RAILWAY PROPERTY.
A TREATISE
ON THE
CONSTRUCTION AND MIANAGEMENT
OF
RAILWAYS:
DESIGNED TO AFFORD'USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, IN A POPULAB
STYLE, TO TIlE HOLDERS OF THIS CLASS OF PROPERTY; o
AS WELL AS TO RAILWAY MANAGERS, OFFIOERS,
AND AGENTS.
BY JOIHN B. JERVIS,
CIVIL ENGINEER,
Facility of Communication, in Social, Commercial and Political Intercotuse, st a
lUtinguishing Index of Civilization.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHER,
No. 406 WALNUT STREET.
1872.




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P R E F A CE.
THE following pages have been written with a view  of
giving to railway proprietors, in a popular form, the chlaracter of their property.  In this I have aimed to give some
impression of the, Duliic importance of railways, but- have
mainly discussed the methods of business involved in their
construction and operating nmanazement.  In regard to construction, it has been my oasign to give so much oi parOuf.iars
as will enable an intelligent busitless man to form a judgment
of the propriety of the several proceedings, and enable him
to decide on their wisdom  and expediency, and at the same
time afford the junior engineer hints and outlines that may
be useful for his consideration.  At this time, the operating
management, providing as it does for the care of near thirty
thousand miles of railway, is far more important than that for
construction, in which there is comparatively little doing.
The care of more than one thousand millions of dollars invested in this kind of property, all must admit, is of very
great importance to the proprietors.  In addition to tracing
out, and presenting the order of business, it has seemed to me
necessary to point out the danger to which the property is
peculiarly exposed, from  infidelity to trust.  Though I regard
the ordinary and current management of railways as very fla
from  perfect-far from what it will be by and. by, still tbele
can be no doubt that tie failure of railway propierty to re:ruill




iv                      PREFACE.
nerate the proprietors, has, to a large extent, resulted from
unfaithful management, and therefore I have endeavored
to show the working of this evil, and, so far as practicable,, the
remedy.
If, in the following discussion, the prospects of this class of
property do not look as encouraging as could be wished, it
must not be attributed, to any desire on Dmy part to disparage
it; but to the evils that environ it, anid the difficulty of
wholly removing them. It will be seen that I do not regard
this kind of investment as well suited, in general, to small
proprietors, so situated that they can exercise no control, and
who are exposed to the danger of having their property
managed by unfaithful men, who seek to make the institution
subservient to their own interest, rather than to that of the
proprietors.
Allthat is solicited from the reader of the following pages,
is a candid and impartial survey of the subject. Doubtless I
have advanced some opinions that will not harmonize with
much of the existing management on many railways; but it
is confidently believed that time and experience will fully
demonstrate the soundness of these opinions, and ultimately
introduce a practice that will greatly economize transport,
and extend the usefulness of this eminently beneficent improvement in the means of intercommunication.
The proficient in railway management will find much that
may appear to him commonplace; but he will readily see,
that I have written to give useful information, chiefly to
those who have had less experience than myself, and who, I
hope, will derive some benefit from the labor I have bestowed
tL: a subject of general, as well as of individual interest.




CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface,.....   ili
Introduction,......   9
CHAPTER  I.
CONSTRUCTION-Introductory,....              4   4
CHAPTER II.
Land and Land Damages,...... 
CHAPTER III.
Location of Line,.                          44
CHAPTER IV.
Method of Business,...                  50
CHAPTER V.
Grading,....  
CHAPTER VI.
Bridges and Culverts,                                            92
CHAPTER VII.
Road Crossings,....                                       113
V




VI                       CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.                     PAGB
Ballasting Track,......                          I17
CHAPTER  IX.
Cross Sleepers,...       122
CHAPTER X.
Chairs and Spikes,..128
CHAPTER XI.
Rails,.....                         131
CHAPTER XII.
Station Buildings,.                     143
CHAPTER XIII.
Locomotives....                       153
CHAPTER  XIV.
Coaches and Cars,.                                      1.77
CHAPTER XV.
OPERATING-Introductory,......                     203
CHAPTER XVI.
Freight,.......206
CHAPTER XVII.
Passengers,.....                  210
CHAPTER XVIII.
Engine Drivers,..... 221
CHAPTER XIX.
Repairs of Track,..                                     225




CONTENTS.                           Vii
CHAPTER  XX.                         PAGE
Repairs of Machinery,.                                        234
CHAPTER XXI.
Civil Engineer,....239
CHAPTER  XXII.
Superintendent,....                                         251
CHAPTER  XXIII.
Supplies of Material,...258
CHAPTER  XXIV.
Receipts,......       263
CHAPTER XXV.
Disbursements,.                                               266
CHAPTER XXVI.
Statistics,.....271
CHAPTER  XXVII.
Running Trains,.....  2
CHAPTER  XXVIII.
Competition,..                                       291
CHAPTER XXIX.
Financial Management,..... 299
CIIAPTER XXX.
General Remarks,....  320








RAILWAY  PROPERTY.
INTRODUCTION.
THE vast amount of funds (about one thousand
million  dollars) invested in American railways,
claims the especial attention of those who have
furnished the means for their construction. Vast,
indeed, if we consider the infancy of our country, and the large demands for capital, indispensable for other purposes, namely, to clear the
forests, to drain and fence the lands, to erect
dwellings for the people; barns, stables, and
sheds for the storage of farm products and shelter
for animals; shops, manufactories, tools, implements, and machinery for artisans and mechanics;
and for wharves, warehouses, stores, shops, shipping and other appurtenances of commerce; all
which must be provided in a new country from the
surplus beyond what is necessary to supply current
wants.
~~~1*'       9




10             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
It is now little over a quarter of a century since
railways were introduced as a means of promoting
the general intercourse of men.  The opening
of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, completed in 1830, may be regarded as substantially
inaugurating this improvement. Previous to this,
something had been done, as on the Stockton and
Darlington Railway; but the wants of the general
traffic in passengers and freight by locomotive
power, were not fully met until the time above
stated. The success that attended the grand experiment of George Stephenson, Esq., Civil Engineer,
was not lost on the mind of the civilized world,'
and railway improvement, especially in England
and our own country, was pushed forward with extraordinary zeal and energy. So far as a beneficial
result was anticipated, in advancing the commercial and social intercourse of men, the strongest
hopes have been realized.
It is not regarded as important at this time, after
so much has been demonstrated by practical operation, to say much in relation to the usefulness of
railways. It may be well, however, to call attention to the opinions formed at a period when the
experience of men could see, in a near view, the
advantages they afforded in  contrast with the
means of coirmunication that existed before they




INTRODUCTION.                11
were known. The following quotation, from the
" Westminster Review," for December, 1845, article 7, presents in vivid language the view entertained on this subject in England at that time.
" Let us clearly understand our position.  We
have arrived at a new epoch in the history of the
world.  A  new element of civilization has been
developed. As was the invention of letters, as was
the printing-press, so is the railway in the affairs
of mankind. It is a revolution among nations. A
moral revolution as affecting the diffusion of knowledge, the interchange of social relations, the perpetuation of peace, the extension of commerce; and
a revolution in call the relations of property.
"We refer, by the latter observation, to the
cheapening of all kinds of commodities by the
facilities of carriage and the saving of time on the
part of producers, afforded by railways, and especially to the influence of railway upon the value
of houses and lands...hence the demand for
railways to connect every town  of the United
Kingdom... is a real bona fide want of
society, which  sooner  or later must be supplied."  This view, presented in 1845, has lost
none of its force by subsequent experience. No
reflecting mind; intelligent enough to contrast
the  condition  of the world  before  and  since
1*




12             RAILWAY PROIERTY.
the introduction of railways, can fail to see the
force of the language held by the " Review."  If
attention be given to particulars, it will only show
its general conclusions to have been founded on the
most practical developments of the improvement.
"The diminished cost of transport invariably
augments the amount of commerce transacted, and
in a much larger ratio than the reduction of cost;
so that, in fact, although a less amount of labor is
employed in the transport of a given amount of
commodities than before, a much larger quantity
of labor is necessary, by reason of the vast increase
of commodities transmitted. The history of the
arts supplies innumerable examples of this..
The moment the first great line of railway was
brought into operation  between  Liverpool and
Manchester, the traffic between those places was
quadrupled.... Improvements in transport which
augment the speed, without injuriously increasing
the expense or diminishing the safety, are attended
with effects similar to those which follow cheapness.... Numerous classes of articles of production become deteriorated by time,... admit of transport
only when they can reach the consumer... in a
sound state,... as various articles of food;...
animals of every species driven to market on common roads, were proved to suffer so much from the




INTRODUCTION.                13
fatigue of the journey, that when they arrived at
market their flesh was not in a wholesome state;... sheep frequently had their feet literally worn
off, and were obliged to be sold on the road for
what they would fetch. Extensive graziers declared that, in such cases, they would be gainers by
a safe and expeditious transport for the animals,
even though it cost double the price paid by the
drovers." (Lardner, on the Economy of Railways,
pages 7, 8 and 9. London: 1850.)
In little over a quarter of a century-1826 to
1858-there were constructed and put in operation
in Great Britain about 9,000 miles of railway, at a
cost of say fifteen hundred million dollars. A. high
confirmation of the opinions and statements above
quoted.
" At the present time nearly 9,000 miles of railways have been completed in the British Isles....
It appears from the published returns of traffic upon
railways for the year 1856, that 129,315,196 persons
travelled  1,822,049,476 miles, and paid  nearly
~11,000,000 in fares; 10,450,625 cattle, sheep and
pigs,... 23,823,930 tons of merchandise,.. 
"and 40,938,575 tons of minerals were carried.
The total receipts on the railways for the year
amounted to ~23,165,493."  (See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1858, Article 4.)




14             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
Compared with the previous history of works and
improvements in the means to facilitate the commercial, political and social intercourse of mankind,
the railway truly marks an " epoch."  The superflcial area of country on which the larger expenditure
above quoted has been made, is 121,000 square
miles; but little larger than the area of the States
of New York and Virginia; and three-fourths of
these roads are in England on an area of about
60,000 square miles, and afford nearly a mile of
railway to ten square miles of territory. Most of
the British railways have a double track; single
track railways occur only as rare exceptions.
The foregoing is a sketch of what has been done,
and of the views entertained on the subject of railways in Great Britain. And here it must be observed, the country is surrounded by coast navigation that has always been extensively employed for
the transport of persons and property-the interior
provided with near 3,000 miles of canal navigation,
and 27,000 miles of McAdamized turnpike roads,
of the best quality.*
If railways have produced so great results in a
country like England, largely provided with the
best means of transport known previous to their
* See " Westminster Review," December, 1845, Article 7.




INTRODUCTION.               15
introduction, how  vast must be their beneficial
influence on a country like our own! The United
States has many advantages of coast, lake and
river navigation, and a considerable extent of canal
navigation. In many of these, there are frequent
interruptions from drought, and all in the higher
latitudes are, during a portion of the year, locked
up by frost. At best, they leave broad districts of
country between them, that have no other means of
transport than earth roads, depending mainly for
their quality on the character of the natural soil on
which they are located; which are at all times
inferior, and often unfit for the transport of even
moderate loads. No such thing as rapid travelling
could be expected, and the stage-coach passenger
must be content to jog on at the rate of two to five
miles per hour, according to the dry or wet season.
This was peculiarly the condition of transport over
the deep loamy soils of the western States.  At
this day the memory of many men will call to mind
the hardships of a winter journey between New
York and Albany, previous to the introduction of
railways. I have a vivid recollection of several
such journeys, and of one in particular, that occupied two successive nights, and parts of three days'
continuous journeying. Now the jaunt is made
in five hours, with  nothing worthy the name




16            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
of fatigue, and at comparatively trifling expense.
A journey from the seaboard across the mountains
to the western States, was only encountered by the
vigorous and hardy, and by them only on high inducements, that would justify the time, expense
and fatigue involved in such an undertaking. To
the invalid, there was little prospect of even moderate journeyings. As an illustration of this, I refer
to an instance in my own experience. In March,
1836, it became important for me to make a journey from Albany to Rome, in the State of New
York, with an invalid wife, who was too feeble tc
bear stage travelling. At that time, the railway was
opened from Albany to Schenectady (16 miles),
and so far I had its benefit. It required four days
to reach Utica (96 miles), at an expense of over
$50 for four persons. At this day, such a journey
could be performed in four hours, at an expense of
$8. On another occasion, an invalid friend, too
feeble to walk a dozen paces, was put into the railway coach at Rome, New York, and in nine hours
made the journey to New York city, 250 miles,
without suffering inconvenient fatigue. Doubtless,
many instances might be added, to show the beneficent influence of railways, in promoting the
comfort and convenience  of the aged  and  infirm.




INTRODUCTION.              17
By the old system of stage-coach travelling, the
average distance travelled in 24 hours cannot be
placed higher than 100 miles; the expense of fare,
$5, other expenses, $1 50, total $6 50. A journey
of 500 miles would require five days, and an expense of $32 50. By railway, the journey would
require one day, or, 24 hours, at an expense not
often exceeding $15 (in some cases not exceeding
$11), thus saving $17 50 in expense and four days
in time on a journey of 500 miles. On some routes
the contrast is greater, both in time and expense.
Within two years, I was travelling on the railway
between Buffalo and Cleveland, and while the train
stopped at a station, I heard two young gentlemen in discussion, complain sharply at the slowness
of our progress; I inquired what speed they supposed we were making, to which they replied
they did not know; I said, we appeared to be on
time, and that would give us about eight hours
from Buffalo to Cleveland, and contrasting this
with experience I had had on the same route before
the railway was in operation, and at about the
same season of the year (winter), when it had occupied four days of very dilligent travelling to
accomplish the same journey, our progress on the
railway appeared very satisfactory. The comparative time of the railway was about one-tenth. Tliil




18             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
incident is mentioned for the benefit of those whose
experience does not enable them to appreciate, by
comparison, the change the railway has wrought in
the means of easy and expeditious transport.
American industry, in agriculture, commerce,
and manufactures, has received an impulse from
railways, that has carried them  beyond the most
sanguine anticipations, greatly advancing " the
value of houses and lands."  The saving in time,
expense, and fatigue of travelling has increased
personal intercourse, it is believed, more than tenfold. This is manifest in the vast number of short
journeys; and those of 100 to 1,000 miles are now
undertaken with comparatively little thought, not
certainly more than would have been given under
the old system of travelling for journeys one-fifth
as long. Consequently, our political, commercial,
and social intercourse has been greatly extended.
In the interior districts, and especially in the western States, their influence on agriculture has been
most obvious. Farm  products have advanced in
value from 20 to over 100 per cent., and this range
will hold good for a large portion of our territory.
By opening and enlarging the facilities of intercourse-giving increased value to the products of
labor-introducing articles of necessity and comfort, and the means of intellectual and moral cul



INTRODTTCTION.              19
ture, it has made much of our country, that was
before secluded, pleasant and desirable for places
of abode; thereby greatly promoting civilization.
No great effort of mind is necessary to see in the
railway, a vast labor-saving machine, diffusing its
benefits to all classes and conditions of men;
increasing the value of each of their own products,
and cheapening the cost of articles of necessity
and comfort obtained from distant places.
Those who desire to examine particulars of the
history of intercommunication, and the contrast
between the facilities that existed prior and subsequent to the introduction of railways, are referred
to "Lardner's Economy of Railways," London,
1850, where they may find much that is interesting
on this subject.
By the last report of the postmaster-general, it
appears that the United States mail was transported
in June last (1858), over 24,431 miles of railway.
Doubtless, there was some railway opened at that
date on which the mail was not carried, and some
opened subsequently before the close of that year,
making an aggregate of 26,000 miles of railway
in this country in operation at the close of 1858.
Tile total cost may be set down approximately at
one thousand millions of dollars. Hunt's "/Merchants' Magazine," for September, 1858, states the




20               RAILWAY PROPERTY.
gross receipts for 1857 at $98,949,600, and for 1858
(which must have been  partially  estimated), at
$106,013,600, and the net income  for 1858 at
$44,589,400; equal say 41 per cent.
The extent of superficial area of that portion of
the United States over which the railways have
mostly been made, does not exceed one million of
square miles.  This shows one mile of railway to
388  square miles of territory.
The following table shows a comparison of the
general features of the railway enterprise in this
country and great Britain.
Lengthin q.ilesof ggrea Sq. Miles of
Length in Sq. Miles of   Aggregate    Territory  Gross rec'pts
Miles.  Territory.   Cost.  to one mile per Annum.
Rail.
Great Britain   9,000   121,000 1,500,0,000   13|  $112,584,235
United States.. 26,00,000  1,00000 1,000,000,000  388   106,013,600
It appears that with a trifle over three times the
territory per mile of railway, the earnings per mile
are about one-third in the United States, what they
are in Great Britain.  The earnings on capital
expended for construction in the United States are
about 41 per cent. greater than the earnings on
capital expended for construction in Great Britain
If the latter had only expended  on 9,000 miles
what the former have expended on 26,000 miles,




INTRODUCTION.               21
the British investment would have been satisfactory
as to income.
The total area of the tnited States territory is
probably double that given above; but as one-half
may be considered either very thinly inhabited or
an uncultivated wilderness, to which railways have
never been extended, there is no reason to include
it in this comparison. The population of the two
countries, at this time, is not probably very different, and the gross earnings compare very well in
this respect.  The British railways are mostly
double track, while those of the United States are
mostly single track.
As population and business increase, and more
railways are wanted in the United States, it will, to
a great extent, be accommodated by making double
tracks on existing roads, at about one-third the cost
of the first track. We cannot expect so dense a
population as that of Britain, at least for many
years; but it will rapidly increase and become
much more dense than it now is, and this will
increase traffic.  There are thousands of miles of
railways in the western States, that traverse districts not more than one-sixth to one-half occupied,
an encouraging circumstance for such as are struggling with inadequate traffic; as time, with good
management, is sure to improve their income,




22             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
unless rival lines are constructed to interfere with
them, as the growth of the country proceeds. On
this point, however, it is to be considered, that
as population and business increase, the demand
for further railway facilities will stimulate the
construction of new lines, and to a greater or less
extent, according to circumstances, they will prevent this benefit from flowing to the old lines. It
is not probable that capital will seek railways,
merely as an investment of funds, for some time to
come; but the railway has become so much a
necessity, that local interests will make great efforts
to do what capitalists hitherto have been willing to
do for them. The local interest, when it becomes
strong enough to act, will not be so much controlled by the expectation of dividends as by the
rise in the value of their " houses and lands," and
the general promotion of their business interests.
Men readily become habituated to look with
indifference on the most important improvements,
and this great work of art, so eminently influencing
all the affairs of life, has already come to be viewed
as a familiar, if not an ordinary medium of everyday business. In our devotion to the onward pursuits of life, we are prone to seize the present and
almost the future, but rarely indulge in the retrospective, or stop to consider the element that so




INTRODUCTION.                23
materially aids us in our onward career. Thus, in
a measure, we limit and restrict the horizon of our
view, and deprive ourselves of the benefit and
enjoyment of contemplating the history and progress of those useful arts that have been greatly
instrumental in the promotion of our material wellbeing, and of our progress in intellectual and moral
civilization; and it should not be forgotten, that
the railway is " an epoch in the affairs of mankind."
The expenditure for this great improvement has
been large, and in England and this country has
been  almost wholly  contributed  from   private
sources. The country at large has received benefits that in many districts have doubled and in
others quadrupled the cost of the railway, in the
increased value of property. Notwithstanding the
vast benefit conferred on the public, the average
net income to the proprietors has fallen far short
of the remuneration to which such outlays are
entitled.  The net income has not been uniformin some cases it has been fair, and even liberal-in
a more numerous class it has been moderate, and
to a large number of stockholders the property has
become, or seems likely to become, a total loss.
This is certainly a hardship for men whose funds
mostly contributed to the construction of works
that have been so beneficial to the public. The




24            x;AILWAY PROPERTY.
hardship is more intense when the fact is considered, that these funds have, to a large extent, been
furnished by persons in moderate circumstances,
by widows and orphans, and by the aged and
infirm, who have been induced by shrewd stockdealers to invest their small properties in railway
securities, under the most plausible assurance that
they were perfectly safe and would produce a liberal income. To some extent, these representations
were, no doubt, honestly made; but this charity
can by no means be extended to the whole. In
some instances the proprietors have realized their
expectations. Railways that have had a fair basis
of business, and have been conducted with fair
capacity and fidelity, have returned to the proprietary interest a fair, and in some instances even a
liberal remuneration for their investment.  And
instances are not wanting, where lines, regarded
in the outset as offering very slender prospects
of remuneration, have, by the care, skill, and
fidelity of the management, proved to the proprietors a source of steady and reasonable income;
while incapacity and dishonesty have rendered
unproductive, railways that should have been, from
the liberal traffic they commanded, among the best
paying institutions of the country.
The celebrated roads of antiquity were made for




INTRODUCTION,               25
military purposes-they were little demanded, and
little used for commercial intercourse. The railway was a demand of civilization, and consequently
has been appreciated according to the progress in
this respect of different people. It is an improvement that in an eminent degree has commended
itself to the wants, the interests, and the happiness
of men. It was ushered suddenly into notice, and
extended with unprecedented rapidity. It opened
a new field for the exercise of mechanical ingeluity and the researches of science, demanding ihvestigations and modifications to meet its numerous
and hitherto little known requirements. Though
the railway had been in operation more than a
century, it had been confined to short lines, mostly
in mining districts, propelled by horse-power and a
few locomotive steam  engines, with sundry inefficient means of traction, the most effective of
which was the cog-wheel, working in a rack. In
this condition it was unable to meet the wants of
general commerce, and the labors of several engineers were engaged for years to ascertain some
more efficient means of applying steam locomotive
power for propulsion.
The attention of the late Mr. Nicholas Wood was
directed, for several years, to ascertaining how far
the adhesion of the wheel to the rail could be relied
2




26            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
on for this purpose; and the world is much indebted to  his investigations and experiments.
From the imperfection, and want of adaptation of
machinery, his results were slow; but they served
to direct attention, and inspire confidence that this
was the best means that had been proposed, and
the practical result on the Stockton and Darlington
Railway greatly strengthened this confidence, and
with it the idea, that the railway would become an
important medium of general commercial intercourse. The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway confirmed the principle of adhesion, and even Mr. George Stephenson found he
could depend on this as a substitute for stationary
power on his inclined planes, having a rise of a 100
feet per mile. Thus, after slowly groping its way
for years, it was discovered that steam locomotive
power, by this simple means of adhesion, would be
effectually and economically used for the propulsion of carriages on railways. The result is a
striking instance of the time and labor often required to demonstrate and bring into use improvements of great public utility, depending on so simple
a method of action, that we wonder how it could
so long remain undeveloped.
It now remained to consider and devise the best
mechanism for the railway, and the various appur



INTRODUCTION.              27
tenances required for its complete operation. Very
little engineering experience on this subject existed
at that time, nor were the general characteristic
wants of the improvement appreciated, or how the
material and works of the varied mechanisms required, would successfully answer the almost unknown service they were expected to perform. It
is therefore no matter of surprise, that many errors
were committed-that numerous suggestions of
plan and improvement were found inapplicable,
and by degrees, as experience demonstrated their
futility, were laid aside. In our own country these
have been numerous, and even in England it cannot now be said, they have arrived at perfection,
or uniformity in the machinery or management
of railways. Though they have undergone important changes, their engineers are still divided in
practice on important features.
We have had a railway gravely urged. on the
pannier, or single rail plan, with the load suspended
on each side; and this especially commended for
timber districts, where it was proposed to cut off
trees at a suitable height, and lay the rails from
stump to stump as supports for the rail. Singular
as this now appears, I knew a board of directors to
go to the expense of fitting up a piece of railway
and a pair of pannier cars to try the experiment of




28             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
its working, and their engineer had no small difficulty in persuading them to abandon the plan. The
construction of an important railway in this country
was commenced, and a section laid and put in
operation, with the flanges of the carriage-wheels.on the outside of the rails. Locomotive engines
were made with joints in their machinery, so as to
be borne by two wagons, or trucks, connected
together by a movable joint, so that each truck
would take its own line on the rail, while the machinery of the engine would move on the curved
rail, by means of its movable joints. The antifiiction car was introduced at an early day, and for
a time was, with many, a great favorite. All
these were presented by men of talent, who had
given much attention to the subject. The atimospheric railway had, at one time, a great run of popularity-was advocated by distinguished engineers, and several railways were constructed in
England on this plan. These instances are mentioned as reminiscences, not having on trial met
the requirements of railways. Others might be
mentioned, but these are sufficient to show, that
although the great principle of its successful operation had been established, the wants of its varied
mechanism were but imperfectly developed.
The history of railways has proved that serious




INTRODUCTION.                29
errors originally existed in regard to the durability
of rails and rolling stock. The iron rails   ere formerly regarded as highly indestructible, and the
wear being supposed to be very slight, would
answer the service a great number of years. The
machinery, in great part of the same material, it
was thought would be very little subject to repairs
or renewal. For a time, the unexpected deterioration of rails was attributed to light weight; and
this was increased until the rails were generally
made double, and in some instances about three
times the weight of the original rails on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. At the present time,
the tendency is to fall back to a less weight, as best
calculated to secure a good article, and consequently a higher durability. The engines and cars
have required large repairs, and more frequent renewals, and consequently the expense for repairs
and maintenance of stock has been  materially
greater than anticipated in the early history of railways. This error, no doubt, has arisen, in a great
measure, from the failure to appreciate the severity
of the service to which they have been exposed.
In the early operations of railways, the locomotive engines weighed from  six to ten tons, carrying
from one and a-half to two tons on a wheel; the
weight has been increased to four and five tons or1




30             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a wheel. The weight of cars was from three-quarters to one and a quarter tons on a wheel, which has
been increased to two and two and a half tons on a
wheel. The early speed of passenger-trains was
from sixteen to twenty miles per hour-it has been
raised to thirty miles and over per hour, and a running speed of forty-five to fifty miles per hour has
been not unfrequently made. Some may have anticipated this speed, but not its effect on the rails
and machinery. When Mr. George Stephenson
was interrogated by the opposing counsel before a
committee of Parliament, he claimed that his engine could run ten miles per hour. With a view
to lead him into some extravagance, he was asked
if "he did not think his iron horse could run
fifteen or twenty, or even twenty-five miles per
hour."  To which Mr. Stephenson, forgetting the
caution that had been given him, modestly replied,
that he thought it could; an indiscretion, that at
that time was regarded so extravagant, as nearly to
disconcert the applicants for the railway bill then
pending before the parliamentary committee.
Since the time above referred to, there has been
great demand for increased speed; and this inflience, has led to the necessity of more powerful
engines, and, consequently, to greater weight. Instead of six to ten tons, their general range has of




INTRODUCTION.               31
late been 22 to 28 tons, and some even greater.
These weights are exclusive of tender. The running
speed has gone up, as before stated, to 50 miles per
hour, and a large proportion of trains now range on
their running time from 30 to 40 miles per hour.
It has been contended by many that high speed
was but little more expensive than low speed-a
very superficial error. It has also been urged by
high engineering authority, that the safety of
travelling at 30 miles per hour was no greater
than at 100 miles per hour; an equally superficial
and inconsiderate error. Whatever may be the
importance of high speed, it can only be obtained
at a corresponding sacrifice of expense and safety.
No intelligent mechanic can witness the passage of
a heavy express train, as it thunders past him at
a speed of 45 to 50 miles per hour, without at least
a momentary wonder that the materials can possibly sustain the rapid action of the parts required
under such motion. This branch of the subject
will be more particularly discussed hereafter; it is
now alluded to for the purpose of showing that the
progressive demands of railway service have called
for machinery and repairs not originally anticipated; and, hence, much of the original error was
a mere want of foresight in providing for the
increasing demands that have been made for rail




32             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
way accommodation. This cannot be regarded as
surprising, when we consider the extraordinary
revolution the railway has wrought in regard to
rapid transport.
It has been stated that the railways of this country have cost, in round numbers, $1,000,000,000.
This is not far from ten per cent. of the real and
personal property of the United States, as estimated for taxation in the year 1856, and about
double the outlay of Great Britain, in proportion
to the wealth of the two countries; the former
being estimated at $11,000,000,000, and the latter
at $30,000,000,000. Ten per cent. of the aggregate
wealth of a country, and especially a new country,
is a large appropriation for a single means of transport, and that one of a comparatively modern
kind, that the world scarcely knew of thirty years
ago.
It is not regarded as worth while to set forth in
these pages the particulars of the progress and
working of railways, the large expenditure called
forth by them, and the business results that have
attended their unprecedented advancement. More
full particulars in regard to these may be obtained
from other works already before the public. Having given the general features to show the difficulties-the vast interest of the public-and the large




INTRODUCTION.               33
outlay of private funds, I proceed to exanine the
circumstances of business and the prospect the proprietary interest has to obtain a fair return for the
funds appropriated for the promotion of works so
eminently advantagecus to the public.
~,k




34            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER L
O N S TR IU CT I ON.
TuHI branch will be discussed under the several
heads that constitute the sources of expenditure.
The first object for consideration in examining a
project for a railway, is the nature and extent of
the traffic to be provided for. If this is large and
of a character to demand high speed, the work
must be adapted to bear the contemplated service.
Bridges and rails must be stronger than for a
lighter traffic and lower speed. If a light traffic,
and especially with a lower rate of speed, is anticipated, much may be saved in expense of construction, and also in the expense of operating the railway, by adapting the works to the service to be
performed. A careful consideration of this question will have much to do with the value of the
investment.  This question should be carefully
examined before commencing the work, not only
to ascertain the nature of the traffic, but its probable sufficiency to warrant the undertaking.




LAND AND LAND  D DAMAGES.        35
CHAPTER II.
LAND AND LAND DAMAGES,
To a large extent, railways have been excessively
burdened in expenses and charges for land. This
has been most severe in the older districts of our
country. The idea that a man should not be compelled to part with anything he owns, unless he is
paid such an equivalent as he may consider himself
entitled to, has had great influence on this branch
of railway expenditure. The principle cannot be
controverted so far as it applies to general objects
of commercial intercourse. But railways cannot be
made without land, and the land they require must
be such as is called for by the line of their works;
and they necessarily have no competition, as no
other land will answer their purpose. A town
or county road is no less dependent on some process of valuation by disinterested parties. If there
were no proper way to take it, except on the
general principle of private purchase, the means
of intercourse, not only by railway, but also by
public roads and canals, would be greatly embar



36             RAILWAY PROLERTY.
rassed; and these indispensable agents of civilization often held in abeyance, if not totally arrested.
The law  has therefore  decided  that legislative
authority may prescribe the mode of determining
the value, as between the owner and the railway
corporation. But this has often been done with
so jealous a regard to the rights of the owner, that
the corporation have generally regarded it for their
interest not to resort to it if they could agree
with the owner for double or treble the real value;
preferring this to the risk of the legal method of
appraisal. The determination of this question by a
jury of twelve men, as has often been the provision
of the statute, is the most objectionable method,
especially if a jury is to be called for each particular case. In such cases juries are very likely to
enter into sympathy with the owner, and to have
very little for what they consider a rich corporation; and moreover the idea of a return in kind,
from the owner, when he may sit as a juryman,
may have an influence prejudicial to a just and
equitable valuation. By the jury process I have
known tenfold damages assessed, and the corporation left with no alternative to escape payment.
The most just and equitable mode that I have
known, is by commissioners appointed by some
"ourt of high standing, which select men of char



LAND AND LAND DAMAGES.             37
acter from a different locality, without influence or
nomination from either party. Sometimes the parties claim the privilege of presenting names to the
court as candidates from  which a selection is to
be made; but any court, with a proper sense of its
duty and responsibility, will not allow this, for the
obvious reason that a man placed on a commission
of appraisal by the nomination of one of the parties,
is most likely, if not certain, to lose his impartiality, in favor of the nominating party. The court
in such cases should take the entire responsibilty,
and acquit themselves by their sound judgment
and impartiality in selecting men for commissioners
whose standing will be a guaranty for the competent and impartial performance of their duty.
It rarely happens that a landed estate is not more
benefited than injured by a railway passing through
it. The exceptions are mostly on the small estates,
or building lots, and the disturbance of buildings,
when the property may be nearly destroyed; and
this constitutes but a very limited proportion of land
required for such purposes. It is not often that the
appraisers are allowed to take the equitable view of
offsetting benefits against damages. But if the corporation could obtain the land at its fair value, the
expense would not generally be large, or seriously
oppressive.




38             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
Railway corporations were formerly made tp,
mostly from the more enterprising portion of the
people, who were willing to risk something for
improvement, and it is certainly a hardship for
them to incur the hazard of the enterprise and pay
in addition large amounts in the shape of land
damages to those who are most likely to secure at
least an indirect benefit. If any parties are sure to
reap advantage from a railway enterprise, it is those
who own " houses and lands" on the route; to these
the railway cannot fail to give increased value.
And yet it is this class that often impede their
progress and embarrass their finances. It is curious,
but not very flattering, to see the developments of
humanity in its manifestations on the question of
land damages, especially in cases where it is obvious
the landowner would freely give his land, and
something more, rather than have the railway fail
of construction.  But he considers the question
settled, that the work will be done, and proceeds to
draw from the treasury of the corporation what he
can, thinking that a clear windfall for his benefit.
The morality of such proceeding may be easily
estimated.
The following anecdote illustrates this branch of
railway business: A railway corporation being in
want of an agent to procure land for their line.




LAND AND LAND DAMAGES.           39
employed a man highly esteemed for his business
capability. He was a stage proprietor, who had
made his way from the stage-box to the stage-coach
office; and having had much experience with men,
he entered on his duties with high hopes of success.
When, however, he came in to report his proceedings, he did not appear much elated, and remarked
that he thought he had seen human nature in all
its forms; but he had come to the conclusion that
if a man desired to be fully acquainted with human
nature, he must be an agent to obtain land for a
railway.
The experience of the stage proprietor was not
peculiar among land agents of railway corporations.
One owner is devoted to literature, or seeks the
quiet and retirement of seclusion, and the sight and
noise of trains will damage his meditations or
repose; another, for the want of a more substantial
basis of damage, brings forward proof to show that
the natural beauty of his scenery will be marred,
and the poetry of his place destroyed by so vulgar
a thing as a railway, and a professed artist gravely
testifies this will damage his property twenty-five
thousand dollars; another is alarmed for the fear of
losing his trade, by the facilities the railway will
afford distant produce to compete in his market, or
give facilities for his customers to supply their wants




40            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
at other places. Notwithstanding these varied apprehensions, the railway does not fail to enlarge
every department of commerce and useful industry,
and to increase the " value of houses and lands."
The hurried manner in which railways have generally been planned and prosecuted has very much
increased the item of land damages. If a discreet
business-man contemplated the construction of a
railway on his own account, he would begin by
ascertaining the proper location, and then by conditional contracts ascertain what the land would
cost. He would hold the decision, not only as to
route, but also as to the main question, whether he
would make the railway at all, subject to cost of
land and other expenses indicated by preliminary
surveys and estimates; and if these appeared too
heavy for the probable income and other benefit he
might anticipate, he would abandon the project.
Under this kind of management landholders would
look on the project, not as a certainty, but depending materially on cost of construction and prospect
of revenue, to be decided, not by an association of
men, among whom there may be a strong interest
for the railway, without regard to direct profit, but
by a single man who will risk the expenditure, only
as the income promises to be remunerative. The
landowner in such cases realizes, that if his " houses




LAND AND LAND DAMAGES.            41
anC Sands' are to be increased in value by the railway, he must be careful not to put any obstruction
in the way, and he will generally be willing to take
a fair price, or donate his land so far as required for
the object, and if it appear necessary, do something
in addition to insure the prosecution of the enterprise.
If a joint-stock company should adopt a similar
policy, and only call in a small amount of capital,
sufficient for such preliminary proceedings, and hold
the enterprise to the same business requirements,
they would obtain the same beneficial results. But
it often happens, while many individuals subscribe
their money to a railway stock merely as an instrument, to be benefited only by direct income, there
are others that subscribe to the stock and interest
themselves mainly, if not exclusively, to enhance the
value of their " houses and lands." This latter class
are in great haste to have the railway in operation,
as that is the result to benefit them; and whether
it is providently or improvidently constructed is not
material to their interest; but they are essentially
interested in a rapid prosecution and early completion of the railway. To them it is of small moment
whether or not the lands are obtained at a large or
small price, provided the work is accomplished.
On the item of land damages, and law and legis



42             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
lative expenses, we have not suffered as English
railway corporations have for the same object of
expenditure.  In a work recently published on
(' European railways," by Colburn and Holley, page
33, it is stated that the average of British railways
have expended (for railways completed prior to
1856) for these items $50,000 per mile of railway:
of which $43,000 per mile was for land damages.
Even the Hudson River Railway, that suffered
severely in this respect, cannot compete by a long
way with English railways. The same work, page
23, says: " The sums paid by many of the railway
corporations for land and compensation are almost
fabulous..... It is recorded that the sum paid to
one particular individual was so preposterously large
that his heir (2) returned the greatest portion of it
as conscience money!.... Railway corporations
have, in the majority of cases, paid from ten to a
hundredfold beyond the legitimate value of the
properties purchased by them.... More recently landowners are less clamorous for compensation." It is indeed difficult to get clear of the
idea that the above statements are quite " fabulous."
Mr. Robert Stephenson, from  whom  the above
writer quotes, says, " almost fabulous." Looking at
this as applicable to more than 6,000 miles of railway, mostly through farming lands, and a greater




LAND AND LAND DAMAGES.             43
or less proportion of the land of little real value, it
certainly cannot be regarded as complimentary to
the intelligence and morality of the British nation.
Perhaps, had our ideas of the sacred character of
landed property been similar in degree to theirs, we
should not have fared better; for according to the
value of lands, we have practised on the subject
with great skill.




4 4            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER III.
LOCATION OF RAILWAY.
THE first field duty is that of survey for location.
The terminal points are usually determined in the
outset of the project, and the work required is to
settle the intermediate line, which should devolve
on the engineer; at least he should make all necessary surveys, maps and estimates of expense, and
lay the whole before the Board of Directors, with
his opinion as to the most elegible route. In the
early history of our railways this was the usual, if
not the general practice. This method places a
direct responsibility on the engineer, who is best
qualified to meet it, and whose professional reputation is materially concerned to guard against errors
that a future observer might discover. On his skill
and fidelity much must depend, and the directors
of a railway company will need good judgment in
selecting one whose experience and skill will be a
guaranty that this duty will be discharged with
ability and fidelity to the interest of the enterprise.
The desirable result, it is evident, has not always




LOCATION OF RAILWAY.             45
been secured. Locations have been made that required large expenditures to correct, or when not
corrected have worked a permanent detriment to
the line. This has sometimes resulted from incompetent engineering, but not always.  Scheming
directors and agents, and sometimes speculating
engineers have had other objects than the interest
of the corporation to control their action, and lead
to improper location. When persons of this class
obtain a seat in a board of directors, they will be
most likely to employ an engineer who they regard
best calculated to serve their object; and these are
not engineers of high standing for professional skill,
firmness and fidelity. Another source of error in
this respect is, that of giving the contractor the
control over the location within certain restrictions
of grade and curvature, by which he may travel a
good deal out of the proper location, very much to
the permanent injury of the proprietors. It not
unfrequently happens that the citizens of a town, in
order to secure facilities for their accommodation,
are very active and contrive to exert an influence
on questions of location, that involve large future
expenditures to correct the errors they induce.
In a new country, with its business undeveloped,
towns are in some instances started, make considerable progress, and finally prove not to be in the




43             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
proper line of the commerce the railway is constructed to accommodate, and after falling into this
error, the corporation find themselves compelled to
change a considerable part of their railway or have
their traffic divided by a rival line. In whatever
way it may happen, an injudicious location will
work a damage to the proprietors.
If the termini of a railway be well settled, the
line should generally be located on the most direct
route between them, that the formation of the country will permit. It rarely happens that any local
object of traffic will warrant material elongation
of the line, especially in a new country. A railway
(unless for some special object) can only be supported by general traffic, and it is manifestly
important, that this should not be burdened for a
local object, unless that be of very considerable
magnitude; for it is obvious, that so far as it travels
out of a proper line, it is at the expense of its main
traffic.  A further source of error in this respect is,
the haste very often indulged, to commence the
work, not allowing the engineer sufficient time to
perfect his surveys and examinations, and thereby
compelling him to act in this important duty, on
inadequate  knowledge of matters affecting  the
question. Nothing can be more impolitic or unwise
than this, for men who propose an investment of




LOCATION OF RAILWAY.             47
funds. It should be kept steadily in mind that a
railway is an expensive thing  at best, and to
increase this by hasty and inconsiderate action on
the important matter of location, may greatly imnpair the value of the investment, while it only
gratifies an excessive ardor, by no means consistent
with a wise and energetic pursuit of important
business.
The duty of location is a very important one to
the proprietors and the public; both being inter
ested in effecting the cheapest transport. In pro
ceeding upon it, the first object should be to under
stand the general line of the trade of the country
through which the railway is to be made.  Rail
ways that cross this line, at or near right angles,
are seldom successful. If no error be committed in
this respect, what remains is essentially to obtain a
thorough knowledge of the face of the country
between the termini, from  which the relative advantages may be reduced by calculation and estimates of their bearing on the cost and the commercial importance of intermediate objects. On some
lines the physical formation of the country clearly
points out the proper route. Others require extensive surveys to determine it. The latter are most
likely to suffer for want of competent engineering.
Instances have occurred in which a considerable




48            RATIWAY PROPERTY.
amount of new railway had to be made, to correct
errors of location, and receive the traffic the line
was originally designed to accommodate; thus loading the enterprise with large additional capital,
that would not have been necessary had the
original location been correct.  But though the
error may not be such as to lead to the making of
a new line for any part, it may prove a permanent
injury by loading the traffic with unnecessary current expense. From whatever cause this may have
happened, it is equivalent to a loss of capital, and
consequent diminution of dividends, necessarily
impairing the proprietary interest, especially that
of stockholders in the institution.
After the settlement of the terminal, and (if there
be any) any other controlling points on the route, it
is important to secure the most favorable grades and
allignment. On these points little need be said; it
being obvious these should be as easy as the formation of the country may permit within the range of
suitable expense of construction. It has sometimes
been the practice to adopt a uniform curve for all
points that produce angles in the line, and in others
a maximum and minimum rule has been adopted.
The best method is to adopt the largest radii, or
least practicable curve the formation of the ground
will permit. The mode of construction of railway




LOCATION OF RAILWAY.            4
carriages is adapted to run on straight lines, and
any departure from  this must be forced against
additional friction. Sharp curvature is also objectionable, as obstructing the view of approaching
trains.
In a line having considerable preponderance of
trade in one direction, there will be advantage in
inclination in this direction, corresponding to the
preponderance in the weight of traffic; otherwise a
level is the best grade for a railway. This cannot
always be obtained, and indeed on most lines, only
to a partial extent. The practice should aim at the
least practical departure from it. To reduce what
is termed the ruling grade, will often justify pretty
heavy expense, and more or less elongation of line,
as this feature will control the weight of trains.
a




50(            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER IV.
METHOD OF BUSINESS.
Tim  method of business pursued in conducting
the work of construction has been widely different
at different times and on different railways. The
plan adopted in the commencement of railways was
to have maps and profiles of the line, and plans and
specifications of the manner in which the work was
to be done. As soon as these were prepared, the
work was advertised for contract, and let to the
]owest bidder who was considered responsible for the
undertaking. Propositions for the work, received;n this way, were reduced to contracts, providing
for payment at certain rates on the several items.
The engineer was made the inspector and the
umpire between the parties, from whose decision
there was no appeal in regard to anything pertaining to the contract-the manner of performing the
work, the measurement and estimate of quantities
provided for in the contract, and the valuation of
any extra work that unforeseen circumstances might
call for in. the course of construction. The same




METHOD OF BUSINESS.             51
mode of proceeding had generally been adopted in
the construction of canals. In this method, the
engineer stood between the corporation and the
contractor; and upon his capacity for his duties
and fidelity to the parties, the system very much
depended. A want of confidence could not fail to
produce dissatisfaction, and it is obvious it could
only be maintained by the administration of engineers of sound business experience and unquestioned fidelity of character.
In the early history of railways, the line was
divided for construction contracts into sections of
one or two miles in length, and contracts made for
the grading of each section; and for light work
several sections were sometimes let in one contract.
But the large amount of this kind of work soon
called into this service contractors whose ambition
aspired to larger contracts, and they gradually
drove from the ranks of original contractors many
that had been content with moderate contracts, and
who depended on their small capitals, and a personal supervision of their work, for their remuneration. The latter were either compelled to abandon
their occupation or employ themselves on subcontracts from their more influential associates.
Eventually, contractors did not feel satisfied with
anything short of the entire railway; including




52             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
grading, bridging and laying track, with some
station buildings and rolling stock, with the addi
tion in some instances of the iron rails, chairs,
spikes, etc. So long as the original principle was
maintained, and the contract made with carefully
prepared specifications, and a competent engineer
placed in full authority as the inspector and umpire
between the parties in the contract, and the compensation determined by the measurement of each
item  of work done, as originally practised, the evil
of large contracts was not so great. Still it was
not the best method.  The advantage  over it
of several contractors, is, that work is generally
better done at lower rates; and as contractors sometimes fail to perform  their contracts, either by
doing their work improperly, or not as rapidly as
their contracts require, and the work has to be relet, in such cases when there are a number of
contractors on the work, the failure of one is of less
importance, and involves less difficulty and delay
in re-letting than when all, or the principal part of
the work is in the hands of one firm. A further
difficulty occurs most usually from letting in large
contracts to one firm, from the disposition to sub-let
the work, and thereby introduce upon the line men
as contractors whom the officers of the railway company would not accept, often causing embarrass



METHOD OF BUSIESS.              53
ment in the prosecution of the work. If, as is
usually the case, the contractor is restricted in his
contract in regard to sub-letting, he will more
or less contrive to evade or disregard the restriction.
