-  ------ -----— ~ ~ TM
-- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ATEO    APEION.39




UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COMPRISING
THE NAVAL OPERATIONS
OF THE PRINCIPAL MARITIME NATIONS
OF THE
FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME.
ENLIVENED BY SKETCHES OF
SEA BATTLES, REMARKABLE ADVENTURES, SHIPWRECKS, AND PERILOUS VOYAGES,
WHICH RENDER SO INTENSELY INTER STING THE
HISTORY OF THE OCEAN.
BY JOHN FROST, LL.D.
AUTHOR OF "PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD," "PICTORIAL HISTORY OF TIE
UNITED STATES," "BOOK OF THE NAVY," "LIVES OF THE
COMMODORES," ETC., ETC.
WITH THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.
REPRESENTING THE MODE OF BUILDING OF ANCIENT AND MODERN VESSELS,
PORTRAITS OF DISTINGUISHED NAVAL COMMANDERS, SEA FIGHTS, ETC.
BY W. GROOME, AND OTHER EMINENT ARTISTS.
NEW YORK AND HARTFORD:
H. E. ROBINS AND COMPANY.
1851.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by
H. E. ROBINS  &  Co.,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the
District of Connecticut.
PHILADELPHIA:
STEREOTYPED BY GEORGE CHARLES.
No. 9 Sansom Street.




BAG~
PREFACE...................................................   9
INTRODUCTION............................................  13
CHAPTER I.
THE ARK or NOA............................................   17
CHAPTER II.
EGYPT.......................................................  22
CHAPTER III.
PlmNIClA AND CARTHAGE.......................................  35
CHAPTER IV.
NAVAL HISTORY OF GREECE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE BATTLE
OF SALAMIS.................................................  45
(5)




6                          CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER V.
CONCLUSION OF THE PERSIAN WAR................................ 73
CHAPTER VI.
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.....................................  94
CHAPTER VII.
THE EXPEDITION OF THE ATHENIANS AGAINST SICILY................ 105
CHAPTER VIII.
FROM THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TILL THE CLOSE OF THE PELOPONNESIAN
WAR....................................................... 114
CHAPTER IX.
FROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TILL THE ROMAN CONQUEST.......... 128
CHAPTER X.
NAVAL HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE........................................ 132
CHAPTER XI.
FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TILL THE SEA FIGHT AT ACTIUM.. 151
CHAPTER XII.
FROM AUGUSTUS TO CONSTANTINE THE GREAT...................... i70
CHAPTER XIII.
FROM CONSTANTINE THE GREAT TO THE END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.... 175
CHAPTER XIV.
THE NAVAL HISTORY OF VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA................. 208
CHAPTER X V.
THE NAVAL HISTORY OF THE NORTHMEN, OR SCANDINAVIANS......... 226
CHAPTER XVI.
THE NAVY OF SWEDEN, FROM THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY............. 243
CHAPTER XVII.
DENMARK AND NORWAY....................................... 251
CHAPTER XVIII.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.......................................... 254
CHAPTER XIX.
PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIAN EXPEDITIONS........................ 263




CONTENTS.                              7
rAGE
CHAPTER XX.
THE NAVAL OPERATIONS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL FROMq 1516 TO THE
PRESENT TIME............................................. 278
CHAPTER XXI.
THE NAVY OF GREAT BRITAIN FRO3M THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY........................................... 289
CHAPTER XXII.
FiROM 1200 TO THE DEATH OF EDWARD II., IN 1326.................  311
CHAPTER XXIII.
FROM THE DEATH OF EDWARD II. TILL THE DEATH OF HENRY V.....  324
CHAPTER XXIV.
FROMI THE DEATH OF HENRY V. TO THE REIGN OF CHARLES I........ 346
CHAPTER XXV.
FROM THE DEATH OF JAMES I. TO THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE I....... 356
CHAPTER XXVI.
FROM THE PEACE OF UTRECHT TO THE PEACE OF PARIS, IN 1783....... 369
CHAPTER XXVII.
FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS, IN 1783, TO THE PRESENT DAY............ 385
CHAPTER XXVIII.
FRANCE...................................................... 404
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE NETHERLANDS............................................. 425
CHAPTER XXX.
TURKEY.............................................. 444
CHAPTER XXXI.
RUSSIA....................................................... 460
CHAPTER XXXII.
CHINA.......................................................    465
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE UNITED STATES FROM 1776 TILL 1801........................   475
CHAPTER XXXIV.
FROM 1801 TILL 1812................................. 487




8                          CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER XXXV.
TEE NAVAL OPERATIONS ON THE OCEAN FROM 1812 TO 1815.......... 499
CHAPTER XXXVI.
NAVAL OPERATIONS ON THE LAKES...............................   627
CHAPTER XXXVII.
FROM THE COMmrENCEENT OF 1815 TO THE PRESENT ~DAY.......     547
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.......................................... 557
g 9~Li    M




TI-E naval history of the world possesses many points
of interest to the general reader. It marks the gradual
progress of civilization in the great maritime nations.
It displays the power of human ingenuity, skill, perseverance, and courage. It exhibits the rise and the decline of many great states. It affords many lessons of
the vicissitudes of national prosperity and adversity;
and it presents numerous examples of individual heroism and ability.
In the compendium of naval history which I have
attempted in the following work, I have confined
myself necessarily to the grand features of the subject,
avoiding minor details, and passing over entirely the
(9)




10                   PREFACE.
affairs of obscure and unimportant communities, who
have exercised no influence on the destinies of the
civilized world.
From the large number of historical works which I;have deemed it important to consult, I have gleaned all
that I considered important to the elucidation of the
subject; but I have considered it unnecessary to encumber the page with numerous references to authorities.  Standard authorities, such as Thirlwall, Gibbons,
Sir Harris Nicholas, and others, of equal authenticity,
have been my main reliance.
It has been my aim to give a clear, succinct, and, at
the same time, entertaining account of the progress of
naval affairs, from the earliest times to the present day,
and I have made the history as complete as the space
alloted me would permit.
The reader will notice the slow progress of navigation in the early ages, and the laborious and persevering efforts required for the advancement of the art of
naval construction, the frequent loss of whole fleets and
armies from the imperfect means of resisting the disastrous effects of storms and tempests; and the unsatisfactory knowledge, or rather the total ignorance of the
ancients respecting the true form of the earth; and it
will also be seen that all these defects were remedied
by the discovery of the mariner's compass, and the
consequent progress of the art of navigation, and the
rapid extension of geographical research.




PREFACE.                  11
The modern history of the navies of the world presents a totally different aspect from that of the navies
of ancient time. Vast enterprises are now undertaken
and executed in a few weeks, which in ancient times
would either have been wholly impracticable, or would
have required years for their completion.
Civilization, which in ancient times advanced by
slow and painful -efforts, is now rapidly advanced by
the increased intercourse between distant nations, and
the wide diffusion of science and the arts, consequent
upon improvements in the art of navigation, and the
existence of large and powerful fleets for commerce, and
navies for aggression and defence.  To trace the progress of naval affairs, and the consequent diffusion of
civilization and science, from the earliest times to the
present day, will, it is believed, afford the reader sufficient entertainment and instruction to compensate him
for the time occupied in the perusal of the following
pages.
iMy acknowledgements are due to my friend, Mr.
Croome, for the tasteful and beautiful style in, which
the volume has been embellished by his faithful pencil.
His delineations, it is believed, will serve to impress
indelibly on the reader's memory the leading events in
the naval history of the world.
With a few words of explanation on a certain point,
I will now take leave of the reader.
In the first chapter I have given the scripture ac



12                   PREFACEo
count of the ark, with the commentaries of approved
writers.  I give their opinions, to be received by the
reader for what they are worth.  My own view of the
passages of scripture relating to the ark are different;
but I do not deem the present a fitting occasion for
offering them to the public.
-E..mEI|




0 give, within a moderate compass,
I.f D   a history of the naval operations of
all the great maritime powers of the
_ —I   world, from the earliest period
-~- ~ —~.    -~~_-.  known to historical writers to the
present time, may be considered a bold undertaking. It, nevertheless,
may be accomplished in a manner calculated to afford a view of the
subject, such as will satisfy the curiosity of the general reader.  In
attempting it, the writer will have recourse to ancient and modern
writers who have treated the subject incidentally in connection with
the civil and military history of the various ancient and modern nations. He will thus bring together on one volume the naval events
recorded in many hundred volumes, and present a complete Universal Naval History-a work which, as far as he is aware, has not
hitherto been attempted.
In the progress of the work, while he will avoid unnecessary
and tedious details, he will endeavor to condense into one comprehensive sketch the naval history of each ancient nation, and each conspicuous naval power of the middle ages. The modern history will
2                    (13)




14                      INTRODUCTION.
more naturally divide itself into epochs, during which several naval
powers are engaged in the same wars.
Incidental notices of the progress of commercial enterprise and discovery, and anecdotes of individual prowess and skill will occur notwithstanding the limited size of the work; and a history of naval
construction will form a separate article at the close of the work.
It will be perceived in following this course of history that sea.
faring pursuits, discovery, colonization, trade and maritime commerce
by exciting a spirit of rivalry among different nations, invariably give
rise to naval war, and occasion the construction of powerful fleets and
the occurrence of great naval actions. But the same strong passions
which carry nations to a high point of power and dominion on the
ocean, ultimately lead to their downfall; and the traveller who muses
over the prostrate ruins of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage, Athens, and other
renowned cities of first rate naval powers, learns from their rise and
fall that there is a Supreme Power which rules the destinies of mankind and sets limits to the attainments of human ambition. We trust
that a perusal of these pages will imprint upon the reader's mind considerations of the same salutary tendency. It is in vain that we read
the records of past ages if we do not learn from them lessons of moral
virtue, religion, and justice.
-~~i~s








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RETURN OF TIlE DOVE TO NOAIIS AK.
CHAPTER I.
THE  ARK  OF NOAH.
HE first vessel constructed  for sailing or
floating upon the water, of which we have
/'  - - any record, is the ark built by Noah for
a;:,     /      fF$  nsafety during the universal deluge. The de-, scription of this structure, concerning which.i     ----      there has been much discussion, is contained
in the following verses of the book of Genesis, chapter vi.
" lake thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shalt thou make in the
ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch.
"And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of: The length
of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits,
and the height of it thirty cubits.
"A window shalt thou make to the ark; and in a cubit shalt thou
finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side
thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it."
B               2*                      tI




18              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
There is much difference of opinion about the form of the ark.
The common figures are given under the impression that it was intended
to be adapted to progressive motion'; whereas no other object was
sought than to construct a vessel which should float for a given time
upon the water. For this purpose it was not necessary to place the ark
in a sort of boat, as in the common figures; and we may be content
with the simple idea which the text gives, which is, that of an enormous oblong box, or wooden house, divided into three stories, and apparently with a sloping roof. The most moderate. statement of its
dimensions makes the ark by far the largest of vessels ever made to
float upon the water. As the measurements are given, the only doubt
is as to which of the cubit measures used by the Hebrews is here
intended. It seems that the standard of the original cubit was the
length of a man's arm, from the elbow to the end of the middle finger,
or about eighteen inches. This was the common cubit; but there was
also a sacred cubit, which some call a hand's breadth (three inches)
larger than the common ones; while others make the sacred cubit
twice the length of the common. The probability is that there were
two cubic measures beside the common; one being of twenty-one
inches, and the other of three feet. Some writers add the geometrical
cubit of nine feet. Shuckford says we must take the common or
shortest cubit as that for the ark; Dr. Hales, taking this advice, obtained the following result: "It must have been of the burden of
42,413 tons. A  first rate man-of-war is between 2200 and 2300
tons; and consequently, the capacity or stowage of eighteen such ships,
the largest in present use, and might carry 20,000 men, with provisions for six months, besides the weight of 1800 cannon and all
military stores.  It was then by much the largest ship ever built."
The wood whereof the ark was built is called in the Hebrew gopher
wood, and in the Septuagint square timbers.  Some transfer the
original cedar, others pine, others box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar
on account of its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Asia;
whence HIerodotus and Theophrastus relate, that the kings of Egypt
and Syria built whole streets thereof instead of deal. The learned
Mr. Fuller, in his Miscellanies, has observed, that the wood whereof
the ark was built was nothing but that which the Greeks call xvWapS0o5,
or the cypress tree; for, taking away the termination, kupar and gopher differ very little in sound. This observation the great Bochart




NOAH'9S ARK.                        19
has confirmed, and shown very plainly that no country abounds so'
much with this wood, as that part of Assyria which lies about Babylon.
The dimensions of the ark, as given by Moses, are 300 cubits in
length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height; which some have thought too
scanty, considering the number of things it was to contain; and hence
an argument has been drawn against the authority of the relation. To
solve this difficulty many of the ancient fathers, and the modern
critics, have been put to very miserable shifts:  But Buteo and
Kircher have proved geometrically, that, taking the common cubit of
a foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals
supposed to be lodged in it.  Snellius computes the ark to have been
above half an acre in area.  Father Lamy shows, that it was 110
feet longer than the church of St. Mary at Paris, and 64 narrower:
and if so, it must have been longer than St. Paul's church in London,
from west to east, and broader than that church is high in the inside,
and 54 feet of our measure in height.  Dr. Arbuthnot computes it
to have been 81,062 tons. It contained, besides eight persons of
Noah's family, one pair of every species of unclean animals, and seven
pair of every species of clean animals, with provisions for them all
during the whole year. The former appears, at first view, almost
infinite; but if we come to a calculation, the number of species of
animals will be found much less than is generally imagined; out
of which, in this case, are excepted such animals as can live in the
water; and Bishop Wilkins shows that only 70 of the quadruped kind
needed a place in the ark.
By the description Moses gives of the ark, it appears to have been
divided into three stories, each ten cubits or 15 feet high; and it is
agreed on, as most probable, that the lowest storey was for the beasts,
and the middle for the food, and the upper for the birds, with Noah
and his family; each storey being divided into different apartments,
stalls, &c., though Josephus, Philo, and other commentators, add a
kind of fourth storey, under all the rest; being, as it were, the hold
of the vessel, to contain the ballast and receive the filth and feces of
so many animals: But F. Calmet thinks, that what is here reckoned
a storey, was no more than what is called the keel of the ships, and
served only for a conservatory of fresh water.
Many doubts have been entertained concerning the capacity of the
ark, and learned commentators have entered into discussion relative




20              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
to the number of its apartments and the quantity of living things it
contained.  But these discussions only exercise ingenuity. It may
have been divided into apartments for each species of animals, and it
may not. It is evident, that precise notions as to the form, divisions
or capacity of the ark cannot be obtained.
In what place Noah built and finished his ark is no less a matter
of disputation.  But the most probable opinion is, that it was built
in Chaldea, in the territories of Babylon, where there was so great a
quantity of cypress in the groves and gardens in Alexander's time,
that that prince built a whole fleet out of it for want of timber. And
this conjecture is confirmed by the Chaldean tradition, which makes
Xisuthrus (another name for Noah) set sail from that country.  The
time taken to build the Ark is also much disputed, some making it
52 years, others 78, 100 and 120.  The Mahometans sayit was made
in two years.'W6e will now turn to the history of the ark and its occupants as given
in the Bible.  We are informed that the Lord resolved to destroy
"man and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air,"
which he had created, because they were corrupt, and he repented
that he had made them.  But Noah, "a just man and perfect in his
generations," "found grace in the sight of the Lord," and he was
commanded to build an ark, that when the destroying deluge was sent
upon the earth, he and his family-eight persons in all-together with
a male and female of every species of living things, might find safety.
Noah did as he was commanded.  He was six hundred years old
when the deluge began. He entered the ark, with his wife, his sons,
and his sons' wives, and was followed by a male and female of every
species of beast, fowl, and "things that creep upon the earth."
Seven days after Noah's entrance into the ark, the deluge began.
" The fountains of the great deep were broken up and the windows of
heaven were opened." The flood continued forty days and forty nights.
Every thing was destroyed, save the ark which floated in safety upon
the waters. After the flood had answered its purpose, the waters began to abate, and at the end of one hundred and fifty days, the ark
rested upon the "mountains of Ararat." This mountain, it is gene.
rally thought by commentators, lies in Armenia. It is one of the
vast chain of Taurus, situated nearly in the centre between the Black
and Caspian seas.  Its summit is 17,260 feet above the level of the




NOAH S ARK.                         21
sea, and is always covered with snow.  The mountain has a magnificent appearance; the neighboring ones being insignificant in comparison. It is separated into two heads, which form distinct cones.
This, perhaps, account for the plural expression " mountains," in the
Bible.
The waters continued to decrease, and soon the tops of the mountains were seen.  At the end of forty days after the ark rested on
Mount Ararat, Noah opened the window of the ark, and sent forth a
raven, which went to and fro'until the waters were dried up from the
earth. He then sent forth a dove to see if the waters were abated from
the face of the ground. But the dove found no rest for her foot and
she returned. At the end of seven days, the dove was again sent
forth from the ark, and in the evening she returned with an olive leaf
in her motlth.  From this, Noah knew that the waters were abated.
At the end of seven more days, he again sent the dove forth, but it
never returned. The covering was then removed from the ark, and the
face of the ground was found to be dry. At the command of God,
Noah and his family, followed by all the varieties of beasts, fowl, and
creeping thing left the ark, and once more walked the dry land.
Such is the history of the ark as given by Moses in the book of
Genesis.




22               UNIVEICSAL iAVAL lISTORY.
- --— =      -— ==
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
RGYPTIAN AND R0N ~HIPS~
CHIAPTER II.
EGYPT.
~'~"'"' "Z      HE next subject of our attention will
be the naval history of Egypt, although it is a matter of doubt to which
tXhe priority is due-the Egyptians or
u~~f'ev~'            Z~~the Phoenicians.    It is certain, that
Egypt never became as powerful a
maritime country as Phoenicia. Indeed the commerce of its hundredgated Thebes depended principally upon the traders of the latter
country, for a great number of years. But nature appears to have
destined Egypt for a commercial country.  Its situation, a fertile district, abounding in the necessaries of life, between the arid deserts of
Asia and Africa, has in all ages given it a value which in any other
position it could not have. The country, however, is destitute of material for building large vessels, and that would seem to have been an
obstacle in the wav of their becoming extensiyo'-:n':-o.,'   But




EGYPT.                          23
instances of their colonization of places on the European coast of the
Mediterranean are recorded by historians; and, wherever the material
may have been obtained, or the vessels built, the earliest records of
the Egyptians furnish accounts of several naval expeditions of considerable importance.
The first Egyptian naval expedition of which we have any knowledge, took place in the reign of Ramses III. or Sesostris, the greatest
monarch of his time. Filled with the spirit of conquest, Sesostris
equipped mighty fleets upon the Red Sea, to attempt the extension
of his dominion in the eastern and northern countries. According to
Diodorus Siculus, one of the fleets numbered 400 sail. One was also
built upon the Mediterranean, which conquered Cyprus, the coast of
Phoenicia, and several of the Cyclades. The fleet built upon the Red
Sea, conquered all the coast of the eastern shore, but its progress
was arrested by shoals and difficulties, which the navigators were not
skilled enough to surmount. Some centuries after this, in the reign
of Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of scripture, an Egyptian fleet conquered the Cypriot and Phoenician fleet united; and the rich city of
Sidon, in Phoenicia, was taken by a land and naval force.
In the reign of Ptolemy, surnamed Euergetes, or the Beneficent, a
mighty expedition was sent against the Asiatic kingdoms of Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Sufia, Persia, and all others as far as the
kingdom of Bactria.  An essential portion of this great expedition
was a large fleet, which conveyed the army of horse and foot to Asia.
The expedition was successful, and the greater portion of the powerful kingdoms of the western. part of Asia were subdued.  Judging
from the numbers of the army which this fleet transported, it must
have been a mighty one indeed; but one description of it is preserved. Some hundred years after this invasion of Euergetes, Ptolemy
Lathyrus ascended the throne of Egypt, but his right was disputed by
Ptolemy Alexander, at the instigation of his mother Cleopatra; Alexander was driven out of the kingdom, and took refuge in the island of Cos.
Having gathered together a number of ships, he attempted to return
to Egypt; but Tyrrhus, the admiral of Lathyrus sailed to meet him,
and, after a short engagement, Alexander was defeated and obliged
to fly to Myra, in Lycia.  From  Myra, the prince steered towards
Cyprus, hoping the people of that island would aid him.  But Chareas, another of Lathyrus's admirals, coming up with him while he




24              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY
EGYPTLN SHIP.-FROM TE MIONUMIENTS.
was ready to land, an engagement ensued, in which Alexander's fleet
was dispersed and himself killed.
If the pictures of the Egyptian ships which are found upon their
ancient monuments, are at all correct, the vessels composing their fleets
were of nearly the same construction and equipment as those afterwards built by the Romans.  They were not fitted for voyages of any
length, nor did the Egyptians attempt any such.  The navigation of
the Red Sea, the coasts of the Indian Ocean as far as the Ganges,
and the Mediterranean Sea, was the full extent of their undertaking.
The vessels were high at the bow and at the stern, and made to represent fabled sea. animals. They were low enough to enable rowers to
work to advantage, and, consequently, too light to withstand heavy
seas. The boat which was used in the navigation of the Nile was, however, of very ingenious construction, and was probably the best for
that purpose.  The Nile is full of shoals, which would afford constant
obstruction to boats of the ordinary construction.  But the Nile-boat,
or Baris, described by Herodotus, met with little difficulty in its navigation.  The keel was not straight, but a portion of a parabola, the
curve of which is almost imperceptible.  Hence, when the middle of
the boat would be upon the sand bank the two extremities would be
afloat, and the boat was easily cleared. The sails of these boats were
large and heavy. These vessels continued in use until a late period,
when steamers were introduced upon the Nile.
After the defeat and dispersion of the fleet of Ptolemy Alexander,




EGYPTIAN FERRY BOAT, SUCH AS WERE USED ON THE NILE.-FROMI THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS.
805.-EGYPTIAN SWAMP BOAT.-FRTIOM A SCULPTURLE REPRESENTING TIlE CUTTING OF THE PAPYRUS.








EGYPT.                          27
we have no account of any naval transactions until the time of the
famous Cleopatra.  Civil war having broken out in Rome, headed by
the rival generals Ceasar and Pompey, all the maritime countries of the
eastern Mediterranean contributed their quotas of ships to swell the
size and strength of Pompey's fleet.  Among the rest, Egypt sent a
considerable number. Of this fleet, which was commanded by M. Bibulus, we shall give an account in the naval history of Rome. We
may mention, however, that upon receipt of the news of Caesar's victory at Pharsalia, the Egyptian portion of Pompey's fleet withdrew
from his service. After the conquest of all the places held by Pompey's adherents, Coesar returned to Rome; and among the shows
with which he amused the Romans, was a battle between an Egyptian
fleet and a Tyrian fleet. The size of these fleets may be conjectured,
when it is stated, that there were on board of each, two thousand rowers
and one thousand fighting men, who engaged with each other, and
fought with all the horrors of real warfare. Some of the vessels
forming the fleet were quadriremes, or vessels having four rows of oars
-the largest then built.
After the formation of the Triumvirate at Rome, Mark Antony
left Italy, and proceeded to Asia. Some accusations having been
brought against Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, charging her with
assisting the cause of Brutus and Cassius, she was summoned to
meet Antony at Tarsus. In compliance with the summons, the queen
set out in a magnificent ship. Every thing seemed contrived to produce the effect upon the susceptible triumvir which Cleopatra desired.
If the descriptions of the ancient authors are to be credited, it was
truly a gorgeous pageant. The hull was splendidly decorated with
the costliest carvings and gold and silver. The sails were made of
costly silks, and spangled with stars to represent the sky. From the
stem of the vessel, a large representation of a sea shell was raised,
which formed the back of Cleopatra's throne. There, under a silken
canopy, arrayed as Venus, and surrounded by beautiful boys and girls,
representing Cupids and Graces, reclined the fascinating queen, for
whom Antony lost the empire of the world. The sailors and rowers
were beautiful maidens, and as they rowed with their silver oars, they
kept time to music.  Perfumes were given off and loaded the winds
that moved the silken sails.. Persons, representing the fabled deities
of the sea, swam round the vessel in her course, and filled the air with




28              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
music. The vessel reached its destination, and the queen was magnificently received by the enchanted Antony; and from that time, he
became Cleopatra's slave.
The Egyptian fleet bore a prominent part in the sea-fight at Actium, by which the ruin of the cause of Mark Antony was completed.
That general having resolved to make one bold effort before the
sovereignty should be yielded to Octavianus, united his Roman galleys with the Egyptian fleet, and sent the whole to meet the fleet of
Octavianus. But the treacherous Queen Cleopatra had given secret
orders to the commanders of the fleet, and as Antony stood on a
height overlooking the scene, he had the mortification of seeing the
Egyptian ships desert his cause, and with some of the Roman galleys
pass over to the fleet of Octavianus. The remainder of Antony's
ships made a short fight, but numbers were too overwhelming for
them, and they either surrendered or were demolished.
With the dynasty of the Ptolemies, of which Cleopatra was the last,
the importance of the naval power of Egypt fell. The country then
became a province of Rome, and its history must form a part of the
history of that great empire.
The Arabian caliphs, who conquered Egypt in 642, and ruled it
until 1169, do not seem to have given much attention to naval affairs.
One or two of its cities were taken by the fleets of the crusaders, but
the Egyptians had not the power to make any considerable resistance.
Under the government of the powerful Saladin, who destroyed the
rule of the caliphs, a navy formed a principal part of the defence
of the empire.  While Saladin was in Palestine battling with the
crusaders, a powerful fleet of European ships appeared on the Red
Sea, which threatened the cities of iMecca and Mledina with the utmost
danger.  The news of the appearance of this armament no sooner
reached Cairo, than Abu Beer, Saladin's brother, who had been left
as viceroy, caused another to be fitted out with all speed, under the
command of Lulu, a brave and experienced officer.  Lulu soon came
up with the Christian fleet, and a dreadful engagement ensued. The
battle was obstinate and bloody. But the superior strength and skill
of the Egyptian commander prevailed. The Europeans were defeated,
and a great number of them, being taken prisoners, were butchered
in cold blood. This proved such a terrible blow to the Europeans,
that they never after ventured on a like attempt.




-S~-i —=-=
CLEOPAltA~S OYAGE O MEETANTONY








EGYPT.                          31
The fleets of Saladin contributed much to the extension of his conquests, and they were generally successful. But occasionally they
met with a severe check. After the capitulation of Jerusalem, in
1187, Saladin marched with his victorius army to lay siege to Tyre.
As that port was blocked up by five of his men-of-war, he anticipated
an easy conquest.  But he was mistaken, for, one morning, at
break-of-day, a Christian fleet fell upon his squadron and entirely defeated it. Not a single vessel escaped the pursuit.  During the engagement, a considerable number of Mahometans threw themselves
into the sea, and most of them were drowned. This defeat, together
with a repulse by land, forced the sultan to raise the siege.
Soon after the arrival of Richard Coeur de Lion, in the Holy Land,
with a great reinforcement to the crusaders, the English sunk a Mahometan ship of vast size, having on board 650 soldiers, and a great
quantity of arms and provisions, going from Berytus to Ptolemais.
Of the soldiers and sailors who were on board this vessel, only one
person escaped, who, being taken prisoner by the English, was despatched to the sultan with the news of the disaster. The ship alluded
to in this statement must have been of a size superior to any then
built by the European nations, and proves the skill which the Egyptians had attained in the art of ship-building.
Upon the death of Saladin, and the subsequent accession to power
of the Mamelukes, the empire of Egypt declined rapidly.  In 1517,
the Turks invaded and conquered the country. Under their rule,
which continued until 1768, the commerce of the country was greatly
reduced, and the naval power also.  In 1768, Ali Bey declared his
independence of the Sublime Porte, and took vigorous measures to
increase the extent and power of Egypt.  He wanted to render the
country of the greatest commercial importance, and resolved to get
possession of Gedda, the port of Mecca.  To this end, he fitted out
some vessels at Suez, and manning them with Mamelukes, commanded
the Bey Hassan to sail with them to Gedda, while a body of cavalry
advanced by land. The expedition was completely successful, and
served to stimulate Ali Bey to greater achievements.  All his plans,
however, were defeated by the defection and revolt of his general,
3Mahommed Bey, who defeated the army of Ali and took the monarch
prisoner.
After the death of Ali Bey, in 1775, Mahommed Bey assumed the




32              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
supreme rule. Under his government, however, the army was more
the subject of attention than the navy. In July, 1798, the French,
under Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded Egypt. While the land forces
were obtaining the most signal triumphs over the Arabs, Perree, with
three armed sloops, a chebeque and galley, attacked their flotilla and
set fire to the admiral's ship. But soon after this, the French fleet
met with the most complete overthrow, at the mouth of the Nile. We
shall defer the account of Nelson's victory until we come to the history of the British navy.
In 1806, Mehemet Ali succeeded in acquiring the supreme authority
in Egypt.  He was desirous of governing the country upon the European plan. Armies and fleets were organized under the direction of
Europeans, in the service of Mehemet Ali, and the power of the pacha
became formidable.  In 1824, he sent his son, Ibrahim, at the head
of an army of 16,000.men, together with a fleet under the command
of Ismael Gibraltar, to conquer the Morea and establish a negro
colony there. The latter, with the cupudan pacha, was defeated in
several naval actions, in September, 1824, by the Greek admiral
Miaulis, and Canaris, the commander of the fire-ships. But a second
Egyptian expedition succeeded in March, 1825, in effecting a landing
at Modon, and captured Navarino, Tripolizza, and other places. Ibrahim then laid waste the Morea, and sent its inhabitants as slaves to
Egypt. In October, 1827, a third expedition of the pacha was
blockaded in the harbor of Navarino, by the combined French and
English fleets, under Admirals Codrington and De Rigny. Shortly after
the combined Turkish and Egyptian fleets were destroyed by the allied
fleets of France, England, and Russia. Many of the ships in the Egyptian fleet were purchased by the pacha in France, with which country
he maintained the strictest friendship.  Since the Greek revolution,
the navy of Egypt has not been engaged in any affair of importance.
By the liberal and enlightened policy of Mehemet and his son Ibrahim, it has been organized and constructed upon the models furnished
by the navies of France and England.








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PHIRNICL.N ES3SLT.
CHAPTER IIII
PHCENICIA AND CARTIHAGE.
FTER  following up the naval history of
Egypt, we next turn our attention to that of
the greatest commercial country of antiquity.  The title Phoenicia was given to
a number of independent cities situated
upon the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Each of these cities was an independent state, but they were generally united in a federative league,
first under the presidency of Sidon, and afterwards of Tyre. Phoenicia
contained Sidon, the oldest commercial city in the world; Tyre, afterwards so rich and powerful; Aradus, an insular city; Tripolis, so
caldled because it was colonized by the three former cities jointly;
Byblus and B1erytus, which last is still a good harbor.  The narrow
and short line of coast, indented with excellent bays and harbors,
was covered with lofty and wooded mountains, that jut out into the
sea and form bold promontories.  Several islands stud the coast, on
which cities and commercial establishments were founded as well as on
the main land.
(35)




36              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Great obscurity shrouds the early accounts of the Phoenician cities,
and Tyre is the only one whose history can be satisfactorily traced.
During the reign of Hiram, the contemporary of Solomon, Tyre acquired the supremacy of Phoenicia, and became the most flourishing
commercial emporium in the world.
The Bible informs us that King Hiram furnished Solomon with a
number of ships, manned by Phoenician mariners, which were to sail
to the south and east in the Indian Ocean, and traffic with the nations
to be found on its coast, principally for the benefit of the king of
Israel. The Edomites, living on the Elanitic Gulf, were accustomed
to the navigation of the Red Sea, and were subject to Solomon. But
they had not the nautical skill and daring of the Phoenicans, and were
therefore unacquainted with the navigation of the broad and dangerous
Indian Ocean. The interest which Solomon took in the expedition,
may be judged of from the fact that he went in person to the port
of Erungeber, at the head of the gulf, to superintend and witness the
departure of the fleet. It returned in the third year, laden with the
rich treasures of the south and the remote east. There were vast quantities of gold and silver, while the bulk of the cargo was composed of
elephants' teeth and various sorts of valuable wood and precious
stones.
Under Hiram's successors, some important colonies were founded in
Africa.  Pygmalion's murder of Sichbous, the husband of Dido, led to
the" foundation of Carthage.  Dido, aided by numerous Tyrians,
escaped by sea, with her husband's treasures, and took refuge on the
northern shores of Africa.  There she built the city of Carthage,
which soon rivalled Tyre itself in commercial prosperity. The Tyrians
exercised their authority over the surrounding cities with so much
cruelty, that they applied to Assyria for aid. The Assyrians were
unable to cope with the Tyrians at sea; but Nebuchadnezzar king of
Babylon, so exhausted Tyre by a constant blockade, that it was almost
wholly abandoned by its inhabitants, who erected the city of New
Tyre upon a neighboring island. After Cyrus had conquered Babylon,
the Phoenician cities submitted of their own accord. But though
they became dependencies of the Persian empire they retained their
native governments.  Tyre supplied the strength of the Persian, naval
power.
T:l  commerce of the Phoenicians was carried farther into Africa




PIECENICIA AND CARTHAGE.                     37
and along the coast of the Mediterranean* Sea than that of any other
nation; and their naval strength was in proportion to the extent of
their commerce.  The prophet Ezekiel, whose account of Tyre is the
most perfect record extant of its ancient condition, mentions many countries that supplied the Tyrian army and navy with warriors. Their colonies extended along the coasts of the Mediterranean and occupied the
principal islands. Sicily and Sardinia appear to have been only naval
stations for the vessels of the Phoenicians.  It is probable that they
had naval stations along the western coast of Spain.  The cities
founded by them  in northern Africa-Carthage, Leptis, and Utica,
attained to great wealth and power, rivalling even Tyre itself. In the
eastern seas they had establishments on the Persian and Arabian
gulfs; and their trade by sea to the mouth of the Nile in Egypt, was
of great importance.
T is supposed that the Phcenician commerce
~/   1L-\/    i upon the Mediterranean began in piracy;
for, in the infancy of Greece, there is frequent allusion to the kidnapping practised
by the corsairs from Tyre and Sidon. But
when Corinth and Athens became powerful
enough to have fleets of their own, they became the rivals and political enemies of the Phoenicians. The first naval engagement of which
we have record or description took place between the Tyrrhenian and
Carthaginian combined fleets and the fleet of the Greek colony of
Phocea.  The Persians attacked the city of Phocea, in Ionia, but the
people managed to remove their effects and escape with them on board of
their galleys. They proceeded to the island of Corsica, part of which
had been already occupied by the Carthaginians, and prepared to
establish themselves on the coast. The Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians,
dreading the rivalry of the enterprising Phoceans, entered into an
alliance for their destruction, and sent one hundred and twenty sail
to drive them from Corsica. The Phoceans had but half that number of vessels, yet, such was their skill, that they gained a brilliant
victory. The Carthaginians, however, gained their object, for the
Phoceans, thinking themselves too weak to sustain a repetition of the
attack, left Corsica and sailed to the coast of Gaul.
As the power of Carthage increased, that of Tyre, and the rest of
the Ph bnician cities declined, and the colony soon became far superior.
4




9;1038          UNIVEARSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
to the mother country.  The attention they paid to naval affairs soon
gave the Carthaginians the command of the western Mediterranean.
They became eminent for their skill in ship-building. The vessel
most common in their service was the trireme, or galley with three
banks of oars; but we read of their using ships with five banks, and,
in one instance, seven. The rowers were slaves bought by the state
for this particular purpose; and, as they required constant practice,
they formed a permanent body which was not disbanded in time of
peace.  The office of admiral was rarely united to that of general,
and the naval commanders, even when acting in concert with the
military, received their orders direct from the senate.
After the sea fight off Corsica, the Carthaginians had a jealous
dread of Grecian valor and skill. When, therefore, Xerxes was preparing to invade Hellas, they readily allied themselves with the Persian
monarch, and agreed to attack the colonies while he warred against
the parent state. Accordingly, an armament was prepared, whose
magnitude showed the power and wealth of Carthage.  It consisted of two thousand ships of war, three thousand transports and
vessels of burden, and a land army amounting to three hundred
thousand men. The command of the expedition was given to ilamilcar. A landing was effected at Panormus (the modern Palermo),
and, as soon as the troops were refreshed, Hamilcar led them to besiege Himera. WVe have not space for the details of the land operations; but it will suffice to say, that the undisciplined Carthaginians
were defeated, and Hamilcar killed, by Gelon, king of Syracuse.
The vessels in the harbor were then set on fire, and the greater part
of the vast fleet was destroyed. The remnant made good their
retreat. (B. C. 586.)
After this terrible defeat the Carthaginians made no more warlike
naval demonstrations until B. C. 416. In that year they received an
embassy from the Segestans, seeking their protection from the Syracusans. "The Carthaginians eagerly seized upon this pretext, and a new
expedition was sent against Sicily, under the command of Hannibal,
the grandson of Hamilcar. The expedition was crowned with success.
Two of the Sicilian cities were taken by storm, and the inhabitants
put to the sword. This so elated the Carthaginians, that they contemplated the conquest of the whole island. Inules, the son of
Hanno and Hannibal, at the head of a powerful armament, proceeded








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PII(ENICIA AND CARTHAGE.                     41
to besiege Agrigentum. The siege lasted eight months; during which,
the assailants and the citizens endured great privations, and suffered
severely from famine. But the Agrigentines forced their way through
the Carthaginian lines, and nearly all escaped.  After this, the Syracusans totally defeated the Carthaginians in a night attack; and few
escaped the horrible slaughter.
Upon the death of the elder Dionysius, his son, a profligate prince,
ascended the throne of Syracuse.  The Carthaginians thought this
was a favorable time to effect their favorite scheme of getting possession of Sicily. Accordingly, a great armament was fitted out, of
which N3ago was appointed chief commander.  At the first attack,
Mago made himself master of Syracuse harbor; but distrusting the
faithfulness of his Greek levies, who had been solicited to desert by
the Greek general, Timoleon, he at once abandoned Syracuse and returned home.
Indignant at this desertion of the object of the expedition, the Carthaginians demanded the death of Mago; and he committed suicide
to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their losses
in Sicily, and Hannibal and Hamilcar were appointed to the command.
The army consisted of seventy thousand men, and the fleet of two
hundred war galleys, and a thousand ships of burden. But the Grecian
general, Timoleon, was too formidable an opponent. With a small
force, he surprised the Carthaginian army, and totally routed it.  The
fleet returned to Carthage.
New dissensions in Syracuse afforded the Carthaginians a fresh
pretext for meddling with the affairs of Sicily.  Agathocles, a demagogue of mean birth, had acquired great influence among his countrymen, and by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, he became master
of the state.  [But he soon declared his purpose to expel his benefactors fromn the island.  The Carthaginians immediately sent HTamilcar
with a powerful army against this new enemy, and he succeeded in
shutting Agathocles within the walls of Syracuse.  A  large fleet
blockaded the harbor of that city, and every thing promised success
to the Carthaginians. But Agathocles baffled all their plans by adopting extraordinary measures. An army of liberated slaves was raised
by him, and money placed at his disposal by the Syracusans. A fleet
was prepared in secret, and when all was ready, Agathocles announced
his design of transporting troops to Africa, and thus compel the Car4*




42              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
thaginians to abandon Sicily, on account of the peril at home.  He
eluded the blockading squadron, and arrived in Africa, before the
Carthaginians knew of his purpose. To fill his soldiers with resolution to conquer or die, he cut off all chance of retreat by burning the
transports. Victory soon declared in his favor, and the Carthaginians
were once more forced to quit Sicily.  After the failure of this expedition, no more attempts were made to get that island into their
possession.  But intrigue accomplished afterwards what force had
failed to do, and Sicily acknowledged the supremacy of Carthage.
The naval history of Carthage is so closely connected with that of
Rome during the Punic wars, that we will defer it until we come to
the history of the latter country. It will be sufficient here to mention, that the navy, the source of the greatness and power of Carthage,
was neglected during the wars with the Romans and the strife of
internal faction, and to this cause, as much as to her defeats by land,
must we ascribe the ultimate success of Rome and the total destruce
tion of Carthage.
RTHA         OAT.




