  not be  less tlhan 5 or 6 feet, and the
* Cresy's Encyclopcedia of Ciral E)nyineering, p. 1558.
599
ON THE CON,TRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES.
5'i 56. A field-gate m.-ty be described
as a rectangular frame an(I a simple rectan(,iilar fr,-itne is the iiiost liable to cliaiige
of any connected structure of frqmework.
On the other Hand, tiie triangle is the
iilost inimut,-tt)le of any ft)rii-i, and as long
as the materials remain, it will never
change. To bave   the iiiost  inin)utablt-,
fiel(I-g,-i-te it oiifl)t, therefore, to leave the
triaii(-,iiiar foriyi; but in I)r-,ictice, a ate
9
in the foriii of a ti-iaii(,Ie would be most
unserviceable; though a combination of 
REALISATION.
triangles will produce the requisite figure
for a serviceable gate.
various causes to be force(d up at the h1eadpost b d, hlowever well the diagonal is adapted to )revent the upper rail fronm being,,
depressed, by anty undue weiglht, exerted
upon its end at b.  Thle  advantages of a
tie are the converse of a strut. Of a  tie,
therefore, is placed from c to the opposite
angle d, crossing the strut a b in its centreand an iron bar makes a perfect  tie, the
cohesion of which is suchl that a very small
sectional area is sufficient for  the purpose-the two antagonistic forces of the
wooden strut, and  the  iron tie, acting
each in its own sphere, preserve within
the whole structure the inost perfect equilibrium.
5757. If we take the most serviceable
form for a gate, the rectangular, find apply a bar to it, in the position of a diagonal of the parallelogram, we immediately
convert the original rectangle into  two
triangles, applied to each other by their
hlypotheneuse.   Such a combination gives
us the true elements of a properly constructed field-gate, every other part being
subordinate, and only adapted to the practical purposes of the gate as a defence or an
orniament.  Thus, then, the essentials of
a field-gate, whether of wood or of iron,
are, a rectangular fiamie, consisting of the
heel and head posts, and a top and bottom rail; which four parts, properly connected at the angles, are rendered of an
unchangeable  figure, by the application
of one or more diagonal bars, which in no
case ought to be applied short of the whole
length, between any two of the opposite
angles.  Fig. 486 represents such a corn
o  _~\m
f~~~~;~;
A COMMON FIELD-GATE.
it which we have been considering, we
shall find it defective in several  most essential particulars.  It has a strut a b, but
instead  of  extending across  the  entire
diagonal to c, it stops short at the centre
of the gate at b.  Tile part of the top, b c,
is liable to be broken off, by any uindue
force being exerted upon  it at c, when it
is converted into a ]ever, whose fuilerumni
is supported at b by tlhe end of the strut
a b.  It has also a tie b d; whlichl is not
only made of a wooden rail, but  it does
not extend across the rectangle to e, and
in no part does it cross the strut a b, so
as to act with it in maintaining an equilibrium of forces.  The consequence in practice is, that this form of gate is very frequiently fractured at the lhea(d-post c d,
and falls to the g,routnd at d.  Thtie wood
of a gate such as this costs, in larcl, 9s.
or 10s., and the crook arnd ban(l, a and
e, 10s. natore.
bination, where a c is the heel post, b d the
head-post, and c b and a d the top and
bottom rails of the rectangular franme of a
field-gate; andl a b is the d(liagonal, which
converts the rectan (,le a c b d into two triang les a c b an(] b a d.
5758. In field-gates constituted entirely
of wood, the diag,-onal sh1ould invariably be applied as a strut, to rise from the
foot of the heel at a, and terminate at the
top  of  the  head  post  at  b.  Placed
in this position, the diagonal a b supports the swinging end of the gate b d,
by its resistance to compression; which
it is well adapted to perform by the
area of its cross section being considerable, and hence capable of resisting lateral
flexure.
5761. The principle of trussing las been
successfully introduced into the wooden
- ---— I
I
600
. 5760. A very coi-nmon forni of fieldgate to be seen in this country is sliown
in fig. 487; an(l, applying the principles to
Fig. 487.
Fi,. 486.
rb
'd
-i
A RECTANGULAR FRAME WITH DIAGONAL STRUT.
,5759. But a field-gate is liable from 
so arranged  as to keep in  lamib)s in  the
lower part of it.  It  is both  liglht and
strong.   The  fore-style b g is prevented
dr(oppitrg by tlhe dilg,onal  bar, a,  wliicll,
on being,, applied witlh its flat side, is rivYetted to each of the rails; arnd the twisting
is co)unteracte(l by tle top and bottom  rails,
f b and a g being  welded( flat-ways to tiae
fore and  Iinli( styles w*ithl strong solid
knees.  Thje ui)rig,lt bars, as  c d, retain
each of thle rails iti its proper place.   Tlhe
gate fra-iiie is 9 feet  lobg, anil 3 ieet 9
inches in  leiglht.   Tlhe  gate  can be lhung
upon woodetn posts;  but thle iron )osts, as
sliown inl thle fitgur,e, correspond better witlh
tile appearance  (f' thle gate.    Thley are
mna(le of m:tlleabt)le iron, anll(  are fastened
into large st(,nes with  doulble bats; and
thle langing, post fa is additionally suipported by a stay e.  Thle cost of tlhis gate
is 30s., anid the posts  20s.,)iore-to,et)lee,
.50s.-'wiicl  I)rice completes all tile necessary bolts and nuts for fixinig tllelli to tlhe
stone blocks,,id langin,g tile gate (o11 the
posts.   Tliis fornl of gate woult problably
be strengtlhened  )by tie introdluctiln)Il of a
tie stretchiiig frilom  to g across the centre
of the diiago(nal a b.
angle, and all neet a t tie celIltre  of  th e
gatee; wliere, eacll bar being, 1,,inger than
tle haulf of a        dia,onal  of the recta,alep ad,
th ey become e levated     iun the f       aorm   o f      a
pavil        ion roof.   A  similar truss   is formed
for th       e          theser face of the                    gate, wliose apex
is at.f.    Tli rougl   tlie points e aas f,s
the apexes o           f  t he truss es, pesses the iron
bolt e f, the hiead of wlichl lhol(ds thie bars at
f; and a screw and nut tl.)on a plate lhold
those         a t e;        a     nd waeli the screw is tit e,tened,
tle  trusses are brought loearer togetlier          in
the centre,  antd th        eir      ends abg4t withl great
force against tlJe angles of tl)e rectanglltilar
franie at b      a c anid d.  To      esist tlii      s pressare,
it i        s n ece ss ary t o       connect teie posts and
rails witlh an iron clamp at eachll aInDgle of
the frame.  I believe that this construiction of gate will adtmiit tie fr aine neitller
to ben(d nor twist, and it will bear anty
pressure  of stock aga,,tinst its sides;  biut
its peculiar for,:n is attendle(, in) imyv o)inion, witlh a practical inicoti%,enience. Tlhe
trusses  rising on  eachi sitle of  the gate
938 inlelhes above tlhe plane of the framiie,
the projecting parts at e and f present an
easy and ready lhold for tlhe foot of a colt,
shiould( hle disposed to amtiuse himnself about
tlhe,ate-a recrea,tion whiiclh youing, lhor-ses
are al)t to inulilge in; and the same projection will likely g raze against tile si(les
of tlhe cattle, and lay lhold of tlhe harness of
the horses wlhen p~assing tlhrouzglh the gate.
I am  tilereftre doubtful of its utility as
a comm) ton field-gate.   The interior (of tile
framiie can be filled uip with any li,,l)t
nmaterial, as wire or spars of wood.   Wlhen
5,'63. Tlje same species of ii-oi) ate is
made on the tensioii I)rinciple, as seen in
fig. 490, wlieie the other I)art,s tijan the
tension are dif.ei-eii, front t,liose in fig.
489, in not li-,.Lviri, tiia,oiials as a b. In
fif,. 490 stz-()ri,, iron tetisiin wii-es pa.r!
tlirougli the c,-ist-ii-oii blocks a an(i c,
connected to,,etlier witli an iror, c(-)Ilar, in
11 
IREALISATION.
possesses  thle stiffness of  wood to resist
l  ateral strains.   To render the  bracinug
comllete, the anta,gonist diagonal a d is
applied as a tie.   The upright bars are all
riveted to the  horizontal ones, as well as
to  thle diagoiials, so that  the  frame is
rendered uiichlang,eable  in figure by  any
force that  nii,ght he applied to the lhead
post c d.  Any  number  of interior  bars
mlay be added to suit the  objects of the
gate.    The  figure exhibits  the  arrange T iL ent adapted  to retain lambs, which are
the smrallest-sized stock confined in fields.
aThe  cost of this gate,  without posts,  is
25s.   The frame is 9 feet long, and 3 feet
9 inclhes in lheig,lit.
stiles.It b and( d, and drawn  as tight as
requliredI at thie lower bar and  stiles at
e a,td.t  I)y imieanIs of nut and screw.  The
c(,st of this gate,  without the posts,  is
25s.
5766. I have seen  a gate  constructed'
by  Mr  Chlarles  Miles, architect, London,
which seemis to me well adapted for fields
It consists of both iron and wood.  It his
a strong cast-iron hleel-post, a,  fig. 492,
d               Fi'-. 492.              a
MILES' WOODEN FIELD-GAT.E NVrITH IRON HEEL-POST.
which is round, tapering to thle top, and is
batted into a large stone in the ground.
At a is a collar of iron eml)racing and re.v olving  round  upon  a priojecting  bead(l
en,ci rcling  the post.    To one side of this8
collar is attached a socket of considerabl,
depthl, andl of It foriii to receive into it tl)i,
iupper rail of thle gate, which, when properlyt
seate(l, thie socket  prevents froni  droopin,rg at the iea(l d.   Tlhe  undler rail style
is in every  resl)ect fitted  up in thle sanme
niannier as the up)er one.  The head style d
isliglit, and colpiiiletes tlee framing. TlIefillid  g-lip of the framitie is left to choice, either
iIn   ir on or w%oofl. In the figure the fillin,g-up
coilsists of light wooden splars, niailed on alternately upont both sides of the upper and
lor-wer littrs.  Were a wooden strut  introduiced inito the framne froii the bottomii rail
to tlhe opposite angle at d, the gate would
be iuichli stretngtlieiedl, tlhoughi  the deep
lioll of tlhe sockets niakes the rails imuich
eimore rig,id than tiiglit be exp)ected.   The
0764. It will be ob.served that tlie central-L   )l)arlltts of this gate is similar in apIrealir;lce to thlat of the Kilmioy wooden
gatte iji fig. 488; but their rnode of action
is tl,e         o     pp)osite. th(ugl the effects prodluced
are siiillr.   In fig. 490, the wires from a
a)(i c act as ties, d(rawving  the posts and
r.lils towv-ris tleiti fioni  tlie" angles, an(l
tlcrieliy giving to tle entire fraiiiing a rigid
stir-cture.   In fir. 488, the wooden struts
fi',,ii e ainl1 f, as centres, pousli thle posts
atiti raIils olitwa.rds at thle angles against
thie cltiiil)s, tlterel.y also g,iving  tlhe framii- a  nrigid structure.
57.65). Angle  iron, so extensively  used(
i, 1,,iler-.aking,  sliit)-btiildingir, atni(I otlher
pir,i),)sls, It-ils lsb)een  use(l ini  the  cons;Llructiol of field-gates.   Fig,. 491  repre
60,l2
tile ceneLire of tlle fi'ame. These wires
fiette,ie-l!)v hieadt:1s to  the upper bar
i  
I
e  
a 
i~~~~~
c                                                 F
ANs lItON FIEI,D-IGATE 0ON THE TEN'SION PRINCIPLE.
Fig. 491
~
'        --—;.....''-:
J'....-.....
-— i I                  _  
ANA3I,                             ilNFEL-AE
b
.AN ANGLE ]RON FIELD-GATE.
sents  a- gate mat,-ide of  it.  T!he  external
fi'aite is comnposedl of 4 bars of anigle iron;
and, to give security to tile.i(iiinzs at tiie
4 antles of tihe trusses, tlhe ent(-Is of tlje bars
are  riveted ipl)n cast-iron c,riner-pl:.tes;
tll,se of tlie lhcel-post a b being  fo,rnie(  of
stroo,n  projetin        Sivots, 4)y   whIieli the
gate is hiing,ed-.   Tihe diag,onal b c is contra ry to the,eneratl itale, f,r it is apparently a strut; but being of ang,le  iron, it 
FIELD-GATES
receiving post is made of wood, fitted into
an  iron socket,  whlich is batted into a
stone.  The cost of this gate without tihe
receiving,-post is ~1, 17s. (id., tile cost of
that post being 7s. 6d.
5770. Field —gates oug,hit to be painted
before being put to use, and they ouglt to
receive a new coatt every year, as  w%itl,out it they will  rot in a coriipa,'ati~'ely
short  t)erio(I of  timiie.   Iron gates imust
of necessity be painted, to kleep tlien) frinf
rusting.    Coal tar does  not loolk  well
as  a paint, and is  apt to  I)Maic-kenI the
lhands and clohthes after exposiire f,,r a time
to tle air.   Many  comnpositions are )resented to tlhe public notice as siiital.le
for painiting outside  w(,rk, but  tliere is
notliin, better tlhan good whl~ite lead an(l
oil.  Field-gates  pa-intedI wllite!liave  a
lively at)pearance amongst tlhe (lark green
foliage of tlhorn hled-es.
576,. Wlje,, speaking of tlhe repairs of
fences in summier, a substantial iiietilo(l of
sinking a wooden gate-post is givel, in fi,g.
2.9.5), and (3575a.)   Anothler mietlhol is in
digg,ing a liole 2- feet square, and of the
samie dleptl; and(l the post being set into
it, thle pit is filled withl  rubble masonlry  iII
mortar, packed firiuly, ani(l groute(i r(,undi
the post.  This is, no doubt, a very effectual
miode of fasteniiing gate-posts-a mnatter not
so well attendled to on a fariii as it otught to
be; an(l tlhe lime miay tend to preserve the
wood under ground a longer timne than it
would be withlout it; but it is expensive,
and when the post hlas to be renewed, the
masonry will hlave to be remnovedl, as no
new post can again be fixed so firimly in
the pit, as whlen bothl were put in togethler.
Thle  tops  of  thlle posts  shlould  always
be semi-splierical, or pyramidal, to prevent the lodg,ment of water upon tlhem.
The portion of thle post  under groun(l
should be  cliarre(l, alnd afterwards well
saturated withl  coal-tar, by a similar process to that described in (5728.)
5773. In the Isle of Man, although its agriculturists cannot boast more than ourselves of the
perfection of their  gates, nature  has supplied
theiii with an admirable nmaterial for gate-posts.
The  transition slate  with   lwhich  the  island
abounds is found  in one locality, Spaiish-head,
of a natutre that serves all tlhe purposes of beams
and planks of wood; and of thlis  iniiy, indeed
most, of the gate-posts are fobrried.  ii Scotla,iid
we have now in abundance  a material equally
suitable for the same  purpose, in the  Caithless
pavement, which( is now' applied for gate-pillars,
and for which no  material can surpass it.  They
are built into the ground iii the samle Imanner as
wooden posts, and look very milchi like  a plank
of wood, but possessing strength, and especially
durability, far beyond wood.    Thle crook-hiniges
are either fixed into them by passing through
them, as bolts through  a jiijumper-hole, or  they
may be put on in the formi of a hloop, and secured
with wedges.
5768. There is no better nrede of lhanging a field-ga,te  t           ha e by  crook-an(-bain d
hinges at the     upper rail, and   a lleel-crook
at tlje bottom of the lheel-post.  Botlh the
banid-hlinge and the beel-crook ouighlt to be
dotbl)le-tailed, to embrace botl. sides of thre
lheel-post and  of  the  upper  rail.    The
untper-crook keeps tlhe gate close to tle
nipper part of the lhang,ing-post, wlhile the
heel crook, resting  on and  workiing in a
lhole made in a lha,rd stone, supports  tihe
entire weight of the gate.   A  gate-post
of whatever kind, wlhiclh lhas to sul)pp(,t
the enitire weight of a gate, requires to be
very securely fixe(d into tlje ground; but
wlieti the g,lte is supported by a lheel-crook,
tlhe post miiav Ie of more  slendler form.
5774. It would  be desirable  to have a substauce which would  preserve wooden gate-posts
as many years as  a lease generally  rtins.   A
process is recommenidel  by  Messrs Hultin and
Borotighy        as fit f or s uch  a pfrpise.   The process of the decay of wood is thus stated by
them:  " Woods are destroyed by  the ince ssant
action of moisture and  of  the oxygen of the
atmosphere, which priniciple.s ipenetrate to  the
core of the wood by absorption anid i,filtration
By their presence in the wood, and their  coai
5769. The simIllest  iiio,le of fastenint,
iield-gates  to the liead-l)osts  is to thook
on  a  smiall liukel  chain from  the stile
head of the gate to a hlook in the receiviligpost.   No aniiiimal is alile to unloosen  this
simple sort of fastening; but lhorses soon
learn to unfasten almnost every othler sort.
603
5771. 1 consider Nrire in unguit,-tl)le
material for the construction of fleitigates, beiii(, too fliiiisv to bear the constant
use of opet)illg   ana   slitittin,,- and the
pi-esstire Of aDilDals cotifined in, or goitio,
zi
out of an(I into fiOI(IS.
5'i 72. Lai-ge stones set on end foriii
appropriate gate-posts, in connection
stoiie (Tykes; I-)ut built pillai-s f'or sitpportin(, ,,,-ttes are generally Yery short-lived
on a fartii. 
REALISATION.
they would  be certainly  injuired, by  the
roots of the hledges fintilingi, their way into
thl)emi and rendering  tlhemi useless;  and
the other objection is, that  long runs  of
draintis are  to be avoided  in  every systemn
of farm  drainage.   It thlerefore  appears
thlat  the  safety  of  the  drains  denmand
that thle land should first be inclosed, and
then tlhe drainag-e of each field should be
conducted by  itself,  an,l that  as many
fields as the figure of the ground a(dmiits of
should be miiade to discharge  their w,aters
into the same outlet.    lBesides securing
the general safety of the drains, the drainage of each field is attended with the advantag,e of  lviing, off  and executing the
drains it) it, in accor(laice with the peculiar nature of' its stibsoil and the fortn of
its surfa(e; whlierea-s none of t!,ese *ecessary p)articula,trs  ~luld  )e sufficiently attended to w ere a g,enieral systemii of draining
adopted.
tinued action (in the elementary fibsrine, they give
rise to a ki:id of slow spontaneous combustion,
called by Liebig eretiacauses.  This penetration
of destructive elements goes on exclusivelv by
the enJds of the wood, and ill the natural clhanlllel
of thje flow of the sap.  Hence, if we prevent the
destructive action of these causes upon the wood,
we can preserve it ildefinitely; and by hliermetically closing the absorbing ends of the wood, we
accomplish the end in view. For a considerable
time we have thoulght that woods could be best
preserved by coatiligs of oily or resinous matters.   This is certainly the most rational mode
of procedure; and if complete success has not
been hitherto attained, this is to be attributed
rather to the  improper  methods  of  applying
them.  Our mnethlod corlsists in drying the ends
of the woods; neutr, li.ing their power of absorbing moisture by sli,l-tly charring them; and hermetically sealing thmn by means of a substance
which penetrates between the fibres, incorporating itself with them, and preventing the destructive action of the element iti which  they are
placed.   The plai of procedure is simple, expeditious, of small expense, and capable of being
prLactised by any olle, requiring no  particular
apparatus nor workiiieni.   It is as follows:Plunge the ends of the wood to be preserved in
any carbutret of liydlrogeni, which rapidly penetrates the fibres.   Set fire to it, and at the moment when the fliinme is extitigiilied, plunge the
wood iito a warmi mixture of black pitlch, tar,
and gtum ltc.  This ceimellt penetrates some way
between the fibres, and fo)rmnis at each end of the
wood a kilid of liermetical sealiiig which remainls
uiichaiged.   Tile wood is afterwards tarred all
over in the usual way."
577,. It is possible that the entire surface of the farmi niay not require draininga portion of the soil may  rest on gravel or
otlher porous  material. Where such a
case occurs, the expense will be reduced
to that extent; and yet if tlhe open subsoil,
however dry in summer, beconles damp
in winter, by  water coming then from  a
distance, it will require to be drained  as
well as the most impervious, though at less
cost.
ON THE IDRATINING OF LAND.
5778. It is no difficult matter to determine whlether or not land requires drainilig.  By the experiet'ced eye, tlhe particular parts of a field most affected  by
suaperfluous  water  are easily  detected:
the peculiar state of  thle crop  the field
be ars at  t!ie titre  in(licate.s theti; such
ains want  of vigouir inii growth, a  sickly
liue o(f colour, and none of the parts sufficieutly developed, whichl are all str(tng indications of the presence of water-an(i tl.ese
iare mii,re evidently exlhibited by grain and
greel  crops than by  the  sow%l grasses;
anud  also  by old  pasture,  whlich  bears
cbuarse, hlard, ultinviting lierbage.    The
soil that indicates suclh a condition of vegetatioin always feels unelastic under the foot.
5776. Wlen d    i niis  about  to  be
conducted on so large a scale as thie dryin(,
of a  whtole farrm, it Imig,rlit be deepened
best to draill the ground before enclosin~, it, with the view of (onduicting, thre
operation on a corresponilii(, scale to tlhe
extent of surface to be drained.   Two
well-founded  objections  can  be  stated
ag,ainst the adoptioni of so general at planone is, that it Nwould impose tl-e necessity
of runniing hedges across drains, by *which         l
604
57,-5. The I),.iildiD(IS liavin,-, been provided for, a,D(i tlje surface of tlie, (,round
laid out in suitable enclosures, and fenced
wine tlioi-ii lie(l,,es and stotie d kes, and
y
furnished witli gates, our attention liou](I
now be turned to the ii)il-)i-oveiiient of the
soil coiistitutidg the surface, by the various
processes of draining, trench and subsoil
plou,,Iiiii,-,, and Iiiiiin,,. The primary
process of all ttiese is drainin
.,)7 i'.9. Aloist land iii,-iy -iiso be e.-t.-,i ly detecte(i by the lticxl)ericticed eve. In Alarcli,
I
after being plouglied.,- wlien the air is di-y
and keei), lai-,e belts of Idal-k-coloured soil 
this counltry, and  will continue so to do,
until venits are ma.de for its egiress, is an
est-,blisle(l trutlh-so muchl  so tlhat even
naturally  dry  soil around  wet  )econies
injured(  by  imnbibing,  thle stagnant  water
firoll it.  The mere  qwetness, wliicli  disappears  partially  in  sp)rilg,  and  altogetiler in siumnier, would not injure growillg  crops, as it would  all be  absorbed,
and( more, in the wants of active  vegetatioii; but whlen it remains  stagnant, and
occupies thje pores of thle soil andl slu soil
all winter, it ren(lders tllern so very danmip,
that mo(st of tihe siiiiliier's heat is required
to evaporate it.   The hleat of the suinluer
is thus engaged in evapl),rating the u)oisture, and tlhere-y prodlucinr a coldness in
thle atmiosl)llere, iiistead,f Tllurlishillg tlle
growtlh of tlie crops, %wilich it would othlerwise certainly (lo.   Evene after the soil and 
stilbsoil hlave bceeti d(ir.iied, the winter riain
passing, tlhr.ut,l tlhemii takes somne  of tlheir
heat, anud convreys it away in tl-e drains;
but  thliou,igh   suchll aii  abstraction  makes
tlhenl  soniewl,at c,ldlIer, it canlnot ren(ler
tlhemi eitlher wet or souir; a,tnd lhving now
free access to the air, tlhey  necessarily
assumite its te,iper:a.tur e.  In these altered
ciic-ueiistances, tle lTwat (,f st~ring and sum11er lave olilly to )usll foirwflarl tlhe grow th
of tlhe crops to fill tl1eiti fully, to  imake
tlhemn of fine qualitv, antd to bring  them
to maturity.
ently dry  land, arises, in        ly  opieioni(,
from  the  baleful influence  of  conceatledi
sta,gnant water; anI w anllt of  skill  is
l.ere shIown, not so  muIchI in the nismlianiagenmenit of the arable  cultule, as in  tlie
neg,lect to remove the corcealei nmoistulle;
for, let  tle culture be   ever so  skilfully
conduticted, it will never pro(duiee so great
and good cr.ops fr(omn damanp,as from naturally (Iry or  tlhoroug,lly dra-iniied lI.nd.  A
con viction lias been forced upon  mne b)y long,
andi extensivIe oI)sei-vati(,n of the sta-te of tlhe
soil o-er a great portion of tle kiin(dotni,that tlhe ne,glect of dria,ining is tlhe t-tie cause
of most of the bd firmir, to be seen;  aindi
thlat a sin/le farmn (toes not exist, not alrJeady
tlhoroli,glly drained, whliicli would not be
muc]~ the better for draiwig.
57-81. We Canr]".ot inquir e too niinutely
into the extensive injury sustaine(d by the
soil, all(i its products, l)y the staoeiation of
-ain  water  ttpon an   imp)er-viotus subsoil.
Most of the so,il of Scotlan(l consists o)floanm,
of differenttconsistencee, resting(, upon teniacious clay, of uineqll,1 (0Ie)tlh.  Wllere the
soil is slhallowest, it is in.iuie(i l,y thle stagnant watei       r rem ini n  l)stai iy lileneathi
it; and wherie deepest, it ii illinlul by cliilyiv
exhalations a         fisi -olg fi'on tl,e bater below.
The direct injury  (l,,ne  t(, s,il bv sta-,gnan.rt water,  illy l1e estiiti1tci t- vy  tlhese
effects.   Mianlre, uilietiIer Intleseelit or
caustic, imparts no fertilitv to it; the
plough), tile harrow, and even the roller,
cannot pulverise it into finre niould.   Thle
new grass contains little nourishment for
live stock; and iii old, thle finer sorts d(is
5780. Wlhere tlle symptoms of wetness
are obvious to the senses in summiier, there
is no (loubt of tihe land re(quiring draining.
An obvious  excess- of water may injure 
REALISATION.
appear, and are succeeded by coarse subaquatic plants.  Tlhe stock never receive
a hearty mneal of grass, hay, or straw,
beiing always lhungry and dissatisfied, and
of course in low condition.  Trees acquire
a hlard bark and stiffened branches, and
become a prey to parasitic plants.  The
roads are constantly soft, and apt to become rutted; whlilst ditches and furrows 
are either plashy, or, like a wrung sponge,
ready to absorb water.  The air always
feels damp and clhilly, and, from early
autumn to late in spring, the hoar-frost
meets the face like a damp cloth. In
winter the slighltest frost encrusts every
furrow with ice-not strong enough to bear
one's weight, but just weak enou,gh to give
way to every step-whlile snow lies long
lurking in shady corners and crevices.  In
summier. nmusquitoes, green-flies, midges,
gnats, and gadflies torment the cattle and
the plouglhman and his horses, from morning to night.   In autumn, the sheep get
scalded heads, and are eaten into by the
maggots  of the green and carrion flies,
during hotblinks of sunshine.  These are
no exaggerated statements, but such as I
lhave observed in numerous situations-in
lill, valley, and plain; and wherever these
phenomena occur, to a sensible degree, it
may safely be concluded  that stagnant
water lurks beneath the soil. Entertaining this opinion, and knowing these facts,
it is not surprising  that I urge the practice
of draining with mutchl earnestness.
draining may commence soon  in aututmiin,
the grass sahoul d  be eate n d own  by tha t
time. Whether or not  more  than one set
of men a re  enga ged  in cuttiing th   e drains,
they should all be employed in the same
field togetlher, as loss of time is incurred
in driving materials: to different fields;
whereas, with concentrated work,  one
field after another becomes drained and fit
for being plouighled: a.n d such a  course
permits the eating down of the grass regularly, field by field, as the draining proceeds, so as to sacrifice as little of the grass
as  possible.    Tlhese  precautions  being
taken, and the materials laid (]own, the
operations may be carried on through the
winter, and as far into spring as to give
time to plough the lea for the seed.
5783. When  the gr ass field is  not intended to be ploughed up —such as a small
field in front of the farm-house, or the
lawn around a mansion-house —the turf
should be neatly re-laid over the drains,
and somewhat above the level of the
ground, to allow the earth to subside, and
a heavy roller made to press it down.
The turf should be re-laid and rolled in
fresh weather —or even in damp or wet
weather, provided the grass is dry when
rolled.
5784. The divisions to be occupied by
oats after  lea should  be drained every
year, until the whole farm is dried; but a
greater extent of land niay be drained in
any year, if desired-such as a portion of
the fallow-break if bare-fallowed for wheat,
or prepared for turnips.   Indeed, some
farmers prefer draining in sunmmer to any
other season, as the land can then be carted
on with freedom; the days are long, and a
good day's work done-whilst every other
sort of work is in a state of cessation.
These are good reasons for summer drainin,g: but unless the entire fallow-break is
bare-fallow ed, so large an extent of fallowland as of lea cannot be drained; and if
so large an extent cannot, the operation
will necessarily occupy more years tlhan
are members in the rotation.   No time
will be found in spring, to drain the part
of the fallow-break  to be occupied by
potatoes, and certainly niot the wlhole of
the part inten(le(l fair turnips; and it would
be placing the sowing the wheat seed in
autumn  in jeopardy to drain after the
5782. Hav ing n       o  d  oubt of  the p laces
which requiredraining, the process should
be gone about in a systematic way.  In a
newly made out f:Jrm, the power to commence the draining in any given place
rests with the farmer; but on a farm in
an ordinary state, fields can only be
drained at a certain period of the rotation.
TIhe most convenient, cleanly, and easy
condition for the land to be in for draining
is when it is in grass; and when it is
determined to drain land while ill grass,
the season for opening the drains is thereby
determined. It would not be prudent to
sacrifice the entire pasturage of summer,
and no stock should be allowed to roam
in a field while being drained —both on
account of injuring themselves by slipping
into, and of breaking down thje edges, or
fracturing the tiles of the drains-so the
grass should be consumed; but, that the
606 
DRAINING.
potatoes and turnips have been removed
from the ground, besides thie slovenliness
of poaching the ground after it had been
dunged and prepared to serve a whole
rotation.  No advanrtage would thus be
derived by draining in sprin,g and autuimn
instead of in sunimmer.  A few slhort draiins
in a particularly wet spot may be executed
after  the potatoes hlave been lifted in
autumn, and the turnips eaten off in spring,
but to no further extent.  Thle lea ground,
therefore, presents the largest extent of
surface for drainage, with the least interference with growing crops and prepared
ground; and the space may be enlarged
by draining as much of the fallow-break
as is devoted to fallow-wlheat.
5788. In level ground it may not be
easy to determine the fall by tile eye; and
as it is of the utmost inmportance to have a
good outfall for the drainled water, the fall
should be ascertained  by means of a spiritlevel.   A spirit-level of  the  form  of fig.
493 I have found a very convenient in        Fig. 493.       strument for  as                        certainling    the
(76  It may~fall in              appiarently
level  pieces  of
ground, and gene.;         rally for  taking
the falls in fields.
llWhen in use, it
is placed  in a
franme of brass, a
projecting   part
of  which  op)e                        rates as a spring
to adjust the in                        strument by pres                        sure to the level
position d, on  the
I large-headed
l         brass   screw   c
being turned.   A
I _c~_     perpendicular
stud in the under
part of the brass
framing is pushed
firmly    into a
gimnlet-lhole in the
THE SPIRIT-LEVRL SET  to,p of the sharp   FOR OBSKRVATrION.    pointed  supporting rod e, which  is  inserted  into  the
ground whence the level is desired to be
ascertained. Two  eye-sig,hIts, a and b,
surmount the level, a being a small hiole
for the eye to look through, and  b a large
square opening, furnished with two hlair
wires crossing  at the  centre.  Such a
5785. Tlhe fields slhouild be drained in
succession, and the one to commence with
should occupy the lowest part of the farm.
As drains, lhowever, are most conveniently
made when  fields are in grass, it may
happen that the field which comes next in
succession for drainag,e is not the lowest
one in regard to position.  Notwitlhstanding, it should be selected for commiencing
the drainage; and care should be taken
not to let the water from it make the field
below it wetter.
5786. Tt may seem an indiscriminate
advice to recommend the draining of every
field, as it is possible that a part of some
of them  may  not require it; but it is
scarcely probable that no part of any field
will not require it.  Be thiis as it may, a
system of tlioriougli drainage requires every
field to be examined in regard to its state
of wetness throughout  the year.   Land
which retains water in winter is in a bad
state, tlioug(li it should  be burnt up in
summer; because the t)biirning, in fact requires draining to cuire it.  Lands burn
when naturally liglit, tlhin, and on retentive
subsoil.  Being, thin, they are easily saturated with rain in winter; and being light,
the water in them is soon evaporated in
sunmner; and when drought continues, the
crop is soon burnt utip.  Now, draining is
the best preventive against all these effects,
because drains serve as reservoirs for moisture to be taken up to the plants by capillary attraction  throughl the  dry soil in
summiier, thereby counteracting tile effects
of drought; and they act as ducts fior the
conveyance of superfluous water in winter,
607
thereby counteracting the effects of cold
and wet.   I have myself  thus cured
burning land by draining.
5787. Should the farm be pretty level,
it matters not at what side the draining
commences; but when it has a de(,cided
inclination one way, the lowest part ~lhoul(
be first drained, to afford the water from
the upper parts at all times an outlet; antI
when the inclination occurs in more than
o-ne direction, each plane of inclination
should have a system of drains for itself,
commencing at the lowest point of each. 
REALISATION.
sp)irit-level  costs 15s, anil  is  made  by
Adlie &  Son,  Opticians,  in  E(linbnrgll.
Wlien no(t in use, thle brass franie is placed
between thle eye-sig,lhts over the spirit-tul)e
to protect it, an(l a movable cover of wood, t
not sliown in tile fi,ure, is placedI over the
whole.  Tile inst~rumiiienit is  8 inches in
letigtli 13 in tlliclkniess, and  1  inchli in
breailth, aril so lig,lit that it ctani easily be
carried in the p,ocket, whlilst the rod may
be iused as ai walking, cane.
those sides  will  sltow which side is lowest,
according  to  the above o rule, and by which
tice i,eneral drainage of the field will have
to be  effected.  A  very lit t le practice with
th      the instrt ument  will stiow  its use in   every
case of inequality of ground.  In ascertaining  the  relative  heights  of distant
points of  a field, the hei,ght of the  instruiiment starndidg on tlhe rod above the ground
is not ta.tken into account; but on ascertaininig the absolute lheight of the spot upon
wlhichl the instrument stands, above or below tlhat of any other spot of the field, the
hleighlt of  the  instrument is taken into
account.
578-9. Whlen it is desired to ascertain
the fidll in a flat piece of ground to be
drainedt, plant the level on its stick about
the middle of thle piece of ground,  and
after placing the eye-sights of the level ini
the direction in whichl  the fall is desired
to be  ascertained, adjust the instrument,
by  turning  the screw  c, until the airbubbile d indicates the level position.  An
assistant holds up a rod at the end of the
grountd in  that direction, and miarks the
point upon the rod signaled by the person 
using the spirit-level.   He then goes wit           h
thle rod to the end of thle ground in the
opposite direction; andl on the level being
adjusted and  thle observation  taken,    l               ie
mnarks tli.Lt point also upon the rod. Shlould
both niarks coincide, the two extremes of
the piece of ground are on a level; and
shoul'l tlhose 1)oints be of the sanie hleightt
fron the grounld as thle eye-sights of the
spirit-level  are,  the  entire  piece   of
ground ima.y be regardedl us level.   Whlatever  (litfrence miiay  be indicated  betweeni the points, thle subtraction of the
less from tie grl'eater h)eighlt gives the fall
towards the point o,f the igre.test hleight.
For  exaplle, if at tle  first station the
mnark on tle rod iiieasures 3 feet 9 iiinclies
above the grotllil, anid at thle seco(nd 4 feet
8 iIsches, t lhe differel bce-id-tsiely, 1      1 inches
-gives 11 isnches a,Ise tle  oll eil e frolnd(l
froiri the fir      st to the secoId stcdation.  Taike
a  imiore difficult case.  $p})ose  tha,t a
knoll in                 the                     o aiddle of  R a fiel(l renaderC it
difficult to                      see tle directlio of tlhe g,ereal
fall of the irotind(l, wlhicli is flatt.  Let t
point be clhoseni to pltve the level,  fi'omi
whichl  the field oil on   otlh sides of the knoll
may be seen at once, and tlheni observe fron-a
tlhispoint one o,r miioe parts of the groundfirst on one side of tlle knoll aind tlen on
the ot!3er —and the differences between
5 e90. Tlere  should be   a decided fal
fitoe thle  outlet of tthe  dr a in, whethe r
effected by natural or artificial means. Mr
Cresy stat es that, in the case o f drains,  it
should not be less  than 8 feet  in the mile,'c  r
I foot ii *220 yards. In large deep rivers tle
fall is  suff itcient at  1 f oot iw n  the ncile, and in
sina ll rivers 2 feet.* Th e o pe n ditcl  w hich
receives the ou tl et water    slhould  be kept
scoured deep enough for   a co n siderable distance; alnd it i s be tter to de epen  it at the
lower end than to incre  ase   its width, when
tthe ground is level.  A frequent charge o   f
neglect ablainst farner s, is allowing op)en
ditclhes almniost to fill up  before  th-jey are
scotured out; and the ready excuse for the
neglect is, that scouring ditclhes to any extent incurs considerable labour and expense;
and no doubt it does, when they are allowed
to fill up.  But were ditches scoured as
they require it-and every year, if necessary for the welfare of stock, fences, anil
drains-little expense would be incurred at
one timiie.  It would be better to incur the
expense of converting an open ditclh int,)
a covered drain  at once, than to Deglect
the scour-ing, of it wlieni inecessariy.  Slhould
the fall fi-oln the outlet towards a, river be
too smiall, a covered drain slluhll be carried( parallel as far (]own 1)y tiie side of the
river as to secure a sufficient flil. Ratler
icurii the expie-nse of ca.rryin, tlhe drain
under a iliill-course, imiill-damrii, or riv ulet,
by miieans of nlasonry or a  casqt-ir(in pipe,
than allow back-water to gorge a drain.
Cresy's Encyclopcdia of Ciril Engineering, p. 1557.
608
5791. -Tn col(I countries in winter, such
as P-,,iissia,,Sweden, and Canada, where the
frost sonietiiiies penetrates into the ground 
. DRAINING.
to the depthl of 18 inches, a proper outlet
to protect thle water from frost, as it issues
froni thle drains, constitutes an essential
eleilient in every system of drainage. It is
evidlent tiat shallow (drains of 18 or 20
incites, sucht as are too common in England,
will not answer in those countries; the
water would freeze in them and derange
their structure, and(l tiles woul(l be burst
into pieces.  It is equally evident, that if
clte water were frozen as it issued at the
outlets of drains, the ice would cause the
water to stand back in tlhemn in a starnant state; antd altlJou,gh the depthl of tihe
drains should lhave placed the water beyond
the reachl of frost, the uppier part of the
ground  would  draw up  the water  fromn
below, by means of the capillary force, and,
there becoting,frozei, nmaterially injure
tile surface  soil.  The  only practicable
way I can therefore see of retaining the
water in a liquid state in suchl cliymates, as
it issues from thle outlet, is to place the
outlet at suchl a depthl as to be beyond tlhe
reachl of frost, and to convey the water in
a deep and long covered drain.   Muclh
foresight is thus required, and muchl  ex)ense mnust be incurred in making drains
ig. countries where fdeost  penetrates the
ground to a great deptlh.
5793. Before  proceeding  fartlier, it is
necessary to as ce rtain       t he nature  of the
subso il of the field about to  be drained;
and in my opinion, no better mode can be
adopted of  ascertaining  thlat  fact  than
b      y  making      exploratory   drains from  the
bottom to the top of'the field. Those
drains msay be  just the  ordinary  o nes cut
her e  and there. When a field presents a uniform surface, but inclining, and doe s not  exceed 1 0 acres,  let a t least two exp l ora tory
drains be  cut from the  part  at the bot tom
where  thle main drain should be placed, to
the  top.  In larger  fields one su ch  exploratory drain  for every  5 acres m ay per haps
suffice.  Whatever may, be  the nature of
th      e       s ubsoil, let them  be made at once 3
fe et deep witlhout hesitation, if the fall at
the lowest part will allow  it; and as you
pr ocee d up tile riste  of te ground, let them
be increased to 4 feet; andt let portions of
each  drainn be  cut  from  1 foot to   2 feet
deeper tlhan the albo(ve specified deptlhs.
Wlnhere smahll undulations exist, the  d rains
sloull pass rig(lt througlL both the flat and
rising ground.  In *ery flat,roun(, no
consi'deralble increase  of depth is  practicabtle, fartlher than to preserve the fall.
The extensive exposure of the substrata
affirded  lIy  suclh   exploratory  drains,
supiply  satisfactory data for fixing, the
proper depth of  the,Irains of the field.
Shsoul(l the subsoil be pretty  similar in
all  the  experinmental   drai,ns,  it  may
reasonably  be  concluded  tiat it is so
over tlme whole field; but shXouild it prove
otherwise in different parts, then tile Dature
of tlhedifference sliould be strictly observed.
A correct judgment, however, of the true
nature of tlhe subsoils, canm,ot be  formeimmediately on the opening of the drains;
for time must be allowed  thie water frou
the adjoining,round. to find its way  i.n.to
them, and several,latys may elapse ere the
2q
57,92. Besides the fall for the outlet, the
fall in thle fieli to be drainedl requires con sidetation.   In very level ground tle na tural fall iiiay not  l,e sufficient to carry
away the water quick enougll; and in such
. situatioln no way exists of iticreasingr the
fall but lby artificial means-tlhat  is,  )ys
causi.rr a (,reater fall thtn (on the surface,
by cutting the drains deepler at their lower
ends tlia.i ait the utipper.   Whatever del)tlh
of dirain, tlherefore, sho,uld },e determiiinedI
on for the wlhole field, the lower parts of
the drains slhouild be cut,leeper and  the
uipper  shallower  than  the  determined
depth; and tlhd fall slhothl  I)e brou,,ght upl
to 1 foot in 220 yards, if practicable.  In
level groundI the force of the water shiould(
be  increased b)y keeping it in  narrower
channels; aii(  its deptlh)i will thereby in crease as it floivs niearetr to the outLlet of
its own drain, whlerever tlimt is.   I,e-el
grundi will absorb miore of tlhe rain than
inclinedi,  long  whichli, part  of the rain
always flows away above ground, and never
enters the- drains.    The  object in pro,dllcing  a fall, however, should not be  to
VOL, II.
609
carry away the rain-water in the shortest
titije, but to convey it away in sufficient
tiine not to in tire the land, and, at the
sanie time, not to wasli out by its force any
of the valuable ill,,,redients of tl-je soil or
subsoil. Where the inclination of the
ground is steeper tliaii is necessary, the
best way to retard the iyiotion of thi;water
is to give the drain a little nioi-e breadtli;
for, the sl)allower the water, it acquires
the less force an(.1 -%velocity, these beinr,
regulated by the square root of the depth. 
REALISATION.
water will make its appearance in some of
them.   When  it is believed the drains
have received as much water as they cand
in fair weather, the part which supplies the
most should be observed, whether the water comes into the drain firom a line nearer
its top or bottom.  Should rain fall during d
the experiment, let its effects be observed.
It is better that parts of the sides of the
drains fall in during the dry or the wet
weather,  as the  new  fractured ground
affords indications of the natural structure of the subsoil better than the newly
cut  ground  by  the  spade.   Whatever
may  be  the facts  observed, it should
be  borne  in mind  that the durability
of the  drains  will depend  upon  their
standing onl inmperviolus matter, as it prevents the escapee of the water  by any
other channel than the duct; and such a
subsoil should therefore be sought for in
the experiment.  To make the drain more
secure  still, it should stand  upon  the
impervious matter below the level of the
-stratum or strata which supply the water.
,Wherever the drains indicate the depth
.that draws the most water, it should be
adopted for the least depth of the drains to
I'be made on the ground on each side of the
;particular experimental drain; and should
.tdIferent experimental drains indicate a
difference of depth by the same indication,
the difference should be adopted for the
,depth in that particular part of the field.
'Thus the same field may have drains of
different depthls, but all its parts will be
drained  at depths wlhich have indicated
,the greatest effects in each of thlleir localities.  In no case, however, should the
drain be made less than 3 feet in depth,
unless it be found impossible to do so for
want of a level; aiid even means of obtain ing that depth should not easily be relin qitished.  Thlat depth I will show after wards to be necessary to secure the safety
of the drain, under  a system  of  deep
plouglhing.  Tile experimental drains are
converted into drains themselves, inll coinm monll with  the other drains near them,
though  they will require  some repairs
before being filled with tiles.  Thus know-.
ing the  depths of the drains and the
*mature of the subsoil, data are furnished for
also determining the distance between the
'drains.
made  you acquainted  with the nat   ur e of
the subsoil, determined the depth of the
drains, and fixed the distances between
them at the different parts of the field, you
are provided with correct data to make
a bargain with a contractor to execute the
drains.  As their cutting should be prosecute(t with industry, it is best and  most
satisfactory to contract with an experienced  spadesman, at so miucli per rood of
6 vards.  Thie rates of cutting drains are
generally well understood in everylocality.
In miaking a contract, only stout, active,
and skilful men should be dealt with; for,
though men able to do a hard day's work4
may  be found anywhere, if nevertheless
deficient in skill and experience, inconveniences will arise, and dissatisfaction be
experienced.    Unskille(d  men willingly
engage at low rates; but it is wisdom to
give such rates to skilful nmeni as will enable them to earn good  wa(ges; and  the
advantages of good work, especially  i draining(,, can never be ov%er. estirmiated.
5X95. Another point, as  e   ssential as
engaging  wi th a    good contractor, is to
secure a careful superintendent to measure the sizes of the drains, and to undertake the laying of the tiles.   No man's
wages are better bestowed for the efficacy
of draining than to a skilful superinterdent.  Under such a person the following
state of things can never occur. In lIadl
weather in winter, great extents of drains
are cut and left open for an  indefinitre
length of time, without tiles in: them], inl
the intervals of which rain and sniow fall,
and bring down parts of the sides into
the bottom.   The  spade-work  is often
roughly and unevenly executed, whereas it
should be neatly and correctly dolne iti
every size of drain.  Drains are miade to
pass round by the side  of conparativelyv
small boulder stones, instead of these b)einlg
removed, and the drains carriedol forw,ir, i
in a straight line. The most cl;iyev (,r
sandy part of thle earth fro"m"' tlie b),(ttoi
of the drain is often p)la(ed upon ins verv
edge, part of which slil,s dowl witl rag,l;
into the drain. The tiles are fre(iteitllv li!(l
down in a careless mlanner, iinsteat~l (f 1,fi:,
placed as near as to,ssible torhe l~:~,t (it
the person who lays tlieili,.ml the,,pl.~si: e
side of the drain upon w?lI.icll the e:,rti, i),-I
been thrown. Solesalre f'equeultiyvt,t uI.-t-t.
Pipe-tiles are freqluently laid ill itlhuiot
610
.5.7,,9.4. The "layloratory drains having 
DRAINING. -
regard to  their continuous  contact  or
straightness in line.  And, to reach the
climax of negligence in the whole pro cess, a long time frequently elapses, in
the wettest weather, before tile earth is
returned again above the tiles.   Every
one of these negligent practices should
be scrllpulously avoided; and  as they
enitirely oliginate in neglecting to exer cise  a strict superintendence over  tth      e
labolIrers whlio  have undertaken the work,
either on day's wages or by the piece, the
flrnmIer himself is iliost blamable for them.
Negligence of sulerinten(lence can be his
b'allle alone, and no one's else; for consider
v lhat the workmenii will naturally do in
Fr,,noting their own interest in the undert tking.  When the same set of men cut the
drains and lay the tiles, which is too much
thie practice, a damp state of weather is
r:tore favourable for cuttitig tilesolidground
than laying the tiles, and therefore they go
on cutting drains, day after day, as if they
had nothing else to do; thereby exposing
a large extent of drain to the weather,
which, on continuing wet, brings down
much of its sides.  Should thle rain still
continue, the workmen can neither bottom
out the drain nor lay tile tiles, and the
matter becomes daily worse.   In a season
when rain may be expected to fall, had a
superintendlent caused  the  tiles to  be
laid, or had laid tlenu  himself, the drain
wollld have been filled before it would hlave
become too wet to work in.  Then, should
a sudden frost follow, it moulders down
still inmore of tile earth from both sides,
which, absorbing thle rain or snow  that
follows, is converted into sludge that cannot be taken out until it becomes  firnm.
On thle other hland, fine dry weather (c-       c
.curs, and induces tile men to lay tile tiles;
and they continue laying them, as if certain tile dry weather will continue until
they are ready to return the earth into the
drain.  When they want  to return  the
earth, it is found too wet one day and too
hard with frost another, to put into the
drain; and so tile laid tiles lie exposed to
whatever chlange of weather nmay happenr
to colie.  Every one of these bad effects
would be avo)ided, were a strict superintendence exercised over the work and the
workmen.  Wlhen left to their own will,
they naturally execute tile part of the work
most conducive to their own interest when
working by the piece, and most pleasant
to their own feelings, when   on  dayvs
wages, irrespective of the ultimate consequtences to thie work, about which they
may entertain  no  apprehensions at all.
They have  no desire to do harm; but as
they cannot, and do not think of anticipating tile weather beyond  the present
day, they naturally work to their own
convenience. It is tluiis worse than folly,
on time partwof the,armer, to  neglect the
constant superintendence of so permanent
an operation as draining.  The time of a
grieve or steward is too frequently consideied thrown away when superintending
drainers.  The grieve  s ti me ma y  be fully
occupied elsewhere, and but little fear
need be entertained of men on piece-work
working less than will secure them good
wages; but it is not the apprehension of a
small quantity of work  being done any
day that causes  uneasiness to the drainer
- it is its quality and eficiency - and
to secure these, superintendence over the
worknlen is absolutely requiisite. Should
the grieve have no leisure, aniothier competent person  should  be  app)ointed to
superintend, and by his laying the tiles
a saving will be effected; whiilst, his being
constantly- on the spot attending  to  his
own duties, the workmen will be directed
by him to cut the drains and return the
earth whenever the state of each is best
adapted for the work; and besides, when
they are not bound to return the whole
earth into tile drain, the superintendent
intimates to the steward in good time to
send the ploughs to do it.  With proper
superintendence, the work will be conduicted with regularity, and executed in the
fittest tin le, and therefore in the imiost satisfactory imanner.
5796. Matt ers having thus  f   ar been
properly arranged, the commtiencenieint in
actual operations is to fix the position of
the m,in drosin to convey away the water
brought by tile ot!er drains, fromii the IImost
distant parts of the field. As main drains
are only intended to lead away water
from  othier.?,diai-s, ~they  shoulh  occupy
the lowest part qf'the fifeld, wliether along
tie bottom, the sides, or the middle.  If
the field, is so flat as to,,hlave very little
f.ll, tile water' is direted to waftl's the
Plain drain by making it deeper than the
general depth of the other drains, and as
deep as the fall of the outlet will allow.
611 
REALISATION.
othlers-who prefer having  the mains and
small drains on  the same level.  But the
greater depth of the main  drain has tlhe
advantage of keeping the outfalls of the
small  drains always clear of any sediment tliat might otherwise lodge in them,
and of back-water from  the  main drain
itself.  It is not necessary that tile water
fromt the small drains should fall suddenly
thle six inches into  the  main, for if the
mnaterial of the subsoil is loose, that fall
bmay endanger the seat of the nmain tiles.
All that is requisite is, that tl)e main-sliould
receive the water with an increased velocity by agreater inclination (of thle last fewr
tiles in tlhe small drains; and tlhe velocit'y
should be the smnaller the looser thle miaterials the subsoil is composed of.
If the field has a uniform declivity one
way,       one  m ain drain along  the  bottom
will take  a way all the water, provided
tile drains are not too long. If it has an
undulated stirfi-ce, every h)ollow of any
extent, and every deep lhollow of lhokwenver
limited extent, should be furnished with a
main  dlrain.   No  imaini drain slhould be
place(] nearer than 5 yards to any tree in
the field that may possibly push its roots
into it.  The ditch of a le(dge should not
be  converted  into a miain (Irain, tlhough,I
the roots of the hielge sihould lie in tlle
opposite direction, anld the ditch merely
receive suirface water fr,),ni the field.  The
main  drain sho,uld Ibe cutt out of the solid
g,roulnd, and not be nearer than 3 yards
to the ditclh lip, or 5 yards to the lhed,e;
anti t!e ditcll, now no longler required to
c(l1ect surfacse water, slloilil be converted
into a small drain, and fille(l up with earth
froil the hie.atd-ridg-e.
5798. Should it so happen, from  the
nature of the ground, that the fall in a
niain drain is too rapid for  the  safety of
the materials constructing it, it should be
divided into lengthls, which should each
have a proper fall, and join the next by an
inclined plane.  The inclined planes shouhl
be furnislhed with ducts built of brick or
stone, plain, or like steps of stairs.  Fig.
494 illustrates this contrivance, where a b
is supposed to represent  thle entire rapid
ftfall onl a iiiaiii drain at I in  10, whichl
is  isiore than it should  have  to convey
a  considerable quantity  of  water.   To
lessen this fall, let thle drain be  cut in
thie  foriii re,resented  by  the  devious
line, c h, which consists of, first, a nearly
level part at the high,est end, c d; then
an inclined plane, d  e; again  a nearly
level part, e/; again an inclined plane, f
g; and lastly, of a less level part, g h, to
allow the water to flow rapidly away at
the  outlet.   Tlhe  inclined parts  may be
filled in in various ways-one mwi,h tiles,
as froni k to 1, wlereI tlhey imust  be  so
broken at  the end as to fit those on the
level at k and 1.  In usilg () open  tiles in
such an inclination, it is absolutely nIIecessary to protect  tlhe  ground  with  soles,
whlich should be prevented  from sliding
away at the lowest end I by resting against
a  strong  stone  inibe(dd-ed  there in the
ground.   The best plan is to line stlch an
inclined plane with trou,ghs of hlewn stone,
especially if the subsoil is composed of
rather loose materials.   Conduits of dry
stones would  be str(onger than tiles, and
chleaper than hlewn stones.   Or the incline
57i97. As main  drains occupy til e           lowest
parts of fields, the full along thewin cannot
generally be so great as in other parts of
the field; and conveying, more water, they
do not require so great a fall as smaller
drains.  In the case of a level field, the
ftqll may most  depend  on cutting them
deeper at tile outlet thlan at the farthest
end; but wlhenever the fall is so sinall, the
lower part of the drain slhoulhl ratlher be
deepened than the duict imiadle considerably
wider.  Shoutld the fall vary in tlhte course
of the drain, the least rapid parts slhouldl
be made the narrowest.  Thle mtiaini drain,
on  the  sarne level,  should  ibe  rather
larger at the lower than -at the upper elnd3,
having nlore water to convey; Ibt s!ioul(l
there be naturally a greater fall at the
lower  end, the  drain  should  still  lie
larger, to retard the force of the water.
I would recommend an increase  of fall
along the last few yards towards the outlet, to expedite  the egress of the water,
and  promote an accelerated speed alhng
the whole lengtll of the drain, unless the
fall is rapid enoughl  throughout, and(I tllen
-no increase of acceleration at the terminiationi  is required. With tlhe view of accelerating the speed of tile water from tlhe
otlher drains, inaia drains, on level ground,
where  practicable, should  be  made  6
inches deeper than tile small ones wlhichl
ft.ll  into them.  This is objected to by
some drainers-  5fr   Parkes   amongst
612 
DRAININ 1G.
may be protected with brick, built dry, wise on bed, to form one step as at o; one
and laid like tile-soles, or in a series of upon each end of these to form the upright
teps, by setting two side by side length-  sides, as at r; and one lengthwise, across
Fig. 494.
. It
6
e
Na                  b
9 h~~
I
-.
Ei
8
I
"<~~~j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(   ~~~~~~~~~;;~~;j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
DIFFERENT FORMS OF DUCTS FOR THE INCLINED PLANES OF DRAINS.
upon the two upright ones, for the cover,
as                        at p.  Tiles upon the level part easily
c o n n e c t themselves with bricks, a    s  at n
and t. The step form is preferable to the
s       momo th                                  in breaking the fall  an d  impeding
the                        velocity of water, especially towards
the                        lower part of a  drain, wiere it  might
acquire  too much  momentum. It               would
be                         imprudent to build these steps with
l     i      m     e       mortar,              whichl is easily  washsed a way,
and                        would cause masonry   wit h stones to
be                        less firmly compacted than in dry building  withl pinnings of  small                    stones.  I t is
s e l dom that sucl                structures are required
in                        drains, but they may be  so in certain
cases.
easy descent towards the main drain into
which they discharge their waters. They
are us ually placed in parallel  lines    up th e
inclination of the ground; not that all in
thie  s a me field slall be parallel to on e
another, but only those in  the same plane,
into what ever  number of  planes  the surface
of the field  may be subdivid ed.  In a field
of one plane, whether nearly level or witb a
descent, they should all be parallel to one
another, and terminate in tile same main
drain. Stmall drains should run nearly at
rigqht angles to the main drains. Exceptin,  in  confinedl  hollows, having  steep
ascents on both sides, the drains should
run parallel with the ridges which  correspondi with the inclination of the ground.
Drains should be carried continuously
through each plane of a field, irrespective
of the wet or dry appearances of the surface, uniform and complete dryness being
613
5799. Tile position of the main drains
being determined. the next tiling, is to
settle that (If the small drains, which
should be placed and constructed with an 
REALISATION.
the object aimed at by draining. Portions
of land, seemingly dry at one time, may
be wet at another; and even when always
apparently dry on thie surface, may be in
a state of inijurious wetness below from
stagnant water.
ploughing  and  trenching. If  the  retentive subsoil parts with its water uniformly
down its whole depth of 6 feet, then that
depth   should   be  adopted;  but  when all
the water is a ff ord ed a    t 4 feet, it is inexpedient to go deeper, because it will then
be out of danger from the work on the
surface. If, on the other hand, a retentive
subsoil gives out its water freely, by some
sand-vein, at 3 feet, and continuies retentive at a much lower depth, (5 feet.) it
seems inexpedient to go deeper than the
3 feet, except 6 inches more to afford a
proper trough for the tile. In such a case,
if very porous materials are found in
quantity at the 5 feet, it would be proper,
while keeping the drain at 3 feet, to nmake
cuts here and there through the bottom (if
each drain into the porous material below,.
5800. Having bad the data furnished
by the experimental drains, let us see how
these facts should guide us in determining
the depth we should make the drains. If
it is found that a depth of 3 feet affords as
much water as 4, or more, it is unnecessary to incur the expense of cutting the
additional foot, unless it afford somne other
advantage;  and so all the parts of the
field containing the same kind of subsoil
should have the,drains cut of the same
depth.  If a porous and tenacious part of
the subsoil afford the same results, the
drains should be cut of the same depth in
both.  On the other hand, if 4 feet evidently afford more water from  the same
kind of subsoil than 3, a 4-feet drain should
be preferred without hesitation, because
we do not know but that the larger quantity of water is required to be extracted
from the land to dry it thloroufghly, while
thie  extraction of the smaller  quantity
iiglit effect very little good.  On  conmparing the flow fronm porous and retentive
subsoils, if it is found that 3 feet and less
of the porous afford more water than 4
feet of the retentive, whatever less depth
than 3 feet the dr,ain in the porous subsoil
may be required, the 4-feet drain in the
tenaciouis one should be made still deeper,
until it be seen whlethler or not the quantity
of the water be increased; and if not so
by 1 or 2 feet of additional depth, it
is inexpedient to go beyond the 4 feet.
On comparing porous anid retentive subsoils, the point fromn which the water issues
is an important element in determining
the depth of drains.  If it is found that
the porous subsoil affords all its water at
not more than 2- feet, where it rests upoin
retentive matter, it is unnecessary to take
it deeper, as far as the supply of water is
concerned, than will just afford a troughl
for the tile in the retentive matter,  dand
which, being 6 inches more, makes the
entire depth 36 inchlies; so that, aIlthoughlall
the whole water of a drain is supplied at
2 feet, its depth should still be carried to
3 feet, for the drain to be comipletely out
of the way of working the land by deep
614
5801. Besides the effct,s on the interior
of the drains, the cliaiioes upon the surfitce
should be simultaneously observed. If 4
feet evid'eptly dries a larger surface over
tl)e same sort of subsoil than 3 feet, wli,.'Ie
the quantity of water in both is equal, the
4-feet deptli should be preferred witl)otit
hesitation. Attentioii, under this partictilar, should be directed to tl)e places
where tiie'tirains were cut deepest; -ind if
they have produced greater effects upon.
the surface, while the supply of water iq
the same, the (,reater depth should lie I)referred. We coti)e to the same conclusion
we did bef(.)re, (5793,) that wlierever all
varieties of subsoils are found, tl)e drains
should be cut of the del)tli specifier for the
particular variety, even within the came,
field.
5802. TI)e experimental method just
expounded is not usually adopted; the
common practice bein(r, on kni)wing the
subsoil of the field to be retentive, to ctit
the drains of -.t depth p)-edeterniiiie(I by
the cost willin, to be expended on the
operation. Such an empirical U10(le of
proceedin(, is too common in all -,igriculttiral operations, whereas the considerate
plan 1. lia-,-e reconiii)ended is fotiiide(i on
priiici'ple-ori observation of facts - and
incurs no unnecessary expetiqe, inasmuch
as tl-ie experitt)eijtal drains afterwards serve
the purpose of sni-tll drains; and, altlioii,,Ii
they should cos more than ordinary
drains of the same letittl-i, the iiiforiti-,iti(,n
the!Ili ve afforded much more than coni 
DRAINING.
pensates for the additional expense.   It
may hlappen that the experimental results
coincidle with those of the empirical, still
it is more satisfactory to have reason and
principle to guide us, than parsimony and
caprice. 
water from a distance through a porous
subsoil, need not be placed as close
where it comes a short distance through
retentive subsoil; and as subsoils vary
in the same field, so drains may be
placed at different distances within the
same field. It is a common practice to
occupy tile open furrow with a drain, perh aps because its hollow saves  a  little
cutting, though this is a trifle compared
to the advantage  of  selecting the best
parts of the ground for drains; but, more
probably, it is selected because surfacewater runs most quickly to the open  furrow.  The open  furrow, liowever, has no
greater claim for a drain than any other
part of a ridge-esl,)ecially as most of the
water received by the drain is from the
subsoil, and not directly [roni the surface;
inasnmuchl  as  the general surface of  a
field presents a  mucll treater area than
that part of it above  rains.   Th're distance at which 4-feet (Ira,ins will not dry
a retentive  subsoil  is not left  to conjecture, but   has  been  partially  determined by experiment.  Conceivinlg  that
a drain in every furrtw, il  a tilly subsoil,
would  be  attendedl with  more expense
than the anticipated returni, a farner in
East Lotlhian put a drain in every fourth
furrow; and that they might collect water
from  that distance, lie caused them to be
cut 4 feet deep.  Fig. 495 will best illus
5803. The adoption  o                         f the most proper
depth o    f drain is           a more import ant  step in
draining than many farmers, to judge from
their practice, seem aware of. By grudging to cut half a foot, perhaps onlv 3 inches
deeper, thie largest amount of                 benefit may
b     e unattaised; for it is perfectly true
what  the late Mr  Stephens. said,-       - that
"land may be filled f,il of small drains,
so tlha.t the suriface will appear to be dry;
but the land thus attempted to be drained
will never produce a crop, either in quality
or quantity, equal to land that has been
perfectly draitned," *-a result which can
only be attained by sinking the drains to
the depths best suited to the nature of the
subsoil; and its nature can only be best
ascertained by direct experiment.
Fig. 495.
I,        I
I              I
I         I
I  I
d a       b         I      c                                       I
I  I
l         I
I         I 
d~ l
THEBA   FECTI  F        I 
I                             I
TH! BAD  ~T5 OF  OO GREAT A DiSTNCE BETWIXT DRI
THE BAD E;FFECTS OF TOO GREAT A,
II
I                  I
II
II
II
I
I               I
II
c     I     b       a   d
II
DISTANCE BRTWIXT DRAINS.
trate the results, where the black lines
a a are the drains between every fourth
furrow, and the dotted lines the intermediate undrained( furrows, by which it is
evident that each drain a has to dry two
ridges on each side, b and c on the one
hand, and d and  e on the other.  On
looking at the arrantigement of these ridges,
we would expect that the two rildges, 6 and
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii., p. 290.
615
5804. The experimental'investigations
witli the drains have brou(.,Iit us to the
C,
very iniportaiit inquiry of the niost proper
distance to be left between the drains. It
is evident that this fact can only be determine4 after the depths of the drains have
beeii fixed upon, as drains which collect
II
II
II
II
II
I
I
II
II
i
II
I
II
II
I
I
II
II
II
d, bein,, nearest a, should be more dried in
the same time than the two fartlier off ones,
c and e, and the result areed with the expect,ation. The two ridges, b and d, nearest
a, produced 9 bushels of corn more per
acre tl-ian the two more distant ridges, c
and e, wliielh is a (,reat difference of pro      from  adjoining'd(,es under tlio
deice                    r i _same treatment and crop - and yet it doet; 
REALISATrIO'N.
ping, Hudlow, in Kent, has dried  soil of
various quality, of clay, gravel, and sandy
loat, with 4-feet (drainis at 66 feet apart.
And even with stone drains, of from only
2- to 38-feet at 30 feet apart, Mr Bartlett,
Butleiglh, in  Somersetshiire, has  dra-ined
clay and stiff loami for the upper soil with
stones in the subsoil.+ Mr Meclhi renders
strong clay land dry with drains 5-feet
below rising ground, and averagin(g nearly
4 feet all over the field, at 40 feet distance;
while ligliter and more porous soils lie
drains with 6 and 7-feet deep drains, at
intervals varying from 7O to 90 feet.++ A
farmer in the east of Fife, within the last
twenty years, sunk a shaft in one of his
fields with a view to workingt  coal;  but
after  descending about 40 feet he  w as
obliged to relinquish his intention, on account of the shaft being overpowered with
water. The shaft was filled up, and a
conduited drain, of about 5 feet deep,
formed from it to the sea-side, discharges
a very large quantity of water to this day.
After filling up the shaft, lie intended to
have drained the field, which consists of 16
acres of porous soil resting on clay and
rock, but soon discovered that the shaft had
effectuiallydried the entire field. It is quite
reasonable to suppose that if one outlet
only is made of a sufficient size to run off
the confined water under the surface, more
outlets are unnecessary.  A  shaft for ao
coal-pit cannot be called a drain, but it
operates as a reservoir for collecting water,
front which the wa.ter may be discharged
by a small drain.
not slhow the entire advantage whlich may
be obtained by tliorl,)iil,i drained over undrained land, because possibly the drain,
a had also partially drained the distant
ridges c and e. And such being possible,
tog-etlier with the circnumstance that none
of the ridges hlaving a drain on each side,
and all incumbent on tilly subsoil, they
could not have been thoroughly drained;
and the absolute or comparative drying
power of 4-feet drains was thlus left unascertained by this experitment.*  It may be
conceived, however, that had the drains
been put into every other instead of every
fourth filrrow,  the produce  of  all the
ridges would have been alike, inasmuch
as every one would have been placed in
the same position in regard to a drain;
and the expectation seems so reasonable,
that the practice of many farmers, from
what I can observe, is founded upon it.
But such an expectation does not contemplate the greatest benefit possible derivable
from thorough drainage; for although the
ridges did( produce alike with a drain on
one sitle only, the product would be no
criterion of what it might be withl a drain
on both sides.   This experiment, then,
only demonstrates that a deep drainfor a 4-foot one cannot be termed a shallow
one-will collect water in a retentive subsoil more certainly across one than two
ridges; and the value of the demonstration consists in cautioning others against
imitating the practice of those who indicate their belief that a drain cannot have
too much to do, by placing them at very
wide intervals.
5806. On the other hand, instances
may be adduced of drains, placed at wide
intervals, and of 4 feet deep at least,
hi aving failed to drain strong clays.  Mr
W.  Bullock  Webster  produces  several
instances, in different parts of England,
where drains of from  30 to 36 inches
deep, and fronm 18 to 22 feet apart, lhave
rendered strong clay  land  dry, when  4
feet drains at 40 feet apart had failed to
do so.~  The late Mr Wilkie of Orumiston
Hill, in West-Lothlian, put in drains  4
feet deep, and fronm 30 to 36 feet asunder,
tlwhich( failed to dry a clay subsoil, and
which his son, the present proprietor, hlas
* Quarterly Journal of Agrqiculture, vol. viii. p. 539.
t Journal of the Agricultural Society ofe gqland, vol. vi. p. 126.
+. Mechaii's ELrperience in Drainage, p. v.-Preface.
~ Journal of the 4griculturtl Society of England, vol. ix. p. 237-48.
5805. Still, instances niight be addiicc,,d
from practice, wliere drains of moderate
deptli, tliou,,I) I.)laced at considerable distaiiee,          i-li-ied land.  Ri(],,cs vary front
12 to 18 feet in breadth; and.is in the case
related above, ttie distance I)et%%-eeit the
drains iiiiglit be. froiii 48 to 72 feet, wljicli
we are warranted in re(,a,rdin(, as too
far asunder. Yet Mr Tlioti)as H.,tiiiiiion(l,
near Penhiii-st, in Kent, ]i-,is (ii-ie(i titiifoi-in
clay land, witli drains from 3-1 to 4 feet
12
deep, at 40 feet -tl)art; -.ird clay land containin- sortie stories, lie lias drie(i -%vitli
4-ff,-et drains at 50 feet a.part. Mr Kep 
expected to (Iry nlore than 15 or 16 feet
ridges, but tlhat 4-feet ones will diry as
effectually a distance not exceedintg 24
feet.  In porous subsoils, 3-feet (railns mybay
dry 20) feet spaces withli as great if not
greater effect than the above.  In deep
hazel  loam  resting  on inmpervious sil,)soil-a not uncomiion conibinationII of soil
and subsoil in the turnip districts o(f Scotland-4-feet  drains will dry, I have no
doubt, a distance of 30 feet.  I wouldl feel
reluctance to reconiiiend drains at miore
than 30 feet distance, unless tle arrangement of the subsoil was pecuiliar, suchi as
a porous substance of considerab)le del)pth,i
subdivided  by beds of clay, tlir(ouli the
whole  of wlichi 4 or  5 feet drails, at
double that distance, miight dry  the soil
of a large field.  It seenis to ni,e so(nie"wJIat
inconsistent  in  those  wlh) believe  that
water oughit not to enter by thle top of a
drain, atnd that strong clay on l)eiiig dried
l)econles fissuredl, to recoiiiiiien(1 sl)allow
drains of 24 inciles in it, sinrice it is evident that the greater the (ldepthi thle clay
is dried, the larger, niore nuiiierous, anl      au
more connected will the fissiures be in it;
and tile more rea.dily will thle water be
brouIght nearer to tihemn by tlhe (ileuct.  PerIaps the plastic clays t)f Eg],ianil do not
fissuire, in wlich case deep (drains do not
seem to be required in so unifornit a textiure.
In drairning clay, it is not illerely the r.tin
that falls uipon it that hlas to b)e reiiiived,
but the  water also  whichi  is naturally
Normth Briti.h Agriculturist, November  14, 1850, p. 725.
uLility of cuitting dIrains as deep as 6 or  8
feet, inierely to extend thre space bet,%een
tlje dr.ains, when perlhapls tlje samiie effect
mligl-t be obtainedi I)y 3 or eveni 4 feet drlaiins
at  ilal ro%-er interv,als, unless  v ery deep
drains   at  v-ery  wi(le  intervals  can  be
exe(.ute(l witll  more  ecoiionoy.    Experien(,e hias vet niuchi to elicit in regard  to
tlje distaiices  that slhould be left  b~etween
stib-(dratlins of different  deptlis in different
soils to eft'ect the best results.
.5809. Tihe  cuitting, of  the dIra,inis of a
fieldi comimiences withi that of  the parincipal
mai.in draini, whlichl  occupies thle low%-est side
of  thle  field, n,itl thle lowest  enid of the
nmain driain constitutes tl,e ouitlet fi-om
whlIichl  tile  elitire  drainage  of  thle field
flows, whieni all  the water  fi'om) it is  led
off  in  oine direction.    Tlhe  positi,,n of tlie
principa-l  maini draini, I  lxave saidl, is not
riearer thlai  3 yards to  tlje ditcl  lip, or  5
yard-ls s to tle  feince  (5796.)    Its b)rea,idth
is set off witli t!he gard(en lire (:(;04) by
the first  w(,rkll.an, whiilst lhis  t8o.ssistants (lig andl slhovel oUt tle suiiface  inloul(
upon  tlhe  sidle of  the drain  niearest  the
fence, w%itit tl,e(.ommon spade  fig,. 237 and
pointed shiovel, fig. 453.
5810. WhIilst the motiuld is tlhus thlrown
out, tile cuats slhotild lay down  the tiles
alontg  the ol~en sidle next tlhe  field-   or on
tihe saine place b~efore thle  Irain  is  )egun
to be cut, after thle linie of its direction has 
pair of llhoises wvill lhave been l(ost in la'yitiig
thiem (dowtn, and )part of anothler yoki,ngi
afterwards lo(st in  lealling a,way thle  ulnucfd ones to anothier place; while the tiles,
on beingt so  often 1iafidld, run tile risk of
being broken.
onet aoilr oict tile  l         o osened
Tl[E NARROW DRAIN soil witlh |he same  inar       SPaI~r.:,     row sade,  fig. 490,
witlh wllich  he trims the sides of the dra,in,
and finiishies the bottom neaitly.
5813. In very dry weathlier drains are
diig witll  great labour, and  prove an unprofitablte  spl teculation  to trle  contr a cltors.
In that state  of ground,  it would be  abett er
Fig. 497. for the        drains tilem       -" |selves to defer  cut                        ting thiem  until It
shllower falls.       It is
ri,c et to  cut  the drain
,  little  deeper  at
every suddleni tlhougl
small rise, and a littl,)
shallower where -A
trifling, hollow oc                        cuirs, than exactly t)
f n   ii e ofollow the slight un                        dyl.anitiois of tihe  sur                       face.
.5811. Slhould thle drain be very wNet,
owin(  to a great fall of  rain, or  tile cut
drawi,g  iiiucll water froIOm tile porosity )of
the  subsoil, it is better to leave  off. tlie
dir,,fin,r at  tilis sta,e  of the  work,  Iadid
pr(oceed( to set off -an.otier  lengthl of litie
at tile top); and slhoul(d thiose circumstances
continiuie, it is expe(lient to rem(ove tle
moul(d from(.)  the whi,le  lengtili of tile  mlain
drain in ha   n(l, to all()w tle water  tingie to
tun off, and-l tile grroundi below to driy.  Tilis
pirecautiitiotn is  mnore  necessayv in  dii(,,-ii,g
it-row  tliLn deepl) drains, where                                                 titno',,l
cati:e fotind  for pl,on k is t o  sUpp,lct  tlfe
f-illiing, sides.   Witiden tie g,rotind  bec,iiies
dry atnl( firth, the,li gging  mIy proceeli to
the bottom at onice.
5814.  Should  thle
t-ei ii e b o    hd;1ave st(lo(I for
somne  days new cut,
p4 rl         immledialtely   before
!yr ti 1      tile iman proceeds to
lby tile s(!Ie-tiles, tilhe
pi-wet sindigy matter at
thile  bottomn   shouild
TI/ r e 4be reiliov%ed withl the
V l fu pdraw - earthl  drain -
DRAw.V DItAIN-SCOOP.  Scoop, fig. 497; and
dry eartlh  anid small stonies wn'ith a narrowv
5812. A fterthie miould hasl)eeni r-eniioved,
thle subsoil is h,,osene(l by,mie Ina-n, eitli,r
witih tile  f(ot-pick, fig. 247, or  tile Iian,!dpil, firg. 452, accor(lini  as t!n     e..r      1ii is
stony   Ol(- otherwise, tl           pe n    dot-l)ick  b)eilng
best  adaptedl fr   tisplacing(, stoines.   Tl,e
pick-loosened  eairtl! is relmoved It v a  seCOtl(1 ridan i  working, baclkw%varZls,  t'ithl  ttle
narrow           4 s9:(e,,      lia%-i ng — a  moutii 6
:itclc!es wvidle, f5,1l1wing, up  tihe picker, a-ndl
paitting, asi(de tlhe e,rtlh LIp()n tile formerly
cast ouit mould.  The  principal workman
I
.ii
I 
DRAINING.
draw-lioe, fig. 498, baving a 2-feet helve,
Fig. 498.
suit itself in tie drain to  the leighilt of tle
otilers,withi cross-heads 9 incites loucg.  One
Fi-g.,00.       staff is  lel(t  per;,,;, i        penidicularly on  tile
U!!jii!! 9  ground at tile iupler
HE  Dw E Dend  of  tile  drain,
and  another   sitii             and m, i i  larly at  tile lower
end; and  tile thlir(l,
tlp'igradually        moved
toi0 If roem         one  endl  of
of!il lthatw   tile  drain   to  tile
othler,  the  silperin                  id     tendent placing hiiin             are| in e  self at  one end  of
| b    i e etii  thle   drain,    and,
, if te     bringing h)is eye on
n     a line with  tile lip             l e i l   li  per  ediges  of  tlhe
cross-heads  of  tlhe
:!]: ltwo extrenme  staffs,
THE LEV   ELLING STAFF  observes    whether
FOR TESTING THE UNI- tile upper  eltige of
FORM FALL IN DRA-INS.  thle tliirti staff keeps
in tlhe line of tile othler two.   If it does,
then  thle fall of tile  bottom of tlde drain
is uniform; but  wlhere  it  sinks  below
tile othler two,  tile bottom  l)as been too
muchl  scooped  out, and slioultil be  filled
up withl earthl; and wllere it rises above
thleni, tile bottoml is too iiglt, and miust be
cuit down.   Whlen  tile stiffs are  painted
each of a contrasting col,,ur, sucln as wllite,
red, blue, they are easily disting,uislhed in
use.
5815. For convenience andI clean work,
the  p(ints  whlere the small drains are
to enter the main drain slhouild be marked
off,  thiat  wlhen  tlje  cutting  proceeds
the ends  of  thle small  ones  Imay  be
cut  at tle same ti me t   o the  depthi  they
are intended  to be.   Tlhe  main  drain
,slhould be 6 inciDes deeper than tlhe small
ones, if tlie fall of tlhe outlet permit; if
not, ti)e 6 inclies must be obtained as near
as possible at the ends of tlhe small   drains,
wliere they enter the main drain.
5816. Whe       n a div   ision  of  the   drain  las
been completely cleared out, the superintendent ascertains thiat the dimensions and
fall are in terms of tie contract, before
any      til e        s are laid on tle bottom, Instead
of taking tlhe dimensions with a, tape-line
or foot-r     enle,     w hich   ar    e inconvenient for tle
iturpose, a rod of.t          lie form               aef fig. 499 will
F       ig. 499.  b   e found amost con                     venient, most certain,
and most quickly ap,  L I t1,   ft_    pliedl.  Tihe rod, sub                     divi4led into feet anti
inches, is  puit down
F          with the arms extend                     ing  along  tlhe drain,
L          to ascertain tlhe d]eptlh,
and then turned,ently
rountl while resting, on
its end upon the bottom
[          of   the  drain,  until
tlhe points of tlhe arms
t          touch tlhe earth on botl
sides.    If  the arms
THE DRAIN-GAUGE. cannot   COlle  round
,square to tlhe sides, tlle drain is narrower
than wa.,s intended, wlhich can do no lharm;
but if t!hey cannot touch both sides, it is
widler than  necessary, and  should  be
objected to, tloughI it cannot be remedied.
5818. Tlhe  fill of the yround  may
be  ascertained, by  the  worktmen,  by  a
simple  contrivance.    Wliere  thle  bottolti of thle drain is cleared out, - (lataimiin ig of 3 to 4 iincies  highi will intercept
land collect the water seeking ii ts way alolng
ttit le bottom, and whiere thle water line cuts
tile ground as far up as it slioilnd do, the
specified fall has i)een preserved.  A  suIIecession of siuch   iaum,iltiitgs will preserve
tstile fll      all tae        way up  t-e   lri.  ilen
the drain is dry, a few  iulicketftils of water
~hrown in will detect  tile tall ill thle samie
mianner.  It is only,  liow e%7er, otn comjiparatively level ground  tlJ.Lt 6sl( l expedients
for aseertaining, the fall ar e at all requisite
to be used by the worknmen.
5817. Tile uniform  fill in a d(rain in
itniforilt ground  is  best ascertained  by
neatis of tlhree levellintg staffs, fig. 500, two
being, about 2 feet in lengthl, and one to
1619
THE NARROW DRAW-HOE FOR DRAINS.
and nioutli, 3 iticlies in widtli: costin(, Is.
In
5819.    fillltng (irains, it is a common
practice witti farmers to put in the inat(,. 
REALISATION.
than a man, bit is most  dexterous in
lhanidingI lighlt materials, suchl as tiles.
rials as the digging of tlhe (train progresses,
wlichi I consider an objectionable proceedig,,   I think  thle whole  lengthi  of tile
drain in hand should be cleared out to thle
specifiedl dimitenisions before tile filling c(iiimences-; because  thle work slould be inspecte(i in tile first place, in accordance
witih the specifications, and inspecti                on implies measuremenit of tlhe contents in depth
and breadtlh, and ascertainiiilent of the fall
of the bottoni-l)whetlier it be uniform
throu(,lIout, whiere the slope of tile groiund
is so-or sufficient, where thle general fall
of thle ground is sniall-or preserved in all
places, whlere the,rouin(d ha-,ppens to be not
uniform. These are not trifling considerations, bIut essential; inasmfnl as th       e efficiencv of a drain as a conductor of water
entirely depends upon them.  An unanswer able reason  for  fillin, drains from the
uppeue oer to tie lower end, in flat ground, is
the ease of clearing the bottom down the
natural dec         livi ty  of th e  ground; and on
doing so, it is at once seen whether the
fall has been preserved.   In very deep
drains, I was once of opinion that they
should in all cases be filled as cut; but
subsequent observation  has convinced me
that it is better to risk a little of the sides
falling, in than to lose the fall on level
ground.   On  acclivities, drains may  be
filled in from either end(l with  impuiiity;
but still cut entirely out before being, filled.
5821. The sole sloulil be firnmly laii and
iinbeddled a little in the earth.   Sliotl(l it
ride fupon any point, suchtl as a smanll stone
or liardlunip ofearthl, the obstacle slio,ildli)e
removed witlh a mason's narrow trowi-el, fig.
Fig. 501.
o501, 7 inclies long in the blade a. 5 itichies
in the lhandle c, andl tihe crank at b 1 -L-incil;
- averyconvenientitustrumtentfor thlis puI'pose.   In cast-steel it costs 2s.; in coinnmo,n steel, Is. 3d.  After laying 3 soles in
lengthl, lie examines if they are straig,it in
the face, and neither rise nor  fa.-ll milore
than the fall of tile drain. As a safe guidle,
in cases whlere  the fall is not decidedly
cognisable by the sight, a mniason's plumiiblevel, suchi  as fig. 5(02, is a convenient
Fig. 502.
5820. The drain is now ready for the
reception of tlhe tiles. The person intrusted with thle laying the tiles in the
drains should(l be accustomeil to the work, 
and otherwise a good workman, possessing 
judgnient and comnion sense.  If lie is not
thle superintendent or a hired servant, liehe
should be pai(l day's wag,es, that lie mlay
have no temptation to exectlte the work in
a slovenly iiianner; and to enable limi to
do it well, let limi takle even niore timiie at
first than is deemed necessary.  Accordig          de n
to the circtinistances of thle case, it will 
soon be ascertained how iii ucli workl of tlhis
kind a mian ought to (1o in a day.  This
person shlould remain much at the bottoll,
of the drains; and nriot liavig, too matny
particulars to attend to, lie is enalled, withl
an assistant to hand l)imi the i, aterials
from  the ground,  to do thle work with e
greater precision and expedition; and the
best assistant he can have is a field-worker.
A  woman  not only receives less wag,es
620
-T  I
THE TROWEL FOR DRAIN'-S.
THR  DRAINE'P.S  FLUMB LEVEL.
instrument. A  mark  at wlhiclh tie  pltimiiiet
line df will subtenid an angle witli tlie
p)lumb-line  de  equal to thre angle i,'f  tlhe
fall of  the drain, slhouldI be   mad,-(le -it tlhe
top) of tlle openin, e, wlhichi,ay   be suipposed to be wlheie the plum,,,iiet.f.it p,esent
lantg,s; by whicli arrangi,eitiet,t it is  de,,,st,'abl)le thtt                 tlle:ing les  set  off at
e d f,,,ust ailw%-ays   be equa,l to tlhe asingle
b a c, wliiclh is the a.tng,e of tlhe i,,clinati,)n
of tlie fall.
5822. After 3 soles are  tliis pl)aed,l  2
tiles are set upon tlem.i als r-epresented il
figr. 503  thiat is, the tiles a ain(d  b  iare so
plIaced as that tlbeir rjoiniiigs shIall,meet o01
the  initermediate spaces  between  those  of 
DRAINING.
the soles cc C; and this is done for the
obvious reason that, should any connlto                   Fig. 503.
c
and if the opening  on the  olpposite side is
not occupied by small tiles, it is covered
up withl  pieces  (f brokenl tiles or stories.
A better plan thlan either is to place thle
endl of the small tile upon  the top of tlhe
miain, wliei) tlhe water will fin(l its way
into thle latter; and this plan implies thllat
thie main is on a lower level tlhan the snial'
draini.
DRAIN-TILES PROPdRI,Y SET VPON T,LE-SOLES.
tion disturb (ole of tlhe soles, neitller of tlhe
tiles, partially stanrlinrg upon it, shlall be
disturbed.'lTie iniaii wlho places the tiles
takes car-e not to displace tlheIn in tihe least
after tiiev are set; aud, to secure tihem  in
tlheir relativ-e places, lie puts ealrtlh firmllly
between tlhenm and tlhe sides of the drain
as high,.is the top of thje tiles, the earthi
being  obtained fromi  the subsoil  thrown
out.    In ordinary  cases  of water  in a
main drain, a tile of 4 inchles wide and
5 inclies highi  insid-]  is a good size; and
froni  this size thley vary to 543 incies in
widthl to 61 inclhes in hleighlt. Altlhough
the size of tlhe tile varies, tlhe width of the
nain-drain sole is alw ays tlhe same-tlthat
is, 10 inclhes. Taklirig thle useful tile of 4
inchles in widthl and 5 inches in heighlt, its
thickness being,, 43 incli, tliere will be a
space left on ealich sile of 21 inclies, whlichl
is too iiucll.   Thle widtli of tlhe drain  is
thus regulated Il)y the breadthl of the sole,
which  in somiie cases is too wide.
582.5. Maini-tiles are sometimes made
with an openiing in one si(le for tle reception of the endl of the si,all tile; and to aisw8er tillis purp)ose in p.articular situations,
where thle small tiles cannot conveniently
conjoin withl thle larger main tiles, half and
(juarter lengthls of mnain and sniall tiles are
made, which  formn  a good junction with
one anothler.   Fig. 504 represents  this
THE JUNCTION OF A COMMON TILE WITH A MAIN.
miode of joining a small with a main tile;
but the small tile b is not actually inserted
into thle op)ening a of the main tile, tihe
better to shiow thle relative sizes anid p)ositionis (,f beothi tiles.
5823. It is t!he practice of somie drainers
to put a half-sole iiii(ler every joining, of
two  tiles, lev-ing tlJe iiiteriiied(iate space
of the bottom  witl,(,it a sole, imigining
thlat the lailf-'sles give suflicient steadiness
to tiles on wlhit tliey call lard clay, whlilst
it saves Ihalf tlhe Iuinl,er of soles.   The
clay, whlen iii cuntact withl water, too soon
becoiies  soft  to  en:lile  the  d(rainer to
adopt  tliil  qtiesti,iiable  p)actice;  and
as to thle effect of hlalf s(les, I conceive
that water  woull act  niore partially on
clay unler thlem, an(l cause greater inequalities and (lisplaceiiieiit of tiles, thlan if no
soles were used at all.
5826. Prepwereuatlions for the junction sof
thle maini                       l d rain it   te  sa ll,in tiles
slhou tie  be di bade during, the layinl of  tihe
imain ddlain aioets; for if thile iain tiles,ire
disturbed wh,Iieni ttle smiall ones   ale beingr
laid, thley will be  displaced, and cleck the
current of water  whlicl, is to run in thein.
Wliclhever    plan is  adopted   for  letting ill
the sntiall        tiles, thie tile-la yer   slhoul   be
I)roiil(d witi l a  6-feet  rod, watked on,  i n
feet:fnil inchles, to measure  the dista,,ces
exactly b)etw eeni thle simall drains whliel i, ud
bee,, miarked off  (58 15.)  Wlheni the  plani
of laying, the smalil tiles  upon the to,p of
the miiain ones is ado)ted,  no preparation foi
the stiiall tiles is require(] wAl,ile layin(g the
nain ones, whicll is one of its adva.-ntages.
5824. The j,iniing of tiles wh lIere drains
mecet deserv-es atte,,ti,n.  The usual practice.is to  break a p)iece off tlhe (corner of
1 or 2 main-drain tiles, whIiere tihose of the
simiall drains cornnect withi tlieni. Anotlher
plan is to set 2 miain-dnain tiles so far
asunder as that the inside width  of the
smnall ones shall just occu)y the space;
621
Fig. 504.
1 5827. The moulh of to niaiii drain at
its outlet, "-lictlier iii a ditelt i)r' riyer 
REALISATION.
should be protected with masonry,  and
dIry inasonry will do.  Thie last sole, whic       h     eli
sholld be of stone, should project as far
beyond the mouth as to throw the water
either directly upon the bottom, or upon
m    asonry bu ilt up the s ide of the  ditch.
The masonry should be founded below
thle bottom of the ditch, and built perpendicul arly  in       th e back, wi th its face having
the slope of the ditcli Thde sloping face
may be made straight, to allow the water
to slip quietly into the ditch, or like the
steps of a stair, over whliclh it will descend
with broken force. It is proper to have
an iron gratin, on the end of the outlet,
to prevent verliin creeping up the drain:
not that they can injure tiles while alive,
but in creeping far up, a.nid on dying, their
bodies for a time may cause a stagnation
of the water in the drain above them.
5831. The small   drains may now b e
proceeded with.  In a field bhaving, a   o i til'
form  surface,  thiere is no difficult y in beringingc the  drains directly downn the  inclined
ground into tihe main drain.  WI)ere hol,lows occur, the drainage belonging to each'
should be distinctly larked off from the
rest, that no interference may arise in the
execution of the work; and the nmarkings
should be traced along the water-shed of
the ground-thlie line fromn which the water
will descend to the sub-main.  The Illarkings may-be inade witlh pins.
5828. If the ground fall uniformly towards the main drain over the whole
field, the smtnall drains should be proceeded
with immediately after the main drain is
finished; but should hollows occur in the
field, a sub-main drain should be made
along the lowest part of each, to receive
the drainage of the ground around it, and
transmit it to the main drain.  The size
of sub-main drains is determined by the
extent of drainage they have to effect;
and shiould any one have as much to do
as the main, it should have the same capacity.
a
5829. Sub-main drains are made in all
respects in the samne manner as main
drains;  but the peculiarity may attend
thenm of having to receive small drains on
both sides, when tilere will be double the
number of joinings. To avoid accumulation of sediment, the small drains should
not enter the sub-main directly opposite to
each  other, but alternately; nor should
they enter at rig,lt angles, but acutely with
the flow of water.
PARALLEL DRAINS IN THR SAMS PLANS OF.INCLI           NATION OF THIC GROUND.
a a a a are the four fences of it;  b b and
d d the headridges; d d the main  drain
along  the side of the lower headridge;
s its outlet at the lowest point; and c c c
the common drains.
5830'. A sub-main drain shouild be as
much below the level of the small drains
as is the main itself when it receives the
small drains directly; and the main should
be as much  below thle level of the submain as the latter is below the small ones.
The  simple way of effecting the latter
purpose is, to make the main deeper after
the sub-main has joined it.
5833. Wilen the field has an undulated
surface, the samle principle of par'allelism
is differently arrangetl. A sub-mnain drain
is carried up  the ihollowest part, and tihe
small ones are brouglht to it in parallels
down the ilnclinations. So  favourable'ani
I
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b
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5832. Fig. 505 shows the parallelism
of the comnion drains along a field, where
Fig.. 505.
a
c
l
.I i
ii
Ii I
II I I
I;             i I &
I 11                                                                       d
t
(L 
DRAINING.
arrangement for the speedy riddance of
water is not enough attended to.  Tlhus
the common practice is to run all thle small
drains, b c d e b, fig. 506, parallel to one
Fig. 506.
0\I i
5834. In  comnlencing thle small  drains
from  thle fence at tIe lowest side of thle
field, they may be set off froni eaeli otl)er
at the  distances  deterlmined on fr(onl  thle
nature of thle subsoil, as ascertaile(l by tlhe
exploratory  drains, (5793;) anti shIoldii(
it be deterluined to have a drain in every
ridge, it is not  necessary to rake  thle
drain in thle open fllrrow; it nmay be ilade
in any part of thle ridge.
5835. Small  drains are  mnade  tlucli
Fig. 509. narrower titan
~PO L  mG allins, to save
tile expense  of
di  gig out   lan
unnecessary
Fig., 308.                 uofl           I
quantity      of
tearthl. To ef                             fecet tis, bthe
In a r r o w e s t
TH   UHnG  arrst   pcig
spale, fig. 508,
is  an  appro                            priate  inistru                             nient.   It  is
;  only 4  inclhes
sis o   twide   at  the
nmoutl, and  is
Dx E        41       provided  witlh
a stu(d in front
to press the
l~ Ieel upon whle
I    the   workman
puslhes      tr:e
blade into tlhe
. s,lbsoil.  It
THR I'QARROW                  E N erves to tlhrow
IgST DRAIN         \
SPAT D    RIN             out   soiiie  of
.SPADE. the earth that
lin-id been  loos                            ened  b-)y  the
THZ PrVSHNG  last  p}icking,
DRAIaz.scooP- andl to trinm tile
sides of tlhe drain. But tlje loose eartlh
DRAINS IMPROPERLY MADE PARALLEL I1 -.ESPEC   TIVX OF THE INCLINATION OF THE GROUND.
ainother, through the length of a field, even
along hollows, such as are represented by
the curved line b a b, so that the parallel
drains c to e, on both sides of the hollow
da, are run along their declivitous faces, in
a horizontal instead of a vertical direction.
Thle probable effect of giving such a directo the drains is to miss the drainage of
both sides; for where any vein of sand
dips out at the surface (f tie declivitous ground, the Elrain may run parallel
with and just below it and miss it, instead
of divid(ling it along thle dip, as it should
do; arnd though it were not entirely missed,
but bisected along its lengtlh, and across
the dip, the sand would then be brought
down fromn the upper part of the ground into
the drain, enter the duct in quantity, and
r     end er it  ino perati ve. Such                                      bollowd ground
.should have the drains placed as in fig.
Fig. $07.
7~~~~~~
/~~~~~~~~~
DRAINS MADs PARALLEL IN ACCORDANC'c WITH
THE INCLINATION oF THE GROUND.
507, a b a, to run right up and down tle he
declivitous facesfronr c toa, towards tlhe sub
at the bottoia of a drain is best removed
with a scoop. WiIen the earth is  dry,
a pusling-scoop, fig.  509, will answer
best; buit when wet and sludgy, thle drawearth drain-scoop,  fig. 497, is thle best.
The scoop finishes the bottom of a drain
neatly.
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623
main drain wbicii sbould oceiil)y the line
b c. Titis cir(,-unistantial pltn is just as
easily executed as the otlier in(listriiiiinate one of treatiti,, all forin-s of ground in
a field alike.
I
I
t,
b 
REALISATION.
a small drain should connect  the tops of
tlthe others at the upper end of the field, as
b b, fig-. 505, does the drains c c c; its object being, to dry  the upper  lhead-ridge,
and protect  thle tipper ends of the ridges
fronm anly o,,zings of water that mlay come
fnomiii the ditchl or rising, ground beyond the
field.  If the d(litch convey 1no water, and
tltere are no hedges or hledge-row  trees,
thlis connecting, drain may be made in the
ditlch  itself, as in a, and(l the ends of the
snmall drains c brou,ght across thle headri(dg,e b a into a;  but should water, or
hlietlg,e, or  trees  be connected  with the
ditch, the drain should be kept on thle hleadritige, not nearer than three yards from ils
lip, and be of thle sanme depth as, thlough
not deeper than, the snmall drains.
583 7-. ThIe ti.les
snlall era  t[!al  fi,r  Ir
f,ior gi     1)0ell 2  c to 3 i
3  ta(  4  inches  Iier  ii
]at. ter I)eiig,  considle
sulbstaniitial tile will l
at sllig'it orle, and(I ti
tihe larer is trhe etor
IIIaly  nof  I)e  tlhe  ca
exaliiiine tlheiii befor
litv is (ot' inore ilpor
Stles are also requii
f;r g,i*-e n o credence
tion, th-at cla-y will r
tie bottom  of a drair
t,, b)e so whien first la
Soles for small drc
b1readthis, being 5 in
antd 7 inichles at ot
ince,hles, I should con
fo)r!nost,purposes;  f
rovwest tiles miade, 2.
-. re nioulded at 5-8
ailowin,, thiemi- to sli
the t!hickness of botl
TIhe extreme brea(dtlh
3-1 i1cIhes, leaves or
b)etween  b)otlh sides o
-sole. Butt.s most sol
na(1e of tlhe same bre~
and it will be found,
calcii!ationi, tlat only
of a 5-iielh sole will 1
anotughlI space to afio
to the tile; and less
5840. Wliealdrains are made in very
long, ridges, muclh exceedling 200 yards, it
is recoiimmended to have a sub-mzain draia
in an oblique d(lirectioii across them, as
represented by e e, fig. 505. It should be
cuit the same depth as the drains above it,
and those below it should be disjoitied by
a narrow strip of ground; but  a better
plan is to make  tlhe sub-mlain e e, 7 inches
d,eper than thle drains, and intercept the
water by it from thle drains, whichI should
be continued over  it.  Where  thle submain e e falls into the snmall dlrain b d, at
the side of the field ait e, thle portion of the
latter below e to s should be converted into
a sub-main, and made accordingly.
5841. I  believe that a more substantial drain cannot be miade than with  tile
and sole, the overlapping of the tile over
the sole giving  them a stability  which
no other arrangement of tiles is capable
of affording.   They   were  muchl  used
when  the tiles were first introduced, but
their high, price riendere(l  draining with
themt  an expensive  process.    In  later
years the pipe-tile hlas superseded the use
p sf the tile and sole, wlierever the clay fit
for thleir manufacture  can be  fo)und, not
only  on  account  of  their  comparative
cheapness, but  of their quick  and easy
hanrdling in the imanufacture and use.  Its
simplest fornm is the cylindrical, fig. 511,
Fig. 511.
tlhani this sloul(d  Ilot
be  trusted.       Iii all
otier  respects,    the
laying of the sole
aml tile itl ti-e small
drains is coniiducted
ini   precisely        thle
samne    mnaniner    as
in.  thie   iimatins  and(
sltb-tmaitis, (5821.)
5838. A finisle(d
(drain    vitli   tile
and  sole  is  represented by fig. 510.
5839. In all cases of thorough-draining,
624
5836. Small dirainis are cast out, gauig,edl,
( 5816) ald  exaniinetl for tihe t'll, (5817)
bef(,re Ieini,, filled up, and the fillilti,g  miateria;ls should  be laIid  (d]own  in  tihe samiie
order -is inI the case of mains, (.5-10.)
Fig,. 510.
TLi'S.MI Al,l.'I'll,.E AND1)
~(.), E- I)RA1 IN,
THE CYLINDRICAL FiPE-TILR. 
DRAINING.
15 inches in leng,th, 2 inches diameter ia
thle lore, and 3tlhs ilich thick.  To reduce
4
its cost to thle lowest  degree, it is niade
in iiiany parts of Engl,and (oiily 12 inches
in lengtht, 1 incll in the bore, and with a
coiiespl)oiiding thlin,ess.   A good objection
to snell       is  ini the attempt to attainii
a refitjeii-eut in economy  by  using them
of so dliminutive a size, that they'niiliht
be choked lup with the smallest quantity
of matter, when all the water they canl
convey  must  flow with but  little force.
The cylindrical form  is practically objec.
tioinable too, on account of the difficulty
of placing it in continuation ii a  firm
position upon the flat surface of the bottoiii
of the drain, to which it is scarcely possible to give a rounided formn with the tools
in use.   Of  what intrinsic value, then, is
the cylindrical form?   It is evident that,
were thle sli,ghtest depression to take place
at either end of a pipe, or were  the end
of one pipe  to be  placed  a little aside
from that of its neighbour, the continuity
of the passage for water would be broken.
Stmi.aill pipes are recommended to be laid
in continuity, by means  of a rod of iron
wvliichl goes into the pipe as far as a
shoulder permits it; and its lhelve, being
-it righIit atngles, enables the workman to
lay tlhe pipe in the drain, while standing
on the ground, and retain it in its place
by tlhe pressure of tle slhoulder until some
of the subsoil earth is thrown upon it by
anotlher person, after whliclh the instrum-ient
is witlhdrawin.  This seemis aL trifling and
uncer-t.ain wav of performing so important
a wor-k. in draining,  as tihe layig, of the
tiles. Inch )ipe-tiles are very properly
nIot in so muich favour as they used to be.
the  waved  line  shows  thle  mnethlod of
junction.  A  machine for  cutting  these
lobes was invented by the late Mr Smith
of Deanstoin, but it has not yet comie
into use.    Mr  James Wallace,  Turriff
tile-works, exhibited at tile show of the
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society, at
Glasgow, in August 1850, a clever little
hand-machine for cutting the ends of the
pipe into two or three lobes adapted to
each  other, and  which is a  simplification  of  Mr   Snithl's  machine.   The
cutting by  Mr  Wallace's instrument is
a second  process, after  mouldintg, when
the pipes are partially dry; and although
it thus  increases  the  expense of  the
manufacture, the advantage  of the lobed
nmod(le of joining pipes is so superior to
that of collars, as to  preponderate  coinsiderably in favour of Mr Wallace's inventiori.  The increased expense, however, is
an insuperable ol-jection to using such a
contrivance at all; and no necessity exists
for it, since pipes of other fornis than the
c  ylindrical can be formed well and cheap,
to stand firmiiily enougih in a drain.
5842. Various devices }rave been contrived tokeepc(ylindrical pipes in conrtinutation in a drain, witlhout the trouble inmplied
in tle above mnethlod; and aiiiong,st others
is tlhe placiing, a slhort collar to act as a
coup)ling-b)ox to conliect the ends of the
pipes, as is shown in fig. 512, into whichF
Fig. 512.
which the sole occupies the space between
the heels, w lich is the narrowest part of
the slhoe, and the upper part is rounded off
capaciously in the form of the crest of the
hoof.  The sole is flat enoug,h for- the pipe
CYLINDRICAL PIPE-TILES CONNECTED BY A COLLAR.
collar-the water is allowed to pass tlroughl
holes perforated in it. Thje device doubtless answers tlhe purpose, but a collar gives
VOL. II.
A
Iq
I
625
as much trouble in7 making and II-andlin(ras a pipe itself, and must be nearly as
costly; and unless the collars are sunk into
the ground, to allow the entire length of
the pipes to rest with an equal bearing
upon the bottom of the drain, the pipes
may be fractured between the collars by
the wei(,Iit of the eartli above them, or
other casualty. A better plan is to connect the pipes by con vertin c, tljeir ends into.
lobes, as represented in fi(,,. 513, in which
Fig. 513.
CYLINDRIC-,i,L PIPE-TILI,-S CONNINCTED BY LOJ39S.
5843. A very common form of p.'tpo
iiiade is that of ttie horseshoe, 6g. 51 4, in
Fig. 514.
HORSE-SHOE PIPE-TILE. 
REALISATION.
to stand firmly upon the ground.   There
is no obvious objection to this form, nor to
the cylindrical with a fiat sole.
be stated hereafter-clearly show that the
inch-bore pipe is quite sufficient  to carry
away all the water that can enter the soil
after the heaviest rain that ever fell in this
country.   The experiments of Mr Tweed,
near Woolwichl, prove besides that water
easily permeates through the substance of
pipe-tiles.  Every one knowes  that clay
dishes would not ret ain  liquids unless they
are glazed. It is easier to explain why
water gets into clay-paipes, than to devise
means to keep it out.
5844. But the most perfect form of the
orifice for a pipe-tile is, in hiy opinion, the
egg-shaped, the sharp end of the egg
nmaking a round and narrow clhatnniel for
the water to run upon with force, and
carry auv sediment before it; while the
blunt end provides a larger space for the
water when it inay rise to the top after
heavy rains.   Fig. 515 represenlts the
Fig. 515.
5848. The next procedure is thefilling
up of the drains with the earth that was
thrown out of them, and this is returned
either with  the spade or the  plough, or
with  both.  Where  the earth  has been
thrown out on both sides of the drain,a large
fiwrrow slice from each side will  plougli
in a considerable quantity of earth; but,
as the earth is generally thrown upon only
one side, and the plougli  can then only
make  it nmove towards  the drain  while
going in one direction, a more expeditious
mode of levelling the ground-whiclh, in
the amount of labour of returning the earth
into all the small drains of a field, must
be considerable- is to cleave down (767)
tle mnound of earth in the first place, and
then take in an equal breadth of land on
both sides of the drain, and gather it up
twice or thrice towards it, which then constitutes a prepared feeriug; after  which
the harrows make the ground sufficiently
level.   This laborious plan, however, is
only requisite when much earth has been
thrown out at a distance from deep drains;
but in ordinary  thloroughl-draining, the
plough accomplishes the work with much
less trouble; the first two furrows loosen
the earth along each side of the nmoutlh of
the drain and cause it to fall into it, but in
doing this the horses are apt to slip a linid
foot into the drain, and overstrain tlereselves; and such an accident, trifling as it
may seem,- may be attended with serious
injury to the animal.   The safest mode in
in all cases for the drain and the horses, is
to put the first portion of the earth into
the drain with the spade: and this condition should always be made in the agreement with the contractor.
.5846. Main                           drain pipe-tiles
are 3i inches
in width, and 5
of the  most  convenient  lengt  h                                     in
incles.   Tei  m      de                d       iebore  orres Sall
better formed, more firm and solid, and   fo  notedan   n    vrtantei
ones.  A   ipe-tile sall drain pipe-t                                    iles
fig. 515, weighs 4 lb., so that 560 just   ijr   oteaia. Tesfs   oei
are 2i inches
eigh one  ton.  Soles and tiles n1y be
inch at the wid                           est part of the
....... egg-shiape in the
]EGG-SHAPED PIPE-TILR DRAIN. bore. Both are
of the most convenient lengIth at 15
used in the T inacine-as, while pipones areight
better formed, more firm                                                    and     solid, and
consequently heavier~ than hand-made
ones. A p~ipe-tile small, drain, such as in
fig. 5!5, weighIs 4 lb., so that 560 just
weigh one ton. Soles and tiles may be
used in the train-drains, while pip~es migiht
-,ccupy the common drains.
5847. An objection at once occurs to
the mind to pipe-tiles, that they cannot
permit the water to enter them so freely
as sole and tile.'Thle experiments of Mr
-Parkes, and my ownecalculations-both to
926
EGG-SHAPHD PIPE-TILB.
e(r-sli,,i.pe(-l I)il)e-tile, liaN,in(, -t flat I)ottoiii
I
to st,iii(i iij)()ii. Be.),on([ this form, I colic(,ive li-,ti(! i-.iil)ro%,eiiient cati be effected in
tl.)(
5845. A sniall drain with an egg-sbaped
-. 516. tile is repre                         sented by fig.
5849. No implement has yet been'invetited to turn,the'earth intodmins. One
ishould think that a long mould-board, 3i 
DRAINING.
to 4 feet in length to any common plough,
would effect the object.  In working such
pl()oughls it is necessary to give their sole a
slight hold of the firm surface, to resist the
oblique pressure on the inouldboard by the
earth whlichlis being reiiioved into tihedrain.
Advantage is to be gained also bygiving the
yoke an attacmlinient to thie long mnould -
board as well as to the beani of thie plough.
insinuate itself into every crevice thlroug,h
which water passes.  Thle tiles in somie
drains in Dalmleny Park-, belonging to the
Earl of Rosebery, as wierie cov ered with seasand I      and gravel; and the sand   s)ora  choked
,ip the tiles and  had  to b       e removed, and
the'tiles  re-]aid in different  materials.
Perhaps it'would be'better to keep  the
soluble portion of tlhe soil as far from the
ducts of a drain as possible, andl while thus
rejecting the upper notid fora commfencen.ent to the filling, the subsoil  nmiglit be
returned into the drain in any order or
state it  miay lhapp )en  to be.'  The earth
should not be returned into the drains too
soon, but  time allowed to tile sul)soil to.
crack,  above the tiles, wlichl it will'soon
do in dry weather, and they will operate
tile sooner as a drain after the earth has
been filled in; but in  wet weather, the
rain will wash (]own the earth into the,
drains, if they are left long open. So this
particular of practice Imiust be guided by
the state of tile weather.
5850. It is an establislhetld principile,
that all drains should lathier receive tilhe
water from below, thaln on purpose f          r om
above  through  tile soil.   Were  drains
entirely filled with loose mould; or other
loose materials, it is evident that the rain,
il  descending  directly  through  them,
would arrive at the bottom loaded with as
ilatly impurities of the soil as it could
carry along with it in its downward course;
s.nd as it is a primary object with drainers
to prevent  impurities getting  into  the
ducts, where in time they might accumulate,
the:only way to prevelnt such a mischance
is to return thie clayey subsoil into the
drain, where it will again soon consolidate,
and retard the direct gravity of the rain;
as has been found when  imud deposited
among the stones of a drain has proved as
impervious to water, and formed as favourable a soil for the growth of sub-aquatic
plants, as a naturally impervious sublsoil.
A disposition, however, has been exhibited
by some drainers to carry the prevention of
water through the retuiirned earth to the duct
rather too far, by surroun(dling even pipetiles with the str,ngest clay affo6rded by
the drain, in a puddled state, and tramping  it in.   Could this puddled clay be
constantly kept ill a mioist state, it would
resist the passage of the water, and prevent it entering the pipes at all; and I
can conceive a pipe-tile so luted with wet
clay as to be as hermetically sealedl by it
as thile porous nature of the tile will admit.
But it is not possible to retain the clay
always iii a nioist state, as the portion
immiceliately al)ove the 1pi1e will be drained
by it, become crackedl, anil the cracks will
perumit the water to enter the tile jfrom
above.  It being thlus iil)possible to prevent water enteriig a tile at the bottofm of
a drain, it seems to be a nmatter,f- ii'difference in what state and with what  sort
of earth the dIrain should be filled.  Fine
sand, however, is a very unfit substance
to cover tiles with, for it will certainly
6211
5851. A general idea of tl)e arranole_
ment of thorough drains may be gainedby
a grouiid-plaii of a field so drained, repi-eseiited in fit,,. 517 where a b is the maindrain formed in the lowest liead-ridge;
and when the surface is uniform the drains
run into it parallel to one another from
the top to the bottom of the field, as those
from a to c, connected as they should be
at the top with the drain d e running along
the upper liea,d-ridge. But with inequalities in tl)e,round, an irre(,ular surface
cannot be drained iii this Dinner, and
iiiust be provided with sub-main drains,
such asq f -ind i h, %,liicii are each con,elected with -.L syst.eniof drains differing in
character; f I)avin,,'a lai-,,,e double set
9          t,
of drains, k and 1, connected with it, and
i h onl ()Tie -et, m, connected with lt.
y
The siib-iiiain, g f, is supposed to run'up
the lowest part of a retty deep liollow in
p
the ground, -tiid the drains,. from k and 1, on
citlici, side of it, are made to run down the
f.-tees of the acclivities, as nearly at right
an ,les to the stit)-main titi tl)enature of the
of the ground will allow, so tas
always to assist the natural tendency of
the water in fijidiii(, its w,%y to the liollow.
There is-.also a supposed f;All of the ground
front the lieiglit above  towardii h, whicii
causes the tirnips at m to run down and
-,fall into what would be a commou'Arain, 
REALISATION.
i, were it not, from thisi circumstance,   has more to do; but thle sub-main,  i A,
obliged to be converted into a sub-main.  should be made as small, and not larger
Tie sub-main, g f, should be' made larger  than a common drain from the top of the
than the main drain, a b, above 9, as it  field, until it reaches the point A, where
Fig. 517.
i' _  _ i _       t  _         _      _    i!    ------—;;X
~5,  I;  I  I W'"' —----- \ ----
I                                                       A  
I ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -
all   I,    I    [                       Ii
7~ ~       ~      ~     ~~~~~~~~ —,_  i           I
GROUND-PLAN OF A THOROUGH-DRAINED F7ELD.
draining is to be executed; and the cost
per acre depends moreover on the number
of drains made  in that extent of area.
Tiles cost generally about  20s. per thlousand, and soles are always  half the price
of the tiles.  Pipe-tiles cost from  12s. to
22s. per  thousand, according  to  their
length and bore —the length varying front
12 to 15 inches, and the bore from 1 to 21
inches.  Main-drain pipe-tiles vary in tile
same pr)oportion.  The want of confidence
in pipes is wearing away, so that they are
ow manufactiured  to the large-st  extent at
the tile-wl orks.   Pipe-tiles    are now  alp ays
made  wit h  machines, and Ainslie's seen
to be preferred to any other.  I have seen
it stated that machines  thrust pieces of
clay into  the pipes in the  manufacture,
whereas the pieces found in some and not
in all of the pipes consist of the pieces
of clay which were put under their ends by
the tile-burner, to make then: stand in the
most proper posture in the kiln. These
pieces should be, and are easily, removed
from the pipes before being laid in the
drain. I think it unnecessary to give the
cost per acre for draining, as it depends
entirely upon particulars which are apt to
fluctuate;- but it is necessary to give the
cost of certain particulars of expense which
must be incurred in draining,, over and
tcre coll at      er a         l drains    be     g    in to join it.  The
main drain  should be rmade larger below g
to i, a nd still larbeer from         i        to,  tor owards
its outlet,  tha n  any of th      e smib-inain drains,
as-it lias there mnost  to do.  It will  be
observed, that all the common draiecs from
a       to c,        and          at l anal m, have  their ends
curved, th     ose      a          it k not requiring that form,
because they enter                    aobliquely into the tmain,
from the slope of the ground. The dotte(s
lines give the breadtlh of the upper and
lower l iea(a-ri    d-es,     and the position of the
open         furr  ows                      of the ridges of the field;
and it will be observed that the drasins are
not made in the open farrows- thiat is, t           he
black lines  are not  in conjunction with the
dotted.  This is done with the view of not
confoiundlir.ng the open furrows and drains
in the figure; but it is a plan whiclh  may
be practised with propriety, as the absorption of the water towards the drains should
be effected from the subsoil as far as it is
lplorous, anal not directly from  the  opern
furrows. Such a ground-plan of -a drained
field enables the farmer to go directly to
the spot in case of a stoppage occurring
in any drain.
5852. The cost of draining with tiles
depends on the price of labour and of tiles
an the district of the country where thle
628
i 
DRAINING.
long, and so stiff as not to be easily lodged
withl wind or rain.  The grain is pluinip,
large, brighit-coloure(l, and tlhin-skinned.
The crop ripens uniformly, is builkv and;
prolific, more quickly won for stacking in
harvest, more easily thrashed, winnowed,
and cleaned, and produces fewer small and
light grains.   Thle straw also makes better
fodder for live stock. Clover grows rank,
loing, and juicy, and the flowers -1rge and
of bright colour.   The hay wons easily,
and weighs heavy for its bulk.  -Pasturegrass stools out in every direction, covering
the ground with a thick sward, and produces flesh and milk of the finest quality.
Turnips become large, pluminp, as if fully
grown, juicy, and with a smooth and oily
skin.  Potatoes push out long and strong
stemns, withl enlarged tubers, having skins
easily peeled off, and their substance mealy
when boiled.  Live stock of every kind
thrive, evince good  temper, are easily
fatttened, and of fine quality.   Land is
less occupied  with weeds,  the increased
luxuriance of all the crops checking  their
growth.   Summer fallow is  more easily
cleaned, and much  less work is required
to 1put the land in proper order for the
manure and seed; and all sorts of manures
incorporate more quickly and thoroughly
with the soil.  Thorou"gh-drained land is
easily worked with all the common  implements.  Being all alike dry, its texture
becomes equal, and, in consequence, the
plough passes through  it with uniform
freedom; and even  wlhere  pretty  large
stones interpose,  the plough easily dislodges them; and moving in freer soil, it
is able to raise a deeper furrow-slice, which
on its part, though heavy, crunmbles down
and yields to the pressure and friction of
the mould-board, into a friable, mellow,
richl-looking mould.  The harrows, instead
of being held back at times, and  starting
forward, and oscillating sideways, swim
along, raking the soil into a smooth stirface, and entirely obliterating the horses'
foot-mniarks.   The roller compresses and
renders the surface of the soil even, but
leaves the part below in a tmellow state
for the roots of plants to expand in.  All
the  inmplements are much  easier drawn
and  held; and  hence, all the operations
are executed with less labour, and of course
mn ore economically and satisfactorily.  All
above that of tiles and the cutting    These
particulars  are  furnished  by  Mr   George
Bell, Woodlhouselee, Duinfriesslhire, who
drained  his entire farim from 1837 to 1847,
and they are as follows:Carriage of 38,000) commnon tiles, at 3s. 4d. per
1000,...6  6  8
Carriage of 1,557 main tiles, at 5s. per 1000,   0  7 10
31 days' work of nman and horse laying down
tiles, at 5s. id. per day v.     8..       10  6
Work of women loadingand nnloading the carts, 2  3  0
30 days' work of a mall laying soles and tiles,   2  5  0
30 days' work ofea woiain assisting him, at bd.
per day,....    1  0  0
3 days' of plouigh-work, at 8s.'per day,.    1  4  0
Cost for 13 acres,...   21 17  0
..    1 acre of drains 15 feet apart,  El 13  7X*
So  that i1, 13s. 7h d. per acre shl
added to tile cost of pipe-tile d!
15 feet apart. The cost of loadi
unloading, laying  down  and  la
pipe-tiles, is only half of that for t
soles; but how  mniuch less the euti
tictilars should cost I  cannot  di
specify, but slhouild think that ~1 1
would be a fair allowance whel
pip)e-tiles. Alr Meclhi gives this st:
of the expense draining costs him
present costeof eflecti ely drainintg,
of stron(g clay lainel is as follows,5 feet inl the r-ising ground, av
nearly 4 feet all over the field: d
40 feet between each drain('4 rolds of drainiing, at 6d. per rod of 5} yards,
I(i0 in chl pipes, 12 iniches lying, including 44
for breakage, at 12s. per 1000,
Cartage of pilpes from kiln, 4 miles,
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultnral Society, voL xiii. p. b10.
t Mechi's Experience in Drainage, p. iv.-Preface.
629"
XI 12 0
0 14 6
0 3 0
X2 9 6
The cost iiiay vary a few sljillin,-,s per
acre, -i,ecordin,, to the price of labour and
I,)ipes."t Witlitlieexceptionoftliecartage
of the tiles, this cost does not include all
the particulars entinierated in Mr Bell's
case, wliicli should be included; still, if
we. add 17s. per acre for these, X3, 6s. 6d.
is a stijall cost for di-,-tiniii,, an acre of land,
if tl)e draina,,e is really effectual.
5853. The physical benefits derivable
froni drainin(, are numerous -tnd important. The existence of moisture in tl-ie
soil bein,, easily (letecte(i by its iritirioiis
effects on the crops. the adva,n tages deri vled
from drainin,, are also best indicated by
its good effects upon tht)i." On drained
)and, the straw of wltite crops slioots up
steadily froin a vigorous braird, strong, 
REALISATION.
these effects of dIraining I have observed
in my  own experience.   Draining coinverts bad land —which is land resting in a
natural state on a subsoil retailingi surface-water until it stagnates-into good
land-wlhiclh is land resting in a natural
state on a subsoil pervious to surfacewater.  Draining, in thus curtailing the g
limits of bad, necessarily extends those of
good soil; and it makes rain our friend
instead, of our enenly- taking all its
benefit, and avoiding all its inijury.  But
draining is found to be beneficial not only
to the soil itself- to the processes of
labouring it -to the climate in reference
to the crops-and to the growth of trees,
but also to the health of the labouring hn
population.    Another  physical  benefit
derived from draining, is the retaining of
moisture at the bottom of the drains for
tile use of plants in very dry weather.
Water is so retained, not in a stagnant
state, for the surplus will pass off by the
ducts of the drains, b)ut in a firesh state,
sufficient to imoistenl the subsoil and no
more; which Moisture is ready to be carried
off by the ducts when fresh rain falls, and
to be elevated to the surface in dry weather
by the capillary force.  Whenever drought
desiccates the surface  soil, and  consequently forms innumerable fissures in it,
thie ptominent points of soil readily absorb
the dew and moisture from the air, while
the capillary force brings the water from
below to occupy the fissures.
5855. A still more  important pllysical
benefit to be derived  from  draining, is
the equable supply of water for ve,,etation and the purposes of imiachinery. In
undrained soil, the water  remainis constantly in it as in a filled spon(,e; and a
fresh supply of rain, finding no roond, runs
off at the surface to tihe nearest streamii, so
that heavy falls of rain  are succeeded by
large inundations of tuirbid water'  By
drained soil, on the other hand,I, the rain is
absorbed as it falls; and the deeper the
drains are mna(le, the  larger the miiass of
earth is readv to absorb it.  The water  is
thus reta,ine(! in the ground for a tine after
it has ftillen, in ordinary cases of rain
perhaps 48 hours, and in heavy rains  for
24 hours, before it passes off by the drains
5854. I have seen it stated by some
writers that nmoisture rises throulgh soils,
not by capillarity but in vapour.   But as
it is commonly supposed that the diurnal
variations of temperature disappear at the
depth of 3 feet, I cannot conceive  how
vapolur can arise fromit water of the mean
temperature of 44~ Falhrenheit at tile bottomni of a drain with such a force.as to
pass thlrough several feet of soil.*  Water
is easily cotivertedI into vap)our for solle
inchles uinder thle surface in sutimer-buit at
the depth of 3 feet and beyond, vaporisation niust act with titucli dimimislied force.
Mr Meclii seems to thinik that "the callpillary attraction is str(onr,e  than tihe force
of gravity," anil that tile capillary powers
of the soil are strongest at and near tlhe
* Ttr-asactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xvi. p. 197.
+ Mechi's Lxperincce in Drain(ige, p. 9, 13.
+ Bird's Eleinents of Natural Philosophy, p. 17, 18.
630
surfacer Conceivin- these views to be
not quite correct, and as considerable
reliance may be placed on them in practice,
they are worthy of inquiry. It is found
that the height attained by fltiids in tubes
increases inversely as the diameters of the
tubes, so that with a riiialler dian)'eter the
greater height will be reached by anyfluid in any tube. This being the ca.,:e,
capillarity bears'no evident ratio to the.
density or, specific gravity of the fluid.
But as no tubes are found in the soil, we
must relard the fissures caused by drainage
as spaces between two surfaces; and in
this case, the utmost elevation attained by
the fluid is one-half (if tha*, which would
have taken place in tubes having their
diameters equal to the distance between
the surfaces, and this is always inversely
as the distances. It is thus equally evident that, between surfaces of fissui-eq,
capillai-ity, bears no ratio to specific
gravity.+ The capillary force ma seem
stronger at the surface than lower Ydown,
because there. the soil is driest by evaporation, and receives the moisture most
readily; but inasmuch as the fissures are
largest at the surface, there also the moisture will be less niinutely,diffti,,:ed throu,,Ii
the soil by the capillary attraction than
lower down. Hence the capillary force
cannot be destroyed by drainage on the
contrary, its sphere of action will be much
exteiided.by it, on account of the increase
and even creation of fissures witli surfaces. 
DRAINING.
So thliat heavy rains are longer of appearing
froti (irained than undraiiied land, and tihe
drains continue longer to run.  In heavy
rains some of the water runs even off the
drained surface in a turbid state, thlouglhi
in ordinary rains it leaves thle ground in a
clear state, having, been filtered thlrouigh
the soil.
furna        ce, and connected with main drains,
36 inches    deep, furnis he d wi th tiles  aud
s oles. Mr  Jamnes  Howden, Wintoedhill,
near  Traneoot, in East Lothian,  found from
experience,  that alth ou gh drains shoul d
cost a s miuch      as t7  per    acre, on damp
heavy lan d,   tlthorough-draining will repay
from 15 to 20 per cent on the outlay.*
Tlhese instances will suffice for Scotland.
For England, on the estate of Ted(isley
Hay in Staffordshire, 467  acres, 9 poles,
were drained at a cost of ~15U8, ]7s. 4d.
-that is, ~3, 7s. 7d. per acre. The forner rent was ~254, 10s..9d., and after
the drainage it rose to ~689, 3s. ld., giving an increase  of 2811 per cent on the
outlay.+  And for Ireland,-on  the estate
of Castle Shane, county  Monagh,an, belolnging to Edward Lucas, Esq., 57 acres,
2 roods, 13 poles, were thorough-drainetl
for ~269, 11 s. 4d.-yielding an increased
value of the land of 30 per cent..*
585(;. The  pecuniary profits derived
from draining are not less remarkable than
its phlysical benefits.   The most palpable
advantage is the proft it returnis to the
farmer.  " I am clearly of opinion," says
Mir North Dalrymple of Cleland, Lanarkshire, " that well-autlienticated facts on
economical  draining,  accompanied  with
details of the expenses, value of succeedin, crops, and of the land before and after
drain,ing, will be the means of stimulating
both landlords and tenants to pursue tihe
most  important, judicious, and remunerating of all land improvements.   The
statements below will prove the advantages of furrow-draining; and as to the
profits to be derived from it, they  are
g)eat, and a farmer has only to drain a
5-acre field to have ocular proof upon the
point."   Without  entering into all the
details of the stateiments given by  Mr
Dalryinple, it will suffice here to exhibit
a few general results:-One field containin(r 54 Scotchl  acres, cost ~303,  7s. to
drain, or ~5, 12s. per acre.   The wheat
off a part of it was sold fo)r ~1 1, and the
turniil)s off the remainder for ~25, 13s. 4(dl.
per acre.   The soil was a stiff clattery
clay, andl let in grass for 20s. per acre;
but in 1836, after liaving been drained, it
kept 5 Cheviot ewes, with their lamnbs,
upon an acre.  Another field of 18 acres
cost ~5, 9s. per acre to drain.  The wheat
off one part of it realised ~ 13, the potatoes
tff another ~15, 15s., and the turnips off
the reinaili,ler ~21  per acre.   Tile land
was formerly occupied  with  whins  and
ruslhes, andl let for 12s. per acre; but
lwhen let for p)asture, after leinlg draiiied,
M[r Dalrymple expected to get 50s. an
acre for it.  It.may-v be mentioned, that
the drains made by MIr Dailrytoiple were
iiarrow ones, 30 inches in deptl-h, filled 18
inches highl with stonies or scorine front a
5857. When drains are executed on
stubble or lea ground, the first corn crop
after draining is not sensibly increased in
produce; but after the ground has been
ploughed, properly wrought and manured,
a very sensible increase of crop instantly
takes place.  Thus, in one instance adduced by Mr Bell, Woodhiouselee, in
1839, the increase on oats was only 5
bushels on 2 acres, on the drained over the
undrained land; and in the same year, 9
acres drained produced 258 bushels, and
63 acres undrained 192 bushels of good
oats, being the same amount of produce
from the undrained and the draline(d lan(l.
Those products are very  much less than
from drained land that has been effectually
laboured.~
5858. But  although  the most remn arkable instances of increase and profit are
received fromt drained land, after it has
been well wroluglt, it mtust not i!e inmag,ined
that thle largest ratio of increase will be
contirnued.  Effectual  draining, makes the
greatest imiipression at first on soils tmiost
illjuired by water, whether natur-ally good
or bad; but, naturally, good land p,ossesses
miore staniina than bad, and will maintain
its superiority over bad, even thiouglh the
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 319-21.
+ Journtal of the Aqricultural Society of Englaind, vol. ii. p. 279.
+ Transactions of the Ayricultui-al Improrement Society of Ireland, 1843, p. 39 and 44.
~ Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, voL xiii. p. 510-l1 1.
-,631 
REALISATION.
that the produce declined from both in the
second rotation, and less from the good
than the inferior soil; but still thle inferior
soil gave a return of more than 25 per cent
fronm the corn, and 70 per cent from  the
grass; and such percentages from inferior
soil ought to be regarded as hi,lghly remunerative:
latter shoul         d            exe rt itself more for a few
years after being drained.   In corroboration of the remarks just expressed, I give
a  table  constructed  by   lr  Thomson,
Hangingside, Linlithllgowslhire, which presents the produce fromn an imperial acre
of inferior and good land, before and after
being thorough-drained; and the result is,
From inferior land.                         From good land.
Kinds of Crops.                         After being drained.                       After being drained.
Before being                               Before being
drained. drained.
drained.  In the 1st   In the 2d   d    ed.       In the 1st   In the 2d
rotation.    rotation.                    rotation.    rotation.
Bush.    Pks.  Bush.  Pks. Bush.  Pks.  Bush.    Pks. Bush.  Pks. Bush. Pkls
Barley,    23    3  33   1  29  1l  27    3  38   0   36   2
Oats......          35       21   47       2i   44      114    38        0    52      1*    50       0
L S. S.       L. S.  D.  L. S.  D.    L. S.  D.           L. S.  D.  L. 8..
Grass bytheacre,.    1  3  9           2  11  6      1 19   8       1 11  81    3 19  3    3  11  4*
It would be of essential service to future
drainers were those of the present day to
ascertain the comparative amount of produce received from thorough-drained good
and bad land, for a series of rotations of
crops, that it may be accurately ascertained
whether the smallest profit derived from
thorough-draining, bad land would repay
the cost. I have no doubt it would.
be   carefully  t aken up     from the bottom,
and  every vestige o f taie plant  removed.
Some tile-drainis made by Mr  AI'Lagani,
younger of Punmplherstoni, Mid-Lotlhian, in
October 1847, were choked up with soime
substance in March 1848, and in tracing
its origin, it was only found in those drains
which had receiv,edl leakage from dunglills
collected on a certain part of the field.
The substance was gelatinous when wet,
and like dried skin,  and tou(ghi, when
dry.  It was pronounced an alga by Dr
Greville, the C'onferva bombycina, whose
almost colourless or slightly greenish filaments pass rapidly into putrescence.  The
conclusion to) be drawn from this case is,
that the waste of liquid manures from the
field dunighiills should  be prevented as
completely as possible, not on ly because of
the direct saving of valuable  materials
which \would hereby be effected, but because of the outlay which will be prevented
in rem-edyinig evils to'which the matter
that escapes may directly give rise.+
5859. Drains are liable to obstructions
byvariousg,rowtls and dep osits wlich enter
them. I have frequently met with the roots
of the mare's-tail, -Equisetuam palustre, on
cutting drains when they poured out a full
run of water for some tinie; but on being
enmptied, and no lorng              e r receiving a supply
of moisture, withered  away.  In  a             case
mentioned by  Sir Joteisepl  Batnks, the roots
sent shoots upwards, t    ialoni   the  openings         lef t for th e passage of tater,"+ which
proves that as much moisture lhad been left
,in the bog as supported the plant in life_
in short, that the bog lead been insufficiently drained; otherwise, on the privation of moisture, the  vitality of thle roots
would have been  (lestroyedl. When the
amphlibious persicaria, Polygonurn amphibium, finds its way  into a drain, it
chokes it up; and being a perennial, there
is no chance of its dving out. Where this
weed is suspected to exist, the draini should
5860. Mr  HenryDixon, Witlian, says,
" I lhave a curious evidence of tile facility
with  wlhielc the roots of trees will destroy
drlains, if carelessly placed.  The mass of
fibres are the roots of a willow-tree, growin,g about 5 or 6 feet froni the drain, which
lhad been put down only twelve miontls,
* Pirize Essays of tie Ii.( hland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 297-298.
t Communications to the Board of A4griculture, vol. ii. p. 349.
: Transactions of the highland and Agricultural Society, July 1848, p. 296.
632 
DRAINING.
and the pipe from whlichl  I took it was a
4-inchl  socketedl  one." *   Thle  ashl  and
lhorse-chlestnut send strong fibred roots into
drains; a renmarikable instance of Awhichl  I
saw at New  Hailes, near Edinburghl, in
1846, wliere a built conduiit, of'apparenitly
15 inches square, was in several parts comiipletely chokel up) with the fibrous roots of
thlose trees.  It was withl tlie view ofavoid-I
ing such accidents that I hiave so frequently
recommended  every  sort of drain to be
placed at a distance froii trees  and hedges.
5865. Draining bein,g utnslertalien in a
season  wi then  tle  workmen  can  scarcely
keep tlheiiiselves clean, and certainly not
dry,  any ieans  sto   render their work  more
comfortable to thienm is deserving of attention. Tbhe Marquis of  Westmeins ter supplies
his drainers with a dress,    wlichr  it s eems
they readilv tak e   to. His words are, "We
supply our  laboure r s  witlh    a sort of leatlhern
trousers, wlaic iprotect the l   hips  and legs
from comininp e   in contact with the wet clay.
Twtese le,gings  are used only by the  man
wio diw,s tlae lwst narrow spit, a nd scoeops
out the lowest  soil from th e  tredncl before
fixin, tle pipes.   In bendi ng fo rwards,
lhis siloul(eos also  are  brouh,lt into  contac.t witl  the ul)er sides of  the wet tirech,
to guaIrd them frotmi wlhich a pair of leathern
armilets are lllost useful. These armlets,
as well as tlhe leggings are taken off and
put  on wvitlh perfect facility, are so far
pliabl)le as to cre,ate no imnpedimetnts to tile
action of tile o-lbofrers, fit sufficiently close
not to rub against tcle  sides of  the  t-wreinc,
or make it crumnible, and effectually keep
out the wet for tle entire day.  Thiey are
easily rolled up andl carried to and from
thre place of work."   Thie leggings Cost
20s., and tle armlets   10s. the  pair.+
Wooden clogs are moreover a comfortable
wear for  mien wlho lave to work in any
wet trenich, (5607.)
5862. Depositions of oxide of ironi also
stop drains.   Oceirey water is often seen
issuing from  drains in bogs.  TilJe  water
holds  the protoxide of iron in solultioln,
whlich when it mrneets thl)e air freely is converted iito thle peroxide,  wlhicli,  lieing
ins(olitl)e in water, is iiiinmedliately thlro(wn     p
down in aLn oclirey deposit, tihat so(nI forllis
an o      bstruction to the water, as it isalways
associated with  imuiichi veg,etable miatter.
5866. I have confined my observations entirely
to tile draiuiiag, as it is the principal method
now practised, to the exclusion even of stone
draining, and still more  so of  the  Elkinigton
method.   Still, cases  may occur where  large
springs and collections of water may have to be
coiveyed away under ground  iat built conduits,
and 1no  method known is so well adapted for
that  purpose  as  the  Elkington method; and
small stonies, such as the debris of rocks, may be
s o  plentiful in some localities distant from tiles
that stone drains might still be constructed there
at less cost tlhae  with tiles.   It seems therefore
expedient to relate'the peculiarities of both
methods of draining.
5863. Fine sand occurring  in quantity
is apl)t to clhoke thle ducts of draiiis.  If it
is permitted to accuiniulate above  the outlets of mnain drains, in level bogs, it will
datn black the water in all' tle                              drains
unless the main-drainis are lowest.
5867. The coldest, the most injurious to  useifil plants, and the most permanenlt in its effects,
is water  fron true springs, which continue to
flow and retain their place in all seasons; and
where these are copious, the  most effectual way
of re,moving them is by the Elkingtoii method of
draiiiiiig.  To take away such springs, and cause
plants to derive their water  from rain by ineans
of filrrow-draiis, is therefore an excellent means
5864. Moles cause obstructioinsin drains
by their workings in search of their natural
food,  the eartlh-wormit.  A r-eimiarkable
instance of tlhis was experienced ly Mr
Hay of Wihiterigg(, Roxiri-ihIshiire, wllere
he bad used soles placed a few  inchles
apart.+
I Journal of the 4.qgr.cultoral Society of E.qlan(, vol. v. p. 603.
t Jourilt, of A.riculture, March 1848, p. 373.
+ Journial of the Agricu'tural Society of England, vol. x. p. 51.
633
586 1. Besides trees, other substances
obstruct the passa(,e of water in (iraiiis.
Incrustations of liiiie stop drains, and are
not unfreqtieiit in liniestot,e -,tii(i chalk
countries, where they are deposited some
inches in thickness, and I)ecoiiie quite
liard. Coiiititon Iiinestoiie is very difficult
of solution in pui-e ivater, but when the
water contains free carbonic aci(.1, it is disr,olved a;d c!)nverted into the bi-earbo'liate of limestone, which readily dissolves
in water; but when, front,iny cause, the
carbonic -.tci(I is -i(-aiii diseii,,-,t,,ed, the carboiiate, is iiiiniediately tliro%%,n d6%vn in
tliiek incrustations 
REALISATION.
of promoting the health of plants.   Poids andF
lakes of water cainnot be drained by me;ns of
small fiurrow-drains, iot only oli account of their
iicapacity to carry away a large bodly of water,
buit also of thie depth to which the draiiis suited
for tlio.e l)pirposes are required to be  inade so
niucli  bey,iid  that of ordinary  draius.   The
draitia-e o(,f lakes, or any collection of water, is
be.st effectel by means of the Elkiiigton system.
WVe iunist, therefore, pay somine attention to this
method.
I~~
bFL  K
.b868. The (drain required to convey away the
coutents of a cop)ious aud deep spring, alld of the
waters of a lake, nmay have  to be dug Jo the
depth of fronm 6 to 10 or 15.eet, accordilg to
the lowest depth of tihe seat of the water to be
rein,vedl.  It is unniecessary to give directions for
the digging of a deep dirair, as it is conidicted in
the samie lianner as the drailns we have already
been conisidering, (5809.)  But  however  deep
the draiii may he required, it is loss of time and
nioriey imakiiig it much wider than necessary for
the work to) be (1 ne in it.  A simiple calculation
will at once show the difference of work  to be
done iii diggii!g a  arrow and a wide drain. Suppose the drain is 6 feet deep, 21 feet wide at the
top, and 1.- foot at the bottotii-tliese dimenisions
give aii area of vertical section of 12 square feet,
and in a rood of 6 yards in length a capacity of
216 cubic feet.  If by iiadvertence the workmen
make it 3 feet wide at top, aud 2 feet at bottom,
the vertical section would  be increased to 15
squiare feet, and the capacity to 270 cubic feet
in every rood of 6 yards loug, creating 54 more
cubic feet in the rood, and givilig either ilinecessary labour to the workmei, or additii)nal trouble
to the emi,ployer to fill lt) such a chasm.   However deep the draiii should be, its width -it the
bottomn slouldi not exceed beyond giving room
to the men to work.
5870. All large deep drains should be fur.
nished with built conduits, to let the considerable
body of water have a free passage in all circurmstances.  The building of the conduit should  be
contracted for as a separate operation from the
cutting of the drains.  If both are undertaken
by the same party, the two sorts of work  will be
so carried on togetlher to suit the convenience of
the contractor, as  to deceive the inspector  by
the work; whereas, if one sort  of work is inspected aud approved before another is allowed
to  be commenced, both will be executed in a
s;atisfactory maunier.  The building  of the  con.
dtit will cost from ld. to 2d. per rood, according
to the adaptation of the stones for the purpose.
Flat lhandy stones can be built firmly and quickly,
whereas rouiid-ahaped ones will require dressing
with  the hlianiiiier to  briiug them into proper
shape, anud mieliuh pinnilg to give thein stability.
The stones are furnished to the builder, and a
labourer is usually provided to supply the stones
as  required.   But circuntistanices  mnay occur in
which it will be nmore convenient  to oblige  the
builder to quarry the stones, and supply himself
with a labourer, the carriage of the stones only
b(ing tfurisihed by the employer.  A  builder of
dry-stoiie walls is better at building conduits for
draiis thau  a coiiiiiio   iaso, as hlie does not
depend tipoii mortar, but ipon pilnings of smnall
stones to steady the building, (5704.)
Si69. Should the  drain prove very wet, and
danger be apprehended of the sides falling in,
th e whole division eprgaged   in  for the time should
be takeii out to the bottom without stopping, in
order         to let tloe conduit be built into                       the drain
as qulickly as tpossible.  Should the ea rth have a
tewldei(y to fall in be fore  the  bottom.m  is rea(he(d,
.short thick planks should be provided, and placed
a,gainst the loose parts of both sides ot the drain
in a perpendicular or h-iorizontal position, according to the torm of the loose eartlh, anid tlhere kept
firm by, shlort stobs, actiltg as propps between tite
planks on both sides of the drain, as in fig. 518,
where a a arie the sides of the dr-ain, d d p)laniks
placed  perlpendicularly agai!tst tlhemri, and kept
in their places by the short prop c; or wlhere it is
necessary to lhave the plai,ks placed lhorizontally,
f  and its opposite neiglhbotir is so place,i, anld
kept in  their  position by the pirop.s e e.  Wlieni
there is no tendency of thje eartli to tall in, tihe
draini may be dug at oniee to half its dep)tl.  It
is convenient to take off the upper hali of a new
division of' the drain before digginig to tlhe bottom the division preceding it, in order to leave a
stage  iiptii wvichl to lhand down thte stonies for
build(ing the conduit il  the preceding division
which had been dug to the bottom.
634
Fig. 518.
THE POSITIONS OF PLANKS AND WXDGRS TO PRE     VENT THU SIDES OF DRAINS FALLING IN.
5871. Should the ground  be firm, the  draini
cut ill summer, the lenlgth of the drain not very
great, and the weather propitious, the coniduit is
most unifit)rmly conlstructed after the drain has 
DRAINING. 
been entirely cut out; and it is then most substantially and satisfactorily built from the top to the
bottom  of the  drain, the uniform fall of the
ground  being  then  best adjusted.    But  in
ground  liable  to fall iii in winter, or when
the weather cannot be depended uponi for            s     ome
days, or when  the draii  extends to a great
length, the safest plan is to build the cod(uit        ii
immediately after the earth has been totken out
to the bottom.  The fall in flat ground is best
presdrved by building from  the upper to the
lower end of the division of the drain; and,
where the fall is decided, it may be built in coiltinuation from the preceding division.'
dtiit is formed of good and selected stones; and
should be protected from vermin by close iron
gratings.    After the entire length   of the conduit  is b uilt, it is covered with flat sto nes; but
before laying down which,e the  sole of  the  coitduit is cle a r ed of a ll loose ea rth  and  stones,
with a  narrow hand  draw-hoe, fig. 498.   Imtediately after this the builder  lays  tie f la t
(overs, 2 or 3 inches in thickness, receiving them
o  from  the lbouer, from th e  adjoi ning hialf -castout d ivision of tile dra in, and,  w,rki ng backwards, and giving them a hold of at least 3
inches upon each wall of the conduit. The open
spaces between the meetings of the covers, which
will probably not be square in the ends, should
be covered with flat stonies, and  the space betweeni the ends of the covers and the sides of the
drain should be neatly packed with small stones
to secure the covers in their places. To keep thie
finished conduit clear of all impediments, the
builder shuts up its end with a firm wisp of
straw, wlhi(h, while permitting water to pass,
seethes it of its earthy impurities..
5873. Evenii on ordinary subsoils of clay, the
conduit shouild not be built without a stone sole,
as water might carry away  the material by
degrees, and the flat stonries thus laid foriii a permaineut foundation for buildiling the walls of the
conduit upoli. In every case where a run of water
is expected in a drain, the bottom ought first to
be laid withl fiat stones before the conduit is built.
5875. After the conduit has thus been built, the
earth should be returned into the drain soon, il
case rain fall and wash down its sides.  The filling
in of the first part of the earth of a deep  drain is
nsually included in the  contract made with  the
drainer, and is executed with the -pade, as it is
not safe for a horse to walk  upon the edge of any
drain until the earth is filled ill nearly to the
level of the ground.   The whole  of the earth
imay either be put in with the spade, or the repnainlder with the plough; but il aiiy case a little
mound of earth should be left inmmediately over
the drain, to allow for subsidence to the origiliial level of the ground.  There will be much less
earth left over the filling of a drain than would
be imag ined ftromn seeing the quantity thrown out,
and the  space occupied by the stoines; and  in
every case the inounid soon subsides.
5874. Supposing the plank set down  inl th               e
mniddle of the  lower    end  of' thle  cutt, and  there is
plenty of fiall, the sto8es are handed down  to the
builder from the suriface, and it is most economical to emiiploy a woman to do so.   The coldiiit
is from 9 to 12 inches in width, alld from 15 to 18
inches in depth, accordi]Jg to thie circumstances;
and after the building is finished to the length of
the planik, the plank is pulled by the ropes for
another of its length, a-id length after lenlgtlh,
until the entire drain, or the next division, as the
case may be, is reached.  The mouth of the coii
Fig. 519.
1
THR INSTRUMENTS FOR BORING THE SUBSTRATA
i
'I
I
i
i
635
5872. A convenient article in the building of
the conduit is a plank of 6 inches in breadth, and
froin 6 to 9 feet in lerigtli, to I)Iace in ilie middle
of the bottoin of the (]rain, for a dry a,tid firm
footing to the builder. The plank is easily drawn
on froin length to length bv a short rope-eiid or
chain attached to each end.by an iron staple.
6876. Btit where it has been ascertained that
I )
a
I I
1)
c
e
d
p. —.. I
OF DERP DRAINS. 
REALISATION.
the strata under a collection of water is gravelly,
and the water is retained ill its place by all imllpervious stratum of clay over the gravel, the
water will find a vent if a hole be formed through
the clay into the gravel, which is most easily
effected by means of boritg'ods.  Tile boriugirons are  made  to open a  passage  through
various sorts of miaterials, such as impervious
clay, thin rock and hard rock; and one or all of
these substances may have to be penetrated ere
an adequate passage be formted for the detained
water to escape.  Fig. 519 shows thie various
instruments used in boring, where the auger, a,
is from 21 to 3- inches in diameter, and about 16
inches in length in the shlell, the sides of which
are brought pretty close together.  It is used for
drilling a hole in the ground, and bringing up
the drilled earth.  Wlhen harder substances than
earth are met with, such as compact gravel or
thin soft rock, a pyramidal punch, b, is used, to
penetrate into and  make an opening for the
anuger.  Wheii rock intervenes. then the chisel
or jumper, c, is used to (cut it through; the face of
which should be of greater breadth than the
diameter of the auger used afterwards.   There
are rods of iron, d, each three feet long, and 1
inch square, unless at the joints, which are 12       l
inch in diameter, with a male screw at one end,
and a female at the other, for screwiing into any
of the above instruments, or into one another, to
make them as long as to allow the descent of any
of the ilnstrumnelnts into their working place.  The
short iron key, e, is used for screwing and unlscrewing the rods from the instruments and from 
one anotlher.  A cross-hhandle of wood, f, having
a piece of rod attached to it, with a screw to
fasten it to the top of the uppermost rod, is used
for the purpose of wrenching round the rods and
auger, and tfor lifting up and letting fall the rods
and jumper, when these are used respectively.