For some years past it has come to be a very
common practice to put the entire work of constructing a railway into one contract. The influence that has produced this practice has generally
impaired the authority and power of the engineer,
which was naturally to be expected, as the contractor who can wield an influence to control so
much work is not likely to be controlled by an
engineer. He looks on the engineer as only useful to set stakes and levels, and perhaps make
estimates for his sub-contractors.  In  some instances the engineer has been appointed subject
to the approval of the contractor, and subordinate
engineers employed and paid by the contractor
directly.
One of the most common methods adopted by
contractors to obtain the entire work of a line, is to
contract for a large part of their pay in the stock
and bonds of the company. It will readily be perceived that parties desirous of securing the indirect
benefits of a railway, and not able to obtain sufficient cash stock to do the work, would readily fall




-54            RLRAILWAY PROPERTY.
into such a method of contracting.  And if such
parties (as is most probable) have the controlling
management of a railway enterprise, they will find
plausible reasons to satisfy what cash subscribers
they may chance to have, that it is the wisest
policy to contract with one firm for the entire
work; that they may know in the outset what the
work will cost, and not be subject to the uncertainty of an engineer's estimate. This is a plausible fallacy, as experience has abundantly demonstrated.
Now, if the object be to secure the incidental
benefits that may result from a railway, this method
of contracting may often be the best, if not the only
one practicable; and if there are no stockholders,
except those who are so interested in the indirect
benefits of the railway that they regard income on
their stock as a secondary object, this plan of contracting may be very well. Under these circumstances, a subscription is got up among parties so
interested, with a view of raising a portion of the
funds required, and mainly to give currency to the
bonds of the company that must be relied on to a
large extent. To do this, it is necessary in most
cases to obtain subscriptions from municipal corporations of towns and counties; and so a very
respectable amount of subscription to the stock is




METHOD OF BUSINESS.            55
obtained, and the work goes on. This is all very
well so long as the original parties only are interested. If, however, a cash subscriber falls in, who
has only interest in the income that pays dividends,
he will most probably be disappointed. To raise
some funds on stock, and give apparent basis for
bonds, the plan may be presented for illustration as
follows: A limited amount of stock will be taken
by individuals having a strong indirect interest in
the business of the railway. This subscription will,
to a greater or less extent, fail to be paid. The
municipal subscription will come in the form of
town and county bonds, guaranteed by the railway
company; these bonds will be sold at a discount
according to the credit that may be given them;
the private subscription may in part (as frequently
done) be paid in farm mortgages, guaranteed by the
railway company, and sold by them in the same
manner as the municipal bonds, at considerable discount. These are the cash elements on which the
contractor begins his work. To obtain the iron rails,
it is common to issue first mortgage bonds to a limited amount. The contractor must, of course, take a
large part of his pay in the stock and bonds of the
company.  It is apparent that the contractor, in
regulating his compensation, must take into account
the value of the material he is to receive in pay



56             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
ment; and this will depend much on his ability and
skill in financiering his stock and bonds. If the
enterprise be faithfully carried out on this plan, it is
evident the nominal capital will be much above what
would be required in constructing a railway for cash.
But the method under consideration has further and
peculiar tendency to swell the cost. In such contracts, by a single firm for an entire railway, it is
usual to provide for only so much work as will be
indispensable to run trains; ballasting is rarely provided for to any further extent than may be furnished
by materials from excavation of prism; and the result
is, that the work contracted for is not much more
than half done, and consequently requires large expenditures after it is accepted by the railway company, showing conclusively that the contract did not
determine the cost of the work. The evil that has
resulted to railway property by this course of business has been disastrous according to the necessities
of the enterprise, the character of the managers, and
the degree to which the system has been carried.
Under the most favorable circumstances, the wholesale system of contracting, even on the cash plan,
enhances the cost of the work, from  the causes
before mentioned.  Its tendency is to undermine
the authority and usefulness of the engineer as inspector and umpire, if it does not entirely override




METHOD OF BUSINESS.             5
and dispense with his authority, and inevitally
gives the railway company work inferior to what
they contracted for, and compels them to materially
increase their capital, in order to bring their work
to the standard required by the contract. In some
contracts the contractor has been allowed to vary the
grades and curves within certain limits. Hence it
was his interest (as his contract is usually for a round
sum) to make many modifications in these respects,
that prove a permanent source of embarrassment
and injury in operating and conducting the traffic
of the railway, necessarily impairing the interest of
the proprietors; and, instead of the contract settling
the cost of the work, it leaves the question, even
after it is opened for use, totally unsettled, except
that the cost is to be looked for much beyond the
limits of the contract, and represented in second and
third mortgage bonds, under which the value of the
stock gradually depreciates, and sometimes passes
out of view. Though I regard the mode as highly
objectionable, it must be admitted a few railways
constructed in this way have turned out to be fair
investments for the stockholders: such have been
located in a comparatively new country, with great
facility for cheap construction; strong  natural
sources of traffic, that were rapidly developed by the
railway; and having fallen into the hands of favorable




58            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
managenr, the evils of the system were only partially experienced, and the traffic proved sufficient
to afford fair dividends. This, however, does not
prove the system good; it is only an exception to a
ruie generally bad.  The railways more recently
constructed on this plan have added to their capital
from 25 to 100 per cent. over the amount that would
have been required by a sound system of business;
and hence one cause of the depreciation of this kind
of property; and there can be no doubt the old
method of business is the best for parties who furnish cash to build railways, as an investment of
funds.
Amalgamations have been made, and branch
lines constructed, under the plausible idea of increasing the income of the main line, while the
result has shown that, in most cases, the capital has'
been increased proportionably more than the net
income, and the only party benefited has been
some scheming contractor or jobbing manager.
The financial business of railway corporations was
originally commenced by opening books for subscription to the stock; and having secured the
amount supposed to be sufficient for the undertaking, installments were called in as wanted for the
work. In this way the principal capital was raised.
It was regarded necessary to have at least half, and




METHOD OF BUSINESS.            59
sometimes three-fourths or the whole of the amoiun
needed in the form of stock. If bonds were issued
it was not done until the investment by stock had
made a good basis for the security of the bonds.
The bonds were usually sold under advertisement
to the highest bidder, provided there was no restriction as to usury, and commanded par, or nearly
par, for seven per cent. bonds.
Gradually the old method of conducting the
finances gave way to a different system. In the
ardor of the railway movement, opportunity was
afforded for men to enter into their management,
not faithfully to discharge a trust, but for the purpose of enriching themselves at the expense of those
who confided in their supposed fidelity. Such men
have ruined the stock, and greatly impaired the interest of the bond proprietors of railways that
should have been the best investments of this kind
in the country. A small clique of such men will
often baffle the efforts of a majority of fair-minded
directors, and gradually deplete the proprietary interest. They enter the management with fair pretensions, and contrive to obtain sufficient, if not most
of the proxies for elections. Where the railway is
far distant from-most of the proprietors, and they
know little except from reports, the means for controlling the institution is not difficult to compass. It




60             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
is hardly worth while to go into particulars, at this
time, of the process of the financiering of such men;
they have left their marks too indelibly fixed on the
railways that have come under their financial management, to require anything more than an allusion
to this source of depletion, to which railway proprietors may look for a large portion of the loss of
their property. This, with the method of contracting, the construction of branch lines, and amalgamations, has so overloaded many of our railways with
capital, that the prospect of the stock proprietors is
very discouraging, if not hopeless; and even the
bond proprietors find their interest greatly depressed, and what they had regarded as very safe,
has proved to be very uncertain.
There can be no doubt the old method of finance
and contracting was the best. It had sound business principles to rest on, and by it, enterprises of
a difficult and expensive nature have been carried
through, and succeeded as fairly remunerating investments of capital. A board of directors, with
fair business capacity and integrity of purpose, with
a competent and faithful engineer, will accomplish
all that can be obtained, and if they do not make
the enterprise profitable to the proprietors, it will
be for the want of sufficient inherent elements of
success in the enterprise itself; and no system of




METHOD OF BUSINESS.           61
wholesale contracting and jobbing financiering will
do as well, if investment of capital be the object of
the enterprise.
A practice has prevailed, I believe, very generally in England, of jobbing the engineering of
railways at a percentage of five or more per cent.
on the cost of the work; the engineer employing
and maintaining such force in this department as
he judges expedient. There are two serious objections to this method: First, it offers an inducement to the engineer to increase the cost of the
work-and secondly, to employ an inadequate force
and capacity of assistants to meet the proper supervision of the duties that devolve on this department of service. It encourages a speculating spirit
of action in the engineer; and this once getting
hold of his mind, will be very likely to lead to
many abuses. A fixed salary should be the only
pecuniary resource an engineer should have in
view, in a work committed to his supervision, and
if he possesses the morality that should control him,
his entire energies will be devoted to the duties he
owes to the proprietors, and as umpire between
them and the contractors. An engineer devoted to
the acquisition of knowledge, in the noble and responsible objects of his profession, and the attainnent of the high character that should animate and




62             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
possess those who are charged with the care and
management of the interests of others, will have no
time for speculating schemes; and it may be set
down as a rule, that an engineer given to speculation and effort for a rapid accumulation of wealth,
will be superficial in his professional acquirements,
and very unsafe in his duties generally, and especially as an umpire between the proprietors and the
contractors.
It is often remarked, that the estimates of engineers, made of the cost of projected works, are much
below  the actual expenditure. No doubt this is
very generally true. The engineer who makes the
estimate must bear the responsibility, at least so
far as professional reputation is concerned. He is
exposed to the suspicion of acting with a view to
obtain occupation in the prospective supervision of
the work. He is not, however, the only erring
party. Men who have an indirect interest to serve,
are often engaged as promoters, and perhaps managers of the preliminary business of the enterprise:
to whom the actual cost and net income are secondary considerations-subordinate to the incidental
benefits they expect to derive from  a railway.
Their object is to induce capitalists to furnish funds
for construction; and to make it as promising as
possible, a low estimate of cost is advantageous.




METHOD OF BUSINESS.              63
Such persons accompany the engineer in his examinations, and usually represent the facilities of
the work, in the most favorable light.  All kinds
of material wanted for construction are easily and
cheaply to be had; and if some desirable kind does
not present itself, substitutes, though of acknowledged inferiority, are strongly urged as proper
and suitable under the circumstances-the aspects
of trade are urged as offering the prospect of low
rates for all kinds of labor. These are pressed on
the consideration of the engineer, not merely by an
individual, but generally by the influential men he
meets in the course of his examination.  To meet
these influences, he has comparatively small means
and limited time.  Often the parties that bring
these influences to bear, furnish the means for the
preliminary survey and estimate, and the engineer
is not allowed to be ignorant of the result of an unfavorable estimate; namely, that the money furnished for the survey will be lost to those who
have been his patrons. To all this it will be properly said, the engineer should not allow himself
to be controlled by influences that lead him into
professional errors. A less reprehensible source of
error, in original estimates, is found in the inadequacy of the views and plans of work, to meet the
unexpected demands of the traffic: the develop



(4             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
ments of business raising this sometimes 100 per
cent. above the original estimates of trade, and consequently demanding works of more capacity of
accommodation, and necessarily of greater expense.
This state of things is not unusual, and while the
cost of construction is carried up to meet a largei
traffic than was anticipated, it is not reasonable to
hold the engineer responsible for the excess that
arises from this contingency.
The duty involved in the preliminary survey anc
estimate for an important railway enterprise is no
easy task. To do it properly, so as to secure a
reasonable approximation to the cost, the engineer
should have sufficient time and means to make surveys, essentially adequate for a location of line-by
trial pits obtain at least a fair general knowledge
of the soils to be excavated-prepare plans for the
various structures in sufficient detail, to enable
him to make computation of the quantities for the
several kinds of work required-and to ascertain
the existing facilities for obtaining materials for the
wants of the various structures necessary in the
work. Thus prepared, an estimate may be made
that would form  a reasonably safe basis for the
financial interest involved in the construction of a
railway. This method, however, is rarely adopted.
No one perhaps will object to it, as being a sound




METHOD OF BUSINESS.             65
and sensible mode of reaching the object. But it
requires considerable expense and time to obtain
the desired information in this way; the means may
be wanting to meet the expense, and patience is
wanting to grant the necessary time.
If a company of discreet business men should
undertake the construction of a railway for the
single object of making it an investment of funds,
they would proceed in the manner last described,
preferring to risk a loss of one per cent. in obtaining reliable knowledge of the probable cost, to
that of hazarding greater loss by trusting to insufficient examination. It does not invalidate the argument, that the proceedings in the preliminary steps
for this kind of enterprise have generally been of a
different character; and that, notwithstanding this
deficiency in examination, they have sometimes
been successful; for while cases of success have
occurred, many have resulted unfavorably, greatly
disappointing the expectations of the promoters of
the enterprise.
There are two legitimate objects that appertain
to the construction of a railway, namely, the direct
one of making it a profitable investment as a dividend-paying enterprise; the other, the indirect
benefits to trade, general intercouse, and to increase
the " value of houses and lands."  For either of




66            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
these, a man may legitimately seek to promote his
interest by furnishing funds for a railway; and in
either case, he will need the same care in all the
methods of business. Other inducements to promote the enterprise may be found by speculating men, who contemplate benefits to arise out ot
the current business of the corporation-as the
contracting, that looks only to the chance of a good
job, to be secured by a position of influence; also
the financiering, that looks to the use that may be
made of transactions in the stock, bonds, branch
lines, amalgamations, and other fiscal operations of
the company-and have no further regard to the
funds, or the economy of the work, than may be
necessary to secure their personal object. However little desirable, the latter have been fully
represented in many important enterprises of this
kind, as the history of railway management too
clearly shows. In England they had one of this
sort, who was styled "railway king," and at one
time many people supposed it hardly possible to
build a railway without the support of his cooperation. He was regarded a man of extraordinary
capacity, and his advice was sought as of one possessed of incomprehensible powers. The deception,
however, as to his great powers of business, was
not of long continuance. His frauds were disco



METH )D OF BITSTNES.           67
vered; the diadem stripped from his brow, and his
seat in parliament did not secure him from  the
degradation so fully.earned by the abuse of misplaced confidence. Our country has not escaped
the influence of this class of men, nor can we claim
exemption from the blind devotion that gave them
power of mischief. In proportion to capital, they
have probably been as injurious to railway investments in this country as in England.  If their
history could be read by railway proprietors, it
would point out a cause for a large share of their
losses, which arise from excessive capital in the construction account, and which weigh  down  the
stock of many railway corporations with a load
that hardly admits the hope of recuperation;
and this on lines that, under sound management,
should have been good investments of funds.
From what has been said in relation to contracting, no imputation must be inferred in respect to
the honest contractor, who in fair and open competition takes his contract; nor are the contracting parties to be regarded as so mischievous as those who
hold indirect interest in their contracts by means
of official influence. The great field of action for
depleting a railway corporation will be found, for the
most part, within the board of directors; at the same
time, there may be a majority, or a respectable




68             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
minority of intelligent and fair-minded directors,
who would do nothing knowingly to injure the
property of the corporation. Two, three, or four
men in the direction generally conduct affairs; and
if these are fair and upright men, the institution may be properly conducted. But if not, they
may easily manage affairs with reference to their
personal interest, which will be developed  by
placing men in their own interest in all positions
of trust, and keeping the books to their own liking,
so that other directors will find difficulty in obtaining information of the real course of proceeding
And if perchance any one becomes suspicious and
troublesome, no effort will be spared to impair his
infuence. He is impracticable, an old fogy, not up
to railway times, or is influenced by jealousy; and
his less suspicious associates, busied with their private affairs, and having no time for long stories, pass
over his complaints, and put them down as the result
of a suspicious mind, and no serious objection is made
at the next election to leaving out of the board the
impracticable director. Now, perhaps with a little
more caution, the ruling men go on, more or less to
the damage of the proprietors. No doubt much
of the evil of unfaithful management arises from
the fact, that directors have generally but little
practical knowledge of railway business, and con



METHOD OF BUSINESS.              69
sequently are easily misled by artful and unfaithful
associates.  The business, moreover, is of great
detail, and requires much time to obtain an intelligent knowledge of affairs, especially if not conducted on the most direct and strict principles of
business; and directors are not generally disposed
to give the time necessary for thorough examination. They receive little or no compensation; their
position is regarded an honorary one, and they
naturally expect the officers to do the work; if
they act on a committee, they expect all the work
prepared to their hand. This is clearly wrong;
they should make full investigation and know from
original sources the basis of their action. But this
would require much time, and the officers, very
likely, would feel themselves insulted by such
manifestation of want of confidence, and if countenanced by their friends in the direction, they
might, by indirect proceedings, greatly embarrass,
if not defeat the object of the committee.  Such
interference, however, if attempted, would cease,
if the practice of investigation was vigorously
maintained. A  committee of the board of dirertors, under no circumstances, are of service to the
proprietors, if they are of that party in the board
that may hold rule adversely to the proprietary
interest, as they are to be regarded a mere cloak t(




0T             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
more effectually hide what should be seen. It is
apparent, the safety of the property must depend
on the efficient action of a competent and faithful
board of directors, and it would be better for the
interest of the institution to make them such compensation as would be reasonable for the time
devoted to the management, and thereby fix a
business responsibility; to ask them to devote their
time, and to neglect other business, without remuneration, is not reasonable, and rarely expedient.
Very few men devote themselves to transact the
business of others, without compensation in some
form, and if it is not direct and open, it may be
indirect, and this no-compensation may be regarded
as liable to be of the most expensive kind for the
proprietors. Ionor will satisfy some men that can
afford the time, but, in general, the ox that treadeth out the corn, must needs have a portion.




GRADING.                   71
CHAPTER V.
GRADING.
GRADING Is understood to embrace all the work
required to bring the surface of the ground to the
grade lines, and is mostly earth-work; for a limited
extent of line it is rock-work. This work prepares
the bed for the superstructure, and when the earth
is not composed of sufficiently hard gravel (and
this only happens occasionally) it is excavated to a
proper depth, so as to give space for the ballast.
In this branch of construction the drainage is to be
provided for, and is a very important part of the
work. The most experienced engineers were early
impressed with the necessity of thorough attention
to this, as essential to a good railway.  In soils
through which water percolates freely, as coarse
gravel and sand, the drainage may be so well
provided for as to require little attention; but most
soils are too retentive for this, and require drains to
be so made, as to take the water off quickly to some
natural or artificial channel, which will carry it
beyond the reach cf influence on the road-bed. It




T2             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
is not sufficient to reduce the level of the water
merely to the base of the road-bed, or foundation
of the ballast. Water standing at or near this level,
will soften the foundation and allow the ballast to
settle, and thus derange the superstructure. Standing water at this level, while it leaves the top of the
ballast dry, will, by capillary attraction, rise so as to
soften the bottom, and particularly the close retentive soil that forms the bed of the ballast. An
embankment that has a standing pool of water
against it, though three or four feet below its top,
will be impaired in its stability for supporting the
superstructure, so as to require frequent adjustment
of the rails. Whether from rain or springs, the
water should have quick passage to some point
beyond the reach of influence on the road-bed; and
if the embankment be exposed to standing water
that cannot be removed, its height, if practicable,
should be raised, with heavy gravel and stones, at
least four feet (and six would be preferable) above
its standing level. It is not often this difficulty
exists to an extent that cannot be removed by
opening ditches so as to lead the water to lower
ground.
It is not often that much difficulty or expense is
encountered to protect embankments against the
influence of water; they are raised above the natu




GRADING.                  73
ral surface of the ground, and by moderate ditching
their base is easily laid dry. According to the
nature of the soil on which they rest, they require
more or less attention, in order to insure their
stability, and give regular support to the superstructure. Where circumstances give a choice of
grade, it is always best to adopt that which raises
the rail above the natural surface two or three feet;
this with small side ditches generally gives a good
drainage: it makes a cheap road-bed, and is particularly important if ballasting material is not convenient. It generally happens, however, that such
locations admit of cheaper grading, by running the
grade nearer the natural surface of the ground; a
circumstance that a contractor working by the mile
or under a lumping contract, who has power to
modify grades, will most likely take advantage of,
to the detriment of the proprietors.
In excavation, there is no way of obtaining adequate drainage but by side ditches, that are low
enough to take the water from the road-bed. This
requires the width of excavation beyond what is required for the road-bed, -to be sufficient for the sideditches.  The bottom  of these ditches should be
not less than six inches below the foundation of the
ballast, when the latter is two feet deep, or with
more shallow depth of ballast, not less than two and
4




74             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a half feet below the top of the ballast, and provided
with a quick discharge, that will readily carry off
all falling water. If the ground be springy, and
furnish water constantly, or the greater part of
the time, the ditches should be deeper, so as to effectually take the water from the foundation or roadbed. The ground that forms the foundation of the
ballast should be shaped so as to easily lead the water
that settles though the ballast to the side ditches. In
long cuttings, with level or nearly level grades, it
is advisable, where circumstances permit, to raise
the grade at the point from which the water will
most readily flow, so as to give more free and easy
discharge from the ditches through the cut. The
inconvenience to the traffic in such cases, by the
extra rise of grade, will be more than compensated
by the superior condition in which the track will be
maintained under more perfect drainage.  It is
obvious different soils will require different degrees
of attention to drainage; but it is not probable any
will receive more attention than will be useful. To
make the necessary ditches in deep cuttings involves
considerable expense in opening the cuttings wide
enough to provide for the widths and slopes of the
side ditches. From the desire to avoid as much as
possible'this expense, the ditches are generally inadequate; small at first, and soon filled up fr'om




GRADING.                  T5
the wash of the banks. The width required for a
side ditch and its slopes will vary in different soils;
but it will rarely happen in soils of a retentive kind
that less than eight feet will be sufficient to do the
work well. This for the two ditches requires sixteen
feet to be added to the width of the cutting, besides
what is necessary for the road-bed. This extra
width of cutting, it will be perceived, does not
increase the excavation in proportion to the whole
cut; for the slopes are required for any width, and
the addition is a parallelogram of the extra width
and depth of the cutting. If, however, the cut be
deep, it will add considerably to the excavation, and
hence twenty feet width has often been adopted as
the rule instead of twenty-six to thirty feet. In
rock-cutting, as no slope is required, the ditch will
need much less width; and the drainage is not as
important as in earth cuttings. The ballast cannot
sink in rock, and if it beof a hard gravel or broken
stone it will not suffer much from water; at the
same time, it will not answer to neglect drainage
even in rock-cuttings, as frost would operate in cold
weather on the ballast, and by heaving derange the
superstructure: also, if the ballast is not of a superior quality, drainage is necessary to enable it to
bear the service of trains.
This is a department of work very likely to be




76             RAILWAY PROPERTP.
imperfectly done, if the funds provided are inade
quate to the work, and the ruling effort is to get a
railway on which trains may be run at some rate.
The railways made under general contracts almost
invariably fail in securing good, or even tolerable
drainage. The after-work that follows imperfection
in this respect, usually, and it may be said always,
is done at a great increase of cost; and it will generally be a long time before it will be brought to a
reasonable degree of perfection. In the meantime
great injury is experienced to the rails and rolling
machinery. Railways intended to be run more or
less (as is often the case) without ballast, or with
light and imperfect ballast, are especially in need
of good drainage. It cannot be recommended to open
a railway for transportation without ballast, but if
circumstances demand this, the drainage should be
thoroughly done, in order to obtain the best condition for poor materials that is practicable to sustain
the service of trains. By thorough attention to this
department of work, inferior soil may sustain a considerable traffic.  In any case, where there is a
want of suitable material for ballast, or if the funds
are not at command to put it on, the machinery of
the railway should be much lighter than may be
suitable for use on a well ballasted railway.
There can be no doubt the railways of our coun



GRADING.                      7
try are greatly deficient in drainage. This causes
a large additional expense in repairs of track, and
in the wear and tear of rolling machinery. No railway management that neglects thorough drainage
can be regarded as sound in economy; the saving
in  the original outlay will be much  more than
absorbed by the extra subsequent expenditure-probably three or four fold. If the grade line of a
railway has been laid so low that the water cannot
be fully taken off by drainage, the grade should
be raised so as to carry it out of the reach of this
destructive influence.
In a work recently published by Colburn and
Holley, on European railways, there are some very
appropriate remarks on the subject of drainage, contrasting  foreign  and American  railways  in  this
respect.  They go to show  the superiority of the
English practice over the American.* Drainage is
* Though I approve of Messrs. Colburn and Holley's remarks
on the subject of drainage, I must protest against some of their
statements of facts. They state the width of cutting on the Hudson
River Railway at 16 feet for single and 26 feet for double track;
whereas, the fact is, 26 feet for single and 40 feet for double track
in earth-work, exclusive of side slopes. I notice other errors iu
relation to that railway. I refer to the section between New York
and Poughkeepsie, which was constructed under my supervision,
but do not know the dimensions of this work between Poughkeepsie and Albany,




78I RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a feature in this kind of work that should never be
lost sight of by the engineer, whether he is con
structing new work or supervising a railway in
operation.
The embankments or fillings required in grounds
that are below the grade level are not usually difficult works, as to the mode of execution. Where
the level of the natural surface is not more than
five feet below the grade level, the perishable matter should be removed from the base of the bank.
For greater heights it is often expedient to remove
the coarser kinds, and especially such as would
injure the early consolidation of the embankment.
In low banks, from one to four feet in height, and all
that may require side drains, the first material
should be taken from the side ditches, so far as they
may afford it of suitable quality, or that sufficiently
free from vegetable matter. By judicious management in such cases, the most effective drainage may
be secured at small expense. If the ordinary width
of ditches does not furnish sufficient material for the
embankments, they should be laid out and cut such
additional widths as may be necessary, keeping an
eye to the most efficient drainage. The extent of
this will be controlled by circumstances; as a snr.
plus from cuttings, or more convenient source for
borrowing, where no more width need be given tho




GRADING.                 79
side ditches than may be required for good draining.
So far as the surface of the country will permit the
grade line to be established at two or three feet
above the natural surface of the ground, it is the
most favorable for the construction of a railway;
and in laying out the work in such cases, care should
be given to cut the material from side ditches, or
otherwise borrowed for filling, in a regular form,
extending over no more ground than is necessary
to obtain the amount wanted. The slovenly, irregular manner in which this is often done, taking
unnecessary ground, and leaving bars and patches
that injure the drainage and give a barbarous,
untasteful appearance to the work and the country,
is no credit to the taste, judgment, economy or
management of the supervising engineer, if there be
any such, not controlled by the contractor. The
first resource for material for filling after the side
ditches required for drainage are exhausted, should
be the excavation from the prism of cuttings. It
should be the rule in establishing grades, to absorb
the excavations in the embankments; and it will be
best, as far as circumstances permit, to provide that
the excavations be rather short, and if necessary to
have more material from the cuttings, to obtain the
balance by an increased width, and thereby improve
the facilities of drainage. So far as this method can




80             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
be carried out, it gives the most neat and finished
aspect to the work, avoids unsightly spoil-banks,
gives the least slope-face to be subject to the wash
of rains, and in every way gives the greatest advantage for easy and effective drainage. If the undulations of the natural surface be short, it is not often
difficult for the engineer to establish the grade,
so as substantially to secure this result, without
unreasonable haulage. But if the undulations be
long and rather heavy, the haulage may be long
and the expense too great, and spoil-banks must be
formed. It will be better to pay some additional
haulage, rather than put material into spoil-banks;
and the engineer should  carefully consider the
question. By suitable provision of temporary track,
where the quantity of earth to be moved is large,
the expense of moving may be greatly reduced, and
the cost of moving it horizontally a considerable
distance will be less than to put it into spoil-bank,
and in most cases it will be found the best economy
to encounter the haulage, and put the material into
embankments. If the side ditches and excavations
from the prism of cuttings do not furnish sufficient
material for the embankments, it must be made
up by what is termed borrowing: i. e. taken from
grounds outside of the regular work. This should
be done with as much care in reference to form as




GRADING.                  81
circumstances may permit, so as to do no unnecessary damage to the lands by waste or disfiguration.
By a little attention to this, much dissatisfaction
to landowners will be avoided, and neatness in the
work secured, without sacrifice of sound economy.
The best mode of building an enmbankment, in
order to secure early and regular consolidation, is to
carry the material on by carts and wagons, laying it
over the surface in regular courses of six to twelve
inches. If the material be lumpy (as is very often
the case), the feet of the horses and wheels of the
vehicles will break it down and compact it, and
thereby secure an even and early consolidation.
Where the material is within carting distance, this
course can be easily adopted, and is of great advantage in securing early stability to the road-bed. If
it be necessary to haul the material by a railway, this
cannot be done; as it must be dumped from the cars
standing on the grade levels and forms a looser bank
than any other mode, not excepting that by the barrow, for in this case, though not effecting consolidation in the process, the material may be laid on in
regular courses, and by exposure to the air and rains
acquires more compactness and regularity of firmness in the progress of the work, than that done by
cars. It is apparent that according to the mode of
construction and time for consolidation during the
4*




82             RAIl WAY PROPERTY.
progress of the work, allowance should be made in
the height and top width of the bank, to provide for
settling. This can only be done on the judgment
of the engineer, whose experience must be the
guide, as to how much will be necessary to secure
the proper height and width after consolidation.
In addition to the waste by shrinkage or settlement,
the banks will lose by the wash of heavy rains,
until by compactness and a covering of vegetation
they may be able to resist this influence. For as in
cuttings, insufficient dimensions in the banks will
cause much after-work, which is always done at
increased cost after the railway is put in operation.
The slopes of cuttings and embankments may
vary in different soils, but rarely should be less
than one and a half horizontal to one vertical,
unless there be walling or other artificial means
to support them.
Embankments on soft marshy grounds require
much attention. If the formation of the adjacent
country permit it, the grade should be brought as
near the level of the marsh as will admit suitable
drainage. If the marsh can be drained only a few
feet, it will improve its capacity to bear the railway
trains. The object of reducing the grade in such
cases is to avoid the weight of bank, leaving as near
as possible its total strength for the support of




GRADING.                  83
trains.  After such improvement by draining tus
may be practicable, it will usually be necessary to
do something to form a broad base for the support
of the road-bed.  Fascines, or small sapling trees,
from half an inch to one inch in diameter, made up
in bundles of six to eight inches in diameter, and
eight to ten feet long, have been regarded as the
best means of securing a broad and equal-bearing
base. The mode of laying them is across the track,
breaking joints and compacting them together, so as
to cover a width corresponding to the nature of
the marsh-usually about sixteen feet for single
track. If well put in, they form  a mass that in
most cases is of sufficient strength; they fit well
and uniformly on the marshy soil, and being elastic, are better than a foundation of more rigid
material.  Other methods may answer a useful
purpose, as a course of trees, five to ten inches in
diameter, laid across the track, and closely chincked
by a smaller and shorter course, under the road
bed.  Courses of plank may be put down, taking
care to have an extra course of shorter plank under
the road bed, so as to diffuse the pressure on the
course first laid. Longitudinal sleepers for a support to the cross sleepers of the track may be beneficially adopted in some cases, to further diffuse the
pressure on the foundation. It must be kept in




84            TRAILWAY PROPERTY.
mind that any plan depending on the crust, or
upper surface of the marsh, must be liable to some
degree of uncertainty, and great care in the examination is necessary, in order to determine whetheI
there is sufficient substance to support the railway.
The marsh may be too soft; if not on the surface,
at some point below, which is sometimes more filled
with water, and softer than the surface, and by
yielding under pressure, causes the crust to break
in. The surface of a marsh sometimes, by the
growth for ages of aquatic plants, acquires a considerable degree of firmness, while the sub-stratum
is very soft, and so intermixed with water, that it is
easily displaced by pressure on the surface. This may
generally be ascertained by careful soundings, noting
the pressure required to force the iron sounding-rod
at different depths as it passes through the marsh.
By a process essentially similar to  that first
described (by fascines), the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in England, was carried about four
miles across the celebrated " Chat Moss," which
has been represented as a very soft, spongy marsh,
but not as soft as some we have had to contend with in this country. It was susceptible of
improvement by ditching; and after the drainage it.
received from the railway works, a large portion
was reduced to cultivation. In 1850, I saw hun




GRADIG.                    85
dreds of acres of nearly matured wheat, barley and
oats, of luxuriant growth, waving on each side of
the railway. This proved the marsh to have had a
good degree cf substance, which, being consolidated
by drainage, has, with the aid of fascines, supported
a heavy  railway traffic for over thirty years.
George Stephenson, Esq., the  engineer of this
work, showed great boldness and self-reliance in
the undertaking, and no doubt had many anxieties
during the progress as to whether or not it would
answer the purpose, and is eminently entitled to
the credit of success. But it would not be safe to
conclude that all marshes could be successfully
treated by the same process; at the same time, it
should lead the engineer that meets this kind of
obstacle to the most thorough examination to ascertain the probability of his being able to cross a
marsh by works that may be supported on its sur
face, as this is by far the least expensive.
If the country surrounding a marsh is too high
above it to permit bringing the grade level near
its surface, and a heavy embankment is required to
carry it across, there will be little probability that
the crust will sustain the weight. If the soundings
show the marsh to be shallow, it may be filled in the
usual way, by which the material will force the soft
mud, until it finds support on the solid substance be



86             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
low. But if there be found great depth of vegetLtble
matter, it will be important to conduct the filing
so as to make the marsh material available as far as
practicable, and thereby reduce the quantity. The
soft, vegetable matter and fine mud, fully saturated
with water, will yield laterally before the bank
filling, and the surface of the marsh on each side will
rise from the pressure of the solid earth filling, as it
passes toward the bottom  of the marsh.  If the
marsh material can be kept under the filling, instead
of being pushed aside, it will be compressed until
it is capable of sustaining the weight of filling; and
though it will be much reduced in bulk, it will be
an important saving in expense. A narrow bank,
dumped on a soft marsh, acts like a wedge, on the
semi-aqueous material, to force it laterally, and
displaces horizontally what it is desirable to compress. To guard against this, make the base of the
filling wide in the commencement, and fill it evenly
on the outer parts, keeping the centre of filling below the sides as much as convenient. According
to the texture of the marsh, this floor of filling
should be extended beyond the width required for
the filling, ten to twenty feet, and carried up as far as
may appear necessary to prevent the marsh rising
outside the bank, but not to such weight as will
break the crust of the marsh, unless the latter is




GRADING.                  87
very soft. This extension will tend to hold the
marsh material in place, and cause it to settle
under the filling, instead of moving it laterally,
and thus secure the compression  of the marsh
material under the bank filling. In the process,
care will be required to carry the outsides of filling,
with the extension filling, forward of the pressure
on the central part, so that the soft earth will move
from the sides toward the centre, and finally the
central filling will compress it vertically instead of
laterally. The compression may reduce the bulk
one half or more, but still it will be an important
saving in the filling  that would  otherwise be
required in the base, and the bank will come to a
rest much sooner than if it is so formed as to force
the marsh material outward. The plan of spreading the bank, if the marsh is not very soft, and thus
guarding against lateral movement, will reduce the
general sinking of the bank, and in some cases will
prevent the breaking of the crust, and save much
expense. The engineer cannot be too cautious in
examining by thorough soundings of the marshes
in his way.  Sometimes boring may be advantageous; but in general a good sounding-rod will
enable him to judge of its character. In the haste
that often prevails in commencing the construction
of railways, and from  the fact that marshes only




88             RAILWAY PROPEERTY.
occur occasionally, this preliminary examination is
often very imperfect, and the evil is not understood
until the work has made considerable progress; the
crust often sustaining a considerable height of bank,
and then yielding suddenly, the bank wholly disappears, leaving only water to mark its track. At
this stage of the work, if the marsh be deep and
of considerable length, it may, and probably will
be, the best plan to proceed at once with extension banks on each side, so as to arrest the lateral
movement as much as possible. If they be short
and not very deep, it will probably be best to continue the filling as begun, which will result in building a bank from near the foundation of the marsh.
The width of e-mbankment has often received too
little attention, hardly forming in some cases sufficient support, when new, for the cross sleepers, and
the deterioration of a fresh-made and insufficient
bank, by settling and the wash of rains, will require constant repairs to maintain the track Ih
operation. After allowance for settling, the top
width of bank should extend not less than three
feet beyond the end of cross sleepers on each side,
to give firm support to the track. Care should be
taken to give an inclination on the top, from the
centre each way, to carry the falling water quickly
to the sides, and prevent it as much as possible




GRADING.                 89
from sinking into the road-bed. With nine feet cross
sleepers this gives a bank of 15 feet width, or
about five feet outside of the outer rail on common
gauge, and may be considered sufficient for banks
raised only a few feet above the natural surface.
This width, however, is not sufficient to afford adequate protection against a car or engine that has left
the track from running off the bank; nor is this
important on low banks, not of sufficient height to
upset the engine or coach. The occurrence of railway vehicles leaving the track is comparatively
rare; still it does occur, and at times on an embankment, the car or engine passes over the margin
and upsets on its slope, doing much damage to persons and property.  According to the height of
embankment and the exposure in this respect,
attention should be given to secure reasonable
safety. On the Hudson River Railway between
New York and Poughkeepsie,-the width established
in the construction for the river side of the track
was ten feet outside the outer rail. The object was
to prevent a car, on leaving the track, from falling
into the river. Unless the train is propelled with
unusual force, this is believed to be sufficient to
prevent it from passing off the bank; and after ten
years operation on that line, I have not heard of an
instance occurring over the ten feet margin. It is




90             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
obvious that this question depends on the speed
of trains, and the curvature and condition of the
railway and machinery. Near all bridges of considerable height, a margin of ten feet is as little as
can be regarded reasonably safe; and to give proper
security in  this respect, all banks of sufficient
height to upset a car in passing off the track,
should have a margin of seven feet, and if of great
height or otherwise exposed to great hazard in this
respect, they should have a margin of ten feet. It
is well known that little regard is paid to this feature in our railways; and for the most part they
have experienced only occasional damage.  Still
serious accidents have occurred for the want of
adequate marginal width, demanding the exercise
of greater care in guarding by all reasonable precaution against their recurrence. The expense is
the objection to this view of marginal widths, and
in very high banks, will be considerable; especially
if the material for filling is not convenient; and
want of funds will be likely (as it has done) to
induce the narrow and less safe margin; but the
instances that often occur, where material may be
moved at moderate cost for the safe and proper
width, should be improved to give as much safety
as may be practicable in this respect. On railways
of moderate traffic, where high speed is not re



GRADNG.                    91
quired, a margin of five feet will generally do a ery
well, and as traffic and speed increase, it should be
enlarged in a corresponding degree, for all ]igh
and hazardous banks.
In carrying a railway through a forest of hi avy
timber, all trees that by falling would reach the
track, should be felled and cleared off. The best
method is to clear all the timber within 100 foet
of the rail; this distance will ordinarily protefc tlhe
track from the danger of falling trees, and by,peniIg the railway to the sun, be of great bent I  to
the track.




92             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER VI.
BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.
UNDER this head may be classed such works as
are necessary to provide for the passage of water,
that, by natural streams or artificial channels, flows
across the railway. The term culvert is used for
works on small streams, and bridges for large ones.
No exact line seems to have been settled, to determine the dimensions that constitutes the extent of
opening for a culvert, and where a bridge begins;
but the true culvert is usually applied to arched
openings not exceeding 20 feet, and covered by an
embankment. The same style of work, however, is
sometimes carried to openings of 30 feet, when the
parapets are merely retaining walls for the embankment over the arch, and may with propriety
be styled culverts.
There is no material for culverts equal to sound,
durable stone. In a climate of moderate temperature, good hard-burnt brick will answer very well;
but where severe frosts act on the structure, stone
is much better. So far, therefore, as the formation




BRIDGES ANND CILVERTS.           93
of the country will permit (and a location that
makes suitable provision for drainage will usually
permit it), there should be provided room for arched
culverts. Where only a small opening of one and
a half to two feet is required, or even two and a
half feet, and sound blocks of durable stone can
be had for covering, they may be used advantageously instead of arches. If such covering stone
cannot be had, cast iron may be used, and is considered second only to stone; but if durable stone,
and a good article of hydraulic cement can be had,
it is best to adopt stone-work, either on the square
form or arches, as the material may require.  With
stone of fair, natural beds, laid up in the style of
rough hammered work, in hydraulic cement, culverts may be made that will stand indefinitely. In
this way they will be of moderate cost for workmanship. If the stone were squared and dressed
to courses, the work would be more stable; but
this expense is not often necessary in railway culverts, if a bank of several feet in depth of earth
lies on the arch, and between it and the superstructure of the railway.  Care should be taken to place
the floor of the culvert low enough to give full
freedom to the drainage of the water course, and if
the foundation is of wood, so low that water will
always cover it. Wood will not answer for a four




-94            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
dation that is dry a portion of the year. If liable
to this contingency, the foundation should be of
stone, which may be made by forming a pavement
across between the abutment walls, as a floor for
the water course, and should be in the form of an
inverted arch, which is more firm in itself, and
greatly improves the supporting foundation of the
abutments.  If the situation does not admit of
timber foundations, it will not answer to use wood
for sheet-piling, and stone-masonry must be substituted. The foundations for culverts should be perfectly solid, or so as to give adequate support, and
if to support a bank of great height, formed in the
usual mode of slope sides, care should be taken to
give strength of foundation in proportion to the
pressure it is to bear, so that if any settlement take
place, it may be uniform. It most generally happens, that a good and sufficient foundation may be
formed on the natural ground; the light and yielding surface being removed with other excavations
required to reach the necessary depth for drainage:
but if such is not found, bearing piles should be
driven to such a depth as may be required to
secure stability. The foundations of bridges and
culverts are exposed to injury from floods, and
should be thoroughly protected in this respect. In
all cases where the water is liable to get under the




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.            95
foundation, sheet-piling should be put down; this
will generally be necessary at the head of the culvert, and in some cases a course will be required at
about one-fourth to one-third of the distance below
the head, which should be carried up close to the
rear of abutment walls, or what is better, a wing
buttress of masonry in connection with and above
this sheet-piling and projecting about three feet
beyond the rear face of abutment walls, and carried
over the crown of the arch, rising about two feet
above it, so as to effectually cut off any water that
might find a passage along the rear of the masonry,
and between it and the earth filling, which is liable
to happen when floods raise the water at the head
so as to give considerable pressure. Sheet-piling
should be very thoroughly put down at the foot of
the culvert, to prevent undermining by the action
of the water as it leaves the culvert; in many cases
it will be best to substitute a wall at this end for the
sheet-piling, sinking the foundation as low as circumstances may require, to place it below  the
power of disturbance from the discharging water.
The filling of earth next the culvert should be done
with a view to make a water-tight connection, and
not with sticks, stumps, stones, and earth indiscriminately, as is too often done. The failure of culverts
often arises from currents of water getting under




96             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
their foundation, finding a passage behind the
walls, or from  undermining at the lower end;
hence will be seen the importance of carefully
attending to these details, the neglect of which will
very probably be followed by the loss of the culverts, and much additional damage. It is always
well to place foundations low, especially if they do
not rest on bearing-piles or rock; by this course, all
foundations in permanent streams, however small,
may be covered at all times with water, thereby
protecting any timber in the work from decay.
It not unfrequently happens, that suitable stone
for culverts cannot be had at reasonable expense.
at the time the railway is in construction, and
timber must be used until transportation by the
railway afford the means to procure it. In such
cases, and if the stone can be procured after the
railway is open, the timber, or small bridge, that
may be temporarily adopted, should be made with
sufficient opening to allow the culvert to be put in,
and the earth filled over it, without disturbing the
traffic of the railway, which may easily be done.
If the foundation be such as to require bearingpiles, it will be best to put them  in before- the
timber bridge is built, as it will be more convenient
to drive them before than after the. railway is in
operation.  As soon after the railway is put in




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.            97
operation as circumstances will permit, the work
of collecting materials and putting in the stone
culverts should be proceeded with; commencing
with those, that from any cause may be less safe,
and carrying forward the work as fast as economy
will permit so as at least to secure completion before
any portion of the timber may fail.
To construct culverts of the character here contemplated, the mason-work must be well done, the
stone well shaped and laid in good bond, and the
joints full bedded in hydraulic mortar. If the engineer is careless on this point, the work will probably be poor. A mason is very apt to devote his
attention mainly to the outside face of his work,
leaving the interior poorly bonded, and the mortar
joints not half filled, and as far as filled, done with
untempered mortar of inferior materials. It is not
difficult to find samples of pretended mason-work
that offer no good reason for substituting it for timber-work. In such cases the engineer is at fault,
and not the principle of stone culverts. There is
very small comparative difference in the expense of
good and poor masonry, and the engineer who
allows the latter, cannot be justified on professional
or any other grounds.
Care should be taken in filling a bank over a
culvert, to load it equally on each side; where it is
5




98             RAILWAY PROPERTY.'done by a head bank, as is usual when the material
is brought on by a railway, there is great danger
of pushing the culvert out of form, if counterweight
be not brought to support it.
There have been many instances of failure in
railway culverts, and this has led some persons to
suppose they are unsafe, and that it is better to
adopt timber bridges. It can hardly be said that this
substitute more rarely fails than culverts of stone.
That there has been a good deal of failure in both
is beyond question.  But I have rarely known a
well built culvert, with sufficient water-way, to fail,
though instances have occurred where the water,
during floods, has risen at the head from ten to fifteen
feet high. The real'difficulty is, that the culverts of
late years have been to a great extent poorly built,
imperfectly founded and protected, and often of inadequate dimensions for water-way. A stone culvert,
like any work of human hands, may fail without
fault, but well-built stone culverts are works of pernanent and reliable character —more safe for the passage of trains, and almost free from expense of
repairs; but if the railway company have not the
skill necessary in their employment to construct
them properly, it will be better for them to procure
it, and not trust works of this importance to incompetent men.




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.           99
In this country bridges are mostly constructed of
wood; in England, brick is very extensively used,
and in that mild climate may answer a good purpose. So long as bricks continue durable, they give
similar stability to stone; but in the northern States
of our country they cannot be recommended. In
any situation where good building stone may be
had, it admits a cheaper structure than brick; it
has fewer joints and is less exposed to fracture.