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ANOIET GRECIN GALLEY
CIHAPTER IV.
THE NAVAL HISTORY OF GREECE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES
TILL THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS.
HE position of the Grecian states was
A   advantageous for purposes of navigation.  It was washed by the IEgean
Sea upon the east, by the Mediterra=   nean on the south, and on the west by
the Ionian seas. The  gean, studded
with islands, brought it into close intercourse with Asia Minor and the
Phoenician frontiers.  The voyage to Egypt was neither long nor difficult, though it had not so many resting places to the mariners. From
the western side, there was a short and easy passage to Italy. The
entire line of the extensive coast was indented with bays and harbors,
offering every facility for navigation; while the two great gulfs that
divided Hellas, or northern Greece, from the Peloponnesus, or southern
Greece, must, in the very earliest ages, have forced naval affairs on
the attention of the inhabitants.
The Pelasgi, who are supposed to have been the first inhabitants of
Greece, were a nation of hunters and shepherds, and gave no atten(45)




46               UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
tion to naval matters. Their conquerors and successors, the Hellenes,
were of a more enterprising character, if we may give any credit to
the traditions of the Heroic Age. The history of the period extending from  the entrance of the Hellenes into Greece to the taking of
Troy, is filled with accounts of wars, expeditions, and adventures.
The details of these expeditions may be fabulous, but there must
have been some foundation in fact for the principal events which are
recorded. The exploits of Bellerophon and Perseus are the first in
tradition.  Both of these heroes are sp id to have sailed from Greece,
and to have crossed over to Egypt, and sailed along the coasts of that
country and Syria. Hercules succeeded them; but his exploits were all
upon land. Theseus is said to have sailed to Crete to deliver Athens
from the yoke of Minos, who, every ninth year, exacted a tribute of
Athenian youths and virgins, and doomed them to perish in the jaws
of the Minotaur.  With the aid of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos,
he vanquished the monster of the labyrinth; but on his homeward
voyage, he abandoned his fair guide on the shore at Naxus.  The
arrival of Theseus at Athens, proved fatal to 2Egeas, who was deceived by the black sail of the victim  ships, which Theseus had forgotten to exchange for the concerted token of victory; and, in despair,
he threw himself from the Europian rock.
2Ainos, the ruler of Crete, is a conspicuous character, in the traditions of the Heroic Age.  He is said to have exercised a supremacy
over the sea and the neighboring islands, and to have given to Greece
the first model of a well-ordered state.  He raised a great navy,
scoured the PEgean, subdued the piratical Carians and Leleges, made
himself master of the Cyclades, planted various colonies, and conducted a successful expedition against Attica, where he imposed
tribute.  He is even said to have carried his arms against Sicily,
where he was cut off and his fleet destroyed.  The leading events of
his career are confirmed by Herodotus and other ancient historians.
The dominion of the Cyclades was an almost indispensable condition
of the naval power attributed to Minos, and the tradition that they
were subject to his rule is confirmed by numerous traces.  The maritime power of Crete is said to have declined after the death of Minos.
But the most astonishing features of the early mythical history of
Greece were the Argonautic expedition and the siege of Troy.  The
first deserves close consideration.  Though the story is wrapped in




GREECE.                          47
the mists of fable, yet that such an expedition may have been undertaken is as probable as the credited events in the career of Minos.
The story is briefly thus:
In the generation before the Trojan war, Jason, a young Thessalian
prince, had incurrred the jealousy of his kinsman Pelias, who reigned
at Iolcos. The crafty king encouraged the adventurous youth to
embark in a maritime expedition full of difficulty and danger. It was
to be directed to a point far beyond the most remote which Greek navigation had hitherto reached in the same quarter; to the eastern
corner of the sea, so celebrated in ancient times for the ferocity of the
barbarians inhabiting its coasts, that it was commonly supposed to
have derived from them the name of Axenus, the inhospitable, before
it acquired the opposite name of the Euxine, from the civilization
which was at length introduced by Greek settlers.  Here, in the land
of the Colchians, lay the goal, because this contained the prize, from
which the voyage has been frequently called the adventure of the
golden fleece.  Jason having built a vessel of uncommon size —in
more precise terms, the first fifty-oared galley his country had ever
launched —and having manned it with a band of heroes, who assembled from various parts of Greece to share the glory of the enterprise,
sailed to Colchis, where he not only succeeded in the principal object
of his expedition, whatever this may have been, but carried off Medea,
the daughter of the Colchian king, ZEetes.
If this legend were to be believed, we should have the Greeks, in
the infancy of their navigation, reaching the extreme limit which
was long after attained by the adventurers who explored the same
formidable sea and gained a footing on its coasts.  This, however, is
more probable than some of the other features of the story. The
golden fleece was a sacred relic, nailed to an oak in the grove of SMars,
at Colchis —at least, such is the tradition.
The Grecian expedition against Troy was the last event of the mythical period.  According to the Iliad of Homer, Agamemnon, king
of Greece, allied with Achilles, set out on the expedition with twelve
hundred ships and 100,000 men, headed by the flower of the Grecian
chivalry. The vessels were of rude construction, having only halfdecks, and stays instead of anchors.  But with this vast armament
the besieged Troy could not be taken until the lapse of ten years. If
the main incidents of the. Iliad are to be taken as historically true,




48               UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
as many historians think they should be, the naval power of the
Greeks, in the Heroic Age, was extensive, beyond what it was when
Athens and Sparta were at their height of wealth and power.  But
the numbers of the armament are, doubtless, exaggerated, as observed
by Thucydides.
During the long period of warfare between the Grecian states which
followed the return of the expedition against Troy, we find nothing
pertaining to naval affairs recorded. After the Dorians had succeeded
in asserting their supremacy over the neighboring states, two expeditions are said to have proceeded fiom  Peloponnesus to Crete.  One
of these issued from Laconia, the other from Argolis.  Both expeditions succeeded in establishing colonies on the island, without resistance from  the Cretans.  The Dorians, or Spartans, as they were
afterwards called, were essentially a warlike nation, and this disposition was confirmed and promoted by the laws enacted by Lycurgus.
But the sea was never an element congenial to the Spartan spirit, and
the sea-service was generally left to the IHelots.
After the termination of the second war between the Spartans and
Messenians, a portion of the inhabitants of the conquered cities of
Messenia, betook themselves to their ships; but they were uncertain
in which direction to steer their course. One of their leaders proposed
that they should seize zacynthus, and from its ports infest the coasts
of the Spartans. But the advice was rejected. Finally, it was resolved to seek the city of Rhegium, on the straits that separate Italy
from Sicily; and, accordingly, the Messenians sailed to Rthegium, and
making themselves masters of that city and the one upon the opposite side of the straits called  zancle-they established a permanent
colony.
HE  Athenians engaged in commercial pursuits at a very early
period of their history, and being... -,  of a more enterprising character
<g;            than the Spartans, they soon attained considerable wealth and
power as a people.  One of their first naval expeditions was that led
by Solon against the Megarians, in the island of Salamis, which was
completely successful. Pisistratus, who usurped the government of
Athens, just before Solon's death, appears to have maintained a con







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GREECE.                         51
siderable naval force; for, besides the conquest of the island of Naxus,
he engaged in another expedition to a more distant quarter, the object of which may have been to provide a place of safety for himself
and family upon a sudden change of fortune, but it was principally
designed to increase his reputation at home. After the expulsion of
the Pisistratidse, a war broke out between Athens and aEgina. Thej
latter had grown to be a wealthy and prosperous maritime state. The1Enginetans were assisted by the Thebans: and while the Thebans
ravaged the northern frontier of Athens, a squadron of war galleys
left ZEgina and stopping at various ports of the Attic coast, plundered many of the maritime towns, and did great damage.
Thucydides fixes the beginning of the seventh century, B. C., as
the time of a considerable improvement, in ship-building, which was
first adopted in Corinth, and was imparted by a Corinthian, named
Amenocles, to the Samians.  Of the precise nature of this improvement we are not informed; but it is said to have given a new impulse
to navigation, and to have enabled the Greeks to pursue their voyages
farther and with more safety.
The prominent events which preceded the first war between the Grecian states and Persia are principally of a naval character. Naxus, the
largest of the group of islands. called Cyclades, had become populous and
powerful towards the close of the sixth century before our era. It
maintained a considerable navy and could bring eight thousand men
into the field. Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus, was desirous of
bringing the island under his control, but the undertaking surpassed
his means. With the aid of Artaphernes, satrap of the Asiatic coast
of the IEgean, he obtained the assistance of the king of Persia, the
enterprise promising to bring the Cyclades under the government of
that powerful monarchy. Two hundred ships and a Persian force
were equipped and placed under the command of Megabates, a Persian of high quality. The expedition was ordered to sail to Miletus
and take on board the Ionian force which had been raised by Aristagoras. In order to lull the enemy into security, Megabates made
towards the I-ellespont; but off the coast of Chios, he brought the
fleet to anchor, meaning to take advantage of the first fair wind and
run to Naxus, and surprise the principal town. While he was in this
station, he one day made the round of the fleet to inspect the discipline observed by the inferior officers. On one ship, a Mydian, he




62              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
found no watch and the commander absent. He immediately sent for
him, and ordered him to be fastened to the side of his own galley,
and his head passing through one of the port-holes, which were opened
in the ancient vessels for the oars as in ours for the ordnance. Information of this degrading treatment of an officer was conveyed to
A-ristagoras, who immediately demanded his release. Megabates refusing to comply, Aristagoras went and set the officer at liberty.
Indignant at this act of defiance, Megabates resolved to defeat the
expedition. He secretly sent to warn the Naxians of their danger,
and they forthwith made great preparations for defence. When the
Persian fleet arrived before the town, they were in a condition to bear
a long siege.  The siege was continued four months, and then no
progress being made, and the funds of the expedition all expended,
it was raised, and the fleet returned.
RISTAGORAS having resolved to
revolt against the power of the Persian monarch, soon after his return
to Miletus, applied for aid to Sparta
and Athens. The Spartan king ret fused to join him, but Athens consented.  A decree was passed to
send a squadron of twenty ships to
the Ionians, under the command
~ —~~ —~- -~-~   ~J~ ~  ~    -~-~~~- of Melanthius, a man of the highest
reputation. Aristagoras sailed back to Asia before the Athenian
squadron, which was joined by five ships from Etruria. The expedition sailed to Ephesus, where the troops were landed. After various
successes, the invaders were overwhelmed by numbers, and forced to
retreat. The Athenians then sailed back to their own country.
Darius, the Persian king, was incensed at the daring of the
Athenians, and resolved upon an invasion of Greece. But the first
step was to subdue the revolting Ionians. The fleet of the Ionians,
though abandoned by its allies, was not inactive.  It first sailed to
the north, where its presence induced Byzantium and the other cities
of the coasts between the Euxine and the 2Egean, to rise against the
Persian government. The Persian general, Daurises, however, soon
reduced the maritime cities to submission. A great fleet was equipped
in the harbors of Pheenicia, Egypt, Cilicia, and Cyprus, and an attack




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GREECE.                          56
upon Miletus, by sea and land, planned by Artaphernes. The Ionians
resolved to abandon Miletus, and exert all their strength to drive
the enemy from the AEgean, and the fleet was appointed to assemble
at Lad6. Lade was then a small island; by the depositions of the
Mseander it has now become part of the plain which separates the
site of Miletus from the sea. Here the naval force of the confederates
met: Chios sent the largest squadron, a hundred galleys: the Lesbians, though their privateers were still at Byzantium with Histimtus,
seventy: the Samians could still raise as many as sixty; but Phocea,
though she had not lost her old spirit, could equip no more than three.
The united navy amounted to 353 triremes. The hostile fleet which
was on its way from the East numbered 600. Notwithstanding this
vast superiority in numbers, the Persian generals, when they considered that of the Ionians in nautical skill, felt that they were by no
means sure of victory, and would fain have avoided the approaching
conflict.
During the interval in which the hostile fleets were watching each
other, neither willing to begin the decisive conflict, Dionysius, the
commander of the Phocemans, observed that the naval camp at Lade
was far from displaying the order and good discipline which so critical a juncture demanded. In a general assembly he pointed out to
his countrymen the danger of insubordination and supineness, and
prevailed on them to commit themselves to his guidance. When he
was invested with the chief command, he did not suffer a day to pass
without devoting several hours to martial exercises. He drew out the
fleet in order of battle, practised the rowers in the evolutions of a seafight, and kept the marines at the same time under arms in the
places where their services would be required. After seven days of this
laborious training, the troops began to murmur at what they easily
persuaded themselves was a profitless hardship, and to rail at Dionysius
as an ambitious meddler.  It seemed intolerable that a man who had
only brought three ships to join the fleet should domineer over all the
rest: the Persians themselves could not lord it more tyrannical over
their slaves; and they resolved to shake off the authority of Dionysius,
and to assert the rights of freemen. Instead of going abroad to execute his commands, they henceforth dispersed themselves in parties
over the island, and reposed during the heat of the day under tents
which they pitched on the most agreeable spots. The Samian com.




5 6             UNIVEIRSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
nmanders were disgusted with this folly, for some of them, who were
before inclined to accept the terms offered by the Persians, made use
of it as an argument to draw the others over to their views. The end
was, that they sent to their banished tyrant, _ZEaces, the son of Syloson, and declared their readiness to close with his late proposals. It
was agreed that they should desert in the battle.
The Persian fleet now sailed confidently to the attack: the Ionians
met them without suspicion of treachery. But in the beginning of the
action the Samians quitted their post, and bore away to Samos. Only
eleven captains refused to obey their superior officers, and kept their
places; they were afterwards rewarded by a monument in the market
place of Samos. The example of the rest, however, was followed by
the Lesbians, and as the alarm spread, by the greater part of the fleet.
The Chians almost alone  remained firm amid the  general consternation; but their skill and valor were at length overpowered by
superior numbers, and they were compelled to fly. Those whose
galleys were disabled from  escaping the pursuit of the enemy, ran
them aground at Cape MycalY, and left them.  They bent their way
northward; but, passing through the Ephesian territory in the night,
while the women were celebrating a festival, they were taken for robbers who had come with sacrilegious intentions, and were all cut to
pieces by the Ephesians. Dionysius of Phocea had fought till the
struggle became desperate, and had taken three of the enemy's ships;
when forced to fly, he sailed to Phoenicia, and sank several merchantmen, and, laden with spoil, steered for Sicily.
The Persian fleet continued its victorious career towards the Hellespont. The cities north of the IEgean were successively overpowered, and sank in the flames. The men of Byzantium and Chalcedon did not wait for the enemy's attack, but left their towns
to found a new one called Mesembria, on the western coast of the
Euxine.
Soon after this Persian victory, Mardonius, son-in-law of Darius,
succeeded Artaphernes in the government of Ionia, and he adopted
measures to keep it in subjection.  The ambassadors whom  he sent
to Athens to demand submission were received with lofty scorn, and
both sides prepared for hostilities of an active kind.
lardonius had come with a mighty armament, which was designed
to wreak the vengeance of Darius upon Athens and Eretria, anti at




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I It0!TOF AA D     O AD U








GREECE.                          59
the same time to spread the terror of his name, and to strengthen
his power in Europe. A large fleet was to sweep the 2Egean, and to
exact obedience from  the islands, while Mardonius himself led the
land force into Greece, and on his way subdued the Thracian and Macedonian tribes which had not yet submitted. The fleet first directed
its course to the Island of Thasus, which still drew a large revenue
from the gold mines first opened there by the Phoenicians, as well as
from others on the opposite continent. The wealth of the Thasians
had tempted Histiveus, and his attack had induced them to increase
their navy and to strengthen their fortifications.  They now yielded
to the Persians without a struggle; and the next year, when Darius,
suspecting that their preparations were aimed against himself, commanded them to throw down their walls, and to surrender their ships,
they acquiesced with equal readiness.  But the Persian armament wyas
soon after checked in its progress by a violent storm which overtook
it off Mount Athos, and was thought to have destroyed not less than
three hundred vessels and twenty thousand lives. Mardonius soon afterwards thought it prudent to end the expediton, and he returned to Asia.
In the third year after the last disastrous campaign (B. C. 490,) a
force was collected in Cilicia, and placed under the command of two
new generals, Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, son of the satrap of
Lydia, and hence, as the king's nephew, superior in rank, but probably inferior both in age and military experience to his colleague, who
seems to have been the real leader of the expedition. On the Cilician
coast they found a fleet of six hundred triremes, together with horse
transports: the whole army was taken on board, and sailed first to Samos, and thence, instead of making the round of the IEgean, which Herodotus thinks would have been preferred as the safer course but for the
dread of Mount Athos, crossed directly to the Cyclades. Naxos,
which had baffled the attempts of Aristagoras when seconded by the
power of Persia, was the first and principal object of attack. The
Naxians lost their courage at the appearance of the huge armament,
abandoned their walls, and took refuge in the mountains. The Persians carried off all who had not time to escape, and committed the
city and its temples to the flames.
The fleet held on its course through the islands, receiving their
submission and taking from each a re-enforcement and hostages, and
then sailed to Eubcea to accomplish one of the two great objects of




60               UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the expedition. The first town before which it appeared was Carystus: it rejected the demands of the Persians, and would not serve
them against its neighbors and brethren.
After the fall of Carystus the Persians laid siege to Eretria: the
men who wished to sell themselves to the enemy prevailed on their
fellow-citizens to abandon the design of flight, and, as they could not
venture to meet the invading army in the field, to sustain a siege.
For six days they made a brave defence, but on the seventh the gates
were treacherously thrown open. The infamy of this deed fell on
two men whom ierodotus describes as among the most eminent citizens; and perhaps its baseness was mitigated by political motives,
which may have led them to regard Athens as an enemy more formidable and hateful than the Persians.  The conquerors exactly fulfilled the commands of the king, the more rigorously that the fate of
Eretria might strike terror into the Athenians.  The city, with its
temples, was plundered, burned, and razed to the ground: according
to one tradition, which, however, rests on the half-poetical testimony
of Plato, the Persian host swept the whole territory of Eretria, as it
had done in Samos, and other islands. The captives, however, collected, were lodged in a safe place till they could be carried to the
king; then the whole armament steered its course to the coast of
Attica.
It was the aged tyrant Hlippias who, as he had most earnestly urged
the expedition, now guided the barbarian against his country.  By
his advice the fleet came to anchor in the Bay of Marathon, where it
was sheltered from the northern gales by a promontory which runs out
from the foot of Parnes.  The army was landed, and there was fought
the battle of Marathon, in which thirty thousand Greeks overthrew
five hundred thousand Persians.  After the rout was complete, the
only hope of the Persians was to get aboard of their ships. The victors took seven of the galleys; but the rest put off with the remainder of the army. Instead of shaping their course eastward, the
invaders steered towards Sunium, with the evident intention of proceeding to the southern coast of Attica. But the victorious army perceiving their object, marched for Athens, and arrived there before
the Persian fleet appeared off the coast. The invaders then returned
to Asia.
After the overthrow of the Persian hosts, the spirit of the Athe



GREECE.                          61
THE BRIDG OF BOATS OVER THE HELLESPONT, USED BY XERXES.
nians was raised to the highest degree of heroic daring. Miltiades
obtained a fleet of seventy ships, with which he attacked the island
of Paros; but after a long siege, he was forced to abandon it and
return to Athens. In the meantime, Darius had been succeeded upon
the throne of Persia by his son Xerxes, and mighty preparations for
another expedition into Greece were made throughout the dominions
of Persia. For eight years, all the western part of Asia was employed in raising and equipping the greatest armament upon record.
The Hellespont was bridged by Greek engineers to allow of the passage of the host.
Early in the spring of 480 B. C., the expedition set out under the
command of Xerxes. The vast numbers of the land forces were
reviewed, and then the king went on board a Sidonian vessel, where
a golden tent had been prepared for him, to inspect the fleet; and he
caused its divisions and numbers to be registered. The fleet consisted
of one thousand two hundred and seven ships of war, and besides the
native crews, each was manned with thirty marines, Persians, Medes,
or Sacians. But as they moved southward, both army and fleet received additions from  the seaports of Thrace and Macedonia, which
Herodotus computes at three hundred thousand infantry and one hundred and twenty triremes-thus making the whole number of Xerxes'
6




62              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
host on land about two millions of men, and one thousand three hundred and twenty-seven ships in the fleet.
From Doriscus, the army pursued its march along the coast, accompanied by the fleet. At Acanthus, Xerxes stopped to survey a wonderful canal constructed by his order, by which the fleet was saved
from the danger of doubling Mount Athos, where the fleet of Mardonius had been wrecked.  At that place, the army and the fleet
parted for the first time.  The army struck across the Chalcidian peninsula to Therme, where, after the naval armament had coasted the
intervening bays and had strenghened itself with ships and men
drawn from the Chalcidian ports, the two forces again met.  During
the stay of the fleet at Therme, Xerxes, indulged his curiosity by
sailing to the mouth of the Peneus, and viewing the remakable defile
through which it issues from the Thessalian plains.
N the meantime, the Grecian states
/ i           were not idle. Jealousy and hatred
prompted the Argives and Thessalians to remain quiet during the
struggle, but most of the other states,
under the lead of Athens and Sparta,
made preparations for defence. Themistocles, the leading man at Athens,
always had the increase of her maritime power as his first object, and
at this particular juncture, he made efforts to raise a fleet of sufficient
strength to meet the Persians.  The Corcyreans whose naval force
was among the most powerful in Greece, promised to send a fleet
to take part in the conflict; and they accordingly manned sixty ships.
But their squadron was detained, they afterwards alleged, by contrary
winds, which prevented it from doubling Malea, and arriving before
the hour of need was over.  The Spartan deputies from the Grecian
Congress which had been called, proceeded to Syracuse, and applied
to King Gelo for assistance. He offered to aid them with two hundred
trireimes and thirty thousand men, on condition that he should command the allied forces.  The conditions prevented the alliance, and
the Spartans returned.
When the news came that the Persians were at Pieria, on the borders of Thessaly, more than two-thirds of the whole naval force of the
allies set sail for the north coast of Eubcea.




GREECE.                          63
The northern side of Euboea afforded a commodious and advantageous station: it was a long beach, called, from a temple at its
eastern extremity, Artemisium, capable of receiving the galleys if it
should be necessary to draw them upon the shore, and commanding
a view of the open sea and the coast of Magnesia, and consequently
an opportunity of watching the enemy's movements as he advanced
towards the south; while, on the other hand, its short distance from
Thermopyloa enabled the fleet to keep up a quick and easy communication with the land force.  Here, therefore, 271 triremes were stationed under the Spartan admiral Eurybiades.  A Spartan had been
appointed to the command, though the Lacedamonians sent only ten
ships, by the desire of the allies, who refused to obey an Athenian.
Yet Athens manned 127 ships, and also supplied the Chalcidians with
twenty others. It may have been principally the jealousy of 2Egina
that led to the determination not to submit to Athenian command.
The force she sent on this occasion, eighteen triremes, bore no proportion to her power, and to the end of the war she husbanded her navy
under the plea of protecting her own shores. Corinth contributed
forty sail, Megara twenty, and the rest were chiefly drawn from the
Dorian cities of Peloponnesus, which, though not hostile to Athens,
could not acknowledge an Ionian leader without a considerable sacrifice of national prejudices.
While the Persian army was waiting at Pieria till a road had been
opened for it through the thick forest that clothed the sides of the
Cambunian Hills, or soon after it had crossed over into Thessaly, a
squadron of ten fast sailing ships was despatched from the fleet of
Thernme to obtain intelligence about the movements of the Greeks.
Off the island of Sciathus they fell in with three Greek ships, which
were there stationed on the look-out, one an Athenian, the others of
Troezen and AEgina.  They took to flight at the sight of the Persians,
who pursued and captured the Treezenian, and, after a brave struggle,
the /Eginetan.  The victors selected the comeliest man they found
among their Trcezenian prisoners, and sacrificed him at the prow of
his ship for an omen of victory: this fearful superstition, however,
did not prevent them from paying a generous respect to the valor of
Pytheas the IEginetan, who, after his ship was taken, fought till he
was almost cut to pieces. The Athenians ran their vessel aground in
the mouth of the Peneus, and made their way home through Thessaly.




64              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
This first appearance of the enemy was speedily announced by firesignals from Sciathus to the Greeks at Artemisium.  The alarm  it
excited was so great, that the admiral resolved on quitting this station, and retiring to Chalcis, where a few ships might defend the
Euripus: before he sailed away, he set watches on the heights of
Eubcea, to secure the earliest intelligence of the hostile armament.
The Persian squadron, after setting up a stone pillar to mark a dangerous rock in the channel between Sciathus and Magnesia, returned to
Therme with the report that the coast was clear. On this information, the whole fleet got under way eleven days after Xerxes began
his march from Therme, and the same evening came to anchor on the
southern coast of Magnesia.  From  the mouth of the Peneus to the
Gulf of PagasT the whole coast is rugged, and destitute of harbors,
and even of good roadsteads, but more especially at the foot of Ossa
and of Pelion. Night overtook the Persians before they could reach
the Pagaswean Gulf; but under the brow of Pelion they found a beach,
stretching from the town of Canasta, to the Cape of Sepias, and here
they resolved to wait for the morning. As the low shore was of small
extent in proportion to their numbers, only a small part of the ships
could be drawn up on the beach; the rest rode at anchor, their sterns
turned towards the sea, line within line. The night (it was the middle
or summer) was fair and calm; but when the dawn was beginning to
break, a ripple and a swell of the sea gave notice of an approaching
change. As the wind rose from the northeast, those who paid heed
to the signs of the weather, and could find a place of shelter, secured
themselves from the coming storm; but on the rest it burst with irresistible fury. The ships were torn from their anchorage, driven against
each other, and dashed upon the cliffs. The tempest raged with unabated violence for three days and nights. The commanders began
to fear lest the Thessalians should be encouraged by the general confusion to fall upon them, and complete their ruin; and they hastily
formed a high fence out of the wrecks round the fleet that was drawn
up on the beach. At length the storm subsided; but for many miles
the shores were strewed with wrecks and with corpses. The ships of
war destroyed were reckoned, on the lowest calculation, at 400: the
lives, the transports, the stores, the treasure lost, were past counting.
WVhen the sea grew calm, the remains of the fleet doubled the southern headland of Magnesia and put into the Gulf of Pagasa.




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GREECE.                         67
The day after the gale got up, while it was at its height, the Greek
scouts, who had been left to look out for the enemy, came to Chalcis with
such a description of its effects, that every one believed the whole
armada to be almost utterly ruined, and after a thanksgiving and a
libation to Poseidon, the fleet returned to its former station at Artemisium, to complete the victory which the gods had begun. It arrived
in time to capture fifteen Persian ships, which had been detained at
Sepias after the departure of the main body, and as they followed in
search of it, seeing the Greeks off Artemisium, took them for friends,
and only discovered their error when they had gone too far to retreat.
The loss the Persians had suffered, though it amounted to a number exceeding that of the whole Grecian fleet, was scarcely felt in
their huge armament.  When, from  their station at Aphetpe, they
perceived the slender force of their adversary, their only concern was
to prevent him from escaping: they could not imagine that he would
venture on a contest. They, therefore, without delay, detached a
squadron of 200 sail, with orders to make for the north, that their
object might not be suspected, but when they had got out to sea beyond Sciathus, to bear away to the south, round the southern extremity of Eubcea, and then sail up the channel, and cut off the
retreat of the Greeks.  The Greeks, on their part, who had persuaded
themselves that they should scarcely find an enemy to combat, were at
first thrown into consternation by the sight of the power opposed to
them, and it is said that Themistocles had great difficulty in restraining them from again turning their backs, and seeking shelter in the
Euripus. But whatever foundation it may have had, the Greeks not
only stayed, but soon recovered from their first astonishment, and did
not shrink from looking the enemy in the face.  They had received
early information of his plans from a man named Scyllias, who deserted to them from Aphetre, and was so famous as a diver that he
was commonly believed to have traversed the whole intervening space,
about ten miles, under water. The news reached them in the morning, and it was determined to wait till midnight, and then sail to meet
the squadron which had been sent round Eubcoa.  In the mean while
the Persians did not move from their station at Aphetm, for they
feared lest they should scare their puny enemy to flight: they deemed
their own ships superior, not only in numbers, but as sailers. The
Greeks were surprised at their inaction, and having waited till noon




68              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
expecting an attack, they then resolved to venture out and try their
strength. The Persians were astonished at their foolhardiness, and
hastened to meet and enclose them. They formed a circle round
them; the Greeks first drew their line into a smaller circle, with their
prows facing the surrounding enemy,, and then, at the signal, darted
forward, like rays, to pierce and break the wall of ships that encompassed them. The Persians were thrown into disorder by the
attack, and lost thirty ships, but the combat was still undecided, when
the approach of night put an end to it.  Each party returned to his
station with altered feelings, the Persians perplexed and disheartened,
the Greeks with new hopes. They had gained, not, indeed, a clear
victory, but a pledge of one; confidence in their own strength, and
insight into the enemy's weakness.
In the following night another violent summer storm, accompanied
with torrents of rain, thunder and lightning, terrified more than it
hurt the Persians at Aphete, where the road was choked with the.wrecks and the bodies that were driven in from the scene of the action. But the same storm overtook the squadron that was sailing
round Eubcea with perhaps greater fury, and off a part of the coast
infamous in ancient times under the name of Coela (the Hollows.)
Their resolution was confirmed the next day by the arrival of an
Athenian who had been stationed at Thermiopylve with a light galley,
and now came with the news that the Spartan king, Leonidas, was
slain, and all his men killed or taken, and that the Persians were
masters of the pass, which was the key to Phocis, Boeotia, and
Attica.
While the storm of destruction was pending over Greece, Athens
had sent to Delphi for advice.  The oracle advised the Athenians to
trust to their " wooden walls," for the city would be destroyed. The
wooden walls were explained to mean the fleet, which, since it had
been increased by Themistocles, was deemed the surest bulwark of
Athens. The Athenians resolved to follow the advice, and on the
approach of the Persians, removed their families and movable property to their ships and then sailed to Salamis, _./gina, and Trszen,
where they were kindly received.
The fleet assembled at Salamis was re-enforced by a squadron, composed partly of additional ships furnished by the same states which
had contributed their succor at Artemisium, and partly of a small




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GREECE.                          71
number sent from other quarters; among these were four from N)axos,
which had been intended by the Naxians for the service of the barbarians; but ]Democritus, who commanded one of them, and was a man
of great influence in this island, persuaded his countrymen to neglect
the orders they had received at home, and to join the Greeks. The
most remote cities of the Greek continent that took a part in the national cause were the Corinthian colonies of Leucas and Ambracia.
To the west of the Adriatic, Croton alone showed itself touched by
the danger of Greece: it sent one ship; though, perhaps, this merit
belonged to the commander, Phayllus, who had obtained three victories at the Pythian games, and probably equipped his ship at his own
expense. The whole armament thus strengthened, with the addition of
two deserters, amounted to 380 ships.
Eurybiades still held the chief command. He had called a council of war to deliberate on the position to which it would be most advisable to await the enemy's approach. Almost all voices concurred
in the opinion that they ought to leave Salamis, and take up a station
nearer the Isthmus.  But the Athenians strenuously opposed the
measure, and after much debate, the wisdom  of Themistocles triumphed, and the fleet remained at Salamis.
Six days after the Greeks had left Artemisium the Persian fleet arrived in the Attic bay of Phalerum. In passing through the channel
of Eubcea, it is said that the Persian admiral, seeing himself locked
in by the land, which seemed to close the Euripus, suspected that his
pilot, a Boeotian named Salganeus, had purposely drawn him  into a
snare, and hastily put him to death.
Xerxes went on board one of the ships with Mardonius, and summoned the chief commanders of the fleet into his presence, to deliberate on the expediency of seeking an immediate engagement. Among
a number of vassal princes who conducted their squadrons in person,
was a woman, Artemisia, a queen of Caria.  She alone, according to
Herodotus, perceived the rashness of hastening a contest by which
every thing might be lost, and nothing would be gained but what might
reasonably be looked for without one, if time were allowed for the
disunion and dispersion of the Greeks, which would inevitably take
place when the want of provisions should have driven them from Salamis to the Isthmus.  Artemisia, if these were her views, thought
like Mnesiphilus; but there was no Themistocles in the Persian coun



72              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
cil. The king resolved on attacking the enemy without delay.  He
attributed the checks his fleet had met with at Artemisium to the remissness of servants acting at a distance from the eye of their master.
In the approaching conflict his presence would stimulate the brave
and overawe the timid.  That same day he ordered the fleet to sail
up towards Salamis, and to form in line of battle; but the hour was
so late that there was only time to perform the evolution without advancing into the straits. It was resolved, however, that the battle
should take place on the morrow.
The sight of the Persian Armada drawn up in the order of battle
created an alarm among the Greeks equal to the former one, which
Themistocles had labored to counteract.  The Athenian commander,
finding persuasion fruitless, resolved to save the Athenians in spite of
their allies, and their allies in spite of themselves.  While the other
commanders were debating passionately, he sent a message to the Persian commander, informing him of the panic among the Greeks and
that they were bent on flight; and he suggested that the Persians
could cut off the retreat of the Greeks, by surrounding them. The
object of this stratagem was to make the Greeks fight, if for nothing
else., for their own safety. The bait took, as Themistocles wished,
and the movements of the Persians were so prompt that the island of
Salamis was completely surrounded, while the Greeks were engaged
in discussion.  Nothing then remained but to brace every nerve for
the battle.
When morning came, the Persian fleet was seen covering the sea
between Psyttaleia and the mouth of the channel, and the army
lining the shores of the Gulf of Eleusis.  On one of the heights of
Mount -ZEgaleos, the last limb of the long range of hills that, branching out from Citheron, stretches to the coast fronting the eastern side
of Salamis, a lofty throne was raised for Xerxes, from which he could
view the fight, quicken the tardy, and goad on the backward by the
terror of his presence, and dispense instant punishments or rewards,
as justice might demand. By his side were his scribes, to register
the names of those who caught the king's attention, by any signal
exploit.  The Greeks had different motives to animate them, and a
different presence to cheer them.  Before they embarked, Themistocles addressed them in a speech, the substance of which, as Herodotus reports it, was simply to set before them, on the one side, all












GREECE.                          75
that was best, on the other, all that was worst, in the nature and condition of man, and to exhort them to choose and hold fast the good.
As they were about to take their station, a vessel arrived from
~Egina, which had been sent the day before, when the resolution of
defending Salamis was adopted, to implore the assistance of _Eacus
and his line, the tutelary heroes of AEgina.
The Greeks awaited the advance of the Persians in the Straits,
which in the narrowest part are no more than a quarter of a mile wide.
As the Persians approached, the Greeks backed their galleys, probably till they saw the enemy closely pent in the brief space, which
permitted only a small. part of his force, more than triple their own
numbers, to be brought into action together.  Then the ship of the
Aacids, or, as was more generally believedl, an Athenian, commanded
by Ameinias, darted forward and struck one of the Persians.  This
was the signal for a general engagement. The Persians exerted their
utmost efforts, and did not yield to the Greeks in courage and perseverance; every man fought as if the eyes of the king were upon him.
But the valor of the Greeks, if not directed by superior skill, was
cooler and more deliberate, for it had not to struggle with any of the
impediments which threw their antagonists into confusion and took
away their presence of mind. Several causes contributed to this effect.
The Persian vessels, those especially in the foremost line, were taller
and larger than those of the Greeks, and were so much the more exposed to the action of a strong breeze which regularly blew up the
channel at a certain time of the day.  Themistocles is said to have
foreseen the advantage that might be derived from it, and to have delayed the battle to the hour when it was expected to get up. The
Persians ships were turned by the wind and the waves, their evolutions were thwarted, and their sides exposed to the attacks of the
enemy's prows.  While those in front were thus embracedl, the commanders of the hindmost, impatient to signalize themselves in the
presence of the king, pressed forward to the scene of action, and
often fell foul of their friends whom they met retreating... Some of
the Phoenician.s, whose galleys had been disabled by the shock of
some Ionian triremes, which had been accidentally driven against
them, went on shore, and complained to the king of what they called
the treachery of the lonians.  The loyalty of the Ionians was not
unsuspicious, and Xerxes listened to the charge, till an extraordinary




76              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
exploit of one of their galleys convinced him of their fidelity, and
excited him against their accusers.  The Ionian had struck and sunk
an Attic ship, when she was herself attacked and borne down by an
JEginetan: her deck, however remained above water, so as to allow
her crew still to stay on board.  1From this situation her men cleared
the deck of the ZEginetans with their javelins, and boarded and captured the ship which had sunk their own. When the king saw this,
he commanded that the Phcenicians, who had calumniated the bravest
and stanchest of his servants, should lose their heads.
Though the complaint of the Phoenicians was probably groundless,
it cannot be doubted that the confusion which soon began to prevail
in the Persian fleet was greatly aggravated, and rendered more mischievous by the variety of forces that composed it. The AEgyptians,
the Phcenicians, the Cilicians, the Cyprians, the Ionians, and the
other nations that fought in it, were united by no bond but their
compulsory service of the same master; and, as they could feel no
interest in the cause they were forced to support, so they could be
little concerned about any damage they might inflict on their brother
slaves which did not endanger their own safety, and must have been
always ready to sacrifice every other object to this. An adventure,
which Herodotus describes, was probably not the only instance of this
spirit which the battle afforded.  The Carian heroine, Artemisia, was
chased by Ameinias, who did not suspect the value of the prize he
had in view; for the Athenians, indignant, it is said, at being invaded
by a woman, had set a price of 10,000 drachmas on her head.  She
was flying with many others-for it was when disorder had become
general among the Persians-and, hard pressed by her pursuers, saw
before her the galley of the Calyndian Damasithymius. Without scruple she struck and sunk it: not a man of the whole crew was saved.
Ameinias, believing that he had been chasing a friend, turned away
from her; while Xerxes, who saw the occurrence, but only learned
the name of Artemisia, loudly expressed his admiration of her courage
and skill.
The event of the battle was really decided at the first onset, which
threw the unwieldy armament into a confusion from which it could
never recover, and which so many causes co-operated to increase. Yet
it appears to have been long before the resistance of the mass, whether
active or inert, was finally overcome; and night had begun to draw




\Y~~L   2/                    *-L
": —— 1 —--      lr"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-9~v~
-"~~ —----— XERXE  RERATN   T   10   HIS








GREECE.                              79
in ere the remains of the Persian fleet took refuge in Phalerum, to
which the Greeks attempted not to pursue it.  When the vanquished
enemy began to seek safety in flight, a squadron of ZE3ginetan ships,
which had stationed itself near the mouth of the channel, met the
fugitives, completed their defeat, and cut off many who had escaled
from the conflict unhurt.
ANCEN'T PERSIANt BOAT. — FROM  A.BATq rELrEr AT TAT T POST,, k




80               ~T'UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
-IEAVl iA1LED CAVALRY.
CHAPTER V.
CONCLUSION OF THE PERSIAN WARS.
11E  day after the great sea-fight at
-.b'~.elm. A~ -Salamis —the most glorious in Greeian history, Xerxes resolved to return to Asia.  The Persian fleet re-'' 4./    @        atg \ X) ceived orders to sail for the Hellespont with all speed, to guard the
bridges till the king's arrival.  As
=-~                  ~s~ —-  they sailed in the dark by Cape
Zoster, they were deceived by the
appearance of some rocky islets, which are scattered near the coast,
and taking them for Greek ships, fled, panic-struck, in different directions. The error was detected in time to prevent a dispersion, and they
pursued their course to the Hellespont without further interruption.
About the middle of the next day, the Greeks received information
of the departure of the Persian fleet.  They instantly gave chase;
but proceeding as far as the Cyclades without catching sight of them,
the Greeks returned. The Persian fleet wintered at Cuma and Samos,




GRIEECE                             81
while Mardonius, with three hundred thousand of the best Persian
troops wintered in Thessaly.
When the spring had opened the sea, the Persians united their
fleet at Samos, under the command of three new admirals.  Their
whole force amounted to three hundred ships, of which the Ionian
squadron formed a part.  They watched the Ionians with suspicion.
A revolt in Ionia, seconded by the victorious Greeks, would give
them  full employment.  Their suspicions and fears were not ill
grounded.  When the Grecian fleet, consisting of one hundred and
ten ships, met at ZEgina in the spring, under the command of Leotychides, king of Sparta, the successor of Denmaratus, and Xanthippus,
son of Ariphron, the prosecutor of Miltiades, some Ionian refugees,
who had failed in an attempt against Strattis,, the tyrant of Chios,
came over to solicit aid for the purpose of restoring Ionia to indepen
deuce.  They had already applied to Sparta, and seem to have been
referred to the judgment of the allies, But the only point they could
carry with the commanders of the fleet was to prevail on them to adcvance eastward as far as Delos, and even this mnovement was made
with great ireluctance, and perhaps to many seemed too bold. The
intercourse between Ionia and Greece had not been active enough to
render the eastern coast of the ~gean familiar to the Greeks, particularly to those of Peloponnesus.  Beyondc Delos, their imagination
covered the sea with hostile forces, and Samos lay as far out of their
self-traced field of action as the Pillars of Hercules.  Thus mutual
fears kept the interval between the two islands open, and the two fleets
at rest, though in an attitude of defence.
But the contest was decided upon the land, by the total rout of the
vast army of MlIardonius at Platia.  The allies then decided to maintain a fleet of one hundred galleys to prosecute the war against Persial.
On the same day that the battle was fought at Platmea, the commancder
of the allied fleet, one of:the Spartan kings, received messages from
Samos, inviting him  to proceed to the coast of Ionia and thus assist
in a revolt of the Ionians.  Lotychides rejected the first proposal,
but subsecquently agreed to comply; accordingly he set sail for Samnsos
On arriving there, he found one part of the prediction of tle envoys fulfilled. The Persian admirals did not venture to meet him on
the sea, and, at his approach, sent away the Plh-oenician squadron,'and
with tile remainder of the fleet sailed across-to the mainland to seek




82              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the protection of the land force which was stationed, under the command of Tigranes, on the coast, at the foot of the mountains that end
in the promontory of Mycal,6 opposite the southern extremity of
Samos. The ships were drawn up on the beach at the foot of the
mountain, and enclosed within a wall hastily constructed of stones
and timber. The army was posted on the shore in front of it.  The
Greeks were at first confounded by the retreat of the enemy, and by
the new position he had taken, and debated for a time, whether they
should return to Delos, or make for the Hellespont. At length, however, they resolved not to give way to the unexpected obstacle, but
to cross over to Mycal6 and offer battle.  When they came near the
shore, Leotychides repeated the stratagem which Themistocles had
used on the retreat from Artemisium for a similar purpose. WVhen his
galley was within hearing of the Persian troops, he addressed a proclamation by the voice of a herald to the Ionians, in which he exhorted them, in the approaching battle, to remember first the liberty
of their country, and next the watchword which he gave them.  All
who heard him he desired to convey the same summons to the absent.
This contrivance succeeded in the principal object; the Persians believed that a plan of desertion and revolt had been already formed
among the Ionians, to be carried into execution at the first favorable
opportunity, and that they had just received the signal. When, therefore, Leotychides, finding that the enemy had no intention of coming
to an engagement at sea, landed his men to attack them on the shore,
they disarmed the Samians, who were most strongly suspected of disaffection, and removed the Milesians from the camp, under the pretext of posting them on the top of Mycal to guard the passes. The
Persians were drawn up at the foot of the mountain behind the breastwork, which, according to their usual practice, they formed with their
serried shields.
The Greeks attacked and defeated them and then returned to their
fleet, and steered to the Hellespont, where it was supposed the bridges
were still standing. They had been removed, and then Leotychides
and the Peloponnesians proposed to sail home. The Athenians refused,
and while their allies left them, they made an attempt to recover
their ancient dominion in the peninsula of Chersonesus. They blockaded Elmus all winter, and at last succeeded in completing the conquest. The fleet then returned to Attica.