The long iron key, 9, is used to support the rods
and instruments as they are let down and taken
up, while the rods are screwed on or off with the
short key, e.
s5879. Small drains  to  b e filled with  stones
are c  in the  same manner as   for til es  (5831,)
only that stonies are allowed more room in the
bottom of the drain than tiles are. To give the
larger room, the common spade is more used than
the niarrow-poinited ones of tile drains. Whether
stones are obtained from the surface of the land
or the quarry, it is obviously an absurd practice
to mix stones of different sizes inl a drain, as they
call never assort; and it is positively injurious to
the functions of a drain nearly to fill up the
bottom of it with a large stonie, where it is sure
to intercept water and make a dam. Large landstones should therefore be broken into small
pieces.  Stones broken il the quarry are always
aniguilar, and il so far are objectionable in shape,
because ol fittirng together, face to face, they become a more compact body than round stones
possibly call. No doubt, the ordinary pressure
of a body of earth from 2 to 3 feet deep cannot
squeeze small broken stones together so as entirely to compress the spaces between them; but
gravity, continually acting on loose stones, will
in timie press them nearer; and heavy work
upon the surface, and  the  subsidence of water
th rouigh the  earth, assist by their action  to
produce a  similar  result; and  We all know
that macadamisation makes;a much more compact road  that did the  old-fashioned  round
stones.
5877. Three men are as many as can conveniently work at the operation of boring a drain,
and they use the instrumentts in this mnianier:" Two men," says Mr Johnstone," stand above,
one on ealch side of the drain, who turn the auger
round by means of the wooden handle; and wheni
the auger is fill of earth they draw it out, and
the mail in the bottom of the drain clears out the
earth, assists in pulling it out, and directing it
into the hole. Tile workmen should be cautious,
in boring, not to go deeper at a time, without
drawing, than the exact depth that will fill the
shell of the auger; otherwise the earth, through
which it is boring, after the shell is full, mnakes it
more difficult to pull out.  For this purpose, the
exact lengthl of the auger should be regularly
mlarked ol the rods from the bottom  upward.
Two flat boards, with a hole cut into the side of
one of them, and laid alongside of one anoth,r
over the drain, in time of boring, are very useful
for directing tile rods and going down perpendicularly, for keeping them steady ill boring,
* Johnstone's Elkington's Mode of Draining, p. ll 1, 8vo edition.
636
a,n(i for the men standing on when performing
the operation."'
5878'The proper drainage of public cemeteries
seems little attended to. It is well known that
annual flesh de(-,ays more rapidly iii dry gravel
than in wet clay soils. Cemeteries ought, therefore, to be formed in dry soil; but where that is
not accessible iti localities, the ground ooglit to
be thoroughly drained before the ground i.%, made
ue,f; and -is graves are generally made not less
than 6 or 8 feet deep, it is requisite that the
drains ought to be below that. depth. In most
clay subsoils, veins of sand will be found traveris,
itig tl em before reacliii-ig that de th, so that the
drains *ill not require to be very near one another
to render the subsoil sufficiently dry. Such deep
drains will require main-draiii pipe-tiles to fill
them; and where water seems copious, two should
be placed side by side, as in fig. 526. In some
cases cond uits of stone may require to be built
in some uf the drains to carry uff sprii)gs, as in
the Elkit)gton method (5870.)
5880. Stoties should never be broken at the
side of the draiii. I agree with the late Mr
Stirlitig when lie says tliat' I prefer breaking
stories in a bin. It is more easy to check the
size, and it is done cheaper, as otherwise each
liea.p has to be begiiii on the sward, and many )f
the stoiies are foreeti into the grotiud, which a.dds
to the difficulty of liftiiig them. There will be a
savitil iii cartit) the stoiies large, btit it will be
fully balanced by this disadvantage. I wotild
deprecate of all practices that of breaking the
stoiies in the field, and filling by ttie chair,.. 
DRAINING.
This may be contracted for at a low rate, but it  has bestowed so much pains on  the breaking,.
is easy to guess how  the contractor  makes   preparing, and putting stones into drains as Mr
wages."*                                           Roberton, Ladyrigg, Roxburghshire.   I shall
describe his inmplements and method of pre  5881. I am acquainted with no drainer who   paring quarried stones.  A  portable screen or
Fig. 5            2.
THE DRAIN STONE-HARP OR SCRIENN.
karp for riddling and depositing the stones, is
seen in fig. 520, and it colnsists of a wheelbarrow
a, on each side of which are raised two  upright posts, c c, to the height of 3 feet above
the barrow.  Uponi two of these posts is suspended a screen b, the lower end of which rests
upon the side of the barrow.  The screen is fulrnished with stout  wires  14  apart.   To  the
lower end of the screen is affixed a spout d,
and  at about  10 inhles fromi  the  lower extremity of the spout  is attached  a board  e,
by  means  of  two  broad arms  f.   Another
screen 9, of on-e-half the length, aud having the
wires about half all iich  ipart, is ihuiig parallel
to, and about 10 inches below the larger one, b,
by meaus of a small ironi bar lh, from both sides
of the upper end of the larger screeni  and its
lower end rests Ii)on0 the side of the barrow at i,
sloping o,itwardis from the ol,posite side to that
of the spout (I.
them over the screenl with force, as they will not
alght sooner than hanlf-way down
Fig..521.a
the wires, where  their efficient
screening will be impaired; Tile
proper  method is to rest the shovel
upon the top of the screen, which
part should be protected with
plate-ironi, and merely give its
handle a slight turn, when the
stones will be  released;   the
larger ones, rolling down, strike
against  the board   e, and drop
into the middle of the drain, with              out disturbing the earth on either
side.    The smaller stones, at the
samne   time, pass throng!h  the
upper screen b, and falling upon
the lower one!, roll into the bar              row at i; whilst the rubbish in
passing  through the lower scr'eeu
.g, falls uponl the ground oni.the
outside of the barrow.
5882. The stones art-e put into the drain in thisi
manner.  All the earth should at first have been
plit on one side of the d(irain.  The barrow-screen,
fig. 520, is placed onl the other side, so that the
board e, attached to the lower end of the spoutd
d, shall just reach the opposite side of the drain
k.  The cart, with a load of broken stones from
the bill, is brought a little in'advance (If the
barrow, and the carter, on removing  the tailboard belouging to the cart, shovels the stonies
out of it with a fryiiig-pan shovel, fig. 233, and
throws each shovelful over the top of the screen
b; but in doing this, hlie takes care not to throw
* Prize Essays of the IlijAland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. iO0.
i
I
I
t
i
6 -37
I
5883. One man takes dharge
of the filling of the - drain. His
duties are to move the barrow             screen, fig. 520, forward along
its side as the larger stories are
filled to the required beiglit; to
level them with the iron rake, fig.
521; to take the smaller stories
from the barrow with the fryingTHIC I)ItAlr4 pan sl)ovel, fig. 233, spread them
STONE-RAKE. regularly over the top of the 
REALISATION.
larger, and ram  them  down  with the beater,
Fig. 52'2.         fig. 522,  so as to
form a close and
level surface throuigh
which no earth' may
pass.    When    the
f           s~~~tones  are  brokeni
in  the  quarry,  to
pass through a ring,
4 inches in diameter,
o,'ne?fourth will! be
I yg       ~~as snqall as to' pass.
through  t'he  wires
of tile lapper screen-,
, 10. ~b, Fir..520, and which
is sufficient to give 
the top of the drain:
iii ~.::..,a covering of  2 or
3 inches deep, of.
~i! ~tl l!-"''~ ~'b e ig b;;~iea tenclo'se'ly;
i,,l It}"t,,i'down, in lieu of
and two screens were employed, and the contractors had some stones ready, and part of the
drains were halfexecuted by the 1st July. When
the filling commenced, 66 roods were  finished
every day, comprising a length of drain of nearly
400 yards; and  as the weather proved  unfavourable for the work, only 3300 roods, instead
of 4000, were executed under the contract, in
doing which about 2000  cubic yards of stones
were buried.*  A drain of the dimensions represented in fig. 523 will require a longer time to fill
~
5886. I think a duct at the bottom, to convey
the water the more quickly away, is desirable in
every stone drain, althoiughi it should cause some
trouble and expense.   Where flat stoiies cannot
be obtained, a sufficient duct  may  be made by
placing a round shaped  stoniie on each side of
.the drain, with a similar one upon them to act as
a cover; but where flat stones are available, a
duct of the form  represented in fig. 524 should
Fig. 524.         be made,  where  a,
-I~ ~         a triangular duct, 6
A7t  58.                     inches in the side, is
coplt///?d  /inz ihs  mg/     ade of three stoiies
manner with           ///d    -one laid flat oil the
may/gi bef// seen iiiGround,   asid  two
7//?' ~i/'7/ ~',///,Y//Z/// sl/ Pilg stories of  tels
///;/z/X//X/M//fi/,0duct  are  li'ld  ill
.g//Z///tt/ffiX////'/%/g their p'o/ti/ // Bay
z~k~i/Y/@ Si/v}/////X/f stories  blat ed:i.,4
of 6 yards.    I am               /    ~~~~~wedges   betweeii
;/j,  of the commono~e~ddhlthem  atid the earth,
gauge;4%,>y//,Y//Q/0/////, fatd  the drain is flii's//>Xz/,,2~zY/,////itU isied by 12)  iticties
j;    awsidath of the bottom  /  of broken stoiies, b,
oa i l/fi ////S    covered with  small
' ~'~ "::/1~, /~I, //~t/o//i",o es, c, and tiie
o b uearth,  d, returned
THE TRIANGULAR COUPLD above them. The tri            bSTON  DUCT.     angle  encourages  a
deposition of sediment  upon its flat sole, but
prevents the descent of water  under the sole to
any dangerous  extent.  Having  a flat bottom,
this drain might easily be  cast out with a width
at top of only 15 inches.
A:MALL  DaN'iL~lD  bstraw of 4turf.
completed in this
TrHE DR.,INISTON.-BEaTER. manner with stoner
may be seenini fig,- 523, which represents'one 36
inches deep,.'Winheswide at bottoin, 12 inches at
Fig 5~,3'.         the top of the-stones,
_'~' "'~_~'       and'the  stones  18
inches deep.  These
dimensions give 23i
g Z/'/f/ /                cucbic feet per rood
Y?!/~///!i/,A   V//////~    of 6 yards.    I am
~/f/f///////~  ~///f//iX~  partial to the breadth
~//////f/f,i       ~/~/// /,~    of the common spade
X  ///,~,/'~/,'   S'     as a gauge for the
"~/, ~    /..     0,/,Slf~  ~ ///~    width of the bottom
0,0of a drain to befilled
:!~//)./~?r~,t-'~'/'/~entirely'with loo-se
~'/df/~?~'FX~. ~~/f~stones, be cause. it
'~,~/~ //~ /', kf:>,/~ affords abundance of
' /~ j~'"~/~    Y::~/,.?////~:room for a durable
'             | ffi s~~~toniy filter, whiclh 7
::~////;t-~>~.ff///f/,inches can scarcely
' ~,/, /: /  accommodate,   and
'//~'/~~/~//f/y/f,//,uch less $ inches,
when   stones   are
A SMALL DRAIN  -ILIoXD  broken  to 4 inches
WITH BROKEN STONS.   in diameter.
5887. A more perfect form of duct is seen in
Fig. 525.        fig. 525, where a is a
tile duct, either tile
_885. M   o t e nand sole or pipe-tile,
tht', irau. 33i,e  d,,. 7iihthe latter being the
bottom,  5inchecheaper. In using
ide at thetopothestons-thetiles  of any kind for
15""'<\"\'Ng cui  feet   ducts,  in  a  stone
that\a set ofcarts, drivenbyboyo nain  it is necessary
abl  I   l\0\\g to  fill in the stones
t a a e a a''t p\\\  by hand with caution
\creen:bar'oi, from 6t7a little way  above
i um d o 0 u w,i, _  \\\    the tiles; and  the
wok>gvsfo, to        cbc r ermainder b  might
These[ dt  ar  derve  fbe put in with  the
barrow-screen,  fig.
184, fr       520, and covered on
hTHE TILE AND STONE tAN. stop with  smalle dw.
~mpltedon he 1th  ugut.   wo sts f crts THE TILE AND ETONE DRAIN. stones c beatendown.
5885. Mr Roberton's experenc   e as  to the  time
,required for putting the stones into the drains is,
that, in drains 33 inches deep, 7 inches wide at
bottom, 15 inches filled with stories, and 9 inches
wide at the top of the stonies-the contents being
15 cubic feet per rood of 6 yards-supposing
that a set of carts, driven by boys or women, are
able to keep one man employed in unloading
them, and another -man ill taking charge of the
screen- barrow, from 60 to 70 roods miiay be filled
in a summer day of 10 hours; which amount of
work gives from 3t to 39 cubic yards per hour.
These data are derived from large pieces of
work, such as Mr Roberton'contracted for in
1840, for the execution of 4,000 roods, the filling
having commenced on the 1st July, and was
completed on the 12th August. Two sets ofcarts
* Prize Fssays of the IH;_hland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 37.
638 
DRAINING.
5889. The  cost  of  thorough-draining   with
stonries,  incurred  by Mr  Roberton, is as follows.
The drains were  placed from 30  to 36 feet apart,
as  the nature  of the subsoil was  fiavourable  to
drainage; and  those average  distances give  70
roods, of 6 yards, of drains to  the imperial acre.
Opening  dr ains 33 inches deep and  7 inches
wide at bottom, at 5id. per rood of 6 yards,
for 70 ro(,ds,.                          1 12   1
Preparing stones 4 incelhes diameter, at 4d. per
d tto,.'... 1  3  4
Carriige of stones, at 4id. per ditto,..    1  6  3i
Unloading carts atnd  moving screen-barrow,
at id. per roeod of 6 yards,...    0 4
Filling in earth, at id.  per ditto,..     0 1  5i
Extra expense ill the nmaini drains,..    010   0
Per acre of 70 roods,..;4 17   6i
Or per rood of 6 yards,..     0 1 41*
I consider this a perfect form of drain, innsniltch as its durability is secured by the well
laid-ill stonies, its efficiency  made certain by
the superior tile-duct, while the area of the
stony portion affords the permeable materials
of the  subsoil to  part with  their water with
much freedom. Few farmers, however, will adopt
this form of drain on account of its coniparatively great expense.   The  Draining Coinmissioners have refused to sanction this fbrni of drain.
5888. For a main drain, the expense might be
incurred to secure a free conveyance of water
from a large surface of stone draitnage; anid if
one duct is deemed insufficient for the quantity
of water to be conveyed, two tiles might be
placed together abreast as a and b are shown
placed in fig. 526.  Instead of placing two tiles
Fig. 526.          abreast, it has been
recommended       to
?                           place onie of them
upon its back on the
////,/~jj    -ground, and to set
// pathe other upoi  it,                e
//  edge uipon edge. Un                       /   less the tiles are pro                        v/ ided  with  broad
flanges, or a tile-sola  e
be inserted between
them  so as it shall
lie upon the edges
~i//,/~~  of the under tile, and
form the sole for the
it//S [,/upper one, it is evi         I  g//////        den    t  that the upper
one will-,always run        t         i
the risk of slipping
TILE, DOUBLE DUCT FOR   downI into the under
A MAIN STONE DRAIN. one.
l  a l 1         Fig.  527.
___                                        I
ZI
II                                    J1.
Z t.,.               *
A PLAN FOR DRAINING 1BO0GS AS PRACTISED IN IRELAND.
the moss at its centre above the level of the  conveniently situated for its improvement after
adjacent ground, and this peculiarity causes all  draining in the vicinity of extensive knolls of
the drainage water of such bogs to flow towarids   limestone gravel.  This gravel seems to be  a
the land.  This bog constitutes a part of the  peculiar feature in the geology of Ireland, and
great Bog of Allen, which covers many tlhou-  appears as a gift of nature ir those parts where
sands of acres.  The moss is of great depth, and   bogs abound, as if to provide a ready means of
very wet and soft, and most probably floats upon   converting their dried vegetable surface into usethe suirface of a large lake.                      ful earthy miould.  When spread iil a compara                                                  tively thin layer upon the drained moss, it soon
i5891. Besides the inclination of its surface-  converts it into an arable soil fit to carry  in
which much facilitates its drainage-this bog is  abundance every species of produce.
* Prizec Essays of theA HiiAlland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 43.
639
that
nner
xtellIrerrick
stone
n an
colif 60
et in
being
and
ause
f the
1 by
es in
is a
arge
a at
I the
and
ig of 
REAT,ISATION.
cutting the under part of the upper turf, this
instrument is really useful; but in deep bogs, in
the drains of which 1no man can be supported,
such  a spade is of no  use in cutting out the
second and lowest turfs, which  are too much
below the  hand of a  iman standing upon  the
surface.  The  three-pronged  graip is the only
tool hlie can Imost conveniently use in such a case.
r:iins b are movie in this
mnann,er.     A    garden
line is stretche  d at right
angles  from   onie  op>etn
,iiilci a, to another a,
6(0  yar (ds.   Tile  upper
r,o)uighi t,arf is cuit il a per  peitlicular      direction,
al,, the line with  the
edgiiig-iroii,  fig.   528.
Tile liiie is then shifted
18 iiiclies, the width of
the  top  of  the  drain,
where  a similar cut  is
maiide by the edging-ironi.
While one  man is em  ployed at this, another
cuts a moderately thick
turf  across   the   drain
with a broad-mouthed
shovel,  fig.   83.    The
drain is then left two
months to allow the
water to run off, the moss
to subside, and the turf
to dry.
5895. In the course of the four months, the
moss subsides about 1 foot, and  the turfs and
peats become firmn.  After the two spits of the
shovel have been thrown out, the edging-iron is
again employed  by one  manl to cut down both
sides of the drain to the depth of about I foot,
leaving a shoulder 5 inches broad on each side.
The puishing-scoop, fig. 509, is then employed by
another man to cut the moss below  and  acrosu
this last narrow spit, whilst a third man takes
out the cut pieces with  the small graip.  The
scoop is employed to polish the narrow bottom (,f
the drain with a few shoves of its back, making,
a duct 1 foot deep below the shoulders.  The;
filling of the drain is commenced  after this last
spit has been removed, and is conducted in this
mainner. The large turf b, fig. 530, taken out by
the second spit,
Fig. 530.       being now dry,
tMa tim   tiA egi-is lifted by the
g         g            ~~~~~~band, and p laced
wer   th qupon           the s   a
TH   HOLEE   O-R1rshoulders                e e. If
left to dryaud harilen   The workei  byai  left        scoop~ fro \~~~,~  dih the botmsisopng
5894h A new s wthics turf iis re- f y    e
byF m'!~~~plaed *          too tiglht
sides~and top oin th         e drain, the
7     ~  ~nmoss will have gras
the  grs  isa o te              ndency to
fa jj;~;~               ancoll apse front
rted p bo  th  sih d     e     s,               an d
wit  anyos  ot,ucnetbhok    e eup or di by me     fminish the open
ber of turfs just fill upthesubsideduc    t d.    The
large turf, a,
!_______  turf-first taken out, i s
'~    ~ ~ ~~~~~~then lifted by thie
f~             ~        ~~~~hand, and put
into the middle
[~      ~ ~~~~~~of the drain, -,s
in the:figur,,,
with the gra',ts
face u nder most t%
I/////E iioiliZONT~iand the           long nant                                 row stripes tof
THlE SHOULDERED DtOG-DRAIN. turf, e c, separated by the scoop fromn the bottom spit, along
with any other broken pieces, are firmly packed,
by means of the small graip, fig. 218~1.aoig both
sides and top of the drain, so that the entire nium ber of turfs just fill up the subside4 drain to tire
top. It is not an uncommion practi~e to put the
turf first taken out, upon the shoulders of the
drain with the grass face undermost; but as
the grass is soon converted into mould, and will
fall into the duct, it is better to place the second
turf upon the shoulders, being composed entirely
or fibrous moss, unconvertible there into mould.
THE EDGING-IRON.'       5893. At  the end, of
that time the edgingiron, fig. 528, is employed by one man, cutting
down the sides of the drainii in a perpendicular directionj 2 feet 3 inches deep; while another man
uses the square-miiothed shovel, fig. 83, to cut
the moss inito large square peats; which being wet,
and situate Imuch below  the hand, cannot be
thrown~ out with the shovel, but are taken hold
of by a third nmai, with the small three-pronged
graip, fi,.. 218, and throwin  1po)I0  the surface,
where their  square form is regained by a few
strokes with the back of the slhovel, and  then
left to dry and harden.  The work is again left
for two nionstlhs more, for the water to dratini off,
and the moss to subside still fiurther.
5894. A new spade, whichl I hlave named here
as the "horizontal spade," fig. 529, because it
~~~~~.
'r'HLE hIORIZON'TAl, SPADE.
works in a horiz,tital direction, has lately been
introduced  in  b,,g-draiiiiiig, to cut the under
parts  of thie peats anid turfs in miaking these
drains, and assist in castinig them out, instead of
the small thlree-p)rolngedl graip, fig. 218. In bogs,
where footing i, found fur tile workmei, or for
i
i
it
640
5892. The   smhall
Fig,. 5 2.
THE EDGIN'G-IRO.';.
5896. When confidence is not placed in draining bogs by their own materials, and when larch 
DRAINING.
wood is plentiful, a species of tile may be made
from it to answer tlie purpose of a rigid duct.
MIr Scot of Craigmtiie, in the Stewartry of Kirkeudbriglit, has used tubes of larch as ducts in
bog-drainiig, and found them to succeed.  The
larch-tube finished, represented in fig. 531, pre
from 2000 to 3000 such tiles every day, which,
after being thoroughly dried by the weather,
Fig. 533.         a-re fit for use.  Ill
a             clayey subsoil they
,~e.~should be set in the
drain as shown in
_   _Fig   p3.the  figure;   but
__, ~'>~    ~\\"'    they may  also be
-        ~'"      used singly in drain            2~'\~ ~ m,ing moss, by being
THaLRisDRl-T~i.set upon a plank of
larch as a sole, as b
snts a sueo4i e uirests upon a.t'
I
I
wae-a]f2iihs   Tecs   fteetbs
Ifatng;teftigboiganpisote2
THIIR PEAT-TILE FOR DRAINS.  5899. In comparison to the expense of execution, perhaps no
sort of draining  has done  so much  good as
sheep-drains on hill pasture, which have dried
its  surface,  and  made  it sound  for stock,
where formerly disease prevailed to an alarming
extent.
5900. The wet surface of pastoral hills composed of impervious clay may be dried on the
principle of surface-draiiiing, by cutting numerous transverse open drains across the face of the
hills, and receiving the water from them in open
ditches. Covered drains, however, when properly
formed, are best adapted even for sheep pasture,
as being not only secure from external damage,
but permanent in their structure; and no sort of
drain is better adapted for the pipe-tile.  Such
drains keep the surface unbroken; no manure
from the pasture can be washed into them; the
ground is rendered permanently dry;  and  I
think they are much cheaper made than any
form of drain at present known.  Although  I
recommend covered drains in hill pasture, yet,
as open ones are most frequently in use, it is
necessary to describe the best forms of these.
requrn  draining, where            the
moss is too soft for tiles.
5897. Tiles made  of
dried peat; have been
recommended for the
drainage of land where
peats are near, and tires
and stones distant.   In
case of such a locality
requi r ing  draining,   a
peat-tile may be mlade
by a spade contrived
by Mr Hugh Calder                        wood, bricklayer, Ayr                        shire.  It cons ists of an
iron cutting part,  fig.
532, of a semi-cylin                        drical forin, furnished
with a flange on each
edge,  and  a  cutting
tongue at the extremity
of one of the flanges.
it is provided  with a
cross-headed helve,
which is inserted into a
TIEI CALDERWOOD PEAT- socket attached to the
TILrK SPADzE-TOOL.    cutting part.
5901. Open surface-drains in permanent pastytre appear in plan as represented in fig. 534,
I't is provided~~~~~~~~~ wih- i
_ _,
A PLAN OF SHEEP-DRAINS ON A HILL OF
IMPERVIOUS SUBSOIL.
5898. The tile cut out of the peat by  this
spade has the appearance  represented iii fig.
533, where two separate tiles, a and b, are placed
oine above the other, leaving a circular opening
ia the ceutre between ileili.  Oje inaii caii cut
Piam.e EP.s.y: f tl he Jlijlhland and  4gricetltural Society, vol. xiv. p. 99.
t  (~,..rter/y Juurial (f Ay-griculiture, vol. vii. p. 247.
641
Fig. 531.
THE LARCH DRAI,'-TUDE.
a
Fig. 534.
where  the leader  e f is cut  the  miore nearly
down the face of the hill the less steep the
acclivity is, and the feeders are cut aeross the,
2a
VOL. It. 
REALISATION.
face nearly in parallel lines, into the leader.  In
this way, the water is entirely intercepted by
the feeders in its passage down the hill.  Where
one leader enters another, the line of junction
should never be at right angles, but at ain acute
angle with the line of the flow of water, as ef
enters d b; and where small drains enter a large,
from opposite sides, they should do so at alternate points, as shown by the three drains above f,
and not as -the three pairs of drains above these
towards e. The large main drain c b d, or the
sub-mnain g a i, may be left open or covered.
Should the sub form the line of separation between
arable ground and permanent pasture, it mnay be
left open, and serve as an assistant to the fence
of the hill pasture; but, if the entire hill be under
pasture, it may still be left open, as a catchwater drain. The ends of the drains at h show
how they lie in reference to the drains from e tof.
top. The upper turf a is taken out whole across
the cut, as deep and large as the spade  can
make it.  Two  men will take out such a turf
better than one, with the assistance of the horizontal spade, fig. 529.  It is laid for a time on
its grassy face upon the higher side of the drain,
and the earth pared from  the other side with
the spade, leaving the turf of a trapezoidal shape.
While one man is doing this, the other is casting
out with a narrow spade  the bottom b of the
drain; and the earth and shlovellings are spread
over the ground.   The large turf a is then
replaced in its natural position, and tramped
down, leaving the open space b below it for the
water to pass along.  This is not so permanent
a form of sheep-drain as the last, nor can it be
so easily kept clear; and it is unsuited to pasture for cattle, as they would inevitably tramp
the turf to the bottom of the drain, though it
would be stronger were the turf a to rest on
two shoulders as b does on c e in fig. 530. As
made thus, it also affords an open space formoles
to run along; and when any obstruction by them
or other burrowing animals occurs, the part obstrtucted cannot be detected until the water is seen
to overflow the lower side of the drain, where the
turts imiust be raised, and the obstruction removed. It forms, however, a neat drain, possessing the advantage of retaining the surface
whole where  sheep alone are grazed; but it
could not be formed for less than fourpence per
rood of 6 yards; and when it is determined  to
expenid so much in making sheep-drains, it would
be better to employ pipe-tiles  at once, which
would require a comparatively narrow cut.  The
pipe-drains could be made for little more than
the original cost of the pipes, with carriage.
5902. There are various ways of making drains
in grass.  OLne is to turn a furrow-slice down the
hill with the plough, and trim the furrow afterwards with  the spade.   Where  the grass is
smooth and the soil pretty deep, this is an economical mode of making an open sheep drain.
Every line should be previously marked off with
poles when the plough is to be used.  Such  a
odra        in     w   oul d not cost                        a     halft penny per rood of 6
-yards. But where the grass is rough and strong,
and swampy places intervene, the plough is apt
So choke, and come out of the ground, by the
ilong grass accumulating between the coulter and
beam, and make coarse work; while the horses
are apt to strain themselves in the swampy ground,
so that the risk would be considerable.
!5903. A better, though more expensive mode,
is to form them altogether with the spade.  Let
.-a,.fg. 535, be a cut thrown out by the spade, 9
Fig. 535.
AN OPEN SHEEP-DRAIN IN GRASS.
inches wide at bottom, 16 inches of a slope in
the high side, and 10 on the low, with a width
of 20 inches at top along the slope of the ground.
A large thick turf b is removed by the spade,
and laid with its grassy side down the slope,
while the shovellings are thrown upon its top
to finish the bank neatly.  Such a. drain catches
all the water descending the surface between it
and the drain above, and leads it to a main or
sub-main drain.  Such an open drain mnay be
formed,for about twopence per rood of 6 yards,
~provided many.obstructions, such as brushwood
And rank heather, do.not encumber the surface.
642
5904. The drain, in fig. $36, is a covered fl}p.
drain. A cut is first made 6 inches wid* at
bottom, 16 inches deep. and 18 inches wid.. at
Fig. 536.
A COVIRED SHEEP-DRAIN IN GRASS.
.5905. It is surprising how little desire seems
to be evinced by landed proprietors, to prepare
the ground by draining  for  the reception of
plantations. The fencing of young plantations
is scrupulously attended to, and very properly,
because young trees cannot defend  themselves
against the depredations of man and beast- but
it is strange that it never occurs to the planter,
that young trees are as little able to defend
themselves against the chilling and suffocating
influence of water about their roots, as their
stems and tops can withstand the gnawings and 
DRAINING.
croppings of animals.  The deleterious effects of
water in the case of every large plantation that
does not form an important portion of a domain
may be explained-in the freezing of the ground
in winter in one mass around the roots of the
trees, as long as they are young; ill obstructing
the sun's heat entering the soil, and finding its
way to the roots, in the early part of every year;
in preventing the passage of the air to the roots
of the trees, the presence of air being essential
to their good health; and the particular effects
produced by all these causes may be witnessed
ill every tree becoming the victim of lichens and
mosses, or other parasitic plants, or of being
evidently stinted in its growth, or diseased in
the interior of the trunk.  The consequences are,
the trees are a very long time of reaching to a
state of usefulness as timber or shelter, and can
never realise the price of those grown on dry
ssils.  It is not enough to place young trees ill
ground that does not become a plashy swamp in
the worst winter weather, because rough ground
Frill retain as much moisture, in its vegetable
eDvering and spongy mould, as will injure the
r)ots of the young plants constantly remaining
ill it.  No alternative is therefore left, but to
drain the ground before it is converted into a
plantation, if the planter desires his trees to
attain maturity and usefulness; and the system
of drainage suited for such ground is neither
intricate nor expensive.
5908. Tile itntall drains should not b e made
along the fall of the ground, as in the case of
covered drains in ordinary arable land drainage,
because the large body of water  whiclh  they at
tirmes will at once collect from the surl'ace would
then be apt to run holes into their sides and bottoms.  They should, therefore, be placed with a
slope across the inclination of the ground towards
the mail  drains, at such an angle  ai julst to preserve a brisk enough trot in the water to carry
oft' sediment and leaves,  but not  to injjiure  the
sides and bottom.  In clay soil, the slope tiay be
made   more  iniclitned  thlan in light Sail.  The
smaiull drainis shouild not be  made less thlant 20
inches in depth in clay soil, with a width, of
course, of 30 inches, and with 9 inches at the
bottomii, making thie entire width at the top 39
in(.-hes.  And  onI light soils they should  not be
made less than 14 iiiclhes in depth, and 21 inches
in width, with  9 inches at bottomu, making  the
entire width 30 inches.
5909. Where slight hollows occur across the
surface of a field of' small drains, a  sub-mnain
drain  should be inserted thereill, having a comimunicationi with a mails drain.  These  sub-main
drains should  be of less dimensions  than itmain
drains, but larger than the smnall drains, anid of
the same proportions as the other two kinds.
5906. Ground appropriated to the use of trees,
should be drained by open drains upon the surface only, and not with covered drains of any
kind; for the roots of the trees will direct their
first efforts towards the conduits of covered
drains, in search of moisture in the summer
season, and their fibres will soon choke up the
orifice of the conduits. Niow, open drains upon
the surface will be quite sufficient to remove all
the water that would remain in a stagnant state
in winter, and prove injurious to the roots;
whilst they allow as much moisture to remain
under the roots of the trees as.proves beneficial
to them in summer; and they are not required
to be made so large ur so deep as to be objected
to on the score of expense.
5910. The cost of the 14 inches ill depth drain
in light soil, requiring a little picking at the bottom, will be about 1 fartlhiiJg per rutnning yard;
and that of the 20 inches deep drain in clay soil,
with extra picking, will be 2 farthings per rutnning yard.  The cost of making  the main and
sub-main  drains will be in proportion to the
above prices, according to the qilantity of picking
earth thrown out and required in the respective
kinds of soils mentioned.  Tile cost of draining
per acre will depend on the number of the drains,
and the niiiimber is determined by  the distances
fixed on between the drains; and the distances
between the drains depend on the quantity and
frequency of the rain that falls in the particular
locality.  Perhaps  I mnay state, as a guide between two extremes, that the drains need not be
nearer in any place than 5 yards, nor be distant
more than 40 yards; the distance being closer in
clay than in light soils.
5907. On laying out the drains on such ground,
it is requisite to observe the torm of the surface;
and wherever a hollow trough occurs, with rising
ground on both sides, there cut a main drain
along the bottom of the hollow. This drain
should at least be 3 feet in depth, and have a flat
bottom of 1 foot in breadth, to allow the spade
to pass easily along it in scouring out at any
time the earthy and vegetable matter that may
have fallen into it; and its width should be 1I
foot for every foot in depth-allowing the bottom
to be 1 foot in width. Thus, for example, a main
drain 3 feet in depth would be 41 feet in width;
but having 1 foot width il the bottom, it should
be 5i feet wide.  The size of the main drain is
of course regulated by the probable quantity of
water it will have to convey away from the
small drains which lead into it; and besides,
main drains, and all other sorts, should be so
formed as to be rather too capacious than too
591 1.  Quicksands are  troublesome to  dry,
when met with in drains. Here is a narrative of
a  successful method of draining them  with tiles,
bv Mr Willi am  Libstode, She rif f  Huttto, Yo rk 
"When  the first man has got a tew feet from thy
end of the drain, the  secolid commintences takling
out the bottom of it; and as soon -is he  jIas wade
way for the haying of stones oO clay- tiles, they
are immediately laid by the tile-layer-first laying the bottoms quite close to each other, anld
upon them the tiles, leaving as little spice as
possible and immediately ooverinig t!em with
about 4 inches of the most tenacious soil that can
be procure4. Clay would be used, but oil account uf its being in large hard lumps, it Cannot
643
confined, to contain all the water that will ever
flow in them. 
REALISATION.
be made to bed sufficiently close to keep out the
sand.  Here I must notice that it is essentially
necessary that the drains be out 3 or 4 inches
wider at the bottom than the width of the tile, so
as to admnit this strong soil down the sides to the
very bottom.  Much mischief is done by the sand
getting in at the bottom part of the joininigs of
the tiles. Other niaterials have been used for
keeping out the sand, but with bad effect.   I
prefer clay to anything else, when it can be got
sufficiently loose and mialleable, so as to bed
quite close and firm, and leave no crevice...
After the clav or strong soil is well
trodden in, and thrust down the sides of the tiles
with a common spade, the sand thrown out in the
mnaking of the drain is tihen filled in, and is
firmly beat down by treaLding, and sometimes by
iuining a broad-whleeled cart upon it, iii which
is put a sufficientt weight, ii order that the covermig of the drain may become as firm as any other
part of the field.  This is dione to prevent the
water from descending, or fielding a clhaniiel to
the tile in that direction, or it would be almost
impossible to keep out the saudd.sd
The pipe-tile having been of late introduced into
this neighbourhood, I have comimenced  using
them. Thile drains are cut, and every other part of
tie wvork performed, in the saimie way as when
the cm,iiimoli tiles are used.  But on account of
the laid being but recently drained by them, my
observations are not sufficiently matured to justify ile in saying that they are in all respects
equally gi,od with the common tiles.  I find it
sometimes difficult to get them to fit close enough
to each other, the ends not being quite straight,
and some of them curved in the miiddle; thlerefore it is necessary to apply clay to most of the
joinings. Of these runnilng sands I have drained
about 500 acres; and when the plan which has
been stated here at large was adopted, which has
generally   been the case, the average c      ost p er acre
was                          about ~5, 5s.; that is to  say, 1500 tiles at
26s. per thousand; 3000 bottoms at I             s. per
thousand;                                             cutting, ~1, 10s.s.; an d  i ncidental
expenses, 3s;                      total, ~5, 5s." *
5914. One meth od in which these chan nel    s are
usually employed, in draining the face of railway
cuttings, is to place them in a slanting direction
down the face of the cutting, in numerous parallel lines, and, when they slant from opposite
directions, are sometimes made to empty themselves in a common channel. Where the entire
face of the cutting is a uniform mass of tenacious
bouilder-clay, and the open channels are made as
deep as to be imbedded inl it through the mould
returned'upon the surface  of the cutting, this
method may answer the purpose. In all such
cases the channels, to be efficient, should be (>t
large dimensions, and cut deep into the clay —
one being cut near the top of the cutting, and
sloped to the right and left from its highest
point; and only another, perhaps, cut about
midway across the face of the cutting, of the
same forin and size. T'he water would find its
way from  the surface inito these channiiels more
quickly, were the surface raised into The form of
ridges; and as there is always a built draini at
the bottom of the cutting, the ridges  should,be
continued below  the  lowest channel  to that
drain.  But such channels are  usually made in
the face of the cuttings, whether the clay is of
uniform texture or otherwise; and  the  consequence is, that the water, in oozing through the
sand-veiis, in time carries down both clay  and
channels ill lI:ind-slips as it did before.
5915. Anomt her method of draining the cuttings
consists ill making covered drains of tiles, branching in different directions, in the places where
the water is found to burst out to the day; and
the success of this plan is as uncertain as the
other, because the remedy, in both cases, is applied to remove the effect, not the cause of the
evil.
5912. Every one travelling by railroad may
have observed, in many of the deeper cuttings,
that the earth had slipt in large masses down the
face towards the bottom; and, on examinilng the
cause of these slips, it will invariably be found to
arise from the action of water upon the subsoil.
The  subsoil so affected is clay, and it is so
affected whether it be of a uniform texture or
iiiterstratified with veins of sand.   If there were
o10 clay, there would be no excess or retention of
water, and of course no latd-slips.  Cuttings of
railways may be regarded, therefore, as drains
intersecting the substrata to the extent of their
depth, and exposing to view the sections of the
impervious matter upon which the water natilrally travels towards the cutting, il precisely the
same manner, but on a much larger scale, as the
water is seen to issue from the intersected strata
of the exploratory drains recommended  to be
made  in  every  field  before  being  drained,
(5793.)naey,soiguwrsfo    to;oroa
I Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. vii. p. 117-18.
644
5913. As the clay which retains the water that
does the mischief cannot be removed, the only
expedient left is to remove the water, by conveyit)g it away in channels, instead of allowing it to
take its own course amongst the interstices of
the clayey strata; and these channels may consist either of open conduits or covered drains.
5916. A recent attempt, I observe, has bee,,it
made to drain the face of these cuttings by means
of p-,-ttented cast-iron pipes, which are so laid
dowii as to convey all the water to the drain at
the bottom of the cutting; but this plan seems
to me to be founded on no better principle than
that of the open channels or covered drains mentioijed above, inasmuch as it temporises with the
eff,Liet oiily, aiid does not grapple with the true
cause uf the evil.
j'917. The draining of such cuttings, I think,
ought t,.) be conducted in a di,-Terent manner from
any of these. In fig. 537, let a b be the face of
a deep railway cutting, from 20 to 40 feet in
del)tli, risiiig, as such cuttings usually do, 1 foot
iii I -L foot. The ground at the top of all cutting,,;,
b, will be found to exist in one of three states,
namely, -loping upwards from b to c; or on a 
DRAINING.
level from b to d; or sloping downwards, from b b to C, and the subsoil is of uniform clay, the
to k.                                             water on the surface will run from c to b, and
thence down the face of the cutting all the way,
5918. When the ground slopes upwards from  from b to a, washing away some of the soil in
Fig. 537..o-"
.....o.............................
DRAINING THE FC OF RAILWAY CUTTINGS.
DRAINING THE FACE OF RA1L~VAY CUTTINGS.
its progress, leaving parallel ruts.  But were an
open channel formed in the face a little below
b, and another about half-way down  at h, and
the face b a formed into upright ridges, it is
e'Tident that the open channels at b and h would
intercept the water and carry it away, while the
ridges would convey it faster into them than
could the plain surface.
the ordinary mode of draining the face of railway
cuttings is erroneous in principle, and therefore
proves ineffectual in practice.  It may be that
the sites of the drains at g, o, and k may be beyond the 100 yards reserved for the use of railway operations; but, to meet such cases, power
ought to be  taken in every bill to allow  the
drainage of cuttings to be effected. It may also
be that some of the drains, as from g to i, and
from i to k, may be required of inordinate depth,
8 or 10 feet, the cost of which should rather be
incurred, and accomplish the drainage effectually, than waste time and labour in petty abortive
superficial attempts.
.5919. When the subsoil is not uniform, but
veined as fromf to q, it is probable that part of
the water will be absorbed by the ground at 9,
and find its way out at the face at f; in which
case, a covered conduited drain a little way above
b, as deep as to intersect the dotted line g f,
would prevent the burst of water atf more effectually than any number of open channels or
covered drains on the face at f could possibly do.
If more than one stratum exists, as represented
by fg and h i, a drain at 9, deep enough to reach
a, would prevent the lower burst at h, as well as
the upper one atf.
5923. The  railway is a t q, a nd  m is one of the
conduited drains always constructed along the
sides of a railway, and becomes the great means
of keeping the railroad dry.
5924. 1 also observe that the hollows of railways  are seldom drained before being filled
up with the embankment, the weight of which
pressing upon the wet soft ground causes it to
slide aside, and the embankment to subside, when
more earth must  be brought to make  up for
ithe subsidence.  Such hollows should always be
drained with a main drain in the hollowest part,
and small draills running into it from both sides,
and filled with stones or tiles. As the embanking
proceeds, its weight will squeeze the wet out into
the drains, and no extraordinary subsidence will
thereafter take place.
5920.  Where t          he           ground  is level  from b  to d,
the water will not run of, but be absorbed, and
find its way towards the cutting either by the
vein i h or o a. Instead of using expedients to
remove the burst of water at h, as is commonly
done, a drain at i would prevent the burst at h;
and if it were as deep as to reach the porous
stratum a o, it would prevent the bursts. both
at h and a. When a burst is only seen at a, a
drain at o will remove it. When the ground is
of uniform clay, an open ditch above b, parallel to
the cutting, will prevent any water running
down the face b a.
5925. These are  all the cases of substantial
draining likely to occur.   Other  minor  modes
such as sod and wedge draining, are only  modifications of covered  sheep  drains.   (5904.)
There are also plug and mole draininig in strong
tough  clay subsoils; but tiles will supersede
all these.
592 1. On the ground sloping downwards, from
b to k, no burst of water will appear on the face
from b to h; and if 4he ground sloped as far as
e, none could appear in the face of the deepest
cutting.  But as the ground commonly stretches
from k to 1, any fall of water from b to k upon a
veined subsoil, would inevitably appear at a;
and the only sure way of removing it is to make
a drain at k, in impervious matter.
5926 It is improbable that drain-plouighs will
ever come into competition with the hand-1, furi)ished with appropriate tools. I may rae~tiou
that Messrs William Cadell, Sons, & Co., Crsmond, exhibited  excellent specimenls of every
tool for cutting field drains, as well as in hill
645
5922. It is clear, from these illustrations that 
REALISATION.
two portions of a field supposed to have the same
acclivity, and laid off in 6 equal  ridges, a, 6, c,
and d,, f, down the slope, three of which, a, b, c,
having  the drains oblique, and three, d, e, f,
down  the slope,  the drains being equidistant.
Now, when rain falls on, and is absorbed by the
ridges, a, b, c, d, e, f, it naturally  makes it way
to the lowest level; and as the ground has the
same declivity, it will reach the bottom of the
drains sooner or later, as the circumstances presented by  the two systems of drains  accelerate or retard its motion.  Let us see how these
circumstances should operate:-On the ridges
d, e,f, the water will at first take the course on
each towards the openl furrows, as indicated by
the deflected arrows at k; and as ground  has
seldom only one plane of declination, but more
commonly one to the right hand, and another to
the left, from a to f or from f to a, it follows that
the lower side of a ridge thus situated will be
sooner drained than the upper. But both sides
will soon be drained, as may be seen by referen(ce
to fig. 539, where a and b are vertical sections of
drains, and c 1 foot of mould, in which  the rain
is absorbed as fast as it falls upon the ridge, 15
feet broad, betwixt a and b. What is absorbed,
on  seeking the lowest level by  gravity, will
hasten at first perpendicularly towards  the line
d c; and, in doing  so, the portions nearest  the
drains will find it easier to move towards the
open ducts d and e than the close ground at h.
In thus moving, the water will always remain at
a higher level at h than at d or e, and, by its
accumulation there, cause a constant  lateral
pressure towards  d and  e, and  this the more
powerfully the greater the supply of water from
above.  It is believed by some  that water finds
Fig. 539.
\ ///~~
...:..:.
THEI DESCENT OP WATER ON A RIDGE INTO A DRAIN ON EACH SIDE.
ficial view,  and suppose that d, e, f and a, 1, 9,
are open furrows, the water will only have to
move 74 feet, as indicated by the arrows at k,to
reach the open furrows d, e, and f; whereas on
the ridges a c, I m, and q i, it will have to move
across the entire breadth of 15 feet, just double
the distance of the other, before it call reach the
open filrrows, a, I, g.
its way fr om the surf ace of a r    idge to the drain
on eiasi     e a       ther side along the imaginar y  inclined planes
e d and c e; but no force exists at c to cause it
to take so decidedly a diagonal course, in counteractlon to the         force of gravity which carries it
directly from i towards A. The firstures in                        drained
retentive  subsoil, having a perpendicular direction, conduct the water downwards with increased velocity to the assistance of gravity; and
the assistance which the water finds in its way
laterally into the drains d and e, from the centre
force at h, is afforded by the fractures formed
by,shrinkage in the columnar masses of the subsoil.
5929. Trace the passage of the water under
the surface, through the sutbstrati, Mr Thomson, Haniginigside, Linlithgowshire, drained 150
acres of land having an inclination varying from
1 in 10 to I in 30. Portions of 3 fields had
drains cut in them in 182;, 1829, and  1830, in
the oblique direction, and, finding  them less
successful than the rest of the fields, he put them
in the direction of the slope.   "In order," says
he,  " to ascertain  the cause of these failures, a
cut was made in the field first referred to, entering at a given point, and carrying forward"
level to a considerable depth, when it was clearly
5928. On the ridges a b c, fig. 538, on the other
li,aid, tile water will have  to traverse, in the
directi.on of the arrows b and A, the entire distance
across the drains a and I or I and g, instead of half
the distance all d, e, f; for both sets of drains are
supposed to be equidistant. So that the water
shuolld take double the time to reach the drains
at a, 1, and 9, than at d, e, and f. Take the super
I
646
pautures, at theGsgow of the Highland an
cultuaral Society at Glasgow in August 1{
5927. There are a few considerations connected
witil draining which yet require our attention, as
being necessary to the right understanding of the
subject. Most drainers now believe that drains
formed in the line of the inclination of the ground
will drain the land more effectually than by
drains traversing the face of the inclined ground,
but some may still be found to question it as a
fact. Without assuming more than one law of
hydranlics, that water seeks the lowest level in
all directions, I shall prove the accuracy of the
opinion by referring to fig. 538, which represents
Fig. 538.
I I
I                     I
III
t 
I I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
..
..
i I,  ~''-..
,,         ~          
I I
i~,                   I i
!                     I
9               i                     e
d
c
k
THE COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DRAINS
AND ALONG RIDGES ON A DECLIVITY. 
DRAINING.
upon soles.  To meet this objection, collars and
lobes have been contrived to connect thelm, all
which are attended with trouble and expense.
There can be no doubt that in the case of
derangement taking place in a drain with tiles
* of any kind, from whatever cause, the pipe-tile is
a safer means of continuing the flow of the water
than a tile without a sole; for an arched tile
is not a duct, but only a cover to a duct, whether
a tile sole or the surface of the ground, when
no soles are used -and whenever the ground or
sole is deranged, so miust the duct be.  But a
pipe-tile, however deranged, remains still a duct
tfor the water; and although one pipe may  be
completely choked up with mud and rendered
useless, the one before and behind will still operate as well as ever: no stoppage of water can
take place beyond the undisturbed pipe on each
side of the derangement.   A figure will best
illustrate this argument.  It is obvious that 110o
known species of force can act upon the tiles
from below, to push them upwards; nor is it pro bable that any force can act upon them from
above.  The only way that we  can imagine a
derangement to take place is by the subsidence
of the grounld below them, or by an inordinate
qllalntity of water.  Now suppose that the pipetiles b c, d e, fig. 541, are displaced by the sink
Fig. 541.
5930. And  although drains iw l    the oblique
direction should cut through a vein of sand as
fromftogq, fig. 539, and thereby carry off the
water it contains, the drains along the incliniation would also cut through the same veini and
carry off the water as well. So that oblique
drains present no advantage over those on the
inclination, while they are attended with many
disadvantages. This experiment of Mr Thoinmson's strongly supports my recommendation of
making  exploratory  cuts  before  determining
the depth and distance of drains, (5793.)
DISPLACEMENT OF PIPE-TILES IN A DRAIN.
5931. The minimum depth which drains olught
to have is easily ascertained by attending to the
particulars of ordinary culture. A plough takes
a depth of furrow of 7 or 8 inches; subsoiling
and subsoil-treniching go 8 inches below that; a
main-draini pipe-tile stands 6 inches high, and
less than 3 inches- ought not to be left between
the top of the tile and the bottom line of the
subsoil plough. Thus 25 inches are the least
depth ally drain ought to have, to preserve intact
the materials with which it is filled.
ing of the ground below them, and that the earth
above them g has fallen down.   The waier will
continue to run from  the pipe f as usual, and
will occupy the interior of the pipes c and d, and
partially that of b and e; and although the earth
may have fallen in between their ends, the water
will still find its way through  e and  b. The
water will saturate the earth in g as high as until
it reaches the level of the pipes a and f, which,
remaining in their proper position, a will take it
away, and it can rise no higher.  It matters
not whether pipes are upset or not as c is seen
to be-it continues a duct as good as ever. Instead of pipes, had there been tiles without soles,
they would instantly have been embedded in the
soft earth, and rendered useless as covers to ducts;
and  even had soles been furnished, the  displacement of them would have rendered them
equally useless as ducts.
5932. Although pipe-tiles-are coming more into
use every year, many farmners still prefer the
common tile, anld some yet believe that a sole
is not requisite on hard clays.  It is marvellous
how  such an opinion should be held by those
having daily opportunities of observing the
effects of the elements-for every farmer knows
that clay is softened by rain at the surface of
the ground; and when drains are formed in clay
for no other purpose  than to conduct  water
along their bottom, why shlould they doubt that
water will soften clay as easily at the bottom as
at the top of a drain? The question of economy
interferes; for it is, I suspect, cheaper to use a tile
alone than a tile and sole.  But a pipe-tile is as
cheap as a tile without a sole, so that the plea of
economy can now urge no objection against them.
5934. It is not an uncommon impression that
pipes, being close along their sides, cannot take
in the water from the drain so quickly as a tile
and sole. Whether they can do so as fast is of
no consequence if it can be proved that ordinary
pipe-tiles are sufficient to take away the largest
quantity of rain that will probably ever  fall in
this country.  I can prove this in a simple mallnner.  Suppose that egg-shaped tiles of 2 inches
wide and 21 inches in the bore are used, their cir
5933. Objections are made to pipe-tiles, that
011o beilg laid ill the drains, they are not connected
together like tiles that are laid to break band
~g~~l ~ r/tt...~' ftll, ~~~Al.l~ l1~l', f.'!11///"!,lll,''/,"'1ll'/1!tI
64?
seen that the substrata, instead of taking in any
degree the inclination of the surface, lay horizontally, as represented in fig. 540. It is there
Fig. 54 0.
I'l. _.....v....._..
TeI,, OltDINA  I-'OSITION OF SUBSTRATA IN REFER          ENCE TO THE SURFACE SOIL.
fore obvious," lie justly concludes, " that, in
maakingr drains across a sloping surface, unless
they are put in at the precise point where the
substrata crop out (and these are exceedingly
irregular in point of thickness,) they may in a
great measure prove nutigatory; because, although
one drain is near another, from the rise of the
ground, none of them may reach the ouit-cro,p;
whereas, in carrying a drain right up the direction of a slope, it is impossible to) miss the
out-crop of every substratum passed through." 
REALISATION.
cumnference is 10 inches.  These tiles cannot be
placed closer to each other by the ends than an
eighth of an inch apart, so the area comprised between two tiles is 14 square inch. Suppose that
the drain is 200 yards ill length, to furiisli which
480 pipes of 15 inches in length are required. Now
the joints between this number  of pipe-tiles
afford openings for water to enter them of exactly 600 square inches, equal to 4 square feet
and 24 square inches.  Does any one doubt that
an opening of 4 square feet and upwards would
easily contain all the water that could possibly
come out of one drain of 200 yardis long in the
greatest rain that was ever remembered to have
fallen in this country?  It may be very true
from this, that inch-bore pipe-tiles are sufficiently
large for drainage, as the practice of some English drainers demonstrates; but I do lnot see the
utility and safety of using the smallest boreof applying the hommopathic principle to draining-when a much larger bore can be afforded
for a comparatively less sum of money.
5937. A  pipe-tile of al arch upon a flat sole,
fig. 542, was introduced soimie years ago by Lord
Fig. 542.
5935. The bulk of earth relieved of its surplus water is an effect I suspect but little regarded when the depths of drains are determined;
and yet I conceive this to be the true expressionii
of the work done, as a mere statement of the cost
of drainage per acre of surface conveys but an im —
perfect idea of the substantial benefit conferred
upon the land. Thus, taking the cost of 2 feet
drains, in stiff clays, 24 feet apart, at ~3, 4s. 3d.
per acre; of 3 feet drains, in porous soils, 33r1
feet asunder, at ~2, 5s. 2d.; and of 4 feet drains,,
in soils of varied texture,  50 feet apart, at
~2, 5s., the following results in cubic yards as to
the depth, and in square yards as to the surface,
drained for one penny, at the above menltioned
prices, depths, and distances, will be obtained:
A CONCRETE PIPE-TILE.
James Hay, of Seaton, Aberdeetnshire.  It was
formed of concrete, composed of good lime, sharp
sand and gravel, mixed in the  pr oportion of    1
bushel of lime-shells to 2b bushels of sand and  4
bushels of gravel, which, in swelling, gave 8
bushels  of concrete th at made  120         tiles. The
concrete was run into moulds, in which it soon
set firm enough to be placed on boards, and the
tiles became in a short time, according to the
state of the air, in a sufficiently indurated state
to be used. One man, aided by perhaps 4 others
to supply the materials, could make 5000 tiles
a-day.  When the quantity of boarding is taken
into consideration, I have great doubts of this
process affording a cheap tile; at all events, it
can only be made in those localities where sharp
sand and gravel are found in abundance-substances which cannot be carried to a distance but
at great expense.
Depth  Distance be.-  Mass of soil   ass of soi l  Surface ofsoil
of the   tween the.  drained per  drained for  drained for
drainl  drains    a i  tr cubic  ld. per cubic ld. in square
in feet.   feet.      yards.       yard.       yards.
2      24          3226i        4.1         6.27
3       33-        4840         8.93        8.93
4       50         6153         12.00       8.96
The results are, generally, that double the depth
of drain has effect oil about three times the cubical contents of the earth, and about half more in
extent of surface; and, particularly, that 3 and
4 feet drains in depth dry about the same extent
of surface, though the 4 feet drain dries one-half
more of the ground in cubical contents.*
5938. Drainage has an unexpected effect upon
the organic as well as the mineral matter of
peat. The proportion ofhliumic, ulmic, and other
soluble acids taken  up  by alkali, and of resin
extra c te d by alcohol from drained and undra ined
peat, dried at 212~ Fahrenheit, were as foll.ws:-           
5936. The late Mr Smith recommended that,
' in cases where time or capital are awauting to
complete the drainage at once, each alternate
drain may be executed in the first instance, and
the remainder can be done the next time the
field is to be broken up."+  I would meet this
recommendation in the words of the late  Mr
Stirling of Glenbervie, that " I think it a great
error to make at first the half the number of
drains required, with the intention of putting
one between each at a future period.  Let what
is drained be donie as thoroughly as the farmner's
'Vax  and resin,
'lHumic and ulmic acids.
Humic, and insoluble undecaye
vegetable matter,
Earthy matter, or ash,
* Journal of the Agqriculteral Soiety of England, vol. v. p. 154-6.
t Snuith's Remarks on 7'Toroughi —Draining, p. 17, 4th edition.
+ Prize Essays of the Highliland and Agricultural society, vol. xii. p. 102.
648
exchequer will allow; the farm will be gone oyer
in as short a time, and much more profitably.'
The reason Mr Stirling gives for holding this
opinion is as practical as it is true; because "a
tid-proper condition of the ground for barrowitig-catitiot be taken advantage of on the drained
furrow until the otl)er is dry, and the beiieft of
aii extended period for performing the variouii
operations of the farm is thus lost."+ Every
farmer who has studied the iiifluen ce of soil is
ready to allow that wet soil does more injury to
the dry in its iieighbourliood, than the dry does
good to the wet. I would, therefore, under
everv circumstance of season and soil, prefer
havig the half of my farm thoroughly, to the
whole of it only half drained. On'visiting a
friend in Danifriesshire, when he was draining
his land in halves, I recommended the full
drainage at once. After a sufficient trial he
followed my advice, and thanked me for it.
D.i..d.    U.d-i.e&
1.75 1. (,3
6..56 14.6:).
78.18 47.15
13.51 36-60
100.00          ioo.oo 
DRAINING.
" The difference which the above numbers show t
to exist between these two peats is sufficiently
striking," observes Professor Johnston; " and it
would be both theoaretically and practically initeresting, were we certain that it prevailed generally between drained and undraitedt peats, and
was not owing merely to specific or local causes.
In the undrain ed p        eat there are 14t d per                    cent of
acid       matter-of those black acids which  are
formed naturally by decayiing                               vegetable matter
-which dissolves in caustic potash and sodta,,
and in the carbonate      of these alkalis,. But as the
peat c      ontains 3 61  per cent of i  t  pue lrl         I matter, the
organic  part contains 14.62 parts iln 63t,  or
33  per cent.  In other worids        o, o ie-thid of tohe
vegetable ma tter of the iiitdrained  peat is in l a
state    of  ihumic  and IloiiC acids.   The drained,
again, c ontain 6.56 parts of these acids in 100 of
the natural peat, or ing 86.49 parts of its purely
ve getabl    e  portion.    This is equivalent to  7.5
parts in 100 of  the orga nic matter; or, instead
of i, the acid        substances in th e  drained peat form
only T'th of its orga nic porti on.  Supposib ng such
a difference to be general, it indicates that the
effec   t           of  remov in g t he w ater by means of drains
and admitting the air, is  to render  the organic
part ofese o the bpeat insoluble, or to cange the ui
and hlmic acids into insoluble  matter devoid of
acid properties. This change is by no mleans an
improbable one, an(d is consistent with the previous observations of Spreewgel as to the alteration
which the acids of peat undergo by exposure to
the air.  It is this acid matter in              peat which
preserves wood, the bodies of animals, an.d other
substances embedded in it, from decay, and
which proves noxious to the roots of plants.
One of the immediate benefits resulting from the
action of lime, when applied to peaty soils, is
owing to its combining with these acids, and
thus depriving them of their injurious action upon the crop sown or planted on peaty soils. If it
be made clearly out, by further researches, that
the usual effect of draining upon such soils is to
change this acid matter, to deprive it of its
acidity, and thus render it insoluble and unhurtful to plants, a very considerable light will be
thrown upon this important point of the managemenit and amelioration of our wet and boggy
land of every kind." *
to take away a very small quantity of alkaline
salts.  Even iii the case referred to above, where
the solid  matter amnouted to  12 prer cent, the
surface-water cotitail,e(i 2 per cent of potash and
soda, wltile the  drliinage-water oily indicated a
tracing- shw)ing that the subsoil had either been
clayey, or that  drainage-water does  not take
away  the soluble itigredientts of the soil in so
large  a  quantity as  might  be  apprehended.
Were  drains perfectly miade, so  as the water
should go throiugh  them iii a slow  manner, the
spoils it would  be able  to carry away from the
soil would be of very small amounit.t
5940. It would be  as desirable to ascertain
the quantity, as well as the quality, of the water
disc harged by drains at any given time.  Mr
Milnie,ofMiline-Gradeni in Berwickslhire,has contrived a machine by which the discharge may be
measured accurately enough for all practical
purposes, of which fig. 543 is a view in section,
Fig. 543.
.
A DRAIN-WATER METER.
whe r e  a is the drain-mouth which supplies ths
water; b the vessel which receives the water; e
an upright spindle, which carries a rack that
sets in motion a series of graduated wheels and
racks which  mark the tetitlis, hundredths, and
thousafndths of gallons discharged in a specified
time.  When the vessel b becomes  filll of water,
it descends towards  the bottom of the box in
which it is placed, by turning upon  the axle d,
in doing which it mnoves  the rat,chet-wheel e on
the spindle c by means of a short lever, and discharges its water by the (,i elia  g at q. Wleii one
half of thle vessel b des(enids anid empties its water,
the other half, f, ascetids to receive the water
from the draii-in-outli a, aidi, after beitig filled,
descends againi to its ownt side of the box, and
empties its water by another opening g.
5939. A      drawback against the sadvantag     es of
draining may         be focund ed o ff the  qu antity of miatter, wheth        er  chemically diss olve d  or nmecihamically suspended, w  hich the wat       er tak es     out    with
it in its passage t hrough  the soil by thle drai     nis.
After a large fall of rain, recent experiments
have detected as much as 12 per cent of solid
matter that had been carried  off by drainage
water, while spring-water cortainis about 8, and(
filtered water onilv 4, per cent. It is very probable that, through loose suibsoil, a, large fall of
rain may carry with it a considerable proportin                           ae
of earthy matter held in suspension, and a smnall
proportion of salinte matters; bitt in clav soilsi
we have reason to believe, from the experiments
of Professor Way, (5116,) that raitn-water is able
Gallona per atrn
At  3 feet deep and  15 feet distance, 35,7 71
3i,,,,      30,,,,            46,510
* Tratisactions of thie I1i:hland and Agqricultural Society, Marcli 1848, p. 237.
t Scottish Fairi,ei, 1850.
649
5941. Mr Miliie place(i a. meter at the mouth
of a itiaiti draiii iii eotjiie(-,tion wil.1-i a,ystem of
draitis of (liffei-eiit del)tlis, di-aiiilijg eacli 6 acres
of grotiiid; aii(i after the meter liad i-emaitted
lr,,iii Juiie 1848 to Api-il 1849, the foll,)wiijg reisults were obtained -. 
REALISATION.
It appears that rather more water had been disclharged from tile 31 feet deep than the 3 feet deep
drains, though thle latter were twice as numerous
as the former.  In the parts of the field drained
ily the 3 feet draills, nmore water was left in thle
land, or went off by evaporation, and thlere was
also less depth of soil to thle draiins.''There was
more straw grown on the land drained with the
3 feet drains, and most grain on that drained by
the 3 feet draiiis. The grain grown on the latter
was probably produced with greater dryness and
warmth, as the larger qualntity of raini they carried off would imnpart to the soil a greatel amount
of heat.  The subsoil was pretty uiniformly reteiitive throughout the field, and the upper soil
was not perceptibly more opeln in one part tlhan
in another.  So far, therefore, as tlhese exl)eri-      t
iielits had proceeded, they sl-howed that, if'( draiiis
were niade 3- feet deep, only  half the niumber
will produce the same, and evena still better
effect, tlaii 3 feet drains.  Tle expense of iiiakiiig the 3. feet deep draiiis, at 30 feet distance,
was ~4, 6s. 4d. per acre, atid of the 3 feet deep
ones, at 15 feet apart, ~8, 12s. 4id. per acre.
15 per cent.  The tenatnt, therefore, should  receive a t leas t 18 p     er  cent for h is disbursements,
while the landlord should  be satisfied with  at
viost 8 per cent for his. For, as regardis the
tenant, the 19 years is the longest period he can
calculate  upon to  receive back  his money, and
his case  is rnot  made  better  t hough  the lease
should  be renewed, as  new conditions will be
made as if he were a straniger-which are good
reasons for his receiving 18 per cent on his outlay.  But wvhen.i landlord effects improvemeents,
he  derives benefit fronm  them for an indefinite
periodc; arid all lie  can- expect in return is the
comnmon rate of interest he would receive were
he to invest his money in:,ny  ordinary security,
and wlhich seldomii exceeds 5 per cent.  So  that
to iniduice hiim to  undertake any trouble greater
tlhan  receiving an annual payment of interest,
some greater temptation tlhan the ordinary rate
of interest  should be  proffered to  him; and
althou'gh tl)e farm to be drained is his own propertv, lie canlnot be expected to give himself  the
trouble to borrow money anid pay  thle o-rdinary
interest for it, or lay out his own txmoiiey and
reeeive in return no more than comnmoni interest.
The ioterest of moniey fluctuati)g frore 3' to 5 per
ceiit, there is therefore  nothing unreasonable in
}is receiving a greater rate than the ordinary
one for the time being.
5942. From the careftli experimnenits conducted
by Mr  Dickenson, the eineut paper-niaker, at
Abbot's Hall, near Kiiig's   Langley, Hertfordshire, thle averagequaiJtity oriain which falls tllere
aitiinally is 26.6 inches, more than the  average
fall on the east coast of Scotlanjd, aud 42-1 i)er
cent of it is filtered through the soil, aiuolunting to 11.1 7 of the 26.6 ili(,es.
5946. Now, what is the conclusion that should
be drawn from  these premises'. Clearly  that
the landlord shouild undertake  the entire expense
of draining uitolion himiself; because his interest in
tile  improvelmenit is  permanent- he  has  the
stroni,g,est miiotives for executing it-his demands
upon the lanid are  moderate, amounting only to
the utsua] rate of initerest-atnd in disbursing  a
portion of his capital, a smaller portion of  the
capital of the country is placed in jeopardy than
when the tenlanit undertakes to disburse the
wlhole expense.
5943. At one time it was a rather difficult
matter to settle the proportion of the cost whichl           i
the landlord and the ten-alit should  each  pay
when draining was executed  at their mutual
expenlse.  On cogitating (li the subject, I came
to the followiii, concltisions:-Siippose a landlord  deteriiines on thloroughl-driliiiing a farm,
takes it inito his o(wn hands, aid disburses every
cost attendini,, the operationl. Whl   ei  his l,urpose  has beeii attained, it is no more  tlhan
reasonable in himn to desire to receive back his
disbiiisemierits, principal ianid iiiterest, duli,-g tlhe
19 years hlie is about to dispose of his tfdn to a
tenaitt; fi)r if the falril will not repav the expeuse of its improvement iii thle reasonable period
of 19  years, little advantage will  be derived
from  it.  Now, a landlord will receive back all
his disbursements, prilicilial and interest, in a 19
years' lease, at 8 per cent oul the inoiiey expeuded.
b947. In the  preceding  suppositions, eithler the
lapdlosed aar,the tennat is supposed  to   unde rta ke
tlle enitire drainage; but when a mutual understaidi(.g exists  betwixt  themii, its  condition s
slh,mid b~e based on the principle, that both parties
sorlt,iihe lid receive teir respective ates ot interest,
595.naety, thpt landlord his 8 a nd  the te nant t  hi s I;;
per ceft; nor should the  tenan    t gr udge his  landl,,rd his 8 per cent, or the lanidlordi exact a greater
rent thaei will enable the farm to repay the tenant,
with (ordinary skill, 18 per ceuit; and although
both tlhese rats are charged upon the land, they
will _not amount to a large annual exaction uIpoIi
it.  For exanple, supl,pose four-fifths, or.80 out
of ev(ry ~ 100.are expended by  the lanidlord-and
some ian!llh,rds have willingly expended this proportion —he shou-iild receive ~6, 8s. a. year as  his
8 per enit; anid the tenant, to receive 18t perceint
on his fifth, or ~20, should  have ~3, 12s. a-year,
both sumiis together nmakinig I0 per  cenit on t!Je
whole  outltlay; *hielh, if exacted as an annual
tribuite fromii tlhe land. would only amtkouiit to  4s.
anii acr-e on ]alt-d worth 40s.-a suin, it is obviols,
which its tliorouglh-draitage would easily repay.
5944. Suippose, againt, a tenanrt disbuirsed all
the expelise, lie would be equa,lly reasoualle  iii
expectilng 8 per ceut on  his outtlay  during the
lease.
5945. Bllut tile positions of landlord and tenant,
on expetding the samne sumi in draining a fariii,
are widely different.''The teniant is not only
eutitledl to receive the 8 per cenit-that is, get
back all lis otitlay-but he is also entitled to a
profit for hiis personal trouble it) undertaking tile
diaiiitng; which profit should  be the samie as
coliniercial people generally expect oln thieir outlays, which is now 10 t3er cenit, anid used tov be
650
5943., Tlii,.; question between landlord and 
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"I
L.
P.
t4
tv
CD 
REALISATION.
overplius, "coiisiilptiloni dykles," as tlhey are
called, sever a l feet  in lbeigit and   orea(tlh,
are erected in lieu of fences. As nmany
as 800 tons  lhav e been  trenched out  of
an acre in that county.  In  the soujtlhern
parts of the county of Aiitrimi, in Irelarnd,
I lhave seen large,uantities of small trap
boulders trenched out of thie subsoil.
595;5. Deep moss that lhas recently been
drained cannot at first be plougl(edl, and
nmust tleieftore be dug with the spa(le. Tthe
surface of suclh ground is often very routg,hi;
and  the turf, whlen dried, becotues very
tou,gh  and dlifficult to reduce into mould.
Deep di,gging is absolutely necessary where
the surfice turf is very rough, in order to
bury it for decomposition.
5958. On  improving  waste  lIand  that
had been tlhe site of a  plantatioin, or very
stony ground, it sliotld be trencled before
being drained, because tile cost of draining,
in suclh cases, wouhl( be very muichl increased
were it (done before the obstructions fronm
roots and stonies were rbemnove(l. Wlheire the
stones are nuniiiei )cis enough to) (rain  tle
land, it will be cideaper to  br-ealk and use
tllem for that purpose, th'an to talke tiiem
away and purchase tiles in their stead.
5956. In trenclhing the site of an old
plhntation, the ground should be mnarked
out in divisions of 30 feet  in  breadth;
an(l  3 mene  workin,g  together will do
more and l)etter workl than when worlkiiifn
alone, as tlhe one assists tlhe others wlehen
extracting tlhe roots of thle trees.   No inmplement  is so efficient  in  cutting,  the
ramified roots of a tree than thle cotmion
mattock, fig. 544, whiichl  on one arm  has
Fig. 544.      a horizontal  cutting
face, and on tihe otlier
a vertical one.   It is
used  like  a   hand                     pick,  fig. 452; and
,! t      one or both cutting
faces  are   required (
alternately   to   cut
th rough   a   s     tr    ong
root.  An axe would
soon be blunt               e      d by
th e earth    ne   cessar   i ly
b A M ATTOCKa.  adluering t   o            t ile
sinaller roots, tlhouighI a large tlhick root
is easier cut tlhroughli with an axe than a
miattock-care  being first taken to wipe
off the earth from the part of the root to
be operated upon by the axe. All the
roots, great and small, should be laid upon
the surface of the trenched ground  behind the workmnen, and the hollows left
by them in the ground filled lup), and tthe
surface levelled.
5959. The ordinary trencliing of ground
with  thle spade  has  been  described  in
(3148) to (3150.) Fork-trencling, whichl
is always accompanied withl spade-trenclhingr, lhas also been fully describe(l fromi
(3151) to (3155.)
5960. The expense of  trencling roughl
ground  16  inches  deep)-and it should
niever be shallower to insure a good pl(ouglifurrow ever  afteryards-is from  10d. to
ls. per pole, according to the rouglhness of
tsfe  grlound.   I ihape  lo ad   very  rougil
g rou      nd, co nsisting  of  th e  la rge  roots
o f a scattereld wood, witlt  bruslihwood of
birch, alder, wilir, and  brooln, and  contaitcing as many   ston es   a s  would f have
half-drained  the  ground,  trenclhed  16
inches deep  for  ~6,  13s. 3d. per acre,
whiclh is practically 10d. per pole for the
spadtle work alone-a larg,e sumni, undloubtedly, independent of drainingt,, clearing
away rubbish, and incurring otlher  lhorse
ant( manual labour. Bait wlheni the ground
was rendieed at onee from a state of wilderness to, I,e fit for tlhe  miianure  b)eing
applied autil covered in witll an ordinary
tkolougll-fur r-ov of  mould, the expense was
not inordinate.  Tlhotifug   trenchling, im.ay
not be the cheapest mnodle, in a pecuniary
point of view, of rendering land available
to the plougli, it is, at all events, the nIlost
pleasant and satisfactory one for every
subsequiienit operation.
5957. In trenclhing very stony ground,
the foot-pick, fig,. 247, is the most efficient
impleiment f)r loosening tlieiii out  of the
subsoil, (3149.) Tlhe iron lever will be
requiredl to raise what cannot be effected
by the foot-pick; and the largest li)oul(-ders
of all will require to be blown to pieces by
gunpowder, with more shots perhaps than
one.  The stones should be  laid ulpon the
trenclhedI ground.   In many parts of Kincarditieshire, the stones are so numerous
in the subsoil as not only to afford as many
as to drain the land, but, to get quit of the
652
5961. Trencliing may be executed at 
IMPROVING WASTE LAND.
any season; but to allow time for subseqiietit  operationrs, it is best and  most
pleatsantly  done in  the long, dry  warm            t
days of suniiiiiier, and slhoulld be fitiiled
by early altittiuIn.  The contractor should
be bound  to sl)end as muchl  of hlis tiime
amtongst tlhe workmen as possible, taking
perlihaps a lot to himnself if lie finl leisure;
and  th    e  farm rer  s     houleld llave a person to
superintend the work in the pro,ress  of
execution, as some of tlle men will endteaYoVIr to make the trenched ground  seemii
as hig,hI as it oughIit to be, althloghl the
solid ground  miay not llave been du(g to
the deptlh it shoulhl lhatve been.  It will be
the fanriiier's own fauilt in superintendence
if thle work be ill executed.
tlhe late Mr Jamies Carmiclhael, Raplochi
farin, near Stirlin,,: " In winter pl,)urhing tlhe land intended to be leveiied and
straighltened in the succeeding  sumiimer,
the ploug,Ih was entered in the side of the
rid,,e, exactly in the iiiiddle between tlhe
crown and thle ol.en-furrow; and thus one
fourth of tlhe rid,e was q,i.thered up (749,)
fro ml the open-furrow on each side  if the
ri(,e, while  thle (op)en-furrow  was left as
etpeii andl deep as possible.  The reimaining
ohalf of the ridlge was  then cloven  down,
witllout  gore-flut'riiws (i767,) the crown
being laid comlp)letely bare, so tlhat every
ridge was divi(dedl into two.   The work
thus  renmainedl high and dry during the
winter.  In May or June  following, the
ploughr gathered up about two feet onl each
side of tl)e crown of  the ridge of  thle
expose(l slubsoil, whlich was about 5 feet iii
b  readth.  After this it was plouglhed into
drills, andl removed, either by sliovels or
with a 2-hlorse levelling-li)o(x, into the deep
o pen furrows.  The  plugll  was again
aetc l ployedl to make drills in the crown, and
tlhe subsoil removed into the o])en-furrows;
and the sanie operation was repeated until
the opel-fLurrows were raised apparently
above the level of the crowns.  This being
done, part of the fo)rmerly accumulated
soil on the sides of the rilg,es was cloven
down  b)y  the plouglh upon  the recently
removed subsoil in the open-flirrows, on
the one lhand, and upon the bared crowns
on the otlher hand.  The land was  thlen
cross-liarrowe(l, and twice cross-plouglied
and harrowed alternately as deep  as poss ible,  a nl d every inequality removed before
the ridges were re-formed straight.  Tlhe
wl(hole process is exceedingly simlile, and
its a(lvantag,es are perfectly obvious; for
while every particle of the origtinal surface
is thus carefully preserved, the subsoil is
so sparIingly and equally incorporated withl
it, tlhat not a doubt can  remiain  of the
beneficial result of the operation.  Whlere
the ridges have been very broad and higlh,
it will be f(ound necessary to remove part
of the subs,il from the sides of the ridges
also after  the crown  has been refilled,
partilcuilarly wheni thle subsoil is tilly; but
this is easily performned by 2 or 3 wonien
or boys going after the plough, and throwinag the remains of till turned up into the
furrows;  or, should  the ridges  be too
broad for this, the levelling-box will effect
thle purpose."t
5962. If turf i     s   desired for any  purpose,
waste land, when about to be imtiprovel,
affords a fav'ourable opportunity for supplying, it.  Good tough turf is not easy to
be obtained, and is at all titmes an expensivearticle. A mrain will cast-frotmi 4 to 6
cart-loads of one ton each per day, according to the smoothness and softness of the
ground.   The usual thickness of turf is
ab,out 3 inches, when one square yard will
weighl 54 lbs., one ton willcover 41- square
yards, or 14 roods of 6 yards, with turfs of
12 by  18 inches.  In  the country  tle
carriagte is the heaviest  clharge against
turf; and in towns it cost from 8s. to 20s.
per ton, according, to quiality.
5964. In  levellin,g w  i,s h gtudtlsered-up
croolked ridg,es in clay soil, muclh precauition is requisite, because the soil, exposed
after tlhe lowering of the ri(dges, will take
a consileral)le time to be brought into a
state of fertility. A mode, hlowever, of levelling suclh  ridges in drained land, to avoid
this inconvenience, was thus described by
6,53
5963. In the improvement of waste
land, it is desirable to liave its surface as
even as practicable, by the reinoval of
.sudden Hollows and liei,,Iits. No liollonv
should be filled up witliotit a drain bein(,,
previously ril,-t(le in it, to take away the
water tii-,it will naturally tend towards it;
and no liei(-,Iit sli(.)uld he lowered %-.,itliout
first li(-tviii,, the up er soil removed and
p
then replaced upon the lowered ground.
Takin, off and piittin, bac,].: the ordinary
soil of a field costs 4d. per cubic yard
for each operation. 
R4EALISATION.
surface, minor  ones require emendation,
the  neglect of  whichy rend e rs  the surface
of improved  arab le land  unpleasant to
the sight.  TILe  ienequalities   I allude  to
are slight hollows, low  heights running
across several ridges, nmaking one side or
part of a ridge hither than the other, or
part  of the  lheadridge higher  than  the
ridges, and such like blemishes.   The
best  and  most  econoimnical method of
getting quit of them is by the employment
of the  levelling-box,  fig.  545, which,
5965. The labour attending this operation will depend on circumstances, suchi
as the breadth and crookedness of tlhe
ridges, and the strength of the clay soil.
In dry weather, the operation will be more
expeditiously and better done than in wet,
the soil being rendered light by the heat
of the sun; and in changeable weather no
more subsoil should be ploughed than can
be reinoved during the course of the day.*
THE LEVELLING BOX, OR SCOOP.
for being held in the hands of the  conrductor.   The draught-chains, with their
stretcher d, are attached to an eye-bolt  or
a staple on either side of the scoop).  The
levelling-scoop is frequently fitted up  in
a mnanner somnewhat different in the mode
of attaching the handles. A strong gudgeon
is fixed in each side at the place of attactliimenyt of the chains; and the terminations
of the chains being an eye-bolt or link, it
is passed upon the gudgeon.  The handles,
in place of being fixed to the  sides, have
an eye formed in their end and strengthened
withl  iron, which  passes also upon the
gu(l,geon, and are held there by a washer
and cotrel.  A  second pair of gudgeons
a re strongly fixed, one upon each corner
of the box at the back, in a position that
will pass through tile handles when they
are ait a proper height.  The handles are
here also pierced and defended with iron,
so as to slide freely off and on upon these
seco nd gudgeons, and their extremities
brout,,Iht as before to a convenient width.
according to the  natu     re  of        t he             soil to be
removed, and the distance to be carried,
etmay be worked by  one  or two                                            unrses.
The figure represents one  of the  latter
kind, furnished with fixed handles and
drauglht-clhains. The two sides b a, b et,
having the same depth where they join
the back, are curved off to nothing at the
front.  It is requisite for strengtlh that it
be made of hard wood; but the common
willow, from its toughness and lighItness,
is perhaps better adapted than any other
wood for this pu)rpose.  The sole of the
scoop is armed with a strong shoeing of
iron, terminating in a slharp cutting edge.
Trio skeds or bolsters, are fixed on the
lower side of the sole, thinned off forward
to give facility of entrance in the soil to
the cutting-edge of the scoop, and apron
which it runs like a sled,ge when filled.
All the corners are strongly bound with
iron plates, and the ske(s npon wIIilich it
runs are covered with strong slheet or Ihoop
iron.  The handles, b c, b c, are bolted to
the sides, and so fitted as to bring  the
extremities, c c, to a convenient distance
* Prize Euays of the IHighland and A.qricultural Society, sol. ix. p. 37-9.
654
1;966. Besides larger inequalities of
d.0
5967. The'nietliod of usinc, the level. 
IMPROVING WASTE LAND.
ling-box or scoop is-after the plou,,gh                    is
first ina(le to turn over the soil liglhtly ol
thle hleighllt to be reioved(l, the levellingbox, worked by  a  pair of horses,  then
follows, an(l takes up, floin one enlt of the
ploug,,ied ground, as muchi soil  as it can
contain, the conductor liol(ling by thle stilts
or handles.   Tlhe box is fille(l by the conductor allowing, the handles to rise as much       b
as that the edge a a of the sole shlall bite
the ground; and on these being, drawn forward  by the  horses, the box is filledl to
any extent, when  by the handles being
pressed down the front edge is relieved
froni the ground, and the niachine travels
upon its skeds.   On arriving at the hlollow
place to be filled up, the box is made  by
t.ie conductor to capsize by raising, up the
landles, wlhich gets quitof thle load of earth;
and whenever it is emptied, lie levels tlhe
earth smoothi by passinig the box over it.
Of the two sorts of levelling-boxes,  tthe
one in fig. 545 is, in my opinion, the most
hliandy.   It is easily filled by raising the
handles  a  little, and  givin, thle scoop
a  catch of the  mould.   It is as easily
transported to its destined spot, by leaning on the handles, whiichi causes the box
to travrel on its keel.  It is as easily upset,
whlen  arrived  at its destined  l)lace,  by
raising the  handles  a little,  when  tlhe
groiund catches the shaip edige and overturnis the box, the handles striking against
Wnd resting upon  thle stretcher d.  The box
is re    turn  ed to its working, position upon
it s i)ottomi i       nii            eaediaiitely or     it miay niove
aloing  ilu pon its         g    eoutlh, stibootljin  tthe surface till it              reaches tlfe plou(ated soil, whaen,
bv a suwrden pull of a rope  attached                               to one
of       t     he handles, it reaainws its working position.  In a           ll these m ovemen t  ius tle        horses
are not,topped, ])ut p-rocee(d from   one
place to    another        as directed,                        awhile the box
is fillia g and  en e)tying        in coenstaiot successiorl.   The  box   lhaving  the  nmovalble
handles,  i.s worked  rather  differently.
Wlien the handles are let free of the gudlgeons by the conductor,  the box easily
capsizes; but unless the hiorses aII.e st(oIpe(d,
there is difficulty in shipping, tlhe handles
again quielcly upon the gudgeonis-wlwiel,
if not quickly (lone, when the box regains
its working position, by itself, the3 edge
aIgain b-ites thle groundl, andl capsizes thle
emlpty box:again; uhc wliel   ll thuls continue
to be ov erturned until thle hsandles are
fastened on thle gludgeo~ns. The stopping
5968. Land  so (]rained and trenchedand which operations nmay be continued
diur ing, the winter and earlyspring-lshould
bear, for its first crop, potatoes  or turni ps;
and of these  I wou l d  prefer  the  turni ps,
because they, beint eaten     off by sleep,
will  at once  put  t  he  drained lan d i nto a
sta te  of comp arative  fertility.  Oats  are   a
favourite crop, for the  first one, w it h iwe -
provers of soil, because it assists in rotting
turf quicker than green crops; and where
grass has    been ploutghed,  it is the  best f i rst
crop that can be taken.  It is  out of the
question to attenmpt winter wheat  upon
newly brought in soil, in a loosened state,
ait so  late  a per iod of the year, even tliougl
a  sufficient  quantity of iteanure    should  be
at hland. The soil cannot be sufficiently
pulverised by spring to insure success in
barley.   Oats  do not  succeed w ell on
trenched ground, their pabulum, the turf,
being, buried in the trench.   Let it be decided(, thlen, that  turnip.)s are the  most
advisable  crop  uinder tle circumstances.
Shlouldtlhe draininglhave been accore plished
at a previous period, or early in winter,
to preserve  the surface of the land dry,
the g,round should be  feered and gathered
up from  the flat, (749,) with a very liglt
furrow%%, the lint-end furro ws neatly cleared
out, and gawciuts made in all the lhollows,
and across the lower  lhead-ridge into tlhe
adjoining, open ditch; in wlicli state the
land will remain safe all winter until
spring arrive, wlheni it should receive a
lhtlrrowing, after which it will be ready to
be formned into drills, dunged,,and sown witll
turnip seed, as fully described for turinip
husbandry, in (3204.) It has been ob)bser-ved
trhat, wlhere wl hins ha,-d grown, the turnil)s are
better than after any other natural shlrub.
655
of the horses for this purpose llecnsarily
loses much time. An active stoat iiian is
required to work either form of levellidgbox as it ought to be done.
5969. It is iina,gined by sotiie tl)at, where
laii(i is tliorougli-dtaine(l, it is unnecessary
and even injurious to put it into ri(l,,es,
but ratlicr to liave it in a continuous
flat witlioiit an open furrow. Ti-ie object
of keeping land in the flat state is to
allow the rain to percolate tliroufli it
alilze evei-ywliere into the (,Irains. Wliat
particular advanta(,,e the soil can derive
by ttie uniform percolation of the rain 
66REALISATION.
tlhrougll its sorfi-ce I cannot  well  conceive, since tlhe water  iiiust  leave  the
soil soo()liest  where the drains are nearest,
anl tlieref(],e no formn of surface can )possitlv catise all the water to leave the soil
at thie saile tinie.   Tlhe divisi,)n of the sutirface  into  riilges  niarks  it usefully for
the diistributioni of seed and  labour; aind
w hern lalblour of whatever ksin(d is bestowed
on   r idg,es,  appropriated  to different
laboirers,  each responsible  for the   wle  ork
e  dloes, the work  of each  is distiWeguislal)le fromn th          e  rest; wlhereas,  were the
grio1(l not  laid out  into ridges, t      ehe flouglhs
miust eitler follow one anotlher roin(hl the
circumference, or  one ploug,h be left to
(lo all the work of each field.  Wliere
ploughs  follow  one  another, the work
is invariably ill done, one furroIw  being
broadler or deeper than another-it being,
well known  tlat no two plouglhimen turnIl
over  thle  groutnd  exactly  in  tlhe  saime
nianner.   It is because eaclh mian executes
te piece of work aprpro(priated  to  him over
two or  four richges tolat  thQ work  appears
distinctive, and  eaclh  naii's distinctive
style  of work  is  not  oblite rated  by any
one  followir),e  lhim.   But the common
plogugh cannot  pllu,ug thle  surface without
leaving open furrows, and wer   e the attempt
made, one, open furrow at least must be
left eitlher on eaclh side or in tlhe centre of
the field; and in either case, the plh,uglhs
must hlave lost miuchi titme in going idly from
one side of  tlhe field to the otlher.  But
altlhough the commnon plougrl could lay the
land flat without an; open furrow, strong
land should never be laid flat on any
account.
tog,ethler by means of two iron bars b b, so as
when one mould-board is in operation the
other is elevated in the air.   Thjese bars are
attached(l at right angles to an ironii spindle a,
which at one end c is seated in a p)lumnier
blockl, and furnished with a crank-hlandle,
anid at tIhe other termiinates in the coulterbox e.  To the crank-lhandle c is attached
a spring which falls into a notclh on each
side of a semi-circle, as the spindle a is
turned roundl to place either miould-boa(lrd
in its positionI for plouolghing,;  andl while
(loing this it also acts upon the head of the
coulter so as to cause its point to stand( over
tlhe point of thle sf3ock whliiclh in tlhis imlplemienit is attaclhedI to the imould-board instea,d of the hieadl.  Thiis plough acts in
the samie manilne r as tlhe coimon  ploughl,
when  thee mould-board is set as seen in
the figure, the farrow-slice being  turned
over to the right hand; and on coming to
the land's end, the other mould-board is
broug,ht down on the left hand side of the
plough, and by it the fiirrow-slice is turned
over to the left hand —which is still placed
in the same direction as when the ploughit ig was turning over the furrow-slice to
tie right hand, in moving in th e  o pposite
direction.  The ploughimain requires some
practice to beconue acquainted with the
working of this plough, as lie doe3 not at
first feel at home when the ftirrow-slice is
turning over to the left hand.
59731. It is known  that, in ploughing
steep land withl the comiiion plough, the
soil has always a tendency to come down
tlthe incline.  The turn-wrist plough, laying
all the furrows in  the same  direction,
mighlit be usefully employed in turning the
656
59 i'O. The only iniplenient wliicli can
turn over tl)e furrows in (.)iie direction is the
turn-wrist 1)lou(,Ii: the one invented by the
I,-tte Mr Wilkie, Udd iii.(_,ston, is represented
in perspective in fi,,. 546. Itlias twomouldboards d d, wliose inside faces are attached
Fig. -4G.
WII,KIR',Ii TUItN-WRI,-,T PLOTJGIT. 
SUBSOILING.
furrow-slice up the inclination, whlich, on
repetition, would have the effect of retaining the soil upon it.
RaCZsT 5?ATN.   D.RXs AT 230'.
Lower  Upper  Lower  Upper
part.  part.   part.  part.
Protein compounds,..   2.47   4.79   17.81  19.38
Sugar, gum,  and  extracting    3.32   3.64 23.88   8.93
matter, extracted by water,
Other nutritious substances
insoluble in water, but ex-   1.30   3.07   9.20  18.63
t r a cte d  by p otash,.    
Woody fibre, (cellulose with a} 5.68 11.86  40.88  47.94
little albumen,..I
Saline matter, (ash,)..   1.14   1.37   8.23   5.12
Water,....  86.09   75.27....
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
5972. Peaty soil on the sea-shore has been recommended to be planted with the tussac grass,
Dactylis c5espitosa.   "This remarkable grass is
perennial, and forms, with its deusely-matted
roots, crowded but isolated hillocks,.or tumuli,
3 to 6 feet in height, and 3 or 4 feet in diameter,
from which the leaves and stems spring.  Roots
fibrous, the fibres very tortuous; stems or cullns
numerous, rising from the hillocks erect, branched, 3 or 4 feet long, smooth, compressed, leafy,
and pale yellow, abounding in saccharine matter,
and, when young, esculenteven for menl." It was
observed in 1842 by Dr J. D. Hooker growing
luxuriantly on peaty seaward exposures, and to
whom the merit is due of its introduction into
Europe.  It abounds on the shores of the Falkland Islands, and is much relished by cattle and
horses.*
From
Liews.
Chloride of sodium,....  12.21
Chloride of potassium,...   36.01
Sulplhate of potash,....   14.34
Carbonate of potash,....  14.16
Carbonate of lime,......      4.42
Carbonate of magnesia,...    0.41
'hi osphateof magnesia, and a little phos.  14.74
phlate of limne,....
Phlosphate of iron,.....              1.64
Silica,.........3.09
101.02
Percentage of ash,....          6.29
The proportions of alkaline salts in both is very
large; in this they agree with the turnip.  The
proportion of phosphates is small compared with
grass; in this they resemble turnips and fruits.
The quantity of silica is small for a grass.  The
differences of the two specimens are considerable; the Lews gives more alkalis and chlorides,
and less lime and silica, than Mr Lawson's, which
might have been expected from the difference of
locality.t
5973. Its cultivatio       n h as b een <
Is          land of Lews by  Mr Ma thes
Traill at  Woodwick, Island  of 1
At Lewis it succeeded only at H
deep brown moss of medium dryi
sea, and on being delved over v
pieces with the spade,  an d  th
tussac grass were the n s prinkled
covered  with a  rake, and trarin
foot.  Its  stools i      n  th e sec ond ya
as strong as those in its third,
seed in both years. In the spriii
acres of the same moss, which ha
with three feet deep drains at tw
with shoulder and wedge dr-ai
inches deep; and after it was bra
and a sprinkling of guano applia
of the tussac grass were dibble~
inches apart.  The  plant was
broad green leaves, and three
second as well as the third year, a
stools when planted out were fbt
plants.  The moss should be d
and the plants set in Februa
April, with a slight spreading
over them to prevent the sun dry;
much, and May and Jun-e are tt
transplantation. Sea-ware sprea
keeps the leaf greener, and the
the plants must not be more that
mile from the sea, to receive its:
ON TRENCII AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.
5977. Since  tile general  draining  ot
tile s oil received the assent of the agricultutral community, deep ploughing has presented itself to the attention of thile farmer
in a favourable light.  It was at once
imagine(l, that, if tile soil were stirred to
a greater depth than  the common ploughl
reacied, the drains would operate  t(5 dry
the laind sooner and more effectually.   IiI
this opinion, I conceive, is involved anit
erroneous  view of  the effects of  deep
plouglting.    Stirring  the  ground  to a
greater  del)tl  would make the rain that
fell on its surface to descend more quickly
to that depth; but the  accutmulation  of
by D)r ~oekr, Sept.
1847.
Upper    Whole
part.     plant.
100 parts of t     2ie grass.
Water,                45.50    86.(;9
Watery extract,        9.40    4.34
100 parts dried at 212'.
Watery extract,    17.24   31.17
* Lawson Onr the Cultivated Grasses, p. 18.
+ Transactions of the  Hqtighland and Aqi-icultural Society, March 1848, p. 247-50.
VOL. 11.  2 T
657
5975. The composition of the tussac grass is
as follows:
I
5976. Its ash affords these proportions of ingredients:
From Mfr
Lawsoh's
1N ursery.
2.62
17.29
12.69
17.98
14.37
5.84
12.96
4.15
11.84
99.74
7.79
5974. The nutritive matter contained inl tussac
grass is as follows: 
REALISATION.
water there would not cause the drains to
dry the land the sooner, unless the ploughing had been as deep as the depth of the
drains, which is impracticable: they would
the      refore only carry off th       e         water that
c     a      m      e to thetm, and no more would reach
t     h      em in the course of the               year than the
ordinary                        proportion of  t he rain that
annually falls, which                 is j ust th e  same
a    f    ter the land                            ])ad been deep- plou ghled as
i           t was before. Deep-plou    ghing, th erefore,
h       a        s          another and higher o bject th an to
c o n v e y    water more quickly to drain        s.
5980. To l      e  subsoil-plough, which  was
first tried as a modern invention, was the
one produced by the late Mr Smitlh of
Deanston in 1829.  It was an implenment
of the great weight of  5 cwt.  Recent
improvements upon it, and particularly
those effected by Mr Slight of Edinburghi,
reduced its weight to from 2 to 3 cwt.
As other subsoil-plouglhs of recent introduction have superseded it, it is unnecessary to do more than give its form in fig.
547, drawn by four horses.
59, 8. The great object of deep-ploughing ought to be to ilicrease the depth and
pulverise the soil to a finer state, in order
to give the plants cultivated a larger range
for their roots to search for natural, in
addition to the artificial food supplied
them; and, in my opinion, the pulverisation will be better and easier effected by
the deep-plolghing, after the drains have
rendered the land as dry as they can, than
before that event has taken place.   So
far, therefore, ought deep-ploughing to be
made an auxiliary to drains.  As a duct for
the conveyance of water, it ought to be
deferred until the drains have performed
their legitimate office of drying the land,
when deep-ploullgling will come in with
.powerful effect to deepen and pulverise
it into a state in which it will continue
for;a waosiderable time thereafter.   To
attempt to, pulverise soil, before it has
been thorou,,gbly dried by draining, is to
:begin at the wroug end of the process.
5981. The effect of subsoil-plougling,
with Smith's plough, being merely to stir
the subsoil without affecting its relative
position with the upper soil, the best way
of performing the operation is, as I conceive, in  t he    following manner;  and it
may be executed    either in win t er  o r  in
summer, according as it is made to form a
part of  the spring o r  summer's operations.
It is best executed across the ridqes: let,
therefore, a         feering  of 30 yar ds in width
be opened across them with the common
ploughli  along thie upper fence of the field
-and parallel and close to it, if it be
straight —and another at 30 paces distant,
the subsoil-plough f o llowing in both  the
open feerings, with 4 horses-one manl
holding it whi le the horses  a re driven by
another.  The  common plough    then  closes
the feerings, and ploughs from one feering
to another until the open furrow is formed
in the middle of the feering, followed implicitly all the time by the subsoil-plough.
Feering after feering ie thus  made and
ploughed with the common plough, followed  by  the subsoil, until-tlhe whole
field is gone over, with the exception
of rather more than the breadth of a
ridge at each side of the field, upon
which the horses had turned. Fig. 547
gives a representationa of this mnode of
5979. Various forms of itnplements lave
fbeen devised to descend as far into the
soil as to stir the subsoil effectually, and
they have obtained tlie name of subsoil
and  trench  ploughs, according as they
affect the subsoil.     T he subsoil-ploughs
stir the subsoil lying under the active soil,
without affecting their relative positions,
whereas the trench-ploughs commitngle
Fig. 57.
,TH MODE G0 ORDINARY SUBSO,-PLOUGHING.
658
nmore or less of the subsoil with the active
soil of the surface. 
SUBSOILING.
sibsoil-ploughing, where the ploughs and
horses appear in black, and where the
common  plough with 2 horses precedes
the subsoil one with 4.  Thle depth taken
by the common plough is the usual one of
8 inchies in stubble, which is seen as the
upper furrow, succeeded by the subsoilplough, which takes usually 8 inchies more,
and whose furrow is seen in section below
that of the other plough,  making  bothi
furrows 16 inclies deep.  Care shouild be
taken not to bring the subsoil-plough with-r
in 3 inches of the covering of any drain,
otherwise the nimaterials'of thle drain        will b e
injured. The drains in the figure are slipposed to be 36 inches deep, filled 12 inches
with duct and small stones, and placed in
every open furrow at 15 feet-the breadth
of the ridges.  This figure is not meant to
give the exactly relative proportions of
the different objects composing it.
action     in the s ubsoil uncertain, it is more
thlan probable float the surface which it
leaves upon the  plane  on      which  its sole
moves  is uneven, both in the di rection of
the length of the furrow, a nd  in the  r ela -
tion which the sole of one furrow bears to
that of another.  It is evident that, if its
fuirrow-sole in its length is undulating, and
that one furrow-sole, in its breadth, is
higher and lower than the contiguous ones,
the plane of the furrow-sole across the
ridges will be so irregular that the water,
descending the inclination of the ground,
will be interrupted in its progress to the
drains. To give the plane of the sole a
uniform depth, it is only necessary to introduice wheels upon the beam, which will
cause the sole-furrow to preserve a parallelism with the fturrow-sole left by the
preceding common plouglh.  This obvious
means of steadying the action of the subsoil-plough was introduced into a subsoilplough invented bv Mr Read, which is
represented in fig. 548 as improved by Mr
Slight, and where the alteration will be
—..:::...-.,-:...:,: _.o..   "     -..... _.P                    H..
- = c - _R —a==S —— OL H
ITHAD's SUBSOIL-PLOUGH.
observed to hav e converted the ploughi  into
the form of a grubber. The implement consists of a malleable iron beam, bf, to which,
at one end,f, are attached two handles, a,
in the same manner as those of the Deanston subsoil-plough,,.iii fig. 547.  To the
other end is welded an iron slot, b, placed
perpendicularly, and punched with  holes,
into any one of which the bridle g may be
fastened by means of a bolt and cotrel.
Tile bridleq is winged to the land-sizle, in
order that the two or four horses whlich
are employed to draw the ploughIi may
walk upon the hard ground; and to sustain their lateral dirauiglht, one end of a
chain is affixed to the extremity of the
wing  of the bridle  carrying                the draughthook, and the other is attached  to the
bean at A. Tile wheels d and c, coupled
in   pairs  on a xles, are    attached  to shanks
which  pass throughl boxes in the  beam,
the  same as the  coulter-lead in the  comanon plough. The  shank of  tile do ublefleathered sglare e is  a ffixed in the same
nmannier   as the  wheels to the beam.  The
dotted line below c dehows the line of the
fwgrrow-sole made  by  the plough    which
preceded this  inlplemdent ig tot e wor k o f
suibsoilinig; and it should never  be  less
than 8 or 9 inches below the surface of
the ground.   The dotted line behind the
share e shows its line of motion, anal the
distance between these lines is regulated
by the depth given to the axles of
the wheels c and  d -below the beam b,
which may varyfrom 6 to 9 inches. TI~e
beam resting on the two  pairs of wheels
c and d, and the ploughmnan in the bottom
659
5982. The unsteady action of the Dean
ston sub:,;oil-plougli rendering it difficult
to hold, and the same cause rendering its
Fig. 548.
12 b
p 
REALISATION.
of the- furrow made  by- the preceding
ploughl, with a hold of the handles a,
afford so steady a motion to the share e
that it may be regarded as uniform, and
its work will be much better performed
than that by the Deanston subsoil-plough.
Read's subsoil-plough, that, while its usef8il  form  was  retained,  its action was
altered from a simple subsoiler, which
merely stirs the subsoil, and leaves it
where it found it, to a trenching-subsoiler,
which effects a mixture of the subsoil with
the surface soil. The implement is represented by  fig. 549, by  which it will be
seen that the framiie of the implement is
5eff983ected. In 1849, important  iiisproveent  onddale
effcted an important imiprovemient on
Fig. 549.
THE TwEEDDALE SUBSUIL T      H-PLOU'~I.
THE TWEEDDA-LE SUBSOIL TI'tEN'CH..PLOUGII.
of diimensions, that  render  the plough
capable of taking a furrow-slice 12 inches
wide  and  13 inches deep in  the  niost
effective manner.   This  ploiugh, named
the  Tweeddale  PloughI, leaves  a clean
andl fiat-soled furrow;  but the fulrrowslice taken by it, in place of being turned
over  in an entire  form, in the manner
effected by our fine-working plouglhs, is
only so far turned, and at the same tinme
broken up, as serves to present the sobit in
the best possible state to the ameliorating
effects of atmospheric influences.  In this
respect the plough seems to stand unrivaled; and since the extinction of the old
Scottish wooden plough, no imnipleinent has
approached the  point to which this has
attained, for enlarging the extent of surface exposed to the atmosphere.
preserved exactly to Reatl's form, as imil~oved by Mr  Slighlt, and the important
alteraLtion is exhibited in the share and
its:appendages. These consist of the share
b c attached to a shank a b, and produced
riindwards into the tail-board or elevator
d. The shank is a bar of the best scrapiron, and at bottom is forge(d withl a clubend, fitted to receive the attachment of
the bo(dy of the share by welding or by
rivetting,; and to tile  hind'part of the
latter the tail-board is strongly fixed by
bolts.
5984. The Tweedlale subsoil trenclhplouigh having a share 14 inches in width,
a common l)loug,hi is inadequate to go before it, to open a sufficient  furrrow for its
passage.   Lord  Tweeddale supplied the
want by the true phlilosophlical mod(le of induction, with numerous andl untiring experiments on a large scale.  By these he constrictedt   a )louoghl having its miould-board
formed upon a new system of lines and
5985. A sectional elevation of both
ploug,hs, as they appear in actual operation, is represented in fig. 550, where the
Tweeddale )lough b is taking its furrow
Fig. 550.
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL TItENCI-I'ILOUGi AND THE TWEEDDALE PILOUGH IN OPERATION.
(:f 13 inchies  in depthl, f5)ll(x-1wed  y the  plo,gh, while the tail-board appears d(o,fitrenelint, subsoil-plought   a going 6 inches  ing its office of elevating the slice of sub4leeper, making the trencli-subsoiling 19  soil, forning a continuous succession of
inches deep.  The wheels of the trenching,-  the void space c under its extremnity. Tliis
pllou,,h,I are seen resting upon the sole of the  void is  with equal  continuity filled in,
furrt'jiast taken out by the Tweeddale  partly with portions of the upper  soil,
-And~~~~~~~~~~~~plo lli
660
as
tA I
I 
SUBSOILING.
which fall down between the edges of the
tail-board and the sides of the open furrow, the remainder being filled lup by the
return of part of the elevated subsoil, broken and pulverised by falling over  the
end of the tail-board, as the implement
passes from under the subsoil, while other
portions of the elevated matter remain
intermixed  with  the upper  soil.  The
trenching and subsoiling effected by these
two ploughls is much more complete than
that done by the spalle, and also by the
fork, since the usual trenching effected by
these leaves the relative positions of the soil
and subsoil the same as they found them,
though each may be respectively broken
and pulverised.   In this double process
w.iitlh the ploughs, the subsoil is not elevated
entirely to the surface, but to witllin 4 or 5
inches of it, and, in its elevation by the
trellcling-plough, becomes very intimately
mixed with a portion of the surface-soil
turned over by the preceding Tweeddale
plough; and so intimate is the comlinifigling of the soil and subsoil, that, in digging
to the bottom of the plouglhed groullndl                 ith
a spade, they can scarcely be distinguished.
The distinction, in fact, can only be observed w-lien the subsoil happens to be of
an uncommonly dark red or brigh,t yellow
colour;  and when of blue, green, black,
or grey, the mixture is not discernible.
5989. One  great advantage attending
this mode of trenching and subsoiling
is, that in treating the soil so in autumnt
the soil requires  very little working in
sparing to prepare it for a green crop;  and
should circumstances prevent  the working
of the land for turnips, such a trenching
may be given within three weeks of the
timiie for sowing turnips, with marked success. When a facility such as this  is
plit into the power of the farmner, to work
his land in a short time, and in the most
efficient manner, two good results must
ensue-the wllole of the fallow-break  may
be devoted to a green crop, and a smaller
strengcrtlh of horses will do all the work
that is at present done.
5986. One point of excellence attending this operation is the leaving the furrow-sole qutite   flat and even, as has been
demonstrated by the removal of the loose
soil to the bottom of the furrow, whereas
ordinary subsoil-plouglhs leave it ribbed.
5990. I have had repeated opportunities of observing the progress of improvements effected by, these valuable implements  on the  farms in  the Marquis of
Tweeddale's own hands, of Yester Mains
and Broadwoodside.   The latter farm hlas
been  managed for the last six years under
the systenm of deep plough-iing; and it is
consistent with my own knowle dge  that,
at the commencement of a six ye ars' couers e
of improve men t, the land  on  that  farm
was not worth more  than  7s. or 8. per
acre. The present value may safely be
taken at ~2 per acre. The rationale of
this enhancement of value is to be
found in a perfect system of drainage, followed some yeairs afterwo,)rds by the deep
ploug,hling. The milanuri;ing application has
not been mnore expensive than is comllllmonly
followed by every judicious farrmer.  Tile
general results inmay challenge comparison
with those of the best land in the country.
5987. The breadth of the share of the
subsoil-trenclher being 14 inches in width,
and                      that of the Tweeddale  plough only 12
inches,    it follows that an inch  of each
s     i     d     e      of the furrow-sole is twice  ploughed,
and consequently that no                     ribs are left
in  the subsoil on   either    side        of  th e
furro      w-sole,   which will thus b  e  made
quite sniooth and flat-an immiense adva     ntag                           e over every other forn of subsoilploughing.
5988.  O      rd;weesinary  subsoiling  is recommen,led becauise the air is admitted to the
sutbsoil wlhielh is kept below and only
brouighlt up, if ever, after it is supposed to
have become ameliorated;  whereas, in
661
trench - subsoiling', it is at once mixed
with the upper soil, and operates with it as
so much fresh soil. The terror expressed
by many farmers of bringing up the subsoil
near the surface I deein wholly chimerical,
for although injury may have been sustained, in some instances, by brin(,inc, up
the subsoil at an improper period of the
rotation-wlien a white crop, for instance,
was to be taken, or before the land had
been thorougli-drained-no instance, that
I am aware of, can be adduced of injury
having been sustained after'thoroughdrainage, by any green crop, Which ou-lit
always to be taken after trencliing and
subsoilin 
REALISATION.
In 1849 the turnips were superior to the
general crop, and in 1850 they are superb,
while the wheat crop was both bulky and
abundant.*
5995. It was stated on the occasion of the
show of the Highland and Agricultural Society
at Glasgow in 1844, when fork-trenching was
exhibited under the direction of Mr Houston, of
Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshlire, that men undertook to trench the ground with the fork for
~2, 8s. per acre-which would be very cheap for
that efficient mode of bringing in rough ground.
But in one instance tried in 1847, by Mr  Milne
of Milne-Graden, Berwickshire, the cost of forktrenching 20 inches in depth was;~6, 14s. 5d.
per acre-which is a nearer approximation to
the truth, I suspect, than the other sum.
5991. Upon every farm commanding
the services of 4 pairs of horses, this process might be conducted on the same scale
of depth as the Marquis of Tweeddale pursues; but where there are only 3 pairs, the
Tweeddale plough that precedes the subsoil-trenching one being drawn by one pair,
the trenching would be executed to the
depth of 15 inches.  The subsoil-plou,gh
should always be drawn by two pairs of
horses, to do justice to its searching and
effective powers.  The two ploughs easily
turn over an acre a-day, either in autumn
or spring, the horses are not oppressed, and
the men are quite able for the work.
5996. It would appear, fr om  the la rge results
obtained at Yester, after the application of the
ordinary qu anti ty o f man ure, that  it is to the
deepening  and pulverisation, an i perhaps also ina
p art  to the  fres hening of the soil, by t he mixture
of  subsoil and surface-soil, th at  the increased
return is to be ascribed; and if so, (and no other
reason seems at han d  to account for the enlarged
increase,) it should be the farmer's endeavour to
keep the  soil in a constant state ofpulverisation
and deepness, by a repetition of the same process
that attained those ends at first. It may be
questioned that the process will continue to produce as good results for an indefinite length of
time. Jethro Tull, we know, believed that pulverisation and exposu       re to the air was all that
soil required to produce    c rop     s  as long as  he
pleased; but his   opinion did not outlive     his own
experience: and had it been otherwise, we cannot doubt but that it would have been adopted
by some practical man, and put to the test of
experience, long ere this period. Even if experience went a long way to establish the efficacy
of pulverisation of the soil, it would be unwise
to neglect the assistance of good manure; and
the very utmost we can endeavour, to become
independent of manure, is to prove that the farm
can every year produce a sufficiency to maintain
its own fertility for all indefinite period. If the
air, as an element, supplies every year as much
of the produce as to compensate for what is disposed off the farm, the support of the farm is as
much as we  can expect from the soil by any
method of culture.  At  Yester, the source of
perpetual fertility to the soil is available at a
cheap rate, in the possession of the vegetable
mould at Daniiskin and elsewhere; and the best
way of using it seems to me to put a large doze
of it ill the subsoil by the subsoiling process,
while the surface-soil is sustained by the ordinary
manure.
5992. A  great    e leme     nt    of fertility   has
lately been put into the Marquis  o                        f Tweeddales  p ossess i on, in  the vegetable matter
obtained by draining the loch at Danskin.
It can  be  put     in to carts out  of the basin
of the loch by steam power for 2d. per   1
c       ubic yard,  and  i         t is applied to the land at
not less tha n 100 cart-loads    to the acre.
When spread, it is reduced small by the
action of the Norwegian harrow, fig. 246,
and then ploughie(d in with a deep furrow
by three  horses abreast.   Hitherto the
effectsof that quantity, in both the field and
the garden, leave been equal to the ordinary
quantity of farmyard duing.
5993. So very diversified is the opinion of
farmers on the effects of ordinary subsoil-ploughing, that I suspect somne error is committed by
one or other party in conducting  the process.
One likely error il the performnatice of the process is in being too soon after the draining.
The late Mr Smith recommended one year to
elapse between the draining and the subsoiling.
I should say one rotation ought to intervene.
Be that as it may, the diversity of effects experienced by it warns me not to adduce any instance
of failure or success, in case they might mislead
parties into error.
5997. i have heard it alleged that there is
something particularly good in the subsoil at
Yester, which causes it to produce the effects it
does.  My opinion of that subsoil is, that it is
about the worst I ever saw. It consists of clay,
and sand, and stones; the earthy matter being of
different colours, the blue and the red perhaps
prevailing; while patches of yellow, black, and
grey are occasionally turned  up. Why such a
subsoil should be particularly good, it is difficult
to believe. Hlad subsoils and surface-soils always
5994. Trenching with the fork is more efficient
than ordinary subsoil-ploughing as regards the
stirring of the soil and subsoil; and it is a more
perfect operation, inasmuch as it exposes the subsoil to view, breaks every portion of it to a greater
depth, and frees it of every stone that, from its
size, would iljure the implements i any future
operation of culture.
* Journal of Agricuittire, January 1850, p. 265.
662 
SUBSOILING.
been commixed, as is done by the Yester process,
the apprehension about the bringing up of the
subsoil would have subsided.  I express myself
thus, because, having used the  trenich-plough
drawn by four horses very much in the ploughing
of my own land, and havilng brought up in that
process much of very ill-looking subsoil, and
experiencing no harm, but a great deal of good,
from it, I feel no apprehension in the result from
any subsoil.  The only precaution I ever saw
necessary was to mix  the soils only when a
green crop was about to be taken, and never
when a white one.
6000. Lord James Hay of Seaton, Aberdeenshlire, has lately invented a subsoil-plough, the
working part of which consists only of a  coulter
or sllank brought forward to a point, and furnished with a slightly raised feather on each
side. It is fastened into a box in the beam, like
the coulter   of the  common  plough.  Tie beam
consists           b      of a bar of malleable iron, resting on the
fore part upon   a  a  axle, connecting two somewhat high whe els, and furnished at the end with
a slot,  to which the bridle i s attached by  a bo lt.
A pair of handles run up from the hinder part of
the beam. To allow of the coulter being sent
deeper into the poil, the beam can be attached
to the under side of the axle. The action of this
implement must be confined to the making of a
single rut in the subsoil when following a commom plough in the bottom of its furrow, and one
such rut in the bottom of any furrow must, I
conceive, leave a series of ridglets in the bottom
of the subsoiled furrow —a state exactly the
opposite left by the subsoil-trencher of the
Marquis of Tweeddale, which we have been considering.
5998. The subsoil of three of the fields at
Broadwoodside  was analysed  by  Dr  Anderson, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's
laboratory in Edinburgh.  The specimen No. I.
was taken from land not good, especially for
wheat; No. II. from poor soil and stiff to work;
and No. III. from land best adapted for wheat,
the stiffest of the three, and consequently not
adapted for turnips.  The last specimen had a
light colour, while the other two were red.
No. I.     No. II.    No. III.
Water,..       1.52        1.82        1.04
Peroxide of iron, 5.49}     6.36                     s3l9 1r2t i       33u
Alumina,. 2.8
Alumina,.2.871 8-36  2.23  8    2.11 
Insoluble matter,    86.39       80.66       91.94
96.27      91.07        96.34
The remaining constituents, organic matter, lime,
magnesia, alkali and iron, were not determinedthe object being to ascertain the nature of the clay.
No. Ill. contains a much larger amount of sandy
matter, and smaller quantity of clay, than the
other two.  The sum of the peroxide of iron and
alumina, which are specified above, may be taken
as the measure of the clay, which amount t               s       to
above 8 per cent in No. I. and II., and only a
little above 3 per cent in No. III., which lies
under the heaviest soil.  Thle advantage of mixing the subsoil and surface soil is here obvious.
All the soils are poor, and on Nos. I. and II.
turnips might be growln, bult not wheat; and
wheat but not turnipsin No. III., which was too
stiff.  Now that the commixture of subsoil and
soil has taken place, all the three fields are
rendered capable of growing both wheat and
turnips.  Such an investigation of the subsoil of
other localities night produce equally good results.
6001. Trenching is pra ctised  in Flandie rs, as
we  do  subsoiling, in- the  ordinar y course   of
cropping.   " This  remarkable  prac tice," says
Dr Radcliff, "is confined to the   li ghter  soils,
and is unused w      here the strong clay      prevails.
In  the di stricts in which  4t is a d opted, the
dept h   of the    operation    varies    with that of the
soil; but ti ll th is shall have arrived at nearly
2 feet of mellow surface, a little is added
t o  it each trenchin g, by  bringing to  the top
a certain   proportion of the  under  stratuthe,
which, b e ing exposed to the a ction  of  the atmosphere, and minutely mixed with a soil already
fertilised, grad ually a ugments the staple till the
soleght-for d ep     th be  acquired In  the Pays de
Waes  there s eems to  be lit tle necessity for any
farther deepen ing; but the repetit ion  of the practice itself is  erin   as periodica l as the recommencem rent
of the rotation. It is performed with a spade,
the iron of which  is 15 i nc      hes, and the handle 2
feet in length. The   labourer stancding oa  the
last formed trench, with his left hand at the
bottom of the handle, and his right near the top,
by the weight of his body, and without the
assistance of his foot, sinks  the spade about  18
inches, and, standing sideways,   t hr ows  off the
soil with a  peculiar sleight and turn of the wrist,s
so as to lodge it in an oblique position in the
trench, and against the preceding line of work,
retiring as he casts it from the spade, and thereby effectilg some little mixture of the two
strata, though the upper surface is, at the same
time, placed below the other. The object of this
practice is not only to let a surface rest that has
668
substance was examined; but when the matter is
applied as taken from its site the proportion
must be so much the less. Little doubt, however, can exist of the importance of the matter
when added to a poor soil, supplying as it does
by no means an inconsiderable amount of nitrogen.
This vegetable matter, when fresh cut by the
spade, is of a brown colour, but changes to an
intense black on exposure to the air.,
5999. The vegetable mould from the bottom
of the drained loch at Danskin, has also been
analysed by Dr Andersoi), with the view of
aseertaiii,.n' the quantity of nitrogen and hiiniiiie
9
contained in it. No. 1. was taken from the surface, and No. II. front the bottom of the deposit,
which is there about 8 feet in thickness. It is
necessarily wet w.en first spaded; but that subjected to analysis was rendere(l, what in common
language may be termed dry, but nevertheless it
contained a large proportion of water, thus
W.. 1.          "q.. 11.
Water,. 31-78 49.49
Nitrogen,..       & 8.9 0.85
Humine,  -.    6.00 16.82
The nitrogen present is to be considered as
decidedly large, amounting to 1.5 per cent as the 
REALISATION.
been 7 or 8 years employed in the production of
various crops, but to bring another into action,
which has not merely had the advantage of repose, but the enrichment of a considerable portion of manure, which, in a porous soil, cannot
have failed to find its way to the lower stratum.
To the universality of the habit for ages back,
much of the fertility of the Pays de Waes is to
be attributed.  It is particularly observable, that
in any district where trenching takes place, the
quantum of manure is diminished, and the number of ploughings are less, so that, eventually, it
is not so expensive a process as at first view it
may appear: nevertheless, a fair proportion of
manure is considered essential in the first season;
for though the under stratum has not only had a
long exemption from duty, as well as the annual
acquisition of such parts of the manure as may
have been drained through the upper soil, yet it
possesses a coldness which requires a stimulant
to bring it into action.  The soil which has undergone this operation is easily workeo, and the
trenching seems to go forward expeditiously;
indeed, in any of the light and deep soils, the
labour is not severe.  In the Pays de Waes it is
performed by the piece, to the depth of 16 inches,
for about L.1, 12s. the English acre.  The cheapness of the execution is a great encouragement
to the practice; but this turns upon the price of
labour, which, in this district, is 15dId. a-day, and
chiefly upon the facility of a loose and pulverised
soil.  Some have sought to economise, by the use
of two ploughs, the second working to a considerable depth; but the objection made to this
by skilful farmers in the vicinity of St Nicolas
was, that sufficient depth was not thereby attained, nor were the two strata by this operation
sufficiently blended; for though, by the spade,
they are made to change places, yet by the
oblique manner in which the mould is placed in
the trench, a certain degree of mixture of the
upper and under soil is effected, which is considered of importance."*
6004. In removing ploughs from one field to
another, or along a hard road to a field, instead
of sliding  them upon their sole-shoe, which is  difficult to d o  when they have no hold of the ground,
or up on the edge of the feather of the sock and t
the side of the  mould-board-which is    a more
easy  node f o r the ploughman than the  fbrmer.
and  is  consequently  more co mmonly takenevery ploughman should be provided with a
plough-. slide, a  si    d   n o   sl   imple and not costly implement,
as represented in fig. 552. It consist s of a piece
Fig.552.of hard wood
board  3 feet  4
a  i            inches  lonlg,  8
inches broad, and
2 inches thick,
in which  a  long
*    staple, a, is driven
to take in the point of the sock;and at b are
fastened two small bars of wood, longways,
and at such distance from one another as to
take between them the heel of the sole shoe
of the plough.  On the under side of the boaid is
nailed two pieces of flat bar iron, to act as skeds
to the slide. Upon this implement the plough
may be conveyed with conmparative ease along
any road or headridge.
6002. Digging soil with the spade will cost
from I Ld. to 2d. per perch, or from 20s. to 26s. 8d.
per  acre; dig,gidg lea at  2           -d.  p er perch,                or
33s. 4d. per   acre; and         trenching lea, 12                    inches
deep, 5d. per perch, or 66s. 8d. per acre; at all
which rates the men will earn  eac h f           rom Is. 6d.
to 2s. a-day.  III      digging  light soil,                   or any soil
in a friable state, the spade should be driven to
the hea          d  into th e  gr oun d by  one pressure of  the
foot, and thus 20 cuts may be made in one
minute. In Ireland a perch of soil is dug nine
inc     hes d   eep, a t  th e   sam e cost   that                  half a perch
o f         drain, 2o fe et  deep, is ca st out; but more wages
should be obtained for casting drains than
digging soil, to provide against the extra tear
and wear of shoes and clothes, and the risk of
injuring health  by  cold and wet.   The  most
economical way of digging a large piece of land
is to set from 20 to 30 diggers at work together,
at so much per acre, and place a confidential
man over them to see that every spadeful is
properly formed and turned over. —
6005. In l ike manne r,  a slide  or c arriage
should also be provided for removing harrows
from one field to another. The usual practice
is to put them as they are coupled together
upon a cart one above apol,her, and the probability will be that one or more of the tinies are
lost in  the  conveyance.   A  -much safer  and
more convenient mode of carrying them is on
* Radeliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 166 —9.
tJ Yule On Spade l-[usbandry, p. 86, 2d edition.
664
6003. Subsoil-plougbs, and indeed all ploughs,
should always be provided with a useful appetidage, an iron hamtiter, fig. 551. The bead and
handle are
Fig 551. forged in one
piece of mal                                   leable iron,
the latter
part being
formed into
a iiut-key.
With tl)is
simple but
THE IRON HAMMER NUT-KEY. Useful tool
the ploughman has always at band the means by which
lie can, without loss of time, alter and adjust the
position of his plougli-irons,-tbe coulter and
share,- and perform other little operations, which
circumstances or accident may requirefor the
performance of which most ploughmeii are under
the necessity of taking advantage of the first
stone they can find, merely from the want of this
simple instrument. The bammer is sluiig in a
staple fixed in the side of the beam in any
convenient position. This little appendage is
confidently recommended to all plonglimen,
as an essential part of the furniture of the
plough. 
LIMIN(.
a carriage such as is represented in fig. 553,
which consists of a frame of wood sparred, in
length to take on a pair of harrows coupled withl
Fig. 553.
spring sends up its water into the subsoil. The
slow access of air from above, or it may be the
escape of air from the water itself, causes a more
or less ochlirey deposit, which  adheres to  and
gradually cements the stones or earthy particles
amolig which the water is lodged.   If thle water
coiitaiis sulphate of iron, the air fronm above will
impart  to its iron an additional  quantity  of
oxygen, and  cause a  portion of it to fall in a
state of peroxide.  If the iron and lime be present in a state of bicarbonate, the escape of
carbonic acid from thle water will cause a deposit
of carbonate of iron or of lime. Any of these
deposits will cement the earthy or clay  particles
toget he r.   Iron, however, is  often   he ld in solutitIo by ain organic acid (the  crenic acid) which
becomes ihsrolurble, and fdll s along with  the  iroi
when  th e l       atter has abs orbed more oxygen from
the  atmosphere. p iene  the  large quantity  of
organic matter which bog iron ores,moorband pans,
and deposits from springs and  draimes, so   ofte n
contain. Thus a layer of   solid stone is gradually
formed —the miioorbanid pan of many districtswhich will allow neither  the roots of plants to
descend, nor the surface water to escape.  Hopeless barrenness, therefi)re, slowly ensues.  Coarse
grasses, mosses, and heath grow and accumulate
upon  so'ils not  originally inclined  to  nourish
them, and by which a better  herbage had previously been lollg sustaitied."t
TILE CARRIAGE FOR CONVEYING IIARFRON,S, &C.
their mTaster switg-tree, and in breadth perhaps
31 feet.  The hindiiiI part of the framie rests onil
crutches supported upon the axle of two wheels,
the upper part of the riln of which is below the
level of the top part of the frame; and the fore
part rests upon  a  castor  which  allows  the
carriage to be turned when desired. A horse is
yoked to two eyes in the fore-bar of the frame
by the hooks of the plough-chliainis, to draw the
carriage by.  The harrows are piled one above
the other upon the framing. Such a carriage
may convey other articles to and from the fields.
6006. The Tweeddale subsoil-trench-plouigh is
well adapted for the breaking,, up of moorband
pan in the subsoil. I have not had mucl4 experienice of the obduracy of this substance, as in any
case within my experience it did not exceed 2
or 3 inches in thickness, which were easily ripped
up with the 4-horse plough. and as easily inouildered down to dust on exposure to the wiuter's
frost; yet there are places il Aberdeenshire and
Morayslire where it is so thick and Iihtid that
extraordinary mneans are require,l to break it lip.
A  remarkable and extensive band of this siibstance was encountered by Mr Roderick Gray,v
Peterhead, when improving part of tlhe waste
land of the property of the Giveriors of the
Merchant  Maidens' Hospital of Ediiibiirghii in
that neighbourhood.   Tile in)ory surfa(e was
ploughed with 4 horses.  " At first the plough
ran upon the panl, which it seellmiei impossible to
penetrate; various trials were  made, and  the
plan which ultimately succeeded was to have 4
men employed at the plough, and these were
enigaged as follows:-One with a pick and spade
made a hole where necessary, until it reached
below the pall, and entered the plough at this
hole; another lheldl the plough; the third held
down the beam, and kept the plough below the
pan; andti the fourth took care of the horses.  lii
this way the upper stratumt  and panl were broken,
and afterwards they were brought ilnto a sort of
mould by the grubber and harr,)ws.'"* However
obdurate this suibstiiace nmay be to break lip, it
will yield to the air, and imoulder down into an
innocuous powder of sand and gravel.
6008. LiPfse has be en di rectly applied
to the land in the agriculture of this
country for a very long period of years.
The olb)ject of applying it has always been
the samie —to increase the crops by stimulating the ac,tion of the soil.  It was  supposed to act in two ways-directly upon
the veget-able matter  in  the soil, -and directly  pl:on the soil itself, by altering its
texture.   Whlen wanted to act  uipon vegetable matter, it was applied to boggy soil
after it Ihad been drained, or to deaf soil
that had Ion(, been tinder an exhausting
course of hsbiis)andiry, and whicel  had never
been liimied, for  it is  known   theat soil
never  becomes (leaf that had been occasionally linked.   When   the texture  was
desiredI to  be altered  from  a stiff to  a
friable  state, or  fro,m  a very  loose to a
fircler state, limde was apIlied.  Stiff clay
soails were  the,se wliclh were rendered pulverable by lime, and  loose gravelly soils
were  rendlere-l firmtier by its action. The
most conlveriient period for applying, lime
to the land was when  the soil had been
6007. Professor Jo,lnstoni thus explains the
formatio-i  of iiioorbanid pall. "It is to the
lingering of unwholesome  waters beneatlh, that
the origin of many of our imoorlands, especially
on higher grounds, is in a great measure to be
attributed.   A  calcareous  or  a  ferrujginious
' Prize Essasys of thle Iihland and A4gricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 169.
+ Jolinstoin's Lectures on  4yi-icultutral Clhemeistry, 2d edition, p. 556.
665
ON TIlE LIMING OF LAND. 
REALISATION.
bare-fallowed;  and as thlat process was
extensively practised, the linie was always
laid  on  in  sumiiiier.  It was  the 1iost
faitv)rite practice withi farmers to apply
limne in a caustic state, bI)ecause, being( then
in a stite of finest powder, it nixed best
withl every sort of soil.
be absorbe d by th e  lime, wlh ich nevertho.
less c ontinues q         uite dry, thereby indicating
tthat   i t  ha s   been  t aken up  i   chemical
union witlh tiie litme, wihichl then becomes
in tle state of a  hydrate.  A great  lieat
is evolved during thle time  the limye takes
to fall to powder; and when it attains tlhat
state, tlhe heaps will have swelled to more
than three tinmes their former bulk.  The
lime is then said to be slaked, and is in
its most caustic state.
600.9. Experience lhaving confirmed all
these practices in regard to the ap)lication
of lile, it is doubtful that many fatrniers of
the present dayknow miore about the natuire
of limne an(l its action than what is ilmpl      ied
in the above statenment, and consequently
the practice now is whiat it was thien.
60 12. While the slaking is proceeding,
the laind tlh.t was manuired in drills (4172)
is cross-harrowed a double tine, to make
it flat; after which the ridges are feered;
and  the  linie is then spread  along  the
feered ridges.
6010. Whlen liine is obtained  direct
from  the  kiln, or  from  shipboar(l,  it
is  in  lumps,  called  shell.s,  and   light
in  weiglt.   Limiesliells  are  differently
treated  by  diflerent  farmers  in  thleir
preparatioln of it for the soil.  Some lay
down  tlhe  shells  in  sinall  hleap)s  upon
the feereil ridg,es, whlile others l-iy thlen      d,
in large hleaps UtI)ol thle tupper lhead-ridge.
It is clear that the imode of laying shells
at once ul)on tlhe land cannot be adopted
until tlhe land lad previously been suifficiently fallowed;  and as fallowing occupies a considlerable tiiiie to be  done  in
a proper iiianner, it is also clear tllat no
conisiderable  quantity  of  lilne  can   be
drivei), after the fitllIw  is ready, uinless
the kilns lhappen to l)e near; andl, at all
evetits, it is unnecessary to lay tlhe lime
Upon tlJe filloweil landl until olily a sllort
perio{d l)efo(re thle vlwheat is sown.  13esides,
wheti slells a.re l)lace(-d ill hleaps (,n  the
rid(ges, they tmust reniaill a considerable
tinie tliere to be reduced ti pow(der by tie
air, whlen the limie will li~ve lost a considerable p)ortion of its cauisticity 1)v union
witil thle carblonic aci(l (if tlje tir, unless a a
good dtleal of raini sliall llatve filien to lj thsten its slakifng.   To  preserve  thle shlells
intact, till nieeiled, thley sliotildl be piut in
larg,e lIeaps, the o,iter sutifice,)f whliclh
may becoiiie neuitralised by thle action of
thie air, huit the interior of wiich  w%ill no           t
be so affected.   While tihe lietaps are thtius
occilpying a liead-ri(ltge, thie la.nd may be
vorlkel as opportuniity offers.
6013. Tlhe limne is    spread  in    this maniher: —Frying-p)an  shovels, fig. 233, are
tbe  best itnlplenments for filling carts with,
and spreading lime upon land. A calhn
day  should  le  chosen  for  the purpose,
but  slhould  there be  the least wind, the
sig,le-lhorse carts should be so placed  at
the hleap)s as  that the linme-powder whichl
rises into the air should be blown away
fromn the horses and nieii.  Powdered lime
is lheavy; btit all that can lie upon a slhovel
is so light in weight that each plhughmIian
talkes a heap, and witlh one of his horses in
a cart, fi)r a yoking at a time, fills his own
cart, and spreads  tlhe limne  frorn  it upon
tle ri(ld,es all)tted to limn. Tlhe dlirection in
liming, should lhave the wind a little ahead;
and whien a- numriber of mien take fronl differenit heaps, they should so  arrange themselves aloni  tle  ridg,es as  that the cart
fartlhest down  the wind take  the lead in
spreadingi,.  In spreadinti  limiie, t!he mn-an
walks along the middi(lle of th)e thered ridge,
and casts the slhov,elfujls righIit ansl left from
the  middle towards  tlhe  feered furrows,
whclh will     bee,,)e, by  ploughIinig, the
crowns of the future ri(dges.  Tile  nian
whlIo can cast  tlhe shovelfuls with  eitler
lhan(l will sprea,  libe letter than one who
is right or left  liandledi only.  The lime
should be spread evenly over the surfeice;
but it Iinay be spread thicker on  one part
of the fiel]( tian) ani(,tlier, acco-rding, to tile
wants (of tlhe soil. On  litgit knolls it nmay
be spread thlilnnier than  ini hI-tolhjws, where
the  soil  is  eitlher  (deep-er  or  stronger.
Whleniever raini falls, the limning, should be
discontinued.
6011. A week or so before tlhe lin)e is
applied,  water should be'poured on the
large iieaps of shells to reduce  tlheit to a
stae of fine powder.   Thle water will all
666 
LIMING.
6020. Lime  weighs  from 75  lb. to
nearly 1 cwt. per bushel, which indicates
tthlat it ought not to be laid on by  the
measure alone, but by mleasure and weighlt
combined, giving the  preference to thle
lighlitest weight.
6014. It is proper to put a clotlh over
tlhe horse's back anid tlhe lharness; and the
nen  shouild cover their face witlh cralpe,
,%) save it from the cauterising effects of
tlhe quiicklimiie.   Tlhe  lh(,ses, *whenjever
loosened from work, slhothlt! be tlhoroughlly
wisped down and brushled, to free tlJe hlair
of any lime that may hlave found its way
into it; an(], shIould the nlen feel a smnarting in tlheir eyes or nose, sweet tlhick
cream is the best emollient.
6021. Lime is applied at different
periods of the year, according to tlle state
of  tile land.  On   silnimer-fallow  it is
applied inimmediately before tlhe wlheat is
sown in autumn.  It is also used for wuleat
iiiiinediately after taking  up tile potato
crop in autumn.   It is applied to tlhe land
cleared of turnips by  shleep, just before
tle sowing of tile barley-see(l in sprin,g.
It' is also applied before tile turnip-seed is
sown in thle beginning of summer.   It
timay be applied to lea immediately befoie
beinlg plouglhed for oats in early sprilng. I
do lnot say it is inmmaterial to the proper
fuse of lime to choose tile season in wilich
it is applied, convenience often determining  tlie point as muclh is propriety;  but
experience lhas decided that it is used( to
tile best advantage on siimmier-fallow, and
after turnips hlave been eaten off by shleep.
6016. Tle  quanti  ty of l it e that should
be applied depends on the nature of tele
soil, the liglhter soils requiriiig the less,
and the stronaer the greateir qtreantity. On
liB,ut turniap soils, some tlink 12 0 bushels
per acte sufficient, wlhilst I lhave used  150
buslhels w%itlh b-)enefit.  I  ilaN e  seen as
}chl as 510 buslhels applied to tile acre
of wlheat lan(-, with manifest advantage.
]But pIerila)s fr-oin 150 to 240 bushiels may
be considered average qilal.tities, frolii tile
lig,litest to tile ileaviest soils.   On weak
moory soils, 75 bushiels ale einolgil witIh
which to cominmence its imniprovemient.
6022. The  effects of lime  are manifested
in ap  rather   remrarkable tianner. WhenI
ploughed douin with an     ordinary furrow
by itself, no effe c t   is   observed   on the first
crop;  and wlen plougled in  de ep, a, rotation mlay pass before it sliows ayll effect.
Wofen  tl arronwed in, and tile land  ribbed
for barley after t urnips eaten off by sbeep,
it  alla.s effect at once.  When  ploug h sed
with a lig,ht furrow above the dung  in
su601.Ien-fallow, even after thl e  lapse  of a
few weeks it   has  a segsible effect o1 tile
first crop.  It  has tlhe best eftect on the
grass of any crop in the rotation, and most
upon the clover.  It has an injurious effect
on the potato crop.  It loses its effect on
tihe same land after several repetitions.
It h1as little effect on soils in the neig,,hboirlh,ood(  of large towns.  It has always
a goo( effect on fresh soil, as also on mioss
that hafis been tlhoroughIly draine(l.  It hlas
a goodl effect on all drained soils, and is
wasted on uindrained ones.
6017. Tiae sort of ity   e sh ould determine the quantity  applied, tlhe stronger
bein,g used in less quantity thjan the weak.
The Engilislh linme is muich miiore caustic
tlhan tlhe Scotchl. Limne with any miiagnesia
in it is unfit for tlhe land.
6019. Its common  price is 3s. per boll
of' b)uislhels, consequienitly its entire cost,
at  thle  above  qilaitities, will  be  froil
~3, 15s. to ~6 per acre for thle best seab)orne Eng lish limie, exclusive of carriage;
the Scotcll sell           s  for  c0s. per cart-loapl of
4 boll-s of 6 t-)usl!els each), ineluding carriage for 10 niles, wliichl  ma,-kes the cost
froi-o  ~3, 2s. 6d. to ~5 per acre.
6023. Lime is usually procured in suminer and aututmn, as tlie kilns are only
kept in activity in those seasons; so when
it is  intended to  a pplyr i it in spring, it is
necessary to procure it in autumn, and
661
60 I a. Pi-of,ressively as tlje lin-ie is spread,
ritlge after rid,,e, it is liari-owe(I iti a (lottl)le
tiiie, aiid mixed witli t,lie soil; alitl iiiiiiiediately oii the entire field beiiio, Iiiiie(l, the
I-itl,,es are ploti(,,Iie(I witli a li
11                                             qht furrow,
to btirv ttie Iiiiie as little -,is possible, and
wliicli constitutes the seed-ftiri-ow of tlle
future crop.
0'018. It is not custonlarv to apply lirne
often to land, it I)eino, inexpedient to
In
apply it oftener than once in a lease of
19 years, on account of its expense. 
REALISATION.
keep it all winter.  And to preserve it in a
( lesi etrle                    state in  winter, tlthe hleapl) s   of
s          h        ells slsolild be covered withl  a  ttick  c oatit          ii (ffeartll, and every crevice that appears 
ini                         it shlould    be iiimnediately  fille d u p.
the potato land after the crop has been
lifted, it follows the large manur ing the
potatoes had received late in spring. The
limiiingI land( after turnips ill spring follows
the large nmanuiring, which the turnips re ceive(l in the early part of the preceding
summer.   Wlhen put upon land  that has
been manured by slheep eating off turnips,
it is placed still nearer tlhe manure.  Lim ing land in preparation of the turnip crop
in the  early  part of  summiier, pla ces  it as
-near the manure. Lime cannot be applied
to any of the cereal   crops when  thley are
growing, and it    cannot be  put on    grass
land tl,at is to be sown or pastured in the
same  season.  Thus, neither in spring,
summer, nor autumn, can lime be applied
to the soil without coining into near  contact with manure; and         as  to applying it
in    winter, i t is  out  of t he question when  a
large quantity is to be used.   Then rain
and sniow and frost may prevent its being
barrowed in after  being spread, and  bad
weather  may prevent the liming proceeding at all after a portion of the field  had
been linmed.  After all, as lime is applied
only once in a lease, it matters little that
it be put upon the land near a manuring;
the important point is to apply it at the
best and most convenient  time, which is
on tlhe fallow; and experience has olbtained
the best return from its use thus, both in
grain and(I straw.
6024. I am  aware  of the opinion  of
.soiIe fLrtiners, that liille is equally efficaciotis in                                           thee soil in  the effete as in t the
ca      u sti c state, and Loid Kames w     as o f  that
op      i n i on; and, tiherefo(re,       precautions to
preserve  it in                    a ccaustic state in winter
m            a           y,y by                    them, be eeedeemed unnec es sary; but
as the general opinion is in favour  of quickl    i     me, and which I support, I have treated
the subject accordingly, until exp            e     rience
sha             l     l        instruct us better.  T here is the
ad        vantage, however,            in usin g  quic k-lime,
tha                  t       it is much more easily spread tipon,
ploug l,ed                      into,  and  mixed  wit h t he soil
than                         effete lime; and if pulverisation  b e of
any                          use to it at all, it   shou ld m ix with
the soil, and act witt it mor            e  quic kl y than
i            n              an effete state.
6025. To  the        ord inar y  use  of litne, as I
ha-e     descr ibded it, emiistry mnight object
to its application  so        cl ose           to        farmyard
manuire a       s       it is in sumEmer-fallow.  It is
entirely right av      o iding to apply it with                or
ne    ar gu ano, a s     it w ill  ent irely deprive it
of its alntonliaeal i     ng   redients.   But it is
not easy to avoid its proximity to nmanuire,
whe n  it is    considered that  it   cannot be
applied  at                     any time  in the   course of a
rotation,      f   ya      and that a considerable time is
required to  collect       as  muche    of i t    a s will
spread over a large space of ground; and
that if a  large  space is not linmed                                   whlaen it
is applied, time will  not be afforded the
tenant to lime all his farm, and derive all
the  advantages  from  it, in thle course
of a 19 years'  lease.    Supf)ose that lie
lirnes the entire fallow-break every year,
he cannot go over his fa,rmi in less timie
than four or five years, and this space is
as much as hle can lirne in thle course of
a year and carry on the culture of the
farm at the same time.
602r. A   top-dressing of chalk is  one
method  adopted  io  several  districts of
Englan(d-in Essex, Hamipshire, Wiltslhire,
Linicolnslhire, Yorklishire, for affording calcareous miiatter to the soil. It lhas a strikinig effect at first, particularly upon fresh
new broken up land; but at length it
seems to lose its efficacy. It is ail-)I)Iied
againi whenever its effect becomes iniert.
6028. The solid  chalk  of  the lower
stratuim is preferred to  thle more porous
sutbstance near  the surface.  It is taken
out of pits in lutmplls, wlhich are put upon
the ground to he limred;a-n(], tihe lumps
bein,, wet, the frost in winter causes thlem
to fall down into a powder, whichl is thlen
spread (over the surface of the,rouind. Dry
chalk will not fall dowvn, andl is tlIerefti)l,o
useless for tlhe purpose.   Chalk is used in
Hamnpslire to render the soil niore loose,
and in the wol(ls of Yorkshljire more firtn.
I would conclude fromi thlis that the Hamnp
668
6026. If we take the. time the farmer
has to apply lime, we sliall see that lie can
scarcer avoid a plyin,, it near a recent
y        p
period of mantirin-. When it is applied on
C,
bare-fallow, it must be immediately at)ove
the i-nanure; when placed below it, the
linie sinks out'of reach. Wlien apl-)Iied to 
LIMING.
shire soil is clayey, and tlat of tile wolds
of Yorkshire silicious.
yard if not driven fa-rthier th~ani a furlong,
and beyond that distance one penny per
furlong is paid.  Its action produces better
quality of grain and regularity of crop.
Thje excess of organic matter in a new soil
loos,ens it, wh~ich tile miarling corrects; thje
dry and loose texture of sand is rendered
miore adhesive and retentive of moisture;
andi peat is benefited by consolidation and
the supply of inorganic iiatter.t
6029. Tile quantities applied vary ini
different districts.  In Essex, in the clayland  district,  about  15  cart-loads,  of
40 bushels each, are considered a full
dressing per acre, at 6s. per load, and
3s. 6(. for carting one mile; but here
the expense does not bear carriage farther
than four to six miles, beyond which lime
is preferred.   In Lincoliislhire 80 cubic
yards of clhalk are applied to'thie acre, at a
cost of 66s.  In Hanmpslhire it is dtig out of
pits as deep as 20 feet, and 2000 bushels
are wheeled on thje land in barrows at a
cost of about 45s. per acre. In the district
of Windsor, wlhere it has to be carted ten
miles, it costs about ~8 per acre.*
Carbonate  Of lime,
Oxide of iron and alumina&,
Organic matter,...
Clay and silicious matter,
Water,,    o.
6030. I have already referred to shellmarl as a manure, in (4999.)  The composition of peat shell-mnarl of Logie, in
Forfarshiire —a county whiichI at one time
afforded and used a large quantity of this
substance in its agriculture, to a degree to
be positively detrim-iental to the so,il, some
of whiichi his not recovered its effects to
this day-is as follows:-d
6033. The lime'used in the agriculture of this
country is chiefly derived  from the mountain
limestone of the carboniferous series, as also
that of the coal formation.  The rock forms
a broad belt across the centre of Scotland, along
the centre of England, and in the whole of the
ceFttre of Ireland. Lime in Scotland is mostly
derived from the coal formation, where it is assoc~iated with shales, sandstones, and ironstones.
From the From the
top of the bottom of
bed. the bed.
Carbonate of lime,...    77.6       81.7
Oxide of iron and alumina,.1.8 0.6
Organic matter,.... 14.6   -14.6
Insoluble, chiefly silicious matter,   6;.0    3.1
100.O    100.0
Bog-marl retards the ripening of the grain
crops, while lime hastenis their maturity.
6034. In Ireland  large beds and  knolls of
limestone nodules, in the form of gravel, are
found iu many districts.  The gravel, when laid
upon the land, acts as lime in the course of time;
and it affords a very ready means of reclaiming
drained bogs, and of reducing their vegetable into
earthy matter, (5891.)
Carluke. Ceekermouth.
Carbonate of lime, 93.91                         94.86
Sulph~ate of limie,.  0.85    0. 23
Phosph~ate of lime, 1.14..
Carb,!nate of mrag- }2'06 12
liesilt,..
Alumziina and oxide16307'
of iroin,..}1
Silica...0.41 2.92
100'00    100.00
6031. The process of miarling as practised in Englantl is very similar to tlhat of
gaulting or claying, already described in
(2119.)  The narl is a clay containing
particles of chalk, which are quite visible
in the mass of clay.  The marl is applied
both to heavy and light land.  On heavy
land it is used on new broken up pasture
an,(I mixed  with  farmyard  manure                                           in
compost.  On light soils i' is more extensively employed, and its benefits are chiefly
derived from an improved texture of the
,soil.  From  40 to 50 cubic yards are
applied per acre, at a cost of 7d. per cubic
6036. Limestone, on being broken into handys
lumpils, is p)ac-ked in alternate layers with coal in
kilnis and burned, wheni a very material effect is
produced upon its appearance and character.
From being a close-grained, hard, heavy stone,
it is reduced to a porous, light, splintery cinder.
One ton of limestone, when thus burned, yields
* Journal of tlhe A.4rictltural Society of Eikqland, vol. iii. p. 183, and vol. v. p. 34.
t Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. viii. p. 312.
,: Johnston on the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 11.
669
6032. The followitiz analysis may give
a fair idea of the c;nosition of a cia'y
niai-I. This specimen was found in Ayrsliire:
&4
2.2
2.8
84.9
1.4
99.7 +
q
6035. The composition of some good limestones
for agricultural purposes is here given:
Kil.h,-.d. Rlig.
95.89 93.97
0.32...
0.54 1.32
1.20 1.57
2.05 3.14
100.00 100.00 
REALISATION.
11 cwt. of the cinder.  The cinder is called limeash ells. The burning has the effect of driving off
w a t e r    and carbonic acid from th              e           limestone; of
f    o    r    m    i     n    g      gypsum with the sulphur of th e  c oal,
and                               with the pyrites of the limestone;  an d  silicate
of                               lime with the silicious  matter present in the
limestone and the coal.
the better for agricultural purposes: it is then
sai     d  t o be  in  the fa ttest  an d s trongest state.