Timber is generally used for its cheapness, and the
facility it affords for rapid construction.  Such
bridges are sometimes constructed with stone abutments and piers, but often with frame-work of the
same materials. It cannot be denied that in many
cases in this country, considerations of expense
absolutely control this question, and leave the engineer no choice. It is nevertheless a matter of importance, both in regard to the permanent economy
of a railway, and of its safety in use. Timber has
only a moderate degree of durability, when exposed
to the vicissitudes of our climate; and efforts for its
preservation in bridges in this country have not
been attended with any great success. Housing
has proved very useful for bridges on common
roads, but the danger of destruction from fire by
locomotive engines renders this form  of security




100            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
on railways less desirable.  If a bridge is covered,
the inside that is exposed to fire from the engines
should be kept well covered with a wash of lime
and salt, as a protection of much value against fire.
Covering the top with a decking has proved of
doubtful utility, and many are now left to the
free action of the elements.
The length of time timber will last in a bridge,
especially an open one, is quite uncertain, and there
is danger that it will be trusted too long for safety.
The first decay will be in the joints of framing, and
in the interior of the scantling; this may be to a
serious extent, while all exposed to observation
appears sound and safe. The traveller on the railway cannot examine the bridge —he must depend
on the railway agent, under the proprietary interest
in the question; and the agent may be satisfied with
the exterior, or from other cause neglect the proper
examination, until some train falls through, when it
will be sadly certain that it should not have been
trusted so long. I have seen the record of four
serious disasters the past year from the giving way
of bridges, causing the loss of fifteen lives, and
injuring forty-seven persons. Others less serious to
life have been attended with great loss of property.
The present year (1859) will not be less disastrous,
judging from its history thus far.




BRIDGES AND CULVER VS.          101
A large portion of the bridging that has been
built with timber spans, might be made with stone
arches not exceeding forty feet span, and many of
these with less span. Where abutments of stone
are made, as retaining walls for the bank, and to
support the timber span, in such situations as allow
sufficient height for arching with stone, it will often
be found that stone arches may be erected with
small additional expense over the wooden structure,
resting on stone abutments and piers. Arches for
this purpose may be substantially made with a good
quality of building stone and hydraulic cement at a
moderate cost. Dressing stone to courses is not generally necessary for the permanence or stability of the
work. Arches of unhewn stone, with proper spandrels, have been successfully built of seventy-five feet
span, with rise of one-quarter, for the use of common
roads. I would not recommend going to this extent
without dressing the stone for a railway bridge, but
there is not the least difficulty in carrying them to
fifty feet with one-quarter to one-third rise according
to quality of stone. When materials can be had that
are suitable for abutments and piers, they can generally be found sufficient for the sheeting of an arch.
In making arches of unhewn stone, a common error
should be avoided-namely, dressing the ring or
heading courses; which not settling with the rest of




102            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
the arch. is very likely, in arches of considerable
size, to split off and separate from the main body.
This is mostly done for appearance, and is sadly at
the expense of stability. The heading should be of
the same workmanship as the body of the arch, giving it no more care than would be given to the face
of an undressed wall.
There are comparatively few situations where
arches of more than 50 feet are required, to provide
sufficient opening for the water-way. If one arch
is not enough, two or more may be provided.
Small arches are less expensive for the span they
provide than large ones; and hence it is often better to make two arches of equal aggregate span than
one, to provide a given opening; and they require
less height. The size of the opening for water-way
will depend much on the exposure to obstruction
from drift-wood or ice; and it will require careful
observation to settle this on a safe basis. It is not
often serious on small streams; but for large streams,
exposed to heavy floating ice and drift-wood, the
safety of the structure will depend materially on
the proper disposition of this question. The opening that may be necessary to give freepassage to
the water, is the first question to be considered ii
planning a bridge or a culvert. It should be sufcient to pass any floating substance likely to be




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.           103
brought by the current to the bridge. On this point
it is best to err on the safe side, in order to be prepared for that great flood, more weighty than any
previously known by the " oldest inhabitant."  A
water-way barely adequate to pass a flood will
severely try the foundation; and it should be kept
in view, that occasionally-perhaps once in a quarter, or half a century-streams of water are swollen
much beyond ordinary floods, and sweep off what
had been regarded as well tried and safe. The
water-way may require two or more spans to provide sufficient flow, but each should be wide enough
to allow any ice or drift-wood that the stream may
bring down to pass through freely, so as not to dam
up and obstruct the flow of water. In regard to
ice, if the stream directly above the bridge is rapid,
the ice will be broken into small pieces, and pass
off with little hazard of forming a dam at the
bridge; or if it be very crooked and sluggish, the
ice will be held in its original position, until it
becomes too weak to cause much obstruction in
passing the bridge. There are comparatively few
streams that would not be safely secured against ice
or drift-wood forming a dam, by spans of 50 or 60
feet; and if more is required to give sufficient
water-way, the number of spans can be increased
accordingly.  If larger openings than 60 feet are




104           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
required, and there be sufficient height, stone bridges
may be advantageously erected, but will require
more expensive workmanship and materials.
The remarks in relation to the masonry of culverts are applicable to that required for bridges.
For bridges of unhewn stone, the stone should be
larger in proportion to the magnitude of the walls
and the pressure they may be required to sustain.
The judgment and experience of the engineer must
decide, as to the pressure from the height or span
of the work required, how far he may with safety
adopt rough or unhewn stone-work. So far as this
can be done, it will be much more economical than
hewn stone; and, as before remarked, it will be
found in general that by far the greatest proportion
of bridges may be constructed of unhewn stone,
without sacrifice of any material stability.  It
sometimes happens that the stone quarries that must
be resorted to will furnish stone in such shape, that
it is little more expensive to make regular courses
roughly hewn than rubble-work, and in such cases
it will be advisable to form courses of uniform thickness of stone for the more important features of
the work.
Stone arch bridges require more height, or space
below the grade level, than timber; and it is to be
considered whether or not this can be obtained




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.            105
without too much sacrifice in the cost of grading.
It sometimes occurs that the formation of the approaching country, on which the line of railway is
laid, is low in comparison with the bed of the valley
or stream over which the bridge is required to be
made, and the most favorable grade for the approach does not give space for the stream in time
of floods under the bridge; and the expense of raising the grade will sometimes so control this question, as to lead to the adoption of timber or iron for
the want of room for arching. The grade should be
high enough to be beyond the reach of all floods in
the stream, and a few feet additional is all that is
necessary for arches of small span; and when this
can be obtained at moderate additional cost for the
filling, arches of stone shet ld be provided for. In
examining the circumstances of grade with a view
of ascertaining what room may be had for arching
the bridge or culvert, it will be kept in mind, that
raising the grade will improve the facilities for
drainage, a matter never to be lost sight of in the
construction of a railway, and will always justify
some expense to improve it, even when otherwise
fair.
It must be conceded, however, that there are
situations, where a railway passes over a flat country, with shallow  valleys for its streams, where
5*




106            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
timber or iron must be used for the spaces or spans
between the abutments and piers, for the want of
room to put in arches of stone; but the cases are
not comparatively numerous in which this may not
be avoided by a judicious management of the grade
lines. Cheap construction in the outset will call
for low grades in a flat country, but the true and
permanent interest of the work requires them to be
higher than they generally are, both in relation to
passing streams with safety, and to give effective
drainage.  Low grades, and consequent imperfect
drainage, have been a very prevalent error on the
railway constructions of this country. The engineer should keep this in view, and avoid the error.
If stone for bridges is not to be had on the line
of railway, then the remarks in relation to culverts
in this respect will be applicable to bridges, namely,
the foundations prepared, and the temporary timber
structure so constructed, that when materials can
be brought on, stone-work may be erected without
disturbing the operations of the railway.
When there has not been space enough for arches of
stone, as before observed, timber has generally been
substituted; but this is not indispensable, as beams
of wrought iron may be constructed for supports
between and resting on the stone abutments and
piers; and if the span is not to exceed 50 or 60




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS            107
feet, will not be very expensive.  Such beams
should be strong enough for the service without
counter-supports, in the manner of a simple beam.
Make two beams of boiler-plate iron, one for each
side of the track, and by rods from them  support
the cross-beams on which the rails of the track lie.
The cross-beam may be of iron, and no timber used
in the structure, except for the stringer on which
the rails are laid.  Such a structure will be free
from the objection that arises from the expansion
and contraction of iron, as the action of the temperature does not change its character for support,
and may easily be provided for. For a short span,
not exceeding 40, or perhaps 50 feet, a single sheet
of iron, with flange pieces at top and bottom to give
lateral stiffness, and secured with angle iron, may
be made. If the span is greater than 40 or 50 feet,
the beam  should be cellular, having two upright
sides, and connected at the top and bottom with
plates secured with angle iron. The depth of beam
should be about one-tenth of the span, and the
breadth about one-sixth of the height.  This would
be a tubular beam, to which the cross-beams would
be attached as above described.  It has the same
principle as the tubular bridge; it is equally firm
for SUl!port, but the span must not be carried too
far, or beyond its means of lateral stiffness. The




108            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
objection to this plan is, that the solid sheets in the
side plates contain an unnecessary amount of material.  With sufficient strength in the upper and
lower chord, all that is wanted between them is
what will be sufficient to hold them firmly in position, and this may be secured by a system of bracing requiring much less material than the side
sheets.  It is however a question, if the extra
workmanship in the bracing will not require greater
expense than can be saved in the material of the
tube, as is claimed by Mr. Robert Stephenson.
Mr. S. must be regarded as high authority on this
point, and  should  not be disregarded without
careful experiments that might demonstrate the
economy of a modification. There have been some
experiments on the plan of connecting the upper
and lower chords by bracing, on the New York
Central Railway; which, so far as I have been able
to learn, has satisfactorily stood the service of trains
for some time; but I do not know what difference
there has been in the expense as compared with
full sheeted sides.
Railways must occasionally be carried across
large rivers, that demand works of a different
character from what has been contemplated in the
preceding remarks. In some cases, circumstances
render it necessary to make a greater span than




rIiDGES AND CULVERTS.          109
could well be made by stone arching. Timber has
been mostly used for such cases in this country.
In England, the tubular wrought-iron bridge has
been used for the greatest spans; and the Grand
Trunk company adopt this for their bridge at
Montreal, over the St. Lawrence River, and for
many smaller bridges on their line.  The latter
plan is, no doubt, substantial and good, but has the
objection of being expensive. The wire suspension
bridge has been adopted to a limited extent in this
country for railway purposes; as at Niagara Falls.
An iron truss bridge, invented and patented by
Mr. Fink, an engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railway, has been several years in use on that line,
and is spoken of favorably; I have seen a copy of
the plan and specifications, and think it the best for
an iron truss that I have seen. It has a very satisfactory arrangement to provide for the unequal
expansion and contraction of large and small pieces
of iron, whereby the different stages in time of
change in large and small bars, and of cast and
wrought iron, are equalized  by an  adjusting
motion.
The suspension plan cannot be considered as
favorable for railway use as the rigid plan, and the
former will not probably be adopted, except for
large openings in situations that do not admit of




110           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
division by piers, as the one at Niagara Fails.
Where there are reasonable facilities to found piers,
and circumstances do not admit of stone arches,
iron in some form may be advantageously adopted.
In considering any plan for an iron truss it is indispensable to see that provision is made for the
unequal expansion and contraction by changes of
temperature: wrought iron and cast iron do not
work equally, and the large and small bars will
require different spaces of time to reach their limit
of change by the same degree of temperature.
This, as before remarked, seems to be well provided
for in Fink's plan, and which is certainly very
ingenious. But the open tube has the advantage
of not needing any such provision, the metal being
of uniform  kind and thickness, its variation in
length is all that requires attention, and for this it
simply rests on rollers; and being simple in construction, will be  likely to obtain  preference
when iron bridges of large span are wanted. Iron
used in bridges should be carefully and well covered with paint to protect it from oxidation; and
this should be watched, and renewed as it wears off
by the action of the weather.
Pile bridges are sometimes used; but they
cannot be recommended, and should only be
adopted as a temporary expedient, to hasten the




BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.           111
opening of the railway, after which they should be
superseded by more substantial and durable structures.
The observing railway traveller cannot fail to
see, that, as a general thing, our railway bridges
are far short of the stability necessary to their
safety and the true economy of such works. The
rapid  demand  for railway accommodation, and
the limited means at command for construction,
have doubtless led to the erection of temporary
and perishable structures.  But these should give
place to those of a more substantial and durable
character as fast as circumstances permit.  It is
not to be supposed that timber bridges can, in all
cases, in the construction of a railway, be dispensed
with.  Circumstances of a controlling nature will
often render them expedient; and all the engineer
can do, is to so plan and prepare his work, that this
perishable material, unsafe from fire and ordinary
decay, may at the earliest period give place to
duiable structures, that will be safe for travellers,
and best promote the interest of the proprietors.
At this time there are numerous timber bridges
on our railways, and many of them have stood as
long as they should be trusted; and it is quite time
they were replaced by stone or iron-the most suitable, if not the only suitable materials for such pur



112           IRAILWAY PROPERTY.
poses. These wooden bridges are dreaded by all
passengers, who are aware of the uncertainty of
their strength, and the danger of their failure under
an exterior appearance of soundness, when, in fact,
they are rotten at heart. If those whose business it
is to know, are often mistaken as to their condition,
how shall passengers understand if, or not, they are
safe? But they are sometimes used, when those in
charge know that they are not only hazarding the
property of the company, but the lives of the passengers. It is hoped and believed the latter fault
is not often practised; but whether from error in
knowledge, or lack of fidelity, the hazard is the
same. It will properly be said, there is no excuse
for this; the man in charge should be competent
and faithful.  Now, men are men, and the true
way is to construct works of such great importance,
as far as practicable, in a manner that will need the
least possible watching.




ROAD CROSSINGS.             113
CHAPTER VII.
ROAD CROSSINGS.
THE more prevalent practice in this country is to
make the highway crossings on a level with the rail
track-bridges being the exception and not the
rule; while in England, a level crossing is rarely
seen; and where they do occur, gates made of
strong bars of scantling are put up, and so arranged
as to close the highway when the track is open,
and vice versa, so that no passing can occur on
both at the same time. The highway is usually
kept open; and when a train approaches, the man
that tends the crossing shuts the highway and opens
the track until the train has passed. I do not recollect seeing this gate arrangement at crossings in
this country, except at some of the railway crossings in the streets of Boston.
There are many situations in which a bridge to
pass a highway over a railway track would be very
expensive, and this is a strong reason for the level
crossing; and in some situations near stations there
would be inconvenience in the approaches to the




114           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
railway. That highways should pass over or under
a railway, where circumstances permit it, no one
will question. The level method of crossing has
caused much personal injury, the loss of many
lives, and many persons maimed for life, and much
damage to property. It is therefore incumbent on
the engineer to consider well every facility the location presents, of guarding against the necessity
of a level crossing, especially where there may be
obstruction, preventing a good range of sight.
This subject is of sufficient importance to justify
some modification of grade or line, if by that means
a highway may be passed by a bridge. There are
situations that favor bridging over or under; in
some cases, the route of the highway may be
changed, so as to permit bridging without serious
expense. To raise an embankment to the elevation
required to pass over a railway, sometimes interferes with other avenues or objects to such a degree, that it cannot well be done; but if there be
nothing of this kind, and the expense of raising the
bank for landing the highway over the railway be
the only objection, the case should be very unfavorable to warrant a level crossing. The objection to merely an elevation of the highway as injuring the public accommodation for travel, is by
no means worthy of being placed against the bene



ROAD CROSSINGS.              115
fits the travellers on tile public road will feel, in the
safety from collision that will be secured by the
bridge. If a level crossing must be adopted, the
guard gate should also be adopted to prevent collisions; especially if there be not a good view by
which parties on the railway or the highway may
readily see each other.
The same reasoning, in a modified sense, holds in
relation to farm-road crossings. Serious accidents
have occurred at these when made on the level of
the rail. As they are numerous, and less important than highways, they are more generally made
level; but, so far as reasonably practicable, it is
better to adopt bridges for these. I am well aware
this subject has received very little of the consideration due to its importance, and that the expense of
the methods recommended will be regarded a paramount objection, except in quite easy cases. If all
the damage the level crossings have cost could be
collected together, I am sure it would show, that
as a mere question  of economy  the practice
should be less common. In addition to this, there
are the uncertainty and consequent anxiety that
must be experienced by the managers and on the
part of travellers, especially if trains are run at high
speed.
To the guard gate it will be objected, that it will




116            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
involve the expense of an attendant keeper, more
or less of the time. Doubtless it will involve this
current expense; but it will save life, and prevent
damage to the railway proprietors, that will eventually be equivalent to the extra cost. The expense
of a guard gate-keeper is a legitimate consideration to be weighed in favor of a bridge.
In this, as in all matters relating to railway management, there should be a careful consideration of
the means that may relieve the chances of accident.
It is not sufficient that it is some man's duty to
watch and prevent apprehended danger; for men
supposed to be careful, and who for some time may
be so, yet front the daily routine of a specific duty,
are liable to become listless, and however we may
complain of their neglect of duty at the important
time, the mischief is done. No doubt, some men
are more negligent than others, and the most rigid
scrutiny should be exercised in their employment
and supervision; but men will be men, and as infallibility is not to be expected, the works of a railway shbuld be arranged, as far as reasonably practicable, so as to avoid the necessity of special watching. There will be ample field for this duty, after
the works are arranged in the most favorable manner.




BALLASTING TRACK.             1 1
CHAPTER  VIII.
BALLAS S NG  TRA CK.
THERE are two objects to be secured by ballast;
first, a material that by its open, porous character,
will allow falling water to pass off freely, and prevent heaving by frost; and, second, by its hardness
and firmness in all states of weather, to sustain the
action of trains, so as to prevent, as much as possible, the derangement of the track. If these conditions are secured, all others will be essentially provided for, so far as depends on ballast. In districts
abounding with clean gravel and sharp sandy soil,
a good material for ballast is easily procured, and
may be put on at the time of grading the railway.
But it more generally happens, that suitable material for ballast cannot be had in sufficiently close
proximity to allow profitable hauling by teams, and
it will be necessary to haul it by trains on the track.
This may be done by laying the track on sub-grade,
or on the base that is designed for foundation of
ballast; it should be done with care, so as not to
bend or otherwise injure the rails. Where circum



jS            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
stances permit, it is best to put down the ballast
before the track is laid; but if proper care is used,
no great objection exists to laying on sub-grade,
and is most economical if a track is required to be
made for its transport.
The quantity of ballast required will depend
much on the material on which it rests, and the
depth penetrated by frost; and will range from one
to two and a half feet. If there be any difference
in the quality of the ballast pit, the most clean,
open and hard should be placed in the cuttings;
the inferior on the banks, where settlement will be
likely to demand an extra quantity, and where the
drainage is more perfect than it can be in cuttings.
With a well drained road-bed, fifteen to eighteen
inches of good ballast will, in most cases, be sufficient.
In many locations, ballasting material is only
found at a few points on the line of railway, and
requires a long transportation for such a purpose;
and sometimes it can only be had by constructing
more or less of temporary railway to reach it. This
has often led to a postponement of ballasting, and
the railway has been opened for use without it. In
such cases, the rails are pretty certain to be more
or less damaged, if the track be run in this condition for any considerable length of time  If in the




BALLASTING TRACK.             119
course of construction it appear probable that such
plan must be pursued, the rolling stock necessary
to operate the railway before ballasting can be done,
should be as light as will reasonably answer for the
work to be done.  The light stock procured for
such purpose need not be lost, or thrown aside after
the railway is in condition to bear a heavier class,
as there will always be found sufficient business to
employ this light machinery advantageously. It is
obviously of great importance that, under these circumstances, the drainage should be most thoroughly
done. There are many soils, that if well drained
would bear the track and sustain a considerable
traffic, conducted with light machinery and moderate speed. But to dispense with or defer ballast,
can only be tolerated under the pressure of urgent
necessity, especially for a liberal traffic.
Clean gravel and sand are the best materials for
ballast. Broken stone is very good-it makes the
most durable ballast, and has the least tendency to
make dust; but is not so favorable for the durability of the rail, or rolling machinery. Formerly
it was considered the only suitable ballast, and is
still used to a considerable extent where suitable
gravel cannot be had. Stone, for such a purpose,
should be broken so that any piece will pass a twoinch ring. The quality of stone to be preferred, is




120            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a rather friable, hard, silicious kind, rather than a
more solid and unyielding quality, as it favors the
elasticity desirable in a rail track. It seems a contradiction to require solidity, and at the same
time elasticity; but experience has shown there
may be too much solidity; traction, or adjustment of
track may be improved by it, but the rail and rolling machinery in high speed are too severely acted
on, and hence a compromise has to be sought, and
experience has settled on gravel and sharp sand as
most beneficially securing the respective objects. In
England, brick clay has been burned for this purpose, and is said to answer very well; and where
suitable clay is found, and coal or wood can be had
at moderate cost, it may be advantageously used in
this country, where the usual material cannot be
had.
The width of ballasting should be such as to give
a good support to the cross sleepers, and prevent
them from moving laterally, and if it is intended
to give the track a good margin for safety on
embankments, the ballast should be full width. In
cuttings, it is not necessary to extend more than
one and a half to two feet beyond the ends of the
cross sleepers; no more width being wanted than
necessary to protect the sleepers from lateral movement, and except in sharp curves they are rarely




BALLASTING TRACK.             1 1
known to move, if the ballast on the top extends so
as to cover the ends of the sleepers, and slopes off
to one and a half feet beyond.
Ballast is necessary on all soils that do not of
themselves constitute a good ballast: it is necessary
in rock, to give the degree of elasticity found to be
necessary on a rail track.  On a soft base it is a
good plan to lay a course of broken stone, and
complete the ballast with gravel. The injurious
effect of too great solidity in the support of the
rail has been alluded to, and this is strongly manifest where the road-bed is made solid by frost.
The effect of frost is in a measure counteracted
by good ballast, as there is more elasticity in a
free, porous ballast than in a retentive soil when
frozen.




122            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER IX.
CROSS  SLEEPERS.
IT was forlmerly regarded necessary to the proper
stability of a railway, that it should be laid on
stone blocks resting on a bed of broken stone.
T'his plan gave great firmness to the structure, and
easy traction to the machinery; but as speed came
to be increased, it was found to operate severely on
the rails and rolling stock, and has given place to
timber sleepers.  Some experiments have been
made in England on cast iron as a substitute, but
as yet very little has been done toward displacing
timber. The elasticity of timber increases the tractile force required to haul a train; but this elasticity
is too important to be disregarded, if high speed is
to be maintained; this circumstance, together with
the facility with which timber can be used, gives it
a great advantage for this purpose, and notwithstanding the objection from  its liability to early
decay, it will probably be used for a long time to
comie.
As rails are laid in this country, resting their




CROSS SLEEPERS.             123
web base directly on the sleeper, without the intervention of a chair, except at the joints, it is desirable the wood should be hard, to prevent the
rail from  sinking into the sleeper.  What are
termed soft woods, will not long sustain this service; and what is wanted in a sleeper is, durability
with sufficient density to bear the action of the
rail. The kind of kleeper most generally preferred
in this country is white oak. Chestnut and Chestiiut oak are good timbers. Locust and red cedar,
though not as hard as oak, from their great durability and fair density, make good sleepers, and if the
weight of machinery is not too great, would be
the most valuable kinds; but these timbers do not
abound, and can rarely be obtained at suitable
cost. Red elm  makes a good sleeper, hard and
durable, scarcely inferior to white oak.  Black
cherry and black walnut answer very well. Other
kinds have been used.  The engineer will most
generally be compelled to use, in original construction, the timber that can be obtained not very
remote from the line of railway, and should take
the best that may be had.
In England, and in Europe generally, timber is
much more expensive than in this country, which
has led to various methods for preserving it from
decay; and from  the best information I have




124            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
obtained, they have succeeded in giving the sleepers about double their natural durability. This is
a very important point for them, where the renewal
is attended with heavy expense. The cost of the
preserving process is variously stated for the different methods, from  ten to twenty-five cents per
sleeper, and shows an important saving secured by
the increased durability. The cost of sleepers in
England may be taken at not less than one dollar
each, and therefore the object of preservation is
much greater than in this country. Timber, however, is becoming dearer with us, and attention will
soon be, if not already in some parts, demanded
for its preservation. On the methods that have been
adopted to increase the durability of timber, much
information is given in the work before quoted,
" Colburn and Holly on European Railways."
Sleepers should be well seasoned before they are
laid down, in order to obtain the greatest natural
durability, and to hold the spike well that secures
the rail. Green white oak is very unfavorable; it
will, in a short time, so corrode the spike that it
may easily be drawn. If care is taken, as the
sleepers are got out, to pile them properly, a good
degree of seasoning  may generally be secured
before they are required for the track; this should
not be neglected, though I think it often is.




CROSS SLEEPERS.              125
The most usual method of getting out sleepers
is to hew two sides parallel and leave the others
round, or in their natural state; this makes the best
sleepers used in this country. Sometimes the bark
is removed from  the unhewed parts, which improves their durability. They are sometimes sawed
or split out of large timber, but these are not so good
or convenient for adjustment of track as the flatted
sides. The English mode of sawing is better than
ours; the sleeper is first sawed in a square for two,
and then sawed diagonally, so as to produce two triangular sleepers; and being laid with the large angle
down, they are easily adjusted. The width of the
flatted sleeper should be considered the heart, or exclusive of the sap of the wood, as the latter will soon
decay and should not be relied on for the support
of the rail. The timber being hewed only on two
sides, it should be reasonably straight, so as to give
steady and firm support to the rails.
For the ordinary gauge of track, sleepers have
usually been from seven to eight, and sometimes
nine feet long. The latter seems most suitable, as
giving an equal support each side of the rail; but I
have known very good tracks well and easily maintained with sleepers eight feet long. The usual length
of rail is eighteen feet; a joint sleeper ten inches wide
and ten feet long, with seven intermediate sleepers




126            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
eight feet long, with a minimum  width of seven
inches, and six and a half inches thick, makes a
good support.  A minimum  of seven inches will
give an average of eight inches in width, and
should be laid so as to give, as near as may be, a
uniform support to the rails. This number and size
of sleeper makes them as close as is convenient for
repairs. The Goshen line of the Michigan Southern
and Northern Indiana Railway was laid on this
plan of sleepers, and under a high rate of speed,
proved very satisfactory, and may be considered a
good basis for a first-class railway. For branch
lines, and railways designed for a moderate traffic
and moderate speed, the cross sleepers may be proportionably reduced in size.
Sleepers are in some cases laid on longitudinal
sills, but, except on soft ground, and where the
railway is to be put in operation without ballast,
they are worse than useless. In a few cases, where
it is important to spread the bearing of the track
over a marshy or other spongy foundation, they
may be necessary. At this time they are rarely
adopted.
To some extent, timber stringers have been laid
on the sleepers, and the rail laid on the stringer;
on this plan the sleepers are laid further apart.
This is not so convenient a method for adjustment,




CROSS SLEEPERS.               127
as that of laying the rail in the usual way. directly
on the sleeper; it increases the perishable part of the
superstructure, and is now rarely seen in this country. I do not think it has advantages to counterbalance the objections, except where a very light
rail is adopted for a small specific traffic; and even
in this case, if timber is not very cheap, it is believed a light T rail on cross sleepers is the better
plan; and for a railway of good general traffic,
there does not appear room to doubt the superiority
of the usuai practice.




128            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER X.
CHAIRS AND SPIKES.
IN this country, chairs are used only at the joints
or ends of rail. In England, they use a chair at
every sleeper. This requires for the American rail
a broad, flat bottom, or web-footed base, to give
the requisite bearing surface on the sleeper, to prevent the rail cutting into it; whereas the English
rail is the same, or nearly the same form on the top
and bottom, and is wholly supported by the chair.
A  chair on each sleeper gives greater facility in
furnishing a broad bearing on the sleeper, and
allows softer wood to be used; for the chair may
be broad, and the action on the rail will not
so soon cut into the sleeper. Rails are sometimes
laid without chairs at the joints, depending wholly
on the spike to keep them in place-a plan that
cannot be recommended. The chair at the joint is
necessary to hold the ends of the rails firmly in
place, and cannot with prudence be dispensed with,
unless the fishing joint be used.
A great variety of patterns for chairs, both of




CHAIRS AND SPIKES.            129
cast and wrought iron, has been used, some with
wooden keys and some without.  Of late, the most
usual chair has been some form of wrought iron
without keys. A wood key saves the expense of
close fitting. It is hardly possible to obtain so close
work, between the manufacturer of rails and of
chairs, that there will not, in many cases, be more
or less work required to make a good joint, or one
that will be reasonably close; and no care will make
the track so good and free from rattling sound as
may be secured by a wood key.- Wrought iron
chairs are the most safe, but, in order to economize
their weight, so as to bring them near the cost of
cast iron, they have often been made too light to
be as good as they may be made without wood
keys, and I have never seen one with a key. To
make wrought iron chairs to receive a key, would
make them still more expensive. It is not so easy
to give the proper form of chair to receive a key
in wrought, as in cast iron. Though a key would
add to the safety, and take away the rattling sound
of a track laid without, still there can be no doubt
that a wrought iron chair of the most approved
pattern, well laid, holds the rails very firmly together, and makes a good track.  What is now
wanted is a chair in some form that will take the
bearing of the wheel, and prevent its dropping at
6*




130            RATLWAY PROPERTY.
the point of the rail when it is opened by contrac.
tion, or drawn out of place, and so prevent a blow
that batters down the ends of the rails. This would
considerably increase the expense of the chair, but
would serve a very important purpose in preserving
the ends of the rails. This feature will be further
considered in the discussion of rails.
On the subject of spikes, little need be said. The
form of rail generally adopted in this country requires the brad, or hook-headed spike. The form
is well understood, and they will require to be made
of the best quality of iron. They are usually from
half an inch to five-eighths of an inch square, and
four and a half to five inches long, clear of the
head; which is quite sufficient for hard wood
sleepers. Two spikes are required for each rail at
each sleeper, and two extra at the joint will be required to make a good track. Fewer are sometimes
used, and may answer for railways of light traffic
and moderate speed.




RAILS.                 131
CIIAPTER XI.
RAILS.
THE first form of rail used in this country, consisted
in a timber stringer, on which a flat bar of iron was
laid; the iron bar forming the rail track for the
wheel, and the timber the supporting material.
Though now generally out of use, this kind of railway has done much service in this country, in a
very economical way; and paid the proprietors, in
several cases, the best dividends, and, in fact, better than when subsequently laid in a more perfect
and substantial manner. With suitable machinery.
and working at a moderate speed, such rails may do
a profitable work; but they cannot be recommended
at this day for the service that is now required by
general traffic on railways.  For short railways,
doing a mineral traffic, or for short branches, there
may be situations where they could be advantageously used; and, in fact, some are still in use. The
wear on the iron is very light; doubtless owing to
the elasticity of the timber on which it rests, and
the light machinery generally used on them. It has




192        K~RAILWAY PPROPERTY.
been stated that the timber stringer has been and
still is used for a heavy iron rail in some cases. The
longitudinal timber, as it is termed, being adopted
for its advantage in giving a more uniform support
to the rails; but the practice is limited, and rails
are now generally made, for railways of general
traffic, to rest directly on the cross sleepers.
The difference in the general methods of support
between the English and American railways has
been noticed. Tie railways on the continent of
Europe have adopted, to some extent, the American
plan, but for the most part, I think, they have the
English. The former has the advantage of simplicity and ready adjustment; the latter, that of increased means to enlarge the bearing on the sleepers; and it has been urged as a further advantage,
that they admit the form of top and bottom of rail
to be alike, so that when the top is too much worn
for use, they can be reversed and the wear of the
two heads obtained from one rail. This is certainly
a plausible consideration; but for some reason it
does not appear to be much practised, the greater part
of English and continental rails on this plan of supports do not have the top and bottom exactly alike;
from which it would appear that this is not generally regarded of material importance. The American rail was invented by the late Robert L. Ste



RAILS.                 133
vens, of New York, and first used on the Camden
and Amboy Railway.  On its first introduction
(about 1830) it was regarded of doubtful utility: it
being apprehended the brad-head spike would not
secure it against lateral thrust, and if it did, the
rail would fail in the waist. These apprehensions
have been dissipated by very general experience,
and they are at this time almost wholly used in this
country. Manufacturers do not like them so well,
on account of the difficulty in forming the thin,
broad, web base, which is not as easily done as the
more compact and rounded form  given to a rail
that depends on chairs for support. The American
rail in dispensing with the intermediate chairs, is less
expensive to lay, and has the greatest facility for
adjustment; and we may be satisfied with it, as on
the whole equal and, I think, superior to any other.
The U rail, as it is called, resembles the letter U
inverted; it has been mostly used on the timber
stringer, and has some advocates, but has not come
into general use.
A great deal of ingenuity has been exercised on
the form of rails, both in this country and in England. The plans do not seem to have yet reached
a satisfactory result, at least not sufficient to produce uniformity, and modifications continue to be
proposed for their improvement. They have gone




134-           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
through many changes, and the best of each kind,
so far as relates to the bearing and strength of the
rails, may be regarded as pretty fairly adapted to
their use. There is, however, one point that approaches slowly to the proper form; namely, the
face or track surface on which the wheel rolls. It
is remarkable that this has had, to a great extent,
and at times almost universally in England and this
country, a round form. Whatever advantage this
may give to the form and durability of the rail, it is
obviously very bad for the wheel; as the tendency
is, and the result has long shown it, to cut a groove
in the rim  or tyre, more rapidly destroying the
wheel, and as the groove forms, increases its friction at the periphery, and operating injuriously on
the rail. The groove is liable to be neglected until
it is unsafe to run the wheel. With a flattop, a
groove will eventually be formed, but much less
rapidly; and the later patterns are less rounded,
and, what is better, some have a flat surface for the
wheel. What is wanted is, as much breadth of flat
top as can be got, leaving so much to be rounded
off, as will give adequate firmness and wearing surface on the edge that receives the action of the
flange of the wheel.
The weight of rails that rest directly on the
cross sleepers for support, has been increased from




RAILS.                  135
35 pounds per yard, the original pattern on the
Liverpool and Mlanchester Railway, to about 95
pounds.  For some time past the tendency has
been to reduce from the greater weights, and from
56 to 65 pounds per yard may be regarded as
embracing most of the patterns now being made.
The manufacture of large patterns is not considered
to be as perfect, at least they are more likely to be
imperfect than smaller ones; and to this, in a great
measure, has been attributed the disappointment in
the durability of the largest class of rails. The
strength of rail to support the weight that comes
upon it, must depend on the frequency of supporting sleepers; and consequently as these are near
each other, the rail may be lighter. With such an
arrangement of sleepers as has before been proposed, a 60 pound rail may be formed, so as to be
sufficient for the service of a first-class railway.
The conditions I would propose for such a rail on
the American pattern are: height, three and fiveeighths inches; breadth of web, three and seveneighths inches; thickness of waist, five-eighths of an
inch, and a level surface on the top of one and a half
inches. These dimensions properly formed to a 60
pound rail may be well manufactured, and will
make a first-class railway.
There are lines of railway in operation that have




136            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a light traffic, mostly local; and doubtless there
are many other districts, that as the country is
improved, will require similar railways to provide
for their traffic, and are not sufficient to support a
first-class railway; for these lines a rail weighing
45 pounds to the yard may be quite sufficient,
more durable, and be adopted with better economy
than a heavy rail. A railway of this kind should
have all its parts to correspond; engines and cars
should be proportionately light. It would not be
necessary in such districts to run trains at high
speed, and the traffic may be conducted as cheap
per ton, or per passenger, as on ordinary first-class
railways, and confer great benefits on the routes
they traverse. This view of railways will increase
in importance as the population increases, in districts that, from the formation of the country, are
not and cannot be traversed by leading lines, and
can only reach the main lines, or the marts of commerce, by common roads, or by railways that may
be supported by a local traffic. As the science of
railways comes to be more thoroughly studied, it
will be found that a light class may be profitably
and usefully conducted, and its benefits extended
to many situations that now look hopelessly for
such accommodation. Strange as it may seem, it
has been the usual practice to put machinery of




RAILS.                  137
essentially the same character and weight on railways of light traffic, as is used for those of heavy
traffic, even in cases where the track has been
made with a rail of lighter weight. This is one of
the errors of railway practice, and will doubtless
be corrected in time; but as yet the weight on the
rail and the speed of trains have not had adequate
consideration, and especially on those having a
secondary amount of traffic.
The rail, in most cases, fails first at the ends, and
a good deal of attention has been directed to find
means to protect it in this respect. The effect of
temperature to open and close the joint is well
known; this is sometimes increased by the want
of proper attention in laying down the rails; workmen do not always judge well of the temperature
existing at the time; and if allowance is made for
too low a temperature, there will be danger the raimay rise up and sometimes be very troublesome to
adjust, and dangerous for passing trains; hence,
they usually err on the other side, causing greater
opening at the joint than is due to temperature.
The longer the rail bar, the greater this difficulty.
Other causes operate to draw the joints apart, and
it is not unusual to see openings of half an inch to
one inch, and occasionally I have seen them two
inches on railways of large traffic; this is danger



138           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
rous and should not happen.  To remedy thece
evils, rails have been made in two pieces longitudinally, and put together so that the joint of one
part is supported by the other, by what is termed
breaking-joints, and is known as a compound rail.
The two bars are riveted together as they are laid
in the track, and form, united, the usual pattern of
rail. They have been usually divided vertically,
so that the joint passes through the head or track
for the wheel. Other forms of compound rail have
been used; I have seen one that leaves the head
in one entire piece. A  wheel rolls much more
smoothly over a compound rail, and gives a very
agreeable motion, free from the jar at the joints.
Not only pleasant motion is secured by breaking
the joints of the rail, but the effect of the blow
caused by the common joint on the foundation of
the track and the rolling machinery is avoided.
The importance of securing these results is.obvious;
but the compound rail has not been generally
adopted. It does not appear to have the same durability as the common rail, though the joints are
much better protected, probably owing to the
head or track being divided in two parts, and held
together by rivets that are hardly sufficient for the
severe action to which they are exposed; and of
late they are not as much esteemed as when first




RAILS.                 139
laid down, and I think but few of them  are used
at this time. The full-headed compound rail before
noticed, presents the full form of the head, without
joint, to the action of the wheel, but does not prevent the joint from opening by the contraction of
the rail, but secures it from opening by any other
cause, the same as a fishing-joint. I have seen a
piece of this rail that had been down on a grade
of 80 feet per mile, and four years in use under a
very heavy traffic. The bolts or rivets were considerably worn, and many of them  loose, but the
rail was in fair order for the traffic it had borne; a
piece on the same railway, and laid at the same
time on a light grade, was in very good order. 1
do not see that anything is secured by this rail,
beyond what is secured by a good fishing-joint.
To guard against the difficulty at the joint, a
method before alluded to, and styled a fishing-joint,
has, to some extent, been adopted. This consists
in riveting two plates of iron, one on each side of the
rail, the rivets passing through the rail; the plates
are rolled in form to fit the rail at the edges of the
plates, and are from 18 to 24 inches long, with two
rivets in each end. They are very efficient to hold
the rails in line, and are in considerable esteem in
England. It is obvious, however, they cannot prevent the action of the temperature in opening and




140            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
closing the joint, but are effective against other
causes of opening. The plates are strong enough
to sustain the wheel, and are laid so as to bring the
joint between, instead of on the sleepers, as no more
support is required at the joint than for other portions of the rail, and consequently joint sleepers are
not required. If the outside plate was so formed
that its upper surface should come to the level of
the rail, and be able to take the wheel at any instance of the opening of the joint, it would greatly,
if not effectually, protect the ends of rail from being
worn off, and relieve the jar materially at the instant the wheel passed over it.
A method has been adopted to sustain the wheel
at the joint, by laying a wooden scantling immediately behind the joint, and having its top level
with the rail, the scantling extending from, and
resting on the two sleepers each side of the joint
sleepers, and firmly secured in place. A hard piece
of seasoned white oak is said to bear this service
very well, and the plan is much approved by some
who have adopted it. It, no doubt, will be much
relief to the rail joints, so long as the timber sustains its level with the rail; but it may be doubted
if any wood will long bear such service. Such a
piece ot scantling has been used to form  a fishing
joint; in which case it is formed to fit the side of




RAILS.                  141
the rail, and is bolted to it, but does not rise to the
level of the rail; I am not aware that it has been
used any great length of time; but it is said to have
worked very well. This is merely using wood instead of iron for a fishing plate, and I think it has
advantages over iron in the elasticity of the wood,
which favors the bolts. It differs from the iron
fishing in having the scantling only on one side,
whereas the iron fishing has a plate on each side
the rail; with an iron plate opposite the scantling,
the strength to support the rail would be improved,
and without this it is necessary the joint should rest
on, and not between the sleepers. As before observed, the fishing of the joint cannot prevent the
opening that arises from temperature, but secures it
against any further opening, and this is very important. If it be found important that the fishing joint
De made sufficient to sustain the weight of the
wheel between the sleepers, as is tne usual practice
in England, the iron plates will most probably be
preferred to the timber scantling. I saw at the
engineers' office of the New York Central Railway
a full-sized model of fishing plates, that I think will
succeed well for iron fishing if made a little longer,
so as to take two bolts at each end.
On railways of heavy traffic and high speed, it is
not probable any method of securing the joints wilt




142            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
hold them permanently. The severity of the service will wear and weaken some part, and repairs
and renewal will demand watchful attention; at
the same time, and for this very reason, it is important to ascertain the best method, and this must
result only from careful experiments on the different modes.  The scantling method that has been
described now promises favorably, and is worthy a
careful trial in comparison with the iron fishing. A
chair that will securely hold the rail in place is a
very fair method, and will answer a good parpose
on roads of moderate traffic, where high speed is
not required. The engineer will find this subject
one of great interest, and a wholesome tax on his
ingenuity and capacity, notwithstanding it may appear to some as having been exhausted. The deterioration of rails, especially at the joints, under
the service they have been required to perform, has
assumed an importance not heretofore well con.
sidered.




STATION BUILDINGS.            3 3
CIAPTER XII.
STATION  BUILDINGS.
THE convenient arrangement of station buildinTa
is highly important to the transaction of railway
business, and demands careful attention from  the
engineer, especially for the terminal and more important way stations. It is not necessary that they
be expensive, but arranged so as to effect the most
convenient transaction of business.  Local circumstances, as also the nature of the traffic, will have
great influence on this question, and more or less
modify the extent and main features of the plans.
On some lines, the handling of freight is done by
individuals, in which case a portion of the expense
of station building is, or may be, borne by other
parties-a practice of not very general use.  For
the most part, the railway company do the handling, and if they put it in the hands of others, most
generally provide the necessary buildings.
In a freight station it is necessary to consider
well the plan that will bring the goods to a point,
that with the least movement will allow the transit




i +          RAILWAY PROPERTY.
between the railway cars and the vessel, wagon, or
cars of other railways, to or from which it is to be
transferred; having reference to the labor of loading, unloading, stowing, and taking account of the
parcels of goods; amounting to a large item in the
expense of railway freighting. Proper facilities in
this department, not only economize current expense, but greatly reduce the chances of error by
the tallying checks. The station should be provided
with suitable machinery, according to the value and
extent of the traffic, so as to render available the
economy of horse or mechanical power, the latter
preferable where the business will warrant it. This
is particularly important in a large grain trade,
when the transit is between the railway and water
craft; in which great improvement has been made
within a few years past, and the time and expense
of transit has been greatly reduced. I have known
a station that, on a charge of one cent per bushel on
grain, paid all the expenses, from the time the ca.r
was brought to the station until the grain was on
shipboard, and, in addition to these expenses, paid
a rent of 20 per cent. on the building and machinery; the work done, included the unloading the
tar, elevating the grain to a shipping loft, and weighing and conveying it to the hold of the vessel;
the latter being done at the rate of 3,000 bushels




STATION BUILDINGS.            145
per hour for a single hold to receive, and double if
the vessel had two receiving holds to operate at the
same time.
The floor of the building, or whatever constitutes
the channel of transit from or to the railway, should
be under cover, and lie between the vessel and the
car, as this is most convenient for the transitory
storage often required.  For miscellaneous goods,
one story high is sufficient, and to prevent exposure
from fire, it is best to have no loft in such a building, which would prove of small account, as storage
is not wanted for such length of time as would warrant the expense of hoisting: but a portion of the
loft may in some cases be advantageously occupied
as an office for current freight business. For goods
not liable to theft, open sheds are economical and
convenient, gnd to considerable extent may be used
for housing freight.
In connection with the freight buildings, there
should be spare tracks, on which trains of cars may
be conveniently made up, so as to require as little
movement as practicable, and prepared to start out
on their appointed time; also, for incoming trains
that may not be able at once to take their proper
position for unloading; and for empty cars to stand,
while not wanted, or waiting for small repairs. To
provide the spare track, so that all these objects
7




146           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
may be accomplished with the least labor and
hazard of confusion, will be found, in most situations, to require much study. The entire freight
arrangements at important, and especially at terminal stations, should, if possible, be kept wholly
disconnected  from  the passenger station after
branching from the main track.
At way stations, the extent of accommodations
will depend on the amount of business, and somewhat on the competition of other railways; the
latter may require more careful economy, and better inducements to shippers than would otherwise
be necessary, and should be carefully regarded in
the plans for station arrangements. They should be
more simple than the terminal stations, as the business will be less; but so far as they have business,
they should be arranged with similar views of economy and convenience. Where a large grain business is done, the loft is used for grain, and the main
floor for miscellaneous goods. In many cases the
grain is elevated to the loft by a roadway, on which
the team that brings the grain to the railway travels up an easy grade; in others, an inclined-plane
railway extends to the loft, and when the grain is
unloaded from the wagon into a light car standing
at the foot of the plane, the car is drawn up by a
rope over a pulley-the rope being hitched to the




STATION BUILDINGS.          147
wagon, and as the team moves off with the wagon,
it draws up the grain car.  In either case, the
railway company (except for the fixtures) is at no
expense for the elevating power; and either method
is usually satisfactory to shippers. The latest and,
as I consider, the most approved roadway, is carried
up into the end of the building, and the team passes
through and down by a bridge from the other end
of the building.  The load is weighed before it
goes up, and the grain emptied directly into the
garners, requiring no machinery to transfer it from
the wagon-the whole is very economical. I have
only seen this plan of roadway on the Chicago and
Rock Island Railway. The elevated roadway is
best for a large business, and the inclined railway
for a small business. From the loft, the grain is
conveniently loaded into the cars by spouts. The
elevating is sometimes done by machinery, with
horse or steam power; and in some instances this is
required by local circumstances; but it is very expensive, and one of the other modes, above described, should be adopted if practicable.