GREECE.                          83
After the Persian defeat, the power of Athens rose rapidly and
surely. Her maritime rivals, ~,Egina and Corinth, soon became jealous
of her greatness, and Sparta was not long behind them. To establish
the dominion of Athens upon the sea was the final aim of the policy
of Themistocles.  The navy was considerably enlarged, and the harbors improved and fortified.
In the year following the fall of Sestus (B. C. 477,) the allied fleet
again put to sea; its entire force is not recorded, but the Peloponnesian states equipped twenty ships, Athens thirty, which were commanded by Aristides and Cimon the son of 3Miltiades, who was now
fast rising towards the place which his father had once held in the
public esteem. Pausanias was at the head of the whole armament.
It first sailed to Cyprus, and wrested the greater part of the island
from the Persians, and then steered for the north of the Egeanu, and
laid siege to Byzantium, which soon surrendered.
The Spartan portion of the fleet withdrew soon after this, in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, and the acknowledgement of
the supremacy of Athens, by the smaller states.
In the year 466, B. C., Cimon obtained a most brilliant naval victory over the Persians. A great sea and land force had been collected
at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia; the fieet, according
to Ephorus, who is most. moderate in his numbers, amounted to three
hundred and fifty, and the Persian commanders expected to be joined
by eighty Plicenician galleys fiom Cyprus. Cimon having strengthened
his fleet by successive reinforcements, as he slowly moved along the
south coast of Asia Minor, till it amounted to two hundred and fifty
galleys, provoked the enemy to an engagement before the arrival of
the Pheenicians, and having defeated them, and sunk or taken two
hundred ships, sailed tip the river to their camp, and landing his men,
flushed with victory, completely routed the Persian army, and carried
sway the rich booty which they lef in their tents. According to the
author whom Plutarch follows, he still found time for another victory
the same day, and having sailed to meet the Phoenician squadron,
which had nlot heard of the defeat of their allies, fell in with it, and
destroyed the whole.
A war ]broke out in the year 457, B. C., between Athens on one
side, and iEgina and Corinth on the other. Both xzgina and Corinth
were powerful maritime states and were jealous of the increase of the




84:              UNIYERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
*- -----------
f.AT,TlE1  FPOjr PO_3PGEiT,
Htnleenian naval strength.  The Athenians defeated the allied fleet
of their enemies off the Island of Ecrypbalen, in the Saronic Gulf;
and,  shortly afterwards, Leverates, the Athenian commander, dle
feated them  again in  a great sea fight, near  ASgina, and took
seventy  of their galleys.  In 455, B. C., the  IEginetans were
obligoed to capitulate to the Athenians and surrender all their ships,
a:nd thus was a rival naval power humbled.  In the same year —an
Athenian arm.ament of fifty galleys, with four thousancd heavy armed
troops on board, sailed round Peloponnesus under Tolmides, burned the
Spartan arsenal of Gythinsu, took a town named Chalcis, belonging
to the Corinthians, and defeated the Sicyonians, who attempted to
oppose the landing of the troops.  But these successes were counterbal-ancedl  by defeats in Egypt.  BIegabyzus, the Persian general,
forced the Greeks to take refuge in an island in the Nile, where he
besieged them for eighteen months.  At length, he contrived to turn
the stream, which separates the islaind from his own side of the rivori




GREECE.                           85
into new channels, ahd conducted th-e work so rapidly, that the Greek
galleys were all left aground, and were fired by the Athenians themselves, that they might not fall into the hands of the Persians. The
greater part of the Greeks were dispersed or killed.  But the misfortunes of the Athenians did not end with the destruction of their fleet
and army on the Nile.  They had sent a squadron of fifty galleys to
the relief of their countrymen, which, arriving before the news of the
recent disaster had reached them, were surprised by a combined attack
of the Persian land force and a Phoenician fleet, and but few escaped
to bear the tidings to Athens.
About five years after the events above related, Cimon was appointed to the command of a fleet of two hundred galleys, with which
he sailed to Cypr.us, and sent a squadron of sixty galleys to the assistance of Amyrtrcus, the Pretender, while he himself, with the rest,
laid siege to Citium.  Here he was carried off by sickness, and, on
account of the want of supplies, the armament was compelled to raise
the siege. But Cimon's spirit still animated his countrymen, who,
when they had sailed away with his remains, fell in with a great fleet
of Cilician and Phoenician galleys, near the Cyprian Salamis, and,
having completely defeated them, followed up their naval victory
with another which they gained on shore over the troops landed from
the ships, of the enemy. After this, they were joined by the
squadron which had been sent to Egypt, and all sailed home.
Numerous naval expeditions, on a small scale, were undertaken by
the Athenians, during the sway of Periclea, and they were generally successful.  The Samians having quarrelled with Miletus, the
Miletians sought the aid of Athens, and Pericles sailed with fifty
galleys, and with the assistance of a party of Samos overthrew -the
government and established a democracy. He then returned. But
the Samians applied  to the Peloponnesian states for assistance.
While they were deliberating on the propriety of interfering, Pericles,
accompanied by nine colleagues, crossed the sea with a fleet of sixty
sail, to suppress the revolting Samians.
They had learned that a fleet was expected to come to the assistance of the Samians from Phoenicia, and some galleys were sent'to
look out for it, while another small squadron was despatched to bring
up the re-inforecements to be furnished by Chios and Lesbos. Though
his numbers were reduced by these detachments to forty-four galleys,
8




86              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HIISTORYo
Pericles did not shrink fromn engaging with a Samian fleet of
seventy, including twenty transports, as it was returning from Miletus,
and gained a victory. Shortly after he received an addition to his
forces of forty ships from Athens, and five-and-twenty from  Chios
and Lesbos, which enabled him to land a body of troops sufficient to
drive the enemy into the town, and to invest it with a triple line of
intrenchments.  Yet it appears that, even afer the siege -was formed,
another sea fight took place, in which the Samians, who were conmmanded by the philosopher BlMelissus, were victorious. The advantage,
however, must have been very slight, or soon followed by a reverse;
for we find that, while the hopes of the Samians rested on the Phoenician fleet, and they despatched five galleys to hasten its movements,
Pericles thought himself strong enough to take sixty ships and sail
along the coast of Caria to meet the expected enemy.  The Phcenicians did not come up; but during his absence the besieged drew out
their remaining galleys, and surprised the naval encampment of the.Athenians, sunk their guardships, and defeated the rest, which were
brought out in disorder to repel the sudden attack.  This success
made them masters of the sea, and enabled them to introduce supplies
into the town.  They retained the ascendant fourteen days; it was,
perhaps, nearly so long before the Athenians were able to convey the
news to Pericles. On the return, the state of things was reversed,
and the Samuians once more closely besieged. But the effort they had
made seems to have excited some alarm  at Athens, and to have
induced the Athenians to put forth more of their strength. A squadron of forty galleys, under threo eminent commanders, Hagnon, Phormio, and Thucydides, was followed by one of twenty sail under Tieo
polemus and Anticles, and this by thirty others from Chios and Lesbos.'Yet even this overpowering force did not deter the Samians,
though the succors expected from Phoenicia did not arrive, from venturing on another sea fight, which was soon decided,l so as to leave
them no means of doing more than remain on the defensive.  They
held out nine months, and were then so reduced by famine, that
they capitulated, and delivered all their ships into the hands of the
Athenians.
After his return, Pericles conducted a large and gallant armament
into the Euxine Sea, for the purpose of displaying the power of
Athens, and strengthening her influence among the cities and nations








/~~
~CRETIAN VfAMRRI01% IN A~SIOU}%,




GREECE.                          89
on those coasts.  The city of Synope was distracted by a civil war
between the partisans and opponents of Timesilaus, and the friends
of liberty applied to Pericles for aid.  He left them thirteen galleys,
under the command of Lamachus,  a brave and active officer, and
through their means, the democrats triumphed.  Pericles introduced
a regulation for the purpose of keeping the crews of the Athenian
ships in training, which provided that a squadron of sixty galleys
should be sent out every year, and kept at sea eight months.  This
contributed a great deal to the efficiency of the navy.
Before the expiration of the Thirty Years' Truce between Athens
and Sparta, a war occurred between the maritime states of Corinth
and Corcyra.  The Corinthians set out to relieve their colony of Epidamnus with a fleet of seventy-five ships, and two thousand heavy
armed men,
When they had reached the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, they
were met by a herald sent in a boat, by the Corcyrceans, to forbid
them to advance farther; a message which was of course disregarded.
In the mean while the Corcyrreans manned all their galleys which
were fit for service, amounting to eighty sail, and put out to meet the
enemy.  The Corinthians were totally defeated, with the loss of fifteen ships, and returned home, leaving the Corcyrseans masters of the
sea. The victorious fleet sailed first to the Corinthian colony, Leucas,
where the troops ravaged the landcl and then to Cyllene, the arsenal
of the Eleans, which was burned, in revenge for the aid which Elis
had furnished to the Corinthians.  The allies of Corinth on the
western coast were so infested by the Corcyrseans, that the Corinthians were obliged, in the course of the summer, to send out another fleet to protect them, which continued to watch the enemy's
movements, sometimes from Actium, and sometimes froml  Chimerium
in Thresprotia. But though the Corcyrmans took a station at the opposite headland of Lucimne, no offer of battle was made on either
side, and on the approach of winter both returned home.
Great preparations were made by both parties for renewing the
contest, and ambassadors sent to the Athenians to secure assistance.
But the Athenians desired to see these two naval powers waste their
strength in a war, and they only entered into a defensive alliance
with the Corcyr.eans.
The preparations which the Corinthians had been making from the
8*




90              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
time of their defeat now enabled them, with the help of their allies,
Elis, Megara, Leucas, Ambracia, and Anactorium, to send out a fleet
of one hundred and fifty galleys, which proceeded to the Thesprotian
port Chimerium, where they encamped, and were joined by a considerable number of the Epirots, who were generally friendly to them.
The Corcyrosans, whose force amounted to one hundred and ten galleys, took their station, with the ten from Athens, at a little island
-one of a group called Sybota, or the Swine pastures-while their
troops, reinforced by one thousand heavy armed Zacynthians, were
encamped on their own coast at Leucimne. A few days after, the
two fleets met in order of battle, the Corinthians, in the left of their
own line, being opposed to the ten Attic ships, which were placed at
the extremity of the Corcyrean right.
The engagement which ensued-the greatest, Thucydides observes,
that had taken place between Greeks to that day-was, however, more
like a battle on shore than a sea fight. For on both sides, according to
the ancient practice, the decks were crowded with heavy armed troops,
and archers, and. dartmen, and, after the first onset, the ships, for the
most part, remained wedged together in a compact mass, on which
the men fought as on firm ground, no room being left for the cliecptus,
the evolution which was the chief display of skill in the naval warfare of the Greeks, by which the enemy's line was suddenly pierced
and the oars of the adverse galley swept away.  The Corcyreans
on the left, however, soon put to flight -and dispersed the enemy's
right wing, which was formed by the Mlegarian and other allies of the
Corinthians, and pursuing them to the shore with twenty galleys,
landed near the camp, where they plundered and fired the deserted
tents. But the remainder of their fleet was overpowered by the superior numbers of the Corinthians. The Athenian commanders, fearful of transgressing their instructions, at first abstained from mixing
in the fight, and contented themselves with threatening the enemy
by their presence at the points where their allies were hard pressed.
Gradually, however, as victory declared itself on the side of the Corinthians, and the danger of the Corcyrsaans grew more imminent, the
Athenians were drawn into the combat, and at length took as active
a part against the Corinthians as the Corcyrseans themselves. The first
object of the Corinthians, when the main body of the Corcyrsmans had
been put to flight, was to wreak their vengeance on the survivors who




________  ~ r   i~- -   -
~v4~Ifr//mL~~~-~-I








GREECE.                           93
were clinging to the wrecks; and they were so eager in the slaughy
ter, that they destroyed several of their of their own men belonging
to the vessels which had been sunk in the defeat of their right wing.
Then, having chased the enemy to land, they returned to the coast of
Epirus, with all they could take up of their slain, and with their disabled galleys; and having deposited them  there, in a desert harbor
called, like the islands, Sybota, again put to sea, and made for Corcyra.  The Corcyrmaans,though they had lost seventy vessels and had
only destroyed thirty, were yet resolved, in defence of their territory,
to meet the attack with their remaining force. It was late in the
evening; but the pWean had already been raised for battle, when the
Corinthians suddenly retreated at the sight of another scquadron which
was advancing, unperceived by the Corcyrlmans, towards the sc.ene of
action.  These proved to be twenty Attic ships, which had been sent
by the Athenians through fea r that the first force might be insu~ffi
cient for the protection of their allies; and the Corinthians imagined
that a greater armament might be behind.
The next day the Corcyr mans, with the thirty Attic ships, sailed
towards the port where the Corinthians lay, to offer battle.  The
Corinthians came out and drew up their fleet in fighting order; but,
though still greatly superior in numbers, they did not wish to risk
an engagement on a desert coast, where they hadl no means of repairing their vessels, and found it difficult to guard their prisoners. Thoy
were bent on returning home; and, being fearful that the Athenian
ships would bar their progress, they sent a messenger to them to inquire
if they designed to violate their faith  of treaties by preventing the
Corinthians from returning to their own country. The Athenians replied, that they would not prevent them  from  sailing in any other
direction but towards Corcyra.  The Corinthians then erected a tro-,
phy a.nd returned home,
|  * >'-'   AS




94              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
O-REEK AND ROMAXN SOLDIER.S.
CHAP T'ER  VIe.
TEE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
N the year 431 B. C., war broke out:  between the rival states of Athens
and Sparta.  All the Grecian states
were ranged on the different sides.,,-9 I   Athens was complete mistress of the
__-__     -,,sea, and  upon  that element she
-.  placed her principal reliance for suc_  cess.  At the colmmencement of the
war, she had three hundred galleys in sailing condition. The strength of
Sparta was to be found in her land forces-having never given much
attention to. naval affairs.  While their king led a large army into
Attica, an Athenian fleet of a hundred galleys, with a thousand
men of arms and four hundred bowmen on board, set sail to ravage
the coasts of the Peloponnesus.  They were joined by fifty Corcyrean ships, and by others from  the same quarter.  They visited
the coasts of Laconia with fire and sword, and then proceeded to Elis,
which they ravaged for two days, defeated a body of troops sent against
them, ald when the fleet was compelled to take shelter from a gale
in the port of Pheia, they made -themselves masters of Pheia itself';




GREECE.                            95
STEIRN OF A GALLEY-FROM {A P'INTINCG ON THE WALLSA O? POIrPEII,
but as the Eleans were coming up with their whole force, they hastily
re-embarked and the fleet sailed northward.
While this great fleet was still at sea, a squadron of thirty galleys
was sent into the Eubcean channel to protect the coasts of the island,
which were infested by privateers from Locris. The Athenians made
a descent on the Locrian coasts and routed a body of Locrians who
attempted to oppose their landing. To divert the public mind as'
much as possible fiom  the plague which had broken out at Athens,
Pericles set out at the head of another expedition against Peloponnesus, which consisted of a fleet of one hundred galleys, with four
thousand heavy-armed Athenians on board.  He was joined by fifty
galleys from  Chios and. Lesbos, and three hundred horse were embarked in transports, now for the first time formed out of old ships.
With this force, while the enemy was ravaging Attica, he sailed to
the coast of Epidaurus, wasted the greater part of its territory, and




96               UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
made an unsuccessful attack upon the town.  Ie then slowly coasted
the Acta and ravaged the fields of Troozen, Halice and Hermione.
But a pestilence broke out in the fleet and Pericles was compelled to
return to Attica.
In the year 430 B. C., a Peloponnesian fleet of one hundred galleys, with one thousand heavy-armed Lacedemonians on board, lunder
command of Cnemus the Spartan navarch, or high admiral, sailed to
the island of Acarnania, the inhabitants of which were allied with
the Athenians.  The greater part of that fertile island was ravaged,
but the people could not be terrified into submission.  This led the
Athenians  to send a squadron of twenty galleys, under Phormio, to
guard the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf. The Peloponnesian allies,
resolved to form an expedition against Acarnania and Naupactus, and
for this purpose, there assembled at Leucas, in the Corinthian Gulf, a
fleet of forty-seven galleys, while a large land force marched to attack
Acarnania.  This feet advanced along the coast of Achaia.  It was
watched by Phormio, wlo, however, did not attempt to impede its
progress unt-il it had passed through the mouth of the gulf, and was
sailing towardls Acarnania.  The commander of the allied fleet did
not think?Phormio would attack them with only twenty galleys, and
therefore they were surprised on the morning aftoer leaving the gulf
of Corinth, to see the Athenian ships coming towards them.
As they had not looked for a sea fight, their ships were not in fit
condition for one,'being encumbered with soldiers for the invasion
of Acarnania.  [But seeing that an engagement was inevitable, they
prepared to receive the enemy's attack.  They ranged their ships in
a circle, the largest which they could form without leaving any opening, the sterns turned inward.  Within they placed all the smaller
craft which accompanied them, and five of their best sailers, to move
as occasion might require.  The Athenians advanced in a single line,
and as they made the round of the circle with threatening demonstrations, gradually reduced it to a narrow compass.  But Phormio had
ordered that none of his ships should begin the attack until he gave
the signal.  Hle foresaw that the enemy would not be able long to
preserve his order, and that the ships and boats would run foul of one
another; and he expected that a wind, which commonly blew out of
the gulf albout sunrise, would complete their confusion.  All turned
out as he calculated.  As the breeze got up, the Peloponnesian gal







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GREECE.                         99
leys, straitened in their room, were driven against one another; from
the various accidents that ensued an uproar arose, which drowned
every word of command; the towers, from want of practice, were unable to use their oars in the swell of the sea, and the galleys no
longer obeyed the rudder. In the midst of this disorder, Phormio
gave the signal for attack. The enemy could offer no resistance; all
who were not sunk in the first onset took to flight; the Athenians
gave chase and captured twelve galleys, with the greater part of the
crews. Those which escaped proceeded to the Elean arsenal of Cyllene, where they were joined by Cnemus, who brought with him the
squadron which had been assembled at Leucas. Phormio carried his
prizes into the harbor of Molycrium, and after raising a trophy on the
nearest Rhion (as each of the two points at the mouth of the gulf
was called,) and dedicating one of the captured vessels to Poseidon.,
he returned to Naupactus.
The news of this great victory was received by the Spartans with
indignation, and they attributed their defeat to their commander's
misconduct.  Timocrates, Brasidas and Lycophron were sent to cooperate with Cnemus in getting another and larger fleet together.
They soon equipped and manned a fleet of seventy-seven galleys, not,
like the former, with a view to operations on shore, but for naval action. Phormio, on the other hand, had sent the news of his victory
to Athens, with a request that he should be reinforced, as he expected
a battle every day.  But his request was unheeded, and he was left
to meet the whole force of the allies with twenty ships.  The Peloponnesians, schooled by their recent defeat, were resolved not to venture out in the open sea.  Phormio saw no chance of victory, or of
safety except in ample sea-room. The two parties mancouvred and
practised their men for six or seven days. But the Spartans grew apprehensive that a reinforcement might arrive from  Athens, and resolved to bring the Athenians to an engagement without delay.
Accordingly, upon the night before the contemplated attack, the
commanders addressed their respective forces, and used every means
to raise the spirits dampened by previous defeat. But they only succeeded in part.
At daybreak the Peloponnesian fleet was seen moving eastward
along the shore, the right wing taking the lead, in a column of four
ships abreast. The object of this manceuvre was to threaten Naun



100             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORYo
pactus, and thus to draw Phormio round the Molycrian point, and
then, suddenly facing about, to coop him in, and capture the whole
squadron. But, to provide against the contingency by which some
of his ships might get the start of their assailants, and make their
escape to Naupactus, twenty of the best sailers in the Peloponnesian
fleet were placed in advance of the column to intercept the fugitives.
The object was attained only in part. Phormio, as was expected, was
alarmed for the safety of Naupactus, and in spite of himself was fain
to follow the enemy by a parallel movement along the opposite coast,
where a body of Messenians from Naupactus was on its march to support him. The Peloponnesian commanders no sooner saw his whole
squadron within the gulf in a single file, close to the shore, than they
ordered their column to turn and advance, in a long line, at the
utmost stretch of speed, to the attack. Nine of the Athenian ships
were driven ashore, one was taken with its whole company; the other
crews, for the most part, escaped by swimming; but the empty vessels
would all have been captured or destroyed, if the Messenians had not
come up, dashed into the sea in their armor, and forced the victors
to abandon several of their prizes. But the remaining eleven, which
had outstripped this attack and made for Naupactus, were briskly
chased by the squadron in advance. All, however, but one, got the
start of their pursuers, and found time to face about and form in a line
in front of a temple of Apollo, close to the port. The single galley
in the rear was chased by a Leucadian, which was far in advance of
the squadron, and had the Spartan Timocrates on board.  It happened that just before them  a merchant ship was riding at anchor.
The Athenian captain, by a dexterous and happy manoeuvre, suddenly
wheeling round it, struck her antagonist on her broadside, full in the
centre, and sank her. The Peloponnesians, in the other galleys, who
were coming up in disorderly haste, as to a certain victory, and had already begun to raise the psean, were disconcerted at this spectacle.
Some, who were near the Athenian line, stopped short to wait for those
behind; some, incautiously pushing forward, and not acquainted with
the coast, ran upon shoals. The Athenians, seeing the enemy thus exposed, thought no longer of defence; by a simultaneous impulse the
shout of battle rose, and the word was given for attack in every ship.
The Peloponnesians, after a short and feeble resistance, fled towards
Panormus. The Athenians took six of the nearest, and recovered




GREECE.                         101.
those of their own which had been abandoned by their crews on the
first attack of the Peloponnesians, and taken in tow.  The only prize
which the Peloponnesians retained was the galley which they had
captured with its crew. With this they decorated the trophy which
they raised on the Achaean Rhion. The Athenians raised theirs near
the spot from which they had advanced to the attack, which gave
them the more glorious and useful victory.
After this discomfiture, the Peloponnesian fleet sailed for Corinth,
as the season was too far advanced for naval operations, and the comnmanders feared the arrival of an Athenian squadron.  Phormio was
joined, after their departure, by the reinforcement he so much needed.
But he did not attempt any thing of importance.  He remained at
Naupactus until spring, when he sailed to Athens, with his prizes and
prisoners.
The inhabitants of Mitylene having revolted from th.eir alliance
with Athens, and made great preparations to maintain themselves
against her power, Cleippides was despatched, with forty galleys, to
reduce the city to subjection.  Ten Mitylenian ships were seized by
the Athenians, and their crews thrown into prison. The fleet of Cleippides blockaded Mitylene, but granted an armistice asked by the
inhabitants. The Mitylenians were desirous of gaining time; and,
during the armistice, they sent envoys to Sparta, soliciting assistance.
The Spartans promised their aid and the envoys returned.
While this fleet blockaded MIitylene, another consisting of thirty
galleys, was sent round Peloponnesus to assist the Acarnanians; this
expedition wasted the coast of Laconia on their way to Acarnania,
and made the Spartans feel the war near home. And now the
Athenians resolved to show, that without recalling either this squadron or the armament at Mitylene, they were ready to meet any naval
force Peloponnesus could send against them. They forthwith equipped one hundred galleys, manned partly with their own citizens, and coasting the isthmus, exhibited them to the astonished Spartans, and then
proceeded to make a descent on the Peloponnesian coast. The state
of the Athenian finances prevented them from keeping such an armament at sea for a great length of time. The whole number of vessels
in their service was nearly equal to the number they had at the commencement of the war, and the cost of such a navy was a constant
9*




102             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
drain on the treasury. The large fleet, and part of the one sent to
Acarnania returned to Athens.
The Spartans, in keeping their promise to the Mitylenians, sent
their admiral Alcidas, with forty-two galleys to their assistance. But
Alcidas was totally unfit for commanding a naval armament.  Possessing all the wariness, without the energy of the Spartan character,
he manoeuvred along the coast of Peloponnesus, and when he reached
the Cyclades, he learned that the Mitylenians had capitulated seven
days before. The Spartan commander then thought it best to return
to Peloponnesus. He was pursued by the Athenians, but succeeded
in making his escape.  Mitylene was then deprived of all remains of
independence. Her navy was seized and served to swell the Athenian
naval strength.
The fleet commanded by Alcidas was dispersed by a storm off the.island of Crete, but it again assembled in the port of Cyllene, where
it was joined by thirteen galleys, under Brasidas. This fleet then
sailed towards Corcyra, where an Athenian fleet of twelve galleys
was anchored. The Corcyreans were divided into two violent parties,
and a portion of them were upon the side of Athens, while the others
took part with the Peloponnesians.  Nicostratus sailed out, with the
Athenian galleys, and was followed by a number of the galleys of the
Corcyreans.  Two of the Corcyrman galleys went over to the Peloponnesians, and the crews of the others began fighting among themselves. Seeing this disorder, the Peloponnesians divided their own
fleet, and with twenty galleys, attacked the Corcyroeans as they came
up in small numbers, while the remaining three-and-thirty encountered the Athenian squadron.  But as Nicostratus, by superior skill,
avoided their centre, where he would have been overpowered, and,
having taken them in flank, sunk one galley, they formed into a circle
and stood on the defensive. Just as Nicostratus was about to execute
the manoeuvre by which Phormio had won a former sea fight, the
twenty galleys which had conquered the Corcyrseans, came to the relief of Alcidas, and the Athenians were compelled to retreat, which
they did in good order.  The Peloponnesian fleet remained master of
thirteen galleys and of the sea; but instead of following up his vietory, Alcidas drew off to another coast, which he ravaged until he
heard of the approach of another Athenian fleet. Then he set out for
Peloponnesus.




GREECE.                         1003
In the summer of 426, B. C., Nicias, one of the wealthiest Ath,nians and a prudent general, led an armament of sixty galleys, with
two thousand heavy armed men on board, against the island of Melos,
in the 2Egean, which refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Athens.
Nicias ravaged the island, and the coast of Locris, and then returned
to Athens. At the same time, a squadron of thirty galleys, under
Demosthenes and Procles, was sent round Peloponnesus; and being
joined by fifteen Corcyrsean ships, and by troops from  Zacynthus,
proceeded to attack Leucas.  After laying waste the surrounding territory, Demosthenes did not think it wise to besiege the town, and
sailed away to Sollium to secure the aid of that people in an expedition into -ZEtolia.
In the middle of the next campaign, 425, B. C., a fleet of forty
galleys, under Sophocles and Euryluedon. They were accompanied
by Demosthenes as general of the land forces.  A point at the northern entrance of the bay, now called Navarino, was fortified by Demosthenes, and five galleys left him to guard the fortress. When the
rest of the fleet had left for Corcyra, information was received of the
approach of a Peloponnesian fleet, and a large Spartan army, under
King Agis.  Demosthenes sent two galleys to apprise the Athenian
commanders of his danger, and hauled his remaining three galleys up
under the fort, and protected them with a stockade. His whole force
consisted of the crews of the three ships and about forty Messenians.
The Peloponnesian fleet numbered forty-three galleys; but a few only
could approach the shore at one time.  The fight began at the waterys
edge, and continued with intervals for two days, at the end of which
time, the Athenian fleet arrived from Zacynthus.  It had been aug.mented to the number of fifty galleys.  The Peloponnesians neither
sailed out to meet them, nor made any attempt to close the mouth of
the harbor, but allowed themselves to be surprised by the Athenians
while a part of their ships were still on shore, and not even manned.
Two were taken, one with its whole company, many shattered, and
the Athenians chasing them to the shore, tried to carry off those
which they found there empty.  B-ut the Spartans, desperately fighting on their own shores, drove the enemy back and recovered all their
ships but the five first captured.,With these the Athenians erected
their trophy.  Soon after, the Spartans proposed a truce; by the
terms of which, they placed their whole navy of sixty ships in the




104             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
hands of the Athenians until the return of the ambassadors sent to
Athens.  But when the ambassadors returned, the victors would not
give up the ships. Their own fleet had been further increased to
seventy sail, and they knew their power.  Cleon arrived with a reinforcement of land troops from Athens, and then, after a hard fight,
the Spartans surrendered.
The Athenians now made their enemy feel the force of their naval
superiority.  An armament of eighty galleys, with two thousand
heavy-armed Athenians, and horse transports, with two hundred
cavalry, was sent, under command of Nicias and two colleagues, to
invade the territory of Corinth and the eastern side of Peloponnesus.
But all the operations of this expedition were upon land. In the next
year, another squadron of sixty galleys, under the command of Nicias,
was sent to wrest the island of Cytherea from the Spartan rule. The
result was, that the island was captured, and the fleet remained seven
days on the coast of Laconia, inflicting the most terrible ravages,
without meeting with any resistance.
In the meantime, a sea fight took place near Messana, between a
Locrian fleet of thirty ships and an Athenian and Rhegian fleet of
twenty-four ships, under command of Sophocles and Eurymedon, in
which the latter were victorious. But they were repulsed in their
turn, in making an attempt to seize the Syracusan fleet at Cape Pelorus. Numerous expeditions on a small scale, for the purpose of reducing their former allies to submission, were undertaken by the Athenians during the remainder of the Peloponnesian war, but none of
them are worthy of particular mention.




ANCIENT GALLEY FROM POMPEII.
CHAPTER VII.
THE EXPEDITION OF THE ATHENIANS AGAINST SICILY.
HEN the war was renewed between
the two confederacies, a great armament was raised, through the influence of Alcibiades, who, with Nicias' and Lamachus, was appointed to com_.i~i is.~~~-~-~-. mand it. The armament collected at
Corcyra. It consisted of one hundred
and thirty-seven galleys, besides two Rhodians of lower rate. Athens
alone furnished one hundred and sixty fighting galleys; and forty for
transport of soldiers. Chios and other allies contributed the rest. The
army included five thousand heavy infantry, among whom fifteen hundred were Athenians-seven hundred to serve on board in sea fights.
The fleet was accompanied by thirty vessels laden with provision. A
hundred boats had been pressed into the service; but a number of merchantmen and of small craft followed on private commercial adventures. The armament was divided into three squadrons, one of which
(105)




106             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
each one of the generals took as a separate command. They sent forward three ships to learn which of the Italian and Sicilian towns were
willing to receive them. These ships were to meet them on their way.
In this order, the army crossed over to the Japygian Foreland, and
proceeded along the Italian coast to Rhegium. Here the generals
deliberated on the best plan of procedure.  Nicias, who was opposed
to the whole expedition, wished to return to Athens, after coasting
Sicily. Lamachus went to the opposite extreme-invasion of Sicily
at once, before the people had time for preparation.  Alcibiades'
opinion, being in favor of a middle course of action, was adopted.
Alcibiades manned sixty galleys, and leaving Nicias in command of
the remainder, sailed towards Syracuse.  The galleys were sent
forward to enter the harbor, and reconnoitre.  No hostile navy appeared in the harbor; but a Syracusan galley fell into the hands of the
Athenians.  A proclamation was made, inviting those in Syracuse,
who were allies and kinsmen of the Leontines to quit the city and
join their liberators. The fleet then returned to Catana, where the
whole armament was soon collected.  Believing that Camarina could be
induced to embrace their cause, the whole armament sailed to that
place, stopping at Syracuse upon the way. The Camarinveans disappointed the Athenians, and the whole fleet was forced to return to
Catana.  There they were met by the state galley, the Salaminia,
which brought orders to convey Alcibiades and several others to
Athens.  His departure deranged the plan which he had formed, and
which had been adopted by the other generals. He did not return to
Athens, however, but resolved to show how deeply he could injure a
country which did not appreciate his services. The armament was
then divided into two divisions, one under each general, which proceeded
together along the north coast. After various mcanceuvres, Nicias
skilfully took advantage of the excessive confidence of the Syracusans.
and effected a landing near that city without opposition. A strong
position was selected, the ships enclosed within a palisade, and a hasty
work thrown up at a point called Dascon.  A battle was fought with
a much superior force of the Syracusans, and they were defeated;
but Nicias decided that the Athenian reputation had been sufficiently
vindicated, which was a part of the, object of the expedition, and,
therefore, the armament sailed away immediately after the battle.
After depositing some spoils at Catana, they proceeded to Muessana,




GREECE.                         107
where the treachery of Alcibiades prevented their entrance; and they
were forced to go into Naxos for winter quarters.
In the next spring, operations commenced in good earnest.  A portion of the Athenians were landed near Syracuse, and soon after the
whole armament arrived in the great harbor.  After various successes
of the Athenians on land, the Syracusans were induced to try their
fortune upon the sea.  A large fleet was manned and exercised, and
information received that the Corinthians would assist them by sending them a number of galleys. Nicias began to fear for the safety
of the armament, although, so far, successful. The Athenian ships
were growing leaky and unsound, through the length of time they had
been at sea; and it was necessary to keep them always afloat, as the
enemy had an equal number always ready to take advantage of any
appearance of weakness.  The crews had been thinned by a variety
of losses.  Nicias sent information of his condition to Athens, and
obtained'the promise of a great reinforcement.  Demosthenes superintended the preparation of the main armament, and Eurymedon was
sent forward with ten galleys and one hundred and twenty talents.
At the same time, they despatched Cimon, with a squadron of twenty
galleys, to Naupactus, to intercept the reinforcements of the enemy.
While Athens was besieged by the Spartans, another great armament was sent by her to reduce Syracuse, which was now defended by
the united strength of Sicily and some of the Peloponnesian states.
Demosthenes left the Pirseus with a fleet of sixty Attic and five Chian
galleys, having on board, as the core of the army, twelve hundred
Athenian infantry. ]-Ie waited awhile at 2Egina, to collect stragglers,
and then proceeded to the coast of Argolis, to join a squadron of
thirty galleys, under Charicles, which had been sent forward to call
upon Argos for her contingent. After taking them on board, they
sailed together as far as Laconia, on the coast of which, opposite
Cytherea, a fort was erected to serve as a refuge for runaway Helots.
Demosthenes then pursued his voyage toward Corcyra, and Charicles,
leaving a garrison in the fort, returned with the squadron and the
Argives to ithe coast of Argos.
While Demosthenes was preparing to sail from Athens, the Spartan, Gylippus, persuaded the Syracusans to try their strength in a sea
fight.  Eighty ships were manned, yand it was concerted that thirtyfive of them  should advance from the great harbor, while the rest




108             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
sailed round from the lesser harbor, on the other side of the island, to
join them.  This, it was expected, would surprise the Athenians, and
further the design of Gilyppus to attack their forts on shore. The
Athenians manned sixty galleys, and with twenty-five, encountered
those of the Syracusans in the Great Harbor, while the rest sailed
out to meet the other squadron.  The battle began at both points, at
the same time. The fight inclined against the Athenians for a while.
They were giving way in the Great Harbor, and forty-five Syracusan
galleys forced a passage into it.  But this threw them into disorder,
and exposed them, while entangled, to a renewed attack from the
Athenians, who put all to flight and sank eleven galleys. Yet such a
victory was little better than a defeat, since it was evident that great'
difficulty would be met in the introduction of supplies, now that an
opposing fleet was constantly stationed at Plemyrium to dispute the
passage.  Several sharp contests occurred in the Great Harbor, when
the Athenians strove to destroy a stockade which the Syracusans
erected for the shelter of their ships.  A great vessel of burden, well
guarded from missiles, and mounted with wooden towers to give more
effect to their own, was moored alongside the stockade, to cover the
operations of a number of parties in boats, which either forced up the
piles or sent down divers to saw them off.
A sea fight took place between those who were advancing to the
aid of both parties. The Athenian commander, Conon, had contrived
to collect a fleet of thirty-three ships, with which he designed to meet
the Corinthian fleet, which was near upon equality in numbers. The
Corinthians had armed the bows of their galleys with solid timbers
contrived for the occasion, when the vessels of the two fleets met,
prow to prow, those of the Athenians, not being thus armed, were
stove in by the shock. Seven were,thus disabled, yet none went
down, and they sank three of the Corinthians, and kept possession of
the wrecks. Both parties erected trophies-though a victory belonged
to neither.
In the meantime,  )emosthenes and Eurymedon, after having
strengthened their armament with all the reinforcements they could
collect, crossed over to the Italian coast, and visited several towns
which received him  in a friendly manner; but they seemed more
anxious to display Athenian power, than to assist Nicias. That commander had contrived to avert the dangers threatened by the superior




GREECE.                        109
strength of the Syracusans and their allies; but when they heard of
the approach of Demosthenes and Eurymedon, they resolved to strike
a blow which should be decisive. They adopted the contrivance for
strengthening the bows of their galleys which had been used with
success by the Corinthians, and they calculated that the Athenians
would not be able to make use of their skilful manoeuvres because of
the want of room in the harbor. The mode of fighting, which the
Syracusans were skilled in, was by running their vessels stern to stern
with the enemy; but the Athenians, through their nautical skill, were
enabled to strike their enemy obliquely or on the broadside-usually
sinking the opposing vessel. The Syracusans had also the advantage
of falling back into the harbor, while the Athenians were compelled
to fight in a corner, where they could not back water without falling
into disorder.
While Gylippus led the army out of the city against the Athenian
fortifications, the Athenians were thrown into alarm by the appearance of the whole Syracusan fleet of eighty sail.
Such was the state of things at Syracuse when Demosthenes and
Eurymedon sailed into the Great Harbor to the sound of martial music, with an armament no less gallantly equipped than that which left
Athens two years before, of seventy-three galleys, with five thousand
heavy infantry, and, according to Plutarch, three thousand light troops.
Th.e arrival of this formidable force astonished and dismayed the Syracusans, who, when they reflected that it had left Attica occupied
by an invading army, concluded that the resources of Athens were
inexhaustible, and were ready to give up all hopes of deliverance.
But the terror inspired by the appearance of the armament was not
of long duration. The Athenians suffered a terrible defeat in the
night, on land, and this revived the most sanguine hopes in the Syracusans. A number of reinforcements were received, and they determined to bring the Athenians to an engagement, where the very magnitude of their armament would turn to the advantage of the Syracusans. After some days' exercise of their fleet, they began an attack
on the Athenian lines, and in the skirmish which ensued, they remained masters of the field. Animated by success, they sailed out
next day with seventy-six galleys. The Athenians manned eighty-six
galleys and gave battle. In the direct shock, the Syracusans maintained their superiority, which they had gained by their mechanical
1o




110            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
contrivance, by the multitude of troops which covered their decks and
by a numerous flotilla of boats.  The. Syracusans were victorious in
the centre, and, as Eurymedon advanced to turn their left, they suddenly overwhelmed him by their whole force, and destroyed or captured his whole division. After this blow the Athenians were easily
put to flight, and they took refuge on shore. The Syracusans who
attacked them from the shore were routed, and the remaining galleys
rescued.  An attempt was then made to send a fire ship into the midst
of the Athenian station; this, however, was baffled, but the Syracusans destroyed eighteen galleys with all their crews.
The only care of the Syracusans was to prevent the escape of that
great armament which was formerly so formidable. The Athenians
could still muster one hundred and ten galleys, and with these it was
determined to try another and more desperate engagement. As their
manoeuvres were useless in the harbor, they prepared for a struggle,
as near like a land battle as possible. Grappling irons were contrived to detain the enemy's galleys on the first encounter, till they
should be boarded and taken.  The command of the fleet was given
to Demosthenes, while Nicias remained on land. The latter, however,
addressed the Athenians, and exhorted them to make the greatest exertion.  On the other hand, the Syracusans devised an expedient to
elude the grappling irons. They stretched a number of hides over
the sterns of their galleys. They manned a fleet equal to that with
which they had gained their last victory, and were confident of
success.
The Athenians began the battle with an impetuous attack on the
bar at the mouth of the harbor which was guarded by a part of the
Syracusan fleet; the rest were disposed all round the harbor, and the
shore, except so far as it was covered by the enemy, was lined with
their troops. The assailants at the first onset overpowered the resistance of the squadron stationed near the bar, and were proceeding to
break its fastenings, when they were interrupted by a simultaneous
movement of the whole Syracusan fleet, which fell upon them from all
quarters, and the engagement soon became general. The earnestness
with which it was maintained was such as had not before been displayed on either side; the preceding battles might have seemed
sham fights in comparison. Every man, whether it was skill, or courage,
or labor that his post chiefly demanded, vied both with the enemy and




GREECE.                       111
his comrades in discharging its duties, as if all depended on his own
exertions. [But the skill of the officers and the zeal of the men had
to contend not only with the resistance of the enemy, but with the
obstacles arising from the scene of the comlbat-the narrowest, Thucydides observes, in which two such armaments had ever met. Innumerable accidents were perpetually occurring to cross the best-planned
manceuvres; and the most judicious orders, however promptly obeyed,
might produce an effect directly opposite to the intention with which
they were given.  It was seldom that two galleys found room  and
time for a regular conflict.  The stroke aimed at one was frequently
intercepted by another, which was itself engaged in flight or pursuit.
Attack and defence were completely diverted by unforeseen objects;
and friends and foes were entangled and confounded together in inextricable disorder; during which the decks became a field of battle for
the heavy-armed troops.  The din of so many shocks distracted the
attention of the combatants and drowned the words of command, and
the noise was increased by a dissonant clamor of exhortation, entreaty,
and remonstrance: on the side of the Athenians, as they urged one
another to force the outlet, through which alone they could find a
passage home, or not to fall back from the sea, which they had made
their own by so many hard struggles, on a hostile shore; on the side
of the Syracusans, as they animated each other to prevent the enemy's escape, or expostulated with those that fled before the Athenians, whose only aim was flight. The tumult of sounds was heights
ened by the voices of the numberless spectators who lined the shore,
all intent upon the combat, all deeply affected by its vicissitudes, but
with different feelings and according to various views.  But at length
doubt and anxiety were set at rest; The Athenians were seen chased
by the enemy, and making for the nearest land; and the confused
clamor of their comrae::,: witnessed the calamity was changed for
one universal wail.
This retreat was disastrous for the Athenians.  After the greatest
endurance of every kind of hardships, they were forced to surrender
to the Syracusans, and thus terminated the ill-advised expedition to
Sicily. Nicias was put to death by the victors, but Demosthenes was
spared.