Of the limes   whose analysis appear above, it
would  seem to    me  that e  sta i            the Kilhead is the
best for applying to the  land.  Plastreers like
fat lime, as it  runs  best and makes th e
strongest  putty. When  a conside  r able pro   -
portion of sand  occurs it is the better adapted for
common building purpo ses, a  s i t t hen re quires
less sand  to convert i t    into good  mortar, and ithe
natural unionm of  silicious matter is much better
than any artificial method  of adwdieg i t can be
d evised.  Of these the Cockermouth is  the   best
fo r buildings. Much magnesia in lime is  hurtful
to  vegetation, and  is t herefore  uns uited for the
land;,but it is a  nseful ingredient ili lime intetided for buildings under water, such as piers
and docks, where it becomes very          hard,  and on
that account is called  hydraulic lime.   Of
these  limes  the  Carluke would  seem  best
suited for building piers; but the proportion of
magnesia in it is'but small compared to many
of  the  magniesian  limes  of England, as at
Hartlepool, where it contains about 45 per cent
of the carbonate of magnesia, a ton of which
affording  no  less a  quantity of the  calcined
magnesia of the shops than 9; cwts.
6037. Limeshells have   a   stro ng       a     ffinity for
water: they   will  ext       ract it f rom th e atmosphere
and become in time slake(], which is the end
a     imed at in putting limeshells on the land in small
hea ps along the ridges; but they are more commonly slaked by water being poured upon them.
The pouring water too quickly upon the shells
cau ses  t    he Ilim e to b e gritty, and to contain n any
smnall lumps  whic         h  refus e  t o be slaked.  The
spontaneous slaking is attended with the least
trouble as usually practised, but in effect it
chills the surface and produces much gritty limev
and it gives sufficient time for much of the
powdered lime to absorb carbonic acid from the
air, and go back to the state of carbonate and
become  effete.   To  succeed  well with  the
spontaneous mode of slaking the heaps should be
covered with sods, which is a trouble which no
farmer will undertake with heaps lying on the
field.   Farmers  will willingly  cover  large
heaps of limeshells that are to remain over
.winter, to be spread upon the land in spring, by
which time most of the lime will be found slaked
in an excellent state for mixing with the soil.
6041. The practice hitherto has been to
apply a large dose of lime at once, and not to
repeat it during the lease. The motive f,r this
practice I would look for more to the circum,stances in which the farmer is placed in regard
to the tenure of his farm, than to any reasonable
expectation entertained by him of the action of
lime upon the soil iT large  quantity.  It is felt
with the application of   l ime a s wi th the dr aining
of the farin the soonie r i  its donie,and tlie seldomer
done, the  greater  profit to him  who do es it.  The
opinio         n     is gaining ground, however, that it is
better for the tecant's interest to lipr e in less
qu antity at a time, and mt re frequeaytly.  It
would a ppear, taking th e a verage of  the quantities of lime applied  in different districts o f
the country, that about 8 or 10 bushels per acre
per annuml are applied to supply the supposed
requirements of the land. It might, therefore,
be better for the crops, and more prudent for the
purse of the tenant, to apply 8 or iO bushels per
acre on the fallow every year during the lease,
than  160  to 200 bushels  per acre at one time
at its commencement.
6038. In slaking limeshells, an intense heat is
produced, a large quantity of water is absorbed,
much increase of bulk ensues, and a flne powder
is obtained, which is called quicklime, causticlime, hot-limne.  The heat in some cases might
ignite gunpowder; the lime absorbs about one
fourth of its weight of water; it increases from
2i to 31 times its bulk; and the powder has strong
caustic and alkaline properties. The ultimate
results are, that the slaked lime consists partly of
caustic lime, partly of carbonate of lime, and
partly of hydrate of lime, somewhat in these proportions in the ton:
Pe, cent.   C-t.
Carbonate of lime,.I..   57.4          l
Hydrate of lime,     li{e, 32.4 } 42.6 ior 8
iwater, 10.2/
100.0      20*
6039. The composition of the limes obtained
from the limestones  mentioned above,. (6035,)
with the  exception of that of  Relig, is  as
follows:
Lanarkohire, Cumberland, 1)ufieh
Carlue,.  Coclkemouth, KilnheAd,
Lime,                        89.7 8    89.77          88.64
Slulptiateof lime, (gypsum,)  1.45       -0.38          0.ll
Phosphate of lime,.          1.93.. 
M4ag-nes-ia,..        1.69        i.02        0.4,3
Aluina and oxide of iron,  2.76            1.23         1.98
Silica in the state of/silicate,  0.70     4.92         3.39
Carbonic acid and moisture,  1.69          2.68         5.05
100.00      100.00     loo0oot
6042. There is no doubt that lime is an exhatnsting substance for the land. Long ago it
was quite common in Scotland for tenants, who
grudged to purchase mainure, to procure lime and
apply it as manure, just as the bog-marl was
used, until the land was rendered almost intcapable  of growing  any crop, when it was laid
down to grass to rest for a number of years.
The various substances of the soil, organic and
inorganic, are more rapidly set free -after linie]as
been applied than before; and, on being set free,
the roots of plants obtain them the more readily
and in greater abundance; aced then, as the plants
themselves grow more rapidly anid to a larger
* Johnston On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 44.
t Transactone of the Highland and A.gricultural Society, July 1848, p. 299.
670
6040. The purer lime is it is considered 
WATER-MEADOWS.
size, and perfect all their parts more completely,
they will carry off a larger quantity of matter
from the soil, which, if not replaced in some way,
the soil must become exhausted.  If more lime
is applied to correct the evil, the exhaustion will
become the more severe.
would be purchased at a cost beyond their
intrinsic worth.  A third consideration, of
an important nature too, is, whether you
have a right to take as much of the water
of a rivulet, which may formn the boundary
of the estate in which your farm is situate,
as your water-tnead(low will require? You
can use the wiater of a brook which wholly
passes through your farm as you please,
provided it be not injured in its quality,
nor  directed out of its natural clhannel
when it enters  the property below; but
you cannot approplriate to your particular
use more than half the water of a mnarch
burn.  If half the water afforded by it is
not sufficient for the purpose of irrigation,
you should either abandon the idea of forming a water-meadlow-for a dry water miead(ow is a vexation in fact, as much  as a
contradiction in terms-or negotiate with
your neighlbour for the use of tile whole;
for it would be a pIity to render all the
water useless, because either party can
leg,ally use only one half of it.
6043. Over-liming was an evil which the land
suffered in a former generation more than in this;
and when it occurred was cotnfined to poor weak
soil, that was soon rendered too loose by the use
of the plough.  It is therefore quite correct what
Professor Johnston says, that "the evil called
overliming is a mechanical, not a chemical one.
The extreme openness of the soil has been brought
on by prolonged    ploughing, and  too frequent
cropping of corn. An opposite procedure must
therefore be adopted, and imechaniical means
employed, by which a gradual sol idificationi may
be effected," among which none is more effective
than the eating off turnips by sheep on the land.
6044. A compost of lime and earth is a better
top-dressing for grass land than either separately.
Such a compost is usually made too weak of
lime: the proportion should be one cubic yard of
lime to three cubic yards of earth. The mixing
of such a compost costs Id. per cubic yard                     of the
mixture.
6047. Allowing the quantity of water
to be amnple for your extent of irrigation,
it is better to take it direct from the brook
than to erect a damn across it, to collect the
water, even thoughI you should possess the
power to do so; because, the nearer the
bottom of the brook the water is obtained
from, the better it is for the purpose of
irrigation, on account of tile sedilmentary
matter which it contains; and tile more of
clay and vegetable matter tile sediment
consists of, the more richly it will nianutre
irrigated plants.   It may cost snore to
malike a channel for tile water obtained
direct from the brook, than to construct a
sdati across the same brook, though that is
even improbable; for unless a dalm is very
substantially made, so as to resist tile force
of the brook under every state of flood, it
will cost much for repairs, besides exciting
the constant apprehension of blowing from
below, or bursting out at the sides.
6045. The appearance of the white clover,
Trifolium repen-, on top-dressing healthy soil
with lime, is a well-known and remarkable phetn omenon.   Lime  extirpates the corn marigold,
Chysaanthemrum segetumn, but it encourages the red
poppy, Papaver Rheas; and on sinking into strong
clay soil it favours the growth ofcolt's-foot,'ussilago farfara.
6046. Several considerations should be
carefully      attended to ere the formation of
a water-mneadow  is determined on,  the
principal       of which  is, whsether there be a
sufficient supply of water  in a dry season
to irrigate the                                       meadow thoroughly;  and if
there be not, the desire for possessing a
water-meanow should be  abahnloned,  or its
extent confined to suit the water at cownmapid.  Anothler impo rtant consideration
is, whether the water can be spared for
irrigation, without depriving other as import.'nt purposes of its use, as the thrashing
of grain and the watering of live stock inl
grass- fields. If the water can be used in
irrigation before it is wanted for, or after
it has been used by, the thraslhing-maclhine,
when the water can be conveniently emnployed for the thrasliini power, then it may
profitably be employed for irrigation; but
otherwise, the advantages of irrigation
6048. Sluices sh ould be  formed to prevent the water reaching the meadows when
not wanted, and also to allow one portion
of the. meadows to be watered at a time,
while the other parts are kept dry. All
sluices should be substantially and amply
built with stone and lime, of which the
foundations should be sunk to a depth below that which the water has any chance
671
ON FORMING WATER-MEADOWS. 
REALISATION.
of reaching.  The masonry in direct contact withl the operating sluice-boards should
be formed of droved ashllar.  No doubt,
sluices of thisi construction are expensive;
but unless the entire appointments in coinnection withl water are constructed in a
substantial mnanner at the comminencemnent,
and on correct principles, thieir repair will
be incessant, and use unsatisfactory.
3 feet deep.  The drains should be placed
apart at distances corresponding to the
breadth proposed to be given to the bedwork of the meadow, that every bed may
have the same  advantage in reg,ard to
draina.gte. Ill practice, it will he fouind
that but a very small proportion of the
water finds its way into the drains; nevertleless, it is necessary to }lave a sufficient
nunmber of drains to carry off all the water
that nlay find its way into themn from any
quarter; and, to insure this result, a drain
should be accessible from every bed.
6049. The land to be converted into
water-meadowslioul( be tiloroulgh-drained,
unless  the subsoil consists naturally of
gravel, which is rarely the case; because,
if irrigating water finds its way through
the soil to a retentive subsoil, it will remain there in a stagnant state, where no
drains are at hand to carry it off; and the
consequence will be, the  sward of the
meadow will in a shlort time be composed
of coarse subaquatic plants, instead of fine
meadow-grasses. Tlie best sort of materials
for filling the drains of water-meadows are
pipe-tiles; and in case the meadow should h
afterwards be converted into arable liusbandry, the drains should be made at least
___Fg.54
- 1: I..........
ck
I:_L~~'~~~~~... L~iLJLI   J
THE BED-WORK WATER-.M.EADOW.
to prevent the water flowing when it is
not wanted.  Tihe first operation within
the field is to foriii the main conductor of
the water a b alolng tile upper side, not on
a dead level, but with  a  very gentle
descent.   It should be  made capacious
enough  to pass  as much water as will
cover, at one time, the entire surface of the
field with running  water; and in order to
give it the power to overflow at all points
alike, it should be made narrower towards
b, that, on the water going into the lateral
feeders in succession, no more may find its
way to b, at the termination, than is
required to irrigate the ground from that
aoint; and the water oug(,ht to flow along
the whole of a b, as always to have the
water at the same hleighlt in it. Thie
bottom and edges of the conductor should
be made with a uniform smoothness and
I
I
I
i
t
i
I
i
672
6050. These preliminaries being deter.
mined, the next business is giving proper
forni to the water-iiieadow. Taking, iii
the first instance, the simplest case of
water-mea(low, having a very gentle slope
from one side to the other of the field, and
also from one (,,ti(I of it to the otl-ier, the
first business is to make the ditch, which
is to conduct the water from the brook, to
the h' hest corner of the field. Where
this water-course or lead enters the field,
a sluice a, fi,,..554, should be put across it,
c
Fig. 554.
a
b
f
9
0
n
n
0
p
r
s
c
4 
WATER-MEADOWS.
inclination.  The earth which comes out
of the conductor is wheeled away to other
parts of the field, to fill up hollows.
other, and of  uniform  incliination  from
end to end, tlhe drains  m, n, o, p, q', r, s. t,
are uniformly  1 foot b)elow  tlje level of
the feeders e, f, g, h, i, k, 1.  Thle soil betweeii themi is worked  smoothl  and even
with  thle spade, hollows being  filled up,
and heighlts removed to a unifornm inclination.
6051. The next chialnnel made is the
mizain-drain  c d, whose province  is to
carry tlhe water out of the field, after it
has served its purpose in irrigation, an(d,
on that account, its diniensionts shlould be
exactly equal to that of the nmain-conductor, but its position and fortrm the opposite
at the lowest side of the field.  It shlould
also hlave  the same  uniform  inclination
and  smoothness down to its largest outlet
at d.
6053. The ground is now realy to be
sown with the seeds of the natural grasses,
which should always be without a corn
crop, to secure a fine and early sward.
The  following is a good proportion of
such seeds, per acre, for water-meadows,
for the differentconiditions of lig,ht, medium,
and heavy soils:
6052. Whilst these two principal clhan nels are forming withl  the greatest care
and exactness, the intermjediate ground of
the field should be preparing to be occu pied with another species of channels, and
the preparation for them is made accord ing to the state of thle ground. If the field
has been under culture, the ground should
be ploughled and harrowed, and the weeds
hand-picked, as in sutmiiier-fallow, (41 65,)
and the plougli used  to gather it into
ridges, (749.) The crowns of these ridges
are marked by the lines e, f, 9, h, i, k, 1,
and they may be at a distance of 30 feet
from each other, the brea(ltli of two ordi-(i
nary ridges of 15 feet.  One  gatliering
may probably not suffice, as the crowns              c      s
should be 1 foot higher than the ol)Cl furrows. Thiis is all thle assistalnce tle ploulghI
can give in thJe iiaking, (of water-meadows,
and the rest slhould be done withl the spade
and whleelbarrow; -an(t hy tleir means the
channels e,.f,, It, h, i k, 1, are iimade with a
nniform inclination frt.)li tlhe iiiain-coniductor a b to their respective terminations.
These  channels  are called feed:rs, and
they occupy the crowns of  the ridges,
now  named bedl, liavii,:, a widlth of 20
inches at  tlleir jilinctioni   with,  and  at
right anries froi,,i, tlhe initiii-coildllctor a b,
should they extenil ias far as 200 yards
in lengthl, anl a wid(tli of 12 inchles at
their terlnination.  Of simlilar dimensions
are the channels m,  o,p, q, r, s, t, called
drains, formed in thlie hlollows of the open
furrows; biecause tlheir i)irovince is to carry
off the water fromt the feeders, for whichl
purpose they should be formed in tile opposite direction, hlaving  their widest  end
at their junction with thle iiiain-drain c d.
These  channels being parallel to  each i
VOL. 11.
Without a Corn Crop.
On     On       On
Botnical and English Names.      Light  Medium   -e,vy
9oils.   B3oils.  Soils
Lb.    Lb.    Lb.
AProstis stolonifera.
Marsh creeping bent-grass or fiorin, 2t        2i     2t
.Alopecurus pratensis.
Meadow fox-tail grass,.       1i      1t       1~
Festuca. loliacea.
Darnel-spiked fescue-grass,.         1       2      3
Festuca pratensis.
Meadow fescue-grass,.        2       2i     2i
.Festuca elatior.
Tall fescue-grmss,..       1i      2       2
Glyceria fluitans.
Floating sweet-grass,..       21 2k              2~
lolium Italicum.
Italian rye-grass,..        6       6       6
Lotitim perenne.
Pere,nnial ryegrass,..       7        7      7
Phalaris arundiliacea.
]teed caniary-grass,..       1,,             1'
Phleum pratense.
Timl,othiy, or cat's-tal),. 2              3       3i
Poa, trivialis.
2        2
135i        38
.3_
673
231i
To protect the young plants, 1 bushel per
acre of rye  may be sown along witlh the
seeds, if sown in autumn, and, 1 bushel of
barley, if sown in spring.   The entire cost
of tlhese seeds is 27s. 9d. on  liglt, 32s. 3d.
oil  iiiedium, and  36s. on  lheavy soils.
" Whlen desirable," says Mr Lawson, " the
original expense of ti.e abovemniixture nmay
be decreased frolii 4s. to  5s. per acre, by
excluidinig tlheAlopecuruspratensis, wlhichi
is only recommiii-enided in consideration of
its earliness, and half of the Lotus maijor;
under most circumiistances, however, it will
be advisable to  reta-in  thje full quantity
of the latter, not only fromt its being the
best adapted of the clover tr ibe for witl4standing excess of moisture, but also fraW
its attaining to full maturity at a late
ui 
REALISATION.
period of the season, when  the growth
of the grasses generally becomes less vigorous." *
beds - their crowns —should be formed
where the feeders are made, wherever that
may be.  Should the ground fall suddenly
from a to c, the water will run too fast
down  the  feeders, as niade in fig. 554,
to  avoid whichd  inconv enience,  they
should go off at such an acute angle from
the niaini-conductor a b as that the water
shall flow in tlhemii as slowly and uniformly
as in the more level case of the ground;
and this aingle can only be determined by
the spirit-level, fig. 493, to which angle
the  beds should be ridged  up, and  the
drains mn,, o, p, q, r, 8, t, made to occupy
the parallel and intermediate spaces at the
proportionate lower level (6052.)
6054. Wlen tile field to be con verted into
water-meadow has been in permanent pasture, the turf should all be carefully taken
off, in a handy, well-prepared form, (5746,)
and laid aside for use.  The bared surface
should then be ploughed and wrouight with
the spade in the manner similar to that described above (6052); and when theground
has been properly prepared, instead of being sown, the turf is replaced, anrd beaten
smooth with the back of the spade.  This
proceeding iiakes by far the best finish for
a water-nieadow, and is, in the end, most
economical, inasmuch as the expense of
t       h       e grass-seeds is saved, and the m eadow
is                      ready for taking on  water at once, and
w     ill                yield  a good crop of meadow-g rass
t       h       e ensuing season; whereas a   m eadow
s     o     w      n      with grass-seeds cannot b e  watered
w          ith impunity for t     wo years-and even
longer, if the grass-seeds h         ad b een sown
d     o     w      n      with a corn-crop. When th e  turfing
of    the meadow    is finishled,  th   e         water
s h o u l d be let into the main-c onductor, and
t h e n c e into each of the feeders and drains
int               o the main-drain, and discharged off
the                       field  for   a  shorter  or   longer   time,
ac    cording as the soil is dr     y         or otherwise,
in                       order to  consolidate the  soil an d  t he
Surfing, that any               inequality thereby indicated  ot  the surface  may b          e       rectified
b e f o r e the turfs have grown together.
6056. Another form of water-meadow
is what is technically termed catch-work,
from the  circum s tance of a  lower set of
fee ders catchin g the    w ater in its rapid
descent down steep ground, from a highIer,
thus causing the samie channels to act the
part of feeders and drains at one and the
same time. This is necessarily an imperfect mode of irrigation, and should never
be resorted to but from necessity arising
from an irreparably irregular form of the
ground; so that "to give exact directions
for  the formation of catch-work," as is
well remarked by the late Mr Stephens,
" is beyond the ingenuity of man; for no
two pieces of land are plecisely alike,
which renders it impossible for the irrigator to follow the same plan in one field
that he has done in another.  Each meadow, therefore, requires a different design,
and the construction to be varied according to the nature of the ground and the
quality and quantity of the water." Impressed with the difficulty of conveying
useful information on this sort of watermeadows, I shiall only give'oue supposable
case as an illustration of the irregularities that may be found on some grounds;
but the expediency of attempting the
formation of water-nimeadows, where the
ground is so irregular as to seem unsuited
f)r them, is doubtful. I conceive that the
original. trouble and expense of making
themni, and the consequent risk of injuring
the ground by an injudicious distribution
of the water, would more than counterbalance all the advantages likely to be
derived from so imperfect a structure. If
6055. This is the simplest as well asthe most perfect form of water-meadow;
but exasples of ground of so much uniformity of surface as now supposed is of so
rare occurrence, that modifications must be
made in the position of the feeders and
drains, to suit the form of the ground.
For example, if the ground falls more
suddenly from a to b, fig. 554, than from
a to c, the feeders e, f, q, A, i, k, and 1,
instead of being made on the middle of
the beds, should- be placed a little towards
a, the higher part of the ground, making
the lower side of the beds broader than
the higher, as gravity will easily carry
the water down the broader sides into the
drains m, n, o, p, q, r, s, and t.  Still, in
such a case, the most elevated line of the
* Lawson On the Cattimted Grasen, p. 41, 3d edition, 1850.
674 
WATER-MEADOWS.
the opinion of Mr  Stephens, that "the  not wonder it has to often proved unsucbenefit of irrigation depends so mnuch upon  cessful," is applicable to bed-work, how
the good management and patient perse-  muclh mnore so to catch-work irrigation!
verance of those who have the superin- 
tendence of a water-meadow, that I do         6057. A mnain-conductor, a b, fig. 555,
Fig.,55.
i
m1
A CATCH-WORK WATER-MEADOW.
is as necessary in catch-work, to convey
the water to the different parts of the
field, as in the most perfect bed-work;
and as it should have the same gradual
fall in its course as in that case, it may
have to be carried along numerous curves.
On the water reaching its extremity at b,
necessarily the highest part of the ground,
it should flow, on the one hand, along the
feeder b c, and, on the other, along the
feeder b d, both being true feetiers, and
not drains.   In their overfl(ow the water
finds its way to the drain ej; which collects all that comes firom c to d; but it
is, at the same time, a feeder, and disposes of its surplus water down the
descent to q h, which in its turn sends it
to i, and i sends it to k, which lastly sends
it to the iain-drain u mn.  Part of the
water finds its way to the drain n, which
conveys  it into the main-drain  at nm.
Also, the water issues out of the mainconductor a b into the sub-conductor o p,
from which it flows to the right down the
feeders q, r,s, t; and on the left down those
of v, w, x, y, and z, to both of which classes
of feeders I u acts as a main-drain.
6058. It is obvious that the water in
c d will impart most of its sedimentary
constituents to the ground between it and
e, and by the time the water hlas reached
, a     very little foreign matter will be left in
it, so that the grass in this upper part of
the meadow will be better nourished than
that in the lower; but, the sub-contuct'or
o p carrying the water  from the mainconductor a b directly to all the feebler
in connection with the main-drain front
I to u, the water will bestow equal advantage to every portion of that part of the
meadow.   In catcl-work, as in bed-work,
each feeder may supply water for 30 feet
of ground in breadth, if the descent'is
gradual; but if more sudden, tile breadth
may be increased to 40 feet.
I
i
675
I
9
6
0
r
9
A
e
i
9
k
p
u
6059. Where water flows unequ,-tily,
whetlier in conductors or;:feeders, stop*
are placed in tl,iem ti) retard the velocity
of the water., The i3t(-)ps are made of vari
ou,g materials-of iiie"'ce of the nat..4ral $pill
left untouched, of pit)s of wood driven into
the middle of the channels, of sods pinned
down, of one stone or.,of stones piled in 
REALISATION.
heap, and of short boards thrust into the
edges of the channels at an angle.  In all
cases of regular bed-work, fig,. 554, th         e
surface being unifornl in its descent, no
stops are necessary, nor are they required
even in catchi-work, whiere thle water flows 
direct to an overflow, as in b c and b d, fi,g.
555; but where water is supplied down tihe
steep sub-cotnductor o p, they are requisite
to guide it equally into the entrance of
each of the feeders q, r, s, t, and v w, wx,,
y, z.   Bult all tile kinds of stops just
enumerated  are  objectionable,  because
pins collect straws and sticks brought by
the water; stonies and turfs cause holes to
be formed in the channels by the watrer
falling over tlheni; and notchl-boards injure the e(dg,es of  tile feeders, besidles
causing  deep hloles  by  the fall of the
water over themn.  The best form of stops
consists of a piece of wood forming two
wedges with thleir bases united; because,
when placed firmly to the bottom between
the edges of a conductor or feeder, the
water flows over them in an unbroken mass,
with a retarded velocity.  A  number of
suchl stops of unequal breadth fit any size
of channel.
instanced in one case belonging  t o the late
Sir Charles Stuart Menteatlh of Closeburn,
in 1826; whereas, in ai case of Mr Lawson
of  Cairnmuir, in  Peeblesshire, the  cost
was E12 per acre.   In one case it cost
Mr Simpson of Glenythan, Aberdeenshire,
about ~T, and in another case only 36s. 9d.
per      acre. From to  to  s9 per  acre  may
be taken as a fair average. Unless the
advantage to be derived were considerable,
such an expense  w ould not be  justifiable;
but in all cases where meadows have been
well managed, the yield  has at  least
doubled; and the land that was not worth
more of rent than from 5s. to 15s. an acre,
increased in value to nearer ~3 per acre.
From  the  nature of the w  or k  connectea
with their faormation, it cannot be otlherwisce
than expensive, as Mr Stephens jtistl r
remarks: "However simple the constructimn of a water-meadow may appear in a
superficial view, those who enter minutely
into the detail will find  it  much  more
difficult than is commonly iu,wg'l,e.u It
i3s not all easy task to give an irregular
Surface the equal slope requisite for the
overflowing of water. It is very necessary for the irrigator to have just ideas of
levels; a knowledge of superficial forms
will not be sufficient. Few people unacquainitedI with the art of irrigation, and
the regularity of form which the adjustmeiit of water requires, have any idea of
the expense of modelling the surface of a
field."
6;060. Wliere the natural fall of tile
ground admits of the arrangement, it is
quite possible to convey the water in a
lead from  the lowest  iltain-drain of one
water-lneadow to the  miin-con(luctor of
another at a lower level; bult, as  the
water wouhl( then be aliiiost (leprivel of
its rnanurin, properties, where there                     is a
large suipply of water, it would be better
to convey it at once to thile lower mieadovw;
anti where there is no surplus water, liquidmnanure slioul(d  be put into the lead, and
the water, as it left the one i-iieadow, coul i
carry  it by  the main-conductor  to the
other.    In  my  opinion, liquid-manure
would be much more profitaldly applied in
thlis way than by direct sprinkling on the
soil, as the extraordinary effects produced
by the foul-water irrigation in the neighboutrlhood of Edinbur,gh fully demonstrate.
6062. Great as are the benefits derivable from
water-mneadows in the low country, such meadows would prove of incalculably more advantage
to our Highland districts, where hay is the most
valuable food for stock in winter that can be
raised at such altitudes.  That  the formation of
water-meadows is quite practicable in all our
Highland  glens is apparent from  these  senitimeints of MIr Stephens, with which I cordially
acquiesce, and earnestly press upon the consideration of such of you as may betake yourselves to
hill-farming. "   allaws-meadow, on Sir George
Montgomery's large sheep-farm, containing  15
acres, was enclosed from moorland in 18i6, and,
by collecting the water from the surrounding
sheep-drainis, 5 acres are partially irrigated, and
the  remaining  10 are  top-dressed with  the
man ure made from part of the produce, which is
constumed in winter by the sheep of the farm in
a wooden shed near the meadow. By this simple
method of improvement, 15 acres of common
sheep-pastuire land gave the proprietor from 3500
to 4000 stones of hay per annum, averaging 6d.
per stone. In that year of drought, 1826, the
hay of this meadow was sold from Is. to Is. 3d.
per stone.  What an immense advantage  to a
6061. The expense of convexrting land
into water-nieadow varies accordinmg  to
circtumstances, and is often very great.
Where the groundtl is nearly level, and the
surface covered with turf, the turf may be
taken up, the ground properly shlaped, and
the turf replaced for ~3 per acre, as was
676 
IRRIGATION.
sheep-farmer! By this simple process of enclosing and cutting a few small feeders and drains,
the owner is enabled to provide food for his flock,
when his less fortunate neighbours' sheep must
either starve or be supplied fromin the farmyard;
but I am afraid there are few sheep-farmers who
are so fortunate as to have any hay over and
above what is requisite for stock at home.  Sir
George fed the same number of sheep on the farm
as he did before the meadow was cut off and
enclosed, and I am fully persuaded  that the
same improvement might be made onl almost
every shleep-farm in Tweeddale; for, in almost
all of them, there are situ'ations where 5, 10, or
15 acres might be enclosed and partially irrigtted, as ill every pastoral district there are
namerous rills which might be easily collected,
a- id used to the greatest advantage, at a very
ty ifling expense; so that, instead of being obliged,
is snow-storms, to send 50,000 sheep to a milder
climate of the southern parts of Daimfriesshire,
where the owners are obliged to be at the mercy
of' their southern neighbours —not to mention the
vwry serious injury the flocks receive by so long
and fatiguing a journey-by adopting the above
sfstem of improvement, a considerable portion
of the losses  generally sustained  would be prevented,"* (1027) and (1041.)
in all the feeders is adljusted.  Let  the
beds of a water-meadow be ever so well
formed, yet, by some places sinking more
than others, or  by the ice raising t he  surface  of the gro und, although the water
along the  banks of  the  feeder a s  ha s been
ever so nicely adjusted, it often happens
that   t he r ab e  may o e some plac es between
the feeders and  d ra ins w i th  too lit tle  water,
when it will  be advisable for  the manager
to make a third round, redressing inequalities of the surface so as to give every spot
1 inch deep of water. Every part of the
works  being regulated the water  should
be allowed to  run throergil the w hole  of
October,   Nove mber, December, and  Januar y, from 15 to 20 dayse at ad t ime wit hout
intermission. At the expiration of each
of these  pe riods,  the ground  should  be
made completely dry for 5 or 6 days, to
give it a ir; for there are  few  species of
the     grasses  wliclh fir the   e most nutritive
part of the  herbage of  water-miieadows,
that       will lon ( exist under an    entire immer-i
sion of water.   Moreover,    if the   f rost
should be  severe angdther   water  beg in to
freeze, the  waterirg must be discontinued,
otherwise the whhole sa  urface  will become
one  sheet of  ice; and whenever  the ice
takes hold of the qrass, it will undoubtedly draw it into heaps. which is very
injurious to  meadows.  The  obj ect of this 
ea rly watering of  the meadows  is to take
advantage of the autumnal floods, which
bring  along  with them a Varietyof putrescent  matter, which is found very enriching
to land.   It is the  chief object of  the
irrigator, in those months, to collect as
much of this manure as possible, and at
the same time to shelter the land from the
severity of frosty nig,hIts. It is therefore
requisite to use as much water as the land'
w.ill carry without guttering.   I believe
it would be difficult to give land, with a
dry subsoil and considerable descent, too
much water before the weather begins to
get warin. It is necessary, in those months,
that the meadows be inspected at least
once in 3 or 4 days, to see that the equal
distribution of the water is not obstructed
by the accumulation of weeds," &c.
6064. "Thewlhole worksbeing repaired,
and there being gen         era       lly water enough
at this season either for the whole or for
l,art,      the         sluice should              be drawn, vlen,
ius the course of half-an-tlour, the   condutctor and the uppr     p ar t of the feedlers will
be nearly    filled.   Th e  first opera tion of
th        e         irrigator is to adjust   the water in the
conducetor; or, if th        e          wtreadow  is in more
parts than one, the water in each conductor
must  be first regulate(d.  Then lie commiences anew, by regulating the stops in
the first feeder; bilt should there not be
sufficient water in the feeder, a little more
must, be let in, by making the aperture
wider or deeper, till the water flows regrularly over the sides from one end to  the
other.  From the first he proceeds to the
second feeder, and so on, until the water
* Stephens' Practical Irriqator, p. 82.
677
ON IRRIGATION.
6063. 11 At the beginning of the nionth
of October," says Mr Stepliens, " eacb
feeder and drain slioul(I be cleansed, and
the banks of the feeders repaired wbere
they I)ave received da-iiiaoe by tije treading of cattle." A ttioroti,,Ii repair of this
sort every year will cost about 9s. per
acre.
6065. Siiiiple as these directions are,
the actual nianagemerit of the water of
nieadows is not unattended with difficulty, 
REALISATION.
another too little; for on the alteration of
the apertures, and adjustment of the water,;
greatly depends not only the quality but
the quantity of the crop."
and requires the exercise of considerable
judgment and great attention.  "The adjustment of water flowing over the surface
of land," observes Mr Stephens, "for the
pirpose of improving the herbage, is a very
nwe operation; it requires aperfect knowledge of levels and the vegetation of grasses,
and ought never to be intrusted to an un 
skilful managqer.   When  the supply of
water is, in any state of the stream that
supplies it, sufficient for the whole or onehalf of the nmeadow at once, the management becomes pretty easy; for after the
works are cleaned, and the water regulated
in the autumn, the sluices should be fixed
at suchII a hleighlt as to let in the exact
quantity of water required,  when it is
allowed to run, according to the state of
the weather and the season of thie year,
for 2, 6, 10, or  15 flays, without any
alteration; and it will be found  (unless
the water has carriel a'long with it weeds,
sticks, or  wrack  of.ii)v kind) to run
during that whole periodl niearly as equally
over the suirfitce as wlheii first put on. But
when the stream is snmall, aInd rising and
falling with  every  shower  of rain, the
managemient becomes so tmuchl the more
difficult, that it will require everypossible
attention  of tile irrigator to watch and
change the water fronm one part of the
meadow to another, or from one bed to
another, according to its abundance or
deficiency.  Such meadows are indeed ill
mana.qved, although half-an-hour's'work
in a day would put every thing to ri.qhts.
Indeed, let tile f(i,rmination of the meadow
be ever so perfect, and tihe supply of water
constant and uniform, yet it is necessary
that the manager should survey the whole
every 3 or 4 days, to remedy any defect
occasioned by thle accumulation of weeds,
or by a stop being washed away, and
thereby cause some  places to have too
much water, and others too little; so that,
in  the f,rmier case,  the grasses  night
either be killed or very much injured by
the generation of scum, or, in the latter
case, there would be little or no product
of grass.   Small  strea.iiis are  certainly
much more at command than largre; but
if tile manager, as is too ofteu tile case with
a young practitioner, vainly endeavours
to water too muchl  ground  at a time,        he
may give one part too mclic water, and
* Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 20-7.
678
6066. There are many ways', of mig-,
i,nanag.ing water-meadows, such as retaining a moist subsoil, or allowing the grass
to stand too long before cutting; but there
is an error comnii.tted at this period of the
year, to which I wish to direct your atten
tion, and which is thus cliaracterised b. y
Mr Stephens. "Another great error
generally committed is, allowing the water
Ito run too long at a time, without properly
dryin.9 the ground. I know some instances where the ground,is not attempted
to be dried from the time the water is put
on the meadows in autumn till 8 or 10
(lays before the cuttin of the ay - the
9 I
consequence is, that the grass is of the
coarsest quality, and the ground becomes
so very boggy that the whole crop of grass
is obliged to be carried by people to some
other place, to be made into hay... All
soils require more atteil tion than moitt
ones; for, if the water in moist soils should
not be so nicely regulated as on sandy or
dry land, the crop of grass will not be so
defective as on porous soils, where the
management has been neglected. I presume that all dry land that has been converted into water-nie.-idows, in countries
where the art of irrigation is not well
known, an(I tlje supply of water not abundant or recular, is liable to more injury,
from imperfect treatment, than land of a
moist nature; for plants must have their'
fo(,d at stated tii-nes as well as aniiiials,
but this cannot be the case when the water
is irregularly applied."*
6067. It is the practice of some, that
when -.i deficiency of plants is observed,
in a meadow tl)'at had I)een made from old
pasture, to allow tl)e grass to shed its seed
in the ensuin,, season in order to tliicken
the sw'ard. This should never be done,
because very many of those plants wliicii
have sired their seed will die out. An
idea much prevails, that, because pastures
are permanent, the lives of the grasses
which compose it are permanent also;
but the fact is otherwise. Most of the
grasses are perennial, but not permanent; 
IRRIGATION.
water was let upon each for a'few days
at a time.
and we do not know the longevity of the
aecidual plants of grass which constitute
a permanent pasture, though observation
would instruct us, that on permanent pasture the older plants die out and young
ones take their place.  For  aught  we
know, then, in regard to the age of any
portion of a permanent pasture, that the
one we  have  selected for shedding its
seed, for the purpose of filling up gaps,
may be the very one whichl contains the
oldest plants,  which will die out after
having shed their seed.  Tile sure course
for the owner  of a  water-meadow  to
pursue, when  he desires to fill up  the
gaps of grass in it, is to sow the bare spots
of earth with new seed, which will assist
the grass to cover the ground entirely,
instead of imposing            upon  the  existing
plants the exaction to fill up the gaps for
him.
1844.      1845.
Cart-loads.  Cart-load&
Cut in June,.   12           13
... July,.2. 32        36
... August,. 34 43
... September, 30 42
... October,. 11               8
119         142
Each cart-load of grass weighed 6 cwt.,
and  the load  that  was  made  into hay in
1844, by way of experiment, yielded  2
cwt. 104 lbs.; so that the 4 acres, 1 rood,
38 poles of meadow would have yielded
2788 stones of hay of 14 lb. to the stone,
or 652 stones per acre, which in l 845 was
increased to 778 stones-495 stones of 22
lbs. to the stone, the ordinary method of
estimating, the weight of hay in Scotland.
Estimating the 495 stones of bay at 6d.'
each, the value amounts to ~12, 7s. 6d.
per acre, or ~52, 17s. 6d. over the whole
ground, being ~21, 9s. 3d. more than
the ground cost to convert into a watermeadow.+
6068. Tlhe returns from irrigation are
surprising, even from unpropitious circumstances. Mr Simpson of Gleniythan in
Aberdeenshire tells us, in regard to the
state of the ground which he converted
into water-miieadow, that, " previous to the
ground being operated upon for the purposes of irrigation, the burn ran through
the den in a winding course.  The ground,
at the top of the den, consisted of a few
miossy hillocks; and the other part of the
ground  was pre tty level, of a dry  nature,
and covered  with a short grass.  The
groundl was never cropped with grass, and
the gi'ass was not in use to be cut.  The
cattle were occasionally turned out upon
it, whenl  paLstulre was scarce in the other
parts of the farm.  Thle soil, generally,
except the mossy part, is alluvial in soeie
places, aii( ait others gravelly."  There
are llsany such places as this in Scotland,
tl.at  iiugl)tbecon verted into water-i)eadows
where there is a commsand of water.
6071. As it is impracticable to irrigate
meadows in winter -in highland districts, that
process shlould be delayed till every chance of
frost has subsided-until May, after which there
will still be sufficient time for a crop of natural
hay  t   o grow, be cut do wn, and won, before  the
departure  of summer. Such    a meado w is  useful
in a backward spring for the  support of  ewes a nd
lambs; and the sh       eep       belonging   to Si r George
Montgomery would have inevitably per ishe d m   ld
the cold annd backward spring   of 1826, had it
not be en for  the  grass afford ed  by a  water -
meadowv from the middle of April to the begininig of Alay; after  which latter period the
meadow was irrigated, and produced nearly 300
stones per acre. The attention of hill-farmers
cannot, therefore, be too strongly drawn to the
subject of water-miieadows.  Any attempt to irrigate meadows in such situations in winter, and
to pasture them in early spring, would but injure
the meadow by means of frost, and, at the same
time, rot the sheep; but sheep may be pastured,
if necessary, in per-fect safety on dry meadowland in spring, and the meadow, on being afterwards irrigated, might yield a good crop of hay.+
6069. After irrigation from November
1843 to the begIllliinllg of May 1844, this
imeadowv was cut for the first timiie on the
14tll of June following,, and was continued
to be cut until the October of the same
year.  In November 1844, irrigation was
again  coinmeticeld, andi continued  until
Apdil 1845.  In boutli                    th summ                          aters,  after the
meadow  Ihadl been cut in portions, the
6072. The mode in which water acts, in producing the effects witnessed in water-meadows,
has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained.  It
is not the sediment in the water that alone pro
* Tratiactions of the HiIiyland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 44-8.
t Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 82.
679
6070. The produce in the two seasons
was as follows from the same piece of
ground: 
REALISATION.
duces the effect, for clear water produces similar
effects; though, no doubt, enriching ingredients
carried by the water encourage the growth  of
plants more rapidly than clear water.  Professor
Low has these observations on the theory of the
process.  " The theory of the process of irrigation has not been satisfactorily explained.  That
the effect is not produced by the mere supply of
deficient water, appears not only from the period
at which the water is admitted, and wlIen in our
climate the soil is always saturated with the
fluid, bult from the circumstance, that the effect is
not produced when the water is allowed to stagnate,
and sink down in the soil, but when it is kept in
a current over it.  When the water is suffered to
stagnate, the soil tends to produce carices, junci,
and other sulb-aquatic plaits; but when it is
kept in motion, and drained off at intervals, the
finest grasses peculiar to the soil and climate are
produced.  Neither does the fact of the deposition of mud, or other ferti!ising sediment, explain
the phenomenon; for however such depositions
may increase the effect, it is likewise found that
water, without the least perceptible sedimcnt,
may be employed with success. It has been supposed that the water acts beneficially, by maintaining the soil at a higher temperature.  Water,
at a temperature of 40~ is of greater specific
gravity thatn at a lower temperature; and hence,
as the water tends to the freezing point, the
warmer portion of it is next the ground.  Much,
therefore, cannot be ascribed to this cause, in a
current so shallow and constant as that which
passes over the watered meadow.  It is probable, therefore, that the main effect is produced by
a mechanical action of the water, acting upon
and bringing nourishment to the fibrous roots of
the plants."*
6075. I proposed, some years ago, a conljunctio6l of the two theories, me chanical and  exeretory; and the compound theor y  seems to explain
these four great    points  in irrigatio n, namely,
that  it s upplies  moistur e  to the soil   in dry seasotns
and in tropical  climates; it  affords protection to
plants against   the  extremes of heat  and cold; it
disseminates manure is    the m   os  t  minu te manner
to plants; and it washes awa y  injuri o us matter
from the roots of plants. The  b enefits  derived
from irrigation  I therefore mainhtained, are purely
mechanical. I stated the case in these terms:" The operation of water bringing matter into
minute subdivision; the sediment which it containis when used in irrigation being minutely distribluted around the steins of the plants; water
protecting pl ants i n irrigatio n a gainst  the extremes of h eat a nd  c old, by completely covering
and embracing every stem and leaf; and the
supplying of moisture to the soil and washing
ex(,remeuititious matter out of it, are all purely
mechanical operations." So that, "could the hand
of man distribute the manure around the roots
and stems of grass as minutely and as incessantly
as turbid water; could it place a covering of
woollen texture upon each blade and around each
stem of grass, to keep it warm, as completely
as water embraces each plant; could it water
the grass as quietly and constantly as the slow
current of irrigation; and could it wash away
huirtfuil matter from the soil as delicately from
the fibres of the roots of grass as irrigating
water, there would be nat need of irrigation; the
husbandman could then command  verdalnt pasturage for his flocks and herds throughout the
year, and in the  driest season; his inechar,icaG agency would be as effective as irrigation:
but, as the relation stands at present between
man anid the action of physical laws, he employs irrigation as an instrument of his will,
and induces nature to assist him in maintaining
his live-stock by her peculiar mode of acting,
in which she undoubtedly displays in this pasrticiilar, as in every other thing, her superiority
over him, both in perseverance ail# dexterity."~
6073. The late  Professor Rennie, of King's
College, Loniidoni, explained the phenomena of
irrigation by reference to the excretion of plants.
He supposed it to be probable that every species
of grass is not alike affected by its own or the
excretory matters fromn oth-ier grasses, and there fore somne species withstood  the poison better
' than others; but that the water of irrigation, in
its descent through the soil, washed and carried
away this matter, and on thereby cleanmsing the
soil they grow the Lore freely by it.  Hence the
perennial verdure of irrigated meadows (5107.) t
6074. Sir Hiimphry Davy's opinion was. that
"in the artificial watering of meadows, the beine ficial effects depend upoli  matny different causes,
some che,dical, somte iuecal,iatcal." ++ Now, clhemi cal action onily comtmences after the act of irriga tion has ceased.   No  doubt, the efects of the
substances, whatever they may be, which are de posited by the water of irrigation, taly be clietni cal, as well as those are of manuare applied to
grass by the hand of man.  But thle act of the
water, in depositing fertilised materials, caln no
more be chemical than that of the instruments
* Low's Elements of Practical A4griculture, p. 470, 4th edition.
+ Quirterly Journal of A4griculture, vol. y. p. 24.
+ Davy's.Agricultural Chemistry, p. 305.
~ Encyclopedia Britannica, 7th edition-art. Irrigation.
680
used in spreading dung upon the soil. The fact
seems to be, that whenever the water of irrigation, or the substances contained in it, act clietitically upon the grass or soil, while subjected to
the process, that instant irrigation proves injurious to the plants; and the injury is evinced by
the existence of a white scum floating upon the
water, which is generated when the water has
been too long retained upon the grass in a state
of the atmosphere tending to too high a temperature for the season.
ON THE TREAT.MENT OF DRAUGIIT
STALLIONS.
6076. We liave now considered every 
nelad, in coiiij)aiiy wilti COIs, is oI greal
service; but if the fences are not trustworthiy,  it  shold be  suppliedl withi  cut
grass  in one of the harneImels or courts.
Whten  tlhus  confined,  everytliing  loose
shiould be rem)oved fromn thle court or lihiamrniel, that it nlay not bilemiisli  its legs by)
an accidental stroke upon tliere. III the following wvinter  it should  be  supl)orted
on  thile best food, in a loose-)ox (I 557;) iand(
towards  slPring  be well kep)t, grooiiied,
an(i clothed, to keep) it clean froiii dust;
u.tad  regularly exercised, to put it iei
hiIi Or('er and condition by April, ini tinme
to be exill)ibiedl for a prize. When -,t this
age, not exceeding  3  years, it imtay app)ear leg.gy, aid(i want  nii(idle in compii-)ar-ison wittlh (,;(er lorses, and  mliay tlherefore
be defeated in competition; but if it hIave
a good shljape and well-balanced quarters,
it niay get a few  miaies to  serv-e; an(
shloull it (,bI)ain a district by a preimium,
it slhould not serve  beyoid thie allotted
nuniber of niares. Many farnters olbject to a
3-year-old stallion serving a,t all; andI, in
ordinary circuiistances, it is better to refp'airin f'rill service until  next year, wlen
as a 4-year-old it will )be in i great V igour,
and display great increase (of substance.
tliUti Ilill} blU tlbllUr 1I1VolVtVtl III KeeC0ll[J
it about thle steadinig, and the expense
incurred in maintaining  it in tihe condiition it ought to be.   Taking all these
point        s          in to cons iderati on, very few farniers
rearstallions; they prefer eng,aging  the services of one wlicil travels the countrv, with
an owner whio inakes it hiis business either
to breed thiemxi, or to purchase an entire
colt likely to turn out a good stallion.
6077. But supposing,, you wish to rear a
stallion, it is necessary thiat the colt sihould
possess such  properties as to render  it
probable that it will become a good lihorse.
A foal does not present niany of the points
foiund in a goo(l horse; but as it is ke)t
unti l a yea d         r old      before being castrated,
timne is allowved to shlc  whletler or not it
is likely to possess the requisite points.
6079. Whlien a colt with pronmising
appearances is determnined to be kel)t as
a stallion, it sli,)ul(l be pl)ace(l ilnler the
care ol a umani wilo will wvork and attend
upon it at all titnes.  Wliile tl~e stallion is
younig, say I ye.ir ol0l, it sh-i,ld be briiletl
in spring, and t.aug,hit to be landlied and
led, and  in suminer get a  run  on g,,od
grass, in company with colts.  Thle  iiext
6080. Wideni a stallion undertalkes to
travel a district as a preiii lit   oise, or on
its owni account, it slhouldl   be  lr)rovided
withl  a sheet nn(l riller, with a liglat wallet
sstranped   acno(ss its ba ck clontsing insn coern
andl bea,tns, a  fetb  cleansing inistruimients,
suclh  as caiity-comibt) and  bruishi, waterbrush  and  fbot-lpick,  mane-comlb and.
60i'8. HowevernianygoodpointsacoIt
may possess, if one or i-nore of the f'()Ilowiiig diseases be indicated it sti6til(i be
rejected as a stallion-nainely, contracted
feet, founder, sand-cracks, riiigboiie, bonespavin, curb, bog-sp:ivin, diseases of the
eye, broken wiiid, roarin,,, WiDd-siiekiii(,.
C5               C, 
REALISATION.
sponge, figs. 116 and  o10.   Besides a
bridle with  a  curb-bar, to  keep  it ill
check, it should be provided with a stallcollar and water-chain, to  fasten it at
niiiglit in a stall when a loose-box cannot
be hadl.   Its shoes should be light,  and,
to be durable, they slioul(l be steeled ill tire
fore-bits and heels-thle f)rnier being only
a thicklening, and tile li.tter a little turn-i
in,, up (,f the outsides.  Tle shloes usually
worn  by stallions are vely cliiiiisy, and,
in case of excited action, are apt to cause
tramping, (1546) to (155;.)
and sponge;  and  should  they feel hot and
ha r d when          trave lling in dry we ather  ol
dusty roads, a stuffing of cow-dung and
clay forms a nice cooling poultice.   A
braii-m)aslh at nig,hIt, twice, or at least
once a-week, on Saturday nigl,t, with 1 oz.
of nitre, proves an excellent alterative.
Its litter should be ample to encourage
it to lie -d,wn and  rest at  night.   It
should always be borne in mind to give
its food at stated hours every day, alonng
with the conviction, that it is its food
alone which enables the horse to maintain
its condition, and consequent spirit, on its
very exlhausting travels.  A stallion that
loses condition and spirit to a considerable
degree on its travels-one, in short, that
wants  bottom —is  unworthy of  servini;
draug-,ht  miares, for its progeny will  assuredly prove as soft as itself.
60,S1. It is too much- fatigutie for a man
to walk with a stallion in all l!is journeys
during, a season, the olnly remedy bfor   whiclh
is a poiiy gelding to ride upon; but shlould
the possession of a pony indluce  liiiii at
any tiiiie to trot the stallion -alongr tlhe lhatrd
road, to make up for time sp)(nt in his (Owii
indulgence,  or  to  overwalk  it in  too
long journeys, the nman who so far for        rets
his duty should  either be  (lismiissed  or
caused to walk, and be forbid to miount
thle hlorse's back.   If the leader  has  a
proper idea of hlls work, lie will divide the
district so as to go over it all in regular
order in the time a mare would come again
into heat should slie prove not in foal.
He should keep a book and enter tihe services of the hlorse day by dlay, not merely
as a mnemorandum, but as.a d(etailed docimnent, by whlicli to makle lip lls accounlitS
correctly, anul, in case of dispute arisirng
firoll alleg,ed ine,liigetc(e of service, to prove
the regul:irity ot' lis attendance.   I Ilave
witnessedl disa.,rieealble disputes arise fiomiii
the leader neglectiiin to keep an account
of thle services of the lhorse.
6083.  T he number  of ma res    limited to a
hor s e  which ob tai ns a prize  is commonly
60, at 1 guivnea a ncare; but  the number  is
seldomti adhered to, because  many farmers,
instead of payitng, thle guinea,  make a bargain, offeri ng  les;s mdoney, or on ly agreeing
to pay even tle l esse    r  sui, should  the
mare prove in t;fal; atnd to secure a good
seaso n, the leatier of  the  horse agrees to
the terms, and maktes uip the gross sum  iie
is entitled by  tlhe rules of competition  to
receive, by eitlher taking, more mares than
tihe stipulated nttnb)er, or  by travelling
beyon(d the district, oir by doing both; and
he  is blameless  under  tlhe tenmlptation.
In this, as in many similar  matters, farmiiers are  slortsig,hIted, in attempting  t)
save a few slhillings, they  run the risk  cf
losing a foal, by imialking, their agreements
on such conditions as compel the horse to le
overworked.  The owners of  horses whlich
fail of ot)taining a prize chioose districts fcr
thlemiselv%es, and bargain for any amount  cf
fee; and it is their condiuct which some
farmers use as a means to beat down  the
fee of tlhe prize-lhorse.
6082. It is constonary, wlAe         n tthe farmer
affords a night's qua-lrters, to (lo so griatuitously, anl even supply tlhe corn; biut unless otlherwise arratig,e(l, the understanding,
is tlhat tle mtan  sutpplies the corn  and
beanis froe hiis own store.  A stallion in
its travels requires at least 5 feeds or 1
stone of corn a-(lay, with a. proportionate
quaiitityof beans, at 5 separate times.  It
should alw.ays rest at  oon.  It slioulu(l be a
supplie,l frequently witl water duirii(ng the
day.   Wlieiiever it hlalts, its skiii should
be wisled and  brushled, and its tail and           i
niane  coimbed.   Every  nighlt  it slhoul       te(
have its feet searched withl  the foot-pick,
and  wV-ashed  clean with  the  water-brush o
682
6084. The ino(le of ptittin(, a liorse to
LI
the iii.-Lre will be foiind iii (3676,) (3677,)
aiid (36 i-8.)
6085. Wlien the liorse's season has termin.-tteti, froi'ti the beginning' of April to
the end of Jtitie, it will be fotiiitl to leave
lost miicli condition, and no sinall sliare
of spirits. It should be ininiediatelv-put 
BREAKING IN.
in fresh though not in high condition, and
an excellent means of doing so exists at
that season on the cutting grass, whichl is
daily ili hands, (3869.)
insensible to tlhe rein all the time they
are apparently tractable; tlhey seize tile
bit wvitli their teeth, and press upon  it,
with their head harngiing down, their neck
archled, and their eyes set back, as if suspicious of an advantage being about to be
taken of thler.  In this position, in every
yoking they are worked thley look liker
oljects of oppression and  Iity, than of
exultation to the farmer, while witnessing,
tlie young, noble steed  lie has bred and
reared undertaking  its first work.   In
tiIe end, tlhe dull sulky-looking  colt is
con()firnied in his natural doggedness, and
the tinmid one rendered mnore afrii(l.  No
doubt, tinle brings about a chang,e; but whly
should thle change be allowed to be effected
by lap)se of tinie, to the disconmfort and
and noyalice of the animal, when it might
do  his work  withi comparative ease by
being broke in?
6086. Som e own             ers object to working
stall     ion s     out of tahe season,  and w len tlaey
lhave been ill brokei-idl, and not hlandlled
uw ien  tyolulg,    and age tl erefore easilyexcited
and put   out  of teulper, it is proiper  to refrain         f rom  w        orking tl e ads; a nit. some laorses
lhave naturally an  ung,overnable temper,
that are not safe to put ilto tlhe yoke;,-bullt
whenever a stallion is quiet an(] obedient,
work is of use to itself, in givinig it exercise and food regularly, and indutcing it to
rest at rniglht.  According, as the animal
works   best  by  itself, or  in  conqim)tny
witih another IloIse, it slioul(I be treated.
Perhlaps sing,,le-hjorse caLrting, is tlhe wvorlk
most  compatible   witlh  its templ)er and
strength to  be  put  to most constantly,
though its loads oughIt to be  comparatively lighlt to its strength and willingness.   At whatever work it is employed,
muclh of tle quietness and good teip)er of
the lhorse depends  on  the temper  and
judgmeint of the person wlho leads it.
6088. The  e asiest plan  to   n      rake a
dratuglht-colt soon work well is to enmplo(y
a good lhorse-breaker to bridle, and lanldle,
and luing,e him —as long, as is requisite to
make its mouth yield to the bit —and then
it will obey  both1  voice  and rein;  aind
while  etmploying  the  rein, the  lhorsebreaker  should  be instructed to use  the
language that will be  spoken to it while
at work,  (687) to (694.)   The  harness
required for this purpose is a breakingbridle, a cavesson, anfi pad for the back,
all which tlhe lhorse-breaker  brings with
whimn.  Most of the bits I have seen used in
breaking,-bridles seeni to nie inefficient for
thle  purpose.   Tlhey are  thick  at  the
tguard, round, and jointed in the middlea construction which gives the lhorse an
opportlunity of seizing tlhem with its teeth,
when foldled l~ack against the sides of the
mouthi, by the force of the reins acting on
6087. Youing draugh,It horses are never
broke in. Tiiey are miost firequently yoked
with  an  old steady lorse at  once into the
harrows, acco mpanied  with a few         restrainers of reins and  rcopes, or an a(ditional heand or two to ass ist the plougylman
to prevent any attempt at a run away;
and  no doult, lwhen colts hlave bee n   ltered aind  led about fros m tle timetth ey
were       w   ea ned,             by a steady ~quiet-tempete(I
iilan, they will soon submit to work,
and becaome quite tra ctable in  the
course of a few sliort yoking,s.  But,
notwitlhstanditng ttleir quiietnless, they
cannot be sa id to he                broke in, in the
prolper sense of th e  termo-tlat is tliev 
do not yield to the guidlance of tlhe
pl,~ulghmtlul   b)ecause  tl)ey lknow,),i
understand whIat  lie  mlieans-, ~lit
simply because they feel they  are
oblig,el to miiov-e aliing witlh in ()]der
and a stroniger hrse, to whiiclh tltey
are attachedl, as it miiay  clio4se to
lead them.   Tlheir mo.tlh  is  quite
'!"I I I'!!"!III I I, I,, li,! I 1
i
i
683
ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG DRAUGIIT
HORSES..
4
Fig. 556.
b
i., I I -!. 1 I i I
c
k
h
THU HILEAKING-BRIDLE BIT.;. 
REALISATION.
thle rings.  A  much  better bit, in niy
opinion, is represented in fig. 556, which
I have seen used,tnany years ago in Berwickslhire, by tlhe late Tlhomtias Mi(ddleliiis~s
of Norliatn, whlo was  reckoned in his day
one cf the best hlorse-lbre,ake,'s and groonms
that had practise(l his useful art in that
part of the country.  It consists of two
bits, one twisted alnd(l thle other square,
both 81 inches in length.  The square bit
c d is  ialf an inch square, IId( sot) is tihe
diameter of the twisted one a 6, and they
both lhave a play of half an incl lbetween the
shoulders of the guards a c and b d.  Tl)e
guards e f, and g h, are 7 inches in lengthl.
The ring i on each sidle is 2-21 inches irn
diameter over all, and at k is a bunchl of
links to lie upon the tongue, and ii,ake
the horse move its jaws.   Thle straps connected with the bit are thle head-stool; the
hand-reins, 41 feet in length; the cheekreins to  keepl) the hlorse's head in line
whlen strapped to the pad, and which pass
below the neck-strap of thle martingale.
These three straps are buckled by their
ends to tile rings i i.  A martinyale is
necessary to prevent tile head being tllrown
forcibly up.  Tlhe breadth of the straps is
I inclh; thlat of the counter-strap of tlhe
mniartingale  1   inclh.   The  bit can  be
buckle(l on in the reverse or(ler shown inI
the  cut, hlaving the squuare b        it c d  uppermost, and the bunch k               is then   s crewed   to
the                       twisted bit a b. The  ca vesson is     well
known,   its figure and appointments beingf
uniformlly the same.
so; while the bunch k lies too far forw ard upon tlhe tongue to be agreeable.
After this disciliule in the stable for two or
th!ree days, withl  occasional. walkls out  of
tlie stable, according as it is seen that the
colt yields to the bit, it is led out to wralk
two or th,ree Hlours at a time by the nosetreid of tle easvesson, to  learn  to s tep out,
and to acqu ire a toot pace; and  walevin ig is
tle IllOSt usefulI pace for a  drauitghlt-horse.
A  sho,t  lunge backwards and forwards
round a   circle, on  red  land,  will be
useful, not to teaclh  hin  to trot; but the
trotting, action  imiakes  him more  active,
and sooner gives the use of his legs in cases
of difficulty. It should then be backed,
and, while  guiided by the reins, should be
spoken to in the language it will be addressed in tlhe yoke. After that, it should
be, guided along  a road  witl long doublereins, wlhile carrying  the plouglh  harness,
to accustonm it  to  the noise and  to feel
the imotions of the plough chains.  Now
all this discipline may be gone tlhroug,h in
the course of a week, or 8 or 10 days, according to the disposition of the  animal,
the handling lie,nay have received since
he was a w eanied foal, and the skill of the
lhorse —brealker.   The  degree  of exercise
given should be  with a  discrimination
suited to tlhe condition and pliysical
st,'ength of tlhe animiial. The hiorse-b,'ea,tker
should  groonm  the colt immediately after
exercise, that  the  animnal  may  beconiie
familiarised with the usages of tlhe stable.
The  colt's food, too, should be so adminiistered as to harden his condition for labour,
with  the  understa,nding  lhow%,ever, tl)at,
after tlhe busy season of work is finished
in tlhe early part of  sumnmer, tlhe young
tyro slall be allowed to  have a, run  at
grass for a few weeks, and then fall in to
take  its own  share   of   the  regular
work.
- 6089. It is unnecessary to go tlhroulgh
all thle discipline of breaking in at draught    at
colt, as is required in the case of a saddlehorse.   The pla.ying of the mouth with
the bit for 2 or 3 lhours in the stable, twice
or thlrice a-day, thle colt standlilng in thle
reverse(l position  in  the  stall, has  tle
double advant,age of niaking the mrouthl
yield to thle bit and (of keeping  up  the
horse's lIea(l.  The bit is buckled on slack
for this purp.ose, so as to lie upon  the
bare spaces of tile,gulils of the lower jaws
between the front an(i back teeth, where i
the square or twisted parts of thle bit rub
sharply; while the bunch of links k niakes
the lips and  tongue play as if desirous
of getting quit of thle whole constraint.
When the head is pressed forward to get
hold of the bit with the back  teethl, the
straps, being too long, prevent them doing
684
6090. After sticii treatnietit and (]is
cil)liiie from the liorse-I)reaker, tl)e colt
will be easilv n)a(ie to uri,,.Ierstan(I work.
Ttic sort (,f Harness in m,liicii it is firgt
invested is tl)at of the ploii,,Ii, (6'iG) to
(685.) It is quite Possible that the breaking i-eceive(I front the lioi-ise-I)reaker will
in.-tke the colt suffer at once t,o be yoiied
with an oltl lior,e to  the ploul-,Ii but in
case of accidents, and to ei-r on tl)e safe
side, it is best to use precaution, and the
l,rincil)al I)recaution is to attacli it to - a 
BREAKING IN.
strong steady horse, that will neitlher bite
nor kick it, and yet be able to withlstand
the pIlung,es tihe c,lt mllay choose to nlllke.
Thle attachment is miade by a cart-rope
being first fastenedl roundl the girthl of tihe
old horse, and tihen passed round tlhat of
thle colt, leavil,g as little space  between
their bodies as is required for )ploug,ling,,; 
and to afford no  lib)erty to advance  or
retire  beyond  a  step  or two before or
behind the o11 hIorse.   Beside  thle usual
rein  employed  by  the  ploligllIllan,  the
horse-breaker should hlave anotler in his
land from thle colt's head.   Tllhs equipped
in plouglh-harness, thle first yoking of the
colt should be to an old cart-wheel, placed
on its dislhed face onl plolugi,led( land, furIlishled with a swing-tl'ee,  withl wliicli it
shlould be  madle  to  drawv it, wlhile  thle
horse walks beside himi; and o0l drawing
this, the  reins slhould  be  used, and  thle
appropriate language spoken, tilat le nmay
associate tlhe clhanges of his llotions, wllichl
are indlicated(  by thle reins whlile guidin,g
hilm,  withl  thle  accompanying  soun(ls.
Should  thle colt offer to turn rollnd, thle
gentlest Imealls slloaild be used in putting
it again  in  its proper  position, as  the
start miay  have beell n maie fronl fear, or
from tlhe tickling of a part of thle hiarness.
When a hlind-leg gets over a trace chlain,
thle clain slhouldll  be  unlloolke(l  fronm tlhe
swing-tree, and Ilooked on again after tle
colt has been put in its riglht position, and
the leg not attemllpted  to le lifted over thle
trace chlain.   Slhoul(l it ofler to rear or
kickl. frollI a disIpositio1n to bre:ikl  away,
thle oll lilorse slhould be urged in l his walk,
and nsa(le to pull it along, wlilst a smart
tip of tle wlip will tallke thle courage out
of it.   Accordill,g as  it  evin(,es a d(lisposition t(o, go, oil quietly in thle work, is
determlliledl tl.e lengtlh of time it shlould
work at  thle wvlleel.  Whlen obedient  at
tlhis,  it sl5(1l(l be yoked to thle plIlgIl,     a
an(d tlelCe liis syllmIll)tly fior flis cll)ipanilIi
will soon be calledl foIrtll; so thlat after a
few landings lie will  work  withl  ene,rgy
atll go(lod-will, nail( sholluld tllen be kindly
spoken  to, enicourared, and even fondled.
Thle probability is, that its desire for tlhe
drailgltgt nay be evinced too  keenly  ill
which  case  tlhe pace  of the  old  lhorse
slhouMll be subdued and tlhe keenness nmitigated  by  slhortening  tlhe rein by  which
it is fastened to tlhe rope round tlhe girth
~of tlhe old lhorse.
6091. The colt slho        ald b  e broke  in to
the cart as well as the  plough,I).  It is
yoketi into a sinigle-horse cart, buit great
care slhould be used on tlhe first yokin,- tlhat
it gets no  frighlit, by any  strap rubbing
ag,aiinst it, or  thje shafts falling  up)on it
whlen raised up to allow of its being backed
Ibelow tlhem; for if frightened -,it the first
yo,king to a cart, a lonig( time will elapse
ere it will subnmit to any yoking qiuietlv.
Tlie lhorse-breaker should stand in the cart
using, double reins; and a rein  sliold be
held by a nman walking first on each side
of its head, and tlhen at  a little distance
on tie side of the road.   The chief danger
is kicking, and tlhereby injurinig'tle liocks
against tlle front-bar of tble cart, to prevent whichl a rope should be placed across
the top of the colt's rumt), and fastened to
the harness  tlhere, and   on each si(le to
the shaft  of  the cart..There is little
danger of  its  runnin,, away while all
the harness and  reins  are  good.   It
will take to the traces of the cart miiore
readily at first than with tlhe tramis, as
they are  similar to the  harness it lead
world at tlhe p)lougll, and it is conscious of
having its comnpaniion behind it.
6093. On the first   use of  harness by a
young horse, tlhe shoulders and back  are
liable to become inflamed, and evten thre
skin to be broken by the collar and saddle.
It should, first be ascertained wlhetlher the
collar it is to work in fits it p)roperly;
and if not, it slioulhI  be  made  to do so
before being used, as tlhe first day's use Inay
injure its  skiIn as muchl to give it pa,in
for weeks thereafter.  Tlhe uisual affections
are hreated  swelling,s in  the line  of the
collar and seat of  tlhe saddle.   A  good
lotion for  those parts  whenever  the colt
comes out of yoke is a solution of common
salt in warm water, when it becomnes cold,
and applied as a fomentation witlh a spOnge.
The water not only  cools the skin, and
keeps down the inflammation, but the salt
lhardlens it for use; and in the course of- a
685
6092. A yotiig liorse may be broke iii
for work any tinie in the (course of the
spi-in(, front the begin; into of woi-kiii(, the
ttiriiip-laii(.Itoitsconipletion. Ic,-tnaffii-iii
tije efficiency of tlje plan I leave recomiiie,tide(I by experience, and it is one wliicli
lias been iiiiatteii(led witli the sli,,-Iiteqt
accident in its practice. 
REALISATION.
r unier, when a long tail is of service in
whiskinig off flies, the vertebrae ought to be
kept entire;  but  no greater  absurdity
accomplanies the docking off a tail tiani in
thle paring of thie crust of tile hoofs, an(l
driving iron nails into  them; and yet,
without iron shoes to protect the horny
feet of the hliorse, they would be beaten to
pieces up,)n hard roads, even at a walking
pace. No necessary cruelty attends the
act of docking, an operation of thie simplest
form when properly done in a joint.whlere
the wound easily heals.
6(094.  It is the usual  practice to slaoe
aind  dock the young horse before patttngi
it  to th     e  yoke.  I   th  ink  he sh ould first
be broke in, and then he will suffer himself to be slhod the more quietly. At the
.first shoeing it will be useful, in making
it stand -- quietly,  and  in diverting  its
attention, to take the old horse it has been
working with to the smithy.  By nailing
a mat against thle wall, and making it
stand alongside the mat, it will save its
skin being ruffled  should it rub against
the wall, whilst the wall will form a firm
barrier against its retreating farthier front
the blacksmith.  After the fore and hind
feet of one side have been shod, that' side
should be turned next to the wall to get
its other feet shod.  Gentle and coaxing
means should be used, though a twitch on
the nose has a powerful command over
any horse.  The first shoes of a young
horse should be light, with no lheels, and
the hoofs should not be pared down much
at first.   Rather renew the shoes, and
pare the hoofs down again in a short time,
than encumber a colt at first with heavy
shoes and heels, at the risk of trampling
himself, to cure the effects of which may
cost much more than the price of several
sets of new shoes.  A severe paring down
of the hoof, too, at once, and at first, is
apt to superinduce tenderness in the feet,
and may even bring out corns.
6096. As you may breed saddle-hlorses
as well as draught ones, a few words on
the  breaking  in  of  them  after  their
treatment  as  young   horses  in  the
lhaht,eels, (1430) and (1431,) may prove
useful.
6097. The age of 3 years seems a good
one for breaking in a saddle-horse.   The
colt should be sent to grass at tile end of
May, and taken in to break by August at
latest, by which time the grass will lhave
operated beneficially upon hin as medicine;
and there will be sufficient time to teach
it its paces and put it in  a working
condition before the fall of the year, when
horses are apt to become soft, and catch
colds.  But were it kept longer at grass,
its condition might become so fat as to ecii danger its constitution, were the fatness
suddenly reduced in the breaking in to
working order.
6095. As to dockinq a draught-horse, I
think it a necessary operation, because a
long rump is very apt to be injured when
the horse is yoked in the trams, by coming
against the body of the cairt; and in coupcarts especially it can  scarcely escape
being nipped by thle body of the cart,
wheln brought down upon the front-bar.
Besides, a draught-hlorse with a lo-iq tail
soon gets limiself much dirtied in winter,
both on the land and tile road.  A neat
swish is all that is requisite at any time,
and in winter even that is apt to beconme
loaded with mud on dirty roads.   Some
writers affect to believe it presumptuous
in man to deprive any animal of six of the
joints  of  the  vertebral  column  whichl
nature has given it; and no doubt were
'ur horses always idle, especially in sunm
686
short tii-ne, particularly if the weather be
di-y, the skin will beconie itiured to tije
I)ressiii-e of the Harness.
ON BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE-HORSEi3.
6098. Thefirsttliing,inbringinoabotse
into the stable, to which it should have
been accustomed from his foalliooti, is to
give a gentle dose of medicine to clear the
bowels of grass. A second dose may be
repeated in a week. A little new-niade
I)a,v witli oats is the best food as a trai),3itin from grass to hard foot]. The fi-rst
treatment with tire eavessoti and bridle are
tile; saiiie as for ttie drau,,,,Iit horse (6088.)
Miic,li lungin,,'in a circle is not advisable
at any time, and not at all at first for a
yoiing riding-liorse, though liorse-breakers
are very f(,nd of givin,, it this - sort of
exercise, becatise it saves themselves much
travelling, wliile ttie horse may liave as
much exercise as the breaker cliooses 
BREAKING IN.
The evil of mnuchl lunging is, that the con stant motion round the circle is apt to cause
a young horse to contract a long step and a
short.  Thie circle is most useful in training
to canter, when a leading foot is requisite
in that sort of action.  Tile first tuition
should be a straighltforward pace, on a leafield, and the only pace a walk, which
should be taughlt to be free with an easy
head, as well as a short one witli a tight
rein. During the period of the walking-tuiition, a great many useful lessons should be
taught the colt, which circunmstances iiiay
suggest, suclh as turning from you and to
you-backing, whether quickly or slowly
-being led, whether by the side of the
lead withl the hand on the bridle-bit, or in
front with a slack rein-standing still,
vThether for a short or long time-suffering to be tied to any object, such as a gate
,r tree-passing objects of terror, or of uncertainty, causing the animal to become
acquainted  with everything it does not
seem to recognise-beconting accustomed
with the crack of the long, and the slight
touch of the short whip-yielding the fore
and hind legs when lifted-and suffering
the groomn  to go about it and arrange,
however minutely, the breaking-harness.
Withl all these matters the young colt will
become n ucli sooner flimiliarised, by the
breaker going  constantly about with it
on foot as a conipailioli on the road and the
field, tl)an when mounted on its back; but
the usual custom is for the breaker  to
iiount-thliat is, to place a burden upon
the back  of a raw, tinaid, young  colt,
and to rein it and  to irritate it with
thle spur, which is ever ready, long before the awkward creature knows how  to
set down one foot before the other in the
artificial system in which it is about to
be traineti.  Tile  man, however,  must
be mounted, which  is enough for himi,
whether  or not the  colt be  fit to  be
mounted.                                      t
6100. Thus famniliarised, it will allow
itself  to  be mounted     wit hout    much
trouble; and the ass i stance of boys wi th
whips, and of mten to  hold  down t he  opposite stirrup, recomniended bv Mr Yotiatt,
dispensed with.* Tlhohmas liiddlemiss of
Noraam i  n Northulberland,  the horsebreaker and    groonn befor e  a lluded too,
never required any assistance to mount
a young horse, a l though l  he was  a stout
man, nor did any person ever see
him   mount  one f o r    the first  time.
No fuss should be made about the colt
at any time, whether in mou n       ting or
anythisng   else; nor a  number of  pers ons
be collected about it when anything
is done, else it will become apprelhensive.   It will soon confide in one  person, the breaker who is constantly about
it, but it will  not  trust  a number of
persons at the same time; nor will it
trust even the breaker, when others are
engaged along with himn; and  hence  no
considerate horses breaker  will  permit
any one to be near him, to distract the
attention of the colt, while he is subjectiing it to tuition of any kind. When
mounted, thecolt should bear its riderstandin,, still for some time before it is urged
to walk, astlhat will habituate it to stand
at all times when  mounted until its rider
is reany to move. Every one must  have
felt the annoyance of mounting a horse
that will not stand to be mounted, or after
being  mounted.    Its first pace should
again be a walk, Iwhich having accomplislhed well with a rider, the trot should
be taught.  It is said that trotting is not
a natural pace for a horse, that it either
walks or starts off at a canter. However
this mnay be, trotting is an indispensable
pace on our roads.  On teaching trotting,
horse-breakers are very apt to degenerate
* Youatt On the Horse, p. 321-4.
687
pail in the stable, and at the trough- of
a piinil)-taking up with a dog in tlin
stable or on the road-bearing, without
a startle, the fall of tlie'ail-handle, the
brooni, or anytliin,, else-liftinc, the feet
at the pail to l,e washed - bearin- the
currycomb on the leg,,;-bein led by the
forelock to the door, the punip, or any
where. These, and inany other things, the
colt should be taught to know in and out
of the stable before lie is mounted at all.
6099. In the s'table, too, the same ysteir. of tuition should be followed out, such
as suffe-rit),,, a person to go up on either
side, and in any way-stifferiiig to be
grootned, and rather likitig it than opposing it, as is t(,o often the case-going over
to one or other si(le of the stall, when the
bed is being shaken up-drinkinc, out of a
0 
REALISATION.
thle pace into a jog, tle mnost (ldangerous of
all paces for a youllng hlorse in causisnig it
to trip), and the Ilost difficult to break a
hlorse  from,   hlien  contracted.   A  shlore
bitchingi walk, really to bieak into tlJejog,
is as bad as thle j)g itself, and is a f'avourite
pace with  liorse-l)reaklers in sliowiug off
their pupils as fast walkers; but the pace
is not tile pr(oper walkingi, otie, and in such p
a pace a, young horse is almost sure to (dig
a toe into tile g,roinnd    d Itil if a stumble is
?iot the consequence, it is not thje  an,                                     tr's
fault.   Let tlle  walk be a sou(nd  wallk,
anl a trot a fair trot, and let no bastar(d
pace be permitted to  spoil bIotlh. It is not
easy to teachl  a young horse to canter from       wi
a trot in a straight line, as it is mlore apt to
start off to thle gallop.   A  few lessons in
the circle is the surest way of giving it
an  idea of a  canter, and teachling,  it to
point the leading, foot.   Tlhere is risk at
first in making a  young- liorse convert
quickly a canter into a trot;  the actions
being, so very different it seems at a loss
whlat  to do, aiid would rathler hlalt.  A
sudden Iralt shlould be avoide(ld at first with
a young  horse, as it miay thlrow it upon
its haunches, tand  irrecoverably bring it
over ulpon itsback;  and suchl  an accident
as thlis thle colt will never forget, and, in
jear of its recurrence, may becoilie restive
whenever pulle(l up stl(lddeuly at any tiiie
thereafter.   Every  untowardl mnanceuvre
withl  a yv)iung l,rse-an(l 110no one knows
whlat it will (lo-tliat may  occasion any
sort of accidlent to it, shlould( be c-refully
avoided by the rider, and counteractedl wi il
firmniess wlhei ori,gitliatilg, withl the colt.
6102. The n at ural    te mper    of   the sheplen  d  may be  learned  from  the way in
piich lhe wlie  rks h is dog awee o ng stteep.
Wflenm   you observe    an  a   fed do,g making
a g     reat noise, bust ling  hbout in an  impatient  maniner, running  fiercely  at  a
s4iseep  and tu rn  bing it    ickly, biting at
its cars and legs, you milay conclude,
witliout lesitation, that  the she epherd w ho
ow ns it  is a man  of hpasty- rem i lpe r.   Most
yourng dogs exhibit these characteristics
naturally, and they generally overido their
work; and if you observe a shiepher,allowing  a young do,,,  to take. its ow!,
way, you may conclude that he also is.f
man who loses his temper with  his flocl..
If you observe anothler shepherd allowing
his dog, whetlher old or young, to take a
range round the fences of a. field, driving
the  sheep within  sigh,lt as if to  gather
them,  you may be sure he is a lazy fellov,
more  ready to  make his dog  bring the
shieep to  him than he to walk his rounds
amnongst them.  Great harm may accrue
to sheep by working dogs in these ways.
Whenever sheep hear a  dog bark tlat is
accustomed  to  hound  tlheml every  day,
they will instantly start from their grazing,
gathier together, and  run to  tlhe farthest
fence, and a good  while will elapse ere
they will settle again.   And  even when
sheep are gathered, a dog of hig,li travel,
that is allowed to run out, will drive
them  lhithier and tbither, without an  apparent object. This is a trick practised
by lazy herds every morning when they
first see their flock, and every evening
before they take up their lair for the night,
in order  to count them the more easily.
When  a dog is allowed to run far out, it
gets beyond the control of the shepherd;
and suchl a stvle of workinig among wetther
slheep puts tiiem I)ast their feeding for a
time- with ewes it is very apt to cause
abortion; and witlh Iambs, after they are
weaned, it is apt to overheat them, and a
considerable time will elapse before they
recover tlheir natural breathing.   Whenever a sorting takes place among tlhe
sheep, with suclh a dog thiey will be moved
about far  more thani is necessary;  and
intimnidated  shleep, whlen worn into  a
ecorner, are far more liable to) break off
thlan those treated in a gentle manner.
6101. Thius tlay bly (lay the young hlorse
will ac(luire exp)erience in the manageiment
of itself on thle roa(l, or in tile field; but
a series of experiences, suclh as thlese, is La
work of miuchl tiime to botih uiai and hlorse
-of iiiUClli patiece anIn(l perseverance to
the mnan-of nliuch eniduraice auil annoyance to  tlhe hlorse.  Above  all,  iimuchl  of
thle bIenefit derivedl  froiii even  a  gooid
hlorse-breaker  will be lost, if thle future
rider of thle hlorse does not guide it in a
similar manner,.iLid witll equal care, for
somile tilie to  coit)e.   If  considerations
suchl as tihese do not ilitluce the owners of
horses to emp)loy only iiien of skill and
charac ter        i  tn breaking tltemd in, I do not
know a strong,er mi)otive that can b)e placed
before them to do it.
688
"I
ON TRAINING AND WORKING T]IIE SHEP              HFRD 8 DOG. 
TRAINING.
strange persons and animals at a considerable distance at night, and announce their
approach by unequivocal siglls of displeasure, short of grumbling and barking,
as if aware that those noisy signs-would
betray its own presence.  A  shepherd's
dog is so incorruptible. that it cannot be
bribed, and will not permit even a known
friend to touclh it when intrusted with
any act of duty.
6103. A judicious hlerd works }lis do,
in quite a different  manner.   He  never
disturbs  his  shleep whlen lie  takes  his
rounds amnongst them at mnorning, noon,
and ni,ght —his dog following at hlis feet as
if lie hlad nothing to do, but ready to fulfil
itsd(iity, shlould any untoward circumstance
require its services, sichl as breaking out
of one field into anothler.  Whlen liegatliers
sheep  for the purpose  of sorting, or of
catchling particular ones, thle gatlhering is
made at a corner, and to gailn whiclh heA
will give tle slieep tlhe least trouble, miak  ing the dog  wear to the ri,lit andt left,
to direct the shleep to mnarch quietly towards
the spot; and after they are gatlhered, lie
makes tl,e dog to understand that it is its
chief (duty to be on the watch, and, withi an
occasional bark, prevent any of the sheep
breaking away.   When a sheep does brealk
away, and niust be turned, lie does not allow
the dog to bite it, nor even to barkl, but to
give a bound at its head, and tlhus turn it.
In attempting to turn a Black-faced wetlier
in this way, the dlog runs the riskl of receiv ing,  ilnjury  from  its  liorns; to avoid
whlichi I hlave seen one seize the coarse wool
of tihe buttock; and lhang by it like a draig,
until the sheep was turned round in tl!e
opposite direction, wien it is let go.  In
shlort, a well-temilpered lier(l only lets liis
(dog work wlieii its ser%vices are actually iequi-rcd, lie fulfilling liis own (luties ftithfully. and only detiland1ig, assistince fioiim
his d,,g wlieii thle business cannnot b)e o
%ell done ly lilliself; and at no tinie will
lie allow hIis dog to go  )beyon(l tlhe ieacl
of hiis immediate control.  Dogs, wlden
thlus gently and cautiously traine(l. b)ecoie
very sagacious, and will visit eeTery )arIt
of a fiel,l wliere sleep are mo(st apit to stI                                            ray,
and vwhere dinger is ilost to be  ippiehlende(I to befal tlhemn-such as a wea   t       vl     p art
of a fence, deep ditchles, or deep'rss
into whlicll shleep imay possilbly f.ill and lie
awalt or awkward (thiat is, lie on the )broad
of their back,  unable  to get  up) — and
they will assist to raise thleni up by seizing,,
tlhe wool at one side and pu)lling the slieep    r
over upon its feet.  Experienced dogs will
not  niedd(le with ewes  liavintg laiibs                   at
foot, nor with tups, bein,g qu(lite aware of
their disposition to offer resistance.   They
also know full well when f()xes are on the
move, and gi;;e evident symptoms of uneasiness on their approach to the lambing a
ground.    They  also  hear footsteps  of
VOL. II.
6104. As far as  my obser vation  extends,
I  think there  are two varieties of  the
slhepherd's dogr, one smooth, slhort-haired,
generally black-coloured on the back,
white on the belly, breast, feet, and tip of
the tail, with tan-cololured spots on the
face and legs; the other is a larger and
longer-bodied aiiinial, having long h-air of
different colours, and lo(-ng flowing tail.
Fig. 557 is a portrait of one of the latter
Fig. 557.
class in the act of watching.  In their resl)ective clhairacters I conceive them  to be
veery like the pointer and( tlhe setter'    The
smll-,ill slmoot.lh kindl, like tlle pointer,,is very
salgaciou.s, slow, easily broke and trained,
an(l a,dmiiirably suited to work in an encl()sed and low country; the otlJeI, like the
~etter, is more swift, bold, ill to break, and
requiiing coercion, and  fitter for work on
the hjills.  The former answers the hiabits
of Leicester sheep, tlhe latter tlhose of the
Cheviot and  Black-faced. The latter,  requiritg, a g,reat rangie to work in on account
of tl'e nature of the slheep and of the ground
which they frequent, are bold and rough in
actioni; still they shlould be trained to work
witlh caution, and not with recklessness.
2 x
689
THk. SIIEPHEltl) S DO(',. 
REALISArION.
consider," says Buffon, "that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness and melancholy look,
is superior in instinct to all others; that he has a
decided character, in which education has coiIparatively little share; that he is the only
aninial born perfectly trained for the service of
others; that, guided by natural powers alone, he
applies himself to the care of our flocks-a duty
which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilatce, and fidelity; that he conducts the m with
an admirable intelligence, which is a part and
portion of himself; that      hi s  sagacity astonishes
at the  same  tim e    that it    gives repose  to his
master, while it requires great time and trouble
to instruct other dogs for the purposes to which
they   are destined: if we  reflect on these facts,
we  shall be  confirmed in the opitnion that the
shepherd's    dog  is the true dog of nature, the
stock and mod el o f his  specie s." "The    shepherd's
dog,"  remarks Professor Grag uier, " the least
removed from the natural type of  the  dog, lives
and maintains its proper characteristics, while
o ther races often degenera te.   Everywhere  i t
preserve s  its proper d istinguishin g  type. It is
the servant of man, while other  bre eds  vary with
a thousand circumstances.   It  has  one  appropriate  mission, and t hat i t dis charges  in the
mos   t admirabl  e      way; the re is evidently  a kind
and wise design in this." Mr Hogg, the Ettrick
Shepherd, truly says that" a single shepherd d     o        ie h r  and
his dog will accomplish  mor e, in gath  ering a
flock of sheep from a Highland farm, then seventy
shepherds could do without dogs; in fact, that,
without this docile animal, the pastoral life would
be a blank. It would require more hands to man age a flock of sheep, gather them from the hills,
force them into houses and folds, and drive them
to markets, than the profits of the whole flock
would be capable of maintaining. Well may
the shepherd feel an interest in his dog: he it
is indeed that earns the family bread, of which
lie is himself, with the smallest morsel, always
grateful and always ready to exert his utmost
abilities in his  master's interests.  Neither
hunger, fatigue, nor the worst of treatment will
drive him from his side, and he will follow him
through every hardship without murmur or
repiiiing."*
6105. Most shepherds profess to be able
to train young shepherds' dogs, wherein
many  display  much  ignorance  of the
nature of the breed, and of the aptitude
of the particular animal for its peculiar
work;  and  hence many  dogs  are  rerndered unfit for service.  Every shephlerd's
pup has                        a n     atural instinct for  working
among  sheep, nevertheless  they should
always be trained with an old dog.   Their
ardent  temperament  requires  subduing,
and there is no more effectual means of
doing so than keeping it in company with,
and making it imitate the actions of, an
experienced  quiet dog.   A  long string
attached to the pup's niieck, in the hands of
the shepherd, will be found necessary to
make  it acquainted with the language
employed to d(lirect the various evolutions
of the  experienced dog while at work.
With this contrivance it may be taught to
"hold away out by," to "come in," to
" come in behind," to " lie down," to " be
guiet," to "bark," to "get over the dyke
or fence," to " wear," that is, to stand as
a barrier; to " heel," that is, to drive on,
to "kep," that is, to intercept. It will
learn all these evolutions, and miiany others,
in a short time, in imitation of its older
companion and guide. It is supposed that
the bitch is more acute than the dog,
though the dog will bear the greater
fatigue. Of the'two, I believe that the
quietly disposed shepherd prefers the bitch,
and is careful in working her as little as
he can when in pup.
6106. The shepherd's dog on a farm
claims exemption from taxation; and I
believe that a well-trainred one costs at
least ~3.
ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS.
6107. A volume would not contain what might
with truth be said of the sagacity and faithfulness of the shepherd's dog. Suffice it for me to
give a few general observations, which I~ktow
to be correct. " If he be but with his master,"
observes the late Mr Youatt, "he lies content,
indifferent to any surrounding object, seemingly
half asleep and half awake, rarely mingling with
h      is kind, rarely courting, and generally shrinking
from the notice of a stranger. But the moment
duty calls, his sleepy listless eye becomes brightened, he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires
and comprehends all he is to do, and, springing
up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty
with a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too
rarely equalled even by man himself." " If we
6108. That man cannot be accounted a
proficient shepherd, if hlie cannot slaughter
oxen, sheep, pigs, and calves, as well as a
professed butcher.   This qualification is
nec e s sary, not only on account of slaughtering  the animals used at the farmer's table,
but in case of casualties overtaking the
stock, which, if not slaughtered instantly,
and dressed, would become a source of
much  loss to the farmer were  they to
die in their blood; and it would never
' Youatt On the Dog, p. 59-64.
6'9 ( 
SLAUGHTERING.
answer to hleave to send to a town for
the assistance of a butcher.  For his convenience, a slaughter-house ought to be
fitted up, of which lie is the acknowledged
custodier, and which  it is his duty to
keep clean and wholesome; but its key
should be kept in the farm-house.
with sticks, or are in any degree infilriated-or raised, a  s it  is  termned-should
not  be  i mme diately slau,hitered, but allowed  to stand on dry food, such as hay,
until the symptoms  have entirely disappeared. The reason for the fasting before
slaughtering is to give time for the paunch
and intestines to empty themselves ent irely
of food, as it has been found, when an animal
is killed with a full stomach, the meat is
more liable to putrefy, and is not so well
flavoured; and as ruminants always retain
a larg,e quantity of foodjn tlheir-intestines,
it is reasonable they should fast somewhat
longer to get quit of it than animals with
single stomachs.
6109. It is necessary for you to know
the mletthods in which the different animals
are  sla,ughtered,  thlat you  may  judge
whether or not the Slieplherd does justice
to this part of his duty; and you should
also be acquainted with the appearadnce of
good aieat, and of the nietlhod of tuanaging
it, in order to be able to bargain well with
the bi,tcler when you may have slaughtered
carcasses to dispose of to him.
6112. Cattle are slaughtered in a dif ferent mode in different countries.   In
the great  abattoirs  at  Montmartre, at
Paris,  they are killed  by breaking  the
spinal chord of the cervical vertebra, which
is acc'omplishled by driving a sl!arp)-pointed
chisel between the second and third ver tebrae with a smart stroke of a mallet,
while  the animal is standing,  when it
drops down  on the floor, and death or
insensibility immediately ensues, and the
blood is let out  by opening tile bloodvessels of the neck.  This is also the mode
of  slaughtering in Germany.    In  this
country the plan is first to bring the ox
down on his knees, and place  his under
jaw upon  the floor  by means  of ropes
fastened to his head, and passed  through
an iron ring in the floor.  Hle is then
stunned by blows fromn the sharp-pointed
back of an iron axe, made for the purpose,
on the forehead, the bone of  which  is
usually driven into the brain.  The aninial falls on one side, and the blood  is
let out by the neck.   Of the two modes,
the French is apparently less cruel, for
some oxen require many blows to make
them fall: I once witnessed an ox receive
nine blows before it fell.   I have  heard
it alleged by butchers of this country,
that thile separation of the spinal  chord,
producing a general nervous convulsion
throughout tlhe- body, prevents the blood
flowing so rapidlly and entirely out of it
as when the ox  is stunned l'y a blow on
thie forehead.  The skin is then taken off
to the knees, where the legs are (li.jointed,
and also off the head.  The carcass is then
hung up by th e  tendons of the hbuoh, on
a stretcher, by  the block and tackle
6110. The sl.aughlter-house should not
be in the steading, both on account of the
inconvenience of bringing an animal into
it, and of the impossibility of keeping the
house so free of effluvia as not to be recognised as the place of slaughter.  In
fitting, it up, the floor sholold be laid with
cleani-droved paveinent, and have a decided
slope to the side at which the drain is
made to take awiay the dirty water occasio.ned by cleansing.   The walls sihould
also be plastered, and a ventilator, fig. 81,
placed on the roof, to maintain a drat,ught
of air.  The site chosen should he in a
cool slha-dy place, and at the same time
easily atccessible to animals, and even to a
cart, should it bring  a dead  one to be
dressed.  A locked closet is useful tot'hold
the knives, steel, and stretchers, and the
outer-doorslhould be provided with a good
thumb-latcly, lock, and key.  A block and
tackle should lie suspended from a beami
extendi-ng, across the apartment from wall
to wall, to hoist up the heavy carcasses
by. Water should be close at hand to
wash out the house clean every time it is
used.
6111.  Oxren.-Ox en i are made to fast
before being slaugh,tere(l.  The time they
shotuld stand depends on the state of.- the
animal on its arrival at the shanibles.  If
it lhas been driven a considerable distance
in a proper manner, the bowels Will be in
a tolerably empty state, so that 12 hours
may suffice; but if full, and just off its
foc,d, 24 lhours will be required.   Tlh(-se
that lhave been overdriven, or-much struck
691
4* 
REALISATION.
market value of  the carcass, bone and
ineat, to tile farmer, reserving the offal to
himself for his profit and risk.
Worked most easily'with a small winchi
wlhicil keeps goo(] wlhat rope it wind,
up by  a  whleel  and  racliet.   The  loos
tallow is rolle(l up by itself.   The  heart
liead, and feet are sold separately to fitmilies and liotel keepers. Tlje pauinichi i
cleaned and sold to t!te tripe-cooks. Tlh
lilits-thiat is, thle lings and  liver.  ar
used for d(ogs-meat.
-   6115. A figure of the Scotch and Englisli modes of cutting up a carcass of beef
will at once show you thleir difference; and
on being  infornied  where  tile  valuable
pieces lie, you will be enabled to judge
whiethier thle oxen you are breeding or
-feeding possess the properties  that will
enable you to demand  tile hlighest price
for theim.- The Scotchi modle of cutting up
a carcass of beef is represented in fig. 558,
61l1. After tile carcass lias hlung 24
lours, it slhouild be cut down by tile backbone, or chline, iuto two sides.   This is
donie eithler %withi the saw or chiopper —thie
saw mnaking the neatest job in tile lihailds
of an inexperienced buitchler, thougil tlhe
most laborious; and it is the quickest with
the cihopper, but by no means the neatest
plan, especially in thle hliands of a careless
1ellow. In London tle cliiiie is equally
div-ided between bothi sides, whlile in Scotla dc(   I on e  side    of a carcass  of beef  has a
1,'(t      ideal  ioaore bon e  th an tie otier, all
t Ie sliiious processes of tile vertebra being
lefL on it   The bony is called tile lying
side of meat.    In  London  the divided
processes in thle fore quarter are broken
in thle miiddle wlieii warm, and  chloppl)ed
back withi tile flat silde of tile  chlopper,
wlicll hlias tile effect of thickening the fore
and(I ini(dle ribs considerably wienii cut up.
Tiie London butchier -also cuts tile joint
above  tile hind  knee,  andl,  by  iiiaking,
some  incisions witih a  siarp knife, cuts
thie tenidons thiere, and drops the flesli of
thie linitil quarter (on tile flanks anid loins,
causing  tlhemi  to cut up thiicker tliaii in
the Scotel  mode.    In opening  up  tile
i,i,ti qiuairter, lie also cuts thle aitchl-boiie
D plvis tlrough tie centre, wlicl makes
thlle ruLillip look better.   Soitie butchers in
thle north  counitry score the fat of the
closi??g of the hind quarter, whiiclh hlias t        ie
effect of miaking  thiat  part (of botil the
hleifer an(i the ox look like thle uddiler of aln
(old Cow.   Scoring is too much  practised
in Scotland, and oughit to be abandoned.
c      b      a
f,,
THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS 0P
BEEF.
In the hind quarter.   -  In the hre quarter.
a, The sirloin, or back sey.  k, The spare rib, or fore sey.
b,.. hook-bone.,.. runner, large & small
c,.,uttock, I}b mp.. runner,
d,  la,rgerotmnd,     run,   ier,oe
d    largero~thnlye rump. ni,  nineholes.
e    tihick fltink.      o,..  brisket.
f., thlin flanik.       p,.. shoulder-lyar.
.      a,.. sall r)ound.  q,.. nap or shin.
h,. hough.            r,.. neck.
i,.. tail.            s,.. sticking piece.
a the sirloin is the principal roasting piece,
m aking  a very  handsome  dishi, and  is a
universal  favourite.   It consists of two
portions, the Scotch and English sides;
the former   is th e   ne  above  the  1umbe i ar
bones, and  is somewhat  hard in  ill-fed
oxen; the latter consists of the muscles
under  those   bofies, and are  generally
covered withi fine fat, which are exceedlingly
tender;  the better  the beast  is fed, the
larger is the uinder muscle, better covered
with fat, and more tender to eat:  b the
liook-bone, and c the buttock, are cut  ulp
for steaks, beef-steak pie, or minced  collops   and  both tihese,aloeng wit h the sirloin,
fetlt  the hiighlest price: d is the  lar,e
round, and  e the small round, both well
known as excellent pieces for salting, and
bboili,ng, andI are eaten cold with great
6114. Tlhe carcaiss consists of the entire
usReaible meat  of tlhe body,  wlichi, whlen
sawn do.wn the nmiddle of the back-bone,
is divided into two sides, wlhich,whien again
dlivitled by tile 5th rib, miake tlhemn consist
of 4 qutarter.s. The remainder of tihe animlil
consists (If of;/l-iiamely, of fat, entrailsAhead, and skin.   Ini purlchasing, fat livestoclk, the butlcher is supposed to pay tile
692
.Fig. 558.
and t-be different pieces of meat receive
these names -. 
t,eel-tea, witht a few joints of the tail, and
serving it up for genuine ox-tail soup.
I'liese pieces of the lind qullarter are v~aluable for roasting and boiling, not containing
a sin,,glecoarse piece.
THE ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS
OF BERF.
niode,  and  it consists of  tile  following
pieces:    In tbe hind-qurte                   In thefore-quarter.
a, The loin.                     k;, TIbe fore-rib.
b,. rump.                       1,.. middle rib.
c,.. aitch-bone.                 m,.. chluck rib.
d,      buttock.                   n,. clod, and sticking,and
,       li    loc k.                               n          eck.
f, thick flank. o,... brisket.
,q,.. tlin flank.                pI.. leg-of-mutton piece.
h, shin.   q,.. sin.
i,.. tail.
6116. In tlhe fore quarter is k, tlle spare
rib or fore sey, thle six ribs of the back eud
of wvliicli make ant excellent roast, and
wlien taken froii thle side opposite to the
l,'ingq one, being free of the bones of the
spine,  makes a large one;  and  it also
niakes  excellent steaks  and  beef-steak
pie: I and r  the two runners, withl n the
nine-hloles, nakle good salting, and( boilinig
pieces; and of tlhese the nine-lholes is mnuch
thl)e best, as it consists of latyers of fat and
lean witlhout any bone, wlhereas thle foreparts of the runners have a piece of tihe
shloulder-bllade in thljemn, and( every piece
connected withl  that bone is more or less
coarse-grained: o the brisket between the
fore-legs eats very well boiled  fiesh in
broth, and niay also be  corned:  p the
shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only
for  boiling freshl to mnake into broth or
beef-tea: q the napi or slin is analogous
to the hoiugh of the hlind-leg, but niot so
rich and fine, there being muchl  less gelatine in it: r the neck makes good broth;
and the sticking-piece s is a great favour-ite
withl  some  elicures, on account of thle
pieces of richl fat in it, whlich makes an
excellent stew.   These consist chiefly of
boiling-pieces,  thle  roasting-piece  bein,g
confined to the six ribs of the spare-rib k.
a  tles  loin  is  the priencip6al    roasting-piece;
b, the runmp, is the favourite steak-p~iece;
c, the aitclh-bone, tble favourite stew; d
the buttock,'f tlhe tlhick flank. and g tile
thin flannk, are all excellent boiling-pieces
wlhen corned; e tlje hock, and  A tbe shin,
make soulp, and aflord stock for various
purposes in tile culinary art; and i is the
tail for ox-tail soup-a favonrite Englislh
lutnchleon. In the curious case of assessing
damages against tlhe Banlk of England-for
remiiovinig tlhe famnouis Cock eating,-house
in Tlhreadneedle Street, it was prodnced in
evidence, tlhat, ini tlhe 3 years 1837-8-9,
thjere lhad been 13,359 ox-tails used for
soup; and:is 36 tails nmake  10 g,allons of
soui1p, there hlad been served up  59,360
basins, at 1!d. tbe basin, inaking tlhe large
amount of ~2720, 13s. 4d. for this article
alone.* Thiese pieces are valuable of their
respective kinds.
* J,An Bull, 16thi January 1841.
tP 
REALISATION.
ket.   The  Short-horns  afford excellent
steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice
deep,    large,   and juicy, and the ir corned
flanks  and  nineholes are    always t hick,
juicy, and well mixed. Tile Herefords
are somewhat similar to the Short-horns,
and perhaps rather finer; and the Devons
may be classed amnongst the Galloways
and Angus,  whilst the Welsh cannot  be
compared to the West Highland. So that,
taking the breeds of Scotland as suppliers
of good beef, they seem to be more valuiable for the table than those of England.
Any beef that I have seen of Irish beasts
is inferior, but the cattle derived from
Britain, fed on the pastures of Ireland,
afford excellent meat. Shetland beef is
the finest grained of all, but the pieces are
very small.
6119. In the fore-quarter, k the forerib, I middle rib, and m cauck-rib, are all
roasting-pieces, not alike good;  but in
remnoving the part of the shoulder-blade
in the middle rib, the spare ribs belowj
make a good broil or roast: n the neck
makes soup, being used fresh; the back
end of the brisket o is boiled, corned, or
stewed;  p, the leg,,-of-mutton piece, is
coarse, but is as frequently  stewed as
boiled; q the shin is put to the samne uses
as the shin and the hock of the hindquarter.
6120. On comparing the two modes of
cutting tip, the English affords more roasting-pieces than the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used in
that way.  The plan, too, of cutting the
line between b and c, the rump and aitchbone in the hind-quarter, diagonally, lays
open the steak-pieces to better advantage
than does the Scotchl buttock c, fig. 558.
6124. Sheep.-Sheep are also made to
fast before being  slaughtered, and  the
period is seldom less than 24 hours, unless
under extraordinary circumstances. Sheep
are easily slaughtered, and the operation is
not attended with the sanme apparentcruelty
as with cattle.  In the first 24 hours after
fasting, sheep lose 81 lbs. out of 1184 of
their weight.   They are placed on  their
side on a stool, called a killing stool —tiie
bathling-stool, fig. 4 27, answers the purpose
very well-to be slaughtered, and, reqluiring no fastening with cords, are deprived
of life by a thrust of a straight knife through
the neck, between thle cervical  vertebra
and  the windpipe,  severing  the carotid
artery and jugular veiln of both sides, from
which the blood flows freely out, and  the
animal sooni dies. The skin, as f-i,r as it
is covered with wool, is takenii off, leaving
that on the legs and head, which are covered with hlair, the legs being disjointed by
the knee.   The entrails are removed by an
incision along the belly, after the carcass
has been  hung  up on a liangrel by  the
tendons of the boughs.  The net fat is carefully separated fromnt the viscera, and rolled
up  by itself; but the kidney  fat is not
then extracted.  Tile intestines are p)laced
on the inner side of the skin until divided
into the pluck, containing the heart, lungs,
and liver; the bag, containing the stomnach-;
and the puddings, colsisting of the viscera
or guts.   The  bag and  guts are usually
thrown away-that is, buried in the (lunghill-unless when the bag is retainedl and
cleaned for a haggis.  The  skin is hung
6121.          E xten                 ding the comparison from
one part of the carcass to the other, in
both methods, it will be seen that the most
valuable pieces (the roasting) occupy its
upper, and the less valuable (the boiling)
its lower part.  Every ox, therefore, that
lays on beef miore upon the upper parts of
its body, is more valuable than t)ne that
lays the same quantity of flesh on its
lower parts.
6122. The relative values of           the p ie c  es
differ nluch more in London than in Scotlantl.  The rump, lI,in, and fore-ribs fetch
the highest price; then come the thick
flank, buttock, and middle-rib; then the
aitch-bone, thin flank, chuck-rib, brisket,
and leg-of-muttoti piece;  then the clod,
sticking, and neck; and, last of all, the
legs and shins. In,actual pecuniary value,
the last may bear a proportion of only
one-fouirth to the 1iighest priced.
691
6123. Of the qualities' of beef obtained
from different breeds of cattle, I believe
the best meat is obtained from the West
Rit,liland breed for fitieiiese; of grain, and
Ctittiii,g tip into convenient pieces for faritily
use. After it lias been fed in Norfolic for
tweli,e months, it cannot be excelled even
iii London. The Galloways and Angiis,
wlien f,-tttened on the En,-,Iish pastures, are
also great favourites in the London mar 
SLAUGHTERING.
over a rope or pole under cover, with the
skin-sid(le uppermost, to dry in an airy
place.
6127. In almost every town there is a
different way of cutting up a carcass of
mutton; and it being here impossible  to
advert to them all, I shall select those of
Edinburgh and London,  and distinguish
them as the Scotch    and  Englis h modes.
Although the English  anode is upon the
whole  preferable, having evidently been
adopted to suit  the tastes of  a people long
acquain t ed with  d       omest ic economy, yet
meat is cut upd  in  Scotland in  a  cleanly
and workman-like style; but it cannot be
denied  that the beauty and  cleanliness of
meat, as exhibited in London, call forth
the admiration  of every connoisseur.  Tile
Scotch mode is represented in fig. 560,
Fig. 560.        wlere, in  the
haiond-quarter, a
pe<Ias  odis tile jigot and
allowteb t  he lonin, and,
in   the  fore             o/td of tquarter, c the
back-ribs, and
a d  the  breast.
cass.  T mt rThe  jigot  is
cut with a part
of the hauincl
bt o r rendp, a                  nd
and wAit gthe bf ore-quarter
\b,,,/  \  right  through
than \ithe    shoulder
into two pieces.
ad            Tile jigOt, a, is
c\               tile Ohaln.Osohi nest
\6. Te   and nlost valu                 i\n ~able  part  of   the
it; is  /car c as s, an d on
/eat will      thnat   account
fetches    tile
THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTI,NG highest price.
UP A CARCASS OF MUTTONS. It is either a
roasting or a boiling piece. Of Blackfaced inuttoni it'nakes a fine roast, and
the piece of fat in it called the Pope's-e.y/e
is  considered  a  delicious  mnorceau by
epicures.  A  jigot of Leicester, Cheviot,
or Southldownii mutton makes  a l)eautifil  " boiled  leg  of  mutton," which is
prized the  fatter it is, as this part of
the carcass is never overloaded with fat.
Thie loin b is almin,st always roasted, and is
a juicy piece, the flap of the flank being
skewered  up.  Many consider this piece
of Leicester mutton roasted too rich, and
when warm it is probably the case; but a
cold roast loin is an excellent summer
dish.  For a small family, the Black-faced
6125. Butchers have various ways of
displaying a carcass of mutton.  Some
fol( back thle flaps of the flanks, and secure
them withl wooden skewers, and fully expose the interior of the carcass to view;
others mierely distend them with a long
stretcher of wood; whilst some, folding
themi  back, distend them with the stretcher
placed across the back.  Some distend the
breast with a stretclher; others pin the tail
down to the rump with a skewer;  whilst
many cut a c          ros s         wi th th e  knife upon the
skin of the shoulder, which, contracting,
lshows the fat underneath; and, to make
the whiteness of the fat appear more conspicuous, the skin is first reddened with a
lock of wool dipped in blood. Figures are
even carved on the neck and other parts of
the carcass. All these expedients are iiseless in themselves, and injurious to the
mneat, inasmuch as they distort the shape
of the pieces when cut out, and should
therefore be abandoned, and the carcass
allowed to hIan(g intact after the entrails
have been removed-with the exception,
perhaps, of distending the flaps of the
flank a little with a short stretcher, to
allow the air to dry the inside of the carcass.  The membranous covering of the
outside of the carcass has different colours,
that of the shoulder and flanks being red,
and white alongi( the back.  Thxe redness is
brig,hiter colouiredi in Black-faced  sheep
than in any other breed I have observed,
and gives the treat a tempting appearance.
695
6 1 26. The carcass should lianc, 24 hours
In
in a clean, cool, airy, dry apartment, before
it is citt down-cool, for if wartn the
iiie,,tt will never become firrii; and dry,
for if (i.,ttnp a claniniiiiess will cover it,
wliieli wil'i never becoine dry, nor have a
fresh clean appearance. The carcass is
divitled in two by beinc, sawn i-i,,Iit down
the bacl,;-bone. The kidney fat is then
taken out, I)ein(r onlv attached to the peritonetim by the celllar Ttietiil)rane, and the
kidney is, extracte(i froiii, the suet-tije
iianie given to sheep tallow in an independent state. The fat of a sheep weighs
about ()ne-sixtit of tl)e wei(,Iit of the carcass. When the sides are divided by the
Sth rib, they constitute the four quarters. 
REALISATION.
miutton  is preferable;  for a  large, the
Southdowt and Cheviot.  The back-ribs c
are divided in two, and used for very
differentpurposes. The fore-part, the neck, 
is boiled, and makes the sweetest barleybrothl of any part of the mutton; and the
meat, when well boiled, eats tenderly. The
back-ribs make an excellent roast, there
not being a sweeter or more varied one in
the carcass, having both ribs and shoulder.
Thle shloulder-blade eats best cold, and the
ribs warm.  The ribs also make excellent
chops.   Thile Leicester and  Southldowns
affordthe best mutton-chops.  The breast
d is mostly a roasting piece, consisting of
rib and shoulder, and is particularly good
when cold.  When the piece is large, as of
Soutlidown or Cheviot, the gristly part of
the ribs may be divided from the true ribs,
and helped separately.  The breast is an
excellent piece in Black-faced mHutton, andt
suitable to smtall families, the shoulder
being eaten cold, while the ribs and brisket
are sweet and juicy when warm.   This
l)iece also boils well; or, w},en corned for
x days, and served with onion sauce, with
maslhed turnip in it, few dishlies are more
6avouiiry at the farmer's table.
6129. The shoulder a, separated before
being dressed, makes an excellent roast for
f ami ly use, a nd  m  ay b e eaten  warmin or
cold, or corned and dressed as the breast
mentioned above.  Thie shoulder is best
from a   large carcass  of  Soutlidown or
Cheviot, or Leicester,  the  Black-faced
bein g too thin f or the purpose; a nd it wa s
pr obably because English lfmu tton is  usually
l ar ge  that the  practice of  r emoving  it
originated.  The  neck-piece  b b is partly
laid bare by the removal of tlhei shoulder,
the  fore -pa rt  being fit te d fo r boilinn  and
making   in to broth, and the best end for
roast   ing    or broiling into clops.  On this
accou n t this is a   good f amily  piece, and in
such  request among the trad esmen of London that they prefer it to any part of the
hiind-quarter. Heavy mutitton, such as the
Leicester, Soutlhdowni, and Cheviot, supply
the most thrifty neck-piece. The breast c
is much  the same sort of piece as in the
Scotch method, but the ribs are here left
exposed at the part from which the slhoulder had been removed, and constitute what
are called the  spare ribs, which  may be
roasted, or broiled, or corned.   The back
end of the breast makes a good roast for
ordinary use. The flap of the loin left
attached to this piece may be used in
making broth.  The loin d is a favourito
roast in a family; and when cut double,
forming the chine or saddle, it may grace
the head of the table of any public dinner.
Any of the kinds of mutton is large enough
for a saddle; but the thicker the meat, of
course the larger the slice. The leg e is
cut short and roasted. When cut long,
taking in the hook-bone, it is similar to a
haunch of venison, and roasted accordingly. A fat Black-faced wether, such as
are bred and fed by  Lord  Panmnure, at
Panmure, Forfarsliire, yields a splendid
haunch.
6128. The English mode of cutting up
a  carcass  of
mutton  is re                           presented  in
j~~~~~
fig.561,where                           in  the  fore                           quarter a  is
the shoulder;
b b the neck;
c  the  breast
extending be                           neath      the
shoulder; and
in  the  hind                           quarter  d  is
the loin, and
?fli \ ~ t        the leg. The
leg is cut short
like  a  lhanm,
without   any
of the haunch;
and the shoul                           der, compre           /_L/            Bl~~~ending   the
scapular   reTHNZNNGLISH MODB OF CUBPING gion, is re  vP A CARCASS OF MUTTON.   moved entire.
6130. The different sorts of mutton  in
common use differ as well in quality as in
quantity.  The  flesh of  the Leicester is
large, thloughl  not  coarse-grained, of a
lively red colour, and the cellular tissue
between the fibres contains a considerable
quantity of fat.  When cooked it is tender
and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and liaving a sweet rich taste; but the fat is rather
too much and too rich- for somiie people's
tastes, and  may be put aside;  while it
mnust be allowed that the lean of fat meat
6196 
SLAUGHTERING.
in Scotlanrd, thle joints being of nice size
for family use, and well shlaped.
is much  better in flavour and quality than
lean meat without fat.  Leicester  shleep
generally attain to heavy weights, lIoggs
reaclling 18 lb. or 20 lb., and dinmonts 30
lb. per quarter; but 5 dinmonts wllicll I
remeniber seeing, belonging to tlje late Mr
Edward  Soutlh, Marldown, Nortlhuminberland, veiglhed 55 lb. a quarter overl)eadl,
when killed at Newcastle in Novenlber, a
few weeks after they were exhlil)ited at the
show'at Coldstrearmi of the Border Union
So(.3ety. Tlhese were tlhe slheep I referred
to.vlwiclh the four slepherds were unable
to turn in, (3584.)
6134.  Welshi is the  smallest  and thle
very highlest flavoured of all mutton raise(l
in Britain; but the mnoment the sheep are
fed( in the low country, much of the wil(l
flavour, which is its chief recommendatioti,
is lost.
6135. Tup-nimutton of any breed is always
hlard,of disagreeable flavour, and in autumn
not eatable.   The lmIltton of old ewes is
dry, lhard, and tasteless, but of young well
enough flavoured, but still rather  dry.
Hogg-lliutton is sweet, juicy, and tender,
but  flavourless.   Wetlier-iiutton is the
meat in perfection, according to its kind.
6131. Cheviot mujtton is smaller in tile
grain, not so brig,hIt of colour, with less
fat, less juice, not so tendler and  sweet,
but the flavour is highler and tlhe fat not so
luiscious.  The weig,iit attained by a lhogg
mnay be taken at 14 lb. or 15 lb., and by
a wetlher at 22 lb.;  but Mr  Fairbairn
mentions  liavinig fattened  5 wetlhers in
1818 whiich averaged 30 lb. a quarter.*
Much of tlhe prejudice existing in London
against Scotchl muitton arises fronm tile
hasty manner in which the carcasses are
packed, and the consequent bruises observed on tlhe imeat.
6136. Thle  average  quantity  of fatt
afforded by eacl) sheep of every class, sold
in any given nmaiket in Scotland, is )erliaps not great.  ln Glasgow, for examiple,
wihere hleavv ainm)als of all sorts are generally sold, tile fat afforded by all the shleep
-aconsistilng chiefly, I p)resunle, of Chl)eviot
and  Black-faced - exclusive  of  lanilis,
amounting to 57,520 head, sold in 1822,
was only, on thle average, 4 lb. 13 oz. per
hlead.+  From  8 lb. to 12 lb. is tlhe ordinary  quantity  obtained  from Leicester
sheep slaughtered on farms of good land;
and in Edinburgli, I find that 7 lb. is considered an average from Black-faced( and
Cheviot  sheep, which shows  tlhat  the
quality of mutton sold there is better than
that in Glasgow.   The quantity, I have no
doubt, is on the increase.
to Lord Pannmure, that averaged 40 lb. a          6137. Piqs.-Pigs, when about  to be
qu:arter.  Tlhe 4-year-old wetliers at Pan-  killed, should be made  to fast for nearly
mure commonly weigh 30 lb. per quar-  a day, to clear their bowels.   The seasoni
ter.                                           best adapted to the purpose is in the co(ol
months of the year; the flesh in thle warni
6133. The mutton of Soutlidowns is of  months not becoming sufficiently firnin, an(l
mediuniii fineness in grain, colour pleasant  is then liable to be fly-blown before it is
red. fat well miixed with the meat, juicy,  cured.   For  fresh  pork,  the season of
tenderer than the Cheviot, and of pleasant  killing does not sig,nify.  When you wishl
tho)ug,Ii not of so high a fla.vour as thle  to make hams for  your o wn use, Cilri,tlllis
Black-faceil.  Thle ordinary weight may   is a good time for slau(ghteringA pi,,s;  nd,
be from 16 lb. to 22 lb. a qualrter;.)it 3   in doing it, great care should be takeil tlhat
wetliers exhibited bv Mr Grantham at the   the aninials receive 1no  injuryy I)v  IIlist,S
Show of thle Sititihfield Club  in  1835,  before  being killed, as the flesh, whlero
weiglhed(l, on the average, 41-  lb. a quarter.t  bruiseld, will become blood-burlled, iial-leil
Soutlidownl mutton is fatst g,aining ground  with bruises, and will not tlke witli lire
* Farbairni's Lamneirnmuir Farnmer, p. 123.                    + Yoiiatt On Sh,ee, 1  236
+ Cleland's Account of the liyghland aa;d A4gricultuial Society's Show at Glasqow in 1828, p. 40.
697 
56 ()0,:andl is repre           a a    obldsettedl isi    fig. 5u 62,
wi^liere a is  tlhe leg,
/   an(l b t!he loin, in the
Iiiind-qttar-ter;  c the
ri is, and d tle breast,
ini thie fore-quarter.
Tlhe le, t, m-nakes ex.. cellent pickled p)o1rk,
d              sII-a(l tlhe loine b,.juicy
flesh roast. Thle back                       rriibs of c make a fine
roasting-p)iece, and al                       so p)ork hcl,fs, almost
delicate  dishi.   Tlhe
forie-eid of c, and the
wlhole of the breast d,
TtIX SCOTC~t MODE OF are  fit for pickling.
CUTTING UP A CARCASS  The lh(ad, slit in two,
oF PORK. is  also pickled,  an,t
considereit ai delicacy, as the fat  upon the
cheeks is gristly.
who, it  hlis recklessness,  drove its liose
ag,ainst a wall, and tile pig was ksilled on
t,le spot; and, atlthlough bl ed iiiiinediately,
the flesh  never -becamie firiii, or assulned
its proper coloiir.   Wlien  tle  timie for
slau(ghtering  aririves, the aniaiiils slioulild
be taken out of their sties gently one by
one,  aii(l  placed  on  thleir  back   upon
a  considerable  quantity  of  straw,  and
held in that position l)y assistants, wh lile
a    liog a slarp-pointe(l knife is introdtucede
with  a  firmn  hand  thlrou,,i the counter
near tlhe b)ottomni of the nick,  in the openiig  lIetween  thle  r ibs  at  tlthe  sternunm
iiito theo lie.r-t, care being taken tilJat the
1)ointt (of the knife does not lliss the opening,  anl,ro between  the sliotilder-bliade
an.l  tlhe  ribs.   This erior is freqluently
c(,iiiiiiitted in slaugli,teritg pigs; it is called
sAhoildetring, and hlas tlhe effect of collectill,, a IIImass of blood  unader thje slhoulder)blide, wilere it coagulates, anii  prevents
the  wlio(le  slhould-ler  fromn  being cured.
B-ef()ie thlle slLaugllltering colllniieices, a large
quantity of boiliug water slhoull I)e lrovidezi, w%%ithi whicl to scal(i off tlhe lhair.
Tlhis is effected eitlher by puttgng  the carciss into  largire tub of water, or, sllhould
tiere not b)e a tub of sufficint size, the lhot
water c.an I)e pouredl on thle carceiss on the
str;~L, a.tid the lhair scraped  clean  fmili'
every ):i t (of thle li)odyi withl  a knife.  The
lit)(f,s are taken off at this tinie.  Atiotlier
l'iiti is to singe thle bristles off I)y fire in a
state t,f flame; and this tpractice is miiuclh
iil use ill soille parts of Englati.l, bilt not
at all in Scotland.   I seef3 no adlvtita,ge in
6139. The Englisht mode of cutting ul)
porki is diffrenlt fromi what  has just beent
describedl, and, upon  tlhe  whlole, perhaps
better adafl)ted fo r f amily use.   Fig. 5G3
gives a representation of it, wlhere, in the
fore-quarter, a is the spare-rib, so) called
because tlhe fleslj and fat are taken off the
ribs  for salting,; and  the ribs are  then
roasted, and maifike a  savoiiry  (ish1;  b,
tlhe lhand or shoulder, fit for pieckling-; c,
the  l)elly or spring, also fit for pickling,
or for rollin,, tip,  whien well  seas-mned
witlh  stufflig, fr  bratwn.  In tlhe hindquarter are d the fore  and  e  the hiind 
SLAUGHTERING.
loin,  both  best  when  roasted,  the  fore
one d also making  excellent chops; and
Fig. 563.      f is the leg, which is
cllt slhort for picklin,,.
Thje neck  is called a
crop  of  pork,  an(],
wlhen divided into its
ver-tebrl, is cut  for
cho     ps, a nd call eyari s                 kins. Tlthe   lead, wll           hen
div ided  in  two,  is
a a          in         divided at teth
jaw   int o fall  aln)Itber
part  alled tlhe f~ice or
chteek, an( i  tlJe lower
ski   wit     par t nailed  ti  chgil.
Sonie til ies                         the t wo
cllh  liaps  are not  sepa        fre c _ll_l ralted.   Pork for r,ast              d        ing is best wlhent about
six months old; and
a let, of porlk ouglt
not to exceed 7 lb.,
/ s  a  } nor less than 6 lb., in
weigliit.
6140.  Of  judging
THl  ENGLT.;H MODR O,F of  t,,,ri;,  "tle  ineat
.vUrTTI,G Ul' A C.ACASS of pi(gs cut or spayed
OF P(OiRK.       wlietU  youing  is tile
best.  Tli,at of a boar, tlioii,,oi young(, or of
one of full gri-(w tli, tle fleshl will be
lard, t(outghI, re(ldislh, and of a rmlk stell;
fire f, t skinny  aln ilal',l; tlhe skin very
tlhiek and:l totiglh, and, b)eing(, pinclhed up, it
will  immiiieliately fall again.   If  it be
young, in pinchuig, the lean between tile
fingers, it will break; and, if you nip the
skin w  itth your nails, it will  be drented.
But if the fat be soft and pulpy, like  lard,
if tie learn be toughI, and the fat flabby
and spon,gy, and the skin be so lard that
youI cannot nip it witlh your  nails, it is
old.  If tlhere are little kernels in the fitt,
like hail-slhot, the pork is meaisly andI uinwlholesomie, and  butctlers are p)unislhable
for selling, it.  Tije freslhntess of pork  m-ay
be knownsri by puitting the fing,er under the
bone, and smellin,, it. Tlie fleslh of stale
pork, ailso, is sweaty and clammiiiy; tlha-t of
freslh killed, cool andt smootlr. Pork fe(d at
distilleries is not,oodl for cutring, the fat being springty. Dalil'y-bd p(a'k i8 thle best."'*
A good(- way of aIscertttininlg thle quaslity osf
a carcass of pork, is to insert a penknlife
tlhroughl  the -skin and   flesh  the  wlhole
lengtlh of tlhe blade, and if the resistance
to it be firm and uniform, the flesh is good;
cand if irreg,ular and loose and  pulpy, the
pork lhas not been well fed.   Thie smell
retainedl by thle knife wvil1 show  whIether
the fleslh be wholesome or tainted.
6141. Calves.-Calves are slaughtered
by inserting asliarp-pointed knife throughl
tlhe neck, severing tle blood-vessels, as in
the e case of shleep, or the throat is simply
cut tlhroligh to tlhe cervical vertebrm.  lThe
skin is taken off to thle knees, whiel) are
disjointed, and to tle head, whliclh is taken
off.  TlIe carcass is dressed simply, and
kept opeu with a stretcher, tlhough nmany
ll,atclers in Scotlatld are fond of sleowin,
tlheir skill, as they imaginte, in dressing a
calf, by leaviing the lungs, heart, and liver
attached, hlalf-splitting down  thle  bacl:kbone,  spreading,,  thle  carcass flat  with
stretchers across the back, spreading tlhe
net tlt in front over the offal, and leaving
the skin adlhering to the back and sides.
The enumeration of these particulars shows
thle absurdity of dressing up a carcass in
this imanner.  Tlhe hlair is scalded oft the
lhead with lot water, and dressed into
Omock-turtle soup, or a dishl, calf's hlead.
The feet are also scalded of tlhe h1air with
lhot water, and  made into jelly.   The
sweetbread or pancreas  mtiakes a. delicate
dislh wlhen stewed. It is very seldotmi that
a calf is slaugh-tered on a farm.
6142. Tlle carcass, after hlanging 24
holurs, is divided into either of two  inodes,
the Sce)tch l and the Eng=,lish).  Tile Scotclh
mod(le of cutting up gives in the fore  quiarter the  back-ribs,  whlicli,  beingt, divided
into  two joints,  g,ive  the fore part  for
c)oilinig, and  the hind part for riasting;
the breast, whlich is also divided int(o the
fore part, whichl is miade into soup, and tihe
hlie(l, whichl is roasted; and  thle shank,
wlhicli is mtiadle into soup. Thie lind- quarter aff;)rds tlhe knuckle,  whichl  is  iiiade
into soup, the fillet, whlich is roasted, andl
tihe loin, wlichl is also roasted.
6143. The Englisli mode of cutting uI
gives, in the fiore quarter, thle  slioul,ler,
which is roasted, the neck, which(, is tmaide
into soup, and the breast, which is roasted.
* The Experienced BIutcer, p. 155.
699 
REALISATION.
In tlhe lhind quarter are thle knuckle, which
is mad(le into soup, the fillet, which is roasted,
and the loin, whlicl  is divided into the
chumnp-end and the loin, which are both
roasted.  TIle English iiiode is' the better
of the two, inasmuch as  the pieces are
each  more equal in the flesh, and  handsoiner in shape for thie table.   ThIe Englisll
fillet is so cut as to avoid the bone of the
rutyp, which is thrown into the chliitlp-end
of the loin. 
6147. Beef.-The proportion of tallow to beef
generally obtained from cattle sold in the Glasgow market, as stated by.the late Dr Cleland, is
as 1 to 8, 14,566 head being sold in 1822, averaging exactly 44 stones, of 14 lb. to the  stone, of
beef, and  yielding 54 stones of tallow.  The
experiments recorded in (1325) gave the proportion between  1 to 7, and  1 to  8; that in
(1332) rather more than I to 7. A short-horn
cow which slipped her second calf, and was sold
after she had been fed for six months after haviThg gone dry,  I sold to the  late  Mr Robe rt Small,
fiesher in Dundee, and the tallow obtained
from her was 27 stones to 72i stones of beef, or
as 1 to 23; while the very large ox exhibited by
the late Lord  Kintore at the Highland and Agricultural Society's show at Aberdeen in 1834, only
yielded 16- stones of tallow to 173 stones 4 lb. of
beef, being exactly 1 to 101. The offals realise
more money, in proportion to their quality, than
the flesh, (3623.)
6144. The best veal in Scotland  is
reared in the clay farms of Stratliaven in
Lanarklishire, (2293.) The cruel mnode of
strapping on the live calves upion the tops
of the carrier-carts, on their long journey
from Strathaven to Edinburglh, it is hoped,
is now  discontinued,  in consequence  Iof
the convenience of carriage afforded by
railways.   The best veal,  in the sprin,
is to be found inl the west of England,
but the constant supply to London is front
the counties of Surrey and Essex, (2294.)
But the veal of En,gland will not conmpare
with that of Pontflise, a village within 6t
niles of Paris, for flavour, succulence, and
whiteness, (2295.)
6148. Sufficient data, perhaps, do not exist for
determininig the true proportion of offals of all
wkinds to the beef of ally given  fat ox; but approximnations have been  made which may serve
the purpose until the matter is investigated by
direct experimenit, under various circumstances.
The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio
varying between.5.5 and.605 to 1, (.3624;) and
on applying one or other of these multiples,to
the live weight, according to the higher and
lower condition of the animal, you will find a
pretty correct approximation. The weight of
the tallow, as shown above, is between oneseventh and onie-eighth of that oflhle beef. It foll)ws that the tallow is from'.125 to.143 of the
dead weight, and.08 of the live weight; the
hide is.05 of the live weight; and the other
offals are from.33 to.25 of the live weight.
Thus, then, when the tallow is 13 per cent
of the dead weight, it is 8 per cent of the live
weight.
6145. Laimbs.-Lamiibs are sla~ughltered
in the same manner as slheep, by inserting tlihe knife thlrou,li the thlroat.  Thie skin
is taken off to t!ie kInees, whichi are d(lisjoitltel, and it is taken off the heaLd.  Thl         e
carcass is too often made a disp lay of in
the dressingT, in the  ianntier described in
the calf. The lhead(l and p)luck go togethler,
arind makle two nice dishes-one,  lamb's
head, alnd thle other in the liver and lungs
fried.    But  when  the  bag  is retained
and cleaned, it is iiiade tile receptacle of
one of the finest dishles that Scotland can
boast of-a laml)'s haggis.
6149. Beef is the staple animal food of this
coummtry, and it is used in various states,-fresh,
salted, smioked, roasted, andl. boiled.  When intenided to be eaten fresh, " the ribs will keep the
best, and with  care will keep  5 or 6 days in
summer, and in winter 10 days. The middle of
the loin is the next best, and the rumnp the next.
Tihe round will not keep long, unleay salted.
The brisket is the worst, and will not keep longer
than  il days in summer, and a week il winter."*
6146. Lamib is cult upiinto(juarters, which
are larger or smaller ac,cordin,- to its age.
Fromi 5 lt). to 8 hlb. is tile,usual weilght of
a qIlariter of lamb, atnd wiheii it exceeds the
latter wei,ght the  iieat becomes  coarse.
Lalnb is a fre(iuent dish at the farmer's
tal)le, and it is in t,i e highest perfection
when tile ewe is fed on grass, any artificial
food dimiinisliing its quality very rapidly.
House lamb is reared in Eingland all tihe
year round.  In flavour it will not coni
* The Experienced Butcher, p. 171.
700
I pare witli'the grass-fed, but its appearance,
atseasoiiswlieii the meat c.-t-nnott)eobtaiiied
direct from the fields, enhances its value,
wlii,zli, in' its turn, induces ttie farrijer to
rear it. The most thrifty lamb for the
fariiier is from a cross between the Blackfaced ewe and Leicester tup.
6150. In cookit-g, a piece of beef, consisting
of four of the lotige6t ribs, and wei,6,liiti,,- II lb., I 
SLAUGHTERING.
oz., was subjected. to roasting by Mr Donovain,
and it lost during thle process 2 lb. 6 oz., of whichi
10 oz. were fat, andi1 lb. 12 oz. water dissipated
by evaporation. On dissection, the bone weighed
16 oz., so that the weight of meat fit for the
table was only 7 lb. 11 oz. out of 11 lb. 1 oz.  It
appears that whenii tlie butchers' price of sirloins
is 821]. per lb., the meat cost when roasted is.
1 -d. per lb., at a loss of 191 per cenit.*
injures it, particularly in byre-fed animals; and
anything thlat, punictures a hide, such as warbles,
(3803,) is also iljurious. Tlhe best hides are obtained tfroii the West Highlatnd breed of cattle.
The Short-hlornis produce the thinnest hides, the
Aberdeenishire  the  next, and then the  Angus.
Of the samne breed, the ox affords  the strongest
hide; but as hides are applied to various usies,
the cow's hide, provided it be large, mnay be as
valuable as an ox's. The bull's hide is the least
valuable.
6151. The usual mode of preserving beef is
by salting  and  lwhen intended to keep a long
time, as tbr the use of the shipping, it is always
salted with brine; but for family use it should
be salted dry with good Liverpool salt, without
saltpetre; as  brinie dispels the juice of the
meat, aud sailtpetre only serves to  make the
meat dry, and give it a disagreeably unnatural
red colour.
13847.       1848.
-Cwt.            Cwt.
Dry,..    172,296    132,395
Wet,..' 429,085    414,856
601,381    547,281'
6152. Salted beef cured with wood smoke is
converted iiito ham, and is highly relished.  The
cured beef of Glasgow, and the hung beef of
Hamburg,, are both relished.
6157. Hides, when deprived of their hai.r, are
converted into leather by infusion of the astriii gent property of bark.   The old plan of talnilig
used to occupy a long time;  but such was  the
value of the process, that the old tainners used
to pride themselves in producing a substantial
article.  More recent discoveries hlave-prompted
tanners to hasten the process, mnuch to the iujury
of the article produced.  Strong infusions  of
bark  make  leather brittle; 100 lb. of skin,
quickly tainned in a strong infusion, produce 137
lb. of leather; while a weak infusion produces
only 117I lb.,tlie additional 191 lb. serving only to
deteriorate the leathier, and cause it to contain
much less textile animal solid. Leather tlhus
highly charged with  taninin is so spongy as to
allow mnoisture to pass readily through its pores,
to the great discomfort and danger of persoins
who wear shoes made  of it.  The proper  mnode
of taiiting lasts a year, or a year and a halft, according to the quality of the leather wanted, and
the nature  of the hides.  A pertect leathler is
recogised by its section, which should have  a
glistening  marbled  appearance, without  any
white streaks il the midiidle.~ Leather is applied
to many important purposes, being made  inito
harness for agricultural  and other uses.  It is
used to line the powder magazilnes of shlips of
war; to make carding maclimes  for  cottoi.t aiil
other mnills; belts to drive machinery; to  make
soles of shoes; and, when japarned, to cover carriages.  Calves' leathler is used in bookbiniiditig.
The hair taken off hides in tailiiling is etlilo)eed
to mix with plaster, and is surreptitiously )put
into hair mattresses.
1847.
Cwvt.
Salted not corned,.    112,386
Fresh, or slightly salted,    5,011
Meat, salted or freshl, not  3
otherwise described       }  3, 114
120,511
6155. Cattle are  iiseftil  to  man-  in v         arious
other ways than afforTiong fofod from their flesh,
their offals of tallow, hides, and horns, forming
extensive articles of co,)mmerce.  Of the hide, the
characteristics of a good one, for strong purposes,
is s       t    r        ength il            its middle or bttt,  as it is called,
and  light on      th e       edg es or ofntl.  A   bad hide   is
the-oplposite of this, thick in the edges and thin
if    al     the   bmiddle.  A good hide has a firm texture,
a, bad one louise and soft.  A  hide improves as
the suninier advances, and it continues to improve  after the new coat of hair inu autum n, until
N          ovember  or December, when  the coat gets
rough from    th   e  coldness of  the season and th e
hide is then i n  its best  s      ta          te. It is surprising
how a-hide- improves in tliickness after the cold~
weather has set in. The sort of fbod does not
seem to affect the quality of the hide; but the
better it is, and the better cattle have been fed,
and tile longer they have been well fed, even
from a calf, the better tlhe-hide.  From what has
been said of the effect of weather upon-tbe hide,
it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better
from an ox that has been fed in the open air than
from one fed in a byre. Dirt adhering to a hide
* Donevan's Domestic Economy, vol, ii. 274.  t Parliamentary Retern, Feb. 1l 2, 1 sh0).    + Ih;,i.
~ Ure's Dictionary of the Arts —arts. Leather and Iaanning.      11 P'rl. jihet. fI,L. 12, I,1v0.
701
. 6156. Hides are now imported free. The
quantities that were inijorted are as follows,
iii
180.
c.t.
143,490
535,296
e)78,785t
6153. Beef, whether fresh or salted, is now
admitted into tlii,-, coiiiitry froin abroad duty
free. Beef salted, or fresh, or corned, imported,
amounted iii
1848.
C.t.
114,387
7,623
4,43('
126,446
180.
c.t.
144,638
5,279
149,917i
6154. The tier(-e of salted beeIf for the navy
contains 300 lbs., coiisistiijg of 33 pieces of about
8 lb. each.
61,58. Tanned. Iiides are admitted free,f
duty. The quantity imported was as
In                        19411.             38M.               11-411,
. Lb. Lb. I I,.
Tanned, towed, ctired, 1 430,950 1,248,(347
I
or dressed, - I
Leatlier manufactured iii  aiiy  w,,iy t,.-,
on importation, of I,.IO per I,.101) vaiiie,. 
REALISATION.
pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process, as a
substitute for glass.  For this purpose, the horns
of goats and sheep are preferred, being whiter
and more transparent than those of any other
animal. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given
to horn by the use of various metallic solutions.
Horn, also, when softened, can be imprinted
with ally pattern by means of dies. Horn is
now admitted duty free.
6159. "The principal substances of which
qlue is made," says Dr Ure," are the paring of ox
and other thick hides, which form the strongest
article; the refuse of tile leather-dresser: both
afford from 45 to 55 per cent of glue.   Thle
tendons, and many other offals of slaughterhouses also afford materials, though of an inferior quality, for the purpose.  The refuse of
tanneries-such  as the ears of oxen, calves,
sheep, &c.-are better articles; but parings of
parchment, old gloves, and in fact aninmal skins
in any form, uncombined with tanning, may be
made into glue."*  Glue, and the clippings of
which it is made, are now imported free.
6160. Ox-tallow is of great importance in the
arts.  Candles and soap are made of it, and it
enters largely into the dressing of leather and
the use of machinery.  It consists of 76 parts of
stearin  and 24 parts of elein.   The  duty on
importation is now reduced to Is. 6d. percentfrom
foreign countries and ld. per cent from the British
colonies.  The quantity imported was as follows
ilt)
1847.           1848.            1849.
Cwrt.            cwt.            Cwt.
Tallow,.    1,099,275        1,498,359       1,468,719t
6161. The horns of oxen and sheep are used                                               58 12
for many purposes. "The horn consists of two
parts: an outward horny case, and an inward
conical-shaped substance, somewhat intermediate        6163. The comparative weights of different
between indurated hair and bone," called the   breeds  of the  same  class  and  age are  as
.tflint of the  horn.   "These  two  parts  are  follows:separated by means of a blow on a block of wood.                               Ag.    weight per  W
The horny exterior is then cut into three por-                                          quarter.
tions by mneans of a frame saw.  The lowest of    th.   Lb.                                      Lb.
Long wools,..       16        52       14
these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing    Leicesters,..     16       46        11
several processes by which it is rendered fiat, is    Southdowns,..       16       36        8
made into combs.  The middle of the horn, after       Long-wools,               40       72        15
being flattened by heat and its transparency          Leicesters                40       56        11
improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and       Southdowns,..   40       46        8
forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the
commonest kind.  The tip of the horn is used           6164. There is little doubt that, in the  Leiby the makers of knife-handles and of the tops   cester breed, the meat bears a higher proportion
of whips, and for other similar purposes.  The   to the offal than in any other.  In the case of a
interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in   Southlidown in (5939,) the meat is about E and the
water.  A large quantity of fat rises to the sur-  offal i of the whole weight, or, more nearly, the
face; this is put aside, and sold to the makers   meat is as 1231: 182, and the offal as 581: 182.
of yellow soap.  The liquid itself is used as a   And in the same breed it has teen said that the
kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-dresser   proportion of bone  is as low as 1 oz. to 1 lb.
for  stiffening.    The  bony  substance  which   flesh; but I much doubt this, because Mr Donoremains behind is then sent to the mill, and,   van found in a leg of mutton, which is thie most
being ground down, is sold to tile farmers for   fleshy part of the carcass in proportion to the
mainure.  Besides  these  various  purposes  to  bone in it, weighing 9~  lb., 16 Oz. o l'bolle; another
which the different parts of the horn are applied,   of 9 lb. 6 oz., 15 oz. of bone  and a leg of small
tile clippings which arise in comb-making are   Scotch mutton of only 6 lb. weight, afforded 10I
sold to the farmers at about  ls. per bushel.  oz. of bone.
The shavings which form the refuse of the
latitern-makers are also sold as manure."+   A         6165. A rule is mentioned  by Mr Ellman of
few of them are cut into various figures, and   Glynde, in Sussex, by which the age of mutton
painted and used as toys, which cast up when   may  be ascertained by certain nmarks  on  the
placed in the palmn of a warm hand.  Horn, as  carcass, and it is an infallible one.  He says,
is well known, is easily rendered soft atnd pliant   "Observe the colour of the breost-bole when a
in warmn water; and by this, and the property   sheep is dressed-tthat is, where the breast-bone
of adhesion like g!iue, large plates of horn can be   is separated- which, in a lamb, or before it is 1
made by cemnenting together the edges of sitiall  year old, will be quite red; from  1 to 2 years
* Ure's Dictionary ofthie Arts -art. Glue.    + Parliamentary Ret-rn, February 12, 1850.
* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts-art. Horn.
702
6162. Mutton.-Of the rela,tive weights of
offal and meat afforded by sheep, iiiitatices are
recorded, and of a fat Sotitlidowti wetlier they
weretbese,tbe liveweiglitbeingl3stoiie,10 lb.
MEAT.
lb....
29 0
28 12
33 8
32 0
123 4
Fore quarter,
Ditto,..
Hind quarter,
Ditto,..
OFFAL.
ib....
13 0
1 21 4
8 12
15 12
58 12
Blood and entmils,
Caul'and loo.,e fit,
Read and pluck,.
Pelt,... 
SLAUGHTERING.
old, the upper and lower bone will be changing
to white, and a small circle of white will appear
rond the edges of the other bones, and the
middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue
red; at 3 years old, a very small streak of red
will be seen In thle middle of the 4 middle bones,
and the others will be white; and at 4 years,
all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly
colour."*
6169. Mutton suet consists of about 77 parts
of stearin and  23 of elein-the for mer being
solid, the latter  fluid.  The  specific gravity of
suet is 0.936. When a piece of solid suet is
broken, innumerable minute granules separate
from  the mass; and  these, when examined  by
the microscope, exhibit definite forms, being
polyhedral, bounded within the limits of a sphere,
or oblong, of very firm consistence, and when
measured, give dimensions varying ill length from
ot0 to.0u, and in breadth from 2   to so  part
of an inch.+ The constituent parts of slet, according to Chevreul, are carbon, 78.996, hydrogen, 11.700, and oxygen, 9.304.~
6166. The average loss on boiling legs of
mutton is 10 per cent; so that, if the butchers'
price were 6d. per lb., the boiled muntton would
cost 6-Id.  The average loss of roa.-ting legs of
mutton  is 27-17i  per  cent; so  that,  at the
butcher's price of 6td. per lb., the roasted mut.it
ton would  cost 7Ld. per lb.   These  results
differ  considerably  from  those  obtained  by
Professor Wallace, who, in the case of boiling
100 lb. of mutton, detected a loss of 21  per
cent, instead of 10 per cent; and in that ofroas.tiiq 100 lb. the loss was 31.  instead of 28 per
cent.  These discrepancies  might perhaps  be
easily explained, were we acquainted with every
particular connected with both sets of experiMnents, such as the state of the fatness of the
meat before being cooked, for fat meat will lose
more  weight than  lean in the dressing.   Of
his experiments, Mr  Donovan says,  " I used
meat of sufficient, but not unprofitable fatness,
such as is preferred by families; the meat was
in all cases a little rare at its centre, and the
results were determined with the utmost care."t+
6171,' But the products of sheep are not merely
useful to  man, they also afford him luxuries.
The skin of-sheep is made into leatlher, and, when
so manufactured with the fleece on, makes  conmfortable mnats for the doors of our rooms, and rags
for our carriages. For this purpose the best
skins are selected, and such as ale covered  witlh
the longest and mnost beautiful fleece.'Taied(
sheep-skin is used in coarse bookbiidilng.  NWhite
sh      eep-s kin, which is not tan oel, b 0lt so  1i(tailf-,c
tured b y a pe culiar pricess, is used as aiilr,s by
many classes of artisaniis, and in agriculture, a.s
gloves in harvest; and  witec  cit int,).silts, a.
twine for sewifig together-thie leathern ctrvelrings
and stuffings of horse-collar.<. Miorocco le:thlier
is made of  sheep-skins as well as of  go, t.', and
the bright red colouir given to it i.s by O'thineail.
Russia leather is al-o made  of s        heep-.lkius, the
peculiar odoir of  wlicl rep(.ls  iinspects fromiii its
vicinity, and  resists  the  mn-),ild arisei,g fr-,i
damp, the  odotir being imparted to it ill ciirrving, by the einpyreuimatic oil of  the bark of the
birchl tree. Besides soft leather, slheep-skins are
made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, knlowni
by  the  name  of parchment; and though  the
skins of all a:imiials  might  be converted  into
writing  materials, only those of the sheep and
she-goat are  used for parchment.  The  finer
quality of the substance c;alled vellutmn is made o)f
the skins of kids and  dead-born- lambs, an)d for
its manufacture the town of Strasburg has long
been celebrated.
6167. Good ham may be made of any part of
a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferred,
and for this purpose it is cut in the  English
fashion, fig. 561.  Wethlier mutton is used for
hams,,because it is fat; but tip mutton makes
the largest and highest flavoutred hamn, provided
it be cured in spring, when it is only in season.
6168. Where Leicester sheep are bred, and
the farmnier kills his  own  mutton, suet will
accumulate beyond what can be used for domestic
purposes.  As long as it is fresh it should be
rynded or rendered, because  the fibrous and
fleshy matter mixed with it soon promotes putrefaction.  To do this it should be cut in small
pieces, removing only fleshy matter.  It is then
put in an earthen jar, which is placed within a
pot containing warm water, at the side ofthe fire
to simrnmer, and not to boil.  As every portion put
in is melted, another succeeds, until the whole
is melted; and the melted mass should be very
frequently stirred.  Suet melts at from 98~ to
104~ Fahr.  After being fused a considerable
time, the membranous matter comes to the top,
and is taken off; and whenqobtained in quantity
and  squeezed,  it constitutes  the  cracklings
which  are sometimes  used for feeding dogs.
The purified suet may then be poured through a
cullender, into a dish containing a little cold
water, upon which it consolidates into a cake;
and the  cakes are either sold to the candlemakers, or canidles taken in exchange.
*+ Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. 289.
~ Liebig's A? imal Chemistry, p. 300.
* British lHusband ry, vol. ii. p. 486.
+ Raspail's Organic Clhemistry, p. 238.
703
6170. Mutton suet is used in the manufacture
of common candles, with a proportion of,)x tallow.
Minced suet, subjected to the action of highpressure steani in a digester at 250' or 2601
Falir., becomes so hard as to be sonorous when
strck, winters and ca,pable, when made itito
candles, of giving very superior light. Stearic
Candles, the invention of the celebrated Guyl,ussac, are manufactured solely froin Muttonsuet.
6172. It would appear that tl)ere are circtimstances which naturally limit the power of reaction and absorption in the skin of the sheep.
It is surrounded by a peculiar secretion, a-diiesive and impenetrable to moisture-tlie yolkdestined chiefly to preserve the wool in a soft,
pliable, and healthy state. On this account there 
REALISATION.
can be little perspiration going forward from the
skill, and hence few diseases are referable to
change in that reactiotn.  Also  there is little
radiation of animal heat, both on account of the
interposition of the y,lk, aud of thie non-conduc(,tilg power of the wool.  Thie caloric disengaged
from a sheep is only one-sevelith of that from
man, tlihoughi its weight is one-third of that
of  his, consequently  only  half  the  animal
heat radiates fromn a sheep, from a given surface, that-does from  man.   This it is which
enables the ewe and the lamb to endure the
colds of spring without detriment; and also,
when sheep are crowded together in an open
fold, no unnatuiral or dangerous state of heat is
thereby produced.
6176. Pickled porkn der ives its name from the
mode in which pork is cured in a strong brine or
pickle of salt aid water. Immense quantities of
pork are pickled, for home and foreign consumption. The navy tierce of pork consists of 80 pieces
of 4 lb. each.