PASSENGER  STATION.-The indispensable thing
here is, to provide sufficient tracks to accommodate
all the incoming and outgoing trains, so that they
need not interfere with each other; and also such as
may be required for standing coaches. The terminal




148            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
stations should be covered, where there is mnuch
traffic, so far as to afford shelter for passengers and
baggage, while making up and discharging trains.
Waiting rooms should be provided for passengers,
who will be more or less detained for the trains, and
for conveyances to take them from the discharging
train. A convenient ticket-office should be placed
in this building; and rooms provided for baggage,
especially such as may not be at once called for.
The covered part, where the trains are made up
and discharged, should have a floor over the whole
area.  Formerly it was the general practice to
have a raised platform alongside of the out-going
and in-coming tracks, elevated from one to three
feet, to facilitate the passengers in getting in and
out of the coaches; but this has generally given
place, in modern stations, to the plan of making
the whole floor on a level with the track, and
which is no doubt more convenient and safe for
general use; it is more convenient for receiving
and discharging passengers, and if more than one
track is required for out-going and in-coming trains,
it is perfectly convenient to use either, as no trackpits are in the way to embarrass passengers, or
expose them to hazard. A further advantage in a
level floor arises from the convenience afforded of
moving baggage trucks in any direction.




STATION BUILDINGS.            149
An office will be required at one of the tel minal stations, where the general business of the
company should be transacted. This office should
be convenient to the station, as here all reports,
way-bills, check-rolls, and accounts are sent for
arrangement and disposal.  If the situation be
favorable, it may be combined with some other
station building; but in regard to safety from fire,
it is usually better to have a separate building,
with ample fire-proof safes, as a large quantity of
documents will be collected here in a few years,
the loss of which would be very great to the railway company, and seriously embarrass the management.
The terminal stations will require some provision
for engine and coach sheds; the latter may, in
some cases, be provided for sufficiently in the passenger coach shed. Shop accommodations in connection with the engine-shed, should be provided
to some extent for small repairs. In most cases, it
will be best to have the main shop for repairs of
engines, coaches, and cars, at one of the terminal
stations. In the latter case, the main shop, with
engine and other sheds, should be placed outside,
and as near to the station as the ground will permit. If the situation of ground permit, it should
have  its side-tracks immediately  back  of tihe




150            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
switches, or points that separate the passenger from
the freight trains as they go into the station. That
portion of the shop designed for repairs of engines
should be in convenient position in reference to the
engine shed, so as to require the least practicable
movement of engines between the shop and shed.
The coach and car-shop will require a paint-shop
connected, for repainting and varnishing, and liberal
spare track for standing-room. It will be economy
to so arrange the shops, that the same stationary
power will drive the machinery of both.  The
blacksmith's shop should be convenient to do the
work of both the other shops.
An important feature in shops of this kind is,
some arrangement by which an engine, coach or
car may be placed in and removed from the shop
without disturbing the repairs of others; this is
often done in a very bungling way. The transfertable, if well made, so as to work easy, is, I think,
the best method; when properly constructed, it
works easy, and meets the wants of the case in
a most direct and convenient manner.
The magnitude of the various station structures
must depend on the traffic to be provided for.
This is likely to be larger at some future day than
for the first few years of the operations of the
railway, and it will not, in most cases, be economy




STATION BUILDINGS.           151
to make the outlay in the commencement sufficient
for the probable future wants of the railway; and
with this view, the plans, so far as may be practicable, should be made with reference to enlargement, as further accommodation may be demanded
by increasing traffic; and in most respects this
may easily be done, if seasonably looked after.
It often happens that railways are put in operation before any considerable progress is made in
station buildings; but if few or no buildings are
prepared at the opening, the engineer should have
his plans matured, so that the work, as it may progress, shall be in conformity; that the whole, when
completed, may have the order and symmetry that
will secure the greatest ultimate economy in conducting the traffic of the station. I am well aware
that the engineer of a railway is not always responsible for ill advised station arrangements, especially
when not completed until after the railway is put in
operation; for then a superintendent of the operating department, if not of the railway in full, is put
in charge, and in some cases, he may have little
education to fit him for studying the requirements
of a railway station; but usually enough of selfreliance to regard his capacity for such matters as
much beyond that of the engineer; and if he has,
as is most likely, the influence of the board of




152           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
managers, he will often disregard the engineer,
and under plea of some present necessity, proceed
with some part of the works with little regard to
interference with any well devised arrangement
that the ultimate wants of the station may demand.
If the engineer is incompetent, a competent one
should be obtained, as his education is best designed
to secure the capacity wanted in such matters; nor
is it the proper province of a superintendent to control him.  A  further difficulty is sometimes experienced by agreements between the managers and
citizens of towns in regard to station arrangements,
that prove very embarrassing to the future business
of the railway. In one of these ways, or in the
failure of the engineer to prepare suitable plans,
may be traced the awkward and inconvenient station arrangements that are not unfrequently to be
seen on railways.




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.            153
OIAPTER   XIII.
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.
THE locomotive engines are a part of the rolling
stock, and constitute a portion of the construction
of a railway, and should be carefully considered by
the engineer.
After an extensive use for over a quarter of a
century, the locomotive engine is a machine that
does not fail to inspire the feeling of wonder and
admiration in those who witness its movements,
and especially -those who  are familiar with its
mechanism, and can appreciate its duties and its
power. That such a machine may travel in daylight-in the darkness of midnight-in sunshine
and in storm-through cultivated fields and dense
forests-through hill and over dale-at the rate of
fifty miles per hour-carrying hundreds of people,
as it thunders its way onward to the distant station —
and in all its marvellous speed and power, holds fast
to the narrow track, is truly a wonder; and though
a thousand times witnessed, I never fail to admire
7*




1 4           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
and enjoy, as it passes with its long train, this
splendid specimen of art.
Locomotives should be adapted to the work they
are required to perform. As has been noticed, they
are now made much heavier than when the system
was first brought into use. It should be kept in
mind that heavy engines require more expense for
repairs of track, and for their own repairs, than
lighter ones.  A  judicious arrangement in the
weight of engines will have great influence on the
economy of working the railway, and it should not
be forgotten, that the object of the proprietors is,
remuneration for the outlay they are required to
make.
In the service of all railways there is a considerable portion that may be done most economically
by light engines; and on many railways a large
proportion. The speed required will have much
influence on the weight of engines. No intelligent
railway manager will run at a higher speed for
express trains, than 25 miles per hour, including
stops, unless compelled by some competitor for the
passenger traffic. Attempts have been made to
show the relative cost of high and low speed; but
none, so far as I know, on any well-founded data.
It is not easy to get at a basis that would be sufficient to warrant any computation on which a rule




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.            155
or formula to determine this question might be
made. Fast trains and slow trains-heavy engines
and light, are used indiscriminately on the same
track, and it is impossible to decide how much of
the wear of track is due to each.  The wear
and consequent repair of engines may be determined from the careful accounts of work done and
repairs made on each class, and the relative cost
and work may be ascertained with satisfactory
approximation.  Beyond this, so far as I know,
this question of comparison in all its bearings can
only be estimated from the statistics of mileage,
and long and careful observation of the influence
of weight and speed on the track, the rolling machinery, and the hazard of accidents that necessarily
follow. In regard to the latter, their number must
be increased by high speed; also their intensity as
to damage to persons and property.  As before
observed, we have no exact data to determine the
relative cost of different rates of speed: some have
estimated it to be as the squares of the velocity;
others a lower rate of difference; my own opinion
is, that on the whole the former is not far wrong.
With two engines of suitable weight, one to haul
a train at the rate of twenty miles per hour, th 
other to take the same train thirty miles per hour,
the cost per mile for the train having a speed of




156           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
twenty miles per hour may be approximately estimated at one-half the cost of a train having a speed
of thirty miles per hour. This of course embraces
not only the engines, but. the cars, coaches and
track, all of which suffer increased wear and
damage from increased speed.
At the celebrated trial of engines, on the opening
of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the successful competitor, the Rocket, was mounted on
four wheels; one pair driving wheels and one pair
supporting wheels. This plan of four-wheeled engines, with one pair of drivers, or with both pairs
connected as drivers, continued in general use for
several years in England: it was used on the railways of this country, mostly in the eastern States,
until after the opening of the western railway of
Massachusetts; and down to 1845, was more or
less used. in that section. In 1831, the Mohawk
and Hudson Railway Company imported an engine
from England, made under the direction of George
Stephenson, the distinguished engineer in this department of the profession. This engine was on
four wheels, all drivers, and weighed about seven
tons. The wheels were four feet diameter, and the
axles four and a half feet apart, or from centre to
centre. The performance of the engine was at that
time satisfactory as to power.  The frame was




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           157
twelve feet long, and the axles, being four and a
half feet apart, it projected beyond the bearing on
the axles near four feet each way. It was readily
observed that a vertical inequality in the surface
of the rails, caused a vertical motion at the ends
of the frame of about double this inequality, producing an unsteady and shaking motion-to the
frame of the engine, very unfavorable to the
machinery and the engine-men.  It was further
evident that this leverage action of the frame was
unfavorable to the track. The first thought for a
remedy for'this difficulty was to spread the axles
further apart; but to do this to such an extent as
would materially remedy the evil, was at that time
considered inadmissible, on account of the increased labor and danger it would cause in passing
curves in the line of railway. The track of the
Mohawk and Hudson company was a well constructed one of the kind, very direct, and in good
order, probably as smooth at the time referred to
as any railway; it was a flat bar or plate rail, laid
on southern pine rail timbers well secured; still,
the action before mentioned was very unsatisfactory.
My observations on the action of the Mohawk
and Hudson engine, led me to inquire into some
means of providing a remedy. There had been




158           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
six-wheeled engines put in operation, but they were
on a single frame, the third pair of wheels merely
added for support, and all worked in the single
rigid frame; at that time no six-wheeled engine, or
of more than six wheels, had been successfully run
at high speed. It appeared important to provide
guiding wheels that should be geared favorably to
follow the track, and support one end of the engine
frame, so that the engine and all its working parts
would be supported by the same rigid frame, as on
the four-wheeled plan. While engaged with these
considerations, the attempt was made *by a fellowengineer, to mount an engine on eight wheels,
geared as two wagons, so coupled that each would
be free to conform to the curves of the rail, and the
machinery to conform to the changing parallels of
the two wagons by movable joints. Here was the
idea of working two wagons, so coupled as to constitute an eight-wheeled vehicle, but without a
common rigid frame, and consequently the machinery, resting on two separate frames, depended on
their movable joints to adapt them to the changes
of parallelism constantly taking place on the rail.,
A  similar effort had previously been made, to
adapt two wagons as support for an eight-wheeled
engine; but the plan had not succeeded in a manner to be practically useful. It did not appear to




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           159
me that any plan would succeed, that did not provide a rigid frame for the engine machinery. The
difficulty appeared to be in obtaining a connection
between two frames, that should work free and be
secure on the rail under high speed. There was no
doubt it would work well at low speed; but nothing of the kind had been adapted to, or previously attempted for high speed, then much demanded for railway travel. Two four-wheeled cars,
or wagons, had been coupled together, so as to form
one eight-wheeled car, for transporting long timber
and heavy stone, but it gave no confidence for
high speed.
After devoting a good deal of labor to this subject, I prepared a plan, which it is hardly necessary
to describe at this time, as it is in general use in the
locomotives of this country.  This plan, in its
general features, had a guiding truck, or a fourwheeled car, arranged as best adapted for following
curves on the rail, and keeping on the track, and,
at the same time, supporting steadily the forward
end of the engine frame. The plan of the engine
was prepared in the fall of 1831, and sent to the
West-Point Foundry Association, who built the
engine, and it was placed on the track of the Mohawk and Hudson Railway in the summer of 1832.
The working of this engine (sal,-  the Brother




160               RAILWAY PROPERTY.
Jonathan)  satisfied  me  that the  truck  principle
would be successful, though the engine was not so
in other respects, the attempt having been made to
adapt the boiler to the use of anthracite coal, and
this required to be changed, which was done the
following winter. I then prepared a new plan for
an engine for the Saratoga and Schenectady Railway, following substantially the same plan, except
as to the boiler, and sent it to George Stephenson,
Esq., of Liverpool, who constructed the engine, and
it was placed  on the  Saratoga  and  Shenectadcly
Railway early in the following summer (1833).
As this truck system  has come into general use
in this country (it was never patented), it may be
interesting to refer to its early history, as put on
record at the time, and I therefore think I may be
excused in making the following quotation from  the
"American Railroad Journal" (1833), vol. ii. p. 468.
LOCOMOTIVE STEAM ENGINE,  BY JOHN B. JERVIS.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN RAILROAD JOURNAL.
DEAR SIR: The locomotive steam engine for the Saratoga and
Schenectady Railroad, of which I promised to give you some
account, was put on the road the 2d inst., and has been in regular
operation since, making usually two trips per day each way, equal
84 miles, and carrying daily over the road about 300 passengers.
The engine was made by George Stephenson & Co., at Newcastle,
England. The boiler has tub lar flues, on the same plan as all of




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.                     161
recent construction at that establishment. The leading object I
had in view, in the general arrangement of the plan of this engine,
did not contemplate any improvement in power, over those heretofore constructed by G. Stephenson & Co.; but to make an engine
that would be better adapted to railroads of less strength than
were then in use in England; that would travel with more ease to
itself, and to the rail on curved roads-and would be less affected by
inequalities in the rail, than is attained by the arrangement by the
most approved engines.
You are aware of the fact, that the Saratoga and Schenectady
rail is constructed with timber, capped with an iron plate. This
kind of road cannot be expected to bear as heavy weight on the
wheels of its carriages as those that have an entire iron rail; and,
in order to obtain that degree of power which is desirable for an
engine intended for high speed, it becomes an object to put the
weight on six wheels, instead of four. Engines mounted on six
wheels were constructed several years ago in England. The object
was to distribute the weight on more points, to make them easier
for the road than the four-wheeled engines; for even with the iron
rail, the heavier carriage is injurious to the road. There was difficulty, however, in the practical operation of the plan adopted.
The load was found to bear at times very unequally on different
wheels, owing to the inequalities in the road; and having all their
wheels under one frame, they did not work as well on curved roads
as the four-wheeled engines, which could be geared much shorter.
In consequence mainly of these difficulties, the six-wheeled engines
were abandoned, and I believe no attempt has since been nade in
England to use more than four wheels.*
In the Saratoga engine, I have adopted two distinct frames. One
* Since the above was written, six-wheeled engines have been
mostly adopted in England and other parts of Europe, and will be
noticed hereafter.




162                RAILWAY PROPERTY.
frame embraces four wheels in the same manner as a commor.
wagon: these wheels are small (32 inches) in diameter and of uni.
form size; one end of the second frame is mounted on the third
pair of wheels, which are the working wheels, and the other end is
rested on friction rollers, in the centre of the first frame, to which
it is secured by a strong centre pin. The small wheels, with their
frame, work on the road the same as an independent wagon; and
being geared short, they go round a curve with as much ease as a
common wagon, and being leaders, they bring round the working
wheels, and the large frame on which the whole machinery of the engine rests, with as much ease as practicable. By this method it will
be seen the engine may pass a curve with the same ease as a common railroad carriage, having the same weight on the wheels. The
machinery of the engine is not affected by the curve motion of
the carriage. In order to give the four-wheeled engine carriage as
much facility as practicable in turning curves, the wheels have generally been placed near together, bringing the bearing points of
the frame so near the centre, in a longitudinal direction, as to
cause the inequalities of the rail to produce increased motion at
the ends of the frame, and consequently to the engine and boiler
which is connected with it. This, in the English engine belonging
to the Mohawk and Hudson company, was such as to make the
motion very unfavorable to the engine, and severe on the road.
By allowing the bearing points to be near the ends of the large
frame, and resting one of these points on the centre of the small
frame, as is done in the Saratoga engine, the difficulty is almost
entirely remedied.
The engine was set up at the shop of the Mohawk and Hudson
Railroad Company, under the direction of Mr. Asa Whitney, the
present superintendent of that road, and who has from the commencement, had charge of the machine-shop connected with it.
Thus far, the engine appears to do all that was anticipated from




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.                     163
ix  No test has yet been made of its power; but, from the rapidity
with which it generates steam, there appears no doubt of its performing all that it was calculated to do. It passes a curve without
any more appearance of labor than a well-geared common carriage.
The principle of its arrangement does not admit of more strain
coming on any one wheel than is assigned for its regular labor.
The motion of the engine is highly satisfactory; it moves with
almost as smooth and steady motion as a stationary engine; it
travels over the road in an elegant and graceful style.
I made a plan for a six-wheeled engine for the Mohawk and
Hudson road, which was completed and put in operation before I
made the plan for the Saratoga engine. This engine proved satisfactory so far as regarded the principle of a six-wheeled carriage,
and was an important pioneer for the second plan. The superior
ease with which this engine moved, both for its own machinery
and the road, led to the determination to alter the English engine
on the Mohawk and Hudson road, so that it could be placed on a
six-wheeled carriage.  As the engine was particularly arranged for
four wheels, this could not conveniently be done in any other way
than by communicating the power through the intervention of a
bell crank,* which was very successfully done by Mr. Whitney.
This engine is now  working on six wheels, and the ease and
smoothness of her motion, over that she had when on four wheels,
is very striking.
The arrangement on six wheels does not admit of the wheels
under the main frame being connected with those under the small
frame; consequently, we can only obtain the adhesion of one pair
of wheels. This, however, is hardly of any importance where high
speed is wanted.
Should further experience confirm what the operations thus far
* An improved method has since been adopted, and will be discussed hereafter.




164              RAILWAY PROPERTY.
appear to warrant, the plan of the Saratoga engine may be viewed
as avaluable improvement. She has used for fuel a coke of inferior quality, made in New York, with which she has worked very
well.                    Yours, etc.,
JOHN B. JERVIS.
ALBANY, 18th July, 1833.
From  what has been stated in the preceding
pages, it will be seen that the truck arrangement
was adapted to an engine with only one pair of
driving wheels. At that time, passenger engines
were mostly made with one pair of drivers, even for
four-wheeled engines, both in this country and in
Europe; and the practice has more or less prevailed, to within ten years of the present time, and
is still, I think, the prevalent plan of English passenger engines.  There can be no doubt that a
single pair of drivers work more kindly, easier for
the rail and the engine, and will do more work for
its power, than  any others.  To give a better
support, and to relieve the weight on the driving
wheels, a pair of trailing wheels, usually termed
relief wheels, were  placed behind  the drivers,
receiving a portion of the weight of the fire-box.
As engines were enlarged, this method of support
was the first measure adopted in England to obtain
for modern engines the benefit of six wheels. But
as the want of increased power grew  with the
development of railway traffic, more drivers were




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           f165
wanted to give the necessary adhesion to the rail.
This was more  especially required  for freight
engines, and to a greater or less extent, for passenger engines. It did not require much time to
adapt the arrangement to two pair of drivers, and
to some extent three pair have been adopted, and
used with favor by some railway managers.  Still
the truck is generally, and almost invariably used
as the leading wheels, supporting the forward end
of the engine frame. Comparatively a very small
number of freight engines are made with three pair
of drivers, without a leading truck, and those that
have been tried, as far as I know, are but little
esteemed; they are very severe on the track, ard
subject to heavy repairs.
Some of the truck engines were sent to England;
but were not received with favor. When in that
country, in 1850, I endeavored to ascertain the objection to them; and the only one I was able to
learn, was an impression that they would not keep
the track well under high speed.  If this had been
a good objection there, it certainly would have
been here; but no such difficulty has been experienced with us.  We have tried the principle
thoroughly, and in fact carried it to extremes, in
the close gearing  of the truck, barely  giving
clearance to the wheels in the line of track; which




166            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
is the worst position that can be given to the
wheels, for safety in keeping the track. A truck,
or what is the same thing, a railway wagon on four
wheels, should not have its two pair of wheels
either too close together, or too far apart; in either
case it is more liable to leave the track; it does not
work easy when too long, and is unsteady when too
short. It is better for the track, and also for steadiness of motion, to have the truck wheels as far
apart as is consistent with easy movement on the
track; and I have never seen a good reason for the
fashion that prevailed very much a few years since,
of very close gearing of the truck. Four and
a-half to five feet between centres of axles, may be
regarded as securing a good result. But notwithstanding errors in close gearing, nothing has occurred in this country to impair confidence in the
safety of the truck engine for keeping the track.
In regard to locomotive engines in the railway
practice of Europe, the English plan, and to a great
extent the English manufacture, has been adopted.
They found the four-wheeled engines insufficient for
the enlarging demands of traffic; and soon adopted,
as before noted, the third pair, called trailing
wheels; the leading and the trailing wheels were
small, and the drivers (one pair) were placed between them. As before observed, the engines, in




LOCOMOTIVE ENG1NES.            167
the early history of railways (reference being had
to the time subsequent to the trial on the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway), had generally but one
pair of drivers; and this was continued as the general practice for passenger engines in England down
to 1850, at which time very few had two pair of
drivers; and, as before stated, this is believed to be
the prevalent practice at this time. The freight
traffic required more adhesion, and for this service,
the trailing wheels gave place to a pair of drivers.
In all these arrangements on English engines, the
six-wheeled engines had all their wheels attached
to one frame, and worked on the track in the same
manner as the four-wheeled, except that the frame
was longer, and the bearing of the front and rear
wheels nearer the ends of the frame. It will be
perceived that no ease in the working on the track
was gained by this, over the four-wheeled plan; it
is, in fact, so far as the movement of the carriage
part of the engine is affected, the same as to extend
the four wheels to the same distance apart as the
leading and trailing wheels are placed, and the third
pair, whether as trailing or driving, are merely so
much additional support to the engine. It is, therefore, apparent that the English six wheeled engine
has all the objections of a long-geared railway wagon
in passing curves. To remedy the oscillating mo



168            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
tion, both lateral and vertical, the front and rear
wheels have been spread from four and a half feet,
to ten, twelve, and even fourteen feet apart. On a
railway nearly straight, there would be no objection
to this; but railways are not all straight, either in
Europe or America, and all must have turn-outs
from one track to another, that necessarily require
pretty sharp, if not very sharp curves. In England
they have been more liberal in expenditure to secure
a good direction of line, than we have in this country; but the more favorable formation of surface
with us, has allowed us to make lines that, on the
whole, will compare favorably with theirs. The
superior ease in the movement in the truck engine
on curved rails, over that of the long-geared, rigid
frame of the English engine, is so manifest to an
intelligent observer, that it seems strange that European engineers should not'appreciate it, and that
they should continue to discard it after the experience of this country has so long given unequivocal
preference to its use, on three times the length of
railway they have in England. I saw a few truck
engines in Belgium, in 1850, and at this time, I
believe, a large proportion of those used in Russia
are of this kind. That the English should at first
have entertained the apprehension that the truck
would be liable to leave the track, did not surprise




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           109
me, for this was the most serious apprehension in
my own mind when engaged on the plan, at a time
when no such machine, or any double car or wagon,
had been successfully used for any purpose but such
as admitted slow speed-as in transporting long
timber or other heavy material for short distances.
But more than twenty years of experience, and
most of the time on thousands of miles of railway
in this country, would appear to afford experience
enough to satisfy them of the groundless nature of
their fears. Perhaps they do not respect our practice as much we do theirs, and hence our advantage.
In all that relates to thorough building, and in
avoiding all tinsel in their engines, the English are
our superiors. It would be much better for us, if
we substituted wrought iron for much of our cast
iron material, and left off the brass ornaments,
which are not in sound taste on a machine that is
made to perform  work, and not for show. An
English engine is black, with very little bright work,
except where it is necessary to reduce friction in
the moving parts.
I have been somewhat particular in my remarks
on the truck engine. It is proper that I should
state frankly that I have two objects for this: first,
the truck has proved to be a highly important
8




170            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
improvement in the locomotive engine-is of American origin, and the credit is due to American
engineering. In this view it is interesting to all
who have a taste for inquiring into the origin of
valuable improvements, and who desire a reliable
history of them; and secondly, it is due to myself
that the public should understand that I was the
inventor, and had the sole responsibility of introducing this improvement in railway machinery.
As I took no patent for the invention, that kind of
publicity has not been enjoyed; and very few persons who now use the engine, have the least idea to
whom the railway public is indebted for its introduction.  I do not complain; as an American
engineer, it was a satisfactory compensation to be
able to present to the railway interest a valuable
improvement, and to see it rapidly dissipate in this
country the preference that, in many quarters, had
been tenaciously given to the English plan.
It will be seen from the preceding remarks that
the truck engine is materially different from  the
English, and in  our country it so completely
takes the precedence on nearly thirty thousand
miles of railway, as to lead to the belief that it will
eventually do the same in Europe.
It has been stated that a single pair of driving
wheels work more favorably to the ease of the




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.          171
engine than two pair; and so far as the adhesion
can be obtained without too great weight on one
pair, it is the best engine, especially for high speed.
The coupling of two pair of drivers increases the
number of parts, and the slightest difference in the
diameters of the two pair coupled together, causes
severe strain on the working parts of the engine
and increases the wear on the rail. The English
continue this plan up to a weight of five and six
tons on a wheel, which not only requires a strong
rail to support it, but is attended with severe wear
both on rail and engine. My opinion is, that one
pair of drivers with three-fourths the weight of
two, will do the work of two pair for high speed,
with more ease to the engine and less wear on the
track. In this country, at the present day, an
engine with one pair of drivers is rarely seen.
For passenger service, if the work required can be
done with an engine having about six tons on one
pair, or three tons on a wheel, it will be the best
economy to adopt one pair; and on railways having
a large passenger traffic, requiring high speed, I
should prefer four tons on a wheel with one pair,
to three tons on a wheel with two pair.
Passenger engines designed for high speed, where
t may be important to secure punctuality in the
time, in their connections with other railways form



172            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
ing portions of a general line, must be provided
with power to meet difficulties beyond what would
be otherwise necessary; such as strong head winds,
an unfavorable state of the rail, and to make up
time that may be lost by incidental delays. The
importance of punctuality in these connections depends mainly on the position of a rival line, and, if
often missed, the reputation of the line will suffer,
and the importance in this respect will depend on
the value of the traffic in competition. Rivalry is a
feature in railway affairs that tends greatly to
increase expenses, and no doubt it often happens in
these struggles that the traffic secured costs more
than it is worth. The local traffic of a railway may
be done with more definite calculations for economy;
there is no necessity of running power in excess,
and often to great waste, as is frequently the case
in rivalry with other lines; and hence, so far as
regards the local traffic, or any other that is not
affected by competition, the power of the engine
may be economically arranged to provide for it.
Freight engines should be designed to travel
slowly, and to these the objection to connected drivers is not so important, and the necessity of greater
adhesion will generally determine in favor of that
plan. The weight and power of freight engines
will depend on the extent of the traffic. On a




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           173
double track, they may be arranged so as to make
the most economical transportation; for in this case
the number of trains may be increased to meet
almost any amount of traffic; but on a single
track railway there may be a difficulty in sending
as many trains as the freight may require, and
larger trains than otherwise desirable must be made
up, and of course an engine of larger power, or
duplicate engine, must be employed to haul it
The latter plan is often adopted, either by dividing
the train into sections, or by coupling two engines
together; each of these methods has its advocates,
while neither is much liked, the preference being
generally given to one engine of sufficient power to
do the work alone, if that be practicable. The
latter mode is certainly the most simple, while its
economy in many cases is more than doubtful.
An engine best adapted for a freight train, with a
judicious time table, will, in nine cases out of ten,
haul the train, and the inconvenience of occasionally
putting the train in two or more sections, to meet
an extra run of freight, is a trifle compared to the
injury of an engine that must always take the train,
whether large or small.  So long, however, as
single track railways prevail, there will be an
excuse for a class of larger freight engines than is
profitable for a railway.  The question for the




174           RAILWAY PR PERTY.
engineer is, to consider well the character of the
railway and the traffic it is to carry, and design tle
engines of all classes on the plan that will conduct
the anticipated service with the greatest net profit.
In this the engineer will bear in mind the wear
and repairs of track, as well as that of the engines
and will find it a field requiring his best judgment
and experience.
In this country wood has been the usual fuel for
locomotive engines. Coke has mostly been used in
England,, and is a much more convenient fuel than
wood; it does not require, as the wood-burning
engines do, a screen or spark arrester, to prevent the
escape of small burning coals or cinders, carried
through the smoke-pipe from wood. This spark
arrester diminishes the power of the engine, and is a
heavy appendage to the machine. Coke is a very
convenient fuel; it is of less weight and much less
bulk than wood, per mile run. They have been
compelled to use coke in England, not being
allowed to use coal, which is a much cheaper fuel,
on account of the smoke, which seems to be a very
offensive thing to an Englishman: but recently, it is
said, a mode of consuming the smoke, by introducing a volume of atmospheric air, so as to unite with
the gases and smoke as they rise from the surface
of the burning coal, causes so complete a combus



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.           175
tion, that no smoke of consequence escapes from the
smoke-pipe. If this shall be found by experience
to succeed, it will greatly improve the economy of
fuel in English engines, and in all others where
bituminous coal of good quality can be cheaply had.
Coal has been used in this country for several years
in freight engines, and to some extent, recently, in
passenger engines; the question must be one of
increasing importance, as wood becomes scarce and
dear, which in some parts is already the case.
Coal, however, in most parts of this country, is
dearer than in England. Even the anthracite is
more expensive, and good bituminous coal, suitable
for locomotive engines, can only be had east of
the Alleghany range by the cost of long transportation. Still, there are many railways on the
Atlantic district, that will find bituminous coal to
be cheaper than wood. There have been several
attempts to use anthracite  coal in locomotive
engines, and I believe it to have succeeded very
well in some cases, for low speed, as required for
freight trains.
In the western States there is a large supply of
bituminous coal, some of which is of very good
quality, but a large portion is inferior and will
only be used from  necessity; and this necessity
will, no doubt, bring much of it into use in the




176            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
prairie districts, where wood is scarce; and the
engines must be adapted to use the fuel that can be
obtained with the greatest economy. There are many
railways in this country situated so that they can
purchase good wood, delivered at their stations for
$1 50 to $2 50 per cord; in such cases, coal will not
supersede wood, except in those localities that furnish a good article at a low price. The engineer
will see that the question of fuel to be used in
engines, will depend on the price and relative
quality at which the different kinds can be obtained,
for the locality to be provided for.




COACHES AND CARS.              1 17
CHAPTER XIV.
COACHES AND  CARS.
THE trains used in England for railway vehicles
are, namely, wagons, for such as are adapted to
freight, and coaches, for those adapted to passengers.
In this country the term  car has generally been
adopted for all railway vehicles, though to some extent the term coach has been used for passenger cars.
The term car has the advantage of brevity, and of
signifying a vehicle adapted to a railway, as contradistinguished from the vehicles of ordinary roads.
If we adopt the term coach, for passengers, it must
have the prefix of railway, to distinguish it from
coaches used on common roads, so we do not abbreviate or cut off the prefix by this term; the prefix
is necessary in either case, to hold the distinction
between vehicles adapted to freight, and those for
passengers on the railway. If the term coach be
adopted, then to make the distinction complete, it
must be railway coach; and in the other, or American term, passenger car; between these there is




178            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
little to choose for brevity in writing, and one may
be considered as easy of pronunciation as the other.
In the ordinary intercourse of the operations, in
using the term  coach for passenger, the railway
prefix would be omitted, whereas, in the term car,
the prefix of passenger must be used; the advantage, therefore, of brevity and convenience in the
parlance of the station, is in favor of coach. The
term car, if applied exclusively to freight vehicles,
has the advantage of sufficient distinction from
other railway vehicles, and from those on common
roads. If, therefore, the term coach is applied to
vehicles for the conveyance of passengers, and the
term car to those for freight, baggage, etc., we shall
secure terms, expressive, and of the greatest brevity
and convenience for the use of the operatives on
the railway, and shall lose nothing in writing. The
full terms will then be, railway coach, freight car,
baggage car, platform  car, cattle car, gravel car,
and hand car. All, except the coach, are in general
use in this country, and as before observed, to some
extent, this is also used.  These terms will be
adopted in the following remarks on this branch of
the subject, as best calculated to serve general convenience, and not inconsistent with usage.
Railway coaches and cars were formerly fourwheeled vehicles, and this was the general practice




COACHES AND CARS.            179
down to 1838. Shortly previous to this date, the plan
of eight-wheeled coaches and cars began to be introdluced in this country, and they are now in genera]
use for both freight and passenger traffic. It will
require no labor to show that the plan was simply a
duplication of the truck of the locomotive engine,
then, and for several years previous, in successful
operation, The truck that would work successfully
for the leaders of an engine, could not fail to work
for a car; and if it worked for leaders, there could
be no doubt it would work equally well for the
hind, or trailing end of the car. In this way two
trucks were adapted to take the place of two pair
of wheels, supporting the upper frame at both ends,
in the same way as the truck supported the forward
end of the engine. Such a coach or car, it was
easy to see, would run equally well in either direction. The frame of the coach or car, resting on the
centre of the truck, would secure to its motion
the same advantage of steadiness, that it gave the
engine, and the same facilities for easy and safe
working on curve lines of rail. From.its action, as
described on engines, it will be perceived, that the
truck may be made so as to pass curves with the
greatest ease and safety that is attainable.  The
ends of a four-wheeled car, extending about as
much from the bearing point on the axle, as the




180           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
axles were from each other, produced at the ends
of the frame, double the amount of vertical and
horizontal vibration that occurred at the wheels, or
bearing point on the rail; whereas, in the truck
arrangement, the motion of the main frame at the
point where it rests on the centre of the truck (near
the end of the main frame) is only half as much as
that due to the motion of the truck wheels, thereby
reducing the horizontal and vertical motions of the
end of the frame to a trifle over one quarter of
what they were in the four-wheeled arrangement.
The four-wheeled coach was made for the seating
of eighteen to twenty-four passengers. The eightwheeled coach was originally made for seating
thirty-six to forty persons, and has been increased
in size to provide for seventy-two; but the general
rule at this time is to provide for sixty seats.
Coaches have been made with six-wheeled trucks,
and some of this kind are now in use, but they are
not generally regarded with favor, and very few
railway managers adopt them. The four-wheeled
truck is more simple, has less friction, and meets
every requirement that is desirable.  The only
thing gained by the six-wheeled truck, is more
wheels, and the capacity for a larger coach, which I
do not consider economical in the working of the
railway. The four-wheeled truck is a very simple




COACHES AND CARS.             181
machine, and is adapted to produce the best motion,
with the least friction, and admits the form that
will traverse curve rails with the greatest ease and
safety. It admits as large a coach as is wanted.
with the least number and weight of wheels required to secure its peculiar advantagss; and may
be made to reduce the pressure on the rail, by
reducing the coach to the same capacity as the
four-wheeled coach.
Large coaches are regarded by some persons
as more safe for passengers than small ones. No
doubt a strong coach is safer than a weak one;
and a large coach is necessarily' weaker than a
small one, if its weight is in the simple proportion of the relative sizes. To make a large coach
as safe as a small one, its weight and strength
must be in geometrical instead of direct proportion. The danger of injury from accidents, arises
mostly from the momentum of the train, and the
question is, what size of coaches in the train will
experience a sudden check to the momentum the
most severely. If there was but one coach in the
train, and that of the size of five ordinary coaches,
the momentum  would all be in that one coach,
and the whole action would be instantaneous; but
if the train was in five coaches, they would all be
separated a few inches, and the first coach, at the




182            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
instant of meeting an obstruction, would only act by
its own momentum, and the second, as it came up,
would first act on its buffer springs, which would
modify its force, and between the instant of time
and the action of the buffer springs, the momentum
would be somewhat checked; and so to the last
coach, the joints, the small separation, and the
action of the buffer springs, would reduce the momentum of the train by dividing its power. It is,
therefore, obvious that small coaches tend to check
or to ameliorate the force of momentum, and thereby
reduce the severity of its action and the danger to
the train.
When the eight-wheeled coaches were first introduced, it was believed, that in cases of accident,
they were not as liable to overset as the small fourwheeled coaches, which I think was true at that
time; but as speed has increased, it is quite common for them  to be upset, in accidents by which
they are thrown from the track, and the roof and
floor badlybroken up. If the coach, large or small,
when thrown from the track, is strong enough to
resist breaking up, there is not usually much personal injury to passengers.  There is, doubtless, a
medium for the size of coach that is most safe, and
I think a forty-seated coach is as good, and quite as
likely to be safe as any larger size.




COACHES AND CARS.             183
In England, and generally in Europe, the managers adhere to the single frame in coaches and cars,
not having adopted the double frame, or truck plan.
In their railway coaches they have generally spread
their wheels further apart, so as to reduce the motion at the ends. It will appear obvious, that the
close gearing of the wheels in coaches, produced an
action at the ends of the frame, similar to that
which has been described as unfavorable in locomotive engines. The coach wheels were originally
about four and a half feet apart from centres, in a
longitudinal direction. This distance was gradually extended until it reached ten feet, in fourwheeled coaches; and finally, the third pair of
wheels was introduced, and the extreme wheels
spread to twelve and fourteen feet. This plan materially reduced the motion at the ends of the coach;
but it is subject to the objection of increased friction on the rail, and cannot be as safe in its adherence to the track, on the curved parts of the rail.
For reasons before stated in regard to engines, the
end motion of a single frame must be greater than
when the main frame rests on the centre of a truck
frame; and if the English coach had no auxiliary
means to steady its motion, it would be a much
worse riding coach than the American; but the
English have adopted a very good plan to steady




18-4           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
the coach, by means of a right and left couplingscrew, which draws the coaches to a close bearing
on their excellent buffer springs, which greatly controls the vibratory motion caused by the inequalities
of the rail. The passenger on a fast train very soon
discovers whether or not the buffers are properly
screwed up; in fact, the motion would be extremely
unpleasant if the coach was left to act without any
means of this sort to control the vibratory motion.
With all the aid of this device, this motion, at
points where the rail is not in good line, or when
entering on a curve, is very sharp and unpleasant,
even on their best lines of railway. If the same
excellence was given to the springs of the American railway coach (both bearing and buffer) that is
given to the English, the former would ride much
more pleasantly than the latter. The decided superiority of the English springs go far to make up for
the advantages the American coach derives from
its truck arrangement.
The English railway coach with six wheels has
four apartments for passengers, with six seats each
for first-class coaches, and eight seats for secondclass coaches, or respectively 24 and 32 passengers
for each coach. The body of the first-class coach is
about 22 feet long, and of the second class coach
about 20 feet long; or the latter is about half the




COACHES AND CARS.            185
length of the American sixty-seated coach. It does
not appear from  the experience of English and
American railway travelling that any increased
safety is secured to passengers by large coaches.
On the continent of Europe, American railway
coaches on the truck principle have been introduced to a limited extent: I believe they are mostly
used on the Russian railways, and very few in other
parts of Europe. In this country they have superseded (except for the horse railways of cities) all
others, and undoubtedly possess advantages superior to any other now in use. But in their detail.
there is room for improvement. The truck arrangement undoubtedly adds something to the weight of
the coach, as there must be the truck frames, which
are an addition to the main frame; but this disadvantage is more than compensated by its superior
ease of motion and traction, and its ease to the rail
and machinery; and considering the facility of increasing the number of wheels, it is quite practicable to make a coach for a given number of passengers on the truck plan, with less weight on each
wheel than on the old plan; and as railway science
improves, and the influence of the weight on the
wheel comes to be duly considered, the truck arrangement will be found to possess great advantages in the economy of railway management.




186             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
As before mentioned, the English railway coach
spring is excellent; the American spring is far inferior to it. The latter is too short to afford the
soft motion that is desirable both for the comfort
of the passengers and the durability of the coach
and the track. This has arisen in part from the
erroneous short gearing of the truck, not allowing
room for the proper length of spring. The short
gearing was an early error, growing out of the supposed necessity of running most favorably on curved
rails, which is gradually giving way to a better
rule. With a truck geared with its wheels five and
a half feet from centres, the spring may be much
improved, and the truck made safe and steady.
We have gone largely into india rubber as a
material for railway coach-springs; a material better calculated for a bouncing motion than for the
legitimate wants of a coach-spring, and as the practice is now getting out of favor, it is hoped it may
be soon laid aside, and steel, the best article now
known, be wholly substituted. There are several
points in which a soft, easy spring is important in
coaches run at high speed: First, it is more easy
and agreeable to the passenger; secondly, At reduces the wear and tear of the coach; and, thirdly,
it saves all its cost in the wear and tear of track.
The weight of the railway coach has gone up from




COACHES AND CARS.            1 8
14,000 pounds to 21,000 pounds, and this great
weight at high speed renders it highly important to
secure the best springs that can reasonably be
made.
As before stated, the American railway coach is
usually designed for 60 passengers-the English
taking their second-class six-wheeled coach for 32
passengers. The former carry seven and a half
passengers on a wheel, and the latter five and a half
passengers on a wheel. Comparing the American
with the first-class English coach, the former carry
seven and a half and the latter four passengers on a
wheel.  The American has cast iron wheels and
the English wrought iron wheels. It has been observed, that the American coach, owing to its truckframe, has greater elements of weight than the
English coach; but the latter is notwithstanding
about the same weight per seat as the former; and
being shorter, is much stronger and better able to
resist crushing in a collision. While the English
coach is about the same weight per passenger as
the American, the wheel of the first-class English
coach carriesfour passengers, and the wheel of the
American coach carries seven and a half passengers, or nearly double the number on a cast iron
wheel than the English coach carries on a wrought
iron wheel of about equal weight. Cast iron is not




188            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
used in English coaches in any part requiring
strength; even the jaws on the frame for steadying
the bearing springs are of wrought iron, instead of
cast iron, as in ours. Wrought iron, if it fail, is not
like last iron, liable to sudden rupture, but usually
gives warning sufficient to guard against actual
failure, and is therefore a much safer material. As
evidence of the anxiety in this respect of the managers of American railways, it may often be noticed
at stopping-places that men pass round the train
with hammers, sounding the wheels in order to discover if they have received on the journey any
checks not discoverable by the eye; a practice that
cannot be neglected with prudence. Now, a material that requires so much watching should not be
used for high speed if a better or safer can be had
at reasonable cost-if indeed at any cost. But it is
doubtful if cast iron wheels are any cheaper, except
in first cost; and this extra first cost, it is believed,
is compensated by superior durability; and if the
damage by accidents caused by the breaking of
cast iron wheels be taken into account, there can be
no doubt the wrought iron is the cheapest wheel in
the end, and far more satisfactory as to safety.
The American railway coach has no cross parti
tions, and generally no doors in the sides; it has a
passage longitudinally through the centre through




COACHES AND CARS.            189
which the passengers pass to the seats on either
side, and thus requires the body of the coach to be
of an extra width equal to the width of the passage,
which is an element of weakness, especially as it
can have no cross support between the ends, except
what it has in the roof and floor. There being no
doors in the sides, adds to the strength in this part,
and goes to compensate for the want of cross partitions, and if the coach was not unreasonably long
and wide, would balance the want of cross support.
The English coach is divided by cross partitions,
inclosing two rows of cross seats in each division or
apartment, which gives good facility for combining
the floor and roof, but has the weakening effect of
side doors, and if the body was very long, like the
American coach, this would be a serious objection
to its strength. But as it is only half as long as the
American, and the body supported at three points
instead of two, it must on the whole be regarded
for equal material a stronger coach, and less liable
to break up by collision. It cannot, however, be
recommended to put partitions and their necessary
appendages, side doors, in the long American coach;
the strength of this coach is very dependent on its
sides, and if the long beams were not supported by
the deep side plank under the windows, they woun 
require to be very heavy and well trussed with




1.90           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
iron. It has been noticed that the English coach
is about the same weight per passenger, while its
plan has less elements of weight than the American; and that the former carries but little more
than half the weight of passenger per wheel that is
carried by the latter; that the former use wrought
iron as a material where the latter use cast iron.
These circumstances, with the general superiority
of their track and police, sufficiently account for the
greater safety of English railway travelling.
The plan of the American railway coach  is
adapted to at least an equal degree of safety. It
has the objection of some additional weight to provide for its truck frame. Its motion is more favorable for the track, the coach and the passenger; and
by its eight wheels may be, for a given number of
passengers, lighter on the rail and more favorable
for its durability; with bearing springs equal to
those of the English coach, it would have superior
ease of motion. It is, however, obvious from the
general practice in this country, that these advantages have not been fully secured. There has been
a taste for a large railway coach early inculcated
and very generally perpetuated in our railway history. The prevalent idea seems to have been that
a large coach gives importance to a railway, and
little consideration has been given to the mechanical




COACHES AND CARS.              191
principles, or the true economy involved in this
question.  I think the most prominent claim of late
for a large coach is that it is more safe; a position
I regard as untenable.  As before observed, the
safety of a railway coach depends materially on its
strength.  A long coach body, having no interior
cross supports, is necessarily more likely to crush in
a collision than a short one having the same sized
timbering.  A coach body resting on its two ends
is subject to the same laws of strength as a bridge;
and it is fully appreciated that a bridge of long
span, or length between supports, requires its scantling to be stronger in proportion to a short one, as
the squares of their respective lengths; and hence
a coach body 40 feet long between supports requires
four times the strength to sustain the same weight
that would be required for one of 20 feet between
supports; and in this case, the strength must be
further augmented to provide for a double weight,
as the large coach is mde double length for the
purpose of carrying double the load. The influence
of momentum has been noticed; it has been shown
that the large coaches will feel its influence more
severely than the small ones, and are more exposed
to be broken up in a collision. ~No doubt, there is
a size of coach that is most convenient for use-a
size that best meets all the wants to be provided




192            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
for. In this must be considered safety, cost, convenience of ingress and  egress for passengers,
facility of seats, handling at stations, and the traction of the coach. All these points can be better
secured by a coach of 40 seats than one of 60
seats. I am well aware that railway men in this
country will generally dissent from this view, for I
have often discussed the question with many of
them, and know the tenacity with which they adhere to large coaches, though I have yet to learn
one single argument worthy of consideration that
has been urged in their favor. The folly of hauling
a house, with an audience-room capable of seating
60 people, through the country at the rate of 40
to 50 miles per hour, and calling it a vehicle for
travelling, does not seem to have entered the general
mind of railway managers.