CHAPTER VIII.
FROM THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TILL THE CLOSE OF THE
PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
THENS, though greatly reduced,
still possessed wealth and power
sufficient to retrieve her losses. The
Spartans, anxious to take advantage of her weakness, sent out a
squadron  of twenty galleys, for
the purpose of getting possession of Chios. The Athenians manned
an equal number of galleys, and offered the Spartans battle in the
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GREECE.                        115
open sea. This, however, was declined, and the Athenians had time
to strengthen their fleet with sixteen additional galleys. They then
attacked the squadron of the enemy, as it was anchored near the land,
and captured one galley. The Spartan commander was killed, and
the whole fleet only saved by being hauled on shore, and guarded by
the Corinthians.  Great exertions were made at Athens to equip a
new navy. Twenty galleys were stationed at Pir.eus, and preparations
made for manning thirty more. Several victories were obtained over
some of their revolted allies, which served to inspirit the Athenians.
In the autumn following the Sicilian disaster, the Athenians were
enabled to collect a fleet of one hundred and four galleys at Samos.
They divided it into two squadrons-one of thirty galleys was despatched to Chios, and the other seventy-four remained to command
the sea, and carry on the war against Miletus. Both of these squadrons met with success in capturing numerous small squadrons of the
Peloponnesians, who had now become powerful upon the sea. Astyochus was appointed high admiral by the Spartans, and while the Athenian fleet lay at Samos, he collected a fleet of a hundred galleys, with
which he offered battle. The Athenians declined to accept the challenge, and the Peloponnesian fleet returned to Miletus.  The arrival
of the other portion of the Athenian fleet increased its number to
one hundred and eight galleys with which they offered battle, in their
turn, but Astyochus thought it prudent to decline it, though his own
force had been raised to one hundred and twelve galleys.
After the recall of Alcibiades, the affairs of the Athenians looked
more prosperous. The navy was considerably increased, and several
small sea fights took place, in which the Athenians maintained their
old superiority. At length, after much manoeuvring, a fleet of seventysix sail, commanded by Thrasyllus, contrived to get the Peloponnesian
fleet, of eighty-six sail, in a favorable position near the mouth of the
Hellespont. Five days were spent in preparations on both sides, and
the Athenians then moved in a single column along the shore toward
Sestus, and were met by the Peloponnesians, who perceived their approach from Abydos.
Their right was commanded by Thrasybulus; their left, which was
parted from the centre by the headland of Cynossema, by Thrasyllus.
The Peloponnesians had two main objects in view: to break the
Athenian centre, and to outflank their right wing, so as to prevent




116             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
them  from  issuing out of the straits.  And, accordingly, Mindarus
himself, with his fastest galleys, commanded the left of his line against
Thrasybulus, while Thrasyllus was opposed to the Syracusans.  The
attack on the Athenian centre succeeded; it was overpowered by
superior numbers, several galleys were driven aground, and the Peloponnesians landed to follow up their victory on shore.  In tile mean
while Thrasyllus was engaged in a warm combat with the Syracusans,
and was prevented by the intervening headland from seeing the distress of his centre; and Thrasybulus was employed in endeavoring to
baffle the manoeuvres of Mindarus.  But, according to Thucydides,
the partial success of the Peloponnesians threw them into confusion,
which spread through their whole line, when Thrasybulus suddenly
turned upon the enemy, who were striving to outflank him, and having put them to flight, attacked their victorious but disordered centre.
The Syracusans, who had hitherto maintained their station, though
with difficulty, against Thrasyllus, were involved in the general defeat.  The narrowness of the channel, as the vanquished found shelter
near at hand, prevented the Athenians from unaking many captures.
They took only one and twenty galleys, and lost fifteen of their own.
But the value of their victory was not to be measured by these visible
fruits. This was the first great battle they had fought since their
disasters in Sicily; their success restored the confidence of their seamen, and the news, which was immediately carried to Athens, lightened the. dark cloud which had hitherto hung over the prospects of the
state.
The victors left their prizes at Eleus, and having staid three days
at Sestus to refit, sailed northward to reduce Cyzicus, which had
lately revolted.  On their way, they captured eight galleys-being
part of the squadron with which Helixus had captured Byzantium.
The Peloponnesians sailed to Eleus, and recovered those of their
galleys left there, which were in a serviceable condition; the rest had
been burned by the people of Eleus. They also sent to Euboea, to
order a squadron stationed there, under Hegesandrias, to join them.
About the same time, Alcibiades returned to< Samos, with thirteen
galleys, and claimed the merit of having prevented Tissaphernes, the
Persian satrap, from sending the Phcenician fleet to assist the enemy.
The Peloponnesians were particularly unfortunate just at this
period.  ilegesandrias, the Spartan commander, sent Epieles, with








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GREECE.                        119
fifteen galleys, to aid Mindarus.  This squadron was overtaken by:a
terrible storm  off Mount Athos, and every galley, with all of the
crews except twelve men, were destroyed.
The hostile fleets in the Hellespont were still watching each other's
movements, waiting, perhaps, for supplies and reinforcements, toward
the end of September, when Dorieus, having executed his commission
at Rhodes, sailed in with fourteen galleys.  Information was immediately given of his approach to the Athenian commanders, who were
encamped at Madytus, on the coast of the Chersonesus, and they put
out with twenty galleys to attack him; but he ran his squadron
aground near the headland of Rhzeteum, and defended himself so
vigorously that his assailants were forced to retire, baffled, to their
camp.  This action was observed by Mindarus, who was sacrificing to
Athen6 in the citadel of Ilium, which commanded a view of the coast,
and he hastened to embark and join Dorieus with his whole fleet.
The Ath6nians now came out from Madytus to meet them, and an engagement ensued near Abydos, which lasted, with fluctuating success,
nearly the whole day. Towards evening, Alcibiades was seen entering
the straits with eighteen galleys; and, on the appearance of this
squadron, the Peloponnesians took to flight, and were pursued and
driven ashore, where, however, they maintained the combat in defence
of their ships, and were supported by Pharnabazus, who came to their
aid with a body of troops.  He displayed the utmost zeal in their behalf, animated his men, not only by his exhortations, but by his
example, pushing forward with his horse into the sea, and persevering
as long as there was an enemy to oppose.. The Athenians, however,
succeeded in carrying off thirty of the Peloponnesian galleys, and in
recovering those which they had themselves lost, with which they retired to Sestus. Notwithstanding this victory, the want of money was
so pressing, that while Thrasyllus sailed to Athens to bear the good
tidings and to procure reinforcements, other officers were despatched
in various directions to collect pecuniary supplies; no more than forty
galleys were left at Sestus.
The object of Alcibiades was now to keep the Peloponnesians from
hearing of his increase of force. Making all possible speed, he arrived
at the island of Proconnesus, on the next day after being reinforced.
There he learned that Mindarus was at Cyzicus, with Pharnabazus
and his troops.  He prepared his men to fight both on sea and land,




120              UNIVERSAL I'AVAL HISTORY.
and then set sail, in a thick mist, for Cyzicus.  As he approached the
harbor, the sun dispelled the mist, and the Peloponnesian fleet was
seen exercising, a great way off at sea.  When the Peloponnesians
discovered that the Athenians were between them and the harbor, they
made for the nearest land, and, laying their ships together in a
compact mass, defended themselves from  the decks; but, at length,
Alcibiades, having sailed round to another point of the coast, with
twenty galleys, landed his men, and attacked the enemy in the rear.
_Mindarus himself now landed to repel the assailants; but he fell in the
ba.1ttle, a.nd his men were put to flight. The whole fleet, except the
galleys of the Syracusans, which they fired,. fell into the hands of the
Athenians, who carried them  away to Proconnesus.  The next day
they sailed for Cyzicus, which was forced to submit to a heavy contrilbution. The town of Chrysopolis, on the eastern coast of the Bosphorus, opposite Byzantium, was fortified, and a custom house established. where all vessels passing from the Euxine were forced to pay
a. duty on their cargoes.  Thirty galleys were left at that place, and
then Alcibiades returned to the Hellespont.
In the meantime, by the aid of the Persian, Pharnabazus, the Peloponnesians began to build a new fleet at Antandrus.  The timber was3
obtained from  the woods of Ida, and the money was advanced by
Phlarnabazus.  But such was the effect of the overwhelming defeat
upon the Spartans at home, that an embassy was sent to Athens, ask..
ing for peace.  This offer, unfortunately for the Athenians, was
rejected.  While the Peloponnesians were forming a new  navy,'IThrasyllus was raising a powerful armament at Athens.  It consisted
of fifty galleys, one thousand heavy infantry, one hundred horse, and
five thousand seamen, serving as targeteers.  With this force, Thrasylius sailed to Pygela, which he attacked without success, but
ravaged the country all around it, and destroyed a body of troops
which came to its aid from Miletus.  He then attacked Ephesus, but
was defeated upon land, and was forced to sail away to Lesbos. To make
aniends for his defeat, however, he attacked a Syracusan squadron of
twenty-five galleys, captured four, and chased the rest back to Ephesus.
Ano,ther Alcibiades, a kinsman of the Athenian commander, was captiv:ed in one of the prizes, and he afterwards joined the Athenian
forcees. The fleet, under Alcibiades, wintered at Lampsacus. During
the winter, the Spartans relieved themselves of the annoyance they




GREECE.                         121
ATTACK OF THRASYLLUS ON EPHESUS.
experienced from the garrison at Pylus, the fort in Laconia founded
by Demosthenes.  They blockaded it by sea, and attacked it by land,
so that the garrison was obliged to capitulate, with permission to withdraw.  The Athenians sent thirty galleys, under command of Anytus,
to relieve it, but he was prevented from reaching it in time, on account of contrary winds.
In the spring of 408, B. C., the Athenian fleet moved from Lampsacus towards the Bosphorus, which now became the theatre of war,
both parties struggling for the command of this great thoroughfare of
Greek commerce.  Byzantium was invested and blockaded, and, after
a long siege, during which the besieged suffered great privations, the
city surrendered to Alcibiades.  Various towns were visited and compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Athens, and pay heavy contributions. The whole fleet then returned to Athens, where Alcibiades
was received in triumph.  About two hundred vessels were the fruit
of the campaign, together with the richest spoils of all kinds.  The
galley which bore the commander into the harbor of Athens, was
adorned with purple sails, and the rowers kept time by the flute of
Chrysogonus, and the voice of Calippides, a tragic actor, both in
11




122              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
sacred or theatrical attire.  An immense crowd received the hero
with shouts, and he was immediately appointed commander-in-chief
of all the sea and land forces of Athens.
To show their confidence in Alcibiades, the Athenians voted him
an armament of one hundred galleys, fifteen hundred heavy infantry,
and one hundred and fifty horse, with leave to name his colleagues.
Within four months after his return, the preparations were completed
and, with Aristocrates and Adimantus as his colleagues, Alcibiades
sailed from Athens for the last time. The Spartans selected a man,
who they thought was able to cope with Alcibiades, to be their admiral in the place of Cratesippidas.  His name was Lysander, and he
had early given proofs of his activity and ability, sufficient to justify
his appointment to command, although by birth not entitled to the
full privileges of. the Spartan franchise.  The fleet under his command was increased to ninety galleys.  Alcibiades also increased the
number of his galleys, and stationed the fleet at Notium, to watch the
movements of the enemy. The Peloponnesian fleet was inferior in
numbers., and it needed repairs, so that Lysander had it hauled on
shore to refit, while he waited an opportunity for action.
This came unexpectedly, by the imprudence of Alcibiades.  Hearing that Thrasybulus was at Phocea, he sailed thither to meet him,
leaving Antiochus in command of the fleet at Notium, with strict
orders not to engage the enemy, even if they offered battle. Antiochus
was a skilful seaman, but had little talent for a commander.  He
thought if he could draw the enemy out into the open sea, a victory
would be easily obtained.  He, therefore, sailed from Notium, taking
only one galley in company with his own, into the harbor of Ephesus,
and as he passed close by the prows of the Peloponnesian fleet, offered
every kind of contumely, by word and gesture, that could provoke an
attack.  Lysander at length ordered a few galleys to give him chase;
but when he saw Antiochus supported by a detachment from the
Athenian fleet, he advanced with the remainder of his own, in order
of battle.  The Athenians now also brought out their whole force;
but they came up in separate groups, without order or plan, and were
defeated in detail.  The galley of Antiochus himself, which was
among the foremost, was soon sunk, and his death probably hastened
the fight of the rest.  They took refuge in Samos, leaving fifteen destroyed or taken; but the greater part of the men were saved by the




GREECE.                         123
nearness of the shore.  Alcibiades, on hearing of this disaster, came
to Samos, and sailed out with his whole force towards Ephesus, to
offer battle. But, even after the recent loss, he was still superior in
numbers, and Lysander would not risk the honor of his newly-erected
trophy.  Alcibiades returned to Samos, rather shamed by the enemy's
caution than consoled by the display of his own strength.
Soon after this, the enemies of the Athenian commander-in-chief
procured his removal, together with that of his friend Thrasybulus.
Conon succeeded him in the chief command, and nine colleagues were
appointed. Conon found the fleet superior in numbers to the enemy,
but despondency prevailed among the men on account of the recent
defeat, and the want of a full regular pay.  He was obliged to resort
to numerous expeditions to various points on the coast, for the sake of
the supplies to be obtained by plunder.  The number of the galleys
was reduced to seventy, in order that each should have a proper
complement of men, the crews having been thinned by desertions.
Lysander could not be prevailed upon to stir from  Ephesus until
the end of his year of office, when Callicratidas was appointed to succeed him, and he returned to Sparta.  Callicratidas drew reinforcements from  Chios, Rhodes, and other quarters, and having thus
collected one hundred and forty sail, prepared to seek the enemy.
But want of money, and the machinations of Lysander's partisans
prevented the Spartan admiral from executing his intention. He was
compelled to sail to Sardis, and then to M3iletus, before receiving
sufficient supplies, and then his armament was increased to one hundred and seventy galleys.  Conon was thus inferior to his opponent
by one hundred galleys, and began a retreat.  He was overtaken by
the Peloponnesians near the mouth of the harbor of lMitylene, for
which he was compelled to steer, and lost thirty galleys. The remaining forty galleys were hauled on shore, under shelter of the
walls of the town.  Callicratidas was as master of both harbors formed
by the small island on which old Mitylene was built, and he invested
the town by sea and land.  Conon, however, contrived to send a
galley to Athens with the news of his danger, and a request for assistance.  The Athenians knew that the loss of their armament would be
irreparable, affd they put forth their whole remaining strength. At
the end of thirty days they manned a fleet of one hundred and ten sail.
All Conon's colleagues took command in person, and every man who




124             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
could be spared from the defence of the city, was sent with the armament. The colleagues first sailed to Samos, where they strengthened
themselves with ten Samian galleys, and with thirty more from other
quarters, and then they prepared to seek the Peloponnesians. Callicratidas did not shrink from a decisive conflict, but leaving Eteonicus,
with fifty galleys, to blockade Mitylene, he stationed the remainder
of his fleet at Malea, the southernmost headland of Lesbos.  In the
evening of the same day, the Athenians arrived at the Arginusice
islands, over against Malea.  Callicratidas wished to surprise them by
a sudden attack in the night, but a thunder storm prevented him, and
he waited till daylight.
The Athenians were then ready to meet or receive him; and a
battle ensued, which for the number of vessels engaged was the
greatest that had yet been fought between two Greek  navies..We are informed by Xenophon, that Callicratidas was dissuaded by
Hermon, a Megarian, the master of his galley, from venturing on an
action against such greatly superior numbers as those of the enemy.
The Spartan's answer became very celebrated.  It was, as Xenophon
reports it, " Sparta would suffer no hurt from his death; but he should
be dishonored by flight."
The account which Xenophon and Diodorus give of the order of
battle differ from each other in most particulars, but they seem to
agree as to the general design of both parties: that the aim of the
Peloponnesians was attack, that of the Athenians defence. But Diodorus describes the Athenian line as formed so as to take in one of
the islands, which separated it into two divisions; to meet which, Callicratidas disposed his fleet in two squadrons parted from each other
by a considerable interval.  Xenophon represents the Athenians as
advancing to a distance from the shore, but formed in a compact mass
of two lines in each wing, and only a little weaker in the centre.
Aristocrates commanded fifteen galleys in the extreme left; Diomedon
was stationed by his side, and Pericles and Erasinides in their rear,
each with an equal number.  The centre was occupied by ten Samian
galleys, under Hippeus, a Samian commander, and by as many under
the ten Athenian taxiarchs, and they were supported in the rear by
a smaller number of Athenian or allied galleys. On the right, Protomachus took the lead, with Thrasyllus by his side, and Lysias and
Aristogenes behind, each having fifteen galleys under his command.




GREECE.                         12 5
The Peloponnesians, Xenophon describes as drawn up in a single but
unbroken line, to take advantage of their superiority in offensive
manceuvres over the unpractised Athenian crews. According to Diodorus, Callicratidas himself commanded in the right of his line, and
Thrasondas, a Theban, in the left.  Neither author, however, gives
any intimation as to the effect which these arrangements produced,
nor as to the causes which decided the battle, except so far as its issue
may have been connected with the fate of the Spartan admiral, who
was killed in a conflict with one of the enemy's galleys, according to
Diodorus, after he had sunk that of Lysias-who, however, survived
-and had struck and grappled with that of Pericles.  After this
event the Peloponnesians were completely routed; and fled, some towards Chios, some to Phocea, leaving seventy galleys and upward
destroyed or taken.  Among them were nine out of the ten which
composed the Lacedsemonian contingent, and were, therefore, probably under the immediate orders and eye of Callicratidas.
The Athenians lost five-and-twenty galleys, and almost all at such
a distance from the shore that the men who survived had no chance
of safely but in clinging to the wrecks.  They seem to have spent
very little, if any, time in pursuit of the flying enemy, and the generals, having returned to their station at the Arginuse, held a council on the course to be next adopted.
The squadron of fifty galleys, which blockaded Mitylene, was informed of the defeat of Callicratidas, by a boat kept for that purpose,
and by means of making Conon believe that their friends were victorious, the Peloponnesians made their escape.  Finding the harbor
clear, Conon. sailed towards the Arginuse, and met the Athenian armament.  The whole fleet then sailed to Samos, under Conon, and
two of his colleagues, while the others returned home. After this
terrible blow, Sparta again made overtures for peace, but again were
they rejected. For some cause, not accurately known, all of Conon's
colleagues were removed from office as soon as they returned to
Athens, and two others, Adimantus and Philocles, were appointed in
their stead.
The Athenian fleet now rode the sea without a rival. The remnant of the Peloponnesian navy was scattered among the different
ports friendly to their interest.  But the friends of Lysander succeeded in getting him appointed again to fill the post of admiral,
11*




126             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
although the Spartan law was against it. Arcacus was nominally the
admiral, but Lysander had secret orders to take the supreme command.
Early in the summer of 405, B. C., Lysander arrived at Ephesus,
with thirty-five galleys.  He immediately set about collecting all the
Peloponnesian galleys which were scattered in the different ports, and
had a number of new ones built at Antandrus. The Persian prince,
Cyrus, assisted him with money, which enabled him to pay his seamen in full and accelerated his preparations. Cyrus also promised
to assist him with a number of Phoenician ships.
Lysander thought it best, for the time, to avoid a collision with the
Athenian fleet, and accordingly sailed to the south coast of Caria,
captured various towns and destroyed the in-habitants of those which
were allied with Athens. The Athenian fleet pursued him, but he
succeeded in escaping to the Asiatic coast.  Soon after this, he captured and pillaged Lampsacus, just before the Athenian fleet of one hundred and eighty galleys reached the Hellespont. Finding that Lampsacus was lost, the Athenians retired to ZEgospotami, nearly opposite
to that place.  Lysander had now collected a large fleet, but still was
inferior to the enemy, and, although he ordered every thing to be prepared for a sea fight, he declined the offer of battle from the Athenians.
At length his opponents, seeing their challenge constantly declined,
grew careless of the Peloponnesians, and wandered far from their fleet
in search of food, leaving their ships without sufficient guard. Alcibiades, whose fort was near the place, came down to warn the Athenian commanders of their error, but they would not listen to him.
Lysander suddenly pushed across the channel, with his utmost speed.
Of the six Athenian generals, Conon alone was on the watch, and his
own galley, with eight others, were soon manned. But this only enabled them to make their escape. The rest fell into the hands of
Lysander, while Thorax and his troops scoured the country, and captured most of the men.  Seeing that all was lost, Conon sailed away,
with his eight galleys, to Cyprus; the Paralus, the state galley, carried the news of ruin to Athens. The Peloponnesian fleet then returned in triumph, to Lampsacus, carrying all his prisoners and
prizes. All the Athenian generals except Conon, were captured,
and, exasperated by the cruelties of the enemy, the Peloponnesians determined to put all the prisoners, except Adimantus, one of




GREECE..                       127
the generals, to death. Three thousand men, at the lowest computation, were thus massacred.
Lysander now steered the victorious fleet towards the Greek cities
which had opposed the Peloponnesians. Sestus, Byzantium, and
Chalcedon, submitted without resistance, and then the victor returned
to Lampsacus to refit.  His whole fleet now numbered two hundred
galleys. A few were sent to different towns, to reduce those who acknowledged the supremacy of Athens.  He then sailed to Pirseus,
the harbor of Athens, with one hundred and fifty galleys, while a
land force besieged the city and wasted the surrounding territory.
Lysander offered moderate and reasonable terms to the besieged,
but the violence of the internal factions prevented the Athenians from
accepting them.  They prepared for a vigorous defence.  But the
oligarchical party triumphed and a peace was concluded, by the terms
of which Athens was to be annexed to the Peloponnesian confederacy,
to give up all her ships but twelve, and the long walls and fortifications of Pirmus to be demolished. Thus was that mighty naval power
which had ruled the sea so long crushed, it seemed, forever. Lysander dismissed his allies, after the condition of Athens had been framed
by his will, and then returned to Sparta.




CHAPTER IX.
PROM THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TILL THE ROMAN CONQUEST.
Y the fall of Athens, Sparta became
the mistress of the sea, and maintained
her supremacy until it received a severe
blow from Conon, the Athenian commander, who had got into favor with
the Persians, and been appointed admiral under Pharnabazus.  Conon soon collected a powerful fleet of
Phoenician and Cilician ships, and forced the Spartan fleet to quit the
blockade of Caria. Pharnabazus took command of the Phoenician
galleys, and Conon, that of the remainder.  As they sailed westward,
along the coast of Syria, Conon's squadron, being some distance ahead,
they fell in with the Peloponnesian fleet of eighty-five galleys, under
Pisander. As the squadron, under Conon, approached, the allies of
the Spartans abandoned the left wing, and the remainder of the fleet
was driven on shore and captured or destroyed. Pisander remained
with his ship to the last, and died like a Spartan, sword in hand.
(128)




GREECE.                         129
The victors then cruised in the AEgean Sea, and drove the Spartan
harruosts from all the maritime cities on the coast.
In the following spring, 393, B. C., having collected a great fleet
and raised a strong body of mercenaries, Pharnabazus embarked with
Conon, and, entering the Mlessenian Gulf, ravaged the richest portions
of Laconia, and then sailed to Cytherse. There an Athenian garrison.
under Nicophernus, was placed. Conon then took the chief command
of the fleet, and, proceeding to Athens, he patriotically endeavored
to rebuild the long walls, and the fortifications of Pireus.  The Corinthians were encouraged by these successes to fit out a squadron,
which made head against the Spartans for a while, but was, in the
end, forced to take refuge in its station at IRhegium. Conon made the
most strenuous efforts to restore the maritime power of Athens, and
to unite the northern Greeks against the Spartans, and he succeeded,
to some extent, in effecting his object.  His fleet soon returned to
the Asiatic coast, and Conon was thrown into prison, on a slight pretext, immediately on his arrival.
The Athenians were now enabled to fit out a powerful fleet, and
their old enterprise seems to have returned to them. They sent
Thrasybulus, who had distinguished himself on- land, with forty galleys, to overbalance the Spartan supremacy in the neighborhood of
Rhodes, and that bold commander sailed to the 2Egean and Hellespont, displayed his activity and skill in various conquests, and was
killed in the midst of his triumphs.  Thus Athens lost the services
of both Conon and Thrasybulus, at a time when such men could have
revived her former glory. Still Iphicrates upheld the honor of his
country on sea and land.  The Athenians were master of the iellespont. The Spartan admirals Teleutias, and his successor, Hierax,
cruised in the AEgean Sea, and annoyed the commerce of the Athenians until defeated at ZEgina, by Chabrias. Teleutias was a favorite
commander among the Peloponnesian seamen. After the defeat of
Hierax,  he was reappointed to command the fleet in the lZEgean.
With only twelve galleys, Telutias crossed over from  ZEgina to Piraus, captured several ships of war and merchant vessels, and escaped
without molestation.
In the Hellespont, Nicholceus, with five-and-twenty galleys, was
blockaded at Abydos, by an Athenian squadron, of two-and-thirty
galleys, under Diodemus and Iphicrates.  But the Peloponnesians
I




130             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
succeeded in escaping in the night, pursued by the Athenians. Antalcidas, the Spartan admiral, had taken command of the Peloponnesian squadron, and he expected to be joined by twenty galleys from
Sicily and Italy. While waiting for these, he heard of the approach
of Thrasybulus, with eight Athenian galleys. Selecting twelve of his
fastest sailing vessels, he pushed out and overtook the Athenians, and
captured the whole squadron.  Soon after, by reinforcements from
various quarters, the squadron under Antalcidas was raised to eighty
sail, and that admiral had thus complete command of the sea. The
commerce of the Athenians was diverted to the ports of the allies
of Sparta.
During what is called the "Social war," Athens had so far recovered her maritime power as to be able to equip two armaments, each
of sixty galleys; but neither of them effected any thing. The three
men who had contributed so much to restore the power of Athens, were
Iphicrates, Timotheus, and Chabrias. The two first were censured
for their conduct of the armament sent against the maritime allies of
Sparta, and went into voluntary exile, never to return. The latter
was killed in conducting the blockade and siege of Chios. Chares
and Phocion then became the principal Athenian admirals. During
the war with Macedon, they first attacked a Macedonian fleet lying
off Chalcedon, and after a severe fight were defeated, with the loss of
several vessels. The news of the defeat roused the Athenians to
greater exertions.'A squadron of one hundred and twenty sail was
raised, and placed under the command of Phocion. This formidable
fleet sailed to Byzantium, with the intention of blockading it, but the
Byzantines received Phocion with open arms, and he immediately
became their general.  The commerce of Macedonia was entirely destroyed by the Athenians, and their cruisers even prevented the
Macedonians from obtaining the necessaries of life. But when Athens
was forced to submit to Philip of Macedon on land, her maritime
power became his also. No naval engagement of any importance is
recorded until after the death of Alexander the Great. Amidst the
struggle for empire, Cassander became master of the port of Athens,
and was thus enabled to fit out a considerable fleet, which he sent to
the Thracian Bosphorus, under the command of Nicanor. This fleet
was at first defeated by the royal navy of Polysperchon; but, being




GREECE.                          131
reinforced, Nicanor renewed the engagement, and captured all the
enemy's ships, except the admiral's galley.
During the reign of Philip II., of Macedon, (B. C. 222,) a war
took place between the maritime cities of Byzantium and Rhodes, in
consequence of the heavy tolls exacted by the former for all vessels
passing into the Euxine Sea. The Byzantines were beaten in the
various sea fights, and forced to abolish the onerous duties. Philip
possessed a powerful fleet, and was master of the sea for a short time.
But the Rhodians completely annihilated his naval power at Chios,
and its revival was prevented by the approach of a Roman fleet and
army, which reduced Philip to submission. Greece soon became a
Roman province under the name of Achaia, and her naval glory shared
the fate of her other powers-it was crushed, and has ever since been
inconsiderable.
GRECIAN WAR CHARIOT,




P (F'T  CF A POU:AN GALLEY.
C  P h P T E R X.;THE NAVAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD OF
HER POWER, UNTIL THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE.
HE Greeks had established many colonies
on the coast of Italy, before the ambition
of the Roman people had extended their
rt/ / /~ power beyond the vicinity of the Tiber, and
some of them became flourishing commercial cities. We read in the ancient historians, of the doings of the Etruscans-a
piratical people inhabiting the plains of the Po, and that their power
Was the only source of opposition, on the Italian coast, to the fleets
(i Dionysius of Sicily. They established numerous colonies on the
shores of the Adriatic.  But the squadrons of Sicily coasted Italy,
and sailed by the mouth of the Tiber, without fear of meeting resistance; or plundered the maritime towns with impunity.  Rome possessed no means of preventing their ravages.  Her people were not as
(132)




ROIE.                          133
enterprising as the Greeks, and what ambition they then possessed
exerted itself in contests upon land.  3But when the power of Greece
had declined, under the Macedonian yoke, some attempts at raising a
navy were rendered necessary by the wants of the Romans. Nothing,
however, was effected in that way, until the ambition of the Romans
brought them into contact with a mighty maritime state, and then
they were made fully conscious of their inferiority in naval matters.
The first war ships used by the Romans were probably obtained
from the Greeks.  In 282, B. C., we find that two officers were appointed to conduct the naval affairs of the commonwealth.  One of
these officers-who were to be elected annually-named L. Valerius,
was sent, with a -fleet of ten ships, to watch the movements of the
Tarentines.  He arrived unexpectedly before the walls of Tarentum,
and seemed to be preparing to force his way into the harbor, when
discovered by the enemy, who were engaged at their festival of Dionysia. Esteeming this a violation of a treaty then existing between
Rome and Tarentum, the Tarentines immediately manned their ships
and sailed out to meet the invaders. They met with no resistance,
for the Romans immediately strove to escape.  Four ships were sunk,
and one taken, with all its crew.  L. Valerius, the decemvir, was
killed, and, of the prisoners, the officers and soldiers serving on
board were put to death, and the rowers were sold for slaves. In the
war which followed, the Tarentines were masters of the sea, and.,:it
seems, wasted the coast of Latium; for a Carthaginian fleet of one
hundred and twenty sail was sent to Ostia to aid the Romans.  The
succor was declined, however, and the Carthaginian commander
sailed away to the south of Italy, to propose a mediation between
Pyrrhus, the Tarentines, and the Romans. The armament afterwards
aided the Romans in recovering Rhegium, and destroyed a quantity
of timber, which the Campanians had collected for building ships..
The First Punic War broke out about eleven years after the defeat
of Pyrrhus, (B. C. 264.)  The Romans had neglected their navy after
the close of the war with Tarentum, and we hear, at this time, of no
decemvirii, or naval commanders, as regular officers of the commonwealth.  From the Greek cities in their alliance they obtained a few
triremes and penteconters; but they had not a single quinquereme,
the class of ships which may be called the line of battle ships of that
period.  The Carthaginians had a large fleet guarding the strait of
12




134             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Messana, which the Romans wanted to cross in order to succor the
Mammertines.  In attempting to accomplish this with their triremes
and penteconters, the Romans were easily baffled, and some of their
triremes, with the soldiers they were transporting, fell into the hands
of the Carthaginians.  But Claudius, the Roman commander, succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the squadron, and reached Sicily
with a single ship.  The defeat of the Carthaginian land forces was
followed by the retreat of their squadron; for, in ancient warfare, a
fleet was dependent, in a great measure, on land co-operation.
The Carthaginians soon began to exert their naval strength effectively. Many towns on the Sicilian coast which had yielded to the
Roman arms were recovered by the Carthaginian fleet, and the coasts
of Italy were so often ravaged, that the Romans found it necessary
to encounter the enemy on his own element. At the close of the year
261, B. C., they began to fell their timber.  But no Italian shipwright knew how to build the line of ships of that period called
quinqueremes, and their build was so different from that of the tris
remes, that the one would not serve as a model for the other. The
shipwrights might have been procured from the king of Egypt, but,
to send thither would have caused too great a delay.
It happened that a Cdrthaginian qinquereme had run ashore on the
Bruttian coast when Appius Claudius was first crossing over to Sicily,
and it was noted as a curious circumstance, that the Roman soldiers
had taken a ship of war.  This quinquereme, which had probably
been sent to Rome as a trophy, was now made the shipwright's model,
and a hundred ships were built after her pattern, and launched in
two months after the first felling of the timber.  The seamen, partly
proletarians, or citizens of the poorest class, partly Etruscans or
Greeks from the maritime states of Italy, were all unaccustomed to
row in the quinqueremes, and the Romans, perhaps, had never handled
an oar of any sort. While the ships were building, therefore, to lose
no time, the future crew of each quinquereme, were ranged upon
benches ashore, in the same order, that to us undiscoverable problem,
in which they were hereafter to sit on board; the kelcustes, whose
voice or call regulated the stroke in the ancient galleys, stood in te
midst of them, and at his signal they went through their movements,
mand learned to keep time together, as if they had been actually afloat.
With such ships and such crews the Romans put to sea early in the




ROME.                          135
spring, to seek an engagement with the fleet of the first naval power
in the world.
The only hope of the Romans for success in a sea fight was an opportunity for boarding.  Then the victory of Roman soldiers over
African crews would be easy. To facilitate the attainment of their
object, they contrived in each ship, what may be called a long drawbridge, thirty-six feet long by four wide, with a low parapet on each
side of it. This bridge was attached, by a hole in one end of it, to a
mast twenty-four feet high, erected on the ship's prow, and the hole
was large and oblong, so that the bridge not only played freely all
round the mast, but could be drawn up so as to lie parallel to it, the
end of it being hoisted by a rope just as our cutters' booms are
hoisted by what is called the topping lift. The bridge was attached
to the mast at the height of about twelve feet from the deck, and being managed with a rope, the bridge was let fall upon an enemy's
ship, upon whatever quarter she might approach.  When the bridge
fell, a small iron spike, fixed in its end, was driven into the deck by
the mere weight of the fall, and there held the ship while she was
boarded. With these bridges sprung up the masts of their vessels,
the Roman fleet made a strange appearance, as all the ancient ships
usually lowered their masts previous to going into action.
The fleet, under the command of the consul, Cneius Cornelius Scipio,
put to sea in quest of the enemy.  But that commander allowed himself to be taken, with seventeen vessels, in an attempt on the Liparsen
islands, and was succeeded by C. Duilius.  The Carthaginian fleet,
under the command of Hannibal, advanced. boldly to meet the Romans, although surprised at the masts and tackle on their ships. But
the thirty ships that formed their advance squadron, including that
of Hannibal himself, were soon grappled by the Roman bridges,
boarded and taken.  Hannibal escaped in a boat to the main squadron, which was rapidly coming up.  But seeing the efficacy of the contrivance of the Romans, and the fate of their ships, the Carthaginians
turned and fled. Their whole loss amounted to about fifty ships sunk
or taken, and, in men, to three thousand killed and seven thousand
prisoners. The moral consequences of this victory to the Romans were
great, indeed.  They now became confident of success, both on sea
and land, and at once assumed the offensive.  Duilius obtained a




136             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
triumph, on his return, and a pillar was erected to commemorate his
victory.
As the Romans extended their naval operations, they unavoidably
became acquainted with the violence of the Mediterranean storms;
and the terrors of the sea were very dreadful to the people of Italy,
who were forced to furnish seamen to man the Roman fleet, a service
to which they were unused. Besides their expeditions to Sardinia and
Corsica, the Romans gained an advantage over the Carthaginian fleet,
in the year, 257, B. C., off the Liparaean islands, for which the consul, C. Atilius, obtained a triumph.  These successes stimulated the
Romans to such a degree, that they resolved to carry the war into
Africa. During the winter great preparations were made for the expedition. A fleet of three hundred and thirty ships was got ready,
manned by nearly one hundred thousand seamen, exclusive of soldiers. The two consular armies wintered in Sicily, and the fleet sailed
through the strait of Messana, doubled Cape Pachynus, and took the
legions on board at Ecnomus, a small place on the southern coast of
Sicily.  Forty thousand men were here embarked, and the Carthaginians, who had assembled a still larger fleet of three hundred and fifty
ships, had already crossed over to Lilyboeum, and from thence advancing along the Sicilian coast, were arrived at Heraclea Minor, and
were ready to give the Romans battle.  Both consuls were on board
the Roman fleet. The Carthaginians were commanded by Hanno,
and   alamilcar.  The contest was obstinate, but at last the Romans
were completely victorious. They lost twenty-four ships, in which
about two thousand eight hundred and eighty soldiers perished. But
they destroyed thirty of the enemy's fleet, and took sixty-four, with
all their crews. The remainder of the Carthaginian fleet made all speed
to Carthage to prepare to resist the invasion.
The way to Africa was now open, and after victualing their ships with
more than usual supplies, as they knew not what port would receive
them, the consuls prepared to leave the coast of Sicily for an unknown
world. The fleet did not keep together, and thirty ships reached the
African shore unsupported. These might have been destroyed before
the arrival of the rest, if the Carthaginians, in their confusion, had
not neglected the opportunity. The whole fleet assembled under the
headland of Hermes, and then sailed southward and disembarked near
the place called Aspis, or Clypea, a fortress built by Agathocles. The




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ROME.                         139
ships were immediately drawn up on the beach, after the ancient manner, and secured with  a ditch and rampart.  The fortress was
then captured and the surrounding country ravaged without mercy,
until orders were received from the Roman Senate, directing that one
of the consuls, with a consular army and forty ships, was to remain
in Africa; the other, with the rest of the army, the fleet and the
plunder, was to return home. L. Manlius accordingly embarked and
returned to Rome, while AI. Regulus, with fifteen thousand foot and
five hundred horse remained in Africa. After various successes, the
army under Regulus was completely routed, and not more than two
thousand men escaped to Clypea, which the Carthaginians immediately
besieged. A Roman fleet was sent to its assistance, and the Carthaginians, dreading another invasion, equipped a fleet inferior in number to the Romans, and met them near Clypea. The Romans were
completely victorious; but they contented themselves with taking the
garrison of Clypea on board the fleet, and sailed back to Sicily.
The Romans had now sent fleets to sea for five years, yet they had
little experience of its terrors. Their unbounded confidence in themselves made them think that Romans might sail at any season.  So,
in the month of July, in spite of the warnings of their pilots, they
persisted in sailing along the southern coast of Sicily, at the very time
when violent gales from the south and southwest make that coast extremely perilous. The fleet was off Camarina when the storm came
on. Above two hundred and sixty ships were wrecked, which must have
had on board seventy-eight thousand seamen, without counting the
soldiers, who were probably twenty-five thousand, and the whole
coast, from Camarina to Pachynus was covered with wrecks and bodies.
This disaster encouraged the Carthaginians to renew their offensive
operations. But the indomitable spirit of the Romans was worthy
of the Athenians under similar circumstances. In the space of
three months, they fitted out two hundred and twenty ships, and crossing over to Messana, they were joined by the remnant of the other
fleet. The whole, under the consuls, A. Atilius and C. Cornelius,
sailed along the northern coast of Sicily and took Cephalcedium and
Panormus. (B. C. 254.) For this service, Cn. Cornelius obtained a
triumph.
Sempronius, the successor of Cornelius, conducted the fleet to the
coast of Africa, and plundered the country near the sea; but effected




14 0           UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
nothing of importance.  On his return, the fleet was overtaken by
another storm, between Panormus and Laconia, and more than one
hundred and fifty ships were wrecked. After this second great disaster, the Romans resolved to tempt the sea no more, and to keep a
fleet of no more than sixty ships, to supply the army with provisions,
and to protect the coast of Italy. This resolve, hasty and foolish in
its inception, was soon broken. In 250, B. C., when Regulus and
Manlius were again consuls, the successes of the Carthaginians roused
the Romans to exertion.  Fifty new ships were built, and a great
victory being gained over the Carthaginians, in Sicily, the number was
increased to two hundred. This large fleet was employed in blockading the harbor of Lilyboeum, during the long siege of that city. The
Carthaginians displayed more cool courage and skilful manoeuvring on
land and sea during this siege, than they had ever shown before.
Hannibal sailed from Carthage, with fifty ships, to endeavor to throw
succors into the town.  He waited his time at the JEgean islands,
which lie to the north of Lilyboeum. At length the wind blew fresh
from the north, setting full into the harbor's mouth; Hannibal placed
his soldiers on the decks ready for battle, hoisted every sail, and
knowing the channels well, he ran down before the wind to the
entrance between  the shoals, dashed through the narrow  passage, whilst the Romans in astonishment and awkwardness did not
put out a single ship to stop him, and amidst the cheers and shouts
of the whole garrison and people of Lilybseum, who had crowded to
the walls to watch the event, he landed ten thousand men in safety
within the harbor. Other officers of single ships passed several times
backwards and forwards with equal success, acquainting the Carthaginian government with every particular of the siege, and confounding the Romans by their absolute command, as it seemed, of the winds
and waves.
The siege was continued under very unfavorable circumstances,
during the winter. The Romans had lost so many seamen in the various attacks upon the town, that their fleet was rendered useless for
the want of hands to work it. When the summer came, ten thousand
seamen were brought from Rome, and a new consul, P. Claudius, took
command. This commander was of a more active temperament than
the former ones, but impatient and overbearing. He endeavored to
blockade the harbor, but failed; and then, being anxious to distinguish




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ROME.                          143
himself, he resolved to attack the Carthaginian fleet, which under Adherbal, as lying in the harbor of Dressanum. His officers foreboded
the failure of the attempt, but could not move him from his purpose.
Adherbal did not expect the attack, but so great was his promptitude, that on the first sight of the enemy, he manned all his ships,
and keeping close under the land, stood out of the harbor while the
Romans were actually entering it. Claudius confounded at this, ordered
his ships to put about and stand out to sea again.  Some ran foul of
each other in doing this, but at last he got clear of the harbor and
formed his fleet under the land, with the ships' heads turned to the
sea. Adherbal, who had brought his own fleet safely into the open sea,
now formed his line of battle and attacked the Romans. We hear no
more of Duilius' bridges for boarding; whether the Carthaginians had
discovered some means of baffling them, or whether the practised soldiers now on board the Carthaginian ships rendered such a contrivance
no longer formidable.  Adherbal's victory was complete; Claudius
escaped with only thirty ships, and the rest, amounting to ninetythree, were taken; with a loss in men, although some escaped to land,
of not fewer than eight thousand killed and twenty thousand prisoners.
The conquerors did not lose a single ship, and the number of their
killed and wounded was very inconsiderable.
They followed up their victory with vigor.  Thirty ships sailed to
Panormus and carried off from thence the Roman magazines of corn,
which were sent to supply the garrison of Lilybmeum. Carthalo arrived with sevehty ships from Carthage, and being reinforced by Adherbal, attacked the remains of the Roman fleet which had been drawn
up on shore at Lilybceum under the protection of the army, carried
off five ships and destroyed others.  Meanwhile the other consul,
L. Junius Pullus, had sailed from Rome with a large fleet of ships
laden with corn and other supplies for the army at Lilybaum, which
he convoyed with a hundred and twenty ships of war.  Being himself detained at Syracuse to wait for some of the ships of his convoy,
and to collect corn from some of the districts in the interior of the
island, he entrusted about four hundred of the corn-ships with some
of his ships of war to his qumstors, and sent them on to Lilybeum,
where the want of corn was severely felt.. Carthalo was lying at Heraclea near Agrigentum, looking out for the Roman fleet; and when
he heard of their approach he put out to- sea to intercept them. The




144             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
qusestors being in no condition to fight, fled to the small bay of
Phintias, not far from Ecnomus, the scene of the great naval battle
seven years before, and there mooring their ships at the bottom of the
bay, and mounting the artillery of the town on the cliffs on each side
of them, they waited for the enemy's attack. Carthalo was disappointed to find them so well prepared, and as their resistance was obstinate he only carried off a few of the corn-ships and returned to
Heraclea, watching for the time when they should venture to continue
their voyage.
He had not waited long when his lookout ships announced that the
reardivision of the Roman fleet under the consul in person had
doubled Cape Pachynus, and was advancing along the southern coast
of Sicily.  Wishing to meet these ships before they could join their
other division in the bay of Phintias, he sailed in pursuit of them
with all speed. The consul made for the shore near Camarina, dreading an open and rocky coast, and the danger of the southwest gales,
less than an engagement with an enemy so superior.  Carthalo, not
choosing to attack him in this situation, stationed his fleet off a headland between Phintias and Camarinia, and there lay, watching the
movements of both the Roman divisions. Meanwhile it began to blow
hard from the south, and there were signs of a coming storm which
were not lost on the experienced Carthaginian pilots, who urged Carthalo to run in time forshelter.  With great exertions he got round
Cape Pachynus, and there lay safely in smooth water.  But the storm
burst with all its fury on the Romians, and overwhelmed both their
fleets with such utter destruction, that all the corn-ships, amounting
to nearly eight hundred, and one hundred and five ships of war, were
dashed to pieces.  With two ships of war only did the unfortunate
consul arrive at Lilybeuum.
These disasters broke the spirit of the Rlomans.  Claudius was recalled, brought to trial for contempt of the'sacred omens, and either
committed suicide, or met his death at the hands of the executioner.
His offence was of this nature.  Before sailing to meet the Carthaginians, it was reported to him  that the omens were unfavorable, as
the sacred chickens refused to eat.  " Then they shall drink," was
Claudius' answer, and he ordered them to be thrown into the sea.
This was the offence for which he was tried; but, doubtless, if he had
been successful, he would have received a triumph in spite of it.