6177. Pork hain being a standing dish at the
farmer's table, a number of fat pigs are slaughtered and cured into ham every year, according
to. the size of the farmer's household, (2866.)
6173. Il the manufacture of some sorts of
cords fronm the intestines of sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into
a threid to sew intestines, and make the cords
of rackets and battledores.  Future  washings
cleanse the guts, which  ire then twisted into
differeint-sized cords for various purposes. Some
of the best known of those purposes are  whipcords, hatters' cords for bowstrinigs, clockmakers'
cord, bainds for sheaves, and fiddle and  harp
strings.  Of this last class of cords-the source
of one of our highest pleasures —it has long beeni
subject of regret that musical strings manufac- 
tured in Englaud should  be so inferior in good-.
ness and  strength to those of Italy; and  the
reason assigned is, that the sheep of Italy are
both smaller and leanier than those of this country.  Tile difficulty lies, it seems, in making the
treble strings from tile fine peritonieal coat, their.
chief fault being  weakness, whence the  smaller
ones are hardly able to bear the str.tclt required
for the hi,ghler notes in c-,ileert-pitchl; mainitainilig, at the samne time, in tlheir form and  construction that teillilty or smnallness of diameter
whi,ch is required to produce a brilliant a.id clear
toue.L However insignificant this subject may
appear ill the estinmation of some, it is worth
attending to by those interested iii enhancing the
profits of our native  prodicts, especially when
it is considered that hliarp-striligs sell as high as
from 6d. to 2s. apiece.
6178. A common practice is to cnt out thot
hams and cure them by themselves, and then t,a
take out the ribs, which are roasted as spare.
ribs, and the fiesll anid fat cured as a.qatnmon 4
or feitch,-zan old  English  favourite.  Ancient
custom makes many reconciled to this practicet
and in the case of people preparing bacon for
sale, it may be profitably followed; but for familf
use, when the customs of markets are not studied,
hams are better kept in whole sides until used,
and, when used, cuit out in pieces of the sizes required.,The flitches will certainly keep safer
With the ribs attached to them than when left
bare. Flitches are apt to become reasty, yellowcoloured, and rank-flavoured, when shut up in
boxes, or kept in damp places, wanting circulation of the air.   They should be hung up like
hamns in a cool dry apartment, where the air is
amply circulated.
6 1 80. From experiment, it was ascertained by
Mr  Donovaii, that, if the first cost of'hain be
I 0 d. per lb., the meat, duly boiled, skinned, and
browned, will cost ls. lId. per lb.; the loss
thereby being consequently 12' per cent.+
6174. Pork. —Mi ucil less difiesreic      a
tween the live and dead weight of pit
other species of stock, because no sk
off, and tile head is always left with
and only the fat an(d entrails rem
difference of live and dead weights
below, on a few ouit of a large hIumIi
slaughtered  by  Mr M.  SaindIford,
Farm  in  1849, in single  avid con
casses:
6181. Hog's lard  is rendered in exactly the
same manner as mutton suet  (6168;) but as
lard is liable to become rancid, yellow-coloured,
and acquire a strong smell when exposed to the
air, it is usually tied up in bladders.   For this
purpose it is allowed to cool a while, after it is
melted, and the bladder, a pig's or calf's, being
made ready  by being thoroughly cleaned  and
turned outside in, is filled with the lard by a
funnel, and tied up.  Lard "melts completely at
99~  Fahr., and  then has  the appearance of a
transparent aid nearly colourless fixed oil.  A
thermometer placed in it sinks gradually to 80~.
The lard then begins to congeal, and the thermometer remains at 80~ all the time of congealing,
which occupies several minutes.  It is clear from
Dead weight.              8
cwt. lb.
1.9
1    31
1     35
I Ure's Dictiozary of the  lrtsq-arts. Fat-Leather-Parchmeat-Cat gut.
t Dollovai's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. p. 279 and 287.,
704
bone weighed 9 oz.;, the meat was 3 lb. I oz.
If the first cost of the meat was 7i per lb., the
meat alone, when duly boiled, cost 10;1,d., and
with the bone 9d. per lb. The loss in boiling salt
pork is consequently 134 per cent.
617.1). Pork haws are often smoked. The process of smoking, however, is troublesome to the
farmer, who has not premises suitable for conductiiig it. The same end will be served by
steeping the bacon a few hours in wood-viuegar
-the pyroligneoiis acid.
Li,,-,,,-ight..
'.t. lb.
1 99
1 91
-  1 99
Li-,! -.,,,ight..
" t -      lb.
2 38
9..      30
2 3111,
6175. Mr D,)tiovaii found a band of salt pork,
-w,6i'giiiiig4lb.5oz.,toloseiiiboilii.,i,lloz. The 
SLAUGHTERING.
this, that 800 is the melting point of hlog's lard.       t
Its sp)ecific gravity at 102~ is 0.9028; at 60~, it
is 0..9302.                  It consists of eleini 62
parts, and of stearin 38  al.t....  When
subjected to l,ressure  betweenii folds of blottiug
paper, th!ie elein is abs,rbed, while  the  stearill
reiiiainiis." *  For domestic purp,,,es, good  hog's
lard is better thani bad  butter for frying fl.h;
but quite iuifit for pastry, and is improperly used
in that way oii the score of economy.
Stenihouse of Glasgow recommends  this onef
"I place,] a small plate containing a little creosote
immediately-under each piece of meat as it hung
ssuspended i n the  larder, and covered both o ver
with a  cl, th. The  c reosote soont gave off vapouirs
which formed tan antiseptic atmosphere around
the  meat,  and  kep t i t quite fres h      three or tfour
days  loger  than i        t w o uld oth erwise  have been.
If th    e  plate is gently heated  before the creosote
is  put i nto   it, the vapours rise more quickly,  and
if the  additional prbcaution is    also taken of suspendin g  the  meat in a wooden box or  earthen
jar which can be  closed with a lid, the  beneficial
efe(,ft is still more discernible. I have tried this
process during the greate   r  part or a summer
with invariable success, and a butcher, who also
tried it on a larger scale in his stall, was equally
convinced of its efficacy. The meat, when cooked,
has not the slightest smell or taste of creosote.
There is also another advantage attending  the
use of creosote.  its smell is so disagreeable to
flies that it effectually frees a larder from the
presence of these noxious insects.   The  same
quantity of creosote  may  be  used  for several
weeks, but on being long exposed to the  air it
loses most  of its smnell, and  is partly changed
into a species of resin."
1847.       1848.
Cwt.        Cw.t.
Pork salted,..    235,798       254,070
,,  fresh,..          101           61
23.5,899    254,131
6189. On considering the facility with whi(,ch
the  use  of chloroform induces  iisensibility in
the human  frame, it has occurred( to mle that  it
might be usefully applied  in renrdering aziiimals
insensible before slaughtering tlhem; and the ouly
doubt that arose in my  mind regarding its use in
this way was of its imparting ally flavour to the
flesh, or of accelerating its decay, or of being too
expensive for ordinary use. On inquirilng of Professor Simpson of Ediniburgih, the discoverer of
this extraordinary substauce, he initorms me that
it imparts no flavour to the flesh, either of sheep,
pigs, or fowls; and so far from accelerating its
decay, it rather preserves it a considerable time.
Tile  expense is iinot great: all ordiniary ox  may
be rendered insensible for 2s., and a shleep and a
pig  tor lIs. each.   It may  be  administered  by
means  of  a cloth applied to  the nostrils  and
mouth.   Although chloroform would thus be too
expensive  for the general slaughtering of anitlials, it mlighlt be used  by  farmers  to lplace
beyond the feeling of paini all the animals they
require to slaughter, and, by  thus rendering
therm   enitirely passive, the operation of slaughlterinwg could be perfotrmed withoutthe riskof injuring
the flesh by bruises of the slightest description.
61i 7. F,t i s very generally distributed in tie
taeimigal fiaouoe.   It      is       abiund ant under the skir,
il  the  cellular iiieml; brante, routnd   the k          idneys,
ie t ih      e  frl,(e  of the omenturi, at th     e  ba se  of t he
hea,rt, inl the ime(liastiinum, the rneseniteric web,
as well as upon thle stirf'ace of the intestines,
aind among many of the mutseles.  It varies in
tooesistei         awe, (   eolour, and  s iell,  according  to
the awiiiloa     l froom w  vIicli  it is obtained.   Thus,
it is generally fluid in the (-etaceous tribes,
Soft and ranik-fl~tvoutred in the carnivorous, solid
and  nearly scentless in the ruminants; usually
white and copious in well-fed young animals,
yellowish and  more scanty il the old.  Its coIisistetice varies also according to the organ of its
production, being  firmer under the skin and in
t,he ineighbourlhood of the kidneys thani amonig the
movable viscera.   Fat forins.~6 of the weight of
a healthy aiinimal; but as taken out by the but(:ther it is lnot pure, fbr, being of a vesicular
structure, it is always  enicl(osed il miiemiibranes,
alixed with blood, blood vessels, lymphatics, &c.
6190. The flesh of the domesticated animals
becomes poisonouts isder  certain states.  "There
is 1Xo diotubt," observes Dr Taylor, " that partial
decay may render unwholesome and injurious
the flesh of the most healthy animals; and it is
by no means improbable that, among the poor of
large cities, the secret sale of decomposed and
unwholesome meat is a very frequent cause of
disease and death." +
6188. In close warm weather meat often beoomes tainted.  Aiiy plan that (cai save this loss
iiidomestic conoinmy is entitled to a trial.  Dr
* Tlihomnso,i's Animal Cheutistry, p. 134.
+t Pa-liamentary Retrt@, 12;li February 1850.                   + Taylor On Poisons, p. 561.
VOL  11.                                                                                         2 Y
705
6182. Ilog's skiii is usually thick, and, when
tat)ned, its great toughness i,eiiders it valuable
f,)r the seats of ridiiig saddles, and for powder
flt.-;ks.
6183. tiog's bristles are formed into brushes
for I)aititers and artists, and into brooms for
domestic tise.   The fiiiest and longest bristles
are imported from Finland, where the pigs are
al%vays lean, their loins beiiig tucked up like those
of the greyhound.
6185. The lianis imported were, in                    1847.           im.
0-t.
... 17,203 7,717
618C). P,)rk is admitted free; and liams pay a
dtity ot'7s. per ceiit froin foreign countries, and
2s. per ceiit froiii the British possessions.'
6191. The flesh or muscle -'of animals consists 
REALISATION.
breeding live stock, which is, to produce thle
most perfect animnal that will yield the
largest profit.  It is easy to possess a flock
or a herd which will propagate its kind, as is
evinced in the actual condition of imany of
the flocks and  herds  abounding in the
country.  Irjs easier to do this tlIan to
cultivate arable land for  the purpose of
raising, grain, for this requires pretty constant attention at thte seasons of seed-tiimie
and oh arvest; whereas a flock or herd of
neg,lected animals will keep thenmselves in
life, if food be within their reach, and will
even propagate their kind if the sexes are
not kept asunder.
chiefly of two component parts, the febrin and
the albumen.   When  the  fibrinl predominates,
which it does when the flesh is very leani, and
has not been fattened at all, the meat is tough
and hard. When the albumen bears a considerable proportion of the flesh between the threads
of fibrin, which it always does when the animal
is in fair condition and has been fattened, the
flesh is tender and juicy.
6192. Recent experiments of Liebig have
brought to light some very curious differenies
existing between the contents of flesh and of the
blood, although the latter may be said to traverse
every portion of the former. I shlall best give
you an idea of those facts, in the words of Professor Gregory, whis first introduced them to the
notice of the Eniiglish reader.  There is a "great
preponderance," he observes, "of phosphate of
potash and chloride of potassitum in the juice of
flesh, while in the blooul atid l] mph which circulate through the imuscles, it is phosphate of soda
and chloride of sodium  which  prevail.   The
juice of flesh is always str ngly acid, while the
blood and lymph are decidedly alkaline.  Ther         e
is an abundant supply of lactic acid in the juice
of flesh, while it cannot be detected in the urine.
But perhaps the most interesting observation,
next to the discovery of kreatitie as a conistaint
ingredient of flesh, is of kreatiniiie, a powerful
base in the juice of the flesh, and of both in
urine, which is a demonstration complete, as it appears to me, of the true function of the phosphate
of soda in the blood.   This function, that of
absorbing carboniiic acid and giving it out in the
lungs, is here shown to depend entirely on the
minute chemical character of the salt in question; 
and we now see how it happens that phosphate
of soda is essential to the blood, and cannot be
replaced by phosphate of potash or salt, which,
although ill many points antalogous, differs entirely from phosphate of soda iii its tendency to
acquire an acid iniistead of ani alkaline reacti)on,
and in its relation to carbonic acid.  The  same
remark applies to the action of common salt in
phosphate of soda, which satisfactorily accounts
for the presence of phosphliate of soda in the blood
of animals whose food contain only phosphate of
potash, but which either find common salt in
'their food, or obtain it as an addition." *
6')196. From what I leave stated, you
will not expect from me so particular an
explanation of the principles of breeding
as I have given of the methods of conducting the operations of the field. Suffice it
to give you a few of the ordinary rules
which guide the breeder in the treatment
of his stock, withl  a view to attaining the
high aimns referred to; and for the better
understanding of which, I have selected
groups of animals as examples, in whlose
)()oints yotiu should have ctnfidence, because
they lhave been  faithfully selected  and
taken from life, from individ(luals deemed
excellent by competent judges.
ON  THE POINTS TO BE  AIMED  AT IN
BREEDING TItE MOST PERFECT FORMS
IN LIVE STOCK.
6194. We hlave now arrived at thle mnst       6197. The great aim  of breeders  is,
difficult branch of farmintig, and the hlighest  that  their stock  shall exhibit  beauitifil
aim which the farmer wishes to attain in  symmetry-possess robust constitution                         * Liebig's Chentistry of Food, Preface, p. viii.
t Liebig On thc N otion of the Juices of the Animal Body, Preface, p. ix.
706
6195. 1 -,uspect that the principles by
which the Highest aiin alluded to is to be
attained is not tlior(,u,,Iily understood by
breeders; for I ini,-,-,ine that our best stock
has been brought to its present state of
I)erfection by the exercise of individual
taste and i ud,,iiieiit-I)y gratifying the. eye
and satisfying the mind. rather than by
the unerring guidance of an'y fixed prinIciple on tile subjects However this ni,-ty
be, observation of the operations of nature
is sufficient to acquaint us that the pleasinf,
syninietry in the bod of an aiiinial, its
y
aptitude to grow and fatten, are (iel)endent on fixed laws wliieli regulate the
aniiiial functions; and could we but I)ecotne
acquainted with these, we might pursue tl)e
breeding of our stock with tl-ie utniost cer taiiity of success.
6193. Another recent discovery of Liebig's
indicates the causes of the motion in the juices
-of the aniinal body, which he partly ascribes to
the action of thle atmospheric pressure.t 
POINTS.
and acquire a disposition to attain  early
Iiaturity, witthout whichl pr(.,erties gti,dI
liealtl, fine  quality of fleshl, anid sufficielcy of' fat, cannot be insured(l. Let us cotnsider wha.t each of th(se prolerties means,
anil tlien attend to the points in aniiiials,
whichl always accolilpalny those properties.
rectangl ar squarte  eto tlie re par t of  the
sam.-ie  ox; a   an1.ilthloughl the  re is not
so fill  fillend up in tlis a view as  i n the two
fornier, it is clear that the general contour
(,f the animial in  this view  also is very
similar to thoti the p)receding.  The width
between the slhouilders of an ox from a to a
is always a little less thiau between the
hoo,ks a to a in fig. 297; although  the ribs
are always as full in a well-formed aniimal.
6198.  ynymmetry.-Tlhe figure desizlerate(l in thje miatuiredi and fattedI aninmal is
thle reominetric solid iiamed thle p'arallel,p)il,edt, iecau,ie it not  mnly afft)rds a figure
tinct uti.y lie proportionilly beautiful, but
it contains a  large capacity of contents
within sitall dimiensions.  Of (course it is
n,,t to )e supposed that the outliie of any
aniimal  faiie slionlil present  the  shlarp
ediges and projecting angles of a geomnetric
figuie, but it is quite possible to identify
the siiilarity of tlhe aninial body to the
niatlieinttical solidl.  In  the attainment
of this similarity, it is fortunate f(or the
bree(ler of stock that his taste and interest
coincide; fo)r, if hlis eyve is not please(ld
withi the formi of the aninual lie hIas brel, i
certain  it is thiat the  anitmal will  not
bec()olie a valuable one to hlim.
6202. So far, then, the contour of     the
fran.e of a o tatuire d ox tallies ve ry nsel ay
with the  lines  of  a  regular  natlnetlatical
s o li d.  It will   be observed thlat thje form
osf the wooden fraime, in figs. 296 and 299,
is a rectangle, and thlat of figs. 297 and
2/)8 is a square, and the proportion which
they  bear to one  anotller  is that  the
rectang   n le comlreehends two of the squares;
so that the conclusions   we should  draw  i n
reference to the  figure of the   ox i s, tlreat
tile length of the  bodv to  the shoulder
,oint is twice its breadth, and twice its
deptlh.  The lines which fill up thle c,ntour
of tlhe ox are exlained in (361t;) to (3621.)
The height of the shoulder top is about
one inchi imiore than the rump.   The void
space below  the belly fills up  x, and the
body  1, of the area included between  tlhe
line of back and  the ground.
6199. In ordter to satisfy onie's mind on
the i(lentity of shlape of the anitmal fratme
and thre geomletric solid nmained, we Iriave
only to compare                          the ofi g,ures of the ainidals
usuallylv reared- for dlisp.sal from the fartn
witlh  thle sai(d solid.   Fig. 2.:6 relpresents
an ox fit to b3e disposed of at market as a
Ima,-tu11 redi animal.  Thje wNtoodeti r-ectangullar
framie, which is placed againist its sidle, and,
wlIichl is silmilar to thie si(le of a )arailielopiped of the  same dimiiensions as tlhe ox,
circilinscrihes  in almost every point  the
ontl in te o       f  the anbial; and tlvat  outline is
no more redundlant in one pla(e, and deftcient in another, tlhan miglht be expected
on cO,,il}at-ing  the fiar,rm of a living creature
witlh a mathematical figure.
6203. The rectangular wooden Frame
applied to the side, befiore, tellind(l, and
upon the back of a matured fat sheep, will
bring outi ery sinmilar results to the  ox.
Plate IX. contains the I)ortraits of three
wetliers which were brought to the Edinburgh mniarket for sale, of the Leicester,
Cheviot, and Black-faced breeds, and it
vwill be,bserved that one and all of them
shave b)odlies of the same formin as the ox.
The clipped tup, fig. 380, illustrates clearly
the saime rule.
6200. But a parallelopiped has not
sides alone, it lhas also ends. Let us see
wlietl!er tlte figure of the same ox also aniswers to tliese, whlen viewed fromti b)ehind
and before. Fig. 297 shows the apl)licatioin
of thle end of the geomletric su,lid, in thle form
of a rectangular square, against thje lind
part of the ox; and a single glance makes it
evident that the same reimarks apply to this
view of t}he figure as to that of the side.
Still further, fig.  298 applies the same
701
6201. The parallelepiped bas an
upper surf-.ice and a. I)ase, as well as sides
ali(I ends. Fi,,.  29f) sliows tije  rectatit,ular franie of fig. 2,06, al.)plied to
tie back of tije ox, wliicli fil ]sit as fully as
niiglit be expected-tl)e only sl)ace.,i left
vacant being at ttie angles.
6204, The draught gelding, figtired, in
Plate XII., Tinaintaiiis a similar fornIi to
the ox in the body, and fully ct)rrobomtes
the reinarks I Iiave utade above. The 
REALISATION.
invariably accompanied  withl  dulness of
spirit and want of action.  A thin-skint,,ed
and tliick-ttoned animal is ill to maintain
in condition. A fit of indigestion frequently overtakes  tilin-skinned  aninlials,
anti tlheir condition in consequence varies.
Thiick-boned animals never seem to relish
ttheir food, are inlifferelnt to everything
that concerns tlieiii, and are dull feeders.
A  flat-rit)lbbed thlin-b)o(lied  inimal is tmore
delicate than- a round-ribbed one.
leng,tlh of the l,ody is twice its depthl.
The  void  sp)ace bel)w  the belly to thle
ground is equal to tlhe depth of the body.
The lengthl  of the neck to the withers is
equal to the dep)tlI of thle body flollm  the
withlers.  I1'le distance froimi thle elbow to
the fetlock joint is equal to that of the
withlers.
620.5. The same  test applied  to pigs
may be seen in fig. 438, whlere the rectang,ular framie is itl)out filled up except at
two angies, vwhiclh  are niore vacant than
wvithl the (ox, tile shleep, or the hlorse; but
tile lines of th)e rumip of a pig, are always
more ibru)t tlan those of any othler of the
doiiiesticated aniiiials, (5136.)
6208. Disposition to attain early matu rity.-Tlie most promninent indicatiot of this
disp(ositioni is a hoose, thick, mellow skin, as
if floating upon a stratumn of fat below; and
suchl a skini is invariably covered with
long, soft, mossy-feeling  hair, bearing  a
decided  colour.   A   firmntess of texture
over the  whol e body is esse ntial  to a  disposition to fatten;  no fa t   encu mbers the
bcn  o ane ls d  of the  legs  and of the ea,d.   All
the  extremities, th e ineibs, head, an d   tail
are stie all, fine, and taperin.,  fromi  the
body. Tf   e eye  is  prominentl y set in the
head, and with a   placi d expressioSin. The
forehead  is broad. TTle  ears are   s    ensible
to every new solind. Tile muzzle is
sharp, the nostrils distended, the jaws  distint a.llad clean. Th e rmuscles  a r e broad and
flhat.  The  blood-vessels  larg,e  a noe  full.
The clnest is broad, and the   ta il flat  a t
the top), anti broad and ta.pering to the
tfft of locair.  The line  of th e    back i  s
straight f uand level, fn( th e   ri bs  round.
A   back lsig,al  above the  level is narrow,
,an is aca(cotpainied( with     flat ribs  and
loaig Darrow face, which are both iggdica tile of  a wkant of  dispositi{)n to fatten.
When the back is below the level, the fat
and fleslh are imiostly put ulporn the under
part of tbhe cCar'cass. and the tallow increases
in tle initerior.  The flanks anid cod are
then tlhielc and fat. In suichl a configuration
tlle foi-e quarters atre larget tl!an the hind.
Such aini a,tilal   evinces  a dis)osition.to
fatten, but lays on coarse pieces.   When
the cuirvedi lines abo)ound over  the body
and play into one  an(,ther, giving   a
li-illiatIcy to tlhe surface, while the sweep lui,g lines of the contour-, with the taperin.,
fineness of thJe extremities, the  pleasint
countenance, and tle jovous spirit, a sytminetry, state of health, and disposition to
imlprove are conjoined, that afford the
hlighest satisfaction  and  profit, to  the
breeder.
620C). Robtistness of constitution.-Tlhe
in(lication  (,,f good lieatltli and strength of
cinistititioin  ie —stron(r, bro)ad, flat bones
ini tile  legs. witli the sinews  tiick  and
lrind1, adle distilnctly developed, the whole
? ilin  ('l()sely covered  with  skin.    This
~1,11li'ion  of  the  legs is whaIt is terniedi
clean.  Tie  eye  is full and clear.   The
skin  of  the niose, in  tlhe case of  cattle,
slieel,  an(l pig,s, is l)e-lde'ed wvitlh  ioisturie.
Tlhe slkin is coveredl closely with l   ong, fine
l Eir.  Tlie surface of the lhorn on tlje feet
an(t hle,~l oily and slining, and the jtinct.n of thle hLir and lhorn gro'vtliy.   The
l air of thle tail of tlhe ox and of the liorse
long, slining, withl   a  tendency  to curl.
Thie  wool  (f slieep  w.aivy, greasy-, iliterlacel, an(l  of fine quality.    Tleo aniualA
spirits  liv-ely, t!je senses atcute, and  the
instinct sagacious.  IThe  ap)petite  i                   e     a(ey
digestitni  good.   The  bodly  e(nduring of
fattigue,   and  little  susceljtible  of   the
cliange,s of the weathler.   Thiese  condtlitions are maintained by kind trea-tmetit
comlllfortable  lod(ging, and  abundance  of
food.
6207. A delicate constitution is itndicated  by  the opposite  properties.   Tile
skin  is  tlhin, and  covered  witlh scanty
hIair or,peni w(t,ol.  Witlh stcll a - covering,,
tile animtlal is atffected by tlhe least clange
of weather, oe:erconte w%-itlh tle lheat of
summiier, feels uniea-tsy in the cold of winter,
anti is clilled by every shiower thlat falls.
A velr siieall bone, lionever clean,  is
avlways accotml)aniedl wvitl a  redaucedi size
of carcass.  Tlhicki and1 rouind bone gives
a clumiisiness to thie limbs and lhead, and is
708 
POINTS OF SHORT-HORNS.
DESCRIPTION OF  TIHE ANIMALS  WHIOSE
PORTRAITS ARE GIVI,N IN THIE PLATES.
shoulder at f 7 feet 3 inches.  Eis rmeasurement for' beef was 4 feet 6 inchies in
lengthtl, by 7 feet 3 incliles in girtl], fig.
300, equal to 56 stones;  so I should  say,
fromii these proportions, that this ox was
rather too short for  a  perfectlv   symnnetrical figure, and was rather  heavier in
the lhind than in the fore quarter.
6209. Let us apply these points to the
animals whose portraits occupy the plates
given in this work-and first let us take
the examples  of the Shlort-hlorn cattle;
and of these we shlall first take the ox as
the type of the class, being the ilost coimmoni state we find the feeding Cattle on a
farm.  Fig,. 564 is a representation of the
Fig. 564.
6210. In Plate XI. is tlIe portrait of a
red and whljite Short-hlorn bull   Thle red
was remarkably richl in colour, and  the
white was confined to the  girthl  on  the
near side, the under part of the brisket,
and of the belly, and on thle scrottium.  He
was bred by thle late Mr George Biown at
WlWhitsome Hill, in Berwicksliire.  He was
got by a red and whlite bull bIelong,ing,, to
Mr Robertson of Ladykirk in that county,
named Valentine.* At that period, Mr
Robertson's stock of Shlort-lionis was  in
its glory.   The damn  of this bull was  got
by a red bull, never nanie(l, bred  by the
late Mr Thomas  miith wlieii at Grindon,
in Northlumberla.nd, and was a son of lhis
old roan bull Duke; aindI at  thia,t p^eriod
few farmiers possesse(l so!Jiglh a bred stock
as Mr Smitl; hiis steers being tlheui unlrivalled for beauty and ([ e ght.  T!he gra-nddani was one of twin quey-calN-es produced
by a quey, p)urclaed( in calf by Mr Brown
from tle                   l ate   Mr Mason of  Cljilton.  O ne
of thle twin-cclv      es,  when a  2-year  old
quey, M r  Brown sol(. to the  late Duke  ot
Bticcleuclh fo      r  50  g(uit[eas, and the othler
lie retain ed             f or i imtiself.  I purchlased  this
bull                      whien on e  ye ar old1 front Mr Brown
for 20 gitguincas,, and  keplt  himi  at   Baltniadies,
in Forfarslhire, for 8 years, during wl.ich
time                       l ie proved lim ii,eif a sure and excellentt calf-getter, an d evinced a gentleness
of disposition to every person  wlho appracled l         i iii, in  a legree remiiarkable for
a             bull.  He laad m any good points-small
lhead, full li             vely eye, small, fine,  whlite
lhorn.  H         e  wa s  completely filled up  be ihind the shoulder, atf, fi,. 565, a point in
whiclh imany otherwise fine bulls are d(leficient.   He  had a long quarter across q, a
difficult point to attain in a bull, carrying
tile  fleshl to thle hlocks  d; a  very  thick
flank i; the ribs very round, whieli, withl thle
upfilling behlinll tlhe slio)ul(ler at f, made
the  line strai.qAt from  the shouldler point
e along the rib at f, and thie buttock g. to
-.~    /:, f        -...._
\~/,
\ "-i |,?j --........ _,\  
~~~~~~~~:'.!'~,' ~kl
THE SHIORT-HORN OX.
portrait  of the ox given in Plate- X. This
is a                                      well-bred Slhort-hlorn ox, bred and fed
by                                       Mr Wilson of Cumledge, near Dunse
in Berwicksliire,                                                             who has long been a successful                                    breeder of Shlort-hlorn steers, (1 153.)
I-lis stock cotlies  to aaturity, and is fattene(d off at two years old, when nmany ouit
of 50 in numibl)er attain the weight of 70
stonies.  This )articular ox was  only 1
year 11 niontlhs old when  his portrait was
taken; and lie was a-,fterwards exhibited
at the Hithlaiid an  Agricultural Society's
show  at Beirwick-,pon-Tweed, in October
1841.  He was roan in col()ur, with a good
deal of white on tlhe head, gullet, breast,
under part of the lelly, round the girth,
and upon  the ruti)l) and buttock.    His
head  was  remarkably fine, broad above
the eyes, hlaving a pleasant cou)ntenance,
full eyes, and smiall slouchiing slharp-pointed
brown horns.  Besi(des a fine head, lie had
a straig-,hit back, round rib, *leep flank, and
full neck-vein.  His lim-bs were remiiarkably clean.  He was in highlI llealtli.  His
principal measuremen ts were, from the head
e to the slhouilder top a 27 inches, from the
slh,oulher a to a line across the hooks b,
32   inches, from the hooks b to tlhe tailhead c, 21-1 inches, in all 6 feet 9 inches;
and tlhe girth of the body  behind  the
* Coates' IIerd Book, vol. i. p. 141 (661)- Valentine.
709 
REALISATION.
the  hlock  d.   I-His  ft,r,e-arm  was  very
atrong,; nieck-vein e                  full;         and til e   brisket
A                           not too d(eep, as is often tthe case with
formed me lie weig,,hed 139 stones, sitnkig
the (offals. I saw his flesh, which was
really fine-much liker ox than bull beef.
6211. In fig.  566, I give  an outline
Fig. 566.
MR ROPPER'S SHORT-HORN BULL, BELVILLE.
bulls.  The crest of his neck a was fine,
and not lumpy, as is often seen on bulls.
His hlookls and back were remarkably
straighlt and broad, mneasuring across the
hlook-bones at b 36 inches; the ruiiip between b an(l c was full and round. and the
tail-hlead C was particularly level and fine,
showing no undue development of,nuscle
on either side of the tail, as is often the
case hlere-a deformity too generally admired, and in so far shows a prevalence
of bad taste.   His neck  and  shoulders
were thickly sprinkled with curled loclks
of long hlair, the entire body being covere(d    i
withl  fine soft hlair.  Tlhe face was sing(ularly ornamented with curled hair: it was
slie(lde(l from  a line down the front of
the ftee, seetnilig as if it had been c(nbl)ed
towards each eye; and( the lhair above the
eyes seemed also combed up to meet the
cormled locks fromi  the face.  The roots
of the lhorns were hidden with long locks
of coniled hlair reaching to the bforelhead.
His  hide was loose, thick, and soft, atid
the touch iiiellow.  He had a nmost r(obust
constitution, never having had a  single
hlour's illness in his life of 9 years.   Utnfortunately I had no mieasuremient taken
of his proportions, wlhichl I con:,idered the
most perfect of any bull I ever saw.   He
was kept generally in ordinary condition,
getting in winter onlly a few turnips to
serve for water, and principally support        ed
on straw.   In sumimer, his tendance on
the cows  was so cotnstant, that lie was
very seldom  seen  grazing, although lie
never anno(iyed thlemni even when in season.
lIt was often aniusintg to observe the trouble
he gave himself in looking after thle wel
portrait   of    a   Sa lort-lioarn  bull  that laas
obtained a most remarkable celebrity. It i8
that of Belville, a. slort-lorn bull  biretl l,y
John Mason  Hopper, Esq.,  of  Nel~:,~n
Grange, near  St(-)ckton-,l!,oni-Tees, Yorki;shiire.  This remtiarkable  biull c-arrieli tite
first prize of his class -it tlie  SlIoN%7 ()f thie
Ag,ricuiltnral So(-,iety of 1,l?g,lan(:t -a.itfield, at tlhat of tlhe Agr-icultur-al I,,tsro enment S$,ciety of Irelandtl at Limierick;, a.,t
at that of the Highilandand  Agricu ltural
Society at Inverness, a   in thlie year 1846i,
when five  years  oll.    AnId ag,ain, as  a
bull of any ag,e, h)e gained a sweepstakes  of
~70 of silver  plate, a,t tlhe Shlow  o,f tlho
Highllantd  and Agricultural  Society   at
Glasg,ow in 1850,.ag,ainist twenty  cmnlilnetitors. He has, tlte,'efi,re, proved lIi,n~elf
to be the best  bull of lhis,lay.  Be/lille
was got by Newton, hiis dami by Ganyme(le, by Uptaker, g,randl-(an, Garlaindl  by
M-,atchleria   His hea.d( is rettnarikably fine
for a bull, his neck  smilall, and( lhis extremities clean.  His skin and lhan(dlint,,
are perfect. and so is tlhe la,yinig on of tlhe
fleslh ali, -,i all the uipper part  (of hiis body,
with  no disposition anywlere to  lay  i)it
lIuimipy fat.    His  back  is   iinc()tlnl,,(nIy
straiglht and broad frotmii tlie lhoksk f,,r% a,',
and Ihis chlest remni,irjkabl ly wide andl f,ll,
as  mIay  be  observed in fig.  567, whiich
710
Fig. 565. 
POINTS OF SHORT-HORNS.
gives a fore-shortened viewxv of hlis body.
Ils quarter wats  loi)g, anid  tlhe  space
behind thle shoulder well filled up.  If any
Fig. 5(;7.
THtE SHORT-HORN COW.
Mr   Hopper's: bull  Bselville,  fig.  566,
was  also  got  by   Matcliem.   Kilmeny
was  a cow  of reniarkal)ly fine quality
of skin, andl  her lbroad face indicated  a
good d(lisposition to fatten.  Her princil)al
diuiel.siins were froni top of shlouldler a to
hook b, 3 feet; from hook b to tail-liea(l c,
121 foot; extrenie lenigtlh from head to tail,
7 feet 3 inches; girth, 6 feet.5 inches;
depth from hook  b to flank f, 2 feet;
breadth over the hooks b, 3 feeat; fron the
gr ou nd to     th e  f ore-elbow, 2 feet 6 inchles;
fomn that elbow to the top  of shoulder a,
2 fee t; il) rea(t   dthi acro ss  the s houtil(lers ata,
2  feet 6  inches; the shoulders beautifilly
sloped from d tog; from nose  to eye, 1
foot; lenf,tb t  of ears,   1 inbches; brea dthi of
pelvis, 10 innches; the    ri-cbs  e        beautifully
roeinded; and the     udder hr finely  forcned
and quartered.  It will be see n feomr these
numbers that she was lon-bodied, fron.q,
5 feet  6  inchles, in comparison to  tl)e
depth, h f, 2 feet;  and that she  was
broa(-l behind, at thje l(oks b, 3 feet, in  coiiiparison to the breadth across the sihould-er-s
a, 2 feet 6 inclhes —tie sihohil(lers being, no
doubt, thus shlair pened by the great inclination of the scaptila from)ti d to q.  The  unicomimiion  hatlf- slouching, half- projecting
position of;ter hIo,rns, and a sort of stare of
lher fuill eves, gave her countenance a somewhat auistere aspect uncommon       iII cows.
VIEW OF THE BACK ANt) CHI]ST OF BELVILLE.
point is exceedled, it is, I tlhinkl, in tile
depth of the brisket, as iiiay be observed in
both figures. The pieceof plate constituting b
the sweepstakes was a flagon, tile li(l o            f
whiich was al)propriately orniaimented anli
surmounted by a mniodel in silver of Mr
Hopl)er's bull Belville, whlich liad d(listinguislied himiself so conspicuously in I)eating    p
in compet ition every bull brought against
himi  at the national sliov  hleld in eachl
division of thile king,doim.  It was a hlappy
coincidence, besides the elegant cotlillinient, tlhat the plate so ornamentedl should
have fallen into Mr Hopper s ownil hlands.
6212. Plate VI. co nt   ains the portraits
of tiree Slmixt-liorn  cow         s, belonging to olis
(Grace tihe Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith
P           ark, aIid-Loti iaiin.  Tlse one on the left
bhendi was roan in colour,  ti           ee centre one
en             tirely red,              and tie rigt han     on    e
entirely wo ite,ci  w*     i are tlie tlnree  arrag nemerits of colour  presented  b)y all Slortthorns.   h'l'e red and  wliite:re distinct
colours in thiemselves, and(: thle roan  consis,ts of a mixtiur e of red a,ndi wlhite lha,irs,
beinig lighiter anti darker accor ding as the
ohite o,' re(d predominates.  Tlie pritcil)al
c;w in this group was tlhe left-iland roan
one, figl. 5(;8, whiichl was descendedl fri-om
tie late  Mr Robertson's, of  Ladykiirk,
cerebrated stock, anti whiichi wa3 distribiited  over  the country after  the  late
~ r Jol,n Rennie of Plhanta-ssie got possessioni of it.  Her name was Kilme,,y:  she
6213. As thle colour of Slhort-lhorn cattle
is a prominent characteristic of thiem,  I
ml ay  mention that rioaiin is a lian(ls(one
colour, and  is, I  believe,  the  general
fatvowurite n(ow-t lie fancy for colour having
t,gone fromil the red to thje whlite, and is now
settled  on thle  roali.   Dark red  usually
indicates larditness of constititioin. richness
of mlilk, and (dislposition to fatten; light
red indicates a larg,e quantity of thin inilk,
711
was got by Matcliem, dam by a son of Mr
Colliiig's George, gratid-dam by Winyard.
It will be observed that the graiid-daiii of
Fig. 568. 
tlthem to tlhrow tile fiore-leg,s elsily forward;
and withl suchl  a sliolller ia horIse  cannot
stunlble.   The beackl, from  b to c, is sllort,
no  lon,ger than to) give rooim for thje saddle.
The  chlest, from  b to o, is deep, giving
capacity for the lungs to play in, and room
for tlie niuscles reqiiireti in draughit.   The
top of the quarter from  c to d is rounde(l,
the flank, fi'om  c to n, (leepl), and  the lindquarter, fiomf to e, lon,.   On looking on
thle entire side  profile (of the  ainimal, the
bod(ly seems lmade up) (,f two large quarters,
joined togetlher I)y  a slI)()rt thick nmiddle,
suggesting thle idea of strengtlh an(l action;
and the liiibs, neck, and hea(ld, are so
attached to  thle boly  as to  appear liglht
and graceful.   In a well-fornmed Iorsise, I
fmay remtark, than st the  line fiod thte fetl   ock
.joint I to the ellbow.i()int o, is equal to) that
f,'on  the joint o to  t~le top  of tle witlhers
b.  In a 1ow%'-slioultlere(i leggy-h(rse, the
line I o is much long(,er tian   the  line o b;
butit in tihe ca,~e,,f this lhoirse. the body b o
is r,tlie  (leeleper  tli,a  tlie leg I o is  lorn,
r eal isn r t lie (lesidlera,tutiii iin a  f,trm-hlorse
(,f a   tliick  middle  an(i slih)i,t legs.  Tle
lire atcr,,ss  tl~e ril)s t'rsil/, t).f is, like  thio
1,:ick. s!,,,t, a,(tl tlse ri  ais a,'e  roind.  He
wa,ts1 (,' li:it,,ls l )ig!, - or 64 icliieisi- s ed
fro,,, (t t,, b 3.; i,.ciies,',,,,, b to c 33 inclies,
fi't,,i  c to  d 1I)  i;,e,es.  iei,,  in ext,e,,,e
!cacti,sr   7 fict'-) i,les.  Le,,tl, of tlhe f.ace
25 iniclies, u,realtltt (,f fatc e1-'r,s  tlie eves
1 l) io,s.  t  ~,f cars ~;~ in es. bre atlth
across  the ipyrek-I)omes  22 inel:e-. rltll
1,eliiyd  tl!e sl,,u!,te       r,l; i,cles   girtli of
fore-arm  23  itncl.es, girthi of  bone  below
6214. Applying  th             e           s ame  points  to
horses, we shall take the gelding as tle
standard of comparison. Fig. 569 repre                   Fig. 569.
f_ 
THE DRAUGIIT-HORSE.
sents the grey geld(ir,( whose portrait is
found in Plate XII.  He was b)re(l by tlhe
late Mr  Curry  wlien  at Brandon, Northlumberland,  iand(  was  the  property  of
Messrs. How%ey and Co., the great carriers
fronm  Edinburrli into EiiF,glanlld.  He was
not a thorough-bred Clyd(lesclale, hlaviug a in
dashl (,f coaching liiood in liiiii, a species of
farii-lio,rse  very  niiiucl) ini use  (o  tlhe
Borders. and aldmired f,r their actiin aii,l
spirit.   This geld(ing, exliluits sut(.l a fio,rm
as to constitute,  in  lily estioation, tile
very perfection of whlat a firu-liiirse slixtoldl
be.   His lhead a is stmall, l)ope clean, eves
prominent, mIuzzle fine, alnd ears set tillin
the crown  of the lieadl.  His neck  rises
witlh a fine crest from  the trutink b h to a,
and tapers to the hlead, whlich  is lI)eautifully set oi          i the neck, antd seems to Ihe
borne by it witlh ease.  His limbs  taper 
:.iiiaii, an1  tlle ral:cii oI Wllite dO%vll his t.ace
iiiarred  the  b)eauty of   his  coiinteii.iiice;
and bothl tle hind leg,s being wv)ite was aIlso)
against hlis general alpearance.   His dispositionII  was  reniarkalily  docile, and  hlis
whlole deimieanour harmliiess.  I-lis  coi,sti tution was  good, and lie Ntas an excellent
traveller. Tllese are a few of hlis diiiieiisions:-from  thje crown  of  thle llead act to
thle top  of shlould(ler b 51 inclies, froim  tlhe
top  of  the  sloulder  b to  the top of  tie
rtiiip)  c 30  inches,  froii   the  top  of tlhe
rump )c to the  tail-lhead  d  22 in-lies; iii
iall, 8 feet 7  inches.   Leng,tli office 2(-;1inlc es, breadth of face across tlhe eyes  11
inclhes, lengtlh  ( of ears  61 incles, hrea(lt
aicri)ss tlhe  look-1).ones  30  inches, girtl
beliiii(l the sli(ouller )0 inches,,rirtli of(fforearm-i 1 28  in(lies, girth) of bOIp.e belowv the
foire-kinee 12 inclies, hleigiht (-f tlie t(,i of tlhe
quarter c frmoii the ground 67 i n            hes, girtlh
(,f!leeki at tl)e oin.set of thle!,ead.393 inchles,
girt!Ii.f  muzzle 24  iltielis, anl  wi( tlt  (of
couneter 22 ici)es.   He i ns is a b,e,u ol    ively,
beauitifuil  lhorse wlhete  run (illt, aibii( his
action  was  al)l)arenitly very  ea,sy to lJililself.
..F:~ ig. 570.]  ~?.
THR DRAUGHT-STALLION.
portrait  of  the  black   diraiiglt-sta]llion,
Chamnpiorn, bre(d -by 5AIr Jamies S-ee(Iia,ii
BoI(liall, Mlil-Lotliai.  Hlie is (f tlie true
Clydesdlale  b-)reed.  He    gained  tlhe first
prize at the Hig,lland  aiid  Algricliltulaal
Society's  Sli()w at Gla-s<,ow  itn October
1837, and ol)btainel preiiliuilis  elsewhere.
lie was a sure fio,tl getter.   He wa-s fully
17  lhaids l. ih,  68  itnelhes; and(I tiiolig,,I
otherwiise a large aiiiinal, )eiiit, 8 feet 7
icii nies in lenyrth,.   iis alction waas              iia r   ayld
linex()mlm ly liglit. On cler).ring  Inim
generalltiy withl tie geldin  jiist descril el,
tilol,gl,!is )lihty is linrer, both liiii  a,nd
f(,)re qiuarters are  l(Jnr  lai  deep. exliil)iting a large (lislay (of miuscle.  His qiiiildle
is,omewlhatt siiall, as is aliiiost  ilwavtys
the c,ase with stalli(rjs wlicll lhave servei
iiiany  nilares, tlie fie(luent actiun of the
iiiuscles  of  tiie   abdl,dieti  causing  its
contractiin.   Like all stallions, lis neck
rises beautifully froli his l),ly 6 e, in  a
fill crest froin b to (i, evincin,i     thlat castratiu)n and work hlave a J)owerful effect in b
6216.  Fig.    )71, an-n  Plate   VIII. is  tle
portrait  of  a   rown  Cly(!es,tle   (],.'augl,itii-, re,      el, n ing to   tl e  laste   5It'~f,..
Bagt,iie,'Moik tot)  nie:iti-  ])a             it    i l MidI~.thian.    Slie   gaineit  tlje  tirst  lI)ie!};litii
at  ev-er y    sli(Jw   (,f   st,,ck   slie               e es ever
ex~libitedl.    The,    w!Ji.,e  raltch    (1,)wn   i,,ltr
f.tiee, so1    ()   nilcli  wllite  (:n   le1r   |ti
detra-,ct fr,)ni tfle  I)ea.-itv t,f           iter l:e:r:    (,;
btit notwitlhstaiii(ilig, ti:e-,e (ir;wl..,, he 
REALISATION.
is an exece(dir,gly hla.ntidsoine and I)eautiful
iliare.  You have (tonly to look at tie plate to
observe the ealsy flirwing, lines of hler whole
those b of horses of other colours; and also
that  the white feet of horses of other
colours are more tender than dark-coloured
feet; buit on wliat grounds I cannot say.
6218. In Plate IX. is a representation
of a dinmonit Leicester  shleep.   The perfect foriri of the breed would have heen
best shlown in a  wethier, but a Leicester
wettier is now-a-days so very  seldoni to
be found that I coul not obtain one for a
portrait to be taklen. Nor will tlie dinmont in the plate  be of mnuchl  use  as  a
reference, since its posture in reposing on
the grounid is unfavourable to aff,)rdiIIg a
proper view of its form.   The head anrid a
le,, however, indicate that the sheep was
well bared, and the texture of  the wool  is
well  p)reserveil.  Like  thie ox and  the
gel(ding,, ini (cattle and horses, tlhe wetlher
best  exhibits t!he points of  a particilar
breed,, wlicll tiie b)ree(ler sllouhl( cultivate
withi a view to pro-)fit, and free fromii tiose
sexual clharacteristics whlich the stallion
an1 tile Lare  the bull and the cow, and
the tu) and the ewe, must always possess.
conltour, tand  alsr  tihe  g,ieat  sirbstance  of
bothi f,re an(  liin(li (ItrLiter.   The rise (and            w
crest of  hler   ecek  fr(oli  6  to a, atr(l froiri e
to a, atre rerlark.bly flie.   Tile 1i-eck frir                e,
b to c is soiiewlrit i,rll)l,w, and(] tlhere is a corresprrirling (lepressi(-)n of tle i)elly at i, bo,th             i
beir.,g tle effects of foal-s)earing;  as there
is, )besidles, a slarkuess of tire fl:niik in front
of q, a  irsurl  deficiency  in  l)roorl-nrares.
Thie to)[ (kf tlre  roiil)p  fromi   C        to d is  very
fine.   The  shioul(ler slo(,)es  well  fromi    e to
b, indlicatitlr  (oo(  acti,m; the iiiscles a        tre
well (levelol)ed  o*l tie fore-(,irter firom   e
to  f,  inlic til   p()wer  in  (Irairglit;  tlie
rib)s are  round, anl  tire barrel lrn  from f                o
to y'. f-Lv(,Iuale coirfigtrrrati)n inl a hbro()(1;nre tr  (rrgving   r(:)(lil  f(,r tlre  gr()wtli  of
the f(Le:us.   Tite  lirr(l-q(rtarter  fronm  q to          ih
is  lione.  Tlie  legs  -ire  l)l.cetdl lirectly
rrn(lei tlle  It,(lyv,  tire  fore kire    1  lieingT
l)rr))i:tirl str,iing, tie li-ack of tlie f,i-le-ler
furni  tire fetl(,ckl   n  to  tle I)(,dy strigtlt,
ain(l tlhe fi,re —.tni    k t)rio(l an(l flaLt. I ha',Ive
li  lelrsilrrelrellrt r,f tlie iiriientsiir,,s of tllisis
iullrie, ft;r a  c,,ril)aris,n  witl!  thirose (if tire
geil;lir,g  Lnln   st.illiril. B    esid e  riuilnessrt
anil  leoiiti,  (f i-il), a  broiil-rrare  iii   li,e
w ile aeriss tile lI,()k-i,ies tll  tire p)elvis,
to alttri-(  rooiir  for tire growtlh  an-l(  sil)Tsequett egress of tie f,:il.   1':Iis irrargae                                         lave
uip fr-al-learing at an early ag,e.
6219.  Plate XIII. contains tle portrait
of a Leice-ster tup  wlich belonged to  the
Duke of  1iuccleucli; as  also anollher witlhout the He  fleece  in  fig. 330.   Thile tup in the
plte  exllicirts tte   peculiar pr   oper tie s   of
tie brieed tlo whlich   lie bel o ngs; th e  principa,l of wlhielh are, face and  legs covered
wii thwliite air, a   ornless i ir e a i- d, ain(i bsody
%well enveloped in  lotngt wool.    Tlhe ind(is   ittviul ciharacte ristics of  this tuip a r re, recta ng ul.air carctse, riound ril i, small       bone,
fine llea(l, smtiall miuzzle, larg,e full eye,
aii~l expressive countenance, antil lhis ears
uliiri ch  sl,,r  t es twia til  us ual. Thie lieaid   cf
tlhe tllp is brOa der atro.ss the eyes tli.tit
tl!-at of  tlhe ewe  or  wetlerI. and  the  skirt
l)eean)eess, little   wrinkle d  upon  Te  tlhe  ise
fwiee te gets age(y.   The r r,ci is tickset, lo(ng,, of good quality, and  the  fle.ece
envelops tlle entile bodv ale)ve and helow,
-,,  remark  of  soiiin(n  constitution, and a
great lie,ans,)f preserving~r the aniima,Il fi'on
tle  I)-,1<- efircts of the wea,tlier al(ove, and
of tlhe dam-jpne.ss o,f the ground bel,,w.  A
level  b)r-oadi back  froiii nieek to  ripiii, and
,tto.s;ss  the ribl)s, is   cisacharacter-istic of tle
Leicester; and  ol t)heii, turz-nedi up, a broad
chiest withl fillless o,f fleslh in the a.irmi-pits
atnd( tie inside,,f tle lhatms.  Tlhe the,ch
slhothl(I be equally imiell(w ahmg  the  back,
714
Fig. 57 I.
c  _d
9
"I
THE DRAUGHT-MARE.
0'21-. 1 ]five clioseii -t I)I(ick
gl-o,,g to illiistl-:tte
the tiii-ee   ttoioiii-s  most                                                                     een
A I)Iacl    s,,,-tllioll
r,eeitis    the                                                            ati(I   -.i
iii,.i,re ii,,
iiioi-e tinc(,)iiiiii(iii ii(w tli,-tli
it w,,t.,i  2't)  ye -,I,i-s It is s-,iitl   t,ii,,tt the
feet (if gi-ey                                      ai-e iiiore teii(loi- tliati 
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R7EALISATION.
)burcrs should never be lost  silght of, thley
being tnow entirely iuured to thiis clillaite;
ad(  they are generally very lhealtlhyv and
good layers, their flesh  possessing, if not
grne at   delic.acv   of  whiteness,  a   g,ood
sflavollr   I thlink it would be wortli while,
, ias a matter of profit, for fattruers to niake
o an(l  rear capoiis for  the imarket, being
soon  fit for  the  tal)Ie:  the  process  of
ecapl)oning niglit l)e easily learnt.  There
helis not yet beenii ilitrodjl;e(l  any bird of
the goose trible better  tlhan the old grey
goose  and  lwhite gander.  I  ilave tried a
crioss withl the Clijnese ganiler and the conimon  goose, as also one with the ciiiiimon
gandler and the Chinese goose; but thloug,h
the plrogeny was larger than eithler, and becalpte rather hlandsonie birds, the flesh  was
coarse and the flavour spoiled. Aylesbury
ducrks are certainly superior to the conimon
bocducks bothl in size andl fleshl; and tlhey are
not only large layers, but lay all winter.
622. Wh v etin   ll a boar attaiyrs the                                               lyae of
severl ye a.lr s, tl     e tsks e seen to lytje'   t
a  cs nsik les able  way     eyol th le    litk;  aa1 (1
if hle is,it all  c,'p)Ss  in  temiiper, and is
permsitte(-l to go albout    the cbllrts  of tile
steadin,l in  aIIiell t(   e cattle are  confired,
and  t(, iniakt   fte nin         if litte hlas
been  klnown  to injird        the attle-wlicll
may  i,.ve traimle(i upon t h    imii i.cci(lenitally
in tlie litter -so very seliously witl   the
tallyss als to  occasiO,n   even deathl.  Hi  e
striles uwards   itl t le             tusks;  an br sliold
the stlo]e be  ilirected to the belly (f tle
ox,  the skini antd tlhe  peritoiietiin will  be
instantly torn, and(  tle b)owels  lai(d  baire,
tlje streli nt,ti  of  the neck ouf a rslr ae )ir
tbeing al(}ost incredible.   I lc,tve ol)serxe(l,
h,owever, that  tlhe  b1).-r is itiore frienDIly
withi cattle than with),{rses  esp,,)ecially.-Y,)iit,, ones, %%lichli,ften deli,,rht in g,ivit,g hlime a bite or at kick in pas:ing.   Witll
lari,e  tusIks, it is safist eitlier to  b:'eak
off  tlleir p)(ints, or p)evenit }}oirts iimaking,
their litter am-iong-st ctattle and lhorses.
6223. Plate  XIV.   gives portra its  of
the  (lifferent  kitnds  of  pI)oultry  reared
on  a  fari,  witliut  reiril  t) faincy
breetls.   The lil:it('k Noifolk breed( of turkeys I.ve e lieai[l recolititu(le(il as Ibein      tg
botih strong aul l-are';  inild I!ive seen  a
pure wilite %var,iety; I1utt I sli(il(l not desire
a better I)reed tiatii tle  lili,t,grey, wlhatever thieir naiiie,r Ilrigi ini lme.   l               tile
young,  cocks  attaiiie(l, wNitli nile, every
year att least 15  lb). each  by  Cliristiiias.
Thle o1.1 cocks iiever lie(aiiie troiublesollie.
wlhicli I liave  seen tle black variety (lo;
and(l thle  liensis  ale iiiost ca,-eftil  iiiitliers
and great layers. Thle D,rking is dleci(ledly
an excellent fowl, attl I pereive that the
grey variety is prefrred to the whlitle —:,t
least t!hey aire muiichi iin)re frequertly to be
seen.   Nevertheless  tlhe cOmlnu   (  lHatmi
the commiioni len  in  tle p)late.  The  flesh
of a foi  l is cidiefly fiunuid on  the  stelrniuml
or lr eaist-bone        l which, wlhen   not  full, tle
foil is considered leatn.    The  develo)p-men t of thle Y111s8cle tl!ei e is (lepeln(tet  oil
t!ie state of tile extremiiities  Whlen tlhe leadl
gn( I  livaitls t ari lteee ar( ge a coarse,  t he skell
toni of  the  bouly, iniclud(itn,g  the breastbone, arie  Il7 igi  d -inrl'~wd  ai( tlieta  the
musii.cele is ttlinl,1.(I  -sinekvy- ])tit  w*Ien
they atre  siall and fine. the hlorn  of tiae
bill firm, tle sca,les of tl,e leg,s  tlini anid
close set, aindi the eye la-rge  aindtl clear, tloe
be(bly assumes a roundnless  of forni, becouei nI,g deeij,er and approaching, to  the oval.
.716
I)acon,in(] liaiiis. Sticii a b:i-ceil iievcr re
loll, it i,eqtii res   oiilv tiiiie ti) (,row to
the size wa,nte(l, wlieii a little ()f, tlle
flesh t)-v corn soon prepares it for
Tije,siiott sliotild li-,t%,e t-)een iiisttilee(I as
the st.-tte of the i,)i,- clas, wliieli ,lioN7s t,lie
points ()f iiio,,:t %,-,tliie fi)i- 1.)i-ofit; I,)tit the
difl'ei-,etice, in the i)oii)ts of tlio s,)w -,tied
Slott -,t,i,e so little (lefine(l, that the i-el)i-esetit,-Lti(-)ri ()f the oiie serves %N,ell
for that of the otlier.
6224. Fi,,. 574 is an outline portrait of
C,
Fig. 574.
I
Ift
QG
THE CO.MMO'\ V()Wl,. 
-~~~~~~~~~e -    -
0 -  0 ~~~~~~~~~~~ 0  0 -              0~~~~~~~~~C
CD CD I
0, (D
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117'
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V.
:4
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:z
V.
tz I'I
t,
r
v 
REALISATION.
but according to tile later statements of
the Rev. MAr Berry, thie Sliort-iI,,rns  aia(i
established their superiority  as feeders.
There never wvas a doublt of  tile Shiorthorn cow being a rnmuich better and a muchi
lInger nmilker tlhan  tile Hereford  colw.
For mly part, I never liad the good fortune
to see eithier a Hereford bull or a Hereford hleifer as handsome as many  Shlorthorn bulls and iheifers I have seen.   Fig.
576 rep)resenits the head of a Hereford ox
Fig. 576.
eyes, 10  incies; len,th of ear,  6 inciles,
stiootl   outside, s   le aivfy   insi(le  n tohitt of
lhorn, 24 inches;  girtlh, 101 inchles; girth
of ituzzle, 19    inchses; girthin th e  ri( ile
shoulder, 100 inc h ies;    readtl a.cross the
loole      lnes, 29 inciles;  brea dth i across the
shioul(lers,  28  inclies;  lieighlt  from the
ground  to  thle  fore  ell~owN', 301 itclhes;
f'romi  the elbow to tihe top. of  sI)ouilder, 27
inchies-to,,ethier,.57-1 i,ches;  fromi tlhe
g(,rouin(d to b:ick at tlhe hio(ok\s,.5, incihes, so
thlat lie sto:,(1 level; fih('i   l,t,ol,s to ho()ttom
of t lie flaiik, 28 inches; fi'(o)im tlhe gromin(l
to tl~e hiitndi lh,,ck, 21 inches; tirea(ltli of
brisket,  141 inches.  It weighied 7 6 stonies.
6227.  West-Hlihl(7nde
-Tire  West Highilatid  ox
b)een fitnle(l in Scot land as
for yiel(lin(g p)rimie  t,eef.
the fie   lfoints of thle Slho
body, whichi is cl)vered wit
of shliaggy soft hlair, that    l
the keenest blasts and the
rains.   Fig. 577 gives an i
Fig. 577~
THE HEAD OF A HEREFORD OX.
whlich t)elonged to Mr S. Druce, Ensham,
near Oxford,  and was exhibited at the
Show of the Agricultural Society (of Englan(l, in July 1839, where it gained thle first
prize of its class, when it was 4 years
4 monthis old. It will at once be observed
that the muzzle is fine, the eye large, full,
and lively, and the lhorns sniall, tapering,
and shiarp-poinited. A I)rilght-whiite face
is very c'mmon in the Hereford breed,
which gives thiem a clean appearance, with
white horns hlaving brownishi-red points.
The body is either dark or light-red and
white, a c(immon colour, or a dark rich
chestnut-brown, which is becoininl fashionable.  The handliig was firm and mniellow.
Hile not thin.  Hair soft and pleasant to
the feel.  Thle skin on the no)se and around
the eyes was fine fleshi-colour. The countenance not very placi(l.  The walk stately.
It  was  bred  by  Mr  Artlhuir  Thoioas
James, Mornington, near Hereford.  The
dirnelnsions of its principal points were
thlese:  Froni crown  of head to top of
shoulder, 29 inciles; from top of shoulder
to the line of liooks, 37 inches;fromii line
of lh,,oks to tail-hea(l, 19 inches; total
length. 85 i.iclies; lenrth of face, 23
inches; from thie eye to the po~int of the
nose, 12 inches; breadth of face across the
of an  ox which 7   elonged to  the la te   Mr
Caimphell of  Jura,  and was  shownI witb anotlier a ds    go od as  itself, as Ti  pair, at  the
High,Iilaiid annd Ariciultural Society's Show
at Inverness, in Octol)er 1839, wlhen they
gained  the first p)rize of  thieir class.  It
will he observed  that the muitzzle is fine,
eye large  aiidI full, anid tie  lh(,rns long,
sinall, taperinigi, very sliarp-p)ointed, white,
and tilpped witlh bl)ack.  Thle c(l)our of the
body is usually black, soiietimes re,l, and
not'infrequenitly dun. Tlile black coloured,
718
I'i
THE HEAD OF A WRST-HICHLAND OX. 
i  L-It JsIjlUOll i1iarKeT  as sanlples (ot g(oot.
l, eef. To Mr Hugli Watson of Keillor,
in  that county, this  bree(l is miost  certainly indebted for the firmi establisliment
of tile larg,est slJiare of thtat fanie; for I ani
persui.ded  thlat, hlad  it not been  for Mr
Watsoi's  great exertions  ill  itenprovin(,
thleir points, by wllicl tile Pdegree of perfectitol  th e  br  eed         is ca)yablae of arriving                                     -at
ias bleen  slo  in, their famde  wovuld  not
lIave  t)een so,reat, nor  would an  iiiiprovel ra(e I)ave been so generally distribrjted thlirouglout tl)e couintr i.  1nThe fayrmiie
of  tlhe  breede however io bAr   Waitsos 
aIaii(-Is, is only a repetiti(n  in S~-,tl:(n    ) of
whIait had been done  in En)g,landt for tlhe
ShIoIrt-horns aid( Leicester slheep  by C(olling,s arn(d Bakewell.   His iilerit is equal
to  th,eiis,  thjout,,Ih folowilltoin  at a later
])eriod  ()f time, ina-,sIiluchi.Is he was  the
first person  in Scotlhin(d  wvlio raised any
of its (ldoitesticate(-l b)reedIs fronm a low to
a very high, position.   Fig. 57-8 represents
tlee head(i of an Angus  ()x, 4  years (,ld,
bsred by Alr Watson, an(d exlilite(l by hiizn,
witlh aniiother as a pa,ir, at the Sliow (of tlhe
]li,hl,l)and(  and  Agri-ciltural  Society  at
Duindee  in  1843;   andi3 it  obtained  the
first )rize of its clatss at tlhe Showv of the
Ag-ricllltural Iinproveiiient Society of Irelandl in tlat year.   It,)1)tainied no  )remiumititi at Dundee, in  consequence of its
cotmpanion  not  Ieitig  eqtual  to itself,
Lord  Panmnaire exl)iI-itinii( -t naore equial
pair. It will le observed that its mtiuzzle
is finle'  eye pro)miintenit and( livelv; ears
broadl, tlhin, and(  well fring,e(-l with  lhair.
Its lheadl is destitute of lhorns, whlich is
weapon  (of defence, it is furnislhed witl) a
lthard( enlargemiient of bone  npi(n tIe crown
of the lhead, whlich is always si'ritointed
with  a- tuft of lon,r hlair.   Its countenaniece  was placid.   The skin was  not  too
tlhin, thle lhand(lling  niello()w, and  the hliair
tljthick set in an(l soft,  tll(,uglh not long.
It  lia(l thle  clharacteristic of tihe  p>urity
of its  breed,  not   a  hliair  to  be  found
upon  it  but  Iliwhat  was  blac(k.   It  was
the,lost perfect (ox of its kili(l I ever
saw; I co)id nt,,, finid a fauilt in it, tlih,ugli
I lhave trie(l to (Io it.  On  tis acc(unIt, I
aiii proud  in l)aviig in imy p)ossession  a
faithflftl poIrtratit,,f it  in oil, tak-en  from
the  life at  Keillor, shiortly after  it was
exlilbite(l at Dun(lee, bv Mr Goiurlav Steell
of Edinl)tig,,l.  A  ratlier reiiiarkabile history  attaches  itself to thlis ox.   It was
itprchliase(l fronm Mr Watson  foir IHis R(-yal
Higlhniess Prince Albert,  whio exhibited
it at tile Snitlifield( Club  Slow in 1843,
arid(-l from  thience it returned to Windsor
iPark,  Her  Majesty  not  pernitting  it
to  be so1(1 to  the butcher.   It  is still
there; and, in order  tlat  it may eij,y
na lI on,  life, wlichii good  lie'ilthI alone can
insure, it is gently  worke(l  f,r exercise
every day in a  lar,g,e roller upon glass.
0 p
THE HEAD OF AN ANGUTS OX.
6229. Ayrshfires.-Tlhe Ayrshire breedt
originated in the county fronm wlhichi they 
pearance, atll. eveii a (luIn, WViiicll 1i
rise to susl)icioins as to purity  of
bsut sch(,-I c(olours alre( known\ii to be 1
stockls of tlhe purest an1()l oilt    bl(~(
points  c,onisi(leredi  g(,o(  iII  an 
l,l, b)y tlhe b)ree(lers of  that  si)
sto(ck, aire a b)roa(l shi,rit lheadl, tli
I,Rrea~ling fi'on the side a little i
aid(i tuirning  lipwardis.   The  to)
shiotil(ler slarp, back  rather  narr(
Xxlreminded over  thle  ril)s, ribts  ratl
hioois comliiie(l, htaimis tl~iin, tail-liea
wh,Iiat dIroop)ing,,  bell     y mdtvrged,  a
vervy slto(t.  Thlese are allpoints a     ll
tlilose of a (god Sllort-hjoi-i;- an(d tli
ini wllich  tlhey agree are a  straigi
loose libellow skin, larg,e eye, sharp
anld sniall lhoin.   Fig.  5,9  rei)res
tlhe cow are aiii-e(il at by breeders, on tlie
stcpt)ositioii that thley t-ad to proniote the
g re aiter secretioni cf iiiilk; but siuch a view
is based  ()i, dolubtful gr,ounds.   Tlhe pI)resent ten(lency of the breeders of Ayrslhire
cattle, iii A yrsiire, is even to go beyotlid the
points elnulieratedl above. and to a(ld ligit
weigrlit to  thleni-a  delicate  appearance
and a well-set nmilk vessel being the points
imost ainied at.   Attemi)ts hlave b)eeii iiade
foir soeli  years plst to cross the Alderney
with  the Ayr.slire, in  bothli ways,  puttingt,  the Alderney  )ull to the Ayrshlire
cow, and the Ayrsiire bull to thle Al(lerney
cow; butt thle end(leavours to imitate tlhe
forli  of thle Ali(lerney c(w have not suiecee(le(l, a-nd the result lhas rather  tendedl
to pIro(luce in botli progenies the iniiferior
points of bothl breeds, as iiiigit hlavre been
explected; for the Alerney bull has not
so good a frame as thile Ayrsliire cow, n(ort
ljas the AI(lerney cow so good a  contstittl
tion as  the Ayrsliire  bull.         lie li'rlit
weig,hts lhave  been attaime(l bvy tle repieliensible practice in all breeiir-bv ~tar -
ingi   the  young lheifers, witli the  atvow e(I
olbject  of  ilmakinf  tlLeiii good  miilkers,
whlereas its d(lirect teii(lency is to ini juire tIe
constitution of the ililkin,r sty,k.  On tl
contrary, were tle lheifers 1led and rear'.d
so as to attain I eavier w ieligts tn-d greater
suibstance, thley woul il not oinly prove  Iec-t ter  milkers, buIt afterwards feed to greater
w-eig(lits.  lThe parainioint  ol- ject {f tile,
Ayrslire breeders  for profit, cught o i bvl  -
ously (o be to obtain the largest qiantity (of
nilk; wn-ith! tl}e grde'tist disposition to fattez,'
THE                       A1
THE AYRSHIRE BULL.
oultline  portrait of the         best Avrsldi                       e
Bull I ever s,aiw. He was bred by  M1r
Fig. 5i'9.
- I-          ---- 
POINTS OF TIHE BLACK-FACED.
lharliy race, and  well  suited, on  that
account, for tlhe middle green pastures of
the mou()tntainotus pearts of our country. In
Plate IX. is a portrait of a Cheviot w etlher,
in which tlhe lightness of the fore-quarter
is well shown, as well as tlle sharp look of
the eye which  the  breed exhibits, and
which gives a somewhat wild aspect to the
countenance.   The back is straight and
the figure lpretty rectangular.   The letter
P on the near ruiillp, buisted on with tar,
(4()18,) is the iniitial of the name of the
fari where it was bred,  or  that of the
farmer who bred it.
when  l)ut up  to lie fed;  and assuredly
neither  of  these en(ls w  ill be  atta,inied
by light weights and delicacy of appearance.
6231. Black-faced.- Fig.  581  repre
Fig. 581.
tlhe hlead of a Cheviot tap vwhichl  gained
thle first prize of his class at thle Iigihland
and Agricultural Society's Sliow at Aberdeen in 1,140, and was exhibited Iv Messrs
Cr,aig, Bi;(,house, Sitlierlan(lsli ire.  It will
be o)served( that the face  is lon(er than
thlat of the Leicester, muzzle not so fine,
eye niot so full, cars not set so hligli atnd
hlandsomiely ui)(n thle top of the lied, aniid
tlere is a rugosity of tlhe skini across the
briIg-,e of thle I,>'e.  InI tle whlite face,
lnd -want of hoirns, t!e Cheviot resembles
thle Leicester.  TIe wool is short, thlickset  and  of fine quality  fit for the sorts
of iiianuf tctriiie  as tihat of thile S)utlhdowv ns.
Tile carica(s is usually iiuneqiial, tile foi-equirlte)r l      i)eill ter  than tli( - iii-arrow iii the clcs      t, itli tlhe foie-knees s      et
near. Tile flesli is fihe-rraine(l, often wvell
interi ixiedl  withl  fitt  aiid  i-s geaerattly
esteem ed for thle table   lThe dis)ositioni
of the ( Ch'eviot is s,).ileh-liat susptBiicionTsi 1ith
an inclinattion to rove;  which lenders the
bree-l ratlher  unsteady and  unkindlv to
feedl, at  least at a,i early  ge.    The
Cheviot, as their namie imiplies, lad their          a
origin in th)e Clleviot I-ills, in  Nortlia,nl-nf
berland.   They occupy almost all tIhe pastoIra.l hlills of thle soutlh o(f Scotland, espccially from  tlhec centre of the countrv to f
thie eastward.   They are localised in.soiiie
of the best parts of the Gramnpian imounIItaiiis, and are to be found as far north as
tlhe  hills of Catitlness  and  Suthlerlanrd.
They aiyv, tlherefore, be rcegarded  c,s a
VOL. I1.
.                ~           p
serits the liead of a  Bl ack-faced tup) wh icl
wlaS exlhibitedI by  Mr Robert   M'Turk
otf tIastin,:s Hall, Dinifriesshlie, -.t the
11 i,l,l.an-d and Agricultural Society's Slhow
at Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1841, w!Iere it
obtati-,ed the first prize of its class.   As
ind-licative of tlhe judoimient and care witlh
whlic!i tle br-eed ha-s been  cultivated, we
lhave only to look -,at the taperini, faie,
slllall it muzzle, and full eye.  The Blacikface(d ra-l lIas al-,ways an  archedl nose, ex!)ressive of  boldness and coura,,e.  The
,-ce aniid legs a.re covered witl black liair,
or mottled with whlite, nmostly tie la,tter.
The lhead is liorned;; and the lhorns, beino
large andI cuirved in the age(d taip, are considered tlhe imost picturesque olbjects of their
kinid  exhibited  1)y  any  animiial  of  this
2 z
71
6230. CAleviot.-Figi.
Fig. 58O.
580 r epresents
THE HEAD OF A CHEVIOT TUP
THK HEAI) OIk'F A ILACK-Z-FACED RAM. 
REALISATION.
strong, and( set directly below thle body.
Tile back is straight, and thle f(orla of tlhe
side is rectangular.  The great (lefect of
the Biack-faced breed is the narrowness of
back, whlieli muchl reduces the weight of the
(,carcass   Could its back b)e made a little
broadler, the  chest would  become wider.
and then the  aninmal would  feed easier
and quiclser, and afford greater profit.
country.  Tle wool is sond ewliat long and
'oarse, whic     h r    ender   it of cotbtparatilely
tsmall value as an  article of manufacture,
and, being rather tloin-set, exposes.tle
body to the inclemency of thue  weat-ier. To
assist th e animal  to wnitlstand the weather
the fleece is subjected to the filthy o)eration of suicearingt, which (leteriorates  its
value        considerab ly.   T   he a rcass is we ll
formed, carrying, its de)tlt fi,rward to tile
brisket better than the Clheviot; but still
the entire body is narrow, ow ing to the flatmess of the ril)s, whichl renilers it lig,lit-or
in want of substance, as it is colnlnonly
called.   The  fleshl is fine-gra,Iined, highflavoured, greatly esteenmedi,  n  can be
fed sufficiently fat on tlJe turnips and pastures of thle low country   Tile  breed is
very hardy, fi-equeztiti,, the highlIest parts
of our hleathl-clad m ( iiountains, and in suimiier require little care from tlle sliep)ler(l.
Fig. 582 represents the head of a young
Fig. 582.
6232. Scottise     Original.-More  as  a
curio)sity than a matter of interest, I give
in fig. 583  a representation of the lhead of
Fig. 583.
THE HEAD OF A TUP OF THE ORIGIN.h BREED OF
SCOTLAND.
a tup of the original  breed of sheep of
Scotland.  Very few of thlese now remain.
A small lot was exhil)ited at the Show of
the Highland and Agricultural Society at
Inverness in 1839, wlhere  I saw thlem.
They  were  small, keen,  active-looking
creatures.   The  face   was  tawny, the
eye lively, and not unpleasant in aspect.
The hlorn yellowish brown, and curved in
the form of the Black-faced.   The niuzzle
small.  The wool was not unlike that of
the Black-fa,ced, but ratlher  more hairy.
Thle legs are of the colour of  the face,
whether whlite or tawniy.  The head, face,
and horns of thle breed have a strong re semblance to those  of  the  Black-faced
breed, antl may  have been the foundation
upon whlich it was reareld; but with what
cross thlle face becanme black does not appear,
altlhough a late writer remairks that a black faced sort from Eng~land was said to have
originated tihat of Scotland.*
, March 1849, p. 406.
Black-faced ewe, wose  muz e an f        ace ee   a uz  e  andf
are small, with a full, prominent, briglht
eye.  The lhorn is short, because the ewe
is still young,. but it is handsomely set
upon the head.  Tlhe hlair of the face is
somewhat nmottled, wlhich is the more comimou colour in tlhe ew-e tl-han the pure black.
The colour of the laqnb's face, however, is
most frequently entirely black, and  becomes mottled as it a dv ances in age.  The
wool comes well round tlhe face, and the ear
is protected with thick-set halirs.  In Plate
IX. is a portrait of a Black-faced wetlher,
which gives a good representation of that
age and condition of this valuable }reed of
,sheep.  The eye is prominent andi bright.
The muzzle small.  The wool plenty, and
w-ell brought about tle face.  Tle legs are
722
THE HEAD OF A BLACK-FACED HWE. 
POINTS OF SWINE.
Joinas Webb),  Brabaliam,  Cambri(lgeshire,
and  was exlil)ite,l b)y llim -it tihe Sl1ow of
tlJe Higliland  atnd Agricultural  S()ciety
at Dtiin-lee in 1843, whlere he obtained
tihe first porize of  lhis cl.ass.   Frotn  this
fi,ure it:q~t~ears tljat thle face  olf the Soutlh,
do%%71n tutlp) is sliort and Ibt-,a(,t tile eye  large
an~t  li%?eiy,  thle miuzzle  somnewvliat tlhick,
antd(I thje nose slightly arhed(l; the ears are
wi-lely  set Oll thte lIea,-(l,l  are ratler
tlhick and  slhort.   Thje  wo,.l in thlis; p)artictul:-r  slieep) d(es ni,t  comie  on to  thle
ci,()wii (of t!he lieadl, but I lhave seen Southidowns  withi a  t.uft of  wooIl  up)on it. I
shiouldl say,  1roti, its g,enieralI  appearance
and tlhick-set wool,  that this  bree(d lias -a
strongl, and lardy constitution.
6233.' Southdown. -Only a few years
since, the Southdown  shieep  were  little
known  in Scotland; but what was then
known was favourable to their character,
and they now are deservedlybecoilin ng more
and more a favourite.  Liike tile Cheviot,
they  are covered  with  sliort, tlick-set,
fine  wool,  but  it is of a dusky brown
colour, which is also tile coloiir of tile hliair
that covers the face and leg(s.  Tliey are
hornless.   In symmetry of body they are
mniuchi superior to thle Clheviot, lhavint their
quarters, like tile Leicester, about equal.
Their fleshl is fine-graitied, and, as highflavoure(l mutton, is preferred to that of
the Chleviot in the Londln nmarket.  They
have also a gentler disposition, and are in
consequlence  better  feeders.   The  only
doubt with  tile Soutlido)wns, on their introdulction into Scotlant, was their ability
to withstand the d(almip climate of our subalpine pastures.  Thlje experience o)f several
years has proved that they are capd,l-)e of
endluring any climiate witht the Cheviot;
whlich being  the case,  witlh  thleir other
superior qualities, thley bid fair to rival,
and lerhiaps ultimately to displace, tlatit
breed.   Mr  Huglh  Wats(n hlias had thlem l
at Keillor, in Forfarshiire, for more than
20 years, and they hiave tiri-ven with  lhimii
upon the pastures of thle Sidlaw Hills.
Tlhe Duke of Ricilmond(i also ba.,s them in
M-oraysbjire. Ot!ier flocks are now scattered
througll tle country.
6235. Swvine. -The breeds of pigs are
generally divided into thle small and  tlhe
elao r ge,  tlhoughl  they are  not  sufficiently
niarkee(r in cFaracter to exhibit  tioe specific
difireances a)etw een titheim in thei r puri t y.
In t sree ding etlilei of  thleose btreeds of
pigs, it is  of essential iiepd)or   tance  to
keep them pcitre, for        other,wise th iey
will (le,etineratef into coarseness, the one
hosing its earliness of miatuirity for miaking
the  best Ihoirk, and        tile oth er its  valu al)le qualities for curing i~lto lhamn and
flitelies of blacon.  For the u      se of the farm
tle larte breedrs are best a       paltedi for tlhe
nmrilaket,    if intended fi r cllrill, andi  the
smal      l f     b p,-k.ring(s, or for tile ordinary
courlinslrtion  of tie leouse -wi ich silodild
always be  li,,iilbred, as they will then be
in such conjditiotn as to be ready for use at
all times.   Perhaps tle  test pig for  the
pOor lal,, iUring nmal is a cross  between the
latrge and small breeds, and to carry it no
fartiler.''l'ie 1,feeding,, of pigs dieserves
great care, nimuch tiore so tihan is genierally
bestowed  iupon it; andl in thliemi it is difficult to attain the right standard of rierit;
but in the attainmuent (Ef that point, tle pig
assuimes a corresponding value in tlhe miar~
ket anl at hoiie.  I had a small bieed of
pigs of tile greatest value.   I received  a
young boar and sow as a present froini Lo)rd(
Panirruire, of a breed called  the Western,
because it was reared by the late Lord
Western, in Essex, withI great success.
lahey  were  lbrownisih  black and  white,
something like thie colour of ile  wild boar.
Their  head  was  lshort and  br(o,-l(, snout
lshort and fine, eye smniall and lively, ears
prick-shaped, set upon  the crown  of tihe
72g
6234. Fig. 584 represents the lhead of a
Fig. 584.
T?Millf*AI) oP A SOvTHt)OWN  TUP.
Sloddown  utup, whlichl belonged to iMr 
REALISATION.
lead.   The clheeks larg,e and fuill.  Legs
s h ort and small bo      ned(.  The body full andt
routnd.                            T Ti e  skin sm nooth, witilhout  a
wrin kle, thlin,  an     d       p retty well covereld with
hairs and             lonr bristles. They were always in condition, tlioug,ll they got leae
to go aliouit in searcl-h  for thle greatest
part of their food in the greent fields and
courts.  As  long as the sows and young
pig,s were confine(l, th)ey were well attendled
to witll litter, water, and food. Whenl
kept on, thley wouldl attain a great weight,
but I neveI kelpt them beyond 20 stonies,
and only those wlichl were  intendedl for
curing into hamlins fior the ihouse. Thley were
thie   l(ost  d(ocile  creatures  imnagi'nable,
hardly limoving( out of your way on the
roa(l.  Tlhey were very lealthiy, anti(  the
you g  ones  when  cut  soon  recovered.
Tleir fleshil was well nmixed with fat, and
the fat was  niore like tender gristle than
soft lard.  I have not iiiet with a superior
bIreedl anyiwlere.
a boar of the large breed( whlichl belonged
to  the Duke of Buccleuel, at  Dalkeith
Park,   Mid-Lotliian.   To  judg,e  by  tlhe
sleeping hjead, tlle boar, tlhoug,hI evidently
full-g,rov;n and large, bears tlhe sanme cllaracters of pricked ear, tapering face, shl(rt
nose,  aing( full cleels, witll the full fleslv of
tlhe neck of the small  breed.   Thjese p)ig,s
lhave strong constitutions, and are covered
wiitlh letnty of white  lhair and valuable
b)ristle.  Their temper is generally dlocile,
and  thiey seldom   wander  far  from  the
stea-ding, or eng,age in miisclhievous pursuits.   Tihe position of tlhe tusk is marked
by tile opening in the upper lip.
6238. IIorns.-Much may be observed in the
set and tormn of the horns as inidicative of the
character of their bearers.  Sinall, short, slouching horns on a two or three-year-old ox give a
grave and contented cast to the couniitenianice, as
may be observed in the portrait of the Short-horn
ox in Plate X. Lonig slouching horns, as on many
of the Long-hlorn oxen, seemi to oppress the head
with a conistanit depression. Horus springinig outward from the sides of the head, then risilng utp,
and' bending backwards, never fail to iripress
one with the conviction that their bearer is qiiiek
temnpered, ready to use them offensively on most
occasiolns; and they are set so as to toss tip any
object with ease, as may often be exemplified in
the West-Highlanid cow. Horns clirvting laterally
and horizontally forward give a finished lappe,rantce to the top of the  head, when viewed in
froit, as exemplified iii the figure of the centre
Short-ltoiii cow in Plate VI.  Long horus rising
outward,  forward, and having  points looking
outwiards, imp)art a very mnajestic air to the head
of  tlhe ox, as shown ill fig. 577 of the Westl 4lihllali,l ox.  Horns riilig outward, and  then
aplproalching behind  the head, give  an idea of
naiilloirmation.  Horns springing outwards, and
then oitiiiig straight forward in the points, seem
formiiidabile. Horns springing outwards, and then
aplri)raching forwards, with the poilnts  a little
elevatedl and sepatated, as in the Hereford  ox,
then seen in front, seem to ornament the head,
buit at the same time to oppress it with weight.
A hliorni thick at the root for its length looks
cltnm.y, and so does one blunted( at the point
aiid both are asso( iated withl dull feeders.  When
stiriigiiIg outwards  imlch, and then turnling
dlIwiiwar(ls, as in tlo left-lhand Shoit-horn cow
iii Plate VI., they seem ungraceful. A good l}orn,
however set, is small  whlere it emerges from: the
lIeadl, and tapers gradually to a finle point.  At
wlite horni looks cleanier than a dark-coloured
onie, an-d a tip of brown or black,according to
thie breed, gives  a pretty finish-thotughl most
Slihirt-li,riis have theirs entirelywhite, and, being
ahlrt aud criving inwards, serve more  for ornaiiietit than defence.  Oxen with spreading horns
are  better feeders  than those  whichl  contract
s,iddenly towards the front.  Horns indicate the
age of cattle.  At three years of age, the horn is
uiiformly smooth from  the root  to  the  tip.
82-36. The sloucl-eared breed that I)revailed  in  the country  is fast  beitig supphtnted  I)y the  pricke(i-eareed srfe(es, becaulse, whl%er ever tile sloucll-eare(i is foun(l,
it is utniver-sally.accomiipanie(l witlh leng(,th
of leg, lengstlh of niose, narrowniess of back,
an(,1( ilatoriness ini fee,ling.   I believe the
t'ick-ears, ~hlort snouts, and full clieeks,
may  be traced to an iitiir.ove.neiit (lerived
fr<,3 thie Ciltinese bareedl, wvliich  possess tllose
pollits even  to  (lefoiliity.   Tiheir cr(sses
with tl~e,,!,1) b)ny b)ree(-ds lbve been  tile
meanis of (lissett.iina,tin,, t!lrotgll tie co,untry
sei-e:'l races of beatutiful, profitat)le, dellicate-flesiled lp)igs.
724
6237. Fig. 5v)85 re)resents  tlhe lheald of
Fig. 385.
'rail IJ.ii..l, (,F A B(,at. 
TEETH.
Every year after three, it is protruded from the
head with a notch on it; so that, by counting the
number of notches, and adding three  to this
number, the age of the animal may be ascertaiiied.   Tricks  are practised  by fraudulent
dealers, in filing down some of the oldest notches,
to make the aniimal appear yoiunger than it is,
and the unwary are thereby deceived; but a
slight inspection of the horn will easily detect the
fraud.  The period of calving, whether late or
early, naturally affects the notches of the horn,
and may give an older or younger appearance to
the animnal than its true age. A hornless ox seeims
as if it had  been  deprived of the means of
defence; the size of the head in the bull making
up for the  loss to hinm; but a hiornless heifer
assumes the gentle appearance of her sex.
6241. Teeth..The teeth are more  important
organs to the domesticated animals than the
horns.  The horns are  the mere  instruments pf
defence and of attack; and the nurtured state
in which the animals are usually placed renders
their use unnecessary; but the teeth are the
instruments by means of which they break and
masticate their food in winter, and crop and
masticate the grass ill summer; which being
the case, the condition of the animal imnainly depenids upon the state of soundness in which their
teeth ma,y be preserved. Oiie common property
exists between the horns and teeth of animalsboth furnish data by whlii(h their age  may be
ascertained.  You have already  seen  how the
horns are indicative of the age, both of cattle
and sheep, and we shall now advert to the manDer in which the teeth may be examined for the
same purpose.
6239. As with cattle, the horns of sheep indioite the age of the aniiimal.  In fig. 581, the age
o? the Black-faced tup is distinctly marked, the
I;t year's growth being evidently the space from
Vie point of the horn to the letter a, when  the
horn is small; the 2d year is from a to the notch
at 6, the growth of the horn of the dinmoult being
stronger and longer than that of the hogg; the
3d year's growth is marked from b to the nlot(ch m
at c, which is still longer and thicker in growth;
the 4th year, from c to the niotch at d, shows
the vigorous state and great length which the
horn of the animal had attained at that age;
and this is no doubt the inost vigorous period of
the life of a sheep; and the 5th year's growth
is shown fronti d to the root e.'Thie age of the
ewe, fig. 582, is youllig, lot exceeding two years.
That of the wetlier in Plate IX. is greater, not
less probably tlhan four years, though the marks
are not specified with the distinctness necessary
to decide the age with certainty.
6242. Fig. 586.represents the left half of the
head of anii adult horse, viewed internally, and so
figured as to show the origin of the 5th pair of
Fig. 586.
THR VERTICAL 8SECTION OITIlE HEAD OF THE ADULT HORSF,, SHOWING THEI TEETH AND THEi
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM.
nerves, and the nervous branches which go to the  incisors  6 in each side of the head; and of
teeth; on which a(ccoun)t the figure may be con-  molars 16 in ntminber, 8 on either side of the
sulted with equal advantage for a knowledge of  head-in all 28 teeth.  The teeth of the second
the distribution of the nervous system and of the  dentition are 40 in nunmber, of which 2& have
teeth.  The milk-teeth of the horse consist of 12  replaced  the  milk-teeth.   Those between  the
7Z
part of the body indicating the presence of internal
disease more quickly than they do. Although in
pushing directly forward with them in the fight
horns will bear a great force, yet a single stroke
upon them with a cudgel is severely felt by the
animal, and a single such stroke has been known
to cause them to slip off their flinlt, which is a
vascular bone, full of blood-vessels, so that inflarnmation of the brain or lock-jaw may enisuie.
The horni indicates the internal state of the animal, because its root is very thin, and, being close
upon so vascular a part as the flint, the state
of the blood is more easily ascertained than at
any other part.   When   the horn feels cold,
death-like cold, we may suspect congestion  of
the blood in the smaller blood-vessels somewhere, in consequence of inflammation.
6240. Horns are very sensitive organis, no 
REALISATION.
month; and the lateral incisor, or corner-tooth,
tfrom the 14th to the 20th month.  Once  tiese
teeth cease to have mark, they bear upon their surface a smooth trace, brown and indelible, which
diminishes the more the teeth approach their
fall. The first permanent molar replaces the 1st
atnd 2d milk-molar from  2 years to 21 years.
The central incisor appears upon  the edge of the
socket after the coming out of the 5th permanent
molar, from 2A to 3 years. The 2d permanent
molar replaces the 3d milk-molar a little after
the same term, or one or two  months of difference.  The 3d permanent molar replaces  the 4th
decaying molar at three years; at this time also
appears the 6th and last molar. The lesser
incisor from 34 to 4 years.  The canine or tusks
appear from 4 to 4i years. At last, the second
dentition is ordinarily terminated by the lateral
incisor or coriner-tooth. It must not be thought,
however, that the coming out, as I have endeayoured to indicate as the most ordinary, is without variation; this would be to give to nature
too regular a progress. All teeth in general are
the more developed that they belong to a large
and robust subject."
incisors and molars, called the canine or tusks,
do not appear along with the teeth at an early
age.  Others complete the arch by occupying the
room made by the growth of thejaws; thebe are
new molars which come out of both jaws.  The
full set consists of 12 incisors, 4 canines, and 24
molars-in all 40 in number.  In fig. 586, a are
the incisors, b the carnine or tusks, and c the
molars.  "This is the order of coining out of the
second or permanent dentition of the horse,"
observes M. Rousseau.  "The first permanent
molar, which is situated behind the last milkmolar, presents itself before any of the milk-teethi
have fallen, and makes its appearance upon the
maxillary arch from the 11 th to the 13th month
after birth; it will be, by numerical number, the
4th persistent molar, when all the inilk-molars
have fallen.  The 5th permanent molar, which
is situate behind the preceding tooth, breaks the
edge of the socket from the 14th to the 20th
month.  During this time the decaying teeth die
from their roots, and wear down their crowns to
such a degree, that the hollow which  charac.
terises the surface of the incisors at certain
periods cannot be observed, so that the veterinarians call theIn lost-mark. The central inicisor
or pincer is ordinarily of the 9th or  11th imonth; 
the lesser inicisor from  the  11th to the  13th
s ~~~~~~~~~~Fig. 587.
THE VIRTICAL SECTION  OF TIrE HE l T          t'       JL' F;X Sti(),WN(; TIIh  TX'R-H AND  THE NER'VOUS
SYSTEM  IN' CONNECTION,VITH TiEM.
nervous system connected with it, that the preceding figure gives of tlhose of the horse.  The
milk-teeth of the ox are, 8 incisors on the lower
jaw, and none ol the upper, andt 12 molars, 3 on
each jaw.   In the adult ox are 8 incisors on the
lower jaw, and none on the upper; and there
are 24 molars, 6 oin each jaw.  In the figuire, a
are the incisors, and b the molars, and the same
configutrationt exists  ill the sheep.   "In  the
second dentition, these teeth show themselves
upon the edge of the socket ini the fillowing
order," says M. R,usseau. " The 4til permanenlt
molar comes out from the 4thl to the 6th in,nith
after birth, and commences the second d(lentitiii.on.
The 1st or central replacing incisor, fromt the
726
6243. Fig. 587 gives a similar representatiott
of the dental tystem of the adult ox, and of the
]5t]i to the 2:,d  Tnoiitli.   TI)e 5tb, or penult
inoi,-Lr, froin the 113tli to the 22(i itiontli.'The
2,1 re[la.eiiig molar, a., al.,,) the 2,1 iticisor of this
order, appear from the 28ili to the 32d month.
The 3(l i,ei)laeiiig molar, as also the 3d iiicisor,
coi.iie (itit very near at the isame time, that is,
froin tl)e 38th to the 48,.h month. The 6th, or
last molar, from tihe 44tli t,-, the 52,1 m(iiith. At
length the 4th permanent incisor tootb terminate&
the secinti dentition, wliicii i-4 ordinarily cornpleted when the aiiitnal has not yet attained its
Sth year."
6244. Fig. 588 gives a section of thp head of a
wild boar, in which the deiital and nervous sys 
MALFORMATION.
tems are distinctly delineated: a are the superior   tusk; e the inferior canine or defence tusk, the
incisors; b the superior laterai inlcisor; c the   origin and formn of which may be easily traced -
inferior incisors; d the upper canine or defence   audf are the molars.  I have selected the head
\0_
Fig. 588.
THE VERTICA&L SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE WILD   OAR, H'NG THE TTH AND THE NRVOUB
SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM.
of the wild boar for illustration, because the
character of all the teeth, and particularly that
of the tusks, is more strongly developed than in
the domesticated  boar.   The tusks of the sowr
are comparatively short and weak.   The milkteeth of the ordinary pig are  32 in number,
nanmely, 12 inicisors, 4 caninies or tusks, and 16
molars, half of which numbers are on each side
of the head.  The second dentition is only completed as soon as all the milk-teeth have fallen;
and these are not only replaced, but 3 other
molars on each jaw rise up, one after the other,
until the whole dental arch is completed, when
the entire complement is 44 teeth, of which 22
are on the upper, and 22 on the lower jaws, and
they are divided thts,-12 iii(cisors, 4 tusks, alid
28 molars.   These teeth are conmposed of two
substances, the oine boiiy, the other enamelled.
"The tusks are each euclosed in a socket, filled
with a substance analogous to the marrow of the
long bones; it is nimo-t remarkable, and most
ablundalnt in the inferior tusks.  These teeth are
only provided with  enarlel upon the external
face of the permanent tusks." I
6246. A horse's mouth is easily opened for the
purpose of examination, by introducing a finger
by the side of the mouth into the space between
the iucisor and  miolar teeth, where  the bit of
the bridle lies upllon the tongue, wlhen the horse
will'play his mouth, to  ge t  quit of  the figrnge, and
show as much of the    lower teeth   as  to ascertain
what you want. Soule sulky horses require to
have their lips held asunder; and vicious oines
will even strike  out with the fore-feet when their
moutl is me(l(led  with. I had a work-mare  whiit he
the  momept her  mouth was  attempted t o    be  held
for examination, wto   uld whee l  quickly rouhldd,
and kick with the hinid feet at the person iLtemnpting it. A c(w's mouth cannot be examined,
without first holding her nose, elevating- her
mouth,  and  drawing down  her  under lip,
Some cows will not allow themselves to be taken
by the nose, and  the thing call only be done, in
such a case, by stratagem. Some, again, have
such a power in their nose in curling up the
nostrils when held, that its pressure against the
holder's fingers renders them soon powerless;
but a steady pinch of the thumb-nail against  the
septurn of the nose will  make any cow give way,
provided the  person has strength to hold  her
firmly at her first attempt to break away.
6245. In  re ga rd           to the indications of             a     ge by
eansp of eteen the teeth, i the h:,rse the marks on
the crowns        of th e  front  teeth on the  lowerjaw
are almost always obliterated, or at least cannot
be depended oul, after 9 years of age.  After that
p             erio       d, the onily meanis of judging  is by the
quantity of nhatter f roound  sff the top  of the
teeth, an,                                  ] by  the distance between the teeth
themselves; the o        ld           er the forde gets, the wider             r hr   gt               As
the space between  thei        o becomes.   lit regard to
the  griLdin og downa          of th  e teeth, however,  y fl o
Should know that pasturage on sharp land, anid
,support on hlard tfoot, stuchI as utibruiscd corn
and beans, will wear dowii teeth  mu-,h fahster
than pasturage on soft lantd and prepared food.
The same rem-ai,rk applies to cows which have
been pas-ured on Sharp or soft land, and been
* Rousseau's Ainatomie Comipare  du Systg,ie Dentaire, p. 205-30.
727
fed on straw and turnips, or on boiled food- and
it is only applicable to them; for a,& to steers,
their age, being very limited, cannot be mistaken
from the growth and condition of the body. The
teeth of cows also stand wider as they advance
in years.
6247. 3[alfornzettion. - Ai)y malformation in
the repro(lut-Lire orgaii.,i of breedii)g aniiiials may
iticur a!serl,,us loss t-) breeders. A drauglit tital],,on, whicli ga-itied the flrst prize of his class at a
Sliow oftite Eastern Ftr.,"arbire Agricuittiral Associa-ti,)ii, It-ft tio pro(] uce iii clie tlistriet lie ha,d served
for the preiiiiuni. It was afterwards discovered 
REALISATION.
that one of his testes had never descended into
the scrotum.  A very fine Short-hliorni bull, which
gained the premium at the Show of the Border
Union Agricultural Society at Coldstream, couldl
not get one of the cows he had served in calf.
It was ascertained that the testes had  nlever
descended freely into the scrotum.  A Leicester
dinmnont tup, that I knew had been engaged for
the season by a breeder, did not get a single ewe
in lamb from  a similar inalfornation.   In all
these cases, the loss and disappointmelnt to a
large number of breeders was of the most serious
.description, being deprived of the ilncrease of a
large proportion of their year's stock.  Of other
kiuds of malformation, I have seen all ox have an
orifice, a sort of vaginal opening, between his buttocks, by which lie emitted urine instead of by the
ordinary urethra.  He seemed to feel no ijconvenience, and throve and fattened well enoughli.
all the  kinds of the ddomesticated    aianimnals,
is, tlhat " like produces like;"    and thjis
law of resenmblance is so universally aplplicable to all sorts of I-)reeding, that, w!ere
the proper mea s al]-ays taken to Ip)o(duce
it, the result would never end in failure.
]No doubt, imeaiis  lave always  been sup)osed to  lhave b:eeti taken to attaini tli,at
end,' and mnany breeders  lhave actually
use(]  them  for  tllat purpose; and  the
results they  Ihave p)ro)dtuce(dl heave  been
excellent, and hlave in fact  been the
source fr(om wlhichl lhas been deriveed all
tlje improved breeds of our doomesticate(d
animals.   Still it miiust be owvnie(d theat tlhe
procedure lhas been fountded  on no hiigler
a principle than theat, because a (daii or  &
sire was seen to possess oine or more
desired I)oints, it was proper to eliiploy
her or hlinm, or botlh, for the attainimi,enit of
thiose points in thieir progeny.  Tlie p)oints,
desired  migh,Ilt be  attained, (or ttey  might
not;  for all  breeders Iproceeding  in tlri
,"ay  imu-st actknnowle:l(,e  liavinfg  been
disappointed beyord(  their  expectations,
wlhilst othlers lhave ob)taine(d suceness b~eyonid
the means used would warrant.  In eitlher
case  the procedure was emitpir-ical, and
faitlh could only be  placedI  in thie mea,ns
employed, in proportion as a similar  ~csult
had been produced in tlje experience of the
breeder hiimiself.
6248. The origin of the domesticated animals
has given rise to much difference of opilnion
among  writers, one class  averring that they
must have been produced by the care of man
f:om the wild races lnearest akin to them, whilst
others maintain that they were originally created
for man's use.  Those who believe that they have
been derived from the wild races, argue  that
nla's condition was originally savage; whilst
those who believe that they were created for maii's
use, also believe that nman was originally created
a civilised being.  This question was well discussed  by  the late Mr  Stark of Edinburgh,
who adduced abundance of proof that, if mani
had been created a savage, he would have cointinued a savage to this day; and that no type of
:the domesticated animals are to be seen in a
wild  state, except  those  whose  history  are
knowii.  The  semi-wild horses alid cattle met
with on the steppes of Tartary have itncereased in
numbers, froni a few domnesticated ones which
had golie from  maii's  control; aud it is well
known that the liorse and the ox were unknown
in America until after its discovery by Europeans.
A decided proof that the semni-wild races of hliorses,
oxeii, ad dogs were olnce domesticated is to be
deduced from the fact that, when captured, they at
once submit to man's conltrol, whereas no reilly
wild race of any animals has yet done so; and
consequently man has domesticated ijoine.  The
vame sort of evideuce Mr Stark adduces in rega           r        d
to the cereal grains whliich support the human t
species, none of which have ever been tfound
growing in a wild state.  I entirely:igree with
,Ir Stark's views oii tl.ese subjects, and believe
that the original state of our present doiiesticated animals was doiiiesticatioii.  Such a view
is also most consonant with what is stated iii the
sacred volume.*
6250.   Now,  it  woulil be  extremely
desiraLl)le e,,uld less be left to clance, and
mlokle   to cert.ainty  in  I,eedingt-tlhLt  is,
less to ejg pii icisleu   and  mi)re to   princile,
tlian  lhas hiitlertc)o been. thre  case, even
altlioullgi success lias hjitlherto attend-ed tle
m-any attenlpts  made ini the dark; so tlat
lie  wlho could point out a  more  certain
way upon( principle, wu,)ild not oinly le,sen
the  toil  arllan  enance ta le pI o fit of  th e
farIner, bult     tlso earn tie gratitulde of  tlle
country.   I tlliiiis uch a p.)ers(o)n is  fom-id
in  Mr  Alex.anider  Wa,lker, an eliinenit
pliysi,l(),,ist in Londoi,, whlio hias explained
hiis views  on this  silti:ect in  distinct langtiage, in a work uhliclh  lie puiblislhe(l.  Mr
W,-taller takes,ii,an in  illustration of hlii
views, because lie is tlhe  miiost  )erfect
being in existene; antd  le  divides the
several  organ.s arend finctions of  liis structu-ral systeln into tliree great  classes-tlhe
locomotive, the vittl, and  the ine~tal.
6249. The gre    at  principle  upon whiicih
the breeders of stock proceed, iII breed.,in)g
* Transactions of tlte Royal Society of  dinbur. h, vol. xv. p. 177-210.
728
1. ON THE PRINCIPLR,S OF BREEDING. 
iigaiiietiis, anu  iutscies, or -ne,ny parts.)  Ilie
resemblance  to  that  pareut  is  coiinseq ueiitly
fonud in  the  backeiad] -,  few  niiore  imovalble
parts of' the face, as the ear, the  unier  lip,
eycbrows, and the external  fo,riii tof the body,
iii  so  far  as  they  deeiid in  the  muscles,
as well as the foiriii of the linibs, even  to the
fingers, toe,, niails,  &c.    Seve~ral circu-iii
stances inidicate that with  this series of oirgalls
go  the  skin  and  its appeidages, which  lia. ve
tis iiuch  affinity with  the  os.seouis systemt.   Not
only does the skii become horny front pressure,
but ha ir, wool, bristles, spines, scales, iiail%, boitnes
are its productionis, (the bony and   kiuny often
uniiting in horns;) and inl miany iife-rior aninials,
as the crtistacet, it becioities -shelly, and serves
the purpose of boines.  These constitute the locomlotive s;ystemn.
6253. The, menital org,ans cons,ist of the organis
of seise, as the eye,  ear   the orgatis  of pIercept~ioni, as the cerebrum;n   anid the orgn    f
volitioh, as  the  ceresuel.     bThe fcetioets          of
the organs of' sens.,e atre to receive imipress,ionis
fromt external1 bodies' by morroais of the eye, ear,
smell, and touch; thio   ns of          the cerebrumare to perceive, complcare,i r        rflec,-t;  a iuti        t     hose of
the ceirebel to will, anid coiiseqiieitly to throw
the ituiscles into action to fulfil iti pu,rp~ose. ThI~e
cerebrum is in coiiiectioti withi the or-gans of' s,eiJs,e
whichi receive the imipressionis by the s,,enses, c~)ivey thein to tliose of perceptio's —-thie cerelbrn,.ii
whichi in its- turn acts iipoit the organso'wiis i, or
will, which setLs the lo)comtotive organis in oion
6257. As regards the liuntan race, Mir Walker
obs-er-ves thiat the ma. le or the f'eima-le p~ar-ent ma,-y
give either series of orgais; that is,eitlier forehead
aud organts of sense, with the vital aiind tititritive
organis, or the backhead, with  the  lecoutotive
org,ans.
6254. A mere kniowiledgA,e of those org~anis anid
their fuiictioiis woutldi avail niothinig, were it njot
in our power  to distitingisli whether or iiot olie
parent, or  both  iidiscrinitately,  impart their
organisationii to their tlffsptittg.  It is the want of
this distitiction wliih  has  catised the hIreeditig
of the  donmestic(ated  auiitials to  be couductedi
in the unc-ertaiii utaiiiner I have alluded to.   Mr
Walker  clearly  expounds  that  Oi,e  clas,s  of
organis are  propagated  by otie o)f the pare~tts,
aniil the other class by tlte otlier parent, aiild that       o      t
either paretit does hot p)ropagate either class iiidiscrimiuately   a;id ui,-reitver that, it the propagatitil of orgaits from  parents to progeny, trgae i                                t
sationii             isniiley trttctitile, for it it,av ofte tl
be seeii thiat ineither nttrisheit eitirely dierivedi
fromit the  imiotlier, nor  climate, nor educatliort,
diminii-hae  aii     i il likeness of the tfitlier              t
anti, without t',; effect, it wotli  not be posiillle
for like t,. prduce like.  Eacli parenit, thieiefore,
co        ieilitiln t  a   tlct series of organs;':ilC           tl  thie
onlv  miiodifiecaiont sviwicli the  orgaitns ct          icatedl by either paretit utitlergot, asie cliviflri                                   if'
aot altogether, sucli as ate tiecessary to     irony
-1111.1                 ""8
aniriia, r o 0. u c t ,'    ".  g-' It''O' t'  l'ili "'''c' I' t,, is''''i 'l' "lul P",
beautiful -fl,,) w  o f' t I i (-, I i., i e s i) f t I i e b o  I v, t I i e i i i a j. i i i e r,
the action, the hea,ltli, the coti- titatioti tire depeiideiit oii these ji-,atis aii(I their ftliietioiis.
62,58 Amoiigst the domesticate(] aiiinials, tl)e
effects of tl)ose laws;leave -beeii ob.,erve(I tt) left
t,tkeii but the I-aws tlienielve.,.i   oii  %vIiieli
those eff,-,ets ba.ve  iii ijo case I)eeii dt,,fiiied
beroreMrW,ilker(li'-iso. Obz:,ervatioijli,,i.l-.,roved
that    the aiiiiiial   his a,troiiger iiifltieiiee
over the oi-ga,iiisitioii of i.be' r-(jgeiiy tli-.iii the
feiiiale, a,i.il that, life (-.01nnitIllitlates the ](.,(-,()iiiot,ive
0119":,Illl t( the I)rogeii3,, aii(i (,-oii,eqiieitly tlia,t the
feiii.ile coii-iiiiiiiii(,-,ite., the. iititritivi (,rgaiis. Keep
ifig this (listiticti(,ii iii view, it i., evi(!eitt that atiy
Charles (lesire(i iii a.iiv I,).irti.eiilzir org-.iii )f the
d,)riiesticitt(d aiiiiii,,i.Is will be more t,,-tsily atid
cei-tiitjlv eff(,(-ted tl,i.-iii tlit),e, ii-i the hiiiiiait org,-tnisatioii.             Ttio late Mt- K rilglit,  the eifiitletit  I)Iiysiologi-.it., lii(I  (,b.erve(I  that atti,)iig d,)nie.,tic-lite(i
lit- Ill,)(] iiever -vvitiies,e,l aiiy (iifl', i,erel, IYI
the iiifliieice, of the the feiiiite I,,areiit  uloii
tl,e forms of the lie(ids 4if' tlit! ffpi,iiig. I'lie
obvious reason giveii!)y Nlr Walk( —r for tlils is 
REALISATION.
that iil cattle, hor.es, and sheep, the form of the
back-hleal and cerebel is bid by the great transverse ritdge of tle occipital bone, to wlhihti th e
large tiuscles which raise the head  ire attached;
as also by those inuscles themselves, and  by the
elastic ligaiment, whichi, without voluntary effo)rt,
assists themr  i ai mairitaiiting the position of the
neck.  In mani, onl tite contrary, owing to his upright posititii, the hea  is grieatly supported  by
restinig onl the vertebral coltiumn; large liga m        i lencts
and mrus(cles are not require d,  tid the projection
cause(i by the back-head and cerebel is perfec tly
obvious.  Hlorses, cattle,  aiind sheep, tlteret,re,
show only the forelhead and face; and their vlhole
head conseqtently seemsn to go, tiudividedi, atloiog
with tht vitatl organiis iii the tititik of the bidy.
Concealed, however, t]i,tiglh the bl,ck heal is iii
these aitinal., we lhave proof of its variotis developnients ii the various developmnents ot the intisseular systemli, witi whitch the fbi-irtler must always
correspotid, and whi,hI at all events  sihov wllat
each parent communicates.
whether stallions, bulls, or t,ups; an(d it is
fortunate  for the niore rapid extension of
tlhe  improveo,ent of stock, that  tlhe infliuence of the nmale tlhus bears sway in the
p)ropagation of Ihis kind, as by tthe permission of polyg,amiy one mliale imiay serve
many females, and therel)y extend hiis
in-fluence in the exact proportion to the
ni-iiibe,' of the latter; whereas a female
produces usually one in the    cours e of a
year.   A  stallion serves from  60 to 80
mares, a bull 60( cows, and a tup 60 ewes
in a season —not once or twice only, but as
often until the female prove  witlh young,.
Generally the femnale conceives at the first
service of the miiale, atnd at all events at
tlxe second; but shoukl her desire continue
beyond(-l that time, slhe is withdrawn  from
breeding, to avoid the risk of a late progeny, or none at all; for a late calf, lamiib,
or f,al loses one year of its progress, compared witlh its earlier born companions.
6259. With regard to the mental organs, it is
evident tli.ht in all voltititarv acts iin wii(h t wo
sexes are engaged, two thintkifin                        g svlstens  are involved; and as the first poritin of the thinkiug
systeilm, sensation and oubservation, is passive or
dependentt on impression,  and the last  portioin,.
dependentt otl passiori ai)d volition, is active and
exciting to locomnotioi, it is evident that, in the
act of reproduction, oite or  the other sex will
always be relatively passive, a(nd the other relatively active. hlence the progtelny will receive froi n
the otie parent the  orgaaisation in whith,  iii the
thinking sy,tetm, setisation   atnd observation depeud, aud from  the othler that it  Whiich passioiin
anid volitioti sprinig; tfor the very termi repr,d(ucti,n)  iomplies the comtmuni itatiof' of.iiilar orgalis
and llcitionis, at(d tlieretre of the lii,t etnergetic
andi chlii.Icteristic tones.  Thl.s the c,t)ttiiiiiiiation
of linilli,.,til  oft its iiiost di:tiilgltisl,ing *r peculiar
char;;cteristics,t,o pr,t,elyT evidenttly depeiidi,s upon
mii,ti  td tl,e tel,tLive )red,ttitalce,f itsi two
great divisio,s iiit the intrets; stn  on eacih of these
again de teld tiie looitltotive systeml atid tle vital
r.spectively.  Tlhe eitire IJw Jimay thus be briefly
staited in regardt to the breeding of the  doittesticated  aitimials: —-Thie  thiinking  orgas   ae, in
etuatl aid listiuct )po)rtiotis, derivel fro        tli both
Ipareits; whiile lthe  iani gives the whole of tlle
nutritive, and the sire the wliole of thle locomotive
organs.*
6261. Few farmer      s com mit the  mistake
of not selectil thlle best naale that can be
produced; but tma ny  commit   t he inconsistent  m e istaly e of epltloy ing inferi or females.
In horses, for exan ple, the pri ze horse  of the
district will generally be selected to ser-ve
the  m tit  is  ares, bt    it is rare to fi n ld the best
r m tai  i  te in tfhee ftr   bearing f oals.   The brood
imare, or  tlhe,e may be inore than o,ne, is
generally one  wlmiclh is t  oo old to ke ep tip
in the  woi ek witlh  tl e res t of  tle  horses, and
a.ltllotign l  heloer   atk be  swu n g wi th wouk, fler
wind b)rcjken, and slhe lhave a had le(, st,e
is  coinsi(dleredI  quite suitable  for bearing
fo,als.   The very opposite -systen (:)ugh-t to*
be foilotwed': tlhe  best. ima,re should cai-i-ir
the foals bredl oni the fa,'i; and a stron,.;
fresli imiare  with  a good  constitution will
be quiite able to take Ler slhare of the work,
and  brlilng up  a f()al b)esi(-des.  Let imares
not be untider-,5 vears (f aige when the lhorse
is first put to themi; for tlhey will not  have
-acquired their full stature  until  that age
amli  firom tlat I)eriod let thenl  bear a foal
every year  uintiI  tlhey attain  12 or 13
years, whlIen tlley slh(,[l(l ceaise to breed;
-is ol f a,es, any,iio,'e tl,aii old fenmales
(f otlier classes ()f aiilials, cannot produce
aL vigr ous t,,'J,eny.   Titus, for 7 years,
tiay  fretli yotng   imiares, stinted to  the
Ibes; stalli,,ns tihat can be secured, p,'oduce, and briii,, up, foals every year.
pc260. Sitice I,:les  cotiitii,t iicilte tteir
organisalt iol w  ith%  tim,, est (o):viv(,s efflVct,
thiey  are in  milost req,Iest aliltl'st',,ee-Iei's
f,r thiei'l,),ofrerletl,f thteir s3tlis.   Ieigs
pr-ices 11lme I~ee,,,given,:ind~ hligrl~ p,'lelkni~,,s
are  ainnually  offeredl,  f,)r.Stl.e,'ior,,,altes,
* Walker On Inttertmarriagq, p. 147 to 173.
730
ON TIIE SELECTIOI; OF PARENTS IN
BRI,'EDING. 
SELECTION' OF PARENTS.
6265. Following out Mr  Walker's  law e-f the
par; which each parent performs in the  produtc tioii of the progeny in its application to  the
selection of parents, we  can at onlce see that, if
we want any organisationi beloiigiii, to the loco motive system, we slhall look Iii vaiin for it to the
femai-tle; and, on the other  hand, if we want any
orgatnisationi connected with  the nutritive systemti,
we  shlall seek for it as mu(ch in vaiii in the ilaie.
Ever y amendment, therefore, des ired  iii any of
the kiin(s of our       stock,  we   sigst first baertaiI to
which of the   systems os  of organs it be longs, a nd
emtploy a male or fei mmale to ainer(t  i t, as  the case
mbay be.   Thus     diseases  o f the   dig esti ve o r
respiratory organs in a femiale  would be ttar i  miore
fbatal to th e welta re of  the   progeiy than if the
same clcoiip)laitt were   observ able i n the nale, and
the feakc-e were entir e l y  free  fromr theym l; but
then it shoull d neve    r b e     lost sight of that bolth tl-e
parents  should have  all thei r  natural  and resplective powers in absolute    perfection, otier wise we
run the risk  of invitin, the propagsitiont ofdisease.
We (may ials  o       expect th at wha tever i ucreases the
tirdioinr of e arssiotn icdvigorates the progeiy.  It is
muoreover observep, that habits and wursaugits lo ng
followed de velop the  orgats they employ. Tphwus
a  drawi get stall  ion and nare will prlodue  toals
who(se muscujlar systemii is as well suited  fior labouir
in th     e      plough  as t he cart. A  racicg staliion and
Eware  will likewise  produce foals well adapted
for speed.   A  cow, whose disposition to tatteii is
great, will produce calves with tlhat tende,cy;
and a bull, which displays much spirit and resolution, will likely  produce  calves  of' similar
tendency, if there be in all these cases no  couniiteractigng  function  exercised  by the o ther parent.
We   may say, the   n, at  that the  hereditary  powers
w i l l  generally b e  found  best calcoulated  to do
that which the parents through suiccessive genierationts have done.  Mr Knight  remarked that,
when the male and  femnale parents are  of the
sam  e variety, each parenjt has an equal influence
on the offspring as to temper,  sagacity, &c., anijd
in giving hereditary propensities; that is, both
parenits equally originate the men-ital or,aiiisation.
Such foals will -be strong, in bone and coIIstitution, and be always in lii,Ii condition,
beca.use they are the off:pring of young
imiares tlheilselves high  in condition, and
overflowing witll mllilk; and, hlaving been
brough(t up togetlher, will woilk better tdgetlier.  I recomimend this plitn withi            co'fidence, because I have myself fi)llowed it
withl  success  foir vears.   I do  not remember selling a yoi,ung horse, warranted
to work well on a firmt, under ~35, whlen
hlorses were low in price; andl 1 lhad three
excellent mares  when  I employed  four
pairs of horses, and two out of thle thlree
bare foals every yea.r.
6262. In regcrlrid to cows the practice is
bet           ter             thta n that witi iikares, alt iougeif it is
not s;- good as it sliolul( be, nmanv  heifers
being  transferred  to  tlhe  cowv-stock  tliat
ou,,hit never to liave  I)ecoiiie  the initiate
of  acow-l)vie.  Anotlier mistake is, tlhat
whieni a cow lhap)ens to be a goodo(l  liiller,
s!le is kept for breeding lonig after lher con8titutioIl hlas become  wealkened  Ibv age,
and the demand is kept up upon lher system  in brin,ging   p a calf every year, and
of supplying, milk after  the calf llas been
wNeanjed.   A  youing  lhealthiy cow  wi-ll be
nmuich   more profitable thiani any old wornout tavourite.
6263. Ewi-es are also better selected for
br eedin,, fi'oii  tin  l res,  thloulgll too
mnany a re kept in the flock becatuse they
iimay lhave lal)pened to cast an extraor(linary fleece of wool, or two lam-ibs every
year, or lhave always  brotiughIt up  their
laiiiis  well.   The  saiiie ruile, lhowever,n
aliplies to thiem as to cows-old ag,e lbrings
allln withi it many infirmiities in  tieii.he
An(d it oughlt never to be forgotten that
sucill infilillities, although  not originally
existing in thle feimales, and only brought Ar
on by lhird la'Lour, or by lo(ng  use,  will
yet be coiiliiiiinicatedi to tile p)rogeny as
certaitily as if they had(l originally existed
in the parents.
6-266. Il breeding  horses subject to the laws
etiiiinciated, it is nlecessary that  the  organisatiun
of t he a   riimals selecte d should be of the most perfect kiii  da certain age, and  the exercise and
),erfectioii of every functioel, are  essential. A
lhorse should be pertectly mature before coverillg.
A tnare may breed a t    tlour year old;  at an earlier
period breeding will interfere with the developinelnt of' her stricture and strei)gth. A staion
constantly exercised has superior progeny to one
kept in a state  of inactivity.   A horse  or  miiaqre
illcapable of work, or which has sutfere(i tron
hard and cipititiual labouir, is certaftly inijuriouts
to its progeny.  Constitutional iijfiriiiity is ftal.
A  niare that  has  slirked  her  foal is always
liable to the same conduct.*
6264. I tlhink I may  safelv say, tl)at if
yoia  select stallioiis  aii,l' llltsc, buills an(Il
cows, tuil)sand ewves, boarsanil sows, of sucli
aninials as  thleir portraits in tile plates to
this work indicate tlieni to liave been, you                i
wvill Inot coiniiiit a great miistake.
6267. The practical  properties ofa good raghtbck
stallion are  tllese:-Souid  constitution, go,od
tempiler, etasy  action, slhort  legs,  straiglht back.
rouind rib, stroing over thie loiis, deep  clhest, good
* Walker Oi Iitermnarriaqe, p. 173 and 330.
731 
6'269. Uii(ler tile same  laws MIr Wallcer tlll          ie
describes the characteristics of the best cattle.Face rather short, the  iiiuzzle sinall, thle liorns
file, the neck light, particularly where  it join              s
the head, the chest wide, d(leep, and  calp'ciolls
the tail broad(l aud fat t)wards the top, but tlin a
towardls tile lower part, wlhich it will always  be
when the animal is stnmall-boiied, the lowver partt
of the thiigh small, the legs short, straighlt, (,clen,
and file-bo.ed, tlioiighl tot so file as to il(dicate
deliciac-y of conistituitioni, the flesh rich and mellow
to the teel, the skiii of a  rile,li aiilh silky alape aralice, the coitudte       naplc,e cealng anid placiel (ep t                                  ldtiltg
the evetntiess of telnmper essential to, quiet fee(ii,g
atid a d(lispositi)tin to get fat.  If to these we addI
a straight back, roiln  rib, and  deep flatik, ihe
descriptio)i is what we would give of a g-tod (i,x,
which is the statndard  of acquired excellences.
Aiiy a(llitiotn necessary to the above would arise
froit  sexual differences mnerely, siuch  as a dleep
brisket tand erect neck to tihe bull, atid wide ail(i
caiacioujs pelvis to thle cow.   ()ther p)rol)eerties
coitforitlablie to the samie law are, tihat the teitilini  woe
to ftattei is itid(licated cllieflv lIy the fcapa.tity,      f
the,chest, though the hlabits  of anuestry  will
olperate generally  very  powerftilly.    It is tile
widtth anti depth of franie which c,)iifer weih,lit,
alid itot thle mnere circumstanice of lheight.  While
equally  great, if not greater, weights  caih  be
obtainied with  sihorter-legged aninials, they are,
ittlepetidenitly of other ieco)inieiidatio,ls, genlerally fountid to possess a better coiistitutioni, aidi
a greater propensity to ttteri.
]tle Ta. lelille tkIIp     11111wuiibt   uIlert;, 1 "e Iou,lteeo.
Coldi dilmtiniislhes seisibility, and it is by   the
iinterpositioni of fat  between the  skil,  anid  the
central parts of the body  by  whichl  the seniiiility
is lowered.   Heince, iu the  north, animals  easily
assumiie the fa~tteniedl conidition.  Ileat, oni the otlher
hand(l, excites sen,sibility, anid it is founid that cows
afford more  milk ini the  warmer thani  the colder
collties;  and)  it is there, also, that they  are
always thinniier ini condition.   Ilencee, from  these
princicples, oiie animiial  fatteninig  in  the   north
wouldl becomiie a, better mnilker ini the south, where
mlore geial temperature  woiild renider.at less
necessatry, wo hll increase sensibility. anid cherish
the  se(,retioii of miiilk, so  intimately  conniiected
with that excitement of the  reproductive functiolns which warmer climates produce.
6271. It is  wiath  siheep  as with  cattle iud    thisr
system, that   the  fatteoilltg prjp lerty is conilnected
witha the  vital or nutrit ive faitt etoti tis; but the wool
beloa ngiung  to  the lo)sseous is rath er i        h coniiection
ptitih the  liocotittive syste,li.   l  the selection of
slheept, tlerefrtre, we  shouild( l o ok   to the  tip for
twle  wool,  aid to thee foewe tr   te  dispositiois to
fcatten. At, th  ip, tterefore, that las  a  gool.  fleece,
frd a  ewe  tlit is      broaep -chested, atid  a good
hati(iler, should be put  t4)gether, p)ro)vided always
thardt bot,h possess thieir respective fo t nta ctios itd a
healthy state. Large head.- loing ineeks  anid legs,
are    iinceonsistenti       with ex uelle de ibe the)se systems.
Clistoe ohas a,  iliatteriatl efifa,it utpon the wool.    lI
very xwair  countijiiries wool is niot only coniverted
i,,to trait, lLit scanitily  covers  tlhe  bodyv.  C.,ld,
oin the  oth    r ha.td. reorders wool finier aijd thicker
oli the bo(y, a~id criIp.   While  iin a tenmiperate
regionl, ()I the iplaiins. and(i inr a hIuiidi atmlosp~here,
tlhe  woo,)l is loz,/g. otit co,arse, anid very   heavy.
These  difftrejt effects of climate  may  be easily
expI)inedi.- c(.   A  - thiln CoVerilng is required  ini;
w;l tcilo nitry to allow freedom to a   ctpi,uuis
pe~rsp>iraltion) to keep) tlie bod)(ly cool.!n a {-old
counitry, "'hera shee)  have  to  wandsler far  antd
ntea,r onl the  tilootiit,ins tfbr foodsl, iat is prevented
from beinig depo.sitedl, as it w, mld be the (cas,e were
it inot for the olpposinlg cause; aind the,kini, thereby
6270. Some yeari ago the desire of breeders
was to pi-o(iiiee -i, dispo,,itioii to fattoi at earlier
ages than lial been the custom for many yeii-s
before; aiid iti ptirsuitig  this ubject were
partially lost siglit of, even the size aiid slial.)e,
aii-I the iiiilkiiig property a,ln)t)st e..tirely so. It
was I)erli-,ips well, h,:)wever, for the I)reseiit race
of c,-t-ttle that the eff,,rt to fatten early was nia.,ie,
for while that disi.,ositioti is ii(,w settled by bei-e(iitary descent, it is ii,i the power of' the bre-eder to
fatteii to. aiiy Iegi-ee lie choose,,, while lie cati
dispo,e of'liis cattle iii a st'ate of moderate fat 
tlhe best system, an(I will follow ino othier.
Pehll~l;:>s  a stock  brougilt to the hligilest
state ()f I)eelfectioin, (anit at tthe:saiie  tiimoe
hpossessed  (f son (11(d  constitutimii,  n,ay  be
stpllp(,rted free  of  deterioration   fi,r  ma,-iny
yearis Ily thle  )eculitr skill (,f its  ownier;
aiid I cani conceive it I)possible f.r a lhiglhbre(i stock, suchl as  BakewelL's -as (dring
lhis whlole  lifetilile, to   b)e  inre a tse d and
nainitainie(d  in its p.urity by  the as. istance
of kinslilip.   One valid  rea,soni IliUSt  lmvNe
iniucedi Mr Ba,kewvell to empl)loy  only  lhis
ownx  i  stock-thliat  ino  othier  s~,  go,,di  as
lis own%ll  existedI to select  fi'{,ti; a.ndi(I it
*wouil(d hlaiv-e seeiiie(i extralordinaitiry ill hii,
a,s ai pi()fes?e(I iilp)i()ver, to laive eiinl(,yed
an1y aniiuial  of aicknowvl e(dgedI injfer-ioIity to
his o%,w ~;  I;itt I susp)ect the lil)eity lie took
ill t ilis re       Nitct,  witi inl)tiity, couild hlave
ony I)een t.kleni wvitli a hiighi-b)re(d stock of
recenit a~rigi as  }lis -is,  ts many inistanrres
li,-itv    ee ii ce (cctirred ini w'licl  a finie stock
htave  I)een  riniiied  iii cicaraer, and  l.vo
eitaile(d i   Ire loss ont  their  owniers,
simply from   [eii)g bred it,-and-iin.
satisfactory mazntier the very remarkable conectionII that exists between  the formiation of tfat and
the respiratory process, which phlysiolougically expliressed requires  the broadi cl:est of the  alimial.
" There is but onie way ill wh~iiclh the foriiiatiort of
fat iii the animial body is possible, aid this is al)scilutely  the  samre  il,liichli its  forinatioii  iii
plants takes place: it is a separati,i  of oxygen             e
from  the  elenments  of tle  fiod.  The  carbonii
whiclh we find deposited ii th e see,s and fruits
of vegetables. in the forrim o  oil ad ftat, w-as previously't, co    nstitt uent of tlhe tti..osphere, and waas
absori)ed  by  the  plaiit  is c.rbcnii  acid.   Its
ctoliversionli iinto fat was accol  ili         -hedl  iider the
ilflinence of lighlt, by the vital fiorce of the vegetable; and  the grieater pa)rt of the  oxygeni  of
carbonic ac(id was retlurnedl to thle atinospliere as
oxygen gas.   Ii coiitradistinctioi to   tlhe               olieirnimenta of vitality in pl.-ilits, e kiio(V tiittleic animial
system absoibs oxygen fi-om  thei atmosplihere, andii
that the oxvgen is agiii g iven oat  in eCilibiifatioii with caiboii ol!iy(lro'eii; we kaono, that iiil
the forinatioit of crboioic aci(  asd     water, the
lieat necessary to  sustaiii the coiistant  teiplieriatire of thle b(ody is piodi.ced, aid tli't a process
of oxidatio-n is the only source of,iinial iheat.
Ever-y ipiiiid of carbon which olbtai'is tle  o'x yge
aecessiay   to cI o(ivert  it into carbo,ie  acid ftom         i
snbstaiinces  which  tl,erebv pass  into fat, mst                to
disengage as Iumeli heat ais w  oull raiise tlhe temperature of 200 lbs. o' water by 7 0~ —-thlat is., fromfb
32~ to 102~.   Whetl.er fat be firmed by the (lecoinl'positioii  of  fibrin  aud alIbn-   c,  the  chief
conistituenrts of bl'ood,,ir by  }Iiit of strligar,  s    igar,
or gurm, tl-his decompisi'iou m' st be asc('om}aiiiei
by thle sep)ara.tioli of (oxvgen l?ii.   tll' ele'eniits of
these coinpounds.   Biit thisi; oxygen' is  ot giveli
out inl a free state, because iu imeets in the orgaliism with  sutbstancees  possessing  the property of
eliteritig into combination witli it.  lii fact, it is
given  out ill the  same  formn  as  that  wlielich  is              [
absorbed fiom  the iatmosphlere  by thle  kin  aud
thle luligs."t 
W.i}-5t r     p.l..ei'cri(e,     p  307 to 35 3.
6274.  Tlie iilniiieeliate effects  of bree(din,
ini-and(-in, (oi- etphl,)loying  par,entits near ly
a-llied  by b)lood tvo p)rol)ag,ate their  kiin(l, ar-o
rellnsarl~>ab le.  T lie  beone    bcomiiLs,es ivery,sil-lil,
of (.ondeni.se(l texturi-e, andl fine (qualiltv.  Tho
skini is,so tlilnl -is to reecive the appl.ellalion
of pt/rjy, ad(I s    (openi of textuire as to be
,sensible to tl)eleast changi,e of tenl)eraiture;
an(d lence anima.l.s bred in-andI-ini ar e  very
'1 Liebig's 4niinal Chenmistry, p. 87. 
REALISATION.
susceptible of catarrhal affections, and                           o n
which account they are liable to consumiiption and clyvers, (3816.)   The carcass is
much reduced in size, and the disposition
to fatten increases to such a dvgree that
the aninmal may be said to be al ways in a
conditio n to be sl aughteredl; and             it    was
perhaps this tendency to fatten which
prbved, sever al years aio more  than now,
thi e g   rea t           inducement with man y breeders
to( tolerat        the tiae i n-and-i   system. Tile
hair                is short, smootlh, an        d tloin-set, and
the wool short. tllin-set,,atnd                w      atery; and
both lisle and  fleece  l    o]se a l  arge praopor        tion
of weigh t. The body                             crassumees  a changeof
form, the barrel being beautifully roounded,
hut  seems stuff         ed, as it were, w      ithin the
skin.   Tle extremiti         es  ar e very       fine,  the
leadi and hoof         s  small, the  ears thin and
broa(l, and the  head  of the sh         eep    is almost
bar         e of wlair, of a blue colour, very liable
to be  scalded t)y the heat of the sun,  and
attacked by the fly.  Thie neck of botl
cattle and she ep are thin, and             d    roop with
a        d ownward curve between the head to
the top        of  th e  shoul der.   T ile eyes            a re
often    affected with wateriness.  Lameness
frequently ensues iln one of tthe limbs. Tile
ca      p estitution is evidently much weakened.
The points just enilisperateil           srhow the umcprofitable state i nt o which  a s      tock may be
broteghlt bly being  bredb in-and-in.   M r
Mas,ln's fine  Short-hlorn stock  latterly
showed  sympt oms of tle-bad effects of this
s     ystem; and   Mr  Robertson's stock at
Ladl kirk, whi         c    h    c ontaidned at  one t      imne by
far the  finest S hlort-hao    r       is in Scotland, suf
fered after his dem      i      se from the same cause,
a       s was appa rent on the  anim    als presented
at  th   e        sale which dispersed them.  Only
caltle     foand  sheep have been subjected by
farmers to this unfair      sy     s t em, for dtrauhLtar
mares are usually cov ered by    tallions o  btainjed  from a          distance; and         of cattle and
sheep, the  sys tem  h   as   been   mos t     pra ctised
on Short-lhorn cattle and Leicester slheep.
Tile ra-cing, stud  has perhta)s experienced
its injurious effects also.   Nows that highbred stocks exist in every district of the
king(dom, there is no excuse for pursuing
the in-an(l-in system of breeding; and the
attempt is the more inexcusable from tlhe
rem-arksable fact, brou-gllt to lighlt only since
the dlistril:)ution of hsighl-bred stock increasedl so lunch offer the country, tlm~t the
injured progeny, after being distrib~utedl
for a timle, their progeny may be broughrlt
together to propagate, and their offspring
w   ill  exhibit  no  symp)tonis  of  in-and-in
breeding.  Such  a result would seemt  to
indicate that change of soil and situation
renovates the aniimial constitution.
6275. The idea of breeding  i'-and-in entertraiined by farmers, is confined to breeding by the
memibers of the same family, let its branches be
situate where they may. This is not the liarrowest view to be taken of the subject, which
Mr Walker assumes, and illustrates by examrples.
In considering iii-aiid-iii breeding, in its initiimate
nature, it is evident, hlie says, that, if close and
strict, it abandons  that  method of  difference
between the two conjoined beiniigs which lie had
shown to be necessary to excitement aniid reproduetive power, and adopts  the method, (sot of
similarity-for that he had shown to be essential
to the production of every breed) but as it were,
of identity. To explain this, let us take one of
the strictest examples. Let it be that in which,
of the animals subjected to ini-and-ini breeding,
the father breeds with the daughter, and
again with  the  grand-daughter.   Now, - it is
certain that the father gives half his orgaui..ation
to the daughter, (suppose thie anterior,r vital
series of organs,) and so far they are identical; but,
in breeding with that daughter, he may give the
other  half of his  organi,sationi to the  graniddaughter, (namely, the posterior or locomotive
series of organs;) and as the grand-daughter will
then bear both his series of organs-the ftrmer
fromn the mother and the latter from himself-it
is evident that there exists between  the male
and his  granid-dauighter, as it were, an identity.
The identity here is so perfect as entirely to
destroy all the differences whi(Ich  are essential to
e xcitemtient and reproductive pa wer, thie loss of
which thus  characterises  ill-atnd-inil breeding.
The case of brother and sister breeding together
is nothing to this, and this is about the nearest
of kin ever attemiptedI by breeders; f,~r, if the
brother has  the anterior organs of the mother,
and the posterior of the father, while the sister
has the anterior organs of  the  father, and  the
posterior organs of the mother, or contrariwise,
there is scarcely any resemblan;ce between them;
and if, on the contrary, both have the same series
of organs from the same parents, then are they
merely similar, and neither, as in the case ot father
and  grand-daughter, as it were identical.  In
the former case, no  organ has been communiricated from the one to the other; in the latter
case, every organ has been so communicated.
6276. In breeding in-anid-in, in even the ordinary method, when  the male is enfeebled he  nal
longer gives character to the progeny; and he is
always enfeebled by breeding ini-and-iin, and even
loses reproductive power.  Close  breedliug inmpair.s the colnstitution     of  both s exes, but the
generative power fails first, anid chiefly on  the
part of the male.  Although the voluntary and
locomotive power of the ifmale is never so
instetnse as that of the mnale, it is more frequently
and repeatedly in action.  In  the  male, the
reproductive impulse is that of a moment, aliy
734 
CROSSING.
exhaustion followvs it; in the female it can at
any time be repeated.  The vital and reproductive systems are in fact the largest and most
essential portion of her organisation; but by no
means of his.  It is evident, therefore, why,
when voluntary power is lessened in the male, it
may be exceeded by that of the fem-ale; so that
the failure itl fact is chiefly oln his part.  Hence
the law of breeding in-and-in, as enunciated by
Mr Walker is, that where both parents are nout
only of the same variety, but of the same family
in the narrowest senise,thle female gives always
the ba(kliead  ilid locomotive organs, the male
gives the face anld nutritive orgallsprecisely
the reverse of what takes place in ordinary breedilig.
6279. Thiere  are          situation s in  which
O  iG         th -bred stock  cannot be  imain   taine( as
a  breedi ng st ock, aon(l in which nothling
but crossing can be  practisedl when  ilnproveaunent is o oesiredl, buit th e l(esire fior
irprone lrlnetint      has been carri ed b y somie
breeders  beyond the bounds  of  prude nce:
they  have   c      ross  ed tthe B i.ack-aced  ewe
with LeicesteI ttc s c os, in  s ituations  lptheie
the enlarg,ed  lambll) has been unable to subsist in  winter,  on w oich account tlhe epoiicy
of  clangiogs  th e    Black -hce(e br ee(ed  of
slhee) in liigi    localities  seeIns doubtful.
Tlis cits,s in tlse lorh  co untry affor  rds  an
excellent  latbnb fifir  tile talle,  tte  Leicester
blood piving  the disposition to tfatten. In
elower  situations, the   Cieviot ewe, wltici
inhabits tthe inai(rdle iaoge o f  greene   )pasture  may be crossed  withl thle  I Leicester
tup with adviantage.   Where tlhe Cltevicts
have been  enlarge(  l)y size, it is alletged
by  the  party  possessilng   tle ptre    br)eed,
ttha t  the enlargedh size  lsh a s t)een ga ineld lby
crossing with   the  Leicester, wliile tho
ow ners miiaintain th.at it has been (lone by
goo(:l  feed ing,alonie. Every  crossing,
how%ever, slhotuld be  pro,,eculed with cauiiti(,n, because thie result  ima,y overstep  the
intentions of the b)reeder.  It is clear that
if the crossed stock is retained as fenlales
wlhicih, in their turn, are  seve(l by lIigiibire(d  miales, the tim,e will arrive wh1leni tie
character  of the  (original  stocli will be
entirely changed, and becomie unistuitedI to
their native (-lilate and pastuire, anid will,
in fact,  lheae  becomjie the sQamie  breed asf
titeir lhiglh-bred sires.   In tlhis  way it is
quite I)ossit)le to originate a race of Sh-ort11oJnI1s antl  Leicester   sheep  anywhere
suite(d to their  nature, by constantly eilploying a higll-bredi bull and tup to serve
crossbred leiiers and gionreefs, genieration
after generaLioni.   The pure   Sli,rt-lhoins
were thus  onice crossed with a Galloway
heifer, whose  blood -,A-as soon lo,st aiiioIngst
tl)at of the Short li,)rn. Were tlhe practice
generally  adlopted, the timj,e would arrive
whlen the originatl b)r eeds that were crossed
would   dis'tp)ear  altogether.    8 ich   a
result would prove ijjurious to the breeder
himself, inasmuci-h as the pasture would be
6277. The union of different breeds of
the same  sort of animral is a fiLvourite
scheme with many breeders, and, und-er
certain conditions, p)roduces good results.
'Those conditions are, that the male enmployed  in  the crossing  shlall  have  the
superior breeding of thle two parents, and
that the situation in which the cross-progeny is brought up is suitable to it.  The
first condition is usually comiplied  with,
but thle second is as conimonly disregarded;
and the consequence is, that crosses, attempted  to be lI)rou(ug,IIt up  in situations
unsuited to  their  nature,  have proved
tht niselves fail ures.
6278. In  the  crosses  c nommnioiily  at-.ellipted in this country, aimioingi  cattle tlhe
Slhort-hjorni  bull], and amiogI  sl)ee)  the
Leicester ttip, lhave b:)een eciiployed to cross
witlh tlhe ordinary breeds of cattle and
sheep.   The results lave proved satisfactory; for a-ltlhougli  tle proi.eny couild not
be expected to be equal to  the sire, they
have in all cases I,eeli superior to the danm.
cTh        e            effects of the cross  are, all enlLigeoment
of tle carcass, a finer skin, ]()ngrer hiair and
wool, cleaner bone, finer  head, and the lisposition to fatten grreatly accelerated.   In
comparing  crosses, it leas been found that
tile hlighlerbredl the miale thle finewtlie cross
-th~at is, the nearer it apl)loaclles hiis properties; and even an over-bred miiale, that
is, one sh:Iowin,g-, syitpt,i,m-s of hla-ving  been
bred in-atndI-in, may be used withli a(ldvantage iil crossirng,.   Wlmere a superior crossImlale 1ha)pp)ens thlst., to be prodluce(l, a stron g
desire is evinceed,y breeders to  use hin
as a sire, instead of expendinu  money  ill
tile purchase of a high-bred mnale.  A more
735
sliort-si,,Lted step cannot be talen by a
breeders as front stich a iiiale no assurarice can be ol)taiiie(i of the 8tate of the
I)ro,eny, wliieli iiiay be ii-iticii worse than
eitlier sire or dani.
ON CROSSING. 
suits hIave (doue good, inasililcll  us titey
hliave iiicreased tlhe quantity of miutton in
the nmarket;  a(nd  the  slkilful  llana-(etnent  wlhichi  tlle pasttira-gec  oni thie hlills
Iras  received  since  a  regu,lar   system
of  breediung  hlas  been   irtriduced,  hlas
caused  it  to  yiel(Id  a  larger   quantity
of  filier graisses.   The  crossing  of  thle
Blacik -face( slieelp las uni(lergone aI change;
the Leicester tutp is too l!eavy to serve
Black-fatcedl  ewes  (II  tlhe  lills, and  to
1)111). tliose ew%es  t' thle tup in  thle lowr
coulItly  is atte(lel   withl  trouble  a(nd c
expense.   Inistesl, tlhereftre, of thte Leicesteri tll,) beiii,g so ieiployedl, tlIe Clheviot
tup haiLs bI)eenrl substituted; aud altlioutlri thl   e
cross is ilferior-for nliothIilg,, cati exceedl
thle beauty i)f the laiiib 1)r()duced btetwveen
thle Blackl-ficed ewe  aud  l,eicester tupit is a good one, and  las ciuarg ed tle
Black-fitced iiiuttonm.  I ahi of opinion that
the cross between tile Soiltilh(owni tup aind
tie Black-ficted ewe, *would be a better one
thant witit tlie Cheviot tpl).  I (lon't knoiw o
thalt this cross hlas yet b)een tried, buit the
superior imutton of the So)uthldown   would
anlal(aiuate better witlh that of tle Bl,ackfaced  tlhani  with  the  Clheviot, aniid  the
wool  is  superi:)r  to  the  (liev.ot.   So
lo(lg as cr,ssisnr is conducte el witli ti)ehe
lbreeds in tlieir niatral  state, it will          heo o1i
bitlilout confusion; but thle rmomient cro)ssbr ed trips a,re eiiph,)I()ye(I as ituprovers, their
intertfeie \%ill                               produe ccfonfuftsion  onl tthe
crosses iidi throw discredit                   o n. cross           ingr
sltog(etlier.   I lIhave crossedl Antus cosws
with thie Shiort-hlern bill, fi(,.  5b5 anl the
tlthat  tle bu ll was  so s)igitne   a fter   for their
co,:s by  tlhe. poor   tenants of various
estates.  A  cross was  triedl between tle
Sottlhdown ewe andl Leicester tup, witlh the
view to adding some lengtlh to the Southdown  w(ol, and the  eflect  becanme  pernia,nent and proved itself a great improvemeiit.   Whien  a Cheviot or  Black-faced
tlp) lhas b.een put to a well-bared Leicester
ewe, the cross  lhas possessed a worse  anid
uncertairn  organisation thantt either of the
parents.   It is a wvliolesome species of
crossing to take tlhe males or females of a
breedi from one part of tlhe country, to the
malesor femnales of tle sam-le lbreed in another
part of the couinitry. A-tltou(grh both  stocks-3
slhoul(d hiae  liadl tlie  samie origin, tile
clang,e of climate, s()il, aind quality of food
efiect as great a change in the constitutionI
of the p,)arents as if they were  cliffrernt
races.   Tlhe cross witlh a lhigll-bred stallion
an(l any lower bred mare is alwayvs I good.
I have lhad some excellent harness hlorses
otut of draug it mares, botlh by racinig and
coachin,tig  stallions.    The cross received
tlie figurLe and skin fromi the hlorse, anid
the action andI constitution from the  m,are.
6'230. The  law of  crossinig, according to  5Ir
Walker, is, that when each parent is of a. diferenit
breedl, and when both are of equal age and
igourr,  the  male  gives  the  backhead  and
locornoooive organis, the female gives the face andinutritive orga-ns.  This  law, in its effects  as
regards the  domesticated animalnti  is very similar
to those of the law of selection;  but  in crossing,  tLe pa~retits alway. maintain this relative
position, while in ordinary breeding the parents
hage il.:g,ti*>tms in proportion tothe comparative 
HIRING.
greater vigour of the characteristics  of each,
and  when one imprillits  the  prevailing clr arr acteristics the other stamps the opposite.  The
cause that, ill crosses, the iiiale gives thie cerebel
and  locomotive system, is  both  strikiiig  and
beautiful.  If no being can desire tliut of' whiich
it is already in posse.esion-if, on the contrary,
it mulist desire imost what it inost wants, (it not ino -
compatible) it calnnot be wondered that, in (c                    rosses,
when the desired difference is greatest, the iiiale,
whlose desire is imost ardent, slioild stamll) the sys teri by whichl he exercises his desire, the voluntary
locoimotiv'e, upon the piogeiiy.  In regard to the
importanice of this latw as regards the breeding
of anuials, the slig'lttest consideration will hliow,
continues Mr  Walker, that it, of tihe two gieat
series of organs described, each belongs entirely
to a distincet parenlt, we conseqtueitly can neither
derive  in the  progeny  both series  froni one
pareut, inor portions of both froii each parelt; and
every attemlpt to do so Illlst be a tailure, aznd
consequently lead to mtere loss of tim e and money.
It, at the  samie  timle, indicates  the  natural
mode of procedure.   It lmoreover shows that, in
a feeble or imperfect cross, badl as well as guod
combinations mllay be produced; but that such a
progeny as presenlts the precise qualities desired
nlmust alone  be  eiiiployed in farther breeding,
while  intferior  progenly  must  be  cast  aside.
The  intermediate  character of  the  qualities
produced  in  crossilng is owing,  not to  each
parelnt  imperfectly  giving  its  share  in  the
progelly's  organisation, but  to  circumstances
that,  in their new  combination, each  series
of organs acts with, and therefore niodlifies, the
other.