Cars for freight have had a similar history as that
described for coaches. The eight-wheeled, or truck
principle, was adopted in this country for cars about
the same time as for coaches; and has much the
same advantages over the old four-wheeled railway
wagon previously in use. The English adhere to
the old single frame arrangement, and, I believe,
generally with four wheels instead of six, as in their
more modern coaches.  They have spread  the
wheels longitudinally, from about four feet apart to




COACHES AND CARS.             193
six and eight feet apart. If it be, as it undoubtedly
Is, an advantage to reduce the weight on the wheel,
as well as to secure other advantages, eight wheels
are certainly better than four; and in regard to
freight, not requiring high speed, it is difficult to
see the reason that prevents English engineers from
adopting the truck plan. As in coaches, we have
generally adopted the truck principle in cars-; but
though we have, as I think, the best principle of
construction, we have not made a wise improvement
of it; for, instead of improving the opportunity of
lessening the weight on the wheel, we have increased the load, so that no advantage in this respect is gained. Our cars are usually designed for
ten tons of freight-; and the car will weigh from
seven to eight tons. On a few coal railways:they
have used eight-wheeledcars, that carry a load-of
three and a half to four tons, the weight of.empty
cars from one and a quarter to one and a half tons,;
but these are exceptions to the general practice,
though they have been in successful use twenty
years, and have resulted from superior engineering
and management.  The general tone of opinion
among railway managers has been in favor of large
cars as well as coaches. It seems to have been the
prevailing idea, that the car should be as large as
possible. The true question here involved is, un9




194             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
doubtedly, the car that will afford the means ot
cheapest transport. If the car furnish suitable accommodation to the freight carried, and is convenient for management, the essential requisites are'provided for. The large cars are necessarily more
severe on the track-causing greater derangement
and wear than small ones; this must be obvious to
the least consideration.  The argument, claiming
greater safety in large cars, is not tenable for coaches,
and much less so for cars, not having even a plausible basis to rest on. No doubt there is a size of
cars as well as coaches, best fitted for the service
they are to perform. The car should be of sufficient
size to permit convenient stowage of the freight
generally transported. It is not incumbent, nor
good economy, to provide, in the general plan, for
those occasional pieces of freight that may be offered
a few times in the course of a year; it should provide for the articles that constitute the great mass
of the traffic. On the English railways, where there
is as much necessity for this provision as here, they
conduct all their traffic on cars ranging from twelve
to fifteen feet long, and do not seem to feel any embarrassment.  They transport live stock of every
variety, and in large numbers; and the ease and
facility of handling the cars at their stations, greatly
impressed me when witnessing their operations.




COACHES ANL CARS.            1 9.
If it be said, that it is at times necessary to transport long timber, or other article requiring a longer
and larger car, let there be a suitable number
adapted to this object, if it appear a branch of
traffic that will warrant the expense. It would cer:
tainly be bad economy to incur extra expense on
one hundred cars, that any one of them may be
adapted to some peculiar form of freight requiring
only the capacity of one. But there would not
generally be one car-load of this kind of exceptional
freight in a thousand, that would not be sufficiently
provided for in cars well adapted to the general
traffic.
Having been long convinced of the impolicy of
large freight cars, some years since I proposed to
stock a new railway with cars eighteen feet long for
covered and twenty-one feet long for platforms;
and contracts were made accordingly, and continued
until about two hundred cars were placed upon the
railway. The cars were satisfactory to the men
who managed them-they were lighter in proportion to their useful load —more easily moved about
the station by hand (of which more or less is always
necessary), requiring less than half the force to
handle them-no inconvenience was experienced in
stowing freight-less labor was required in loading
and unloading grain-they carried a greater per



].96           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
centage of useful load in the train, and in collisions
were less injured than large cars, and the practical
operation was satisfactory in every respect. But
the directors of the company thought it would not
do to; have small cars, when. other railways had
large; alleging that itwould give their railway a
diminutive character, and injure the stock in the
market; and, contrary to my advice, made contracts
for as large cars as were in use on other railways.
Against this, for a time, I remonstrated, urging.
that the small cars wereworking very satisfactorily,
and- that the value of the capital stock would depend on the net money that would be earned, rather
than on the size of cars used, and that perseverance
would show the true interest of the proprietors, as
affected by the size of cars. In reply, says one of
the directors, " What do we care for the value of
the stock- twenty years hence:?"  I mention this,
merely to show the short-sighted policy that often
controls railway management.
Little as the subject regarding the weight of machinery has been considered, there is no one that
more intimately concerns the economy of railway
management. This cannot fail to impress the engineer who carefully examines the mechanical principles involved, and the result of railway practice.
No superficial attention will prove a corrective; it




COACHES AND CARS.           197
must be thorough, careful, practical, and laborious,
to reach a beneficial result. The wants of the traffic
must be well studied; as they are to be provided for,
and the traffic to be extended to new items, as fast
as they may pay remunerative rates. This settled,
and the important question follows, what sort of
machinery will afford the means of doing it in the
most economical manner?
In relation to coaches and cars, the question does
not involve any difficulty when regarded in view
of well known principles, and their proper adaptation to the use required. A coach of 40 seats is
quite as convenient for making up a train as one
for 60 seats. If a greater number are required for
the train, they are as easily moved if in train; and
if single, they may be moved more easily in correspondence to their capacity, and this is important
so far as the movement is required by manual
labor. The ingress and egress of passengers is in
favor of the small coach; it may be lighter in proportion to the load carried, and it will often be
sufficient for the fraction of a train; in which case
it will serve all the purpose of a larger coach.
Where, then, is the superiority of the large over the
small coach which is to compensate for its more expensive maintenance? I have not been able to see
it, though the large coach is adhered to with all the




198            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
tenacity of "red tape.'" Some excuse it on account
of the spring or elasticity of the long body, and
claim  that it rides more easily for the passenger
than the shorter body. This is an admission that
it is weaker than the short one, and, of course, so
far less safe, as it could have no more spring if it
was equally rigid. Now the body of a coach should
be made so as to give it the requisite strength; and
the springs should be under it, not in it. The truth
is, the spring of the larger body arises from  its
weakness between supports, and the greater elasticity is not an object, but a mechanical necessity,
arising from the desire to avoid the weight of scantling, that would be required to give it the same degree of strength that appertains to the more rigid
frame of the short coach; and hence the resort to
iron trussing in the body of the large coach to improve its stiffness, not its elasticity.
In regard to cars, there is nothing gained, even
in convenience, in carrying from two to two and a
half tons on a wheel, over such as may carry one
and a quarter to one and a half tons, car and load
included.
The real difficulty in this matter is the habit, that
has become very general on railways, of using large
cars and coaches. To remove this is no easy task,
and considerable time must elapse before the ill



COACHES AND CAS.            199
founded prejudice can be removed; and the engi,
neer who may appreciate this subject will find it
necessary to proceed cautiously with any changes
he may desire to make; and to keep in mind that
he will be opposed by men who have influence,
although they do not comprehend the principles
involved. From long observation and much reflection, I am satisfied of the substantial truth of the
position I have taken, and that sooner or later it
must come to be properly considered. Though I
look appropriately to the professional efforts of civil
engineers for improvement in this department, it
must not be expected that all engineers will meet
the requirements of the case. I have seen the
regular daily operation of passenger trains on an
important railway, under the advice. of an engineer
of extra profession of scientific claims, drawn by an
engine of 20 tons weight, with two coaches nearly
half filled with passengers, over a soft, unballasted
prairie railway; the bouncing of the coach such as
to alarm passengers not accustomed to this kind
of travelling, and even to try the nerves of others.
The discomfort of this sort of travelling is obvious,
as the difficulty, or rather impossibility, in wet
weather, of keeping the track in order, and the
damage to the machinery, must correspond to its
weight and the roughness of the track, and the net




200           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
profits of this kind of management, if anything,
must be very small. An engine of less than half
the weight, and coaches of scarcely more than half
the weight, would have performed the service perfectly, and so reduced the weight on the rail, that
the expense of adjustment would be comparatively
small, and the whole machinery kept in order at
less than half the expense.
I have seen the operations of a railway that had
no heavy business, either in freight or passengers,
and the daily passenger train rarely containing
more than one coach, and this drawn by a 20 ton
engine.  The little Saratoga engine, before described, weighing less than seven tons, would have
taken in suitable coaches double the number of
passengers, at the rate of 25 miles per hour, at half
the expense incurred by this inconsiderate practice;
and yet no one engaged in the management in
either of the cases above mentioned seemed to suspect any want of sound economy. The practice
arises, not from any inherent difficulty, but from
the absence of careful thought, and from a ready
yielding to careless and ill-advised habits.
On single track railways, there is an advantage
on account of the inconvenience that may arise in
a heavy traffic of too great a number of trains in
having as much power in the engines as is compati



COACHES AND CARS.            201
ble with a due regard to economy in other respects;
and this will often lead to pressing the weight of
engines beyond the best limit, and must be admitted to be some excuse for the practice. But
this does not apply to the coaches and cars generally, for whatever be the amount of traffic supposable on a railway, the most favorable size of the
coach will be essentially as good for a large as for a
small traffic; and freight may be transported to
any amount on a six-ton, eight-wheeled car, cheaper
than it can on a larger one.
It is claimed by some that large cars are best
for transporting live stock. Why are they better?
Will the stock be more safe? The safest plan would
be to have but one animal in a place; then there
would be no other to injure it; and injury from
each other is admitted to be the main source of
damage, consequently the greater number together,
the greater the risk. The English carry a large
amount of every description of live stock in their 14
feet cars, and have not learned their inconvenience.
I have not yet learned a valid reason for the imagined superiority of large over small cars for live
stock, unless it be that when a car is once placed
for receiving them, it would be more convenient to
drive a whole train-load on, and save the trouble
of changing cars in the process.
9*




202            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
The constructing engineer should carefully consider the traffic he is to provide for, and aim, so
far as he may have the power, at securing such
machinery as will effect the most economical transport; and in this, I am well aware, he will find
much prejudice. It is nevertheless highly important, and by degrees, the necessity of more strict
economy will compel attention to this branch of
railway management. On railways of large traffic,
at good rates, the necessity will more slowly develop itself, but on those of light traffic, this attention to a more thorough scrutiny into expenses cannot long be delayed, and engineers should give this
branch of supervision their most careful and diligent attention; bearing in mind, that it is not the
largest machinery that should be run on a railway,
but that which will afford the best net profit on the
traffic they conduct.




OPERATING DEPARTMENT-INTRODUCTORY.  203
CIAPTER XV.
OPERATING DEPARTMENT-INTRODUCTORY.
THE term operating has come to be understood as
expressing the business of maintaining the railway
and machinery and conducting the traffic.
In the general practice there is placed at the head
of this department a superintendent, with subordinate agents to attend to the various branches of
business. The subordinates are more or less varied,
according to the magnitude of the traffic conducted.
On prominent railways there are often assistant
superintendents, who, under the general instructions
of the superintendent, exercise his authority in his
absence. On some railways a civil engineer is employed; but his branch of duty has not been, so far
as I know, a very important one, in the operating
department. There is a freight department, and a
passenger department; an auditor and a cashier;
or in some form their equivalents.
The superintendent directs in regard to all repairs
of track and machinery, and for this purpose employs track-masters, and a master machinist; also




204             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
constructs time-tables for the running of trains, employs conductors for running them, station agents,
clerks, wood and water men, watchmen and switchmen. The auditor and cashier are not properly
under the supervision of the superintendent, but
receive their appointment from tlle board of Directors, and are responsible directly to the President
or Treasurer.
The first business of operating a railway is to
organize the conducting of the traffic, which must
be immediately followed by the organization of a
system for repairs and maintenance.
At the head of the freight department there is
sometimes placed a general freight agent, but in
others a chief clerk has the charge of the accounting duties under the direction of the auditor.  If
the former, it is usual for the general freight agent,
under the direction of the superintendent, not only
to attend to and supervise the freight traffic, but to
make contracts for freight and perform other outside
duties in this branch; in the latter case, these duties
are mnore or less committed to the local agents at the
stations, under the general direction of the superintendent.
The head of the passenger department is styled
the general passenger agent. He keeps the accounts
with all persons authorized to sell tickets, and




OPERATING DlEPARTMIENT-INTRODUCTORY.  205
receives the reports of the passenger conductors,
also keeps the accounts with connecting railways
in the sale of through tickets, which has become
an extensive practice, and involves corresponding
accounts.




206            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER XVI.
OPERATING-FREIGHT
ON important railways, the freight department
requires thorough system in the accounts. If strict
attention is not given, so as to present full and explicit statements of the numerous parcels of goods
received, forwarded, and delivered, confusion and
loss will occur. The accounting duty of the freight
department is by far the largest in railway operations, and demands the most careful and strict
attention. In the early history of this business
there was much confusion. Persons who had been
employed in the ordinary methods of transportation by vessels and common roads, were often found
quite inadequate to the rapid transaction required
on a railway. One of the difficulties arose from
the effort to make complete bills for lots that were
distributed in several cars of the train. This has
for some time been abandoned, and bills are made
for each car, without reference to the particular lots
to which they belong, at the same time aiming to




OPERATING-FREIGHT.             207
keep lots together so far as may be. The goods for
any particular station are usually placed by themselves in one or more cars, and such car or cars are
left with their bills of lading at their destined station, to be unloaded and delivered by the station
agent, who is held responsible for the charge and
the proper delivery of the goods. If small lots of
goods are to be sent to several stations, they are
sent by a distributing car, and delivered to the
respective stations from the train, which must stop
a sufficient time to unload them at the stations.
From the office of shipment a copy of the bill of
lading is sent to the auditor, who charges the agent
at the office of destination with the same. By this
means the auditor's books show the accounts of the
station agents, who are required to make daily
reports to him of their cash receipts, and transmit
the funds they collect to the cashier, or other fiscal
officer. This makes the check complete; the auditor's accounts showing how much should be paid in
by the agent, and the amount received by the
cashier, and he is at all times able to show the
Treasurer of the Company, or the board of Directors, the amount of funds that may be transmitted
or paid over.
The station or other receiving agent may not collect the charges immediately, in which case his




208            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
reports state the amount of goods on hand, and the
charges due on the same. Occasionally, there will
be lots of goods remaining for considerable time
before called for by the consignee; and so far
as not called for, the agent cannot collect the
charges, and must report " goods on hand." If the
agent improperly choose to keep the funds he has
collected, he may do so by false returns as to goods
on hand; and if suspicion of this arise, the auditor
should send an agent to examine the goods on hand,
and if he find the goods have been delivered he
will know the agent has made false reports, and the
correction may be promptly applied. With proper
diligence on the part of the auditor no great loss
can occur.
The conductor of a train has what is called a
train list of the cars in his train, setting forth the
number that are to be left at the several stations,
and as he leaves the cars, takes a receipt for the
same from the station agent, which is his voucher
for their proper disposition; and if from any accident he is compelled to leave a car before it reaches
its destination, he reports it at once to the office of
the station where it was loaded and billed, and also
to the general office, where means are taken to send
it forward to its destination. In addition to the
train list, the conductor usually carries the bills of




OPERATING-FREIGHT.            209
the goods in his train, that are made to the station
to which they are due, and these with the cars he
delivers to the station agent. In some instances,
the bills are sent forward by a passenger train, and
received by the agent before the goods arrive: in
some instances it has been the practice to send forward the train before the bills were made out; in
such case the bills follow, and may not arrive until
after the goods reach their destination. It is a bad
practice and leads to embarrassment in the delivery
of goods, and should not be tolerated.
The freight business is now so well organized,
that losses seldom occur from stray goods, and the
mode of checking appears to be complete.




210            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER  XVII.
OPERATING -PASSENGER S.
IN the passenger department, the accounts are
kept by the general passenger agent, who supplies
from his office tickets to all persons authorized to
sell them, and the checks in this department, so far
as relates to ticket agents, are complete. Deception
can hardly be practised except by collusion with a
third party.
The conductors of the passenger train report tn
the general passenger agent, and there has not been
found any means of checking him for the collections he makes in the coaches, except so far as it
has and may be done by espionage.  In consequence of this difficulty most railway companies
offer inducements to passengers to procure tickets
at the offices by allowing a discount of 5 to
10 cents on a ticket, This induces a largely increased purchase of the ticket agents; but there is
a considerable amount still collected in the coaches
by the conductor, which is consequently dependent
on the integrity of his return, I know of no means




OPERATING-   SSENGERS.         211
to wholly remove the difficulty arising from this
want of a check on the conductors.
On English railways most of the stations are inclosed, and the passengers on leaving and usually
on entering the station, must in the former case
give up, and in the latter show their ticket; but
there is nothing to prevent the ticket collector from
taking the fare, and if the passenger has no ticket,
the integrity of the collector must be relied on, to
account for the money. In large towns a different
course is pursued: about one mile from the station,
a ticket collector gets on the train and collects the
tickets, the train being delayed time enough for this
purpose. Here the collector occasionally finds a
passenger without a ticket, and I have seen a collector in such a case collect the fare for the distance
given by the passenger, without remark, and have
concluded it not to be a rare occurrence. Of course
the return of such a collector can have no more
check than that of a conductor. The English are
very watchful of the entry of passengers into the
coaches; but in the large towns I have seen no
great difficulty in a passenger getting into the
coach of a making-up train; the passage from the
ticket-office to the coach shed being open and often
without a doorkeeper, affording no impediment to
his entering the coach, and if asked when in the




212            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
coach if he had a ticket, was seldom  required
to show it, the man engaged in seating the passengers usually being content with the word of the
passenger. I have known instances in which passengers had no tickets, but paid fare to the collector
at the large town station. Though the English
system does not appear to be complete, I think a
much greater proportion of fare is paid at the offices
than on our railways. If the English system required, in the case of a passenger not having a
ticket, that he should go to the ticket-office and obtain one before he could pass the gate either out or
in, and not allow either gatekeeper or collector to
take fare in any case, it would seem to render the
check complete.  This would require the same
practice at the terminal and other large stations, as
at the smaller ones. I have supposed the practice
of sending a collector before entering the large
towns, was introduced to avoid delay to the passengers, who take carriages in the station-yard; and
so long as it prevails, the system of checks must be
imperfect. If the English system was carried out
as above suggested, it would not allow a fare paid,
except to a ticket agent, and the collector would be
merely a collector of tickets. Some effort has been
made in this country to pass the entering passengers through a gate or door, and there requiring




OPERATING  PASSENGERS.         213
them to show their tickets before they pass into the
station, and I have often gone on a train directly
from such a station, and seen the conductor quite
busy in receiving fare from  those who had no
tickets. The fact is, it often'happens that a crowd
is collected around the doorkeeper, and passengers
have some delay in finding their tickets, and with
sundry items of hand baggage, and sometimes
(often) infants, and children but little more advanced, causes delay and impatience, offering inducement and opportunity for others to crowd the
passage, and more or less pass without showing,
and without even having tickets to show.
I see no effective mode of forming a check on the
passenger receipts, without complete inclosures, so
arranged that no person can go into the car-shed or
yard of the station ground, without passing a door
or gate arranged with one or more openings, and a
tender at each, so that no greater number need pass
any tender than he could examine and see that
they had tickets; for most stations one passage
would be sufficient; and the arrangement would
require to be extended to all stations where passengers were received. There would still be one source
of evasion; namely, a passenger may procure a
ticket for the next station, and continue on to a
more distant station. The conductor would, of




214            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
course, detect him; but how is the fare to be collected beyond the station ticketed? If the conductor collect, as is the present custom, then the
check on this fare is lost. To carry out the system,
the passenger should be treated as one that refused
to pay his fare, when ne extended his passage beyond the station ticketed, and put )ff the train, unless he could satisfactorily explain to the conductor
the fact of not possessing a ticket, and would agree to
procure a ticket at the next station. But who is to
control the conductor in such a case, if he choose to
take the fare, and allow the passenger to proceed
on the train? As the conductor is the only man of
authority on the train, from the beginning to the
end of his route, no direct check can be had on his
proceedings with a passenger on the way, although
there would be an indirect check in the fact becoming generally known that the conductor was not in
any case allowed to receive fare. The fact of receiving it would thus be likely to attract the notice of
passengers, and hazard a report that would bring
the conductor to an account. This might not, in all
cases, be a protection, but it would be a salutary
check.
If, upon any plan, the exit gate be used as in
England, to insure the full collection of fare, the
tender should not be allowed to take fare from any




OPERATING-PASSENGERS.           215
jelinquent passenger; his business should be confined to the collection of checks or tickets, and if
that is wanting, the passenger should be required
to procure it at the ticket-office. The exit gate is
objectionable at large stations, and hence the English railways only adopt it at the secondary stations,
and depend on a collector at the large stations, as
before explained; and on the collector there is no
check, any more than on a conductor.
It must be conceded that the crowd and hurry
that occur at important stations, in making up
trains, and more especially at the breaking up of
the train at terminal stations, involve a difficulty
in any system that can be relied on as a perfect
check.  The entrance  gate is the  most easily
guarded, and if this part were well arranged, there
would be but a small exposure to loss. It involves
the necessity of receiving the baggage at or near
the ticket-office, in order to save the passengers
from  delay and confusion, in attending to both
ticket and baggage checks. It is often the practice
to allow friends to pass the gate with passengers,
with a view to see them seated in the coaches; this
is obviously an error, and should not be allowed on
account of its liability to abuse.  With proper
arrangement of inclosure and gates, very nearly all
the fare will be collected at the ticket-offices; and




216            KAILWAY PROPERTY.
if the conductor and all collectors of tickets were
prohibited, in all cases, from taking fare, making it
the duty of the former to require any delinquent
passenger to go to the office of the next station and
procure his ticket; or failing to satisfy him that he
had a fair excuse for his delinquency, to put him
off the train, as is now done if payment is refused,
would leave but a small deficiency in checking the
passenger receipts. No system  can be safe from
collusion; but this is a far more difficult practice
under a plan like this proposed, and with proper
care in the selection of agents, no great or material
delinquency will be likely to occur.
In all business involving trusts, the importance
of a system  of complete checks in reports and
accounts is very obvious; to both parties it is beneficial, securing to the principal full accounts of his
dues, and to the honest agent the means of showing
the fidelity of his proceedings. By the existing
practice the faithful conductor has no power to
prove his fidelity, nor the railway managers any
exact means to prove the truth of any suspicions
they may entertain, except by espionage, which is
not desirable if it can be avoided-a state of things
Dften very embarrassing to both parties; and action,
when taken, is usually based on conjecture, and in
many cases no certainty can be arrived at. The




OPERATING-PASSENGERS.            217
reports of conductors may appear fair, but as there
can be no proper check to verify their accuracy,
they afford no conclusive evidence in the case either
way, and the unfaithfulness that may be supposed
to exist, generally rests on suspicion, arising from
general indications, as habits of dissipation and expenditure, or the reputation of acquiring property
faster than is compatible with the salary received;
and these facts may or may not be known, according to the prudence of the agent in keeping them
out of the sight of those who are interested to know
them. It must be the desire of all honest conductors, that their business should be placed on a
system of the most perfect checks; and the railway
company, in order to protect themselves against
such as may be unfaithful, and be able to know
those that are trusty, should adopt the most efficient
system practicable, for securing the fidelity of their
passenger, as well as their freight receipts.  There
is, no doubt, a difficulty in attaining this end, and
it will involve considerable, though not serious, expense to prepare the stations properly, so as to meet
the requirements of any efficient system. With
faithful men for conductors, no great evil will arise
from  a partial collection in the coaches; but, as
before observed, it is a difficult, if not an impracticable thing, to discriminate between those that are,
10




21-8:RAILWAY PROPERTY.
and those that are not faithful; and therefore the
temptation, as much as possible, should be removed.
In addition to the fidelity of his fiscal duties, the
conductor has important duties in the management
of -his train. His good manners and attention to
the incidental wants of passengers will have much
to do in promoting their comfort and convenience,
especially with the infirm, and with females who
may be without an escort. He should be a man
of good sense and ready sagacity, in discovering
how he may be useful in these respects, as upon his
judgment and promptness the reputation of the
railway with the travelling public will a good deal
depend. Upon him rests mainly the responsibility
of a proper regulation of the stops of the train; to
see that due notice is given to the passengers that
they may be ready when the train stops to leave
with the least delay, and that passengers to be received are promptly got on, so that there be no
unnecessary delay of the train; for what is lost here
must be made up by increased speed between stations, which it is important to avoid. The system
of marking, registering, and checking baggage is
now so well arranged tlat the baggage-man may
have the whole assorted, and that for the next station ready to be delivered the moment the train
stops; and as that to be received is prepared by the




OPERATING-PASSENGERS.           219
station agent, ready to be handed in as soon as the
baggage-man on the train has discharged that to
be left, very little time is necessary for baggage,
and usually it can be discharged and received on
board by the time the passengers are changed. If
the train is not delayed to take on fuel and water,
the stop need not consume over a half to one minute,
according to the traffic of the station. This may
seem a small matter, but the character of the management of a railway may be determined by the
manner their stops are conducted. The baggageman and brakemen are under the supervision of
the conductor; and much depends on the promptness and judgment of the latter in stopping the
train; at all times they should be quick on the signal, and exercise discretion in stopping the train as
soon as possible, at the same time, not to cause the
wheels to slide, except in cases of danger to the
train. The engine driver is also under the supervision of the conductor to a certain extent, to see
that his duty is performed skillfully in stopping and
starting his engine-in maintaining uniformity of
speed-in entering or leaving curve lines, so as to
avoid disagreeable lateral motion to the train.
These things are not only important to the easy
motion of the train, but to the saving of repairs in
machinery and track, which are unnecessarily in



220            RATLWAY PROPERTY.
jured by the jerking motion and irregular speed
caused by an unskillful running of engines. The
conductor is the captain of the train, and if any
of the menemployed on it fail to obey his direc
tions, or transgress the regulations of the managers,
it is his duty to report the delinquent to the superintendent.
From the preceding remarks, it is obvious that
the conductor should be a man combining fidelity
with courteous manners, general intelligence, and
sound practical sense; careful to avoid danger, and
skillful to extricate his train in case of difficulty;
ne must be unknown at saloons of dissipation-an
indulgence which would inevitably impair his character for fidelity to his trust, and should be careflly avoided.




OPERATING-ENGINE DRIV ES.        221
CHAPTER XVIII.
OPERATING-ENGINE DRIVERS.
COMPETENT engine drivers are indispensable to
good railway management. A man may be a good
mechanic, and understand the machinery of the
engine well, and still be a poor driver. It is necessary that he have good judgment as to time and
speed: this is less important in running very
high than in running low speed, as the former
usually requires the full power of the engine; but
at a lower rate of speed, he will be in danger of
arriving too early or too late at the stations, or will
run too rapid a part of the time, and too slow at
others; and as it is the interest of the railway to
run the lowest speed that will answer the demands
of the traffic, all unnecessary high running is a
damage to the proprietors; and it is therefore an
object to obtain the greatest regularity in speed.
With a skillful driver, jerks are rarely felt in starting-no running past the station where a stop is to
be made, nor more breaking up than is necessary,
especially such as to slide the wheels, which is very




222            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
severe on both wheels and rails; coaches and canr
are injured by sudden starting and stopping, and
great care should be exercised to guardc against these
evils as much as possible. In passing to and from
curves in the line of track, the skill of the engine
driver is to be exercised, and will demonstrate how
well he understands the handling of his engine: if
well done, the motion will hardly be noticed, and
if ill done, a disagreeable lateral motion will result,
as may often be noticed. This is a test that few
drivers can stand well. It requires a good eye on
approaching or leaving a curve, and power and
judgment in handling the engine. I never notice
this duty well performed without a desire to express
my satisfaction to the driver, as I regard it as a
high exhibition of skill in this department.
On express passenger trains the work of the
engine driver is of short duration, and not over one
or two operations of taking on fuel and water will
occur on his route. But on way-passenger and
freight trains, stops are more numerous, and much
more time is taken to perform the route. It is of
great importance that the business at these stops be
dispatched in the least time practicable; for, as
before observed, whatever is lost in time here, must
be regained by so much increase of speed. In this
matter much will depend on the conductor, but the




OPERBATINGENGINE DRIVERS.         223
usefulness and value of a prompt and competent
engine driver is very obvious; his fuel and water
should be taken on, and his engine oiled with the
least delay, so that he may be ready to move
promptly on the signal. A freight train at the station will often have more or less cars to be taken
out, and others put in the train, all of which should
be done with the utmost promptness, to save all
possible time for appropriation to moving on the
railway. It should be the constant care of the
managers to inculcate on the engine drivers the importance of occupying as much as possible their
card time in movement on the track, and to establish
a judicious discrimination in favor of those who
most effectually discharge their duties.
The interests of railway proprietors are materially
affected by the skill and fidelity with which the
engines are run, and the very general practice of
paying the drivers all alike is incompatible with
sound management. There is an important difference between afirst-class, and afairengine driver, and
of course a greater difference between a first-class and
an ordinary driver: and though this seems to have
received very partial attention, there can be no
doubt, that a judicious system of grades, under the
supervision of a competent foreman or master
mechanic, would produce a salutary and iaudable




224            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
spirit of emulation-would give satisfaction to the
best and most competent, and show the careless and
unskillful, the necessity of effort, cultivation, and
fidelity to reach the first rank. A knowledge of
the manipulations required to start and stop, and to
perform the current operations in the ordinary work
of running an engine, is but a small part of the
accomplishment of a first-class engine driver. He
must know how to feel his engine, and apply the
power judiciously to the work required; and the
skill to do this well, is only acquired by experience
and good judgment.  The objection has been
raised, that it would not do to discriminate, and that
the attempt to establish grades of compensation and
service, would produce dissatisfaction; but clearly
not with the first class; and I can see no force in
this objection, other than appertains to any branch
of business. Certainly, a duty that involves so
much of fidelity and capacity as this, should not be
left to an indiscriminate equality in rank and pay,
treating the  best with  scarcely a consideration
above the least competent; a rule that would be
discarded as inefficient in any other branch of
responsible business. To do any business well, requires attention, firmness, and sound discretion, and
that is all that is required in this.




OPERATING-REPAIRS OF TRACK.         225
CHAPTER XIX.
OPERATING-REPAIRS OF TRACK.
THE repairs of track will require attention as soon
as the running of trains commences. If the railway
has been thoroughly constructed, these will bevery
light at first, and the running may continue for a
considerable time before the expense is great, and
will be confined mostly to the adjustment of rails,
keeping side drains clear, and fences in order. The
bridges, even if of timber, if they haye been well
constructed, will require but little attention for
some time. According to the weight of traffic, the
expenses will gradually and pretty steadily increase. It however rarely happens, that our railways are opened for use, on a thoroughly constructed work. The more general practice has been
to commence the running as soon as a train may
pass with tolerable safety-the track imperfectly
adjusted, with little or no ballast to support it —the
side ditches imperfectly opened-the approaches to
bridges indifferently secured, and station buildings
10*




226            RAILWAY PROrERTY.
more or less unfinished, even if commenced. It is
therefore obvious that the current expenses of maintenance and repairs will be, at the outset of
operating a railway like this, much greater than on
a thoroughly constructed work, without regard to
those expenses that are properly chargeable to construction.
The usual mode of conducting repairs of track, is
by track-masters, acting under the general instructions of the superintendent, or his assistants. The
length of railway assigned to the care of a trackmaster, varies from  twenty-five to  seventy-five
miles, according to the condition of the work and the
judgment of the superintendent. It is usual for the
track-master to divide his forces into parties of four
to ten men, with a foreman over each, occasionally
bringing several of these together to man a gravel
train, or for other work requiring a large force. He
will have one or more carpenters to look after and
repair bridges, and these are sometimes required to
attend to repairs of buildings at small stations.
Tools and materials for the track-master are supplied by the storekeeper of the company, who keeps
an account of what he furnishes, charging the same
to the track-master. Such articles as lumber, crosssleepers, etc., may be most advantageously obtained
along the line of railway, and the track-masters fre



OPERATING-REPAIRS OF TRACK.          227
quently purchase under the direction of the superintendent.
It is the duty of the track-master to understand
the condition of the track, and all the structures
required for its support: to see that his men are
properly distributed  and  arranged  for efficient
work, and that the foremen are capable and reliable
men. The latter becomes more important as the
length of his district is increased, and his time for
personal supervision over each party is reduced;
as in this case he must depend more on his foremen than would be necessary with a less extent of
district. It is not always the practice to place the
repairs of buildings at way-stations in charge of the
track-master-this is sometimes placed under the
care of a general superintendent of all the buildings
on the railway.  The track-master is sometimes
charged with the purchase, inspection, and measurement of wood for the engines. It is his duty to
certify the monthly check-rolls of his men, and all
bills of wood for fuel and articles he may purchase
or inspect; these are also certified by the superintendent; but it is evident he must rely mainly on
the track-master for the accuracy of the check-rolls
and bills, though an active and vigilant superintendent may detect important errors, and exercise a
salutary supervision.




228            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
In addition to the duties above stated, it is the
duty of the track-master to see that signals are
placed at any points of danger that may require the
train to move with caution or come to a stand; and
if a train be thrown from the track, or break down,
to promptly supply sufficient force to clear the track
and put affairs in order. Much depends on the
fidelity, vigilance, and good judgment of this agent;he has large expenses in his department, and his
forces are necessarily scattered over a large district.
There has been much diversity of opinion as to the
proper length of district for a track-master. This
doubtless depends measurably on the nature and
weight of traffic, the character of the railway, and
his own capacity and efficiency for business. If the
district is long, he will take the opportunity of
trains to pass from one point to another, and seldom
see his track, except at points, only as he sees it
from the train as he rapidly passes over it. This
practice may properly be adopted in occasional instances; but where it is the means used for the
greater part of his movements for the inspection of
his track and the supervision of his men, it necessarily affords him but an imperfect knowledge of
its condition, and renders him more dependent on his
foremen, a class of men not expected to possess the
same capacity and judgment as himself, and there



OPERATING-REPAIRS OF TRACK.        229
fore practically lowering the intelligence it is designed
to give to the supervision of the track. There is
but one way of movement over his district that will
enable a track-master to properly inspect his track
and superintend his men-namely, on foot; even
the hand car should not supersede walking as the
usual practice. The hand car or the train may
occasionally be very proper, when it is necessary to
go quickly from one point to another; but at least,
as often as once or twice a week, the track-master
should pass carefully on foot over his district, inspecting carefully the condition of the track and
other works, and be able to consider well its condition, and give full instructions, devoting as much
time as may be necessary or practicable to his men,
in order to understand well what has been done
and what is necessary to be done. There can be
no doubt, the want of thorough supervision in this
department has often been the cause of very serious
accidents, causing much expense that proper attention would have saved. The mere neglect of a
side fence has opened the passage for an animal to
get on the track and throw off the train. This is
especially dangerous in the night, when animals are
prone to lie down between the rails, assuming the
most formidable position to throw off the train with
disastrous violence.




230            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
One of the first things that indicates an inefficient
track-master is the neglect of the side ditches, and
consequent imperfect drainage of the road-bed.
This neglect will not fail to increase the expense of
keeping the track in order, and at times of rain,
render it impossible to maintain it in good adjustment. To remedy this, more ballast must be provided to give temporary support, often at heavy
expense, and ballast cannot give a good track until
the draining is properly attended to. A light ballast, with good drainage, is far better than heavy
ballast, surcharged with water.
It often happens, that in the construction of a
railway, even if the general plan is of a thorough
order of work, that circumstances lead to the adoption more or less of temporary structures, that will
soon require the substitution of more durable, if not
more substantial materials. It may be that building stone could not be had in reasonable proximity
to the work, and timber had to be used for culverts
and bridges, and sometimes for the foundations of
buildings.  As noticed under the head of " Colstructions," there is no material equal to durable
stone for culverts and bridges; and when it becomes necessary, for want of this material, to use
timber, it should be regarded only as temporary.
So far as timber may have been adopted, the pro



OPERATING-REPAIRS OF TRACK.        231
cess of superseding it with more durable materials
should be commenced as soon as those materials
can be commanded, and the work proceeded with
as circumstances may require. It may be assumed
that substantial works of timber may be relied on
from five to ten years, according to durability and
exposure; and by commencing soon after the railway is put in operation, the work of substitution
may be carried forward gradually and with economy. The engineer of the company should carefully
examine and decide on the most important structures for the commencement of this work, keeping
in view the current necessities of the track, and the
probable comparative durability of the structures.
It may happen that the finances of the company
will not admit of a complete substitution of all during the life of the timber structures; in which case
the engineer should proceed on those most important, and so far as renewal with timber may be necessary, see that this is done in good season, to
effectually guard against any giving away that
might cause accident to the passing trains. Wooden
bridges are often built over valleys that have very
small, or perhaps no permanent water-courses, and
are proper situations for culverts of stone surmounted with an embankment of earth. I have
known cases where the bridge cost nearly, and some



232            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
times quite as much as the culvert and embank
ment would have cost, if stone could have been had
for the culvert in the vicinity of the work. In considering the renewal, the question will probably be
entirely changed by the facility the railway will
afford in transporting stone from distant quarries,
which by ordinary roads were out of reach in the
original construction; and the economy of the case
in renewal would be entirely changed, requiring
thorough examination, so that perishable works be
not rebuilt in situations of this kind, where no material saving in cost can be secured by adopting the
original plan. In no case should a wooden bridge
be neglected, if a doubt may exist as to its safety
for the passing trains.
As the work of renewal with durable materials
goes on, the railway will be steadily assuming a
more substantial and permanent character, rendering it more secure for the passage of trains, and
diminishing the expense of repairs and maintenance.
In the maintenance of track, a very important
duty should rest on the engineer, to see that the
original drainage proves adequate for maintaining
a dry road-bed; and if not, to devise and proceed with measures that will effectually secure this
object; a branch of railway affairs that demands
the most diligent attention. As this, together with




OPERATINrA REPAIRS OF TRACK.       233
the kind of material for bridges, has been pretty
fully discussed under the head of construction, it
does not appear necessary to say more in reference
to them in this place. Whatever is necessary for the
construction of a track and its appurtenances, is to
be maintained in the work of repairs and renewal.
For a time after a railway track is opened for use,
no great expense for the renewal of rails and cross
sleepers will be required. The length of this time
will depend on the quality of the materials, the
amount of the traffic, and the weight of machinery
used. As decay and wear produce their effects on
those materials, the expenses of repairs and maintenance must necessarily increase, until they reach
a point that will require an annual expense, varying each year, but forming an approximate average
in a series of five years. The sleepers will begin to
fail ordinarily in about five years, while a portion
may last eight years; the rail will be very dependent in its wear on the weight and speed of the
machinery used; the latter will be more important
than the extent of the traffic. The circumstance of
increasing expenses, at least for a few years, indicates the propriety of holding in reserve a portion of
the net earnings, to meet future expenses, if it be
the purpose to maintain regularity and uniformity
in dividends to the proprietors.




234           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER XX.
OPERATING-REPAIRS OF MACHIINERY.
THE English term is " rolling stock," frequently
termed "the plant."  In this country, the terms
"equipment" and "machinery" are both used.  I
see no more propriety in applying the term equipment to railway machinery than to cotton or woollen
machinery; it is purely a technical term in military
affairs, and its application to civil, is an innovation
that may be applied with as much propriety to all
other as to railway machinery; and it would be
much more appropriate to apply it to farm tools
than to the machinery of a railway. Rolling stock
is a more expressive and better term; but I consider it fully entitled to the term " machinery," and
therefore use it. There is a portion of stationary
machinery used in the railway repair shops, but
what is understood generally by the term railway
machinery is that adapted to motion on the track.
The machinery of a railway peculiarly requires
to be kept in good order; and as soon as the operating service is commenced, this kind of repair




OPERATING-REP.AIRS OF MACHINERY.   235
will demand attention. With a new stock in good
order, it should not for some time involve heavy
expenses; but they will steadily increase, and eventually become a large item. Unless when radical
changes are found expedient in the plan of machinery, the repairs will be a perpetuation of each
machine. There may, and probably will be cases
where a coach or car may be so entirely destroyed
as to leave nothing to rebuild upon; but I have
never known an engine to be so destroyed that
there was not sufficient left on which to rebuild.
In the ordinary deterioration, it will be found that
new parts may be advantageously ingrafted with
those that have suffered a comparatively moderate degree of wear, and still sufficient for much
useful service.  In this way one part after another is substituted, until there may be nothing
of the original structure left; still it is practically
the same engine, coach or car, with the same name
or number; the repairs, therefore, involve the
renewal and complete maintenance of the machinery, and will demand shop accommodations
and stationary power sufficient for this object.
This department of business is placed under the
supervision of a master-machinist, who is not only
charged with the works of the shop, but with the
direction of the engine drivers and firemen, as to




236            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
their order of service and their general duties. It
is for him to judge of their capacity and grade of
service, and to correct any delinquency in duty.
On some important railways there is a master-carpenter, who has charge of all woodwork, and is independent of the master-mechanic; on others, the
master-carpenter is subject to the general supervision of the master-machinist, though the latter has
no specific charge of the workmen in the carpenter's department. The latter plan I regard as the
best, as it is better to have a single head in such an
establishment, where the works of the two branches
must be brought together, and the order of work in
each should be so directed that delay in the work
of one may not embarrass the progress of the other,
or disturb the efficient harmony of the system of
which this department is a portion. This leaves the
master-carpenter independent, so far as relates to
the employment and control of his men, and in the
management of the affairs of his shop, subject only
to general direction in the order and plan of work
as the master-machinist may regard proper.
The master-machinist has the general supervision
of such secondary shops as, in some cases, are established at the end of routes for the purpose of making small repairs, required to keep the machinery
in use, or to enable it to run to the principal shop.




OPERATING-REPAIRS OF MACUINERY.    23T
The master-machinist requires a clerk and timekeeper (those at shops of small business may be
both in the same person), to enable him to keep his
accounts so as to charge to each machine the expenses incurred on its repairs, and for the general
accounts of his department. It is indispensable to
a good administration of business, that a strict
account should be kept of the cost of repairs on
each machine; this will show the quality and value
of each-and is particularly important in respect to
engines, as it will indicate the care and skill with
which they are run. It will also show the expense
of each department of traffic, so far as respects the
machinery, an item of information important to be
known by the superintendent, that rates may be properly adjusted to the expenses, and that he may
know to what extent he may go in cultivating a
doubtful branch of business.  On this plan the repairs of passenger machinery and that for freight
are kept separate; a distinction that cannot with
exactness be maintained in the repairs of track,
though quite practicable for machinery, and should
not be neglected.
The master-machinist will require a number of foremen, who should be experienced mechanics, to take
the special charge of the different branches of work.
In addition to the work of repairs, it is the duty




238           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
of the master-machinist to keep an account of the
miles run by each engine-the oil and waste used
by each of the engine-men; and to these is, in rare
cases added, what should always be done, the
amount of fuel used by each, which will be further
discussed hereafter.
The master-machinist occupies a station of much
responsibility; to fill it properly, it is not merely
necessary that he should be a good mechanic; he
should add to this a knowledge of the essential
principles of machinery, and a good general knowledge of business, that he may comprehend the
system required to carry forward with order, regularity, and efficiency the various works committed
to his charge. He should also be able to judge of
the qualifications of his workmen, and to enforce
proper discipline; the latter is peculiarly important in respect to his engine drivers, who, during
most of their time on the trains, will be out of the
range of his personal inspection; and on whose
fidelity and skill much will depend in the repairs
of machinery. To a railway of any considerable
importance, it is poor economy to employ an inferior man as master-machinist, on the competent
and faithful performance of whose duties so much
of the economy and efficiency of the operating department depend.




OPERTING —CIVIL ENGINEER.         239
CHAPTER XXI.
OPERATING-CIVIL ENGINEER.
THERE are some railways that regularly employ a
civil engineer, and others that do not. In some instances the superintendent of the railway is a civil
engineer; but his duties are necessarily so general,
that he can give but little attention  to those
peculiar to engineering. Some managers are prejudiced against the employment of an engineer
after the railway is put in operation, which is a
short-sighted view of the subject, and not at all
consistent with a proper knowledge of the duties
required. It is true, some railways are managed
without the aid of an engineer; in such cases
various works will be put up by ordinary mechanics, who sometimes manifest very good judgment, more particularly on works of minor importance; but in general (not that the mechanic cannot
execute well any work in his trade, but from want
of the experience required, he may not comprehend
the kind of structure most suitable for the object),
it will be found that they are deficient in system,




240            RAILWAY PROPESrTT,
often entail much unnecessary expense, and fail to
produce the regularity, economy, and efficiency
that would result from the supervision of a competent engineer.  It is the  engineer's business to
study thoroughly the wants of the railway, in
regard to the track and its appurtenances-the
effect of the action of the machinery upon it-the
kind of machinery that will produce the most
economical transportation-and the most favorable
arrangement for the stations, station-buildings, and
shop accommodations.  -Ie should be the authorized adviser of the master-machinist and trackmaster, and  superintend, all contract work  for
renewals of bridges, culverts, buildings, and machinery. By his connection with the track and
machinery, he will be able to judge of the effect of
one on the other, and by general observation and
carefully conducted experiments, will come to a
more thorough understanding of the interests of the
railway, than will be likely to be reached in any
other way.