ROIE.                         145
The commander who succeeded Claudius was equally unsuccessful,
and, being tried for contempt of the auspices, committed suicide. Thus
are men punished for being superior to the superstition of the vulgar
mass.
After the destruction of the fleet of Claudius, the Carthaginian3
held the dominion of the sea. But in the twenty-fourth year of the
war, (B. C., 242,) the Romans roused themselves for one more effort.
So exhausted was the treasury, that the fleet could only be raised by
patriotic loans. One, two, or three wealthy persons, according to
their means, advanced money to build a quinquereme, which was to
be repaid to them in brighter times. By these means, two hundred
ships were constructed, upon the model of one of the best sailing of
the Carthaginian vessels, captured a few years before. This fleet was
placed under the command of C. Lutatius, the consul for that year.
The Carthaginian fleet had returned home for the winter, when the
Roman fleet sailed, and they entered the harbor of ]Drepanum without resistance. While the town was vigorously attacked, Lutatius was
unceasing in his exertions to perfect his seamen in rowing and manoeuvring.  Upon receiving intelligence of the siege of Drepanum,
the Carthaginians equipped a fleet with all haste, and appointed
Hanno to command it. But they had neglected their navy for some
time before, and their seamen and soldiers were alike without experience. The ships were also heavily laden with stores for the relief
of Drepanum.
Hianno was stationed at the island of Hiera, off the west point of
Sicily.  He hoped to sail unseen to the coast of Drepanum, and take
Hamilcar and the land forces on board the fleet, when he would not
fear to meet the Romans.  This Lutatius was determined to prevent.
That consul being wounded in a skirmish with the besieged, the command devolved on Valerius, the Proctor, who was active and skilful.
It was the morning of the 10th of March; the Roman fleet having taken on board picked soldiers from the legions, had sailed on the
preceding evening to the island of ZEgusa, which lies between Hiera
and the Sicilian coast, and had there spent the night.  When day
broke, the wind was blowing fresh from the west, and rolling a heavy
sea in upon the land; the Carthaginians took advantage of it, hoisted
their sails, and ran clown before the wind towards Drepanum.  The
Roman fleet, notwithstanding the heavy sea and the adverse wind,
K                13




146             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
worked out to intercept them, and formed in line of battle with their
heads to windward, cutting off the enemy's passage. Then the Carthaginians lowered their masts and sails, and prepared of necessity to
fight. But their heavy ships and raw seamen and soldiers were too
unequal to the contest, and the fortune of the day was soon decided.
Fifty ships were sunk, and seventy taken; the rest led, and the wind,
happily for them, shifting just in time, they again hoisted their sails,
and escaped to Hiera.
This great victory turned the tide of affairs to the Roman side, and
the Carthaginians were compelled to sue for peace. Rome was now
mistress of the land and sea.
During the interval between the first and second Punic Wars, the
Romans found employment enough to keep their seamen and soldiers in
good training. Sardinia, Corsica and Malta were successively seized
upon, and, in 219, B. C., the two former were reduced to the state of
a province. Illyricum, which borders upon Macedon and Epirus, was
at this time governed by Teuta, the widow of King Agron. tHer
pirates had taken and plundered many ships belonging to the Romans,
and her troops were at this time besieging the island of Issa, which
was under the protection of Rome. Upon the complaint of the merchants of Italy, two ambassadors were sent to require the queen to
restrain her subjects from piracy, and to withdraw her troops from
issa.  The ambassadors were murdered. As soon as this became
known at Rome a fleet was ordered to be equipped and troops raised.
Teuta then seemed anxious to conciliate the Romans; but the Illyrian
fleet having gained some advantage over the Achveans, and taken
Corcyra, the queen thought herself invincible. An Ilryrian fleet
was sent to take possession of Issa, then under the Roman protection.
The Roman fleet, consisting of one hundred galleys, under the
consul Fulvius, sailed to Corcyra, and took possession of the island
and city. Many strongholds along the coast were taken, and the
Illyrians lost forty vessels, which were returning home with booty
from piracy.  The siege of Issa was raised, and the Romans every
where victorious, forced the Illyrian queen to sue for peace. This was
only granted on the most rigorous terms. The Illyrians were to pay
an annual tribute, surrender several important islands, and never to
send more than three ships of war at a time beyond Lyssus.
The contest of the Romans and Carthaginians, during the second








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ROME.                        149
Punic War, was conducted, for the most part, on land.  Although possessed of a great fleet of ships of war, Carthage suffered Scipio and
his army to pass over to Africa without opposition. The victory of
Scipio at Zama, terminated the war in favor of the Romans, despite of
the splendid campaigns of the great Hannibal.  By the terms of the
treaty, Carthage surrendered five hundred vessels of war, being
allowed to retain only ten triremes. She was also bound to assist the
Romans by sea and land.  But the Carthaginians could not long
brook such terms as the Romans required them  to bear.  War was
soon declared, and the consuls, Manlius Nepos, and Marcius Censorinus, with an army and fleet were soon despatched by the Romans to
begin hostilities.
The fleet consisted of fifty quinqueremes, and a great number of
transports.  The army numbered eighty thousand foot and four thousand chosen horse. This vast armament was destined for the destruction
of Carthage.  The city was invested.  The inhabitants made the
most exraordinary exertions for defence, and repulsed the attack of
the Romans.  Asdrubal, the commander of the Carthaginians, watching a favorable moment when the Roman fleet drew near the shore, ordered all the old barks in the harbor to be filled with combustibles,
and sent among the vessels of the Romans.  The device was completely successful; nearly all the fleet was consumed. Asdrubal
was victorious in his sallies upon the besieging army and finally compelled it to retire.  But these successes were of no avail.  Scipio
Amilianus was appointed toconduct the Roman forces, and he soon
changed the face of things. Another Roman fleet blockaded the harbor of Carthage, while the city was besieged by land.
The Romans constructed a mole in the old harbor of Carthage,
which effectually prevented the entrance or egress of any kind of
vessels.  But the spirit of the Carthaginians was desperate.  With
incredible labor, they dug a canal to the sea, by which they could receive the provisions sent to them by their troops in the field. With
equal industry, they fitted out a fleet of fifty triremes, with which
they sailed out to give the IRomans battle. The action lasted all day,
without any decisive advantage on either side.  The Romans were
driven off in a subsequent night attack, in spite of the exertions of
Scipio, and then all further attack on the place was suspended. Asdrubal offered to surrender the city upon condition that it should not
13*




150              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
be destroyed; but this was refused.  The destruction of Carthage
was determined upon.  The siege was renewed early in the spring,
and after a most heroic and desperate resistance, the city was taken,
and burned and pillaged without mercy.  By the orders of the Roman senate, the city was entirely destroyedcl; and thus that great maritime power, which was so long the rival, and, for some time, the
conqueror of the Romans, was blotted from the list of nations.
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ROMAN MLTOR AND ROMAN CENTURIONo
CHAPTER XI.
FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TILL THE SEA-FIGHT
ACTIUM.
HE Roman power was next directed  against
Philip of Macedon, who was compelled to sue'O /z- i?; QA    for peace at the end of a three years contest,
The navy bore but a small share in the operations against that monarch. At the end of the
" 3AtD0-  war, the greater part of the Macedonian navy
was surrendered to the victors.  Soon after the reduction of Macedon, a Roman fleet gained a victory over the fleet of Antiochus the
Great, king of Asia Minor, and that prince was forced to give up the
greater portion of his navy. From this period until the 680th year
of the existence of Rome, we have no record of any naval transactions
of any importance. The navy was not neglected during this interval,
however, for large fleets were necessary to transport the armies of
Marius and Sylla to Africa and Asia Minor.
(151)




" 52             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
In the year 74, B. C., the pirates of Cilicia had become so troublesome
that it became necessary to adopt measures for their suppression. The
Cilicians were bold and skilful seamen, and their country was naturally fortified against invasion.  They had an almost inexhaustible
supply of ship timber in the cedar forests of Taurus, and convenient
harbors for refuge.  Their cruises were extended to all parts of the
Mediterranean, and they made frequent descents on the coast cities with
the object of plunder. A Roman fleet, under Servillius Vatia, scoured
the seas and gained several advantages over the light squadrons of the
pirates; but they still continued their depredations.
In the year 680, the notorious Verres was appointed to command
the province of Sicily as proprmtor;  and during his administration,
a1 piratical chief named Heracleo, with a light squadron of four vesseis, appeared on the coasts of the island, defeated and burned an ill-.provided fleet which had attempted to oppose him, and entered in a
bravado into the very harbor of Syracuse, which, having surveyed at
his leisure, he again put to sea without molestation.  The communication between Italy and Greece was intercepted during the whole
surmmer; several officers going abroad, with commissions from  the
senate, on the public service, were taken, and released for a ransom;
and two proctors, with their lictors, while going abroad to take the command of their provinces, fell into the hands of the pirates.  Descents
w'ere made on both coasts of Italy; the harbor of Gaieta, which was
full of Roman vessels, was entered before the eyes of a Roman prmt;or, and every thing in it was taken or destroyed; the children of 3M.
Antonius, the orator, at the very time, apparently, that their brother
was commanding against the pirates, were carried off from the house
of their family at Misenum, and were ransomed for a large sum of
money.  Nay, the mouth of the Tiber itself was not secure from insult; and a fleet, which one of the consuls had been appointed to command, was surprised and taken at Ostia, within twenty miles of Rome.
While such were the affronts sustained so near the seat of government itself, it will excite no surprise to hear that Cnidus, Samos, and
Colophon, with four hundred other cities, were taken at different times
by this daring enemy; and that some of the most famous and richest
temples, those of Juno at Samos, at Argos, and at Lacinium in Italy;
those of Apollo at Leucas and Actium; those of Neptune at the Isthmus of Corinth, and at TTenarus; and that of Ceres and Proserpine




ROME.                           I53
in Samothrace, were violated and ransacked.  The commerce and the,
revenues of Rome were alike intercepted or suspended.  The giant
power was baffled and despised by these bold rovers of the deep.
t" They knew no law-they feared no foe,
And plunder only was their bond."
Expeditions were frequently sent against the pirates, but with only
partial success. The war continued until 686, A. U. C. In that year,
Pompey was appointed to command the forces employed against the
pirates, and he was to hold his office, if necessary, for three years.
During the winter, Pompey made immense preparations. HIe divided
the care of the different parts of the Mediterranean among his several
lieutenants, resolving himself to superintend their proceedings in every
quarter. Before the winter was ended, he put to sea, and deeming
it important to open as soon as possible the communication between
the capital and those countries which supplied it with corn, he sailed
first to Sicily, then crossed over to Africa, and having carefully scoured
that coast, he returned to Sardinia, stationing a sufficient fleet off the
island, and strong guards at various points. These operations were
completed, according to Plutarch, in less than six weeks; and he then
returned to Italy, where he remained for a short time, disposing his
forces for the protection of both coasts of that peninsula, and sending
squadrons and land forces to secure the provinces of Spain, Gaul, and
Illyricum.  The effect of all these measures was to hunt out the
pirates from all their haunts in the western quarters of the Mediterranean, and to drive them  gradually back to the seat of their main
power in Cilicia. Thither, accordingly, Pompey sailed in pursuit of
them; and expecting to meet with a long and obstinate resistance in
the strongholds on that coast, he provided himself with every thing
necessary for a succession of sieges. But the fame of his personal
character went before him; and the vigor of his military operations,
combined with the humanity which he had shown to those of the
pirates who first fell into his hands, at once deterred the enemy from
continuing to oppose him, and encouraged them to trust themselves
to his mercy.  On his arrival off the coasts of Cilicia, fortresses and
ships were successively surrendered to him without a blow. Nor did
lie deceive the confidence thus reposed in him; but after receiving
the submissions of the pirates, after delivering the prisoners whom he




154             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
found in their hands, and becoming master of all their resources, he
took measures for reclaiming the inhabitants of those countries from
that rude and wretched state of life which tempted them to robbery.
The town of Soli, with some others in the neighborhood, had been
lately deprived of their citizens by Tigranes, king of Armenia, who
had transplanted them into Upper Asia, to people his new capital Tigranocerta.  Into the towns thus deserted, Pompey brought some of
the pirates who had surrendered, and settled them in a situation where
they might naturally be led to taste and to value the blessings of civilization; while he removed others into some of the districts in the interior, which, perhaps, their own incursions, on former occasions, had
reduced to desolation, and placed them where the constant sight of
the sea might not tempt them  to resume their former occupation of
piracy.  By this admirable conduct Pompey obtained a glory very
different from that usually gained by Roman generals; and in seven
weeks from the time of his leaving Italy for the east, he had cleared
every corner of the sea from the enemy, and had provided for the stability of his victory by those measures of wisdom and goodness which
alone, in public as well as in private conduct, can permanently insure
a happy result.
The Roman navy was next employed in the acquisition of Cyprus.
The expedition was under the direction of M. Cato, the grandson of
Cato, the censor.  No resistance was met with.  Cyprus had been
under the government of an Egyptian prince. But its wealth and
fertility, together with the fact that the people were able to build and
equip a ship of the largest size without applying to foreign countries
for a single article required in her construction, were sufficient attractions for the insatiable IRomans. Cato converted the island into a Roman province, and taking possession of the treasures of its former
king, he returned to Rome. It is related as an instance of Cato's
indifference to triumphs and ceremonies, that when, as his vessel, laden
with treasure, sailed up the Tiber, the senate, headed by two consuls
and followed by an immense crowd of private citizens came to the
shore to welcome him, Cato proceeded without noticing this compliment, until he reached the place where the treasure was to be landed.
When the civil war between Caesar and Pompey broke out, in
703, A. U  C., Pompey and his forces were besieged in the maritime
city of Brundisium. The siege was prosecuted with vigor, and C(esar,




ROME.                        155
endeavored to construct moles in the harbor to prevent the escape of
Pompey by sea. But before this could be done, the ships which had
conveyed the consuls into Greece, returned to Brundisium; and Pompey was enabled to embark his troops, and put to sea, in March, with
the loss of only two transports which ran aground at the entrance of
the harbor, and were in this manner taken. Caesar was unable to follow Pompey for the want of shipping. But he sent to all corporate
towns, to provide a certain number of ships and cause them to be sent
to Brundisium, there to be in readiness to transport his army into
Greece.
The greater portion of the forces of the commonwealth were now
in Greece.  The legions of Caesar were in complete possession of
the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Cyprus, and the whole of Italy.
L. Domitius, on the side of the commonwealth, had collected a squadron of light vessels, manned with his own slaves and dependants and
sailed to Massilia, in Transalpine Gaul.  The inhabitants of that
powerful commercial city placed all their resources at his disposal, as
the general appointed by the senate. Caesar resolved to lay siege to
this place; and, accordingly, a month was employed in building twelve
ships of war in the neighboring port of Arelate, and in constructing
the other works necessary for a siege.  The command of the fleet
was given to Decimus Brutus, and that of the land force to C. Trebonius, while Cesar himself, proceeded to Spain.  The conquest of the
whole of Spain was the work of but forty days.  The forces of the
commonwealth were all either killed or forced to surrender. The fleet
which Varro had collected was given up to the victor, and he embarked his troops on board of it, and returned to Massilia.
In the meantime, Decimus Brutus had totally defeated the naval
force of the Massilians, and they were so reduced from scanty sustenance and disease that they surrendered to Caesar upon his arrival.
Domitius had escaped by sea.  The seat of war was then turned to
Greece, whither Caesar, with the greater part of his forces immediately proceeded. Pompey was collecting and constructing a vast
armament on the coast of Epirus.
To the southward of Illyricum, the mouth of the Adriatic was
guarded with a small squadron by P. Cornelius Dolabella, the son-in-law
of Cicero; but like others of the young nobility of bad character, engaged in the cause of Caesar. Inferior as Caesar was to his adversa



15 6            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ries in naval means, he could only expect Dolabella to keep the sea
for a time, till the fleets of the enemy should be brought together;
after which it became his business to preserve his ships with the utmost care, as C(esar was ill able to replace them, if they should be
taken or destroyed.  But whether from want of caution on the part
of Dolabella, or from any other cause, he was attacked on the eastern
shore of the Adriatic by the ships of the commonwealth, under M.
Octavius and L. Scribonius Libo, and was defeated with the loss of
his entire fleet.  His disaster was only the prelude to another of
greater magnitude; for C. Antonius coming up in the hope of relieving him, was surrounded by the victorious forces of the enemy, who
putting on shore a portion of their seamen, blockaded him by land
and sea, till he was obliged to surrender himself prisoner with all
the troops under his command. The soldiers were incorporated with
Pompey's army.  These successes aided considerably in swelling the
number of Pompey's troops and seamen. They gave confidence to
the leaders of the commonwealth forces, and diminished that of Cosar's adherents. Besides the great strength of the land forces of the
commonwealth, the navy was one of the largest and best equipped which
had yet been collected. There were above five hundred ships of war,
besides a greater number of smaller vessels which were continually
cruising on the coast.  All the maritime countries of the eastern tMediterranean had contributed their quota.  This vast naval force was
placed under the command of M. Bibulus.
The lateness of the season impressed Bibulus with the belief that
no attempt would be made to invade Greece for the present.  Surprised, therefore, by the tidings that the enemy were actually arrived
on the coast of Greece, Bibulus put to sea in haste from Corcyra, in
the hope of intercepting a part, at least, of the transports employed
in the passage: but Cxsar had already landed in safety, and Bibulus
only succeeded in cutting off about thirty of the empty vessels, which
C(esar had ordered instantly to return to Brundisium.  His vexation
at his own want of vigilance, combined with his general hatred against
Coesar, led him to commit an atrocious act of cruelty upon the masters and crews of the vessels which thus fell into his hands; for having set the ships on fire, he burnt the men in the same flames. He
then lined the coast with detachments of his fleet from Salone to Oricum, a distance of about two hundred miles; and as a mark of his




RO:IE.                         157
resolution to use every possible exertion, it is said that he lived entirely on board his ship, even at that inclement season.  The ancient
ships of war, it should be remembered, being calculated chiefly for
coasting voyages, and accustomed to send their crews ashore on every
occasion to take their meals and to sleep, were very ill provided with
accommodations in themselves, and could neither hold a very large
supply of provisions, nor afford tolerable quarters on board for the
officers and men. To remain, therefore, continually at sea, was
attended with great inconvenience, and considerable distress; and thus
when Cmsar's occupation of the landing places on the coast, prevented
the enemy from  coming on shore, or from getting supplies of wood
and water, he retaliated upon them to the full the annoyance which he
suffered from their blockade.  But Bibulus, and the officers and men
under his command, bore their privations with the utmost patience
and resolution; transports were employed in bringing them regular
supplies of wood, water, and provisions, from Corcyra; and when the
badness of the weather on one occasion interrupted this communication, they are said to have wrung the dew from the skins with which
the holds of their ships were covered, and thus to have allayed the
intensity of their thirst. They enjoyed, however, the satisfaction of
feeling that they were effectually stopping the passage of the second
division of Csesar's army, which it had been intended to transport
without loss of time on board the vessels which had returned to Brundisium, after carrying over the first division. The troops were actually embarked, and had just left the harbor, when a despatch arrived
from C(esar, announcing the strict blockade maintained on the oppo-,ite shore by the enemy's cruisers.  Immediately the ships returned
to Brundisium; and one single private vessel, which had no troops
on board, resolving still to attempt the passage, was taken by Bibulus
off Oricum, and, according to C(]sar, the whole ship's company, both
freemen and slaves, were by his orders put to death.  Caesar thus
seemed left to his fate in an enemy's country with only half his army,
cut off from all relief, and obliged to depend for subsistence only
on the narrow district immediately subject to his control.
Caesar's system of always acting on the offensive now saved his
army. He was so successful that he drove the army of the commonwealth before him to the bank of the Apsus, on which river both
armies intended to winter.  A little before this, M. Bibulus, who was
14




158            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
blockading the towns on the coast, proposed to C(esar's officers in the
town of Oricum, that a truce should be concluded between the fleet
and Caesar's troops stationed along the coast, in order to allow time
to negotiate a peace. Information of this proposition was sent to C.Tsar, and he hastened to the spot, and had an interview with L. Scribonius Libo, one of Pompey's naval commanders. HIe immediately
perceived that the object of Bibulus was to secure time for supplies
to reach the fleet, and therefore, refused to grant the truce.
Soon after this Bibulus fell a victim to his constant exposure and
activity.  He had thus far prevented the passage of Mark Antony's
troops from Brundisium to the assistance of Caesar; but only by extraordinary exertion and endurance. His death left a vacancy which
the dissension's of Pompey's generals prevented him from filling.
The bad effects of the omission were soon felt; for each separate commander of a squadron began to act for himself.  L. Scribonius Libo,
departing from the defensive system  of Bibulus, crossed the Ionian
gulf with the fifty ships which formed his own division, and proposed
to blockade the port of Brundisium itself, by occupying a small island
which was opposite to the mouth of the harbor.  His sudden appearance enabled him to surprise some vessels laden with corn, which he
burnt or captured; he disembarked also a party of troops, with which
he dislodged a body' of C(esar's cavalry from one of their posts near
the shore; and, elated with these exploits, he wrote to Pompey to
assure him that he might safely venture to bring the rest of the fleet
into port to refit, for that he himself, with his single squadron, would
engage to prevent the passage of Coesar's reinforcements. A short
time, however, proved the emptiness of these promises, for the island
which Libo occupied was unable to furnish the ships with a sufficient
supply of fresh water; and after the first surprise was over, Antonius
stationed his parties of cavalry along the shore in such numbers, that
they could not be dislodged, and thus effectually cut off the enemy
from all communication with the land.  The inability of an ancient
fleet to act with success without military co-operation was thus again
proved, and Libo was obliged to abandon the blockade of Brandisium,
and resume his original station on the coast of Greece.
At length the winter was at an end, and Pompey's naval force had
kept the sea through the most unfavorable season of the year with
unabated resolution.  Their task would now become much easier, and




ROME.                        159
the difficulty of effecting a passage would be proportionably increased
toACJesar's second division.  He himself complains that his officers
at Brandisium had neglected some opportunities of which they might
have availed themselves; and being impatient of their long delay, he
wrote to them in very strong terms, enjoining them to put to sea with
the first fair wind, and recommending them to steer for the coast of
Apollonia, if possible, which, from its want of harbors, was less
guarded by the enemy's fleet; adding, that they might there run their
ships aground, and that the loss of the vessels was comparatively of
no importance.  But trusting, above all things, in the effect of his
own presence, he made a bold attempt to cross over in person to
Brundisium; and having left his army secretly by night, he embarked
in disguise on board of a small vessel, and although the weather was
very tempestuous, and the wind against him, he endeavored at the
utmost hazard to effect the passage of the Ionian gulf; nor was he
induced to desist till he found it utterly impossible to accomplish his
purpose.  His letters, however, had produced a sufficient effect; the
soldiers themselves, he tells us, pressed their officers to risk the voyage; and M. Antonius and Q. Fufius Calenus, with four legions and
about eight hundred cavalry, at length set sail with a south wind
from Brundisium. But, with the wind in such a quarter, they not only
failed to reach Apollonia, but could not make even any land southward of Dyrrhachium.  They were thus seen from Dyrrhachium  by
C. Coponius, one of the proprietors who commanded the IRhodian
squadrons at that port, and he instantly put to sea in pursuit of them.
Flight was their only resource, and they ran before the wind northward, towards the harbor of Nymphaeum, which, though open to the
south, and threatening the loss of their ships, still held out a chance
of their effecting a landing.  But, by one of those remarkable
instances of good fortune which have occured in naval history on
some memorable occasions, the wind suddenly shifted to the southwest, as soon as the transports reached Nympheum; and thus, owing
to the position of the harbor, they were now in perfect safety, whilst
sixteen of the enemy's ships, that were most forward in the chase,
were all driven on shore and wrecked. Of the crews a considerable
number perished, and many were taken by Caesar's soldiers; but these
last, he tells us, he treated with humanity, and dismissed them unhurt to their own homes.




160            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Two of Antonius's transports, being heavier sailers than the rest,
were overtaken by the night, and, not knowing what was become of
their companions, came to an anchor off Lissus. Otacilius Crassus,
who commanded Pompey's garrison in the town, sent off a number of
armed boats and vessels to attack them, and summoned them both to surrender. One of them, which had on board two hundred and twenty men
of a newly-raised legion, submitted immediately; but the other contained
about two hundred veterans, who, although weakened and wretched
from the confinement and sickness of a stormy voyage, presented
their courage, and compelled the master of the transport to run the
ship on shore. They found a position favorable for their defence;
and, after repulsing an attack that was made upon them  on the following morning, they reached the main body of the army, which had
landed at Nymphmaum  without loss. Antonius then sent the transports back to Italy, to bring over some reinforcements, and in spite
of the exertions of Pompey effected a junction with-Cesar.  When
Coesar had cut off the communication between Pompey's army and
Dyrrhachium, Pompey collected a large part of his fleet in a small
harbor near his position, so as to have complete command of supplies
when necessary. This naval superiority prevented C(esar from receiving supplies from Italy, and his fleet even ventured to attack some of
the coast towns, and succeeded in burning some of the transports used
in conveying Cxesar's army into Greece.
After the memorable defeat of Pompey, at Pharsalia, he still
thought of maintaining his fortunes by means of his fleet; but his
application for assistance to those maritime cities and states which had
sent quotas to his fleet now proved unsuccessful, and he was forced
to sail to Egypt, where he met his death. It seems, that, at the request of the Egyptian king, Ptolemy, his little squadron sailed to Pelusium where it was arranged he should meet the king. On arriving
before that city, Pompey found the Egyptian fleet drawn up near the
shore and the army on the land. A boat was sent to bring him to
the shore, and Pompey, accompanied by a few attendants, entered it
and was rowed to the shore. As Pompey arose to get out of the boat,
he was stabbed in the back, by a hireling of the Egyptian king, and
the blow was followed up by the others in the boat. Pompey died
without resisting his murderers and without uttering a cry. Cornelia,




ROirME.                       161
Pompey's wife, and her friends, seeing his fate, immediately put to
sea, and succeeded in eluding the pursuit of the Egyptian fleet.
C(esar had seen the importance of pursuing Pompey to Egypt, and
accordingly crossed the Hellespont into Asia, and receiving the assistance of ten ships of war from the Rhodians, and vessels from other
ports which had been lately favorable to Pompey's interest, he crossed
over to Alexandria.  At the same time that Pompey was a fugitive
from Pharsalia, his squadrons were very successful in their operations.
While one blockaded the harbor of Brundisium, another, under Cassius, burnt the entire fleet of the enemy, amounting to thirty-five
ships, in the harbor of Messana. The news of Pompey's defeat deterred his lieutenants from  pursuing their advantages, and they
retreated to Corcyra, where the remains of the vanquished party were
concentrated. Hoping that Pompey would be able to make a stand in
some of the eastern provinces, Cato and some of the other leaders
determined to carry the fleet thither to join him, and they accordingly
set sail immediately. They touched at Petrea, and then proceeded
along the coast of Africa, where they heard of Pompey's death. Cassius immediately deserted with the squadron he commanded, and sailed
to Syria to submit to C(sar.  Cato now took command of the forces,
by common consent, and marched to Mauritania, the king of which
country supported the cause of Pompey. The navy of the commonwealth did not possess the exclusive command over the sea as it had
before Pompey's death; but it still caused C(sar's adherents much
annoyance, in making descents upon the coast and carrying off vessels
and arms.
The victory of Cresar, at Thapsus, dissipated all the hopes of his
enemies, who now made their escape by sea, or submitted to the conqueror.  The whole naval force which had been called into the service of the commonwealth was then dispersed, or captured by the
squadrons of Caesar. The cause of the commonwealth was crushed.
After the battle between Antonius and Octavius, at Mutina, the
senate wishing to avail themselves of the services of a more trustworthy person than they thought Octavius, appointed Sextus Pompeius, the son of the great Pompey, to the general command of the
naval forces of the commonwealth, with an authority on every part
of the coast, which like that granted to his father in the war with the
Cilician pirates, extended over the country, within a certain distance
L                  14*




162              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
of the sea.  He had retained at Miassilia part of the fleet which had
belonged to him in Spain, and having speedily increased it after receiving his commission, he sailed to Sicily, deeming that island a favorable situation for his head quarters.
Sicily was at that time held by A. Pompeius Bithynicus, who had
received the government of it from Caesar; but it was occupied, after
some resistance, by Sex. Pompeius, and when the proscription began,
he was in complete possession of it.  He instantly ordered his ships
and smaller vessels to cruise along the coasts of Italy, to intimate their
presence by every possible signal, and to receive on board every one
who applied to them for protection. To tempt the avarice of the soldiers employed in the massacres, he offered to each individual who
should preserve any proscribed person, double the sum which the Triumvirs gave for his murder. To those who reached Sicily, he offered
every consolation and relief in his power, supplying them with clothing and other articles of which they stood in need, and conferring on
those of higher rank amongst them  some command in his army or
navy.  Nor did he ever afterwards, from  any selfish consideration,
abandon them; but when he concluded his treaty with Antonius and
Augustus, he expressly stipulated that all who had fled to him at the
time of the proscription, should be allowed to return to their homes
in perfect safety.  It is delightful to refresh ourselves for a moment
with a picture of power actively exerted for objects of benevolence:
and to those who revere the memory of Pompey the Great, it is pleasing to think that as his conduct in the war against the pirates was a
single instance of wisdom and humanity, amidst the cruelties of other
Roman generals, so the virtues of his son afford the principal relief
to that dismal scene of wickedness and misery which the party of his
enemies were then exhibiting.
The fleet of Sextus Pompeius repulsed the attack of the forces of
the Triumvirs, and Sicily was maintained as the refuge of the discontented and the proscribed.
Brutus and Cassius, in opposing the power of Antonius, Octavius
and Lepidus, employed their fleets and armies in the eastern Mlediterranean, and the eastern provinces of the empire; but upon the advance
of the forces of the Triumvirs into Mlacedonia, they moved forward
to meet them.  The naval force of Brutus and Cassius was superior
to that of their opponents, and they trusted that they could prevent




~ \          \    ~     ~        K      ~               ~                                                                                                                                                                                                       _    _    __                  _   _         _    _   _    _         _   _    _,~~ —-~~ -.- cl —._CTOY  OF   UROU








ROME,                         165
the passage of a portion of the troops of the Triumvirs, by sending
L. Statius Murcus, with a considerable squadron to cruise off Brundisium.  This squadron was aided by the fleet of Sextus Pompeius.
But Antonius succeeded in eluding these fleets, as he had done former
ones, and crossed safely into Greece.  It appears that L. Murcus was
apprehensive of being hemmed in the narrow space between Brundisium and the little island which lies off the mouth of the harbor,
and accordingly withdrew his ships so far that the transports, with the
legions of the Triumvirs on board, guarded by a number of ships of
war, easily passed over to the coast of Epirus.  After this successful
passage of the enemy, L. Murcus was reinforced by a numerous squadron, under the command of C. Domitius Ahenobarbus. With his fleet
thus strengthenedl, L. Murcus, soon after, fell in with a large force of
soldiers, which Cn. Domitius Calinus was carrying over in transports,
escorted by only a few ships of war, to reinforce the army of the Triumvirs.  The weather proved favorable to Murcus.  The wind suddenly dropped, and the transports lay becalmed and helpless, while the
enemy's ships of war could use their oars with increased facility in
the smooth water.  After an obstinate resistance, the whole of the
transports were taken, burnt or dispersed; and a force consisting of
two legions, two thousand praetorian'cohorts, and a numerous body of
cavalry were almost entirely destroyed. This success, however, could
not effect the issue of the contest between the constitutionalists and
the Triumvirs. The battle of Phillippi destroyed the hopes of the
former, and Murcus, with his squadron, joined Sextus Pompeius, in
Sicily.  Cn. Domitius acted for a time as an independent commander, and maintained his seamen by plundering the coast, and committing piracy upon commercial vessels. He then joined the cause
of Antonius against Augustus.
The fleets of Sextus Pompeins held undisputed dominion of the sea.
They blockaded all the ports and intercepted the supplies on which
the assistance of Rome depended, and thus reduced the inhabitants to
great distress. The rival generals, Antonius and Augustus, when they
concluded a peace, were forced to conciliate Pompeius and give him
the possession of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Achaia, with the rank
of consul. These concessions were obtained by his naval power alone,
which had caused more distress at Rome than the presence of a hostile army in their territory could have done.  The peace between




166              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Pompeius and Augustus was soon violated by the jealousy and ambition of the latter. Various attempts were made to invade Sicily, but
storms and the fleets of Pompeius baffled every effort.
In the midst of the embarrassment and mortification of Augustus
at the failure of his expeditions, Antonius crossed over from Egypt to
Italy with a fleet of three hundred ships of war. One hundred and
twenty of these ships he was induced to put under the orders of
Augustus by the solicitations of Octavia, his wife, although his
interest should have urged him to support Sextus Pompeius, and Antonius then returned to Egypt. Augustus ordered Agrippa, his ablest
general, to take command of the expedition destined for the conquest of Sicily, and the whole of the year 716, A. U. C., was employed in making naval preparations.
The Italians and the provinces were again oppressed with a fresh
*load of taxation to furnish the money that was required; while the
establishments of all senators, members of the equestrian order, and
other wealthy individuals, were called upon to supply a certain number of slaves to man the fleet as rowers. It was on this occasion,
also, that M. Agrippa converted the lakes Lucrinus and Avernus,
on the coast of Campania, into harbors, in which the ships might be
assembled, and where the seamen might be exercised at the oar in
perfect safety, alike secured from storms and from  the enemy.  At
length, in the spring of 717, AugustLus commenced his operations, being supported not only by the fleet which he had received from Antonius, but by the military and naval force of the province of Africa,
which the third member of the Triumvirate, M. Lepidus, was to bring
over to his aid.  A force thus overwhelming could gain little glory
by its victory; but Sex. Pompeius bravely resisted it, and in one engagerment totally defeated the enemy's fleet, commanded by Augustus
in person, and reduced to the utmost distress the legions which,
under the command of Cornificius, had effected a descent on the coast
of Sicily.
These successes so raised the pride and the confidence of Pompeius,
that he began to style himself the Son~ of Aelttune.  But this exultation was destined to be of short duration.  The distressed legions
were relieved by Agrippa, and a great naval action took place soon
after; in which the whole naval strength of both parties was brought
into the struggle. After a brave resistance against the overwhelming








_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~::_ K — _:-I —:1
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BA~'TTL O A3~TIU.%




ROME.                         169
odds opposed to them, the forces of Pompeius were defeated, and the
general himself abandoned the contest and escaped with his family and
effects to Peloponnesus.
In the contest for empire between Antonius and Alugustus, the whole
strength of the east and the west was arrayed in opposition.  Antonius collected an army of one hundred thousand foot and twelve thousand horse, and a fleet only half as numerous as that of Augustus.
However, his ships were better built and manned with better soldiers.
The great decisive engagement was a naval battle. It was fought near
Actium, a city of Epirus, at the entrance of the gulf of Ambracia.
Antonius ranged his fleet before the mouth of the gulf, and Augustus drew up his fleet in opposition. The two land armies were drawn
up on the shore to be spectators of the combat which was to decide
who should possess the empire of the world.  Actium was to be another Pharsalia to Rome. The battle began on both sides, with great
ardor, ana was maintained without any advantage being gained on either
side, till, sudcldenly, Cleopatra, attended by sixty of the Egyptian ships,
fled from the engagement.  Yet the fight was continued with determined bravery till 5, P. Mi., when Antonius's forces submitted to Augustus, having previously been deserted by their commander.
When Cleopatra fled, Antonius pursued her, in a five-oared galley,
and coming alongside her ship, entered it without seeing, or being
seen by her.  She was in the stern, and he was in the prow. He
continued in this situation, either through indignation or shame, for
three days, without seeing or speaking to the treacherous queen. When
the squadron arrived at the promontory of Tenorus, the two became
reconciled, and at once set about endeavoring to retrieve the fortunes
of Antonius.  After a varied contest upon land, Antonius determined
to make a last great effort by sea, and posting himself upon an eminence which commanded a view of the forces, he sent orders to his
galleys to engage the enemy. But his seamen were either bribed or
anxious to secure themselves, by aiding the most fortunate; for, while
Antonious awaited the commencement of the action, he had the mortification to see his galleys salute those of Augustus, and pass over to
their side.  This completed the prostration of the cause of Antonius,
and left his rival in undisturbed possession of the sea and land.
15




rOMATN TRIIEMEo
CHAPTER XII.
FROM AUGUSTUS TO CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.
HE navy maintained by Augustus and his
successors might seem inadequate to their
greatness; but it was sufficient for every pur@X~i~~     ~pose. The Romans were never actuated by
that enterprising -naval spirit which distin\___/__-______ guished the Tyrians and the Carthaginians.
~"-~~                   The ocean was to them an object of terror
rather than curiosity.  They were possessed of the dominion of the
whole extent of the Mediterranean and the policy of the emperors was
directed to preserve this dominion peaceably, and to protect their com-;merce.
Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that as
soon as their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars,
they were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus
himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of his own
light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but unwieldy
castles of his rival. Of these Liburnians he composed the two fleets of
Ravenna and Misenum, destined to command, the one the eastern, the
other the western division of'the Mediterranean; and to each of the
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ROME.                          171
squadrons he attached a body of several thousand marines.  Besides
these two ports, which may be considered as the principal seats of the
Roman navy, a very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the
coast of Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and
three thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved
the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number
of vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harrass
the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians.
The first great employment of the naval strength of the Romans,
which is recorded, was in the contest between Septimus Severus and
Niger for the imperial authority.  Byzantium was one of the great
passages from Europe into Asia, and besides, being provided with a
strong garrison, a fleet of five hundred vessels was anchored in the
harbor. This city was favorable to the cause of Niger and maintained
it against the whole naval and military force Severus could raise, for
three years. This powerful and important commercial city was then
entirely destroyed by the conqueror, and thus were the Romans deprived of one of their strongest bulwarks against the barbarians of
Pontus and Asia.  The effect of this was seen in the reign of Gallienus.
By domestic factions and the fears or private interest of usurpers,
the warlike Goths were admitted into the heart of the kingdom of
Bosphorus.  With the acquisition of a fertile country, the conquerors
obtained a naval force sufficient to transport their armies to the coast
of Asia. The ships ud in the navigation of the Euxine were of a
very singular construction.  They were slight, fiat bottomed bark's,
framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the appearance of a tempest.
In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly entrusted themselves to
the mercy of an unknown sea, under the conduct of sailors pressed
into the service, and whose skill and fidelity were equally suspicious.
But the hopes of plunder had banished every idea of danger, and a
natural fearlessness of temper supplied in their minds the more rational
confidence, which is the just result of knowledge and experience.
WVarriors of such a daring spirit must have often murmured against
the cowardice of their guides, who required the strongest assurances
of a settled calm  before they would venture to embark; and would
scarcely ever be tempted to lose sight of the land.  Such, at least, is




172             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the practice of the modern Turks; and they are probably not inferior
in the art of navigation to the ancient inhabitants of Bosphorus.
Nicomedia, Nice, Prusse, Apamoea and Cuis, cities distinguished for
their wealth and splendor met the fate of Chalcedon.  The victorious
Goths overcame all opposition. The city of Cyzicus had withstood
the power of Mithridates.  But then it was possessed of wise laws,
a naval power of two hundred galleys, and a strong military force. It
still retained much of its former wealth and splendor, and offered a
tempting prize to the insatiable Goths. They were forced to abandon
the project of taking the city, however, by the river Rhyndacus becoming swollen, and the approach of the autumnal equinox, which
warned them to cross the Euxine in time.
The success of these expeditions induced the Goths to fit out a third
in the ports of the Bosphorus. We are informed that this fleet consisted of five hundred ships, which would seem to be a formidable
armament;  but as we are assured by the judicious Strabo, that the
piratical vessels used by the barbarians of Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were not capable of containing more than twenty-five or thirty
men, we may safely affirm, that fifteen thousand warriors, at the most,
embarked in this great expedition.  Impatient of the limits of the
Euxine, they steered their destructive course from the Cimmerian to
the Thracian Bosphorus.  When they had almost gained the middle
of the Straits, they were suddenly driven back to the entrance of
them; till a favorable wind, springing up the next day, carried them
in a few hours into the placid sea, or rather lake, of the Propontis.
Their landing on the little island of Cyzicus was attended with the
ruin of that ancient and noble city.  From  thence issuing again
through the narrow passage of the Hellespont, they pursued their winding navigation amidst the numerous islands scattered over the Archipelago, or the iEgean Sea.  The assistance of captives and deserters
must have been very necessary to pilot their vessels, and to direct their
various incursions, as well on the coast of Greece as on that of Asia.
At length the Gothic fleet anchored in the port of Pirseus, five miles
distant from Athens, which had attempted to make some preparations
for a vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one of the engineers employed by
the emperor's orders to fortify the maritime cities against the Goths,
had already begun to repair the ancient walls, fallen to decay since the
time of Scylla. The efforts of his skill were ineffectual, and the bar



ROME.                          173
barians became masters of the native seat of the muses and the arts"
But while the conquerors abandoned themselves to the license of plunder and intemperance, their fleet, that lay with a slender guard in the
harbor of Piraeus, was unexpectedly attacked by the brave Dexippus,
who, flying with the engineer Cleodamus from  the sack of Athens,
collected a hasty band of volunteers, peasants as well as soldiers, aand
in some measure avenged the calamities of his country.
The hostile operations of the Goths aroused the emperor Gallienus
to a sense of his danger, and he appeared in arms against them. But
they were in no condition to meet a large Roman army, and a body
of them finally capitulated to the emperor on honorable terms. The
rest returned on board their vessels and pursued their way back to the
Bosphorus.
In the reign of Diocletian, the Franks, in their squadrons of light
brigatines, incessantly ravaged the provinces adjacent to the Atlantic.
To repel their incursions, it was found necessary to create a naval
power; and the judicious measure was prosecuted with vigor by Maximian, the colleague of Diocletian. Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the
strait of the British channel, was chosen for the station of the Roman
fleet, and the command of it was given to Carausius, a Menapian, who
had long signalized his skill as a pilot and his valor as a soldier.
But the honesty of the new admiral did not equal his talents. He entered into an alliance with the German pirates, attached the fleet to
his interest, and sailing over to Britain, boldly assumed the imperial
purple and defied the arms of his sovereign.  He enlisted the bravest
of the youth of the Franks in his land or sea forces, and in return for
their alliance, he communicated to the barbarians his knowledge of
military and naval arts. Under his command, Britain assumed its
natural station as an important naval power.
By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his master
of the means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a vast expense
of time and labor, a new armament was launched into the water, the
Imperial troops, unaccustomed to that element, were easily baffled and
defeated by the veteran sailors of the usurper. This disappointed effort
was soon productive of a treaty of peace. Diocletian and his colleague,
who justly dreaded the enterprising spirit of Caransius, resigned to
him the sovereignty of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant to a participation of the Imperial honors. But the
15*




174              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
adoption of the two Cmsars restored new vigor to the Roman arms;
and while tho Rhine was guarded by the presence of M[aximian, his
brave associate Constantius assumed the conduct of the British war.
His first enterprise was against the important place of Boulogne. A
stupendous mole, raised across the entrance of the harbor, intercepted
all hopes of relief. The town surrendered after an obstinate defence;
and a considerable part of the naval strength of Carausius fell into
the hands of the besiegers. During the three years which Constantius
enmployecl in preparing a fleet adequate to the conquest of Britain, he
secured the coast of Gaul, invaded the country of the Franks, and
deprived the usurper of the assistance of those powerful allies.
Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the intelligence of the tyrant's death, and it was considered as a sure presage
of the approaching victory.  The servants of Carausius imitated the
example of treason which he had given.  E-Ie was murdered by his
first minister, Allectus, and the assassin succeeded to his power and to
his danger. But he possessed not equal abilities either to exercise the
one or to repel the other. He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite
shores of the continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with
vessels; for Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, that
he might likewise divide the attention and resistance of the enemy.
The attack was at length made by the principal squadron, which, under
the command of the prsefect Asclepiodatus, an officer of distinguished
merit, had been assembled in the mouth of the Seine.  So imperfect
in those times was the art of navigation, that orators have celebrated
the daring courage of the Romans, who ventured to set sail with a
side-wind, and on a stormy day. The weather proved favorable to
their enterprise. Under the cover of a thick fog, they escaped the
fleet of Allectus, which had been stationed off the isle of Wight to
receive them, landed in safety on some part of the western coast, and
convinced the Britons, that a superiority of naval strength will not
always protect their country from a foreign invasion.  Asclepiodatus
had no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, than he set fire to his
ships; and, as the expedition proved fortunate, his heroic conduct
was univerally admired. The usurper was overthrown in a single
battle, and, after a separation of ten years, Britain was restored to the
Roman empire.