6282. These laws, enunciated  by  Mr  Walker,
may thus be recapitulated in brief terms: The
law  of Selection operates where both parents
are of the samiie variety, when either gives  the
organs of seise, forehead, and vital system, and
the other the  cerebel and locomotive system:
the  law  of  Crossing  operates  where  each
parent is of a different variety, when the male
gives the back-hiead and locomotive system, and
the  female  the forehead, organs  of sense, and
vital system: the law of In-anid-in breeding
operates where both parents are of  the  saiii
faitrily, when the fernale gives the back-hjead and
the locomotive system, and the mnale the fore'hea.d, organs of sense, and vital system. But nq
law is thlought of in  the commnoni piactice  of
breeding.  Thus thene we  have, we will not say
life, for that is merely a general term, but the
two series of organis on which both life and locomotion respectively  depeid,. in two  opposite
successions and coombinations-variably in beings
of the same variety, and invariably in those of
different  varieties,  (crosses,)  as  also  whet
closely and long restricted to one family, (inanid-ini.) *
6281. Oo the difficulty of mailitaining a cross
in a permanlelnt forimi, Mr Walker thlus expainlls
his views: "Seeing tliat the operatioi.l of niature
are simnple, anld never  capricioii,  whly  does it
frequently  or  geierally  produce  a  toleralble
animal?  Bec(ause if the cross is a feebl  or iiri pierfect one, thle nale, depe,cdent only o01 relativ         e
energy, may give either the locomotive or the vital
systeli, and( not the ipr)ecise on11e desired: and so
ulay thle female.   lii the olie case, thtrefore, thle
cross will be a tolerable oue; ad(l, in the othler, it
will be all ilntolerable o0e.  But  tlie breede             r
liaviig Ito notion tllat tlbese two  ssteiiis never
go together fron l     one  lpaiet, and lhaving no idtlea
of the entire differeri(e which  subsists between
themin, is incapable of distigiuisliinig them   Aidi
why is it a breed  that cainlut be  colntinuled 
Because, precisely as  I have described above,
thle breeder niext puts together two products of
the first cross, without  their due distinctions;
a.-nd the consequence is tlhat, precisely also as 1
have above described,lie re-forms both thle original
breeds.  But the fact is thlat able breeders have,
either by  accident or by keener  observatioio,
ofteii accomnplishled  all that they desire in this
way. It certainly seem11s surl)risintg tlhat breeders
having  in  any  case  seen  a  cross  perfectly
successful and eminiently beneficial, slioul  iiot
have beeni led to ilnquire more closely a.nd carefully ilnto the  circumstances  under  whichl  it
6284. Married    farmt-seriant s  are;
usatillv eng,ag,ed  for  the year, and tlho
perio(1 at w-hiichl  they are engaged is about
thle l~egining Iof March. This season  of,
enlg,. ~nellt is in) every respect favourable
to t lie ser Ti t', thjough  niot for tle inasters.
TIhe servant:t re tlitis secured ill tlheir-i W.e
serv\'ice lvf  bef,,re tthe terimi of  departureo
f'romIi the ol(d;  and the cengagement being
a(le early  in spring, enables tlheimi to puth
the sumimilnil'er crops into their new gardens,
* Walker O  it,'r,na,;ri't?. p.'01 to 242.
7a7
occurred. As -similar causes, always produce
similar effects; sD similar conditions in crossing
will always produce similar progeiiy, wlietlier
one cross or ten crosses be iiiade. WI)ile great
difference was sought for in the cross, similarity
is sotigl,it for iii the progeny it produces, for
witlioiit that there could be no lioiiiogeiiity
or conformity of breed-it wotild seein to waiit
permanence; iiorctii a,iiy cross ever be establislied without this similarity beiijg obtained iii
its produce."
ON TLIE I]IRING OF FAR'NI-SERVANTS.
6283. E-N,erv (I)ei-ation lias now I,)-een
at)d" in reai,d to tl)e
iai,,3iii,, of ci,ol)s                  the rcai,lri,, of live.
stock It is now necessary to attend to a,
I'e,w 1;i.-Ltter, wliicli affect the i-elation sub,        between the farnier and liis servants;
tl,,e first t)f these in their order
I)e the of tlieiii into lii.,3 service.
3 A
VOL. 11. 
REALISATION.
posse —sion of which is given tlhen  inimediately after their engtag,enient.    Tlhe disadvatitages attending,, so eairly <ii eilgagemerit to tle masters are, tlat, -having secured anothler service, ii(liifferent servants
have a temptation to d(o their work for the
future in asl)venly inanier, and malicious
ones  a long timne to  wretk  vengeance
against their mnasters l)y the ill-treatitient
of their liorses-botli, in thle mean  titie,
being regardless of reiil(onstrance, or even
sharp) rebukes.   Good and  conscientious
servants will be,guilty of no derelictioni of
duty, even with thle prospect of leaving a
desirable situation; but thenr suchl servanl          ts
are seldomn  parted witlh, and only from         sr
necessity occasioned by circumistances, not
from choice.
6287.  Unma crrie d   farm-serkants,  wlio
live in beotlies, are usually engaged or reengaged on the term-day; but tlhose *^ho
live i n  thle ir  masters' hoils e         are usually
spoken to, to remain in their service, 40
davs before  tlje term.   Domestic female
servants, and  those engag(ed by married
plouighmiiien  to do  fa-rm-work,  commonly
called   bondleilers  or.fi(ld-workers,  are
tplaced on the same  footinig.  All single
servants   are   engaged  for  half-a-year
only.
6285. Variou,.s are thie circumstances
whielc cause a separation between master
and servant.  Tlhe  servant  mnay become
unable for the work lie has long performed;
his wife may be a troublesome personWhich, in fact, is not an uinfrequent cause of
a man being obliged to leave a good place; 
Iis family may be guilty of many pecca(dilloes, in despite of their p)arents' injtincitions; the man liittself may hlave a peevishl
temper, and thle tiaster a hlasty one, and
;the one may give thle other up in a moment
of temporary irritation.  I knew an excellent servant who gave utip his place in a
'huff.  He had time to think of ltis resolve
-before tlhe hiring day, and when it arrived
he set off early to thle market-town, and,
watching his master's entrance  into it,
went up to him with an earnest entreaty
for a re-enga,gement, which was instantly
made.  As reg,ards the farlner, an unpleasant son may have succeeded a judilicious
father; hle may be unreasonable, and frequently find fault without much cause-an
injustice which a well-disposed servant will
.ot long endure.
6288. Farm-servants are usually  enigaged in tle h  iring-market of tth e  neighboieringi  t own or village, and  thev seldom
exhibit written characters fron  tlde masters
whom they are serving, referring only to
tlhein by name: and slhould these be found
in tlhe mnarklet, inquiry is made; but if not,
an engagenment is made from appearance
and conversation. This is doubtless an
unsatisfactory  mode  of  hiring, andl to
obviate it, it has been  proposed to open
registers, in which the nanies of farnm-servanits of estalblished  character, and  of
places  may be  entered, on payment of a
srmall fee by those who may desire to inspect them.  The plan of suichl a registry
was establish)ed at Forres in Morayshire,
in 1838, by Mr Rlobert Mitchell, and it is
said to have  hitherto worked well.  At
the end of the first year, on 31st July 1 839,
the numiiber of names entered on  tlhe list was
267; attlile end of the second year, in 1840,
it increased to 636; and at the end of tlhe
third year, in 1841, it had risen to 1110.
Boatlh masters and servants seem to approve
of tlhe plhm; and  I have  no doub-)t that
sirmiilar g,ood effects would follow the establislhnent of a similar re,gistry in  every
hiring miarket. "1Shiebi a registry would
have, in tlhe first place,  the effect of procuring agreeable situations for servants of
excellent character; and it would pr(obably, in time, have the mioral effect of show
' 6286. As no perfection can be found in
-*ither master or servant, it is obviously
the interest of )both to exercise  nlutual
forbearance.  The master should overlook
m]any fatults, provided he sees that the servant performs his duties from principle;
and the servant shotild endleavour to please
his master cheerfully, even in whlat  lihe
may consider his wl-iims.  If these rules
were mutually ot)serve(l, there would be
fewer flittings at terms than is the case at
present. Botli parties should coni3ider that
their Dew move may place them in a worse
position than before. Nevertlieless, it
list be owned that a servant of LqloNv
Habits however honest he may be, is a
great bar to the work of a farm that is
carried on in a spirited way; antl it is
,t constant source of irritation to retain a
ser,vant wliose (I,-tily conduct excites suspicions of Iiiwiiite,rity. 
HIRING.
ing the careless servant that the  industrious, obedient, and skilful will always
be preferred; andl this lesson, it is hoped,
niay have the effect of making the indolent and vicious amend the error of their
ways.'*
6290. It may be useful to give a succinct view
of the law of contract of hire between master andl
servant, to show the relative obligations which
subsist betwixt those parties in Scotland.
6291. Iirinq.-It  is not necessary to  give
arles to servants when hiring them; and even
after receiving theim, servants may resite
firom thle bargain, if it is  the  custom  of  the
district, (Ersk. II1. 3, 14.) Farm-servants are
presumed to be hired by the year, if no period be
agreed on, (Fiiilayson, 1829.)  ln this sanme case,
(Jui,e 6, 1829, 7 S. D. 717,) a grieve or farnisteward is held to be engaged for a year.  If a
servant is engaged for a shorter period  thae
half-a-year, or longer than a year, a written
agreemienit should be made out and agreed to  by
both parties, otherwise, on the servant denying
the period, he mllay, il the first case, be found enititled to full half a-year's wages. Either party
may refer  the  engagement to the oath  of the
other, (Tait, Just. Peace, 450.) Should the e-ir
vanit be brought fromn a distance, it has bee*
found  that the hirer is liable in the  expenise of
bringing hiimi, but not in the expensfe of his rqturi, unless otherwise agreed on, (Baird, 17991
5 B. S. 514.) By 4th Geo. IV., c. 34, Oversous
contracting to serve, and deserting their  service
after entering ol it, are liable to imiprisonimenit.
628.9. On hiring every sort of farm servants, I would recommnend a clear u           in derstanding to be had with them; and the
sinmplest plan of avoiding miscoliceptions
of the duties to be perforired by servants
is, to hire them to do whatsoever they are
desired.  It is necessary to liakef this sti Ipulation, for some servants are so fasti(di ous as to the nature of their duities, that
lthey will refuse to perform any other than
wvhat they were  specially hired to do.
For examlple, if a man has been hired to
dlrive a pair of horses, hlie will cheerfully
dlo whatever is done with tile labour of the
horses, but nmay (ldemur to do any other
work when his horses are not employe d;
arnd yet very urgent work may have to be
done at a tiule when horses cannot be employed, such as lettiing off water from land,
andl many others.  In like manner, a dairymaid(  may refuse to feed pigs or poultry;
and domestic servants may refuse to work
out of the house; anid it is no uncommon
case to hear shepherds and gardleners refuse to do anythling, however needful and
conducive to their miaster's interest, lbut
what is directly connected with  their respective specific charges.  It nmay be found
expedient at a tinme for the shephl)erd to
bind or f(ork corn at harvest, and for the
gardentier to cut grass for the work-horses;
btut these necessary operations  may  b            e
refused to be Ierforilied by eitller, unless both have been enigaged to (o10 what
they are desired.   Of course, it is always
best for labour to have it perfornmed by
those best acquaintedl with it; which  being the case, it will be the interest of the
master himiiself to use a wise discretion
in putting the stiptilationi into practice.
But  circumistances  may  arise lwhen ia
particular department of labour may  reqtuire  extraortlinary  assis'ance,  and  it
wt)till be a hardship on the miaster to ie
deprived of any of the means of labour
within his power, to promnote that one department, merely because the other departments of lab)our were  not also at  the
6293. Responsibility of  masters for.servants.The master is  responsible fbr  injury done  to
third parties  tlhr-,, gh  the fault, negligence,- or
carelessness of his servants, while doing their
ma. ster's busilyess, but niot for their criminal act$,
(M'Laret,  1827.)   The master is nriot liable tfor
the expense of-t lnedical adviser, called in by the
servant, diferent from  the faiitily one;  nor will
he be liable should the illness of the servyant be
brought  on by his own imprudence; bult whery
the illness is brought oA    ficor   causes arising  iln
the course of the servanit's duties, the -master is
liable in expenses, (Cooper, 1831, Car. and Pay.
Reps.;) and the master, il this case, has no right
to deduct the expenses from the servaii,'s wages"
(Lellain, 1829, Car. and Pay. Reps.)
6294. aiervant's  obicqatioo s. - Servants aro
bounid to serve their miaster in everything relating to the situation they have  engaged  them.
selves for. They must be respectful to their maSter and his tamily, and in their general  coniduct
avoid actions scandalous or of bad examples
They ha,ve no right to absetnt themselves Witllhut
leave, (Crawford, i822.) They  are  responsible
Quarterly Journal of,4Agrkultur vol. xii. p. 29&
.739
same time in need of extraordinary assistaiice.
6292. Master's obllations.-Tite master is
boui-d to receive the domestic servant to liis 8ituatiin, aiid give beti and board, sliould no agreeiiieijt be niade t4) the contrary, for the term of
service, (Bell's Priii. sec. l;4;) aiid lie caiiiiat
coinl)e.l a do;jie.4tic servaiit to live out of Iiis liouse,
(Gral-iani, Feb. 12, 1822, F. C.) 
REALISATION.
for everything committed to their charge in the
rou.itine of their duty, but not for accidents, (Canmpbell, 1734.)   They  mist accompalny  their eliiployer in change of residenice, as loig as he does
not leave the kingdomi, (Tait, 462.)'lhey have
1to right to draw nice distinctions betweei what
comes under their dtity and what dues inot; they
canlot be elnployed ol ally duty differeiit from         1
the cust.mary duties of the servi(e tlhey have
undertake,,, andt this renders  a sl)ecifit, agreement, to do whlat they are desireil lie,'e:sary.
Enilistimien)t in Her  Majesty's  service  l1ees a
servant from I his  obligations by  the  Mutin-y
Act.
not bound to give  a servant a character, either
oral or written), or to assign a reason fo-r withholdinig it,  (Carrol, 1800, 3 Esp. 201.) fie wi;ll
be liable  in damages, when asked  the character
of a. servant, iai giving  an untrue   one, (Bell's
Priti.) He will be justified in giving one p)rejudicial to the servant, if true,  (Cliristiali, July  6,
1818; I Mur. 427:) ttht hie    ha s   no r ight  to give
out such a character publicly, without sufficient
cause.
6298.  I[iring   workmen.   -W orkmen,  like
doiiestic servants, nay be hired by the year, or
for a shorter tille, but writilg is necessary for a
longer period, (Paterson, June 17, 1l;30, 6 S. D.
931.)  They are bound, besides the principal engagemelit, to keep to certain regular hours, and
observe the same respect and dccency as domiestic servants.  They illay be comnpelled by imprisollumelit to fulfil their contract, (Clerk, Jan. 19,
1799, F. C.) *
6295. }Vages. —Should no wages be bargained
for, none are,Iie, (Salton, Brown, Suip. 3, 337.)
The servant has a righlt to leave his iiia:ster, and
claim wages antd board-wag,es, should hiis wages
not be paid at the terms agreed upon.  Tlhoutglhi
a servant is engaged by the year, his wages are
payable  liilf-yearly, (Tait,  465.)   A  servant,
through sickness, disabled from  doing lis duty,
has still a right to his wages  slhould  0lo serva        a     it
be got to supply lhis place, (White, 17 94.) Slhould
the  servalnt die  between  terms, wages  to the
time ot lhis death will be due to his represeiltative..  Wheti the master dies, wares au(d board.wages to the next terii are due, should there be
1o agreement for any space of tille.  Wlieii the
servant is eiinaged for atly specified tiiie, wages
and board-wages are due to the tull time.  The
niaster's baiikruptcy gives thie servants the same
claim.  But in both these last cases  on the servauit's being supplied wiiul another Ilace, wages
olly for past services are due, ('ait, 465.)  The
niaster call, at aiiy timne, turn off his serv ant, on
givtin him full wages alili boardi-wagres, (Cooper,
1825.)   A female servant mtarryilng and leavigng
her master, loses all claiiii for wages, aud her
husbaind is liable ii damages. 
6300. As to the abolition of hiring-markets,
the attemlp     t on  the p   art of the farmlers to do it
will, in my opinion, prove futile, for  two  sufficieiit re asot   re a e reason  is, tth at i t has always
been fouund a very difficult    matter  to change even
the sit e or  the  days r   of ay sort of market.   What
the public seems to have  a general interest in,
they w ill never  a gee e to relinquish.  The  abolitilo  could, no doubt, be done by acA of  pearliaaent, but not    otherwise; by  no local ar  range  -
iie wlt can the   en     d  be attained.    If s uch a
difficul ty atten ds the alteration of any imarket,
there would  be gre a te r stil l in its abolitioln. The
other reason   is, that  if  lirina g-markets wer e
mi8taintaired in any par t  of    the c    ountry, it would
be fouisd im        prac ticable to abolishl them entirely
in arsy otier part  of the country.     Now,.hirieagiearskets  are snot attende d with  inconvenience
everywhere.  I have attended      many of them in
the soutlhern counties of Scotland, and  never saw
anythitg r eprehensible   in them.. The  men and
qwoumeoi m,uistered   int the market-town it the early
part of the day, transacted their busilyess, and
went home in the afternoon, and if any remained
in the town until the evening, it was chiefly to
visit friends; and if a few  cases of intemperance
ocecrred, it was long after  market hours.  It is,
tlterefore, not fair to stamp  the character of
any meeting by the exceptional  cases, nor is it
fair to  chalracterise all hiring-mnarkets bCy the
acts done at a few of them. I regard tl)emn as
very convenient mneetings, where the hirer and
the hired have the best opportunity of learning
the rate of wages, and wthere an abundant choice
is presented to both parties of what they both
came to seek.
6296. Grounds for dismttssii?q a  serrant.-A
servant may be di.-iiiissel tfor  iiiiiioral conduct,
disoibedieilce, or habitual iieglect of duty, (Callo,
1831;) for absence onl Suiiday wheii ordered  to
the  conltrary,  (Haniiltoii,  1824.)   Abserice  for
ouir days without leave was held                  a sufficieni t
cause of dismissal; a,,d legal (tlismi.sion fi,rfeits
the servatit's wages, (Silvie, 1830.) Wlieri either
a master wishes to p)art with a serva ut, or the
servant wisiles to leave  his situiatio)in, war,ninlg
nmust be givern 40 (lays befiore the tei-rmi, othterwise
the engagement is held to be renewed, (M'L an,
1813;) uniless the local cuistomn is to give  no
warning, then  none  is  necessary, (Mlorrison,
1823.); After a servant has received his wages
and left his situation. he canntiot say he got no
wvarniig, (Baird, 1779.) It will be observed
that much of what has beeni said applies almnost
exclusiively to domestic servants, whether on a
farm or not; the relations of out-door fartir-servants with their masters are so clear that few
questions arise between them, either at partinig
.or during the course of service.
6297.  (7iaracter to servan-ts.- Thlie master is        6301. Nor  can register offices ever supersede
* Farmer s Lawyer, p. 160-5,
740
6299. Of late years a movement bas beef
made in the rt)rth-easterii counties of Scotland
to ab,)Iisli Iiiriiig-markets, and the abandonment
of the lodging and boarding of a ntiniber of'un.
iii,t.i-ried tariii-serva-iits iii a single room, named a
buth,!. 
WAGES.
the districts in which complaints are rife against
the bothy system, as I did in Forfarshire, and
the system will be abolished for ever.   The
expense of maintaining  the men in their  own
houses may be a little more than in the bothy,
but it will be trifling in comparison of the comfort purchased  by it, both for master and servant.
hiring-markets. The mere registry of the name
is not sufficient for the seeker in quest of character, as no one wi ll dare  to register  publicly a
bad character against a bad servant; and if the
truth cannot be so told, there is no use of the
registry at all-aid there is no need of a registry
for good servants, as their characters will obtain
themn situations anywhere, without the assistance
of either hirinig-miarkets or registers. A registry
might be made a record of the names of good
servants who are to be out of service at the elisuing term, and the hiring-market might serve
as a good placbe fr the parties to meet in, who
may have to come from opposite quarters and
fromt considerable distances.
6303. I enumerated the different classes
mof labourers employed on a farm from (57)
to (67;) and I must here state that the
wages of all of them may be classed under
three heads:-Those consisting cl-hiefly of
kind-that is, of the produce of the farm,
anulo but a smnall sum in cash; those consisting of a larye proportion of cash and a
smaell ucamount of kitnd; and those which
consist entirely of cash.   Thie recipients of
the first and third classes may be engaged
on the samie farm, and the third class may
be found exclusively on a farm, but  the
first and second classes  are never  founl
together; and as  a ll three m(ides of paying- wages co-exist in the kingdom, though
in different  parts of it,  tihey afford a
criterion for judging  which is the best
imode  for  all parties,  for  master and
servant; which the most convenient  fior
the master, which the most conducive to
the servants' comfort and moral  Irabits.
Plougiimeni  or  hinds,  constituting  tile
prinicipal or staple class of labourers on a
fiarmi, like the battalion men of a regiment,
the anioliunit of their wages  is taken as a
stanadard by which to compare that of tlihe
other classes of labouiers.
6302. The bothy system, as it is termed, has
much need of emendation, and, in my opinion,
the only one it is capable of is its entire abolition; which it is quite in the power of,any proprietor, along with his tenants and servants, to
accomplish on any estate.  The congregating of
3ou,gi  unmarried men in one room, which is occupied both as a sleeping and cooking apartment, and the sleeping of two men together in
one b    ed, a re a cts o bn oxious to decency.  Being
under no co ntrol, one or other of the men wanders
abroad during         the night, and arseof course unfit
for th       eir work d uring th e  day.  T   hey visit one
another at their respective botlhies, especially in
winter nighits; and it is                                                      t seldom that a  separation
tak es place        witho ut the accompaniment of intemperance. The inmates of bothies seldom remain long in the  same           serv ice, it being almost
impossible to fired         a number of men, associating
daily  and  nightl       y         so intimately as  they  are
obliged to  d o,  ent    ertain t he sam e sentineits o
any one subject; and  the consequence          is disagreements, which can onely be put  an en       d        t o by separatio   a    t the ensuinlg   term.  The bothy system is
recommended to be amended by hiring the men
for shorter periods than six months, or even
dur   ing ple asure, that their master may have   th  e
greater control over them; and it is stated that
farmers of high standing, who have tried this
expedient, find their men  more diligent and
careful, and remain longer in their service than
when hired by the half:year.*  This plan is but
an expedient at best, and will result in palliation
alone.  An effectual method is to eradicate the
system entirely; and the only way of doing it is
by the erection of ct)tt-.ges by proprietors, fbr
married men, or for householders, whether they
be married or not, and the institution of a service such as has been long practised with the
utmost success il Berwickshire.  Nor is this a
mere supposition. I had the experience of the
bothy system in full vigour in Fortar,hire, and
had frequent opportumities of witnessing its baleful effects; I built cottages for the accommiiiodatiotn of married men, and ever after nothing but
quiet and conitentmenit, and the desire to remain,
prevailed il every case at every term. Two of the
bothy men themselves took wives, and received
each a house and garden, and became steady
ploughmiieni, who remained with me as long as I
farmed.  Let every proprietor and farmer do, in
6304. Win ter is  the seaso n in which
wages in  kind are paid to filrm-serwmts;
and the period of   that seasdon chose n for
the Purpos e  is about the  end of the e year.
It is requisite tli,,t harvest slhall 1)e entirely
finished, atnid every arrangenment c,nnected
w%ith the a,ccoim,o~dation of stock, on tur,
nip)s or in the steading,-mna(ie  before the
thrashing of the stacks in regular succession commiiiences.  After these preparaitory
operations, and before  niucil of the  newv
crol) ip has been  disposed  of at  imarket,
further than to ascertain its general quality and price, the first leisure tilie frtia
fiell work by stress of weather is taken
advantage of for I)aying the farm-servants
* Transactions of the Hiyhland and Agricultural Society, July 1849, p. 14.
ON THE WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS. 
REALISATION.
their yearly wag,es of corn; and as the
quantity distributed is considerable on a
large farm, and as all the servants should
receive their wages at the samie time, to
avoid envy, there will be a considerable
quantity of thraslhed grain in the barn
before its  distribution  in wages  takes
place.  Tile servants receiving a variety
of corn, that variety shlould be first distributed  which is found  Illost convenient for thle farmer to thrash; alId one
variety slhould be dlelivered, and( the barn
cleaned out, before another is taken in
hand.
6 bolls  = 36 bushels oats, at 2s. per bushel,
4 24.. barley, at 2s. 9d..
2..      12..   pease, at 3s. 6d(..
3..   wheat, at 5s...
3        rye, at 3s..
40         potatoes, at 1s...
24 lb.    of wool,    at Is....
A cow's keep for the year,
Carriage of coals.
Cottage atnd garden,
Cash,......
The allowance of turnips in winter is 10
cart-loads of white, or 5 of wlhite and 3 of
swedes; or, in lieu, 100 stones  of 22 lb.
equal to one ton of lbay. Thle rent of
cottage anld garden is ~3, but for tllis thloe
plougihmnian receives  for food and  wa,es
2s. 6d. per (lay fo)r 30 days in harvest.
Tile grain is paid in advance  once a
quarter.  The  ploughman has liberty to
keep a )ig, but no poultry.   fe disposes
of the calf and spare butter  from  the
COW.
6305. Ploughmen'sv wayes. —Tlese are
paid in all the tllree modes enunmerated
above  (6303,) the first mode being in
general adoption in tlhe Bordler counties of
England and Scotlaind; the second l)eitlg
practised in the Ilidland and northern
counties of Sc.tland; and the third being
in general use in the midland arnd southern
counties of England.
6309. East Lothian.
6306.  Wages conlposed of kind anda
money differ, in their constituent items, in
different counties, but only in a                  slight degree; thel aggregate itemlls affording, sutfficiency of food to support a p)lougllman and
an ordinary family, and no,thing to spare.
The particulars enunmerated( received )by
the p'oug,lIllen are cashled according to the
prices in 1 850:
12 bolls -   72 bushels o ats, at 2s. per bushel,
3.. -18.. barley, 2s. 9d.,..
8..   beans, 3s. 6d.,..
6..  or 1600 yards pot.ttoes, 3s. 100 yards,
Food for hind for 30 days in harvest, at 9d. I
per day,.....
A  cow's grass,...
Carri,age of coals,.....
Cottage and garden (free),....
One lhalf of the oats to be made good up
to the first fiars of the Ha(ldin,gton ilmalket,
and(l a price fixed for the potatoes ill case
of  failure.  Tile  cow receives  fiotit the
a0arnler notlhing but straw ill winter. WlIen
tile hilid keeps no  cow, ~5  a-year are
allowe(l lhiii ill casil.  The  cottage  andl
g,trden are really free, tlse hind not being
obliged to provide a, reaper  in  harvest,
wisose  maintetnance is usually retailled in
otlher parts of tlhe country as ren-it for tile
hiou.e.  Tlhese it.eins vary iin tlhe county.
30 bsilels oats, at 2s. per bushel,; C6   0  0
18..   barley, at 2s. 9d.,....    2   9  6
6..   pease, at.3s. 6d.,....  I I     0
1200 yards po,atoes, at 4s.,...    2  8  0
p for the  year,....    8  0  0
garden,.....    1  2  6
coals,......    2  0  0
.......   4  0  0
Equial to 10s. 41d. per week,        ~27  1  0
The turnips in winter for thle cow amount
to  3  double laIads of swe(les and 3  of
white, or, in lieu, 60 stones of 22 lb. eachl
of hay; and (,rass in slunimer.   Tile rent
of tlhe cottage andl garden is equal to one
person's foo(l in harvest tihat is, 30 days at
9d. per day, ~1, 2s. 6d. Thle grainl is next
to the seed-corn in qillality, andl it is paid 
in slilnIp or advance at the idiIdle of the
ear's enga,genmeilt.   Tile ploughmlian  sas
iberty tos keep pigs, but no poultry., He
disposes of bothl the calf alnd most of the
butter fi'oIi tile cow.
Money, k......                    0  0
65 stones (14 lb.) of oatmeal, at I,. 2~d. per st,,, 12  60
120oi yard in  tlhe drill of potatoes, at 3s. per}  1 16   0
100 yards,....
House af,d garden,....          2  10  0
Cow', keep,..                                 9   0  0
Allowance of bread and beer in hay'time and }           10  0
harvest,.
~. 14 di
Y49
63o8. Nort7tumberland.
;C3 12 0
3 6 0
2 2 0
0 15 0
0 9 0
2 0 0
1 4 0
9 0 0
2 0 0
3 0 0
4 0 0
;C31 8 0
Equal to 12s. per week,
;E7 4 0
2 9 6
1 8 0
2 8 0
1 2 6
5 0 0
2 0 0
1 10 0
;C23 2 0
Equal to 8s. 10d. per week,
6307.
10 bolls =
3.. =
1.. = —
12... =
A cow,i kee
Cottage and
C,rriage of
Casli,.
63 i o. Fifeshi)-e-.
WAGES OF MARRIED FOREMEN.
Equal to Ile. 5d. rer week. 
WAGES.
in kind is considered invariable, being no
more food than a stout mnan can consumtle;
but some cannot consume it all, and save
a part of the meal, whichl they dispose of.
In strict  fairness, thle mneal  sl.ould  be
given to the men every week; but, to save
trouble, it ia dealt out once a ilmonth or
fortnight.   Besides   the   oatnieal  and
milk,  bothiy mien always  have a roomn
i ll comnlililion, a bedstead and  bed(-clottles,
filel- partly   brushwood  and  partly
coals, one t)on each -cooking utensils, and
salt.   They  provide  tile  dishtes out of
fwhich  tlhey take their Ileals, consisting
usually of a wooden bowl and hiorn-spoon.
Accor(litig to the previous rates of prices,
with  ~12 a-year of cash, and estimuiating
tlthjeir lodgingi, wear of bed-clothes, and fi el
at 25s. a-year each, the wages  amount i*
money to 8s. 8d. per  week.   It mrnust b)o
hel( in renieitbrance, in regard to every
case of the wages of a plolli,ghalan, that his
wages gol on whether    he be working or Ilot';
so lie hlas one advantag,e at least over thes
daily labourer, who may be thrown idle at
every recurrence of bad weather.
Money,..
65 stonies of oatmeal, at 1s. 21d. per stone,
l12 gallonis of nlew milk, at 6d. per gallon,
1200 yards in thle drill of potatoes, at 3s.
100) ya.rds,.
llouse       in     d  g arden,                           0 1    0
Allo,waince in hay-ti'n-e and hiarvest,
6311. Wages, more  ini cash  than  in
kind, are imore extensively given in Scotland than  the plan  which I  lhave just
described.  Tlho,se who receive this species
of  wages are  chiefly single  men, living
eithler in the farnier's house, or in a house
by  themselves  c.alled  a   bothy. The
practice of allowing farm-servants to take
their meals in the farmer's lioouse is falling
fast into  desuetude.   Mar ried-l iiien are
also supported in this form of wages, but
tleir conidition is not s,) good as that of
the  plouglhinen  on  the  prece(ding  plan,
althlougli it is certainly preferable to that
in the bothy system.
6312. The portion of wages received in
ki;d consists (,f oatiieal and milk. The
meal amounts to 2 pecks per week for each
man-tth.t is   1 stone   o f 17c1 lb.,  wlicp                                            h
minakes f  bolls per;anu dum, or 65t  stones
of 14 lb.,  at s. 2i-di. l)er sto      ne, g  iv   es a
money-v.alte of  i3, 19s. al-yetir.    Troe
nilk is supplied  either fresh from the cow
or after the creanb   llas been  ski         te'jedt off,
according to  agm    reement.  In  the sweet
state i t is g        biven to the atount of                                 I     Scotclh
pint or 21   qull   arts a-(lay; atid wlee                       he slfirlie(l, 3 quarts                      in steinweri   o                   c 2f in witneer
per (lay. The  miill is w   sually estimated
at r4   a-vear.  I n  so       n         y6e cases a cow  or
cows are  stl)pliedllo                                                 o the  tnen, wl(o milk
them, and tare exchanged for  others wli               wheni
they gro day; but supplying  milk is tlhe
least troublesome plan for  the malster;
because as long, as tlhe cows give as much
mik as tile Inen are entitled to receive,
they make no compii)laint althoughl tle cows
slhoild give  a great (leal imiore titan  the
stated quiatntity;  but  tlhe  moment  the
sIl~lply f:-ills below  the stipulated (quiantitv, iou)d conmplaints are instantly ljear(t.
Th;ese items of kind, witll from ~1I0 to 14
it-year of c.isl, a,ndI even t 1x in tlhe time
of railway high1I  waigies, conistit.ute  the
earning,s of a p1lougl(lmuan on tills system.
It is only in thle amount of caslh tlhat tlese
wages vary ait any time, fotr wvlat is given
6313. The plouglimen who  receive cash
for wiges, are in the same  condition as
day-latbourers, who receive their earnings
once a-week, an(I purchase their subsistence
froml retail deale,rs in country towns and
villages. This, I believe, is thle condition of
imost of the plouglinieii ill  tlhe soutlhern
counties of England.   It is obvious that,
unless  imioney-w.aiges  adapt  tlherisellveo
nicely to the fluictuiating prices of the comm(odi'ties upon whichl fatrmiii-servrants sulbsi.st;
the,hen nmust sufl'er much privation on a
rise in the price of provisions; an(d, wlleritlhese fall, tilev receive bliglher wa,4es tlhai
they are etitled to.   They are tlhus subjected to constant vicissitudes in their con-:
dition, from  which tile two former classes
of  ploi(,:lgIinlle  are  enitirely exempil)t.   It
si,-nifies tiotlhin:_ to reduce the wa(,es paid
in  kind to the latter into thle lioney,-valuo
of tile day, for, in  fact, the  I)lotIugljnien
neler receiveli their wages in that      firm,n
and are quite  intiepetni,'enet of fluctuations
in price.  Tie f.-ti',ter hlas titus no teniptati,,ni t(,  listiss   mileni fro mi  liis  -service   -,when.
wages rise or prices fall in the miarklet. =
WAGES OF ATARRIED PLOUGHMEN.
.   zcio 10  0
3 18 6i
4 11 0
. per) I lf, 0
.  1 2 10  0
0 10 0
;C23 15 6i
Equal lo 9s. 3d. per week.
6314. The w,qe,.T (f -7tetrardq- at-e in iall
resi)ect,s sitiiilar tt) titfise ( —f tl)e, p'lotiglinien
of wliotii- they leave tite cliarge-tlte only 
REALISATION.
difference being in the  amount  of caslh
received, which is always greater than tlhat
given to the plo()ugnlen.  Instead of ~4
with kind, they receive from ~12 to ~15;
and( instead of ~12 or ~1  with oatmeal,
they receive from  ~20 to ~25; and tlhe
best hlouse is appropriated to tlheli.  In
iilost cases the steward is exempt  from
attendance on the farm on Sund-lays, whlilst
in others he takles his turn along with the
other miien-tlie latter being the better plan
for the master, as thle steward has tlhen a
personal opportunity of knowitig how the
men have fulfilled their duties on that day.
6318. Tlheeld-wo-rer is sinmply a day labourer, and receives 10d. a-(day in slllmlmne, and in sollle cases only  8d. a-(lay in
winter, without any wages ini kind.   Thisi
person is uiisuallyv a wonman.   The miarried
piloustien is   tlhe   soutle  of Scotland are
eachl  b.tun(d to supply a  field-worker to
wo r k on  tlue farmt   dosr ing the year, tliey
receiing the wuages ear   ned  by tlhe   worm ters.
TThey hbire tle o vomens    in the public ar1kets, and support  them  in tlheir lhouses
witlh bed, board, and wages.  Shsou]l  the
field-wor-ker obtain constant emiplovyment
on the;.i-,n, tlje plotigloughatn  miay profit  1,y
the arrangement; atnd on large ftrms fielhlwoorkers are almnost constantly empl(oyed.
This obligation on the plhti,,Ighmain lhad, no
doubt, arisen at  a time whien few women
could  be persuaded to work in the fields;
and because lie is obliged to hire  tlhem-i,
they are desigDnated by the odious namie of
bondv lers.   The obligation lias been fo)und
fault wvitlh, and even  represented as  a
species of slavery;  but the fact is, tihere is
'no more slavery about the ml-atter titan in
the case of the  I)loughmiiian hlimaiself, wiho
is bound by agreeienit to work for a year.
The epitlhet is a nickname, altlhoulghl it is
not used as such, but simply to contradistirngutish tle  female  wlho is so hfiredl
fi'on one hiired to do service in the fa.rtmlhouise,  and even  the  la,tter  in   imiany
ilnStaDces work, also in tlhe fields.    The
practice  is g,oodl, because it   not only
enables  the  fa-rmiier to commiiiand  a certain  numiyber  of hanids at all times, but
provides a nultiber of accomnplislied fieldworkers in every district whIere it is pratctised: and the consequence l-as loingbeen observed and  known, thlat no suchli
exp)ert field-,w,rkers are to be found anyv
wliere as in  Berwicksllire.   No   pror,er
substitutes are fiund in the  women to  be
hiired ouit of villages, for, independeent  of
. 6315. The shepherd receives tlhe same
amount   of kind and money an            d accomniod a t i o n                  as tthe plougl)ment;  but  as l ie is
accounted a slilful servant, and h         is     hours
of                        attendance extend( every da y  frol   sunr     i      s     e       to sunset, he          has leave to keep a  small
f    l ock  of sleep of his own, w                hic h is m aeintained  by  his   master, and the produce       of
w     h ich                  lie is entitled to dispose o f  every
y    ear. His flock consists of li alf-a- score of
Leicester   ewes, one-fifth of w                  hic h are disp    o     s    e     d     of every year, and for  w hich he is
entitled to retain as many ewe- lanib s of
h       i        s flock as will mnaintain the fu ll n uunber
of                        his breeding, ewes. The   dog is h is  own c
property,   often purchased a           t  a } ig,Ih    rate,
a       n        d         trained  with much trouble an d  solicit    u    d     e.        In the pastoral districts, the sh ephl     e r d                receives as wages 45 Black-faceed
s h edel,                                          which iay be  valued at 7s.  each,
6 ollsls   of                                   nieal, a  cow's  keep, a  cottage  and
gar dern,, with potatoes. Wllen tlt        e  clharge
is.exte        nsive, tw,o or                    three cows are allowed,
and wages in meeal and sheep                      besides given
to                        the assistants.                                  n
6316. Tlhe hed qer, being, considered  a
day-labo(urer, gets a sialler I)roportion of
kindl thtan inarriel l1ouglhiieli, at1(  imore
nioney, and generally no c(,w's keel); atnd
wliere bi.)tlhy mien aire no lhe(lger is hiredi
by  the year, but is a (-day-labt)ourer, and
paid in mloney.   Being a skilful ian, tlhe
lie(lger never receives less tihan ~40 a-year
in-value, and I(iore frequently ~1 a-seek.
lHe canr sow c(rn, Ituild stacks,:tnd do antythirng tiha,t tlhe stewardi can, antd s,)iietimes
all that the shlephlerd does besindBes.
* New Statistical A4ccount of Scotland-Peeblesstire, Tweedsmuir, p. 67.
-7-44
a Tabourer, receives soine of Iiis wages in
Iiin(.1 and the rest in casli, and is sel(l(,)iii
itidtil,,ed Ni,itli a ccw. Bein,, generally a
person sottiewliat advanced in life, the
rate of liis wage,,i is not Iii(rli-pet-I)aps 9s.
a-week in money; and it is well when tljis
post is liel(i I)y an old arid faithful
iiiaii or sliel)lier(l, wliose                              infliinities dis-,il)le liitii front undertaking full
-active duties.
"t.1
6317. The cattle-man, bCiDfl viewe(I a,,i
t, 
liiin(I                                                       spl~iin    th   dlier peilaps iioiu fiisl aiiIoesi
woi k  is N cry Iiiiltedl, anyil til~e siil)port of it oi~r~ ifrteanisneto    h    hl
fie](i-worke-r  does5  then  1.)ress ~irI u,ii)n crle                       Citstti             cot esM           Gey
the  pl)i rii iniiti  lias   daiiglter~s,tle ys
teni  i,  a, continuous   soi-iitce  of  Iii~ie,lil e ilhuig ctae    ihn                                 o~      ocl
to  Ii iiii   ii-i diling  the  "voi~k  iii  liai-%,          terhoe    ettoslepi aiothoseo
playini~ thle riict of' the liousec  anii( r~eccivin   l ia   otli"ctt    h    otnintoio   il
payniielit  fori  tlieii- labott)11  -   evet-ytlilil         cnlgus    ihn    arttseetowtht~i
tlieicit~y con  ril)utitii(  to the  C,()iiiiitioii funiid    tii   ios adsy    hc    iuto    sb
of tire f',Iiimily.   Ttie ~,ysteiin  ca~ii liave  nio         at atdtprmt doetcciiir,aiy
isel' e-s  tlicv beiii(, chieerftil  niiul liuth)Iy a,t          thabtyiitewitreeis,we iti
woi-k.11d  weli         iioa iil   S              (l tl,I(     Coiiiai   ffmle  who haeTolleelip
arc tiicv ev,ei req1    roiadua-e( to visit tlieik  acquiiitiice, au
thieir, focnrli         r i,ltlioiiI  ~~U/ii,,- woaetrae                               i       robly   it ttoen
niSne   ~i~i,,ctlce  of fei~ii  1       iin         in(         aud,etralued  ihpoae~ s audinlgs
ea~rls " -asIi   I-)eeii  state(]  -is aii (i-ihectioiiall            fe~ad          oioe    hmwrs ais
zk,,-i lust  flic systciii  fedw,''eswtii                      akesadwt
(1irive (,-.irts xviell  tic sc'-,rv wvletlier  they             630      ~evr    lvosbnft"osre
were    ii~aei1,iii  tl,a~t ii'ii()d   oi- iii  alliy   MrGe,a read th                       rre plngiii
otlier;  iii1,eisiiles,  f~lit   hi (11iNil(  tif ers        "aiii'tttehu   rl   hsmd    fjaii 
is   ao i               f.ie   Ieilifiii  ic   til'i iii  11111)1Ii~  i     eia'ta    aiug         tl   twoein
to          f         iill tl~lwt i  lg    tti-i i ui,,        ae   ihtepift  o   ueudaeaeia~
hi I ltIit tlic fict is,, wotliten (1(o iit drice    teaau      faltti~aii   htI   h    eep
carte, ini tle iisu.-i seiise ()f the tei-iii   they          of eel    aisan te  eCitofrotii
ouily  lea.,I tie 1( li( re, " lijic Ihis (ii-i%i- cis  -i~  ~to     ilg   rtw    obypoii,hl    u
n0oiC  I-tt1)i-ioiis5  w-ill:i,  to  -tn,-l  fio(iii  the    o   Ieili~   oi   ato   h    iie   i  leae
clutin Ii II t~o the        w l lti~cw   i  i., Itemrii r riih,aiil,ii   otisci  tutdi(~,adt   h
III tlle. noii~t Ieili  tl   tIs  of    ci  ail    i          oiai   iitiyiei   hc    hi   adi  fir
suchel) -I,ii,at~iotii  -is  ftic  elii(a,,eiiicii t  of   iiterliir   or,w    r   rlbyiiic    n
fieltl-workei-s  ex ists   ii te            loniliin          dbedir terniarale  sobriety aud  exelanoi-re,can it coexist w ~itli the  bttitiv systeli,           uiti i  ie   iiiajesnlIitCtiii,th
wliere the Jiogi          iiii as II() littulc f'ori Iiiiii-   poneo   ianatrslri    u        eiet
" ii~i lie as ni fanuy ani tli(ain art alniiost all a(-quiire)-aiid ouce ot' the votiiig
his   a  Cs    But ~ her   the  farm   is ]nr 1 with   the   coiiditioii  of  iia~iiy  )yoiiiig  iiieli
the  ~i o~k  in   tiusejucace  eiustant,  niul eniiployed  as  I'arili,-ervants  iii the,:ont'ierii
counties, wlio, beiiig paid board -waA,es, cl,ib
teystogetlier to leave thicir coinftirtless mneal iii a
a(,l(iisn, and 1i0 paret,,it's voice to wvarii tlie-an of
C  ect   in  th    ti~i  ~ tiers   tieiii affectioii, auid moral rectitude l "   Conitrast this
tl,e sceiie of lewd  iiiir-tl-i-excited  prla~yby
fill~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~,ii toi'i                       th itii~ tir(i tisi l~l~  o~    l~a     teimn  iiioe   t liay iiot b'ii
house(  wil~ic iigi tle  rfts oiprii ideriiiediate  wauts-,of
i~~~'o        weekly  w51ag  es,tlc   ofn thle    peaeasitry   of r,sitiie
* I~el,),rt riffltc- Cottci_je Itiprovt.,,,ent ~oi~ty~t~ of Nuith Norfi-h-uitberloitt'dfor 1842, p. 5). 
uliderstinidiiIg that tley were to resort to the
warehoutses or sh-ps of their ma,sters  for suchli
articles as tlihey were flirilished with." t   If this
be atiytliling like a correct acconunt  of thle prioperlv reprollIated truck svsteim, it is clear tllat it
has rio affinity whatever to the paymjienit of wages
in kied, iiiasiniich as this has no referenc,e to the
teiney-value  of  any  article  which  thie  )ihids
re(eive- a id  they  always  recein.iq  tAhe same
amount of ki(l, of  cpurse  receive the  saime
rate. of wages; wliereas thle truck  systetlm his
unldouibteld  reference to the ieosey-v,ltlue of the
articles dlealt outt to the operatives;,uLd  thlitt
moaiey-vatltie  is  fixed by  the ma,ster, whose
initerest it is either to keep  it at as lhighi a
rate ats practicable, or else to give out  articles
of  inferior  quiality above  their  worthl; aniid
lheilce  the  artisan does iiot always receive  tlhe
samne aiiioiiuit of go.)ds, atid is thierefore  not in
the coilditioLi of thle hiid.
incurring greater  expense at  first, is  ani
economical exp.edient in clay an(d soft
soils, inasrmutcli as  the  plouglh-irons  used
in that class of so~ils only reqiiire repair
every few (lays.  Btt in shlarp and gravelly
soils, steel is a useless expense, for it is
foiindi to wiear down  almost  as  fast as
iron; and it is tlerefoie more economical
to shlar)en  the plilmglh-ii-oiis every  day,
titan  to lay thlemii witlh steel.    To  soioe
otiher  implemients, as  thle harrows, grubIhers, &c., tile same  rein,urk applies; and
as to  tlhose  whichi  are  sel(lom  uise(ld, the
d ifference of expelise atteni(ling their repairs w itlh ironi or witlh steel is imnmaititerial.
G-324.  In  horses' shloes, it  is thleir  forebit w.llich  first  we,ars down; anil, -iS lonl
as  tile  lihrses are  ciiiifined  to  the  f.rm,
tetere is no  ha.rir  in  their  sihoes becomting
thiin,  provi(led   thle  cruist (if  thie  lhoof i;
1In-rtected  fri'm  itinjury by thle grouni(l.   iI
s()ie parts  of  thie  c(,luntry, tle sh11es of
fitrm-hlior-,rses are  male  in a   prepostero~us
falshli,.n.  Tlley are thIick andi hieavv, )eing
p(,videdI  with hiigll ca-ullkers alnd(i  b-road
and(-1 tiieck foi'e-bits, ele     vating the lhose a
c, ms!~terabl~le hleiglit above  the groti,,u(l, antd
endangl~rering  h 11is tl~l:,ing         lliiself in  thle
turn-ing(s  at the  lainilitings, or in  baclking
and(i ttit-niil,g  in  tlhe  cart.    All  tl)at is
required-i ie s: slight turn-iing 1p) or tlhickenin,,  of  the  iteels, aid(I p)articularily of tlhe
oiuter lieels, a.tid a little  tl!ickening,- of  thie
ff re-lbit  of tte slhoe, (1546) to   (1556.)
6.322-.  It-on,   woJd, and   leathe;' compsose thle  t'ateritls of  wliieli tl,e  impleitieits  (f tlhe  f'aru   are  maile; arid  tleso
beitng  iii coulstrant use,  are  alw.iys  in  a
sta.ie  tf grdlal  (lecaty, aiil  re(lilire  alhiust duiiy repitir   To  effect tlhe  iepiaires,
it  lmaiy  he   ipiiiiractic.t!-le  to  seii&l  the
iiiipleinerits to  thle  iie,'test town,  or ceeein
village.  \I'liere  eitlher exceel,s  0c1e   iiile
f'(,oi ti le t,lni. lilicih  tii,e s is!.,st ia, t'ikitiri
everytliiiir,  tlhitliie. antil l(   irililn  it   ut'il     c
sagain; so$  ti.ltt it b)eciiiiesi  incutil,hi  t  (,n
the far,ler tt) p.)rviule for itis 11se  I sulitliy,
nld  a joiner's  sI,:.p hear ta             t lhatid.   As                   to
*  JoerIl,al of the  Iqtooil Aq  i        cl/ tu,,l,%ocietq of Elejitd. vol, ii. p. 186-8.
t   l'Cuiiocl'6 Coit,,eiericial Lict,os,n,iry-art. Truck Systti.
ON TIIE FARMf SMITII, JOINER,  AND
SAI)DLER. 
corns.   Tlje shloes shI0oul(1 not  Ie alloeil,                                    e
to lie wornI so thlin as to ecdanger  tlieirI
breaking, nor to renlain so loIlg otl as t                           o
get a sea-t into tlie 11iof.  Whieni tlie slioeilig
is taken  by the smiitlh  b)y contract,  lie  is
apt to peisnadie thle nien to let tlhe sihoes
hang (,  )  as long  as  they  can; I)butit te
stewardl  slhou(ld  see  to  tlhec state  of thle
lorses' feet,  tnd order tiheir  to thle smnithlv 
mwhlenever  lie cronceivecs  it necessary.   I
am  avare  tlhat  slioeitig often  interferes
withl  the tine for fiehl-work; l)it, inii tihe
busy seasonl, the llorses slioul(l be seit to
the smithly in ttie eveniig, witli  a hundile
of grass; and whlien  thlle smiitlh hlas slhoes
rea(ly  forged,  whlicli lie  should  always
hlave, ni)t utuclic tiiie needi be lost.
slep(ge-lar irer, wljicl the fet       of shloes    i
(les.   If tae     snwitli's  fort e  i s so   coIsvenien tly situate,is  that  tle  liorse-s fi-oiii
tlhree  or  four  farns  cani easily atteni(d it,
the snmitli  lay execute all tire worl; ii) ltii
own smi-itlhy; b)ut  widen a', th,r    is too far
off, a  sniitlly  must  be  elected for  lIiiii on
the farmni, wh,ere lie does uip all hiis work
for the  timle.   In tlhis case, it is not  Ullusual for  tle  fa,riimer  to suipply  the  iron,
coals,  and tools, and  the snlith  to  contr'act
for tlhe laIouir only.    Un(ler   any species
of  agrieenlerit, the farmier should insist  on
tile  silitlh  lhaving a  lairge assoi-tlient,,f
sl-ees ready for.iged, of sizes to suit  the feet
of  the d iff'erenit horses, tlhatt InO iiiii,eces,,a'ry
delaly be  occasioned in  tlhe siilitlyv widl-eni a
pair  requiire  a   iew s, et of  siloes.   Tiis
condition   is   the  imore  niecessar-y,  that
smiiths do  niot ca-re  lhowv long  tlhey (letain
lhorses,provided tliey can secure tthe  assist.ance of  tihe plolghmnan at  the  sle(dgelhai.ni)er, andl tllereby sav%e the expense of
keep)ing a stout ap)p)-etitice.
6326. There are  two ways of  having
snitll-worlk executed  on  a  tarmt, one by
the j,lb, tlie other by  contract.  The uode
by (iay's-work is exlpensive: tle jobs being
niiltituliniiiis in the course of a year, no
efficient chleck can ibe li),l(ed against fraud.
rTlhe lilost satisftactoiy  wvay is t(o lave  the
business (lone b)y contract  tliroug,hout  the
year; and thlje siiplest mo(de  of contract
is to ta.ke, as a standard  of expense,  the
ulpll(i(linl  (f tle i l(1st:I.ii,,'! rtioils (f
the  iriii.-wi,ik of  a  f-iriti-na,'ely,  the
ldl(illh-ir-o.s uan(l  llrses' shoes.    l'aiig l i
tlie.e as a cuiteriu-n, it has lIeet asceirtained bi
fri,tii exlerience tlhat.3 a-year f(ir every
pair of liorse.s is a f,,ir estimiate ()f sinititlw(i;ik (oil l  itri.   For' tlhis sluml  the snlith
bintds   liimself  to  ujlii   ll( ugli-irol            ts
horse~' shies,  ant(l  ill the mialleatble iron of
(;328. Jo-iner-work.-Tlic- we,,tr of the
iroo(ten T)art of iiiij-leiiieiits is not sensibly
— Ifl'ecte(i by the nature of the,,oil. If a
wooden I)f(-)jigii is put to untisiiallv roiigli
work, sucli,Ls tt-encli-l)loll(,Ilill(,
;n.1 or
iii) old i-oii,,Ii natural lea, its I)ar,,s iii,ty
I)ecoti-ie strutted,,irtd e-%,en I)rokeii, aiid
require i,enewal; I-)lit ploughs -Il-C ilow
generally made of ir(on, aiid are i-)].,iced
wholly under the cliai-,,e of the sriiitli.
C,-irts li,,we%er, st)ffer t.iticli witeii stories
are (filiveli for buildings aiid dykes, aiid 
-  -  0  ~~~~~~~~~~~~  ~~~    -~~~~~~ ~~~~    0  ~ ~     ~      ~      ~      F
0              -~~~~~~~~~0   -                          0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F
-  _  -  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~.          -~~~C
0                 -
0  0
-  ~~   0  -~~~  - - 0 -                  - - -  ~~~~~ 0
-0 - - 0   g     - 0 ~       -        - 0   0  ~  0CD
t7 ~ ~ ~  ~    ~    ~ ~ ~  
0  0      -               0              0  ~~~   0          ~          00~  0 
CARE OP I~IPLFMENTS.                             749
sho~-b1aeking,  ~~liidi costs is. per q1iart  construeti~~ii; a~J arc tljerefore less`affected
bottle; ai~d if jti(liCi()USly put oil with a  by elailges  )f tie Weather as well a~
~oft brush iii siiiall quantity, and brushed  less costly ~vlien reijewed, thai tll()5C ()f
flriiily with  a hard ()ne, it ~vill go over a  more complicated construction, ~vliieli are
1ar~e qnantity of i:arnc~s. Tiie lai~ip-bi~ti   nsed for a short time at certain seasons.
coillliioniy nse~l f~r tiie pnri)()se is filthy,
coillilig ~!r;til~l staillilig eveiyti~ii~g in tilO    6J'3t)'. Tbc in~}iiea~cnt fl~()5t fie~1i~entiy
first rain; and tilC c()illil'()n tra~ii-oil, nsnaliy  in ose is tlic p/ou~/~, and, being tile cilief
eiii~~ioyed to soften tile ieati~er, is stil [   ()ilC for oper&lt;.Ltiiig nj)()n tilC 5()~i, is  Coilmore filthy, being riot iinfre{jtienily (I;lnbe(i  staiitiy cXi)()5e(i in tile iiCi(i.   ~~Tlien it
on with a`visI) ()f straw iip~~n encrnste~{  was coii~n~~~nly  llll~de  (~f`v()(l(l, exl)()snle
dirt, (676') to (68(;), aiid ( t 8o~2) t{) (1&amp;~4U.)  caiise~i its decay ii~nei Sooner tijnii ao'v,
`vl~en it is wholly c~~i~strncted (If ilIlil.  Of
6334. It is tllC jfltO'i(St of tite contrqc-  50 ii~nc'ii ose is ti~e piolIgil, that,`veic ((110
tors to ina~e ciii~ient repa~rs ill ill tilIlsO  tI) be see:i stowed away iii tile ii~~p1eIi~cnti~~atcriais, aii{l lint to aii~~w tiic wear of  lionse, tiie concl~jsion w~~nid iiistaiitiy be
the in0i~leiiients t() pr~IceeIi so far as to  draw ii that it was an (lid and worn-olit ()llc,
cause reprils nearly as exteii~ive as a re-  or 51) iil-c~~nstrncted aii~i aseless that it
newal  and, on tiic other  laud, wlien  l~ad to be set aside.  Fil  552.
repaird are paid in (lay's`~a'es, it is as
niucli tile tradcsiiiaa's ii2tCi'c5t that tiic    6337. 11orro~rs being tile inipleiiient
sanic iiiil~leiiicnt siiail reqllile freqneiit  i1005t c~~innioii1y in (150 IlCXt t(1 tiie ~~ioi1gb,
repairs.  So well practise4 is tiliS illan-  arc n~iicii in tiie field, an~i 0Xp1150(i to tiie
wnvre  lii  501110 places`viieic jobs arc  ~ve'ttiier; a'~d, tiiongii niade entirely of
paid by tiay's wages, ti~at ~I!()ng1Iillen arc  wood, last a l~)ng tiii1c.   INlIt  t1eiii&amp; re
bribe~i by tiie Sill iti  to`Jr iig their lIi0Ii~ h-   q~iire~1  ill`viii for, they ire thou reino~ed
irons, aii{I even their horses, in turos to   Iroiii tl~e ti Old: iln~1 ~laoe~l in t lie iii'11)lOiliCilttiie sillitily every lilgilt,  whether i epairs   lionse.`I' tie tiliCS are osnaily i;iid aiid iiiade
are reqilireti 01, rIot   1111(1 they il~0 also  shari (IaOe il~)~Oa~  11111 wintor is tlie  ili()5t
bnbed by tiie JItlilOr to blelil tiie itelves   pr(t~~er tiine,jiist itelore tiie coiiiiiieiicoiiiont
of tlie lIlinit    111p10111010t5 wl~enever tiiey  of flie (tat-seeti in spriar.  Ilitritlws ai~d
coilie in nob intO usc.  Such a species (If  ~,i~inglis ji e 501(11)10  l'aiiitetl  ifter 1)0 ilig
rognery, it~is Iioj)cIl, is rare  ii1~d I di not   iiiatie; blit tiic harrows should be ~ioaiied
speai~ of  it  fioiii  iiiy (I'v ii  OXIJOl l~i~(~e,  JIld 1)~tIiitC~(l`~ lien set p~ist.  I ig. J'53.
but froni that of others, aiflioligi I ain (lIlt
unwilling to believe it.`ilie steward )oglit    6338. Tiie i'~oi1cr being ~taly occasie~iali y
to ta1~e a strict c1lgnisaiice (tf ill  re[):~i l'~,  in use, in pIilverisi~i.g tite Soil, anil rt,ilin0r
and detect every aiteiii 1t lit roguery.       ilie y (1 ong grass aiid s~i in~ C~i0j)5 Ill 511r ln~
aii~l iii pulvorising tlio SIlil in  S11(111i101'                                        fail~i'v, it is replaced in its 511011 whenever
ON TilE CARE 1)U E TO TIll  I~Ili'Li~3IFNT5.  its sei~ice  are 110 lea gor wanted.   It
SiltIllill iiwa~'~s be set 1)a5t In a state i)f
6335.`i~iic f~riiier is of~ell charged with    c(iiilttiete repltir, fliaf disap1~t~intiiie~it ally
iiegtectlng his iiiipleiiients, by unnecessary  not ensue lit flie iiioiiieiit it is d~siiC(i to
exposure to tiie weatiiei'; aiid tiie eiiai~e  eiiipl(ty it; and flie v~'ood w~~rk should be
is ~oartii~iiy`veil- fltnillied, altiitiiigii tll(150   paiiitod 9COJsI110Jli5'.
wiio n~ake it do titIt understanti flie cause
(If tiie apilarent neglect.  Iiiii~ieiiients ire    6339. Tile sn~alI 1dougiis, SuCh as tli~
used btttli.` ititin,in~l " i1Ii~,ut (111(115, arid  ~ (66(11,9 Jfl(l (loutlO`nioit/d-boaid ~)1I,?(,9k,
tIllIso used`vitlilllit d~i~~rs hay be livideti  being 1180(1 citiefly iri Sn 110111cr, are aillIwed
iii to such as are in  rise every season, and  tI) lie tOt) lttiig iri tile fields after their
(lilly occasii~naiiy.  It is scarcely to 110  eni~iloyiiient lias ceased; and, if reni~tvcd
ex1)ec,ted flint, iniplen~eiits very fi'eqneiitiy  before wiiiter sets in, are placed ill the ~i11used in O~erating upontite 5011,01101)0 other-  pleinent-liouse duty dull ~~oia.  ~~ lieu no
wise than coiistantiy 0X1I(1SCIi to the wen-   l~tiiger re~1uired, they ougi~t to be scraped
thor. Fortunatei~,~tn flie s~oie of economy,  clein of eaitli, and tilO lrOns laid, Iteft~re
tiie in~plen~eiits titus enlpioyell arc ofsi1~pie  being put aside in tiie iniplenient-slied. 
seed,  drill-sowinq,  and  turnip-sowing
nzachines, are seldom allowed to remain
longerin t}ie field than when in use; but,
thlough remnove(l fromi the field, tihey are
too frequently allowed to remain unliteded
in the neighlbourhlood of the steading for a
considerable timie. Somre, hleaving no better
place to put them, take thlem to the stackyard and couver them withl straw.   Instead
of this treatment, they should be imitediately  repaired, taken  to  pieces and
cleaned, the journals  greased, and  the
se)arate parts stowed away in the inipleinent-hlouse.
6346. Tlhefitting up of the impl.-menthouse, for the accomiintoddatioti of the fiiier
l-and smaller ipleients, should li)e so dolne
as to keep the floor nearly unencumbered,
and give free atccess to every particular
implemenet required at a time.  \NVieels,
loose shlafts, and angular pieces  of iron,
are best suspended against a  wall frolm
iron bolts.   Articles  of length, suchl  as
sowing-boxes, are  b)est suppu,rted againiist
a  wall up(n brackets.   Smuall articles of
i r on and of other materials, are best kept
upon slielv es.   Hand-hoes, weed-l1)ooks,
a nd suchlike, are  best placed  in finat-ed
stands.   Scythes are best suspended fromni
the I)alks, and whlere are 1no balkls frntii nails
in the wall.  Thle b)odies of small plouglis,
grubbers, scufflers, should I)e 1)laced along
the foot of tlhe walls, and kept in thleir pisi —
tion with cords fastenedl to staples driven
into the walls.  If every imnplemtient were
put into its own place at the end (of its
season, confusion w(uld( be avoidedl, and
emaniy more articles find accommodation in
I'... F., ".           "".. ",
The gtid,,eons are usually oiled en-erv time
the ii-illi is in use, (I -i 4C).) Wli-ei,eN,e'r a
tliras[iing-macliiiie requires rel),-tii- it isliotild
receive it itiiiiiediately, otherwise a scriouf3
and expensive fracture inay ensue.
6345. Hol(,,s in o(irk-s and in bar)i, ari(I
chrL#'she,e,ts slioti](I be instantly rep,-iired,
by patcliitig and ilarriiii,-,, ii(,r sliotil'a
broken iiiesli in a fiddle I)e overlo(,ke(l, -o
as to ren(ler the trouble of cleaii-wiiiilo%%,in,.grain unavailing.
6342. The class of sniall mantial iiiiplenients, as - turvip-hoes, s           -.qraips,
du,q hawkq, hety-knives, seythe.T, if not
placed iri tlje iiiiplettient-liotise whenever
not in nse, many of tlietn will be lost.
Wlien seytlies and lioes get worn, they
r,hoiild be thrown ii)to the old-iroii store,
and their lielves furnisl)ed Witll Dew ones.
6343. Of all iml)lements, carts, per)iaps, receive the worst treatment.. Tliotj,,Ii
niiieli in use in the fields, they are iieier
left there, it is true, and are brou,,Iit to the
#3tea(iiiiol, but' too sel(]()tn are put under
cover, and are exl.)oed to en,ery species
of weatlier-wlietlier to the mannikin(,
power of ttie sun's rays in summer, or the
rt)tting effects of the damps and rains
of winter; and, considering that cai-ts are
constructed of iiianv parts, tlje wonder is
they last so ]oT)g.%,ftli the treatment tljey
receive. Tlieir axles are not unfrequeiitly 
EXPERIMENTS.
the implement-lionse, thlan when everytlning
is Iut down anywhere, withlout regard to
order.  To maintain order in thle arrangenient of the imiplemnents in thle irnpl)leliiieiitliotise requires firmness on the part of tile
stewvardl; but  the enforcemlent  of order
carries thlis conviction  with it, thlat it is
eas.er to put a tlinlg in its owln place tlhan     o
anywhere  else,  inasmucli as  the  l)Iatce
allotted for it contains and retains it in the
best state and position.   Tilie cart-shled V,
Plate II., forins a g,oo(il st(ore for all tlhe
larger imipleinents atrainst the back watll;
and were cross-beamis put upon the  wall
heads, they  would contain miany othlers.
lJ'he smnaller inmplements would be  well
stowed as directed al)ove in the large outlIouse y', whichli might also answer for othler
l'urposes.
6.349. Yet altlhouighr  Iiis ordinary operations are  attended  withl  uncertainty  in
thleir results, they are not retard(ed )r coiiducted  by hlimii as ex)erimiienits, their  uncertainty  beil.g  aiiticil)atel.   His true
experiments, like  those  of otlier persons,
ar-e miiade to discover unknown effects. er to
conifirmi dubious  ones.   Suich  exper-iments
are constantly und(lertalken  by fariers, n(ot
as a class. but inidividIuatlly; andXi thiey are
conducted on a smiall scale, quietly, independently,  ut)iinot.ice(l.   The  kn,wle(ldge
gainiied by such  experiments  renilers hlili
wiser,  and( tleir  beeficial  eftrcts are
evidenced in hiis improved practice.
ON                      MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON TIIE  FARM.
6347. It now onily remains for me to
n       o(  t i c e a few subjects whlich person ally
a       f      fe c t the farmer               hiniself; and the first of
t        he    s     e is, wlwhen lie maakes experinents in
the                       field, the  p)lan  lie  shiould ffollo w in
con(lucting tiheni.
6348. The farmer iimay be recarded as a
great and constant.ractical experimenter;
for altlhoughl  all his operations are  supposed to produce known  results, yet the
actual  results obtained are often  not as
anticipated].  Whien lie works hIis land for
whleat or for turnips, the operati(ons beii,ng
directedl to a special  end, lie is certain
(f reapin,, a crop of wlheat or of turnips,
anld thlus far lie (loes not run the f'equent
risk of an expl)eriiiienter-a total failure;
but the  amount  of crop  obt,aine(d  iiytiv
be very different from what  lie expectedl
— it nlay be better, or it may be  worse.
He may work hlis land( in the miost favyourable circunmstances, and after all reaI) )ut          i
a scanty and ill-conditioned crop; ( or hlis
op-erations mav have been frequently interrupte(l  by  the  weathler, yet lie may
be rewar,led( at tlhe end of the season with
a botuntiful return   Uncertainty (f result
attends not one, but all his crops; and it
is not confined to the ()peratiotns connected
witlh  one, but exteiil-s to those of every
seasson.  In this view, no pri)fessiorin deends so imuchl on future couitingencies as
fariingi,.  Unless the manufacturer wishles
751
to niale an,-tlteratioii in Iiis macl.)inerv, or
in the I)attei-ii, fabric, or colour of liis
niantif,-tcture, lie iii,-i-y,o on 1.)ro(Iticin(, tiie
s-,tiiiei-estiltsfor an iii,-Iefliiite leti,tli of tiiiie.
Tlte on tire  otl)er ]find, cannot  1)rodtice anv determinate restilt;-Iie i-i fire
likel'tlier to f-,tll  sliort of, or to ovez,slj(-)ot, liis iiiai-k; and it is to the iiiteriiie(liate result, I)etweeii the t%i,o ext,.-eiiies
wliicti t,lie farnier experiences, tli,,it the idea
of an average is attached.  Uiiless a
coi,l,ect ide.-t of siieli an avera-e liaq I)een
foi-nied, the comparative yield of -,i. farni
cannot be estiiii,,i',ed froiti the cr(,I) of any
one year. W liatever, tlien, a f.-.triiier does
on liis farin, iii,-ty be re,,,,ii-do(I in the litlit
of an experiment.
6350. Tlje present pei-i(-)d, witli farniers,
is 1)i-e-ettiiiietit,ly oi)e of expei-iineyit.'It is
generally tin(lerst(,o(I t,liat exl)ei-inientg in
f-.triiiiri(, are b-ein,, made over the wliole
kiii,,dotii, ati(i t,lj,-tt t'.iey,ti,e now cotidiicted
by f.-triiiej-s as a class. The reason tli,,it ex               irore tiiiivei,,qallv un(,Iertaken
ilow t,li-iiii liej-etof',,)i-e is, that liey li,,,ive not
ori,,inate(I so mtieli NNitli f,,triiiers tlietiiselve,3,,-is at tlje sug,esti(.)n of others.
Manv st.b,-taDces leave I-)eeii i-econiiiiended
to tileir i-j(tice as valiia'ole inaiiiires, (49-,4,)
of wliose I-)roperties they Nvei-e entirely
uiiacqii-t-iiited, an(I witli wliose ultimate
results they are still iinsatisfled.
6351. The f-,iritiers' p,-)sitiou as regar(li
their own oper,,itioi)s, in as far as experinients exten4l, is iinc()iiiniori an(I even
ationial()us. Exl)eriinent lias I)Iat.-e(i all
tlielr operations in a state t.)f ti —,iiiL4ition;
for, let its results be what they iiiay,
there is no doubt they will exert a power 
— ~~~~~~~~.. -*- ~   " ~                      Q - A         -
.- "  -—.'".....
~~~~~~~~~~'                                                 5 0  CI-  E
Cy;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.,et~'-,.,,                                          __...-.-~
",-~               =-'.,  — "                                                                                                          1, —                                                               -.
,..~-   ~." —.  ~ 0  -',-~                  -----        --                                   
0                               0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~C
~ 0 ~  0  0  0   ~                                              0D
0.... 00                 -  -  0...
co... 0. o: -,' 
.0  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~  ~    ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~O e-.                            — <5'" 
Co e-,- -.. ~. 0  ~ -.,   ~  -,:,"0  0".., c: eo Z...
~~~ 0~~~~C~~~t 0    ~~~~~~~   0  ~~~~~~                                          0 ~~~~r
- ~~~~~~~ 0  ~ ~ ~   ~      ~       ~      ~     ~      ~        ~~~~~~~~-0~~~C 
EXPERIMENTS.
viously been plouahed; and tile quantity
of Ii:ti(l occupied by tl()tse rid,ges depends
iUl)(n their lengthi, so tlhat thje quantity may
4' ~, 4'
bxe 4, -  4,  or 1 are (,r miiore of laud, as
tile case itay be.  AMiiuter firactions of
la.1(d, sucli as 1 of ani acre alonig part of
one ii(lJge, %ill not do, because we  hliave
seen  tl.hat two  ridges  tmust always  be
plolllghed togetlier, and thleir furrow slices
imiust ailways be in opposite  directions;
and we liave allso seen thlat ordinary crops
a.try on  furrow-slices,  liaving different
.lirections and aspects. As short ridges
are never well plougt,edl, an eighthl of an
acre gi es only 50 vards along  two ridges,
whiichi is too shiort a distance to be ploughed
as it oughit to be; while, of course, a
tquarter of an acre would give 100 yards
of ridg,es, whiichi is shiort enough for good
t, loughiniig —aid if longer, so muchi  tbe
better.   I would say, theni, that a quarter
of an acre, ailong at most two ridges, is
the least sp)ace of ground that should be
taken to conduct alny experiment upon.
Were eachi exper   iment  cosL finea-s to  the part
of the field in which it h1alpIpenede to be miiade
in a patcl), tle comparisoi woild be wortiless, for botih soil atn(d aspect migiht differ
in opposite siles of a, field  and at  opposito
ends of a ridge. Every experiment sirehid,
thereftre, b)e repeated at least twice in the
same field; and thie mnore often the better.
63.57. This injunction naturally leads to
another, which recommnends  the  experimnients to be  made withl  a very limited
number of materials.  Better make experi ments in double and treble repetitions wviti
thlree or four materials across L whvlole field,
thIan one experiment only with twelve  or
fifteen materials. There evidently exists a
strong desire in experimenters to try a
large number of ingredients, and their mixtures, at one and the same time in the same
field, thereby greatly increasing the trouble
attendant in observin, the miriutire of eachi
experinlent, enlhancing the risk of error, and
confusing the elenments of true comparison.
The reason for employing so mianymiaterials
at a timne is evidenit and natural; it is, thlat
the larger number of materials may exhibit
their results in the shortest tinie-but those
results are of no practical use if not produced as comparisons with ordinary practice; and results cannot be compared when
one ingredient is used in one patch of a
field, and  the ordinary  crop is spread
over it from side to side, and from end to
end.
6354. For thes e reasons, the experim ental portions of ground srould occupy ridges,
alnel not rectanvgular patchies staked Oouit
acreoss tlye imid(lle  of the field.-  Patches
liay I)e differently affected by the weather
— wilethier by rain, or suinshinie, or wind
-frcoiii tlhe comnmon ridges whichl  stretch
fioin one  side of a  field  to the  otlher.
Tley  may  present  different  aspects  at
lifferent parts of the field.   The soil niay
differ in tlhemii.  Buit entire ridges are more
likely to lhave similar soil, similar aspect,
and certainly similar treatmnerit, in thle
samie part of the fielil, titan patchies are
likely to receive.
6358. Another very important consideratioln is the quantity of the  ingredienjts
used in the experiments.   Some  exl,eririieenters only apply as much  per acre as
ainounits t(o a certain determinate  cost;
because, if the increased result derived fromn
the ingredient does not amount to  thiat
sumin, they are considered unprofitable.   I
consider such a principle  based on error,
nbecause tlhe market value of any ingredient
is no test of its intrinsic worth; for we
krit)w tlhat the guano which is sold for ~10
per toll is worthl tlhree timtes, in its resutllts,
to that sold for ~7.  If, therefore, 2 cwt. of
oirne in,gredient g,ive the sanme result, at the
siome cost, as 1 cwt. of anothler ingredient,
it does not follow that the former is just
as  ltuchI worth as tlhe latter; for, had it
been lessenied by chiance to 1-1 cwt., the
result mighlt have been nugatory, and even
inijuriouis; whereas: if the 1 cwt. had been
3 B
6356.  The same experime3t should be
repeated on dlifferent ridg,,es of tlhe. field.
VOL. 1J.
753
6355. In fixin,, the portions (,f a field
for experiment, pai-tof the ground slioiil(l
ititervei-ie in its ordinary state betweeit
each experiment; for the coiiil-?arison will
not be so fir over the entire field if the
experiment be confined to a particular part
o," it, tlioii,,Ii it slioul(i extend across its
wliole  leD"'tll.   Wlien experimental I)oi —
tions are tlius separated fi-oiii one ariotl)ei-,
the ground of ilen)areatioii between eacii
experiment will be so distinctly niarl-ed oiit
ttiat no risk of confoundin(, ttie experiweiital 1.)Iots can arise. 
REALISATION.
increased to 1  cwt., the result might have
been double to that obtained from  the 2
cwt.  The price of an article is, therefore,
no rule to judge by of a manure, for that         3
is dependent on the scarcity or abundance
of the article, or the difficulty attending
its manufacture.  What I consider the mnost
satisfactory mode  of applying all ingredients, whose action is unknown, is to find
out the largest quantity of each whliclhi
will produce such an excess of crop as to
do sensible harm, and also the smallest
quantity  of each  that will  produce  a
sensible effect.   Having  these two extremes, we have data by which to judge
whether the price will permit you to purchase as muclh as will yield an increased
and profitable crop.   I see no other way
of really getting at the true value of any
unknown ingredient of manure.
6361. Every article applied to the soil
in experiment should be weighed. There
is no difficulty in weighing specific  manures which are of little bulk, but ordinary
manures cannot be weighed in a field
without the assistance of a steelyard. I
have'often experienced this inconvenience
in the  field; but now  the convenient
machine s  ma nufactured  by Messrs Craig
and Co., Liverpoo l, (3639,)  and  Miessrs
Smith and Co., Paisley, afford every facility for weighing any article of manure,  on
thie  spot  of the experi ment, with tdie utmost accuracy and e ase. Tile o  nly practicable  way of ascert a ining the quantity of
farmyard manure             to be applied, where no
steelyar d is in the field, is to  fill  the cart
with an oedinary  load,   and le t special
notice be  taken ho w f ar the bod  y of the
cart is filled, in the loose state,  before   it is
sent to the steading to be weighed on twle
steelyard —for I take it for granted that a
large station ary s teelyard is put up as a
necessary machine at every steading; and
if all the subsequent  loads are filled to  the
same degree, by thie same people,  and with
the same sort of manure, the we i   ght of
one cart from another will not differ materially.  If notice of  the bulk  of the
cart-load had not been taken before it was
sent off to the steading to be weighed, tile
compressed state of the load, occasioned
by travelling on the road to and fromi the
steading, will give ~avrong idea of the
weight of the future loads. Every different cart employed  should  have  the
weigrht of its first load ascertained, as well
as its own  weight.  Such apparently
trifling, matters are too apt to be overlooked, and yet it is they alone which
give the power of conviction to any
experiment.
6359.' When a comparative experiment
is to be tried with different kinds of manure,
the land should be manured when in the
same state, on the same day, at the same
period of the day, and on the crop or crops
at the same age; for I have obtained very
different  results from  the same  manure
applied in the forenoon and afternoon of the
same day oii the potato, and on the turnip
crop.  It is the same with specific or a mixture of specific manures.  For example, it
will not do to try different specific manures
upon grass which has been laid down after
potatoes, against that laid down after turnips; nor upon a grain crop after turnips
which had been eaten off with sheep,
against tile same kind of crop upon land
from wlhich the turnips had been carried
off altogether.   Comparative experiments
could, no doubt, be made on these different conditions of grass, and of crop after
turnips, were the same specific manure
employed; but different specific manures
will not give comparative results in different circumstances. In like manner, it
will not do to apply divferent specific
-manures to different sorts of wheat, bariley, or oats, as each variety of grain may
possess such an idiocrasy as to be very
differentlyaffiected in similarcircumstances,
And the results obtained from such circuimstances would not be comparative. Experiments may be made on different varieties of crop in different circumstances,
without reference to comparison at all; but
unless the results of eaperimeItt are com
754
-pared -with ordinary practice, no practical
use will come out of the experiment.
6360. Mantires of whatever kind should
be -tpplie(I to the soil by the same meat)s.
One ou(,ht not to be applied by band, and
another by machinery; one in a dry state,
another in a state of solution, if it be desired to make the experiment comparative. The states of ti-ie manures may be
varied, but then they sliould be applied in
the, 41iffereiit states in the isame circumsta-tices as in ordinary practice, to reiider
the comparison of any value. 
EXPERIMENTS.
that is applied in small quantities.  The
surprising effects of small  quantities of
bone-dust and guano  have tended much
of late years to remove that prejudice from
their minds.   But, after all, they  may
commit such inadvertent errors, at the
very consummation of the experiment, as
to render its results entirely nugatory;
and such errors are the more likely to
be committed if any operation has to be
performed in a different manner from
what they have been accustomed to do
them. Many experimenters  have, doubtless, experienced  great  disappointment
from even one inadvertent mistake comrnitted by the thoughtlessness or stupidity
of a moment. Delay the application of a
single specific manure, or the sowing of a
variety of seed, till the next morning,
when it ought to have been done the evening before-n-ix a single sl-heaf from the
produce of one portion of ground with that
of another-weigh a single article wrong,
whether of manure or of crop-set down
the number  of one article for that of
another, and the entire experiment is rendered utterly worthless as to the proportions and comparison of restilts, anal even
the absolute results cannot be depended on.
Incessant superintendence, therefore, on
the part of the farmer himself, is the only
chance of preventing the occurrence of one
serious mistake.
6362. On collecting the produce of exp)eriments, every article should be carefully
weighed or measured.   Cortni should be
stooked in the same mainner, allowed to
remain in the field the same time, and, if
stacked, should be put in the same size of
stack, built in the same manner.  I attach
more importance to this last remark on
stacking than it may seem to possess, because I knew a stacker, the corn from the
stacks built by whom always came out in
raw condition; and the reason was that
he did not heart his stacks sufficiently,
(4623.)  I observe  that  experimenters
generally thrash and weigh the crop obtained by experiment immediately after it
has been collected, instead of stacking it.
belie grain  thus new thrashed from the
ground is not in the same state as it usually
is fronm  the farm, where it is invariably
stacked for a time before being brought to
the nmarket: it will be in a raw condition,
and neither it nor the straw will indicate
their  true  weights.  The  crop  should
therefore be stacked for a time, to equalise
both the grain and straw in colour, weight,
and condition.   On  taking up  experimental turnips, the whole break should be
taken up and weighed at the same time, as
considerable risk of error will be incurred
by takinig up and weighing only a portion,
and( tleti measuring the entire ground at
once.  In removing the experimental crop,
of whatever kind, an equal extent of the
ordinary crop should be removed at the
sanme time, andl not a  fractional  part
merely;  and all calculations should be
made fronm the entire extent of each portion of ground subjected to experiment,
and not from a fraction.  Attention to all
such particulars involves much time and
trouble, and creates no little anxiety of
mind;  but the time must be spent, the
attention bestowed, and the anxiety endured, if we wish to arrive at the truth.
6364. Nt ot to  encumber the subject of
expe riment  with  a  mult iplicity of  objects,
I have  purposely only       referred to experiwmetts to be made in the field, to   t he  e xclus i on  o f those which ou ght a lso to  be
made with live stock. With thes   e     the
difficulty i s  at least  equally great,s if  not
greater, which 1 believe itthb to be tihan   wit h
plants; for althouegh a  ll ani mals  of the
same kind and of the same are   seenl  as
much ak alike as are  t he same    classes of soils,
and the same food seems as nmuchi alike as
the samne sorts of special manures, yet the
constitution of one animal is more varied
fromn that of another than the functions
of one plant are from those of another.  It
is therefore alhost impossible to ascertain
the comparative value of different kinds of
food, when given to different  animiials of even
the same are and condition.  And  even
the samne food administered to the same
animal will produce different results at
different  times, in consequence  of  the
75r.
6363. In conducting experiment,,;, the
fariiier has practical difficulties to contend
with. He cannot manipul,-tte liiiiiself-I)e
iilust depenti for assistance on,iiis people;
and tliotiii lie mu-st regard tliein as
ta,nts, they are so entirely ignorant of the
nature of the iii(ri-edients employed as to
require not onlv to be taught how to conduct tile experiment, but to appreciate its
nieatis: they being disposed to regard
with contempt any 3ubstances as a manure 
REALISATION.
different state of the health of the animal;
and at a different season of the year.
pleaded for the experimenter being so highly
qualified as the suggester, it is clear that he  who
is to conduct the experiment oughIt to know as
miuch about it as he who only suggested it.
When  the suggester is an eminent cliheist, and
tile experimenter a practical fa rmer, the latter is
not expected to be so highlyqualified in chemistry
as the former. But what I would desire to see
is, a series of experiments conducted in the fields
by a thoroughly practical farmer who is also an
eminent chemist. The results obtained under
the observations and- conclusions of such a man
could lnot fail to carry conviction to the mind of
every farmer and of every chemist. And, failing
such a union of qualifications in the same person, the next best arrangement to afford satisfaction would'be to see experiments conducted
in the fields by a really intelligent practical
farmer, and superintended by an eminent chemist.
6365. Noting the progress of experiments in the
field is attended with immense difficulties.   The
soil is so varied il its compolnent parts, the best
manures are so varied il their composition, the
constituents of plants are so  numerous  and
various, and the vital force exerts so inexplicable
an influence upon plants in relation to the soil,
manure, and season, that to anticipate any result
simply by a process of ratiocination is impossible.
No mind can possibly trace the progress of action
which is constantly goinig on in the soil and in
the air. in reference to the growth and maturity
of a single plant.  When we, therefore, use a
large number of means to produce a desired end,
we only multiply the elements from  which  we
have to draw deductions, and thereby the more
increase the difficulty.
6369. In regard to the use of special manures'
it is necessary " to make use of only such substances as are more or less directly soluble in
water," observes Professor Johnston.   "And
wheni mixtures of substances are employed, they
ought to be in such a sta'e of chemical combinatioii as not to act upon and render one another
iiisoluble. Where these two rules are neglected,
the immediate action of the single substance, or
of the mixture employed, is not to be depended
upoin, and may not become sensible within a given
time.  It is scarcely possible to judge  of the
effect of an application which is not it) a condition to act immediately  and to expend its actiom
within a known period; to compare it with the
action of other substances; or to say how  tar it
may  be a profitable one, and ought to be  repeated or  discontinued.   Patents  have  been
taken out in this country for patent imanures, the
peculiarity of which was, that such of their coiistituents as were readily soluble in water should
not be rendered very sparingly soluble, and thus
be liberated slowly in the soil, and slowly worked
up by the plant.  But the principle was  a bad
one, and hence the want of success which  has
attended both theum anufacture, and the numierous
trials  from  time  to  time made  with those
maniures." *
6366. We may obtain some definite notions of
such a difficulty by considering tlhe qualifications
wh ich a suggester of  f       ield  experiments shouldc
possess, and  they will be found to b e           neithe          r few
nor  unimportant. He should know  the sulbstanc        es
of which the plant to be experimented on collsists —the functions performed in plants by their
,r,,anic and i norganic or mineral                      constituenntsthe functions of th         e         seve ral parts  of plants -the
fhabits  an       d  analogies of t he species of plants oil
w hich                 experiments are to be made, and                     of their
several  varieties-of          what the  soil consists-the
differences of soils                    arising from their geological
origin —the effects of local geology and physical
geogiaplhy-the general habits, principal varieties, constitutional tenidencies, and especially the
<structure of the digestive organs of the domesticated animals on which the experiments in
feeding are to be mnade-tlhe exact state of our
theoretical knowledge upon points akin to those
on which the proposed experiments are intended
to throw light-tthe clear anl definite end, practical or theoretical, for which the experiments
.are recommended  to be undertaken.  He must
know what compounds of each of the substances
w*liclh are present in the soil and in the plant
are soluble-to what extent they are solubleand in what way they affect the solubility of each
other when mixed together il the soil, or in an
artificial maniure. Then lie will know how to
feed his plants; when, and with what they have
been fedl; and how to judge of an experimental
triial —how far it has succeeded, or what may be
the cause of its failure.
6370. Another  considerat io   n in the employment of saline in gredien ts, i   n experiementt, as
manures, is that the  different   substane s    s ioeuld
be  used  il  quantities  corresponding  to their
chemical equivalents.  The following is a list of
equivalents amongst  the salts  mentioned:  Carbonate of potash (pearl-ash,).      (;9.2
Carbonate of soda (soda-ash,).       53,4
Nitrate of potash,...      101.3
Nitrate of soda,...       85.4
Sal-ammoniac,.5..        3.5
Sulphate of potash,...     87.2'
Sulphate of soda (dry,)..      71.6
Sulphate of ammonia,.       81.3
Sulphate of magnesia (crystallised,).    123.8
Sulphate of lime (gypsum,)..      86.6
For example, if an experiment is to  be made
with the nitrate of potash against the nitrate- of
6367. " In the maker of the experiments, all
this knowledge is not required.  He cannot possess too much of it-for none of it would be
superfluous or without its use; but scrupulous
fidelity and accuracy in all his proceedings, a
careful observation and detail of appearanices,         u
and a conscientious record of results, are the most
essential qualifications on his part."
* Johnstont's Experimental Aygriculture, p. 6 to 37.
756
6368. Notwithstanding the non-necessity here 
CORN MARKETS.
soda, 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of soda ought not
to be taken, because 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of
potash had been taken, but only 85.4 lb. of the
nitrate of soda-which is its equivalent quantity
to the preceding number of the other salt.
granaries there. When the mai-ket-towzn
is situate ill the interior of the country,
the  nlerchants and brewers attend tho
market tilere from the nearest sea-port.
In a corn district, from whiclh most of the
produce is carried away to large towns or
namanufacturing districts, it is nmost  convenient for the shipment of  grain  that
corn-mierchlants reside in sea-port towns.
The purchase of grain is chiefly carried
on in winter, when the farmer has his crop
t o  di spose  of  Brewers and distillers chiefly
buy barley for malting, millers andl bakers
chiefly wheat and oats, and nmerchants
every species of graili.  The market  for
barley commences the season, wheat and
oats being then disposed of according to
the demand  for them; but after March
the demand for wheat and oats increases,
to supply  the  consumption  until next
harvest. and that for barley decreases.
6371. As a further incentive to those desirous
of conducting experiments, it may prove useful
to give a few general observations oni the action
of manures which  have now be           en establ ished
by pretty extensive experience. Farmyard dung
is the paramount means of fertility oil the farm,
it is the farmer's sheet-anchor, and every other
manure must be regarded only as auxiliaries.
It is indispensable in a dry season, and superior
to all manures then.
6374. Nitrogenous  substances          have a good
effect on the weight of grain.
6375. Sulphated bones are not a good topdressillg for oats; they are better ploughed into
the soil than as a top-dressing to any crop.
They induce a large yield of the grain of wheat.
6383. Corn-markets are of two kinds,
stock and sample markets.  A  sample
market is that in whichl farmers bring a
handful of each kind of grain they wishl to
dispose of, exhibit them to tile purchasers,
and deliver the grain at an appointed time
and place.
6376. Guano is invaluable to turnips, but is
not a good top-dressing to any of the cereal crops.
It is assisted by common salt in dry weather,
and by sulphate of soda in damp.
6384. A stock-mnarket is where farmers
bring in the grain they  have to sell in
bags upon  their carts, exhibit a bagful of
it, sell the quantity brought, deliver it to
the purchasers immediately after the sale
is effected, and thlen receive the imo)ney
f(.r it.  A  merchant who sells grain in a
stock-market does  so  by samnple,  and
never thinks of bringing his st(ock, which
perhaps consists of granaries-full, to the
ainurket-place;  and  therefore  nothing
exists to prevent farmers also selling their
grain bv sample in a stock-market.
6378. Sulphate of soda acts best in damp
weather, and is quite inert in dry weather in dry
soils.
6381. Two cwt. of the same saline manures
applied early in the season, as a top-dressing,
will produce as good an effect as 3 cwt. will do
at a later part of the season.  Special manures
are particularised from (4904) to (5021.)
6385. When sold by sample, the grain
is delivered by the  farmer in his  own
carts in the course of the few days allowed
him for the )purpose, either at the granaries
of the mnerclhant, brewer, or (listiller, or
at the mill of the miller.   Water-proof
tarpaulins are required to cover the sacks
in tlje carts wilen grain is delivere(l in a
rainy day; but it is better to defer the
delivery until fiir weather, if not otherwise inconvenient to any party.
6382. The surplus grain of the fatrm is
disposed of to corn-mtierelhaits, nillers,
bakers, distillers, and brewers.   These
attend on the market-day in the mar-kettown.  If the niarket-towni is a sea-p)ort,
most of the corn-merlchants and brewers
reside in it permanently, and have their
6386.  Wlien  sold  in bags, corn  is
757
6372. Saline manures, as top-dressings, are
better for the cerea-I crops than the phosphates.
6373. Phospbates are better for turnips, and
yield more grain, than saline manures.
6377. Common salt acts best in dry weather
and on dry soi'ls.
6379. Nitrate of potash aiid muriate of ammonia are dear special manures.
6380. Nitrate of soda and sulpba,te ofammonia
are cbeap special maiitires, aiid good top-dressings fur the cereal crops.
ON CORN MARKETS. 
REALISATION.
delivered imnmeliately after the sale at the
granaries of the merchants on the spot, or
at the brewery, or distillery, or mill in
the country, according to agreement.
chaser, the next week, or whenever it may
be.  Railway companies are very accommodating with sacks to farmers who
deposit  their grain  in  the  comnpanilies'
granaries from one market-day to allother,
should they not dispose of the grain at the
first succeeding one.  Or, to avoid these
manifold and obvious inconveniences, he
must take the price offered for his grain.
Another disadvantage is, that his horses
must stand in the market-place, exposed
for hours to cold blasts, after perhaps being
heated on their way to the market-town.
The exhibition of corn in bags gives power,
however, to the purchaser to inspect the
cleaning of every sack before purchasing
it, and it also gives him the command of a
quantity of corn immediately after its
purchase, to make up a cargo.
6387. The payment f   or gra in sold  by
sample is only miiade on the market-day
after the delivery has been effected; but
the payment of that sold in bags is due,
and is generally received, on the day it is
sold, at an appointed time and place, after
its delivery at the granaries.
6388. Of the two modes of selling grain,
each has its advantages and disadvantages
to the farmer. It is ver~y convenient to
fake a quantity of grain to market, sell
it, deliver it on the spot, and receive the
cash for it immediately afterwards.   It
enables the farmer to transact his market
business at once, and saves him the trouble
of attending next mniarket-day on purpose
to receive the cash only, when hlie may
have no other occasion to be there.  It
obliges, in a great degree, merchants to
provide granaries for the reception of grain
in the interior market-towns, as farmers
may refuse to deal with a purchaser who
wishes the grain delivered at a distance
from the market-town, the fatigue to their
horses being thereby probably much increased.  Thiis modle of selling grain has
also the advantag,e of securing the farmer
against bad debts, because, if lie chooses,
lie may deliver the grain and receive the
money for it simultaneously.
6390. The advantatges of a hand samplemarket to the farmer are, that lie is
independent of the rate of price of any
market-day; for if it does not satisfy
him, he can return   the sample into hlis
pocket.  His men and  h  orses   do not lose
a day's works and are not exposed to the
weather in waiting in the market-place.
He need not clean his grain before selling it; and should he be induced to sell
more than that thrashed, lie has time to
thrash more and clean the whole quantity
at once, thereby  making  the  stock of
uniform quality, and cleaning  it agreeably  to  the  purchaser's  taste.   Tlhe
advantage  of  a  sallmple-market to  the
merchant is, that, should the sample please
him, he can purchase as large a quantity
of grain as the lraner pleases to dispose
of, and thus make up a cargo of unitorm
quality.
6389. This mode is, however, attended
with this great disadvantage, that, in case
the farmer does not sell his grain on the
day lie has brought it to the market-place,
lie is either obliged to take it home again,
or put it into a granary until the next
market-d(ay, when, of course, a granaryrent  is  incurred, and  the  additional
expense  also of either hiring carts to
deliver the grain next miarket-day, from
the temporary granary to that of his
purchaser, or of sending a cart of his own
to do it; and if hlie keeps the grain so
accommnodated in his own sacks, lie may
be dileprived of the use of tlheiii at. a time
when hlie may have a large quantity of
corn in the barn to measure up. If lie does
not use his own sacks in this way, lie must
be accommodated with sacks from  some
party when he delivers the grain to the pur
i58
6391. The disadvantages to the fatimer,
are inability to receive casli for the grain
lie sells until the next niarket-day after
its delivery, and the risk lie thereby rains
of ineurriii,, bad del)ts with the iiiercli.-iiit,
to whom the stock is delivered soiiie days
before lie pays for it; and the disttdvantage
to the purchager-wlticli, by the way,
is ino'st stron,,Iy felt by the brewer, di,+tiller, and miller-is, that lie cannot obtain
possession of the grain imniediately after
the purchase.
6392. Of the two species of cornmarkets, I prefer selling by tije sample. iu 
CORN MARKETS.
aendanger the safety of the persons who
carry loads upon them.
a market which is attended by respectable
purchasers, but chiefly because I dislike
to see horses  exposed for hours with a
load in the market-place, and most prob)ably ill bad weather-for none other can
be looked for  in w i        nter. Such an exposure
cannot be for their advantage, and, in my
estimation, the peculiar advantages of a
stock-market are insufficient to counterbalance the risk thus incurred in the safety
of the horses. The inconvenience is perhaI)s felt by some farmers, aind a modification of the plan is followed, by delivering in the course of a few days a larger
quantity of (rain than was presented in
tlhe market-place.   No  modification caIn
take place in the sale of grain by sample,
because it is simply tile presentation of the
hand-sample in the market, the sale of the
bulk tlherew ith, and its consequent delivery
at the specified time. It would be interesting to inquire into the particular diseases
to which horses are most liable, that are
exposed in a market-place for hours
together, and to ascertain if they are the
class of diseases most commonly contracted
by exposure to weather.
6395. For the carriage of corn from
the granary to the ship, I have seen a conbeenient form of bag used   It consists of
a short sack capable  of holding  rather
more than two bushels, drawn together at
the bottom, where a short piece of thick
pliable rope is attached; the mioutih being
formed like any other sack.  Thle person
who  is to carry tile bag folds the mouth
together whlen filled, so as to cover the
corn, and at the sanie time leaves a portion
of the sack loose, by which hIe lolds firmly
with his right hand.  On assistance being
given to lift the sack when  filled  with
the sack-lifter, he turns himself quickly
round with his back to it, and brings the
loose part by which he holds on over his
head; and, holding on there witil  both
hands, he literally runs with the load to the
shiip's hold, where, on a man seizing the
short rope at the bottom of thle sack, and
retaining hold of it, the carrier hitchles the
sack off his back, and the grain is poured
into the hold.  No other form of bag is
so convenient for this purpose.
6393. Every species of grain is directed
by the Weights and Measures Act  (5th
Geo. IV. c. 74, sec. 15,) to be sold by
tile imperial bushel, fig. 168, containing c
2218.192 cubic inches; and tlher-e is no
such reco,gnised quantity as quijirter, boll,
coom, or load.  The practice lols settled
into measuring grain  into  luf   ar,ter
sacks of 4 bushels, wlicli formis a cornvenient size of load; but the oll (lesig,ation of bolls, and cooIIIms, an(l lo)a.(ls ie
still retained  where  they  were  in  use
formerly; and the confusion arising, fronl
tile size of those different measures is as
great as prior to the passing, of the act,
owing  entirely  to the  defect in it, not
mlaking the size of the  quarter and  its
fractional parts as imperative as that of
the bushel.
6396.  A   sack-lifter is a  convenien t
implement, either in the granary of the
corn-merclhant or the corn-barn of thle
farmer.  Fig. 589 is a view in perspective
of one wic is very similar to   a  commion
hand-barrow. It simply consists of two
pieces  of aslt, 3 feet  9 inches lo ng, terskisating at  both ends in the form of handles,
an d united   together, at 15 inches  apart, by
means of three cross bars of wooud tenoned
and mortised into tile handles. A boarding
is placed over the bars for the sacks to
stand upon.  On  being filled the sack is
lifted upon the board, or it is filled while
o n the board, assistants taking hlold of tile
hhandles, lift it up  simultaneously, while
the carrier turns lhis back to the load to
receive it upon it.
6894. Granaries in towns are frequently
situate at iucoinvenient places for access to
carts, as in narrow streets and lanes; and
some are so inconveniently lhigl), that four
or five fli,g,hts of steps lhave to be surmounted ore tihe floor be attained wliichi
is to contain thle corn; and such stairs are
not unfrequently too narrow and too steep,
their steps being so worn ill front as to
6397. For long in Scotiand, grain used
'ar =.-    -1-- -
- i .- I -    -
759
Fig. 589.
;o. — -- ow
TtlE SACK-LIFTER. 
REALISATION.
which has a determinate value put upon it by
the tacit consent of the state; if in goods, it will
be barter and not sale; and if illusory, it will
be doniation.  The price must be certain, as well
as the subject sold. It is generally fixed by the
parties  themselves at  striking  the  bargain.
Where a purchaser of oats, payable on delivery,
teinporised with the seller, and delayed to take
delivery for a fortnight, during which period  the
price of oats rose, it was held that hlie was not
entitled to demand delivery, (Craig, MNly 29,
1823, 2 S. D. 347.)...  Ill sales of grain,
the price        is sometimes fixed by the Sheriff's fiars.
In the case of Leslie, (Jan. 27, 1714, M. 1419
and 1678,) where ther e was  an agreement  to
purchase  grain   without a       price sp ecified, it was
held inter alia, that  fiars' prices  may be  presumed as the sale between landlord and tenant;
and that merchants are presumed to contract
according to the current prices of the country
where the bargain is made. As to the risk of
sale  after the subject is sold, the loss is to the
p urchaser, as  in th      e case of Campbell, (July 15,
1748, M. 10,071,) and in the case of Tarling,
(1827, 6 Barn. and Cres. 361.) But it was held
in the case of Milnie, (Feb. 1, 1809, F. C.,) that
where the seller takes upon himself the delivery
of goods at a certain place, it throws the risk of
the goods, while ill transitu to that place, on the
seller....  Where the seller has delayed deliveriing  the subject to  the  purchaser  when
bought, he is liable for the risk; but it is not
considered delay, when the purchaser declines
paying the price. Also, when a landed proprietor sells a certain quantity of grain of a particular crop to a merchant, without specifying any
particular parcel, and the whole crop is destroyed, the loss is to the seller; but after such quantity of grain is measured, or otherwise prepared
for delivery, the risk will be transferred to hi;n e
so found in the case of Hinid, (7 East. 558,)
Erskine, iii. 3, 7."
to be sold by measure alone, and for lon,,
it used to be sold in Ireland by weight
alone;  and both ways are objectionable.
When the measure alone is used, a temptation is held out to measure the corn before
it is properly cleaned, especially if it has
been sold.  When sold alotne by weieght,
a temptation also exists to retain l         i       ght
corn atmong,st the good, with the view, in
both cases, of disposing of the inferior grain
at as good a price as the file.   But a check
has of late years been established against
both species.f frauds, by the introduction
of tile element of weight along with the
measure.   Merchants know the weilght of
grain  by its appearance  and  feel, and
therefore, by trying the weight of a 4bushlel sackl, they easily ascertain whether
the grain is in as clean a state throughout the bag as at its nmouth.   But the
at(loption of the weight has given rise to
a species of deceitful dealing.  The purcliser offers a certain  price for every
sBitc.ificd number  of pounds  weight  of
thle  grain,  without  direct reference  to
the contents of the  bushel; and  some
f    atrmers ale  induced t o sell on this plan,                in
the vLini hope of being able to boast that
t!iev  lia e suId their grain at such a price
*-isits in  it to be believed that the price
.pyiilies to the true bushel, when in fact
it, is received for so locally specified pounds
cei,,l'it. Tile fair and cotlnion practice is,
to:tsl.a pilice for the gr.in per quarter,
stating its weig,llt l1y thle bushlel; and, of
((,iise, thie lieavier the-,'ri, and better
the (illullity, tile llli-la;tscr wvill give the
liiglJEi' p)rice for it aer qal(r te.
6400. llypothee.-In regard to the landlord's
hypotlhec over corn, restitution was given in the
case of Scot, (June 11, 1673, M. 6223,) of corns
bought from  a tenant while under  hypothec.
Though, when bought in public market, where
they had been brought in bulk, the purchaser
was not liable in restitution; if bought only in
samples, the landlord is entitled to restitution.
This was held in the case of Stnart, Dec. 10, 1793,
atnd of the Earl of Dalhousie, Feb. 27, 11328, 6 S.
D., 626.'  So  that a stock-market is safest for
a.  merchant to buy in, and a sample-mlarket
is safest for the hypotlhec of a landlord.
6398. Trle us          a,l de )ttii atioit. of  carn-measures,  based up,)on   the   imperi-l  bushel,  the
standard of cap-tcity, are tlle.se: —
4 Gills    I    1 pint,    conta;in1:'4i cubic inches.
2 pinits   I    1 qiatrt,.....i.
4 qutarts   =  1 ga.ll.,..       277..
2 gallons   =  1 peck...      554j
4 pecks    1 1l.siel,..     2218                        i.
8 bushels -   1 quarter,.. 10oj.. fet
5 quarters  -- 1 load,.. 51...
6401. Of late a movement has been  made
against thlecontinuance ofliypotliec. It is a natural
enough desire on the part of  corn-mereliants
swho purchase from sample to remiove the risk
they incur on purchasing grain from  a tenant
who may be indebted to his landlord airears of
rent; but how any tenant can join inl such a
movement seems to me surprising, for, indulependenit of the connection of the hypothee with the
sale of grain, its power enables the landlord to
6399. Sale of t bre.-I llregard  to the saule
of corn, these  settled  points i;  law  nmay
prove useful for you to know:  " Ill sale by
sample, the buyer may decline thie bargain,
if the bulk does not correspondt with the
sample, (Parker, 4 Ba.rn. aliid Ald. 387.) The
delivery of the sample does not transfer the
property of the bulk, (Hill, Jan. 20, 1785, M,
4200.)  The price must consist in current money,
either of Great Britain or some foreign country,
* Farmner's Lawyer, p. 136-8 and 47.
760 
FARM' BOOK-KEEPING.
le, his farm in safety with back-rentt; and( the
practical benefit of a back-rent to ani ilicominig
tenant is a  sum equal to as much capital oll
the elltry to lis farm.   Were  there  uno hypothec, the ilncoming tenant would have to pa                         y
half his  rent  at  the  end  of the  first half-t
year  after entry, as thle teiiaiits of  Ellgland
do;  but the  landlord, being safe of his reiit
under the lihypothlec, does not exact the first
haltf -ear's rent fromi the teiiaiit iiiitil he has first
reaped  tle  crop      which eiables him to pty it-andt
delay, in sucht a case, is equivalenlt to the tenanit
of the possession of capital.it tlie entry to his
farm, to the extenit of one year's renit.
640.. But, at best, farmers cannot keep
a perfect set of boolks: it is quite imiipossible for them to put a valiue on every article they raise on the ftarti; ani(l if it were
possilhle-as sonme writers have  atteil)pte~l
to prove, and failed-tlthe labour would be
tl)thrown   away.   For  consid(ler tlhe imanner
in which a  ftrrii is conductedl,  an(l the
natuire of many of the articles r.tised upon
it.  There are articles produced, andl oplerations  perforired on  the farmni, of  the
pecuniary value of wvliicli no just estinimate
can  be  imiade.  He  cannot  estimate, for
exaimple, tire val ie of every stone of straw
given daily to his live-stock as foddler or
as litter; lie could not even  weihli every
stone so lI)estowed; and  the difficulty of
ia i kiing  a correct  estinmate  is inicreased,
when lie is not allowed( to sell straw.  Ile
cannot estimate thle accunisla.te(d anIount
of la-bour, both  ninnua.l  and  miecihanicail,
bestowedi on every acre of land, before it
yie lds its produce, y   when lie does not daily
hire the labour of tile people, inor elpurchase
tthe foo(d of the a.nilrals which periforil it.
lie cannot  ascertain  the  value of every
cubic yar(  of imanutire  )prodice(l  oni tlhe
farri, whether in comipt;sts or ii thle courtyards, whlen  lie is not allowed(I to lisipose
of it at niarket; nor can lie irrmake a compara-tive estirrate of it when first tilken to
the drighII,iiii, or!when  a-i)plied to  the soil
after being fermiented.   He cannot lput a
value on every  toni of turnips  aind other
g green fioddei. c(nsuiied by stock, nor can
lile weighl  every to(in so used.  He cannot
put  a just estii.j;te (on the value (f l)asture.
Ti'le exact wei,,ghit (of all these articles coiuld
be ascertained  by thle steelyard; Ilit of
what   use  woull  thie  estimate  of  their
weight  ind mioney-value  be, since they
are not disposed of alt mnarket and turned
into cash, except in the rieighilourh(i(oo(l  of
large towns?  In attempting, to ascertain
tie   -weight of every article  used (onl the
farnm, in  conjunction  with its  ordinary
labour, without  the emiployment  of adldi
6402. In regard to the origin'anid na-tuire of
the right of  hiypotlhee, Mr  Ittiiter says that,
"the conclusion fi'oin the comtibinied evidence is,
that, about the enid of the sixteenitli centutry, the
landlord's remedly was by distress, very like the
English re me dy, and that hlypothec,o v it ynow
ecists, had not tlhenk beein recognised.  Nor at
tlhe beginii:ig of the seventeenth century does
tite term' h$ypothec' appear in the decisions.  In
a case dated ini 161 1, the termii used is the
'Irevelege' of the landlord for the recovery of
his farmjis. In 1623, the termii' hypothecated' is
used for the first timiie.  The doctrine gained permatienehy; anid thenceforward distress ceased, and
hypothee prevailed."
6403. "The  riglt of hypothec, as known                in
Scotlauid, is not to        be deemed         r right     of property;
but a right arising fromii a tacit contract, necessaril    y  inh erent in, and  in sepa rable from,  the cotltract o f  lea se. It g     ives  th e    landlord  a  righl t to
retain and recover from creditors and purchasers
the pro,duice, raw or manufactured, or the other
effects over which it extends, conformably to the
nature of the sutbject let.  Arid ill competition it
gives a preiitreice to the lessor over the lessee's
creditors, with a few exceptions.  From  being
in its inaturie tacit aindil general, it is necessarily
exclusive of possession by the lessor, or of the
specific appropriationi by him of every particular
subject, aiid tire property liable to its operation
remains to the lessee; but it is capable of being,
converted, by the legal process of sequestration,
in-to a r-eal righlt of pl1edge, after wlhiclh it may be
sold for  payment of the  lessor's claim.  It is
distinguishable from a right uf lien or retention,
which vests tlhe lessor with power  of keeping
possession of the effects nntii the renit be  paid,
but not of recoverilig th em, or of obtaining
preferenice, it' tle possession shall be lost by sale
in diligenc(e.  The right is purely legal, and cannot be created by convention." I
* Ilunter's Law of Lairdlord arid Tenant, p. 673-5.
-761
The alteration is true iii re.,,ard to farmers
as a class, for very few keel) -t re,,ular set
of books; ])tit many farmers.:i)ow the
state of their affairs %,ei-y well, altl-iouffh
tljey do not keep a re,ular set of books;
and many now keel) books that did not
only a few years since.
ON FARM BOOK-KEEPING.
6404. It li,-Ls Ion,, been -,tlle,,eil tli.-it
f.-irti-iers ()Dly kiio%v tije state of' tlieii-.-ifl-,tirs
in an iiiil)erfect maniiei-, I)ec-,tui,4e they do
not adol,t any system of book-leel)iii,,.
C, 
C.,,-.- -    "    0
- -#                   0 C'             m —d
C -          C      -^        ^N
; 3                 C  #         -C - 
I X  CD U2 0  e         0  C  t
C    w             -    _  -               C                       C 
C                     -                             0                    _ --
-    -       -        C                       —  z
-        -                                              0
-~                                                             00      
00C                                                     
-    0                                 -          0    
- 0 1  -                      -       0             - -             z
0 0          -. -       0                       0
0 -                                                       0
- -                                      -    0    
0                  - C        C  C
0                                                --   -' (I)
0           __       -     - 0         C                         -
0  c   0F - -                                      0F O  0;-L*O- jr       -
_".     ~ -..           ~'"< ~  ~. _,. =  =D I 3    ~         ~'0    ~... r
c^  -. -  o;  r  A  5g  a-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 —
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5t-  0  a                                         >       -  0xt c;z5:~<,
O     — ~                                                                  -- H0 ro - Z- 5                      D oOD
0 _         I CD m 3:
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— ~~ ~ ~ =.=.,.      -  -=-.==.,~-==,'~~~==,                 =..
m
c
z
CD 
VI. Con ---
11 staclis wheat, 20 qrs. each, 220 qrs. at 36s.,     
loI  do.  barley, 30 each,:0oo at 20s.,..
17  d(o.   oats, 40 eachl, 68' at 16s.,..
VIII. SrFED AND LAPO1R        Upoi 1J0O acres ol tutrnips at 70s. per acre,
IX. DE:ITS DIJE ME AS PER LEDGER         J'tmes    ar.mr owima-l,.3
'Thoiuas Butters,....
1240 0 0
350 0 0
30 0 0
45 0 0
75  e  6
4173 0 0
500  0  0
.    500  0  0
1000  0  0
X. I OWE TO IY L.ANDI,ORD-.
Itaif-year's rent due Martinmas 1849,.
Do.    do.      Wliitsunday 1850,.
CAPITAL IN 1849,
64i.9                               CASh.                     Dr.           Cr.
Fol4.
Ledgel
To ca slh on land at tlis date,.
To f- -ii for 60qrs.  of ihleat,  sold  Isaac  3larsliall  &  Son, at
3     ds.   d......
Tt) la,es M:,rrownoan, received froni him balance due for wheat,
'I'o Tl'lt:nis 1liitetrs, received  fr,m  liini balance due fir cattle
T1, filrin, received fro.,  Isaac  Marslhall &  Son,  for  60 qrs. of
oats at 16s.,....
To L.  J C.-.'s lauk, withdrew from them,...0
01 firm, paid for 30 steers boughlt at Yarm, at L.7, 
Iyv fiar,i, paid larvwsi expelis s is per labouir accouoit,.
I3 fi, ) i, p.id fbr 5 saclis of oatlieal. at 26s.,.
To f,   received fiomni Jolii Cloy, for 80 q'rs. of oats sold him,
at 1 6s..
Ity flm, paidl J,lhn Irocs, for castings for iiill,
To ilni, received for 354 qrs. wheat, sold to James Cotlibert,
a! 34s.,..
By  fll  paid  I'llcenix  Fire  Office,  oiie year's premnlium  of
ills1l ne,
22 Iy fs'ii,. p.iid scloolniasti r's stpei,d fir year endi,g tlhis date,
Jy fir, ai d Il'om' a     count f,ur hlalf-yea,r enldiug this day as
per abstrt..t,
To farmn, received from siel)herd for fidlei mutton,
To) fari, f,,r 80 qrs. -at.i, sold'Iliimaas I)ewa.r, at 15s. 6d.
2'Jo farmn, for 40 wetilrs, solId T motly,Vo(,d, at 34s.,
To) far, briO wether, sold J:acob Keyworti, at  6ss.,
To farn, fsor 50 q-s. barley, sold Joliii Newimanr., at 20s.,
1'To farm. received for 20 pigs, s-ld Edinlbiirgli market, at O30s.,
By firm, paid fisr 25 pigs, botughit at Berwick umarket, at 15s.,
To B. L. Co.'a Bank, withlidiew fromi tlieii,. 
Carry forward,
64 0 0
59 14 3
7 17 9
1 17  6
134 11  (
18-19.
Oet. 2
,,      4
,, 11
.. 17
,..20
,, 22
, e...
,., 25
,, 30
....
Jan. I
.., 25
I
i
I
I
I
!.
I
396  0  0
300  0  0
544  0  0
. 
L.3173  0  0
Cr.
641J9
Dr.
CASII.
L. S. D.
40  0  0
112 0 0
30  0  0
45  0  0
48  0  0
15  0  0
L, S. D.
210 0 0
71 8 10
6 10 0
6 0 0
15 0
68  0  0
108 0 0
5O 0O
30  0  0
230 0 0
L.963 9 3
18 15 0
L.457 0  7i 
_..                  rvt.>   s >tst'I 1 1   s 1 1,....,!................,, t a t.......,........[.. l~ l f ~
BIv fari, paid fo,L  15 tlons of guano), at L.9 per ton,..
To farn-, recei ved fr ol Johin Factor for       631 wh eat, at 3fs..                         L.116  3   1
27- barley, it 2s....            27 15   0
3y B3. L  Co.'.s B.nk, deposited with tilem,.
T.  farmi, received f,-,r 4s pigs, sold at lidinbutrgh, at 30s.,
To farm, reeive        d f)r 16 steers. suldi at Newcastle, at L.14,
Ily 1. L,. Co.'.  13altk, (lel.os;ted wi,h l,.1.0
T) Isaac Marsh.Ill &  Son, f,Kr 20 q-rs. whieait sold them, at 37s.,.
Tl'o f::ri, reeived  for 15 steers, sold at Nrewcastle, at L.12,
ly ltarnn,  aid, ltbotir aceount for past hlalf-ear, as per abstract,
To fanrt,  reeived fio,m the sIleplitrd for fillh.n  mutton atid skins,
BIy farm, pait poo r-rate.s for tlh   e,ear end ing  Vhitsundlav  1850,
T,) farm, received f~r 15 steers, sold at Edinburgh,L, at L.11, 
By fariii, paid for 20 steers, boitlgt at Darliigton.  atl L.6,  6s.,
To farm  received for 12t) qrs. oats, sold  Is.              a ac Marslall  & Son,
at 16s.,
By farti, paid clover and rme-grass seed account,                                                                        
Blv far,.r  paid tiurnip see( accout  f1r tie yer, 
B;  farm, paidi for IA qrs of be,ns, at 22s.,                                                                                
Toi  lami, receivf,   d                 flor 170  liped    os, at 3fs.,.
T'o Iarm, r  eceived froi m W.  ll4.rff fo0- I  8 stones wool, at Gs.,
lBy farnm, paid      f -yas retnt due at Wilitstitiday last,.
1By farli, paid, rili,ii.   Ytil,ng ftor tse (f Iris sEtllion,                                                      
By far, u, pai(i for 3 lI-ads of paliug, at 10s.,...
By farm, paid sti, ndries, viz.       Assessed t,xes...                                 L.7 18   1
lIcone  tax,..         11 0 8S
To farm, received for 601 draft ewes, soll at St Ninian's fair, at 32s.,
By farit, paid for 200 latif-bred lait.bs, boi,tLilt at Melrose, at 14s.,
T) to ar,,         received fir te arcss a iid skit of a  eiter,..
lvBy IL.L. C.'si, witld,ew fromii tli,emn,
By balance o           n  hand it tli. date,...
143 18  1
72 0 0
224  0  0
37 0 O
180  0
6 15 0
165  0  0
96 0 0
255  0  0
153 4 0
18 18 91
140 0 0
96 0 0
4 10  0
50 0 0
550 
L.3559 18 4
6410.       FARM-ACCOUNT-CBO1' 1849.                 I)r.      Cr.
Fol. or
L.                  S. D.
1849.
Oct. 4
,, 11
,,   17
,, 24
,, 11
,, 20
Bycashli for60 qrs wheat sold Isaac Marslhall and Son, at 37s. 4d.,
By'cashl received from I. Marshall &  Son, fo,r 60 q,s. of oats,
at 16s......
To caslh paid for 30 steers boughl t at Yarni, at L.7,..
To cash paid hlarvest expenises, as per  li,straet,...
Tl'o ca.sli paid for 5 sacks of -tittineal, at 2fs.,...
By cash received for 8(0 qrs. of o:uts sold ti) Jlihn (Clov, at 16s.,.
To cashi paid Join Irois, for (astings botgigt of lili,..6
By cash received frot).lJaii;es(ilb,,rt f3r 3.5 qrs. wlheat, at 34s.
To cash lpaid Plhonix Fire Office premititim of iitMirauce on stock
and crop,....
Carry forward,
I
9 5 ~
135 0 0
,...
200 0 0
Ssily 5L
,    8
,, 15
,, 283
June  1
0,,,
', 15
July  1
, L...11
300 00 
130
25
126
7
0
0
8
0
0
50 10 0
12 0 0
11 2 9
500 0 0
1 2 6
1 10 0
Sept. 27
,,    29
,...
40 2 7
L.3559 18 4
6410.
FARZM-ACCOUNT-CIROP 1849.
Dr.     Cr.
Fol. of
Ledger.
L.
112
48
S.
o
o
D.
0
o
210 0 0
71 8 10
6 10 0
6 0 0
64 0 0
59 14 3
7 17 9
~301 16 7
~'283 14 $ 
I * 2 1- 1
-                 - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- i
tI
,d 0c CZ     0
e~~   ~~ 0 * 
___ 1.-a C   n -I
*0                                                        *  -0Iz ="
I.. l
E. -             - a    a  -E
I
iI
i
i
i
I
co a
=* 0
;Z.,, 2
a 14
-OCIO-*
CZ 0 0
I" Q
co
.2
"I C,
6
t4
4
A
4
0.
:P
0
4
.1
,7
C4
;4
;4
(:D
C,
I
;4
— 4t
;; 4 
REALISATION.
LEDGER-COa tin ued.
Fol. J E   M       A     C
Fs.I
1850.                                           L.  S. D.    1849.                                             L.. D.
Oct. 1      To Balance oflastyear's                          Oct. 4      By Cash,..              30  0  0
account for wheat,                  30  0  0(
1850.                                                         1850.
Jan. 13    To Farm for wleat,.                54  5  0  Jan. 27    By Cash,.             54  5 O
~84   5  0                                                        ~i84  5  0 
-~~~Dr.           ~          THOMAS BUTTERS, BUTCHER.                                             r
i~Fo                                     Fol.
1849.                                         L.  S. D.      1849.                             SF.. O).
Oct. 1      To Balance of last year's                        Oct. 4       By Cash,..          45 0  0
account due for cattle,          45  0  0
Dr.                                 ISAAC MARSHALL  & SON, MILLERS.                                        Cr.
1850.                                         L.  S. D.        1850.                                           L.   L D.
May 5       To Farm for wheat,.          37  0  0       May  15  ByCash,                                  37  0  0
Dr.                                              SHEPHERD.                                                  Cr.
1850.                                          L. S. D.
Sept. 30   To  Farm  for fallen
Mutton,..            2 15  0
6412.          INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK AT 1s? OCTOBER 1850.
The/ follmnq is a List o/the Effects in mypossession, and of Debts due to and by me this 1st October 1850:        I'. CASH-..D. L 5.D
L. CAsH —
On hand,.
In open account with B. L. Co.'s bank,
II. IMPLEMENTS,.
III. IHoassS, 14 at L.25,..
IV.'CATTI,E        1 Short-horn bull, at L.20,
6 Short-horn cows, at L.12,
15 calves, at L.5, 10s.,
14 yearlings, at L.11,
20 yearlings, at L.8,
488 10 0
V. SHEEP     200 Leicester breeding ewes, at 32s.,
101 Leicester draft ewes and gimmers, at 30s.,
297 Leicester hoggs, at 20s.,..
200 Half-bred hlioggs, at 15s...
918 10 0
VI. PIs        3 sows, at 60s.,
1 boar, at 60s.,
32 pigs, at 22s.,
soa.9..        0 0
1oa..   ~3  0 0
~sa2s3.5 4  0
47 4 0
VII. CORN         50 acres of wheat, 31 qrs. per acre    - 175 qrs., at 30s.,.     262 10  0
50 acres of barley, 4i qrs. per acre = 225 qrs., at 24Is.,.     2'5   0  0
100 acres of oats   64 qrs. per acre   600 qrs., at 16s.,.        480  0  0
VIII. SEKD  AND LANOUR on 100 acres of turnips, at 70s. per acre,
967 10 0
350 0 0
IX. DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEZDGER      The shepherd,..
2 15  0
4589 11 7
XL I OWE TO MY LANfDL.OlRD             Half-year's rent due Martinmas 1849,.
Do.    do.     Whitsunday 1850,.
Boo 0 0
500 ~  ~    1000  0  0
135 9   11 
3173 0  0
L.40 nI,t
CAPTTAL    IN   1835, 0,
Do.     1849,
Dr.
IN.
JAlktES MARROWMAN, CORN-DEALER.
L. S. D.
40 2 7
:     112r,  0   0
L. S. D.
1165 2 7
300 0 0
360 0 0
20 0 0
72 0 0
82 10 0
154 0 0
160 0 0
320 0 0
151 10 0
297 0 0
150 0 0
Gain on crop 1849,. 
FARM BOOK-KEEPING.
only given, and no information is afforded
as to its disposal.
6413. Remarks.-Wllen a sale is rmade
for ready money, it is entered in the Cashbook as it occurs, and thIence posted to the
Farm-accontit.   But whien a delivery of
any produce is nmade, which is not p)aid
for in ready mloney, the tiansiisaction  is entered( in thie Farin-accotitt, and posted fr(om
it to an account which  is then opened
against the purchlaser in the Le(lger. When
a paymient, either to account or in full, is
receivedi fronm  him, it is entered  in the
Casli-l)ook, and posted fromn it to his credlit
in the Ledger.  If the fannrer had no trsansactions l)uit read(ly-iiioney ones, andl no cash
passing through his hands but in connection with his own business, a Cash-book
alone wouldl preserve a sufficient account
of his year's proceedings.   But ais lie will
inevitably have  cash  transactions  not
directly connected with  his business, as
well as his family and personal expenditures, whichl should be duly entered; and
as he may, from time to timie, make botih
sales and purchases on credit, it is clear
that a Cash-book alone would not give an
accurate view of the real state of his affairs,
or of the clear profit or loss on his year's
farmning; and, therefore, it is necessary to
have a Farmi-account, to show what is the
real increase or deficit on the frnrm produce of the year, apart from tll extraneous transactions; and a Ledger, to slhow
what debts  are due to tile individual,
and by whom, and for what. 
6415. The rent is  subdivided  into  a
con6  e Inient f,o rm for  t he farmeri. One e half
is pai(i in cash,    and  tile   oth er h alf by comullititig an equal sum by an equivalent
iii (quaintitv of,grai n, the    valu e  of which
is  estimated by  the  fiarl p  s     pr ices   (5292)
for the crop  and year.  The equivalents
in grain are taken in equal quantities of
wheat, barley, and oats, at 144.66.5 quarters, because the fiars prices of Berwickshiire, where tile farim- is sitiuate, for c:op
1849, were 35s. 0-id per quarter.or wheat,
1.8s. 41-(. for barley, and  15s. 8Jd. for oats,
wIhichl give the amount of the  lialf-year's
rent  at ~500,  the  money-relit  lhaving
been estimated, at the time of taking the
f,armii, at  ~I000 a-year, or ~2 per acre.
To  carry out the principle of paying  the
rent illustrated in (.5292,) ~.500 have to
be paid in money, and the other half by
the value of the fiars; but as tile farm was
supposed to have been taken at the period
when its first year's rents were payable for
crop 1849, the second half of tile ~1000
had to be commuted into equivalent quantities of grain at the price of the fiars
of 1849, which will be found to yield
.500, at the fiars specified above, on 144
quarters and  a fraction  of each sort  of
grain.  In future years ~500 will  have
to be paid in cash at one term, and the
value of 144 quarters of each sort of grain
at their respective fiars prices for the year,
at the other  terimi, for each crop.   The
half of tile rent will thus fluctuate with
tile value of the grain, and the other half
r eiiiain stationary.    The  profit  being
~416, 11s. 7d., it indicates that the rent
is a fair one to leave a reasonatble percentage on a capital of ~41 7,3 slhow   in
(6408) to be required to stock the farm.
6414. Th)e Inventory and Valuation in
(6412,) niade up at the beginniing, of tile
agricultural year of 1850, aire the counterpart of those in the begininin,, of 1849,
(6408,) shiowing the state of affairs at
thie beginning, of both years, by which
it appears that a gain of t416, lis. Id.
has been mad.e upon the transactions of
thle year 1849-50, whlich is the suni tlhe
farmner lhas received as interest upon his
capital, and remiuner,ation fear his labour.
After deducting from this sutim his outlay
for f.-,ii.ily anld personal expend(iture, and
adding it to hlis capital, the balance forms
his starting-point for the following year's
accounts. The famnily and personal expenditures are not given in detail, or at all,
because they are wholly a private matter,
anid will vary according to the  alabit s and
views  of the individuals interested  in
themt.   The  clear  income,  therefore,
derived from tlie business for one year is
6416. Tile young  farmer is of course
Aaware, that in book-keeping the Debtor
column is always the left, hand one, and
the Creditor the right; and that the word
"To" is prefixed to Dr. stims, and "By"
to Cr. ones.   lBut as he  may be at a loss
to understand why the same transaction
appears in tile Cashi-book as a Dr. sum,
nand in the Farii-account, or Ledger,' as
a Cr. one, I offl'er the following explanation:-In  the Cash-book, the farmer, or
keeper of the books, is Dr. i; To " all sums
767 
-.. -.. -"-J...... "  -F  l iU  IL4L Iu J tAU  grilulary, tile vweigIts oI LIle graln, an(L tie
Indispensable books for an orderly system  p)rices obtainied for it.
RN-ACCOUNT-CROP 1849.
Amount of Produce.
Clean.      Light.
QOrs. I Bu.  Qrs. Bu.
Whole
Quan.tity.
Qrs.    Bu.
2,,
(;,.
2
21   3"
23       3
7      4
15      7
21,,
36      7
1      6
35      1
35      1
40,,
7     4
180              _
32      4
31,,
1      4
62       3
63      7
63      7
20      7
20,.
,,      7
1    * 7
WN HIAT.
Disposal.
i
Used.  I old.
Qrs. B,,. Qr,. Bu.
1849.
Oct. 3
,, 4
,, 4
,, 6
Nov. 7
Thiraslied fioom field G, (staclis
9, 10, 11,)
Sold I:iuc.ar}i:,tl  &  Son,
Thra-lied from field E;, (stack 1,              2
Sowi 011o field A, anid part of B,
Thrashed from field FE, (stack 2,)
BBruised for pis,..
Sold to John Cuthlibert,.
ThIrashed from  field E, (staclks
4 and5,)..
Soawn tpon( field It,
Sold to J.  Marrowrmai,
Tl'rasled from field G, (stacks
6,,,..7 8,)                                    
Sold to John 1'acrt,r, (3 qrs. 7
b. light,)...
'nlraslhed froim fieldl F, (staek 3,)
Sold to IsatacMara shall &  Son,
Brtuised for pigs,. 
3
7
52   210
17
I  227                                  
I
I
I
I
]I
I
i
I
I
Li
I
t
i
6420.
l-I
._ 
lb.
Rate.
Prlee.
&. D. D.
To
By
To
By
To
By
11
To
By
To
G0   5
1
3
64
60,, 37/4
112 0 0
21  1
7
4
20 4
4
11
I
fl
,, 11
1850.
Jan. 9
,, 10
,, 13
.Apr. 2.5
a4.59 14  S
63
35 1
38 4
1
4
7
4
63
31,
3a,/
54.5 0
60,
2 3
,, 28
,, 30
14ay 5
By
~ To
By
064
el1
63
20
7
11^
36/
371
II," 3 1
370 0
20,
,, 7
,, 1 7
5
:E379 2 4
7
Total, 
Tlhrashed from field H., (stack
17,)...
Sold to Jolhn Factor,..
Thlrashed fromn field H., (stack
18,)....4
Light bruised for pigs,. 
Sold to John Factor,. 
TIhraslhed from  field H.,  (top
of stac'k 16,)
Oo.    fromn field F., (top
of' stack 16,)
,)o.   fromr field F., (.sta.ck
15,).....
Sold to Joiatli,an Cornbuyer,.
,  Thraslied front field F.,  staec
12,)..
Iloiled for hlorses,
Sold to Jonaatlan Cornbuyer,
Throashed from f ield F., (stacks
13 and 14,)
Used for wages,                                         
Sowi on field C., 
~onm on field D.,                                                  
Boiled for horses,...
Sold to Johln Factor,..
Used for wage,...
,,
3
4
7
3
4
11
4
3
,.
?
.,
7
7
7
7
6
2
2
4
t..
4
6
6
6
1
35
2
33
30
3
14
16
'  30
fi3
so
33
31
3
q
61
61
63
6
56
9
47
9
37
3
34
27
6
6
6  6
58 ~
253
318,
Totals,.5.            11'5
VOL.  II.
1.
I
I
I
I
,,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
I
,, 24  To  31
3
,, 27
,, 30
F,eb. 3
By
To
By
,.
-To
By
To
By
54
30,,
IS./ 
27 o0
33 4
I
,,
2
3
56
30,. 18/6
.27 li"O
n I
,, 16
,, 19
,, 24
Mar. 15
,, 17
13
16
28
4
,,
,,
4
3
11
,.
2
56
30,.' 19/
.28 at
.S0,
I
3
7
"I
56
61
20/
St 0 4
,...
,, 30
,. *.
April 14
ty 25
,,, 28
M.% 23
,.
To
By
1s
11
,,
,,
,1
11
60
3
,.
6
9
9
3
6
2
4
11
56
27   6  4 20J      27 I,,,#
212
311
7
5
12 7
5
! 
l2" m e
3 a 
!By   80  Soldto J. Cloy,.
2    4
20
8
123
131 
80
51
19
32
20
12
120
132
43
175
30
145
30
115
31
84
9
75
20
55
41
96
'20
76
120
196
110
86
86
Used for horses,.
Thrashed from field U., (stacks
35, 36, and 37,).                 1        1
Sold to Thomas Dewar,..
Used for horsos,.
Used for horses,.. 
Thrashed from field B., (stacks
23, 24, and 29,1.                1 
Thrashed from field R., (stack
27.)....
Used for hor,
3 Sown upon fields N. and P.,
(Sandy,)..
Sown upon fields O  and  q.,
(Potato,)..
Used for horses,.     
U sed for horses,.     
Thrashed from field B., (stack
28,).....
Used for horses,...
Thrashed from field R., (stacks
22, 25, and 26,)        
Sold to Iaac Marshall & Soo,
In granris for horses,..
19
20
6770 0
61482
8g
607
Togt
42
11
lo/   etv 
.,, 4
4
.1 30
'h 2
9,
To
By
I.,
...
20,,
4
11
4
11
4
1t
4
,.
4
.,
4
..
4
..
4
4
4
..
4
.,
4
,.
4
11
4
,.
4
..
,.
4 
110,, 18 i.
42
15/      2o 0 0
-,.
.J. 30
YU7
,, 10
IW. 15
...
,. 31
April 30
May 2
. 31
Jme 6
9
M0 It
,.
it
To
To
By
..
..
100,,  20,,
40,, 3,.
30
30
3t
9
20
.,
l!
Jr9
9!
.1
11
,.
To
. By
To
BY
st
6
..
20
Il
12
,.
.,
12(
I6/     96 o 
43
10
..
86 4
I5 
4
5
-
340
357
1 9
IL
82 5 
FARM BOOK-KEEPING.
AMOUNT OF PRODUC-CROP 1849.
Numbers   f1is of Fields.   e
Bad ot~op.'Emry   Sireor~ield  Aver ge per  Amount at      asoi!
Ktsd of Crop.      of the                      Acre.      each Field.   Asouuo~
Fields.                                            -
A.   a.  P. q.        B..          11.   q.. h -
Wheat,..        5      25   0   0    4   1 I    103    2
Do...        7      25   0   0    4   74x   124   3
227    5
Barley,.                6      25   0   0    5   4b2       140    3
Do...        8      25   0   0    6    di.     - 171    2
-   311 5
Oat,    s...         17      25   0   0    6   4 4    163   0
Do...       18      25   0   0    6   331     161   0
Do...       19      25   0   0    7   4355   188  1I
Do...       20      25   0   0    7   0          175   0
_ In                 crp0i687  1
Acru in crop,.             200   0   0.6   0....    1226  3
DIS8POSAL-CROP 1849.
Acres in crop, 200 at a general average                   Qr. Bu.
Peracre of  6  0 
q.. Js.
.  15  0
.  18 6
.    61  0
25
12  7
.   235  3
27  0
606
87  8
_ —-— a43: 3
Leaving for ale,..      79: 
Of this there are  210   of wheat, at the average price of  ~1 15 1o.         -  ~377   * 
..   253   of barley, at the average price of     0 19  3i-~  -       243 19 S
..   330   of oats, at the average price of.    0 15 9              259 17  6
Total,      793  at a gross average price of.      1  2  2i-    -    ~880 16 *
._._..
STACKYARD-CROP 1849.
2.           3.            4.            5           6.             7.           8.
Wheat.       Wheat.        Wheat.        Wheat.       Wheat.         W) eat.      WheeL 
F ield E.  Field  E.      Field E.     Field E.      Field G.    Field G.        Field G.
9 10.        11.           12.           13.           14.           15.           16.
Barley.
t Wheat.      Wheat.       Barley        Barley.       Barley.      rBarley.
3""'Fields F & H.;,
Field G.  Field G. Fie        ld F.      Field F.    Field F.    Field F.    i  of each
j of each.
18.           19.          20.           21.           22.           23.          24.
Barley.      Barley.       Barley.       Barley.        Oats.        Oats.        Oats..
Field H. Field H.  Fi       eld  H.     Field H.     Field R.      Field S.      FieldS.,
26.           27.          28.           29.           30.           31.          32.
Oats.        Oas.          Oats.        Oats.         Oats.         Oats.         Oats.
Field  R. Field  R. Field S.      Field S.            Field T.     Field T.    Field T.
34.
3. 34.        35.          36.           37.           38.                               i
Oats.                                                                                       its
Fieds.  OaT      Oats.  Oats.                 S.          Oats.
Fields T &U       U. Field  U.   Field U.       Field      U. 
2 Loads of U. F 
6423.
9424.
QM 
in$ a
Om 
94 6
260 7
6425.
1. I
Wheat.
Field E.
9.
Wheitt.
Field G. 
-:72                                 REALISATION.
6426. The live stock accounts give, in  numbers  on  hand  at different  peribod
like maniainer, the particulars of every the prices obtained, and those paid for
species of stock, the disposal of them, the them.
64-7.                          STOCK-ACCOUNT-1849.
Whele                         CATTLK.                           Steers.  Caws.  Cslee'.                Price.
Whole
No.
1849.                                                                                                                 L.   5.  B.          L.   5.  
Bull,....
Cows,...
Steers rising 1 year old,..
Heifers     do.,         
Steers rising 2 yeats old,..
Two oyear old steers bought at Yarmn, at L.7,
Steers sold Adam Butters, at L.18,.
Steers bought at IDarlington, at L.7,.
Steers bought at Darlington, at L.8,.
Steers sold at Newcastle, at L.18,.
Steers sold at Newcastle, at L.14, 
Steers sold at Newcastle, at L.12, 
Steers sold at Edinburgh, at L.11,.
Steers bought at Darlington, at L.6, 6s.,
Heifer died,...
Calves weaned,...
15
10
31
56
648                     STC-COUT14
PIGS.
1849.~ ~ ~ ~O$                                                                      L. S. B.      L,.
Sows,
Boar,...
Store pip,....
Weaned, (2 litters,)...
Weaned,...
Sold at Edinburgh,...
Bought at Berwick,..
Sold at Edinburgh,...
Weaned, (3 litters,).. 
Fee,ding or
gtore
Pigs.
20
18
18
8
46
20
26
23
51
43
3
30
33
1
32
4
36
L.18 15 0 LI102 0 0
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
CATTLIC.
SW,... C-..
C.1'...
P"i..
1849.
Oct. 2
:: 11:
.1 11
.. 10
:.1850.
Feb. 20
1
6
10
5
15
37
30
67
15
52
15
67
1,5
82
14
68
16
52
15
37
15
22
20
42
1
41
15
56
1
10
15
26
30
56
15
41
15
56
15
l
114,
57
16
41
15
26
15
11
20
31
L. S. D -
L. S. D.
To
1:I
11
11
6
5
11
210 0 0,
11
B.y
To
11
By
11
i
11
To
By
To
270 0 0
105 i:o 0
120 0 0
.1 11
Mareli 20
.1 21
May 8
.. 15
June I
.. 11
pt. 29
.. 11
252
224
ISO
165
6
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
126 0 0
I
10
4 10 0
;EIO95 1 0 0
X561 0 0
642.
STOCK-ACCOUNT-1849,
B,-,.d i.g
Pig..
3
1
4
Wh 1.
N..
3
1
20
24
18
42
8
50
20
30
25
55
48
7
30'
37
1
36
]it..
raft
L. S. D.
1849.
'Oct. 2
t:::
il
6et. 24
$[o,v., 7
&7.18-50.
f,An. I
0
.. 11
-Jay 8
i
June -8
TO
11
11
By
To
BY
To
'L. Ia.:.
30/
15/
,30/
so 0 0
,is 15 0
72 0 -0 
FARM BOOK-KEEPING.
STOCK-ACCOUNT-]1849.
W hole                      SHEEP.                         Ewes.  need  Rogge. Rat.                 Pe
No.                                                             Sheep.
1849..D
Ewes,....
Ho2ggs,....
Weth.g,              ] 
3 Rams,...
2 hoggs and 1 wether dead,..
Hoggs dead,...
Wethers sold to Timothy Wood,
3 hoggs andl wether dead,..
Wethers sold to Jacob Keyworth,.
Hoggs died,...
1 ewe and 1 hogg dead,..
Wethers sold at Edinburgh,.
2 ewes and 1 wether dead,..
Wethers sold at Edinburgh,..
Hloggs dead,...
2 ewes and I hogg dead,..
Clipped hoggs sold at home,..
200
290
320
3
813
3
810
2
808
40
768
4764
60
704
3
701
2
699
100
599
3
596
120
476
2
474
3
471
170
301
277
1
276
170
106
195
301
170
130
300
Account altered by addition of lambs.
Breeding ewes and gimmers,.
Draft ewes and gimmers,..
Wether lamibs weaned,..
Ewe       do.    do.,...
Draught ewes sold at St Ninian's fair,
Half-bred wether lambs, bought at Melrose,
Hoggs dead,...
,, 30     200  Half-bredwether lambs, bought  Melroe,           200 14/  140 0  0
741                                                  500
,,,, By    3   Hoggs dead,                                      3                      1 15 0
738                                                  497       ~140 0 0 ~908 5 0
,.,                                     ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~41
200
738
6430.  Remarks.- Thie quantity  and   exact Inventory and Valuation of stock
value of live-st(sck on hand, at thie end  slhould be madle up annually, and added:
of one  year,  nmay  varv so  materially  to the summnnary of his balances and liabi"
fromn that at the next, that the balance   lities, and it will contribute to the exhibiexhibited by the stock-book might give a   tion of a true state of his affairs at thb
most fallacious view (of this departlnenrt of  close of the year.
the  fartrer's affairs; and  therefore  an
I
II
i
774', 
0429.
i
1849.
idet. 2
9, "
9, "
Oct. 30
Nov. So
]he. 25
11 31
1850.
Jan. 3
,, 30
]Feb. 28
Mar. Is I
,, 30
A 14
,, 30
may 30
June 15
L. IL ik
L. S. D.
To
11
By,
11
200
290
320
3
323
1
I I a'o
0 10 a
68 0 0
I lot
108 0 O.,i.'
i
I 10 *
I 0 15 ol
160 0 O.,
2 0 a,
210 0 #,:
I 0    c.;
I 0 *, 4
256 0, O
2
288
2
286
40
282
1    1
281
60
221
34/
11
11
11
3
283
36/
3
280
1
279
11
1
199
11
11
32/
100
121
1
120
120
2
197
11
11
11
35/
2
195
11
11
30/
200
To
By
200
101
170
130
601
60
541
200
741
3
738
101
60
41
32/
14/
96 0 0. 
-A-lUu        tU; A uuuIA'-'-Wkl-TUNI)AY 1850.
Nai..
a                               d  
A
A'
B,
C;.
D
E:
,F.
O
K
L -
M
N
ol
p
P                             24      51         1     4-  8                                      (.~ 4,
B
C
3  0  5
4 13 9
0 15 10
4 7 6
4 10 24
4 12 11
4 13 1l
1 6 3
1  6 10*
2 16 5M
4 7 6
2 17 6
2 It Of
6 8 4
0 7 1
0 12 6
L.49 7 3i
14 O 0
6 O O
12 19 0
12 19 0
13 15 0
11 7 6
2 3 9
5 0 0
L.134 11 6-1
E
H S
I
J
italf-year's wages of 7 yearly
ploughmen,..
Groom's half-year's wage,
Foreman's    do.,.
Q, spadesman,..
R,    do.,.'2.
Blacksmith's account,
Joiner's    do.,.
roreman's expenses,..
Gwn incidental expenses,.
K
L
'M     
N
O
P
4.  8. 7.
I 7 7t
I 6 (It
0 10
4 7 ]]4
4 1 f
4. 5
3  4
0 (s.~t
o 12 11
6 13 o
2 13 4
o o 10
0 7 4.
0 8 0
L.44 8 5
14 0  8
6 O O
7 0 0
11 15 0
15 14 0
12 10 9
8 9 6
5 9 4
5 0 0
L.130  7  8
Half-year's wage of 7 yearly
ploughmen.
Foreman's hlalf-year's wage,
Groom's    do.,..
Q, spadesman,..
It,    do.,...
Blacksmith's account,.
Joiner's    do.,.
Foremanl's expenses,
Own incidental expenses,
Harvtet Expenmte.
'-    Wages,..      L.48 17  4
I Bread,..        11  5  6
- Beer,'..        11  6  0
L.71  8 10
6433. Were the same accounts arranged  page of any of the former books.  Such a
in the form of Charge and Discharge, they  form not only classifies all thle transactions
w6uld give a bird's-eye view of the amount  of thie year, but checks the accuracy of the
of all the transactions of the year;  and  total sums of the various accounts, and
such a view may be engrossed on a single  facilitates a correct balancing of account&
I
rI
N.. of Ratef p1
day.,  d-y.
~o. of
day..
{ 3
.f4tt
40i
\72
I 6
8
143~
152 160
74
140
S 43
{73
1 38t
71*
43*
143
11*
152f
64
1
11
12
Rate p.r
day.
8d. I
l0d.
Sd.I
10d. }
Xd. )
lOd. }
8d.
10d. I
&I.
10d. I
8d.
10d. f
8d. I
lOd.
8"i. I
10d. }
8d.
10d. }
10d.
10d.
10d.
8d.
8d.
Name.
L. S. D.
72*
1123
19
105
108i
111*
111t
63
64i
67:
105
138
122]
154
8i
10
10d.
10d.
10d.
10d.
- 10d.
10d.
10d.
5d.
5d.
10d.
10d.
5d.
5d.
10d.
10d.
1I. 3d.
D
F
G
1293 2s.
117i 25.
157  2s. 
FARM BOOK-KEEPING.
UNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF THE INTROMISSIONS OF A- B-, FARMERt
AT, FOR CROP AND YEAR ENDING 1ST OCTOBER 1850.
DISCHARGE.
BRANCH  I.-RN'iT, TAXXs, AND INSURANCE.
lEt. Rent             By paid half-year's rent, due at Martinmas,.
By          do.           due at Whitsunday,
2d. Taxes             By Schoolmaster's stipend, for year ending this
date,...
By poor-rates for year, to Whitsunday 1850,
By assessed taxes,...
By income-tax,...
3d. Fire lnsurance              By premium paid Phenix, for one year,
BRANCH II.-Livs STOCK BOUGHT.
lLt. Cattk              Cattle bought, per stock account,.
2d. Sheep             Sheep bought, per stock account,..
3d. P//             Pigs bought, per stock account,..
BRANCH III.-FARM WORKINO.
1 st. Seed bought             By clover and grass seed account,. 
By turnip-seed account,..
By 1)* qrs. of beans, at 22s.,...
2d. Furnishinqs and Repairs             By John Irons, for castings for mill,.
By ironmonger's account, for past year,. 
By sundry accounts                      Farrier,..    L.5  0  0
Roper,...       2 10  0
Mason,..       4 10  4
Slater,...       4 17 10
By 3 tons of cake from James Cuthbert, at
L.8 per ton,....
By saddler's account, for past year,..
By lime, bought at Sunderland kilns,.
By 15 tons of guano, at L.9 per toln,.
By 3 loadis of palings, at 10s.,...
3d. Laboutr and Oatmeal             By harvest expenses,...
Ily 5 sacks of oatiueal, at 26s.,
By Labour account for half-year to date,
By       do.           do.      do...
By Williaimi Young, for use of hlis stallion,.
BRANCH  IV.-DezBTS DUE ME.
By shepherd, due me for fallen mutton,
BRAXNCH V.-BALANCE.
Cash on hand,.
Balance at credit in account, with the British
Linen Company,...
Sum of discharge,
1850
Jan. 24
June 24
1849
Nov. 22
1850
.May 28
Aug. 26
....
1849
Nov. 20
45 16 3X
7        17 9
719 16 *
1850
June 9
,...
....
1849
Noy. 7
1850
Jan. 7
....
16 18  2
24 0 0
8 0 0
9 5 3
135 0 0
1 10 0
71 8 10
6 10 0
134 11 6*
1307  8
1 2 6
208 13 5
344  0 o
1850
sbpt. 30
6434.
L. S. D.
L. & D.
50 0 9
500 0 0
1000 0 0
L. S. - IL
1 17 6
25 0 0
7 18 1
11 0 8i
1063 14 O&
ml 0 0
140 0 0
18 15 0
1. 11
"I 11
,, 11
so 10 0
12 0 0
11 2 9
6 0 0
8 0 0
Feb.' 20
April I
11 22
July I
!, 11
1849.
Oct. 27'
)i'o-,.'2
May 26
July I
626 a ei
2 is 0
40 2 7
1126 0 0
1165 2 1;
3567 13 4 
REALISATION.
I I, IR
BRANCH   I.-Balance on hand at 31st October 1849
Cash,..
Balance in account with British Linen Bank,
L.    S. D.
40 0 0
300 0 0
BRANCH  II.-Debts due me at 1st October 1849, per last account,
BRANCH  III.- Corr  sold. I. Wheat sold, per corn account,...
Barley      do.       do..
Oats        do.       do...
893 14  4
BRACcH IV.-Live stock sold         1ist. Cattl.
Cattle sold, per stock account,
2d. Sheep.
Sheep sold, per stock account,
3d. Wool.