These views may fairly be urged on general
principles; as a man who is educated to a particular business-whose time is devoted to a full
understanding of its requirements-and who is
stimulated  by the consideration of professional
reputation, is more likely to conduct affairs advan



OPERATING-CIVIL ENGINEER.        241
tageously than  one who picks up his ideas at
random, and though doing some things very well,
will probably often fail in respect to others. Certainly, the important matter of maintaining the
track and machinery of a railway should be committed to the most competent hands. My own experience and observation fully sustain the propriety of the course of management recommended.
Any other course is precisely like giving the preference in a business to a man who has not made
it his study, or practised the arts- involved in its
current transactions; a course that is not practised
by intelligent men in other departments of labor or
business. To this argument it may be said, that
men have managed railways successfully who have
had no previous training. The reply to this is:
That such have mostly been on short railways, with
little or no rival interests that called for close and
strict management; and that they have depended on
the master-machinist for all that related to machinery, and on the track-master for the management of the track; and though by a ready facility
of adaptation they have succeeded very well, there
can be no doubt that they managed better as they
acquired knowledge and experience. The success
of such may be compared to that of a man, who,
never having learned the trade, begins to make
1I




242           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
shoes. At first he makes slow work, getting information any way he may, and by perseverance
makes progress according to his aptness for the
work, and though he spoil much leather, eventually
may become an expert shoemaker, having lost
much time and material in acquiring the art. So
it may readily be perceived, that the company must
expend more or less to educate their man, if he has
not previously been educated. The evidence of this
I have often seen in the machinery used on railways;
very powerful it may be, but so damaging to the
track and the repair shop, that if it could not be appropriated for its material, the interest of the proprietors would be best consulted by dropping it in some
abyss, too deep to admit the hope of recovery.
The perfection of machinery has thus far been
dependent mostly on the machinist, and on the
competition of rival manufacturers; and in this
way much has been done to make powerful and
effective machines. I have known some very intelligent and excellent machinists who have contributed largely to improvement in the arrangement
and workmanship in this department, to whom the
public and the railway interest are greatly indebted.
At the same time, I have rarely noticed in them
any special concern as to the effect of their
machines on the track.




OPERATING-CIVIL ENGINEER.        243
It has been the general practice to commit the
care of machinery to the master-machinist, and this
is proper in all that relates to manipulations, and,
to a large extent, to the plans of work; but, as before observed, this class of men rarely give much
attention to the influence of their machinery on the
track, nor can this be expected, as they have no
supervision of the track. They regard the power
of their machinery as the best and proper indication
of their ability as machinists, and consider that the
track should be able to bear it; and if it does not
actually break down under the service of the train,
the machinery is regarded as all right-draws large
trains and runs high speed. The machinist has no
care, and takes no note of those every-day expenses
that are required to keep the track in adjustment.
Then the track-master has no charge of the machinery, and rarely realizes that it involves any question in relation to his duties, but goes on as best
he may to make his track capable of sustaining the
service. Thus nothing can be more clear than that
the track and machinery should be under the general supervision of the same man, who should be
capable of comprehending not only the adaptation
of one to the other, but the service of each in effecting the most economical transportation of the traffic
to be provided for. To merely run trains, is a




244            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
thing that may be done with small experience: To
run trains and manage the track and machinery, so
as to effect the most economical transport, is a very
different thing, and as yet very imperfectly studied.
I am well aware, that a large proportion of railway superintendents will not concur in the views
here advanced.  For some reason which it is not
necessary to discuss, they seem to have an aversion
to civil engineers, and usually contrive to get them
off the railway, or restrict their authority to a very
limited field. They seem willing to see them employed in hunting up maps and examining doubtful
questions on right of way-occasionally to set
levels, stake out work, and compute contracts; all
of which are their proper duties; but further than
this they will not tolerate. Thus, under these circumstances,.the engineer cannot enter on the main
and more iimportant field of duties which his profession should enable him to fill more effectually
and beneficially than any other person.
In the duty of selecting an engineer for the responsible charge here recommended, it is necessary
to exercise the same scrutiny, the same practical
sagacity, that is called for in other departments of
business. What, then, is the course ordinarily pursued by business men? If a man has on hand an
important litigation. he does not take the first law



OPERATING-CIVIL ENGINEER.          245
yer he meets, nor in case of ill health, the first
physician that may chance to be named, or come
in his way. He is not satisfied with the mere professional title. The title of lawyer or physician is
good as far as it goes, or is sustained, and the same
for an engineer. But the man sought is one well
skilled in his profession, and capable of rendering
the special service for which he is wanted. A business may be badly done by a professional man, and
the responsibility of failure may rest mainly on the
employing party, who has failed to exercise due
discretion in the selection of his agent. Men may,
and often do, bear the professional title of civil
engineer, as well as of lawyer and physician, with
very slender qualifications. It is not the mere
scientific engineer, who may bewilder with hairspun and useless calculations, nor the practical
engineer, who may be able to collect statistics, run
levels, set pegs and stakes, copy drawings, and
make out estimates for contractors, if these be the
end of his accomplishments, that is needed. For
the object here proposed, the engineer should be
familiar with  mechanical principles-understand
well the strength, durability, and adaptation of
materials-by experience, observation and study,
should have a fund of practical information at cornmand, that may be available as occasion or emer



246            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
gency may require. It is, moreover, necessary for
him to be a good business man, familiar with the
varied interests of a railway, in which he will find
ample scope for sound practical sense and experience in his dealings with both men and things.
Not a man that is punctilious of his dignity, and
unwilling to profit by a good hint from the most
humble workman, but ready to rest his standing on
his good sense-his frankness and uprightness in
intercourse with others. Such a man will never
have occasion to complain of a want of respect in
his business intercourse.  The list of criterions
would be incomplete if the too-prevalent vice of a
speculative spirit (the quicksand that has sometimes
destroyed or perverted the best talents of an engineer) was omitted. An engineer should be so completely content with his salary that his mind would
be wholly devoted to the work placed under his
charge, and his own happiness as much concerned
as that of the proprietors in obtaining a favorable
result for the enterprise. Not less than for a lawyer, physician, or merchant, an engineer, to succeed
well, nust enjoy his profession, and find his chief
recreation in the cares, duties, and results of his
labors.
It will be asked: " Where are you to find men
of this grade for all the railways?" Certainly we




OPERATING —CIVIL ENGINEER,      247
do not find all, in any profession, to come up to this
standard, and probably no more can be said for that
of engineers than for others; and the same course
must be taken in one case as in others. A man
will seek an agent according to the importance of
the service he requires; one of moderate or high
attainments, as in his judgment may be necessary
for the business he has to provide for. There is no
difference in providing for a railway; the most important will demand the best experience and qualifications. First of all, see that the engineer is a
man of prudent habits, sound practical sense and
fidelity-such a man, with fair elementary qualifications and experience, will fill most of the duties
required, and steadily improve by experience in the
special service that may be involved in the work
required to be managed; and although he may not
at first be able to fully meet the requirements of the
situation, will, from his education, have a ready
adaptation, and be likely to improve in qualifications, so as to meet all the duties and successfully
conduct the business that may be committed so his
charge. No engineer can go upon a new work and
not find something peculiar, that will demand his
careful reflection, and the deliberate consideration of
any advice that he may receive; and nothing so fully
reveals his incapacity as a pretentious assumption




248            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
of knowledge, claiming to understand everything.
In short, the same business sagacity that is required
in other important affairs is required in this, and
will have the same prospect of being rewarded with
success.
I have been thus particular on this point, from
having observed very indiscreet selections, and from
the conviction that incompetent engineering should
be held in the same light as incompetency in any
other profession; and from the conviction I have
long felt, that much of the prejudice entertained
against their proper position in the management of
railways, has resulted from or been perpetuated by
injudicious selections.
The difficulties in railway management, noticed
in a former part of this work, arising from  their
recent introduction and rapid extension, has necessarily led to much imperfection, and the engineer
ing profession has not kept pace with demands so
hastily urged upon its attention; and having been
mostly occupied in works of construction, engineers
have not generally had time and opportunity for that
close attention that is necessary to render them as
useful as they should be, in the maintenance of railways. Notwithstanding this deficiency must be admitted as of general application, it does not change
the position of this question; for when they are




OPERATING-CIVIL ENGINEER.          219
placed in their proper position in the management,
they are, from  their professional training, experi
ence, and habits of careful study, more likely to
succeed in perfecting this branch of service than
men who are not especially fitted by professional
acquirement.
It will be admitted that training of some sort is
necessary for every department of labor or business.
It must also be admitted, that youth is the most
favorable, as well as the most economical season for
acquiring elementary knowledge. At a later period
in life, the mind is diverted by various objectstime is more valuable, and elementary learning, if
it be sought in the age of maturer manhood, will be
sought as a necessity, not as an appropriate pursuit,
and is likely to be hurried and imperfect. The
same may be said of any branch of art; there is no
time of life for the training in elementary art or
knowledge so valuable or economical as youth.
Though there are exceptions, it is a general truth,
that it is expensive to learn a new occupation in
maturer manhood; and, consequently, the railway
company that commit their business to unskilled or
uneducated men, must be at the expense of educating them during their supervision of business, and
while they are learning its arts and duties; meanwhile depending on advice, trusting to tbh guide of
11*




'250          RAILWAY PROPERTY.
others as they may chance, to find out matters beyond their own powers of criticism. Can there be
a doubt that the proceedings of the pupil will
often be undecided, wavering, and wanting in that
system indispensable to the efficient and successful
conduct of intricate and important business? Now,
it has happened that such, in some cases, have eventually acquired a good knowledge of business, but
it is obvious that this education has been of the
most expensive kind, and what is particularly important, it has been at the expense of the proprietors, who paid a salary while the incumbent was
obtaining the qualifications that would enable him
to earn it.
If in the construction of a wooden building, the
proprietor would trust its care only to a carpenter,
who had the reputation of proficiency in his art,
why should the intricate affairs of the track, machinery, workshops, and appendages of a railway
be committed to men who had no previous education in the skill and arts required to be practised?
Certainly there is but one excuse that can justify
such a proceeding —namely, that the properly educated man could not be found.




OPERATING —  UPERINTENDENT;         251
CHAPTER XXII.
OPERATING-SUPERINTENDENT,
IN conducting the operating affairs of a railway,
the superintendent has the general oversight of all
departments of its business. This at least is the
American plan. It has the advantage of maintaining system, and the proper harmony and efficiency
of every department of the service. This is entirely
consistent with the efficiency and responsibility of
those having the care of separate branches of
duty.
The more especial duty of the superintendent is
to arrange the running of trains-establish timetables-see that the trains are regularly run-that
station duties are well administered-to establish
rules and regulations for the government of all
charged with the conduct of train or station duties
-see that full statistics of traffic and expenses are
prepared, so as to form an intelligent basis of busi
ness-obtain information of the sources of traffic
and its productiveness in all its particulars, so as to
be able to judge of its profitableness, and whether




252            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
in any respect it fails to afford proper remuneration; and under the advice of the board of managers, to establish the tariff rates for freight and
passengers. It is especially his duty to study carefully the statistics of expense, in  the several
branches, so as to be able to judge as to the most
economical method of conducting the traffic, and
thereby be able to establish such rules and regulations as will produce the best result to the proprietors.  In  the numerous and  often complicated
duties involved in railway management, this will
call out the best capacity and the most diligent application of the superintendent.
In some cases, the president of the railway company acts as superintendent; a method that may
answer on short or unimportant railways, but cannot be recommended for other cases. The president should be the organ of the board of directors,
and so far as he gives attention to the operating
department, it should be as the medium  of the
board, and the general executive head of the institution, in which capacity he would confer with,
advise and direct the superintendent. The two
officers should be kept distinct, as admitting a better
organization, with salutary checks, and especially
as between those general officers appointed by the
board of directors, and those appointed by the




OPERATING-SUPERINTENDENT.          253
superintendent, which is important in securing harmony and efficient cooperation.
The superintendent should appoint or select for
employment all persons in the operating department, except the heads of important subordinate
departments, who, though to some extent subject
to his general direction under the by-laws and
regulations of the company, should be appointed by
the board of directors. With the power to appoint,
he should have the power to dismiss any that may
be delinquent in duty. This is indispensable to the
maintenance of discipline, and the exercise of proper responsibility.
On railways having important business connections, forming a general line with other railways,
there will be much to demand attention from the
superintendent in arrangements for the running of
trains, and for tariff rates, for the common traffic
of the line in connection. This duty is often embarrassed by the conflicting interests as to rates of
speed as well as rates of tariff, and requires much
experience and sound discretion in its management.
In all arrangements for special rates of traffic, it
is the province of the superintendent to direct and
control proceedings-a duty that is often difficult as it is liable to conflict with the regular rates,




254            RAILWAY PROPERTPY.
and to give rise to dissatisfaction among the customers of the company, and is in danger of interference
with the regular checks of business. So far as
practicable, it is best to avoid special rates; still,
there may be items of traffic that will afford a
beneficial result, and can be commanded in no
other way.
It is obvious that the superintendent has charge,
especially, of much that can only be occasionally
under his personal supervision. The trains are, at
different points, scattered over the whole length of
the railway, depending on their conductors and
men under their charge. The station agents are
equally removed from his eye, and he must depend
mostly on the fidelity of reports, to know how business
is conducted. The extensive use of the telegraph,
greatly aids the superintendent in obtaining information of what is going on, at distant points, but
there is still much that he can rarely know. M/any
improper things may occur on the railway and still
the train come in in time, such as fast running
between  stations, and particularly with freight
trains, and the time thus gained improperly wasted
at the stations; some one will know the fact, whose
duty it may be to report it; but the repugnance of
one employee to report the breach of rules by alnother, is such, that the report will often be nLeg




OPERATING-SUPERINTENDENT.         255
lected, especially if it be of a nature the omission
of which is not liable to exposure.  Hence, the
most important qualification in a superintendent
is, the  ability  to  discriminate character, and
thereby place in all positions men suitable for the
duty, both in regard to capacity and fidelity. In
any event he must largely trust them, and his deportment toward them  should be that of confidence, until he has evidence that they are not
worthy, and then having carefully ascertained the
fact, he should at once dismiss them, without parley.
Some men are so distrustfil of others, that their
manners toward- them  plainly indicate that they
regard it necessary to watch, and that they have
no confidence beyond their personal vision. This
is an error that operates unfavorably with men
who know that it is indispensable to trust them.
Honest men will not object to any proper scrutiny,
and a discreet watchfulness may be maintained in
consistency with a liberal confidence; whereas, if
this necessary trust is coupled with manifest suspicion, it tends to repress the laudable ambition of
honest men, and to destroy the interest they would
otherwise exercise for the prosperity of the institution.
It must be confessed, that a large proportion of
the men who seek and obtain employment on railways, are deficient in those qualifications that are




256            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
necessary to secure an intelligent and faithful discharge of their duties; and in his selections, a
superintendent is liable to be more or less deceived.
But, notwithstanding this difficulty, there are many
capable and faithful men to be had, and often may
be selected with little doubt; and if he exercise a
discreet diligence, in removing the deficient, and
promoting from  lower ranks of the service those
more faithful, who  may  have developed their
capacity and fitness, by filling well the duties of an
inferior rank, he will eventually secure, what is of
great importance to the proprietary interest, a body
of reliable men to fill all places of trust. To see
the proper bearing of this duty, and be able to
judge well of the fitness of men for the various
positions they are to occupy, is the high qualification of a superintendent; and without great tact in
this branch of his duty, he will never succeed, no
matter what personal capacity and vigilant industry he may exercise. I am well aware this is a
difficult duty, and one in which few men succeed
well; but in order to attain that success, the superintendent must have a single eye to the interests of
the institution. He must be free from that vanity,
that lifts him above the work he has in charge. He
must know how to treat men who are worthy of
his confidence, and not disgust them with superci]i



OPERIAING-SUPERINTENDENT.          257
ousness-but be frank, candid, upright and respectful to his subordinates, that they may feel that he
considers them men. He must discard favoritism,
especially toward family friends, which is a baneful influence, producing dissatisfaction and the
most serious evil to discipline, and consequently to
the interest of the proprietors. He must, by his
proceedings, encourage confidence in his firmness
and discretion, to advance, as opportunity may
arise, those in the service of the railway whose
tried conduct and capacity may merit it. Is this
too exacting?  I think not.  The position is evidently one of trust, in which trust must be transmitted to others, under circumstances involving
important interests, and if the head of this department is deficient in these necessary qualifications,
matters must go on more or less imperfectly, and
to this extent the proprietors must bear the loss.
It will be seen by the preceding remarks, that
the duties of the superintendent are of a highly
responsible character-surrounded with cares and
difficulties that will demand an upright mind-a
clear head-unceasing vigilance, and business qualifications of a comprehensive order.  Upon his
ability and fidelity the proprietors must materially,
if not mainly, depend, for an efficient and economical administration of affairs.




258            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER  XXIII.
OPERATING-SUPPLIES OF MATERIAL.
THE supplies are a large source of expenditure in
the operating business of a railway. The work
cannot be long in operation before rails, chairs,
spike and sleepers will be wanted for the maintenance of the track. The repair shops will require
iron, steel, copper, wheels, axles, tyre, and nume.
rous other articles, mostly hardware. Oil for light
and the lubrication of machinery, cotton-waste, and
fuel for the engines. On important railways it is
usual to establish a store, with a storekeeper in
charge, to receive and distribute supplies. Supplies are in some cases purchased by the storekeeper; in others a purchasing agent is charged
with this duty. In either case the party purchasing
should not pay, but certify to all bills, and transmit
them to the paymaster, who, on payment, charges
them to the storekeeper. In order to understand
what supplies are necessary, estimates are made
under the direction of the superintendent, of the
kinds, quality and quantity of articles that may be




OPERATING-SUPPLIES OF MATERIAL.      259
wanted, once in six months, and oftener if necessary, for the guide of the purchasing agent. It is
the duty of the storekeeper to receive and take care
of the goods, and to deliver them as wanted to the
order of such agents as may be authorized to draw
supplies from the store; and to keep the accounts,
so as to show the consumption by the different
departments. Notwithstanding the existence of a
purchasing agent, it will be necessary for the
superintendent to give so much attention as will
secure articles best adapted to the uses for which
they are wanted, and to see that they are obtained
on the most favorable terms for the company; his
attention will be especially required in procuring
rails, wheels, axles, tyre and oil. Cross sleepers,
lumber and fuel are usually procured on the line of
the railway, by agents under his direction. By
whomever purchased, all articles should go on the
storekeeper's books, and be there charged to the
proper account, in. order that his statistics may
show a complete account of consumption in each
department. Whoever be the purchasing or contracting agent, he should be under the direction of
the superintendent, who should cultivate a knowledge of the quality and market, that will enable
him  to judge of the propriety of the purchases
made, andl guard against a quite too common vice




2(30           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
of bribery commissions paid to the agent, to secure
a high price, or a good price for a poor article.
Detection in so gross and degrading a practice,
should be followed by quick retribution.
It rarely happens that sufficient care is exercised
in the fuel department. As yet, wood is the fuel
generally used in locomotives of this country; and
much care is required in its inspection, measure
ment, and in seasoning.  Careless supervision in
the former, and neglect of the latter will be productive of much loss. Unseasoned wood for fuel, or
that kept on hand too long a time, is unprofitable
for use. Wood cut in the winter and piled in the
open air, will generally be fit for use the August
following, and should then be housed, and will be
good for a year from that time, when the succeeding lot for the next year may follow; but if left
exposed to the weather, it will depreciate, and become less valuable according to the time of exposure, and if it cannot be housed, no more than one
year's supply should be provided at one time;
being an article of general use, it is often exposed
to depredation, or misappropriation.  It may seem
too much a detail, to require the agent who has
charge of the wood at his station to account for its
use; but it is the only way to maintain a check on
the purchase and consumption. To do this some




OPERATINC —SUPPLIES OF MATERIAL.     261
method must be adopted to measure and account
for the quantity taken for use by each engine.
This, if properly arranged for, need not be attended
with much labor. Let there be racks of suitable
size, placed on hand-carts, and containing a measured quantity, say one-sixth to one-fifth of a cord,
not more than may be readily moved by one man
on a platform. These racks may be loaded by the
wood-men, and arranged in convenient position to
be dumped or thrown on the tender of the engine;
and on a suitable blank, fill out the number of
racks, the name or number of the engine, etc., and
as often as necessary return the memoranda to the
agent, and he will have the elements for a daily or
weekly report of the quantity used by each engine.
If the platform be raised to the proper elevation,
these racks, being on carts, may be dumped into
the tender, and one man do the work of half a
dozen, in less than half the time employed by the
prevalent custom; it would require the wood to be
elevated a trifle higher to facilitate dumping, but
this could be done by the wood-men, while waiting
for the engine, and save at least half the number
required to be on hand when the engine arrives;
while the fuel, on arrival of the engine, would be
promptly dumped from  the cart-racks, saving
more than half the delay of the engine in receiving




262            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
fuel, that arises from throwing up, stick by stick at a
time, as usually practised. If coal be the fuel
used, the same arrangement may be modified to
its requirements. A system of this kind, well carried out, would not only afford a proper check on
the purchase and consumption of fuel, but also a
complete basis to show the fuel of each engine; an
item of information well worth all the care required
to procure it. It would only be carrying out for
fuel the same principle of check, that has been
adopted in the consumption of oil for each engine.
It will be perceived, that this course would afford
means to determine separately, the consumption of
fuel for the passenger and freight traffic, which is
important to the proper understanding of the expense of each.




OrERATING —-RECEWIITS.        263
CHAPTER XXIV.
OPERAT ING-RE EIP T S.
IN addition to what has been said in relation to
receipts from passengers and freight, it may be
remarked: that in addition to receipts by conductors (which should be a small proportion at most)
and the collections made by connecting railways,
the station agents will be the principal receivers of
the dues of the company. At important stations,
there will be required, a passenger and a freight
agent; each of these will make his report to the
principal office: at small stations, one agent is
charged with all the duties, administrative and
fiscal. All agents charged with fiscal duties should
report daily, and with reports, send in their funds
to the Cashier (Treasurer or the fiscal officer who
may act as such). The report goes to the Auditor,
from the station agent, and the Cashier reports to
the Auditor the amount of cash received, who
thereupon charges the Cashier with the funds, and
gives the station agent credit for the remittance.
This method places on the books of the Auditor the




f4:4            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
fiscal affairs of the agents of all classes, who are
authorized to make collections for the railway; consequently the Auditor is a check on all accounts,
and his report to the President, or financial officer
of the company, shows to the board of Directors
the state of their finances. This department of
business should be rigidly conducted, so that a
strict accountability may be maintained, and funds
not be allowed to accumulate in the hands of
agents; and that the Board may, at frequent intervals, understand the condition of their finances.
In addition to dues received from the traffic of
the railway, there will grow up credits from the
sale of old materials, of considerable importance.
A practice to some extent has prevailed of allowing
certain agents to exchange these, or sell them to
manufacturers,' in part payment for new  goods.
This is not well, as it tends to confuse accounts,
and often to embarrass the examination of vouchers.
The proper, and as I think the obvious, course to
secure a correct administration, is to make it the
duty of some agent to see to the collection and sale
of all old materials, who should remit to the Cashier all funds received for the same, and make report
to the Auditor in the same manner as in the case
of dues from  traffic.  The old rails may be an
exception, as these materials go into the re-manu



OPERATIN G —RECEIPTS.           265
facture, and  the same weight of new  rails is
returned, at a specific price for the re-manufacture,
including the new material'that must be put in, to
supply waste and improve the quality; and it is
only necessary for the Superintendent to collect
and take the weight of old rails, and the bills for
the re-manufacture, and perhaps transportation, will
be simple vouchers, and charge them  directly to
the repairs of track, the old material being still in
the track in the shape of new rails.
12




266            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTERI XXV.
OPERATING-DISBURSEMENTS.
THE disbursements for the operating ousiness of
a railway, include payments to the officers, agents.
artisans, laborers and numerous bills for supplies,
taxes, damages and sundry other items, thr:- will
involve expense.
The agents in the several departments keep check
or time rolls of the men under their respective
charges, on which it is their duty to record daily
the work done. At the end of each month these
time rolls are reported over the certificate of the
agent to the Superintendent, whose duty it is to
examine the same, and from them cause pay rolls
for the month to be made out, which should be certified by him. In the same manner all bills that
may be made by authorized agents, are certified by
such agents, and submitted to the Superintendent,
who examines and so far as he judges them correct,
approves them by attaching his signature. If bills
or claims occur, out of the regular course of business, the Superintendent examines, and so far as he




OPERATING-DISBURSEMENTS.           267
deems just and proper, puts them  in form  and
approves as in other cases. This latter class is
mostly for damages, taxes, and incidental expenses,
and has no certificate from a subordinate agent,
and depends wholly on the approval of the Superindent.  It must be apparent, that on railways of
considerable extent, having a large traffic, the Superintendent can know but very little of the accuracy of detail in the monthly time rolls and bills
that must be submitted for his approval-still it is
necessary that they should have his sanction, as on
him rests the responsibility of the expenditure, and
he must depend on the fidelity of the agents, and
his general knowledge of the business of the railway-his familiarity with the work in progress,
with prices of labor and materials, and the current
wants of the several departments, to guide him in
the discharge of this duty. It will be incumbent
on him to take the precaution of giving to all agents
who may be authorized to incur bills, and especially
the purchasing agent, such instructions as to rates,
quality and kind of materials wanted, as will guard
as far as practicable against improper bills, and
especially against a practice that has, as before
observed, too often prevailed, of agents taking a
commission on purchases, and also guard against
an abuse arising from influential employees recoin



268           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
mending certain firms, or certain articles used, and
from obtaining patents for others; certainly a most
pernicious and degrading practice, from which it is
supposed even railway directors are not always
wholly exempt.
After the rolls and bills are approved by the
Superintendent, they are handed over to the Auditor, who examines and corrects any clerical errors,
and if there is anything inconsistent with the rules
of the company, or in any respect in his judgment
improper, he suspends them until satisfactorily explained, and then enters the abstracts on his books,
after which he hands them over to the Paymaster,
with a draft on the Cashier for funds to pay the
same. When paid, the Paymaster returns the abstracts and vouchers to the Auditor, who credits the
account of the Paymaster for the amount paid. In
some cases the Superintendent hands the rolls and
bills to a Committee of the Board of Directors,
whose approval is necessary before payment. But
this is inconvenient and attended with delay, especially if the officer of the board is not on the line
of the railway, and in my judgment is not as well,
for no man is so well situated to understand the
whole subject as the Auditor, who keeps the books
and readily acquires a better knowledge and understanding of the details of expenditure and the




OPERATING —DISBURSEMENTS.        269
wants of this department than any committee would
be likely to possess. The Auditor should be a man
of capacity, firmness and fidelity, and with proper
rules, established by the Board of Directors, there
would be small probability of errors. This course
would not supersede an examination by a committee of the Board, who should occasionally take up
and investigate these and all other fiscal affairs of
the institution, and so far as this relates to the operating department, the office of the Auditor will
furnish the books and vouchers, and such incidental
aid as a committee may require. On this point it
is to be kept in view, that committees are usually
composed of members of the Board, who have
their own occupations, and can rarely give the time
required for a thorough examination. By the system here recommended, the Auditor holds no funds;
but he has the entire books and accounts, by which
are established complete checks on all the fiscal
officers engaged in this department, and no great
wrong can occur without collusion.  An intelligent board of directors will see the importance
of selecting a man for Auditor to whom, from his
character for capacity, firmness and fidelity the
interests of the proprietors may be safely committed.
A  rule of the company should establish the




270            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
principle, that in all examination of bills, full detail of items, with price and quantity, should be
presented. A practice has more or less prevailed
on some railways, of charging in lump several
items, and especially in matters of personal and
incidental expenses. This is very liable to abuse,
and is wholly inconsistent with the systematic thoroughness of business that should be required for
railway management, and should not be tolerated.
Excuses are often made for the practice, but they
should be wholly discarded.




OPERATING —TATISTICS.          21
CHAPTER XXVI.
OPERATING-STATISTICS.
IN most of the States, annual reports are required
from  each railway within their limits, making it
imperative on the officers to present nearly all the
statistical information that is wanted; but this is
not always complied with with that exactness of
fact and detail that is designed, and, if up to the
legal requirement, does not secure all the information it is desirable a railway company should have.
It is often regarded an onerous and unnecessary
duty, and therefore not always fully carried out, so
as to meet either the intention of the Legislature
or the true interest of the railway companies. It
must be admitted, however, that a large amount of
useful information is obtained from these annual
reports, many of which possess a considerable fullness of detail.
The statistics most important for a railway company, are those that show the working expenses in
each department, and the cost of every kind of
traffic. A railway without this information, may




272            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
carry on a branch of traffic that is unprofitable, or
which does not afford the remuneration that should
be derived from it. The indiscriminate mixture of
this with the profitable part, both in relation to expenses and rates, prevents a clear understanding of
the matter, and so long as the business is transacted
on general impressions, this evil will exist to a greater
or less degree, according to the multiplicity of the
items of traffic. It is more especially important
for so much of the traffic as may be affected by
rival lines, in which case it should be known what
rates will pay, at least something over expenses. A
zeal for business is always commendable, but it
should never go so far as to pursue it at a loss. It
is also necessary, in order to judge how far the railway may enter on sources of undeveloped traffic,
that have been dormant from the want of accurate
information.
To collect and arrange the statistics of a railway
will add to the expense of clerk-hire; a small matter, when compared to the benefits that may be
derived from reliable information, to be used in
economizing expenses, and giving the best possible
direction to the administration of the traffic. But
this is not all the benefit of thorough statistics. It
gives order, efficiency, and economy in the current
transactions of business, by the checks incidental to




OPERATING —STATTICS.           273
the system, and is in this respect, worth all the
extra cost.
A very important feature in the statistics of a railsway is, the separation of the expenses of the passenger and freight departments. This cannot, in all
respects, be exact. The general officers are the
same individuals in both departments; the agents
at small stations attend to the business of both.
The maintenance of track is also common to both
branches. For these expenses some method of
estimate must be adopted, and though not exact, I
know of none better than the mileage of trains.
The repairs of engines, cars, and coaches of each,
may be kept separate, though there is often a mixture of service by engines in both departments,
which on unimportant railways of small traffic
may be most convenient; but it cannot be recommended that important railways should make this
indiscriminate service of engines.  There is no
difficulty in appropriating engines according to
their power to the various services; the engines
for light way trains should be exclusively devoted
to such trains; they are not sufficient for express
trains, and to see a heavy engine hauling a way
train of one or two coaches, half filled, indicates
great want of skill and economy. The engines
designed for express trains must be more powerful,
12*




274            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
according to the weight of trains, and will require
a greater expense for repairs than those for low or
medium speed-the same may be said of coaches,
which must be stronger built, and of consequence
of greater weight and subject to greater expense
for repairing when used for high, than for low
speed; thus so far as the question of separation of
expenses is affected by the engines and coaches, it
is practicable to ascertain it; and it is necessary to
an intelligent administration of business, to know
what these differences are.  They can only be
known by a strict attention to the statistics of expense. It is not to be supposed one set of coaches
would be made for low speed and another for high
speed, on the same railway, but that the new and
strong coaches would be taken for the express
trains, and those impaired by age and use, would
be taken for the way, or low-speed trains; a course
that would be dictated by ordinary business prudence.
As before observed, there are items that belong
to this question, that can only be obtained by estimates-as the maintenance of track, subject to the
daily use of trains of all classes. The best way to
reach this item is, by a strict attention to the comparative influence of speed on the maintenance of
engines and coaches; as the ratio of these will not




OPERATING-STATISTICS.          275
differ materially from the influence of speed on the
track. The fuel account may be easily kept separate from  the passenger and freight traffic, by
adopting a system of accounts to show the quantity used by each engine, as mentioned under the
head of supplies.
With results carefully reduced from a thorough
system of statistics, the Superintendent will have a
basis, not of guess-work, but of fact, to judge of the
speed he should adopt, and of the tariff necessary
for a high, as compared with that sufficient to pay
equally well at a low speed. He would be able to
determine on all questions of rivalry with other
lines, what could be done to best secure the interest of his own line.
There is yet wanting much of that thoroughness, required to obtain all the statistical knowledge
needful. Profitable and unprofitable traffic is indiscriminately thrown together, and the value of
the aggregate only is known, while the relative
value of the parts are merely guessed at. The
same may be more emphatically said of expenses.
Now, it is not denied that much useful statistical
information is obtained; but the fault is, in not
carrying it to that detail which is necessary to
obtain the information so valuable and necessary
to the economical administration of business.




276            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
If a full and accurate knowledge of the expenses
on track and machinery, and of the extensive, and
in a great measure irresponsible, outside and inside
agencies involved in rival efforts to control business
-were well understood, there would doubtless be
great modification in the operations of competing
lines. The general practice on American railways
has been to charge the same passenger fare on fast
as on slow trains; a course that cannot be justified
by the expenses, and must rest on some other
basis: this is mostly competition, and the only one
that can justify it.
There is a general opinion among railway managers, that high speed is more expensive than low,
and this is the result of an impression derived from
the fact, that increase of speed has been attended
with increase of expenses; but the information is
indefinite, uncertain, and not competent to meet the
necessities of the question, or lay the foundation of
business with the exactness that is attainable, and
should be had for affairs of so much importance.
Let it not be said the thing is impracticable; it
only requires system and energy to secure the most
useful results to the railway interest, and must be
done before railway management can be said to be
complete.




OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.         277
CHAPTER XXVII.
OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.
TlIE running of trains must depend fluch on the
weight and character of the traffic to be provided
for. It is necessarily controlled by the fact, whether
the railway has a single or double track. In the
latter case, the arrangement of time tables is more
simple than in the former, and a double track will
of course accommodate a much larger traffic, and
the traffic may be done at a lower rate of expense.
The greater portion of the railways in this country
have only a single track, and on many of these
there is quite an important traffic. It is obvious
that regularity is highly important, in fact indispensable, especially on a single track, as delay in one
train causes delay in several others, and is particularly injurious to freight trains, which are required
to give the preference to all passenger trains. It is
therefore obvious that whatever tends to delay, and
thereby cause irregularity, should be carefully guarded against, and the most energetic means used in
case of accident, to remove the impediment to other




28             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
trains. In passenger trains, high speed is more
likely to cause accidents than low speed, and great
care should be used to avoid unnecessary hazard
from this source. High speed is also more expensive in other respects, as has been remarked in relation to track and machinery, to which may be
added the increased cost of fuel. Not only are
accidents more likely to occur under high speed,
but the injury will be much more severe than when
they occur on trains at low speed.
The question to be considered is, what rate of
speed is necessary to secure the traffic?  Within
reasonable limits, it may be regarded true, that the
interest of the proprietors will be best promoted
by establishing the lowest rate of speed. There is
doubtless some traffic secured by high speed that
would be lost on a low speed, and the first question
is, will that be sufficient to defray the extra expense? Aside from the rivalry of competing lines,
this question could be easily settled. Any speed
over twenty-five miles per hour for express trains,
may generally be regarded as of doubtful expediency, if the traffic is not affected by competition.
An express train of this speed, making few stops,
and those mostly for fuel and water, would not
require a high or very expensive running time; it
being premised that the arrangements for taking on




OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.        279
supplies of fuel and water admitted promptness in
this respect, and no unnecessary time is consumed
at stations. Such an express would have an important advantage in regularity over a higher rate of
speed, and rarely miss its connections with other
lines; which would arise from two causes: first,
its less exposure to accidental delays, and second,
that in case of delay it would be more likely to
recover the loss on its moderate time. Hence it
often occurs that a journey of five hundred oi
one thousand miles is made in less time by the
moderate express than by the extra express; arising
from  delays occasioned by lying over at points
where connection is lost with the next link in
the line.
It will be contended that the public would not
be satisfied with slow trains; and it is admitted
some attention is due to this consideration; but the
first party in interest is the Proprietor, who has
furnished the means to construct the railway, and
is responsible for the conduct of the traffic. Not
only does he bear the original burden of the undertaking, and the current expense of high speed, but
if life or limb is damaged, a much more likely
occurrence at high speed, he must pay. It cannot
be denied that the proprietor must be indemnified,
and if it be expedient to maintain the high or extra




280            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
speed, the tariff rate should be in proportion. It
is the practice in England to charge a high rate for
the extra express trains, and still it is contended, 1
think with propriety, by English writers, that ever
they do not make sufficient difference.
It is certainly a very pleasant thing to travel
thirty miles per hour including stops, on a well
managed railway, provided no apprehension of
danger is felt; and no doubt most people would
prefer it to a train of more safety at twenty-five
miles per hour. But if a higher rate, corresponding
to the increased expense was charged, it would be
found that most travellers would be satisfied with
the twenty-five mile express. In regard to speed
there is one thing that may be controlled by the
Superintendent, namely, that no unnecessary time
be consumed by stops at stations. The time wasted
at stations must be made up by extra speed between
them; and a great deficiency of promptness in this
duty may often be observed, and a striking difference on different railways. In one case the passengers are duly notified, and ready to leave the coach
the moment the train stops; in the other, they
receive no notice until it actually comes to a stand,
and then it often happens that the name of the station is announced in such a confused, inarticulate
sound as to leave the passengers in doubt, if not




OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.        281
utter uncertainty, as to what station they have
arrived at. The time required depends on the number of passengers to be discharged and received,
and' this is easily understood. Passengers are generally ready to do their part, and if it is understood
there will be promptness on the part of the conductor, they will move at the earliest moment in getting off or on the train. If fuel and water are to be
taken on, there will be necessity for a longer stop;
but even this is often longer than necessary, and
sometimes appears lengthened out to give time for
refreshments that are quite unnecessary. Certain
stops should be arranged to give time for refreshments; but these need not occur oftener than once
in one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles, on
express trains.
It is often observed that way trains, which are
understood to be trains that stop at all stations, are
run at as high speed between stations as express
trains. This can only arise from unnecessary waste
of time at the stations, or from too high a timetable speed for such trains, which in general should
not be greater than eighteen miles per hour, including stops, and if the latter be promptly made, the
running speed will not be great. The time lost in
stops is not simply the delay at the station; but
to this must be added that required in bringing




282           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
down and raising the speed from and to the running rate of time. This requires good practice on
the part of the engine driver and the brakeman
The steam should not be kept on so long as to
require the brake to stop the rolling and cause a
sliding motion to the wheels. A light train is more
easily stopped than a heavy one, and as way trains
are not usually as heavy, and do not require as
heavy engines, nor as high speed, they may be
brought to a stand more easily than express trains.
On railways having a large proportion of heavy
express trains, there will be an object of some convenience in having all the coaches of the same size
for both way and express trains; but the engines
for way trains may be lighter than those adapted
to express trains. To see, as may often be seen, a
way train with one or two coaches, containing
twenty or thirty passengers, and rarely exceeding
sixty, drawn by an express engine with five and a
half to six feet drivers, and weighing from twentytwo to twenty-five tons, is certainly no credit to the
capacity of the management. On a railway having
a comparatively small amount of light traffic, or
such as is best done by small trains, the practice
here recommended is of less importance. If, on the
other hand, there is a large amounlt of the total
passenger traffic that is light, then it is especially




OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.        283
important that not only the engines, but the coaches
should be lighter than those required for a heavy
traffic.
There are railways that do a large passenger
business, a very considerable portion of which is
properly a light-train business, and should be done
with machinery adapted to it, and with proper
arrangements of trains and machinery. Much of
the local traffic would be better accommodated,
and as a consequence better cultivated and more
economically done, than by the more expensive
mode of doing a large portion of it on express
trains. There are two classes of railways, on which
this is very important: First, those that enter large
cities, passing through a densely-settled country,
having a large local traffic in passengers, that
require, not heavy, but frequent trains. It is a
great error to do this business by heavy, or any
express train, especially if the express is run in
competition with other lines. The objection that
will be urged, namely, that business will be confused by this course, and you must not have so
much variety in machinery, is nothing more than a
confession of incapacity for proper administration,
and should not be regarded, if it be intended to
maintain a thorough and economical management.
The second case is, a railway having a light aggre



284            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
gate traffic, not sufficient to support frequent
trains, even if they be light. Here, in the absence
of a heavy traffic, there is small hope of meeting
expenses, if heavy machinery is used.  It may be
generally noticed that railways of this class use
the same, or nearly the same character of machinery, as those doing double, or quadruple traffic;
a practice ruinous to the proprietors, and unless
changed, must lead in some cases to the abandonment of the railway as a means of transport. The
traffic may carry them along and pay current expenses until the renewal of rails and machinery
becomes necessary, when it will appear that there
are no funds for such a purpose, and the railway
must be abandoned, the proprietors making the
most they may out of the old rails and machinery,
and the district return to the old method of transport, no doubt, much to the disadvantage of all
parties in interest.
In arranging express trains, especially on a railway of large traffic, much judgment is required in
determining the rate of speed. It is not always
necessary to run all trains alike fast. So far as
they may be induced by competition, the speed of
some will probably be higher than others, and they
should have few stops, so as to give all time practicable to the track, and thus keep the running




OPERATING-RTSNNING OF TRAINS.        285
speed as low as will make the time required by the
competition, and best secure the object sought.
Other express trains should have more time, and
make stops at the more important way stations,
when the business may justify such extent of accommodation, leaving the minor stations to be provided for by the way trains. This will be likely to
excite in the latter case some jealousy, of the influence of which the Superintendent must judge, as
the railway cannot be expected to provide accommodation, beyond the fair profit of the traffic.
It is quite proper that freight trains should give
the right of track to passenger trains, and in case
of accidental delays of the latter, this is sometimes
quite serious, especially on single track railways,
having three or four passenger trains each way daily.
Of course, every practicable effort should be made
to avoid such delays, and at this time, on wellmanaged railways, they are of more rare occurrence than formerly. Freight trains require much
judgment in their arrangement, from  the fluctuations of the traffic, and will require modifications
as the varying seasons of business occur. Those
established for daily use through the year, should
be limited to the number that may be required
through the season of light traffic; and as this increases, extra sections of trains will be provided for




286           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
a time, and as it further increases, it may be expe.
dient to put on additional regular trains. It is
very material to the economy of management, that
no unnecessary trains be run, or more than is sufficient for the traffic at the time. The passenger
train must be run daily, for though at times it may
have a light business, it can only change by a new
time-table, dispensing with a portion of the trains,
which is not usually done oftener than twice in a
year; but freight is more easily managed in this
respect, and no more trains should be run than
necessary to provide for it. This will produce
some irregularity in the employment of train men,
and some other work or occupation must at times
be provided for them. So far as they are mechanics, this may be found in the repair shops, and
others should be employed at such work as they
can do, or dismissed for the time. But it will
rarely happen that work cannot be found for the
useful employment of laborers.  Some railway
managers contend this cannot be done, and that
train men must be kept constantly under employment, equal to any emergency of business, which 1
regard unsound and inconsistent with proper economy.  If due attention is paid to the wants of a
railway, useful employment may generally be
found for all train-men, from trains temporarily




OPERATING-RUNNING OF TRAINS.        287
suspended.  At such times, which occur after a
season of heavy traffic, the machinery will require
more than usual attention, and should be put in
good order, so as to be in condition to meet the demands of a returning pressure in the traffic, and the
mechanics suspended from the train service, may
be fully employed to aid this work.  When the
traffic is heavy, the machinery is kept in so constant use, that only temporary repairs can well be
made, leaving the more important work to be done
when it is less occupied, and just when the mechanics from  among the train men may be at
liberty to go to the shops.
The freight trains should be ready to start on
their time with the same promptness as a passenger
train. There is often neglect in this respect, arising
from the impression that it is less important; but
the freight should be as punctual on time, both in
leaving the terminus and from way stations, as a
passenger train. This is quite necessary to an economical administration of the freight traffic, and to
the convenience and economy of the work of repairs
on the track, and the wood trains transporting fuel
for the use of the engines, which are embarrassed
and delayed by the untimely freight train.
The running speed of freight trains should not
exceed twelve miles per hour, except for freight




288            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
that can pay extra for greater speed. This principle is not sufficiently regarded, as one that enters
intimately into the economy of railway transport,
and will be likely to be understood only by a closer
supervision of all that affects expense than has
hitherto been practised on most railways. Speed
in freight transportation requires a corresponding
weight and power of engine, or the load must be
diminished to allow the speed; in either case extra
speed will involve extra expense. Whatever be
the speed adopted, the load of the freight engine
may be adapted to its power; in this it differs from
the requirements of an express passenger engine,
in which the load cannot so readily be adapted to
its power; and hence the freight engine for high
or low speed may be of the weight and power that
will produce the best economy of transport. In
arranging  the time for a freight train, provision must be made for necessary detention at the
stations for letting off or taking on cars. If the
train is properly made up, the station service may
be as regularly and promptly done as any other;
the station agent should have his side track clear,
in order to remove the cars to be left at his station
without delay; and the cars to be put on should be
ready and in position for prompt attachment. If,
as will be required for way freight at small stations,




OPERATINU-RUNNING OF TRAINS.        289
a car must be loaded with freight to be delivered
at several stations, and of course unloaded by the
discharge of parcels for each, the parcels for each
station should be loaded in the order of the stations,
so as to admit of prompt discharge. If unnecessary
time is taken at the stations, it will be made up, if
the engine has power, by a corresponding increase
of speed between them, and this will be easy if
there happen to be a descending grade, and it is no
unusual thing for time to be wasted by idle habits
at the stations, in the expectation of making it up
by increase of speed, though against the rules.
This is an evil to be carefully guarded against; and
attempts have been made, requiring the station
agent to report the time of the arrival and departure of trains, and any circumstances of unusual
delay; but unless very closely looked after, the
reporting will be defective, and the Superintendent
left in ignorance of proceedings in this respect. It
is no uncommon thing to witness heavy freight
trains moving under a time table of twelve to fourteen miles, but actually at the rate of thirty miles
per hour, thundering along the rails with their
heavy cars of more than two tons on a wheel, and
these resting on bits of india-rubber bouncers, or
short, steel springs of substantial rigidity. Nor is it
a matter of rare occurrence that such things hap13




290           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
pen, and go seriously to add to the expense of
repairs on track and machinery. If run at proper
speed, freight engines may be heavier than passenger engines, and be no more injurious to the track;
they should have low drivers, as this tends to restrict
their speed, and increase their power of traction.