ROMAN TENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
FROM CONSTANTINE T-HE GREAT TO THE  END OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE.
T  HE reign of Constantine the Great and Licinius,
witnessed a considerable increase of the Roman
military and naval power.  When the contest
between the two emperors began, Licinius was
enabled to bring into action, a fleet composed
of three hundred and fifty galleys of three banks
of oars.  One hundred and thirty of these were
furnished by Egypt and the adjacent coast of
Africa; one hundred and ten sailed from Phcelicia and the isle of Cyprus; and the maritime countries of Bithynia,
Ionia, and Caria were obliged to furnish the remainder.  The naval.reparations of Constantine were inferior.  The maritime cities of
-reece sent their quotas of ships to the harbor of Piruns, and their
mnited forces consisted of no more than two hundred small vessels; a
7ery feeble armament if compared with those formidable and conquerng fleets equipped and maintained by the small republic of Athens
luring the Peloponnesian War.  Since the seat of government had
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176             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
been removed from Italy, the naval establishment of Misenum and Ravenna had been gradually neglected; and as the shipping and mariners
of the empire were supported by commerce rather than war, it was
natural that they should most abound in the commercial provinces of
Egypt and Asia.
The fleet of Licinius held command of the Hellespont, in the narrow strait of which it continued inactive. There its superiority of
numbers was of little advantage.  The naval commanders of Constantine were ordered to force the passage of the Hellespont, in order that
the fall of Byzantium, which was then being besieged, might be
hastened.
Crispus, the emperor's eldest son, was intrusted with the execution
of this daring enterprise, which he performed with so much courage
and success, that he deserved the esteem, and most probably excited
~the jealousy, of his father.  The engagement lasted two days; and
in the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a considerable
and mutual loss, retired into their respective harbors of Europe and
Asia.  The second day, about noon, a strong south wind sprang up,
which carried the vessels of Crispus against the enemy; and as the
casual advantage was improved by his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. A hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed,
five thousand men were slain, and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic
fleet, escaped with the utmost.difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon.
As soon as the Hellespont was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions
flowed into the camp of Constantine, who had already advanced the
operations of the siege. The city was soon after abandoned by Licinius, and left at the mercy of Constantine.
We are informed that in the expedition against Sapor, the Persian
king, the Roman emperor, Julian, besides an army of sixty-five thousand effective and well-disciplined soldiers, was attended by a fleet of
eleven hundred ships upon the Euphrates.  The military strength of
this fleet consisted of fifty armed galleys; and these were accompanied
by an equal number of flat bottomed boats, which might occasionally
be connected in the form of temporary bridges. The rest of the ships,
partly constructed of timber and partly of raw hides, were laden with
an immense quantity of arms, engines, utensils, and provisions. A
portion of this fleet was used to convey the legions of Julian across
the Tigris in a night attack upon the Persian forces. But soon after



ROME.                        177
wards, by the treacherous advice of a Persian general whom he had
taken into his service, Julian was induced to destroy the whole navy
which had been transported about five hundred miles, at the expense
of so much toil and treasure. Twelve small vessels were saved to
accompany, in carriages, the march of the army, and to form  occasional bridges for the passage of the rivers. The rest of the large fleet
with the greater part of the stores, was committed to the flames. The
reasons which induced Julian to make this sacrifice were of a plausible
character. The navigation of the Euphrates and the Tigris never extended above Babylon and Opis, and the distance of the last mentioned
city from Julian's army, was not great. The labor necessary to force
a great fleet against the current of a rapid river, embarrassed with
several cataracts, was immense.  But plausible as these reasons were,
the real motive of advising the destruction of the fleet was treacherous,
as was soon proved. The country through which the army was to
march was deserted and wasted by its inhabitants, and the supplies of
the Romans becoming exhausted, they were forced to make a retreat.
Several battles were fought with the immense hosts of Sapor, in one
of which the heroic Julian was mortally wounxded.  The few transports which had been saved when the fleet was burned, now served a
good purpose in conveying the dispirited Romans across the Tigris,
making many voyages to effect that object.  The army under Julian's
succesor, Jovian, then easily reached the Roman dominions.
The Goths gave the next occasion for the use of the Roman navy.
They had made many incursions into the territories of the empire in
the reign of Vallens and Valentinian, but wer egenerally unsuccessful.
The provinces of the Danube, especially, suffered from their barbarous
devastations.  Their final defeat and capitulation took place in the
early part of the reign of Theodosius, the successor of Valentinian.
After an absence of four years, the Goths returned to the vicinity of
the Lower Danube, with acccumulated force.  The general who commanded the military and naval powers of the Thracian frontier soon
perceived that the barbarians, awed by the presence of the Roman fleet
and legions, were anxious to defer the passage of the Danube until
the winter; but this he desired to prevent. He sent spies into the
Gothic camp to ascertain their strength and to persuade them that by
a bold attempt, they might surprise the Roman camp. The barbarians fell into the snare; and the whole multitude hastily embarked in
M




178              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORYo
a fleet of three thousand canoes, to make a night attack. The bravest
of the Goths led the van; the main body consisted of the remainder
of their subjects and soldiers, while the women and children securely
followed in the rear.  A dark night had been selected for the attack;
and they had almost reached the southern bank of the Danube, confident of an easy victory.  But, suddenly, they found their progress
arrested by an unexpected obstacle; a triple line of vessels strongly
connected with each other, formed an impenetrable chain of two miles
and a half along the river; While the Goths struggled to force their way
against this powerful barrier, their right flank was overwhelmed by the
irresistible onset of a fleet of galleys, which were urged down the
stream by the impulse of oars and tide. The weight and swiftness of
those ships of war broke, sunk, and dispersed the light canoes of the
barbarians. Their valor was ineffectual; and the bravest of their troops,
with Alatheus, their general, either perished by the swords of the Roman or were drowned in the waters of the Danube.  The rest capitulated to the Roman general.
The revolt of Gildo, the governor of the Roman provinces in Africa,
during the reign of Arcadius and ilonorius was the cause of a war
between that general and the parts of the empire which remained
faithful to the lawful sovereigns.  The vigilant Stilicho collected all
the military and naval forces of the western empire. The fleet of galleys and transports sailed in tempestuous weather from the port of
Pisa, in Tuscany, and steered their course to the little island of Capraria, where some of the monks who inhabited that island were taken oil
board the fleet.  It is observed in praise of the Roman general, Masuzel, that he passed his days and nights in prayer and fasting. The
devout leader, who with such a reinforcement, appeared confident of
victory, avoided the dangerous rocks of Corsica, coasted along the
eastern side of Sardinia, and escaped the violence of the south wind by
casting anchor in the safe and capacious harbor of Cagliari, one hundred and forty-five miles from the African shore. From that point, the
passage to Africa was easy. Gildo was vanquished in a great battle,
and reaching the sea shore, endeavored to escape in a small vessel;
but he was driven back, andl, in despair, he committed suicide.
The emperors of Constantinople continued to observe the same system of attack and defence in their navy, as had been practised by the
more ancient Romans.  But they wisely reduced the height of their




ROMEE.                       179
galleys, using none but dromones of two tiers, having in all one hundred oars. The line of battle was somewhat changed, from a triangle it
had become a crescent. The horns pointed rearward, and the admirals
were stationed in the centre, and began the attack. The same means of
annoyance were still employed. Arrows were thrown from bows, and javelins from engines; huge rocks were projected from machines, often
finding their way through the bottom of a vessel, destroying both galley and crew. [But the most dreadful weapon then in use was the
iron tube, from which the Greek fire was projected in streams upon a
vessel and crew of an enemy.  This combustible was of such a composition, and of such fearful activity, that nothing could resist it, and
water, instead of extinguishing it, only augmented its fury. Though
the attack of beaks was still continued, less importance was attached
to the point of gaining the wind.  In order to escape from the torture
of the fire tube, it was usual to grapple at once broadside to broadside, and while the rowers assailed each other with pikes, through
their row-ports, the soldiers rushed, with sword and buckler, to the
attack, fighting hand to hand. Hence the great numbers of slain in the
naval encounters.
After the Goths, under Adolphus, the successor of Alaric, had been
induced to quit Italy, by a treaty with Honorius, some degree of tranquillity was restored to the declining empire. This was soon disturbed
by the approach of a hostile armament from Africa. Heraclian, count
of Africa, who, under distressing circumstances, had supported the
cause of Honorius, was tempted to assume the character of a rebel,
with the title of emperor.  The African ports were filled with the
naval forces, at the head of which he prepared to invade Italy; and
his fleet did actually surpass that of Xerxes, if, as is stated, the whole
number of vessels amounted to three thousand two hundred.  Yet
with such an armament, the usurper effected nothing. He anchored
his fleet at the mouth of the Tiber, and marched for Rome. But was
met by one of the imperial captains, and easily defeated. His armament then dispersed, and he, himself, escaped to Carthage with a
single ship. He was there beheaded by the Carthaginians, who had
returned to their allegiance.
In the fifth century, after the birth of Christ, the Vandals, under
Genseric, completely overthrew the Roman dominion in Africa. Bult
the ambition of the barbarians was not satisfied.  Genseric resolved




180             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
to create a naval power, and his resolution was executed with an active
perseverance.  The woods of Mount Atlas afforded an inexhaustible
supply of timber; and the conquered Africans were skilled in the arts
of navigation and ship building. After an interval of six centuries,
the fleets that issued from  the port of Carthage again claimed the
dominion of the sea. The daring Vandals were completely successful.
They conquered Sicily, sacked Palermo, and made frequent descents
on the coast of Lucania. The revolutions of the palace which left the
western empire without a defender, and without a lawful prince, stimulated the avarice of Genseric. He equipped a numerous fleet, and
cast anchor at the mouth of the Tiber three months after the death
of the emperor Valentinian III. The Vandals landed without opposition, and pillaged Rome for fourteen days and nights. All that
remained in the city, of public or private treasure, was transported to
the vessels of Genseric, and the sack and destruction of Carthage was
revenged.  The empress and her two daughters were compelled to follow the Vandal king to Carthage; for which port he immediately
hoisted sail. Many thousand Romans, chosen for some agreeable qualifications reluctantly embarked on board the fleet of Genseric.
But when the able and virtuous Majorian assumed the imperial purple of the Western empire, the arms of Genseric suffered a reverse. A
fleet of Vandals and Moors landed at the mouth of the Liris, or Garigliano; but the imperial troops surprised and attacked the barbarians,
who were encumbered with spoil, and drove them, with slaughter, to
their ships.  To rescue the Italian coast from the depredations of the
Vandals, Majorian resolved, like Scipio, "to  carry the war into
Africa." The ancient spirit of the Romans was aroused. The woods of
the Appenines were felled; the arsenals and manufactories of Ravenna
and Misenum were restored; Italy and Gaul vied with each other in
contributing to the public service; and the imperial navy of three hundred large galleys, with an adequate proportion of transports and
smaller vessels was collected in the secure and capacious harbor of Carthagena, in Spain.  The king of the Vandals distrusted his ability to
resist this armament; but he was saved from ruin by the treachery of
some envious subject of Majorian. Guided by secret intelligence, he
surprised the imperial fleet in the bay of Carthagena; and burned,
sunk or captured the greater portion of it.  The work of three years




ROME.                          181
was destroyed in a single day. This exploit enabled Genseric to conclude a treaty with Majorian on advantageous terms.
Under the reign of Ricimer, the successor of Majorian, Italy was
exposed to the frequent depredations of the Vandal pirates. In the
spring of each year, they equipped a formidable navy in the port of
Carthage; and Genseric himself, though at a very advanced age, still
commanded in person the most important expeditions.  His designs
were concealed with impenetrable secrecy, till the moment that he
hoisted sail.  When hb was asked, by his pilot, what course he should
steer, "Leave the determination to the winds, (replied the barbarian,
with pious arrogance;) they will transport us to the guilty coast, whose
inhabitants have provoked the divine justice;" but if Genseric himself deigned to issue more precise orders, he judged the most wealthy
to be the most criminal. The Vandals repeatedly visited the coasts of
Spain, Laguria, Tuscany, Campania, Luicania, Bruttium,.Apulia, Calabria, Venetia, Dalmatia, Epirus, Greece, and Sicily: they were
tempted to subdue the island. of Sardinia, so advantageously placed in
the centre of the Mediterranean; and their arms spread desolation, or
terror, from the columns of Hercules to the mouth of the Nile.  As
they were more ambitious of spoil than of glory, they seldom attacked
any fortified cities, or engaged any regular troops in the open field.
But the celerity of their motions enabled them, almost at the same
time, to threaten and to attack the most distant objects, which attracted
their desires; and as they always embarked a sufficient number of
horses, they had no sooner landed, than they swept the dismayed
country with a body of light cavalry.  Yet, notwithstanding the example of their king, the native Vandals and Alani insensibly declined
this toilsome and perilous warfare; the hardy generation of the first
conquerors was almost extinguished, and their sons, who were born in
Africa, enjoyed the delicious baths and gardens which had been acquired by the valor of their fathers. Their place was readily supplied
by a various multitude of Moors and Romans, of captives and outlaws;
and those desperate wretches, who had already violated the laws of
their country, were the most eager to promote the atrocious acts which
disgrace the victories of Genseric.
The Italians were now destitute of a naval force, and they implored
the aid of the nations of the East.  But the Western Romans could
only obtain the assistance of a cold and ineffectual mediation. Finally,
16




182             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Ricimir was forced to address the throne of Constantinople in the
language of a subject. Anthemius ascended the throne of the Western
empire, and a Dalmatlan fleet was received into the harbors of Italy.
3arcellinus expelled the Vandals from Sardinia.  Immense preparations for a naval armament were made by the Eastern Romans. The
fleet which sailed from Constantinople to Carthage consisted of one
thousand one hundred and thirteen ships, and the number of soldiers
and mariners exceeded one hundred thousand men. The command of
the armament was given to Basiliscus, the brother of the empress.
The mighty fleet, under Basiliscus, pursued its course fromn the
Thracian Bosphorus to the coast of Africa.  The troops were landed
at Bona, about forty miles from Carthage.  The army of iHeraclius,
and the fleet of Marcellinus either joined or seconded the imperial commander, and the Vandals were vanquished by sea and land. But Genseric was still equal to his enemies. Basiliscus neglected to follow up
his success by marching into the interior of the Vandal dominions,
and Genseric artfully obtained a truce of five days.  In the interval,
he manned his largest ships of war with the most daring of the Moors
and Vandals, and they towed after them many large barks filled with
combustibles. In the obscurity of the night these destructive vessels were impelled against the unguarded and unsuspecting fleet of
the Romans, who were awakened by the sense of their instant danger.
Their close and crowded order assisted the progress of the fire, which
was communicated with rapid and irresistible violence; and the noise
of the wind, the crackling of the flames, the dissonant cries of the
soldiers and mariners, who could neither command nor obey, increased
the horror of the nocturnal tumult. Whilst they labored to extricate
themselves from the fire ships, and to save at least a part of the navy,
the galleys of Genseric assaulted them with temperate and disciplined
valor; and many of the Romans, who escaped the fury of the flames,
were destroyed or taken by the victorious Vandals. Among the events
of that disastrous night, the heroic, or rather desperate, courage of
John, one of the principal officers of Basiliscus, has rescued his name
from oblivion. When the ship, which he had bravely defended, was
almost consumed, he threw himself in his armor into the sea, disdainfully rejected the esteem and pity of Gens, the son of Genseric, who
pressed him  to accept honorable quarter, and sunk under the waves;
exclaiming, with his last breath, that he would never fall alive into




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ROME.                           185
the hands of those impious dogs.  Actuated by a far different spirit
Basiliscus, whose station was the most remote from danger, disgracefully fled in the beginning of the engagement, returned to Constantinople with the loss of more than half of his fleet and army, and sheltered
his guilty head in the sanctuary of St. Sophia, till his sister, by her tears
and entreaties, could obtain his pardon from the indignant emperor.
Heraclius effected his retreat through the desert; Marcellinus retired
to Sicily, where he was assassinated, perhaps at the instigation of Ricimer, by one of his own captains; and the king of the Vandals expressed his surprise and satisfaction, that the Romans themselves should
remove from the world his most formidable antagonist. After the
failure of this great expedition, Genseric again became the tyrant of
the sea; the coast of Italy, Greece, and Asia, were again exposed to
his revenge and avarice; Tripoli and Sardinia returned to his obedience; he, added Sicily to the number of his provinces; and before
he died, in the fulness of years and of glory, he beheld the final extinction of the empire of the West.
After the Western empire had fallen under the dominion of Theodoric, the Goth, a war with the Eastern empire broke out, and was
successfully prosecuted by the Gothic king. On the fields of Nargus,
the Eastern forces were overthrown by an inferior army of Goths and
Romans.  Exasperated by this disgrace, the Byzantine court despatched two hundred ships and eight thousand men to plunder the
sea coast of Calabria and Apulia.  They assaulted the city of Tarentum, interrupted the trade and agriculture of the country, and sailed
back to the iHellespont, proud of their piratical exploits. Their retreat
was possibly hastened by the activity of Theodoric, who covered the
Italian coast with a fleet of a thousand light vessels, which he constructed with incredible despatch.  But the naval power of the declining empire was best exhibited in the reign of Justinian. That
ambitious prince resolved upon the reduction of the African provinces
held by the Vandals, and for that purpose extraordinary preparations
were made. The illustrious Belisarius was chosen as the commander
of the expedition.
Five hundred transports, navigated by twenty thousand mariners of
Egypt, Cilicia, and Ionia, were collected in the harbor of Constantinople. The smallest of these vessels may be computed at thirty, the
largest at five hundred tons; and the fair average will supply an allow16*




186       U     JNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ance, liberal, but not profuse, of about one hundred thousand tons, for
the reception of thirty-five thousand soldiers and sailors, of five thousand horses, of arms, engines, and military stores, and of a sufficient stock
of water and provisions for a voyage, perhaps, of three months. The
proud galleys, which in former ages swept the Mediterranean with so
many hundred oars, had long since disappeared; and the fleet of Justinian was escorted only by ninety-two light brigantines, covered from
the missile weapons of the enemy, and rowed by two thousand of the
brave and robust youth of Constantinople.  Twenty-two generals are
named, most of whom were afterwards distinguished in the wars of
Africa and Italy: but the supreme command, both by land and sea,
was delegated to Belisarius alone, with a boundless power of acting
according to his discretion, as if the emperor himself were present.
The separation of the naval and military professions is at once the
effect and the cause of the modern improvements in the science of navigation and maritime war.
In the seventh year of the reign of Justinian, and about the time
of the summer solstice, the whole fleet of six hundred ships was
ranged in martial pomp before the gardens of the palace.  The patriarch pronounced his benediction, the emperor signified his last command, the general's trumpet gave the signal of departure, and every
heart, according to its fears or wishes, explored, with anxious curiosity,
the omens of misfortune and success. The first halt was made at Perinthus or HIeraclean where Belisarius waited five days to receive some
Thracian horses, a military gift of his sovereign. From thence the
fleet pursued their course through the midst of the Propontis; but as
they struggled to pass the Straits of the Hellespont, an unfavorable
wind detained them four days at Abydus, where the general exhibited
a memorable lesson of firmness and severity. Two of the lHuns, who
in a druken quarrel had slain one of their fellow-soldiers, were instantly
shown to the army suspended on a lofty gibbet. The national dignity
was resented by their countrymen, who disclaimed the servile laws of
the empire, and asserted the free privilege of Scythia, where a small
fine was allowed to expiate the hasty sallies of intemperance and anger.
Their complaints were specious, their clamors were loud, and the Romans were not averse to the example of disorder and impunity. But
the rising sedition was appeased by the authority and eloquence of the
general: and he represented to the assembled troops the obligation of




ROME.                         18 7
justice, the importance of discipline, the rewards of piety and virtue,
and the unpardonable guilt of murder, which, in his apprehension, was
aggravated rather than excused by the vice of intoxication.  In the
navigation from the Hellespont to the Peloponnesus, which the Greeks,
after the siege of Troy, had performed in four days, the fleet of Belisarius was guided in their course by his master galley, conspicuous in
the day by the redness of the sails, and in the night by the torches
blazing from the mast head.  It was the duty of the pilots, as they
steered between the islands, and turned the Capes of )Malea and Tienarium, to preserve the just order and regular intervals of such a multitude of ships: as the wind was fair and moderate, their labors were
not unsuccessful, and the troops were safely disembarked at Methone
on the Messenian coast, to repose themselves for a while after the
fatigues of the sea. In this place they experienced how avarice,
invested with authority, may sport with the lives of thousands which
are bravely exposed for the public service. According to military
practice, the bread or biscuit of the Romans was twice prepared in
the oven, and the diminution of one-fourth was cheerfully allowed for
the loss of weight. To gain this miserable profit, and to save the expense of wood, the priafect, John, of Cappadocia, had given orders,
that the flour should be slightly baked by the same fire which warmed
the baths of Constantinople; and when the sacks were open, a soft and
mouldy paste was distributed to the army.  Such unwholsome food,
assisted by the heat of the climate and season, soon produced an epidemical disease, which swept away five hundred soldiers. Their health
was restored by the diligence of Belisarius, who provided fresh bread
at Methone, and boldly expressed his just and humane indignation:
the emperor heard his complaint; the general was praised, but the
minister was not punished.  From  the port of Methone, the pilots
steered along the western coast of Peloponnesus, as far as the Isle of
Zacynthus, or Zante, before they undertook the voyage (in their eyes
a most arduous voyage) of one hundred leagues over the Ionian Sea.
As the fleet was surprised by a calm, sixteen days were consumed in
the slow navigation; and even the general would have suffered the
intolerable hardship of thirst, if the ingenuity of Antonina had not
preserved the water in glass bottles, which she buried, deep in the
sand in a part of the ship impervious to the rays of the sun. At
length the harbor of Caucana, on the southern side of Sicily, afforded




188             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
a secure and hospitable shelter.  The Gothic officers who governed
the island in the name of the daughter and grandson of Theodoric,
obeyed their imprudent orders, to receive the troops of Justinian like
friends and allies: provisions were liberally supplied; the cavalry was
remounted, and Procopius soon returned from Syracuse with correct
information of the state and designs of the Vandals. His intelligence
determined Belisarius to hasten his operations, and his wise impatience
was seconded by the winds. The fleet lost sight of Sicily, passed before the Isle of Malta, discovered the capes of Africa, ran along the
coast with a strong gale from the northeast, and finally cast anchor at
the promontory of Caput Vada, about five days' journey to the south
of Carthage.
If the Vandal king, Gelimer had known of the approach of an enemy,
he might easily have surprised and destroyed a fleet of deeply laden transports, incapable of action, and of light brigantines that seemed only qualified for flight. The Roman soldiers did not blush to confess their dread
of meeting the barbarians upon the sea, and Belisarius wisely resolved
to seize the first opportunity of landing them  on the African coast.
Three months after their departure from Constantinople, the men and
horses, and the military stores were disembarked, and five soldiers
were left as a guard in each ship, the whole fleet being disposed in a
semi-circle. When the army took up its line of march, the fleet
steered along the coast, seldom  losing sight of the army for several
days.  But as Belisarius moved towards the interior, the naval commanders proceeded cautiously along the coast until they reached the
lermsean promontory, where they received the news of a great victory gained by the army. Faithful to orders, the fleet advanced, with
a fair wind, steered through the entrance of Goletta, and occupied, in
the capacious lake of Tunis, a secure station, about five miles from
Carthage. When Carthage surrendered to Belisarius, the greater portion of the mariners were ordered to join the army, and swell the apparent numbers of the Romans, in the triumph.
But Gelimir kept the field; and sent intelligence of his situation
to his brother, who had just conquered Sardinia.  Zeno immediately
embarked his troops in one hundred and twenty galleys and sailed for
the African' coast.  The Vandals were easily defeated, however,
although outnumbering the forces of the Romans.  The naval power
of Carthage was again crushed, and the oRomans were lords of the








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ROME.                          191
sea.  tBelisarius then returned to Constantinople and obtained a triumphant reception.
The fleets of Justinian were next employed, under the orders of Belisarius, in the conquest of Italy. Sailing from Constantinople, they
captured many of the Italian coast towns and ranged the neighboring
country. But there were no opposing fleets to meet them. The Goths
gave little attention to naval matters.  Totila, the barbarian prince,
raised extraordinary obstacles to the invasion of the forces of Belisarius. Upon the Tiber, ninety furlongs below the city, in the narrowest
part of the river, he joined the two banks by massy timbers, in the
form of a bridge, on which he erected two lofty towers manned by the
bravest Goths.  The approach of the bridge and towers was covered
by a strong and massy chain of iron; and the chain, at either end, on
the opposite sides of the Tiber, was defended by a numerous and chosen
detachment. of archers. But the enterprise of forcing these barriers,
and relieving the capital, displays a shining example of the boldness
and conduct of Belisarius. His cavalry advanced from the port along
the public road, to awe the motions, and distract the attention of -the
enemy.  His infantry and provisions were distributed in two hundred
large boats; and each boat was shielded by a rampart of thick planks,
pierced with many small holes for the discharge of missile weapons.
In the front, two large vessels were linked together to sustain a floating castle, which commanded the towers of the bridge, and contained
a magazine of fire, sulphur, and bitumen. The whole fleet, which the
general led in person, was laboriously moved against the current of
the river. The chain yielded to their weight, and the enemies who
guarded the banks were either slain or scattered. As soon as they
touched the principal barrier, the fire ship was instantly grappled to
the bridge; one of the towers, with two hundred Goths, was consumed
by the flames; the assailants shouted victory.
But the skill and courage of Belisarius were prevented from accomplishing their purpose by the misconduct of his officers, and he was forced
to fall back to protect his camp. The jealousy of the emperor Justinian
prevented Belisarius from obtaining a force sufficient to penetrate into
the country, and he wandered, with his small army, along the coast, still
displaying all the ability of a great commander. By conquest of some
of the maritime cities, Totila obtained a navy of four hundred vessels,
which visited the coast of Greece and met with an uninterrupted career




192             IUNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
of success. The defeat and death of the Gothic prince soon after, put
an end to his enterprises, naval and military.
Some estimate of the power of the Greek or eastern emperors, may
be formed from the detail of the armament which was prepared for the
conquest of the island of Crete. A fleet of one hundred and twelve galleys, and seventy-five vessels of the Pamphylian style, was equipped
in the capital, the islands of the 2Egean Sea, and the seaports of Asia,
Macedonia and Greece.  It carried thirty-four thousand mariners,
seven thousand three hundred and forty soldiers, seven hundred Russians, and five thousand and eighty-seven Mardaites, whose fathers had
been transplanted from the mountains of Libanus. Their pay, most
probably, for a month, was computed at thirty-four centenaries of gold,
or about one hundred and thirty-six thousand pounds sterling. These
forces were inadequate to the conquest of a petty island, yet sufficient
to establish a flourishing colony.
The Sclavonian pirates were a source of annoyance to the Greek
emperors, and their subjects.  The maritime cities which remained
faithful to the Roman empire, implored the protection of the Byzantine court; but they were merely advised to pay the barbarians an
annual tribute. The kingdom of Croatia had a long sea coast, with
capacious harbors, covered with a string of islands, and almost in sight
of the Italian shores.
The boats or brigantines of the Croats were constructed after the
fashion of the old Liburnians: one hundred and eighty vessels may
excite the idea of a respectable navy; but our seamen will smile at the
allowance of ten, or twenty, or forty, men for each of these ships of
war. They were gradually converted to the more honorable service of
commerce; yet the Sclavonian pirates were still frequent and dangerous;
and it was not before the close of the tenth century that the freedom
and sovereignty of the Gulf were effectually vindicated by the Venetian republic.  The ancestors of these Dalmatian kings were equally
removed from the use and abuse of navigation: they dwelt in the
White Croatia, in the inland regions of Silesia and Little Poland,
thirty days' journey, according to the Greek computation, from the sea
of darkness.
The Russians were also a source of terror to the reimnant of the
Romians. In a period of ninety years, the Russians made four attempts
to plunder the treasures of Constantinople.  The result was various,




ROME.                         193
but the motive, the means and the object were the same in these naval
expeditions. Their armaments were singular.
The Greek appellation of monoxyla, or single canoes, might be justly
applied to the bottom of their vessels. It was scooped out of the long
stem of a beach or willow, but the slight and narrow foundation was
raised and continued on either side with planks, till it attained the
length of sixty, and the height of about twelve feet. These boats
were built without a deck, but with two rudders and a mast; to move
with sails and oars; and to contain from forty to seventy men, with
their arms, and provisions of fresh water and salt fish. The first
trial of the Russians was made with two hundred boats; but when the
national force was exerted, they might arm against Constantinople a
thousand or twelve hundred vessels. Their fleet was not much inferior
to the royal navy of Agamemnon, but it was magnified in the eyes of
fear to ten or fifteen times the real proportion of its strength and numbers. Had the Greek emperors been endowed with foresight to discern, and vigor to prevent, perhaps they might have sealed with a
maritime force the mouth of the Borysthenes.  Their indolence
abandoned the coast of Anatolia to the calamities of a piratical war,
which, after an interval of six hundred years, again infested the
Euxine; but as long as the capital was respected, the sufferings of a distant province escaped the notice both of the prince and the historian.
The storm which had swept along from the Phasis and Trebizond, at
length burst on the Bosphorus of Thrace; a strait of fifteen miles,
in which the rude vessels of the Russians might have been stopped
and destroyed by a more skilful adversary. In their first'enterprise
under the princes of Kiow, they passed without opposition, and occupied the port of Constantinople in the absence of the emperor Michael,
the son of Theophilus.  Through a crowd of perils, he landed at the
palace stairs, and immediately repaired to a church of the Virgin
Mary.  By the advice of the patriarch, her garment, a precious relic,
was drawn from the sanctuary and dipped in the sea; and a seasonable tempest, which determined the retreat of the Russians, was de.
voutly ascribed to the mother of God. The silence of the Greeks may
inspire some doubt of the truth, or at least of the importance, of the
second attempt by Oleg, the guardian of the sons of Ruric. A strong
barrier of arms and fortifications defended the Bosphorus: they were
eluded by the usual expedient of drawing the boats over the Isthmus:
NT                17




194             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
and this simple operation is described in the national chronicles, as if
the Russian fleet had sailed over dry land with a brisk and favorable
gale.  The leader of the third armament, Igor, the son of Ruric, had
chosen a moment of weakness and decay, when the naval powers of
the empire were employed against the Saracens.  But if courage be
not wanting, the instruments of defence are seldom deficient. Fifteen
broken and decayed galleys were boldly launched against the enemy;
but instead of the single tube of Greek fire usually planted on the
prow, the sides and stern of each vessel were abundantly supplied
with that liquid combustible The engineers were dexterous; the
weather was propitious; many thousand Russians, who chose rather
to be drowned than burnt, leaped into the sea; and those who escaped
to the Thracian shore were inhumanly slaughtered by the peasants and
soldiers. Yet one-third of the canoes escaped into shallow water, and
the next spring Igor was again prepared to retrieve his disgrace and
claim his revenge. After a long peace, Jaroslaus, the great grandson
of Igor, resumed the same project of a naval invasion. A fleet under
the command of his son, was repulsed at the entrance of the Bosphorus by the same artificial flames. But in the rashness of pursuit,
the vanguard of the Greeks was encompassed by an irresistible multitude of boats and men; their provision of fire was probably exhausted; and twenty-four galleys were either taken, sunk, or destroyed.
Yet the threats or calamities of a Russian war were more frequently
diverted by treaty than by arms. In these naval hostilities, every
disadvantage was on the side of the Greeks; their savage enemy
afforded no mercy: his poverty promised no spoil: his impenetrable
retreat deprived the conqueror of the hope of revenge; and the pride or
weakness of empire indulged an opinion, that no honor could be gained
or lost in the intercourse with barbarians. At first their demands were
high and inadmissible, three pounds of gold for each soldier or mariner of the fleet: the Russian youth adhered to the design of conquest
and glory; but the counsels of moderation were recommended by the
hoary sages.  "Be content," they said, "with the liberal offers of
CGnsar; is it not far better to obtain without a combat the possession
of gold, silver, silks, and all the objects of our desires? Are we sure
of victory? Can we conclude a treaty with the sea? We do not tread
on the land; we float on the abyss of water, and a common death




ROME.                         195
hangs over our heads." The memory of these arctic fleets that seemed
to descend from the polar circle, left a deep impression of terror on
the Imperial city.  By the vulgar of every rank, it was asserted and
believed, that an equestrian statue in the square of Taurus was secretly
inscribed with a prophecy, how the Russians, in the last days, should
become masters of Constantinople. In our own time, a Russian armament, instead of sailing from the Borysthenes, has circumnavigated
the continent of Europe; and the Turkish capital has been threatened
by a squadron of strong and lofty ships of war, each of which, with
its naval science and thundering artillery, could have sunk or scattered a hundred canoes, such as those of their ancestors. Perhaps the
present generation may yet behold the accomplishment of the prediction, of a rare prediction, of which the style is unambiguous and the
date unquestionable.*
At this period, the empire of the world was divided between the Saracens, the Franks.and the subjects of the Byzantine emperors. The
Saracen squadrons were driven from the coasts of Italy by the Byzantine fleets, but their numbers and their thirst for plunder induced them
to return whenever opportunity offered.  They were finally expelled
from Italy by the Normans, under Robert Guiscard.  This ambitious
Norman chief then resolved to attempt the conquest of the Roman
empire to the east. He procured the services of a person whom he
proclaimed as the rightful emperor Michael, and then set about making preparations for the expedition intended to seat him on the throne.
After two years' toil, the land and naval forces were assembled at
Otranto, the extreme promontory of Italy. Robert was accompanied
by his wife, who fought by his side, and his son Bohemond. Thirteen hundred knights of Norman race, or discipline, formed the
sinews of the army, which might be swelled to thirty thousand followers of every denomination.  The men, the horses, the arms, the
engines, the wooden towers, covered with raw hides, were embarked
on board one hundred and fifty vessels: the transports had been built
in the ports of Italy, and the galleys were supplied by the alliance of
the republic of Ragusa.
At the mouth of the Adriatic Gulf, the shores of Italy and Epirus
incline towards each other. The space between Brundusium and Durazzo, the Roman passage, is no more than one hundred miles; at the
last station of Otranto, it is contracted to fifty; and this narrow dis.
* Gibbon.




196             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
tance had suggested to Pyrrhus and Pompey, the sublime or extravagant idea of a bridge.  Before the general embarkation, the Norman
duke despatched Bohemond with fifteen galleys to seize or threaten
the Isle of Corfu, to survey the opposite coast, and to secure a harbor
in the neighborhood of Vallona for the landing of the troops. They
passed and landed without perceiving an enemy; and this successful
experiment displayed the neglect and decay of the naval power of the
Greeks. The islands of Epirus and the maritime towns were subdued
by the arms or the name of Robert, who led his fleet and army from
Corfu (I use the modern appellation) to the siege of Durazzo. That
city, the western key of the empire, was guarded by ancient renown,
and recent fortifications, by George Palceologus, a patrician, victorious
in the oriental wars, and a numerous garrison of Albanians and Macedonians, who, in every age, have maintained the character of soldiers. In the prosecution of his enterprise, the courage of Guiscard
was assailed by every form of danger and mischance. In the most
propitious season of the year, as his fleet passed along the coast, a
storm of wind and snow unexpectedly arose: the Adriatic was swelled
by the raging blast of the south, and a new shipwreck confirmed the
old infamy of the Acroceraunian rocks. The sails, the masts, and
the oars, were shattered or torn away; the sea and shore were covered
with the fragments of vessels, with arms and dead bodies; and the
greatest part of the provisions were either drowned or damaged. The
ducal galley was laboriously rescued from the waves, and Robert
halted seven days on the adjacent cape, to collect the relics of his loss,
and revive the drooping spirits of his soldiers. The Normans were no
longer the bold and experienced mariners who had explored the ocean
from Greenland to Mount Atlas, and who smiled at the petty dangers
of the Mediterranean. They had wept during the tempest; they were
alarmed by the hostile approach of the Venetians, who had been
solicited by the prayers and promises of the Byzantine court. The
first day's action was not disadvantageous to Bohemond, a beardless
youth, who led the naval powers of his father. All night the galleys
of the republic lay on their anchors in the form of a crescent; and the
victory of the second day was decided by the dexterity of their evolutions, the station of their archers, the weight of their javelins, and
the borrowed aid of the Greek fire. The Apulian and Ragusian vessels fled to the shore, several were cut from their cables, and dragged




ROME.                         197
away by the conqueror; and a sally from the town carried slaughter
and dismay to the tents of the Norman duke.  A  seasonable relief
was poured into Durazzo, and as soon as the besiegers had lost the
command of the sea, the islands and maritime towns withdrew from the
camp the supply of tribute and provision. That camp was soon afflicted
with a pestilential disease; five hundred knights perished by an inglorious death; and the list of burials (if all could obtain a decent burial)
amounted to ten thousand persons. Under these calamities, the mind
of Guiscard alone was firm and invincible; and while he collected new
forces from Apulia and Sicily, he battered, or scaled, or sapped, the
walls of Durazzo.  But his industry and valor were encountered by
equal valor and more perfect industry. A movable turret, of a size
and capacity to contain five hundred soldiers, had been rolled forwards
to the foot of the rampart: but the descent of the door or drawbridge
was checked by an enormous beam, and the wooden structure was constantly consumed by artificial flames.
The emperor Alexius took vigorous measures to stop the progress
of the Normans.  He collected an army of seventy thousand men and
advanced to meet the invaders. Robert Guiscard resolved to give the
emperor battle, despite his vastly superior numbers, and to urge his
men to fight desperately, he ordered all their ships to be burnt, and
thus cut off their means of retreat.  The battle was obstinate and
bloody. The shore was lined with the Venetian galleys, which played
engines incessantly on the auxiliaries of the Normans who attempted
to retreat.  But the spirit of the Norman leaders saved them. Gaita,
the warrior wife of Robert, displayed the most undaunted heroism and
consummate skill, and her husband did every thing to be expected from
his great reputation as a commander. The army of Alexius was defeated and the emperor barely escaped with his life. The various
losses of the Normans, however, induced Robert to return to Italy,
whither with the remnant of the army, Bohemond soon followed
him.
The Norman enemy of the Romans soon prepared another expedition. One hundred and twenty vessels were assembled in the harbor
of Brundusium, and a new and more powerful army embarked in
them. Alexius labored diligently to restore the naval forces of the
empire. He obtained from Venice, thirty-six transports, fourteen galleys, and nine galliots, or ships of extraordinary size and strength. By
17*




198             UNIVERSAL NAVAL IHISTORY.
the union of the Greeks and Venitians, the Adriatic was covered with
a hostile fleet; but their own neglect, or the vigilance of Robert, the
change of a wind, or the shelter of a mist, opened a free passage;
and the Norman troops were safely disembarked on the coast of Epirus.
With twenty strong and well appointed galleys, their intrepid duke
immediately sought the enemy, and though more accustomed to fight
on horseback, he trusted his own life, and the lives of his brother and
two sons, to the event of a naval. combat. The dominion of the sea
was disputed in three engagements, in sight of the Isle of Corfu: in
the two former, the skill and numbers of the allies were superior; but
in the third, the Normans obtained a final and complete victory. The
light brigaitines of the Greeks were scattered in ignominious flight;
the nine castles of the Venetians maintained a most obstinate conflict;
seven were sunk, two were taken; two thousand five hundred captives
implored in vain the mercy of the victor; and the daughter of Alexius
deplores the loss of thirteen thousand of his subjects or allies. The
want of experience had been supplied by the genius of Guiscard; and
each evening, when he had sounded a retreat he calmly explored the
causes of his repulse, and invented new methods how to remedy his
own defects, and to baffle the advantages of the enemy. The winter
season suspended his progress: with the return of spring he again
aspired to the conquest of Constantinople; but, instead of traversing
the hills of Epirus, he turned his arms against Greece and the islands,
where the spoils would repay the labor, and where the land and sea
forces might pursue their joint operations with vigor and effect. But,
in the Isle of Cephalonia, his projects were fatally blasted by an epidemical disease: Robert himself, in the seventieth year of his age,
expired in his tent; and a suspicion of poison was imputed, by public
rumor, to his wife, or to the Greek emperor.  This premature death
might allow a boundless scope for the imagination of his future exploits; and the event sufficiently declares, that the Norman greatness
was founded on his life. Without the appearance of an enemy, a victorious army, dispersed or retreated in disorder and consternation;
and Alexius, who had trembled for his empire, rejoiced in his deliverance. The galley which transported the remains of Guiscard was shipwrecked on the Italian shore; but the duke's body was recovered
from the sea, and deposited in the sepulchre of Venusia.
The successors of Robert somewhat revived the old maritime power




ROME.                        199
of Sicily. Numerous fleets were fitted out in the ports of that island,
and they achieved some important conquests on the coast of Africa;
but they were lost in the distractions which produced the decline of
the Norman power in the southern part of Italy, and in Sicily. A
fleet of seventy vessels, under George, the Sicilian admiral, appeared
before Corfu, and both the island and city fell into his power. He
then ravaged the coast of Greece and rescued the king of France, who,
in returning from  an unfortunate crusade, had been intercepted by
order of the Byzantine emperor.  But, after appearing before Constantinople and defying the emperor, George lost nineteen galleys,
which were separated and taken by the fleets of the empire and the
Venetian republic.
The emperor Manuel, celebrated as the Alexander and Hercules of
his age, determined to make an effort to restore the greatness of the
old Roman empire.  To this end he equipped a fleet and army, and
while he engaged in a war with the Turks and Hungarians, he entrusted the command of the expedition to Italy to Paleologus, his
lieutenant, That commander was successful in his campaign; but the
sudden enmity of the Venetians being excited, their fleet of one hundred galleys swept the coast of Dalmatia and Greece, and restored the
confidence of the Pope Alexander III., who pronounced the final separation of the empire of Rome and Constantinople. The Norman king
of Sicily acknowledged himself the military vassal of the Roman empire, and this shadow of dominion procured a truce of thirty years
from the Byzantine court. At the end of that time, the king of Sicily
invaded Greece with a fleet and army, and gained -many victories on
the sea of Mamora, or Propontis, and on land. Yet at the end of the
war, the Sicilian monarchy was utterly annihilated.
The description of the invasion of the eastern empire by the fleets
and armies of the western states belongs to the naval history of those
states. It will be sufficient here to state that the invasion convinced
the Greeks that the capital of the Roman empire was not impregnable.
Her fleets often encountered the skilfully-managed vessels of the Geonese and Venetians; but always without success. The maritime cities
on the islands and coasts of the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean Sea, were successively subdued by the Turks, who continued to
cast longing eyes towards the rich capital of the eastern empire. A
fleet of three hundred vessels, carrying an army of twenty-nine thou



200            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
sand men, under the command of the Turkish emir of Ionia, besieged
Thessalonica, threatened Constantinople and pillaged the neighboring
country. But it was forced to return to defend the coast of Ionia from
the united fleets of Venice, Cyprus, and the Pope. The Turkish communication between Asia and Europe was secured in the reign of Bajazet, who stationed a fleet of galleys at Galipoli, to command the Hellespont. This was one more step towards the destruction of the Roman
empire of the east.
At length, Constantine, the last of the emperors, ascended the tottering throne at Constantinople. Mahomet the Second, pursuing, with
a greater energy, the designs of his predecessors, determined to effect
the destruction or capture of the Imperial city.  Constantine was a
worthy successor of the great founder of Constantinople, and, impressing some of his own spirit into his degenerate people, he endeavored to make the city as impregnable as it had formerly been. Mahomet made every preparation for the long meditated attack.  He
constructed a fort on the shores of the Bosphorus, which compelled
all vessels passing to pay tribute. One Venetian vessel which refused to comply was sunk; the men escaped in a boat, but they were
subsequently captured and taken to the Porte, when they were beheaded. The sultan availed himself of the recent discovery of gunpowder and its use. His artillery was superior to any that had yet appeared in the world.
All the Greek cities and fortifications on the Black Sea surrendered
on the first summons. Selybria alone withstood a siege or blockade;
but on the approach of the dreaded Mahomet himself, all were suppliant. From that place he advanced with his troops in battle array,
towards the imperial city, and on the 6th of April, began the siege.
The navy of the besiegers was not as formidable as the army. The
Propontis was covered with three hundred and twenty sail; but of
these, no more than eighteen could be rated as galleys of war; and
the far greater part must be degraded to the condition of store-ships
and transports. The number of defenders of Constantinople was
reduced to four thousand nine hundred and seventy Romans; though
there was more than one hundred thousand inhabitants.  To these
were adde'd a body of two thousand Genoese, under the noble John
Justiniani. A strong chain was drawn across the mouth of the harbor, and it was supported by some Greek and Italian vessels of war.