Wool sold, per farm account,
4cL Pigr.
Pigs sold, per stock account,
2258 19  0
L.3567 13  4
Sum of charge,
posted in the proper book.   Without such
a memorandum, confusion may  not only
ensue  in the larger transactions of the
farm, but pronmises verbally given  may
be broken, and inconvenience arise to
parties from  forgetfulness  and neglect.
At one timne, it was  customary in farmers
to trust solely to the imiemiory to record
their transactions, and I have heard extraordinary instances of accuracy in persons
who transacted business of the nmost miiultifarious character by memory alone; nevertheless, the safer plan for the farmer is to
jot down every particular that involves,
in the least degree, the interests of others
besides his own.
6436. The onlv remark I shall make on
the plan of farmni book-keeping, just partieularised, is, that were a state of Charge
and Discharge made out every year, the
Farm-account iiiight be dispensed with.
That account distinctly points out, at any
given period, the receipts from, and the
expenditure on, the farnm; but as such
information may be desiderated onlly at
the end of the year, the gross amounts of
the different kinds of produce from  the
farm-constituting the heads of the va rious classes of expenditure inserted into
the Charge and Dischlarge-seemn all that
is necessary to afford the information re~uired.
6438. A  simple form of keeping  the
Field-workers' Daily  Labour-account is
the following; and I take  the particulars fromn the Labouir-accouint exemplified in (6431) for the month of October:
6437. Every farmer ought to be provided with a pocket Memorandumii-book,
in whichI should( be written down every
transaction as it occurs, according to its
date, whether connected with cash or not,
and from  which the particulars should be
A. Oct.1 1 1| I I1. I I       |II     I. * - ]    18 days, at lod., O  15  0
Be.... [ I  I. I. I I  | II..  II =......19...  at 1Od.,  0 15 10
C.  1. I - I I I - -1 I I I I I I..1 l. I I. 1,.........  16... at 10d.,   0 13  4
The explanation requisite is, that between
the long str(l)kes are colpl)rellen(1ed tlehe
days of a week.   Tile short str,okes are tlhe
full days' work dolle by the fieldeworker;
the dot is the day in whlichl  sl!e is not at
work; and  when  a quarter, or lalf, or
thsree-quarter day is only wroughlt fior, tlhe
figure of a  1, 1, or 4 is sllbstitutel  for                   a
short stroke or dot, as the case may be.
N..4
6435.
CHAROM.
L. IL 0.
340 0: 0
75 0 0
379 2 4
244 12 0
270 0 0
1095 10 0
908 5 0
153 4 0
102 0 0
By placing tliename of the month in the
line of the strokes wlien it ai-rives, the fotir
weeks in each DlOtItli will be easily discerne(l, as also tl)e days of eacli week.
The accotiiit thus kept for lialf-a-ve.-ii-, the
days are sumti)ed tip and calculac(I at the
rate of wa,,7es per day, and the
aniouiit of liaif-year's earnings are I)rotigl)t
oiit as distinctly as in the exatiil)le 
L I11-A  Lut.1  uticy VIl ou  in goo0(i leaitll to
perform  it at all seasons.
forgetfulness or delay ally important o)eration  is postponedl  for  even  a  week
beyond its most prol)ier season, it may not
only be overtaken by tle suceceeding_ bad
weatl)er, but lie tlierely i:ivites a deficient
crop.  WIlen lhis field operations are in ad-t i
vance of tlle season, it is in li,s powver to
wait at few dlays at any timiie for the land to
be in the best p)ossible state;  and whlen
every operatiuli is finishled withl  the land
in that coniditioin, lie niay clherich the wellfounded hiope of a gvod r-eturn.
6444. As  a conicuirrent  means  to  the
samF3e end,I the farmer shlouldl select active,
willing, strong, ih(inest,aandskilil lalb-,rers.
Witil such   I)ollghllslen lie  will- lm,Lve hlis
lhorses  well  driveii, and   the  land  wmell
wirouhlit; and with siucl field- workeis tlhe
ligl,ter and i)ore nminute parts  of  worik
will be neatly anid quickly executed.
6445.  As   a still  furthler means  to  the
saiiie  end,  the farmer  sliouli  select  tlhe
best-constructed iniplenients  of eacli class;
for, li)owv little  soever  the  effec,ts  of  good
aei i t  bad  itsrl)leinient s  tmay 1)e  appjecial)le
a~t atny given timle, lie i,a.ty dele,c,,l upo)(in
it tliat,  w%itli iii —plemen-ts  co,tstrt' cted on
t!,e  nIiost  co,'re(,-t miiechan-iciaie-i l princilles,
the la.bentrers Nw,ill llot  onily m-iakse the best
work, hutit tlhe hi(,r,es  will  use  tlheimi with
thie greatesl ecase to  tlemi-sel-ves.
6441. For thje attiaiiiinent of tlils advancemenit of labouir, the working stock
whicl, the farmier possesses slhouldl be filly
adequate to iun(lertakle every field opera-       a
tionII iii its imost proper season; for, in(dependently of tle reasonableness of tlhis
reoquirelii.ent, lie sl,),ulll reinembl)er that
delavs may be iiiini,se(l upon  limi  to an
indefinite extent by badl weatier; aiiil tle tt
titi,e thlus lost can never be iiaile iii slioldl
those means be itnadequate, t)but wlhic!6 may
easily be  niade  tl)p wviei tlie  %iork is in
advance, siilnply by wa-iting the lost time.
6446. Tlhe ploutghmiiien, horses, imiiplements. ati(t fieldI-workers, may be r egLarded(
as the w(,,rkin, sto ck of a fa-rmi; and unless
thiev are all maintained in the tii,st efflieient
state, tile farier cannot expect hii fiel,l (,)ierations to le executed in the blest i,,-ainiier,
6442. That lis means of laboiur may at
at all times be luotst efficiently eitillo-yel,
and then tlhey will also) I)e itiost ecoiioiiiiically eiii)loyed -thle farmuer s1 huldo   t ahef
the ingelinity to ariange eachl (lellirtmient
of hlis laol)urers so as not ouly to receive
fr(ni tlheti thl-e largest amitouint of lI.tbotir,
in a given titie, t)lt also the large,,st anttiiunt
*liei thile differentt cIa,sses t,f lali,,mrers cooperate.   For exam-ple, wl hen the plou,gihs
6447. Be,i(les the land, t,l)e f.,irnier
sliollit] I)estotv 1Y)Ilcli of lii-s S(;Iicitill4le ()n
tire  welfare of Iiis live-stock. In  -NN,inter,
lie slioti](I I)e satisfied tli-,tt tli(,se coiifliie(i
in t,lic stea(-Ilni,,. lian,e al)undai)ce of food.
a,re coi-xifoi-tal))y loclgecl, ariti carefully
tende(-], aii(I those abroad iii the fields 
REALISATION.
are provi(ded  with  sufricient  fo,l.   It                       is
of iucli iill)ortance  to the  wellbein,, of
stock. whlethler  in  the  steadlig  or  tlhe
fiel(l, that  the  tirni)s  he  always in the
)i          iost               iriper  state; and  tlhat,  aIlthl gougl
f     rost shlitld einsue, sufficiency  of ttheie     are
s    t    o    r    e    d fef the etmeeergeny. In    s uuninrer,  too,
the                                                   fiastuiiilii of  grass fiellls re(riehires   nis
attention,                        as i,ucci for the sak e  of the p)a stur                   e        itself, that it be  neither to o   iiuccl nor
t        oo                   little eaten down;,s fo r  the stock,
t      h at they never be injured b          y         an insuffiicieney  of fooo(  all(                 water; and tthe sa me
d    e gre               e of attention is requisi te w hen the
stock                                                  are soiled on green   forage.
6450. These particulars constitute the
ordinary          r     outine experienced on an arable
far m ofnmixe( hlusbandry. Tbefarmer, however,  ought  nev er  to be satisfied with lordinary routi ne, and tile Scottisi  farnlier sel domii is.  He should constantly be,naking
experiments  on a limite(l scale, both in
raising the plants of the field and in rearing
and feeding live-stock; and although no
great effect may have been derived
from any one experiment, they  not only
serve  as be-icons, to warn him from proceedin-g in his orditiarypractice inonedirec tion, but as incentives to prosecute them
still further in another.  Let  the farmer
never  fail  to  try  everv  experiment
suggested, the object and importance
of which have been sufficiently explained
to  him.   He   may   much  more safely
follow  such suggestiois than adoipt  the
recommended practices, of an  unreasonable nature, of non-practical men. For
examlile, when  the  farrmer is told  that
cattle thrive better when lodged on bare
deal boards  than  on comfortable straw,
and  that  thev are  more   healthy   on
such boards,  witlh their urine and  dung
exposed below and behind them, even although under the process of deo(lerisation,
than when these are al)soirhed and hidden in
the straw, let lxiiii not believe it; because
lie knows tlhat wlhen ihe is himself comfortably loddged, lie is better in every respect
than in a contrary  situation. lie  imiay
probaldy  be  recomnmended t(, cut all his
straw inlto chaff, for thle purt)ose of giving
tile wIt,le *f it in fo(,ldder to his live-stock,
with the view of increasing tlhe size of his
farlmlyaLrd (tlung-heap. Let him not give
ear to such persuasion; because, if LIiebig
be correct in!,is views of the  tlode by
which the  aniinal lheat  of thje  body  is
maintained, no less thain 60  per  cetnt  of
the cail,)n of thle straw will be breathed
away  in caribornic acid gas into  the air.
WIhen he is told that it is better, in every
respect, for sheep to  be tie(l by thle neck
in a lhouise tliati -,t freedom in the open air,
let hlii ti,ve no credence to it, b)eca-iutse lie
knows  that  confinempent  and restraint
are   quiite  contrary to  thre  nature and
lhabits  of  that  animal.  When  liquiid
manulre   is   s,) stron-grly recommlrend;ed
tos hlim, thsat,  in order to obtain  it, thle
6448. As long as the grain maIket contiynues active in winter, the farIner should
attend to tlhe thlrashling and the cleaning
of the grain, for the double purpose of
supllyiiig his stock with a sufficietncy of
straw, whether of fodder or of litter, and(l of
disposing of the grain while thie market is
in an active state. It is not safe for a f.rmner
to speculate on his own griin in thle straw;
for, if lie retainl it in the stack, the live-stock
suffer fromn the want of fodder and litter,
and  the land suffers  fioiii the want of
iiianure; and if lie thrash it faster than
the  stock  can consuiiie  its straw,  this
suffers deterioration  in quality botlh as
foddler and  litter, and also as  tianure.
It s5io0l1l be the fariiier's eidleavour to
clean his grain for the imarlket to a perfect
state, and to acquire in thle grainl market
lie atten(ls the character of a clean (dresser
of grain; for in thljat state alone, let hinm
be assured, graili weighs heaviest and coinmmands thle highest price.
6449. Th~e farmer shollld end(leavrour to
dispose of hlis fat stock  at liotme.   If liehe
hlas eirned( for  liii.self the character of
a goodl breedler and feeder, aid of being
always d(lesini)us of (lisposing of hlis extra
stock at loiiie, purchlasers w%ill regard it
no trouble to cot)ue anl( insliect tliem, and
mnake a bargain.  The dlrivitng of stock to
a market-stance hlas a certain (lepreciating       h
effect uoi their a,p)peara,ice.  )esid(es tiie
expense anid triouble of (loiti,, it, anLd the
depriving thlem of food fir a ilmi,,berif of
lhours.  The e,xlhibi.ion of st(ock at a niarket implies either the accel)tatice (if the
market price, whatever that miay be, or
tlhe drivin_g tlhenii hoiie a,gain-in whiliah
latter  caue thie  character  of the stock
778
siiffers, and advantage is taken of this by
future pnrcliasers. 
EXHORTATIONS.
from  thle conduct of the cattle  whlen in
tileill.  When  farmyard mnanure is recoiii omendiieed to be wholly applie(d to thie soil in a
liquid forni, let tile farnier doubt  the pro )priety of the expedienIt, becatuse, althioutgiI
lIe is aware thiat plants take their food in
the liquid form, lie also knows that every
cereal and green  crop wi1l only take  as
n1muchI  foo(l as it requires at  any givei
tiiiie-aiid lie does not yet know  at  what
eaio(>d of its growthl it is disposed to t.ke
thle largest prop.rtion  of food; and lie
kn,ws besides thlat, if Iniore  moisture  i8
presented( to a plalit tlhan  it wa-nts, tlho
surplus quantity will  rather  injure  tlhan
roilioote its gr-owth.  Atoreover, it is quite
possible  that the surplus  mlioisture miay
.enter into suclh combinations withi the constituents of the soil, as to formn compounnld
in iurious to  tile particular state of the
plant, whlen the dissolved mianure ialpenr.s
to be applied.   The recolnletndatioit is as
yet wholly  unsupported  by experience.
It is prolbable  tlhat  the  manurue  in  tho
liquid state woul(d always form a good topdressing to fras s  land, but i ts   safe apl)lical)ility to ploglhe(d land is attended withi
reasonable doubt, especially in a nmoist
clinmate.
cattle  mullst be confine(]      i   n by res instead of
laisiiiels,e le t  liin  d o(ub t thie   l) r orie t       y of
the  recoiftelendation, because               te knows
,thal         t            it has been ascertaisned by clhenistry,
t lthat the rdine  is  the mor                               e vanal)ele
portion o       f  tl  e  evsacuations of           every ani  imal, and th a     t,  w      hen it           is separated from
the dulig,  the latter is deteriorated in
value        in that  proportion, ant( tha t thlte
uriinie  itself, unless scientifically t  a nans.,Led,
wiil lose a large proportion of' its aiimnlonia
-the  most valuable  of its  ingredieints.
When cattle are recomn,.etnded to~ be con fined w itlJin thle limiiits (,f a box which will
deprive tlaems of any           exercise, th  at they
may  fatten the quielfer,  ins tead            of being
in a smiiall llamniel, wklere tlhey may  lave
moderate exercise  if they choose, let himr
receive the recommendation witho       caution,
becaus e     li                   he is arare tgat tnae layin, on of
fat is not t!he only oh iect in: feeding cattle
-the  piaranliount oliject being t l        le lnyiniu on
o     f la rg e         mass es of flesh; and l  I en le kn ows 
that      t   he anidmals l ie breeds   ar             e come  of a
k    ind hlaviing  a stronlg disposition  to fat                    ten,
they will fitid no difficulty in acquiiringt
a sufficiency of fat, irovi(ed they  lay on
absundanc        e of flesh. It is well known  that
the taste o f the   consumer forfl  t   iieat h     as
mnucli  al   tered withiin the last twenty years.
Then,  col    l ier is coulfl no t obtain too fat net ton; now, thley won't          a     t    sltelt                   t    ase it: tihen  it
was siml,losed tlot beef c,tuld not be  rlastle
too fitt; n)w oxen fetchl thle highest price,
in  the London market, wlich afford' tlhe
largest andl deepest cu ts of flesh alono tile
b    ack.    I t         is tlerefore   a retrograde movemenit to desire, niow-a-(days, to put on adlditionial fat by (lepriving, animials of exercise.
The o.bject of tlie fa-rmner should ratlher be
to increase tile dIispl)osition to fatten in his
stock, by carefully following the principles
of superior b.reeding, than to contrive restrictive measures to put f,t upot  ill-b'ed
stock.   Of tie three mo(les of  fee(liig oxen
-tile byre, the box, and thte stmtall liaminiiel
-experiment h -s alread(ly proved the suiperiority of the halmreiel over the byre, and
no experiment has yet proved that of tl,e
box over thle snall liaiiiiiiel; nlo farmyard
nmanutire has yet been I)pr-olIice(d superior
to  that  obtained  ft~,i  smii      liall lhareels.
Warmlthl, n~t hleat,;~ fawmrable tt) laying on bothl fleshl and fat; anld tile smallul
hamellue, pro3videdl with ab~undance of
atraw, affords thle requlisite quanltity of
warumth and selteer,  if oxne  mlay julgre
6451. When the farmer is told bsy thie
scientiifri c k an that  thle  nutritiv e    pritcitle of the plants lhe raises-tlthe nitrotge n
-is  chiefly derived from  thie ammontiia
*whIich %%as first produced by  decomiiposition  of  anitnal  imiatter in  the soil, then
taken up in tlhe air by its liglhtness, and
sent back into thje groun,  by  means of
rain and snow, let hlimn doubt  the ettieacy
of such a  process to sustain lhis crops.
even altho,ugh it should have   Liebig's:
great InaIIme in support  of  it;  because
hie knows thlat tlhe very  careful expterinienits  of Frezeniius only detected  0.133,
of a  part  of ammonia, out of  100,000parts of air;  and lie  also knows by.
expeerience, that tlhe wheat lie cultivates
t'lrivies9 best  in dry  weather,  provided:
the lieat be not excessive, and that in all'
wet season,s it is not so good in nutritive:
pri,perties as in dry —neitlher of whlich  resuits  ouiglht to accrue if the  nitr4,,eii of
plants  be derived from  the air alone, as
is stated- to be tlhe case. Chemistry irnfosrmjis
hiinm, besides, that whieat requires tlhe ioslt
ammonia of any crop lhe  cultivates, and:
that  the farmyard  manuro  supplies la"
779 
REALISATION.
muchl  of it as wheat requires; and, thlerefi)re, there seenis no ie,.essity at least for
crops to receive  their  anmiliotlia in  the
roun(labout way  lescrib l.   If lie is t,,ld
that the carbon of Ihis crops is priiicil)ally,
if not  wholly, derivell fro:ii the  atmosphlere,  and  that  ill lie hlas to (lo is to
suppl)y, by nineral  umanurres thlrough  the
soil, thle mineral ingreilients required(  by
the particular plant lie wishes to cultivate,
as Liebig hastily recoinniended, let hlimn
doubt  it,  because  careful  experinments
have  renrdered it probable that somte of
tlhe carbon of farinyar(l matinure is taken up
as food by  plants independently of that
existing in tlie atmosphere.   If any one
sp)ecific manurie is reco)niiiien(led to lihimi as
beil,g nlecessary for atly particular plant,.
let hiiiU  receive  it with  douiilt, because
researclhes into the composition of plants
]lave  shovwn a diference  in the  cons;:tuents of the samne plant wlen grown ill
different situations, or fed with  different
inaiujres.  We do lnot yet know  liowv far
those variations maybe carried, but thle fact
that they are consideral)le is established.
At all events, plants are not depenrtlent on
one  sort of food  for their  growth  and'
development.
thlus seems  requisi te for  calves  when
drinking their  milk. When lie is recormnmended   to  single  Swedish   and wlfite
turnip,  tlhou,h not the  yello w, at  13 or
14  inches  apart-instead  of 9 or  10
inches,  the usual distarnce-l-e  nay  reasonaly try  the  experiment, because lihei
knows   tlhat  tturnips  are  plants which
efreqtire  both   room  and   air, ae nd  tlhe
sralle b  number of plants upon the a      cre
may  each a   tta in t o much greater size,
from the  quantity of  man ure us ually givene
to tlhe acre, and produce a greater  weiglat
tlh)an the larger nit,iiber of p)lanits of smaller
size.   If sheep) are recommended to  be
experimnented o(n fior fattening  in preferenice to cattle, because tl.eir size allowstlhemi to be  more  easily  weighed-th)eir
smallness requiring less quantity of food,
and  tlheir iiinumbers  affirtlinlg facility in
subdividing them into lots, each of which
m.ay  contain  a  considerable   nutiber,
atimng wlJichi thie idiocrasy of any partictular sheep could not affect the results
of the experiment so sensibly as one  ox
in a  small lot-lie may adopt  the stiggestion  at  once, because  he   discerns
truth to be contained in these differences
between  the two  kinds of stock.  And
lastly, not to multiply instances, wlhen lie
is told tltat cabbages, or any other plant
containing imiuclh nitrogen, is go(,(I food
for sheep, the wool of which it is desirable
to increase, tlse statement may be  believed,
because lie knows  that the wool contains
13-1 per cenit of nitrogen, wlhereas tIle flesh
only contains 3~1: per cent.   In slhort, the
jutdg,ingl  between reas(,nable and utnreasonable practices is easilv acquired, whleni
the  farmier takes  tine to consider  tle
nature of plants anti(  of animals, and the
peculiar idiocrasy which each exhibits.
6452. On tl          e       other hand,  when a practicatl r, an reco,,miends            a            plan of pulver isingl strong clay in preparatio          n fo r turnips,
by iotrllin, the ground  wlien a little drie d
on the surface  after being  plotughed, anc
tlhen lharrowing it after the rolling instead
of before, the fa-rmer may safetly followv
the practice, because it not only stands to
reason, but the difficult olbject  of pulverising strong clay in dry weather is said
to be thereby attained. When a veterinary
sur,,geon reco,,n,iends  the  giving only a
smnall quantity of milk at a timiie, and frequently, to a iiew-dropped calf, until it is
a week or ten datvs ohl0, tlhe ffariher miiay
believe lhim, b)ecuse lie bn,,ws tlhat calves
are not sel(lomii afflicted witli indigestion
when  vytong,; ani(d IXe ina-y dee,ii it extrenielv probable, whleni toldi so, that the
indigestion is superin(duiced by givingl  the
youIng calf lar,g,e quantities of  mi)ilk at a
time, without a due proportion of saliva,
contrary to the snall quantities  wlhich
it takes from  its mother, when  allowed
to suck  her, anlt-  the large quantity  of
saliva which it dischlarges in  tlhe act of
sucking.   An  active motion of the jaws
64.53. In his bearing to lhis own people,
the farmier should always slhowv.tlieii kindness; anud if hlie ever have t(o clingie his conduct towards tlhem, it slioul( I)e f'(ronTii sonme
fault of  tlheirs, not hlis.  He  slIoul(l  not
find fatult c(nttinually, as  constant rebuke
produces no refoin-lation, but ratlher indiffereuce.   A    faiult  sliouli generally   I)e
chlecked; but those arising firoti the liead,
and not the lheart, shoutild1  b)e gently dealt
witlh.  Tlieft andl failsehoodo  shouldi.     never
be parIlontell, aud thie tleliiiq,ient sil00ul 1)e
got ri(m of  at  tle  ena   of'tie tery oitserk ice.
Suchi a step is necessary, foi clhecking,, the
#180 
EXIIORTATIONS.
spread of moral  contamination.   When  a
ploughnlani  is seen to quarrel serioiisly wvitli
his  (hrses, tile safest expedient for li)otli
man and lhorses is to cause him to unloosen
tlieiiil froum the yoke, and put tlieiii into the
stal)le   ntil the next day, whlen li is teiiiper
will hlave calined down.   Even severe rebukeat the tirhe, with allowance to continue
at work, will never  convince  Iiiin tlhat
he was wrong, and the liorses were ri,ght,
altlhough tlhat is the more probable state of
the  cise.   The  wives  and  clhildren of
married men are frequently troublesome
about a firm.  Whienever it is seen tih at
a  mnan  canttot control  lhis own liousehiol(h, lie shIouh(I  be parted witlh at  thje
exp)irv of the ternm.  Muich mnore work will
be obtained frotm  field-workers by kindness than by severity.
6457. The  farmer should  provi(le recreation and- instruction at lionie. RPecreation lie nmay find in  his own  fittiily, and
occasionally  in  visits  with  and  froia
f riends at a distance, and neighblours'at
hand; andl for instruction lie nllust have
recourse to books and papers, and partly
to the converse of friends and straiiners.
If lie providle not these attractions -it home,
lie will go xvihere they are to  be found.,
and neglect thle concerns of his fari. It is a
commiorn remiiark by towisl eople that farmerfs, as a class, are averse to reading.
If tliey,knew the habits of farmers as well
as I (lo, the (observation, even  if strictly
true, wouldl be no obloquy.  Little  do
townspeople know  the  ",eight of' fatigue
wlhicli early riising and con,stant exercise
i;T t lie fields on foot-whicli tihe f.inier is
obliged to take in sumniner, wio li'as imlpro-ving  o1;erations to  sul-)erii tend —imlpose,
andli of the lassitude which overtakes  the
failuae whlen resitng  in tlhe evening after
the ftatigues of the day.   It is tihen  lhysically impossible for any nlian to betake -to
lreadiug a stuliject  that  requires thliot,rh
anil ieflectiod, o-.)r any sub ject at all.   Tle
desultory newspaper affords  the nmost fittilig literature to his nind until tle hour
of )bedl, whichl) must li)e early.   No onie ha
a hiiglher relishl for reading than mnyself,
d yet I 1$ave seen a whole sitiuinier slip
away  witlhout having read anytlinirg  but
the newspapers.  In winter it is different,
ani] iin that season it is not true tlhat tlio
f armer does not read-for many read muclh,
and as a fariier advances in years and
takes less exercise, his leisure is greatly
devoted  to reatding.  We  have  olnly to
peruse thedlisciussioii.s in the Farimers'Clibs
in En,land  an(ld at the monthly imeetings
of the Highland and Ag,ricultural Society
in Edinburgh, to be satisfied that tlhe present race of farmers read and  have  read
to good  purpose.   Townspeople  believe
6454. The farmier ought to be punctuld
in hiis,ayvnientts to his servants at  the
specified termns.  He  who neglects to pay
them  regula.rly loses control over them,
and actually places himnself in their power
in many ways. Workpeople calculate on
layinlg out their earnings when they become due; and on their being withheld at
the period o,f expectation, thie disai)pointment is far greater thlan  tlhey chloose to
exhibit.    Womeni  feel  d(lisappointmient
acutely.
6455. In liis relation  to hii-s iieighIlbours
the fitrmrer slhouhl( be tt4),st punctiial to hiis
eng,agemiients.    Ifhlie hias p)r'otimis-ed to btly
orsell any coiiniollity N itli a pjer-son  on a
givei   day,  lie shold fiitlifully  keel)
his appointiment.   If lie las promtised to
settle  accounts  with  any olie oil a given
time, lie slolIl(l  do  so withiout fail.    A
very      tw,,-reachies  of plromises will
attaclh   in  unernviabl)le  replitatioin  to  hi           is
,naiiie in the paIrt of the country in                        yeo} lcs
lie resides, anl a few nor    e  stthe nesay eIwtirely ruin hiis credit.
6456. Above iall, toee farser oidglht to
be punctual  in thie paymienit of  lhis rent
to hiis landlord, because it. is by tigree~ment with himn tltat lie is in the position
of a tenant at all.  In treating for terns
of payment,n negotiating, for tle lease,
they  should  be  fixed at  Candlemss,
in  the beginningof  February, anti at
Lammass, in  the  beginning of August.
For the settlement of the Candlemas rent
"791
I)e sl)oii](I dispose of a'.9 mticli of tb'e
as \,ill iiiake up tlje siitii wit,]) tlio
in Iiis B,,iiik book; and at Laiiiiiias tije stiin
is e,-tsily iiiade iip by ttie sale of cattle,
sliecl), -tn(I %vool, beside,s,,,,r,,tiii. It is safe
1)i-,-tctice for a terillilit, wlieriever one reiit. is
to pron,ide iiiiiiie(iiately for the sticceeditig one; and lie should always i,eiiietiiber tljat the liaytiient,, to the sei-v,-ttits,
aii(I of accounts, are iiiade at tlje iiiteriiie(li-,Lte terms between those of ttic retit. 
REALISATION.
that the artisans of towns are more intelligent than the labourers of the country.
I have had many opportunities of coInversing on miscellaneous subjects with both
elasses of workpeople, and never could
observe thle superior intelligence of the
town  artisan.   I am  sure  the grocers't
shopman does not know the countries from
whence  the various articles hlie deals in
come, nor  the processes  by  which  the
articles are prepared for the nmarket, except, it may be, the art of adulteration.
Tile journeyman cabinetniakler knows as
little of the countries which  suppl)ly the
different kinds of ornamental wood.  It is
the same with other trades.  The country
labourer is at least observant  of every
thing around him: he knows the weather,
different kinds of soil, different kinds of
rock, different kinds of trees, the habits of
plants and animals; and can discriminiate
individual character very shrewdly.  The
intelligence of the manufacturer, too, is
of.en placed in favourable contrast with
that of the farmer; and the usual example
of superiority is adduced in the manufacturer availing himself immediately of
every improvedl piece of machinery, while
the farmner is represented as neglecting
similar opportunities for improvement in
his business.   The cases are not at all
analogous.   The  manufacturer  knows,
with certainty, that the machinery which
will suit a similar manufacture to his own
at one place, will suit his purpose also;
buit the farmer has no certainty of an inmplement suiting a district of the country
alrtaoethier  dissimilar   t                        o his  own  in
clinmate, so il, situation,        and localit y, answering his own'  He  prudently waits
the approval of others before lie adopts
it in his own business, wlhichi is always
materially affected in its results by the
vlightest  change  of the  elements    I
would put the cases of the manufacturers
and fatrmners of this kingdom in this way:
The British manufacturer is situiated in
the mnost fa,vourable circumstances f,)r the
prosecution of his!,usiness, with coal,
machinery, conveyances, and sea-ports,the Briiish farmer is not, in regard to soil
and climate. The foreign manufacturer
is not placed, in thorse respects, in the nmost
favourable circumtaetnces fi~r the prosectllion of his business the foreign farmer is.
6458. In  catteringi for cois mental food,
the young fariner slhouild not neglect to
take  the periodlicals c(oiiiected with  the
great Agricultural Societies of the kingdonm.   TIhe best works  on agricultural
chemistry and  physiology, both animal
an(d vegetable, sh,,uld not be neglected.
His own local  newspaper  be  of course
ajways  patroni.ses; atifi I tlillk that lie
should procure, besides: a Lo,ndon agricultural newspaper, on account of thie fillness
of the reports of the numerous markets of
the kingdom, as well as  foreign ones,
which they always contain.
6459. In conclusion, I would exhort the
young firmer to maintain tlhat iindependece  of mind and judgment, which is not
only hoinotirable and i)ec,.cming,. but a positive duty to the very iimportant class of
which he is a meniber.   Let him  never
forget-thlat lie belongs to a professio)n w hich
lhas been recognise(l, by those b)est entitled
to form an opinion on the siihject, as conltrib-iuting in  no small deg,ree to thle mtiaintenance of the constitution and liberties of
these islands; and that hlie is b(utniil byevery
means in his power, whenever the occasion
lay present itself, to.dis(liarge tlie functit,ns of a l(yal British sibiject.  In parting with the young farmer, I do not know
that I can better cotnclude thain.by exhorting
himt to maintain in his own l)ersoni, and in
his own sphere, the highl, nianly, and in(lependent character which for centuries hlas
been acknowledged as the attribute (of the
British agriculturist. And with an anxious
and heartfelt hope that my labours may
prove profitable and instructive to some
of my younger brethren, and( be  consi4ered by the more experienced as tending to illustrate thle science of agricultural economy, I conclude my task.
782
And et the foreicn manufacturer is
y In
eqtial to the production of marketable
goods to the British niantifacturer; while
it is acknowled,,ed, on all liatids, that the
British farmer is superior in every respect
to the forei':,n fariiier, in what relates to
the ciiltivation of the soil and the reariii,,
of live-stock. In coinparis(,n, tlierefi)re,
with ft)rei,,ii coiiil)eers, the Britial fariner
staii(Is in a niucli higher position than the
British nianufaettirer.
1) 
NOTES
FOR
AMERICAS FARMERS.
BY
JOHN P. NORTON, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE  IN YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN
BEING APPENDICES TO
"WINTER," "SPRING," "SUMMER," AND "AUTUMN,"
AS CONTAINED IN THE
"FARMER'S GUIDE TO SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE,"
ALIAS THE SECOND EDITION OF THE
"BOOK OF THE FARM," BY HENRY STEPHENS.
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHEDI) BY LEONARD SCOTT & CO.
1851. 
ENTERED according to Act of Congress in the year 1851, by
LEONARD SCOTT & CO.
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York.
ROBERT CRAIGHIAD, PRINTER,
112 FULTON STREET. " 
APPENDIX TO SUAIMMER.
BY JOHN P. NORTON, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN.
hail falling in the hottest weather is usually
expltained  by thoe su pposi tion  that  a current
o f warm yir, highly  charged with vapor, is
suddenly muixed wih a ve r    y cold current,
perhaps from the regions of perpetual con gelation  above; the  consequence  is the
immediate precipitation of a large quantity
of water, which, if the temperature be low
enough! is suddenly frozen into drops on its
way to the earth, the     large lumps  being
formed  by a    number o f drops  united. We
usually see in hail storms a whirligig motion
of the clouds, which  may  very probably be
instrumental in bringing cold currents  from
the higher regions of  the -atmosphere, or in
carrying warm currents upwards.
I merely give this as the commonly received
hypothesis, aware that there are  other v iews
which may be strongly advocated.  The filcts
noted in par. 3006 confirm what I have alrea,idy
stated as to whirlwinds.  These  aslhes and
bits of straw must evidently have been taken
from the surface of the earth, and borne up
into the higher currents, where they were
frozen into the drops of water, and fell again
with that water, enveloped in its congealed
masses.
I shall not attempt any additions to the
weather wisdom contained in paragraphs
3034 to 3084 inclusive.   In every  village
there may be found old prognosticators who
will add numerous maxims even to this
collection.
3085. The observations under this head
are curious, as showing the different positions
which hay holds as food for animals, in Great
Britain and in this country. Here, during
the winter, it is a main dependence for every
variety of stock; there, it is only fed when
straw of certain kinds begins to fail; even
then, in Scotland, it is given to the working
horses alone, and seldom to  them before
spring. Hay in England is kept for a long
time in the stack-several years is not uncommon; and the opinion seems to be that
it improves by age. It will be noticed that
Mr. Stephens italicizes the words "good old"
hay. I do not know of any direct experiments that seem to prove this opinion correct,
and am not able at present to see why there
41
TjIE general characteristic of this season
in the Northern  States, is extreme  heat,
varied iiOW and then by a cool showery day.
The  thermometer  even  in the shade  oc casionally rises to nearly 100 degs.  When
the extreme  sultriness of  the atmosphere
has become almost unendurable, it is usually
relieved by thunder showers, which come up
with great rapidity, and rage with a degree
of violence such as is seldom, if ever, seen in
Europe.
The thermometer, above 90 deors. before one
of these showers, frequently falls. to below 70
in the ('ourse of a few hours;  suche extreme
changes, though in this case delightful as to
the  bodily  sensalions produced, are some what d'tngerous to health, and require care
in,guardingr(,iginst evil effects.
In June sunshine and showers alternate,
but. in July and August there are ordinarily
from four to six weeks of fine clear sky and
warim  sun.  This whole  period  not unfre quently passes without a siigle instance of
heavy rain, and sometimes without a drop;
altliougli in most years there are passing
shiowers and thunder storms, breaking off for
a fe,w hours the harvesters and lIaymakers.
The dews on clear nights are extremely
heavy, and are absolutely necessary for the
refreshmuent of the soil, and of the plants,
parched by a burning sun.
Hail storms are not uncommon, and are
occasionally of extreme violence, the stones
being so large in many cases as to fracture
panes of glass, and so abundant as to cover
the ground for several hours.  The cumulus
cloud is far nmore abundant than any other at
this. season, and the sun usually goes down
quite clear, without the smoky haze which
gathers arounid an autumnal sunset.  Light
westerly winds continue for many days at a
time, veering a little now and then to the
north or  south, but always  preserving  a
westerly direction.
A change of wind to the eastward at this
season is considered an almost invariable precursor of rain'  such a change is of itself apt
to arrest the progress of haymaking, and to
cause preparations for an expected storm.
3000. ] suppose that the phenomenon of
5 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
should be any such  improvement  ill the
quality of hay from keeping.
3096. Flax is not so largely grown in this
country as hemp, indeed it has almost entirely
disappeared from New England.  It is conimmon, however, in Ohio and  other western
states.  Deep ploughing upon mellow soil is
essential to the success of this crop, and also
a smooth surface after it is sown.
Crosskill's Clod Crusher, Figr. 243, is a
most. effective implement for pulverizing and
reducing  obstinate  soils.   The  numerous
toothed wheels, each playing separately from
the others, give a grinding motion that cannot
be attained by any solid roller armed with
teeth, such as I have sometimes seen          in this
countrky. These last, too,  are liabe                      to clog
whenever tihe soil  is   a little damp; but in this
implement  the free motion of th             e several
w hee                ls prevents any very extensive clogging,
unless the  soil is absolutely wet an d         sticky.
The  price, between $80  and $90,  is an
obstacle to their introduction here, but they
may very probably be afforded much cheaper
soon.
The Norwegian Harrows, Fig. 246, l have
never seen in operation, but hear that they
work well. These, too, I should judge, must
be very expensive, and they do not combine
t           he good effects of rolling with  their pulverizing  ac        tion,       as Crosskill's Clod Crusher does.
I do not doubt but that, if the farmers demand
it, some implement of this description may be
got up by our ingenious mechanics at half the
prices mentioned here.
Where the linseed is taken from the soil,
that is, when the pressed cake is not returned
in some form, this is an exhausting crop. To
keep the land up, manure may be applied
either to the preceding crop, or according to
some of the methods indicated in par. 3114.
The quantity of seed used in this country is
from two to three and a half bushels per
acre, a larger allowance than is sown abroad.
As the plant is quite hardy when compared
with hemp, it may be safely sown by the
middle of April.
3131. The culture of hemp, in our middle
and western states, seems to be gradually
increasing. Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri,
and Indiana, are the greatest producers. The
first named state furnishes from 15,000 to
20,000 tons per annum.
Deep mellow soils are selected for this
crop; and when all of the operations con nected with its preparation for market are
conducted upon the soil where it grew, so
much is returned that it cannot be considered
very exhausting.
American hemp was formerly nearly all
dew rotted, and was hence discolored and
inferior in quality, being principally used for
bagging, bale rope, twine, &c. Of late,
water rotting, together with greatly improved
methods of breaking and cleaning, have
elevated its character; it is now coming into
extensive employment  for naval  purposes,
preference  being given for our navy whe never the quality of the a r tic le will warrant  it.
Comparative trials,  carefully i nstituted,  between American and th e  be st  Russian  hemp,
haveo generally, though not  by any means
invar i bly, resulted in  f avo r of the f ormer, as
superior in strength.
Experience in this country accord     s wi th
Mr. Stephens' advic e, rel ntivr e     to deep and
thorough ploughing for this crop.  Subsoiling mavy also be tried  with  every prospect of
advantage.
Cattle  should  be kept   from poaching the
fields  where it is   s own duri ng t he winter,
and  if not  quite friable  in t he spring thev
should be ploughe d    t wi ce  and      harrowed.
Not   bein g remarkably hardy,  or well able to
bear  sudden  and excessive changes, it should
not be sown until all danger of severe frosts
may be  considered   over. From the     1st to
the 15th of May, is    usually thou ght the  best
time  in th e  middle s ta tes.
Seed grown the     year  before  should  be
used,  as, if kept longert a  than that,   it   doe s not
vegetate with certainty.
From five peeks to two bushels per acre
are  recomme nded.  Mr.  Ste phe ns, it will be
observed, mentions  a larger quantity     than
this. The  sowing is generally  d  one broad,
east, but drill  mach ine s are  gradually  coming
into use,  and ar e  f ound to do the  work in a
far superior manner.
The roller is a particularly valuable imple ment for  this  crop, used after the se  ed is
sown.  It causes a more general and     even
vegetation than would otherwise result, and,
at the  t ime  of cutting, permits  the stalks to
be cut  quite close to the ground,  whereby a
great saving, both in quant ity and quality, is
effected, the  l int being he aviest near the root.
It is  said that  an inc h here is  w orth two
towards the  upper   part of the stalk.
Whe n   the seed  has been    covered  and
rolled, ther e  is usually in this  countrv no
after cultivation. When the drill machine
comes into extensive use, cultivation in the
early stages of growth will be quite prac ticable, wherever the land has not been well
cleared before  sowing. As  the  plant is
brittle, and liable to be broken, it is probably
the best plan to free the land carefully from
weeds, by ploughing and harrowing in
advance.
3145. The culture of the hop, on the scale
described here, is, I believe, entirely unknown
in this country. In Enlgland, large portions
of some counties, as Kent and Sussex, are
devoted to this plant, and it is the main
dependence of many farmers. Here the hop
is seldom seen at all, and then only in small
patches. This cultivation is mnore expensive
42 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
than any other, and requires a large capital to
engag.e in it extensively; on the other hand,
the profit is great in favorable seasons.
The Trenching Forks, Figs. 248 and 249,
when properly used, are the most efficient
implements  known  for thoroughly stirring
the soil to a great depth, without bringing
the lower soil to the surface. The great
cost of this operation, however, is a bar to
its employmtent even in England, unless in
especial cases, and will effectually prevent its
introduction here, except for gardens, and, on
a small scale, in situations where imimediate
profit is not an object.
3204. The su bjec     t  of the sowing  and the
summer cult ure o f turnips    is so fully exp   lained
and illustrated  under this head, that there
seems little left for                          me to say.  Our  farmers
may study with much advantage the various
forms of diill barrows here described and
figured, and also the machines for sowing
portable manures at the same time with the
seed.
The turnip crop is as yet one of compara.
tively trifling importance in this country, and
I do not think that its culture is rapidly
increasing.  I know that in many districts
there are now scarcely any Swedes grown,
and but few of the comnon white turnips,
these last chiefly for the table. One great
source of difficulty is to be found in that
imperfect preparation of the land to which
I have alluded as an obstacle in the cultivation of drill crops; when I say imperfect, I
mean so far as thorough pulverization and
finish  are  concerned.   In  many  sections,
however, the soil is naturally fine and mellow
enough; but here we find a fresh obstacle in
the awkwardness of laborers - unaccustomed
to this occupation. As no women work in
the field, men must be employed at high
wages; they invariably dislike the work, and
from want of habit progress very slowly.
Then also the time for hoeing generally
comes, when all of the men are wanted in
the hay field; and after the weeds have once
the advantage, it is difficult to recover the
smothered crop.
But supposing all of these difficulties to be
overcome, there is still another of much importance, in the character of our climate. Its
intense heat, and the frequent continuance of
dry weather in summer, are all unfavorable
to this crop.  Many of the plants die, others
become stinted, the early growth of all is apt
to be slow, and they are thus the longer
exposed to the attacks of insects.  It is true
that they are not always destroyed, and that
we hate many instamces of finee crops; those.,
in Ahct, are not wanting who even assert that
our climate is better adapted to the turnip
than that of England;i but in my opinion the
weight of evidence and experience, in most
districts, preponderates heavily against them.
One of the most effective remedies for
these evil influences would, I am persuaded,
be found in such machines as Figs. 259 and
261, tor sowing bone dust, and other manures
of that class, with the seed.  A supply of
food is thus deposited immediately within the
reach of the young plant, and not spread about
for the encouragement of weeds; the first
growth is consequently strong and vigorous,
and it is much more likely to overcome insect
enemies, weeds, and all disadvantages of
climate.
3236. The method of reducing bones, here
described, might prove a good one fior the
purpose of afterwards dissolving them in sul phnric acid; a small quantity of acid would
finish the operation, when  they were already
in this way so far powdered.  The addition
of the sulphuric acid is not, as seems to be
implied in par. 3237, simply a method  for
dissolving the bones; the acid in itself adds
much to the value of the manure.  It has
been found a good application alone on many
soils, wl en largely diluted.
It will be perceived that the horse hoes,
grubbers, &c., Figs. 263, 264, and 265, are
somewhat like our Cultivators, thoughl I think
that for the purpose  of merely stirring the
surface and destroying weeds ours are supe rior, being ligrhter, and less expensive.  Fig.
264 approaches more nearly to the American
Cultivator, but the tines, or rather the shares
on their points, are not of so good a shape as
in our latest models.
3257 to 3263. Here is described the opera tion of hoeing, which I have mentioned as so
very troublesome to our workmen.   These
paragraphs are worthy of study by all culti vators of turnips, in order that  they may
know how to give proper directions to their
workmen.  Hlaxilg once learned the right
way.. they will speedily acquire dexterity.  It
is astonishing to see how rapidly an expert
worker  performs  this operation.   This  is
shown by the low pjices paid for this work
in Scotland, from 25 to 50 cents per acre for
the singling, or first hoeing of the turnips.
2390. Turnips in this country, in addition
to all their other trials, are also exposed to
the  attacks of insects.  The most conspicuous
of these is the fly, or striped flea beetle (Hi
tica Striolata), belonging to the same family
which has been so destructive in Europe, one
of which (Haltica nemorum) is mentioned by
Mr. Stephens.  It appears in May, and continues more or less abundant during the sea
son, frequently destroying a great portion
of the crop.  There is. a small black  bug
described as being extremely destructive in
some sections, but I have never seen it, and
cannot give its name.  It may be another
member of the above mentioned family. 
The  pale green caterpillar of a certain
white butterfly (Pontia oleracea) is also a
43 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
serious pest in some seasons.  It commences
on the under side of the leaf, and eats vigornusly  until it is ready to change  into the
clirysalis sttte.
The  remedies  or  preventatives  against
insects recommntendei in England have been
also, to a considerable extent, employed in
this country.  l,ime has been used freely,
and alkaline soluiions.  One writer, in an
agricultural paper, recommends very strongly
to soak the seed ili the most offensive tanner's
oil, for two or three days previous to sowing.
The first leaves, which are always most exposed to entire destruction  by insects, are
satur ate(l wi h the smell and taste of this oil,
so that their enemies will not touch them; it
also acts as an excellent manure.  A steep of
l)',o:phoric a'id in two parts water is said to
proditce a very wonderful effect in acceleratilg the growth of the young plants. Sp)rinkligti
w-ith the stale liquid from a tanner's lime-pit,
or wki h -ritie firom a tank, has a protective
eftcct at  i imnore advanced state of growth.
Unle(icled ashes, or soot, sown  broadcast
naftr n shower, are als;o good applications.
In coinjune'ion with all these remiiedieas, it is
to!)e r. iiembered that the soil must be mel'l IT trd rich, so as to force the young plants
q C'c ly foIrwa,rd through the dangerous period.
The se-d should be sown abundantly. so that
somne plults may well be spared to the insects,,
as ill rn ite dies will probably fail to keep them
off' entirely.
Wh1ile we c.-n  grow Indian corn at the
niroth in such abutidance, and with coinmpaira     c
tively so little trouble, that crop will doubtle,ss inaiitain its supieriiority for feeding  p)urp(sse, over all otliers.  Tli.s will be partlyv
bec..-iie of its vwllln-, aind partly on accouint
of (iur. evre winters, which reider it impos.
sible to Ifed off turnips in the field.
3323. I anm happy to find that bones are at
:lIst comitig inito use in this country, and that
a few mills are alreidy at work grinding them.
The wint (,f such mills has been a niost serious
lIindratcee to their use, as the quantiy required 
of the whole bones when they are used must
be so very large, in order to produce much
effect.  Craykintig them  by hand  is both at
tedious, iniefficient, and  expetnsive process.
So far as I know, the mills now established
are doing an ex(-ellent business, selling all of
the bone dust that they can make at good
prices.  I have no doubt but others would do
well in all of our best districts.  A large portion of the land in the eastern and older states
having been cropped with corn and various
other grain crol)s for a long succession of years,i
and oiily hnving been kept up by ordinary
iard matjeure, is exactly in the condition to be
benefited by bones.   The  phosphoric acid,
which   they are shown to contain so largely
by the analysis cited under this head, is the
v ery- substance to supply that which has been
taken from the land by the grain. Hence.
their effect upon such land is very marked
and decisive.  Il  the State of (,oninecticut,
Middlesex Co., much  bone dust has been
us:ed of late, and the farmers find that their
worn out land is brought up by it at once.
This; beneficial  action will continue, if they
are careful to keep up the supply of other
manures at the same time, so as to be sure
that none of the other  subst ance s shall be.
come exhausted in their turn.
3331. Much attention has been drawn to
the method of   steaming b ones, here ulnluded
to.  It seems that they are  thus re duced to
a  s t ate  of extreme fin eness, and  itbr this
r eas o   n  pr oduce a  mosf t   remnarkable   effect
when  applied  to the soil.  Two  or three
bushels per acre are said to be sufficient.
If, however, so great a loss of organic matter
occurs  as is here mentioned, the  process
would be scarcely advisable.  There  might
on the other hand, be some method deviised
for collecting  all of the   escape steam  and
water, and in that case no loss could ensue.
The cheapness of this process recommends it.
3332. I entirely agree with Mr. Stephens
in the opinions expressed here. The organic
part of bones undoubtedly constitutes a large
proportion of their value, and slaulld be preserved with care. In the various methods of
fermentmaion described in succeeding  paragraphs, it is the organic part that suffers,, in
the partial decomposition which the dust
undergoes.   If this decomposition  is not
carried too far, it is of service, by sol'tening
the particles of bone, and rendering them
more  easily soluble.   They  therefore act
more readily in the sustenance of the )lant.
3333. This paragraph  shows in a striking
manner the superiority in phosphates which
bones have over common yard  manure. Our
bones in this country are now collected to a
very considerable extent, and  are shipped to
various ports of Great Britain; so many
"bags  or casks of bones" are frequent entrie.s in the manifests of vessels bound thither.
It is to be hoped that we shall, ere long, knD)w
better than to allow such a valuable manure
thus to escape us.
3343. I am inclined to believe that guano
is not so much the product of the  class of
birds mentioned, as; of some species of penguins, ducks, &c. I have seen their dried
bodies brought from the guano deposits, and
they resembled birds of these latter clnsses.
This manure seems to have come into especial fivor in the middle states, to which the
importations are now chiefly confined.  It is
found to produce there all of the effects
asc~ribed to it abroad, and is eagerly purchased a~t high prices.! am not aware that
we halve as yet, had many cases of adulteration in this country, but the temptation t~
some operations of'the kind is strong, and as
44 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
roots for dairy purposes, and are largely used
for feeding to horses.   Both these and beets
seem to be in this country far less liable to
the attacks of insects than turnips.  To grow
such heavy crops of carrots and  parsnips as
are mentioned by Mr. M   Stephens, subsoiling
would probably be a necessary preliminary
on most soils.
3448. I  am not aware  that rape  is ever
cultivated in this country, and do not know
that it has  any qualities  which will lea d to its
general  introduction. The  rape Sa ke relferred
to in par. 3460 is highly esteemned in Engl,nd
as a manure, and has been one chief mneans of
bringing up much of their light chalky land.
3463. Buckwheat  is  largely  cultivated
through the northern states. Some examinations of it have been given already  in the
appendix to Palrt II. This crop is frequently
not sown until July. It grows and matures
its seed with great rapidity.  It is coming
into use as a green crop, and can be grown
on land where clover and crops of that (-lass
would not flourish. This faculty of growing
upon poor soils leads to its cultivation on
worn-out land, and hence the crop does not
often  have  justice done it.  Probably Mr.
Stephen- has never experienced the sense of
enjoyment consequent upon the pa-rtakingr of
a dish of buckwheat cakes, or he would not
have spoken so slightingly as to the merits
of buckwheat for an article of food.
3473. The sunflower is occasionally grown
in this country, for the sake of the oil which
its seeds afford, and is said to be very productive. It is recommended by some writers
as a valuable article of food for poultry, and
is in certain districts now cul! ivated somewhat
extensively.  It will grow quite tall, and produce a number of flowers, without much
manuring, but the flowers are apt to be small.
On a good rich soil they are often eight or ten
inches in diameter.
.3476. Madia. This plant is not, so far as
I am aware, even known in, this country, at
least as a field crop; and, il fact, its merit*
seem to be as yet hardly decided upon in
Europe. If the product per acre, given in the
last part of this paragraph, can be considered
a fair sample of its yield, the crop might
prove a very profitable one here on dry mellow soils. We are beginning to believe that
such seeds as it bears may be of use for feeding after the oil is expressed, and if the latter
be such as to take in any degree the place of
salad oil, as intimated in par. 3477, then this
could hardly fail to prove a highly remunera tive crop.
3481. Of the sowing and culture of Maize.
I have already noticed the most approved
methods now pracetised in the planting or
sowing of indian corn, and it is not neeessar
to repeat them here. -The differencee of chinate
between the United States and all parts of
th      e  demand        increases the        y will doubtless be
attempted.  Farmers will therefore do well
to be on their guard,  and if their purchases
,re not made from parties in whom they can
trust implicitly, to insist on a warrantee that
will enable them to recover damages, in case
that the quality is not what it was represented
to be. The most barefaced impositions are
now practised in England.  Certain parties
have lately sold a species of loam resembling
Peruvian guano, at a high price, the bags
having been previously dusted, both inside
and out, with some of the real article in order
to counterfeit the true smell.  It is not perfectly safe even to buy guano from the vessel
in which it was imported, for some houses
have lately sent out vessels ballasted with
materials intended to be mixed with the true
guano as it is discharged into the hold.  The
only safe way is to buy under the warrant of
a certificated analysis, made by somre competent person.  The farmers could soon force
the dealers to have such analysis made upon
samples of every cargo imported.
3381 to 34,17. (Of MIang,)ld Wurtzel, Sugar
Beets, Carrots, arid Parsnips.  These roots
are all becoming objects of some attention in
this country.  The mangold wurtzel is not so
much known as the sugar beet; both are, so
far as mv observation and experience extend,
better suited to this climate than the turnip
They are more hardy, less liable to the attacks
of insects, anl usually yield well.  The seed,
as Mr. Stephens observes, cannot be sown
fromn most constructions of drill barrows, on
rccount of its size and roughness. 
3387. It has usually been thought advisable
to soak the seed of the sugar beet thoroughly
in warm water before sowing, but it seems
that Mr. Stephens disapproves of the practice.
If the seeds a.re dried by rolling in plaster or
ashes, that part of his objection rel,tive to
drought would be in a great degree obviated,
as bothl of these substances would aid materially in keeping the seed mois.t.  It is Iadisable for those who wish to cultivate this crop
to (rrow their own seed, as a great part of that
which is imported is very poor.  It is in all
cases best to sow much more of this seed
than would otherwise be needed; in the best
samples I have seen, a large portion does not
vegetate.                                              I
The sugar beet keeps very well, and is invaluable during the winter for feeding dairy
cows, as it communicates a fine color and
Savor to the butter.  It has also been used
with much advantage for frtttening animals.
The soil for all of these crops should be well
manured and deeply ploughed, besides having
the surface handsomely finished. The farmer
who attempts to cultivate them on any other
system will soon become tired of his unsuccessful efforts.
Carrots and parsnips are also excellent
45 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
ve  carefully, is likely to injure the young
and  tender  maize.   These  are two  evils;
another one of great importance is, that such
a crop, to be worth collecting, must be sown
at such a period as to interfere with all culti.
vation of the corn, except by the hand hoe
alone-a most slow and uneconomical i mple.
ment.
These reasons are sufficient  t  o condemn
this course, and I might adduce yet others;
they lead us to prognosticate pretty certainly
what usually happens in   such  cases, that  the
main crop is considerably diminished, for the
sake  of obtaining  a  poor se condary crop,
which    does  n ot repay  the  extra cost of its
cultivation.   The  farmer  has, at   the same
time, succeedede  in exhausting his  s oil more
tha n  he wou ld  otherwise    have done, and ha
finally not made so much money as if he had
devoted his attention to one crop.
Mr. KeTene's recommendation, to     protract
the  thinning u ntil th e  stalks have attained a
considerable size, is unwise in the extreme,
as pulling one or two large plants from a
hill, without disturbing and in every way
interfering with the growth of the others,
would be quite impossible.
The thinning should, according to the best
authorities, be done at the first hoeing, or in
any event as soon as the plants have got
beyond danger from the cut worm, an enemy
which is quite destructive in some localities
and seasons.                             *
3489. The system of managing the maize
crop in the latter part of the season, as
detailed in this paragraph, does not correspond at all with the results at which Mr.
Stephens would himself have speedily arrived,
had he ever lived in a region where this crop
was one of the staple productions.
It has been well ascertained that the method
of topping corn is defetctive in many ways;
the only advantage is, that the tops fortm an
excellent article of fodder, the disadvantages
being more numerous and considerable. The
cutting of the top, it is true, prevents all further nourishment from flowing, to the upper
part, theft is, supposing nourishment were at
this period flowing in that direction at  all.
My own belief is, that by the time at which
corn is usually topped, all circulation is virtually over in the upper portion of the stalk,
and that consequently no advantage is derived
from the practice.
But if the stalk be allowed to stand till it
is time to gather the grain, although the latter
is heavy and good, the former is useless as
an article of food. The true practie, as I
conceive, lies in a mean between the two,
which is to cut the stalk at the surfa~ce of thio
gro)un-d soon after the ears have glazed, and
to cure the whole in small stook:s. In this
waly is ob.~ained a very great amount of
fodder, which is considered by manly expel
Great Britain is so greatly in our favor, as far
as regards the cultivation of this crop, that
we need not fear any very important rivalry
from that quarter in its production.  It may,
I should think, be introduced there with great
success as a green crop, but can fully ripen
only in favorable seasons.
3485. It will be found necessary to regard
the color, if any particular variety is to be
kept pure, as a mixture and consequent deterioration takes place very readily.  If black
and white, or yellow and white varieties, be
planted near each other, some ears of each
kind will always be found to contain kernels
of the other color, mixed in by a natural
impregnation, which, under the circumstances,
it seems almost impossible to prevent. Hence,
if it is desired to preserve a valuable variety
pure, it should be planted in a field by itself,
or if there is another field of'a different kind
unavoidably in contact with it, the seed ears
should be selected as far as possible from the
source of infection.
Steeps are used with us, as IJ have before
mentioned, but not for the prevention of smut,
as that is a disease which is scarcely thought
of in this country.  A field can seldom be
found that has not a few ears of a smutty or
fun(rous growth, but their number  is too
trivial for notice, and the affection does not
ieem to have attracted much attention from
any source.  It can scarcely be the ergot,
retferred to in this paragraph, and by Professor
Lindley, as that disease leaves the grain, both
of wheat and rye, so that it may be ground
and used for food unconsciously.  The ear
affected with smut in our fields never attains
maturity, but becomes  in  most  cases an
almost indistinguishable mass of black powdery substance, losing its shape, and puffing
out the outer husks with a species of livid
swellings.
3488. I fully agree with Mr. Stephens in
the opinion that, as a general rule, catch crops,
that is, crops sown between the rows of corn
or other plants which are the chief object of
cultivation, are no better than robbers of the
plants among which they are sown.   This
does not apply so forcibly to thle pumpkin,
which is so often sown among the corn hills,
as its fruit there thrives and ripens without
altering in any way the arrangement and
planting of the corn.   The pumpkin seeds
are dropped and covered with the corn, and
require no extra care.  -
1 refer to the  pr acti ce  of                sowing beans,
potatoes, turnips, &c, in such situations. In
the first place, in order to obtain anything
worth gathering, the rows of corn must in
mlost cases be place d further apart than usual,
Hand the crop of that grain consequently diminished. The planting must take place' at
some1 subsequent period to that of the corn,
and this operation, unl~ess done by hand, and
46 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
rienced farmers to be equal to hay when cut
for their stock.
But this is not all. We have a result
analogous to what has been found to take
place in wheat and other grains, when cut
just before they are ripe; the kernels are
heavier, plumper, and better in quality, than
those from the topped  corn.   The  same
superiority, though in a less degree, has been
repeatedly observed in the kernels from the
corn which had been left to stand and ripen
without cutting or topping.
It may be sugrgested, as accounting partially
at least for this difference, that the topping
process interferes in a very hurtful degree
with the natural ripening of the grain. When
the top is cut off, the sun and air obtain ready
access of course, and exert an increased action
upon the stump which remains, causing it to
dry up and ripen very suddenly; thus no further movement of consequence takes place
among its juices, and the stores which would
otherwise have gone into the ear are mostly
converted into dry woody fibre.  Now, in the
corn left standing, or in that which slowly
cures in the stook, this action is not so suddenly arrested, and the result is, that the
kernels fill out so as to be more plump and
heavy.  In all cases where corn is cut, and is
found to ripen well, it shows that, after a
certain period, very little, if anything, comes
from the soil; the materials are already stored
in the stalk, and we have only to decide what
is, on the whole, the most advantageous way
to obtain them for our use in the best form,
both from the seed and the stalk.
The explanation given above may be illcorrect, but that would not affect the fict that
the cutting system accomplishes both of these
ends much better than any other. The same
thing ha,s for years been established in the
case of wheat and many other grains, and
the practice of cutting corn is gaining most
rapidly among alii of the best farmers.  There
are occasionally districts where the contrary
practice still prevails, and it is not unusual
to see in the midst of heavy stooks the topped
field of some man who obstinately refuses to
be guided by these new notions.  My own
observation                has    seldom failed to show me,
that the farm of such a man affords positive
evidence that he is lagfging behind in many
other points, and that he is determinately
opposed to book farming, or whatever has
not the sanction of antiquity.
3494. I have given some ash analvses under
another he-,d, which the reader may compare
wilh those in this paragraph.  I must say that
these analyses require explanation, both aRs to
the manner in which the ash was obtained,
and as to the parts of the plant that were
burned. The differences are so great tha
there must, I think, be something in the
circumstances that would show them to
be owing, in part at least, to accidental
cause,s.
3496. On the Germination of Seeds.  The
observations of Mr. Stephens under this
head, and the plates given in illustration, will
be  interesting  to every  intelligen t f armer.
They  intimate  much  more   as to the  nece s sary
condition of the soil than might be at first
supposed. No one can doubt, after careful
study of the   facts here pre sented  that a ir,
warmth, and m o isture, a re  o f vi tal i mportance
in germination.   The    changes which they
induc e  m ay be  re-stated in f ew w ords, a s
follows:-T he  nitrogenous pa rt of the grain,
known in wheat, for instan ce, a  s gluten, is
altered during  germination into  a s ubstance
called diastase.  The  natur e of th is  is no t as
vet exact ly known,  but it has  the power  to
transfer the   st arch  of th e grain from its
insoluble state   as  starch, into  a species of
sugar; th is is perfectly soluble, of course, and
is therefore capable of  enter ing immediately
into the substance of the  young s hoot, w hich
must obviously depend for its sustenance
upon the  parent  seed until leaves   and  a root
are formed. Th e  sweet t a ste of this sue ar is
a ctually per ceptibl   e  t o    the taste in many
you ng shoots; those of barley, as   sprouted
for  malting  purposes,  are a well  known
example.
This tran sfo rmation,  so   necessary to the
young sh o ot,   so   indispensable, I may rather
say, cannot proceed if air be entirely excluded, nor if the  seed be per fec tly  drvy;
warmth also hastens it very materially. Too
much water excludes both air and warmth;
too great  a dep th of planting does  the same;
while, on the other hand, with a very light
covering the seed becomes too dry, for lahk
of that very moisture of which  an excess, art
the first    case, was also fatal.   If placed upon
the surface, and plenty of water supplied,
light comes in to destroy it, with the injurious
effects explained in par. 3513.
The object, then, should be, to plant the
seeds at a proper and uniform depth, in a welt
pulverized soil, that may be readily and entirely pervaded by air and warmth. Another
important requisite, and one that will, if
neglected, be in many cases very essential,
is a proper degree of dryness. If the soil is
naturally wet it must  oe drained, or the
situation of the seed will be the same as is
represented in Fig. 279.
Changes no less singular and important
occur in the inorganic part of the seed at the
period of germination. One of these'may be
noticed as an instance.   The silica in the
grain previous to germination is nearly all
insoluble, even in acids of great strength;
bult now, under the influence of the vital
princ~iple, it too becomes soluble, and passeda
into the young shoot. The ashes of this part
are found to contain quite a large proportion
41 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
of silica, which has passed into it from the
grain.
The foregoin  g  remarks, relative                        to    the
peculiar changes of germination, and as to
the circumstances of temperature, moisture,
&c., that are necessary to insure them, are
still more fully illustrated, and brought to a
practical bearing, by the cuts fiom Nos. 283
to 309.  It is easy to see that seeds buried
irregularly, as in Figr. 287, must be unequally
situated as to the effects of air, warmth, and
moisture;  that some  will come  up  much
before the others, making the crop uneven,
and that many will not come up at all.
The calculations made by Air. Stephens,
relative to the number of grains sown per
acre, of wheat, barley, oats, &c., show most
clearly that a remarkable proportion of every
crop perishes.  A  large number  of plants,
without doubt, die soon after they come
above tihe surface, from the effects of over
crowdin,g, of bad weather, or the attacks of
insects; and during the whole period of their
growth, they are more or less exposed to
injurious influences which thin them out; but
a still larger number probably never come up
at all, for some of the reasons before mentioned. or because thtey are not well covered.
We  may reasonably hope to improve our
cultivation, so as to greatly increase the number of seeds which shall vegetate, and grow
as far towards maturity as the seed can assist
them.  This point is reached when the first
true leaves are fairly opened, or when the
plants are advanced so far as to draw sustenance both from the earth and the atmosphere.
After this their progress, inl ordinary seasons,
depenids upon the liberality of +he supplies
for their nourishment which they find in the
soil.                                               I
-The use of the drill machine for sowing
approaches greatly towards perfection, when
compared with the ordinary broadcast sowing.
The dibble seems to be still an advance fiom
the drill; it is not probable, however, that
dibbling will find much favor with us at
present, as it would undoubtedly prove far
too expensive.
The saving of seed by these improved processes is of itself a matter of very great
great  importance,  when  we  consider  the
quantity  sown  over  the  whole  country.
P.ar. 3538 illustrates this point quite forcibly.
The question as to whether thick or thin
sowing grows the better crop seems not to
have become as yet quite clear, although the
weight of the evidence which Mr. Stephens
has collected appears to be decidedly in flavor
of the latter method.  It is obvious, however,
that it is not safe to reduce the quantity of
seed to the measures mentioned in these
paragraphs, where broadcast sowing is continued.  Very thin sowing cannot be expected
to succeed on poor, scantily manured land,
for under such circumstances the crop will
not by any means tiller so ais to cover the
ground.  On the other hand, very thick sow ing will  not answe r  on  such  land, f or  the
plants will not be able to find enough suste nance, and will consequently grow up stinted
and spindling.  A  medium b   etwee n the ex tremes would be best for most of our farmers,
at least until they have brought their land up
so that it will bear quite thin sowing.
3554. Th i s  paragraph, with  tie tewo suc ceeding ones, very intelligibly explains a
fact which experience has shown lo many
of our fitrmers, that there is a great advantage
in deep sowing for winter wheat.  In the
western counties of the State of New York
they have found it a complete, or almost
complete, remedy to the winter killing of
their wheat, which was formerly a very great
evil. They now sow it deep, either with a
drill or by covering with a light furrow by a
set of gang ploughs.  Fig.s. 293 tind 294 suf ficiently illustrate the benefit of this proceed ing   In the same corinexion, par. 3557, we
see why spring wheat should  be but lightly
covered: it has no  fi'osts to bear, and must
spring up and mature rapidly, wi.,hotit time
for tillering; hence the long pipe at' commnu
nication between the coronal atnd the seminal
roots is not necessary, and in fact must be a
source of disadvantage, as the young shoot
fronm the seed sown so deep would be a long
time in reaching the surface.
3564. It is  not necessary to pause upon
the subject of transplanting wheat longer
than to say, that inl this country, at our
present prices of labor, every grain of wheat
saved in this wly would be awl illustration of
the old maxim, "penny wise anld pound
foolish."
3566. On Repairing Fences, &e. I would
call the attention of farmers to the remarks
of Mr. Stephens on the necessity of looking
carefully to fences before Settle are turned
into pastures.  When  the fields of different
owners join, it very often happens that one
of them neglects his portion of the fence,
and, in consequence, the other h.as either to
suffer from stray cattle, to build the fence
himself, or go to law..This last alternative
is a disagreeable one, and most men are properly reluctant to excite the unpleasant f(,eling and enmities which almost always arise
from it.  Every farmer should therefore make
the care of his fnces a primary ob~jt et. Ir he
has not the proper and honorable feeling
which would indulee him to do this for his
neighber's sake, self-interest should le,-d him
to it.  If cattle or sheep are always confined
by well constructed and firmn tlnces, they
never acquire a roving disposition; but if
they have once been tempte d to escape
through a wetik place, they seldomn forget
the lesson of.liberty they have learned, and 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
make it a practice to deliberately try every
available point, until they find an opportunity
to break out again.
Gates are becoming much more common
than they once were, and are gradually replacing tile inconvenient and troublesome bars.
It must be admitted that bars are cheaper,
and  less liable to get out of order, than w
gates; but on the other hand is to be considered the time occupied in taking them out
and putting them in, and their liability to be
lef, down by careless persons passing through
them.
tThe great obstafcle in our northern climate
to the general intr,)dtction of gates is, the
difficulty of setting the posts so that they
will not sag with the weight of the gate.
The  frost goes  so deep  that, unless  the
greatest caution is used in setting the posts,
they soon get thrown out of the perpendicular.  By  digging the holes deeper than is
common, and  by employing  more  care in
filling them, I am  inclined to think that a
great part of the trouble would disappear.
T1he plan recommended  in par. 3575, and
shown in Fig. 295, is a good one.   I have
also known of posts being set in a horizontal
wooden framework, running with the fence.
If all the parts of this fiamework are charred,
or otherwise protected flom  decay, such a
post will stand firm for a long time.
I might present many in,enious plans of
gates aoid fastenings, but they abound in our
agriculturil papers already,  i,nd the farmer
canl  easily make  his  selection therefrom.
The wiie gates now coming into vogue will,
I think, be excellent for field purposes.  They
may be made with a good strong frame, and
then, with the aid of perhaps two or three
br ices, would bear quite hard usage. 
3576. In this country trees are almost
always found to serve the purpose of rubbing
posts; where there are nonie in a lot, these
may occasionially be necessary, but rail fences
of almnost any kind are equally convenient.
35 77 to 3669. On the di.sposal of fat Sheep
and Cattle.  I suppose that many of the rules
contained  inl these  paragraphis, relaiive to
judging of the condition of fattening stock,
m:iy be found very useful to the farmer who
has not had much experience in such matters.
They will enable him, after a little practice,
to form as correct a judgment of his stock as
the drover himself could do.
There is one point, blowever, well worthy
of attention from  American farmers, which
comes out distinctly in different parts of these
patragraphis.  It is the  references to fairs and
gathering~s for tile sale of cattle a~s of frequent
occurrence,.and as the markets to which every
farmer looks. It se?ems to mne that, ill this
respect, we might leairn a good lesson from
the English thrmer. WVe have nothing a~nalogous to the numerous county and village
fairs which are held at stated periods in all
parts of Great Britain. If a farmer here
wishes to buy a lot of sheep or cattle for
fattening or other purposes, either in the fall
or spriiig, he is obliged, after put-chasing
what    he  can  advantageously in hi s ow  n
vicinity, to wait  for a passing dirove from
which to make a, selection.'This ari  y not
come at the right time, and may not s uit him
as to  price or   quality when it does come,; he
may, therefore, be  either disappo inted  iltogether, or forced to  buy what does not exactly
plerase.  If ie wishe es to  pair  of working  cattle,
or a  horse, he must    leave  h is work, and d riv e
about the country often for days, before finidireg anythin g fi t for his  purpose  or with in his
means. I  might  go on  to mention many
othe r  i nconveniences  cohnnected withll  the
present sys tem, but every practical farmer
knows them better than I.
That there is a growing  feeling on  the
subject, is proved by the numerous attempts
now making in various parts of the coutlry
to connect sales of stock and of implements
with the county and other f-irs. This is tin
excellent way of makingf, these fairs still mnore
important, and more popular, than they have
ever been.  If tl-hey could be made pliees to
which, at certain times, stocek of -ill kinds will
congregate for sale as  well as for exhibition,
the interest of the masses in them  would
augment wonderfully. Buyers  atid drovers
with stock would be drawn together, from  a
distance, more or less great -,icordi ir, to tle
importance of the fair.  By one influence or
another, the people of a whole county ol
district would thus  be gradually gathered in,
to trike a part in the fair, if not for the ~tkQ,
of improvegnent,-at least as buyers or sellers.
The farmers would then have the great
advantage of a large market, and of knowing
prevalent prices.  They would not require to
spend an occasional day or half' day halogling
with this drover or that, during tile whole
season, finally selling under the mnalrket, perhaps, tfom ignorance of its state; but would
finish all their business of this kind at a fixed
time, and then could return t6 their usual
occupations, and be free from interruption,
I am aware that this could niot al} be
brought about at once.  It would require
time to convince people as to the advantages
of such a system. Many would at first
feel disposed to condemn it entirely, and
refuse to countenance any of the fairs; but
if they were continued, all would gradually
see the benefit of a fixed market, and be
driven fiom their prejudices into cordial acquiescence.
It mlight even be found advantageous tocarry this system still further, alla have
weekly, or monthly, or quarterly, gra~in and
produce markets, such as are held in all parts
of England. The circumstances of the locality
40 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
flock is infested with them, they are sure to
leave the old sheep soon after shearing, and
find their way to the  lambs.  An  efifectual
method for driving them from this refuge is,
to dip the lambs into tobacco water, leaving
only the nose and eyes above the surface,
and allowing them to remain immersed for a
m inute or two.  Some  cover the nose with
the hand, and then dip them entirely.
3743. The sturdy, or turnsick, here spoken
of, caused by hydatids, is little known on this
side of the Atlantic, and some writers of eminence say that they have never yet seen a
cease; others assert that they have known  a
fe w instances; it is evidently, however, not
commion.
The  scab caused  by  acari is a disease
which seems also to be much less prevalent
here than abroad.  One reason for this may
be, that short woolled sheep have been more
common than long woolled, and it is the latter
class that are said  to be  most liable to this
disease.
3754. I can no t  fin d that the  blowflies,
mentioned in this and succeeding paragraphs,
have a t tracted  much attent io in in this country,
a s being injurious  to sheep.  They  are not
mentioned  by someo    of our best  authors on
the affections of sheep. Our diseases seem
to be, in fact, as regards this animal, of a
character difrbring considerably from those
that prevail in Europe.
3757. The worrying of sheep by dogs has
become such a serious matter in some of our
states, that many farmers are prevented from
keeping sheep, or have sold their flocks from
this one cause; not being willing to endure
the trouble and vexation caused by the depre.
daltions of worthless curs, whose visits it is
almost impossible to detect, so  cunIrling do
they grow in the practice of their profession.
Movements are ma-,kingr in many parts of the
country  for the  passage of stringent law-s
bearing upon the subject.   A  tax of some
kind on all dogrs in sheep districts would
tend to reduce the number to those that are
actually of service; and heavy fines levied
upon the owner of every dog proved to have
killed a sheep, would still further mitigate
the evil.
3761. The ravages of caterpillars on our
grass lands do not in general seem to  be
extensive. In the eastern part of New England, a caterpillar of one of the arctians or
tiger moths is sometimes very destructive on
the sailt marshes, but does not seem to go far
inland. We have many varieties that are
exceedingly injurious to trees.
3762. The grub of the coc kchafer, described
and figured here, is of the same class as those
of nlumerous Scarabatans that abound more
or less in this country. Thley are occasionally
very abundant in old grass fields, but. I have
never found them so numerous or so destrue
m        ust decide this, but in   many places such
markets    would        be of  much  s ervice.   The
sal        e      s               are mostly made by  sample, and   then
the fdrner can          mak e delivery                 at his own convenience, within a           certai n  per iod. It   is evident that                 in this way much  time would be
-s    a          ved,  and    th   e farmers the             reby enabled to
work mor e ec onom ically in t           he disposal  of
their crops. Accustoming  them to                          this systein would also be a                         work of time, bbdt I
think they would  anll by deg        re es          fall into it.
The mannder of conducting the Scottish stock
fairs      is ve     ry fully  expla              ined   in these pars
graphs.
It is              easy to see          that such fiirs, when once
established, would gradually become markets
for              the sale of  implements, household utensils,
and all ar    t icles  of value to            the farmer.
3730 and 3731.        Th e recommen dation given
il threse  paragr        aph s  is worthy of att endtion.
The         e    ffe          ct   of lime upon mountain pastures is
almost  alway s beneficial in this country.  It
is not invariably applied as burned lime, or
cruso ed carbonate,  or narl, but  sometimes as
t sulphate, tha          t          is, the common plaster of
Pa.r   is. This, emploved              as a top doressing, is
in many  cases the most effective addition that
can be made; a small quantity often causes
a            w onderfu         l alteration in the color, luxuriance,  and quality,  of the grass.   In               some
places i    t          does not   succeed; but where it does,
the effct is   very marked. Plaster is little
used in Etgland.
3732.   The  bush    harrow                              described here
Fig. 304, gives                        us an idea of a much        more
pertect and effective implement than those
generally used in this country.   A  heavy
trame of this  kind would  last f              or a very
loiig time, and would be always ready when
wanted. The farmer. having it at hand, need
not speeld an hour or two in looking about
for at bush to his mind, but could make an
extellent harrow with any little refuse boughs
that imppened to be near.  There would also
bega furthier advantage, in the ability to load
this lharrowv. so as to make  it press more
heavily oln the ground. by fastening an extra
stick or two cross from a to c.
3752. The sheep bot fly (Cephalemia Ovis)
of Harris seems, according to some figures
that I have seen, to be a different insect from
Aestrus Ovis, mentioned by Stt phens. There
are, however, other American authors who
-call the fly which is found here Aestrus Ovis.
As I have no specimens. I am unable to
decide whether they are actually the same.
It is doubted  by Mr. Randall and others,
whether the larvae of this insect re,-lly do any
harms, beyonld the irritation and excitement
whi; -h they cause in their ascent and d-escent
of the nostrils.
-3753. The sheep tick (Melophagus Ovinuls)
is well-knzown in thlis country, and occasion.ally becomes quite troublesome. Whlen a
50 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
it has fixed itself for its meal.  The Tabanus
cinctus, or orange belted horse fly, is smaller,
and not so abunr.dant as the lar(er variety.
The most common of the smaller kinds is
Tabanus lineola, named from a whitish line
on the top of its body.  Several other species
of Tabanus appear at the end of June, and
continue to torment both horses and cattle
through the hot months.
There are various kinds of golden eyed
forest flies that become exceedingly trouble some in the woods and thickets, during the
months of June, July, and August.   Their
eyes are very brilliant, their bodies rather
slender, and they have clouded or banded
wings.  They are much smaller than horse
flies; some  are quite black ill their bodies
(Chrysops ferrugatus,Fa-b.), others are striped
wisrh black and yellow (Clhrysops vittatus,
Wiedemann). They issue from the bushes
on a hot summer's day in such swarms, and
bite so fiercely, as to render a horse, not
thoroughly protected by nets, almost frantic,
covering his neck and othteir defenceless parts
with blood. Cattle are.o annoyed by therm,
in many cases, as to be prevented fromni feed ing quietly during a considerable part of the
day. A wash made from a strong decoction
of walnut leaves, applied daily to the back,
neck, and ears, is said by some writers to be
a protection.
The greater part of the foregoing faicts
were obtained from a valuable work, On
Insects Injurious to Vegetation, &c., by Dr.
T. W. Harris, Librarian at Harvard College.
3869. I am disposed to agree  with  Mr.
Stephens, that soilingr on a large scale is only
practicable under certain conditions, such as
where the soil, situation, and climate, are all
favorable to the production of an abundant
growth of green fodder in the middle of
summer, at a time when that essential article
would ordinarily fail on most farms.  In all
other circumstances than the above, it would
be necessary to sow some crop intended to
co me in at just about the period when the
grasses commonly give out.  Indian corn is
probably the best crop for this purpose; being
equal to any in nutritive properties, and superior to all in bulk.  It should be sown broadcast, or in drills very close together.
This system does not seem to be exactly
in accordance with nature, and it may well be
questioned whether an aninmal,alw.ays cooped
up in a stall. with but occasional visits to a
confined yard, can be as healthy as one which,
during the summer months at least, has its
freedom, and constanlly breathes the fresh
air.  There can be no doubt but a greater
quantity of manure may be made in this man;
hner, if due care is taken to prevent evaporation and washing away, both of which causes
exert a great influence upon manure dropped
by the animal in the field. A considerabl~
tive as they frequently are in England. Many
of these are with us more to be dreaded i
the perfect state than in any other.   The         a
rosebv tg or rosechafer (Melolontha subspi nosue, kab.) ma          y  b e  mention ed as  one of the
worst.  Its ra vages are s prea d ing,             and it no
longer confines itself to                               the rose, as was the
case at first, but attacks grape vines, destroy ing even the grapes themselves, and is a source
of very great        yano  yanc e  to  the gardener. Its
eggs, according to Harris, are usually depo sited fr'om t    he  first t o       th e mi ddle of July, and
the perfect insec     t  co           me s out             from the earth
early in June  of t          he succeeding ye ar.
3766. On t            he Pasturing  of Cattle  in Sum
mer.  I do not know that I            can add anything
of       imp  ortanc   e  t o  these        remarks upon  the
summer keepi ng of  stock.         They aire generally practical, an        d  are all adapted to this
country, as well as to England.
Our permanent pastures and meadows
deserve more attention than they have ever
had.  It is not uncommon  to see those of
many yearls' standing which searcely p        roduce
enough to pay for the  fencing of       t he l and:
they.'-re in a state of almost entire exhaustion.
Such pa.oture should  either be ploughed and
properl        y  cultivated, or be brought up by top
dressing.   This  last is perhaps  the most
expensive and tedious of the two, but I have
seen it adopted with great success in situations where it was not desirable to break up
the turf.  Simple top dressing, if persevered
in, will after a time extirpate many troublesoule weeds, and bring in good grasses.
3777. It is greatly preferred in this country
to leave one or two trees in each field, for
shade and shelter. A tree affords a cooler
and more agreeable protection, during tho
heat of summer, than any ordinary shed, and
may be left standing in some position where
it will not materially interfere with ploughing.
3803. The bot flie., which lay their eggs
upon cattle and horses, appear to be the same
here as in England.  The large spotted bot
fly (Gasterophlilus eqnii) is most common.
There is also the small red tailed species
(G. tiemorr-loidalis), and the brown farrier
bot flv (G. veterinus). It is affirmed by some
writers that the first named species lays its
egras on the knees and leg-s of the horse, the
second on his hips, and the third upon the
throat and breaast. We have also the Oestrus
Bovis, or ox bot fly, whose maggots live in
holes on the ba(ks of cattle, causing the
warbles, as they are called in Scotland.
The chief of our,largre horse flies appears
to be Tabanus -atratus, of Fabiicius.  It is
blacek, with a whitish bloom on the back, its
body is often more than seven eighths of an
inch in length, and the wings expand two
inches. This fly is an object of terror to
cattle, arnd renders them extremely uneasy
when at work. It may be easily killed after 
2AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
or two, before fil,isling(r the washing.  In this
way it is said that a remarkably white aid
clean fletece is obtained.
nMany farmers take this opportunity to clip
the hoofs of their flocks, while the horn is
softened by the influence of the soaking in
walter wlichl it has undergone.
The shearing is uniformly done on the barn
floor.  Some shearers use low tables, but the
greater number prefer the level floor itself.
It is considered a good day's work to shear
twenty-five merinoes. There is no doubt that
the neatness of this operation is often interfered with by carelessness, and the condition
in which some flocks are turned out after
clipping is lamentablie.  The  hinit conveyed
in pair. 2928 should  be taken, that when  the
wool is very closely and smoothly  sheared,
the  enext yeaifr's fleece is the better for it, and
cli,ps easier.
The flock, driven into the shearing pen in
the mornin,g, should not be more than a half'
day's work; as the sheep are, more easily and
better sheared when their stomachs are distended, and flill of food, than when they are
empty and collapsed.
3934. Extra care and labor in tying up the
fleece, in keeping it scrupulously clean, free
from burs, straws, &c, will always be well
recompensed, by the advanced price which
such wool brings.  In place of forming a rope
from the fleece itself, I have always seen common cotton twine used for tying. This seems
a more convenient plan, and less calculated to
injure atny part of the fleece.
A clean, tight, dry upper room, is preferred
for the storing of wool; and it is much better
if plastered, as  more effectually excluding
'mice, insects, dust, &c.
A very good way of packing wool is, to
suspend the sack through a hole in the floor,
or, if it be in a lower room, fr'om a sc(affolding.  A man first descends into the sack, and
all assistant passes the fleeces to him.  He
carefully arranges them in layers, and presses
them firmly down with his feet, thus gridually
filling the bag in a most regular and compact
form.
- 3979 and 3987. On the summer culture of
Beans and Peas. I have already mentioned
that these crops are not of very great import,ance among  us, and consequently our experience can add little to the directions here
given for their culture.  It is said by Mr,
lliarris, that beans are liable in dry seasons to
suffer from the attacks of one of the  Tettigorniadse or Leaf Hoppers.    These  little
insects  commence their attacks in June, and
continuie through July and August, till the
vines or stalks, and the pods, become shripmvIled and worthless.  He  calls this species
(Tet~tigfonial iFabm.)
The peal weevil (Bruchus Pisi) is well
knownill this country, arnd indeed is said by
portion of this must always be lost, and on
the spot where it fill.s so miDuch  richness is
conceintr.ated, that, t'or some months at least,
nothing does well.  These remarks relate to
the soa,id manure. It seems obvious that a
larger portion of the urine would be saved in
an  open  paisture, where it falls upon,                          a nd
soaks directly into, the ground, than could be
preserved with,  the  utmost care by  collecting
in tanks.
3877. The seythes  an d  snathies that are
us          ed in this country by far excel anything
that I  hiave evter seen inu England     or Scotland,
both- f     or convenience, elegance  of   form, and
lightn ess.  The best snathes, clurve id to stsit
the iheig      oi t   of the workm an, the          handles fitted
with sctrews, so                 that they can be  adjusted to
any tr                          angle or part, the convenient method of
fwistenintt           h o anda    t shifti o teng sieuel without  the                       ett
use of' wedges, and the whole balancing of
the iinplelinent, are una,pproached  by  any
foreign  Trile that I have  eve       r        seen or         heard
de-cri bed. The grass ail, shown at                                        a       in Fi g.
32", is never  use    d  on our seytiees, and  would
be cosidedred a useless  bind troublesome
append;age.  A properly shaped snat~he does
ro.t l grass att the  h eel        n,        and, unless  it
any be         i     n oowing  amo ng clove r   that             is
badly tangled, never needs anything of this
kind.
3900. Of the W.ashing and Shearirngr of
Sheep. I fintdl it difficult to add much to the
full details given under this head.  In this
climate shleep cannot ordinarily be sheared
with sa fefy miiuch before June.  The plan of
washlinig recommended, that of passing the
sheep fi()m one hand to another across the
water, is evidently an excellent one. It is
much better calculated to I insure thorough
work thia-tn whent each man taikes and finishes
a sheep. We have learned, however, in this
coumnrv, thifit the bottle figured in the corner
is not a necessary accompaniment to sheep
washingr; and find that our men not only do
not suffer for want of such a stinmulant,  but
that, oni the contrary, they are far better without it.
3915. The methods of shearing, and the
positions in which the sheep is held during
the process, do  not differ materially from
those that we often see practised in this
country.
Some, of the best flock masters, with a view
to the ultimate character of the fleece, recommend washing the sheep in vats, having a fall
of water upon them of about two feet in
height.  The vat is made large enourilh for
three or four sheep to swim in.  A plattbrm
is built under and around it, e-xtendillg to
clean grass. The washer stands union l his
platform, and is not compelled to go into the
water at any time. It is considered best by
some to wet the sheep thoroughly in the vat.
and then to restore it to the penl for an hour
52 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
proportion of these seeds, and of the leaeses
also, is shaken off in the t)rocess of ectrirng
yand transportation; so that, with clover hay
in particulair, little else finally remains thanii a
bundle of dried, indigestible, stick like stalks.
I am aware that in some districts farmiers say
that they are driven to this prtctiee by the
pressure of their grain harvest which will not
allow them time to cut their hay earlit.r.  It
seeims to me that, by a little manag(ement and
foresight, they niught in some  way  (ontrive
to obviate this difficulty, and so get lhay of
vastly improved quality.
The  cutting of the first crop of hay  is
almost entirely done in the months  of July
and August.   The usual custom is to cotimmence cutting in the morning, with all hlih,-ds
that  iare capable of wielding a scythe.  O'ewo
or three boys follow the mnowers, shaking the
grass out of the swathes.  When  as much
grass is cut as the company can take care of,
the scythles are laid  aside, and tall joini in
spreading from the swathes any that may still
remain. When this is done, it is usually time
for lunch under some shady tree.  All of  tie
hay is then turned before dinner with foils
or rakes.  After dinner it is turned again,
and by three o'clock rakin —-r should beg,in.  It
is a great secret in haymaking to hnve tthe
hay all raked in winrows, and cocked  before
the dew begins to fall, which is soon after
four o'clock.  If put up warnm and entirely
dry, it cut-es in the cock during the night, and
once turning in the  morning after opening
will, unless it has been very green when cut,
render it fit for the barn.  If; on the conitrary,
it has been damp in the cock, a muchl  longer
time ia required for drying on the next dtiy;
and if rain comes on, it is far more likely to
injure by standingr.
The raking was formerly all done by hand,
and is still in many secluded districts; but on
most farms we now al)preciate that invaluable
implemenft, the horse rake.  Some rakes, much
like Fig. 343, or modifications of the same
form, have been introduced;  but the most
comuion, and, as it seems to me, most advantageous form, is the ordinary revolving rake,
Fig. 351.  It is firm in all of its parts, not
liable to break, easily worked, and very rapid
in its operation.  One horse and a man keep
from six to ten men in active employment at
co cking and raking between the cocks.  The
cross beam of the revolving rake beingr smooth,
slides over the ground with great ease, so that
the work is not hard upon the horse.  It is a
great resource when threatened by the sudden
coming up of a shower, and the firmer who
has one is able to proceed with confidence in
the execution of far more work than he would
otherwise dare to undertake.
I am astonished to see from the directions
given in paragraphs 4051 to 4058, that, in
some parts of Great Britain at least, they have
some writers t     o have  originated here,  and to
have  been  carried hence to Europe.  Its
attomcks ar e almost univ        ersal, ard             it is very
seldom  thsft a  p arcel of p       eas c an be found
without them.
3993. On the  We aning of Lamrbs,  &e.
Ewe            milk cheeses  are almost unknown among
u     s, and so,  in my experience at least,      are all
of th      e  precauti ons in mtilking the ewes daily,
for  a ti   me aft er t he Iamb s ar e  r    emoved.  In
us         ing tobacco wat e    r for driv ing awa y       ticks,
as I have before recommended, the lambs
should be       dipped in an oblong  narrow trough,
three or four teet in depth, { and          having on one
side a    n          inclined grating  with a board  under it.
The dipped lamb is laid on this grating, and
its wool pressed with the hand; the water is
thus squeezed out, and, f, llinfr through the
grating upon the board, runs back into the
trough. If the lambs are dipped every year,
this remedy is said to be eoml)letely eflf-ctual
in banishing ticks from the flock. Five or
six pounds of the cheapest plug tobacco, or
even of the stems, will make a decoction sufficielnt for 100 lambs.
4015. On the Marking of Sheep. It is
common to mark each sheep wit!h the owner's
stamp as soon as it leaves the hands of the
shearer.  If a hot pigment is used, it-is kept
ready at the extremity of the floor by which
the sheep pass out.  A mixture of tar and
lampblack is much employed, and forms an
ex,-eedi-gly durable mark, but is only removed
from the wool at the factory with great diffic ulty' Ihence the manufacturer pre fers to have
oil.told turpentine substituted for the tar.
The mark is made either oln the side or the
rutnp, antd it is customary to mark ewes and
wethers on different sides.
There are many ingenious systems of ear
marking in vogue anmong large owners, but
it does not seem proper to occupy space here
by unde-taking' their destrip'ion.
4023. The farmers of New England, as a
class, -re certainly not liable to the inmputation here cast upon the Scotchl  f.irmers,'of a
lack of skill in haymakingr.  If there is Zany
branch of their profession that they understand wtll, it ii thlis.  I have nowhere seen
so much 1h-iy of a uniformly first rate quality
as in some districts of New England.
In many parts of the State of New York
they, allow the grass to become ailmost dead
ripe, so that in fine weather they can often
,ut it and carry it to the barn on the same
lay. This is doubtless a salving of labor,
but it is more than balanced by the loss of
4uality in the hay.
During the ripening of grass, a very large
portion (,f the s~ugar, and other kindred bodies
w hich the green stalks contain,- is converted
into dry woody fibre; at thle s~ame time, the
fatty ma4tters and nitrogenous substances, for
the most part, go into the seeds. A large
53
i 
AMERICAN APPENDIX —SUMMER.
the  haymaking and carting.  Two or three
men, working constantly in this way, will cut
enough grass to employ several times their
number of haymakers.
If bad weather occurs for days in succes
sion, it is a part of the agreement that the
mowers shall stop until it clears. There is
always hoeing enough at this season to em.
ploy them, when the weather is such as to
admit of out-door work.
In managing on such a system, some cab
culation is required to apportion  the force
rightly; so that the mowers shall not be able
in good weather to overwhelm the haymakers,
and, on the other hand, that the latter shall
have an abundance of work.  When so con.
ducted, it is without doubt a most agreeable
and economical plan. I have known instances
where, by the adoption of this method, the
whole cost of cutting, making, and storing,
was but from $2 to $2.50 per ton.
Owing to          an almost universal preference
for large barns Iand  barrai ks for storing
crops, stacks are comparatively  rare, a   a nd are
hence, from want of practice in  their make,
very different from the neat ones that are
made in  England. There, where s uch dires
tions as those given under this head are followed, stacks are put up in such a way as to
resist the effects of storms and wet weather
most  perfectly. When  a haystack is cut
down, it is  see n tha t the  rain   has  not pene
trated in any direction more  than    a few inches
from the surface. So also with grain: it
keeps in these stacks for years, if necessary;
only being liable to the attacks of vermin,
which are perhaps still more destructive in a
barn. The fashion so commonly followed in
Scotland of placing the stacks upon stands
supported by pillars, thus cutting off all access
to rats and mice, seems to be an effectual
remedy against their attacks.
Our farmers would do well to study these
directions, so that in case of necessity they
may know how to build stacks that shall be
at the same time handsome and weatherproof.
4042. I am not aware that rick cloths, such
as those shown in Fig. 346, have ever been
used in this country; and as most of our hay
is stored in barns, they are not likely at pre
sent to be necessary.  A cheap barrack could
almost be put up for the price'of one of them.
I have often thought, however. that a cloth
of smaller dimensions, an old sail perhaps, or
some cheap India rubber cloth, might be use
ful for covering a load of hay from a suddel
shower, or covering a large heap in the field
It often happens that a load of dry hay is
overtaken before it can possibly be driven to
the barn, or Mthat several loads are caught in
the field, either quite dry or very nearly so.
If such hay is thoroughly wetted, its'value is
greatly deteriorated. If it could be hasily
not as yet begun to understand the capabili ties and the true usefillness of this imple ment. If they had done so, we should never
have been presented with such a plate as Fig.
347, where all hands are seen pushing the hay
together with forks; while the horse rake
seems to be considered at the top of its capa city in raking between the winrows, as in
Fig. 348. Its great value to us in saving labor,
consists in its power to rake the hay very
rapidly into winrows.
The hay tedding machine, Fig. 342, is
scarcely know     n in  this          country. I remember
seeingsone several years ago in an old out-building,                      where it had been lai d aside as useless,
but know little of its    o                       peration. My impression is,  tohat i    t i   s n ot adapte        d       for our
purposes,       and would   not do  the work with
sufticient rapidity.
On the morning of the second day, the
mowers do  l        ess  w ork th an     on the first,
b    ecause they have that which  was mown on
the day befo re to shake  out of              t he cocks, to
turn onc e          or twice,  and    in    the  afternoon to
carr y to the barns.  There      is th us always                    a
certain number of loads to carry away, and a
certain number to cock.  After a few days it
is discovered how much the force can manage,
and all  goes  o   n regularly
The  chief points   to be  observed  in  the
making of hay are these:  1. To    c       ut       the grass while a considerable
portion of it is y      et  in flow er.
2. To cut                           no more than cani be properly
attended to.
3. To commence t             he shaking out of the
partially dry ha y as soon as the dew is sufficiently dried off                                   the ground.
4. To be active ill turning during th                 e middle
of the day, and to do it thorobhle, leaving no
locks  unshaken.  When         the h  eay is nearly
made, little shaking                       i s necessary; but when
gcreen it should be well shaken, and made to
lie as         evenly as possible.
5. To commence the raking in good time,
8    o th  at t he cocks      s      hall be put up befor  e the
hay begi         ns  t      o feel d amp and flexible in the
hand.
If the carting and cocking be finished before
night, the men will have leisure to grind their
scythes for the next day's work, and often to
do some mowing. The grass that is cut at
this time is, of course, not shaken out, but
lies in the swathe till morning.
I have thus described the common mode of
cutting grass, and  of haymaking.  Some
farmers are now adopting a plan more nearly
resembling the English. In place of employino all of their hands at mowing, they engage
one, two, three, or more, according to the
scale of their operations, to cut the whole of
the grass at so much per acre. These men
keep on steadily at their cutting, and a suffi,lent number of other hands take charge of
54 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
raked by the horse rake, and then thrown
into large heaps, to be covered by a few of
these cloths, made of small sizes for the purpose, a great saving might be effected, and
this usually several times in the course of
each season.
The hay hand rakes, Fias. 344 and 345,
are seen to be very clumsy implements when
compared with  those  made  by our own
mechanics.   Our rakes are lighter, wider,
more effective, and at the same time sufficiently strong for all proper uses.  A large
hand rake, first used, as I am told, in the
southl of England, has been introduced within
a few years, and has met with very general
approbation in the New England States, and
wherever it has become known.   The form
and general efficiency of this rake have been
greatly improved since its first appearance
here. -The head is about five feet in length,
and the teeth eight or ten inches.   The
handles enter the head in the same style as
shown in Fig. 344, but are of course larger,
and are somewhat bowed upwards for convenience in drawing.  It is especially efficient
in raking after a cart while loading, and also
in cleaning up the scatterings among  haycocks.  In such situations a man  or boy,
drawing one of these, is able, with great ease
to himself; to do the work of two or three
using the ordinary hand rakes.   They are
also useful in raking a grain stubble after the
stooks have been carted.
4080. The mode of attaching the beater to
the flail, explained here, and represented by
Fig. 350, is, as it seems to me, very inferior
Lo our way of placing a cap on the head of
the handle, which plays freely around it, and
)nly requires a simple thong passed through
the bow of the cap to effect a secure fastening.  This is a light, handsome mode of
rastening, and is quite as durable as any
other that I have seen. Flails are still almost
universally employed in the New  England
States; but at the west, and in many of the
middle states, they have gone almost out of
late, except that they may be occasionally
seen in play for some particular purpose, as
the threshing of grass seed, or a small sample
)f seed grain.
4089. On the Summer Culture of Wheat.
But a short time has elapsed since the idea
)f hoeing wheat, or any other grain crop
.xcept corn, was received in this country
wvith perfect derision; now, however, farmers
3egin to appreciate the evil of weedy grain
elds better than they once did, and, since
;he introduction of the drill machines, some
enterprising individuals have really begun to
consider the expediency of adopting the horse
hoe also.  I have no doubt but we shall see
it in operation on some farms before a long
period of time.  Such an implement as Fig.
353 might be made cheaply in this country,
and has a very efficient look.  Many farmers
have tried hand weeding for particular weeds,
and with good success. A weed hook, like
Fig. 352, is well adapted for this purpose,
and 1 have seen a straight chisel used to good
effect.
That this proposition, as to the necessity
of weeding grain, is not ridiculous,  can  be
easily ascertained, and in a manner to satisfy
even the incredulous. Let any person take
te trobe trouble  to look over such fields of grain
as lie nearest to his residence; thy charlock,
the thistle, the yellowdock, the wild parsnip,
and many other weeds, will be found abundant in most situations; while in some sections the Canada thistle monopolizes a lion's
share, rendering it nearly impossible to bind
the grain.
Now, in the first place, a great part of these
pests might be exterminated by more care in
ploughing, harrowing, and clearing the land;
and, in the second place, by eaution in applying any description of manure in which large
quantities of undecomposed seeds might
remain.
Many weeds may be exterminated quite
readily by sending boys into a field, armed
with such implements as were mentioned
above.  If stimulated by an offer of so much
per thousand, and their ambition excited,
there would  be  noI fear of idling.   Few
farmers have any idea as to the extent of
ground that is occupied by weeds. I remember the case of a ten acre field, in which the
wild parsnip became rather abundant. A
casual observer would have said that there
might perhaps be from 200 to 300 in the
whole field. The crowns of the roots were
cut off by a  straight  chisel, and  the tops
counted. There were actually rather more
than 1200 of them. If these could have been
all collected, and shown growing in one plan.
tation, no farmer would have questioned the
expediency of eradicating the whole; and
yet, growing singly about the field, they were
larger, and occupied individually more room,
than had they been close together.
It is always to be borne in mind that, when
weeds are thoroughly rooted out, e comparatively small amount of labor afterwards will
keep them down. The farmer whose fields
are infested, whose crops are almost smothered
in weeds, looks upon the work of exterminating them as entirely beyond his means; he
wishes that they were away, and still cannot
quite muster courage enough to attack them.
But if he only commences clearing each field
thoroughly, taking care not to stock it again
by impure seed or foul manures, he will soon
find the labor decreasing. After the businesS
is accomplished, little more than vigilance is
necessary t~o keep down the first straggleri~
that appgear. A year or two of neglect Will
soon renew the old difficult~ies. I have seen
55 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUIMMER.
large farms in Engl:nd  atnd Scotland where
weeds were scaLe(- iy to be founl(l at  ial                    l,                         a tnd
s(oile few  in our       own  coutitry that also
,ap)proaclied to this condition.  The  amount
of labor required to keep such fiarms clean is
not by any meairns equal to tlhat expended on
other  tfrmsn, in  vainly struggling  against
weeds which have obtainiied such an ascendency as to threaten the existence of everything else.  It is nowv ten years since the
field which I mentioned above was thoroughly
cleared of wild parsnips, and to this day they
have not reappeared in any number. A single
one occasionally shows itself; but is pulled up
at once.
O!  our ploughed land the most obnoxious
wVeeds are the Coulch grass (Triticum repens),
the Kiiot grass (Arrlieiathlerumrn arenaceum),
and the ailiual meadow grass.  The leek, or
wild onion, is excessively troublesome  on
certain light soils.  We  have, in short, inported ne vrlv or quite ill of the worst foreign
weeds, and have reiiif(irced theiii by various 
specimeins of native growth, such, for instance,
as the Catnnada thistle (Cirsitim arvense), whichs
hold their ground,  is natives should, even
mnore obstinritely than the foreigners.
Our roads abre too often nurseries for  weeds,
and  fibust rate      -l         l a  ltt emp ts  avt cleari ng the
adjacent fields.  Every farmner who means to
bee entirely triumadnlet, must  see  that this
source  of supply i  s cu t off.   The wee ds
around the nm.r(gins of fields, ill the angles of
fences,  sz~t in tihe sides of ditches, should also
be (areft'llv kept down.
There -ire in -mny places laws intended to
enifoirce the cutting of weeds  by the roadsides, but they -re too (ge,-nerally allowed to
bec(omne a iiere dead letter.
Daisies (-an be driven out by enriching
tmea-dow laud, and even  the Canada thistle
will yield to an obstinate course of cutting.
It mtust riot be left. long at a ticke, but kept
cut, so that it may never have an opportunity
to gaini streng-th.
4107. Above -ill of the insects -vnich have
been noted for their rava~rges,upon he wheat
crop, the Hessian fly (Cecidomia destructor)
stands pre-eminent in this country. It belongs
to the same genus as  the Bri'ish wheat fly,
or wheat midge (Cecidomiiia tritici).
Our natuiralists are, I believe, now all agreed
in considering this insect to be of European
origin.  The popular, and probably correct
belief is, that it was brought hither in some
straw by the Hessian troops who landed on
Long Island  in the sumtner of 177"6. From
what we now know of the habits of this
insect, this was8 the only period of the year
when it couldl hav e been conveyed (across the
Atlantic. It appeared almnost immnediately
after this time on Long Island, and gradually
spread itself over the country, advancing at
the rate of ab5out thirty miles in a year. Lake
all o ther insect  ravage rs, it has occasionally
seeided to disappear almost e  ntirely, and then
tias returned with new vigor, and ill increased
numbers.
There  are  t wo  broods or    generations in
ea  ch year; one in the  spring, and the other
in the  autumn. It seems  doubtful if the eggs
are la id  on  the grain     at a ll; ther e  appears,
however, to be a certainty that a great por tion, if not the  whole,  are  laid   in th e longi
tudinal cavities of  the leaves, while t he plant
is still quite young.
When th e  magngots  are hatched, which is
in  about  twelve  to si xte en days, they cra wl
down the   leaf, and w ork  their way between
it and he stalk, until they reach the   ea     first joint;
here the y  fix themselves, and  appear to live
by suckine i  the juices    of til e plant, until they
are rea dy to go  through the ir transformation
into  the  pupa  state.  In this s tate  they have
be en likened to    flalx     seed.
The insect  re mains thus during winter,  an d
icomes out in its perfect form    i n April tind
May. It then   lasms its engs  upon t he s pri ng
sown whieat, and such of' the autunto sown
as rlay have  escaped  in  the  preceding year.
SoLe  observers insist that    the fly does
actually lay its  egos on th e  grain, an d that
the maggot is therefore obliged to crawl
down,  either in the interior or on the exterio r
of the stalk. This may be so, but numerous
accurat   e investigations have established  the
fact that the eggs  are also laid on   the  leaf.
If the y  are laid o n the  grain as well, we see
how remarkably    nature  has provided for the
continuance of this species.
There are certain varieties of wheat that
have been found competent, under almost all
circumstances, to resist the attacks of this
insect pest.  Some of the best of them are
the Underhill, the Spelter, the China, the
Mediterranean, and the White Flint.  These
are generally strong, hardy kinds, and manuring highly is found to be an assistant preventive, the plant making such  a vigorous
growth as to overcome the assaults of its
enemies. Feeding off the wheat fields during
autumn and spring, with  cattle and sheep,
greatly reduces the number of' the fly.  Late
sowing avoids the autumnal deposit of egas,
but, unless this sowing be deep, exposes the
plant to winter kill. Burning the stubble
immediately after harvest, and then  plougi:ing and harrowing the land, destroy'great
numbers. As the eggs are laid to a considerable extent upon barley and rye also, these
crops should be treated in the same way as
wheat.   Such is the substance of the remarks
made upon this subject by our mlost eminent
naturalists.
There are several parasites especially devoted to the destruction of the Hessian fly,
The chief of these is a small four-winged fly
(Eurotyma destructor). This insect lays it8
56 
AMERICAN APPENDIXSUMMER.
eggs in the papa, when it is in the flaxseed
state.
There is an insect, resembling in its habits
the Hessian fly, which attacks barley, and it
also has its four-wing(red parasite.  The wheat
fly, which h ls occasionally been quite destruc tive in various parts of the country, is pro bably none o.her than the English wheat fly
(Cecidom.ia tritici).  Its habits and described
appear;ance agree with those given by English
naturalists.  It is advised to cease for a year
or two from  autumn  sowing where  these
insects abound, and to sow very late in the
sprino. Fumiartting the fields with sulphur
has been tried, and also strewing newly slaked
lime, or wood ashes (unleached), over the wet
plants.  Both of these methods are said to
have been successful.
There is a wheat worm, or wheat cater pillar, which has occasionally committed great
ravages, but we are not yet well acquainted
with  its character and  habits.   From  the
descriptions, it is a true caterpillar, and makes
its depredations on the grain rather than on
the straw.
The grain weevil of Europe (Calandra
gratnaria) has also been imported into this
country,  and  has  occasionally been  very
destructive.  It has, however, been checked,
and is not much dreaded now.
Kiln drying the wheat, or other grain
attacked, is an  effectual remedy.  Another
species of this weevil, differing but little from
the above except in color, is found in the
State of New York.  It is black, and is said
by Dr. H-irris to be the Calandra remfotepunctata of Schoniherr.  The  larvae of the grain
moth (Tinea granella) are still more injurious
to grain.  Kiln drying and good ventilation
with firequent stirring of the heaps, will in a
few years batiih these pests from the granary.
4116 and 4117. All of our grainls are more
or less liable to rust and smut of the same
description as that which appears in Great
Britain.   Even  Indian corn is occasionally
somewhat affected by a species of smut.   It
is seldom, however, so prevalent as to make
any material difference in the crop.
With regard to the idea that barberry
bushes cause smut or mildew, as alluded to
in par. 4115, I have seen an instance noticed,
where a farner placed a barberry bush in the
centre of his field of wheat.   It flourished
luxuriantly, as did the wheat in its immediate
vicinity; the heads of wheat even grew up
through the busn,hwithout being in any degree
affected.
4148. The remarks in this and succeeding
paragra~phs, relative to the summer culture of
potatoes, and to the various remedies, or
supposed remedies, against disease, are well
worthy of attention, as are also the top dressings mentioned in par. 4152.  The inicrease
of crop caused by taking off the blossoms is,
6
'I suppose, to'bb attributed 7to the  natural
tendencyiof every plant to grow until it has
produced and ripened its seed.  During the
period in which;this is retarded by artificial
means, the tubes continue to increase, and
the tops, which would otherwise have withered,
remain  green to  the clos e   o f the  seaso n, as
mentioned  by Prof. Johnston  in spar. 4154.
The  potatoe vine is attacked by  a variety of
enemi es.  One Of the chief is cthe large green
caterpillar of a Sphinx moth (Sphinx  quinque maculatus),   Thia, caterpillar is also found  on
the  vine   of  the tomato.   The three-ined leaf
beetle  (Crioeeris triineata) preys   u pon    the
potatoe vine.  It appears in June, and some times destroys nearly all iot the leaves.
Cucumbers,  melons,  and  squashes,  are
exceedingly   i nfested b y  the  striped    bug, or
cucumber  bugiz (Galeruca  vittata), a small
yellow insect, with a black head, and a black
stripe on each wing cover. A great number
of   applications upon the leaves  have  been
recommend ed; plaster of Paris,  sulphur,
Scotch snuff, powdered soot, &e., &c. The
only effectual  preservative  seems  to be, tb
surround the young plants  with  a light
wooden frame, having millinet or gauze
stretched across its top.
Indian corn generally enjoys a remarkable
exemption from  the attacks of insects.  Its
chief enemy is -the cut worm, belonging to
some moth of, the fgmily Agrotididee. This
worm destroys the young plant when it is
yet but a few inches in height. It has the
same habit.s as those of the same family in
Europe.  When going over a field of corn in
the morning, drooping  stalks betray where
the enemy has been, and he may always be
found within a tew inches, either just under
the surface, or secreted beneath a small stone
or stick.  By following up a careful search
of this kind/for a week or two, without intermission, this worm may be effectually checked,
if not exterminated. A seed should be dropped
wherever a shoot has been destroyed, uncles
there are already enough left in the hill.
Other-varieties of the cut worm attack cabbages, tomatoes, &e.
I have already mentioned Dr. Harris, of
Harvard College, and cannot leave the subject
of insects without again expressing ty a.prelation of his labors in this field,  Mr. i. o
Herrick, of Yale College, and Dr. Fitch, -of
New York, have also been eminent observers;
and my information in this department is
chiefly drawn from the writings of these three
gentlemen.
4164. On Summer Fallows. Soils which
are too stifffor the successful cultivation of
green crops are comparatively rare in this
country, We muo! more frequently find
those the~ are rather ligrht for this pulrpose
With thlese soils the difficulty generally liei
not only in their physical state, but also in i
57 
AMERICAN APPENDIX —SUMMER.
real scarcity of vegetable matter.  Summer
fallowing of such soils would  cleurly be
injurious, as it would tend to lessen the
already too small amount of organic matter
which they possess.                                  
The  stiffest soils are therefore, as Mr.
Stephens observes, most proper for naked
fallows; but even on these, as I conceive,
they should only be employed when green
crops fail.  There are, of course, exceptions
to this remark; as, for instance, when it is
desired to banish some troublesome weed
that cannot be extirpated by any ordinary
means.  It is not customary, however, to
follow up the business with such perseverance and energy as is recommended by Mr.
Stephens.
Picking off the weeds by hand would in
most cases be too expensive, but they might
always be raked together, and carried to the
compost heap.  Many farmers fail to obtain
the best possible effect of a naked fallow
owing to a lack of perseverance.  They commence well in the early part of the season,
and go through the first ploughing with zeal
and promptitude.  But after harvest begins
they are hard pushed with other work, and
find it difficult to do more than keep the
growing crops clean.  The consequence is,
that in the autumn a heavy crop of weeds
often finds time to deposit its seed, rendering 
useless the labor performed in the early part
of the season.
Of the clod crushers mentioned here little
is known in this country.  On stiffsoils they
would doubtless be found valuable.
Spade husbandry, as yet rare in-England
and Scotland, may be considered as unknown
among us.  The expense of labor, and the
low price of land, render it inadmissible at
present, excepting perhaps in market gardens,
and farms very near to cities.  It is without
question more perfect than any other method
of pulverizing the soil to a uniform depth,
and its results cannot fail to be beneficial in
all situations where it will pay.
4191. On the making of Butter and Cheese.
In this branch of agricultural operations there
has probably been a greater improvement
within the last few years than in almost any
other.  There is no doubt that a superior
quality of stock has had some influence, but
still more has been done by animated compe.
tition, and by the steadily increasing demand
for a really good article.  We can now show
butter in our principal markets, and at many
of our county fairs, that will compare advantageously with the very best foreign samples.
As to methods of manufactulre, their enumeration would involve the favorite and most
approved modes of England, Ireland, Scotland, Holland, Germany, and all the civilized
nations of Europe; for their representatives
are all here, and in most cases preserve, for a
time  at least, their old- habitudes in  ever y
pursuit.  There  are, howe ver, some points
connected with the making of  butter and
cheese in  this            c ountry to w hich it may  be
well to advert, in connexion with the remarks
of Mr. Stephens upon this subject.
4192'. The situation of the milk-room is a
matter of much importance.   When a sufficient circulation of air can be obtained to
prevent mould, basement rooms are preferable, as there is less difficultv in keeping
them at an equable temperature. In many
places where the situation admits, a spring is
made to run through such a room, furnishing
at the same time means of cleanliness and of
regulating the temperature.
We have accounts of processes, and samples
of manufacture, from many dairies, which
show unsurpassed skill, and there are large
districts where the butter has long been noted
for its excellence. Dutchess Co. in New
York is -one instance, and the neighborhood
of Philadelphia another. It has been said
that the pastures and the soil are of' peculiar
excellence in these localities, and they very
probably may have some influence. Th,,t
they are not paramount, however, is proved
by the fact that butter is now made of equally
fine quality in other counties, and sold as
Dutchess Co. butter, for the sake of the name.
Pastures may be enriched and improved by
sowing grazses calculated to communicate a
pleasant odor and taste to the butter: the
sweet-scented vernal grass (anthoxanthum
odoratum) is one that has been mentioned
as valuable for this purpose. To the abundance of it in the neighborhood of Philadel-phia, much of the fine quality of their butter
has been ascribed. But! it must be remembered that the best pastures and the best
milk-rooms -in the world will not compensate
for a want of skill, or for carelessness in the
making of the butter.
4194. Among all of the milk dishes mentioned and figured here, nothing is said of
our tin pans —the lightest, cheapest, and, on
the whole, the best, that could have been
enumerated in the list.  They are not easily
broken or bent, are very readily cleaned, and
are not acted upon if the milk sours. I do
not see any particular advantage in the fixed
coolers, par. 4200. They would be very
expensive, and cannot be managed with so
much facility -s movable receptacles.
4201. Zinc is evidently an improper material for this purpose, as the most fatal consequences might result from its use.
4205. We accomplish this operation more
conveniently by a strainer on one side of the.
milk pail, through which the milk is poured
into the pans.
4206. tHere again we have an advantage,
Has I think, in the employment Soft a tin
skimmer in place of earthenware. It has 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
a convenient handle, and is not broken by a
fall.
4212. The variety  of churns that have been
invented an d put  in use among us            is almost
endless, and even a list                       of their names would
occupy several palrges.  In principle they, for
the most part, resemble one or another of the
fou       r  k       inds he         re described by Mr. Stephens.
Some of the   later kinds, by a peculiar con  s         truction of  the das her, mix atmospheric   air
very thoroug hly wi th               the milk or cream, and
thus separa           t e the butter in         a few minutes.
It remains to be       prove   d         tha t as good a-n
art          icle   is   p          roduced by  such speedy churning,
and~~~~ smelouacid but erae owcirng.Te ifraintaiasbe   owdl ped
as' by the slower old-fashioned way.   See
paragraphs 4222 and 4223.
4221. One point in which a great number
of our    butter        dairie                s fail, is a want of thorough
and efficient working   w he     n              making the butter.
For        lack  of thi  s it is not firm and         so         lid, but
incloses num       erou   s  small llobules of butter m         ilk.  T his b ut   termilk always contain       s casein
or cheesy  matter, which    soon decompos                   es
when it comes in contact with the air. Lactic
acid is  almos     t  immediately formed; this acts
upon the suffar of t he m  i lk and the oily fat of
the butter, gradually promoting the formation
of butyric, and caprtic  or caproic          acids; these
are       the sub stances to which the offensive taste
an    d       smell   of ra nci d       but ter are owing.  The
more completely, then, that  the   butter  is fr e ed
from milk,      the b et te r  its quality,  and   the more
ease  ill keeping it good.  The testimony of
Mr.  St ephens, relative      to the use  of                      cold
mater  in washinff the         but ter,  agrees with          that
of                        the best dairies in      t his country.  Water
can dissolv        e          nothing  from the   but ter    that
ought to   remai        n          there,  and should be used
till it comes offcolorless.
4227. Muc        an of   our butter is                    greatly dete
riorated in   its v      alu e  by the u se of  impure
salt in its manufacture. The Liverpool blown
salt, and that from Salina and Syracuse, is
often       contaminated by  the presence                      of chlorides of magnesiunm  and              c         alcium. These
prevent the butter from keepingr well, and
impart a bad taste. Some experienced dealers
have said that much of the western butter is
injured in this way, to the extent of six or
seven cents per pound. Such salt may be
purified in a great degree by the process
mentioned in this column, but it is better to
obtain a pure article at first, if possible.
Firkins, tubs, or casks, of wood, are used
for packing ill preference to earthen jars, probably because they bear transportation better.
Sizes not to contain more than from 30 lbs.
to 60 lbs. are more salable than the larger
ones.
The precautions enjoined by Mfr. Stephens
ill paragraphs 4229 and 4230 should be rigidly
observed in p.cking butter. Great care mnust
be taken in the selection of tubs, or all vessels
of wvood for packing. It is necessary that
they be well seasoned, and made of wood not
liable to communicate  a bad taiste to the
-b utter.   White oak is usually preferred, as
less  objectionable  in  these  respects  than
almost any other  kind.   When  butter is
intended to be sent on long voyages, or into
a hot climate, it is recommended to  pack
small wooden firkins, containing firom 20 lbs.
to 30 lbs. each, into a tight hogshead, and
then to fill up the hogshliead with strong brine.
In this situation the butter will remain un  altered for a great length of time.   Packing
the firkins in the same way, and  filling in
with dry coarse salt in place of brine, has
been also tried with good success.
4231. In the article of cheese, the American
farmers have improved so much within a few
ye ars that they ar e  now able to   compete in
the English market with some of their best
dairies. The dryness of  this    cl imate  is hidehrly
advantageous   in cur ing chee se, and in the
west pasture scarcely costs anything. We
have every ftcility, then, for this branch of
productive agriculture; all that we  need is
experience and care in making. For want
of these requisites, whole shiploads of cheese
have been sent across the Atlantic, which
turned out so poor as scarcely to repay the
expense of freight. Notwithstanding all the
information that has been so widely spread,
such thingys still occur in every year. I would
therefore advise all to studi attentively the
account of  cheese-making here  given —an
account derived from some of the most reli able sources.   No one can read it over with.
out at least obtaining many useful hints.
4232. The temperature  for curdlinig' milk,
mentioned by most of the best authorities, is
from 90 to 95 degrees of Fahrenheit, and
from want of attention to this point results
a large portion of our poor cheese. Any
person can perceive the effect of warming in
coagulating milk.   If a  little vinegar or
muriatie acid be added to sweet milk when
quite cold, little perceptible effect will be
produced for a considerable lapse of time;
but if another portion of the some milk is
gently heated, and then a small quantity of
either acid added, the milk will instantaneously curdle, and become quite thick, so that
it can be poured out in large clots. I cannot
agree with Mr. Stephens that the finger is
the best test in ascertaining the heat of milk
that is to be curdled. However dexterous a
person may become in this way by practice,
the best will occasionally fail; but if a thermometer be at hand, the most inexperienced
can regulate the matter with perftect ease and
positive certainty,
-The curd bre~aker, Fig. 379, is a usefill
little implement, and might be generally
introduced in this country with advantage.
It is just at this stage that a large part of our
cheeses are irreparably injured, from avant of
59 
AMIERICAN APPENDIX-SUMMER.
due care in pressing out the whey, and separating as thoroughly as possible the last remiiaiits of it from (he curd. A great variety
of ev als result whlere any considerable quantity
or whiey is thus left.  The cheese often bey
comes tfull of little holes; and has a strong,
sharp, disagreeable taste; it is also extremely
liable to swell and crack.  In the hold of a
ship it is almost sure to spoil.  Impure salt
does harm in cheese as well as in butter; it
is also said to cause swelling and cracking.
In some kinds of cheese it is purposely introduced to communicate a certain peculiar flavor.
The (cheese press, Fig. 381, seems to me a
very clumsy, old-fashioned affair;  and Fig.
382 is rather more complicated than necessary.  We have numerous presses exhibited
eaehi-year, that appear to be cheaper, simpler,
and equally effective.  Some of the sell:acting presses are extremely ingenious, and are
found to be both convenient and powerful in
real practice.  One  or two kinds, in which
the cheese presses itself by its own weight,
are said to work very well.
4216. The cheese turner, Fig. 383, seems
to be a valuable and labor-sa,ving invention,
where cheeses of small and medium sizes are
made; but where, as in many of our dairies,
the cheeses range from 60 lbs. to 120 lbs.
each, the frame'would require to be of great
strength and firmness, or the  whole  load
would be lost in the operation of turning.
It is evident, from the dimensions of the racks
here given, and the number of cheeses that
each is calculated to hold, that the weight of
the individual cheeses must be small.
4256. I might collect without difficulty
instances of great  productivene.-s in  milk
fully equal to those mentioned here; at the
same time, it must be acknowledged that the
yield of most dairies falls short of the best
gnglish and Scotch dairies.  The remarks in
par.  4260, as to the e ffect of different  kinds of
food in producing milk  better  dapted to
make butter, and of other kinds in giving a
milk richer in the materials for cheese, are
well worthy of attention.
4269. The instrument here mentioned, the
galactometer, is not by any means accurate,
for the reason mentioned in par. 4267. Cream
will not rise well through any considerable
depth of milk, and there must be such a depth
in the tubes-of the galactometer, or there will
not be enough cream obtained to measure at
all. It is plain, then, that though useful for
comparative trials, the depth in these tubes
does not indicate the full richness of the
milk.
4296. The  cheese fly  (Piophila ceasei) is
unfortunately quite abundant in this country,
and all cheese not well protected during the
summer months, will soon present a fine collection of its maggots.
I shall not interfere with the pleasing ideas
which Mr. Stephens seems to have.entertained while penning the closing paragraphs
of summer, nor presume to offer any suggest
tions by way of improvement to the dishes
which are so evidently the result of thorough
practical investigation.
60
I 
APPENDIX TO AUTUMN.
BY JOHN P. NORTON, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN.
which  they present, of the approach of Na.
ture's  a nnual death,  of -olnr o wn uncertain
tenure here, and of the inevi table  f at e that
will soon r   ater   or later overtake all norta l fo rms
of beauty.
The altered verdure. the quiet fall o  f the
leaf, the gathering of  birds for their  southern
flight, a thousand nameless sights and sounds,
tell us  that the    season  of life a nd vigor in the
material world has passed-thiat sleep,  death,
and decay are at hand.
Thi s  is e s pecially  apparent in  the forests
those  tints, often so brilliant, a re  not    the hues
of life, but of incipient decay. The leaves no
longer  absorb carboni c aucid, the sun's rays
have   lost their power  to vivify, to ca u se th e
internal  decomposition    and  recompo.ition
which once  went on so vigorously under thei r
influence.   We feel, as the l e aves  begin
silently  t o  wing their way  withe   e very breath
o f  air towards the   earth, that the tr e e has
ceased to respir e,   th at the functions o f its extern a l part s have for a time, at le ast, e nded,
and thao we shall s o o n again s ee its bare   a.mas
tosmiing athwart   a     wintrv sky.
Of  Pulling  Fla x   and Ilemp.- This  is  the
first  autumnal oper atio n t o w hich Mr.  Sten
plien hs  has called our attention, that is particularly connected with Ame ri   can    agri culture.
His directions under   this  hea-d will be  found
of  much value.  I    hav e already said that
little filax is now    grown for any purpose in
th e  New England States.  Alhno st  all that  is
grown in the Western States, find in New
York, is with the object  of obtaining the  se ed.
The  stems are    left to deca y, or.are added   to
the soil aigain as manure.  If t-he manufacture of flax would pay, it might be an object
to water-rot the stalks as here described, but
it is doubtful if it would prove at present so
profitable as other crops. The two objects
of growing good seed and fine flax, at the
same time, cannot be attained; one is always
perfected at the expense of the other.
4442. I have before alluded to the differ.
ence between dew-rotted and water-rotted
hemp. There is no doubt but that hemp
rotted by the latter process yields, when the
operation is carefully conducted, by far the
most valuable product.
Is our Northern States, Autumn is the most
un:iformly delightful period of the whole year.
Au?'ust is generally too warm for enjoyment,
tile mildness of Spring is treacherous, and
the heat of Summer oppressive; but in Sep tember the weather begins to moderate, and
in October and the early part of November
we gradually pass into one of the most charm ing  climates that  can  be found, or even
imagined, in any quarter of the globe.  The
temperature is neither too cold nor too warm;
it is neither the biting firost of winter, nor the
melting heat of sunmmer, yet the air is inspiri in g and bracing.
Week often succeeds week of clear, mild
weath   ier; th     e        ai r has not  that brilliancy which
we                         perceive  at other   seasons, but is pervaded
bv a- softer glow; ripe fruit tempts one on
every side,  the full    b ar n     s are odorous of hay,
alid the golden ears of Indian corn show
t-hemlselves from among their loosened
husks; all speaks distinctly of plenty and
peace.
After frosts have commenced, and cold
chilling wintry winds have already prevailed,
we usually experience a return of mild
wteaither for two or three weeks; this period
h.a  been called the Indian summer.  The
sudden coming of our frosts changes the
color of leaves in a remarkable degree. If
the early fiosts are too severe, the change
takes place at once, and the colors are consequently somewhat uniform; but when they
begin gently, only a few of the more  sensitive trees are at first touched.
Thus, here and there, on an autumnal
morning, we see the brilliant scarlet hue of a
maple, brightening the skirts or shining(r from
the depths of yet unchanged verdure. Frost
after frost succeeds, shade after shade starts
out from the living tints of the forest, until
at last all is one glowing field of mingled
yellow and red, with faint, expiring traces of
green. The richness of those broad masses
of intense color is beyond all description.
Yet there is always a tinge of melanclholy
thrown over autumnal scenes; for all these
mellowed and softened hues, these various
ripened crops, these bare stubble fields, remind us, in the silent but certain evidences
7 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
versally supersedes the sickle.  Excepting in
some limited districts, where emigrants from
Europe clin(g to their old customs, the sickle
is only used when grain has lodged so badly
that the cradle-sc ythe  cannot b e swung   freely
and will not lay the straw straight. Even ip
such cases, many farmers prefer to cut the
lodged portion of their fields with the ordinary scythe, and  to carry in   the  grain uwithout
binding, tre atin g it as  c omumon         hay.
The various syst ematic methods he re described, in 4470 and succeeding paragraphs,
might, in modified forms, often be of advantage
to us in this country. Owing to a want of
forethought in arrangement, much harvest
work is done at a great disadvantage so far
as regards economy of time and labor. Such
rules would apply more particularly to large
farms, although at the same time small farm.
ers may gleain many useful suggestions for
their own practice.
Our climate is so fine that farmers do not
always, as in England, at once follow up the
cutting grain by binding. In many sections,
indeed, they prefer, if the weather be settled,
to let the grain lie in the swath for even
twenty-four hours before  binding   Where
there are large weeds among the straw, this
is almost indispensable, as also when  the
grain is cut quite green. If it is ripe and free
from weeds, a common practice is for the men
to cut a large piece in the morning and bind
it in the afternoon.
The cradle scythe used here differs consider ablv from the implement known by that name
abroad, and shown in fig. 399. The snath is
of a better form than either fig. 399 or fig.
400, and the fingers extend almost to the
point of the scythe blade. Our curved snath
is so adapted to its work, that the cradler can
stand almost upright, and vet lay the blade
of the scythe so as to cut parallel with the
surface. The upper end of the snath also
has a curve, so that it revolves easily in the
left hand, and enables the mower to turn up
the cradle easily and gracefully, and deposit
the cut portion of grain quite smooth and
even. In good hands this American cradle
makes beautiful work, and rapid work too;
for if the grain is not extremely heavy, a
strong man can strike forward a great portion
of its length at every cut. In very heavy
grain I should think that shorter fingers, a
medium between the English and American
fashions, might be an advantage.
There is, however, much bad cutting with
the cradle scythe. A careless or unpractised
mower is apt to strike in high and point out
high, so that the stubble is left in ridges. I
have seen fields where a very large portion of
the straw was thus lost. It may be replied
that this straw is of use on the land where
it remains, and this is quite true; but the
same straw taken to the yards, there used as
The great difference in the market price of
the best water-rotted and the best dew-rotted
hemp, is a su~ieient proof of this fact. 
The better qualities of dew-rotted hemp
are now brought into use for cordage,,and for
other purposes to which it was not formerly
applied, and the demand has consequently
increased.  It is said by some growers that
keeping the hemp in stack for much beyond
the usual time, before rotting, improves its
quality.  A  large portion of the dew-rotted
hemp is injured by exposure on dirty, soft
ground, whereby it becomes stained and discolored; the strength and smoothness of the
fibre are also much injured.  It is this careless
way of rotting, involving little trouble, that
induces many farmers to prefer the dew-rotting
to the water-rotting process.  They unquestionably save themselves some labor; but at
the same time, as is almost invariably the case
in such calculations, they lose money.
Many large planters are now water-rotting
with great success, and by careful attention
to the various steps of the process, others
may also succeed.  The universal testimony
of cultivators seems to be, that hemp is not
by any means a highly exhausting crop, particullarly when compared with flax, and this is
an additional incentive to its cultivation.
In many parts of the country a large portion of these crops is lost, by the faulty
method of cutting adopted.  In place of pulling, or cutting with a hook or scythe that can
be laid flat upon the surface, many cut their
crop with a cradle, or otherwise, at a height
of several inches from the ground; thus, at
the same time, they lose a large portion of
their crop, and reduce its length of fibre.
Hemp is considered in Kentucky, and ad joining States, our great hemp-growingregion, 
as a highly profitable crop, and the various
statistical returns show that its culture is in creasing from year to year.
It may seem to require some explanation,
that I have omitted any mention of hops.
Their cultivation is so limited, that little is
said of hops as a crop in any of our statisti cal reports.  There are, in fact, very few dis tricts where the cultivation assumes a distinct
form.  So far as my information extends, in
the absence of all reliable and authentic esti mates, the culture is almost entirely confined
to small patches in gardens, &c.  From such
a desultory mode  it results, that the cured
hops are usually inferior to the English in
their quality.  The crop being considered of
little importance, not only is it neglected du ring its growth, but'the requisite facilities for
drying, &c., are not provided.
4459. Of Cutting and Harvesting Wheat,
Barley, Oats, Rye, and Indian Corn.-Our
whole  system of harvesting grain in this
country dliffers from that of Britain in many
ways.   The cradle-scythe here almost urnt
62 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN
fodder and bedding, and returned in a par tially decomposed state, mingled with animal
manures, would have been of far greater
value. 
It is objected to our cradle scythes by some
foreign authorities, that they are too heavy;
but this is more in appearance than in fact,
for their weight is found to be no difficulty in
practice.  The fingers being made of tough,
dry wood, are much lighter than would be
supposed. The motion in cutting is slow and
measured, and the weight is just about suffi cient to swing through the grailn without any
very powerful exertion on the part of the
cradler.  Many workmen prefer cradling gra       cin
to mowing grass, and consider it less fatigu ing work.
As is the case with haying so with harvest ing in this country, there are few farmers who
hire their hands in companies; the greater
number employ them by the day, depending
on chance comers for any extra pressure of
work.  The practice of engaging one or two
men to cut by the acre is gaining ground. and
will be found most economical.  Sometimnes
the cutters contract to bind the grain also,
but more  frequently this is done by the
owner.
The  sheaf gauge,                           fig. 397,  is I believe an
unknown instrument in this country, as I have
never seen or heard of one in use.  In most
cases there is no rule as to size, other than
the preferences of each individual  binder.
When grain is green and weedy the bundles
are of course made small, as also when the
straw is short and light in the swath; but
generally they are made nearly as large as
the straw will bind.  The steward with his
gauge, then, would find abundant employI
ment in an American  harvest field.   Any
great inequality in the sheaves is doubtless an
evil, when it is desired to calculate the quantity of grain per acre by their number; but
apart from this, I believe that in our dry climate no practical harm results from it.  In
England it would not answer at all, because
the sheaves would not dry equally: but here,
where difficulty in drying and storing grain is
an exceptional case, there seems to be no necessity for such extraordinary precaution in
this respect.
There is, however, one practical difficulty
connected with the large sheaves which binders are tempted to make when  the crop is
heavy and the straw long; such sheaves cannot be so readily and quickly handled, and are
very apt to break in pitching from the cart.
The remarks of Mr. Stephens as to the
cutting of gr.'in before it is fully ripe, par. 4463
to 4466, deserve careful attention, and I cannot return to this subject too frequently.
They are now supported in this country by
the experience of many careful farmers.
The writers in our agricultural papers also
generally give, as the result of their expe rience, a decided preference to the system of
culttinu  every variety of  grainf before it has
become entirely ripe. Some varieties mayiv be
profitably cut soon after the seed is fairly
glazed. It is not only the grain that is rendered
heavier, but the straw is also worth more,
being green and better fitted for fodder.  This
is because it contains much matter in the
forni of sugar, gum, &c., which would in a
few days more, in the natural  process  of
ripening, have been converted for the most
part into indicres!ible woody'fibre.
The remarks upon the harvesting of maize,
commencing at paragraph 4673, do not give
the mode  of treatment now adopted by our
best farmers. It is a perfectly well ascertained
fact that the best practice is to cut maize or
I ndian corn, early and lose t o  the  root, and to
allow it to remain  for some  weeks  in the  field.
The  old  system  was  to top the st alks  as
s o on a s the gran   ha d glazed, but this is now
only  pursued  by those wh o have  little, faith  in
papers  or books, and  obstinately re fuse  to
entertain  novelties.  Numero us exper iments
have  prove d most c on clusively,  th at i t is even
better  to  allow the  grain and whole stalk t o
ripen together in the field, until it is time to
house the grain for the winter.  In the May
No. of  the American Farmer,  published  at
Baltimore, are detailed some experiments by,
as I believe. that well known writer, MVr. IN.
Ruffin, which  are entirely satisfactory upon
the comparison between these two modes.
The cutting of the whole stalk, however, soon
after the grain has glazed, affords still more
satisfactory results. The yield of corn per
acre is larger, and also the weight per bushel
is increased.  The stonks are made  three or
four feet in diameter at the bottom, with the
stalks pretty well spread. A band is passed
around the top so as to make a rather solid
point to the cone. Put up in this way, the
air has free access to the thick butts and the
ears, these being the parts that need drying.
They stal d in the field for several weeks, and
then the corn is either husked on the ground
or in the barn, as may be most convenient.
The stalks come out green and- sweet, and
as I have already had occasion to mention,
are of much value for fodder, being eagerly
eaten by stock, and considered by many excellent farmers as nearly equal to the best
hay.
In view then of all these supposed advan-.
tages, every farmer should give the cuttiing
system a fair trial; not carelessly and doubtfully, but fairly and candidly. The weight of
all evidence on the subject being most
strongly against the old topping plan, that at
least should be discarded entirely, and a decosion made between ripening on the entire
stalk, or cutting the whole and ripening in the
stook. If the statements that i have made.
63 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
here and previously concerningthle latter mode
are true, aid I bilieve that thtey cainnot be successfully questioned, the controversy between
these two methods cannot last li                   s      nag.                   a
An exception must perhaps be made, of
some very large cultivators at the south and
west, who count their hundreds of acres of
niaizt..  There where labor is high, and grain
cheap, and fodder not of much  consequence,
the cuttingr system would probably be too expensive; the best way for them at present
being the cheapest.  At the east tilere is, in
my judgmnent, no longer a question as to the
proper course in harvesting and curing this
crop.
Our other grains are treated at first in much
tcie same way as in Enuland;  that is, the
sheaves are,set up in stooks.  Afer standing
in this way for at day or two, they are, if the
weather is good, ready for the barn.  In case
of bad weitlher, six, eight, or any convenient
nuitiber of stooks that may be near together,
a,re l,uilt into a small stack, arranged on the
tf,p to shed waN:ter as completely as possible.
Whenl the raliis is over, a few hours of warm
s,iti   nd w ind will usually dry off the water,
aI{ rc:~,t,.r tl-e sheaves fit for carting.  It is
.s~ ld,,, indeed, that well man aged grain is injnrcd by (rowilg in the eir.
The cusitom of raking the stubble, so uniN-ers:il in Europe, is qui e unknown on many
ft ins.  The usual prietice is for the binder
to catry with his rake the loose straws which
1h1le tfllerl in binding the last sheaf, forward
to the yet unraked swath.  Where one  ian
rakes tand others hind, much grail  is left on
the field, and goin-g over it wi.h a horse raike
or l      hr'e haud rake would pay well; in fact
many    elrnters n   ow make  this a renlulacr prac tice.  We lhave vet no class c(,rrespondii g to
the -gleaners -ieof Europe, for th ere,re nr-one                         o in
out agr icultural districts capable of labor, but
cn gain a sublsistence in some more profita ble iiiaiiner.
The infor mation given in par. 4531, as to the
quanittity of straw left in the form of stubble
Oln cutting-r at different heights, will be studied
with interest, and nmsy well form a basis tor
-fart-he,r exptrimnents.
The points touched in paragraphs 4532 to
4554, tire also interesting; th-e most inmpor tant.'is relative to thin sowinig and dibbling;
the t-,cts (riven under these he.-adls; are instruc tive, and may, now that the whie:lt drill is
co.tmniiig into use amoit>ng us, be considered of
much practical importance.
MN!r. Stephens devotes but three or four
paragraph's, 4568 to 4572, to the subject of
reaping maichines, shoswi,~g that their use in
Goeat Britain trust be quite limited. It is so
here also in mosst of' our Eastern States, but
inl the West they hav e become to the farmer
an a uxili;~ry of-the mnost powerful character.
Ill the broad, unbroken, smooth fields of the
Wes-t, these maclhines find their natural
sphere of action.  At fixlst th~ese reapers were
impe,ect ir} prin- ciple and too slight in construction, so that breakages and interruptions
of every kind almost neutralize(1 their advantasae s. The  various practicatl difficulties have
within a  few  verss been wholly or partiall y
overcome by different makers, so that the use
of such machines is be     coming al mos t   unoi.
versal.
I do  not consider myself called  upon  to
decide  as to  the merit s of the   nume rous  reapers that are now  offered to the      public by
dif fere n t in dividuals.   Judging from the    lestimonials that at    they exhiit, ad the patronarges
that   t he y receive, some of them possaess g reat
oil cuttilig at different heights, will be studied tage, but must for the most part lie on the~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,.reciv, om
merit, and unite    durability with efficiency,  in a
most  remarkable degree. A good readp er must
ot  o nly be made upon a proper    principle    for
cutting  the grain  evenly and rapidly, bu   t it
must  be made as light ais is c o    nsistent with
durability; it  should also have    a     s few parts
a s  possible, and these easilgy repaired or re illa,eed; the cutter should not be readily
dulled, or i f dulle d should be  easily sharpened; 
it should also accomnmodate itself as far as
practicable to inequalities of surface, and not
miss anv grain from such a cause even when
proceediing quite  rapidly.  It is  not e as y to
unite all these requisites, but still, according
to  the testimony of our  western  farmers,    it
has been done by some of the     makers.  
There are some reapers intended only to
cut thie head s   from  tile grain, and leave the
straw on  the field.   They a- re said to work
well and rapidly, but it seems to me that the
waste of  grain must be great, especially if
the straw is at all uneven in length. Such a
reaper belongs only to ai new country, where
high farmning is not considered  practic able.
Straw is a chief element in the cah. ulations
of every farnmer who intends to keep his land
up by the use of manure; and it is quite clear
that after the trampling of men and horses,
and lhe passage of wagons and machinery, it
cannot be cut and collected with any advan tage, but nmust for the most  part lie on the
field, to embarrass the plough, or to be wasted
in a great degree by decomposition in the
open air.  It is not then probable that such a
machine will continue in  use when  farmiiing
improves in its general character.
It is said by those who have had much t-x perience, that a good reaper cuts cleaner, and
mnakes less waste of grain, than the ordinary
cradle or scythe.
I do not see that the corn and hay frames,
shown by fig*3 405, 6, 7, and 8, differ greatly
fromn some of those commonly used in this
country, while we have also a great variety of
other plans. It is u~suall when such a frame
as fig. 405 ix employed, to have an up right
ladder rising from the front of the framne.
This fulrnishe an easy: means of ascent and
64 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
descent when the wagon is loaded, and a con veiient place for the driver to hang his reins
while he is engaged in loading.  It adds little
to the weight, and often proves extremely
useful.
We never see in this country, or at least
very seldon see, the straw rope, par. 4700.  I
have occasionally noticed a foreigner making
one to carry a bundle of hay or straw, aniid
think that their introduction might be of some
advantage, as being cheap and quite effective
for many temporary purposes where we are
obliged to employ quite expensive materials.
Paragraphs 4619 to 4659 give a particular
account of the manner of building and cover ing stacks, which will be very interesting to
all who store their grain in this way.  I have
often noticed that the stacks of grain and hay
in England and Scotland when opened show
no marks of the penetration of rain, and have
seen those in which gr, in had been kept per-.
fectly sound and good for several years.  Inl          i
fact they consider that the ontly danger in
keeping a crop over is, that rats and mice may
obtain access to the interior; it is with a desire to avoid their visits that the stack shown
in fig. 420 is elevated on stone posts.  Kept
in this way, grain is not near so much exposed to vermini as in a close barn, and I do
not doubt that, as wood becomes dear, our
farmers will ultimately have to resort to the
stack as a cheap and efficacious method of
preserving their crops.
Of the Birdg Destructive to Grain Crops.I have no doubt but the great majority of our
birds are of fitr more advantage than disadvantage to the farmer, inasmuch as the insects
injurious to vegetation that they are constantly destroying, far more than counterbalance
the smnall quantity of grain that they may devour in autumn.  Each pair of birds require,
as food for themselves and young, thousands
upon thousands of slugs, worms, bugs, and
caterpillars, in the course of each season.  It
is probable that without their incessant activity, we should be entirely overrun by many
classes of insects, which even now become
sometimes too numerous for our comfort. It
does not seem to me unreasonable that these
little laborers should have their share, when
it ripens, of the crop they have aidet to protect.  It is true that certain varieties in pairticular localities, sometimes become so numerous as to be very destructive, and to require
active measures for the diminution of their
numbers; but these are exceptions.   As a
general rule, the farmer who allows them to
take their share, is not perceptibly poorer in
purse; while at the same time he is, if he have
a soul for natural melody and beauty, constantly delighted by the warbling notes and
graeetul flight of these seemingly happiest of
all God's creatures.  I do not envy the spirit
of the man who  on a soft vernal morning,
with the joyous flutter and song. of birds
around and above fim, can think only of the
few  grains of corn that each will snatch from
his fields, and occupy himself in coolly plot till their destruction.
e  There are times, however, when self-defence
becomes ne c essar y, and then the advocate of
the feathered tribes must occasionally with draw for a period from  the defence of  his
favorites. Almost the only bird that is gene rally destructive to sown grain is the crow.
He is particularly partial to Indian corn, but
can generally be kept away without much
difficulty by well arranged scarecrows. His
organs of caution and cunning are more
largely developed than those of the British
rook.'So extremely cautious is he, in fact,
that he nlav frequently be made to overreach
himself.   A  few hundred  yards of cotton
twine, rurnlinig fiom  the end of one pole to
another about and across the fields, are usually quite as effective as more elaborate means
of protection, for the crow susp(ets them to
be connected with nets.   I think they btecomne
sooner familiar with imiore alarming looking
scarecrows, than with these  simple  things.
The rook battery, fig. 425, would undoubtedly frighten crows, but it could not last longer
than the first Fourth of July, for the farmer's
boys would undoubtedlv s,eqize upon it as  fabricated with an especial view to the celebra.
tion of that anniversary, and the cannon
might mostly be reported unfit for service
before night.
On the Management of Sheep in Aulumn.
-Paragraph.s 4715 to 4787. There are somie
points under this caption that will be new, and
ma,ny that will be  interesting, to our sheep
farmers and breeders.   The directions as to
the selection of both ewes and bucks a,re
clear, concise, and full. Such judicious weeding of flocks as is here indicated, would lead
in a few years to a wonderful change through
many of our sheep districts.
As to bueks,-the enormous prices now
annually obtained by some of the best English breeders (as the Messrs. Webb, for in.
stance), for the services of their bucks during
a single season, show what  may be done ii
that line by care and judicious management.
The farmers  of this country are  now  fast
coming to appreciate improved stock, and here
they have one of the roads to improvement
marked out for them. I have already men.
tioned the various methods of clipping sheep
in batlhs, to free them from vermin, ticks, &c.,
also the different mnateriatls in use for this pur_:
pose.  Smearingw ith tar and butter, or any
sallves of that nature, is almosit unkinown otn
this side of the Atlantic, but still finds ocea~
sionally an advocate.
Fromn the remarks of Mr. Stephens upon
its inuxility, and the positive injury which re,.
sulks to the fleece from the practice, it is to be
65 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
hoped that  our f,.rmers will generally continue their ignorance or disapproval of such
:t custom.  Shelter and food are doubtless a
better protection than any smearing can be,
and besides this, preserve the wool in firbn
condition.  Bratting, or covering the body of
the sheep with a species of jacket, might possiblv be advisable in some bleak mountain
districts; but our farmers generally, in the
Northern States, rely on good warm barns
and sheds for the protection of their flocks.
There can be nothing gained by keeping them
out in the fields when the ground is frozen
from one to two feet in depth, and when no
food is attainable except in the barn.  This is
one of the cases where climate has a controlling influence on the expediency of a practice.
I do not pretend to add anything to the
descriptions and directions here given, as to
the foot rot and other diseases, particularly as
the references to standard works on the subject are very full.  I have previously said that
various diseases which are most fatal among
the sheep of Great Britain, are not much
dreaded here; some writers even go so tfar as
to assert that they have never known a well
authenticated case of the fital disease called
foot rot in England and Scotland.  It may be
that from the general inferior condition of
our sheep, they are not so liable to inflammatory diseases as those that are habitually kept
in higher flesh.  It is also probable that the
superior dryness of the climate has much in-.
fluence.
The English modes of treating diseases are
Objected to by American farmers as too expenisive.  In dlistriets where sheep a          re worth
in summer only from $1.20 to $2 a head, it
wolt.d obviously.not pay to cut  ind bandage
their feet devily for any length of time, still
less to furnish them with a pair of boots, as
rec(omlmtnended by some continental authors.