The Superintendent who aims to effect an economical transport of freight, will find much to demand his attention in the management of his trains.
He must study, not to see merely how large a train
he may haul, or how fast he can run it with one
engine; but how small a sum he can make transport a ton of fieight. When this last proposition
comes to be well studied, machinery will be bettei
adapted to the rail and the traffic the road accommnodates.




OPERATING -COMPETTITON.          291
CHAPTER XXVIII.
OPERATING-C OMPETITION.
THE competition of rival lines has become a
matter seriously affecting many prominent railways,
and has led to many convocations of railway managers, for the purpose of harmonizing the conflicting
interests. These assemblies have produced agreements as to running trains and rates of tariff, having at least the ostensible object of securing fair
rates and a proper division of traffic. There are,
however, some inherent difficulties in the way of
such arrangements, arising out of the peculiar circumstances that control traffic at the same rates on
different and rival lines, which when left to its
natural action, will flow more to one than to the
other, and the result is pretty sure to cause suspicion and jealousy on the part of those having
the least ability to control this tendency; and when
trade flows against them, the suspicion is easily
aroused to account for this result, as arising from
some transgression on the part of their rival, against
the programme of the  arrangement previously




S92            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
entered into.  And, perhaps, without waiting to
obtain correct knowledge of facts, they proceed to
measures equally inconsistent with the contract,
and the parties are soon floating in the broad field
of rivalry. In some cases of rivalry, there is no
material difficulty of this sort, and with fair arrangements each party will obtain its due share of
the traffic.
No railway can consent that its rival should be
allowed to establish lower rates for a competing
traffic than its own, for of all the advantages that
control it, there is none so effective as lower rates,
and any rival line, possessing inferior inducements,
should be content with uniform rates, and proper
time arrangements for the running of trains, and
take such portion of the traffic as will naturally
flow  to it under the circumstances that may
exist. Without this, no arrangement can be made
of any practical value-and it is better for the
inferior line to submit to this, and obtain fair rates
for what it carries, than struggle by various means
to do a business that will not pay expenses. But
no difficulty need to exist, where the lines will
naturally make a fair division of the traffic competed for at equal rates.
It must be conceded, that in general this kind of
arrangement or contract between rival lines, has




OPERATING-COMPETITION.          293
not been very successful in promoting the interest
of the proprietors.  It has rarely happened that
they have been in force any great length of time,
before some party imagines he can make something
out of his adroitness, and sets at work to obtain
some advantage not consistent with the contract;
he may employ agents to solicit traffic, and secure
an influence by misrepresentations, which are not
particularly unusual with that class of men, who
often exercise great skill, and produce considerable
effect on the course of traffic; or, by the aid of
free tickets, drawbacks and commissions, the rates
are often actually reduced, though the tariff stands
formally as unchanged. Such practices are sure to
be found out by the injured party, before a large
amount of traffic can be secured, and of course
measures are taken to counteract them, and the
agreement falls to the ground. The measures that
have been attempted to enforce such agreements,
and punish the faithless party by fines, have not produced any important results that I have known.
This class of contracts must rely mainly on the good
sense and fidelity of the parties.
Railway managers make great efforts to establish arrangements, that will enable all to obtain
fair rates and reduce expenses, a proceeding that
should be beneficial to their mutual interests; but




294            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
the several parties (usually the principal operating
officers), pursue this with different motives; one
enters upon the negotiations in good faith, intending to carry out faithfully the arrangement he
agrees to, while another only designs to make it a
cover, to secure undue advantages. No sooner is
the contract made, than the latter, considering his
rival restricted by the contract, and relying as
before observed on his ingenuity and cunning, goes
to work to defeat the object of the contract by
various devices, which he designs to hide from his
rival; and by employing the means before described,
aims to influence the direction of traffic, and all in
conflict with the contract between the parties.
In view of the short time that such measures
may be practised, before the facts will come to the
knowledge of his rival, the practice indicates great
want of sagacity on the part of the offending party,
whose bold denials and slender evasions, to fasten
the fault on some subordinate, are often as ludicrous
as they are dishonest.
It is quite apparent that contracts with such
parties must be of short duration, and end in open
rivalry, greatly to the prejudice of the proprietary
interests of both lines. Some operating managers
appear to regard this as shrewd practice, and as a
laudable aim to advance the interest of their lines;




OPERATING-COMPETITION.           295
but it presents a grave question to their employers;
for if their agent is ready to cheat their rivals, little
doubt can be entertained, on the occurrence of an
opportunity, that he would be quite as ready to
cheat them. The real difficulty is, the employers
generally know very little about the matter, and
what they do know, is usually from the offending
officials.
The mischief of competition cannot be healed
without good faith on both sides. In the absence
of this on either side, all efforts will be abortive.
But the end to be secured, namely, fair rates and
moderate expenses must be reached, or the proprietary interest must suffer, and the means suggested
are indispensable from the circumstances of competing lines of railway. Certainly so far very little
has been effected in securing fair rates for rival
traffic, a fact by no means creditable to railway
management.
It is in the nature of things, that railways holding certain relations to each other, divide the
traffic, or a certain portion of it, on equal tariff
rates, and the traffic must take one or the other
line.  The question for the proprietors therefore is,
shall equitable arrangement be made and maintained, which shall secure fair rates and economize
expenses? or shall we, by costly, and irresponsible




296           1RAILNW.     PROPERTY.
agencies and other extra expenses, endeavor to
show large gross receipts, and thus control at unremunerating rates a traffic that should afford a
reasonable profit?  It must be borne in mind that
no increase results from  extra expenses and low
rates, for the rival line, by similar efforts, still
divides the traffic in about the same ratio as would
be the case on a fair and equitable contract. The
public gain by the low rates, and under this inflience there will probably be an aggregate increase in the volume of the traffic, but this will be
lost in density and value, and the proprietors will
only have the consolation of loading their track
with a traffic that yields little if any profit, if not
productive of positive loss.
In the condition of many railways in this country, the amount of traffic in competition is very
large, and the proprietary interest involved in
its management very important.  Cases occur in
which it is very difficult to manage it successfully;
but in many others, the only thing necessary, is a
sound business sagacity, exercised with fidelity
and firmness to secure paying rates. A competing
railway is not like the competition of stage coach
lines, where one party aims at breaking down the
other, and thereby securing a monopoly of the
trade; for a railway that has a local traffic suffi



OPERATING-COMPETITION.            297
cient to keep it in operation, will always have the
power to act on its rival.  It cannot be broken
down, and will always be in the field as a competitor, and if it cannot maintain the rival traffic at a
profit, will be able to prevent its competitor from
making profit; and though naturally inferior in
capacity, its inferiority is not often so decided as to
prevent it from destroying in a great measure, if not
wholly, the profits of the rival line.
It is sometimes urged that a railway is so loaded
with capital and other liabilites that it cannot compete with one less burdened in this respect. A
little reflection will indicate the fallacy of such
reasoning; for whatever may be the liabilities, if
there is sufficient local traffic to pay current expenses, and so much for the use of the rails as
they are worth for old iron, it is pretty certain to
be kept running, and there are few that cannot do
this on their local traffic. If the railway was a
project to be made, then its cost would be a legitimate question in reference to its ability to maintain
successfully a competition with a line already in
operation; but it is constructed, and whether it has
cost little or much, will most likely find traffic
enough to perpetuate its running, and keep it in
the field as a competitor with lines, having in some
respects greater advantages. Is it therefore wise to
13*




298             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
lightly esteem a rival?-far better to arrange terms
on the basis of existing facts, and by equitable
arrangement secure a fair rate for the traffic to be
carried.




OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   299
CHAPTERP  XXIX.
OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.
IT would be superfluous to discuss in detail the
leading object the proprietors have in advancing
funds for a railway.  A  limited number have
doubtless been influenced by considerations of the
indirect benefits they may derive from the results
of the anticipated working of the railway on property and trade; but in the main, they look for
remuneration in direct net profits from the traffic.
It cannot be doubted that the indirect benefits are
far greater than the direct, and these accrue, not
only to those who subscribe with this object, but to
the community on the route, generally, who may
not, and generally do not, furnish any material
portion of the funds required for the work. For
the main part, the funds have been furnished by
those who take the securities as an investment,
depending wholly on obtaining compensation from
the net profits of the traffic, and are no way interested in the indirect benefits that result to property
and trade. This class, and especially those that




300            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
rely on the stock securities, take the financial burden of the railway. The class of stock subscribers
relying on the indirect advantages are usually
quite small in proportion, and are pretty sure to
find their full remuneration.
The stock  proprietors, having  usually waited
some time for the construction of the work, naturally look with anxiety, as soon as the railway is
opened for traffic, for the prospects of a dividend
on their stock, and it is quite proper the Directors
should feel a desire, so far as they may have
power, to gratify this reasonable anxiety of the
stock proprietors.  Few railways have been completed without contracting a debt, with a prior
lien on the property, that must be provided for
before dividends can be declared, and the first
appropriations from the net income on traffic, must
satisfy the interest and sinking fund on the funded
debt. In the incipient operations of the railway,
this funded debt, according to its relative magnitude, will interfere with dividends to the stock proprietors until the net income on the traffic shall
equal the same interest on the whole capital that is
paid on the bonded debt, with a surplus over this
equal to the sinking fund, and then both classes of
proprietors will be equally well paid for the time.
For the time that may elapse before this result is




OPERATIrIu -rfNANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   301
reached, the bond proprietors will be fully paid,
while the stock proprietors may receive a small, or
perhaps no interest on their outlay; and can only
hope an increasing traffic will eventually afford
them an equivalent for the loss of back interest.
If the funds were all from stock proprietors, and
no bonded debt incurred, the whole net income
would be applicable for dividends to stock proprietors, and dividends would be earlier expected.
This, however, is not often the case; a bonded
debt, at least equal to the amount of stock, is more
common, and to provide for the interest and sinking fund on the former, is on many railways an important, and sometimes in the early operations, a
difficult duty in the financial management; but as
the funds obtained for the bonded debt, could only
have been obtained on this basis, there is no alternative, unless, by some evasive repudiation, it is
neglected for the benefit of the stock proprietors;
a process of cheating that can only be classed with
other acts of infidelity, whereby men appropiate
the property of others to their own use.
At the opening of a railway, the net income
must be matter of conjecture, and considerable time
will be required to ascertain it with reasonable certainty, and thus determine the basis for dividends
on the stock. It usually happens that conjecture




302            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
is sanguine, and urgently presses the promise of
early and liberal dividends; and it becomes important to look carefully at the bearing of this question on the permanent interests of the proprietors.
On the opening of a railway, there is, in most
cases, a respectable amount of traffic ready for its
occupation. This will increase by the well established laws of trade-namely, that improved facilities enhance the development of existing traffic,
and new items of trade are brought out by the
superior cheapness of transport. If the natural
resources of the district accommodated by the railway are but indifferently occupied, as may be
peculiarly the case in a newly settled country, it
may be expected that the increase will be large, as
compared  to that enjoyed at the opening, and
though dividends may be small, or even nothing in
the commencement of the traffic, they will eventually be remunerating.
The railway and machinery, if well constructed,
being new, the repairs and maintenance for a few
years will be comparatively small, and the net
profits will, for the time, be larger than will ultimately be found an average rate on the traffic.
Continued use will impair the track and machinery,
and new parts will be required for their efficient
maintenance and usefulness, consequently it must




OPERATING- FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   303
be expected that there will be an increase of current expenses in the operation of a railway. It is
usual to estimate the probable increase in the traffic
to be not only sufficient to meet this increase of expense, but to even more than do it, and to justify
the expectation of an increasing rate of dividend.
The more prudent course would be, to make adequate provision by a reserved fund, that may very
properly be appropriated to the purchase of new
machinery, to meet the growing wants of increasing
traffic; instead of the too common course, of
increasing the indebtedness of the Institution for
this purpose. The latter course is most likely to be
pursued, if there be an influence in the Board of
Directors that seeks to elevate the market value of
the stock, as it is well understood that dividends
are a material element in promoting such a result,
without much reference to the sources from whence
they are derived. If, on the other hand, the railway property is regarded as an investment of funds,
and governed on the same business principle as
would control an intelligent individual, who would
not esteem the payment from one hand to the other
as evidence that his property was thereby enhanced
in value, the management will be different. All
efforts to produce fictitious value, either a rise or
fall, can be no benefit to the property; and can




304            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
only be viewed as means of deception, practised on
those who mayT unwittingly repose confidence in
unfaithful managers. It is sometimes said in opposition to this view, that the stock proprietors are
entitled to all that has been earned, and the managers have no right to appropriate net earnings to
purchase new  machinery, or for other purposes
legitimately belonging to the construction account,
and that funds for these should be obtained on loan,
or by the issue of new stock shares, even if by
these means funds can only be obtained by a considerable discount. It is urged, in support of this
method, that the stock proprietors cannot afford to
do without dividends, to the full measure of net
income, and that it is not right to withhold them
from them. In carrying out this principle, great
skill and liberality is often practised in charging
over to construction, for the purpose of showing an
apparently small amount of current expenses. And
hence the construction account has come to be
regarded an abyss, never to be satisfied, constantly
swelling the liabilities of the company. Under
this mode of proceeding, dividends may be made,
provided the managers have credit, or the Institution has credit to borrow funds, until the means of
dividend be totally exhausted. The test of this
argument, or method of business, will rarely, if




OPERATING-~FINANCIAL, MANAGEMENT.   305
ever, be made by the stock proprietors, so long as
they receive the semi-annual dividends of four or
five, or even three and a-half per cent.; and they
will not often inquire as to the source from which
the dividend money came.
Men who have invested their funds in railway
property have the right to all the property can
earn, and no doubt many have need of early
income, and whether they need it or not, are entitled to receive it, so far as net income has been produced by the traffic; but their interest as an Institution certainly will not be promoted by borrowing
funds, instead of using their own, to meet expenses
that must be incurred to extend or sustain their
works. It may not be best to dispense with early
dividends, and if affairs have been discreetly managed this will not ordinarily be necessary; but the
dividends should be made with a view to provide
for depreciation, and the funds reserved for renewals need not be idle in waiting for depreciation to
occur. They can be used, as before stated, in providing new machinery for increasing traffic, insteac
of funds being borrowed, for such purpose, at a discount, and these may be charged to construction,
and remain in that shape as a surplus account.
In order to illustrate the method recommended,
let it be supposed, that the strict net income, after




306           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
the payment of expenses, interest and sinking fund,
shows a balance of eight per cent. per annum;
which may be the case on a comparatively small
traffic, on a new and well made railway while
expenses are low. Let five per cent. per annum
be paid as dividend to stock proprietors, and three
per cent. be carried to surplus account.  This
surplus will probably be needed, for additional
machinery, for side. tracks, ballasting, or other
necessary improvements that may be demanded by
an increasing traffic. By this plan the surplus will
be safely invested in property required by the wants
of the institution. The second year the improving
traffic we will suppose adds to the net income one
per cent., and if not called for to meet any greater
demand than was made the previous year for extensions and improvements in the works, let the
dividend be six per cent. per annum for this year,
leaving the surplus of three per cent. to be carried
forward in the same way as before. After this, as
the traffic may warrant, pay six per cent. dividends
and no more, until the surplus can no longer be discreetly expended for necessary objects of construe
tion. If the income continues to improve, as it
most probably will, and the net earnings warrant it.
let the dividend be raised to seven per cent. pei
annum, and so far as the surplus is not wanted to




OPERATING —FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   307
increase the machinery or improve the works, let it
be appropriated to purchase the bonds of the company. When the bonds and all other indebtedness
of the institution is liquidated, it will be proper to
convert the surplus account, as circumstances may
warrant, into a stock dividend, to be issued to the
stock proprietors, who will now be the sole proprietors. The railway being now in good condition,
with ample machinery for its traffic, and the interest and sinking fund account closed, it will be able
to make its regular dividend on a corresponding
increase of capital, and the stock proprietor finds
his compensation, and though deferred, his investment proves the best in the institution, as it ought,
he having taken all the risk of the enterprise. If
he has not received the benefit at an earlier day, he
finds no serious losses by discounts to obtain funds,
and, by a judicious management of the surplus, he
finds a property in sound condition as to its works
and outfit for its now enlarged traffic. There has
been no demoralization of its operations, from insafficient means of prompt payment, and he now gets
back the full amount, with interest, of all that was
due from net resource. On this method the rate of
dividend in the early stage and the advancing progress may vary according to the exigencies of the
case, and the profits of the traffic; but it should




808            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
not be high, and should depend on the wants of the
works, and the amount of indebtedness, keeping in
view the policy, not only of avoiding new liabilities,
but of making  as early liquidation of existing
indebtedness as may be consistent with giving a
small but regular return to the stock proprietors in
the form of dividends. Such a system of financial
management would be more likely than any other
to induce economy and fidelity in conducting the
business of the institution.
Regularity and reasonble certainty in dividends is
generally regarded important in this kind of property, and especially to those who depend on it for
means to meet current expenses; but trade will fluctuate, productions will be irregular, and these will
cause irregularities in the traffic, and consequently
in the net income of the railway. Changes must
take place in this branch of business, the same as in
all others, and income will necessarily vary; this
must be anticipated in all systems of finance. In
order to secure regularity in dividends, it is necessary to ascertain the average of several years,
which will embrace the extremes of fluctuation,
and by reserving something as a surplus from the
more productive years, be prepared, from  this
reserve fund, to meet the regular dividend in those
years that prove less productive. And if it appear




OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   309
that a larger reserve has been made than the exigencies of the finances require, and especially if
there be no debts to pay or provide for, let it be
converted into a surplus dividend, and carried
where it belongs, to the credit of the stock proprietor. This principle of finance is the more important, if the institution is under obligation to
provide interest and sinking fund on a bonded
debt, or has important renewals or improvements
to make in its works. If the railway be mainly,
or wholly, a stock property, and the proprietors
prefer to do so, it is perfectly proper for them to
divide each year, according to the net income; but
they must expect, on this method, to experience
more or less of fluctuation in semi-annual dividends, and thereby increase the temptation to
stock speculation on the part of their managers
and officers, who will best know the effect of the
dividend on the market value of the property.
I am well aware that the plan of finance here
proposed will be regarded with disfavor by many
railway managers; who prefer more of what they
term liberality in dividends, and do not fear to
augment and swell the construction account; a
mode of proceeding that has a glittering present,
and, as has often proved, a most disastrous future.
The great question for the proprietary interest to




310            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
consider is, What shall be the basis of financial
management? Experience has shown that it must
be either a speculative or a business basis. The
former is a dangerous policy for those of the proprietors who may not be of the party in control to
reap the benefit. All cannot speculate with profit
- there must be a portion of the proprietors to be
speculated upon, in order to have a basis for successful speculation, and this class must be the unsuspecting portion of the stock proprietors. To the
initiated, there will appear no great difficulty,
where there are numerous proprietors in a joint
stock property of this kind, for cunning and unprincipled men to waste the property, at the same
time they are making fair, and perhaps good semiannual dividends. The first serious check to the
course of the speculating party, will appear in their
inability to make further loans; for it usually happens, that the money-lender is more acute in apprehending the tendency of affairs than the stock proprietor, who may be lulled by dividends; and the
cessation of the power to loan is usually followed
by a cessation of dividends. This condition of the
finances of the institution will most probably be
anticipated by the shrewd speculative manager,
who takes care to dispose of his interest to unsuspecting parties, in time to avoid loss, while the




OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   311
great mass of proprietors are suddenly roused up,
just in time to see their property take wings and
fly away. There is another feature of the speculative policy very mischievous to the proprietors,
namely, the practice of buying and selling the
stock of the.company on speculation, by which
the parties engaged are at one time interested in a
rise, and at another in the fall of the market value.
In regard to this practice, it may be said, any
manager has a right to buy and sell the stock of his
company, and that he injures no one by so doing.
This is a plausible reason, and is sufficient for all
the ordinary transactions of this kind, based on the
circumstances and wants of the manager for actual
investment.  But when the chief officers and influential managers of a company are known to
operate largely in a speculative way in the stock,
they are strongly tempted to neglect the proprietary interests committed to their trust, at any
time when their operations in stock will thereby be
promoted. And further: The men whose minds
are of a speculative turn are liable, and indeed it
may be said generally do, devote so large a share
of their care and attention to objects and means of
speculation, that there is not sufficient time and
thought left to manage successfully the affairs-of
the proprietors, even if they made the best of this




812.            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
hastily snatched remainder.  No doubt it may be
set down as a standing caution, that if a proprietor
chance to learn that the President, Treasurer, Secretary, or Superintendent, or the more active and influential directors, are engaged in large stock operations, making time sales and corners, it would be
wise for him to watch a favorable opportunity to
dispose of his interest in the institution.  This
method of business is only to be adopted by such
managers and officers as prefer the chance of speculative results, and whose prospects will depend
on the number and interest of those who may
incautiously be induced to engage, on the supposition that affairs are, and are to be, conducted for
the general interest of the proprietors.
The other-namely, the business basis before
mentioned, is predicated on a system of management that seeks its results in a wise, just and business-like conduct of affairs. Practising sound economy in all objects of expenditure-discarding all
traffic that will not pay some net income-having
no taste for a large gross revenue that is accompanied by equally large gross expenses-nursing all
traffic that can be found to pay a reasonable, or at
least some, net income-in short, practising the
course usually followed by discreet business men in
the conduct of their private affairs; regarding the




OPERATING —FINANCIAL.MANAuGEMENT.    313
prosperity -of the institution as the controlling object:sought, and pursuing this witlh singleness of
purpose, aiming to exercise the same unremitting
attention and sagacity that actuates a discreet individual in conducting his affairs. So obviously.just
and proper is this mnethod, both in regard to the
construction and the operating of;a railway, that
the manager, however his individual tendencies
may be toward speculations and jobs, will profess
to be wholly guided by its rules; and it may not
be easy for the confiding proprietor, or even his comanager, to always understand, until too late, the
unsatisfactory basis of such professions. This latter, however, is an evil incidental to humanity, and
no man may be able to penetrate the veil that hides
the purpose of the manager; and perhaps the purpose is scarcely formed, or if so, very imperfectly
matured; and yet it will probably be developed ir
the ultimate prostration, if not the total ruin, of the
institution. That this evil is one of imminent danger, is sadly proved by the history of railways; and
the question naturally arises, How are the proprietors to guard against it  A question more easily
asked than answered.
The stock proprietors, though first to feel the
effect of incompetent or unfaithful management,
are not the only parties to experience the disastrous
14




314            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
results. The bond proprietor may also suffer, especially if the bonded debt be a large proportion of
the capital of the institution. This class, having no
voice in the management, are usually very quiet so
long as their interest is punctually paid. It is very
natural that they should feel a higher degree of
safety than the stock proprietors, who may be
wholly sacrificed before the bond-holders feel a loss.
Experience, however, has shown that they are not
fiee from the ills and hazards of bad management.
It is true the stock must be first sacrificed, and after
dividends can no longer be paid to the stock proprietors, the interest may be continued for a time
on the bonds; but it rarely fails, that the policy
which has destroyed the stock, will also destroy,
more or less, the security of the bonds. Secured
as the bonds usually are by a mortgage of the
whole property, it would seem to be in the power
of the bondholders, on the failure of the company,
to take possession by foreclosure, and enter into the
management as sole proprietors; but there are difficulties in the way. In the first place, there is the
difficulty of obtaining concert among the bond proprietors to act in the premises; and as more or less
of pecuniary responsibility must be incurred, a
part do not like to put themselves under engagements, without the cooperation of the whole, and




OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   315
here they find themselves somewhat in the position of
stock proprietors, a numerous body, incapable of that
cooperation necessary to secure efficiency, and though
some are ready and anxious to proceed, others will
hold back, to avoid responsibility, while they are
quite ready to avail themselves of the benefits that
may result from the efforts of their co-bondholders.
The second difficulty arises from the unwillingness
of the stock proprietors and unsecured creditors to
allow the railway to go into the hands of the bondholders under a foreclosure that will cut off their
claims. Though no dividend is paid on the stock,
it may be a well founded opinion that good management, and improved prosperity of trade, may
show the institution to have some value for the
stock proprietor, and this it is natural he should
desire to secure. The third difficulty grows out
of the floating debt, which is usually large, under
such circumstances, and much of it due to laborers
for operations on the railway, and for supplies in
the operating department, mostly due to persons in
the vicinity of the railway. This class of creditors
usually threaten to mob and drive off any party
that shall attempt to operate the railway without
acknowledging their claim to payment.- The fourth
difficulty is found in the courts, that in some instances either repudiate the power of the bondholders




316            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
to take absolute possession under the mortgage, or
so qualify this power as to. make it little more than
a nullity; but if the courts find the terms, of the
mortgage so explicit that they cannot evade: them,
they can often aid inprotracting the proceedings so
as to work much embarrassment to the bondholders.
It is not to be: inferred that all courts proceed in
this way,, for there are yet found judges who feel
the responsibility' and. dignity of their position, and
may be relied on. to: maintain the object. of their
institution, namely, the administration of justice
between parties, without. regard to the' parties.  It
is. indeed unfortunate that. the latter class are not
more numerous, but they no doubt hold their relative position, according to the degree of our civilization, and it must be borne, in mind that adjudication between a railway corporation and an individual is a thing that tests the firmness of a court in a
high degree. Notwithstanding all the difficulties,
as the right of the case is on the side of the bondholders, they ultimately succeed, if the traffic of the
railway is worth it, in securing the payment of
principal and interest, though they are sometimes
induced to acquire control under stipulation to pay
a certain class of operating debts, and after reimbursing their own interest, to give the stock ]'roprietors and unsecured creditors whatever may remain,




OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.   317
and which is an equitable result not often complained of by the bondholders.  Mortgage bonds
of a railway corporation, which, from inadequate
traffic, or ill-management, does not pay its stock
proprietors, are far from being that quiet and reliable source of revenue that many have supposed. If
the management of a railway is under speculative
control, that management will be exerted to sustain
the stock or the bond proprietor, as may happen to
be the interest of the controlling party.  If the
stock controls, and the prospect is regarded doubtful as to the ultimate strength of the stock, it may
lead to movements that will change this interest
over to the side of the bondholder, and in the midst
of a cloudy and vigorous litigation, the path of right
may suddenly appear so well fortified that further
resistance will be vain, and matters are brought to
an easy solution; the bondholders must, at least,
be provided for, and the stockholders may take
-what remains. The bond proprietor is not at fault,
he had no control in the management that compelled this result, and the stock proprietor must
bear in mind, that if his property is wasted, it has
been wasted by his representative, and though his
trust may have been abused and forfeited, it is no
fault of the bond proprietor. Instances have occurred in which the bondholders have compromised




318            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
their claims, by delivering up the coupons, for one
or more years, either gratuitously or taking therefor
new  obligations of the company, secured by a
younger mortgage. There may be circumstances
that render this policy expedient, as from  the
recent operations of the railway the undeveloped
traffic may not afford the means of payment, while
the future prospect is favorable for the ultimateability to pay current interest and sinking fund; and
if there is confidence in the fidelity of the management, it may be the wisest course for the bondholders. But if the condition of the company has
been reduced by incompetentt or unfaithful management, no good is likely to result from this method:,
as affairs, will not be likely to improve, and when.
the time comes for payment to be resumed, the
finances will be no better, the track and machinery
in worse condition, and the bond proprietors no
more favorably situated for securing their rights
than they were when the coupons were surrendered.
As a general rule, it is best for them to proceed to
take possession as, soon as payment: fails; delay
rarely works to their advantage, and promptness
and efficiency in action are quite as iecessary to
secure: their rights as those of others. It should be
borne in mind, that the same incompetent or unfaithful management that has destroyed the capa



OPERATING-FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT.    319
city to pay dividends to the stock proprietors, will
be likely to prey on the bond proprietors as soon as
the stock interest is destroyed or paralyzed, and a
new administration of affairs is necessary to secure
the property.  It is well and equitable for the
bondholders to take possession, under stipulation,
after providing for their interest and sinking fund,
to pay any surplus over to unsecured creditors and
stock proprietors, and. very likely the latter interest
will be best promoted by such change of administration, in removing from power a set of unprincipled speculators, or incompetent managers, who
will never advance the interest of either class of
proprietors, or their creditors. A railway that cannot pay interest on its bonds must: indeed be a very
poor project, and the fact that interest is withheld,
may be generally regarded as. evidence that affairs
are not properly conducted, and will not improve
by indulgence. It is admitted, as before observed,
that there may be exceptions to this rule;: but it
calls for careful scrutiny, if the bond proprietors
would secure, their rights..




320            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
CHAPTER XXX.
GENERAL REMARKS
THE management of a railway must necessarily
be a trust committed to men, and the hope of the
proprietors must rest on their sagacity in selecting
such as will prove competent and faithful.  In
cases where this has been successful, institutions
of small original promise have proved remunerating, and in others, where the speculating class have
by any means obtained control, the most promising
railway enterprises have been so reduced as to
greatly deteriorate, if not to utterly ruin, the interest of their stock proprietors.
The first organization of a Board of Directors for
the management of a railway is highly important
to its ultimate success. Experience has proved
that if unfaithful men obtain control in the original
organization, it is very difficult to remove them,
especially in large and important institutions, having a great number of proprietors, and those scattered widely apart-unacquainted with each other
and the details of their property.  The necessary




GENERAL, REMARKS.,              321
combination required for that, efficient action which
is requisite to effect a change, is hardly practicable,
at least until the institution has fallen so low in
business and' credit, that: dividends can no longer be
made —the. interest on the bonded debt, deferred,
and an, over-shadowing floating debt leaving little
for the stock proprietor to hope for. Nor is it,
necessary to this result that all the' Board of Directors, are, unfaithful to their trust.  A clique of
three or four out: of a dozen directors may somanage, that their associates will be kept mainly in
the dark, and if any hitherto confidingg  member
should chance. to get: his eye on some suspiciouna
matter, and venture to press inquiry too close for
the ruling party, he: is soon branded as an old
fogy, quite behind, the times, and his unsu-specting
colleagues; will learn that he is. impracticable and.
cannot comprehend, the age, or, their business, and
if he continue, to be troublesome, he must give
place at a future election for a successor more easily
controlled.  On the other hand, if there be. three or'
four good men in a Board of Directors, who take
active interest in the affairs at; the outset, with. a
President as the executive head who has the; necessary capacity and' fidelity,, they will most likely
conduct the management beneficially for the proprietary interest., There are usually several mem14*




322            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
bers in a board of this kind who institute very little
scrutiny into business, and generally act without
much question on the measures proposed by the
ruling party. If these latter are fair men, they
will respond to the arguments that aim to promote
the interest of the institution; and under the lead
of the President and three or four correct men, who
carefully explore affairs, there will usually be little
danger to apprehend from  a speculating clique,
and this organization may practically be equivalent
to a good Board of Directors, even if there be
several speculating men among them. But it is
best to keep clear of the latter class, as their personal schemes will ever require watching, to prevent
the indirect waste of the resources of the company.
It is moreover hazardous, as competent and upright
men who may be elected, perhaps with the sole
view of giving character to the institution, do-not
always expect to give special attention, and may
not be aware that the board has members that
require watching, and therefore the safe policy is to
secure a full board of good men, who will uprightly
pursue a policy designed to promote the interest of
the institution.
It is not generally expected that all the members
of a Board of Directors will examine with particular
care the detail of affairs; this is left to certain men




GENERAL REMARKS.             323
who are relied upon to do such duty, and more
particularly to the President, who should be the
executive head of the company, and on whose
fidelity and capacity the prosperity of the institution will in a great measure depend. At the same
time it is very important for him to be supported
by intelligent and upright associates in the board,
or there will be danger that he may be baffled by
adverse interests, and though holding a position of
ostensible responsibility, his plans may be defeated
by various misrepresentations and stratagems, that
for a time he may not suspect, nor until their
development will it appear that his position is only
nominal, and that he does not possess the power to
make himself useful to the proprietors.
If an institution of this kind is so unfortunate as
to have in their Board of Managers a clique who
aim to make it subservient to their individual rather
than the proprietary interest, it is likely that they
will contrive to get the finances under their control,
and place the various departments of business in
the hands of their relatives, or other personal
friends, who will understand just how far they
may go in carrying out the purpose of the President, or party opposed to their proceedings.  Measures adverse to the proprietary interest, if there be
one or more persons in the Board who aim to be




:324            RAILW:AY PROPERTY.
faithful to their trust, will not probably be at first
manifest. They will proceed gradually, and perhaps
quiet some unsuspecting member, that otherwise
might not look on with indifference, by a bit of what
he malay suppose a harmless realtzation in some
projected operation, ostensibly of fair business aspect; and it is surprising how many men of fair
standing among their neighbors allow in this way'an embargo on their actions until too late to remedy
the evil, and so the mischief is fastened hopelessly
on the interests of the proprietors.
It has been suggested that men who aim  to
manage affairs of trust for their individual, rather
than the proprietary benefit, are not likely,'and
indeed are not generally good business managers,
and fail to make the business of the institution as
profitable as it should be.  On this point it may be
set down as a rule, that it is not usually their interest to have in their service a very scrupulous
body of agents; but rather their personal friends,
who will, from affinity and interest, be well'disposed to carry out their wishes, as more important
than a competent and faithful discharge of their
respective duties. In this respect, family connections are likely to be sought, as more confidential
and reliable for their purpose, and also from a disposition to pension on the institution members of




GENERAL REMARKS.              325
the family, who may not be able to otherwise provide for their support. This sort of management is
destructive of discipline, of honorable emulation
among other employees, and all generous zeal for
the interest of the Institution. It is not necessary
to be exclusive on this point, for there are, no
doubt, cases where a relative may be advantageously
placed in position of more or less responsibility;
but it should only be done where there are manifest qualifications, namely: a good knowledge of
the duties to be performed, practical sound sense,
that will fully meet every question of discipline,
and vigilant application and fidelity in the discharge of every duty.  The reverse is the more
general result of this application of patronage.
Men occupying positions through the influence of
friends in power, are likely to depend on such influence rather than on a proper discharge of duty,
and are often prone to assume a consequence subversive of the discipline, harmony, and efficiency
of business. The evils of nepotism have usually
been mischievous to railway institutions, and any
indulgence in this sort of patronage should be
looked to with the most rigid caution, as it is most
probable that managers and general officers who
adopt it are not particularly scrupulous for the interest of the proprietors.




326            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
To further schemes of speculation, it is often regarded important to show statements of large gross
receipts. To effect this, rival lines reduce rates
below a compensating tariff, incur large expenses
for agencies, many of them of loose and irresponsible character, and wear out the rails and machinery to keep up a delusion that can only result
in eventual damage to the proprietors, though for a
time screened from their view by a free use of that
absorbing and ruinous abyss, the construction account.
Branch lines are expensive means of forming connections with other railways, and have often proved
very useful to some parties in the management,
while they have been more or less injurious to the
interest of the proprietors.  There are, doubtless,
cases where proceedings of this kind have proved
beneficial to the interest of the main line; but experience in this and other countries has shown that
local interests, contractors, and jobbing managers
are the parties most usually benefited, while probably, in nine cases out of ten, the proprietors of
the main line have suffered loss. It should be
borne in mind that there are very few branches
that can pay, either directly or indirectly, for their
cost. It is not to be supposed that operations of
this kind are in all cases chargeable to dishonest




GENERAL REMARKS.              327
management; they are no doubt entered upon, in
some instances, in the honest expectation of promoting the prosperity of the institution; but they
are very liable to be the occasion of a different
purpose, and therefore, any proposition of the kind
should be thoroughly investigated by the directors
before they are committed to the expenditure. In
this matter they will meet with many plausible
representations, both in regard to branches and
aid to extending lo;es, from  parties interested in
their advancement.  These parties will generally
have, or claim to have, ample local information as
to facts and estimates, and consequently an advantage over others in the argument, and the only
safety is in taking full time to consider and scrutinize all questions involved in the proposition.
Delay is generally the prudent course, and the disaster that has so generally followed this policy
should certainly be sufficient to protect against
hasty action, or until after the most careful consideration of all the circumstances of the case, that
may bear on the interest of the institution.
It is sometimes very boldly and plausibly urged,
that directors should have a large interest in the
stock of the company, as an inducement to give close
attention to their duties; and no doubt this is an
important consideration.  Directors usually receive




328             RAILWAY PROPERTY.
little or no compensation for their services, and if
they have but a small proprietary interest, there is
not an object of sufficient importance to induce much
attention. Some directors, having very little private occupation, accept a seat in a Board, as a
means of social intercourse, or of honorable trust,
and do not expect much labor.  Others, with more
or less of proprietary interest, are men very much
absorbed in their private business, and are restless
every moment they are occupied in their duties as
directors, and do scarcely more than to vote, or
approve of whatever is laid before them.  With a
large pecuniary interest in the institution, it is
reasonable to expect a more close attention; but
this of itself is not sufficient to protect other stockholders, and it is indispensable to their safety, that
the directors be not only capable, but upright men,
who, in looking after their own interest, will do so
with strict reference to that of all other proprietors;
and it should not be forgotten, that a director with
a large stock interest, may also have other large
interests to be affected by the operations of the
company, or plans of speculation that intensify his
other interests in such a degree, that his proprietary
interest in the institution may be quite secondary.
In many cases it is no doubt a difficult thing for
the proprietors, who find their affairs in the hands




GENERAL REMARKS.               329
of a board of doubtful integrity, to elect a good and
reliable board in their stead.  Whether this is more
difficult now than it was formerly, it is not necessary in this place to discuss. It may be stated as a
general principle, that the successful management
of all joint stock property requires a high degree of
civilization; and this is peculiarly the case in railway institutions so situated as to require large
capital and numerous proprietors, mostly strangers
to each other, and to the detail of their affairs. It
is apparent that the management of their affairs is
eminently a matter of trust, affording very little
opportunity for an intelligent scrutiny. Adequate
capacity for administration and fidelity to so important a duty, can only be expected to result from a high
civilization, in which a conscientious sense of right
will constitute enjoyment far outweighing that of any
gains secured at the expense of dishonest proceeding.
It is a question of grave import, whether our
civilization has reached that degree that can give
reasonable confidence in this kind of property, especially to small proprietors.  No doubt it will be
claimed that it has.  It can hardly be expected
that the now  numerous class who occupy these
places of trust, will acknowledge any deficiency,
and though there are doubtless many upright men
in such positions, there is still no room to doubt




330            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
that the railway interest, both in this and other
countries, has largely suffered from the low standard
of civilization prevailing with both them and us.
The management of an important railway involves
arduous and responsible duties, calling for large
business experience and qualifications in judging
of men and things, and the most competent and
upright directors will find ample scope for the
exercise of their best faculties. With the most
upright intentions they will probably commit some
errors. The first and most important duty is, to
select from  their number a man to preside over
their deliberations, and to take the administrative
charge of the executive department of the affairs of
the institution. It is the most usual course in the
election of a Board of Directors to have in view one
of the number for this position. Upon this officer,
as before observed, the prosperity of the institution
will greatly depend: not, however, as is often
supposed, by his vigilance and attention to mere
details-though on a short and unimportant railway
he may consistently give much attention to details,
and perhaps save the duty and expense of some
other agent-but on what may be termed important
railways, his attention should be directed to the
general interests of the institution. and especially to
see that ne nas  svei each department of service




GENERAL REMARKS.             331
men competent and faithful to carry out in the
most efficient manner their respective duties. It is
m this last duty that he will find the most important
field for his care and vigilance; and all his examination of details should be with reference to know
how far he has been successful in this feature of his
administration. Here lies the foundation of sound
railway management. In the varied and numerous
matters involved, it is idle for the chief executive
officer to attempt much personal knowledge of details, and in devoting himself to these, except on
occasion of special examination in reference to the
duties of subordinates, or as they come incidentally,
or by complaint to his notice, he will probably
neglect his more appropriate and important duties.
It is not usual for the President to have an education which prepares him for his position, and he
must be more or less embarrassed in many of his
duties, particularly in making his selections of men
for the charge of subordinate departments. He
will be compelled to depend more or less on the
recommendations of others, and these, even though
well intended, are often much at fault, and lead to
the appointment perhaps of respectable, at the same
time unsuitable, men. Desirable as it is that the
President should have a good knowledge of what is
essential in every branch of the service he superin



332            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
tends, it is not often that this is secured, though
high, and sometimes extravagant, compensation is
paid to obtain it; and in this, as in other departments, a liberal salary is sure to obtain an incumbent, but not always the qualifications essential to
the proper discharge of the duties required. The
man, however, who is well fitted for the station, is
cheap for the proprietors at any reasonable salary;
and the unremitting cares that will press upon his
attention, insure his bread from the sweat of his
brow.  His first duty will be to present to his
Board for appointment as heads of the several
departments, men who have education in the different branches of service to be provided for. His
talent as a business man will be amply proved in
the discharge of this duty. If by indiscretionpetty jealousy-superficial examination or partiality
for personal friends, he makes bad selections, the
proprietary interest must suffer; and on the other
hand, if he proves himself a discreet man, with an
eye single to the prosperity of the institution, having a frank and high-minded sense of duty, well
experienced in the affairs he has assumed to manage,
and no fear of rivals, rising from superior capacity,
among his subordinates, he will gather around him
a class of men that will produce order, regularity
and efficiency through every department of the




GENERAL REMARKS.             33
business of the institution. He may not succeed
fully in the outset of his engagement, but he will
ultimately produce the most favorable management.
Railways must generally be joint stock property,
and from  the impracticability of conducting the
business in any other way, the power of management must be delegated to a portion of stock proprietors.  A short railway involving a comparatively moderate amount of capital may be controlled
by a small number of men, who may be residents
in the vicinity, familiar with each other, and so
situated as to have cognizance of much of its operations, and be able to discuss intelligently its doings
and its business; and by personal attendance at
annual meetings, investigate its management, and
judge whether their influence and votes should be
given to sustain, or to change the directors. Under
these circumstances the railway is situated like
much other joint stock property, where the limited
character of operations renders it practicable to institute scrutiny in'to the administration of affairs.
This will be the case with railways of moderate
extent, and with the proprietors mostly residents
on or near its line; but our most importa lt lines
are not often under so favorable cognizance, and in
many cases the proprietors are so distant fronL the




034            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
location and business of tt.eir property, and so little
acquainted with each other, that they have little
opportunity to know the details of their affairs, and
scarcely pretend to any personal effort, beyond
that of sending their proxy to such party in the
management as may  solicit it, with  envelope
stamped and directed for return at the least possible  care and  expense.  It is not, as before
observed, until dividends of profits fail, that proprietors begin to inquire into the management.
If a single proprietor, or a number residing in the
same vicinity, obtain the impression that their
affairs are not well conducted, they seldom put
forth  any  efficient proceedings  for correction.
Their comparatively small interest impresses on
their minds the impotency of any effort they may
make to produce a desired change of administration, and they usually submit to the loss, holding
on, in the hope of better prospects, or selling out
their interest at whatever the market will give.
If property in railways was generally held by
men of higher wealth, and holding large interest in
the property, there would be more practicability in
efforts for any needed reform. This, however, is
not generally the case; for the alluring prospects
that have been held out by some very prosperous
investments of this kind, on railways that, with a




GENERAL REMARKS.             335
good traffic, have been well conducted, and by
insnaring dividends paid by others, have induced
many to invest their small means in this kind of
property, into which the more wary capitalist has
seldom intrusted his funds; and consequently the
proprietors are numerous, and not often able to
effect that concert of action so necessary to produce
any desirable change. At first blush, it seems
very proper and practicable for dissatisfied proprietors to make a change that appears necessary to
secure their interest; but on reflection it will appear that a concentration sufficient in most cases
to accomplish the object, will involve so much
time, labor, and expense, that few will be found
willing to undertake it; and as before remarked.
the security of good management for this kind of
property will, in most cases, be dependent on the
election, in the first organization, of a competent
and faithful Board of Directors, who will be disposed to give the attention required for the faithful
and efficient conduct of the affairs of the institution. In the event of bad management, under
the circumstances above alluded to, if the property
does not go into the hands of the bond proprietors,
it is probable the stock will fall so low that a few
capitalists may combine to purchase it, or so much
as may enable them to control it, and will have no




336            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
difficulty in controlling the election and consequently the management; and if the railway has
merits to induce such purchase, it will be likely
to assume a new aspect, and may become a very
useful institution for the trade of the district, and
very remunerating to the new  proprietors, and
prove to be the best result for those of the old, who
had not parted with their ilnerest.
The fact is to be deplored, that men appointed to
these high and honorable trusts-trusts involving
the public welfare, and especially the interests of numerous confiding proprietors-should use the influence and power committed to their fidelity, to advance their personal interests and that of their personal friends. This has not arisen from the want
of competent and faithful men in the community,
for some institutions of this kind have been faithfully conducted, and the proprietors and the public
have had little reason to complain. It has rather,
and in the main, resulted from  the opportunity
afforded by a numerous constituency, for improper
men to gain the control. That this is a difficulty in
this class of property cannot be disputed, and no
doubt it has been greatly aggravated by the zeal
with which men of moderate means have sought
this source of investment, under the impression that
they would secure a large rate of income, with no




GENERAL REMARKS.              337
trouble or care to manage the property. But it did
not occur to them, that men of fair standing in the
business world, might not have the virtue to resist
temptation; and, perhaps with small beginnings, the
unfaithful manager goes on from  step to step, in a
more or less rapid depletion, until the ruin of his
property stares the hitherto confiding stockholder
in the face. On the other hand, when this class of
investers have fallen into good hands, they have,
for the most part, according to the productiveness
of the traffic of the line, been well cared for, and
the income of their small property has been faithfully handed over, with small care or trouble on
their part, and after years have rolled by, they find
their property affording unimpaired income.