ROME.                         201
The ships of every Christian nation, that successively arrived from
Candia and the Black Sea, were detained for service.
The city was inaccessible on two sides of the triangle on which it
was built; upon one was the Propontis, and upon the other the harbor.  The third side was defended by a double wall and a ditch one
hundred feet deep. The cannon of the Turks was opened upon this
side, and fourteen batteries thundered against the wall at the same
time. The tremendous fire was well returned by the Romans, who were
now filled with the ancient spirit. The old battering ram was brought
into play by the indefatigable Turks, thus producing a union of the
ancient and modern modes of destruction.  Through the negotiation
of Constantine, the islands in the Archipelago, the Morea and Sicily
agreed to furnish the city with supplies.  As early as the beginning
of April, five great ships, equipped for merchandize and war, would
have sailed from the harbor of Chios, had not the wind blown from
the north. One of these ships bore the Imperial flag; the remaining
four belonged to the Genoese; and they were laden with wheat and
barley, with wine, oil, and vegetables, and, above all, with soldiers
and mariners, for the service of the capital. After a tedious delay,
a gentle breeze, and, on the second day, a strong gale from the south,
carried them through the Hellespont and the Propontis: but the city
was already invested by sea and land; and the Turkish fleet, at the
entrance of the Bosphorus, was stretched from shore to shore, in the
form of a crescent, to intercept, or at least to repel, these bold auxiliaries
The reader who has present to his mind the geopraphical picture of
Constantinople, will conceive and admire the greatness of the spectacle. The five Christian ships continued to advance with joyful shouts,
and a full press both of sails and oars, against a hostile fleet of three
hundred vessels; and the rampart, the camp, the coasts of Europe and
Asia, were lined with innumerable spectators, who anxiously awaited
the event of this momentous succor. At the first view that event
could not appear doubtful; the superiority of the Moslems was beyond
all measure or account; and, in a calm, their numbers and valor must
inevitably have prevailed. But their hasty and imperfect navy had
been created, not by the genius of the people, but by the will of the
sultan: in the height of their prosperity, the Turks have acknowledged
that if God had given thema the earth, he had left the sea to the infidels; and a series of defeats, a rapid progress of decay, has established




202             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the truth of their modest confession. Except eighteen galleys of some
force, the rest of their fleet consisted of open boats, rudely constructed
and awkwardly managed, crowded with troops, and destitute of cannon; and since courage arises in a great measure from the consciousness of strength, the bravest of the Janizaries might tremble on a new
element. In the Christian squadron, five stout and lofty ships were
guided by skilful pilots, and manned with the veterans of Italy and
Greece, long practised in the arts and perils of the sea. Their weight
was directed to sink or scatter the weak obstacles that impeded their
passage; their artillery swept the waters; their liquid fire was poured
on the heads of the adversaries, who, with the design of boarding,
presumed to approach them; and the winds and waves are always on
the side of the ablest navigators.  In this conflict, the Imperial vessel, which had been almost overpowered, was rescued by the Genoese -
but the Turks, in a distant and a closer attack, were twice repulsed with
considerable loss.  Mahomet himself sat on horseback on the beach,
to encourage their valor by his voice and presence, by the promise of
reward, and by fear more potent than the fear of the enemy.  The
passions of his soul, and even the gestures of his body, seemed to imitate the actions of the combatants; and, as if he had been the lord
of nature, he spurred his horse with a fearless and impotent effort into
the sea. His loud reproaches, and the clamors of the camp, urged
the Ottomans to a third attack, more fatal and bloody than the two
former. They fled in disorder to the shores of Europe and Asia, while
the Christian squadron, triumphant and unhurt, steered along the
Bosphorus, and securely anchored within the chain of the harbor. In
the confidence of victory, they boasted that the whole Turkish power
must have yielded to their arms; but the admiral, or captain bashaw
found some consolation for a painful wound in his eye, by representing that accident as the cause of his defeat.
This timely supply raised the hopes of the Greeks. But it was the
only succor they received from the West. A moderate armament
might have saved the relic of the Roman greatness, and checked the
progress of the Turks. It became evident to Mahomet, that the reduction of the city was hopeless unless a double attack could be made
from the harbor as well as from the land; but the harbor was inaccessible: an impenetrable chain was now defended by eight large ships,
more than twenty of a smaller size, with several galleys and sloops;




ROME.                          203
and, instead of forcing this barrier, the Turks might apprehend a naval
sally, and a second encounter in the open sea. In this perplexity, the
genius of Mahomet conceived and executed a plan of a bold and marvellous cast, of transporting by land his lighter vessels and military
stores from the Bosphorus into the higher part of the harbor. The
distance is about ten miles; the ground is uneven, and was overspread
with thickets; and, as the road must be opened behind the suburb of
Galata, their free passage or total destruction must depend on the option of the Genoese. But these selfish merchants were ambitious of
the favor of being last devoured; and the deficiency of art was supplied by the strength of obedient myriads. A level way was covered
with a broad platform of strong and solid planks; and to render them
more slippery and smooth, they were anointed with the fat of sheep
and oxen. Fourscore light galleys and brigantines, of fifty and thirty
oars, were disembarked on the Bosphorus shore; arranged successively
on rollers; and drawn forwards by the power of men and pulleys.
Two guides or pilots were stationed at the helm, and the prow of each
vessel: the sails were unfurled to the winds;. and the labor was cheered
by song and acclamation. In the course of a single night, this Turkish fleet painfully climbed the hill, steered over the plain, and was
launched from the declivity into the shallow waters of the harbor, far
above the molestation of the deeper vessels of the Greeks.
As soon as Mahomet had occupied the upper harbor with a fleet
and army, he constructed, in the narrowest part, a bridge, or rather
mole, of fifty cubits in breadth, and one hundred in length: it was
formed of casks and hogsheads; joined with rafters, linked with iron,
and covered with a solid floor. On this floating battery he planted one
of his largest cannon, while the fourscore galleys, with troops and
scaling ladders, approached the most accessible side, which had formerly been stormed by the Latin conquerors. The indolence of the
Christians has been accused for not destroying these unfinished works;
but their fire, by a superior fire, was controlled and silenced; nor were
they wanting in a nocturnal attempt to burn the vessels as well as the
bridge of the Sultan. His vigilance prevented their approach; their
foremost galiots were sunk or taken; forty youths, the bravest of
Italy and Greece, were inhumanly massacred at his command; nor
could the emperor's grief be assuaged by the just though cruel retaliation, of exposing from the walls the heads of two hundred and sixty




204              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Mussulman captives.  After a siege of forty days, the fate of Constantinople could no longer be averted.  The diminutive garrison was
exhausted by a double attack: the fortifications, which had stood for
ages against hostile violence, were dismantled on all sides by the Ottoman cannon: many breaches were opened; and near the gate of St.
Romanus, four towers had been levelled with the ground.  For the
payment of his feeble and mutinous troops, Constantine was compelled
to despoil the churches with the promise of a fourfold restitution; and
his sacrilege offered a new reproach to the enemies of the union. A
spirit of discord impaired the remnant of the Christian strength; the
Genoese and Venetian auxiliaries, asserted the pre-eminence of their
respective service; and Justiniani and the great duke, whose ambition
was not extinguished by the common danger, accused each other of
treachery and cowardice.
Mahomet then stimulated his soldiers to exertion by promises of rich
rewards in this world and the paradise of the 3Mussulman, and prepared for the final effort to reduce the city. The determined leaders
of the Romans, although without hope themselves, strove to animate
their heroic countrymen and to prepare for a desperate resistance.
In the confusion of darkness, an assailant may sometimes succeed;
but in this great and general attack, the military judgment and astrological knowledge of Mahomet advised him to expect the morning,
the memorable twenty-ninth of May, in the fourteen hundred and
fifty-third year of the Christian Vera. The preceding night had been
strenuously employed: the troops, the cannons, and the fascines, were
advanced to the edge of the ditch, which in many parts presented a
smooth and level passage to the breach; and his fourscore galleys
almost touched, with the prows and their scaling ladders, the less
defensible walls of the harbor. Under pain of death, silence was enjoined: but the physical laws of motion and sound are not obedient
to discipline or fear; each individual might suppress his voice and
measure his footsteps; but the march and labor of thousands must
inevitably produce a strange confusion of dissonant clamors, which
reached the ears of the watchmen of the towers. At daybreak, without the customary signal of the morning gun, the Turks assaulted the
city by sea and land; and the similitude of a twined or twisted thread
has been applied to the closeness and continuity of their line of attack.
The foremost ranks consisted of the refuse of the host, a voluntary




ROME.                         205
crowd who fought without order or command; of the feebleness of
age or childhood, of peasants and vagrants, and of all who had joined
the camp in the blind hope of plunder and martyrdom. The common
impulse drove them onwards to the wall; the most audacious to climb
were instantly precipitated; and not a dart, not a bullet, of the Christians was idly wasted on the accumulated throng. But their strength
and, ammunition were exhausted in this laborious defence; the ditch
was filled with the bodies of the slain; they supported the footsteps
of their companions; and of this devoted vanguard the death was
more serviceable than the life.  Under their respective bashaws and
sanjaks the troops of Anatolia and Romania were successively led to
the charge: their progress was various and doubtful; but, after a conflict of two hours, the Greeks still maintained, and improved their advantage; and the voice of the emperor was heard, encouraging his
soldiers to achieve, by a last effort, the deliverance of their country.
In that fatal moment, the Janizaries arose, fresh, vigorous and invincible. The sultan, himself, on horseback, with an iron mace in his
hand, was the spectator and judge of their valor: he was surrounded
by ten thousand of his domestic troops, whom he reserved for the decisive occasion; and the tide of battle was directed and impelled by
his voice and eye. His numerous ministers of justice were posted behind the line, to urge, to restrain, and to punish; and if danger was
in the front, shame and inevitable death were in the rear, of the fugitives.  The cries of fear and of pain were drowned in the martial
music of drums, trumpets, and attaballs; and experience has proved,
that the mechanical operation of sounds, by quickening the circulation
of the blood and spirits, will, act on the human machine more forcibly
than the eloquence of reason and honor. From the lines, the galleys,
and the bridge, the Ottoman artillery thundered on all sides; and the
camp and city, the Greeks and the Turks, were involved in a cloud of
smoke which could only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction of the Roman empire. The single combats of the heroes of
Listory or fable amuse our fancy and engage our affections: the skilful
evolutions of war may inform  the mind, and improve a necessary,
though pernicious, science. But in the uniform and odious pictures
of a general assault, all is blood, and horror, and confusion.
The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed to the bullet,
or arrow, which pierced the gauntlet of John Justiniani. The sight
18




206            UNIVERSAL NAVAL -HISTORY.
of his blood and the exquisite pain, appalled the courage of the chief,
whose arms and counsels were the firmest rampart of the city. As he
withdrew from his station in quest of a surgeon, his flight was perceived and stopped by the indefatigable emperor.  " Your wound,"
exclaimed Palveologus, "is slight; the danger is pressing; your presence is necessary; and whither will you retire?"  "I will retire,"
said the trembling Genoese, "by the same road which God has opened
to the Turks;" and at these words he hastily passed through one of
the breaches of the inner wall. By this pusillanimous act he stained
the honors of a military life; and the few days which he survived in
Galata, or the Isle of Chios, were embittered by his own and the public reproach.  His example was imitated by the greatest part of the
Latin auxiliaries, and the defence began to slacken when the attack
was pressed with redoubled vigor. The number of the Ottomans was.fity, perhaps a hundred, times superior to that of the Christians; the
double walls were reduced by the cannon to a heap of ruins; in a circuit of several miles, some places must be found more easy of access,
or more feebly guarded; and if the besiegers could penetrate in a single
point, the whole city was irrecoverably lost. The first who deserved
the sultan's reward was Hassan the Janizary, of gigantic stature and
strength. With his cimeter in one hand and his buckler in the other,
he ascended the outward fortification: of the thirty Janizaries, who
were emulous of his valor, eighteen perished in the bold adventure.
Hassan and his twelve companions had reached the summit: the giant
was precipitated from the rampart: he rose on one knee, and was
again oppressed by a shower of darts and stones. But his success had
proved that the achievement was possible: the walls and towers were
instantly covered with a swarm of Turks; and the Greeks, now driven
from the vantage ground, were overwhelmed by increasing multitudes.
Amidst these multitudes, the emperor, who accomplished all the duties of a general and a soldier, was long seen and finally lost. The
nobles, who fought round his person, sustained, till their last breath,
the honorable names of Palmologus and Cantacuzene: his mournful
exclamation was heard, " Cannot there be found a Christian to cut off
my head?" and his last fear was that of falling alive into the hands of
the infidels. The prudent despair of Constantine cast away the purple: amidst the tumult he fell by an unknown hand, and his body
was buried under a mountain of the slain. After his death, resistance




ROME.                        207
and order were no more: the Greeks fled towards the city; and many
were pressed and stifled in the narrow pass of the gate of St. Romanus.  The victorious Turks rushed through the breaches of the inner
wall; and as they advanced into the streets, they were soon joined by
their brethren, who had, incontinently, forced the gate Phenar on the
side of the harbor.  In the first heat of the pursuit, about two thousand Christians were put to the sword; but avarice soon prevailed over
cruelty; and the victors acknowledged, that they should immediately
have given quarter if the valor of the emperor and his chosen bands
had not prepared them for a similar opposition in every part of the
capital.  It was thus, after a siege of fifty-three days, that Constantinople, which had defied the power of Chosroes, the Chagan, and the
caliphs, was irretrievably subdued by the arms of Mahomet the Second.
Her empire only had been subverted by the Latins: her religion was
trampled in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.*
Thus fell the last relic of the great empire of the Caesars. It had
lingered long after its strength had departed, and the Romans, whose
military and naval power had conquered the world, met the fate they
inflicted upon others.
* Gibbon.




A VENETIAN GALLEY.
CHAPTER XIV,
HEE NAVAL HISTORY OF VENICE, PISA AND GENOA.
HE decline of the Roman Empire occasioned
the rise of a number of maritime cities,
/(-g JJL E i      which rose to wealth and power, and established independent governments for themselves.  Their greatness depended entirely
upon their commercial importance, and it
U- Ed=       elsewhere.  Of these cities, the most conspicuous were Venice, Pisa, and Genoa.
Their history, by means of their rivalry and mutual hostility, is so
interwoven that it will necessarily be comprehended in one chapter.
Pisa was distinguished as a commercial city from the days of the
Othos.  From her ports, and those of Genoa, the earliest naval armaments of the western nations were sent against the corsairs, who
infested the Mediterranean coast. In the eleventh century, she under(208)




VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                  209
took, and, after a long struggle, succeeded in the conquest of the
island of Sardinia, then subject to a Moorish chieftain.  The cost of,the expedition was defrayed by several noble families, who, after the
conquest, divided the island into districts, which they held as fiefs of the
republic. At a later period, the Balearic isles were subjected to her
sway, but she did not long retain them.  Her naval power was supported by her commerce. A writer of the twelfth century reproaches
her with the Jews, the Arabians and other "monsters of the deep,"
who thronged her streets.
The crusaders poured fresh wealth into the lap of the maritime
Italian cites.  In some of these expeditions, the greater portion of the
armaments were conveyed by sea to Palestine, and freighted the vessels of Pisa, Genoa and Venice. Pisa maintained a large share of
commerce as well as of naval power till the end of the thirteenth century. Aboiut that time, we are told, she was in great power; possessing
Sardinia, Corsica, and Elba.  Her people almost ruled the seas, with
their ships and merchandize.
It would have been singular if two neighboring cities, rivals in every
mercantile occupation and naval enterprise, should not have been perpetual enemies of each other. It appears, however, that no war broke out
between Pisa and Genoa until 1119. From this time they were almost
constantly at war. For two centuries, an equality of forces, and of
courage and skill, kept the conflict uncertain.  Their battles were
numerous, and sometimes decisive; but public spirit and resources were
called out by defeat, and new armaments took the place of the lost ones.
But Pisa was destined to be the Carthage, if Genoa was not the Rome
of the war.  In a battle off the little island of Meloria, her whole
navy was destroyed. This took place in 1284. The resources of
the state had been exhausted before, and this was the last effort by
private contribution, to equip a fleet. After the defeat, the triumphant Genoese behaved with great cruelty. A large number of prisoners
were taken and confined for years in the prisons of Genoa.
From  the time of the battle of Meloria, Pisa ceased to be a maritime power.  Her commerce dwindled with her greatness and her
colonies were easily taken from her by more powerful neighbors; and
finally the Florentines purchased a city which had once been equal to
their own, for four hundred thousand florins.
The naval history of Genoa is involved in that of Pisa.  As allies
0            18*




210             UNIVERSAL NAVAL, HISTORY.
against the Saracen corsairs, as co-rivals in commerce with those Saracens, as co-operators in the great expeditions of the crusades, or engaged in battle with each other, these two free cities stand in continual parallel.  Genoa conquered Corsica at the same time that Pisa
reduced Sardinia, and her conquest was longer preserved. She possessed a greater extent of sea coast than Pisa, and her territory was
much more extensive. But her commercial prosperity dates from the
recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks, in 1261. Jealous of the
Venetians, the Genoese assisted Palseologus in overturning that usurpation. They obtained, in consequence, the town of Pisa, over against
Constantinople, as an exclusive settlement.  This colony frequently
defied the Greek capital with its armed galleys and fearless seamen.
Extending her commerce into the Black Sea, Genoa aggravated the
animosity of Venice. As Pisa's maritime greatness faded, this new
power appeared to dispute the dominion of the seas.  The first war
between Venice and Genoa occurred in 1258.  The second was not
till after the victory of Meloria had crushed her more ancient rival. It
broke out in 1293, and was prosecuted with determined fury and a
great display of naval strength on both sides. The usual fleets of the
rival powers numbered from  seventy to ninety galleys; but the
Genoese equipped one armament of one hundred and fifty-five galleys,
each containing from two hundred and twenty to three hundred sailors.
The naval exploits of these two powerful republics were brilliant,
and exhibited much skill and courage. The forces were nearly equal,
and no decisive advantage could be gained on either side. One memorable encounter in the sea of Marmora is worthy of mention. There
the Genoese fought and conquered the Venetians, the Catalans and
the Greeks.
But the most remarkable war, and that productive of the greatest
consequences, was one that commenced in 1378, after several acts of
hostility in the Levant, wherein the Venetians appear to have been
the principal aggressors. Genoa did not stand alone in this war. A
formidable confederacy was exerted against Venice, who had given provocation to many enemies. Of this Francis Carrara, signor of Padua,
and the king of Hungary, were the leaders. But the principal
struggle was, as usual, upon the waves.  During the winter of 1378, a
Genoese fleet kept the sea, and ravaged the shores of Dalmatia. The Venetian armament had been weakened by an epidemic disease, and when




VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                    211
Vittor Pisani, their admiral, gave battle to the enemy, he was compelled to fight with a hasty conscription of landsmen against the best
sailors in the world. Entirely defeated, and taking refuge at Venice,
with only seven galleys, Pisani was cast into prison, as if his ill fortune had been his crime. Meanwhile, the Genoese fleet, augmented
by a strong reinforcement, rode before the long natural ramparts that
separate the lagunes of Venice from the Adriatic. Six passages intersect the islands, which constitute this barrier, besides the broader outlets of Brondolo and Fossone, through which the waters of the Brenta
and the Adige are discharged. The lagune itself, as is well known,
consists of extremely shallow water, unnavigable for any vessel, except
along the course of artificial and intricate passages. Notwithstanding
the apparent difficulties of such an enterprise, Pietro Doria, the
Genoese admiral, determined to reduce the city.  His first successes
gave him reason to hope. He forced the passage, and stormed the
little town of Chioggia, built upon the inside of the isle bearing that
name, about twenty-five miles south of Venice.  Nearly four thousand prisoners fell here into his hands; an augury, as it seemed, of a
more splendid triumph. In the consternation this misfortune inspired
at Venice, the first impulse was to ask for peace. The ambassadors
carried with them seven Genoese prisoners, as a sort of peace-offering
to the admiral, and were empowered to make large and humiliating
concessions, reserving nothing but the liberty of Venice. Francis Carrara strongly urged his allies to treat for peace. But the Genoese
were stimulated by long hatred, and intoxicated by this unexpected
opportunity of revenge.  Doria, calling the ambassadors into council,
thus addressed them, " Ye shall obtain no peace from us, I swear to
you, nor from the lord of Padua, till first we have put a curb in the
mouths of those wild horses that stand upon the place of St. Mark.
When they are bridled, you shall have enough of peace. Take back
with you your Genoese captives, for I am coming within a few days
to release both them and their companions from your prisons." When
this answer was reported to the senate, they prepared to defend themselves with the characteristic firmness of their government. Every eye
was turned towards a great man unjustly punished, their admiral Vittor Pisani. He was called out of prison to defend his country amidst
general acclamations; but equal in magnanimity and simple republican patriotism to the noblest characters of antiquity, Pisani repressed




212             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the favoring voices of the multitude, and bade them reserve their enthusiasm for St. Mark, the symbol and war cry of Venice. Under
the vigorous command of Pisani, the canals were fortified or occupied
by large vessels, armed with artillery; thirty-four galleys were
equipped; every citizen contributed according to his power; in the
entire want of commercial resources, (for Venice had not a merchantship during this war,) private plate was melted; and the senate held
out the promise of ennobling thirty families, who should be most forward in this strife of patriotism.
The new fleet was so ill provided with seamen, that for some months
the admiral employed them only in maneuvring along the canals.
From some unaccountable supineness, or more probably from the insuperable difficulties of the undertaking, the Genoese made no assault
upon the city. They had, indeed, fair grounds to hope its reduction
by famine or despair.  Every  access to the continent was cut off
by the troops of Padua; and the king of Hungary had mastered
almost all the Venetian towns in Istria and along the Dalmatian coast.
The Doge Contarini, taking the chief command, appeared at length
with his fleet near Chioggia, before the Genoese were aware. They
were less aware of his secret design. lie pushed one of the large
round vessels then called cocche into the narrow passage of Chioggia,
which connects the lagune with the sea, and mooring her athwart the
channel, interrupted that communication. Attacked with fury by the
enemy, this vessel went down on the spot, and the doge improved his
advantage, by sinking loads of stones, until the passage become absolutely unnavigable. It was still possible for the Genoese fleet to follow the principal canal of the lagune towards Venice and the northern
passages, or to sail out of it by the harbor of Brondolo; but whether
from confusion or from miscalculating the dangers of their position, they
suffered the Venetians to close the canal upon them  by the same
means they had used at Chioggia, and even to place their fleet in the
entrance of Brondolo, so near to the lagune that the Genoese could
not form their ships in line of battle.  The circumstances of the two
combatants were thus entirely changed. But the Genoese fleet, though,
besieged in Chioggia, was impregnable, and their command of the
land secured them from famine. Venice, notwithstanding her unexpected success, was still very far from secure; it was difficult for the
doge to keep his position through the winter; and if the enemy




VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                 213
could appear in open sea, the risks of combat were extremely hazardous. It is said, that the senate deliberated upon transporting the seat
of their liberty to Candia, and that the doge had announced his intention to raise the siege of Chioggia, if expected succors did not arrive
by the first of January, 1380. On that very day, Carlo Zeno, an admiral, who, ignorant of the dangers of his country, had been supporting the honor of her flag in the Levant, and on the coasts of Laguria,
appeared with a reinforcement of eighteen galleys, and a store of provisions.  From that moment the confidence of Venice revived.  The
fleet, now superior in strength to the enemy, began to attack them
with vivacity.  After several months of obstinate resistance, the Genoese, whom their republic had ineffectually attempted to relieve by
a fresh armament, blocked up in the town of Chioggia, and pressed
by hunger, were obliged to surrender.  Nineteen galleys only out of
forty-eight were in good condition; and the crews were equally diminished in the ten months of their occupation of Chioggia. The pride
of Genoa was deemed to be justly humbled; and even her own historian confesses, that God would not suffer so noble a city as Venice
to become the spoil of a conqueror.
Each of the two republics had sufficient reason to lament their mutual prejudices, and the selfish cupidity of their merchants, which
usurps in all maritime countries the name of patriotism. Though the
capture of Chioggia did not terminate the war, both parties were exhausted, and willing, next year, to accept the mediation of the duke of
Savoy. By the peace of Turin, Venice surrendered most of her territorial possessions to the king of Hungary.  That prince, and Francis Carrara, were the only gainers. Genoa obtained the isle of Tenedos,
one the original subjects of dispute; a poor indemnity for her losses.
Though, upon a hasty view, the result of this war appears more unfavorable to Venice, yet in fact it is the epoch of the decline of Genoa.
From this time she never commanded the ocean with such navies as
before; her commerce gradually went into decay; and the fifteenth
century, the most splendid in the annals of Venice, is, till recent
times, the most ignominious in those of Genoa. But this was partly
owing to internal dissensions, by which her liberty, as well as glory,
was for a while suspended.
The naval history of Venice is more extensive than that of either
Pisa or Genoa; and her greatness, founded upon maritime power, was




214             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
of a longer duration. The situation of the city, "throned on a hundred isles," marked it as a place fitted for attaining the dominion of
the sea.  It was founded, A. D., 452, by such of the inhabitants of
Aquielia, Venice, Mantua, and other Italian cities as escaped the sword
of the Huns, under Attila. About thirty years after the building of
the city, the Venetians became masters of a fleet, and land forces.
They then engaged in a quarrel with the Lombards, and distinguished
themselves against the Italian pirates) who had committed depredations on their coasts.
In 764, the Heracleans and Jesulans, subjects to the republic, having
formed some designs against the state, put themselves under the protection of Charlemagne. That conqueror not finding it convenient to
give them present assistance, settled them  in Malamocco, until he
could give them more effectual succor. The Venetians, however, disregarding the protection of that powerful monarch, attacked and instantly
drove them out of Malamocco. Incensed at this, Charlemagne orderecl his son Pepin to declare war against the republic. This was
done; but the blow was for some time diverted by Astolphus king of
the Lombards, who, committing great devastations in the territories
of the pope, obliged Pepin to come to the assistance of his holiness.
However, after having afforded the necessary succor to the pope, Pepin prosecuted the war with Venice. Upon which the Venetians
declared themselves a free and independent state. But in 804 the war
was renewed with the utmost fury. Pepin, having quarrelled with
Nicephorus, the Greek emperor, and finding Obeleria, the Venetian doge,
inclined to favor his adversary, determined to exterminate the very
name of the republic. After having laid waste the surrounding province, he led his army directly to Venice, blocking the city up at the
same time by his fleet. The Venetians united and gave the chief command to Valentin, as Obeleria was supposed too nearly allied to Pepin
to fight with that good will and cheerfulness the service of his country
required. The Venetians, notwithstanding the most obstinate defence,
were at length reduced to that part of the city south of the Rialto.
While Pepin was preparing to lay a bridge over the canal, they
resolved, as a last effort, to attack his fleet. Embarking all the troops
they could spare, they succeeded in driving the enemy's fleet aground,
and the greater part of their troops perished in attempting to escape;
the ships were all, to a few, either taken or destroyed.  During this




VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                 215
action at sea, Pepin, having thrown a bridge over the Rialto, was
attacked on every side by the Venetians from their boats, and others
who had posted themselves on the bridge. The battle was long, bloody,
and doubtful, until the Venetians succeeded in breaking down the
bridge; when all communication being cut off with the troops on shore,
the French were to a man either killed or drowned.  Pepin was so
struck with the intrepidity of the Venetians, that he raised the siege,
abandoned the enterprise, and concluded a peace with the republic.
He afterwards came to Venice to intercede for Obeleria, but the populace being persuaded that he. had acted treacherously, Pepin was no
sooner gone than they tore him and his wife to pieces, though she was
Pepin's sister. In 839, the Venetians engaged in an alliance offensive
and defensive against the Saracens with Michael III., the Greek emperor. A fleet of sixtys galley was immediately equipped, who joined
the Grecian fleet and engaged the enemy; but during the heat of the
engagement, the Greeks having basely deserted their allies, the Venetians were so completely defeated, that scarcely a single vessel remained to carry the news of their misfortune to Venice. This defeat
threw the city into the utmost consternation, as it was not doubted
that the Saracens would immediately lay siege to the capital; instead
of which they turned their arms against Ancona, which they pillaged
and destroyed. The Narentines, however, a piratical people, no sooner
heard of the defeat of the Venetians, than they laid waste the coast
of Dalmatia, and ravaged the country for a considerable way; at the
same time that the city was distracted by internal dissensions and
tumults, in one of which the doge was murdered.  It was not till the
year 881 that the Venetian affairs were thoroughly re-established. By
the prudent and vigorous administration of Orso Participato, the power
of the Saracens was checked, the Narentines utterly defeated, and
peace and domestic tranquillity restored. From this time the republic
continued to flourish; and in 903 her reputation for arms became
famous all over the world by a great victory gained over the Huns,
who had invaded Italy, defeated Berengarius, and threatened the country with total destruction. For a long time after, we meet with no
remarkable transactions in the Venetian history; but in general the
republic increased in wealth and power by its indefatigable application
to maritime affairs and to commerce. About the year 1040 it was
ordained that no prince should associate a colleague with him in the




216             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
supreme power. In 1084 the republic was by the emperor of Constantinople invested with the sovereignty of Dalmatia and Croatia,
which, however, had been held long before by right of conquest. As
soon as the Crusade was preached up, the Venetians fitted out a fleet
of two hundred sail against the infidels; but before this armament
was in a condition to put to sea, war broke out with Pisa.  The doge
Vitalis Michael took upon him the command of the fleet, when, after
having defeated the Pisans in a bloody action at sea, he set sail for
Smyrna, and from thence to Ascalon, at that time besieged by the
Christians. To his valor was owing the conquest of this city, as well
as those of Caipha and Tiberias; but before he had time to push his
good fortune further, he was recalled on account of an invasion by the
Normans of Dalmatia. Here he was equally successful: the Normans were every where defeated; and Michael returned home loaded
with booty; but died soon after, to the great grief of all his subjects.
He was succeeded by Ordelapho Faliero, under whom the Venetians
assisted Baldwin in the siege of Ptolemais, and were the chief instruments of its conquest; and Baldwin, in recompense for the services
of the republic, invested her with the sovereignty of that city, which
he endowed with many extraordinary privileges, to render his present
more valuable. This good fortune, however, was overbalanced by a
rebellion in Dalmatia and Croatia.  The former was reduced; but, in
a battle with the Croatians, the doge was killed, and his army entirely
defeated; by which disaster the Venetians were so much dispirited,
that they made a peace on the best terms they could, giving up all
thoughts of Croatia for the time. Under the government of Dominico
Micheli, who succeeded Ordelapho, the pope's nuncio arrived at Venice,
and excited such a spirit of enthusiasm among all ranks and degrees of
men, that they strove whose names should be first enrolled for the holy
war. The doge having fitted out a fleet of sixty galleys, sailed with
it to Joppa, which the Saracens were then besieging. The garrison
was reduced to the last extremity when the Venetian fleet arrived, surprised, and defeated that of the enemy with great slaughter; soon
after which the Saracens raised the siege with precipitation. Tyre was
next besieged, and soon was obliged to capitulate; on which occasion, as well as on the taking of Ascalon, the Venetians shared twothirds of the spoils. But in the meantime the emperor of Constantinople, jealous of the increasing power and wealth of the republic,




W-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —-- --
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=;= —  ~-~~ —-----       -     -
-~~~~~~~~~~~~Ts BU F.NT &Tx:E,








VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                 219
resolved to make an attack upon Venice, now weakened by the absence of the doge and such a powerful fleet. But the senate, having
timely notice of the emperor's intentions, recalled the doge, who
instantly obeyed the summons. Stopping at Rhodes, in his way home
to refresh and water the fleet, the inhabitants refused to furnish him
with the necessaries he demanded. Incensed at this denial, he levelled
their city with the ground; and from thence sailing to Chios, he laid
waste and destroyed the country, carrying off the body of St. Isidore,
in those days accounted an inestimable treasure. After this he seized
on the islands of Samos, Lesbos, Andros, and all those in the Archipelago belonging to the emperor; and having reduced Zara, Spolatra,
and Trahu, places in Dalmatia which had revolted during his absence,
he returned in triumph to Venice, where he was received with great
joy. The Venetians now became very formidable throughout all
Europe. The Sicilians, Paduans, with the states of Verona and Ferrara,
felt the weight of their power; and in 1173 they ventured to oppose
Frederic Barbarossa, emperor of Germany. The occasion of this quarrel was, that Pope Alexander had taken shelter in Venice to avoid
the resentment of Barbarossa, who had conceived an implicable aversion against him, and threatened destruction to their city if they did not
give him up. On this terrible menace, it was agreed to equip a fleet,
and repel the attacks of such a formidable and haughty enemy. But
before the armament could be prepared, Otho, the emperor's son, arrived before the city with a fleet of seventy-five galleys. The doge
Sebastiano Ziani sailed out with the few vessels he had got equipped,
to give the enemy battle. The fleets met off the coast of Istria, and
a terrible engagement ensued, in which the imperial fleet was totally
defeated, Otho himself taken prisoner, and forty-eight of his ships
destroyed. On the doge's return, the pope went out to meet him, and
presented him with a ring, saying, " Take this, Ziani, and give it to the
sea, as a testimony of your dominion over it. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, that posterity may know that your
valor has purchased this prerogative, and subjected this element to
you, even as a husband subjecteth his wife."
Accordingly, this ceremony was annually performed by the doges of
Venice, who embarked for that purpose in a magnificent galley,
called Bucentaur, which is still preserved. The vessel was decorated
with all the arts known to the polished Venetians. Carving, gilding,




220             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
and painting vied with each other for the admiration of beholders,
and the pageant annually attracted numbers to witness its grandeur.
In the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Venetians now become very opulent and powerful, by the commerce which they
carried on with the rich countries of the East, were invited by
young Alexis, son to the emperor of Constantinople, to his father's
assistance, who had been deposed by a rebellious faction. In conjunction with the French, they undertook to restore him; and easily succeeded. But the old emperor dying soon after, his son was elected in
his room, and a few days after murdered by his subjects; on which
the empire was seized by Myrtillus, a man of mean birth, who had
been raised by the favor of old Alexis. As the allied army of French
and Venetians was encamped without the city, Myrtillis resolved immediately to drive them out of his dominions,. and for this purpose
attempted to surprise their camp; but being repulsed, he shut himself
up in the city, with a resolution to stand a siege. The allies assaulted
it with so much vigor, that the usurper was obliged to fly: and though
the'citizens held out after his departure, they were obliged in less than
three months to capitulate.  This proved a source of greater acquisition to Venice than all that had yet happened. All the chief offices
of the city were filled up with Venetians, in recompense for their services; the allies entered Thrace, and subdued it; Candia, and all the
Greek islands, also fell under the dominion of the republic. In the
meantime the Genoese, by their successful application to commerce,
having raised themselves in such a manner as to be capable of rivalling the Venetians, a long series of wars took place between the republics; in which the Venetians generally had the advantage, though
sometimes they met with terrible overthrows.  These expensive and
bloody quarrels, undoubtedly weakened the republic, notwithstanding
its successes.  In 1348, however, the Genoese were obliged to implore
the protection of Visconti, duke of Milan, to support them  against
their implacable enemies the Venetians. Soon after this, in 1352, the
latter were utterly defeated with such loss that it was thought the city
itself must have fallen into the hands of the Genoese, had they known
how to improve their victory.
Continual wars with the states of Italy, with the Hungarians, and
their own rebellious subjects, kept the Venetians employed so that
they had no leisure to oppose the Turks, whose rapid advances ought




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TEOT
THE~ SIEGE OF CANDIA.








VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                  223
to have alarmed all Europe. After the destruction of the eastern empire, the Turks came more immediately to interfere with the republic.
Whatever valor might be shown by the Venetians, or whatever successes they might boast of, it is certain that the Turks ultimately prevailed, so that for some time it seemed scarcely possible to resist them.
What contributed also greatly to the decline of the republic, was the
discovery of a passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope,
in 1497.  To this time the greatest part of the East India goods imported into Europe passed through the hands of the Venetians; but
as soon as the above mentioned discovery took place, the carriage, by
the way of Alexandria, almost entirely ceased. Still, however, the
Venetian power was strong; and in the beginning of the sixteenth
century they maintained a war against almost the whole power of
France, Germany, and Italy; but soon after we find them  entering
into an alliance with some Italian states and Henry IV. of France,
against the emperor. These wars, however, produced no consequences
of any great moment; and in 1573 tranquillity was restored by the
conclusion of a peace with the Turks.  Nothing of consequence happened in the affairs of the Venetian republic till 1645, when the Turks
made a sudden and unexpected descent on the island of Candia. The
senate of Venice did not display their usual vigilance on this occasion.
They had seen the immense warlike preparations going forward, and
yet allowed themselves to be amused by the grand seignior's declaring
war against Malta, and pretending that the armament was intended
against that island.  The troops landed without opposition; and the
town of Canea was taken, after an. obstinate defence. This news being
brought to Venice, excited an universal indignation against the Turks;
and the senate resolved to defend to the utmost this valuable part of
the empire. Extraordinary ways and means of raising money were
fallen upon: among others, it was proposed to sell the rank of nobility.
Four citizens offered one hundred thousand ducats each for this honor;
and, notwithstanding some opposition, this measure was at last carried.
Eighty families were admitted into the grand council, and to the honor
and privileges of the nobility.  The siege of Candia, the capital of
the island of that name, is, in some respects, more memorable than
that of any town which history has recorded. It lasted twenty-four
years. The amazing efforts made by the republic of Venice astonished
all Europe; their courage interested the gallant spirits of every nation;




224             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
volunteers from every country came to Candia to exercise their valor,
to acquire knowledge in the military art, and assist a brave people
whom they admired. During this famous siege, the Venetians gained
many important victories over the Turkish fleet. Sometimes they were
driven from the walls of Candia, and the Turkish garrison of Canea
was even besieged by the Venetian fleets.  Great slaughter was made
of the Turkish armies; but new armies were soon found to supply
their place. Mahomet IV., impatient at the length of this siege, came
to Negropont, that he might have more frequent opportunities of hearing from the vizier, who carried on the siege. This war cost the lives
of two hundred thousand Turks.  Candia capitulated in 1668.  The
conditions were honorably fulfilled.  Morsini, the Venetian general,
marched out of the rubbish of this well disputed city with the honors
of war.  The expense of such a tedious war greatly exhausted the
resources of Venice, which could not now repair them so quickly as
formerly, when she enjoyed the rich monopoly of the Asiatic trade.
The republic remained in a state of peace, endeavoring to fill her
empty exchecquer, till she was drawn into a war, in 1683, by the insolence of the Turks. In this war, General Morsini again had the command of the fleetsiand armies of the republic, and sustained the great
reputation he had acquired in Candia. But the Turks at last succeeded in their object, and when a peace was concluded, the Morea
was ceded to them. The struggles and the power attained by this
small republic, call the indomitable Athens of antiquity to mind.
Both equipped armaments which could maintain the rule of the
neighboring seas, and both fell with their naval power. But the Athenians possessed far greater resources than the Venetians. Many
wealthy maritime cities were subject to their sway, and were compelled to furnish the material of her vast armaments. The limits of
the Venetian territory were gradually reduced after the peace with
the Turks, and finally it was swallowed up in the Austrian empire.
The commerce of Venice is still considerable, but it is but a shadow
of what it formerly was. The most remarkable of the kind of vessels
used there, is the gondola, which is employed for business or pleasure,
in traversing the " watery streets." Some are splendid in their decorations, and constructed for swiftness and convenience.
WYhile the Italian cities were in the height of their prosperity, an
invention came into use which produced as great a change in naval




VENICE, PISA, AND GENOA.                  225
warfare as it did in contests upon land. This was the invention of
gunpowder.  Though it was not fairly brought into use on board of
vessels until the decline of Pisa and Genoa, the Venetians early took
advantage of it.  The consequence was, the ships were constructed
heavier and stronger, in order to bear the weight of the cannon. The
former tactics of the admirals of fleets were of course entirely changed,
the manceuvres which had formerly exercised this ingenuity and
skill being now rendered useless.
eI~6iN-~- 1  ON
M[AN-OF-WAR OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
Pg




SHIPS OF THE NORTHMEN.
CHAPTER XV.
THE NAVAL HISTORY OF THE NORTHMEN, OR SCANDINAVIANS.
HE people who inhabited the countries
now called Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, however rude and
-.6\  B"e   21    ignorant they appeared to the luxurious Romans, possessed a greater know-,i  ledge of the art of navigation, and
1   -    greater daring in pursuing maritime
=I~=9====G=expeditions than the polite nations of
southern Europe. Their early history' is involved in fable; and but occasional glimpses of truth are to be caught
from the confirmation of their traditions by the knowledge of the Romans. There is scarce a doubt, that the Huns and the Scandinavians
(226)




THE NORTHMEN.                         227
were induced to try the navigation of the sea by the rewards expected
from piracy. These intrepid seamen harrassed the shores of Armorica
and defied the power of the Roman empire.
The earliest visits to the Orkney islands were made by the Scandinavians.  From their barrenness they offered no inducements for permanent occupancy, but their ports offered secure shelter to the ships
of the adventurers. The Pictish inhabitants were constantly suffering
from  their depredations; and, finally, the sea-rovers took up their
abode on the islands. Here they fitted out expeditions to ravage
every coast from the south of Ireland to the Gulf of Finland. So frequent were these ravages, that, in 888, Harald Harfagre, sailed into
these seas with a powerful armament, for the purpose of suppressing
them.  He subdued the islands of Shetland, of Orkney, of the Hebrides, and the isle of Man, and appointed Sigurd first j arl, or earl, of
the Orkneys.  This officer severely chastised the pirates who infested
the islands; but at his death, they recommenced their depredations.
The celebrated Rollo then proposed to clear the islands from the
piratical bands. His proposal was rejected, however, and the command of the expedition next sent out was given to Einer. This chief
had but one large vessel, well manned. Yet such his skill and courage,
that he triumphed over two pirate chiefs, who, since the death of Sigurd, had held dominion of the islands.  This success inspired with
envy the sons of King Harald, of Norway; and in 894, one of them,
named Halfdan, sailed to the Orkneys with a powerful armament, and
forced Einer to secrete himself.  In turn, Halfdan was surprised by
the jarl, and put to death. This brought on the enmity of King Harald,
who sent another powerful armament to reduce the murderer of his
son to submission. But the expedition was unsuccessful, and the king
was forced to acknowledge the right of Einer to the dominion of the
islands. The descendants of Einer continued the predatory excursions
to the English and Scottish coasts, which their ancestor had been sent
to suppress. The Hebrides islands were also ravaged, and numbers of
the inhabitants massacred. The pirates came from Denmark, Norway,
and all parts of the north, and they were fierce and daring. In the
latter part of the tenth century, through the introduction of Christianity, the excursions of the pirates were much reduced in frequency
and effect.
In 861, the Scandinavians made an important discovery. This was




228              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the island of Iceland.  It was inhabited at the time it was visited by
Naddod.  That sea-rover left the Faroe Islands with the intention of
steering directly to the west of Norway; but a storm arising, drove
him far to the northwest, until he reached that largest of the European isles.  But he knew not it was an island: he saw that it was
covered with snow, and from that circumstance he denominated it
Snoeland. Though he ascended several high mountains, he could discern no trace of human beings.  On his return he acquainted his
countrymen with the discovery. The following year it was again accidentally visited by a Swede, Gardar Swafarson, who sailed round it,
and ascertaining it to be an island, gave it the name of Gardarsholm.
The season was too advanced for him to return; and he passed the
whole winter on the coast, living chiefly on the fish which he caught
in abundance.  The third person that visited it was the Norwegian
Floki, surnamed Raffna, or the Raven, from the manner in which, according to legend, he found the island.  Sailing from the Faroes, he
proceeded towards the northwest; but as he was uncertain of the exact
direction in which Snoeland lay, he let fly three ravens, which he had
previously dedicated to the gods.  One of these flew back to the
islands which he had left; another returned to the ship; the third
proceeded in a right line, and was followed by Floki, until he reached
the country which Naddod had discovered. Its name he changed from
Snoeland to Iceland.
The first attempt made to colonize the island was in the year 874.
Ingulf, the son of a Norwegian jarl, had slain his adversary; and to
escape the consequences of the act, he, with his brother-in-law, Jorleif, prepared to visit a region where neither the vengeance of the
kindred nor that of I3arald Harfagre could pursue him.  Deeply imbued with the superstition of the ancient Norwegian worship, he offered
due sacrifices to the gods-for in these patriarchal times the privilege
of sacrificing descended with that of primogeniture; and when he
sailed took with him the ornamented door posts of the apartment in
which his household deities were enshrined. These, as he approached
the island, he cast into the sea, and vowed, that on the part of the
coast to which the elements' should drive them, he would establish his
colony. In the meantime a promontory on the southeast, still called
Ingulfshod, received him; but the door posts, watched by his slaves,
proceeded to the southwest, and entered a bay on which the modern