I Mr. Randal, in writing of the hoof-ail, a
disease  sometimes  very  fatal, says  " that
thoroughly paring the feet, and then applying
i solution of blue vitriol, is an unfililing remedy."  All depends upon the completeness
of     the p rig, and the c ar   e           taken that every
affected part is reached by the vitriol solution.
In order to accomplish this effectually, he recommends-the employment of a tub, containing about four inches of solution, as hot as it
can be borne. In this the feet of the sheep
just finished are placed, and it is forced to retnaiii there while the next in order is uunder
the knife and nippers, thus enabling the hot
liquid to saturate every portion of the foot.
Several years of following up Isuch a course
are required to) eradicate this disease. The
labor, however, is comparatively small the
vetoeid year, and very little by the third.
Another method whiche has been found
quite benefit. tl, is to drive the flock slowly
thirough a trough contuldningr freshly slaked
lime  and water.  This re pea ted once a week
during wa rm we a ther,      is said to  check and
gradually eradicate the disease. A  ley   of
wood  ashe s also ten ds  to its ultimate  though
not immediate  cure.
The  va rious diseases of sheep in this cointry ha ve  bebn  fully trea ted of by Mr. H. S.
Randall,  i n h is  l etters on Sheep Husbandry,
and  in  Morrell's American            Sh eph erd.  Youitt
also has been  published, and is now with in
the reach of American sheep breeders.
Of Lifting  and   Storing  Potatoes. -Paraer
graph 4788. My remarks under the head of
planting potatoes, will  have been sufficient to
show that the  use of the Dao  ugth i n lifting
t hem must be quite limited.  Thais implement
ca n only  be employed  successfully where
the  rows are perfectly straight and  regular,
and such  r   ows  d o  n     ot exist in  by  ant
means  the mejority of  o ur fields.  Thus it
has happened that  ploug hs whe n   tried have
bee n  soon discarded, owing to the ne ces sary
imperfection  of their work.   A  plough,  with
a  grating   somewhat  similar to that   s hown i n
fig; 342, has been occasionally employed.
Unt il within a few years, and even    now  on
a great number   of farms, the potatoes  ar e
dug with a hoe, an implement which is of all
others  least fitted for  the  purpose.   The
whole body o f   earth     in the hi ll must be
moved, anrd a larg l e  hole excavate d i n search
of stray tubers.  During this operation many
potatoes are necessarily cut, unless the work
man begins entirely on the outside of the hill
and works very carefully.   This implement
then, as I conceive, should now be abandoned
as entirely unfit for the lifting of potaloes.
Another and much more convenient one is
rapidly replacing it —this is the potstoe hook.
This tool is light -yet strong, alid does its
work cleanly and ra,pidly. The hill c,n be
completely and rapidly explored in every di.
rection, without removing much of its surface. It is I think a far superior implement
to the potato graip, fig. 433, being lighter, at
least equally efficient, and making much easier
work.
-  am not aware that a riddle for separating
the different sizes of pota oes is ever used in
our fields; it is however the practice to separate bv hand the small, cut, or otherwise un marketable potatoes, from the' others, with
the view of using them for feeding purposes
early in the season.   Some  firmers now
select the small ones more especially for seed,
with the idea that they make a less luxuriant
growth, and are therefore less easily  kffl.cted
by the potatoe disease.  This may be correct,
but I have not known of any conlfimatory
experiments that were entirelyv satistc:acory.
In the potatoe fields of this country we again
miss the women, who seem to be so ulseful in
Scotland, with their baskets in hand Aollowing
close after the diggers. Our men have to do
66 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
this part of the business themselves, but as a
recompense they probably find a more carefully ordered house, and a greater variety of
food, awaiting their return home.
It may be well for our farmers to study
attentively the various methods of pitting potatoes, described under this head.  The directions here given will explain their numerous
failures  in attempts to keep  potatoes by
pitting.  Many have seemed to think that the
term pitting must signify an excavation, and
have according buried potatoes or other root
crops in deep holes, sunk fair below the surface.  Unless in peculiar situations, and under
the influence of either natural or artificial
drainage, such pitting must always prove more
or less disastrous.
It will be noticed, that the requisites for
keeping are, first-good drainage, managed
as shown in fig. 435, then a smooth, solid
covering sufficient to withstand the effects of
frost, and lastly, provision for ventilation jby
a  sp      ecies of st  raw ch imney,  s hown  at 1 abl
2 in fig. 435.
The usual method in this country is to
store them in cellars; these should be cool,
dark, and dry.   To insure the latter point,
they ought to be carefully drained. When
the formation of the ground will permit, a
large cellar under the floor of the barn or
granary is very convenient.  The temperature
should not be readily affected by fluctuations
in the temperature of the outer air.
I shall follow  Mr. Stephiens in saying         litt le
as to that most fruitful subject, the potatoe
disease. At best we can only present theories as to its cause and cure. The principles
of treatment mentioned in par. 4838 are doubtless correct; rich manuring with farm-yard
manures is disadvantageous, but inorganic
manures have been frequently, though not
universally, of.much service.
Of  Sowing Autumn  Wheat.-Par. 4842.
The use of the drill for sowing wheat is rapidly increasing among us, and has in almost
all cases given much satisfaction. There are
many who hold out against it, and some that
consider it worse than useless, but their number is decreasing. The deep sowing of the
drill is a great advantage in all land where
wheat is apt to winter kill; in fact, on such
land, even those farmers who despise the
drill, have had to take up the practice of
ploughing in their seed to get it deep enough.
In many of the Eastern States, where wheat
wa-s once largelv grown, its culture has greatly
decreased; and in some districts scarcely any
is to be found, excepting an occasional small
patch of spring wheat It is common to
ascribe this to tee Hessian fly, to the prevalence of rust, &c., d&e.; but after ore have
made all due allowancse for these causes of
uncertalin produce, the principal reason in my
judgment is to be found in the deterioration
of the land. A good crop of Wheat cannot
be obtained by a stinted use of poor manure,
or by imDperfect cultivation; under such dim
advantages, except on naturally rich, mellow,
and  unexhausted land, the plant refuses to
produce freely.  The farmer soon d is c  over s
that by  the same treatment he can get         better
crops  of rye, or oats, or Indian corn, and
wheat is consequent ly superseded.  Doubtless
it is, in many  Eastern localities, profitable to
neglect  this crop at present  and  buy chieap
Western flour,  but the  time  ma, a nd  probau
bly will come, when   the E astern farmer can
co mpete more advantageou sly i n th is respect,
and I maintain that then, by proper manuring
and   proper cultivat ion,   he will be a ble to eroe
larger crops of wheat  than  the  land e ve r be.
f o r      e           produced.
Dibbling  of wheat, as I have al ready mentio ne d. is  now impra ct icable inf t his country
at   a profit. Seed  whea t is   cheap,  and labor
high, thus  exactly reversing the  conditions
found  i n  Bri tish  agriculture.  In the West
particularly, the use of the  dri ll will soon become very general, and  with the aid in    har,
vesting of the reaper s    now made so  effective,
the farmers  can sow a gre a ter breadth  of land
than ever before.
4783 to  4878. The res ults given he re seem
very favorable to thin sowing,   but they cannot be looked for in all situ ati ons.   Plant
wil l not tiller mo ch on poor,  ill- atey ured soila
so that those who attempt to grow wheat on
s uc     h  soils, n ee ted not hope  to  a e seed and
increa se  their  crop, by reducing the quantity
sown.  Even if the plant should tiller under
such circumstances,  by aid of plaster or s ome
slight top- dres sing, th e effect wo uld  not be
ultimately good,  for its already feeble  energies would on ly be subdivided  among a number of shoots, none of which could produce
large, well filled ears.'
On the Effects of Special Manures. -Para.
graphs 4904 to 5021. The information hero
collected is of a most valuable character, and
may in fact be called a treatise by itself.
There are as yet comparatively few men Iin
this country who can appreciate the import;
ance of the information here given, but their
number is daily increasing. Guano, however,
and bones, must in our husbandry still be
considered special manures, although they
seem to have lost that distinction in Scotland.
The latter especially has been shamefully  nieglected, and the consequence of such neglect
will be long felt over the whole length and
breadth of our cointry, in the years of labor
and expense which will be required to restore
to the soil those elements of fertility of which
it has been so constantly and improvidently
robbed. It is probably speaking within bounds
to say, that ninle tenths of th-e bones that
might be available:for agricultural purposes
in this country are entirely lost so far as: they
6-1 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
farmers the list of special manures given in
paragraph 4974 will appear pertrctly ridiculous,  and the highi prices annexed to some of
them quite absurd.
It is not very surprising, however, that much
ignorance yet prevatils among  us on these
subjects, when  we  find that even in Greait
Britain, with all the lobg list of fertilizers before us, all the accounts of their act-ion, and
all the writings of their distinguished men,
there is even vet a waste of valuable manures
that is quite eiormous.  Scarcely a tbeginning
has been made even there in renderingr available the stores of vilualle materials which
are swept through the sewers of their cities
into the rivers, and into the sea.   The subject
is comipar;itively a new one in the best farimed
regions of the world, but it is now presented
in so many ways  to our farmers, that  they
have no excuse for remnainilng any longer uninform-ied.
It is too often the case, that in commencing
the use of these manures a great mistake is
made.  If a good  effict is tound to result
from any particular application, the frimner is
tempted to repeat it to the neglect of other
manures.   I'lThus great miischief has  actually
been donle by the injudicious use of lime and
also of plaster.  The ftarmer finds a remarkable increase of his crop by adding  a small
quantity of one of themi; I hey are cheap, and
he repeats the dose, ind perhaps goes on in
this waiy for several  yeairs, not considering
that he is supplying at most but two or three
of the substances that the plants need, while
he is abstracting lirge quantities of all. When
tthe    land gives out  again, as it is quite sure
sooner or later to do, the fault is not with the
lime or the plaster, but with  the cultivator,
who has added otly a part when he should
have kept up the supply of all.  It may seem
an absurdity to lay down such  a rule, but
still it is one not so generally understood and
observed as it oughrt to be.  The principle
that we cannot continue land in a state of fbrtility by adding one, two, or even half a
dozen substances, while we  are at the same
time constantly taking away ten or twelve,
would seem to be self-evident;:nd yet every
man who has eyes may see it disregarded, by
travelling a few miles in anv direction.
He may not only see this, but he may find
cases where all of his reasoning on the subject, and all of his efforts to show the suicidal
nature of such a procedure, will be met with
the most utter indifference, if not with  supreme contempt.  It is in fact a general observation which will soon be made by those
who attempt to introduce improvements in
this or any other department of agrieulture,
that those who  know the least of their profession are most conceited, and most inaccessible to all reason.  When we find a man who
gets fifteen or twenty bushels of corn, five or
are useful in their application to the soil.
They are to a certain extent collected for the
purposes of various manufactures, and for
making glue;  but only here and there a
farmer  is disco vering tha t the y a re  of any
value to him. Their great efficacy when dissolved in sulphuric acid, is to the masses
almost unknown.
So  it i      s         with even more active and concentrated manures; in our c iti es, by ou   r road sides,
by our manufactories. and even in our very
barn yards, substances are suffered to lie neglected and to run to waste, which would fertilize thousands upon thousands of acres of
poor, worn-out land, that is now scarcely
worth inielosing. This waste was not felt
when the land was yet rich and fresh, but
now it begins to tell, and we must arrest it
as speedily as possible.
In reading over the article at present referred to, the names and properties of many
most valuable manures will be found noticed,
and what is of no less importance, their action upon particular crops is shown. It will
be seen that in many cases the most astonishing results have been obtained, by the additiotn per acre of wthat seems a very trifling
quantity of some fertilizer. The simple explanation of such an increase is to be found
in the fact that this addition'has supplied just
what the crop needs;  of other substances
there was an abundance before; but now the
plant finds all that it wants, and grows with
unwonted luxuriance.
The only explanation of the system pursued by many of our farmers, must be found
in the lhct that they do not understand the
effect of cropping, upon the soil; they do not
understand that even when everything that is
possible of that which grows upon a farm is
returned to it,:there is still a gradual exhiaustion going on.  No matter how carefully a
fitrm may be managed, if anything whatever
is sold off, a fresh supply of fertilizing materials from foreign sources will aifter a time become necessary. Thus, whether it is grain,
or stock, or hay, or dairy produce, that goes
off, a deterioration is proceedings more or less
rapidly. It is in the supply of such a deterioration, that special manures are so effective.
A particular class of substances has been
slowly disappearing, and the manures added
have only returned a part of these, they being
but a part of the original produce; at last.
this class becomes so reduced that the quality
of the soil is visibly inferior. Now is the
time when a maniu-re composed of the particuiar substances which are most exhausted, will
have a marked and immediate em e~t. So fir
are many of our farmers from comprehending
this plain reasoning, that some of them call
Scarcely understand why it is that land constantly' cropped should become poor, even
when no manure at 911 is added. To such
es 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
pose, first brought on by certain chemtcal ac tions in the plant.
The pursuit of investigations on these sub jects, will probably lead to  most interesting
practical results.   The present  wire system
will, it is to be hoped, be succeeded by something more practicable and more certain in its
mode of operation.
5034. The Rationale of the Application of
Special Manures.-I will, under this caption,
only add a few words to what I have already
written upon this subject, it immediate  con nexion with the application of special  marnures.  It seems to me dangerous to let the
view of Liebig, with regard to the formation
of ammonia in the soil, as given in pp. 5025
and 5036, go forth without at least some fur ther qual,ification. A portion of the ammonia
of plants may have been f)rmed in the soil
in the manner indicated by Lit-big, but it does
not from this follow that plants ol)tain all
their nitrogen in the form of ammonia, or
that it is  not  absolutely  necessary to hrdd  nitrogenopoiurs lnandres  to the soil, or to (tard
carefully agaiist their deterioration while in
the yard or 1ea-p. The  infO  enee dra-wrn  by
Mr. Stephens in par. 5036 is a nattur.:l one if
the premises tire true;  but  aiatl from] -ill
theoretical reasoning, every  day's tlr;ictical
experience shows us that the soil does not
ordinarily contain enough of nitrogen-affor ding  substances, and that it is imome diately and
strikingly benefited by their addition.  The
farmer who preserves his manures Inmost carefiully, and conducts their decomposition in
such a manner as to suffer the least loss of
ammonia, finds himself repaid in their increased efficacy when they are added to the
soil.  This whole theory is but one  of the
extreme views which Liebig has held upon
some most important points in practice-vie ws
which he himself has repeatedly been led to
change entirely, or to modify in essential'featur-es.
His great reputation, and the fascination of
genius shown in 11 of his writings, have led to
the enthusiastic adoption of his successive
theories with regard to ammonia, and the consequent disappointment attendant upon their
reduction to practice, has often produced a
corresponding degree of distrust ill the whole
system of scientific agriculture.
The views of Mulder upon this subject of
the formation of ammonia in the soil, paragraphs 5037 and 5038, are extremely beauti,
ful, not inferior in this respect to those of
Liebigr.  They are purely theoretical, but in
my opinion lead us an important step'owards
the true understanding of th~is ma.-tter. They
moreover agree with manly of the impotrtalnt
chnanges which have been observed to occur
on the addition of pure vegetable matter to
the soil. It does seem to mle that by 1uniting
these views, to a certain extent, with those of
six of rve, and half to three quarters of a
ton of hIay, to the acre, whose fences are all
d      own, whose cattle half st  arved, wh  os e scanty
store of maniure is draining         i    nto      the nearest
brook, tere  is precisely the                                                  s  ie individual who
will d        eclaim upon tte superi                 ority  of the good
old me                    thod  of practical education for farmers,
when the nonsense of these book farmers
had         not iet  been   wr    itten.  If Mr. Stephens
could have added to his list of special ma nures, somethingo  adapt ed  to c         aus e   a     he     althy
growth of ideas   in such m         inds,  he woul d           have
done  an fifinit    e        serv ice  to ev ery agricultural
di strict                in    the world, for specitmebs of this
class may, unifortunately, be found in  every
country.
On Electro-Culture.-Paragraphs 5022 to
5033. This is a subject as yet little understood,   even      by scien  tific men; but                 at the
same t im e it is gradually assuming a degree
of   impo  rtance which quit                                e justifies Mr. Steplhens in noticing it in a work of the present
scope. I aim inclin~ed to think that electrocult                  ure, as here described,  has in    most cases
proved  unsatisfactor y, and yet  there have
been occasi onal repults th at               cannot be entirely explained away.  They seem sufficient to
show that electricity does, under certain circumstances, exe at a         very d ecisive influence;
but  as t           o tlcta laws by  which that influence
may be applied and regulated, we are yet
much in the dark.
Atten       tion is co              nsiderably drawn at the  pre-.
sent time,  bo      th      in t his country and Europe,
to thle precise  m  anner  in which  electricity                     ycts
upon the growth of plants.  That it has uIfdeer certain cirucums tahc e             s an effe(rt, was shown
so  fir actri   as the   tim   e                  of Sir Humpahrey
Davy, and perlaps at  an even  earlier period.
It does not seem necessary to cite any experiments here ia   addition  to the results colleetbed by          Mr. Stepdhens; they are sufficient of
thems elves to awaken  an in te rest in the subj     ec    t. Dr. Vaughan, of Cincinnati, has for
s    everal ye.rs been wliting                       upon the influence
of  electricit   y     in   te  flowing          of         the sap, and
the assim ila     tion  of carbon, &c., il the  i      n        te       -
rior of t         he  plant; many of                 his papers  have
been published in Buclh  anan's  Jouriifl    of Man,
Cinciinati, O     hio.   Mo re recen tl     y an able article, by M. Becquerel, has appeared in the
" Annales de Chiniee et de Physique," Jan. No.,
1851.   He onclud es                t hat there a re constan  t
currents of electricity in t     he        cells          of the plant.
He  says, "The  direction of the terrestrial
currents shows, that ill the progress of v-g —
t:ition the earth constantly takes tin excess of
positive ele ctricity, the'parenchyma of the
bark and the leaves an excess of negative
electricity, whichl is transmitted to the air by
the water evaporated."
Thle opposite electrical states of plants and
of the e:.rth, as he concludes, give rise to these
currents, which opposite states are, as I sup
I
019 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
not mentioned here; but the value of the
illustration remains the same, and any farmer
in studying these plans will derive  useful
hints as to the management of his own soil,
with the great ends of profit and improvement
in view.
The excretory theory of De Candolle, par.
5106, is now considered as quite untenable,
nevertheless I am inclined to think that plants
do without doubt excrete certain substances
from their roots in a state of solution; that
these substances, however, are thrown off because they are injurious to the plant, I have
no idea.  Tley may have entered in  combination with something which the plant mnore
particularly required, and il such quantity as
to produce an excess, aad they may return to
the soil for the purpose of forming new combinations, and  perhaps once more  e ntering the
same plant.  It is supposed that    potas h and
soda circulate in this way, and convey to the
plant its silica, and perhaps other substances
which singly are insoluble, but which readily
dissolve when combined with either of these
alkallie s.
If organic substances are ever excreted in
forms injurious to the plant, they cannot long
remain so; for the processes of decompositioln would soon bring them into a wholesome
state.
Every farmer who adopts a system of rota.
tion should adhere strictlyto it,and not be otten
tempted to take two exhausting crops in sueces.ion as soon as his land begins to improve.
If extraordinary circumstances render such a
course advisable, he must remember that this
departure fronm the proper course can only be
repaired by extra liberality in his treatnent.
The remark of Boussingault in par. 5111,
though with reference to a more purely scienti.
fic view of the question, may be applied by the
practical farmer. "He  should  establish a
kind of account current between the inorganic
matter of the crop and that of the manure."
So fa,r as his knowledge of the mineral constituents of his soil goes. he should endeavor
to more than balance the exhaustion through
crops taken away, by means of manures added.
With reg;ard to the organic parts of the crops
and manures, he cannot in the present state
of our knowledge calculate quite Fo exactly,
but may even then approxinmate sufficiently
near to the truth for most practical purposes.
5113. I cannot leave this part of  Mr. Stephens's work, without a few words  upon the
.rtility of soils, as commented upon here.   I
do not agree with the view of Liebig thus
adopted, that we can-not, least in most in.
stances, tell to what th-e fetility of the soil
is owing. On the contrary, I maintain that
in nine cases out of ten a careful analysis
will at onee show the causes of fertility or
barrenness in a soil;* and if at the sam~e time
the physical characteristics are tken into cons
Liebict,  and admitting, as I am disposed to do,
th         at plants may obtain their  nitrogen in                    part
from  still other  combinations, si          uch  a        s the
nitrates       f     or example, l e  arri           ve at conclusions
which                   practice      will  strengthen rather  than
contradict.   The gre  at danger with          pu       rely
scientific men          is i n fattempting to simplify too
mu ch.   Th e  t    e    mptation              is strong    to make all
if possible bend                 to one  clear and beautiful
theory, and  so simplify until every operation
can be clea          rly explauined.  It is seldom that
this can  b   e re -i         lly d one; the chang es             of decomposition and recomposition, of living to
deid matter,  and of  decay  to  new life, are
complex  atd varied, and                                 cannot be represented by any one tformula  or  serie       s  of  trans                 positions.
The effec      t        of every failure         in the reasoning
of distinguished scientific men is unfortunate
in its effect on the progress of improvement,
for the reason that it leads practical men into
a       ge neral distrust of all theoretical  vi      e w    s and
recomnmendatiotns. It is therefore of importance that nov          el tlleooies  should not ait first be
announced, or least  should be      qualifi   ed               in
such ia manner  that          th      eir application  to  practice mi.ht not leam d,      in  the       firset place, to too
sanguine expectations, and finally  to serious
loss       v         cnd  disatppoinitment.
5080. This  is a subject  (the Rotation of
Croips), upon waich the Americ an farmer can
as yet co    m      aanunicate comparatively little knowledge.    On   a vast number, I think it is fair
to  s     ay o0i  a vast          majority,  of farms a   thorough
and eatlio,tened syst em of    rotatioen            is unknoustii.  In many ca ses, ev        en in the  oldest
States, the only system followed is to take
the most va luable crop until the          land  run s
dow      n           to o low to bear it profitably.   The best
farmners ale  no doubt turning their atten                      tion
in this dire( tioti, a       nd w               se see  much land that
is so judic iously    managed as     to  improve unde( r   ctopping.  There ha ie more,  however, wuho
would  be  greatly benefited b)y a careful
and attenitive stu dy      of suoh a   n  article  as Mr.
Stephe     n      s     s    has he     re gi ven             us.
hs faict noticed in   p         ar. 5082, as   to the exhauistioi;i of the land by grass crops when
they ane all        owed to r ipe n  their seeds, will
d         oubtless be new                    to numbers who  consider
theinsel    v     es in        the main good  farmers.  In
many par s       of  th e State  of New York   and        o     f
otiwer States, as  I have    befo    re          mentioned,                         t      it is
customary to allow the timothy grass to ripen
before cutting. The hay is poorer in quality
under this system, and meadows  so  mdown
evX ervy year soon show its exhausting effects.
Thle general principles upon which the necessstv~ of rotation in erl~ppinlg depends, are
cle arlyl and sufficiently showls in this artieht,
card the variousa courses instanced will be.
'found instructive examples. So~me osf the.
cr-ops are sSuch as w~e do nlot cultivate, and
we7 should have to introduce others that are
70 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
sideratioit, together with all points relating to
season, climate, and course of cropping, lighta
may be thrown on the most obscure cases.  I
say this without hesitation, as I think that even
my own limited experience has given me sutf ficient proof  of the fact.   Thit there are
cases not only beyond my power of explana-t
tion, but beyond that of the most eminent
scientific mnen, I readily admit  but I believe
them to be in tihet minority, and that even
these will in time yield to persevering chemi cal analysis.  It' the chemist, after years of
labor, cannot at the present day say, in most
of the cases that are submitted to him, what
are the iiinredients or combinations that cause
fertility, the science of scientific agriculture
is in a far more  discouraging state than I
suppose it to be.
I know that the failures on the part of cer tain schools, in the application of their ready
made  theories to practice, have  been quite
decisive, and also know that discouragement
has been the result; but that is no reason
whv  other theories, founde d  originally on
practice, should not succeed, and have not
succeeded. To fit practice to theory is one
thing, and to fit theory to practice is an entirely distinct, more useful, and successful business.
It seems to me quite certain that the atmosphere as such, hais a decided share in the fertility of the soil, although  its influence is
modified by the prevalent temperature and
character of the climate. I do not see why
we may not as; well say that the constituents
of the soil as such have no10 share in its fertility, because it soil in Nova  Zeroiblin does
not produce -as much as a soil of exactly
similar constitution in the Antilles.   The
elements of fertility are in both, so far as the
soil is concerned, and so far as the surroundirg atmosphere is concerned, but the climate
causes the difference.   Now to say that temperatitre is the controlling agent of fertility,
as maniy mikrht be supposed to do from this
statement, would, as I conceive, be falling
into the smne error which I am combating;
all the wiarmth even of a tropical sun fauls to
make the African deserts fertile, for there
water is niieed(d and becomes in its turn the
essential condition.
-  We  may carrv this reasoning still further,
and show that by simply altering the chemical constitution of the atmosphere, we may
neutralize the combined influences of the best
soil, the best clinmate, andi the most justly
.riadu ated supply of moisture in the world.
Thus it turins out that no pa,rtia,l view of the
calse is a corrlect onle, but that the aItmosphere,
the soil, the climate, and the supply of water,
all have an indispensable part to                 aot.
There are manyl points yet to study with
regard to their combined  ticlion; but I beieve that we are acquainted with the leading
principles   that   regulate the ir  bearing  upon
any given locality, apnd  I am not  afraid to say
boldly, that the  well i nstruted agr icultural
chemist of the present  day  can, i   n  almos t
every case, derive much valuable information
from the  mere  analysis of a  soil; an d provided
the oother e ts Ct as to  climate  and p hysical    cha.r
raciter are  given, can pronounce with confi dence not   only as  to its fertility and barren ness, ebut as  to the  kin d  of crop and of ma nure best aidapted to its condition.
5116. The   experiments by Propessor Way,
alluded to in this  paragrasph, are of  much in terest, and have opened a new field for chemi.
cal research.  They appear to explain quite
sati~f,ictorily some  points which have  been
obscure,  with revgar d  to the  different  ac tion of marnures on light a  nd stiff' soils.   In
the coineludinga paragraph from 5119, are given
some facts that of themselves correct many
of the inferences that  might be di-awn from
the views of Liebig, to which I have alluded;
for here we see that practice has lea.rn-ed to
proceed, and successfully too, upon the as sump)tion that analysis does afford some cer ta,in ground to stand upon.  We see analyses
of' crops brought to bear directly upon  those
of the soil, and see  moreover that the two
cannot well be separated in practice. filr they
are in a great degree mutually dependent each
lo>sing a part of its value whien alone.  We
caniiot fiom the nature of the case represent
the constitution of a soil as exactly as that
of a plant, but we can come sufficiently near
to connect the two  tor all practical, it not for
all scientific purposes.
5147. On the Management of Fowls.-This
is a department to which  I am conscious of
an inability to mnake any useful additions.
The inforination given is all of a practical
character, and it is quite clear that Mr. Ste phens, although interested in'the subject, has
not Iet arrived at what may  be called the ro mnancie of fowl breeding.
He is perfectly able to write calmly about
a hen, without running off into a fit of enlthu sias-,m as to the  Cochin-i Chinese,  Shan(gha-i,
Poland, Dorking, or other breeds.  His tone
is, I fear, not elevated enougyh for our Eastern
,friends, and I apprehend serious complaints
from them.   He  certainly is open to  the
charge of having dismissed this most important department of fancy agriculture, with a
comparatively slight notice.
Realization or Sequel.-This; portion of the
work is mostly an enlargement of the old,
edition, and contains much new matter. I
shall foltow Mr. Stephens as  through  the
previous parts of the work, noting here and
there points to which I conceive particular
attention should be given.
The directions and suggestions in the first
twenty pages of this part, relative to the phy.
sical geography of land, differences of climate.
71 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMIN.
and modes of judging land, are all imtportant,
and may be in many ways useful  to our
tarmers is the accumulationis of experience.
Ii- our New England and Eastern States generallv, climate is an esplecially necessary considerationr in selecting a tarm.  In such an
uneven, broken country, the choice of situiation is of great importance.  The direction
in which the slope of a hill side faces, mayv
make a practical difference of vital effect in
the cultivation of the most valuable crops.
In the valley: and on the hill may be a difference amounting even to a week or two ri
exemption from early or late frosts, and leading to a corresponding difference in the success
of the occupants.  Such illustrations as these
show  us the justice of the observation ina
paragraph 5237, that the mean temperature
of a place is not a sufficient iiidex to the character of its cultivation, unless we have the
extremes also.  For example, the mean temperature in New  Jersey, Con)et.ticut, Newt
York,  and  New  England, does  not  vary
gr-eatly iii its range fr'om Edinburgh, Dublin, d
and Lo idon, that is from 46 to 52; and yet
we are able to grow crops which they cannot
ripen at all, while  at the same time they
ploug(h and sow when our ground is yet fitrozen
hard.  Their climate is more equable, being
neither intensely cold in winter nor warmi in
summer;  ours is in extremes, so that the
heat of our summer more than makes good
the cold of our winters.
5217. As thie importance of drainaoe becomes more generally recognised, due weight
will be given to the remarks in this paragraph
as to its inifluence on the permanent temperature of the soil, by withdrawing  any excess
of moisture.  This bears with particular force
on a c(lass of soils that our ftarmners call cold
and sour, but which they generally consider
it quite unnece'ss.iry to drain.  Such land has
an excess of water, which keeps down its
temperature; when that is removed by the
drain, the temperature will rise, and the properities of coldnress and sourne.ss disappear.
5259. It is I believe the general impression
that in tl-his country also  our winters are
usually less severe, and our springs more uncertain auid backward, than formerly, and the
realsouingr of  Mr. Kniahrt up on the subject
will:ittratet attention.
5263. The judinig of land fiom the direction*; here given is seen to be a study, and to
be reduced to a matter of rules -tided by
praclical skill. Particular attention, is there
paid to the subsoil, and with good reason,
althougrh it would I am sure be considered
useless trouble by some of our old-fa~shioned
sikimlming~ farmers.  I fear too that the signsn
of exhautst ion ant1 lowr condition enumerated
in p..5280, would be found on too nanny of
our lon~g c;!tivat^{d farms.
~ The intbrmadm)l as to the estimation of
rent, mode  o f o ffering for a farm, negotiating
the lease, &c., p,-rigr:,iplhs 5284 to 5366, is
not so applicbile to tsi.s country ias to many
others, our farms  being mostly in the hands
of proprietors.  Where  farms are let, few if
any regulations   are usa ually adopted  to bitind
the te nant  t o a nlly prticular course.   The
consequence itt  is thate, i n ver y  many case s t he
letting of a farm is an equivalent to a great
and lasting  injury of the  land; for there are
few tenant s  who,    when  holdin(r aind  urestrained  for a  short period of  ye ar s, can resist
the  t e mpta tion  to ta ke    a little more off than
they ptot in. Some  set th e   mselves de libe-.
rately ait work to  exhaust the land  within the
term of their occupation. Such a state of
things  ouoght not to continue; the  tenant
should  be  bound to  pursue  a certain  cou rse,
and that course to be one laid out  by the
landlord, so that his land could not suffer.
The naturalo  te ndency o f thi ngs is  always to
the  ccumulation of tl arge pr operties, and as
we become an older people tenants will undoubtedly be more numerous than they are
at present. Whether this is desirable or not
cannot now be discussed; I merely mention
the probability of such a thing, that we may
see here what would be the best manageme nt
for tihe land in such cases.
5367. This minute account of all the expenses connected with a farm of 500 acres,
during the first eighteen months of occupancy, is both curious and instructive. The sum
of nearly $18,000 laid out in so short a time,
in merely stocking the farm and commencing
operations, is a very large one, and shows the
amount of capital required in British husbandry.  When we  add to this the cost of buildigos, par. 5516, making some  $10,0c,0 more,
the whole outlav by the landlord atnd tenant
is not less than $30,000, without mentioning
the farm house and the laborers' houses.
Besides his $18,00Q of outlay, the tenant -also
has his rent to pay, which would vary from
$2,500 to  $8,000 per aninum, or even more
in some cases.  It must be noticed, however,
as one alleviating circumstance, - that when
we speak of a farm of 500 acres in Engrland,
it means 500 acres actually under cultivation;
not half to three quarters woodland or rough
pasture, as is usually the case with us.  The
farmer, bv reading over the variety of advice
and information  given under these various
paragraphs, may glean manv items of a highly
useful chlaraeter.  We may not follow such a
system exactly, but we  may perhaps derive
much advantag'e fiom copying some of its parts
and details. The prig es of work, especially of
that in wood, can be no guide to us. The
account of C:hubb's detector locks with thle
2,592,000 chances of sec~urity it affords, i~s
quite refreshing, and i would advise all farmers to apply the advice which is given relative
to locks to the purchase of all other articles; 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
the best is ultimately the cheapest; a half
dollar or dollar saved in purchasing tn  inferior lock, nmay open your dwelling to the burglar and cause the loss of thousandis; a dollar
or two saved iil the purchase  of a pl(ou,_h,
may throw horses and hands idle in the midst
of pressing business, while the inferior implement is repairing; such is almost always the
result of unwise economy.
5566. There is much under this he,-d that
is worthy of attention fromn ou~ farmers, particularly those who  occupy old fiatrms    In
many parts of our country very little heed
seems orirginally to have been given to the
shape of the fields, which are consequently
found in a great variety of capricious shapes.
These irregularities are doubtless picturesque,
but they give rise to numerous difficulties in
practice, and occasion a verv considerable loss
of tilme in extra turning. As neir to a square
as possible is, accorldi,g to Mr. Stephens, the
best form and the easitcst worked.
5596. The plantinig of hedges or trees, and
the placin(g of walls for tile distinct purpose
of affordin(r shelter, has not been done to any
great extent in this country, and yet I have
no doubt but it would  be found very beneficial in many localities, where coll anid strong
winds prevail during  aily part of the year.
We  frequently see in our wildest districts,
farmers' houses perched upon the summit                    of
bleak hills, without even a bush to breik the.
tforce of winter storms.  A thick clump of
evergreens planted so as to break the force
of the prevailing winds, would prove a great
source of comfort in such a situation.  In
Scotlatid whole farms aire shleltered and greatly
improved by judicious belts of plantation;
they are made more  healthy to aniimals, and
earlier in ripening crops.  The hedges, which
are so common a mode  of inclosure in Great
Britain, form an excellent shelter, and a most
durable fence if properly cared for.  Without care, however, they soon become defective
and striaggling plants die out, the gaps are
stopped bv two or three sticks or a bush, and
finally the hedge, in such a dilapidated conditioi, lookls * orse than  any other  kind of
fence.  The  hawthorn  does  not bear our
summers well. but we have a variety of native
plants that form an equally handsome and
strong hedge.   The great point is to keep the
plants cut down low for the first few years
after transplanting, so that they will thicken
at the bottom, and aifterwards to give them
;n occisional clipping.   Gaps caused by a
dead plant, or any other cause, should be at
once attended to.  All the necessary minutia        o
of planting, forming banks and ditches, are
fully gone into under this head, and will, for
the most  pirt, apply  to the formation  of
hedges in this country.
I do notse tae  at c dead hedge,    fig. 468,
or the stake and -rice fence, fig. 469, possess
any properties which re co mmen d them on thei s
side of the Atlantic.  A  stumiip fence is  far
more picturtesque and durable; and even the
crooked fen,ce might almost  compare advantageously with these. In our Eastern, and
all other States,,  where wood is cheap, it fo rms in
the  least expensive  and trou  ble some  fence
that can be made; but where it beginis to
grow scarce, and  on the  Weste rn  prairies
where there is none, some substitute must be
found.   I am inclined to think that in all such
regions hedges will become rather common,
though it is not probable that they will be attended to in the careful manner here described.
Wire fences, if strong enou(hli, may very psossibly supersede all other kinds in many sectiolns.
.5692. In the New England States we consider ourselves beyond.-ll teachers in the art
of building stone walls, and consequently are
not priepaired to aicknowledg(e the  ret. ipt of
much information under this head. The plates
anid directions will be found more useful, in
those States where stones do not usually
cover more than half of the  surface.  Our
walls generally lack the copinc shown in fir.
476, partly however for the reason that being
in a region of boulders, we seldom have su,-h
regularly stratified stones to lay as thlose
sh own in the cut. Where they can be psrocured the coping is of treat service, as it
keeps the upper courses of the wall in their
places, prevents walking upon the top, and
makes the wall a better barrier fox shieep.  I
have often seen this copingr laid ill mortar
while travelling, in Scotlan-,,d.
5722. I do not know that the methods of
setting up and  stra.initigf wire fences here
given, differ much from  those which are described in our own agricultural papers, and
the,'efore  do  not linger upon them.   The
cheapness of wire and iron in England gives
them an advantak!e in the construction of this
kind of fence; but I think with Mr. Stephens,
that it is doubtful if it ever supersedes hedges,
or stone and wood, for situations where great
strength is required, or where shelter is necessary.
5755. I might probably, by searching over
agricultural periodicals add designs of some
hundreds of gates in addition to those figured
here; but as they are almost all defective,
think it best to be content with these. We
have, however, some very ingenious gates,
which seem  to me fully equal to any of the
plans here described.   The great difficulty
with the ordinary field gates is, that in our
northern climate they are liable to sac,, the
heel post being thrown out of' the perpendicular by the frost, if not by the weight of
the gate itself. This is an annoyance which
is comparatively little felt in Britain, but -is
very serious here. It is this which has led
to retaining the clumsy bars on so many- of
73 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
our farms; they are troublesome, and make
a good deal of work in taking out and putting
in, but they are always in their place and not
liable to get out of order.  The heel post of
a gate should be sunk deep and firmly wedged,
and the gate itself so hung that its weight
shall not all hang from the top of the post,
but rest chiefly on the lower hinge. This may
be managed by means of the diagonal braces.
5774. The recommendation here given for
the preservation of gate posts is useful, and
might be followed with advantage.  It would
be still better to get a post Kyanized or Paynized, according to one of thle processes now
in vogue, by means of which it is said to be
rendered almost as indestructible as stone.
5775. On the Draining of Land.-Under
this head the American farmer is presented
with the mostcomplete practical and theoretical
system of drainage that I have yet seen; the
account is full, particular, and clear,and is illustrated sufficiently to render every detail intelligible.  Now that draining is beginning to assume an aspect of importance in this country,
the present treatise is particularly appropriate,
and will doubtless be studied with much interest.
In pars. 5778, 79, and 80, are announced
truths which I have many times presented to
practical men in various States, but which are
usually received with some incredulity.  It is
difficult to make the farmer whose land is
tolerably dry on the surface, believe that there
is too much water beneath.  This is nevertheless the case on numerous farms, and no
way short of thorough draining can be found
to render the grass on such fields other than
cold and sour, or the crops other than yellow,
sickly, and scanty.  These soils may become
dry at midsummer to a proper depth, but they
have been wet through all the early part of the
season, when the crop should have been growimg, and very probably now, when  they are
dry, they have baked hard and stiff.  At the
close of par. 4780 Mr. Stephens announces his
conviction that there is not a single farm in
the kingdom of Great Britain, that would not
be benefited by draining.   This seems a
strong statement, but I am aware that other
experienced men have said the same thing.
I do not think that such an assertion would
be made by any prudent man regarding this
country, where our climate makes a great difference in the dryness of the soil. There are
many districts where the drain, even if it produced any improvement, would certainly not
repay the cost of its introduction. But at
the same time I am surprised to find, in travelling through different sections, how few
farms there are, some parts of which would
not be improved by drainage. After a little
practice the eye can select these spots, almost
as far as the nature of the crop is discernible.
1 have seen, while travelling through the court
try, thousands and te ns o f thousands o f a cre s
rendered cold and unproductive in a    mo re  or
le.ss striking degree bv this concealed water,
of the  existence of  which it would    be vfery
har d to  convince the  owner..
On our farms, according   to  m y present im pressions, drainage will require to be on a
more limited scale than    in  Britain, and it will
not therefore  be necessary to talk  o f draining
every f ield.  The operation will commence  at
least, with those parts of the far m  whi ch a re
beyond all question too wet, and gradually
e  a  pr encean  rate progress as experience and practice prove its
efficacy. 
5788 to  5793. The directions here aiven a- s
to  levelling are imm ed ia tel y practical,  and
s ho w that it is practicable to drain  la nd with
a  much less slope  than is thought po ssible
here.  In fact there is no place whiere the natural water runs off at all, in whit-h fll enough
for a tile drain cannot be  obta ined. When
the fall is s o gentle, the outfall or outlet m ust
of course    be particularly attended to as de scribed in par. 5791.
5795. The advice given relative to neatness
of cutting is quite necessary, as is also the
caution to lay the tiles or stones, and fill up
the ditch, as soon as possible after it is cut.
Any one who has seen the effects of a heavy
shower on the sides of a newly cut ditch, will
understand the extra labor that may be incurred by a little neglect in this particular. 
5799. The principle here laid down, that
the small drains should be carried straight
down the planes, irrespective of wet and dry
spots, is one that has been thoroughly established by long experience as the best. All
practised drainers have discarded the old system of runningy the drains round the edges
of hills, in order to cut off the springer; they hit
them all the more surely, and dry the land
more completely, by following the other system.
5803. Nothing is more true than that by
stopping a foot short of the proper depth for
a drain, money is lost; there is a small apparent gain, or rather saving, at first, but after wards there is an annual loss of manures, and
also loss in the inferior crops. If such an
improvement is to be made, the best policy is
to do it well and permanently, not to follow
such a mistaken course as did the Lothian
farmer mentioned in par. 5804, who by saving
. in the number of his drains, flattered himself
that he was drying his land very cheaply,
whereas the event proved that he was only
able to get a good full crop from about half
of the field; the whole operation was an
illustration of the old maximx, penny wise and
pound foolish. I am inclined to think that
most of our light Boils may be drained by
three feet drains, at from thirty to fifty' feet
apart, but on stiff soils they must be mulch
nearer together. Probably thlere are very few
74 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
the drain are not perceptible until the second
year.
5852. The  cost of draining with tiles, as
given in this and succeeding paragraphs, is
really very trifling when compared with the
benefit, and the actual  increase of value
arising from the operation.  It caLnnot, how ever, be a standard for us.  The  cutting of
the ditches is done far cheaper than in this
country, and the price of tiles is not more
than a third of what we  have to pay at pre sent.   There are  now  but few  machines
making tiles among  us,  so few that the
demand is greater than they can supply.  In
consequence of this the price keeps  up, but
will fall whe n competition fairly comremuces.
As an illustration of Engli-h prices, I refer
to Mr. Mechi's experience, in par. 5852, where
the cost of digging a four to five foot ditch
was  only six pence, or about twelve cents,
per rod, and the tiles about $3 per thousand,
making the whole expense  of draining an
acre but about $12.
5856. I could add quite  as remarkable
statements as any here given, drawn from my
own  notebook while travelling in Scotland
and England; the general testimony of the
farmers was, that they got their money back
in from two to'three years; many got it back
from the first crop.
5862. I have seen an instance where this
deposit of iron ochre was so abundant, as to
choke tile drains within twelve months after
they were laid.  A  strong stream of water
sent in at the upper end of the drain washed
it out in large clots.
5879. I would recommend those  of  our
farmers who make stone drains, to read over
this and the succeeding paragraphs on the
same subject.   Our stone drains are very
generally made with large stones, so that
small animals can obtain access, and so that
earth can wash in; the consequence is that
t hey are  ex treme ly liable   to choke, and when
choked, their repair is both troublesome and
expensive. The breakage of stones, as for a
,macadamized road, is a tedious and expensive
business, and it might be easier in many
places to screen out a coarse gravel for this
purpose. When tiles can be obtained thev
are I think cheapest, even at present prices.
Where stones must be used, they should, in
accordance with the present directions, be as
small as can be got, and the filling should be
very carefully done, so that no more water
may obtain access at the top than would fall
naturally on the portion of earth immediately
over the drain.
I heard Mr. Smith, of Deanston, the lending originator of the present systeme of
thorough draining, say that he had stone
drains twenty years old on his farm, doing asgood service as when they were first laid. I
cases where a depth of less than from thirty
to thirty-six inches is advisable, and I am inciined to do ubt it th ere          is in most localities
much advantage in going beyond tlhat,
although some of te  la       ter Engli sh authorities
talk ot' goin g as low a s o    seven   feet.  Three
fe     e    t  in dep th  will leave an available working
soil of 30 inches, which is six or eight inches
more   than has ever been      attain ed by      the most
powerful subsoil plothcfhs, or eve n by th         e fork.
1 am not   sure  t       hat   the benefit of goinb                               a down
fu        rther wou ld r epay  the gre atly incre       ased expense.
5812. The narrow drain spade, fig. 496,
a         nd     the scoop hoe, fig. 479, and also          those of
fig      s. 508  and 509, would  balae valuable implements for us        e      in th is b u siness  of diing
d      rains.   It is in   this point that our farmers
will   en        cou       n ter    most trouble   at first. They
will not   have      the p roper    tools,  an d  ma y     not
be  able  to find       m        en who have been  accustomed t      o  d itching.  An  exp        er      t ditchter will
dlo very nearly twice as much  is  one who is
unused   to th     e bu siness, and                   at the same time
in a neater and more workmanlike manner.
The be tter way is to          have. them    done by contract, at so much                        a         rod.
5837 to 5847. We here have figured all the
various forms of tiles that are worthy of notice. The pipe tiles have come into universal
favor, because they are so much cheaper than
the old form, where there were two pieces,
the tile and the sole, requiring to be made at
separate operations of the machine. Their
superior lightness too is an item in transportation; and from their solid continuous form,
they are much less liable to be broken. I
have no doubt that Mr. Stephetis's views relative to the proper shape for a pipe tile are
perfectly correct, and that fig. 515 presents
more advantages than any other form. The
objection to this anld all forms of tiles
in the minds of our farmers, arises from a
fear that water will not findd its way into them;
but surely the experience of all Great Britain
should be sufficient to weigh against a mere
individual prejudice. The factis, that nothing
short of surrounding the pipes with some
water proof concrete, will keep the water out
of themr. No packing of clay, however stiff,
will do it for any length of time. As to their
capacity for carrying away the water,  Mr.
Stephens observes, par. 5847, that, from his experiments, a pipe of one inch bore is quite
sufficient to carry off all the water that falls
within the range of its action. In 5850, the
principle by which the tile dries the soil, and in
:onsequence of which it is almost impossible
to keep the water out of it,;8 clearly explained.
Stiff clay is really the beat substance for the
immediate covering of the tiles. If, however,
the tirst season after they are laid in a heavy
clay soil ils a very wet one, the full effiects of
75 
A.E'RICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
am quite sure that the plan shown in fig. 524
i..s a gt)od oie for stone drains; flat stores call
always be fo,und to mnike the triangulatr cihannel, tnd the smalnl stones -.t the sides and on
the top ire an efleetinal protection a(gainst the
burrowing of aiiiiii.ls or falling in of earth.
Esped. i,5l care is necessary to keep the top of
stone  drain s well below the                  l owest reach of
the p  loieugh;  f o r  if  t     touches t he upper stones
and ltosens them, earth will certainly wash
in and cause ax stoppage.
5895. It mi rht bt supirposed   that the shouldeared bT(pg drain, fig.    530, woul    d soon collapse
and close, but this is not the case.                            uWhen a
tauk, penot is  expos ed to t he     ai r it har dens and
dries; if  aft   er    exposure for a month or two
it is aenain itmmersed in water,                       it doe s not become sof!t as when i    t was fir  st *lut, but ren.anins
harld.  T          he peat tiles, figp. 533, ar           e alrnost indesrloctible.   1 s      aw one which  had           been
thrown ifito a steamn engine boiler, and allowed                            to remain for severuil weeks;  on beirg
take n out it still retained                     its sahaoe and  hardness,',witiout arny material alteratioi.
5932. T      he r                eaading of this  and two or  three
subsequent pariagrnaphos, with the  examination
of  fie' i. I,                          5will be  useful to  those who st ill
rtnain unrconvinced as to  t           he ability            o f pipe
tile-; to form a successful -and permanent
draXi~n.
5937. I should suppose that in some parts
of our country, whlere the necessary rnateriils ire abundant and cheap, concrete tile                         s,
such as fig. 542, might b e mad       e  cheaply, a.ted
form a mo' e   economical drain   than clay       tiles
a       t  tlI.e present prices.       They are not easily
broken, ant    d       wou ld last for an indefinite lengthe
of' time.
'Tdhe experiment detailed                  in par. 5941 shows
the isugentise qui antity of water that                       is drawn
off by dgrain     s            in a   single season.  It is easy
t o conceive t            that the efvet of  so large a body
of water remaining, as it w       ould for the most
part have done, would be highlly injurious.
The very ingenious apparatus shown by fig.
543 migiht be applied with advantage to the
measurement of any small steady stream, and,
would afford very interesting results.
Tlihe subject of draining is one of such
ma.,niiuse, that I might extend my notes in
this department to very many pages, but the
space at my command will not permit me to
do so, and I must leave it with the foregoing
brief sugrgestionis and commentaries.
5949. On Improving Waste Land.-It is
very generally the cuistoimi in this country,
wtien ploughing for the first time land that is
stony and full of roots, to use a heavy plough,
w ith oxen instead of horses. They move
mlore slowly, and do not suffer so much from
bxeing brought up suddenly. It must be acknowledgred, however, that the first year's
operationls do not usually leave such landin a
highly finished state; the work is slow and
toilsome, and after all the soil actually moved
by  the plourgh is of a very uneven depth.
The fairmers generallv rely ut)oii the ploughing,s of subsequent years to improve the surface further.
This is unquestionably an inferior system
compared to that of trenching all tJhese stony
and tangled plots; but in manry  eases it is
the best that circumstances will admit.  On
much of our new land the cos.t of trenching
would amount to many times the first price
of the soil itself, and  to far more  than the
value  of its produce.  Here   t hen  the only
course obviously is, to te ar  upe the surface ill
the best and most economical  wa y    possible,
and to improve  upon this imperfect operation
in every smrbsequert year.  In the older States
mor e  expensive ope rations are practic able,
and even iadvisntble.  I have kno wn from $50
to $70 per acre spent   in the diggingt, blasting, and carrying away of stones, and with
profitable pecuniary results. On some  lon.g
cultivated fhrms, lioweeer, this  business of
getting out stones is ne(glected as being too
expeaiiive, ando   we mauy  see stones  scor ed an d
seamed in every dire ction, with the nmarks of
the plouglhshares and harrow teeth that they
have blunted or broken. I have no doubt but
stones  might be found on some farms, that
have  thrown out the plough for fifteen or
twenty successive years.  It is said by some
farmiers that a large and hard boulder is easier
got rid of by sinking it a foot or two, than by
blasting and carrying away the fragments.
5977. Trench and Subsoil Ploughing.The subsoil ploughs mentioned and figured
here, are more costly and, weighty inistruments than those lately introduced here.
They.re calculated to go deeper, and to be
drawn by a larger power, than any that I have
seen used in this country. Our subsoil ploughs
are comparatively light and cheap, rPnd are
mostlv intenled for use on small farms where
the team available for working them is small.
They are extremely valuable for such a use,
even if they gainl only two or three inches on
the furrow of the ordinary plough. The next
time of using they will go an inch or two
deeper still.
The benefit derived from the employment
of these small ploughs is very generally acknowledged  by those who  have used  them,
and they will in time give wayv to heavier implemients. All that have become interested
in this method of improve ment, will find much
that is instructive under this head.
I have never seen what might properly be
called a trench plough used in this country,
but am quite sure that it would be found of
great service on some cluasses of soils. All
of these operations are, in the present state
of our agriculture, only applicable to the
older districts of the country, and to those
who have a very ready access to markets. In
7CN 
AMIERICAN APPENDIX-AU'TUMN.
many parts of New  Engl(and subsoiling or
trench \ou, hiirg to iny great depth is w holly
itipracicaijbie, oi acecouit of the stones  andt
rock- which  abound  so  as in                   some  cases
almost to torm a species of pavemnent.  The
remo val of these previous to tryiig suech in  strumnents is, absolutely necessary, but would
certairilv not pay except in some districts that
are very favoratily situated.   The  prac tical
experience  of Mir. Stephens withi regard to
the effect of briingiinfg up the subsoil to the
surface, as given in p'tragraphs  5988, 5997,
and 5998, i; of  much value, and yet I think
that I h.aie seen s-ils where the turniog out
much of the subl)soil at an,,  one time could
not be c,n i;lered  idvisable.  I hae known
one or two cases where soils were ruined for
several ve irs by injudicious trenchingr.  The
app'ic.tioti of common sense will suffi        ce         t       o
prevent such failures in the majority of locali tie.,.
6046.  The Forming  of  iValer                                                toeadows
and Irrig,ation.-The results obtained by the
f)rmation (,f such meadows  have been  in
imany iiistlnees most extraordinary.  Tiere is
no water derived from spritigs that is  ibso lutely pure.   It all contains some  mineral
matter and some organic matter, made up of
subs aness vw-rying with the sources  of'the
springi, and the composition  of  the strata
throutgh which  thl'y pass.  In passing over
and  niiiioi'. the roots anrd stems of living and
growinu  pllntss, the water parts with ait least
a portion of these substances for the benefit
of tlhe plitis.  Thus firom the purest spring
water, plants derive so nmich nutriment as to
betonie healthy and luxuriant.
Such meadows would be eminently of service in dairy districts, where the paslures are
apt to fail in midsummer; a little cutting from
them once or twice each day would keep the
herds  in  condition.   They  would also  be
hirghly va!tblae ini all places where it is difficult to procure  hiay entioufgh  for the winter
stock.    Vihere water can be procured  that
has run through sewers, or into w}ichl largee-p                                        a
sewers dislcharg(e, the effects are perfectly astonishittg.   The celebrated water  meadows
near Eldinl)urgh, that rent at from  $50 to $60
per acre, are of this class.  The gr-iss is cut
from them at short intervals duritig the whole
season, a flowing taking place I believe between  each crop.
The details -is to the cutting of ditches, and
the distribution of the water getierally, are
sufficient guides for practice.  Careful attention is requisite in the management of the
waiter while flowing, and in its equal distribution.  It must also be seen that the plants
are not flowed too long, as that would result
in their injury.
We could not in thlis coulntry irrig~ate dulring
the months of December and January, as recommended by Mr. Stephens, par. 6064, but
would have to  do a pa rt  o f i     t in spring.  Irri   gatioii caiiiiot be explected to produce very
S headarkalw,le eff,et s upon land  that has a elose
ret enttive sobf-oil dtn( is ttn drainied. Anl iai —
gWcteld  field tsould, naturally or cirtificioly, be
so dr.:incd as to  becomole dry almost  imme  di.ately after the flow of waiter is stopped.
Tlhe rich'es det, osited by the water then be  come entiirely available for the growing gl-'ass,
and  tlhe soil w..:med  almost  imnedia;.ely by
the sun, exhibits a surprising degree of ter  tility, wl-eliv we consider tme  seem,inTg in,sigf rri  ficatice of the  meats by which it has been
p roduced.
On the Treatmient and Tr?aining of various
classes tJ Domeslic Animals, on Slaiuglhterin?,',
and on the desiriable points in,Stock of all
kinds. _Pa,ragraphs 6076 to 6282.  I h-ve( in  cluded,ill the i.matter treated of under  these
heads in one e(mprehenisive caption, because I
am aware of  my in:-bility to add aniytlhipg of
particular value to the details and illustratioins
here tiven.  The opinion of any experienced
stolck breeder on most of these matters  woul,l
be worth more than  mine, as my studies }rove
been directed in other  channels, arid  I have
alrea(dy celed attenition to some of the mxiore
imiiportan-t, chemical points connected wifh tho
feeding of stock. Pa-riagraiphs 6193 to 6282
include, as it seems  to  me, a most *aluable
and coumprehensive treatise on the forms,
qualities,  atnd  peculiar ekceliencds  of  the
Various kind(is of'live stock.  The  illustrations
are uncommonly characteristic, and the whole
outlinie of tiis suibject as worthy of study
by the, Ameri(can as by the English flu'met.
The latws of breedin-g, aljd the  principles of
erossing, as  explaii2ed here from the  results
of extended  experience, will  also  demnird
close attention.
Thes,e branches of improvement have pro bably been of late more attenided to in this
country  thi:n any  others, and  consequently
more advances towards a  state of pertection
have beenl m.ade.
We have,it le.ast specimens, and in many
cases widt ly diffused hierds and flocks, of the
best foireig,n breedis. Animals of undoubted
pedigree and of real sterling excellence, may
orteri be seen on  tarms that otherwise  show
marks, of  most slovenly and imperfect  cultivation.
My own opinion is, and I believe myself
to be sustained in it by  many practical men,
that in our stock we  are, as  a general rule,
in  adva-nce of  our  cultivation.  We   have
brouglht up its character, and this is well;
we should continue to improve  it fartlher;
but at the  samne tima we should remember that tha stock depar tment is after all only
one of' those th-at requlire attenltion and dilL.
genlt effort. Fromn wanlt of consideralti on in
this respect, much of thle foreigfn stock ira.
ported has deteriorated, even where it ha not
77 
AMERICAN APPENDIX-AUTUMN.
actual loss.  There  are comparatively few
farmers who really know exactly how  they
stand, or who can show in figures the resv
state of their expenses, profits, and losses, for
a whole year.  If they kept strict acc)unt it
would be easy to look the matter in the face,
and see just what procedure was most adva-ntageous and economical.   It is not essential
to follow the examples given here, if the
farmer can invent anlything better.   I have
known one or two farmers who had devised
admirably simple and comprehensive plans of
their own, which presented the whole actual
state of  affairs in any one field, or onl the
whole farm, at a glance.
I have now arrived with Mr. Stephens  at
the close of his arduous task, and have only
to say in conclusion, that so great have been
the variety and fertility of the topics presented by him, that my great difficulty has been
to make a selection among them. Confined
by the size of the original  to narrow limits
in my additions, I have endeavored to touch
upon those points only which seemed  to be
best calculated for the illustration of the wide
differences which undoubtedly exist between
American and British agriculture, and for the
pointing out of the ground which  may be
considered common to both countries.  It is
not to be supposed that this or any other
work will reconcile or do away with all these
differences.
Climate and the constitution of society,
will always lead to the adoption of systems,
the details of which  are somewhat  widely
apart, but at the same time the general principles which regulate both will be found to
approximate in a marked degree.   It is to
these general principles that 1 have for the
most part endeavored to draw attention, and
in view of them  say confidently, that the
American farmer may find in these volumes
an ample, abundant, and invaluable store of
information.
been crossed and mixed. These highly bred
and highly fed animnals will not thrive as they
do at honme, when turned out to seek a living
on poor, worn out, neglected pastures.  The
good farmer should improve his stock, but at
the same time must endeavor to make his
land equal to it.
Those which are called native breeds here,
and which are cited by some farmers as showing the inutility of importiing foreign stock,
are beyond question descendants of stock
imported by early settlers. They have since
beenl mixed in various ways with other breeds,
so as in time to form a species of distinct individual character.
6283. On  th     e Liv ing o f Farm S ervants, and
Cf Wages.-UUnder both of these headings
much will be found that differs from our syst    em.  Our wage s  are gre ater in amount, and
usually                      paid by    the month. There are no
markets set apart for the hiring of laborers,
and from                  the want of  this facility the farmer
is fiequently put to           m          uc h   inco nvenience in
htntingr up hands.
(i-335 to 6381. The observations on this
subject, included in these paragraphs, are both
important; the one to the neatness of a farm,
and the other to the accuracy of any experimental researches that may be made. Many
farmers buy expensive implements, and leave
them,exposed during the winter; the same
sort of careless persons are constantly making
experiments, which, for want of the proper
precautions, are almost totally useless, or
even in some ca —es worse than useless, on
account of throwing doubt upon really correct views.
6382. Of corn markets we know little as
yet, but I think it probable that they will ultimately be established among us.
6404. Of Farm Book-keeping.-Such a
.ystem of accounts as is here explained, or
any really well arranged plan, would save the
farmer much perplexity, and frequently much
I
78 
INDEX.
(THE FIlST FIGURES BEFER TO THB VOLUME: THE SECOND TO THIX PARAGRAPH.)
Academies, education of the agricultural student at, L 514
-comipared with colleges, i. 515
Acrospire, what, i. 1922
Actiioii.,-ter, the, ii. 3032
Acts, parli:i,ientary, regarding importation of diseased ani  mals. ii. 3750
Adie, J., ol, the thermometer, i. 1f4
Aged  lbuill, what, i. 1151-ewe, i. 927-tup, ib.
Agricultuiral colleges, seminaries, &c., ( irencester, i. 532  Ilo(idesdeni, i. 533 —Oxford, i. 534-Te mioplemoyle, i. 535
-lHofwyl, i. 53-M6eglin, i. 5.38 —Grignoni, i. 539.
Agriculltural  pupil, where lhe can best acquire practical
lusbandry, i. 1time  requilred  for it, i. 11-why  lhe
should go to a farm, i. 5-winter an agreeable season
to him, i. 6-&should become acquaint, d with the farmi., i.
7-fees payable, i. 8-should not have a hlorse, i. 9-cl,,th  iilg required, i. 10-difficulties lhe has to encounter, i. 12
-why these baffle him, i. 13 —should learn the minuitim
of labour, i. 14-reasons of the difficulties of his roffesqio,
i. 16 —how these are to be overcome, i. 18-.atiriot ex  pect co:stant a tteiti on from the tutor farmer, i. 1.9-wliy
he sliaild put lis han        d  to any kind of wrli, i. 20)shoutild
be th)rougily traiied, i. 27shlild consielt b, oks. i. 29
-shl.-uld be acquainted with tlie lows                                  of lricti-,n, th5e
strength of mater-ials, &c., i. 79 —institutionos of education
best suited for, i. 51'-)-his observing a,,d re(oldaitg facts,
i. 559-tinal)le at  first to understand,p rati,is, ib.  should attend to nlinutte detail, i. 560-reason ftr this, i.
b(ii-imnport,ance of methsod in tl:is, i. 562~sl,,ld know
what constitutes tlle agriculturel ve.ar, i. 563 —should take
tile operalioinsas they ocicur i. 56.5-sh  uld obsnerve eiery
phenlomeno,,,,. i. 567-difficuilties of his observinig hese, i.
b68 —sihould note tile effects of the weaker, i. 569 —and
tlhe titr,e eachl crop wa.s s,-wn, i. 570-si!ot.ld keep a
register (f each field, i. 571-best forii for tlitese, i. 572 
should make a plan of the farm, i. 5- 3-and                         of tle stack  ard every vear, i. 574-sumnimary of tile results, i. 575  time not muchl required for these, i. 576-to be  initiated
into mixed hutslbandr-y, i. 577
Agr-iciltural year, the, i. 6e55
Agriciulture, sienices most applicalble to, i. 70, 73 -hithlerto
prely practical, i. 71-its niglect  liy men  of siielce, i.
72-    natural pilosophy  in its applicati Lmtis  to, i. 744
mathemiatics, nattirl1 hlistory, and cheinistry, ib.-cplair
of, at Edinburgh, i. 522
Al, liat, i. 2089 
Air, effects of tile respiration of plants on, i. 126-hemical
properties of, i. 212
Alder, siecific gravity of i. 119
Alluivitl dep sits, what, i. 491 —plants distinguishing them,
i. 396 —.nd weedls, 397
Alsik,e clover, i. 2675
Animmonia, its electric state, i. 143-sulphliate of, ammo   ni:,cal salts, &c.. see Speecl Manures
An.lectric bodies, ws 9att. i. 122
Aniatotiy, conipar tive, study of, by the farmer, L 510
Anbury in turinips. ii. 33i2-insects accompanying, ii. 3313
Anemnometer, thie, i. 98-Linid's, i. 99
Aneroid Laroieter, the, ii. 4322observations  with,IL iL
4323                                                                                                  
Angleberriei in cattle, i. 1384
Ang4is doddies, poaits           of, ii. 6 2'28
Anlimaia chiarco,d, on,, ii. 3330i, 5012
A  inials iojuiriuu. andd beieficial to  man,  i.  t     - O rc
,f, lts payabre, ii. t008ikeeaiog of, see Feed          ing
Anlgtto, nature, &c., of, ii. 4250t
Aus!ed or,  tile o rigin  of soils, i. 4 88
Apibries,  ii. 33I)0
April  wileat, on, i. 2378 —its pr oduce,    ib.-its c6a racter,.
2379
Arabie farhs, pIhvsical geographlv of, ii. 5216-change that
nhay be effeited g      i       rcte, ii. 5219-cir-cuTstanee.s  w4icit  affect
their value, ii. 522f'-p,,riod of enterinlg, ii. 5352
Araele soil, soenifie gr avity of. i. 374
A      rbitrati       own. settl ement bv, ii. 5362
Arniiott, Dr,  ni. the  conlstriuetion of  michines, i. 80-on
natural  venitilationl  i. 1,00-,,i, the  frictiont (,f water in
pipes, i. 110-oll tlhe thermoIm,eter, i. 168 —-ro ti~e pro   perties of coal, i. 187-otn light, i. 189-and colour, i. 191
Arseniic, danger a-f applicationl of, ii. 4785
A rtifieial gr:s:es, wl,at, i. 2(i34
Ah,,I) specific gravity of the. i. 119-its ash. i. 465
As  I, Tit., si-io,lId not I-e nlear cottages, ii. 5a49
Aspen.. specific gravity 4,f ithe, i. 1I9
Asplhalt, not,-:uited toi- floors  of steadings, ii. 5420
At,,s;i,here, height of thxe, i.  -2 —its pressure, i.  83-i
conl,l,nets,  i. 84-wliy the temiperature  sinlks as   we
asel,d, i. 101
A ngiiht's Pyihro)meter, i. 183
Auror. b-realiis. thie, i. 6f00its elevation, i. 601-the prog   n(.stics of, i. 602-~se:n in wiit,r, i. 564 —in spring, i. 2175
— in  sutinmer, ii. 3(063-in aui.tutm,n, ii, 4350
Autu mnst, its distinctive  clharacter,  ii.  4319-its tempera -
ture, il. 4321-i s effects on the aninLal svys en, ii. 4346
Avyiesley, Mr, his experiments witih special  mranures on car   rots, ii. 4944
Ayrshires, points of, ii. 6229
Back-banid, the, i. 6c2
nlag, the petclliairly formed for carrying grain, ii. 6395
laggitng, kiid p;f rea0p ibg  ca-led, ii. 4494
is fgric, ir, lhis d          orapgi ht ma re,  ii. 6216
Baikie  f(r m ow-a yres, aI, i. 1131i
Bandlster, the, ii. 45,08
lBand-.wini reapinog, ii. 4472
Barley, ash - f,          128-   its botanical position, i. 1906
4ciassified biy the   ear, ib. 4by  the g rain i  to bere or
bigg, i. 1907-aid barlev, i. 1908 —varieties cultivated in
3cotlanld, i. 1909-crite'rion of it tor  malti;ig, i. 1910   crops of i:, i. 1911qiqua,,tities malted, i. 11.12-pot  and
leairl, i. 191 —gluiten inl, i. 1917 —its comjposition, i. 191   its fectila, i. 192(-its geographical distribution., i. 1924   meal, -i. 1'29(period of sowing,  i. 2s8.5-ploughling of
lan,id for. i. 268titsown  shen  prin~g wiheat  ca,nnrot, i.
2687 —fro'rows plh)mglhed deep foir, i. 26s9-Ihanid anid
m:chlinle sowing. i. 2(69O —qantity sown, i. 2694-sow mg
affected by the weatiher, i. 2695 —so,wn in a2utumn  c.a-inot
stand the winter, i. 2702 —i nstance of ribbing, i. 27O3 —
its treatnent itI (G ernany, i. 2704 —it. culture in summer,
ii. 4120-top -dIressing, ii. 4123-its diseases in summer,
ii. 41:qq —insects affecting it, ii. 413( —the crops of it vary,
iL  4551-ircu.mt=c   inl whiclh it may  be sowa is 
Boring-irons, ii. 5876
Bos.% pyramidlal, ii. 4650-prismatic, ii. 4651-formed  by a
bundle of straw, ii. 4652
Boswell, Mr,  his experiments on the feeding of cattle, i.
1339, 136.5
Bot, great spotted horse, ii. 3680-red-tailed horse, ii. 3861
-othlers, ii. 3,i62
Bots oln sheep, ii. 3752
B,,tanicail phy,siology, wlhat, i. 322
Botany,. bralch of liatlral hlistory, i. 215-how divided, L
320-systetn,atic, i. 321
Bothy,sy.,tem, irmode of abolishing the, ii. 6302
Boussitgault, remar ks of, on the feeding of cattle, ii. 3664
Bowels, i,fl,amtioi of tlhe, in horses, i. 1491
Box-beds, evils of, in cottages, ii. 5541
Box-feediug shleep, i. 964-cattle, i. 1369
Box hand-clmri,-n, the, ii. 4216
Boxes f,nr feedi,og cattle, size and cost of, i. 1369-ompared
witi lharemnels, i. 1370
raike-larr,ow, the, i. 2416
Briona24's hlydraulic press, force of, i. 107
Bran, c3:imposition of, i. 188(L-feeding of cattle on, L 1327
-.-,,d poultry, i. 1632
tBratidiig-itrn, the, ii. 4022
Bratted sheep, a, i 1038
Br attinlg sheep, what, i. 103.-how done, i. 1036-its  cost,
i. 1037-p,-eferable to salving, i. 1040
Br-ats, time fdr takinlg themn off sheep, ii. 3726
lBraxy in sheep, i. 1077
Bre,,d, fondness of horses for, i. 1443-from oatmeal, E.
19:~-.froii rye-ftea~l. i. 1949. See also Wheat
Breakitig-in, ngcessary for young draught horse, ii. 6087 —
a horse-break, r should be en,pldyed, ii. 6088-mode  of,
ii. 6089-0ard   of  first *8orki —g a youing horse, ii. 6090 —
effects of the lbarness on tile skin, ii. 6093-tirst shloeing,
io.-docking, ii. 6095'
Breeding, principles of, ii. 6249-functions of the locomo.
tive organs, ii. (6251-of the vital,  ii. 6252-and of the
miienltal, ii. 6253-selection  of parents, male, ii. 626t)   selection of parent, mat-es, ii. 6261-cows, ii. 6262-ewes,
ii. 6263-points derived from  the  male  and from  the
female, ii 6265-ach paret slhould be perfect, ii. 62;6  clhara2cteristics of the best cattle, ii. 62; i9-in-and-in, ii
6273-imBeedir: te effects of tlfis, ii. 6274-ordinaiy idea
of it not correct, ii. 6275-n,ale first fails in it, ii. 6276   cros,sing, its olject, ii. 6277-ordinary crosses, ii. f6278   crosses cannot be mllaintainied, ii. 6279 —law  of crossing, ii.
6280-difficulty of    maintaining a (ross permanen tly, ii.
6281 —sumiimarv of tlhe laws of, ii. (0282
Brewers' draff, aIh of, i. 1279
Bridle, tle, i. 680-price of, i. 1542
Bridling in sheep, i. 1069
Broadcast sowing, effects of  the surface on, ii. 3522-ont
waste of seed by, ii. 3531, 3535-produce  of grain  and
straw by, ii. 4537
Brodie, Mr, experiments on the feeding of cattle by,
i. 1325
Broken wind in horses, i. 1499
Brood mare, what, i. 1432 —ow, i. 1587
ilea;s, im,in,ral ingredients in, i. 462-thleir botanical posi     tioii, i 19.5)0-their grain, ib.-rops of, i. 1952  used by
horses, i. 195.3-tlheir composition, i. 1299, 1954-fectlla
of, i. 1956-aneient notions regardiig, i. 1957, 2451-ash
of their straw, i. 1982 —nutritive m:tter in an acre of, i.
1298-their ashi, i. 1300-barrow for sowinig them, i. 2434
app'ratisi fur sowing, i. 2434-sowing of tihem, i. 2409              B
Suiitable,oils f,r, i. 2410-their place in tise rotation, i.
2411-thle culture is suited to their natu.re, i. 2412 —swn
in drills, i. 2413-and  broadcast, i. 2414-culture of the
grioiund for tliemi, i. 2415-sown with or witleodtt                                         ofmaonure,
iL 2426-b.'oadca,t withou.t manuire, i. 2427-a,,d with, i.
2430  in rows in the flat without maid                                oee, i. 2428-and
witlt, i. 2431-in drills witlhouit m.an.ure, i. 2429-anld
with, i. 24:i2-app.lyi,.g the dun, in tlie dr-ills. i. 243'    sowing withl the beau-barrow, i. 2434-appily  itrg the ditng
in rows in tlhe flit, i. 2437-a.,d in broa,dca.st, i. 244o    variety sown, i. 2441-atd qutantit y, i. 2442-use  of tlii
drill-harr-ow, i. 2443-cases in whici alone to be sown in
the fla,t, i. 2449-whele  niot to be sown, i. 2447-tleir
cultar.e in. surmmer, ii. 3979-tnimch afflcted by insects, ii.
3982-inerea.se of crop by cutting  iff the tps ii. 3986    tlleir culature for winter, ii. 4418-t tirii,s sownI between
tile dIills, ii. 4423-reaping of theti, ii. 4577- winning, ii.
4655 —effects of special m-anures, on, ii. 4')36-l,in,-eal
itniredients they take fiom the soal, ii. 5059-cost of re    placing tlhese, ii. 5702 
Beani-titeal, feeding  of cattle witil, i. 1297  its                           composition,
. i. 1299
Bearitig reins, i. 16rIl
Beecl, specii 1c gravity of, i. 119-percen tage    of rmineral   in.
gredients in, i. 46;5
Beef, proportionti    of  tallow  tfl ii. (o147-ar sd ofe, ii.
e614-stapl       e of  ani4ta     l           food,  ii. 614()l1onss by cookieg, ii.
fB15)sllted, ii., 6151-nimported,  ii. 6153-tierce of, ii.
6154
-I,,ef bo     d ies, specific gravity of, i. 1196
Beer, antiqt,ity       of, i. 1 9223
Beet, mineryl ingredients  in,  i. 463 —ashl  of, i. 3399.  2Se
also Man,gold-wtirzel
Beetle, tlie pea, ii. 3990
Beistyn, wha,t, i. 2248
Berberry, thle, does not affect wheat, ii. 4115
Bls erkeley, Rev. Ir, on tile potato  dtisease, ii. 4162
Bigg's sheep-dippi.'g comp        o      4sition, ii. 47(47
Bilndin g slieaves,,oetltod of, ii. 4479
Birclh, specific gravity of, i. ll9-ash of, i. 4658
Birds, injury to grain crops from, ii. 4694-searecrow., for
frighltening, ii. 4709-po,son usd against, iL 4711V-gui  powder iimost efficacious, ii. 4712
Ilis.tournage, see Torsion
Bitinlg fly, the, ii. 386,4
Blackear-s iin oat.s, ii 41336-in wheat, ii. 4118
Black earth  of Chilm, its use, ii. 4984
Black bonnet injturiou,tis to cro ps, ii. 4697
Blackfa,ced sheell, points of, ii. (6231
Blackthorn imiotll, the, injures hedges, ii. 5689
Blindillg in sheep, ii. 37{4 
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E E.E 
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c Ei (.2-I 
p~~~ip~ — 
0                                        --     * —0                    0           - 0
0        -                                            0 0;- 
0  -            -.    I -*
-                0
0               I        -  I ;-  -   -     -  I    - -1
0            -   I    -.               - 0 -  0 o -       -1    -  -
O0 -             
;-ILAI            0                           .0:I:;
00I000                         0
00    -0 0 1          
00- I                                               
oc;-            000    -.--  I0;- 
-    - -  0       0       I     -  0;-  1          ;-             I
0  - 0   0
-.-' %0                 r   00 0 
INDEX.
Cattie, continued-i
it. 3668 —time for puttinig on pasture, it. 3:6.5 —trea-itmenti
of cows on pasttre, it. 376t; —-nd of yoiig, ii. 3767w
best size of field for ti~ei, i         t. 37(- -ot,:g r, quiie little
tending on gra,ss, ii. 37ti9 —do not crop ga.~."" close, it.
3770 —treatm.ent of calves, on, pastuire, Ji i771 —witer
essentia,l to them on pa~stur.e, it. 3775 —, id advan.tag.es of
sheds, ii. 3777-farni osi whici y,,unig are not grazed, it.
3778-treat.,e-,t of the co)ws on da~iry fam,         it. 3779   and by dair-ym.en in towns, it. 3780-ti,e cal-ves, go with
their dams  ni  p            astoral fares. 4 it. 37,1 —-grazing of the
young on pastoral farmiis, ii. 3782 —puints of young, to
purchase for gra,zing, it. i7?,3-,,a,d:..ge, it. 3784 —pastuire
confined to th~e border countiei,s of Scotlanid, it. 3789   fattening on pasture in Holland, ii. 3190-in Noimandy,
it. 3792 —in Old Friesland, ii 3795-.a,d in. Galloway, ii.
3797-diseases of, in  cuntiier, hull, ii. 3798- tl,e of the
teats, it. 379:)-,warbles, it. 380:i-by tl~e oleg, it. 3804t   pleuro-pneumoni:, it. 3805-lai-yigites, ii. 3815-inter   nal tumour, it. 3816 —insuran,ce of, it. 5563 —slaughiterling
~of, see Slaughtering
Cattlemiian, duties of the, i. 65, 1150-carrying straw a
large proportion of ].is work, i. 1158-convenien               t        tmoe
of it for him, i. 1159-( his diess, i. 116eu                             uustould be regu   lar in h~is time, i. I61-161is day's work described, i. 1162
-1his wages, ii. 6i317
Centigrade tlieri,nneter. thel i. 164
Cerealgrains,  the, se WhIeai Barley, &c.
Chaff, removal of, fr          o         m the eye of cattle, i. 1388-of wheat,
not relis!;ed!)y cattle, i. 195 —-of  barley, relished by
themi, i. 19(;9 —of,ats, its uses, i. 1.973 —f beaus an~d
peas,e,,aten by cattle and sheep, i. 196;0
Chaff-h~ouse, the, i. 1682
Cli  ff-sheet, tihe, i. 1749
:Cliattinch, lhe, injuiri,us to crops, ii. 4701
'Ch-ain, measuring, ii. 56'01
,Chalk as a top-(,-essing, ii. 6027-mode  of applying  it,
ii. 6028-quani(vy, ii. )029
,Chalk soils, character of, i. 341
'Chalniers, Mr,  experiments by, with special'manures, ii.
1-4931
:Charcoal, heat produced by, i. 186
-Charge, ii. 6435
-Chaser, what, i. 2577
,Cheddar chiees~e, composition of, it. 4287
Cheese, utensils for making of, ii. 4231-the milk warmed
for it, it. 4232 —calf's stomach for ren,net, it. 42.33 —cut   ting of the cuird, it. 4235 —the salting it, it. 4239 —after
pressing, placed ii the cheese-room, i           t. 4245-casualties
to which              subject, it. 4:-50-on the dye i ng                of, ir. 4251   yield of,                   per ac          r      e and per cow, it. 4286-its composition,
iC. 4287-its asth, i. 4288   dfores of, ii. 4289-i-om whey,
iCe 4290-ro-imt,                                                       buttermilk, ii. 4291-reod  paatatoes, it.
4292-CParmesan, ii. 4293-4Ch es hire, it. 4294 —Stilton, ia.
4295Cthe  fly ii  nd mag.ot, it. 4296-mouldy, i. 42971
in)ctulati,,n of it, ib. —the inite, it. 429. —destroyed by
Cerat       s and mice, i f. 4299-7pirusic    acid produced from up,.
sore,d, it. 4300 —importedl, it. 4301 —creaim, it. 4312
Che ese-pr ess, stone, it. 4242-4c0mbi ned       lever, it. 4243
Cheev        eprom,                                                     Cofe, tiln. 4193
Ch                                             eese-turner, the, it. 4247
Cheese.vat, the, ii. 4240
Chemical 2   latiof.          n elect ricity evolv ed during, i.  128
Cpoemistsy          science -ff i 29ti                                 classes of, oe  aca iesi.  523
Cheviot d ills,   peculiarities of       th e                 pasture o1, it. 4005
Cheviot Ii        e        3798  isheffects, poi    n4i7. 6230
Chickens, coc,k distingui.,Ihed from heni, i. 2891-treatment
of, i. 2892 —time wh.en they leave t~ie lien, i. 2,~96-super    stition of tl:e Greekis it  td,  i,   z,s3Comnn, wh t, i.  2.1e36 -
hlatc ing of,   iep Egypt, i. 2943-agnd          in France, i. 2944    Bucknell's, ha~tch~ing in Englan d, i. 2947 —an.d Cantelo's,
~i. 294S4 —habits of, wh~en artitici~.lly h~atched, i. 2952 —
profits of haitchiing, i. 21)53 —isea..-s, of, i. 2954
Childers, Mr, experimien~ts of, on the feeding of sheep, i.
958'
Ch~ill, tile, in cattle, it. 3798 —its effects, it. 3647
Chine-fe!Ion in calves, it' 3846i
Chil,rine aecompanies s,ida, it. 505-3
Chi,,-rofo)rm,': employment of, in slauightering animals, it.
~6189
ChIoking in cattle, i. 1378
C'hubb's lock,, on, it. 5.519, 5520)
Cirrus, character of the, i. 238 —its relative he-ights, L. 239
its periods of duration, i. 240 —colour of the sky with it,
i. 241 —its indications as to weather, i. 242
Cistern, rain-water, ii. 5531
Clay, burning of, ii. 4991-specific gravity of, i. 119 —that
of briik, grey, and loamy clay, i. 374-soil, see Soil
Clay loam, cli Lri,tei of, i. 337-plaiits ctaracterising, i. 388
— and weeds, 3,~'9
Ca y farl, coiiiiio.iiion of, ii. 6032
Claying tlhe soil iii the feins of England, i. 2119-p1rocess of.
i. 2124
Cleg, the catt.le, it. 3804-lhorse, it. 3859
Climate, inattention to its effects on vegetation, ii. 5221  defnition of, ii. 5222-' general, charattei-ied, ii. 5223  mean tempen.ttture not sufficien~t to indi~cate, it. 5237 —
local, ii. 525 —this to be observed in looking at farms, ii
526i2
Cliing of belly in cattle, what, ii. 3643
Clo.~ing in cattle, wi —t, it. 3617
Clouds, l,-w foiniel, i. 174 —height of, i. 261-number of,
i. 174-g how classc2 ied, i. 236;-heiiiow suspetided  i, the air,
i. 237awhb att  prognodtics of, i. 260. w.tli e  cirrus,  e. 23-8
the cumulns, i. 243ithe s3rattas, i. 2489-te cirroe.
cumpoitons, i. 250-4t7oe cirro-s tr,as tus, i. 253-3t8 e cuciion  stratus, i. 255-.the 4ir2tl oc ree 4 -ct- nCd -sra tts    or nimbus, i. 2spic
-sc,.d, i. 259 —size,of, i. 262 —thje,.ost cormiio, in,,inter,
i. 607-tfhe curdvai-li ang in  spring, i. 2146-c c  irri, i. 2147i
cirroscub   i, i. 24i -au4 mdn, ib. 433otieir t  lues pecdi.
liarly ricr  then, it. 4340-4cirrus, e irro-cs nu lus, cumulus,
cumulo-stratsk,  s tr ato4 s,        i i. 30 -r    n9
Clover, red and white, percentage of mineral  ingredient#
in, i. 464-312  t propded t,,    186- es, i. 2636cwpitie, 26'37yel   lowChees  of  re, ii  Cockermou     restoi ts  weight and cof, t, i. 2640mi
tei a t of white, i. 2641Shat of yellow,  i. 2ep42rits  botan,i   cal piosition-n, i. 2e'69s olail best adapted for red, 1. 267 1   varieties      of, i. 2672-pere5nial red, / b.-t-e process o f
doctoringa the seed, i. 2680-      iwte rep,rted  fro,, i. 2681
-duty on importation, i. 2n82-aits treatlment in Ger   manl ly,  i. 268,3-dodder, it. 3885ati 2e crop in various se a -
Csuns, ic. 386-thvrieves in an1  soil,  i.  3887rit s manage   tlent in Flanders,  it.  3888-msick land, it. 3 2089-preven   rive  suggestrd for this, it. 3890-,green more nutritious
than  dry,  i. 25891 —comd tarisoing between  stall-feewut ing and
tether-grazing on, ife. 25-92-tever ind ejude s cattle  before
flowering, it. 389?, —disease of, it. 3894-comnposition of
the green stems of,  ii. 3896-ash of, ic. 3t97-ct a ulivated
io  oh inc,    Ctea 12. 3S98   -   an d rye-grass, effects of   spa,cial
man ures on, it. 4965 —crim,son,, it,; cultuire in England, it.
4370 its pecuniary advantag~es, it. 4376 —the ta-rdif or
late-flow,erin~g, it. 4374-w,)uld be a boon to Scotlan-d, it.
4375-liokhlara, it. 4377-,red for seed, sown alone, it.
4:'480 —its culture for seed, ii. 4381 —ninured by a weevil,
it. 4382 —period.,f cutting down, it. 4383 —thrash~ing from
the h~usk, it. 4384-impor~tation of sieed, it. 4385-ired,
mineral ingredients it takies from the soil, it. 5060-cost
of rep~lacin,g these, it. 5073
Clyers, it. 3816
Coal, heat produced by, i. 186-ashes, composition of, it.
5020
Cobhiami red wheat, variety called, i. 2377
Coccih,ella, see Ladybird
Cocelirm,utli limestone, composition of, it. 6035 —ime, ii.
603.9
Cock's-foot, rough, for pasture, i. 2645
Cod in cattle, what, it.?~618
Coffee, m~inera,l ingredients in, i. 462
Coke, hiea-t produce.d by, i. 186
Colbeek, Mr, experiments by, with special manures,'ii.
4957
Colds in horses, i. 1492
Collar-, th~e l~,st-Lothian draught-horse, i. 676 —the For..
fa,rshiire, i. 677 —the English., i. 678
Colleges, adivantages of, over academies, i. 516
ColIt-foa,l, what, i, 14::2
Cohout,s, their origin, i. 191 —their influence on vegetation,
i. 193i
Colta, the, ii. 3457 —cultivated for its seed, it. 3458
Corniins, what, i. 1922.,See Barley sprouts
Compass, the, ii. 5602'
Comtpos,t. forming of, in winter, i. 2037 —carriage of ma,te       ril, i. 2041 —order of materials, i. 2042-of peat-turf
and lime. i. 2044-of farmyard duing and peat-turf, i.
786 
INDEX.
-of the solid refuse of manufactories, i. 2o160-and the
liquid, i. 2061-mixed up besides in liquid-manure tank,
i.. 2074
Concrete, not smited for floors of steadings, if. 5419
Consuniption dykes, what, ii. 59d57
Coosumptioit in pigs, i 1.596k
Cotitract and jolb wiirk, comuparison of, ii. 6334
Coproltes, ii. 5005 —t heir composition, iL 5006 -their
t,aimlacture for manure, ii. l5007
Corns in horses,                                                       Co 14se28
Corn, -.ale of, Spoth                                                                      jaw               of, ii. 6s399
Corn-account, wheat, ii. 6420-barley, ii. 6421-oats, ii.
(i422
Corn-barn, the, i. 1l79-outer door of, i. 1680-floor of, i.
1681
Curn-barrow, the, i. 1741
Corn-ta.-ket, the, i. 17r90
C,,rn-box f,,r sheep, i. 943
C,rn-bruiser, hand, i. 13113-power,                                     i. 1314
Coin-buit-ing, lie, injurious to crops, ii. 4ii98
Corni-chest fo,r wo,rk,-ho,'ses,, i. 141,.9
Cor-n-narkets, ordinariiy p~urchias,ers in. ii. 6382-.,:tock and
sample, ii. 6383 -stock,    ii. 6384 -  sample, ii. 6:le5                    -
settlem,ent.-f  cahit,, ii. 63co7 —advantages- of stock, ii.
6388 —and di.-advantages, i,. 6389 —advantages of sample,
ii. ti390 —ai~d di~sdva,,tages, ii. (i391 —grai,ii now.,,id by
weight and measure in, ii. 6397
C~nmau        e.usual detnot,ni!maons of, ii. 6398
Cor,,-,-tore for sheep, i. 1063
Coro,,a in, win~ter, i. 6it;5
Corrosive cublimate, danger                                       of using, ii. 4786
Costivenes in calves,. 22.)7-iii laihbs, i. 27)4
Cottages for fai-niervaitts, long in a tieglected state, ii.
55:-17 —tt,e tendency nuw t,ii mu  h the otlier way, ii. 5538
f,,r small families in one roo.,,   ii. 5519-for large on s in
two, ii 5542-of two st,iiies, i. 5544-cost o     f, ii. 5548  double, ii. 5546-i'iproved fou datit,nes i      or, ii.  y550  positi,  of oipied ini iit                                                                              of eiry, iiii. 552t
cli~inney-top, ii. 5.-54 —rai,.-spouts round, fl. 5559 —win  dow          s  fcor, i.        1134
Co,uch-grais soid for forage, ii. 4178
Coulters fi r ribitug land, i. 26t                                                                   u0
Cowuplie g fr f astcuin                    g horses, for               Daie i. 1050
Courts, how   oc-at pied, i  - ic,tebi i.    1083
C1u22.or, C,a1orael     le. hdir classification f wheat, i. 1844
Coventry, Dr, his mode of    estimating a grain reyt, i1.
53(1g9-   its a      ikva  iny          tages, ii. 5310
Cove                                            ring, wi.ht, i. 1432
Cowie, Mr, experimegts by, on feeding iorses, i. 1436
Cows, what,  i. 11i5g4inccupf t                          he byle, i. 1141-ethe servants
occupy their ocn  byge, i. 1142-kept on egily species
~ of f~tri       t, i. 1220- iow  tre            ated in winter o s crse farits, i.
1221-on pastoral ones, nb.-t,n dairy ones, i. 12226
cooking -~f their f,)od, i. 1223-2,'rving it iut, i. 1225-n, ar
towns, gow treated i n wineii r, i. te41a d in Edine urg               h i,
i. 1242-0give tore                                         ig ok in s-yre.s   teac   on pasture, i.          11.472
-— ffects of being turned out to pasture in~ w?inter, ib. —
calveing  f, i. 2181-cthlig         tsf, afi-re          peter        i                                it, i. 2132-7to
ascer      tain them   to be i 2 alf, i. 218rditdeiar woDb,  i. 2186
2time afl                                                                    calving t be r:,gistered, i. 21D7-yiglding most
baill or he.    gifter c al vis,  i. 218,-c,;m itg!own  of         she calf  bed, i. 22 89-,adtvinistr:.,ti,,                                     Df their food,  i. 2190-4-8iti  cal peri d before caiviro g, i 21  6.4-ol1cake  g      teats, when  in
calf, i. 2192tiaoe er-leannes to                     bet svoided, i. 21o r3 —dlie                             1k  ing of, the calf, i. 2194-syt,ptom~s of e~llving, i. 22010 —
attenda,:ce at tli-ir calIving, i. 2201.-preparaii,,ns for it,
i. 220$2-pr,-wn.sen'ai,, f th,, calIf, i. 2204-i-s treatwent
aftev  liite, i.2673ift ewi-r                                                       t  t     30e ttiater birtI,.i. 2219
-difficubt present,ion of p, i. 2211-the after bi1t9, i.
d219 —fcod afte r  ealving, i. 22224 an9    tDr                              e  t           rem at, i. 2221
-wi,en, tlhey again dles,ire the t~ull. i. 2230-I-heifers, first
brough~t to the byr,-~, i. 22,3f'-tal~le of' the re,.kioni~)g of
th~eir- ca-l,,i,g, i.'?12::7 —c,,mpl iin,ts,   at   calving,,; pter  petal fi-veri, i. 224f'-ec,rde~d teats, i. 2241 —red-water, i.
2242 —tail-i11, i.:,244 —inflamm,.ati,-n of th~e..,der. i. 2-21,'6
-tirst ndiking after calving, i. 2248 —h,,fting of. i. 2250
milk-ve,ins in, i. 2251 —their esi'         i     tns in  mlking,i
22.54-i..i king side of, i.'225.i-,Ihe p,,-rsons who( m.ilk, i.
2256-w-ways of milking, i. 2257-ilteaiga   makes
tr,~uble,sot,e( in ra.ilkine', i 22-:,i-%yieid] the i lk diffi rently,
i. 2262-,-ilkinig by ttubes, i. 226.3-differ in~ i inme of g-lvin~g
m,ilk, i. 22:;i7 —si~aaying, to ke~ep in T..lk, i. 2268-;-the  ~est
Craig, Mr, his Cheviot tnp, ii. 62.30
Cranston, Mr, his Ayrshir-e buill, ii. 6229
Crean, yield of, froi milk, ii. 42;)7-cannotrise from gmat
depth,  o    f eilk,    ii. 4267fot     e      ntirely fatty matter, ii. 4268
e-dislies made from, ii. 4306
Ceam    er, ii. 4207-skim er, ii. 42085
Creosite, preserpvatio11           of meat               by, ii. 6188
Crib-biting i         o   hr            tes,     ei. 1502
Crimsn~i (.lover, see Clover
Crook, sho                                        eaep, i. 2568
Cross-pldughiigeg be3fore winter, on, i. 2448-in spring, i.
2)603 —re, so,. for it, for barley. i. 26ii6-l-reparation for
.it,  i. 2(i638Cfery i ng for it,  i. 26i 1-th e furr,1-w in it, 1.
2618, 21.is-deep, distingiisleed from trentconf ploughing,
i. 2i;2,5
Crous g-4C en,    rthe   ii.   5603
C55os0-g. see Breding
Crt osskil's iae cliii eyi,iarnis t, i.  s 2077-clod-crusler, ii. 3099
Cr,,wn-aind-t'tr-,~w pl,,ughiing,-, i. 752
Crucicerit,  gec5)irraqddical dirntri bu tion of  t he, ii. 3284 —tteir
chi~iarater,_ ii. 3"285
Cdosfn,il,-st,'ahtue,  ti e, i. 255-tweather indicated by,  i. 257
Ciglndulu.% 2he, i. 243-gweat,er indicated by, i. 245
Ctrd analoggus       to ot51Dar substad ees, ii. 4279ayield of,
pttiro   milli, ii. 4280-for renots  f et,ow prep1red, iL 4285  and creas, ii. 4304-treacle posset, ii. 4ist6
Ct rrd-be peal ier,  its 42ot6-cutter, ii. 4234
Cgtre ay-ot a t b  feo r h,r, s, i. 1419prooioe of, i.      1424  
Curry181 cattle   in 216res, in, i.         1215
Cki rg Dis, Mr, his ex 1eriments on feeding cattle, i. 1322
Cu rwen,           Mr, ingredients eof ploed by, in feeding a  ows, h e
I243i
Cut s$-ww,pig, whiat, i. 1587
Cutaw e, Du..; ertpcitis in spring, i. 2166
Cutting-bill, thie, ii. 5t642
Dace of                   bay, iwiat, ii. 4061
Dai ry tarmd mst,    ii 42- s f o tk n, 1 its   ah, aits   ren t,   l&c., of,
i. 46-qt..Iitic'ati,,is- of the o(ccupant, i. 47 —fatten~ no
shtep, i. i)93-t-(;tn~alent of o-,ws in winter on, i 1222 —
requ,re rich,ld pas,tue, ii. 3721 —cows graze n.,ost in
sun,,me,', ii. 3779-grow i~ay, ii. 4069-o-odinary business
of, ii. 4252 —how to estimate the tixed money-rent, li.
5287 —most con:venient tinge of e,,try, ii. 6:i53
Dair-y-mnaid, d,-ties of the, i. 67
IDai,-y,,iei in tow,n, o,-di, ary, busi,!ess of, ii. 4252
Dairy operations on m,ixed husbandry tartffs, ii. 4191
Dale' I.)ybrid turnip. see T'uridip
Da~,iell's h~ygrometer, i. 181
D~anskin~ vegetable nmould., composition of, ii. 5999
Dart-i. oth, ifie, injure,s the roots; of wheat, ii. 4111 —and of
o,ats, ii. 41,37
D.avis, Mr. quantities,own by, ii. 3540
].ealers, m~ode of puirelifasi~g,Iheep by, ii..1588
Deep-ploughiing,, its object, ii. 597~ —by trench and subsoil
plouglis, ib. 5979
Devon ox,, Lord Faraboarn's, proportion of offals to live.
w, ight, ii..'632
Dew, ) ow iortmed, i. 175 —theories of, i 176 —its phenomena,
ii. 29'76
Di:,rrhcema in pigs, i. 2874
Dibblel-so,win~g,,exper-iments on tle waste of seed by, ii. ~3531,,
Dilbbli.,;, produce of grain and straw per a,cre by, ii. 4537
Dick,.,on, Air, his exl,erinments with special maniures on
oats, ii. 4933
Digging, cos,t,of, ii6002
Dvi~ston, orc-an~s of', in the domesticated animals, i. 1645 
Dil vinm  what, i. 4.(,0
l)ili:,ont. wirer. i. 924
Discharge. ii. 6434
Diseas,~. ten~den~cy to, in auitumn, ii. 435,&
Diseased;,timals, acts rega,rdin g impor,tation of, ii. 3751
Diseases, see H~orses. Cattle, Slheep, &c.
])i~tilleryl dre,g, see Dr,,g
Ditchi, r's s-,-ve-, th~e, ii. 5604
D,,-bits, Mr, h~is ex l~eriment., on feeding cattle, i. 132/
D-,eki~,-, h~or.~es, on,, ii. 6095
D,,,-s., worrying o~f ~hecep by, ii. 3757. Sm also Shepherd's
D~,me,stica,ted aifl,origin of th~e, Ii. 6248
Doutble3 mould-bo:-ird plough, the, i. 2363 —for drilling-up
.,i7v 
Draii.s f.,r liqoid mnre, i. 1113-for rain-water, i. 1118;
iit 5426
Drrain-gautige, tlhe, ii. 5816
l)rail-scoopol to draw, ii..5813-to ptu.shi, ii. 5835
1)r:in  spade,  nar row, ii. 5,12-na-rowest, ii. 5835
Dralin-tuble,!archt, ii. 58.9~;
Drauin-wa.tei  miiete,, ii. 5940
JIiaier's,hluiob-les 1, tile, ii. 5321
Drau.g6,h.t bars, see Swing,-trees
Dreg, distillery, used for feeding cattle,  i. 1273-its  com   positoi,,, i. 1275
Drill-gru,blber, common, ii. 3253-WV,ilkie's, and harrow, ii.
3254
Drill- lartow, rectalngular, i. 244-triangular, i. 2446
Dril-s,wilig, effets of tle si)il on, ii. 3524-expai-ii eits on
waste of seel by, ii.:-5:.1,:;.5o.34
Drill-sowving machine, ii. 6341
Drillinig-up lanld, truie baid false, i 2381 —lantd  made  flat
prior to, i. 2382-tlle lrio- piloughilig affects, i. 23 83  paitlikes (f thie form of tile ground, i. 2;i84-sisglde and
doubtile, ib.-varieties of sil,   i. 2386, 2:310-di          stisction
between   t -ese,  i.  2391-fee       fitJ,, for  d,til)le, i.  23.)4  arieties  of douldle,  i. 2397,  239.8-diff,.re (ce   betw een
thleimi, i. 2:399-d(,tible  alwayvs unequl,    i. 24,0-olbliterat  iTg hloreses' footnlirks,  i. 2402 —widlthl o,f dr-ill%. i. 24;,3  whyi    doubl          e  wioi tle copmg t)l  i                                                                                         ifs to is eql  1. 2404
edonble  m,ld-board 12       plou g,i  for,  i. 24.d5 —prodt rce  of
grain and stralw per a.,re by, ii. 4537
D l-iver f5r.ltaile s, the, i.                                                                   l    190,
Drosi)aieter, the, ii. 2978
I)rover, c,a,tie, shl,uid have no dog, ii. 3644-of  sleep, his
qDaificiig ioi s, iti. g54
Du-ttce, M-,   is  -lerefi)b-d ox,  ii. 622(6
Dry fogs, ii. 2',81
Dtucie grailbb)er, tlie, i. 2421
Dtick., win.ter t'e:;t )lent of, i. f104 —e.arly layers, i. 2925  lhes good foster-motl:e1 sf2 f, i, 2b)2  vtdea tment                            of young,
i. 2928- nmtbe-s reared at Aylesbury, i. 2.529-8,htcliig
of, in Clhitna, i. 29;50 —to secuIe tleir e,gs, ii. 516)7
Dtiudgetn,  Mr J., hsis         ts  on- feeling psigs, i. 159)8
Du,ng fom' tile co)w,-byre, lh)v aforect d mlet cover, i. 2024
— h~rse and  cow,, eon,ipared, i. 2t)25, 2027-loss  on, by
fermeta:it,tion,  i. 2';)2f-1)i;,s,, c,mq;ar.d with c,)w,  i. 2028
-an.d slieep's, i. 2(02.)9-effects (o its ai~pic;,tion  -tn weeds,
i. 2030   its cflore.:dl;:ctezl  by.dm t *; t he.traw, i. 1986;
:nd urin,e, con lq,aative vahles m, ii 5019
IDnnghills, tb)ri..i,g of, in wbi,ter, i. 1999 —con,tents of all
thle c,,uirts9 form,ed into mixed, i. 2004) —)ositi~,ni of, in tbe
fields, i. 20'01 —formed  in, fillow-fields, i. 2003-.emptyin
of corn'-ts for, i. 200)6-fixrnl of, iin the fie:ld, i. 2t(;0.9-com  pression, p-revents  fernme.lta,,ionl,  i.  201o)-coverin,g on
tlhein. i. 2011 —from  tihe IlarlJels, i. 2012-fi'o,l  byres,
i. 2013-no fermentat iin                  inwiner,  i. 2014-fro iti  un  covered cour-ts, i. 2015; —cover-ed in tile fields, i. 2014!  ferm -en,tation muicthll in tie fair.er's rvower. i.,*,.e.
for,  in  tihe  tielhi, i.  2018 —general  tre;tmnenit recom~  mentded, i. 2019-oozl gS from, i. ll)20-2 eo tmposition of
these, i. 2090 —plan. of field-stance fo-. i. 2021 -drains for
oozings, i. 202oZ-examinati~m  vf strictures on  common
E1di',bu'rgi, l7ci,)ir of agriculture at,  i. 522-classes of  pra,.    tical chemistry at, i. 523- laboritory of thie Highltnd
Society at, i. 524-vetel-iinary  college at, i. 528-dair-ies,
treatment of cows                 i w inter i, i. 1242-sheep miarket at,
ii. 3601
Education   best suited to a      grictiltural  students, i. 512   scientific, for sons of farmers, i. 517
Eel of the wileat, the, ii. 4119
E,gg. constitulent patrts of the, ii. 5170-the shell, ii. 5171   tile tmembranre, ii.  5172-tsi. oiii e, ii. 5173-ite  ash, ib.
-thie yolk, ii. 5174-difference  between wli;te and yolk,
ii. 5175-spefic  gravity of,  ii. 5176-pr,~portion of re    spective parts, ii. 5177- tlianges on, by boiiilig, ii. 5178    s8orce of tihe bone of the chlick, ii. 517.) —atulre of animal
album,,-en, ii. 5180 —comparison of seed  and it, ii. 5181    sex of, ii. 5192
Eggs  ini winner,;.. 161   schelnie for producing a large in11m   ber of,  i. 1635 —olid, not wortli hiitclitirg, i. 2:139-,daily
pilenlonlenla in  hatc hing,  i.  294(0-periodI of  laying, ii.
5L.)5-)-nlests pr,,vided for h.tyitg, ii. 5156-places suitable
for tluebe, ii. 51 57 itiie for etolectilg,     it. 51. S-markied
characters,f, ii. 51h   -tre1teinetit of, ii. 5161l-t o preserve
fresh, ii. 5163;:-impor-tationi of, ii. 5185-duty on, ii. 5t86
EP,ild giroruer what,  i. 925 —cow, i. 11:j4-  milare, i. 1432
E]iro)llmtel', tie, ii. 3961
Electric te 4eory of vegeteation, thle, i. 135
Elecrtricity, ifs ha tlure unpdefined, i.  121)-universally  dif   fugaed,  i.  121 —widen   excited,  found at  the sin-face  of
bodies, i. i123actl        l tes i   tie atmospilere,when set
free                                                    f, i. 124-codctos   nd  o- od os of, i.  122   itr causes usfexplaiined, ib.I o l.sitive anid  negative, i. 123
reans ot excitilng it, i. 124-ti(i  atm,)spliere tie  great
reservoir of, ib.-s,,irces,f, i. 125-st tes of the gr,tind
when t  it is evolved from platits, i. 127-its forie, i. 129   ientitied wvitli galvanism and inm,gnetisi,. i. 130-velocity
of, i. 1 l-develops pl'iuts, i. 134-c nsidered as one or
two fltlids, i..1 6-resides on   lie surt-icLe,f isiatter, i. 1o7
-aud vegetation, i. 149-e,tsily sxcited in nmetals, i. 1.1
Elec.ro-tilt7ire, lhow suggested, i. 133-its first.pplication,
ii. 502:3 —how electricity  can  be  made  availatble to it, ii.
5Dg)24-apl)aratuis ieces.sarv  for  it, ii.  5029-resilts  if
experimelteis in, ii. 5031-cnlelusioiis ifrom, tIheI, ii. 5032
-practicalble to a limited extelnt, ii. 5033
Electrometer, tihe, i. 132
Eliio,t, Mr. experismenits bv, with special itianuiies, ii. 49.50
Elan,  sqecific grasity  of, i, 119- mineral ingredients in, i.
4(i5
Emilpat nkmi1ent, whiere necesstry, ii. 5744 dimensions of, ii.
57451ine  of, ii. i374(i —cpst-tictioc i of,  ii. 574,- faced
witl single-faied d ke, ii. 5749-cost of maiking, ii. 5750
pr-t    i -e' m king,  ii.  5    751watering pool to be pro.
vided,  ii. 5752 —of larger dimen sions, it. 57.53
E1l4o igrantsI siould Icqiur  agriculture, i. 556- reasons for
1  557-a,riculture   thle best  ktowledge  they  ean
acquire, i. 558
Etelositie, depends on the purpose intetnded, ii. 5567-a
ring-fence  indispenisahble,  ii.  5568-carse firms   often
devoid  of  such, ii. 5569-individtal fenes determi ned  by
various  circlinstances, ii. 5571-on  the direction of he 
INDEX.                                                                   7$9
ridges, r. 5.~2ffip~ra1'e1 to c~cb ot~~er, ~L 5573~in`in the grain market,' ii. 644S-llis duty in e~perimente
straight li~~es, ii. 5574-shspe determhied by cireum                         ii. h45O-his duty to his servai~ts, ii. 1345&amp;~bis duty to his
stances, ii. 5575-size of, ii. 55$t-position, ii. 558~                       neighbours, ii. 6455-l~is duly t() Illt landlord, ii. 645(#
niimler, ii. 55$5-si~~all ol~ectionahle, iL 5587-of tl~e                     l~is recreatb~os, ii. ti457-l~is comparative position, ib,  ancient~, ii. 5559                                                           l~is duties as a si~bject, ii. 6459
Ecysted I   oi~rs ill catile, i. 1385                                        Earning, diffcrent kinds ol, i. I4paston~l, 1. 35-carie, 1.
Enlisli draught lior~c c'~lisr, the, i. 678                                    39-near large towns, i. 42-d;iiry, i. 4~at a distanco
Etitirecolt,  liii, i. 14:32-I  so, iS.                                        Irons towns, i~ 48-tisixed, i. 5o-wliyrccsnsniended, I. 5~
E ts~'nski~v, its con Ot('tiOO with azri~ulInre, I. 516                        54
Ergot of b: r QV, ii. 4128-its prolsable cause, ii. 4129                     FarmAisroes, names given to, I. 1472
Ergot of rye, i~s pr()tertic-', ii 4143-its asli, ii. 4144-its               Fa   servants receive potatoes as part of ~~ages, ii. 4809  poisonous effe Is, ii. 4145-chronic ergotisin on tlie Con-                   h~riog married, ii. 6284-and`arried, ii. 1287-muds
tttset~t, ii. 4146-aids par~uritiot~, ii. 4147                               of it, ii 68~~~~dttIot,t of it, ii. 6289-workmett, ii.
E    e   Its, tie, inj   S t~cdges, ii. 56'9                                   629~ticotch 1 woflsirig, ii. 6290-markets for it, ii. 6300.
Evapratoti, ek'ctric;ty induced by, i. 125, 128-in spring,                   Farrow, what, I.  87
i. 2351-ti summer, ii. 3028-from  the ground and ft'ottt                   Farniwed what i s1587
water, ii. 5248                                                            Fat, distritiut~iin of, ii. 6187-tiebig's theory of its forittaEwe liogg,  list, I. 924-lamis, what, S. 123                                   lion, ii. 6272
Ei'e-ii~ilk ct~ecse, OOtupi)Sttt~iO of, ii. 4287                             Feathers, origin and structure of, 1. 2942-to prepare for
Ewes in tilib, isoir treated iii winter, i. 950-lambingof. its                 use, 5. 1623
tinte and duration, S. 2538-priparat  s for tambing, i.                    Feeditig of animals, rationale of Ilie, I. 1643-their organs
2541-extrisetitig 11)5 taniti stIlt ut assistai~ce, i. 2547-                 of digestS`n, i. 164~Ilieir functistis explaitied, i. 164(#
and wilt,i. 2545,-tieatmi'ut after lanib;ng, i. 2'50-liow                   11)5 moopltagus of the horse, i~ 1147-the stomach of Site
uliport ori'iiau I.  bs, i. 2553-lint out to tlie teld, i.                pig, S. 1648-those of cattle and sheep, i. 1149-intestines,
2555-ex~iniptcs of untisititral piesenlalteiti, i. 2557-                     I. 1610-    nation, i. 3652-digestive organs of birds, i.
titeittis used to make them take their osti lamlis, i. 2561-                 3658-coniposition of lie food ot tite dotiies~iciiled soS  atid to Isike ttiiioe of iitlier~, i- 2563-effects of cotidilion             n~ats, i. 16l4LiebSg on digestion, I. 1666-ISis saccita  tit' lisitibitig, I. 21i13  pet lamlis i 25117-mode if catching,             ritie tind azotised ~itiris of food, 5. 1673
5- ~~t8-,~ield iii lauttis by Leicester, S. 2578-by Cheviot,               Feering-pitle, Ilte, ~ 741
11la~kiiiceit, atid i1oiiilido~sn, t. 25811-pulling oiit to                Feer~ng r:dges, on, 5. 742
grass, S. 2551-toni's ott which kept, i. 2582-Itimlaing of                 Eon laud, soil and drainage of, 1. 2120
C lievti it tind Blsckfsiced, I. 25~4-bsnibitig iii tie Ititis, I.         Fever, nittk or nerperal, S. 2240-itt lambs, i. 2595
2585-its t.tiie, 5. 2587-disi ases of, i. 1590-Slipping of                 F xis prices, 1)01 a trite eslittiate of prices of grain, ii. 5314
lamb, ib -prolr'cted labitr, i. 2591-itItauinitition                         -the oil n~ode oil sitiSitig, ii' 5:115
if tite`ioii.b, t. 25112-till' r'eliiii, 1. 2.i~o6-in ividtial,           ~telit uper~tiOns, so   aty uS', in spring, S. 2130-sliould
stieltetet itt ssve~I   10, I. 2597-mile of milkIng, ii. 3996                alwttys tie in an advanced state, i 2176-titus lost its tItem
-a liusy 11110 to ISo f. ii, ii. 3.9.-its itijo   s effects                  c.iniiiit tie nitl~ tip, 1. 2li7  best advancetl b,~ statiliviston
wlieti coitl   ed, it. 4002-lesitting uS thou aid g    era,                  of labour, S. 2178-exanipies uS advanced lalisur in, 5.
ii. 4), 117-niarks   1151,11 deIorii~ine it:ts, ii. 4(l(1g-a pro-            2179-at d if the eutitrary slate,, i.,21$~sumn?a.rY ofiSa
portion outs losfted, ti 41119-their treatnient after drsift-                suniti~sr, it. 3ob4-anoii~alise to, in auttinin, ii.
ing. ii. 4011-diafis, slieti di~piiSOl 01. Ii. 4(112-drafting                s`y of, itt tiulu, ii. 4357
in litlI~faims, ii. 4013-poitod I laitibing froiti Stippitig,              I iele~s, a low stialt, itetful, 15584
ii. 4716 ~.attd gi   era, pitl I' gst~or, ii. 4718-their treat-            Field spurts cutiiti)snce in autumn, ii. 4355
met it tietore Itip` g, ii. 4719-terglli of lupping season,               Fish -siork~ts, their duties  5. 6(1-their wages, ii. 13518  ii. 4725-marked as hippo1, ii. 4726-lieatii.eiit oif, tifor                  their conditioti as bui'~dage'rs, ii. 6318
lupi~in,g, ii. 4725~giniiufrs Isilor, tupped Iliat\., ii. 4732             Filly loal, what, S. 1412
-their Ireilment tin 5)11)-tat isa iii  utumo, ii. 4724-                   Fitteeri-and-tues in liii nips, it. 5314
lisetises tif, iii 111111111)0, ii. 4740                                   Fi,n,'nie, Mr, ox perimen is of, with speotal m,,anurss on barley,
Exlioitattiins to ilto y(iuiig isomer, ii 6439                                ii. 49211-un oils, 1  4920-on luinips, ii. 4951-on larsa,
Experiii~ontt, Ilie firitier, i tigag,\d tit prai'ltc,al, Si. 634~             ii. 49(13-ott clover and rye.gi,ist, ii. 496{)~itt summer, iL
suo~eslel by mitt tif scienie, it. 6350-their pnmary oh-                   F'  baIls, niiml~sr uS, tit spit g, 5. Ilts
Joel, ii. 132-mule oif rotiditetitig, ii. 6353-ingiedietits                  3063-itt aittutun, ii. 4350 &mdash;in winter, 5. 564
used in, ii. b3o1 -101 qiiant~Itea of these, ii. b2.i8-tlioae              Eiie~l.~nging iii dung, what, 1. ~(24
all weighed, ii. 636170o11e?',Iing I lie  001,0515,, ii. (i362-            E,ire,-ins0O.~005,, ocoessity oil, ii. 5560
difficulties in eiitidiielitig, ii. 6363-qualilteations iif Ilie           3i Sail. eutistriti'tioii atil, actit iii oil the, IL 408O~ften errone  stiggealor of, ii. 1366-and iif ISie ii iski r iS, ii. 6.67-eni-             ously`uniti iteted, it. 41181-A (list 5050, ii. 4082-ussd in
plo,smet~t of s~teeiaI 5]nisitiures in, ii. 1369-atid of salitie             J~tigl.  S, 5  4' $3
ingreltetiLs, ii. (1370                                                    Flaiideos v~iiue iii littitian otanitre in, L 2091-conSents of
Exportoseitlat Sarm,`Sty titisuitol for tuitioti, S. 541                      liqiiil~ou`0 lanka iii, L 21192-etimpusilion of liquid
m.   re iii, i. 201.3-lu what it owes its eflit-acy, 5. 2106
I-actor, lie ignoratit, 1. 548-the tompoteot, 1. 549                         Flauelitei.'spalc, ISis, 1. 2818-how nail, S. 2819-sork
r'~l~~~~~S~~lt'~ Itierttiunister, 5. 164                                       lotte tiy. 1.2821-cost of usitig it, 5. 2822
i'sios,`vIteti tirsI instituted, ii. 3602                                   Flax, mii'.eral it'gieliet:ts iii, 5. 462-sowing and sitoimer
1.-tirdlebo   liii cattle, 1. 13-3                                             tresiltuetit,tf, ii, 31 96-qii..tilily sos-ti, ii. 3108-titus of
Earns, persons ri quired tit ci`ultict 11)0, L 55-witers these                sowitig, ii. 2150- steelitig iif, ii- 511o-di~o.sr, ii. 2117  are oesieetivsly i-t'qii.reel, i. 18-topSail exteit of ISis,                 its botattical piisit)on, it. 3318-Greek period of siwitig,
tit Ste Santiod, 1. 656-pigs ko~tt on all kittli iii, 1. 1594-               ii. 3l28-ti.it.vo tounle,~ of, it. 3121)-test of its ripeness,
those in wlticlt calves are sitiit are tiot tesirid, S. 2292-                ii. 4425-pullitig, ii. 4426-ri~tplittg, ii. 4~2;-stoepitig, ii.
oc,cupy Itie ettlios suiflco uS Itto, tuolily, (1. 52111-1 aS                4428-sS.oes)lit'g,. ii. 442a~,liltiog, ii. 4430-ei,uoll tiul be
clittiale to Ste asi-ertaitiod (iii lutikitig at, ii. 5~'62-eutt.mun          sIt sped S,, iSis S~tt so, it. 4433-etop of, it 44'I4-tettd
niode itf offe  g foe ott", ii. 5313- cotiotitittits if ll.is its-            used too e,,itIlo, i-i. 44,35-stricture of tite plant.' 443~
petideot ott 11 sbus. Il. 5317-ISis 10        tIt' olijee-                   tinid quality of ilseSi and uS' seed ineonipatiblo, it. 443~
15001(1)10, ii. 5321-boiler ilioltS of ttflboii g ri ctitt.mondel,            fot isis a -t   gitig ci op, ii. 44 9-ash iii flax sleep, Si.
ii. 5322-~si it ida uS elite, itig, ii. 5351-Stow ISis etulguitig             444(1-va Isis (it labs tea, ii. 4441-extiettiss OS Sisal that
or`p 5s d5~piie0d i if, ii. 5351)- e~iiOstSi itis tit ottiio,piirl, ii.   will riiisti it, ii. 5245
536'.'-`I 001 iv    it time tit etiteririg, ii. 5354 - ii.oat           Fles-lisolle, ISis Siiotiip, ii. 3290
coti moo tans tit Eiiglttttl, it:`55-tltu~s itearl     Seed              ~lescc, ISis,`tit`(Stat tolled oti, ii. S934prspsett on of it
1(0 ttieeji, 5. t192-ioeti'oiesil if eisa tit such, 5. 1'41-t'o              Site ritllitig, ii. 3935-tresitig, IS fruit inipitrilies, iL 393~
`stitieroigs keptiiii iii Si,i. 12.ii-pasttn'age suit.ei'itliiltle          I1oas tulseol sip, ii. 3.2~ -lifters nest so ilietti, ii. 2238  O0 Slit S), ii. S72O~,niore sioot\tabls fir, -itch to oliap,i~ss  if         emirse sloti Sticks, liiiw sited, 5  3939-storing of, IL 35)40
gt.1s' Iltait Stat, ii. 4) i0-oti1iti.tty ilitry Sitittiss a uS antli,          itilitti`alittlt aIls k, iS.
IL 4252-seaSite,                                                                                                I  -
zcc,,Arable-earse, 500 CiloSO, &amp;c. Flo'sli. 15011? el, Isoisianoists, ii. 6190-its eo                parts,
Eiiriit 50000 t~oii"k, ii 6410                                                it 6191-its -t.kalins atil`itioi potnesplts, ii. 6192 isiolioa
E.  houk-kset.ii'g, so" 1300k-keeping            of Sts jiti ss, ii. 15193
E~i,ns,tor,`(`bitt lie is, 5. 56-q,it lifics,ilit tot, &amp;c. of lh,e Isitor,   Eli sli-euSitu,r~ed lieu, iS, 5. 25576
L 2, 19-should Ste acqitatitteit astlli itiSOtiSitiOs. 1. 78, 79   I'S tit, opetlhe giavit's of, s. 119
-,~atid, situ tiyi ooslati\'s, i. 1)12- difficultis 0.! tiSs prufet,-   i;luu,e uS wliea\. ills L 1)63    -
S, 1.  15-stttotlation to ISis  out'g, it. 643~Sitt   I Sis.ls, tipsi ittito uS gi as sty Ott, 1. 103
duties atid otiS gitil ins, iS. - liSt ditty tit lila  son,   FInios tit.d solids, ISis bi'vs of, S. 114
55. 6440-Itts duly to Isis lies-stuelt, 5  6447-Isis duty   Flnkes in slitep, IL 4744
 
Fowls, ciloII, tr-eattme,                                                              ct of, in winter, i. 1601-dise ases
of, i. 1624-sniffters, i. 1625-classified list  f disease, i.
162';i-lice, i. 1627-symptomiis of laying in henis, i. 2,0O
-every hen sihould not sit, i. 28l —selecting the eggs, i.
2882-m-akllinig the n.est, i. 2,,85-place chiosen for sitting,
i. 2886-time of day best for sitting, i. 2888-supplyiiig
food while sittirg, i. 2889-axupeirance of the  cliiks, i.
2890-liens sioulld be set iGr stsecessions, i. So;. are dis   po.sed to wander, i. 2895-treatment of, in autumin, ii.
5147
Fox, tie, destrtuctive to poultry, ii. 5195
*.Frauiie for tilt-eart:,,- the ii. 4594'
Free itiartin, what, i. 1154
F,iction, attending,, to, in constructing machinery, i. 79   of wa er in pipes, i. 110-i ts effects on  the motion of
water, i. 115
Frost, wliat, i. 613-where  it originates, i. 614-extent of
its peietratioi ilnto tle grotiid, i. 615-always  presetit
in wi,,ser, i. (il6-its uses ini lhusbanidry, i. 616
Fro.st-smoke, effects f, i. 639
Fuel, kiuds (,f, i. 186
Full-.outhed ewes, what, i. 931
Fungu%s, Ileitiniti, &c., of, ii. 4112-originates diseases in
cr-ops, ii. 4113
Fiirze, usedl for horses, i. 145)0-mineral ingredients in, i.
465-t-sed ts a hedge, ii. 5590
Gardner,  Mr, his experimnents  with  special ma,nures on
wheat, ii. 4.~J19-on b:trley, ii. 4.25 —on o::ts, ii. 4!)32  on beins, ii. 4936t-oi  potatoes, ii. 4940-oii swedes,
ii. 4947-o. yellow  turnips, ii. 49a3-oon clover and iye  gras.s, ii. 4967-on le., ii 4968
Gaii.n ofoats, what, ii. 4512
Galactoiiieter, the, ii. 42i9
Galvaniismii, identi.-,ed wi;li electricity, i. 130, 152-its name
and discovery, i. 151
Game fowls, i. 1622
Galder, castrtiton of thle, ii. 5193
Garden mould, specific gr;avity of, i. 374
G          ardens,  the hind's, dres ed in sprilng, i. 2170-farmnier's, i.
2171
Gargcet in ewes. ii. 3a}95
Gasteiitis, its syipt.,ms, ii. 3843-its treatment, ii. 3844  its prevention, i. 3f.'45
Gates, field, repairing of, ii. 3572-convenient po.,ition for,
ii. 3573-and use, ii. 3574-fixing tlhe posts ot, ii. 357o  their structure, ii. 575)6-stietgtheni,ig their re,tangle,
ii. 5757-thle diago)nai whlen. of wood, ii. 575-S —use of the
tie, ii. 5759-iiperfectioiis of the co,insmoi, ii. 57,iO  trussed wooden, ii. 5761-ir,', i~. 5762-teisiort itn, ii.
576i3-anigle iron, i:. 5/65-}-Miles' iron post d w,,oden, ii.
5766-pos.t.s, ii. 57 i7-liingi,g t; em,n ii. 5768  fastenii6g,
ii. 576.;-pailtiug of, ii. 570   -posts ii the Isle of Man,
ii. 577;1-caue of hlie destruction of tile wood, ii. 5774
Gauilting,.ee Claying,
Gawis or griI,s, i. 779
G,iddes' turnils-sowing drill, ii. 3212
Geese, treatment of. in  wi:ter, i. 16()3 —their incubation
early, i. 290 —emnibrace oilIy on water, i. 2910-symiptoiias
Granite, specific gravity of, i. 119-preparation of, for
man.ure, ii. 49.)2
Gras.s, tliatchii,g of stacks with,  ii. 465fspreservation of,
for fodder in Germany, ii. 4088
Grasses, effects of deep-sowing on,  ii. 3558-artificial, i.
2634
Grass cocks of hay, what, ii. 4083
Grass parks, let in spring, i. 2173
Gir-,ss seeds  timiie for sowing, i. 2631   yarieties sown,  L
2633-an(i quantities, i. 263'm-ixed when lown, i. 2646
-wsown by  land, i. 2647-by  maciine, i. 24i48-hal row  ind in, i. r26-J2the cereal grains among which sown, c.
2i.55-cfrost i4rjures, i. 2665
Grating for draf   ins in   steadi pg,  i. 1112
G0avel  pits, th e weeds ties si7pply, i. 403
Gr;avel. seashore, thie weeds  it supoplies, i. 404-and river,
i. 405
Graveily loams, character of,    i. 340-so i ls, i. 33 9
Grease  f,r carts, i.               1841
Gre ase i n lo,rses, i. 1493
G!feertir ch,  the, in jarl,us t o erhps, ii. 4 695
Grteen  glas, mnilk-disilies of,         ii. 4197
Green imanures, tor fiallow, S iite mustard, ii. 4174-greema
weed, ii. 4180 —used   m, different parts of  the globe. ii.
41~19.
Green rose-chiafer, the. injures turnip seed, ii. 4186
Green skit it, la  i,ts, i. 2581
Grey linniiet, tl,e, injturio, s to crops, ii. 4700
Grieve, the, hlis duties, i. 57-not required always to wrk,
i. 5$-not required o,, every farm.., i. 59
Grignon, ag,'ic,ltur-al school at, i. 5.i9
Grise  lihw~aite, M,'. on special na,,u.-es, i. 205, 207-on  tto
benefits ~)t' chelmeistry t,, agri.ulture, i. 209
Gr,,)m fi>r tihe s addle -hors, the, i. 1.5)3
Ground.red air, co..,,ectio.. o,f temipe,ature between., il.
5246
Grubbset, Kirkw ood'., i. 2417-DiDeie's, i. 2421
Gru.bs, injtirious* to t-.r,.ips, ii. 3:il1
Guano, excellen-t for tit,- iiS, ii. 3238-best with farmyard
dunig, ii. 32.39 —its. nam.-e, ii. R3:43 —om.p)a,ed  withr ex-re.
ments of quiadrup;eds, ii. i344-its use ini Peru, ii.:i345  B:.,ivia.n and Chlilian, ii. 3346-Africanl, ii. 3347-~aia  ly.ses of, ii. 3:{48-azo:ised mat er in, ii. 333,0O-adiulter  atio.s of, ii. 3:3il —p,ice of, ii. 33-52-i,,.portationi of, ii.
3353-qu,antities  used, ii. 3.354-ffects of, ii. t6376
Grille, wl:lt. i. 2litl2
Gu,ipowder, u..e of, to fi.ighiten birds, ii. 4712
Gypsum, calcination,f, ii. 4!997.  See al.so Special Manures
Hail, ii. 3000-its formation, ii..3005-st, rnis of, in siummier,
ii. 3063 —in aututt,,,,., ii. 4350-ii win.ter-, i. 564, 6.10  in,sturan,e againJst, ii. 5.64
Ilairns, i. f79
]laini.stilt scy.the, the, ii* 449,
Hair, its  c,,ipositi,n, i. 15o7-its production, i. 1508-its
structure, i. 15O.9-,.antfactured, i   1514(,-of animials,
affecte,l in summiier. ii. 3062
Ha.l) i, winter, i. 6e;4
Hams, imported, ii. 6185 
INDEX.
ITammels, how occnpied in winter, L 1GS4-ho'w fitted tip,                             Iletefords, points of, iL 622~
and size, i. lOl~4-c   arison between, and bytes, L I:3o5                           llerschel, Sir John, on the benefits of the physical sciences,
Han~lcoA~ of ~ay, what, ii. 405~                                                        L 74-on their acquirement, L 511
Ha~~d-il~~eing tile wl~eaT crop, li. 4~                                               Hide of the l~otee, tl~e, i. 1506-of ox, goo~l and bad, ii.
lland-pi~k, tile, ii. 5004                                                              6155-in~por~ed, ii. 6156-uses of, ii. 6157-tanned im
Hand.rakea, ii. 4031-using tl~em, ii. 4040-Amencan, ii.                                 ported, ii. 6158
4(187                                                                               He~f~r calf, what, 1. 1152
Handling cattle, 1101 (Ice, ii. 3622                                                  Higl~k~nd asic  Agiicultural Society, laboratory of tue,
lIa   ani, ~lr, iii  e~peninellts with special nIanures, ii.                            1. 524
4138, 4155                                                                          Hiiids' houses, see Cottages
ILippergawic,  list, 1.`2320                                                         Ilnit-end ftirrows, i. 751
hard l:iiids, wl~at, i. 2111                                                          hinting, what, 1. 1432
1ianies~, where a co   odated, 1. 1405-price of, 1. 1542-                             Hirseliiig of flocks, tlie, ii. 4005
g, il. 0333-for cirts, i. 1832-for lii shaft~i~oi.se,                        Hoar fi'ost, origill of, i. 627-injtirious effects of, i. 628  ib.-for tiie trace OliC, it.~-its welglit, s5'~-of F~~rt~rsliite                      easily iiielts, i. 621-acc~on pan ted with clear air, i. 630  tnice-ii~~rse, i. l~33-of ie;~ilier, i. 1830-reiiis, I. 1837-                         happens witi ns~ng barometer, i, 631-fiat lai~ds lilOSt
shafi-i   a iii, iS.- Itlid trace OIlS, i. 1~38                                       suIject to it, 1. 632-obiects easily protected from it, i.
Harnes..p1~~ugii, Itie l.()tilia(l collar, i. 670.-the Forfirshtre,                     633-injunous ni-ar slreanle, i. 635-i~rom~~ted by damp
i.  677-aiid tile Ei~gl~~li, i 678-11111 illS,  1. 671-bridle, I.                     sUllalil, I. 636-pn~duces pectiliar currents ill tha air, i.
68(i~besring~reii~s, I. 681-laick-biin(i, i. 6S2-reiiii, i.                           637-Its crystals, 1. 638-effects,f, in spring. L 2167
6~~orn:sn~eiits, i. 684-wclgl.-t ol, 1. 685`loddesilen, agriculti~r.il farming scitool lIt, i. 533
Harness of tile ald~lte-liiirse, i. 1.~34                                             Hoe, woodeii, for barn, L 1792-for scraping inud, i, 2039
Harr.~ws, rilomboidal, iii`VO id, I, 2348-in iron, 1, 2349-                            -haiid draw, ii. 3257-for drtiiiis, ii. 5814
tiie tines, I. 235i)-i~ow eqliipp. d, i. 2352-drill, rectaiigu.                     Hofwyl, agricul iiial school at, i 536
lar, i, 2443-triaiigiitilr, i. 2446-bralce, i. 2416-for grass                       Hog, what, i. 1587
seeds, 1. 2652 &mdash; iron, for grass seeds, 1. 265:1-Norwegian,                         Hog's lard, ii. 6181-skin, its uses, ii' 6182bn'sUei, ii,
ii. 31114-snow, I. 2511-br.preadingb)p-dressing oil pas-                             6183
tura, ii. 3732-carrlitge for, ii. 6005-treatiiierit of, ii 6337                     Hogg, what, 1. 924
Harrowing, h1lw doiie, i. 2355-crose, 1. 2356-fiiiisliing, i.                         Hogg lamb, what, 1. 923
2357-to jlsdge of, I 2:158-importance of good, i. 2351                              Hotciis, mii~eral iiigredients in, 1. 464
Harv~st, tlie great I-Silt of autisilin, ii, 4351                                     Holly used as a hedge, ii, 5685
Harvest Itig, tIle, 1. 2156                                                           ltoiiey dew, ii. 33113
Hatted kit, ii 4314                                                                   13011k, see Sickle
Hawtiioi'ii butterfly, injures hedges, ii 5689                                        JIop, mineral ingredients in, ~ 465~qnate hills for, 1 5158
Haxtoi~, Mi', liii expe   eiits on sowing, ii' 3544                                     -andquincunx, ii, 5t51~productionoftheyI~ungplants,
Hiiy, Mr, liii exile   eiits (In Sc   -,. 533, 4872                                   ii. 3161-planting, ii' 3t62-va~ieties, ii, 3163-digging
Hay, siiiiuld be raised on hill iariiis, 1. 1011-given to work-                         about it, ii. 31o~manuring it, ii. 3170-dtessing tue
horses, ii. 3tl8l~-O0d.1? &gt;oung l~~~rses, ii. 30o~1-4o feeding                       shoots, ii, 3t72-polbg, ii. 3174-trijoing, ii. 3179-trelit  cattle, ii. 301.I-,iiiti-itive proliertles of, ii. 3092-ash ol,                       nient of the hines, it 3181-attacked by wire-wono, ii.
ii. 3013-go Id (1111, ii. 3014-bad, ii, 3015-making, not                              3184-and by the fly'. ii. 5111-affected byn  111,1 3192
well doiie iii ~-otk-iid, IL 4023-how dIlile tl~ere, ii. 4024                         -its botanical pIlsitlOil, ii. 3114-uses of IllS buss, u
-why Ii    ode is pur,~~cd, ii. 4025-froin i~at~nntl and                              51~157osh of tlie leaves, ii. 32(12-of Itis billS, ii, 320'.~
artili -i.,l grllsses, ii. 4i~2l-cut by Ilie piece, ii. 4fr29-                        picking, ii' 4.310, 4391-crop ol, IL 4396-diying, ii. 429~
Engii~si    de of ii takliig, ii. 41133, -Lngtisl~.illodS.?f stacic-                 &mdash; coo,ling.,iL 4400-prop~)s..-d plsn of dryitig, ii, 44111  ing, IL 4012-econ'~iiii~al 1011515 ol carryllig, ii. 4044-                            haggiiig, ii. 4404-stacking the poles, ii 4411b-cosl of
Scotch ni-~da of lililking, ii. 4,lt327and of stacking, ii.                           pickiiig, il. 4407,  its history, ii. 4408-a.?b ol, ii. 4412  4060-made on car~S f.   s, ii. 40Il7~Ill pastoral olies,                              of tlie flower, IL 4415-an ii of spent, IL 4416-n ineral
11. 401~8-on daIry olies, ii. 4061-sod  on niixed  1105-                              ingredients takeis iroin soil by, ii. 4413-iniport duty on,
band~1s OlISS, 11. 4II7l-croi~ lIf, ii. 4072  tilS Etigllsil tilS                     ii. 4417
best niode Ill niakii~g, ii. 4073-mak-.iig iii $axo~~y, ii. 4074                    Hop fly, IllS, ii. 3191-bidyhird destroys it, ib.,,     -
Ha~A  oS 1111 wIlik-ili II oSi, 1, 1408                                               Hop groui~d, lormation of, ii. 3145-its cost, ii. 316~nLa
Hay.kiiife, tiw, ii. 30~6                                                               durati~in, ii, 3513
Hay-rack. iii work-liorsa stable, 1' 1393                                             Hop treloil, tite, lI 2878
Hay-rake, tilS Aiiier~co I, Il 40d4                                                   liopetonii oais, comp?sition of, 1. 1292
Hay seed, tioda Ill ScI   g, ii. 4071                                                 Hopeb~un iaie, IllS, 1. 2472
Ha~stack, liow tilt dso:il and, l~rou,gbt in, ii. 3fl85,~oblong,,,                    Hopper, ~tr. illS iior.t.liotn bull, ii. 6211
~ogl~sli node of iiiiik~ilg, iL 40io-tseo 1      S Ill 11511118, II.                Il~~rdaii~, its itliturS, 1. 112(1
4I14i1-iteati,ig iii, Il 4047-pie Iar.Iblry,c,o tliiit'~lliIIg, ii.                 Horizonbil spocla, Ilie, ii~ 5s94,,
401~t atcliing, iL 4,:41-roui~d f.~r~i~, iL 4050-~~bloi~g,                          1-Jo-cs, Use ol, iL 61t4-f rusS of, IL 6238-indications of
Scotch ill-IllS of bui~dIng, 11. 4l16U-a~crtaii~i~.g ilia coii -                     age, ii, 12 -1-Illid (If IlISSilOS, ii, 6240
tents lii an o1iloi~g, Ii, 401 Is-of a roiiiid, 11. 4lI~7                           Hoiiibeam, used as a l~edga iii ~ernlany, 07]ii. 5685
Heat, elactr cIty excited by, I. 124-a   g`stic Ici gravity,                        Horses, liil1gi~age to,,assis,tance to 151118, 1. 687710 stop, I  5'  1.31, 161)       I be Sell, I- 131 -alters IllS lornis If                         18 -&mdash; so less.-    lion,  681-to go forward, I. 690-and
bodies, I. 1(12  -x       lIf hI Idles by, I. Itil-produted                           le~ckward, I. 611-to come towards yoti, I. 612-to go
by VI    S iliels, 1. 1 (`Il-Ill      Sr, IL 3.133                                    frii: 11 yoti, I. 61.t-coiisti-uciion of stablas for, i, 1381Heittli, yoIlIIg, hears 1' 0' be ler tiiaii old, ii. 3737                               daily wit tIer Ireatiltaist cif, 1. 1411-ilIliSil for, 1. 1422Hoatl~c~iIe's eteSill-pI.-ii, 1. 171                                                ti-aatisiaiit dtiriiig hild weather in`s-inter, 1, 3427-should
Htaeeiily bi~dies,.lSpC&amp;t5 ol tile, 1' 2159                                            ha i,red on IllS l.~rm, 1. l42~  tliiiva lIn cooked food, i.
Hedg &mdash;s, III)  node iii it Illitild, ii. 5655                                           14!14-r,~I~ lIlillS of leedilig 111810, 1. 1435-yolliig, where
Hedga waSIl.ltllIt', II; 5t?'00                                                         accoiumo~i,~ted ic IllS sisoding, 1, 143,0-fo Id given \o
Iledger, illS dnIie~, 1. ol-not iiaadad on all farnos, 1, 62-                           ti      winier, 1. 1431-    es accordiilg Ill age, &amp;c.,
lils wages, ii. 11316                                                                 1432 -bruIsed raw equal 10 c,Iloke,d food, 1., 1437-ecoiioHedger's oxi-, ii. 5b'44 -spade, ii. 5(169                                              ulic niti 10 foi', L 143~turnips given to, i. 1439 - ilcIta.
Heftiiig, icjtiri Ill I I cIlw~, 1. 22'10                                               toes, I, 141(1-rariots, 1. 1441 &mdash; aiiil liarsnilss, 1. 1442Heiio-tiierii   eter, I e, ii 3032                                                      folld ol braid, i. 1443-IIlwlke ft~r tIlelsi, I. 1444-fstiitula.
HailIp, miisaial iitgia~lieiits III, 1. 4.s2-sowing and S   mar                        of fIlIld by Pro.as.~r Low, 1. 141.1-lIlIld foi posting, 1,
treiitl~teiot of, ii. 3131-11111 Sllitad fir SOItlilild, ii. 3137-                    1446- tl~eir ii~telligenca, 1. 1471 -whiter disSilSeS and
Its h,itiinio~l pilsiti0n, ii. 31:12)-sesatl ii~fcsting, ii. 3140-                    their
3l4t-j~r~ca ol seed, II. 3.'42-ctsilliIo.ltioii aild asli, IreatnienI, I.,1473 -- hleediiig,, 1. I 4,74-blisierlng, 1,
oil, ii                                                                                1471i-pl~ysicki~~g, I, 1477-drancliiiig, I, 1480-l~imenta.
of seed, ii. 3143, 3144-ti     acei1loiit,stnsi~-trco flix, ii,     lion, 1. 148-2-poullicing, 1. 1483-icitions, 1. 1484 &mdash;,pIllSe,
4442-his fa~ii~ar 511-IlIld ilot steep it, Il- 44o1 -seal pre-     L 148o-iillSctIoiis, i, 148h-lousa, 1. 14 &mdash;S-halts, 1. 1410
pared for, 5.11115, ii. 44i2-ltealnletlt lIf s~'cd, ii. 4453-     -inflatilmalilin of bowels, i. 1411 - 51,    00 colds, L
iii,   44.i4 lIf, I'. 410.) -`cutcllings, sli of, ii,     14.12-rease, I. 14.)3  shot of IreasS, L I 114  stomach
cr 19  11       0,54  -  - e -        - -, I.. - -   I -                                                      -` -
44511-stein of lnlIIois,tl subs ibis f~r op,,Iiim, Ii. 448         StaI.tgaro;, I. 14115-tlIruSli,,i. 1117-corns, 1. l4lS7broken
Hens, 111115 wI~en liatcliti~g 511011151 cetisa, 1,1. 51 48-will go       w~,i~d, - I: 14t~-spr,alns, 1, 1500-saddle g.~lls, i. 1501    abroad to seek iiasts, ii.5149-criiel expadiei~ts to pravent         cril,.btliiig aid wiiid.sucklng, 1.1502-dust-ball, 1. 1103
citicki ig, ii,.,Stftst-liius for seleclIi~g to hty, ii. 5153-  worl~llS,,i. 1504.-Sp.S?ks iii Ilia aye, I. 1595,-number usesli
moiiltii~g, ii. otus                                                    111 agrlcuitni-a, L lold-annual teal' alId wear, i. 151~
flen-iloisse, ilia, I. 1609                                             vtilue of tile labour of, 1. 15L~on fariiis eXI 01111 from
liepburii's double-coiiicol roller1 ii. 3102                                duty, 1. 151.;~imported free, 1, 1~17-dealers in IlISin 
Kilnhlie  d limestone, ii. 6(i)35-lime, ii. 6039
King, Mt, exiperi,-,en-ts hy, o,l sowing wheat, ii. 4878
Kirlkwoov-d's grubber-, i. 2417-slheep-fodder rack, ii. 4787
Knives-, for trimmnng tintnips, i. 815
Kint-graiss, nlii,er-al ingredients ill, i. 464
Kohl1-rtt.i, properties of,  ii. 3355-its culture, ii. 3357   tranisptlatiug or sowing, it. 3358-nlalitre  fi,r, ii. 3361   colr,p.ired with Swe1 7isnh  turiip, ii. 3362-varielies of, ii.
3363-weiglit of  bulb, ii. s364-its botanical position, ii.
33tj5-cul,ure of, in Germatny, ii. 33)66-feeding of horses
and cows with, ii. 336;7
Labour, different distribution of, in England  and Scotland,
ii. 5364-results of, inl England, Scotland, and  Ireland,
ii. 5:,fia
Labour' account, ii. 6431-sample of farm, ii. 6438
Ladders, i. 1742-inumnbers of, i. 1743-to  set tip,;c.,  i.
1744
Lady eird, tle, usefll in the liop.grounid, ii. 3191-inimical
to a!,!lides, ii. 3306
Laing's ~we,,isl, tuirnlip, see Tutrnlip.
Tl.:mb, wirert, i. 923
Lrnbs. to 4nuther, on ewes, i. 25f3-pet, how brought up,
i. 25(;)67-ge   Ihe,- ce,strated, i. 26(i9 —weatlher for it, i.
2570-ca,strati(,,,, i. 2571-oldl nrood  of it;, i. 2572-dock   i;g theitr tails, i. 26373 — erariiing their ears, i. 2574- -how
to stopl bleediig aiter dokliing, i. 2575 treatitmetit of  the
sci-rtUIum. fter t astr-atio.,.n, i. 2.576 —tlhe testes do  mstalwas
descenid, i. 2577-1hov k-pt wr   on hlill ftis i. 2586
los,~ses fi'oml snow  on the se, i. 2598 —diseases of, g,.eel, siit,
i.  2581-)lmrg,ing, i  259X3-costiveiess, i. 2594-fever, i.
25)9.5 —naaly wteanl thlenrlselves,~t shearing-tim,.e, ii. 3993 —
wea-, ing of  Leicester, ii. 3994-tlje ewes  deser ed to be
miilked, ii. 39.5 —d,,dderi tg of, ii. 39904-wl-    et disposed
of, ii. 3.()99 —dipping in arsenic depreratefi, ii. 4(;;0   treati-e,,t on bll farlms after- weaning, ii. 40(13-for thxe
table, ii. 400)4 —d:stasis of, in  su0 i,,er, ii. 41005-weat
tl~e.ss,lIves on lhill farnms, ii. 40l05-wbere ma,y be bsled. ii.
leJlsas pred wieat, a v-riety for sprin       g,sowing,  i. 2377
Land,,-iod of jwdgi   t          g it a;ight, i. 5263 —s.oil S well
-s soil to  be attel1dod to, ii. 52b0i]-diver sity f soils i     n
nost iarns, ii. 5269-tnetihd ol ju dgi,rg,, r eli, ii. rt280
-requiire m,ents of, for mixed huslbantdry, ii. 52 83-t ixed
Iron, roge-rent,f, how estimafted, ii. 5it5-se-nps ti.ppt oy
with flticttiuti,g prices. ii. 5291 —reit, lealf casii ai d   half
graig,  ii. 5292 -rate  (f in6terest a gffetsf eat f l et, iiit. 52:3
-l,rdinrr t    606inode f tf eltin ati.g yoengt, ii. 5294 — a ai gtwr suedits
in favouri of t,oiey-renlt, ii.52!)5-l'ei t delpenldenlt,)$o st-,te
sof farm}, ii..53.}(J nt,raf~l renit,witt, ib.-cove,,anted re,.t,
ii. 5301 —both  mtay 1e  constant or  fluctuating. ii. 5312  in~ju,stice o-f lresent.sy.teit. of grain reuts, ii. 5304-rem-iedy
prolposed, ii. 5305-diffi,uhies atteindiig its adloption-, ii.
.5306-it's advanttages, iif 53t77 —(,Ijectio,) aiga;in,st  it, ii.
.5308-valliots schIeme- proi)pose-d, ii. 5312-old propo rtion
of produice not now corrteect, ii. 5313
Landownviers, evils  of th.eir  ne,!ect of agrictilttire, i. 543  tiheir sots a    ggriculttiral pnplils, ib.-shl-,,,ld learn  algri  culture wlhen yoiung, i. 544 —and afterwards  study other
Htuuiule-D(2e, Lie, injures ti e tiean, ii.:4984
Hummseller, cvlinder, i. 1S!0 —hand, i. 1811
tlinnitis, electric state of, i. 144 -speitic gravity of, i. 374    its functions, ii. 5126
Iunt, Mr, on the i,fluence of coloured light, i. 194e  xpde    rinlenits by, on conmpar-ative sow,in~g, ii. 3542
Ifurdles, how set, i. 9(12-tlleir dimesios a-,,I parts, i. 1042
-larclh, i. 1044-willow, i. (1,'4; —oa,k, i. 1047-Eng,lislh
formn  of,  i. 1047-fol,]-pitchier for settinig, i. 1049    couplings for, i. ]050-number required, i. 1051
Husbandry, best nietliod of acqtulirin,g, i. 1-practical,  ib.
difficolties of tlhe pupil, i. 12
Rtitin and Botitigny, their process for preventing decay of
wood, ii. 5774
Hlutton, MVIr, lhis experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1360
HIuxt.ble, Mr, his method of feeding shleep, i. 961
Itvdiraulics, wllat, i. 108
'HIdratulic press, Bramalh's,,. 107
lI vdrogen, electric state of, i. 140
Hydrograpliy, science  of, i. 215
Hydrostatices, laws of, slotuld        be known by the farmer, i. 102
Hygronmeters, wlat, i. 178-var ious substances for, i. 164   feathers of birds are, i. 234
IHygros, opes,  liat,i. 1 8
Hypothec,  its effets, ii. 6400-its ise to the tenant, ii.