Notwithstanding these favorable instances, the
railway business, in all its aspects, can hardly be
said to be a judicious source of investment for small
means, where the individual proprietor must be
mainly dependent on his faith, for any views he
may have of the interior of his affairs, and quite
impotent to effect any correction in the event of
rmal-administration. Yet, strange as it may appear,
of the large amount of capital that has gone into
our railways, and especially for those that have
turned out bad, a very great proportion has been
furnished by small subscribers,  The shrewd capi15




338            RAILWAY PROPERTY.
talist has wanted confidence in the strength of the
traffic to afford adequate compensation, or he has
had doubts as to the capacity or integrity of the
men whom he sees in, or likely to be in, the control
of affairs; and therefore holds back on the stock
subscription, and waits for the issue of bonds. In
the latter he is not so reserved-regarding the stock
as adequate protection, he considers his security to
be good; though the developments of a few years
past have very much shaken the confidence that
heretofore existed in this branch of security.
But whatever may have been the character of
the capitalists that have hitherto furnished funds for
the railways, there can be little doubt, those that
have been broken down by mismanagement, as before observed, will eventually get into the hands of
a comparatively small number of proprietors, who,
by more faithful and efficient supervision, will be
likely to make them subserve the great interest for
which they were instituted.  Railways of reasonable traffic, managed with skill and fidelity, and in
some instances those for a time ill-managed, but
having the mass of proprietors in near proximity,
and able to cooperate effectively in promoting any
desired change, will escape this result, and in some
cases improve in productiveness. It cannot, however, be regarded safe for a stock proprietor to sit




GENERAL REMARKS.              339
down and fold his hands; he must exercise the
same care and watchfulness that is required in the
successful management of all property, being cautious as to whose hands he commits his trust.
Our railways are, in the main, good property,
though too much multiplied in some localities, and
are worth what they have actually cost in cash, the
depreciation is principally owing to a want of capacity and fidelity in their management, and where it
may be practicable to correct this evil, they will for
the most part be fairly remunerating to the proprietors, though the losses by the depletion through
mal-administration may not be restored.
In view of the history of railway management,
and of the vast importance of this kind of improvement, to the commercial, social and political interests of the country, it is humiliating, and deeply
to be regretted, that so great a want of high minded
fidelity should have been manifested in the admin
istration of many of these works; so depleting the
stock interest as in a great measure to destroy confidence in investments necessary to any further
prosecution of enterprises so eminently characterizing the progress of our age.
Though it is small consolation to the stock proprietor, who has felt the loss of income, that could
be ill spared as a means to meet his current neces



340           RAILWAY PROPERTY.
sities, thle railways, even those badly managed,
have very largely contributed to advance the facilities of intercourse, and to increase the general
prosperity of the country; and this much beyond
the loss that unprincipled and incompetent administration has wrested from the hard earnings and
frugal savings of a great number of small, and of
some large proprietors. We can hope for amend.
ment, as before intimated, only in the improvement
of our civilization, from which men will come to
regard the honorable discharge of a trust as more
to be esteemed and valued than any mass of ill-gotten and unjust gains, however the latter may be
covered over by cunning craft. When the community come to look on the two classes, in the true
light of their respective characters, railway property will be held with more confidence.
Have I been too severe on unfaithful management? I hope no upright managers have been
wounded by anything I have said, for all of this
class I highly appreciate, and have endeavored to
keep this distinction clear. But from the nature of
the trust-the necessity of confidence in councils,
and transactions that cannot be seen-the great
interest of the proprietors and the public in good
and faithful managers-and the loose degree of
morality that has been so developed in many cases,




GENERAL REMARKS.              341
as manifestly to destroy confidence in a great degree, have demanded, that while the evil should be
discussed dispassionately, it should be candidly and
fully exposed. I do not feel conscious of having
done any injustice, and have simply aimed to put
proprietors on their guard, in reference to the management of their property, and the circumstances
that tend to its destruction.
THE END.
















OF
PRACTICAL AND -SUIENTIFIC BOOKS,
PU:BLISIE D EBY
H ENRY CAREY BAIRD,
lnu0    stria l      Ub lItitr,
NO. 406 WALNUT STREET,
lPl13IIIIA3IEil.FH IA..
X~- Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free of
postage, at the publication price.
AIR A Descriptive Catalogue, 96 pages, 8vo., will be sent, free of postage, to any
one who will furnish the publisher with his address,
ARLOT.-A Complete Guide for Coach Painters.
Translated from the French of M. ARLOT, Coach Painter; for eleven
years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By
A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Appendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the
Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United
States and Great Britain. 12mo......   $1.25
ARMENGAUD, AMOROUX, and JOHNSON.-The
Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design, and  Machinist's  and  Engineer's  Drawing
Companion:
Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof.
of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM.
Armengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten
and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and
examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of
the day. By WILLIAM JOHNSON, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of " The
Practical Mechanic's Journal."  Illustrated by 50 folio steel plates,
and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to...   $10.00




.2         HENRY  CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
ARROWSVIITH.- Paper-Hanger's Companion:
A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Preparatory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on Walls; the Various
Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes of the Trade;
Observations and Directions for the Panelling and Ornamenting of
Rooms, etc. By JAMES ARROWSMITH, Author o^ "Analysis of Drapery," etc. 12mo., cloth......           1.25
ASHTON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing  Fancy  Cotton  and Woollen  Cloths from
Sample:
Giving full Instructions for Reducing Drafts, as well as the Methods
of Spooling and Making out Harness for Cross Drafts, and Finding
any Required Reed, with Calculations and Tables of Yarn.  By
FREDERICK T. ASHTON, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With 52
Illustrations. One volume, 4to..$10.00
BAIRD.-Letters on the Crisis, the Currency and the
Credit System.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet....   05
BAIRD.-Protection of Home Labor and Home Productions necessary to the Prosperity of the American Farmer.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper..10
BAIRD. Some of the Fallacies of British Free-Trade
Revenue Reform.
Two Letters to Arthur Latham Perry, Professor of History and Political Economy in Williams College.  By HENRY CAREY BAIRD.
Pamphlet......05
BAIRD.-The Rights of American Producers, and the
Wrongs of British Free-Trade Revenue Reform.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet.                             05
BAAIRD.-Standard Wages Computing Tables:
An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged
that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per
day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGLER BAIRD.
Oblong folio.....                                        $5.00
BAIRD.-The American Cotton Spinner, and  Manager's and Carder's Guide:
A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimensions and
Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc.; with
notices of recent Improvements: together with Rules and Examples
for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn.
Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo. $1.50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                             3
BAKER.-Long-Span Railway Bridges:
Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various A; dopted or Proposed Type Systems
of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By B. BAKER.
12mo..........              $2.00
BAUERMAN.-A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron:
Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Metlhods of
Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufactltre of Iron
and Steel, etc., etc.  By H. BAUERMANX, F. G. S., Associate of the
Roval School of Mines. First American Edition, Revised aned Enlarged.  With an Appendix on the Martin Process for Making Steel,
firom the Report of ABI3r.Ar S. IIEWITT, U. S. Conmmissionlr to the
Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867.  Illustrated.  12o...  $2.00
BEANS.-A Treatise on Railway Curves and the Location of Railways.
By E. V. BEANS, C. E.  Illustrated.  12mo.  Tucks...   $1.50
BELL.-Carpentry Made Easy:
Or, The Science and Art of Framingn on a New and Improved Systren.
With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Fraimes, Barn Frames,
Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Siires, etc.  Comprilsing also a
Systemn of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable
Tables.  Illustrated by 38 plates, comprising nearly 200 figures.  By
WILLIAM E. BELL, Architect and Practical Builder.  8vo.. $5.00
BELL.-Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting:
An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances
which determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature
of the Air, and the proper Condition of the Materials to be operated
upon.  By I. LOWTIIIAN BELL. Illustrated.  8vo...   $6.00
BEMROSE.-Manual of Wood Carving:
With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and
Selected Designs.  By WILLIAM BEIROSE, Jr. With an Introduction
by LIE:EWEI;LLYv  JEWITT, F. S. A., etc.  With 128 Illustrations  4to.,
cioth.                                                            $3.00
BICKNELL.-Village Builder, and Supplement:
Elevations and  Plans for Cottages, Villas, Suburban Residences,
Fairm  Hcouses, Stables and Carriage Houses. Store Fronts, School
Houses, Churches, Court Houses, and a model Jail; also, Exterior and
Interior details for Public and Private Buildinss,    with approved
Folrms of Contracts and Specifications, inlcludin  Prices of Building
Materials and Labor at Boston, Mass., and St. Louis, Mo. Containing
75 plates drawn to scale; showing the style and cost of building in
different sections of the country, being an ori(rinal w-ork comprising
the designs of twenty leading architects, replresenting   the New England, Middle, Western, and Southwestern States. 4to.   $12.00




4          HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BLENKARN.- Practical Specifications of Works executed in Architecture, Civil and Mechanical Engineering, and in Road Making and Sewering:
To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements and Reports. By JOHN BLENKARN. Illustrated by 15 large folding plates.
8vo.......   I9.00
BLINN.-A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin,
Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers:
Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by
Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geoietry;
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables (,f the Weights of Metals,
Lead Pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles;
Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc.  By
LEROY J. BIINN, Master Mechanic. With over 100 Illustrations.
12o...........   $2.50
BOOTH.-Marble Worker's Manual:
Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their
Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of Marble; Mosaics;
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts,
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from  the French by Mi. L. BOOTH.
With an Aplendix concerning American Marbles. l2mo., cloth. $1.50
BOOTH AND MORFIT.-The Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical:
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTI, LMelter and
Rtefiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry ill
the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by CAMPB:ELL iMOltFIT, author
of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh edition. Royal Svo.,
978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations.. $5.00
BOX.-A  Practical Treatise on Heat:
As applied t to the Useful Arts  for the Use of Engineers, Architects,
etc. By TIHOMAS Iox, author of " Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated
by 14 plates containing 114 figures. 12mo.....   $4.25
BOX.-Practical Hydraulics:
A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By
THOrAS Box. 12mo.....   $2.50
BROWN.-Five Hundred  and Seven Mechanical
Movements:
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hydraulics, Itydrost'ltics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and other Gearing, Presses, IHorology, and Miscellaneous Machinery; and including
many movements never before published, and several of which hlave
only recently come into use. By IHEXSRY T. BI v.OWN, Editor of the
" American Artisan."  In one volume, 12no...      $1.00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                            5
BUCKMASTER.-The Elements of Mechanical Physics:
By J. C. BUCKMIASTER, late Student in the Government School of
Mines; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science
and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the lRoyal College
of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Pllysics of the
Royal Polytechnic Institute.  Illustrated with numerous engravings.
In one volume, 12mo......                   1.
BULLOCK.-The American Cottage Builder:
A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to $20,00,
for Ilomes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation,
Drainage, Painting, Iand Landscape Gardening. By JoiIN 1)BILLOCK,
Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of " The Rludiments of Architecture and Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings.  In one volunme, 8vo......   $3.50
BULLOCK.- The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building:
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engineers, and Mechanics.  Edited by JOuIN BU1LLOCK, author of " The
American Cottage Builder."  Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one
volume, 8vo..         83.50
BURlGH.-Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine
Engines:
Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of Highr and Low Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, tocethcr with Land
and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGHt, Engineer. Illustrated by
20 plates, double elephant folio, with text....    21.00
BURGH.-Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine
Purposes.
By N. P. BURGH, Engineer.  12mo...   $1.50
BURGH.-The Slide-Valve Practically Considered.
By N. P. BURGHI, Engineer. Completely illustrated.  12mo.   $2.00
BYLES.-Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political Economy Examined.
By a  3BAlRtISTET  (Sir JOIIN BA.tIXARD nBIES, JuIdge of Colmmlon
Pl'cas). First American from the Ninth English Edition, a   n Ilublished
by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. In one volumle, 1211o.
Paper, 75 cts.  Cloth....                        1.25
BYRN.-The Complete Practical Brewer:
Or Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in thle Art of Brewing
Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of nmaking Bavarian Beer,
all tlie Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger-pop, Sarsaparillabeer, Mlead, Sprnce Beer, etc., etc. Adapted to the use of Public
3Brewers and'Pivate Famiilies. By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, M. 1).
With illustrations. 12m11o.                                      $1.25




6           HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BYRN.-The Complete Practical Distiller:
Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; including all of
the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions
for preparing spirits fromt the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and
other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. Blv N. Li.
FAYETTE BYRiN, M. 1). Eighth Edition.  To which are added, Practical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer
and Distiller.  12o.........                      1.50
BYRNE.-Handbook for the Artisan, Mechanic, and
Engineer:
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem  and Glass Engraving, Varnishing
and Lackerig, A       ats, eri,  rials and Processes for Grinding and
Polishing, etc.  By OLIVER BYIR NE. Illustrated bv 185 wood engravings. In one volume, 8vo....   $5.00
BYRNE.-Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers:
Containing New, Exact, and Concise MIethods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles, and Crossings; the Staking
out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments;
Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1Smo., full bound, pocketbook form.......1.75
BYRNE.-The Practical Model Calculator:
For the Engineer, NMechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval
Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volume,
8vo., nearly 600 pages....                                $4.50
BYRNE.-The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering;
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal;
The Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering;
and the most Imnproved Processes and Tools emilo-yed by MAetalWorkers. With tile Application of the Art of Electro-Mletaillurgy to
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Originall Sources, ant1 from
the Works of IIoltzapffel, Bergeron, Leupol, Plumier,  Napie       r,
Scofferni, Clay, Fairbairn, and others. By OLIV1R IBYRINE. A new,
revised, a(nd iimproved edition, to which is added An Alc(pendi x, containinu' TiFE M]ANUFACTURE OF RUSSIAN SIi EIT-IIONS. 1B  JOHN
PERCY, AM. D)., F.l.S. THE MANUFACTURE OF [MAILLE1:ABLE IRON
CASTINGS, and IMPRlOVEMENTS IN  BESSEMER STEEL. lBy A. A.
FESQUET, Clhemist and Engineer.  With over 600 Engravings, illustrating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo.                       $7.00
Cabinet Maker's Album of Furniture:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Furniture.  Illustrated by 48
Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one vol., oblong    $5.00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                         7
CALLINGIEAM.- Sign Writing and Glass Embossing:
A Complete Practical Illustrated MIanual of the Art. By JAMES
CALLINGHAM. In one volume, 12mro...   $1.50
CAMPIN.-A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering:
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steamengines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and
Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIXN, C. E. To which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and leinarks upon
Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chipter on Explosions.
By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. tRules for Calculating
the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheelcutting Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, Including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings...   $6.00
CAMPIN.-The Practice of Hand-Turning in Wood,
Ivory, Shell, etc.:
With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be re.
quired in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN; with Numerous
Illustrations. 12mo., cloth.......                     $3.00
CAREY.-The Works of Henry C. Carey:
FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper.   25
HARMONY  OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and
Commercial. 8vo., cloth....    $1.50
MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's " Principles of Social Science." By KATE MCKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo. $2.25
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS:'comprising " IIarmony of Interests,"
"Money," "Letters to the President," "Financial Crises," "The
Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her," "Resources of
the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion?"
" Review  of the Decade 1S57-'67," "Reconstruction," etc., etc.
Two vols., Svo., cloth....                               $10.00
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE.  8vo..                              $2.50
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 vols., 8vo., cloth   $10.00
THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it Exists, and HIow it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo., cloth. $2.00
LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGIIT (1867).   50
THE UNITY OF LAW: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical,
Social, Mlental, and Moral Science (1872). In one volume, Svo.,
pp. xxiii., 433. Cloth....   $3.50
CHAPMAN.-A Treatise on Ropemaking:
As Practised in private and public Rope yards, with a Description
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the
Trades, Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc.  By ROBERT
CHAPPMAN. 24mo.......... $1.50




8           HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
tOLBURN.-The Locomotive Engine:
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Manarement. By ZEIAhI  COLBURN. Illustrated. Anew edition. 12mo. ~1.25
CRAIK. - The Practical American Millwright and
fi ler.
By DAVID CRAIK, Millwright.  Illustrated by numerous wood en-,gravings, and two folding plates.  8vo....         $5.00
DE GRAFF.-The Geometrical Stair Builders' Guide:
Being a Plain Practical System  of Hand-Railing, embracing all its
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel EngravingS; together with the use of the most approved principles of Practical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRAFF, Architect.  4to..   $5.00
DE KONINCK.-DIETZ. —A Practical Manual of Chemical Analysis and Assaying:
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron,
Wrougtht Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. D. D o KoNISCIC, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by IonPEnT
MALLET, F.R.S., P.S.G., M.I.C.E., etc. American Edition, Edited
with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist
and Engineer.  One volume, 12mo...   $2.50
DUNCAN.-Practical Surveyor's Guide:
Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common
capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher.  By
ANDREW DUNCAN.  Illustrated.  12mo., cloth....   $1.25
DUPLAIS.-A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation of Alcoholic Liquors:
Comprising Accurate andl Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from
Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Asphodel,
Fruits, ec.; with the I)istillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whiskey, Rmn, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Prelarati, n of Aromatic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences,  Suars,  Syrups,, Aromnltic Tinctulres,
liq(-leuors, Cordial Wines, EJffervescing Wines, etc., the Aginlg of lBrai dy
ani  the lmplrovenlli  t of Spirits, with Clopious D)irectio( s and Tables
for Testinr  and Redtluctii  Spirituo(us Liqulors, etc., etc.  Tr nslated
and IE(lite(t  from  the French of \[. I)rIu, ATS, Ainti6 (t.lctine. By. XI('rKiNNTE, iM.D1). To whiclh are aldded the ITnit(le  States internal
Rtevelinu(e R l'elations for the Assessmenit anl   (l ollc tion otf  axe on
I)istilled( Sirisit.  Tllllstrated by fourteen foldling pllates and several
w-oold tnravings.  743 pp., 8vo..                                10.(}
DUSSAUCE.-A General Treatise on the Manufacture
of Every Description of Soap:
Comlprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Saponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a Soap Factory,
Practical Instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of Soap,
the assay of Soaps, etc., etc. Edited from Notes of Larinl, Fontenelle,
Malapayre, Dufour, and others, with large and important additions by
Prof. H. DJssAuCE, (hemist. Illustrated. In one vol.,Svo.. $10.00




HENRY CAREY BAIIBD'S CATALOGUE.                            9
DUSSAUCE.-A General Treatise on the Manufacture
of Vinegar:
Theoretic al and Practical.  Comprising the various Methods, by the
Slow and tile (Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Malt, Cider,
Molasses, anld Beets; as well as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc.,
erc.   y P1rof:. I)[.DUSSAUCE. In one volume, 8vo...   $5.
DUSSAUCE,.-A New and Complete Treatise on the
Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing:
Conmprising all the Discoveries and I mprovements made in France,
Great Britain, and the United   States.  Edited from  Notes   and Documents of AMessrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, I)uval, Dessables, Labarraque,
Payen, Reln, De Fontenelle, ialapeyre, etc., etc. By Prof. DH.   sSAUCE, Chemist.  Illustrated by 212 wood engravings.  8vo.  $10.00
PUSSAUCE.-A Practical Guide for the Perfumer:
Being a New Treatise c)n Perfumery, the most favorable to the Beauty
without being injurious to the Ilealth, comprising a I)escription of the
substances used in PerfuI mery, the Forimulae of more than 1000 Preparations, such as Cosmetic<. Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters,
Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Spirits, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, Soaps, and mitany new Hygienic Products not hitherto
described. Edited from Notes and Docunents of Messrs. Debay, Lanel, etc. With additions by Prof: IH. DUSSAUCE, Chemiist.    121no. ~3.00
DUSSAUCE.-Practical Treatise on the Fabrication
of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powders.
By Prof. 1  DSS1     CE.I  12mUo.....              8$3.00
Dyer and Color-maker's Companion:
Containing upwards of 200 Receipts for making Colors, on the most
approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now ill existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing,
Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods.  In one vol., 12mo.. S1.25
tASTON.-A Practical Treatise on Street or Horsepower Railways.
Pr. iALEXANDER EASTON, C.E.  Illustrated by 23 plates.  8vo.,
cloth......                                           2.00
ELDER.-Questions of the Day:
Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIA-M ELDER.  8vo..   $3.00
FAIRBAIRN.-The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery of Transmission:
Comprising the Principles  of Mechanism, AWheels, and  Pulleys,
Strengrth and Proportions of Shafts, Couplilng of Shafts, andl Enliagingll
andl Disengal ing Gear.  By Sir WILLIAM FAIrElTIX'V, (.., 1..1.,
F.R.S., F.G.S. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 woo(d-cuts. In
one voluitne, 12m-o........                    2.
FORSYTH. —Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural,
and other Monuments:
Containing 78 Designs.  By JAIES FORSYTII. Witl an Introduction
by CHARLES BOITTELL, Mr. A. 4to., cloth.                           $5.00




10          HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
GIBSON.-The American Dyer:
A  Practical Treatise on the Coloring of Wool, Cotton, Yarn and
Cloth, in three parts.  Part First gives a descriptive account of the
Dye Stuffs; if of vegetable origin, where produced, hiow cultivated,
airl how prepared for use; if chemical, their composition, specific
gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to detect the adulterations, etc.  Part Second is devoted to the Coloring of
Wool, giving recipes for one hundred and twenty-nine different colors
or shades, and is supplied with sixty colored samples of Wool. Part
Third is devoted to the Coloring of Raw Cotton or Cotton WaVste, for
mixing with Wool Colors in the Manufacture of all kinds of Fabrics,
gives recipes for thirty-eight dififrent colors or shades, alnd is supplied
with twenty-four colored samples of Cotton Waste. Also, recipes for
Coloring Beavers, Doeskins, and Flannels, with remarks upon Anilines, giving recipes for fifteenl different colors or shades, and nine
samples of Aniline Colors that will stand both the Fulling and Scouring process. Also, recipes for Aniline Colors on Cotton Thread, and
recipes for Conmmon Colors oni Cotton Yarlns. Embracing in all over
two hundred recipes for Colors and Shades, and ninety-four samples
of Colored Wool and Cotton Waste, etc.  By RICTARiD II. GIIBSON,
Practical Dyer and Chemist. In one volume, 8vo...   $12.50
GILBART. —History and Principles of Banking:
A Practical Treatise.  By JAMES W. GILBART, late Manager of the
London and Westminlster Bank. With additions. In one volume,
8vo., 600 pages, sheep                                           $5.00
Gothic Album for Cabinet Makers:
Comprisinlg a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated
by 23 largl'  and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong..   $3.00
GRANT.-Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the
Beet.
By E. Bl. GRANT.  112mo.                                         $1.25
GREGORY.-Mathematics for Practical Men:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, an(
Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates, cloth $3.00
GRISWOLD.-Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the Field:
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles,
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intendled Expressly for the Young Engineer,
together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Exalmples. By  V.
GRISWnOLD. 12mo., tucks.                    1.75
GRUNER.-Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena.
By M1. L. GCRUXER, President of the General Council of ( lines of
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des AMines.
Translated, with the Author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. B.
Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G.. Illustrated.  Svo....   $2.50




HENRY CAREY  BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                      11
GUETTIER.-Metallic Alloys:
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties,
their Preparation, Composition, and Uses.  Translated from  the
French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of Foundries, author
of " La Fouderie en France," etc., etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist
and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo...                       $3.00
HARRIS.-Gas Superintendent's Pocket Companion.
By HARRIS & BROTHER, Gas Meter Manufacturers, 1115 and 1117
Cherry Street, Philadelphia. Full bound in pocket-book form $2.00
Hats and Felting:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter.
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo...   $1.25
HOFMANN.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Paper in all its Branches.
By CARL HOFMANN. Late Superintendent of paper mills in Germany and the United States; recently manager of the Public Ledger
Paper Mills, near Elkton, Md. Illustrated by 110 wood engravings,
and five large folding plates.  In one volume, 4to., cloth; 398
pages.....                                            $15.00
HUGHES.-American Miller and Millwright's Assistant.
By WMr. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one vol., 12mo. $1.50
HURST.-A  Hand-Book  for Architectural Surveyors
and others engaged in Building:
Containing Formulte useful in Designing Builder's work, Table of
Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected
with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders' Mleasurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the
Practice in Dilapidation, etc., etc. By J. F. HURST, C. E. Second
edition, pocket-book form, full bound..        $2.50
JERVIS.-Railway Property:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders
of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and
Agents. By JOIIN B. JERVIS, late Chief Engineer of the Iudson
River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. In one vol., 12mo., cloth $2.00
JOHNSTON.-Instructions for the Analysis of Soils,
Limestones, and Manures.
By J. F. W. JOITNSTON. 12mo.                                   38




12          HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
KEENE.-A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging:
For the Use of Beginniers, to which is added, A Chapter on Distillation, describing thie process in operation at the Custoim House for
ascertaining the strenglth of wines. By JAMrES B. KEENE, of l1. M.
Custolms. vo..........1.25
KELLEY.-Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and Financial Questions.
Bv lIon. WILLIAM  D. KELLEY, M. C. In one volume, 544 pages,
Svo.............00
KENTISH.-A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logarithms, including Pra ctical Geomet-ry, Suyin-ei,  Meiasuriing (of Timber, Cask and Mlalt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By TIroItAS
KENTISII.  In one volu1me. 121o....           1.25
KOBELL.-ERNI.-Mineralogy Simplified:
A short Method of Determining and Classifying Miinerals, by means
of simple Chemical Experiments in the AWet Way. Translated fiom
the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL, with an Introduction to
Blow-pipe Analysis and other additions. By Ii NX  I El,-I  M. D.,
late Chief Chemist, I)epartment of Agriculture, author of   Coal Oil
and Petroleum."  In one volume, 12o1....   $2.50
LANDRIN.-A Treatise on Steel:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working,
and Use.  By M. II. C. LANxRINs, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Eigineer.  With an Appendix on the Besselmer and the'Martin Processes
for Manufaceturing Steel, from the  eleport of Ab)ra    S. lenwitt, lnited
States Commnissioner to the Universal Ilxpositioni,'aris, 1867. In one
volume, 12 mo.....                                    $3.00
LARKIN.-The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's
Guide:
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their
Alloys, etc.: to which are added Recent Improvenents in tile Mainuficture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc.  By JA.rm s
LAlIKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry D)epartment inll tea-y,
Neafie & Co's. Penn Works, Philadelphia.  Fifth edition, revised,
with Extensive additions.  In one volume, 12mo...  2.25
LEAVITT.-Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel:
With lRemarks upon its Origin and Comnpositioin, the Localities in
which it is found, the Methods of Preparation anid Manufacture, anld
tlhe various Uses to which it is applicable  together with many otlier
matters of Practical and Scientific Interest.  To which is added a chllpter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an
Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, specially adapted fio Steam Service.
By T. II. LEAVITT.  Third edition.  12imo...         $..75




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                             13
LEROIJX, C.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Woxsteds and Carded Yarns:
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaninlg, and Scouring AWools; the English
and French methods of Combing, Drawing, alnd Spinning Worsteds
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of
CIHARLES LEROUX,  Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a
Spinning Mill, by  iORATrIO PA INI, M. D., and A. A. FEIS(UET,
Chemist and EnIineer. Illustrated by 12 large Plates.  To which is
added an Appendix, containing extracts from the Reports of the International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed
by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woollen anld Worsted
Machinery      and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867. 8vo., cloth.....   t5.00
LESLIE (Miss).-Complete Cookery:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches.  By MISS LESLIE.
60th thousand.  Thoroughly revised, with tlie addition of New Receipts. In one volume, 12mno., cloth..1.50
LESLIE (Miss).-Ladies' House Book:
A Manual of Domestic Economy.  20th revised edition.  12mo., cloth.
LESLIE (Miss).-Two Hundred Receipts in French
Cookery.
Cloth, 12mo.
LIEBER.-Assayer's Guide:
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all
the principal Metals, of' Gold and Silver Coinsc and Alloys, and of
Coal, etc. By OSCAR  1. LIEBER. 12-mo., cloth...   $1.25
LOTH.-The Practical Stair Builder:
A Complete Treatise on the Art of Building Stairs and IIand-Rails,
Designed for Carpenters, Builders, and Stair-Builders. Illustrated
with Thirty Original Plates. By C. EDWARD LOTIH, Professional
Stair-Builder. One large 4to. volume.....    10.00
LOVE.-The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and
Finishing, on the Most Approved English and
French Methods:
Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bied and Window
Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, any
Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask.  IBy TrHOMAS LoviE, a
Working Dyer and Scourer.  Second American IEdition, to which are
added General Instructions for the Use of' Aniline Colors. In one
volume, Svo., 343 p)ages.......                  $5.00




14         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
MAIN and BROWN.-Questions on Subjects Connected with the Marine Steam-Engine:
And Examination Papers; with Iints for their Solution. By THOMAS
J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and THOMNAS
BiRowN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 1mo., cloth..  1.50
MAIN and BROWN.-The Indicator and Dynamometer:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine.  By THOMAS
J. MAIN, M. A..F. R., Assistant Professor tRoyal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMArs  B RON, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R.
N., attached to the Royal Naval College.  Illustrated. F'rom  the
Fourth London Edition. 8vo...   $1.50
IAIN and BROWN.-The Marine Steam-Engine.
By TIOMAS J. MAIN, F. R.; Assistant S. Mathematical Professor at
the Roval Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMARS BIowN, Assoc.
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. Authors of "Questions connected with the Marine Steam-Engine," and the "Indicator and Dynamometer."  With numerous Illustrations. In one volume, Svo......                    $5.00
MARTIN.-Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical Engineers:
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads
of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for M\aking the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By  V. A. MAiTIN, Engineer.
8vo..............   50
Mechanics' (Amateur) Workshop:
A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipulation of \Wood and Metals, including Castinil, Forg'ing, Brazing, Soldering, and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and its Uses."
Third edition. Illustrated.  8vo..                            $3.00
MOLESWORTH.-Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae
and  Memoranda for Civil and  Mechanical Engineers.
By CGUILLFOnD L. iMOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Chief I esident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second
American, from  the Tenth London Edition.  In one volume, full
bound in pocket-book form.....                                   $2.00
NAPIER.-A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edition. Completely lrougiht up to the plresent state of the Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FSQUErIT, Clhemist
and Engine'er. With an Appendix on I)yeing and( Calico Printing, as
shown at the Uni-versal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illustrated.   In one
volume, Svo., 4'22 pages.....                         $5.00




HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                      15
NAPIER.-Manual of Electro-Metallurgy:
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By
JAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition,
revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one vol., Svo.  2.00
NASON.-Table of Reactions for Qualitative Chemical
Analysis.
By HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated by Colors..   63
NEWBERY.-Gleanings from  Ornamental Art of
every style:
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862,
and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By
ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to.                                        $15.00
NICHOLSON.-A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding:
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding,
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and
Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. l1mo., cloth. $2.25
NICHOLSON.-The Carpenter's New Guide:
A Complete Book of Lines for Carpenters and Joiners. By PETER
NICHOLSON. The whole carefully and thoroughly revised by H. 1K.
DAVIS, and containing numerous new and improved and original I)esigns for Roofs, Domes, etc. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect. Illustrated by 80 plates. 4to....   $4.50
NORRIS.-A Hand-book for Locomotive Engineers
and Machinists:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Tocomotives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas,
etc., etc. By SEPTIMIUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer.
New edition. Illustrated.  12mro., coth..   $2.00
NYSTROM.-On Technological Education, and the
Construction of Ships and Screw  Propellers:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late Acting Chief Englineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised with additional
matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo...   $1.50
O'NEILL.-A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use
in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics; with Practical
Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London; Member
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester; Author of
" Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing."  To which is added an
Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico
Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal
Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 8vo., 491 pages..   $6;.00




16           HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
ORTON.-Underground Treasures:
How and Where to Find Them.  A Key for the Ready Determilnation
of all the Useful Minierals within the United States.   By JAMES
OnTOX, A. M    Illustrated, 12mo.i.                                       1.50
OSBORN.-American Mines and Mining:
Theoretically and Practically Considered.  By Prof. IT. S. OSBORN.
Illustrated by numerous engravings.  8vo.  (Jli preparation.)
OSBORN.-The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel:
Theoretical and Practical in,!11 its Branchles; with special reference
to American Materials and Processes.  By II. S. Osoi01N, LL. D.,
Professor of Minin i  and Metallurgy in Laatvette Colleg'e, Elaston,
Pennsylvasnia.  Illustrated by numerous large foldinrg plates and
wood-engravings.  Svo........    $1.00
OVERMAN.-The Manufacture of Steel:
Contailninmg the Practice and Principles of Workino   and Makaing Steel.
A HIandbook for  la icksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon
Makers, Die Sinkders, Cutlers, and Manufhctnrers of Iiles and Il ardware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art.  By FREDERICK OVERMAN, MAlning Engineer, Author of the " Manlufacture of
Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer....                                   1.0
OVERMAN.-The Moulder and Founder's Pocket
Guide:
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam,
and Cement; the Mouldingr of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hlollowware, Ornanents, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds
for Iron, llronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur,
Wax, and other articles conmmonly used in Casting; the (Construction
of Meltiing Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals; t1h (Composition of Alloys and their Nature.  With an Appe(ndix conltaiilng
Receipts for Alloys, Bronze, Varnishes and Colors for Castings; also
Tables ou the Strength and other qualities of Cast  Metals. By FREDERICK OVInr.MA.N, Mining  lEngineer, Author of "Tle Man'ufacture
of Iron."  With 42 Illustrations.  12nmo..1.50
Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher's Companion:
Containing Rules and Re gulations in evertlhin  re'lating  to the Arts
of Paintine, Gildinr, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Grainin, Marblinc,
Sign-Writingi, (Gil(ling on Glass, and Coach Painting ainl Varnishing;
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in) Oils, Colors, etc.; and a
Statement of the D)iseases to whIich Painters are peculiarly liable, with
the Simlplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth IEditiontl.   Rvised,)       ith
an App)enldix.  (Cotaining Colors and  Colorir -- Tlheoretical and
Practical.  Comprisimn  descriptions of a great varietv of Additional
Pigmients, their QuIlities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and
Modes and Ope)i rations of Painting, etc. Together with Cihevreul's
Printciiles of llar(inomy and Contrmast of Colors.  1211mo., cloth.   $1.50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                        17
PALLETT.-The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's
Guide.
By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo.   $3.00
PERCY.-The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal
School of Mines, and to The Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at
the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of" Metallurgy."
With Illustrations. Svo., paper.                             5)0 cts.
PERKINS.-Gas and Ventilation.
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to
Illuminating, IHeating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagramis.
By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth.                                   1.25
PERKINS and STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheetiron and Boiler Plate Roller:
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles
to produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in
decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire
Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per sheet, and
the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions
to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight
into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE..               2.50
PHILLIPS and DARLINGTON.-Records of Mining
and Metallurgy;
Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter.
By J. ARTIHUR PIILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial
School of M'ines, France, etc., and JOIIN DARLINGTON. Illustrated
by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo...   $2.00.PROTEAUX.-Practical Guide  for the  Manufacture
of Paper and Boards.
liy A. PIROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of tie School of Arts
and MAanufactures, and Director of Thiers' Paper Mill, Puv-de-Il)lcme.
With a(dditions, )by L. S. LE NORMAND. Translated fronl the French,
with Notes, by IHORATrO PAINE, A. B., M. D. To which is added a
Chapter onl the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the [Tlited
States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the'"American Artisan."  Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of RIaw Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc., etc. 8vo...50
REGNAULT.-Elements of Chemistry.
By MI. V. REGNAUIT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST
BETTON, I. D,  and edited, with Notes, by JAMIES C. 1OOTHI, Melter
anud Refiner IJ. S. Mint, and VWM. L. FABER, Metallurgist antd Mining
Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising
nearly 1500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth....   $7.50




18           IENRY CAREY  BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
REID. —A  Practical Treatise  on the Manufacture of
Portland Cement:
By IE1NirbY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A.
Li1) ow-itz's Work, describing a New Method adopted in Germany for
Manufacturing that Cement, by W. 1. iREID). Illustrated by plates
and wood engravings.  Svo......              $6.00
RIFFiAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUISSAINT.-A
Practical Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of Varnishes.
BI  MA M. RIFFAUILT, YVERGNAID, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and
EditoieLd 1by M. F. MALEPEYRE and 1)r. EMI'L \VWINCKLElI. Illustrated.
In one volume, 8vo. (I  2repej)artioM n.)
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.-A
Practical Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of Colors
for Painting:
Containing the best Formula and the Processes the Newest and in
most General Use. By M                              aM. RIFFAI LT, VER(;NAVD, and TOUSSAINT.
Revised and Edited by -1. F. MALEPEYRIE and )Dr. EMIIL  -INCKLER.
Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, ChiemIist and Engineer. Illustrated by Engravings. In one volunme, 650 pages, 8vo.
(Readly Juine 1, 1874.)
ROBINSON.-Explosions of Steam Boilers:
How they are Caused, and how they may be Prevented. By J. R.
ROBINSON, Steam Engineer  1o. 1..2..         $1.25
ROPER.-A Catechism  of High Pressure or NonCondensing Steam-Engines:
Including tlle Modelling, Constructi ng, Running, andl Management
of Steaml EIngines and Steiam  Boilers.  With  Illustrations.  By
STEPHEN RIOPER, Engineer. Full bound tucks...   $2.00
ROSELEUR.-Galvanoplastic Manipulations:
A Practical Guide Itr the Gold and Silver Electro-plater and the
Galvanoplastic Operator.  Translated from the French of ALIFRED
ROSiELEtUI, Chemist, Professor of the Galvanoplastic Art, Manufacturer of Chemicals, Gold and Silver Electro-plater. Bv A-. A. FESQIUET,
Chemiist and Engineer. Illustrated by over 127 Engravings on wood.
8vo., 495 pages......   $.0
/%f this Treatise is t1le fullest and by far the best o01 this subject ever
publishcd in the United St ttes.
SCHINZ.-Researches  on  the  Action  of  the  Blast
Furnace.
By CnHARLES SCIIINZ. Translated from the German with the special
permission of the Author by WILLIAMI H. rAW and AMoRITZ MIULLER. With an Aplpendix written by the Author expressly for this
edition. Illustrated by seven plates, containing 28 figures. In one
volume, 12o.......   $4.25




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                           19
SHAW.-Civil Architecture:
Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, containing the F'undamenltal Principles of the Art. iv EDWAiD SilA
Arclitect.  To which is added a Treatise on Gotlic Architecture, etc.
By THOMAS VW. SILLOWAY and GEORGE AM. IIARVDING, Architects.
The iwhole illustrateI by One Iundred and Two quarto plates linely
engraved on copper.  Eleventh Edition.  4to., cloth.              $10.00
SHUNK.-A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves
and  Location, for Young Engineers.
By WILLIA3i F. SHIr\NK, Civil Engineer.  12mo...   $.00
SLOAN.-American Houses:
A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings.  Illustrated by 26
colored Engrav\ings, with I)escriptive Ileferences. By SiAMUEL SLOAN,
Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc., etc.  Svo.     $2.50
SMEATON.-Builder's Pocket Companion:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture;
w-ith Practical Rlules and Instructions connected witlh the subject.
By A. C. SMEATOXN, Civil Engineer, etc.  In one volume, 12mo. $1.50
SMITH.-A Manual of Political Economy.
By E. PESIIINE SMIITI-. A  new Edition, to which is added a full
Index. 12mo., cloth........     1.25
SMITH.-Parks and Pleasure Grounds:
Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and
Gardens.  By CIIARLES H. J. SIITII, Landscape Gardener and
Garden Architect, etc., etc.  12mo...                       $2.25
SMITH.-The Dyer's Instructor:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,
Wool, and Worsted, and \Woollen  Goods: containing nearly 800
Receipts.  To which is added a Treatise on the Art of P'adding; and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Ilandkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colors for the dilrerent styles of such work.
By DAVID SMITHI, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth...      $3.00
SMITH.-The Practical Dyer's Guide:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs,
Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warlps, Ditt') fron
AWhite WN'arps, Colored Cobourgs from White Wiarps,  erins,.Yarns,
Woollen Clotls, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of.hlich
a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, A Treatise on the Art of Padling.
By DAVID SMITI.  In one volume, Svo. Price...         $25.00
STEWART.-The American System.
Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, princi.
pally delivered in thce HIouse of Representatives of the United States.
By ANDRIEW SrTE\WART, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. AWith a Potirait,
and a Biographical Sketch.  In one volume, 8vo., 407 pages.  $3.00




20          HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
STOKES.-Cabinet-maker's and Upholsterer's Companion:
Comprising the lRudiments and Principles of Cabinet-malking and Upholstery, with FImiliar Instructions, ililustrated 1),v 1Exalllesi for
attaining a Proficienc  in the Art of Drawing', aL, a, aplicable to Cabinet-work; tile Processes of VeCneerning,  laing, and Buhl-work  the
Art of Dyeing and Staiining Wood, lIone,'ortoise Slhll, etc. Dircctions for Lackering, Japanning, alnd Varnisin; to make French
Polish; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a
number of Receipts particularly useful fir worwklmen generally. By
J. STOKES. In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations..   $1.25
Strength and other Properties of Metals:
Peports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals
for Cannon.  With a Description of the'Machines for testini  Metals,
and of tlie Classification of Caninon in service.  By ()ficcers of tlhe Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War.
Illustrated by 25 large steel plates.  In one volume, 4to..   $10.00
SULLIVAN.-Proteetion to Native Industry.
By Sir EDAARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of "Ten Chapters on
Social Reforms."  In one volume, 8vo....              $1.50
Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and
Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc.,
By Measurement. Cloth....                    63
TAYLOR.-Statistics of Coal:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial
Distribution and Amount of Production and Constumption on the
American Continent.  Witl Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufhcture. By El. C. TAYLOR.  Second edition, revised by S. S. IALDI:MLXAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo.,
loth........   $10.00
TEMI'VPLETON. —The Practical Examinator on Steam
and the Steam-Engine:
With Intstructive Referencees relative thereto, arranged for the Use of
liEniineers, Students, and others.  Bty N\v. TEMrPII',T, Enllineer.
12 110...........1. $1.25
THOMAS.-The Modern Practice of Photography.
iB  I'. W. TTOMrTAs, F. C. S. Svo., cloth......   75
THOMSON.-Freight Charges Calculator.
By ANDREW TIHOSON, Freight Agent.  24mo....   $1.25
TURNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed
on the Hand or Foot Lathe:
With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting
Frame.  By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs.
4to.......                                           $3.00




HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                      21
Turner's (The) Companion:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turning: also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A
new edition in one volume, 12mo...   $1.50
URBIN.-BRULL. —A Practical Guide for Puddling
Iron and Steel.
By ED. UlRBI, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A. Prize Essay
read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of
Miines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is added
A COMPARISON OF TIE 1RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL.
By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo.                       $1.00
VAILE.-Galvanized Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual:
Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different MAitres, and Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables
of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Matter
calculatel to Benefit the Trade. By CIIARLES A. VAILE, Superintendent " Richmond Cornice Works," Richmond, Indiana. Illustrated by 21 Plates. In one volume, 4to...                 $5.00
VILLE. — The School of Chemical Manures:
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the
French of M. GEORGE VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With Illustrations. In one volume, 12 mo...    1.25
VOGDES.-The Architect's and Builder's Pocket Companion and Price Book:
Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duodecimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of U. S. Measures,
Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, and various
other Materials, Quantities of Materials in Given Sizes, and Dimensions of Wood, Brick, and Stone; and a full and complete Bill of
Prices for Carpenter's Work; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing
Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering, etc. By
FRANK W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocketbook form......                                   2.00
Bound in cloth.....                                    1.50
WARN.-The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor:
For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Containing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple
Rules for describing the various Patterns required in the different
branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN II. WARN, Practical Tinplate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instructions for Boiler Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for
Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables
of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by 32 Plates and 37
Wood Engravings. 8vo.                                        $3.00




22         HIENRY  CAREY  BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
WARNER.-New  Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams
for the Computation of Earth-Work:
Designed for the use of Engineers in Pleliminary and Final Estimates,
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-professional Comiputers. in Two Parts, with an Appendix. Part 1.-A
Practical Treatise; Part II.-A Tleoretical Treatise; and the l)ppendix.. Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explanations of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights.
The whole illustrated by numerous original Engravings, comprising
Explanatory Cuts for Definitions anld Problemns, Stereometric Scales
and Diagrams, and a. Series of Ilithographic Drawings fronm Models,
showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
Excavations and Emnbankmerts. By JOHN WARINER, A. M., Mining
and Mechanical Engineer.  Svo.                                  $5.00
WATSON.-A Manual of the Hand-Lathe:
Comprising Concise Directions for working Metals of all kinds, Ivory,
Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing*, Coloring, and French Polishing;
Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense.  By EGBERT P.
WATSON, late of " The Scientific American," Author of " The Modern
Practice of American Machinists and Engineers."  Illustrated by 78
Engravings......                                        $1.50
WATSON.-The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Iollow Work Generally,
with the most Economical Speed for the same; the Results verified by
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together
with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the SteamEngine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON,
late of the " Scientific American."  Illustrated by 86 Engravings. In
one volume, 12mno......   $2.50
WATSON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of
Weaving by Hand and Power:
With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the
Trade. B)V JOHN WAVTSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms.
8vo...........                   $10.00
WEATHERLY.-Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crystallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum
Goods.
12mo............    $2.00
WEDDING.-The Metallurgy of Iron;
Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Dr. HERMANN WED.
DING, Professor of the Metallurgy of Iron at the Royal Mining
Academy, Berlin. Translated by JULIUS Du MONT, Bethlehem, Pa.
Illustrated by 207 Engravings on Wood, and three Plates. In one
volume, Svo.  (In p)'ss.)




IIENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                       23
WILL.-Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
By Professor HEINRICII WILL, of Giesscin,  Gernimal v.  Sevel edition. Translated by CIHARLES F. IIIMES, Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.
WILLIAMS. —On Heat and Steam:
Eibracing iNew Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explosions.
By CIHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. Svo.  $3.50
WOHLER.-A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis.
By F. WOIILER, Professor of Chemistry in the Universitv of GRittingen. Edited by fHENIRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistir  in the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. In
one volume, 12mo.....                       $3 00
WORSSAM.-On Mechanical Saws:
From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. AV.
WoRSSAs, Jr. Illustrated by 1S lelage  lates.  vo...   $5.00