6401 —its origini, ii. 6402-its nature, ii. 6403
Ice, not compact, i. 641-its orin, i. 642-its expansionj
i. 643-its  lorce, i. 644-whIy n,(-t fo,)nied ont, deepl water,
i. 645-evaporation  r, i. 6-7-cooliig powers of, i.
648-diflirent tliickesses of, i. 649
Iclineutimon fly, the, ii. 33tnt7
Idio-elkctric bodies,  wlat, i. 122
Implements, shxould be siniple and strong, i. 78-care of,
ii. 6:33i
Impletiment-ihoise, fitting  ip of, ii. 6346
Imiipond(ierable bo(dies, wlimt, i. 158
In-atid-ini breedinig, ii. 6273
Inr-calvers, what, i. 1154
Indian corn, see Mp gize
Indian  ubber pavement. for cow byres, i. I126-lhow laid,
i. 1127-size of, i. 1129
Indigestitn in pigs, ii. 5141
Inorganic matte., wll.t, i. 200-nlaterials of plints, propor  tioni of, i. 203
Inrsects which-] in,fest shleep, i. 1067; ii. 3752-calttle, i. 1375;
ii. 3803 —horses., i. 1488; ii. 3859 —swinle, i. 15.;95poultry,
i. 1627-th;e lhop, ii. 3184 — turn ip, ii. 32.9 - c;l, )1,1.ge,
ii. 3375-man.g,Ild-wu-zel,  ii.  3391 -cariot, ii. 341o5  palsn51ip, it. 3441 rape, ii. 3454-  I,,ver, iit.                      il894-heat,
ii. 4107 —barley, ii. 4130 —oa,t.s, ii. 4137 —potato,4 ii. 4163
Insutrai.ce ag,,inst fire, ii. 55-'.i-for c;attle, ii. 5573-against
hail, ii. 5564-for                                              hittds't cws, ii. 55i
Inventory adfd vatmati,,          no   k       of sok, i. (;408
Iron, wron.ghlt, sp~ecific grailvity of, i. 119
Iron bedsteads, for cott..ges, ii. 5.,43 —.tn!mer nut-key, ii.
6(03
Irrigation, managing the water in water-meadow., ii. 6064
— mistm.aniageniienit of it, ii. 6066 —time for, ii. (069 —pro 
INDEX.
Liquid manure drains, i. 1113-tank, i. 1114-puomp, i. 1115
Liltt,r,       w:i. 15,87
L47itter,  Iow l5id down in couttl,        i. 2Ci4-rhow it sliould be,
i. 20115
Litler-ed, its m.eaning, i. 15.~7
aLittei      riturnip ground  for sheep, i. 955
Live-stoc,I   p,,i,,ts to be  aimed it in  breedi,g, ii. 6197               symmery, t. 698 —rbnste:~sof c, t         tnt            o,  i 2G6  )disp~osition,  to art:tin earl-y miaturity, ii. 6208
Lanter, ciara1cter ouf,                       i. 336
Lo,.,mba~,, Mis idan fot eviding the  potato disease, ii. 4157
Londonjo, veter-inary. college at, i. 530-.-raisin,g of veal. forI, i.
2294- tsieep best suited fI,r                               it. nmrket, i t. 3600-and cattle,
ii. 6450
L,)n,il-Iorn,-, points (if, it. 6225
I~~lin drau~ght-ho,rse collar, thse, i. 676
L ofeotitatce, Lin           e.,Ier- fir t lord,   1 i s e er e rrots, ii. 4946-on
t,a-t,goid-wm..zel, it. 496i2
L,-w, P.,te. lesor, I,,is fom uaf food for lbors,es, i. 1445
Luce pp  mi neral ingredients in, i: 464 —                tuited  or Siot    i. 251,] —itsqiultnre,           i. 25,-)14-its bot:lidicaicl pti,ition, i.
53.   ol I''ogl-tiidi 2519-itsaniet origit, i   1            itir Lotdoi,
i. 2520 —variety,.il,iv.tted in Switzerla:d, i. 2521-ash.  f,
i. 2522 —w,ig~iI.,tao of sed, i. 2523
Liiry, when c attgle re said   to bte, ii. 3(i22
L~ta,   in rieariniig calves, i. 2278
Macaror, i,,ii a  mf   acture of, i. 19102
M' Bryde. pir, is  icpel     imi r4ei   its on ieedng    osheepl, i. 960
t e i m i i i o is i a  wi g t d o n d f r eow for   l e,p igeu, i.  1131
Macgillivrayv, Pr0-C.ssor,  on   t  cone(.tion  betwee.n po,  I            0
a.ud the soil, i. 435ton theee ipuleorgads of birds, i.
Machimoesi,  e rror l eg,      4          at           d ing increase of in. i. 80
MoLga M.,  Mxper-3niea,ts by,  on s(1wing, ii.: 0.531
M'!, M,is i o,r spe icial', i tn.i  49                     6~ ii. 49
M%'Linitock, M.-, hiis ex,perimienits witli sp~ecial                       iaue,it.
4!)22
MII'TturkIi, Mr, ).is ltl;,el:fcfaced rm90 t, ii. f;2.11
M:-diai,      itlits h to  d  irm'e, i.1 3:276-gs  oil, ii. 3477l
grows in Scitland, it. 3478-its botanical positio1, ii.  I479
-asJii of tl~e see(],ii. 348()
Maggot,, in- cheese, it.   42 96 — itjure seep in sucmmer, it.
:4
Magnsi,aompa,i,ies o,poi acid. it. 5052
Magnetisg, I n e g   eeas  of      electricit g,  i.  124-aid en tified  w ith
i t, i.   13a p,    15 4-ie xt,: o p -ra itt f  itis iirt 1  if letion,   i.   15f 3-terr lke-stri al,
b~ow, suipposed to arise. i. 156-1~ow it anid  voltaisri  m~ay
a,ffect ti~e grou,,nd'in cult,are, i. 157
Ma~kgpie. thec, decstruc.tive to p,utltryv, it. 52(18
51t,Mr, Ihis exper-im.ents wit. spec-ial mnanutres,,on, wh~eat,
it. 4920 —o,. ba-rley, ii. 49)27 —o. ca.rrots,, ii. 4943
Maize, mini-eral i~:g,,edicn~ts i          i. 462i    iv    to hiorse, i.
1451)Iaind to  p —,ltr-y, i. 130!-nutitiv ater in~ an
acre, i. ]i:]02-cotn1positioni of, i. 13;113-tsh of, i. 1:7,04
-,,ot suiited to B itini. 3481 —r(.qtiries, good soil
a,,;d shielter, ii. 34:42 —its cnlit,.ie, ii.:;~484 —ti.,e trsw
in,it. 348(; —its, botanical. position,, it. 34.,2 —its, geogra-.
picM,.  distributtion., ii. 349I3 —ash. in it, stra,w, it. 3494            inproinof, ii. 349)5, 4688 —periodi of I.,rvest, it. 4673
-,-ob~s 1,..led off, it. 4674 —tak n off th~e hn,                it. 46i75
-keeping of the, lieadis, ii. 4:;76-t-taaii)g Tleg;, ff the
hed,it. 4~$77-it.s p,-(d..ee, it. 4679-v-wih.e of, p~er a(.re,
it. 4681 —good  for- po,ultr-y an.d  pigs, it. 41,;82-~utriti,-e
ji'mtt-r in;,ere (f, it. 4,'i4-pr-o, nee or,t in                A     mrc,ii.
46l83 —vatlue of it,, it. 46i8tJ;-I.eat re,Lquir-ed  to ripeii it, it.
5241
Alatff'ornitions, in live-s'ock, ii. 6247
Malt(or, riv,ing, s.akes;, i...q02
Mal;1, is, it ititr.tious?~.1285-;ts, compositi-tn. i. 1283-its4
ctl.f~eeding. i. 1324 —its ii,e fhiiiing off. i. 1913 —its coln    etnrapt ion,. i. 1914 —its n~rain. 1. 1
Maltlag, process, of, i. 19'_22-1osss u tane in, i. 1289
Mn, Ise,I', stonie gat,:-l)O~ls of tim,, ii. 5'77-3
Ma,,e cona1) f,,r         hre,i. 1419-p-pice o~f, i. 1424
Al:,nge in, pigs, it. 5144
8:14~st~~~~~~~ofig                   i. 3 —co,~o i~ir   o g red, &c., i. 854
mq'tve  ma,tter- in. i. 9(00-its p,i op(rtic,s, ii. 3381 —    v;.rieti,,s,f. it. 33S2-s, —il for,-  it. 338:L3-S,.,tl:,ind  not
su.iitd for it, ii. 33i84 —it,s umt.re, it. 3385-.sow,inig, it.
professions, i. 645,apt oth~erwise to aicquiire a dist,ate for
agriculture, i. 546-tc)onse,quenCes of their ignorance iif it,
i. ~547, 548, 551), 555 —a,;d of their ac,qua,intance withi it,
i. 549, 55'i),:t s;,(I.
I a,id-bre, e, tlie, bow produiced  i. 94
La.nd-r,Ilter, H-epbtur..'s doub~le-conical, it. 31(:2 —Swedish,I
it. 3106
Lantern, a, i. 12f)9 —stable, i. 14'2b
JIapcocks of                                                                                oy, niatr, it. 4,054
Lirc,l  specific gravity of, i. 11y   uineral ingredients in
th~e, i. 465
Larynx of cattle. i,flame ation in the, ii. 3815
],awst,,'s pota~to-ra.ise.r, it. 479)4
Lawton hybirid turnip, see J'uirip.
Lea, effects of spec                                                                  itl  paures on,  ii. 46)f;8
lead, whence  ierived  ii. ).497 —peC.iiic gra-vitv of, i. 119
J,e.,ses, usu.al m)-ode~ of obtaini ng                        ifo'ain faftr,i i.
.i323-pritited conditions, of, ii 53:o4-conditio!s  might
lie easily aijttst,,I,,  i t 5:~25iof()tdifar e                                  torei, i.1
5d326ofhe  eiroppaiig            ilte   p  f     d       ii. 53ii:-eardgncal devie,   eiong of, ii. 4 al, tt ingo
Le.,minosat, l ote                                          lr                              is. eperienrs of Ecegng  lideti, i5. 6 -
lot witnou    t allot,  i t. t3e39-appl,ation of gramtei repnt to
te    r rancy-at-wgill, ip.                                                a    t341 — y tiifliti                          rl conditions should
be  abolishe.pd,  i            i. 6     t342-piffer en ce in En,gladad Sco 16   land of tih e temnrln de nts p ing t1~e pM blic burednens,                                               iy. 5344o
linstt           te                                                                                                                of, it. 5349
Ledger, it. 6411
Leguminosa' properties of        the, i. 1951 —tleir division, 8.
2450,
L,,-gtminous, pla~nts. S.," Beas, lese,       &c.
11,~icfse   atn plough, ster I, t i. 2828
ILicest r sheep, din mot p incttlets of, it. 6218-ttrp, i1. 6219
L-ew   ne,  t i t. 62:t20
Lentils, mineral in~gr-edien            ts in, i. 4i2
Leslie's!,ygr-oneter-, i. ] 8(
Level lot of  cattle, whin                                                     a     at, ii.t 3c783
Leiefing of ptigtatit   ges, tte, it.                                                                          ope  itioii ie. 5966- i-ode
Lfuingttrae   if, ii. 5'.) e7 — staf foric                                                                                       vdraleni iiiay81
li         ce in s eleep,  i.                    e I         i(17Min cattle, i. 1375 —i ietees, i. 148p
— ini pig,, i. 15195 —in calIf, i. 2,-99
Liebig on gdie inoreganic  expestinteits of                                          plants, i. 201 —ii
the amnmiotia!),-01t~ght dow,n fromi, the atmosph~ere, i. 292,
294Li  tr —ote eic (    f the  disci iv er y of  th e  n  e-oal ingti-y
dieters  of pii-.g-tvo agriculture, i. 470-o1    in    dige    5tion in
an pi al cute                                                                         d      p      s, i.66
Lift              ing          of, see Potatoes
Ligi 6t, treated of yscice tf ortics, i. 188-5in                                                        its,nit.
3030 —it comp~Iared with, that of otizer seasons., it. 3031   ie,fti     6en   c          e f yell ow,,ed,  and  blue.                   in v -egetation, i.!.3)3
Ligptering, di fferent kio p ds  of, ip. 2i88
Limie tr:,e, specific gravity of, i. Ili)
Lime,         specific g-ravit       y                fo tindlan, ii. it. 5051
gavel pri4cu          iied,   i st 6 o23- efe   gnd  furt id, ii. 46024-1,-eas
most                                            effects, eit. 6025-6in siells tJ'mh    kin,
it. 6010 — slakiiing, mnod.e of, it. 6011 —hiealie of spreading,,
it. 6013-qni;y                           aid on, i t. 6016 —apilied once in                     ek
lease, ii. 6018 —seedspeciiMi                                                     its ii.                      t rtooiht.i
period of applt-ing,  ii.   i 12     11-its effects. i. 6022-c-cngqo        iioof slake,d. it. 60:!8 —tile Irae s  et, ii. (;04()-in
larg              e       or sf inl d(ct,e, ii.                                            19141its i,i tort itili,,,d, ii.
6042-(oipo:;t for t~)p-dr-essi,g, it. 6044 —its efih         cts on
h~ea,th, it. 6(t45
Limestone,     i                                                                      it tur   of, s 149 pecifiere       found,  ii. 6033
L gudavel, it.                            -n0:  i41 ooip,sitiot,                                                   of good,  i,r land, it. ii035
-fiowt, I2111 it ii. 603i-Carltke, Coe kerm,suth                                                             tir,          3h8ad,
and let ig, its V5
l~i.      pring ea nd,,biter cs of, i t. 6008-rover,    its                 eff            ec         t s, it. 6043
Lin,      ed, wlat,  i.            t o          1k87
Links, weedis peculIiar to, i. 4f07
Line, te, des,tr-oys turip..i see,d. it. 4188
l~innug's  ystemof b,ta.,y. i. 321
Lin.,id, olyiehtled by. i. 3'3-edfor feeding cattle, i.
1261 —comosition f. i. 12(i2-,,asJ) of, i. 462, 126i3 —iiijor   ration of, i. 1264. it. 3126 —~imelain.e for busn,          i. 1265
-- r p    risof', it. 311-mel it,, uses, it. 311.-ol t
3120 —bt.sk, it. 3121 —it., price, it. 3127-tused inl b: en,d, it.
Liquid mianur,e,        tksf,,r. i. 20(i2-)-c::rts, i. 2076 —oblo,quy
for not tsi,,g it, i. 2(185 -- -ie   f'(,r ui it, ib. 
neglect of it ii towns, i. 2()88 —dairy farm,-spp'y m,ost
of it, i: 2091 it    c~loiti o, i   04crusac
793 
794                                                                        INDEX.
Manual implements, tteatinent of, ii. 6342                                               Mountain pastures, plants which distinguish them, i. 417               Mare, what, i. 143~petiod of l~er foaling, ii. 3670-                                      dry, i. 4t~wet, i. 419
symptoms of it, jb.-foals quickly, ii. 3671-Iter treatment                             Mouth~piece, the, for cattle when choking, i. 1379
att~ foaltog, ii. 3C)74-put to gmss at rest, ii. 1675-when                             Mt~'ebray, Mr, his e~perimeots on feeding cattle, i. 1320,
ready to tiike the Itorse, ii. 3~76-htiw It present lier to                              132t
lim, ii 3(77 &mdash;to deteritine lierheingit fiat, ii. 3679-cir.                            Midie, R., on the trade~'einds, i. 29~on (lie influence of
cutusiatice agatnst tier being iii foal, ib.-wtieit tiecoiiies                           the tropics on ttie witids, i. 2J9-oo Ilie difficult~ of fore                 b~irreii, ii. 3080-proportional veiglit of, to lier fmtl, ii.                            tellitig ttie weather,  319
37(1))                                                                                 Mtiir- titiritiitg, ittiproves tite heath for slteep, ii. 3736how
Marl shell, ii. (OtO-cloy, ii. 6(32                                                        done, ii. 3738-l~iw of, ii. 3740
.~larliitg laid iii Etigltititi. ii. 6(131                                               Muir-itt, sc lied-water
M~irsi.all, Mr, liis expeflItierits Ott feeding cittle, i. 1353-                         Mushrooms iii tiiitumii, ii. 4344
lii iiiixtiire lii I  ses, i. 1448                                                     Musical striligs, ititestines ot sheep used for, ii. 6173
~Lirslies, plants which  disttiiguisli, i. 411-sea, i. 412-ctil-                         Moshird seed, intner~it ingredietits it,, i. 462
tivated, weeds altidi itifest, i. 413                                                  Mtit'ott, relative weights of offal titid, it. 6162-weights of
Martin, Mr, ott ttte p()~Stii disease, ii. 4156                                            different, ii. (1163-rule fot kni~wing tlie age of, ii. 0t(i~
Ma~iii-wiirk of steaditig,    iO.catiiin of, ii. 5393-mode of                              hiss iii rookitig, it. 61t(6-liam, ii, 6167
g, ii. 5304-ci ist of, ii. 5511-sitities used iii, si.                                        Muzzle for saddle-horses, i, 1500
5)27- fir Cotta  5, ii.- 555'
Ma.~tt's liygriiiieter, 1. 12                                                            Nails in barn, I. 1795-for carts,. 1830
~lasteis, otitigtttioits iif, to servants, ii. 6292-responsibility                       Natural liiotiiry, its otijects, i. 215
of, fiar serstittts, ii 6293                                                           Natural plitlosi iplty, wtiy tipplicatile to agrictilture, 1. 7~
~Litl    tics,`vii aplilictible to tigrituittire, I. 74-abstract                          ptiysictil sciettces eiiibrticed under, t. 76-its elevating
aiid detiiotsstrtitive, 1. 75-their atisily ele atitig, i. 51$                           effect, i. 518
Malt  k, ttie, ii. 5950                                                                  Nasel-ill 1   lets, t. 2296
Meailoss, pe  anent, moist clittiase necessary for, ii. 3785                             Nebutie in hot sea, 1. 15(13
-   e useful iliati pasture, it.:37813-atiuiidtint in Ettg.                           Nets, how set, I. 9()7-tlie shepherd's knot in, i. 908-ati                  suit, ii. 37~7-scartt in oco~land, ii. 37~8-iii lloltaiid,                              p`e witeit set, 1. 910-what m&amp;le of, i. 11(34-how
ii. 3790                                                                             wrought, i. 1053-needles for, 1. lOSO-spiola fiir, 1. 10.';?
Meadiiw lisy, asli of, ii. 3093                                                            -length of, i. 1(i60-witl confitie Blackfaced sheep, L 10(1
Mmidos' ciane-fly, ilie, i. 251)4                                                          -wrought by macliltiery, 1. 11)62
Me ales itt pigs, I. 15ts7, ii. 5145                                                     Newlierty's ditatitiiig-itiactiiiie, ii. 3550
Mecliasic., uses iif, to agriculture, 1. 77                                              Newtngtiin's dibhliiig.m.ictiiiie, ii. 3351-mode of Using, i.
~~lech~i ii isIs, sliotilil k  v pratt 1 at liusbasdry, 1. 78                              3552-his cultivator, ii. 410:3
Meetti, i~lr, lit expe   etits ott sowitig, ii. 3641                                     Nievl~ng, a itiode ol oiilliittg, 1. 2258-better tItan strippitig,
?(lelviii, Mr, tiis ix;ierittietits with SpecitI titaitures, ii. 4934                      1. 2259
Meriiiii, origIn of ttte utinie, ii. 3975-sheep, ii. 3976                                Niglitootl atid tirine, use of, in Cli isa, ii, 4987-ln 1)elgium,
Mesliti, wittit, ii. 48'J3-pr~ctiee correct iii theory, ii. 4894                           ii. 4988
-iiiiist CO   OS titixtures for, ii. 4~9j                                              Nimlius, see Cirro-ciimulo~stratus
Meteont fly, II it, ii. 3866                                                             Nitrates of soda and peittiali, see $pecial manures
Me Isi ii oli)gy, sCience ol, 1. 215                                                     Nitrogen, its eletti ic s;ate, 1. 141-in Itorse atid cow dung,
?(ltldew,     Cs jiesse. ti. 3091-tit wlteat, ii. 4114                                     i. 2(325-is pig~' dung, 1. 2028-In sheep`a, 1. 2929-most
Miles' woiideii field-tate, ii. 5766                                                       ahutidant in seeds aitd greet leaves, 1 5047
ii iir titilk cow, what, 1. 1154 1244-most        frons                              Nitrogetious aulis   ces, effects of, 11.6374
Milk. treatuitut ot, tit winter, I.            derived                                   Niarwegian Is.   w. Itie, ii. 3104
ciiis's iii hire, 1. 1372-utensils for, ii. 4194-lts ireatitietit                      Nose-bags, price of, 1. 1424
iii Ilie dairy, ii. 42)9-yield vaniius, it. 425(l-cirttttn                 statices which affeet its quality, it. 4260-tittit qitatitity,                         Cak, specific gravity of, i 119-mineral ingredients in, L
ii. 4259-plititoitienti accomp~tityiug its cliatiges, ii. 4261                           465
-tie cOtitpOsi(ioii, ii. 42i.2-lioiis atid freezes as water, ii. 0ats, m      itigri dients I. 462                     ~~ve matter in an
-.5  -~  -,~                              ineral -nun
42b.l  its asli, ii. 4~6i  its iOtsiliiisttiOti v.trtes, ii. 42b5-     acre Of,  1291-coiiipeisitioti of tlte grain, I. 1202-ash
its specific gravity, ii. 420 (-aijuttertitloit iif, ii. 4270-     of, 1. 1294-oil iii, 1. 1203-for Itorste, I. 142.3-~sli lfl
plitils affect its fiaviur, it. 4271 -conip`    ofekinstued,     alfliw, i. 1974-their tiottittical position, I. 1025-classifi it. 4272-is itt  satitral etittilsisit  it. 4273-required to     etitioti by tlie gr.'iitt, stitirt, 1. 11i2;i-lotig,
tilt ke a i titese ii. 4 83-ititder tIt e disease nansei 1 cliciste, tlte ear, ptititeL"s ilifiosed, 1.                  i. 1927-t~ind by
1928-pittieles literal, i. 1929
ii. 43(12-a sour cog lif, ii. 43ii5-o,itttieal porri' ge, ii. 4308 -criips iif, I. 19:1(1-the I   a, 1. 19:13-not tiietitiot'ed its
Milk-cotiler, ii. 42')')                                          Scrijittire, i. 1935 - iceticetiplittal slistritiiition of, 1. 1936
M lk'i"i'i es, etittlienware, ii. 41 95-~Vedgewosd ware, ii.             when soseti, 1. 24s'4-suttable for i'lI sorts of fartits, i.
4ts6glass, ii. 4107-wiiodett, ii. 4198-zinc, 1. 4199,                        24~1-varieties sowti, I 2487 &mdash;qiianti'y siiwn, i. 2~9.l                 42(11                                                                       sOwing brotidetist, 1. 2494-water'fitrr~iwe         aitd
Milk-house.  is of, ii. 4192-to he kept clean, ii. 4208                          gased, I. 2407-s  u brotide`ot with    0, rtilleii,
M:Ik-~icvs ii. 42(15                                                                                            isticlittie, t. 2~l0 &mdash;
in ri)ws wi~h dvilts, 1. 2501-setis   f sileving isiew
Milk-sicitiess iii Attierica, tie, ii. 4203                                                               etirtatled, i. 2503-the grub, 1. 2504-rec.iver from its
Millet si'eil, nittieril iiigt'edittits itt, t 462                                                        attacks, i. ~5l(7-weatittig tiiit differetit frotti grub rtivtigi',
Mist, see i~iig                                                                                           1. 250i1-trea(mttit iii Gerutaisy, I. 2509-tltelr tit litre is
M~lts    lisese, ii. 4298                                                                                 stinimer, ii. 413t-top-dressi~i.", ii. 4133-diseases is
Mixed Itit-batidry, its' origs, I  49-what, 1.  5(1-extent,                                               aitnitner, ii. 4135-isli iif, ii. 4138-iltrogeit In, ii. 4139  catiim~I, titi~t rent tor fa,i. St-recomtiiendmt, i.52-aitd                                           crolis iif, vary, ii 4552-results ot stiwiug diffeietit kiods
t. 53-its e~ctIltn' e atid aifety, 1. 54-qualifies S                                               together, ti 4~96-effects of stsitciiit titaiiure it's. ii. 490
if i;iritier, 1. t(9-Itxed tnstte~-retit of fartit, liosv es ittitited,                                 -tititiersl iticredients they take (mitt tite soil, ii. 505$ &mdash;
ii. 5288                                                                                                ecat of re tat   tltess~, ii~ St)
Miidet It s, svliy a misnomer, I. 542                                            0atitseal, 1               71
19.1i~t~niportton iif, in Itie grain, I. 1932-the
Mliegliti. tigrictiltitril set  tat, 1. 5'i8                                                 hoary food of ilie $ciitttsti plituglittiati, 1. 1957-bread,
M~deo, i`I   ute pasture, ii. 3763-catettiag them, ii. 3764                               1. 19:8
its ci~s', ib.                                                                         ()tit-grtih, ltie, I 25(14-tiffects wheat on lea, 1. 2508
M~i~ ir, pistils ditch distin5`stilt, I. 409-dry, its platits, 1.                       (KItirioscopt, Ilie, ii 52~i7
410.`                                                         0ffal~, propiirtiois ot, to tive~weight, ii. 36:13
Miiorliatid p~is, breakiisg it tip, ii. 6(396-its formation, it,                         0i1-ctike, (or feeditig sheep. i 970-f' tr fa' ding caStle, I
12011-price eif, 1. 12(17-tititrittie properties o( Etiglisli
Motisootte, Itie, 1. 93                                                                    tind Aitier cati, 1. 1268-ash of tlie~e, 1. 12t19 -sitlistititte
Morto,,, ~Ir ott tlte c     of sotla, i. 48b                                               for, 1. t27)l-itiip'.ttatiiiti if, i. 1272.-il  Sl2texperi.
Mii0icring a l;itut~, vItal, i. 2513                                                       Oiesta vitti tttti feeditig sheep. ti. 3122-giveti to calves
Moths, injit   s lii tiiristjis. ii. SS~9 &mdash;plan for destroying,                            for qittirter- ill, ii. 3124-ot Ciiiiia, ii. 49~i
ii. 531 t-tiiiitts' ute, ii. 37ii1                                                     011-mike liox for I ee~i, t. 93-breaker, 1. 945
Moo lit, cli,irtii ter iif, i..14'1-wI tat, t. 4132-cltatiged accord-                   0i1-caii, ttte, i. 1746
iiig to cite   its is ces, I, 49:1-its tingin 1. 495, 500                              ~)peti suit, whsit, i 1587
M  d~f,. 1. 751                                                                      0p0~mil ~-qiiare, tI.e, ii. 500
Mould tiffeetitig Itie (top, ii. 3192                                                    Ojitica. ttte as' tence tit,  188
Miitiili'ng fever, itie, 1.2955                                                          ()rgsttic ttiatti'r, whit, 1. 198
Moutitains, colotirs of, itidicated by certaiti plants, 1 434                            0verdmvin~ cattle, what, ii, 3646 
INDEX.                                                                       795
Overshot water-wheel, the, 1. 113                               Pease, mineral ingredients in, ~ 462-nutri'ive o~a'ter i,I
Oxen, wl~at, I. 1l5~occupy the hammels, i. 114~tl?eir          acre of, 1. 1296-ash of, i. 1.~00-co~~.position of, 1. i2~i,'
treatment in hyres, I. 1210-the best, imported from          -tl~tir botani~al Isosition, i. i9s8-tije~r grain, t.-? r(~pS
llolstei~~, ii. 3 ~3                                        of, 1959- cow position of, i. 1960-tl~e fecula f, 1. li~62 -
Oxi(ffd, agneultursi chair at,  534                              were much c'~lticated, i. 1963-less sow tl~a~ 10  erly, i.
O~-louse, tl~e, i. 1376
Oaygen, its electric state, i. 139                   2412-for'~~erly sown I~roadcast, i. 2453-                                 ~tly
witl, the bean, i. 2454-their c'~lture, I. 24S.~~ieviir
manured, i. 2459-varieties sowi),  1. 24 O-q   tity
Pack of s'~ol, it~ we'gl~t, ii 3943                                               50WII, 1. 246t-garde~~, S       tlie field, 1. 249:3-Ilicir
Pai~king of wi~ol, li~'w dolle, ii. 3943                                          cul:ure in sIIuImer, ii. 3987-i~ijured by iiisect~, ii. 3988Packslieets for wool, los usade, Ii. 3913                                         coil bynsildew, ii. 3991 &mdash;reapi-ig tlse~, ii. 45~4-wi   
Pail, tlie usilki,ig, i. 2252                                                     ii. 4654-their culture in aist~si~sn, ii. 48~8 -in sinier
Painter-work of stead in', sp~iflcations of, ii. 5597-uieasnr                     aff~~rd no adva~itage to tlie fanner, ii. 4'~8iJ-wli~ter tre; t in and pric.IIg, ib &mdash;litlsic p;ti~it, ii. 5508-wlsite lead, ii.                  nseiit of, ill Germany, ii. 4~(0-sowu as lonige in
55(19                                                                            Flanders, ii. 4$91-e~ects of specIal nlaliures 0??, ii. 4113~
- greles, ii. 3 )07                                                 Pease-niesl, feedtng a    is 0!?, I. lt95-nsed for rearillg
Parat   e'i Cs, ii. 2991                                                           alves, i. 228(1
Par~ng and b's   g, what, 1. 2~l3-its objects, 1 2814-                           Peat, lie,st irOduced by, 1. 386-indicated hy certai~ isl nts,
done by tlse ii iuclster.spnde, 1. 2819-liy tlse panug-                          1. 433~ha ring of, ii. 4990~ffects of drainage opon, it.
plougls, 1. 2823-'elieu done,. 2829-~et?issg Iii tije tiirts,                   5938
1.         2-~~l0-tlse burulig, i. 2s~3l-lsarr;~win  I'  tie asles,            Peat-bog. plants which distinguisls it, 1. 41~wet, 1. 415 1.          2855-its Cost, 1. 28 18-crop alter it, 1. 2~57-dil                   cultivated, weeds s~liicti llslCat, 1. 416
erencesofopinon regaiding it, 1. 238-wise, to be done,                          Peat-tile, tlie, ii. 5~8
i.          2s4'!-   0isi~le ot it,. N~4t-te~t of its utility,. 2842          Peat oils, cl~aracter iif, i 342
Parker, ~Ir, ltc experlissents witl, Newberry's clibbler, ii.                    Pei wet, what, ii. 4023
3537                                                                           1'eocliel ot tlie i~ifiuenc a of electr!city, 1. 134
Parocisial sclsools of 8cotland, education of the agricullural                   Pheasant, injL?ry to crops by tise, ii. 4703
studetit at, 1. 512
Par~ey, for pastures, 1. 2645                                                    1'tiil(i1s5, Ore aessihilator, so, ii. 5381
Pls;~spti.-ites, effects of, ii. 8373.  Sec also 8isecial Mantsres
Parsisips, miner;,  ingrediessis in, 1. 463-pulling, 1. 839                      Plio~plionc ~~~d, pr    -e of, in seeds, ii. AlSO
-storisig, 1. 840-tlieir c  po~iiion, 1. ~54-tlseir pi-o.                      Pb~lloli~bse, tise, s. 2150
perties, 1. 896-gieeii to horses, 1. 1442-scarcely assited                      Pseklsug?if aslsest, Ilie, 1. 2338-apparatus for, 85.-stIb
to 8cotl;sssd, Ii. l4:t5-~~ll for, ii. 34:38-culture, ii. 3437                  stanc;~s empl;syed is,, 1. 231((-antio~s tise sisaver, s. 2324 -seed, ii. 34 18-attacked by lIsoCets, ii. 3441 &mdash;seed                            edsca~v (f ilifferent slibsIanees, ii. 486.3
easily raised, i~,  344~2-c;sst of cnltsvatissg, ii. 344:3-                    Ps~s, stsiisstd be no lItter isf, is, wiister, 1. 1574-feedin  of
bot;snical position, ii. 3144-cud cls;sr;scters, ii. 3445-                       lie yosin,..er, 1. 1575-yot   to be kept in SC!'crslte Courts,
culture is, Jersey, ii. 3446                                                     1. 1578-older have liberty, 1. l577-circsslisr irosigls for
Par ridge, Ilie, issjssrious to crops, ii. 471)6
Parturitioss, delis iltsisssol, ii..3b~3 -period of cestation, IL     tliens, 1. 1578-wall isse, 1. 1582-of good kin'l alavays
re;sils formarket, s. 1579-tatte   gof,on cioked aneniw
3.182-aubdiviai'is,s of l;sbour, ii. 31t8,l-tiatssr;sl, preter-     food, 1. 1583-wasliiisg salt), wariis`aster.
natural, difficult, aiid cosni, is. 3b8o-        ol tlse nitsi-ls when ~ s.       -   ~                             1. lS~4-sl'.ep
lex,            exinspie                                             f~sitensii.e,  1.58)-secetae cciii i((od on lie
first, ii. 3856-of Ilie secoiid, ii. 3'187-id~ tlie third, ii.     Cositiiietit, i. 1.~s6-tlielrsiasises, i. 3587- tojisdge of, wlseis
3b~8.sisd of tlse f  tls, ii. 3b-9-sta  lie  nesia, ii.     fat, s. l;s88-ettects ot the cotisssr of llieir hair, L 1589  3li9(i-s?;sges of, ii. 3691-action  1 tlie niu~i leo it,  ii,     wes+ern tireed iif, 1. S590-disea~es ol, iii a      louse, 1.
3892   ffect of Ilie lilin ir a,i. 3ls.l.l &mdash;tlis.scti~in e~.     1595-co is   ption, 1. 1596-mi-asles,   aiIster,
36.'14-ciisitractiosi                                                                                      l-;97-tl,e first
tilalised, ii.           of tlie ss-oi,ib, ii. 3(395-its                         bos-n sirotsge~t, 1. 2848-sotnetimes miire Iii tess d than
dila)~ilile cosidi,`196-i a ngsdsiy, ii.;(6il7-effect                         tesits, 1. 2849-yossog so-si get`(I' fwst, 1. 2850-alioiild be
of tise l;ist, ii. 3898-tiotlitis siioisld be dosse saitli violesice,   re-since as they lle, 1 2852-alavays sise Ilie    C teiit, 1.
ii. 3699                                                                2854-lse   C strooge4 at fore  at sines, 2855-twtting
I StiltS fOirns, alsere f;it,itd, t. 3o-wliat apprnprititcd to,          osilk, 1.285; -asegre;italecpcra, 1. 2857-si
1. 36-their e~~tesit, 85.-atiscklis g, c.ipit.sl, asid retit, 5. 87     are gilded, 1. 2859-tsiiie (is weasistig,     ale tind feitiale
281-in a litter,
-d    st ict~en sheep si? I`p~, 1. 994-s      her`if                       and tlsi-ir value, i. 2863-numbers ks-lit son a fsirns, I. 2864           alseep on, 1. 9.99-slinulil have sscssble liSlid. 1. 000-selister       Is - V.3  1 re's' sog, 5. 2865-coo lies., 1. 28lvi~dsaposist(te
trectssiesit of ciiw ni, 1. 1221-acclsle Issid iss, 1. 1245-          sit all a -asoisa, 1. 2887-  ols-sirous dispositi. 1. 2~68
s~tcading fiir, 1. 124(i7liave ilifferesst kisids of paa)ura-e,        -5-lisgilig, 1. 281)9-catelsitig or Isislditig. 1. 2~72-dkea~es
Si. 3722-calves go wits Ilie c  o Os?, St. 3781-salscie tie            of, I. 2871(-psitaa (if. jt.-bleediisg, i..2871~-drs!ctiing, 1.
young stock gnU-c nil, ii.9;9]3782  grow li.sy, ii. 4O8~tliiise        2873-aseaned, sliossid h.ss-c islinisilsssig I~ id, ii. 5133           forolsees, their plsysi-al gcngrtsp y, ii. 5211-asod (lsst (if         altoisld lsas-e greesi fisid ii S.er, is. Sl33-~lsoutd tint
those tor slices aisd Cisttle, ii. 5213-how to eatiniate tlse          he cosistasitly conisned. ii. 5134-period cii' di~aiaal, ii.
fixed sssnney.rent of, ii. 5286                                        5135-to judge of 1st, aid their symosetry, ii. 51:36          \Sast,or.1 farisier, quslidcatisins of the, 1. 3~                          isero iii liritai,i, Il. 51:17-   - lier aseckly at stinith
1 as.urc, repa - -- g tlse fences of, ii. 356'i-gatlsering tlte         field, ii. 51:38-    Icr -    rted sisto Liitidisii, ii. 5139           s:tosieo isff, ii.:5 i7-rnlliisg, ii. 3568-rnbbing.postsiii, Si..  I intii Slic kingdom, ii. 5141(-dieecses, isidigeatissis, ii
(576  in sismisier, pcriisd of laints aid esses at, is. 3,(l.s-`341 &mdash; aisee, is. 5~44-niesalcs, IS. illS-si,   I, S 5143
celv.isitisgea of:`srtificiai OtiCs natural for tlseso, ii. 3706-     -points ot brood -a; isv, ii. 6221-nI isisar, ii. 6222
lie's. gra~ocs lor, their aelcctiiin, is. 37Os-carsc fasins          Ptg-st'eo, fir Isro.8-sow, 1. 158(1 &mdash;for fi-edisig ~iigs, 85.-for
destitute of. ii. 3719-not priifittsble for f;   - isosir             weaned ones, 85.-disor, 1. 1581
tiisviis,ii. 3720-kind required by dairy farnss, ii. 3721-           Pige-ins, whiter tre;stssie    f, S. 1606-weeding of them,
asid Ii pastoral, ii. 3722-a~ft be.t for boinb~, ii. 372:3-           1611-rigtstiifsl  tingtliens, 1. 16(2-bistcliliss' of, 1.29:11
aiscl hard fisr eases, Ii. 3722 - regulati. its nI' lillI, ii. 3725-  -d-'ve-cnt examisied frequently, ii. 5168-feedisig ol, ii.
sitifeisced, liscos      I, ii. 3728-plants in n    Salts, ii,        51(g)
-3721-a pe        f wisite eliscer on, Si. 373)1  top.                l1igeiitt -h-in~, constniction of tlte, 1. 1610
dreasisig motisitalis, ii. 373t-issjiired by Iti     c-fly, ii.      Pi-ei-nsis' dun,.scc (8ped1sl ~tasinrcs
3758-sacevil, ii.:37.19-Isy cots, ii.:e760~by as   s                l1issitig, its i iiiiSC. 11 4(105
niotlia, ii. 3761-bv ilic cockelsafer, -5.-by    leo, it.             Pi1s, iii fiiwlo, 5. 28.s4
5783-Isijiircd by overstocking, ii. 3772-and isy s-on                 Pisses, frictii~n of sr.s'er in, 1. 110
tinsial otni-kisig, 85.-effects nI niixed stockitig, 1). 3773-        1'i;ie.clay, spe-ific grivity if. 1. 374
pecisliasls affecteil 1(3 tni'ed Iinsb.sndis, is. 8774-us - ol        1 ipe tile, cilisidisissl, Si. 5841-conisected`situ collars, ii,
-c     sit, ii. 37s9-fattesiiog possers of. is, Ilollasid, ii.        S 42-a-itls tubes, 85.-Isorac - shoe, ii. 5843 -egg-slisspcd,
379(1-its Ncirisiatsily, ii. 3791-ti Ilie va!lQv of Ange - ii.        I). 5844-c mere Se, ii. 5937
37)12-eavesit i-c'    8 Iii liStless -    a, ii. 5793-coiss.         Pled, pisic.    eral ingredients its, I. 465
jiari-djsit)i Isisy iii fatteising. ii. 3794-in Glis Friesland,      l~liii-enta of Ilie coac, tlse, I. 2239
Si. 379      Au~e. fittesis all alsister, is. 3i9ls-sn~e.ioc of      Pl.ont-liissse`if coinision Osis-osis, is. 3301-of Ilse S'vedtsh, ii.
flc'ls per (liss' its, ii. ~j'\'~~ Arlirostls, ii. 5423-Indian rish-   33-i2~-of the  -`p. ii. 3191-the beass, ii. 39.'3-of tlse
1~a senient, Caitliness           -                                      tisrisip fliisver, is. 4186
her, i. 1126                                                         Ptinto, SC! liiIs of, on tise constituents of tlse air, I. 326          Passlet I, 3Ir, Isis experiments in feeding sheep, 1. 923, 972           e)cctric relations of, I. 127-Ilicis ns~teorological habitudes,
-015`viiSliliig`ps for thesis, 1. 974                            ii. 5254
Peac`eks, 1. 1621                                                     Plas-er-worlc ssf ateading, specification of, ii, 5500-meastir.
Pea liesis, nitinagement of, in hatching, 1. 2939                        isig and pricli ig it, 85.-its cost, ii. 5515 
796                                                  INDEX.
F1cnro~pncnrnonia, 1~i~ory of, ii..VO.~-'s'bat it is. ii. 3~O7     otl~er roots, i. 126(~a fallow crop, I. 27.~~plough.
-syrnItoms I i~~fl:~m~~~:~tio~ in. ii. 3$O8-'seatl'erf~vo~~r.     inc for tl~em in autun~n, i 273~sprinc cu1ur~`Or,
al~le for, ii. 3~'O-youog anjinnls sul~e~l to it. )i. ~8l I-     27.~4-prep:ir:~tio~ t,f tite sets, i. 2737-dsnging tl~e land,
flest   0(1 nit  not..`ffcfl-d..tt firot, ii. 3812-decided     i. 274.~pLnting the sets, I.`~75l-tledllngtobeqnickly
trealm~nt I~cce.sary, ii. 2$l3-t~eatn,ent of, ii. 3~14           c~~vcred, i. 2753-a  angentent of l:,bourers, i. 275~Plottgl~, tl,e,`effecti    fi)s rnccl~sni a cctt~tructioo, i. 78 ~bj' cli t~al~le n~ode of dttngit~g. i. 275~widtl) of drills,
an~e    po'e as tl:e si~de. i. i,'58-it  ei1,'ct,     i. 2761-varieties of seed. i. 276~dungit~g the`~sund it,
intcnded to i~~~~late tie latter, i. 610-t,ot" node of ire t, i. 2772-cnlt~re in L~zy-heds, i. 2775-drills
0'~t-tl~e FA~t-L))tl)i;)n or.~n'nll's, i. ft6'2 - st,~ff. i. 1t66'     l.at ro" d down. i. 2ThJ0-l,reakit~g clods hy roller, i. 2792
-lie ts"-l"'re yk d.  i. 686-its action, i. 702-ac     -etri in, i. 2777-disease, and expedient rearted to
ti~n of ~Vilkie's, i. 71t3-lcn'pentt. tl.e ir)ns, i. 70~-      cit I tt~  sets agatnot it, i. 277~~ltracters of god,
position of tI, c~~ulter,. 70t)-~tate )f ll~e reins, i. 71()-`27~7-tl)eir intrinsic caitte, i. 278S-effe Is of moistore on
and of fl~e mottld-l~o;~rd, 1. 711-donbie t) ot~ld~t    I,      tl~cir c~routit)g, i. 27~0-tt~eir 6ota~~ical positon. i. 2793,
i. 2S6:)~t.~ttble n~ottld-leatd toe d)itl;ng, i.`240~f~r     2t)4-cl~a,'.ctcr of tl~eir order, i. 27t)6-lo,tnd Wild in
snow, ~ 26)5 - foe r 6t~it,g,    2e27 - f~~r partttg it,      (~l~il,, i. 2707-tl~eie intrsdt~ction fl~t)) Et~eope, i. 27119  ll~e 1et~s, t. 2~27-L teesee rarioc. i. 2828 - 1    dee     e ttiv;.ted at great elev..,t,c.t,s, i. 28l)(l-tlteie geogeapl~ical
for, for liftt~g p~~l;~toes. ii. 4794- tt~en-weist, ii. 5i17(l     di~trib~~lion, i. 2$01-ttest field coltitre itt Sc~~tland, i.
8tt,itt~'s sobsoit, ii. 590- ticact's  ut's,~~t, ii. 5t182-`t2-ctectt -anure nnsu'ted to lt~ett~, i. 2803-i   g.  C
Marquis of Tw. eddale's    I s~~il Iten it. ii. 5f)83-tl~e     s~~bs'at~ce requleed in ttteir uLa   e, i. 2807-eultivatiott
Tweeddale, ii, 5985-slide,,i. 6004-tceatn~ent of, 11.      in ()e   any, i. 2818-enks destroetive to y   g plants,
637-~                                                         I.`2~~9-niteogcn  0 5p    5 Of, i, 20S0-poi.sot, front, i,
Plo~~gl~ing, to give less earti,, 1. 696-and moce, i. 697-to     2~15-boiled, ocelot to sitting pottltry, i. 11917-titeir cut  give more land, 1. 698- attd 1)05, i 699-leaning tO one     i))CS it) cummee, ii, 4t4~top.deessittg, i). 4l52~ffeet,
skis or ott,ee, i. 701 -reetatgstar ft;rrow.stiee, 1. 702-     ~feeu    tot biesoms, ii. 415~d)sea~e.planofoeevadittg
Impezoidat fi,nowsli~e. 1. 7- 3-serrated hott~~nt s"le, i.      it, ii. 4155-aslt of lie leaves, ii, 4159-titt~e fr liftitig,
704- weight ot soil tuned`~`.er ly. 1 717- pOSitlon of     ii. 4788-t~ftit~g by Ilie plough, ii. 47ttt~hattl,i,s gathered
tit fuer   slice, i. 7t5-c   ect, i. 719-steed oft  ass     attet- lie g`I is cleated, ii. 4793-taised`sill, tie
in, i, 720-distance walk tin. i. 72l-tin~e lost l,y short     graip, ii. 4797-qitttttttty raiscd by it per day, i. 479~
r,dges, 1. 22-liteg and siicitt ridges eoutpated, 1. 723-     vt)rtsuakv dtsposed cii, 11. 481)0-bolts, sttigle attd douhle, ii,
drivoc of horse. iss    tt1etr s'ej, i. 725-steep gro   I,      4805-litodltce, ii. 48l;G-priee, ii. 4807-staret~,ii, 4813  1....  1.,.   -.
726  heesbts of toalci-ec,   72  -1i~glilatid ~oeist,~ feettla, tt. 481s-saaal.sr, 1). 485.-loss tIt liotitrig, ii. 4819
otedot for, 1. 72s~t)ii.t)lies laid.: conducted, 1. 729- sp{nla from, ii. 48211-OUsel 0'. siorittg, ii. 4.53-si-es
judges s'tould l~e present at`t~ens, 1. 7.~l-t-nmpartson of     fir plts, It. 4824-c   eat lilt, ii, 482~prismatie  11, ii.
rectangular and lrtipi~zO dat fIt) row.slices, 1. 731-diffs'etit     4127-1.-sat tIt ills, ii, 4828-pit'ed with call, and lytogin
formsofr,dges, 1. o.t5-d,ffe~s~itmodes, t. o36-constttuent     hi-Id not analtgota, 11. 4829-jittl)ng affects then differ`if tl~s ridgi a,1. 7.9- etitly n
par!s of a ridge. 1. 7:38-dircelto                     -      2av titan tototetty, ii. 4839   aliedlinla f'r keeping
the,, tiread 1), 1, 74ll-frseing~pois, 1. 741-ttstiistttg feer- to pita,),. 4832-effeets offeost, 1,. 4840-~nip~ietatioti of, ii,
inga, 1. 742-cross.lalle, 1. 743-cattering ut frot, Ilie     4,~4t-tlcs:tss. peat naost pri ~teetive aaaiti~l it, ii.~483.
flat, 1.749-     we elf fttteow   sit,-es in rtd~e. 1. 7o0-the 11 conoderalile on iteevy lad, 11. 4~~~lecs oi l~t, 11.
mottld fttreosv, 1. 75t-crowti.and -fIle) ow, 1. 752-gather-     4837-its eit~i-cctbin will, otattlirs tih~etirs, ii. 4838      tia and cros u-tttnow, 1. 753-1. 5   as should n~ake planting in autt~tnn as a prrvsnl,ve, ii. 401)~diseaat d
coitiplete ridges, 1. 754-t-a.ling or yokii-g. 1.                 sets ii?. vs 1', odiieed, s'.tttid croy, ii. 48t1l7-xplanalion, of
fuirow, 1. Si-atieti casting slttittet tot he ttsid, t. 7,t7-     tilts, tt. 40011-tisir ettlttire to Sututin, ti, 49li1-ttstng
two out-atid-tn.o-ii~, 1. 7.'9-feenng foe it, 6.-s lieti ills     t'lietls pii'alo. s, ii. 491)2   ffeets tit ape) tat nasnirca ot),
sttitablc, 1. 71t1-iil breaks or divisi     1 763-laces     ii. 4940-lie at requred,, to rip), ii, 5242-extretnes of
gatitetitag titi, 1 764- g.tllie   g up tlie asetind tin's, 1.      heat Ililil will ttpsn, It. 524.~niineral itigrcdici~ts they
765-cleticitag or Ilirowitig closet,, 1. 766-eleiteing`~own     t;tke f     tie soil, ii. 5061-toot of rei'lacit~g these, ii.
wit I,`~ut g))re. lurroas, 1. 767-atid wttti, sb.-ceoss, 1. 768     51174
single, 1. 71t9 &mdash;iattd, 1. 770-detes ttot cii;ittgs Ilie fot'm of   1'ittato oats, conapetoilion of, 1, 5292
tite arliund: 1?7~7rib. stubble-Itind, 1. 772-sItibble  1   1;))iilla\ds. 1. 2958 ~,             reared 10 win   tereti soils, i. oo5-stei'ng clay, i. 716-tti allOw, 1. 717   joitltra,
"toter tresiment of, Ja9~-nons
tnttde after, 1. 779  is.,, on a' flog soil. 1. 780-cutting 1-dioburgit,               ld l's r:~ugiil, 1. iQ'6-prlets its
1.   1611,  to,tttdce of, 1. lb0.~daily tiselotent
gassa iii lea, 1. 781-head-ridges, 1. 782, 783-these Ct)','-           of, 1. 1612-foid s~f, i. l6l~yOuog brods of, 1. 5617  mott lii di6erei~t meiges, I, 781-reqitisile ds1~tl~, 1. 785-          always ready to Ilis lai~ls, 1. 1618-paoiperitia, 1. l6l~
tallow, when advtsabls, 1. 787-deed end  tallow, 1.                   denottiti-ailoos of, 1. 162t~isatiisre of, 1. 162~lseases
703                                                                    tif, 1. 1624-i~-a5-cts whii-ti infest, 1. 1(t27-brttn as ftiod for,
Piouglinan, duties of tie. 1. 60  lad, lean ti rigt~t, 1. 706            1. 1652-taIls   gproht-ibls,t. 1(35-s    g iii season of
-at,d l)rt-s in tits stilts, 1. 707-good, 1. 7t2-yoiiiig, 1.           rsprsldtiet'oo, I. 287~iit 1    s. 1. 2934-suitable liir all
713-ca   I it-at ii early, 1. 714-a hi g iiiitcr, i. 71~bi ly          fit nis, 1. 2033-di-eases of; i)ip,i.2lS4moulti,iglsver,
ttn8t tor, 1. 716-bk  chili ge of as ork -iii)! SeS, 1. 141l~          1. 295,&gt;l,-ai vest bi'g, 1. 2956-inj   OtiS to erilpa, ii. 4713
young and 1.1)1, arnit-geIii)-nt i~f wor)e bs,twsso. 1, 1429-            cabs of, ii ti~e lsiogdcm, ii. 518.~calue of, inilioried,
other tnipi~ameits Ilir, to witiler, t. 14.35-tl.sir weiges,           it. 5184-tin   Is desteticlive to, ti. 5105-poitis of, ii. 62~4
ii. C3t).~iii l4et saieksiiirs, ii, 631)7-in N~'rt1   itisriatid,    l~rssssr roller, 1. 2368-objects of it, 1. 2367-its use, 1.
tt. 6.31,8-tit l..tst-Lo.iiiatt, ii. 6309-it, 1- tleslites, it. 6310   2311
-utarrisel Silit sitsgle, ii. 63lf#llioae wtio    at provide         Pritbang, tite, for test tie, 1 1379
tield- wiirl.era it. 6:318                                           Piodues, antoutit i,f, tt. 642~diaposal of, it. 6424
Piuii bee-si iirk i~f stceidiog, Ilis. ii. 5494-meastiritig and        Proud foot, Mr, lila eapenmenla on barley, ii. 492~on oats,
priettig, ii. 5499-its i,tcst, It. 5514-iseid, wtii-iite derived,      ii, 41134
1'. S407-atiil zinc-, ii. 5408-for collages, 11.5558                 Psyc-linittister, tite, - 183
Pas    tics, &mdash; tieties of, 1. 81      -   -                            Puit~p, tiatnotoit, aetio~i of Ilie, 1. 91-f tee.,i6.7stomseh,
Pot ptatetisi.. Ititi stat ttiatsd.siits in, 1. 464                      tts ttse i~ir lire-sloek, i.91-tast-,eoo, for tiqued-m.-   re,
P. ~isiiii itir i.irds, elangerot,-. ii. 4711                            i. 1113pei-ulb     s, 1. 2666-.   thee, 1. 211t~force,
Pole-eat, deatetictive to poutra, ii. 5296`vilOl tooslittites it, 1. 2053-iitid liit.tig, 1. 2t84
Poll:ird, Ste asifltw   -      -    -.          - -           I'ui~diing-t ippers, ii. 4'16
1 opt-ir, sletitit gntvtty of, I. 51,1 -   stat itigredecuts in,       1't~rvss, Mr, I-is e~penteietits ti) fesdtiig sheep, t. 062
4fiS                                                               I t)SQV, Mr, lila 5x1)Srittients itt feeditig slieei~, 1. 971-with
l5oppy salt of li-.s, ii 4014-cake, (I.                                         tasa    a     aatgiiid. wuezel, ii. 49111
I ork, live titid dead weight tif. tt. 6174~lo1s itt ci~iiktng, tt,    Pitirid eggs, pots   Its, It. 5182
6175-itiekled. ii. 617(#liaus, ii. 6177-flietti, ii. 6178-           P~rol.el   eler, lies, ii. 31)33
inipoited, 11.6184
Piirksrs litid porkllo go,`clint, 1. 1587                             Quarter-ill, aymptiitns of, ii. 3847-ttspiea-ent,et.3848
Ptiept.-,sr,s, Siletttit cravily oi, 1. 119                            Quartz, speeidt goteity of, 1. 119
Potash and ai'dii, as tiers chiefly foutad in piSota, ii. 5048-        Qusy calf, wlieit, 1. 1152
nitrate of,, set  pedal i~ett.ures -   -    -
Potab~cs, n   r.ii togredo Ills It), 1. 46.~giveo to iaorses, 1.       Rad,, lisy or straw, t. 93~afraw, covered, t. 1095-aqttarst,
1440-tisid it, leeditig tattle, 1. 5253-tiutritive p) i'Ve-cs ol,      1. 11192-itoti, 1. 11:93
L 12,54-wa' er in,, 1. 125.~couiposit tin of, i. 525(#asli           Ilad, Etiri of, lila experiritents on feeding al~esp, 1. 987
of, t. 1257-salt tit blirous tall 1 1, t. 12.t~t)u1t tltve Itteit-   ilag-fallowiog alter lea. ii. 4ltS~bjecttou to 11, 11. 4184
ter frottt acre, 1. 12o-9-nutr~tice neatter cone pared with          Iteigs as a tosoure, ste lipeciat Manures 
INDEX.                                                                                           797
~ailways, conveyance of stock by, ii. 3595                                                       Rick, conical, calculation of its contents, ii. 4078
Rai'~, beneffejal as moisture, i. 270-ilutton's tbeory of. i.                                    Jtick-clotI~s, s~zes and price of, ii. 4()43
274-its connection witb tile fall of tl~e barome er, i. 27                                     Pid4les, i.  777-wheat, w{~oden, i, 1778-barley, e)oden,
-periodical, i. 276-zone of cot~stant precipiL.'ti~~n i. 277                                      i. 177~-oats, wooden, i. 1780-beans, wooden, i. 1781  -anus  atount of, i. 278-Europeat, 1. 27Jt~l.tws                                                 slap wtodcn, 1. 1782-wIns' wre, i. 1783~barly wire, I.
affecting its distn'l)tttion, i. 280-increase of dy of, I.                                        1784-oats wire, i. l781-slap wir8, i.  1786-sieves,
281-decrease of, i. 2~2-ibit  ow tlte co'tst to tlte in-                                         wtt~tden, i. 1787-wire. i. 17d8-lor po:atoes, ii.
terior, i. 28 3-more falls Ott we~t titan east tAlot, i. 284-                                  Ri idlittg, tttode of, l. 1822
frequency of,  285-differettee itt dtty attd nigltt, i. 231;-                                  11 iges, tim  lo,t itt plottglting sho't, I. 722-canstitnent
nitrettles of Vet an I dry ywtrs, i. 2~7-wlte~e grcat falls                                      pd  of, i. 733-drecton of, i. 7.39-breadtb f, i. 74~  occur, i. 288-sm: toot influenced by tlte, i. 2 9-                                         g;ttlterit~g ridges froto tlte flttt, i. 74(.)-y tklog, i. 755
forni     atters lsrttugltt d;tw~t ly, i. 2.(30-~ettersl prog-                                   noottog ()r cottplittg,?b.-twtt-'~ut-snd.two-in, i.  nIl  tmtics of, i. 295-i      ter, quattlity at~d     ber`f                                         tts'ice g'ttItt~ed ttp, i. 7 (4-clescing (Ir tltrowittg dotelt, l.
d.tys, i. 608-clt.irttcter ctf winier, 1. 60)-meit 51(110(11                                     7I37-ill-itl.~uolted. i. 769-levelling itigli, ii. 5964
fall, i. ((1(1-fall tIll tile L.tnd, i. 611-its uses In lItIob todry,                          itiglins, teliat, i. 2:3(11
i.                             612-nteatt fall itt svittter, i. 6tl-w.tst it to, i. 928-       llisers, ordi   y flittv aitI slope of, 1. 113-inetisunog their
ageittent of beep dti~ig Iteacy, i. 918-in vp:i(;g, i.            ninety, i. 116
2149-tttiniber of dass titeit, i. 2 ISt-inetiti tall itt     g,                                Ilolterisoit's cttm-csrl, ii. 4596
i.                             2175-qttattt.tyitt s   ner, ii. 3913-itutuber oldays. ii.       Roe  stilt, s1tecilic gractry ttf. 1. 119
3014-n     fill at Gree`cb lor 2't years, ii. 4328'-                                        Rttllcr, tlte lattd, I. 2475-its trettttttent, ii. 6338
quantity in atlt    al     Its, ii. 4:32.1-    tier of d:tys                                   JIttiler, for horses, price of, I. 1542
tlien, ii. 1350-probtlt lilies ol vet to dry, ti. 4331-~ne~u                                   11. tllittg of Ittod, tlte, i. 2475
fttll lti it utuittit, ii. 4:i50                                                               Rttttk, tite, freritieto s nitt-fields for grubs. 1. 2505-injunnus
Ilabi-gatige, Il in, i. 271-its cost, 1. 272                                                       to trops, ii. 4707-destructive to eggs, ii. 521o'
1?ttittbow, tlte, i.. 3046                                                                       Rtt.tk-bs'.tery, it, ii. 4712
Raiti.svster, spe.idc gravity of, I. 119-spouts for, I. 1117,                                    l1o~ws Ittr carts, ii. 4599
ii.                            5496-draitta, I. 1113, ii. 542 3-cistertt, II. 55:31            J?~(t itt etees, v.Sntlstottts attd prevention of, ii. 4742
Rap cultivitied in 8eotlatod f'tr l~tntge, ii. 3143-ettits   ed                                  Rotati    I C  PS, defitttti'ttt of, ii. 5080-crops`-Itich ripen
at different sn~soi-s, ii. 3441)-its culture, ii. 34~tII-gosws                                   seed    St CXl(StlStiCC, it. 50-2-order of crops by tl~eir
on any ~~I:, II.:345 t-rttised fo   atturilt lsttd vitlt elteep,                                eali.t tlStIVCttCeS, II. 5083-exltaustittg and ititeilttmsting
ii.                            3452-u-nftil f('r ewes, ii. 3453-i,tticstwI Ity lItoects,, ii.    sltnrttsterl, ii. 5084-r~guIar rotation  ulinecessairy lit
3454-sheep supported by, ii.:3455-tb bot.in~esl posit,                                       arallln cultttre, ii. 5035-itecessary  Item  tbtc~ is reared,
ii.                            3456-seed I     ted, II. 3431-its eu~ture ill ititt,          it. 5086-it itistlrcs regtil.irity of`vttrk, ii. 5105-its theory
I.                             4369-good for sheep, 1. 951            - -,,                   tot yet utiderstoitti, ti. 51(16-tltetiry of excretion, Il.
Rape-cake, Itow foritecl, ii. 34511-Its composition, ii. 3460                                      5l07~f nutrition, IL ~109 -Bouseingault's views, ii.
-itlid dust, bow itresnrve-d, ii. 4(94                                                           511(1
Raite-tlust, see 8itecittl.`ltti  Cs                                                            1(itbbiiig-post in pasture-fields, ii. 3576
Rispail, M., Il tite feculit ttf wheat, 1. 1.l02-t~arIny, 1. 1920                                huddle, see 1~eil
-ttats, I. 1953-rye,, 1945-beatis, I. t956-pea~e, I.                                          lltig, for Ii orses, prien of, I. 1542
1932-bttek-wlt at, I. 41i67-ptttsttt, I. 4~14                                                  Jtutiiinatioii, process of, 1. 1652
Rtits, destructive Its ptttiltry, ii. 5199-bcst itode of killing,                                lttisky, tlte snetl, 1. 2314
ii.                            52(11-otlier means, ii. 5202-siid no ice, proelsion             ltunt, injure Ilin pea crop, ii. 3992-of (lie.vtraw of wbeat,
agaiiist,in steadingo, I. 1687-destroycliene, ii. 4299                                           ii. 4115-Itt liside ot cliff scales, 11.4116
Raveit, tIle, injtires Iambs,~i, 3717                                                            Rtitltnrftrd's self-registering I)tnrmotiteter1 I. 163,     462 &mdash;
Rttzsr-back iti c;ittln,  bat, I. 5622                                                           Rye, I'.s culture, ii. 4140-   ersl ittgredteitts iii, i.
Read's sub~oil-plttuglt, ii. 5982                                                                  Its blttanictil positloti, I. 1910-its esi-, ib.-its graili, I.
i?napiitg, reqttires I~ired l~-tbournrs, ii. 4460-symptoms of                                      1911-cultivated iti tlte Continent, i, 1942-crop of,i.
ripnniiig, ii. 4465-suitnrititnndett:-e necessiry, II. 4470-                                     l945-e    o~ition of its graitt, I. 1944-feettla of, I. 1945  ctotltittg of Ibosit n p ted, ii. 4471-btittd vin wil~ tlte                                      itutrittee tttittet fioioo`iti acre of, t,1946 -ash ttl (lie gnu,
sickle, ii. 4472-its advatitsgev, ii. 4485- lortive ivitlt tlte                                  I. 1.1(47-of tIe strate, I, l973-ge:tgnipliicaldistributiuu of,
`sickle, ii. 4436-its sittiplicity, ii. 4491-inetsnces of iiidi.                                 I. 1948-Itread, I. 1949
~~dual, i, 4495-kiggtng  tIlt tlte sickle, l. 441)4-letivin;                                   Ryn-gi-tiss,    eral ingredients iii, i, 464-Inn varintes of,
a                              high stubble, ii, 4495-a-lIlt tlte l-ltiiitsiilt scitlin, ii,     1. 2359-q   tity atwit, I, 2(135-send, its`velglit aiid cost,
4496  wttlt tlte sQStlie, ii. 4)01-qutintitins doite sitli                                       i. 2645-Ittiltati, I. 2o44 -stIWO svttli tlte cl~tvers, i. 2o33  s~ckIn atid scytlte, it. 45lI7-agtttiist ilte siattdlit'        -                                aslt, ii. 58.     It ttf its lisy, ii. 5093-effects of site i.tl
Prolter, ii. 4511-Iti gttttitts, ii, 4512-food (~f tItn~e eti -                                  msttur-.s   - t, ii. 4970
gaged, it. 4315-disei1tlinn itt illetti, Ii, 4-518-lttdgittg of
tltniti, ii. 4520-their wages, ii. 4322-tlntin Ity (lie p nen                                  8.iclts, 1. 1817-nettIng fitil ones, I. 1812-Iiftittg8]fitll ttnes, I.
in                             Etigltnel, -`i, 4525-its co.~, it. 452I-ttdeatttages of           1815-iteuling cart wIlt, I, 1816-Ivirriw for Iltetti, I
itiowit ig, ii. 4o50-proport'   ni'straw to gr~tin, ii. 4552-                                    1.~l8 -tiiitl S'.(CCtS, tresininitt of, it. 654~ltftir, ii, ttJ,)ti
itt                            tilttttleel, ii, 4554-tii drilled, ii. 4555-itt brotidesut, ii. Sack itIter, tlte, ii. 651(1
4556 -sveiglit of emp, ii, 4557- sneigitt of stitblle attd                                     8:tddln, i-id 1 g, pt-ice ttf, i, 1o42
rolls, ii, 4558-produce by d~itbltng, ii. 4't53 &mdash;dt-illiiig, ii.                               8,tclile lior.ns, i. 1522-wint'nr trnatiiient of tie, I. 1524  4o49-attd br:stdc.tst, II 4541 -erop ol wheat v~tnns, ii,                                        l(tOSC-1511XC5 It il', I. In.t8-w Iiett deetited idle, i. 151t5-'vlinii
4555-of lt:irtey, ii. 4551-of n-its, Ii. 4552 -itegleet of                                          -ely excrci~-d, 1. 1564 weeditig del (`ItilOOtiti, It. 45.6-sliort i.cl5es`sote time in,     156'  tIt fl.et,`viteit  -    tlte,leg,s, - islinit Ill,tn,ntte,d, I
tli~eavnd,,. lost  Ittod nI, i.
II. 4557-ige ot e                              It be~t rwiited, 11. 45.19-varitoits               dienit-i~~ itt I. tre-lng~, 1. 1572-of Itiltel nuns, I. 1575-bee ak  nindes ot sI~toi1-it:g. ii. 45 14-Ge  a               ode, ii. 4565-                             lItit-in, ii. 61(97-titode of tltting it, ii, 6093
8w~.lieb, it, 4-ib-ittac   es, ii. 4ibS            -mli    bettvnntt                           SS(l(lle'giilLs itt litres, I. 1501, II. 5858
grsiiis tIt tlte etir 111(0 1:111 crop per acrit, ii, 4574-ti tat of                           Saddler, work, two teltys of niencutiltg, ii. 6551
boil its aiid petise, ii. 4576                                                                 Sago, I end iItgo fI alves willt,I.2279
ILeaplit notteltines, kiitds ttf, ii, 4568                                                       Salilfititi, littt nutted let SI-otitind, I. 2524-its cttlli,rn, 1. 252'
Rn     r's Iliw-motiteter, I. 164                                                                 -a, iterni   I, I. 2527-as lortige, I. 2528-its botttitictil
Redo   g, table ni, ttr cows, 1.          2257-iSot-tiett's cycle for,                             pol —, 1. 2529-in ty be ettlittated iii drills, 1. 255~  I. 2238                                                                                          ittakes fitte lisy, 1. 2351 -itttitrttfilable to citllleste itS a
Red clover, se Clttver                                                                             perentital, I. 2534 -its aslt, I. 2.~(3-weight and cost of
lIed-tester itt etiws I. 2242                                                                      seed, I. 2356-gianl, culture ttf, 1. 2557
Register-tiffices Itte Se- (tIltS, ii. 65(11                                                     SalesIlien, Ilte best disposers o7stnck at market, ii. 3596
Rngiiltirity, itilpoettitien (If, itt Ireittttientofeatlin, I. 1211                              Salitte tilsutirlO, effects itl, ii lop-eleessitigs, ii. 6572
iteid, hugo, nti,tlte IOtO p rattire tit tlte, itt    sltliern, I. 101                           Salt, gn:td lor nltnep ~}n I     S, I. 9.46-IceW Iliens fi-en of
-Ott netiltetrtilioti, t, 121 &mdash;ott tlte sIr, i       212-n   tIer, 1.                             rot, I. 94i-stte    t litty in ettiekiitg, ii. 4(i6o-ilseffecls,
215-ott tite nat-his, 1. 214                                                                     ii. 6I77.-3iv also -~peeial ~1anitres
Reid's tltetry otot   s,I. 512                                                                   SaIlpitIre, see In"pecisl ~L-tnures
items, i. 683                                             -                                      6,tlvn, Ballaittyise s, ii. 4777-another, ii. 477~Stewart o,
Rennet, itow produced, ii~ 4255-its action,               ii. 4284-pm.                             ii. 4779-titr, spt~lyittg, ii. 4781
partlion of cuid Inr, ii, 4285,                            -                                Satid,, specilic gravity of, I. 1l9~n'fiing, weeds supplied
Ribbing latid (or Ilin ennd-ftirmw, i,           2623-mode of, I. 2328                             by, I. 407
-nIject of, I, 2629-plotiglo, I.            2627-coulter, I. 2650                               Saiieletones, specific gravity of, I. 519
11,16-gitiss for pasture,, I. 26,43,                                                             Satidy clay, specific gravity of, I. 374
Rice, mineral iiigredtents lit, 1. 462                                                           S.iiidy mains, character of, I, l4~plSOt5 which distinguisli5 
798                                        INDEX.
Sandy loanis con1in'i~~                                         1081-and water, ib.-bowel-slekneqs, Th.-siekness in
39~'eeeds wlti&amp;h infest,  39~porons ones, plants of,         tlte fieslt and blood, i&amp;.-~Varnes' c'~mpound f~'r, I. 1~O6
i. 39t-wt~ds, i.                                               ~ircuttistances whi~lt de!ermine their d:SpOLi'l ii..~578
Sandy soils, character of, i. 31~plants which distinguish       -ltogg  are put to turnip lean, ii..~5Stt-progre~s or
them, i. 390-sveeds infesting them, i. 3.91                    forniation of tst in, ii. 358I-t~i judge of fat, ii. 358~
Sarc~~lohie, character 0 tlte i. 2450-used as food, ib.         otode of turtling a, ii. 35S4~we lio~gs, retained iin tlte
Sa~.fly of tie turnip, Ilie, ii. 3294                           farm, ii. 358:~inether, fe  as flying stock, ii.:~5$7-tat,
Scab in sheep, i. 1071                                          piirclia~d by ~ealers and btttcliers, ii. 3585-cost of sendScalded head in sheep, ii. 3751                                 ing them to market, ii. 3589-sde~ting titetit f~~r it, ii.
Scarecrows, uselessness of, i. 2809                             3590~lrover of, Itis quttlifications, ii 3594-their treatSciences, those ritost applicable to agricolturitt, i- 70-time  ment tin tIt  road. ii. 359:1~'onveyance by rttitssys, ii.
re(iuired for stodying thetis, i. 520                         ~595-a atlestitati the dtsposer of them at market, ii.
Scirpits, nitneral incredients in, i. 4~4                       2596-rri~es tif niarket to be attet~ded tit, ii, ~97-tlteir
SC(t0p for filling water~barrel, ii. 3776                       conveysnie by steamboat to London. ii, 3.\98-tltose
Scoolts, corn, i 1793                                           best suited to tite Lotidon niark' t, ii. 3600-Editihurglt
Scots fir, specific gravity of, i. 11~mineral ingredIents in,   weekly ittaiket for, ii, 3603-sits fir, first instititted, ii.
i. 46,5                                                       3602-in Gres' Itritain, ii 3603-s' id annu~ilty itt SotithScottish sheep, tlse original, points of the, ii. 6232          field, ii, 36114-presented weekly there, ii, 3(itt5-niimber
Scitunitit in calves, i. 2298                                   ittipotted into L~tndon, ii, 36(16-in`0 lie kingdotit, ii.
Scud, cI'iiid called, 1. 259                                    361i8-p'riod of ewes and lamlts retitaittitig tit pasture, ii.
Scuffli r and (4riiliber, tlte, ii. 6340                        37115-artificial leisture tiest fir ewes, ii. 3706-election
Scuffler, ice U. rse~hiie                                       of new grass for, ii, 37118-treatment if wetl~er Itogts in
Sculls for turnips, i 1184                                      nuitinier, ii. 3711-of dinmonts, ii, 37(2-tif sive liiggo,
Set the conimon and 1501501, ii. 3878~ommon, niounted,          ii 371~of hips, it 3714-Leiceiter Itoggs apt to l~e awk  ii  3577-tilade, ii. 3s79-tharpened with  strickles, ii.      ward, ii, 371~lansbs ii'jtired by the rivet, ii, 3717-arid
3884-with stones, ii 3~~1cutting fortige wills, ii, 3 52       by tite carn"'n-crow, ii, 37l8~ewee treat suited lot' hard
-ittaitufaclure of, ii. 3~9~unsuited for reaping, ii. 4498     pasture, ii, 3722-atid laniba, ii, 372"t-cliange of tlteiti iii
Scythe, t rttdle, ii 4497                                       sotite pastures dangerous, ii, 3724-takitig tiff hrttta, ii.
Ssa-breeze, origin of ihe, I 94                                 3726~etight to spread river hill pasture. ii. ~727~str;ty
Sea~water, siserific gravity of, 1. 119                         over unfenced ittarcites, ii. 37"~1ilactntced stitisist nit
Sea~wetid as a manure, i. 2107-qti~ntities of, on tlte shores,  heath. ii. 373~diseases in soritmir, s'irrtly, ii. 374,~
i 2lO~pttt fresh on stutible arid lea, i. 2109-pot on          blinding. ii, 3744-pita, ii. 3745  caldrd head, it. 3751  ti~ncIted ground, I. 2l1(#dries to oite~fltird its bulk, 1.   hots, ii, 3752-ked, ii. 3753-lrl'iw &mdash;flies, ii 3754-wtirried
2111-itt botanical postttori, i. 2ll3coiitposition of, 1.     iry dogs, ii. 3757-washing-pool lor, ii. 39110-order rif
21 iS-on coitibtistioti yields kelp, i. 2116~ita asit, L 2117 within tltent, ii. 39O~-pr;e,paratiiin, &amp;c,, of tIt5 nien, ii.
-of Jersey, i. 2118                                           39113-mt'de of w.tslitng, it. 3904-trial   ttlter svashSegg, Wlttit, 1, 1156
Segging iri,oato, ii. 4135                                      trig, ii. 3905-period of tie day frir it, ii, 39116-waslting
-   --           - -                 9? a hill firm, ii 3908-none equal to clear water fir it,
Seeds, rationale of tIteir germ'nation, ii. 3496-are living     1  39,0~,w,a.htng iii ~Vortemberg, ii. 3910~time for
objects, ii. 3497- vital, in tite grirutid affected by agencies,     shearing, ii. 3915  tire shear trig fl~`or, ii. 3916-tire per
ii. 3495-affeited by physical agencies, ii. 3499-by air,     stint eniployed, ii.,,39l7-its obl,ect,,ii. 3919-ittetItod of
ib.-by heat, ii, 350~-by  moisture, ii 3501-by puleerit d     rising the shear's, ii. 3920-shearitig in list three different
soil, ii. 3502-by cltemictil agencies, ii. 35tl~by azotised     stages, ii. 3921-state of tIt. fleece, ii. 3925-orinther
and non-azoti~ed,, i5.7ripe, contain ntut.'h carbon, ii.     shorn every day, ii. 3926-a new simm  one, ii. 3928  3~0a  airsor b ritoislure in the soil. ii. 350(#a~isted by     sortie lambs`vean tt'entseli es alrer their nio5hers are
heat, ii.:1507-flisyital tifl'ncipleltectimpitst,t,the walerab-     e,ltorn, ii. 3,92p-she,ari~g a jiyotis season, ii. 3930-shear  sorbed, ii. 3.sfl8  diastase f   ed iii them, iL 350.~tugar     mi on a lull anti, ii. 3931-improvement 11 stein - ii. 3932
f,orn,te,d, ii. 35lttfiir.ther,CrowlIi. ii. 3512-wiry liglit it pre-     -eff~t'ls of trio, early sltearing, ii. 3933~niark{ng 1,1150?,,
jirditMl to gerininatton, ii. 351~ffected by physiological     ii. 401~nta1enals or it, ii. 4019-isay rif diting i.~, ii
agencies, ii. 3516 - consist of an ettibryn, ib.-fnrce of     4ti2li~iseases, yellows, ii, 4740-rot. ii, 4741-flukes, ii.
vegetation to, ii, 3520                                    4744-tiathitig requt-ite in kill kede on, ii. 474.~it us' fril
Serv:tn,ts, nbligat',ons if masters to, ii. fi292masttrs ret- in i ti toner ins diseases, ii. of tite
6294-grounds for0., 474#ciimpi ts?'tion        bath,,,
pirosible for, it. 6.9.~tlretr obligat Otis to irtatlers, ii. ii. 474~itsc'tst. IL 4755-is emploted in dry weather. ii.
diaritisting, ii. 629&amp;~citamclert to, ii.     4757-mode of aliplying it, ii. 4759-sheds roads in tlse
6297                                                           wool, ii, 4760-imir~edkrte effects of tite bath, ii, 4761Served, what, i. 1154                                           stool fiir batlitrig, ii. 475i~ewes ball ted alter tripping, ii.
Sewer.ige water ]of towns,  he, ii, 501~composition of          47fi~tltey are nipped, ii. 4766-niode of dipping, ii. 4770
London, ii. 50140f Edinburgh, ii, 5015~ott 0 fitting          -smeated rio hill ttrrms, ii. 4773-it objectittirtibie, ii, 4774
apparatus for, as a manure, ii. 501(~its efficacy, 1 5017     -vat lout arives. it. 477(~apislytng them, ti.47~9-puttiog
8hackel, Mr, lilt expertirtents on feeding Southdownt, L 989    on tar-stilve, it. 4781-rises of tiietr skins, ii, 6171-heat
Sheaf-gauge, the, ii. 44~7                                      radiated frirni it, ii. 6172
Sitear-hoges, what, i. 931
Sitearling trip, what, i. 924                                  Sheep-t'ots, riot adrisatrie, i. 1015
Shears, stibie, price of, i, 1424                 Sheep-pita, tIre, ii. 3745
Sheet, sowing, Itow pu,,t no, i. 2316
Si ed lor I..ty, c itt, &amp;c., of, ii, 4075         Shell.fi~ and 51 slit, ii. 4998
Siteddings, what, i 930                           Shell marl, its use, ii. 49t.~its composition, ii. 6030
Sheds,   vable, for sheep,, i. 956-permanentt, for them,   Shelter, advantages of, f~r sheep,, 1., 953, 1li0~waot of it
i. 957-tn ~ea~ing, i. 110.3-itt pasture fields, ii. 3777        on pastoral farms, L 99.i~~io it ill (artist secured by tells,
Sheep, fee,dirtg, of,   turnips to wittIer, i. 901-selected to put     1. 1033,-a,nd,,liy hittites, 1. t034effscts of 19w opted  in
Ott triritips, 5. 91.-aged Itt is, 1. 91$-yortng sheep,  91$-     affording it, it, 5594-copes of Willis secure it, tb,-tttstances
old ewes, 1. 92(~csstrsied itimlis, i, 921-i row arritoged, i.     of stircesiftil, ii. 5595
94t~oiimes at dlffererttages,i. 92,3~fs,etlit,rgin sheds, i.956   Shepherd, tire, his tiuties, I. 63-where required, 1. 64  -bos-iteding, t. 96~stall-fee  g, t, 9b~t1:ouId have     isoibirig season an onerous ntis to, i. 2539-profit deriv  white trirnirts at first, i, b727reIislt cabbages, i. 973-br-     able from a griod, i. 43-lost suertilned fr9nt a tad, I,
nips tittiuld be ott wattietl, t, 97siconhtieruent ungerrial     2540-pripares trtrntp.sltcerand troughs, t. 2542-kale
to, i. 9.',~feii on oil~cake, i. 976ori 9i1-cake, linseed,, arid     and turnips. i. 254.~,latstertr arid crook, 1, 254~ruearis
beans, i. 981  relative weights of skirt and tallow, r. 9~6     to tvard off tlte fta, r. 2o4~koows tIre lartibrog 555,55
-dtff rent breeds fed, i, 987-Haiti p~ire Sirutbdowos, 1.     1. 2546-prever`Is desert on of lambs, i. 2552-srtttp,ortt
98~ttnt fed on carte fttrnrs, i. 991-nnr on those rear     orpt air lambs, i, 2553-niakes ewes take their oten Itimbo,
towns, i. 9927oor on tiatry fttrntt, i, 993-Citeviots on     i. 2562-,titerC' lanibs on nther ets'ss, i, 2,563-ti. togs!tp
low pastoral antis, r, 9.i~.tttd I3lackf.rted on high, Sb.-     pet laristis, L 2.i67-cs~r.ttes lambs, t, 2.i7l-ltts dir`ret
iroggo  Il tiff on trirnips itt spring, i. 10117-hay prstvidsd     ott a hill farm, 1. 2SsSHjOitItfiCStiOOs of lIts hill, i, 2589
iii lIst stells, l: 1017-different fornis ot titus. i, 11109-     -tit tvtrges, ii 11315
Stiutlrriowits itirely tri supersede Citevitit, 1. 10~'(~BLick-   Shepherd of lisobriry's rrrlet for winter, 1. fl52spriog,
faced suited to hill farms, i. 1023-a bratted one, i. 10:i8     i, 216.~suutm,r, ii. 3045
-h&amp;t lii Iiepriivtdt.d tm them, t, 11141-hurilies, L 1042-   Sheitherri 5 diig, tefliper of the shepherd indicated by, it
OsIs, i, 1(i54-ctrrtr-ttore for, i, 111fi~ftd riri itorse-clrcst-     6102-two t'artettes of, ii. 6104-irrude of Itrisirting1 it  outs. t, IlboHirseases in teinter, purging, 5, 1066- louse,     6l0'~its liar aster, ii. 6107
i.1067 - bridling, i. 10149-scab, i. 11171 - fo~rt-rot, t,   Slieplierri's kotit, the, i. 90$
i07~wtldfire, I. 107~braxy, 1. 1177-dry braiy, i.   Shoeing a young itorte, tire, ii. 6O9~ 
INDEX.                                799
Short-horn ox, points of, ii. 620~bolJ, ii. 6210-cow, iL                  i. 411-and near the sea, plants on, L 412-weeds on,
6212~i1otir of, ii. 6213                                                 413-peat, plaits on, I. 414-wet peat, plantsoii, I. 4i~
Shot, what,  l~$7                                                         and dry peat, weeds infesting, i. 416-near dwellings,
Shot ol grease in horses, i. 1494                                         plants ind cative of, I. 42~tlii~se indicative of presence
SI  lder~shaken,  list ii                                                 of peat, i. 433-aspect of, i. 373-retentioii of heat by, I.
Sh(ivcl, hn~ad-inoothed, i. 1168                                          l74specific gravity of, it.-shri~~king of, b' heat, I.
Show, feediiig ot cattle for a, 1. 1214                                   375-waroiii~g of, by teat, I. 371-abs pIlot of rniIis'ure,
1,howers of sulpl~ur, ii. 2.975-blood, ib. - corn, it.-                   I. ~7-ssiuratioit by wa'er, I. 375-retention of moisture,
a    is, ii. 29 0                                                        i. 37I1-sIsor1~ti.n of ox~gett, I. 380-physical pri~pertlcs
Sicl~le, toothed, ii. 446~-smootlt-edged, ii. 4469-prices,                of, I. 3~1-dtsc     atiosi of tl1eiii by the plants gritwing
it.                                                                          ott them, i. 382-rlsyey indicated by certaiti plants,
Siftin~, Itow done, 1. 3823                                                   421-gravelly, I. 422-vegetable, i. 423-very dry, 1. 424
Silica, wlters fiiutid iii plants, ii. 51)54                                  -otoisture below, 1. 42~in rich condition, I. 421)-and
Siliciotis saud, specitic gravity of, I. 374                                  lii pour, i. 430-ota   ed Itom tOwns, L 431-not well
Siphon, tic     I tlie, 1. (2                                                 farmed, I. 432-their nierhatiltal flmtcture, i. 436~tlteir
Six-teeth ewes,`slist,.9:11                                                 niecli~itiical aitalysis,  it.-tlirir chemical c  po~iilon,
Ilkins ol sheep, dressing of, at tlie Cape, IL 3974                           i. 447-silica in, I. 418-alumina, I. 449~~ide of irin, I.
Skip, what, i. 2.3.3                                                          45O~oxidc of mangancss. I. 45l~poia~lt and soils, i. 453
Skirty laiid~,  list, 1.2122                                                  -tible of atitilyses iii, I. 457-sos if analyses of, I. 45~
Sky, tlte, to s~~ring, I. 215~in winter, I. 653                               Seld before tlte a'~alyiic eliemist regarditig, I. 461-classifiSkylark, ilie, Itijitritius ti cr015, ii. 4699                                Cailitti if, I. 471-Gaspanti's, 1. 47~ongin of, I. 48(~'fttll
Slates for steaditig, tlte, II. 5489                                          of iniere~t to tlte agrl tiltitial pu1iil, 1. 503-gtiiiltlng or
Slater- work of steading, speciScalions of (lie, ii. 545~                     cia, itig of, I. 2139-rotation of cr' Ills, for strotig, ii. 5089
nies'oufl'ilg ittid pricitig, it. 5493-its co~t, ii. 5513                   -flir ligltt, ii. 5100-nalunille fertile, ii. 5 113~lenients
I5lsu~ltte  g oxeit, preparation fiir, ii. 6111-different                     of 3~rtilily utitnown, ii. 51 1~ii fliien~e of clittiate nitler  niodes of, I'. 61 l2-rsitiiiig diiwn carcass, ii. 6113-Scotch               tiltty ol, II 5115-itoite lt~re bear crotti without itiatitire,
mode ol dividitig, ii. 6115-attn English, ii. (1118-differ.                 ii. 511~how it effects fertility, 11.5118-residue of rope
ant s trts of beef, ii. 6123-sheep. preparations for, IL                     a source of fertility, ii. 5119-matiure should be iii
6124-mode of, it-displayin' tlte carcass, ii. 612                            cats  I  reduce reittoved, IL 5l2~funclion  of humus
citttiiig it down, ii. 6126-8cotctt ittode of dividing, Il.                  in fertilising, ii. 3126-effects of their pitlverisatios, IL
6127-tind Englialt, Ii. 6I2~-tliffereiit kit~d of initttoti, ii.             5996
6130-top nitittoti, ii. 613~proportion of fat, ii. 61:16-                 Soilitig slock, oltjecilons to pasturing, ii. 3869-difficulties
pigs, mo~le of, IL 6137-Scotrl   de of dividitig. ii. 6138                  atteiidin~', lin araltle farsits, ii. 3870-romisirtitlie extent
-and Foglisli, ii. 6139-jtidsing of liork, ii. 6140-calves,                  required for it aiid pti~turistt, ii. 3~72-lsbiiitr atteiidiitg
mode of, ii 6t4t-So~tcli diriottin if carca%-, ii 6142-                      tite cittiteg of grass, ii. 3873  work-horses treated in
and English, ii. 6143-be~t vetol in t1cotl~nd atid England,                  tliis way,ii. 3874-impracticable tin a hirge scale, ii. 3875
ii. 6144-lanibs, niode of, IL 6145-titode of dividing, IL                   -  re prtctical~la ip Englatid tttait Scottind, ii.
6146                                                                        great  ftirttge or, s!!oiil'. be t-ut dry, ii. 31~3-lt mixed
Sleet in winter,. 654, ii. 3~08                                               with hay or thaw, ii. 3(184diivti crop vat tea, I. 38~b
Slight's trussed iron seilig-tree, I. 668-new lever-drill sow-              Soot, ii. 518i6-comp~tsilion of woid, ii. 5(304-soiving.
ing-niscltine, L 2341-sit gle    tield -gate, ii. 5765                       itiacltine for, Ii. 5601-see also Special Manorna
Sllti.ctilf, what, I. 1154                                                  Sootlidi~wiii,    to of, IL 6234
Slip~iing of isnilis,  list. I. 2590                                        8~w pig, what, L 1587
Sloc, tite, attacks Ilie bean crtip, ii. 39.~2-red clo~er, ii.              Sows, sl1oold farriiw iii spnng, 1. 2843-symplona of farrow 3895-the  heat plaist, ii. 4(tSl-tlie pea crop, ii. 4892                     iiig, I. 2844-litter for Item, I. 2346-attended to when
Small's p1   It, description of, 1. 662-rectasigular furrow.                  farrowing, I. 2847-maity beci lois sick lit flirrowing, I.
slice, L 702                                                                 2851-the placenta sltitolil be removed, I. 2353-food
Sniesririg Slieeti, objectionable. ii. 4774  mode of, IL 4770                given after far`ng, 1. 285~liave saldiim tiny comSmith's1 Nlesors, driip-sosvit g drill. ii. 3220                             plaitit, L 2860-titus fiir tt~kiiig lie boar, L 2(~62-S good
sititli's, J,, sobs it l.p)oogtt itt work:   ~~81  --                        lit\er, and value of broiid, L 286.~number of tirotitl, I.
Sinitl -  rk of shading, stlecihcations ol it, ii. 5561-the                  2867-fecundity of, L 2o7(~ilte brcad~ng of, protitalile,
irriti for ii, ii. 55114-iwo ways of executing. ii. 63211                  L 2&lt;77~Isettet of, I. 2870-i'iilss, ili.-bleediiig, I. 2871
Smittiheld, sheep presented at, ii. 36(14-sales of stock in,                 drenching, I. 287~lbtrSires, l.287~wliite1lux, 1.2875
nefoir oties, IL 3650                                                     Sowing by liantl with sowititi-sliset, 1. 2316-with ba~ket,
811(01 in tlte grtiins of  heat, ii. 4117                                     2317-whIt one liatid, I. 2319-castitig Ilie seed equally,
Snow, foil. in wittIer, I. 617- varying forms of flakes, 1. 618               1.2. 20-with both  tan its, I. 2322- IrIsh ittode of, 1. 2323
-the-s eno~entted. I. 619-tlteirile-cent, I. 620~cltaiges                   -with itiaclilnes, I. 2326-ari-stigeitictit iii, L 2164~rir on it, aftt~r fall, I. 621,- tm, ~w, ra litre rises wheit it fails, L       comotances - affactitig tl is st-ed, briiadi-sst,  ii. 352'~
622  its bulk in itieltink, 472;436;1482]I (i23-reflsitioit of light frona  drilled, ii. 3o24-.tnd dibbletl, IL 3521i~iusiititiis of ilte
It, I. 624-heavy fall of, 1. 625-its ott s to litisbitidry, I.              cereals sown, ii. 3521-waste iif seed,  host, II. 3527 62~ttioold niit be lilougited iii, I. 77i-01.  gentetit of                  barley, ii. 3o2~-osts, ii. 352!1-ivasta of eticli per square
OlleetiOli tiirnij~ during, I. 9411-iiiirms in tpfl'iig, 1.2142             yard, IL 35.3~plitnts clots sip, diblllitig,. dti1listg, and
-then dest tidies to ewe tit d tamb~, I. 2143-effects tin                   briisdca~t. ii. 3.t31-    lier com sip by dibl.liiig, ii, 3533
wild aitintals, I. 2168-oti  till (antis. slltirce of lIiss In              -by dn'llltig, iL 35:14  by biottitcast, ii. 353.~tliick asid
lamte, I. 2-iSS-liarioweti to c lisa itiellitig, 1. 2599-and                tutu, ii. 3340-ctintparis-iia of tlte lItres nietltotli, ii, 3545
piotigtted, I. 2 tO~l                                                          511111 of, ii. 3553-effects of reap, on wlteat, ii. 3554Sock for p-ti ing with plosigli, i. 2~3                                      and oti tlta grs~es, ii. laSS-turnip setdi tit differetit
Sods, nitrate and sulp!iilte t~f, sre Special Manoiss                        depths, ii. 3559-10% of seed may, be ateounted fiir, IL
Soils, stflctkv deflited, 5, 331-at.1 titltsi~ils, citodition of, L          3562-iiita itioda of drillitig wheat, ii. 3563
346-clay, I. 33~atndy, I. 334-lily, I. 335-boot, I.                       Sowitig-   -itine, lirtiadeast, I. 2327-how used, 1. 231~
136-clay l'iasia, I. 337-clay, wltat best ad.ti~`d fot-, L                judging of tlts quantity sown,  2334-the East - Li 101150
Sl8gnsvelly, I. 339~s-iitdy and gravells lttsiits, I. 340-                   drill, L 2337-ntw l&amp;vsr, L 234(~Englis1t drill, 1. 2343
chalk, 1., 341 -pest, I. 342-mool d, I. 3437li1.1!lt, 1. 347               Spttde, tlte, li~tw 111,005 it, L 6,~5~#,,No. 5, I. 2817
-wet, t. 348-dry, it.-piitir,  L 34I#ncti, tt.-di.ep,                      Sptide.siiol feir cutting peal-tiles, ii. 5897
I. 350-tltin,  1.-lioncry, L  351-scatefol, I. 352-                       Spsds.trencltiitg, a kitid of fallowitig, and its advantages,
kitidly, 1. 353-sick, L 354-sharp. I. 35,~4~~f, L. 356-                     IL 4185
p    s, L 357-open, it,-rsteiitivs, 1. 358-close, it.                     Spades-hind, or Spadesman, gee Hedger
-li-~rd, I. 3~9-soft, I. 360-fine, 1. lill -coarse, L 362 -               Span-ow. tlte. itijurino. to croits, 11.4762
liar-li,  b-sooth, I. 36#n~itgb, 1 361-of fine skin,                      Spayed ltelferrirquey,`vittt, L 1156
I. 365-ctiloiti-s of, I. 3o.'(#lilack, it.-wliite, I. 3117-               Stat, itig cows, object ol, I. 2263-its advasilages. 1. 2269  bios, L 361-red. 1. 369-browo, I. 370-colours of sith-                      lielfer otives.. L 2287
1. 371-ctiliistrs retain diffetesit di.graet of heat, 1.             Specitil matioras, wlten availatle,   20~fornayard dung
372-good clay, plants ott, L 3&lt;3~it0d weeds. I. 38~tliin                    1 in   tlte`Itief maitota, ii. 49114 - since  bone-do-I
clay, tilatits tin - i, 3~a-aiid weetls, i. 3Sb~eep strotig                sod gutono httve come to its aid, ib.-tltese three 11111
loani, plotts on, L 387-iltiti ltittm,, pl'tnts tin, L 1&amp;3                 specal inaitures. IL 490t~not decided which Ii Ilie best
wi ads, i. 389-~iiQv, plants n, I, 391#and weed~, i.                       special, ii. 4.3)6  c00~p0titi00 of line toii of Iarm,~ard
391-loam, plants Qit, I. 392-tind,wet do, I, 3f1.~pomuo                   dting, Ii: 490~bone-dott slipliad - per act a,`I. 490t1  loam, ptai~ls on, i. 3.14-asid weed~, i. 39:i-alliivml, plants             an   nm sod phosphate ol lime in guano, ii. 491(1  on, L 196-tnd weeds, L 3(17-snooty, yattts ott, I. 4(19                    artificIal guano catinot be made, IL 4914~effects, of rape  dry mooty, plastts on, L 410- marshy, interior, plants on,                  dust on wheat, ii. 4919-nighItoil on wheat, ii- 49211 
8()O                                                             INDEX.
SpecinI mnnor~s, cootin~~rd-                                                   -~nter~troi~gl~~.  I. lO0.5-crnting fb!  dr.~1.ns.  I
sa1?p~~re  ref~~e  on wIj*~~t  ii.  4P21-.90d  naltpetre, ii.               1iquid-~~~~oure doL~n, i. 1113~~~~d ta~~k.     1114-1'11311P
492~oiItoi1  nd  itnte ot`~ on "let,. ~.92'3-       f    I, i. 1t0.'~raio-~pous, i. 1117-0  drahs,.111
Tun~1~11;1'  d)0s((lV&amp;d te(1(CS     1~ar1~v, 11. 492-oitr;~1e of            byr'~. I. 1121?-sta11~, 1.  1 i21-~(~:(ng~~~, i. ll22-flo~~r,
soda or batty  ii. 4.12 i-altpe~re refose:11(4  1:(r::te of       1. 1 125-travis, i. 113O-b::il~ie and  scal, 1. 1111-seiss   s.:da ((11  barley, 1:. 4l)27-:::trae ((f s:4~ ad  (00l11:0       do:, 1. 1133-:tntjl:sbr, 1.  li3~scr:pat:::t 01, 1.1140
atIt on b.:rley, ii. 4.~2(-~u:::ats,  ii.  4l):Ill-515l.       -1(1:51: f:~r I:astor:~l lai rn for c:s:tlt,  1. l24C~f~(r a cars
pliate of a:::tss 111(5 on:sat~.,:1. 4b.~t-::itra'.e:t::d solpl~5te       far:::, 1. 124l)-aork~l:::r.e st;:ble in, 1. 13)))         ber ol
(If   (((Ill 01: 0 to, ii. 41)32-      te of o~~la ((11:1         011       stable~, 1.  l:*)1-otidtlj:1 stalis in:l:ei::, 1. 13.:2-lsay.
salt  Os   oslo, is.  4(~)3   sillpl:a~ed  l)Os:es  1)0  oat.,  ii.       nt:.ks,  1. i3..(3-lsind-poots, 1. i3.97~floor, 1. 131)l~.t.sll
4t)3~~ix differ:~nt usasslIrts 011  oats, ii.  4l):l5-gys~sssrn       fitted up, 1. 131)7-tast I         vso.p:oto, I. 131)~-r:e:f, 1.
011 Iseans, ii. 4)35.-sod on pe~:s:., is. 4))3~five d:ff..rt.sst        I~~9)l-vensil::sor, 1. l40.~-absd, 1.  3404-l:(05C-l:Q~, 1.
coo ots basso,  I. 4.(l37-ssitrate.   I ossipIsate of.ossd:t       14((7-lsay-l:ouoe, 1.  14(l~s     clseot, I. 341(9-lsi.e-styes
051 pOSot,  ii.  4b3.#d:ffercsst 11(5`5  055  pobstses,  ii.        I'!, I. 1580-part appropratled to grIll) Crs:p  ill, 1. 1)178   4940-psgeosso'  d::s:g oss C:srr:st~, ii  4i)43-c':ss.uson salt       corn-barn, I. l671-itoouterd~:ssr, 1. 168(s-t:s fl:sor, I. 1C:8t
as:d SOOt:511 CA  ot~, ii. 4t)44-g           8a'e.'lisls t:~rnitss,       -c1::sff-l:: 050, 1. 1682-sspper bars:, 1. 1683-gasgas:,
ii. 4947-diffese::t Isloslure  Os:.~wtdiol:  Iurn:p., ii. 4949             1(i84-g      ries, I. ib.87st1:t:       lows, db.-otaoky::rd, 1.
-gs:ano  and farrnsard        ore on       Its.  is.  4i)Ssl-       1686-    Vi'sssn ag..ssn.t rats as:d usice, I. 3687-arr;s:'ge.
a`ae;sl salts  os   yell. so  5`ps, ii.  4951 - bursst       osent ol      Is Issery, 1. 168~calvts' I    so, I. 2271-tlse:r
bonoso:: sCilite 10:1151:5. II. 4957~ix ss:a   res Os: tisorn,         rIo, 1. 2272-d::s:r oftlsoot, I. 2273-tl:eir CO::rlo,  1.274
ii. 4956-alk:tlis:e  pIso-plsates  and 5010505:15 550 IsyboisI       -000(1-coo.::, ii. S94(~plass fora dairy fO     it. 4253-its
tssr, II. 41)57-a       lie.' ssIst)tii:ed f      tIt f.:rst:tr,        I:s)5itios(.  ii. 538)-i adog psis:c:ple of Con-tisiotsstg, ii.
Ii. 4959-duo:-', guts::5, at:d r::gs, on mangold-wisozel, ii.        Sl82-us:iv~c..ally:Ipl(llC:slsIo, ii.  538~coa~sss  wlsy not
4911-:          (CIII 5 It  on t:si-to, ii  4t)63-:tilplsate as:d        correctly tons     led, 11. 538l;-l:sst C::u:lit:o::s f::r build   nitr::te  of as:): Os:  tare.,  ii. 4J(d4nitcate  of  sod:`1:g, ii. 539l-optoilt: &mdash;atisssss of lIst work re~u red, ii. 5393
tl2rtr a::d rse.gcaos, ii. 4965-g.sano ((a tlsose, ii. 4966-       -tossoed ovoocltis ros:f for, ii. 5465-tcs:sstd iron roof, i'~
nisso Os s::ssres ss:s ttsese, is. 49.17-s: itrate of osla on lea.,        5466
ii. 4. 6.sssd oo rye,,:.:   s~td, ii. 49'tt-nve  differont:~teasss-tngint, sIs actsoss, 5.  171)-st  15)0 to tl:e f:srn:er, I.
monsires  os  1w:,  ii.  4(0)9-list  ((f s::lis:t,  ii.  4974           171-crass   Issgl:.~:ttosurt,  1.  1701-otttist
calcisse:), ib.-iois:ertsl  scisl,  )S.-s:atsss-al,:b. -10500-            1762-rsslef:sr Iss:rso-powt:- of, I. 17O'.~to   g it doson,  i.
oct iS Os:, 1. 17ls4
factisrod,   )b.-rofust,  (5.-ps-rcosstttge of implirtly  in,               -to stop  it, 1. 170~~ignal boll, I. 17()6-IIse b::iltr,
4Y76-55 sigl: 5,, per  bs:slttl  of,  ii     4(77    s-s:les  for       17((7 &mdash;rtslt  f::r its d:nse                   9-lIst furss:sce
a~.~~}L51~o~it,5 01~s~9iWe fsssr\::atio10n of  ties:- apIsticatis)ss,  ii.  1711-tit cistissney, I. 17l2-svaltr, I. 1713-fuel, 1. 1714
((f snstnot:ia,  ii.  5635        8ltarn-vts*lo, conve':. of stock by, ii. 5598-actidetta
assd.~1ulder, ts..453:-Molder Ott list aot:o:: of plassts on       lssblt I      tlsens, 51. 3653
05,  It. S)):l8-i:soc'.aa:c c::notitsients derived  Iron     8tea     g appar::tus, fssr cooking food, I. 1454- rice of  I.
tlse  sosl,  15.  S03~anakvsos 5sf  isl:sssto  slenidorated,  ii.             1465                                                  p
55140-:tssd also of os:ils, is. S041 &mdash;actlois 5sf lIst oles:st      f    8ltedtssan, ~Ir, itis draught slollion, IL 6235
far        ns:re on plasslo, ii.  644-llsose ttlss:ndant in lIst     8ttelbs:'v, stofissitioss of, ii. 5357-its beisefit to Ills faitissec,
5(11, l5. 55)5.5    Ist st:::,:s:sdoc I:  Iso osipplsesl,:11.-     oral    ii. 535~sts eotalslsol:rnont, I:. 5366
In'.'rtd:ents tiskes: f      S  ii. 5056-groti: crops lake usoot     8ttoly:trd f::ccarts, 51. 3638
of tisose, is. 5.61-Iso   tistot art to be returned, ii. 5065     8'toc,`olsat, t. 1153
propootissiso of ta\.I:, ii. 5067-St: 0 equivalonlo for tacit,     8tes.l., o::tsidt still: plantation, I. 1009-witisout it, I. 1013
Is. 506~tl:t co~S:st ott):, 5   Stl.s9-osss::tisary, ii. 55)79-       -aiscient forisso of. I, I03~insido 01st, I. 1O2~tittular,
do... II )::37.l-olse:sp, ii, 63-sO-seasonal appliosliots        I. 11131
of ti:t::s, ii. 6381                                                                           ~and syitl: hay-casks, I. 3631
Stopisens, s~Ic, Ists slsssrt-l:orn hull, it. 6~10
8pocifie gut oily, solsas, I. I 16-t:sblts of, I. 139                       8ttpl:tnsots, ~ir, Isis taportissento on fttslintt cattle, I. 3342
Sp?aCo.r, 1-tssl, 1:1  oxpocitoesslo on (:.odit:g cattle, 1. 1316           SIttIsQOCO so, lIst  stood fn- detectin  tI:t   1
8~ssnn:ng ol st:'5so-.r::pto, tit, ii. 45)53           1                     8teoes:s:                                g      C  f, 1. 2~39
sis, Mc, isIs oxporituents with spotial      tsros, ii. 4970
8lsirit-lovol. tl:e, ii. 5.88                                                "`Seward  tl't, IsIs dssl)to, 1 57-ossI always reqtsis ed to work
8i:rai::s is: isorses, I. 15 (I                                                I. 5.~ttot requli-od on  entry tarn:, I. 59-conottict of,
Spn::~, field ssl:oi.st:osss 5:5, 5.   l3.1-as a 5t5~O0, L 213~                sistdtr a Issaslor:gtsoras:l of agritultsirt, I. 55(#I:is wages,
Site ss'oatl:er its, I. 2136                                                 ii. 1)314
Springers a' 4.springiisg, ss-lsat, 1. 2200        hedge, it. 5685          SItwart, Mr, on triss:nsing sorsto' Ittels, I. 1570
Spruot, sp..cifis.gc:svity s:f,I. 119-siot  a  a                             54;1383;814;1399]St:sko, sisal, i, 1353
Spud for isop gr    sd, ii. 3169                                             Stook-acoount, tattle, ii. 6427-sheep, ii. 6429-pigs, ii. 6428
Spyl~'r, its  sot, ii. 4297                                                  5~to~cLis:g a 5): rut, 6501 sssstlan, ii. 53tt8-dtds:ttiois ol retti to,
~tAbit,  oads5lo lssssse,   i.  i511-wssrL-lsocst,  1.  1390 &mdash;i's               55. 5377-5(5051 ossllssy, ii. 5378
fl'soc, I.  13)51)-its rsoof  I  1'~sq-i5~50 box is:, I. 1407-             8lonssscls- PIStOl), it: sot, I. 91
, I. 14(14                                                  IStonsacis otssggtcs sis lsocses, I. 1495
Slack, barloy, Istasso", ii. 46l4-otsts, ii  4645-solsost, ii.               Slosso fttscos, repairing, it. 3570
4inI4,,~.l4(5t)54P9~liss cisis's0a4,\-{1,446.-t5~'1s15 gliarsl s:g:siissl l:eat         for              stones, ii. 5881-rake for draina1
8tacking.  plo: ilsg 5sf lIst  sisoaves   in,  ii.  4623-size of              tOots lot sc-s lists,:1. 3881
oSsoko, ii.  4li24~trinttssissg Ilsoist, ii. 4)i2'.)-tssrrnii:g tlse       815oks, vas-loiss f~   5 of, ii. 456~of rye I'll Gt;rsua~v. IL
csssst, ii. 4627-lssssldis:g  list 5s 5I~,  ii. 462~f     - g tl:e           4565-ot cot is ~ts Ssvtdtn, si. 456~btst posittois lot, ii.
sIssol, ii. 46~)-ros:ped slse:sveo tusskt sttsoosls 01st),:1. 463)          4614
-::tsst  55t0      ssis.-"Is, ii. 4;)31-o:sstitsg 4       at:d l::kii:g    Slssoking  loaves, 1sow done, ii. 4460
it: obsoks. I. 17:11)                                                      8tool tssr b.:cis, I. 1791-tho raslking, I. 2253-for stacks, IL
St~cLy~s 4, tiso, 5. 16.06-tloaoed aflor ls::cs-eol, ti.  4657-                4629
pissi: ssf,:1. 5)245                                                      Sls:rt, l:'iangtilac, for turnips, I. 824
Staitto, f       g of, f     0(5, I. 95)5                                    Slssrii:g p:
Stall, sotdtis of, is:  so. srk I:ocsg slatslt, 1. 135)2-fitlod tip, 1.      8tor:sso,   sL-~ttooo, SC? Psslat~ssts                       -
ltstir ortg:n And (Iscoctton, i. 312-concoinslants of,
1397-osslias-, I. l406-iscste  I, I. 1542                                   I. 31t~progno.Si: S ((f, I. 315-s tttsshtr in sistts'g, I. 2174
S~talI~foodi5s  olsoop, I. 91)5                                                -in o    user, ii  306:1-s is  11(0, ii. 4350-its soissler, 1,
~tallton, wlsat, 5. 14.3~-isot 1.ocoos:sry 0151: facts:, t:. h5576-            11t14-slstels pcssvsdtd for during, I. 1008
diseasos  visitS: tot:sl. t It it.~fr.os, 51. 607.5.-tresslusont 1:11      S'ot, solsat, I. 1152
co-ad   fost stroiso, 51. 11076-itssdor of a, sI. (081-      1st           StratIsason, boding of calves at, 1.2293
o     are. it sorso., ii. 6-8`-tisost tresslusossI  1` list         totraIbsIs's liqs:id-:: snort uttI, I. 21)78
so-soon, 11. 6)182-as:1 ssf or it, ii. 60-5,                      8t      5:5         -
St:si:dsssg flo~k, wisat, I. ):2, f rut (f sIssuti taIled lIst, i. 248-clsanges tonscaled
St:scols of sol:ot:l. liso, I. 191)2.                                          by. I. 249                          1  1f6&amp;-dtflc'tnt its hoglis.
."L.:slsel fos-  toris i. Is:'),                                             Straso, Isltorlog ssf,  required,
ning sst'   -  Sec, I. 11587-snovsng 5:5 tl:t ottaso Isarn, 5. 17l~3
"toadi::g, lsssso 0(5        I 1`tsls-r, I   7i)5-fssr site srtsblo       -C:   yitsg for litter, I. 3764-of~'yl:eal, I. 396'~htol for
laissI s:f it ss:sots c-si ft:rs:s. 5  1))01-w:ntor:scootn:ssod:slis:st        lit Soc, ib.-il ash, t. 190f~ssutcilsvt utalter`    I. 1967   for ttostlt ii:, I.  5582 &mdash;-      Is      pied Isy calvosanol star-       5sf b:s:lt'y, I. 19(i~its sols, I. 155711-its nutr4i:iolo utattoc,
oldo, I. l08:l-lsan?isstLs isy ftslsot::s.g cattle, I. 1):8~byrts       I. 1971-ofssats, L 1972-its tons psssi tion,L1974-ttsn:stci.
by cows`Ir f:sl t    g wIsSlo, I. l()85-litttn'ng gros:nd in,       live issattot. I.  1975of rye, 1. 1971sits 050.5, 1. 1977   L t))o.6-tr.s:sglss fssr ttsfl:i'so, I. l)90-covtrtd straso-rack,       its:ssIs, I.  197.8-its isuttltist tisatloc, I. 19            and
L 1091-sq:sart otto so -rack, I. 1Q92-ais  ItOl: ont, L 1093       pta,  their            -      I.  1980- lIseic     79-hess:
put1sttttts,                             asS:, 1.  198~ 
INDEX.                                               801
their nutritive matter, L 1983- use of, as fodder           Teeth, uses of, IL 6241-of the adult horse, IL 6242-of th.
and litter, 1.  1985 - colour affects that of dung,            adult ox, IL 6245of the wild boar, ii. o24~indlcativb
1. 1986 - specific gravity of, 1. 1987- too much ne-           of age, ii. 6245to open horses' mouths to examine them,
gleeted, I. l988-its proper management, L 19891ts              ii. 624~and cows', s~
conversion into manure, I. l990-its value, L 1991-pro.       Temperature, falls as we ascend In the air-i. lOl-mean,
duce of, L 1992-oear Edinburgh, L 1993-its price, L           indicated by that of springs, L 227-its phenomena over
19O~Romans used it as litter, L 199~substItutes for it,       the globe, iL 5223
L L997-origin of its name, I. JOOglaid on road to form      Tempiemoyle, agricultural school at, I. 535
Into manure, L 204Oash of 100 Ibs., L 198~its propor-       Tenant-right in England, a desire for a lease, IL 5347-ia
tion to grain, ii. 4533-mode of drawing it, ii. 4810          Ireland, highly objectionable, ii. 5348
Straw-cutter, cylinder, with oblique knives, L 122~with       Thler, Von, his experiments on feeding cattle, ii. 3892
straight ones, I. 1227-the Canadian, L 122~the disc, L       Thatching stacks, in the lozenge form, IL 4634-in tIas
1230                                                          netted form, ii, 4637-in the Northumberland fashion,
8traw-ropes, throw-crooks for, IL 46O0-spinning of, IL          IL 4fi3~Engliah form, IL 463~roping, IL 4641
4603-mode of twisting, IL 4605-best straw for, IL 4606      Thaw, spring, in pastoral distn~cte, L 2144
-length of. IL 4607-coiled up, ii. 4609                      Theaves, what, 1. 931
Streams, how affected by friction, L 115-measuring their      Thedam, Mr, isis experiments on sowIng, IL 3538
velocity, so.                                               Thermometer, tl~e, I. 165-how to be placed, I. 165-mean,
Street manure, composition of, I. 2803                          in different localities, L 227-mean in spring, I. 2175-in
Strength of mateflals, regulation of, I. 79                     summer, IL 3036, 3065-in autumn, ii. 4310-in winter,
Strickle for scythes, ii. 3880
Strike for the bushel, L 1807                                   L 654
Thompson, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, 1. 1361
Stripping, one nsode of milking cows, L 2257                    -Isis mode of preparing compound for them, L 1363
Stubble, left in the soil when reaping, IL 4538               Thomson, Dr H. D., on the food of animals, L 1673
Stubble-rake, hand, ii. 4500                                  Thorn hedges, preparation of the ground in winter for, IL
Sturdy in sheep, IL 3743                                       5598-and of the plants, ii. 5605-means for letting off
Styes, see Pig, Sow                                             water, IL sOO5-setting off the lines, ii. S609-forming the
Subsoils, composition of, IL 5998-defined, L S44affect          bed, IL 36l5-planting and finishing, it, IL 5615-formiag
the soils above them, L 345-conditions of, L 346-             curves in tlie angles of fields, it. l62(~scarcements in
retentive, indicated by certain plants, I. 426-and por-      jurious, ii. 5626-in sunk fences, ii, 5625-hedge~row
ous, L 427                                                    trees objectionable, IL 5621-pruning In spring, ii. 5632
Subsoil-plough; fimitli's, ii. 5980-Read's, IL 598~Mar-        -switching of, Ii. 56S4one properly switched, IL 5635
quis of Tweeddale's, ii. 5983-Lord James Hay's, IL 6000      -effects of snow on a young, IL 36s5-liog-niane and
Suteoil~ploughing, mode of, IL 59~1-dtfferent opinions on       natural fornis, L 5637-breasting over one, ii, 664O-cut  It, IL 5995-lees efficient than fork-trenching, IL 5994       ting down, Ii. 5645-mismanaged in cutting, IL 5645Sucking pig, wliat, L 15~
Sucking.pump, its action, L 90                                  plastilug, ii. 5648-scouring out the ditch, IL 5610-water~
tabling, IL 5651-to fill gaps in old, IL 1685-removing
Suet, how produced, IL 6165-its composition, IL 6169-its       banks deprecated, ii. 5655-dead one, Ii. 3651-stake-and  uses, IL 6170                                                rice, IL 5665-putting up paling, IL 3665-turf wall and,
Suirar refuse, its composition, IL 5011                        IL 5665-weeding in suiismer, IL 5870-other niethods of
Sulphate of ammonia, see fipecial Manures                      forming fences with, ii. 5685-often neglected, IL 5687Sulphate of soda, effects of, IL 6378-and lime, best pickle    Injured by insects, Ii. 5681-repairtog, IL 3569
for wheat, IL 4868                                          Thorn plant, the, IL 5605-prepared for planting, IL 5612
Suiphated bones, IL 3235-effects of, IL 6375                    -its botanical poeltion, IL 5675-long lived, IL 5671Sulphuric acid, accompanies nitrogen, IL 5049                  its flowers, IL 5680-tradition of that of Glastonbury, IL
Summer, Its character, IL 2959-Its atmospheric pheno.           5681-the haw, IL 5682-the wood, IL 5683-known by
mena, ii. 2975-eleetm.city in, ii. 2982                       the ancients, IL 5685
Summer-fallow, why neceesary, IL 4164-sort of land for,       Thravhing of grain, the, L 1710-casting down the stack,
IL 4l65-woeding it, it. 4165-working it, IL 4168-ridg.        L 1731-barn-sheet, L 1745-corn -barrow, I. 1741-lad
lug it up,.iL 4170-manuring it, ii. 4171-best mode of         ders, I. 1741-taking in stack, L 1745-oil-can, i. 1745  doing so, ii. 4172-theory of It, IL 4175                      steward feeds in the corn, L 1745-chaff-sheet, L 1741Sunflower, species of the, ii. 3475-culture of the tall, ii.    thrashing motion, L 1Th1-rule to ascertain capabilities
3474-its bottinical position, IL 3475-dwarf, ib.-symp-        of machine, L 1751-feeding in, L 1752~riviog the
toms of ripeness, IL 4669-cut down with knife, Ii. 4670       horses, I, 1753-foul thrashing, L l7s4inconveniences
-oIl from tise seed, IL 4671-forms good fuel, IL 4672         attending the thrashing, L 1755-dosing of It, L 1757Sun-hemp, IL 3139                                               treatment of barley rougtis, I. 1755-and of damp straw,
Swedish land-roller, IL 3106                                    L 1751-thrashing beans and pease, L l76~mowteg the
Swine, points of, ii. 6235-&amp;e Pigs, Sow                         straw, L 1765-straw carried for litter, L 1764
Swedish turnips, see Turnips                                  Thrashing-machine, details of tlie, I. l692-pa~ing of tl,e
Swiog-tiecs fir two horses, L 667-truand Iron, L 665-           corn through it,,  1695-fans, L 1697-motive power, I
for three horses i. 669, 675-for four, L 673, 674-for          l695-steam-engine, L 1701-horse-wheel, I. 1715-its
three horses with`compensation apparatus, L 671-with de-      diameter, L 1715-circle of teeth, 543]I. l717-its elevation,
fective apparatus, I. 672-for more Ilsan four horses, L 675    L 1715-conduct of horses working in it, I. 1719-tquaii
Switching-hill, tlie, ii. 5613                                  sation of draught in it, L 1720-water-wheel, L 1721Sympiesometer, the, I. 89                                       diminutive f~rm of, I 1733-Eiiglisli portable, L 1734Syringe for bathing sheep, il. 4675                             Its constructIon, L 1735-contrast with Scottish machines,
-.                                                   I. 1735-amalgamation of the two,L1737
Table churn, ii. 4214                                Tisrave-reaping, ii. 4486
Tails, what, L 930
Tail-Ill in cows, L 2244                                      Three-shear tup and wether, what, L 926
Three year old heifer, qiley, stot, and hull, what, L 1153
Tallow and skiii, relative weight of, in sheep, L 986Throw~crmks, different forms of, IL 461)0
Tallow, qilentity imported, IL 6160                         Thrush in horses, I. 1497
Tank. - liquid-manure, L 1114-its  site, ~L 206~oyt   T!iunde.r In winter, L 605-storms of, IL 2984
required for every farm, i. 2065-considerations requisite   Ticker in cattle, L 1386
In forming it, L 2064- fall In its bottom, L 2065  Tile,common, see Draining
pump for It, L 2065-its size, I. 2067, 2068-its cos?,   Tille log, ci       h prQosote it in tlie cereals, U.
L 2075-simple form (if, L 2071-cost of making tlits          rourasteoces whic
3565-and which discourage it, ii. 3561-by dibblmg and
form, L 2O72-one for cottages, L 2073-proper form              drilling, ii. 4544
for them, L 2075-In Flanders, I. 2092                        Timber sold In a r'
Tape-line, the, IL 5601                                                       p ing, L 2l74ioreign, for steadings, ~.
`tarts for f~ege, L 2465-Thm.ve in all soils, I. 2466-best    Tin flask for bath, IL 4752
with manure, I. 2467-sown broadcast, I. 2465-quantity        Tod!~~ wool, we~ght of, IL 3943
sown, L 2461-cultivated for seed, L 2470-their botani-       Torsion, castrating calves by, s 2380
cal position, I. 2471-the Hopetoiin, L 2472-wioter and       Towns, farms near, what, L ~tIietr capital, rent, &amp;~. L
summer, ii. 4364-English variety of w~oter, ii. 4365-not       44-qualifications of occupant, L 45-those distant fros's,
suited to Scotland without manure, ii. 4367-their ciii-        L 48.  &amp;e also Farois
tisre, IL 4365-reaping for seed, ii. 4567-effects of spectal Trade winds, the, L 298
manuree on, IL 4963                                         Tramped picks of hay, what, IL 4059
Teats of cows, chapped, L 22~5-corded, L 2241                 Transplantation of plants, effects of, Ii, 3564-cs,,t of. I'
Tedding- mach toe, IL 4034                  -                   3565
VOL, 11. 
802                                          INDEX.
Travis for cow-h~~es, i. 1130                                    blades, i. 1171-hand, L 1172-lever, I. 937-wheel, L
Trefoil, Alexandrian, I. 2677-flesh-coloured, i. 2676            938
Trembles, a disease (n America, iL 42(13                       Tnri~ip sowing-drill, the F~~t~LoThian, iL 320~Geddes~, il,
Trenchin~ ground with tree roots, iL 3951stony ground,          321~hsrrow, ii. 321~hone-dust drill,ii. 321~Smith'a
ii. 3937~x~seose of, iL  596~season of, il. 5961-in            drop drill, ii. 3220
Flanders, ii. 6001                                           Turnip~ooted cshhsge, ii. 3379
Thmmer for stack, tne, ii. 4626                                Turn-wrist plougl~, the, ii. 5970
Trins, what, 1. 1134                                           Tussac grass, its cl~anttter, ii. 5972-its cuItur~ iL 5973Trocliar, cattle, 1. 1382                                        nutritive matter in, ii. 597~compositlon of, ii. 5975Trotter, Mr, on tite maintenance of itorses, i. 1453             ash of, ii. 5976
Troughs, turnip, fsr sl~eep, i. 939-at the steading, 1. 1090   Tweeddale plough, tlte, ii. 5991-subsoil trench-plough, 1
~tone, for dairy byre, 1. 1239                                 598:~at work,' ii. 598~i~s advaittages, ii. 5989
Trowel for drains, iL 5821                                     Twice gathering ttp rides, ~ 764
Truck system, different from wages in kind, iL 6321            Twilight, ii. 3(154
Top, what, 1 928                                               Twins, wlsat, 1-1154
Tup-elld ewe, what, 1. 929                                     Twinter ewe, what, 1. 926
Thp hogg, what, 1 92~lamb, 1. 9"-3                             Two-out-and.twoAn pl')ughing, i. 759
Tops or rants, fed (-n turnips se~~rately, 1. 942-period of    Two~shear top and wether, what, 1. 925
putting tltem to ewes, iL 471~symptoms shown at this         Two-year-old bull, heifer, quey, and stot, witat, 1. 1153
period, 1. 4717-ke I put on fiteirbreas's, iL 4720-number
of ewes served, ii, 4721-ltoggs no' allowed to serve, ii.    Udder of cows, tile. its structure, 1. 224~its form, i. 2246
472~qualiflcations of good, ii. 4723-pcriod of with.           p'~sition of Ilte teats, I. 2247~ifferent states of the miIlt
drawal of, ii, 4727-season Ott hill farms, ii- 4731~~letting    in, i. 2249-subject to inflammation, 1. 2266
of, ii. 4737                                                  Udder-clap in ewes, 1. 2596, ii. 3995
Turkeys, treatment of, in winter, 1. l6o2rearing not diffi-    Udometer, tlte, i. 273
cult, 1. 2897~ggs taken away as`aid, 1. 289~set in          Untbellifersc, their cttaracteristics, iL 3426
made nest, 1. 2899 &mdash;hens walcltful of brood, L 2907~ns       Undcrsltot water-witeel, the, 1. 113
impregnati~tn fecundates, 1. 290~treatment of poults, i.     Universities, education of tite agricultural student at, L 513
2901-some liens great layers, 1. 290(#ttteir treatment in     Utine snd doug of anintals, composition of, 1. 2("9~eow's,
autumn, ii. 516~secood brood wor'hlese, ii. 5165               i. 2(19~t:uman, i. 21O1~h,irse's, 1. 2101, 210~sbesp~s,
`l,tsrnlps, mineral ingredients in, i. 463-left on ground to     1. 2101, 2102-~iig's, i. 2101, 2102its effects when the
be eaten by ibsep, 1. 810-proportions to left, 1. 811-         urea is undecomposed, 1. 210~and mould-coniposts of
pulling, to leave certain proportlitus, 1. 812-how pulled      Gerniany, 1. 2105
for storing, 1. 813-topo useless to catile, I. 81~knives for
topping and tailing, i. 81~modt of it, 1. 817-renioving      Vapour, how produced, 1. 172-its weight, 1. 173~qnantl
from field, 1. 819-storing, 1. 82~various forms of stores,     ties in tlte atiiio~ltere, 1. 22~ite elevation and descent,
i  i1~7  varieties of, 1. 843-white globe, 1. 844-yellow, 1,   L 229-its quantity varies, 1. 23~its force, 1. 232its
847-8wedisli, 1. 849-composition of, 1. 854-white stone,       height in the atittospliere, 1. 23~that from s,tea"'~eng~nes
I. 857-Laing's 8wedisli, 1. 858-its hi~~oty, i. 887-           hygrometrical, 1. 23~plane, 1. 233-its tension in spring,
weight of bushel, 1. 86~ntttritivt matter per acre, 1. 866     1. 21 7~in suinnier, ii. 5029, 306~in autumn, 1. 4342,
-eaten in a day by a Leicester sheep, L 867-itt ltalf year      435~in wititer, 1. 654
by sheep, 1. 868-per we~k by two year old ox, 1. 869-        Veal, 1. 2295
price of, 1. 87l-Dal~s' hybrid, 1. 872-its crop, 1. 87~      Vegetation, a source of electricity, 1. 12~electric theory of,
its history, 1. 885-Lawt'in hybrid, 1. 87~its crop, 1. 874     1. 13:~and electricity, results produced by thent, 1. 1~
-its Itistory, L 88~an ill-shaped, 1. 876-tinkard, iS.-        influence of coloured ligitts on, 1. 195
white globe, its properties, 1. 844-weight and size of, 1.    Ventila~ion, princitile of, and natural process of, 1, 100
84~speciflc gravity of, 1. 853-t~utritive triatter in 1. 859 Ventilator for roof, 1. 1137-for work-Itorse stable, 1. 4100
-geod crop of it, i. 864.-its?n-gin, 1. 883,-yellow, it? pro-   Vetchys. mi,ieral ingred,ients in,,i. 462
peittes, i. 847-its wetght, t. 84~ciintinues fresh in tlte   Veterinary College, Edinburgh, t. 525-London, t. 530
store, 1. 852-its specific gravity. 1. 853-:' got rd crop of it   Veterittary scietice, contiection of, with agriculture, L 5tt7
t, 86~i ts history unkn9wtt, 1. 882-8wedistt, its proper-   Vicia, viltieties of, &amp;c., 1.2471, 2472
ties,. 849-its weight, i. 850-pt oportrori of top to bulb,   Voltaic pile, the ground is one, t. ISo
I. 851-specific gravity of, I. 853-ittitritive matter in, I.   Voltaism, influetice of, on culture, I. 157
I6O~gitud crop of: I. 882-its history, I. 881-number rind
weight p~r ace, 1. 877-measuring an acre of,,, 879     Wadoell s plan for outhouse floors, tL 5418
weighing. I. 880-their history, i~ 8~~1-asti in the bulbs, I,   Wages of larro-servants in kind and in cash, ii. 630~ta
8,8~in the, ~tt)t~ 1. 88~~meal, 1. 890-how made, I: 891       kind,?'?' 6304-niore in cssli tItan in kind, ii, 6311-itt
its conipoatton, L 892-sheep fe~d ng on ttteiti     nter, t,     cash, it 6313  of stewards, iL 6314-of shepherds, 1 6315
9,01-break of, what, I,9ly-t,iPS not got~d for sheep at h;rst,     -of hedger, ii. 631 (i-of,cattle-man, i. 6317-of field i. 915-stores at tite steadtng, r. 1094  when different kinds     worker, ii. 6315-law of, in 8cottand, iL 6295-in kind,
should be giveti to cattle, 1 1216-whets dirty should be     different from (lie truck system, ii. 6321
washed for (hero, I. l2t77frozen, ht~w thawed for (hem,   Wallier, Mr, on tending cattle, 1. 1329, 1592
i. 1215-given to horses, L 1439-transplantirrgfot- seed,'.   Warbles in cattle, ii. 3803
2476-silt of the seed, ii. 31 44-their culture, ii. 3204-   Warnes' compound for sheep, L 1306-for cattle, 1. 1307 land drilled fir, ii. 32115-broadcast deprecaled, ii. 32 tO     liowmade, 1 1308-quantity used, 1. 1310-formed of any
-manuring, ii. 3'?06-vs rielies sowit, Ii. 3207-propor-     farm prodttce, I. 1311-apparatus for making it, I. 1312
tions sown, ii. 3247-scuffling, ii. 3256-singling, ii. 3259     objecti oiis to mode of making it, i. 136~experiment
9-'.`  -    --     -`                      -
~Hiistance betwe~n rows, IL 3~67   ott of stngltrtg, ii,     with tt, t. 1351  liii compound for horses, i. 1449
3271-drill-grubbing, ii. 3273-first hoeing, Ii. 3274-   Warrandice of lisirses, site law of, I. 1521
scuffling again, ii. 3275-,t,scond hiteing, Ii: 3276-setting   Warts on cattle, 1. 13,8,4
up tlte drills, ii. 3277  filling up bIank~, ii- 3262wiedt   Washer for piit.ttoes, it. 4815-how used, it. 4815-tts advan
hifetfing, ii. 3278-top-dressing, ii. 3282 &mdash;'n s'rting soil,     (ages, Ii. 4817
I". 3242-its hot art ical positieo, Ii. 3283-that of the 8wed-   Watlilness itt c,atile, what, IL 3619,, 5949     the
lab, it. 3288-the corn`tion, ii. 32(s7-wa~te of seed in sow-   Waste land, tmprttved by trenching,          by
~ng, IL 32`9-flea-beetle, ii. 3290-tiw-fly, ii. 3 9~     plough, ii.  952-by digging, IL, 5955-turf, ii. 5962
weevils, IL 3999-api.` ides, ii. 33011-leaf-miner, ii. 3305-     levellitig, - (tie surface, ii. 5965-levelling high ridges, ii.
atibitry in, 1 3312-finer and loss, tt 3314~'ta er in     591i4  tItit crop turnips, IL 5968-why ltnd should be
their tops. IL 3315-silt in their tops, ii. 3317-effect of     ridged, ii. 5969-ploogtting steep land, ii. 5970
tianspta,,ntt;ng 8svedish, ii. 3321-,ssb in,,t2iis of v,tn'i?ua   Water: effects of ast-ent on its boiling point, I. 101-its
binds, iL 3319-effecte of deep stiw ng on - ii..3539,rcaptog     gravity, t 103-pret-ure it cancti on the butiom of a ves?.~ seed,, ii 4189,-ite crops, IL 41,911-utilily of (tie store,     sel, I. 19~and oti (lie tldts, L 105-gravity 1,1 exet(s on
ii. 43~8-Englttli mode of cultivating, IL 4.1)9-Its t'ul-     bodres inimersed in it, t. 106-is incortipresitbie, L 107
turn, iL 4380-their culture in tutu  - ic~ seed, ii. 4361     -equalitati    f I eight in, I 108-how supplied to reter -best seed from traIt slilanted bulbs, it. 43(i2-htit ttiott     vo irs, &amp; c., iS. -law if it velocity frorti an orifice, I. 1(19 from sowin-,', ii. 43'i'~effccts of sp~dal manures on     its friction in pipes, L 110-rain, actton of (lie, L 111 Swedish, IL 4l147~n       ii,         white, IL 4955-     -      of movitig, I. 112-to calculate its motive power,
on hybrid, iL    yellow   4tiS,1-on                 effects
d957-niiiie~l ingredretirt they lake from the     i. 117-chentical properties of, i. 21-1-essential in grazing
soil, IL 5062 &mdash;cost of replacttig (Item, ii. 5075                flelds, IL 3775~xpedierit alien scarce, IL 3776-bard and
T(irn!p.titckers, L 934,                         soft for domestic use,!i. 5532
Turnip slicer, band, whh cross blades, I. 1176-with paraflel   Water-brush for horses, 1. 1526-price of, I. 1542 
INDEX.                                               803
Water-nsrrowmg, L 2360-how conducted, L 2361-plough     down the sacks, i. 2311-sowing by hand, I. 231~~r.
for, i. 2362                                              rier of tlie seed, i. 2313-sowing with macl~ines, i. 232~
Water-meadows, considerations on forming, ii. 604~     harrowing, i. 2552- water-furrowed, i. 2360 - on lea, i.
sluices for, ib.-tltorough-draining land f~r, Ii. 604~bed.     2365, 256~objections to this, 1. 2371-varieties sown in
work, ii. 6050-seeds for sowing in, ii. 60~~atch-work,     spring,  237~April, 1 2378, 237~sowing grass seeds
iL 605(#cost of making, iL 6061-advantages of, to hill     amongst, i. 2656, 2664-state of winter, in spring, L 2660
farms, ii. fiO62time for repairing, ii. 6063                 -April, useful in filling blanks, i. 2661-March the tinie
Water-troughs at tlte steading, ~ 309~f nag-stones, 1.     for sowing grass seeds among winter, i. 2662- effects of
109~of wood, 1. 169~eistern, i. 1102                     deep sowing on, ii. 3554-its cultttrs in summer, ii. 4089
Water-wheels, various kinds of, i. 113-undershot, i. 1721-     -top-dressing, ii. 410~thc flowering ~aS(O, ii. 416~
overshot, rules to ascertain quantity of water, i. 372~     diseases in sunomer, ii. 4107-crops vary, ii. 435~sown
to ascertain if sufficient without a datn, i. 172~position     in autumn in the summer-fallow, ii. 484~its culture, so.
of the dam, ib.H)f the sluice, 1. 1726size of wheel, L     -period of sowing, ii. 4849-old wheat best for sowing,
1727-its structure, 1. 1729-the shrouding-plates, i. 1730     ii. 4850-varieties sown in autumn, ii. 4851-seed pickled,
-power taken off, 1. 1731-laying the water on it, i.' 1732      iL 4652-sown broadeast, drilled, or dibbled, ii. 48~
~~teon, Mr, his Angus ox, ii. 6228                          land left with large clod, ii. 4855-ribbing and ploughing
Wax-lights, for lamps, 1. 1543                               down, ii. 4856- bean land sowi with, ii. 4849-and
Weasel, the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5197                  potato, ii. 4861-sown in lazy-beds in Ireland, ii. 4863Weather, the, how best to be studied, I. 21~its effects on     and broadcast on lea there. ii. 4~6~weevil, its destruc  the operations of the farm, i. 219~esirable to anticipate     lion, ii. 4870, 4871-cost of sowing on ribs broadcast, ii.
it, I. 22~better u~derstood by the shepherd than tl~e     4873-of dibbling on ribs, ii. 487~of sowing on tops of
farmer, i. 221-use of instruments, i. 223-similar in dif-     drills, ii. 487~and of dibbling, 85.-the mL~ed of I'oland,
f'i'ent months and quarters, ii. 4356- prognosties in     ii. 4897-sffeets of speetel nianures on, ii. 49t~mii~eral
spring, i. 215~in summer, ii. 303~in autumn, ii. 4343     ingredients it takes front the soil, ii. SOIlseost of repla-in winter, i. 606                                       cing them, ii. 506~licat required to ripen, ii. 5239Weather cock, position of the, I. 9~vanettes in its con-     exfremes of temperature tltat will ripen, ii. 5245
struetion,i. 96-good ones, i5.~rigin of ite name, L 97    Wheel-barrow, a, i. 1182
Webb, Mr, lils Southdown tup, IL 6234               Whey, its nature, ii. 4281-drink for pigs, ii. 4282crea~
Weehts or maunds, i. 1790                                 from, ii. 428~float, ii. 43l5white wine, ii. 4317-fresh
`vedgewood-ware milk-dish, ii. 4196                         two-milk, ii. 4318
iVeeds, definition of, IL 3281~lassiflcation of, ii. 3741-   Whin-bruiser, the, i. 1450
soils indicated by them, I. 421-in clay soils, i. sS3clay   Whipple-trees, see Swing-trees
loams, L 386, 389-in sandy soils, L 391~andy looms,   White beet, see Maisgold-wurzel
i.393, 395 - alluvial soils, L 397 - supplied from tea-   White clover, see Clover
beaches, i. ~from lake ones, i. 40(~irom river ones,   White fina in pigs, i. 2875
L 401-by gravel-pits, i. 403from sea-shore gravel, 1.404   White globe and stone turnips, see Turnips
-from river gravel, L 405~n dry marshy grounds, 1.413   Whitley, Mr, on the origin of soils, i. 487
-on cultivated peat, i. 4l~iniestingflax, ii. 3117-hemp,   Wildfire in sheep, L 1076
Ii. 3140-the turnip, IL 3278-on low country pastures, ii.   Wilkie's trapezoidal furrow-slice, i. 703-horse-hoe, IL
37(n~~on liigh, ii. 3742-cutting tliem, ii. 371~amongst     3252
the wheat crop, IL 409~barlsy, ii. 4821-oats, ii. 4132-   Wilkin, Mr,~his experimente on feeding s'\eep, 1: 959  rye, ii. 4141-potatoes, ii. 415O~n bare fallow, iL 4167   Willow, specifle gravity of, L 119-m~neral ingredsents in the,
-on the margins of fields, IL 4177-whirl, render milk     L 465
poisonous, iL 4202-at harvest, IL 455(~about hedges, ii.   Wilson, Mr, his short-horn ox, IL 6209-his prevention of
5,671, 5672~itehes, IL 5673-which lodge the turnip-fly,     quarter-Ill in calves, ii. 3124
ii. 5674                                          Wilson's dipping mixture, Ii. 476~apparatus, ii. 4769
Weed-hook, the, IL 4096                             Wind, influence of, nit tite barometer, L 22~Infiuenee of
Weeding cereal crops, mode of, IL 4097-pastures, imple.     tite tropics on, L 299-course of, its conses, I. 300-mon  ments for, ii. 3710~-m,~ode of doing It, is.        soons, I. 301-land and sea bveeze, I. 302-variable, L 303
Weevils of tlte turnip, ii. 3299  white clover, ii. 389~bean,     - the seasonal rains produced by, L 304 - prevalence of
IL 398.&gt;~pea, IL 3989-turnip-seed, IL 4187          east and west in 13n'tain, I. 307-at Londoit, I 3(18-at
Weigh of witul, its weight, IL 3943                           Invereek,, I. 309-at I,1,orraby. ib.-directlon, liow effecI~d,
Weighing-niacltine for barn, I. 1820                         L 310-Sirocco and I raniontana, tb.-foree and velocity,
Well, circumstances favourable and unfavonrable for, IL     L 311~conneetion between the force of, atid tlte oseilla  5521-mode of digging it, IL 5526-cost of digging, IL     tIons of tlte baroitieter, I. 314~leetrie Pu" er of, L 315
55277j)uinps and their cost, IL 552~ainking in loose     analogy between tides and, L 31~progi~ostiea of, L 317sand, i,. 5529                                            in.,difles oIlier phenomena, L 650-its chara~ter iii winWells, Dr,.on the theory of dew, L 176o'n hygrometers, L     ter, L 651-Shepherd of lion bury's rules for it, L 65'~
184                                                 causes of rite cost, in spring. L 2137-peculiar In spring, L
West IIighland,ox, poInts of,, ii. 6227                        2139~ausea of its variability, L 2140-its character in
Wether, what, i. 92~hugg, I. 92~tegg, i. 931               spring, i. 2141
4;225;1524]Wheat, utineral Ingredients In, I. 462-its different forms   Winds, liow occasioned, L 93-trade, i5.~ifferently charged -
of ears, L 184~its, botanical posit!un, I., 1847-bearded,,     with moisture, L 251-their changes as iiidieative of the
L 184~amall grain, i, 1S4~ioediiim, i. 1850  large, i.     weather, i. 29~dispaiity of phenuiteita betsseen the
1853-relatIon between ear and grain, L 1853-judging     zones of, L 297-the regular, of tite turr d zone, L 298  of, I. l8lftytelding the beat, flour, I. 1855-weight, I,,     prevailing ones in, ~pri)g, 1. 21 7~in, su   er,, ii. 3019,
165~seed, c 3857-kiln drying, i. 1858 - daitiaged, i.     30b~in autumn, ii 43~I, 43oO-in winter, L 654
1859-pre.~erving In granaries, I. 1860-abteling, L 1861-   Wind-sucking iii litirses, L 1502
grinding, L 1862-c,oolin,g and dres4ng the flour, L 1~fi3   Window-s ashes, wl~at best n~ade of, L 1135
-over-head flour, i. 1864-brood bran, c 186~Lundun   Winnowing of grain, fl~e, i. 1j66~'iie dressing-fanner,
dresaing of fl~iur, L 1866-iiicrease of bulk by gn'nding, I,.     L 176,7-the fin siting-fanner, L 1772- tits Ibtasiting
1867  to ju ige of the grinding, i. 186~large bran,,.     maclime fanner, i. 1776 - riddles, I. 1777-sieves, i.
186~to judge of the dressing. 1. 187(1-wlieti~er it will     1787-setting, of  lie fanner for, L 179~an'angement
make good bread, 1. 1871- sacks of flour, I. 8872  its     of persons, S. 1797-the flirislied heap of curt,, i.
adulterofi~ins, L 1873-analyses (if flour, L 1874-its coin-     179~tiie corn drcssed clean, L 179~nieasuring it up
position, 1: 187~Its gluten, I. 18,7(#Ite oil, I.              and, sacking, L 1800 - fi\ling lisa bushel, I. 1~01  of wheat,. 1878- of tite husk, 5, 1879 - cumptisitiun of    striking it, I. 180Wi~umn'elling of barley, i. 180~sethng
bran, L 1880 - leaven, L 1881 - proportion of flour in     up full sacks, I. 1$l2lifting titeni, I. 181~loadinga cart
bread, L 18~27huusehuld bread, L 188~sou,r bread, L     with theist, I. l816~proper mode of riddling, L 182~aud
188~ye'ts., i. 1S85-substitute fur fermeittotiun, I. 1886     sifting, L 1823
-unfersisented bread, I, 1890-actIon of yeast, L 1891-   Winrow of isay, what, 11.4053
what ferment is, I. 3892-mixisie of potato and w,lieat flout,   Winter, weather,snd,field operations in, I 57~fleld labour
S, l89~stnicIutc of flour, L 189.~most gluteti in wiie.it,i,     chiefly ploughing, L 5,9 - pluu~hcd land kept free of
189~niitn'tive properties of gluten,,, I. 18977wiiy ba,lsers     surfi~&amp;.e-water in. L 58~lea gruiii~d plungited, L 581  use foreign wheat, i. 1899-composition of Lincoinshire, L     dral  g priteecuted, I. 582-tisids enclosed with hedges, L
l90l-wlieat-storcii, L 1902,niitn'tive, matter in,an acre,     58,3   water-meadows irrigati d, L 584-live-stock sub  I. 390~Its origin~unknuwn, i. 1901-limit sif it, i, 190~     nivided in lisa steading, L 58~turnipe for them taken up,
,itih of its striw, L 1966-sown in spring, L 23t?2-~i-esitlier     L 58(#straw thrashed, I. 587-slit ep fed ott turisipa, L 588
sod soIl ~t it, i.,2303-ttirnip land yrepare,d for it, I. 23,04     ~wes Iii lassib in pasture, L 589 &mdash; gra,iu pr,epared fur
-sown quickl~, S. 2306  the seed pickled, S. 2307-setting     market, S, 59~manure takeis out to the fields, i. 5111-the
 
SO4                                   INDEX.
Winter, contgnued-                                               its geographIcal distribution, 0. llo~its fine'-., L
Season for attending the market-town, i, 59~field-sports       3957-its density, ii. 3958its internal structure, II,
are prosecuted, i. 594tbe season for hospitality,  59~         3959- diameter of its fibres, iL 3960 -msnner of its
and for domestic comfort, i. 596~mblematic of mortality,       growtl~, iL 3962-its felting,  iL 3963-quantity in
L 897-weather precarious in, i. 599-same work does not         Britain, iL 3967-its value, IL 396~importatton of,
always begin, i. b57~ommenm~ng operations, i. 655              ii. 3970
Wire-basket for turnips, i. 1185                               Wool-moth, the white-shouldered, ii. 3940
Wire-fences, not now expensive. ii. 5722-fixing the strain     Wool-room, the, ii. 3940
ing-posts, ii. 5723iron ones, ii. 5726~fixing the inter-     Wool-shears, tlie, it. 3918
mediate ones, ii. 5728-wires used, and their strength,        Woollen manufactures, declared value of, ii. 3971-Im ii. 573tcost of, ii. 573~their durability, ii. 5741-where      portance of home market to, iL 397~urious trade in,
most suitable, ii. 5742                                       ii. 397
Wire-worm, the, ii. 318~insects inimical to the, ii. 3t88      Worms in horses, i. 1504
-injures wheat, ii. 4107
Womb, the, its cootractive state, ii. 369~its dtlatable state, Year-old hull, heifer, quey, and stot, what, L 1152
IL 369~its rigid state, i. 3697-of ewes, inflammation of      Year-olds and yearlings, wljat, L 1152
the, I. 2592
Wood, beat produced by, i. 186                                 Yeast, mode of cleaning, L tefiS
Yeld cow, what, i. 1154~ewe, i. 929-mare, I. 1432
Wood-ashes, ii. 5021                                           Yellow light, influence of, on vegetation, i. 193
Wood pavement for steadings, ii. 5421                          Yellow clover, see Clover
Wood-pigeon, tl,e, injuflous to crops, iL 4704                 Yellow turnips, see Turnips
Wooden posts, charri'~g them, ii. 5728                         Yellowhammer, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4&amp;~6
Wool, yolk of, its nature, IL 3911-its composition, IL         Yellow-tailed moth, the, injurious to hedges, ii. 5669
3912 - its action, ii. 3913- its quality, IL 3914 - not       ~~ellows in ewes, ii. 4740
safe for a farmer to keep, ii. 3941-mode of weighing          Yester subsoil, composition of, IL 5998
it, ii. 3942-of packing it, iL 3943 - as packed in the        Yoking, a long, injurious to horses, L 1415
llighlands, ii. 3944-different qualities, ii. 3945-good,      Yolk of wool, the, ii. 3911
its properties, ii. 394~its fibre, ib.-its staple, ii. 3947   Young's iron field-gate, ii. 5763
its various points, ii. 3948-states useful to the manu facturer, ii. 395O~carding, ii. 3951~ombing, ii. 3952         Zinc, whence derived, IL 5498rolled, specific gravity ol,
- distinction in the spinning and carding, ii. 3953-            L 119
intermediate betwesn carding and combing, IL 395~            Zoology, science of, 1. 215, 504
THE E~D