THE NORTilMEN.                      229
Reykiavik stands.  The place in which he had fixed his temporary
abode was comparatively fertile; the neighborhood of the bay for
many leagues was unusually sterile; yet in spite of all remonstrances
Ingulf removed to the latter spot, which he believed to be divinely
ordained for him. His companion, Jorleif, chose a more fertile locality
to the south; but Jorleif had no reverence for the gods, to whom he
never deigned to sacrifice. In the estimation of many, the latter was
the wiser man; but in' a short time he was murdered by his own
slaves, who fled with his substance to some distant islands. They did
not escape with impunity: pursued by Ingulf, they paid the penalty
of their crime. However great the regret of the chief for the fate
of his friend, he piously observed that it was the lot of all who despised the national divinities.
The island soon became the resort of all who would escape the
tyranny of kings and jarls, and rapidly increased in population.
Greenland owed its discovery to the Icelandic colony. Towards the
close of the tenth entury, Eric the iRed, son of Thorwald, a Norwegian jarl, who had been compelled to forsake his country in consequence of a feud, was, for the same reason, obliged to leave Iceland.
Whither was he to repair?  To Norway he could not; for there were
the deadly enemies of his family whom old Thorwald had made. To
hide himself in Iceland was hopeless; and in the Orkneys, which
were far distant, he could scarcely hope to escape the vengeance of
those enemies.  He, therefore, resolved to seek a land of which some
maritime adventurers had obtained a confused knowledge. Sailing
towards the west, he at length discovered a small island in a strait,
which he called Eric's Sound, and on which he passed the winter.
The following spring, he examined the neighboring continent, which
from its smiling verdure-smiling in comparison with the bleak desolation of Iceland-he called Greenland.  Filled with the importance
of this adventure, he soon returned to that island, and succeeded in
collecting a number of colonists, whom he established in the newly
discovered land.  Yet Greenland was not uninhabited: better for the
settlers had it been so; for the wild natives were not friendly to men
whom they regarded as intruders on their own domain.
The colony flourished for more than three centuries. But in the
beginning of the fifteenth century, the inhabitants were either exterminated by the Indians, or compelled to leave the country.
20




230              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
But the most important achievement of the Norwegian navigators,
is said to have been the discovery of North America.  The facts are
thus recorded by one of the ancient sages of that nation:
Herjulf, a descendant of Ingulf, and his son Biarn, subsisted by
trading between Iceland and Norway, in the latter of which countries
they generally passed the winter. One season, their vessels being as
usual divided for the greater convenience of traffic, Biarn did not find
his father in Norway, who, he was informed, had proceeded to Greenland, then just discovered.  He had never visited that country; but
he steered westward for many days, until a strong north wind bore
him considerably to the south.  After a long interval, he arrived in
sight of a low, woody country, which, compared with the description
he had received of the other, and from the route he had taken, could
not, he was sure, be Greenland.  Proceeding to the southwest, he
reached the latter country, and joined his father, who was located at
IHerjulfsnoes, a promontory opposite to the western coast of Iceland.
The information which Biarn gave of this discovery induced Leif.
son of Eric, the Red, the discoverer of Geenlandcl, to equip a vessel for
the unknown country. With thirty-five persons he sailed from Herjulfnoms towards the south, in the direction indicated by Biarn. Arrivinlg
at a fiat, stony coast, with mountains, however, covered with snow,
visible at a great distance, they called it Hellu-land.  Proceeding
still southwards, they came to a woody but still fiat coast, which they
called 3lark-land.  A brisk northeast wind blowing for two days and
two nights, brought them to a finer coast, woody and undulating, and
1abounding with natural productions.  Towards the north this region
was sheltered by an island; but there was no port until they had
proceeded farther to the west. There they landed; and as there was
abundance of fish in a river which flowed into the bay, they ventured
there to pass the winter.  They found the nights and days less unequal than in Iceland or Norway; on the very shortest, (Dec. 21.)
the sun rising at half past seven, and setting at half past four. From
some wild grapes which they found a few miles from the shore, they
dlenominated the country Vinland, or Winland.  The following spring
they returned to Greenland.
This description can only apply to the coast of Newfoundland, or
Labrador.  Vinland was again visited by the adventurous Norwegians under Thorwald, the son of Eric, the Red.




i\it
i'i{i'~'~
0I                                        >
~~~tv~~~~~ikKY
P"A~~~~"
LANDING OF THE NORTH NEN IN AMERICA.








THIE NORTHMEN.                      233
With thirty companions he proceeded to the coast, and wintered in
the tent which had sheltered his brother Leif. The two following
summers were passed by him in examining the regions both to the
west and the east; and, from the description in the Icelandic sagas,
we may infer that he coasted the shore from Massachusetts to Labrador. Until the second season no inhabitants appeared; but two who
had ventured along the shore in their frail canoes were taken, and
most impolitically, as well as most inhumanly, put to death. These
were evidently Esquimaux, whose short stature and features resembled
those of the western Greenlanders. To revenge the murder of their
countrymen, a considerable number of the inhabitants now appeared
in their small boats; but their arrows being unable to make any impression on the wooden defences, they precipitately retired.  In this
short skirmish, however, Thorwald received a mortal wound; and was
buried on the next promontory with a cross at his head and another
at his feet, a proof that he had embraced Christianity. Having passed
another winter, his companions returned to Greenland.  The following year Thorstein, another son of Eric, the Red, embarked for the
same place with his wife Gudrida and twenty-five companions; but
they were driven by the contending elements to the remote western
coast of Greenland, where they passed the winter in great hardships.
This adventure was fatal to Thorstein, whose corpse was taken back to
the colony by his widow.
Several attempts to colonize this Vinland were made by expeditions
sent out for that purpose; but all failed. We may observe, that there
is nothing improbable in the account of these voyages, and they are
narrated by the earliest Scandinavian historians, with all the simplicity
and air of truth. Admitting them as true voyages, we cannot but admire the daring of these adventurers.  Their vessels could not have
been of any great magnitude, judging from the number of seamen
they are said to have contained; and the important guide of the compass was wanting. They dared the perils of unknown seas, without
any of those things which are now thought to be indispensable in traversing seas which are fully and surely known.
The Scandinavians were masters of the coasts of the Baltic in the
neighborhood of the Gulf of Finland. At this time, Russia was split
up into a number of small states, the most prominent of which was
Novogorod, a flourishing republic which had an extensive commerce,
20*




234            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
not merely with the nations on the Baltic, but with the Greek empire and Persia. To protect their commerce from the depredations
of the warlike tribes around them, the people of Novogorod were forced
to call upon the Northmen to send some one who was able and willing to rule over them. Accordingly, Ruric, Sineas, and Truvor, three
brothers, were sent for that purpose. They were renowned for their
valor and competent to protect Novogorod from the pirates.
One band of these rovers headed by a king-Eric, of Jutland and
Trisia, assailed Hamburg, in Denmark. They burned the sacred buildings, and the books which St. Anscar had there collected.  In the
reign of Magnus, king of Denmark and Norway, the pirates occupied
the greater portion of the attention of the governments. He fitted out
various armaments, which were all successful in defeating the pirates,
but not in entirely crushing them.  The Jomsberg pirates were the
fiercest and boldest of all, but Magnus burned their capital and reduced
them to submission. The same monarch fitted out an armament, proceeded to Denmark, and defeated the usurper Sweyn. All the shores
of the Baltic were haunted by the ferocious pirates, and the active
BIagnus only subdued them after a severe struggle.  A more formidable enemy to Magnus appeared in Harald the Harddracle, a son of Sigurdcl, and half brother to St. Olaf. He entered into a league with
Sweyn, the object of which was to place Harald on the Norwegian
and Sweyn on the Danish Throne. The wealth of Harald hired numerous adventurers, and the two princes ravaged the coasts of Denmark.,Magnus prepared an armament to oppose them. But he chose
a sure course to secure peace. He offered the valiant Harald half of
the Norwegian kingdom, with no doubt of the eventual succession,
on the condition of Harald's sharing his wealth with him.  The offer
was accepted, and IHarald deserted Sweyn, who was then compelled
to retire.  On the death of Magnus, Sweyn attained the object of his
ambition, and became king of Denmark.  A war between lHarald
Hardrade, and Sweyn II. followed, as soon as the latter ascended the
throne.  It lasted many years, and was ruinous to both kingdoms,
but especially to Denmark, whose coasts were frequently ravaged. In
general the advantage rested with the Norwegian monarch, who, in
1064, obtained a great victory over the Danish fleet at the mouth of
the Nissa. With great difficulty Sweyn escaped into Zealand, and
began to collect a new armament.  Fortunately the mind of Harald




THE NORTHAIEN.                      235
was now disposed to peace.  Sixteen years of hostilities had brought
him little advantage; the fortune of war was dubious; and the Danes,
like their king, were averse from a foreign yoke.  The two monarchs
met, and entered into a treaty, which left affairs just as they had been
at the death of Magnus. These were not the only hostilities in which
they were engaged.  Both undertook predatory expeditions to the
English coast; but they could obtain no advantage over the vigilant
and intrepid monarch (William  I.,) who now swayed the sceptre of
that kingdom. Sweyn, too, had the mortification to see his own coasts
ravaged (those of Holstein) by the Vandalic pirates, who had renounced Christianity, and who laid both Sleswic and Hamburg in
ashes. Before he could reach them they retired.
The successors of Sweyn and Harald found much employment for
their armaments in reducing the pirates of Jomsberg and the islands
of the Baltic.  But no naval expedition on a large scale was undertaken until the people of Jutland, finding their king and nobles unable to protect -them, entered into armed fraternities, which were
consecrated by religion.  They not only defended their own coasts,
but equipped a number of vessels to cruise in the Baltic, in search of
the pirates.  About eighty of the vessels of the rovers were captured.
But they were still numerous.
In 1157, Valdemar I., surnamed the Great, ascended the throne of
the united kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. He had been tried, and
proved to be a valiant, patriotic and active prince.  One of his most
urgent objects was to secure his coasts against the pagan rovers.  In
his first expedition, however, he effected little; his armament was
inadequate to the undertaking. In the second, he subdued most of the
isle of Rugen, and obtained great plunder.  In the third, he had for
his ally Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; and both princes overran
the maritime coasts of the Baltic, dictating such terms as they pleased.
But such expeditions never had any permanent effect. If the pagans
submitted, or fled, scarcely was their victor beyond the confines of their
territory, than they recommenced their lawless career. It was so with
Valdemar; it had been so with the most valiant of his predecessors.
Five or six armaments in succession had only the temporary result we
have mentioned.  He saw that unless he entirely destroyed their
strongholds, cut in pieces their gods, and converted them sincerely to
Christianity, no peace was to be expected from them.  With these




236              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
intentions, in 1169, he had another armament against the isle of Rugen, and assailed Arcona. It was situated on the northern extremity
of the island, and so defended by nature and art as to be thought impregnable.  To the inhabitants Christianity had been announced; but
no sooner were the visiters departed, than they reverted to their idolatry, and expelled the missionaries. To their gigantic idol, Svantovit,
they offered human sacrifices, and believed a Christian to be the most
acceptable of all. The high priest had unbounded power over them.
He was the interpreter of the idol's will; he was the great augur; he
prophesied; no one but himself could approach the deity. The treasures
laid at the idol's feet from most parts of the Slavonic world were immense. Then there was a fine white horse, which the high priest only
could approach; and in it the spirit of the deity often resided. The
animal was believed to undertake immense journeys every night, while
sleep oppressed mortals.  Three hundred chosen warriors formed a
guard of honor to the idol; they too brought all which they took in
war to the sanctuary. There was a prestige connected with the temple;
it was regarded as the palladium not of the island merely, but of Slavonic freedom; and all approach to it was carefully guarded. Valdemar was not dismayed.  He pushed with vigor the siege of Arcona;
and was about to carry it by assault, when his two military churchmen,
Absalom, bishop of Roskild, and Eskil archbishop of Lund, advised
him to spare the idolaters upon the following conditions: that they
should deliver him their idol with all the treasure; that they should
release, without ransom, all their Christian slaves; that all should embrace, and with constancy, the gospel of Christ; that the lands now
belonging to their priests should be transferred to the support of
Christian churches; that, whenever required, they should serve in the
armies of the king; that they should pay him an annual tribute.
Hostages being given for the performance of these stipulations, the
invaders entered the temple, and proceeded to destroy Svantovit,
under the eyes of a multitude of pagans, who expected every moment
to see a dreadful miracle. The idol was so large, that they could not
at once hurl it to the ground, lest it should fall on some one, and the
pagans be enabled to boast of its having revenged itself. They broke it
in pieces; and the wood was cut up into logs for the fires of the camp.
Great was the amazement of *the spectators to witness this tameness
on the part of so potent a god; and they could only account for it by




THE NORTI-IMEN.                      237
inferring that Christ was still more powerful. The temple was next
burnt; and so were three others, all with idols. The numerous garrisons
of the island were made to capitulate; the victors returned to Denmark
in triumph; and missionaries were sent to instruct the inhabitants
in the doctrines and duties of Christianity. At the instance of
bishop Absalom, the island was annexed to the diocese of Roskild.
This was a glorious and it was an enduring conquest; a fierce people
were converted into harmonized subjects, and piracy lost its great
support.
But with this vigorous effort, piracy was not extirpated: on the contrary, the Danish coasts were themselves ravaged the following year
by the Slavonians.  This disaster was owing to the anger of Henry
the Lion, duke of Saxony, who had sent a contingent to the corps of
Valdemar.  He had probably not expected the reduction of Rugen;
he certainly was jealous of his ally's success; and, to provoke a breach,
he demanded half of the treasures, of the captives, of the hostages,
and of the tribute stipulated to be paid. There was probably some justice in the demand; but the king refused to comply with it, and
Henry, in great anger, informed the Slavonians that they might consider themselves at liberty to inflict whatever injuries they could on
the Danes. How this prince had acquired so great an ascendancy over
these people; how they came to call themselves his vassals, is one of
those problems which history cannot solve. There must have been
treaties, and marriages, and conquests, which chroniclers have omitted.
"He was the only prince on earth," says Helmold, "that could put a
bridle into the mouth of that ferocious people, and direct them at his
pleasure." The vast, restless tribes, from Courland to Mecklenburgh,
wanted only this stimulus to rise; and they did rise, in numbers too
formidable to be resisted.  Valdemar and his ministers suffered the
tide to roll on: they had the mortification to witness its ravages on
their shores; but when it had spent a portion of its fury, they raised
an armament, cleared their shores, passed into the Baltic, and, after
some advantages, carried the war into the Vandalic territories.  But
what salutary impression could be made on a people who, at the approach of an enemy, plunged, with their substance, into the impenetrable recesses of their forests, and returned that moment that enemy
retired? Jomlsberg, indeed, one of the most flourishing maritime cities
in Europe, was taken, and its great treasures became the prize of the




238             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
victors; but the place has been taken before by Canute, the Great, in
1010, and Miagnus, the Good, in 1044. No sooner was it demolished,
than it began to rise from its ruins.  Valdemar, therefore, perceived
that, as he could not exterminate these numerous tribes, who often
acted in a general confederation., and were always ready to descend
upon his coasts, his only hope was in the friendly interference of the
Saxon duke. HEe, therefore, met that sovereign, conceded all his demands, and had the satisfaction to see Henry issue his mandate, that
the Danish coasts should no longer be molested. For some years they
were not; but a very precarious surety was that which depended on
the will of another person-a person who might, at any moment,
change his policy, or whose influence might be destroyed by death.
Valdemar II., surnamed the Victorious, caused a survey to be made
of his whole kingdom; and of this important document, the greater
portion still remains.  There were eight bishoprics, subdivided into
parishes, and into Styreshavne or maritime districts, each district
to furnish a certain number of men, and each sea a certain ntluber of ships, whenever required by  the public service.  North
Jutland had four 6f these sees-Rypen, Aarhuus, Viborg, Borglum, which together supplied four hundred and fifty vessels. South
Jutland, or Sleswic, one see, was divided into one hundred and thirty
of these districts, each to furnish a vessel. Fionia, Laland, and Langeland, forming the diocese of Ordinsey, were rated at one hundred.
Zealand, Mohen, Falster, and Rtugen, which formed the see of Roskild, were rated at one hundred and twenty; Scania, Holland, and
Bleking, subject to the archbishop of Lund, contributed one hundred
and fifty.
The successor of Valdemar, Eric VI., was continually engaged in
civil wars.  Swedish fleets ravaged the coasts of Denmark, and destroyed every thing that could be reached.  The armaments of the
D)anes were easily defeated, and Eric was compelled to accept the
terms of peace offered by his brother. He sent an expedition against
Livonia, but it does not appear that it effected any thing considerable.
In 1360, a war broke out between Magnus, king of Sweden, and
Eric, his son. The king of Denmark, Valdemar Atterdag, aided Mag.
nus with all his forces to subdue the rebel son.  This wa- easily
effected, and Magnus was triumphant.  But he had agaiAe rmcoarse
to Valdemar to aid him in suppressing a new rebellion a     i.;.i? his




THE NOERTHMEN.                      239
authority. The inhabitants of Wisby, capital of the isle of Gothland,
refused to pay the impost which he had laid upon them; and Valclemar, in obeclience to his wish, sailed to chastise them.  Wisby was
one of the greatest ports in Europe; it was the magazine where the
merchandise of the Baltic was kept.  Of this much belonged to the
ianse Towns, especially to Lubeck.  Immense was the booty which
the Danish monarch seized in that town; but why he should plunder
the subjects of his ally for his own benefit, is not easy to be explained
Whattever were his own reasons, he soon repented of his violence. The
Swedes, indignant with their monarch whom they knew to have been
the occasion of the disaster, shut him up in a fortress, called Hako
of Norway, to aid them, and declared war against Denmark.  To obtain more assistance, they entered into alliance with the enemies of
Denmark,-with the counts of Holstein, with the duke of lecklenburg, and with the Hanse Towns, which were justly exasperated at
the plunder of Wisby. The confederated powers put their armaments in motion, and soon reduced Copenhagen.  lelsingburg in
Scania was besieged, but Valdemar raised the siege and defeated the
allied fleets with great loss. Vordingburg was next assailed, but with
no better success; and other disasters soon rendered the allies anxious
for peace, which was concluded at Lubeck, in 1363.  But it was of
short continuance. There was a general meeting of deputies from all
the towns of the Hanseatic League, above seventy in number; and the
result of their deliberations was a new war.  It was, indeed, evident,
that unless that body secured the free transit of merchandise, there
must be an end to all mercantile enterprise, and the worst days of
piracy must be restored. Two armaments were soon equipped; and
the number of assailants was increased by the adhesion of Denmark's
hereditary enemies. Valdemar, terrified, had recourse to negociations.
Adolf, count of Holstein, he detached from the league by investing
him with the isle of Femeran.  The Hanse Towns he propitiated sby
commercial privileges. A truce was accordingly made, and the king
was left to resume his intrigues in the North.
The name of Sigurd I. of Norway, is celebrated in the annals of
the North, alike for his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and -his exploits
during the voyage. Influenced by the prospect of fame and an imnortal reward, Sigurd, with sixty shlips, sailed from the North.
During the first winter he remained in England, and was hospitably




240             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
entertained by Henry I. The second winter, at least the greater part
of it, he passed near the shrine of Santiago in Gallicia: he was a
pilgrim, no less than a champion of the cross. On his way to Lisbon,
he captured some infidel privateers, and destroyed several Moorish
settlements on the coast, especially one at Cintra. All who refused
baptism he put to the sword. Lisbon, according to the Northern
chroniclers, was divided into two parts, one inhabited by the Moors,
the other by the Christians.  The former he assailed, took it, and
with much booty proceeded through the straits of Gibraltar in quest
of new adventures. Having passed these straits, he conquered a whole
fleet of the infidels, and this was the fifth battle since he left Norway.
In vain did the Mahomedan pirates on the African coast resist him;
his valor overcame every thing.  Landing in Sicily, he was magnificently entertained by Roger, sovereign of the island, who had expelled the Saracens. Roger was of Norman descent: he remembered
the land of his sires; and so far did he carry his good will as to insist
on serving Sigurd at table. Continuing his voyage, he landed at
Acre, and proceeded to Jerusalem, where the offer of his sword was
most welcome to Baldwin.  From  that king he received what he
thought a valuable treasure —a fragment of the true cross, which he
promised to deposite in the shrine of St. Olaf.  He promised, too, at
the instance of his new friends, to establish an archiepiscopal see in
Norway, to build churches, and to enforce the payment of tithes. His
last exploit in these regions was to join in the siege of Sidon; and
when that city was taken, half the booty became his. In 1111, the
king arrived in Norway after an absence of four years.
That this remarkable expedition redounded greatly to the honor of
Sigurd, is certain: he was thenceforth much venerated throughout the
North. He married, and attended to the duties of government, especially to the extirpation of idolatry. His expedition (undertaken at
the request of the Danish king) against the inhabitants of the isle
of Smaland, was one congenial to his feelings. They had received
Christianity, but, like many other portions of the Scandinavian population, had returned to idolatry. Even Sweden had its pagans and
apostates, some, too, of royal dignity. Great was the punishment
inflicted by Sigurd and his ally, Nicholas, on the pagans whom they
had vanquished; but mercy to infidels, and still less to apostates,
formed no portion of their creed.




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CHAPTER XVI.
THE NAVY OF SWEDEN FROM THE FIFTEENTH CENTURYo.
T will now be necessary to consider the
kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway, which once formed Scandinavia, as separate kingdoms, and to
give the naval history of each a distinct place.  As the power which, at
one time, became the most important,
-      we shall first take up the history of
Sweden, from the fifteenth century to
the present day.
In 1520, Sweden was restored to liberty, and the foundation of her
future greatness laid by the celebrated Gustavus Vasa. The occasion
of this revolution was as follows:-In 1518, Christian II. of Denmark,
invaded with a design to subdue the whole country; but being defeated, with great loss, by Steno Sture, then regent, he set sail for Denmark. But meeting with contrary winds, he made several descents
on the Swedish coast, which he ravaged with all the fury of all
incensed barbarian. The inhabitants, however, bravely defended tllem(243)




244             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
selves, and Christian was reduced to the utmost distress; one half of
his forces having perished with hunger, and the other being in the
most imminent danger by the approach of a rigorous winter. He then
thought of a stratagem which had almost proved fatal to the regent.
Christian offered to go to Stockholm to confer with Sture, on condition that six hostages should be sent in his stead. The hostages were
sent, and the wind proving favorable, Christian set sail with them to
Denmark.  Next year he returned, and drawing Sture into a conferference, had him assassinated. This left the kingdom without a head,
and no resistance was made to the progress of Christian, who advanced
to the heart of Sweden, destroying every thing with fire and sword.
Finally, he procured his election to the throne, and became the most
unrelenting of tyrants.  At last he departed for Denmark.  Soon
afterwards Gustavus Vasa, who had been one of the hostages given for
Christian's safety by Steno Sture, escaped from his prison, and after
a variety of extraordinary adventures, arrived safely in Sweden, and
placing himself at the head of a few peasants and warriors, overturned
the government of the tyrant, and defeated his armies. Gustavus then
laid siege to Stockholm, and petitioned the regency to grant him a
squadron of ships to prosecute it with. The armament was granted
only on condition that he would oblige himself to pay the expense
afterwards. This squadron was dearly bought. It did not go over to
the enemy, but in a sea fight, where the Danes were in its power, and
might have been destroyed, they suffered them to escape. Soon after,
the activity of Gustavus overcame all obstacles, and he was elected,
king.
When Gustavus Adolphus succeeded to the Swedish throne, in
1611, a war broke out with Denmark, whose designs were perceived
by that penetrating prince. The Danes were superior to the Swedes
upon the sea, and this gave them great advantages. But such was
the spirit of Gustavus, that he forced the Danes to conclude a peace
on favorable terms, in 1613. He then resolved to prosecute a war
against Poland, which kingdom had given some cause of offence. Accordingly, he set sail for Riga, with a great fleet, containing twenty
thousand men. That city was reduced by the armament, after six
weeks' desperate fighting. Gustavus then set sail for Dantzic and
forced the king of Poland to conclude a truce for avyear. After defeating the Danish troops in a number of battles, he sailed for Prussia,




SWEDEN.                           24 5
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.
with one hundred and fifty ships.  Iany battles were there fought,
but the usual fortune of Gustavus did not attend his efforts. The obstinacy with which Dantzic held out greatly irritated him. In a sea
engagement, the Swedish fleet defeated that of the enemy; after which
Gustavus having blocked up the harbor with his fleet, pushed the siege
with vigor upon land. The garrison was on the point of surrendering,
when a sudden rise of the Vistula ruined the Swedish works, and
they raised the siege. When the Poles were forced to consent to a
six years' truce, Gustavus kept the port and citadel of Memel, the harbor of Pillau, the town of Elbing, Braneburg, and all that he had
conquered in Livonia.
The next object of the enmity of Gustavus was the emperor of
Germany, whom he resolved to punish for assisting the enemies of
Sweden.  The Swedes were well prepared for this great expedition.
His troops amounted to sixty thousand men of the most veteran class,
and his fleet exceeded seventy sail, carrying from twenty to forty guns
and manned by six thousand mariners. The great struggle, however,
was upon land, where the genius of Gustavus was triumphant until
21*




246              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY,
CHARLES XII,
the battle of Lutzen, where, although the Sweaes gained a great vic
tory they lost their king.  During the war maintained upon the continent by Charles X., the two fleets of the Danes and Swedes met
and fought for two whole days, without any considerable advantage
on either side. Soon after, Charles appeared with a fleet before Copenhagen, and had he comm.enced the assault immediately, before the
inhabitants had recovered from their surprise, the city might have
been easily taken. But he gave them time to prepare for a defence.
The siege proved tedious, and at last, the city was relieved by the appearance of a Dutch fleet. After this, Charles converted the siege into
a blockade, which continued until the end of the war.
In 1676, under the reign of Charles XI., the Swedes received a
terrible blow by the defeat of their fleet in an engagement with the
combined fleets of Denmark and Holland.  In spite of the activity
and valor of their king, the conquests achieved by their former
generals, were recovered by the overwhelming numbers of their
enemies. In 1678, the Swedish fleet was defeated in two engagemnents.  Count Konigsmark, the Swedish general was forced to




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SWEDEN.                        249
PETER THE GREAT.
evacuate Pomerania, and to add to the reverse of fortune, the fleet
which transported the army from Pomerania, was wrecked on the
coast of Bxrnholm; by which accident two thousand persons were
drowned and the remainder plundered and taken prisoners by the
Danes.
The affairs of thz Swedes were retrieved on the accession of Charles
XII. to the throne. A formidable combination was immediately formed
against Sweden by the monarchs who thought to take advantage of his
youth. But they found him another Alexander.  Having entrusted
the affairs of the nation to a council chosen by the senate, Charles
set out from Stockholm on t4e Sth of May, 1700. He embarked at
Carlscrona and defeated the fleet of the allies. Having made a descent
on Zealand, he proceeded to invest Copenhagen by sea and lancln and
forced Frederick IV., king of Denmark, to conclude a peace at the
end of eleven days. Charles was thus at liberty to turn his arms
elsewhere. Hearing that the czar of Russia, Peter the Great, had
laid siege to Narva, with one hundred thousand men, he immediately
embarked at Carlscrona, though it was then mid winter and the Baltic




250              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
scarcely navigable, and soon landed at Pernaw, in Livonia, with part
of his forces.  The Swedes defeated the vast army of the Russians,
with the greatest ease, taking all the cannon, twenty thousand prisoners and entirely destroying the remainder.
After many brilliant achievements, Charles, defeated  at Pultowa, was forced to fly for refuge to the Turkish dominions, where he
remained five, years. Nor did his return to Sweden change the aspect
of affairs.  The czar of Russia, with a fleet of twenty large ships of
war, and one hundred and fifty transports, carrying thirty thousand
men, threw a part of the Swedish coast into consternation. The fleets
of the allied enemies of Sweden blockaded Stralsund, in which town
Charles was besieged by numbers greatly superior  After performing
many valiant exploits, it became evident that Charles must either be persuaded to leave the town, or that he would be buried in its ruins. The
danger attending an effort to escape induced the daring monarch to
attempt it. Setting out, in a small boat, with sails and oars, he passed
all the enemies' ships and batteries, and arrived safe at Ystedt, in
Schonen.
Under Gustavus III., the navy of Sweden was put on a more
respectable footing; but in the war with Russia, in which that monarch
engaged, the contest was maintained principally upon land.  Tbh
Swedish king showed himself quite equal to his warlike predecessors,
Gustavus Adolphus, and Charles XII.  No naval engagement has
taken place since his death; but the Swedish navy has not been neglected.  It now consists of ten ships of the line, fourteen frigates
and sloops of war, ten brigs, several steamers, and more than three
hundred gun boats.  A  large number of the trading vessels are so
built that they can be fitted out as privateers. The principal naval
stations are at Carlserona and Stockholm.




CHAPTEI1  XVIL~
DENMARK AND NORWAY.
BIN 1448, Christian I., the founder of
~           -,,- fi   the dynasty which has ever since
G o  JS  ~ruledDenmark,ascended the throne.
J  Under his reign, the maritime
power of Denmark commanded the....=___.__ — - 7-  Northern seas, and it was principally by means of this naval strength
___-_~ _            that Christian was enabled to connect Norway with his kingdom.
Christiar. II. was an enterprising though a barbarous prince. To the.
expedition which he conducted against Sweden we have already
(251)




252             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
alluded. He lost Norway by his barbarous treatment of the inhabitants whose coast he ravaged without remorse. But his reign was
short.  Under his successors, Norway recovered, and the Danes obtained considerable advantages over the fleets of Sweden.  But the
accession of Gustavus Adophus turned the tide of success, and the
Swedes became as victorious on the sea as on the land.  The Danish
navy was superior in number of vessels, but the valor of the Swedes
compensated for their inferiority in other respects.  Christian IV.
made peace with Gustavus Adolphus, and remained neutral during the
war between Sweden and Germany. But his successors were induced
to join the alliance against the power of Sweden, and paid for their
presumption. Neither by sea or land could they withstand the nation
trained to fighting by the genius of Gustavus.  Charles X. forced
the Danes to grant a free passage through the Sound to Swedish
vessels.  But no sooner had the Swedish king withdrawn his forces,
than the king of Denmark began to act directly contrary to the spirit
of the treaty. Perceiving the hostile designs still entertained, Charles
resolved to anticipate them, and appeared before Copenhagen with a
fleet, of which we have already spoken in the naval history of Sweden.
After the death of the active and able Charles X., the Danes took
advantage of the comparative inefficiency of the Swedish forces, and
the weakness of a regency, and their fleets were victorious in several
engagements with the enemy.  They also ravaged the islands of
Oeland, Smaland, Unno, and Kuno.  But the Danes were no match
for the Swedes, even in their distress. They were compelled to sue
for peace, which they intended to break at the first opportunity.
Again they thought to recover their former possessions and to humble
Sweden, when Charles XII. succeeded to the throne. But he defeated
their fleet, and reduced them to submission, before they calculated
that he would have been ready to leave Sweden. Fear only kept the
hostility of the Danes suppressed until the battle of Pultowa lad tarnished the glory of the reputation of the Swedish hero. By the
peace of 1720, at Fredericksburg, Denmark obtained the toll of the
Sound, which seems to have been a very desirable object with the
Swedes and Danes. After this period, the Danes enjoyed some degree
of tranquillity.
By her accession to the Northern confederacy, in 1800, Denmark
was involved in a war with Great Britain, in which the Danish fleet




NORWAY.                         253
was defeated at Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. The courage of the
Danes, however, obtained them a truce, after which a treaty was concluded. In 1807, this state was included in Napoleon's continental
policy. England thought it her duty to prevent an alliance between
Denmark and France, and, accordingly, a fleet of twenty-three ships
of the line was sent up the Sound, August 3d, which demanded of
Denmark a defensive alliance, or the surrender of her fleet, as a pledge
of her neutrality. Both were refused. Upon this, an army was landed
and Copenhagen surrounded. As the king still refused the demands
of the British commander, the city was bombarded for three days, and
four hundred houses laid in ashes, in the ruins of which thirteen hundred
Danes perished.  On the 7th of September, Copenhagen capitulated,
and the whole Danish fleet, completely equipped, consisting of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, and a large number of smaller
vessels, was surrendered to the British, who carried them off in triumph. The crews which had fought with great bravery were made
prisoners of war. Great Britain then offered the crown prince neutrality or an alliance. If he accepted the first} the fleet was to be
restored in three years after the general peace, and the island of
Heliogoland was to be ceded to the British crown. The crown prince
rejected all the proposals, declared war against Great Britain, and
entered a treaty with Napoleon at Fountainebleau, October 31. War
was also declared against Sweden; but Denmark was forced to conelude a peace with both powers in January, 1814. In 1846, the
Danish navy consisted of seven ships of the line, eight frigates, five
sloops of war, four brigs, four steamers, and six other vessels, besides
eighty-two gun boats. The principal naval station is Copenhagen, the
capital.  The Danish fleets have lost the command of the Baltic
which they once possessed, not by a diminution of their strength, but
by the growth of the maritime powers around them.
Norway, for awhile an independent kingdom, then a part of Denmark,
and lastly, subject to the crown of Sweden, has but a small, distinct
naval history, from the expedition of Sigurd I. to the Holy Land.
Its ports were alternately the stations of the Danish and the Swedish
fleets, and its numerous and extensive forests and productions afforded
the material for the construction of a great number of vessels. In 1821,
the Norwegian navy consisted of two frigates, six brigs, and eight
schooners.
22




CHA'PTER XVIII.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
S  in the earliest times, Spain
and Portugal were united under
the same name and government,
and as their naval history after= \ o ~!  wards is so closely interwoven, that
k\    -,',' ~~~l- ~~    we should be driven to repetition
if they were narrated separately,
we shall include them under the
same head.
Until the invasion of Spain by the Carthaginians, not long before
the commencement of the first Punic War, nothing certain can be
affirmed of the Spaniards or their habits. The country was most probably peopled by the Celts, whose barbarism never allowed them to engage in maritime pursuits. They were, doubtless, contented with their
navigation of the rivers and the coasts in their light skin-covered
canoes. The success of the Carthaginian expeditions, in reducing
the country and their final expulsion by the Romans has already been
mentioned in the naval history of Rome and Carthage.  The attrac(254)




SPAIN AND PORTUGAL,                      255
tions of Spain, consisted chiefly in her vast treasures of silver, which
were exported in the fleets of the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, and,
lastly, of the Romans.
Nothing remarkable in naval matters occurred in Spain until the
civil war between Marius and Sylla. Marius had appointed Sertorius
prsetor of Spain. As soon as he was overthrown by Sylla, that
general sent thither one Caius Annius to drive Sertorius out. As
Sertorius had but few troops along with him, he despatched one Julius
Salinator with a body of six thousand men to guard the passes of the
Pyrenees, and to prevent Annius from entering the country. But
Salinator having been treacherously murdered by assassins hired by
Annius for that purpose, he no longer met with any obstacle; and Sertorius was obliged to embark for the coast of Africa with three thousand men, being all he had now remaining.  With these he landed in
Mauritania; but as his men were straggling carelessly about, great
numbers of them were cut off by the barbarians.  This new misfortune obliged Sertorius to re-embark for Spain; but finding the whole
coast lined with the troops of Annius, he put to sea again, not knowing
what course to steer. In this new voyage he met with a small fleet
of Cilician pirates; and having prevailed with them to join him, he
made a descent on the coast of Yvica, overpowered the garrison left
there by Annius, and gained a considerable booty.  On the news of
this victory, Annius set sail for Yvica, with a considerable squadron,
having five thousand land forces on board. Sertorius, not intimidated
by the superiority of the enemy, prepared to give them battle. But
a violent storm arising, most of the ships were driven on shore and
dashed to pieces, Sertorius himself, with great difficulty, escaping with
the small remains of his fleet. For some time he continued in great
danger, being prevented from putting to sea by the fury of the waves,
and from landing by the enemy; at last, the storm abating, he passed
the straits of Gades, now Gibraltar, and landed near the mouth of the
river Bseotis. Here he met with some seamen newly arrived from the
Atlantic or Fortunate Islands; and was so taken with the account
with which they gave him of those happy regions, that he resolved
to retire thither to spend the rest of his life in quiet and happiness.
But having communicated this design to the Cilician pirates, they
immediately abandoned him, and set sail for Africa, with an intention
to assist one of the barbarous kings against his subjects who had




256             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
rebelled. Upon this Sertorius sailed thither also, but took the opposite side; and having defeated the king named Ascalis, obliged him
to shut himself up in the city of Tidgis, now Tangier, which he
closely besieged.
For ten years did Sertorius make head against all the forces of
Rome, defeating their best generals, including Pompey and Metellus.
lHe appears decidedly the ablest commander of his time, and his personal qualities were worthy of admiration, At last, he was assassinated by his general, Perperna, and his forces were then easily defeated
by Pompey.
None of the tribes of barbarians, who successively overrun the territories of Spain during the last years of the empire of the west,
possessed the enterprising spirit of the Vandals.  The active genius
of Genseric, their king, was not contented with the conquest of Spain.
His expedition to Africa and his subsequent naval power we have
already narrated in the giving the naval history of Rome. The vessels which transported the Vandals over the straits of Gibraltar were
furnished by the Spaniards, who were glad, by any means, to get rid
of these ferocious invaders.  The Visi-Goth sconquered the territory
of the Spaniards ahd founded a ruling dynasty, which continued until
the eighth century.  They were an enterprising nation, and fitted out
expeditions which made considerable conquests in Barbary. But
towards the end of the ninth century, the Saracens overran all the
Gothic dominions in Barbary, with a rapidity which nothing could
resist, and then sailed across to Spain about the year 711. Their force
was overpowering, and the Goths were either driven out of the country, or compelled to submit to the rule of the Saracens.
In the long wars which followed between the Moors and the kings
of Arragon, Castile, and Leon, the Moors were generally superior to
their enemies upon the sea. But they lost the Balearic isles, which
were -conquered by James I. of Arragon, and gradually declined in
power and extent of possessions. The great protection and ready
aid of the Moors was found in their kindred beyond the straits. The
African Moors always offered their assistance in time of need.
The kings of Castile, Arragon, and Leon did not join in the first
crusade, their attention being continually occupied by the Moors,
whom they at last reduced to the province of Granada.  Neither of
these kings gave much attention to naval matters.  The Catalonians




SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.                     257
only seemed to have been enterprising enough to strive for the dominion of the sea. In a war with France and Naples, in 1283, the Catalonian admiral, Roger de Loria, obtained a high reputation by three
victories over the combined fleets of the French and Neapolitans.
This famous naval commander succeeded Pedro, the son of the king
of Arragon, in the post of admiral of all the naval forces of that kingdom.  Soon after taking command, he reduced the greater part of
Malta, and defeated the French fleet within sight of Naples, taking
the prince of Salerno prisoner.  He again defeated the fleet of the
enemy near Rosas, and wasted the coast of France.
In 1298, the Sicilians revolting from the sovereignty of Jayme IIo
king of Arragon, proclaimed his brother Frederic, and prepared to sustain his cause vigorously. The king of Arragon passed over to Italy,
with a considerable armament, where he conferred with his allies, the
pope and the king of Naples.  He then sailed to Sicily.  In this un.natural war, it is some consolation to perceive that the king was not
deaf to the voice of blood.  Hearing that Frederic was advancing,
with a fleet to oppose him, he besought that prince to return to the
island, and thereby omit the danger, no less than the disgrace of a
battle. But iFrederic was not to be intimidated, and the Arragoniec
fleet sailed to Syracuse, which was besieged. The vigorous resistance
of the inhabitants, and the capture of a part of his fleet by the vessels of his brother, compelled Jayme to return to Spain for reinforcements. With a powerful fleet he again appeared off the coast of Sicily;
but he was encountered by the Sicilian king, who, after a gallant action,
was defeated. Eighteen of the Sicilian vessels and numerous prisoners remained in the power of the victors. There is every evidence,
that Jayme could have taken his brother's galley on this occasion, but
that nature urged him to connive at his escape. Nor did he improve
his advantage. Instead of proceeding at once to the Sicilian coast, he
returned to Naples.
During the reign of the same monarch, the Arragonese were involved
in a war with the maritime inhabitants of Pisa. The pope had granted
the islands of Sardinia and Corsica to the king of Arragon.  Two
armaments were sent against Cagliari, which important city surrendered after a long siege, and the Pisans were forced to abandon Sardinia.  Alfonso IV., who succeeded Jayme II., soon found Sardinia
a troublesome conquest. In 1330, the Genoese, incensed that the
Pir)          22*




258             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
enterprising Catalonians should have obtained a -settlement'in seas
which they considered as exclusively their right, fomented an insurrection among the islanders, and sent a fleet against the capital. A bloody
war ensued. Though the troops of Alfonso were usually successful,
his active enemies made some descents on Catalonia and Valentia,
which they ravaged with perfect impunity during the absence of his
fleet. All attempts at negotiating a peace failed, the Genoese demanding, as a necessary condition, to be indemnified for the expense of their
armament.
Scarcely had the war with the Genoese been satisfactorily terminated
by Pedro IV., the son and successor of Alfonso, when a war broke
out with the king of Castile.  It commenced in 1356, on the refusal
of the Castilians to restore a prize made at sea, by one of the Biscayan pirates, and the capture of two Pisan vessels in the neutral port
of Santa Maria, and was continued with varied success both by sea
and land. In 1359, the Arragonese fleet ravaged the coasts of the
Castilian dominions, and the Castilian fleet ravaged the coast of Valentia and insulated Barcelona and Ivica.  In general, the advantage
lay upon the side of the Castilians.  A short truce was concluded between the hostile powers, but it was only for breathing time, to recover
strength for the contest. A peace was not concluded until 1374, In
the meanwhile, Pedro sailed with a formidable armament, and landed
in Majorca, whose king he dethroned with ease.  But his fleet, combined with the Venetians, was defeated by the intrepid Genoese, in
the Thracian Bosphorus.  However, this defeat was compensated in
1352, by a naval engagement in which the combined fleets of Catalonia and Venice obtained a signal triumph. When a peace was coneluded between the Genoese and Arragonese, each power agreed to
abandon to the other, certain ports and dock yards for the construction of ships. The war was ruinous to both parties; as Sardinia would
not acknowledge the sway of either, and it was necessary to maintain
a large land and naval force to secure even a show of subjection.
While the Arragonese contended with one of the greatest naval powers of that age, the navies of Castile and Portugal were not idle. Upon
the death of Pedro, the Cruel, Fernando, king of Portugal, considering
himself as the rightful heir to the Castilian throne, assumed the regal
title and arms of Castile.  But his abilities were inadequate to the
contest in which he engaged with the usurper Enrique II. He fitted








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SPAIN  AND PORTUGAL.                    261
out various armaments by sea and land to enforce his pretensions;
but the vigor with which Enrique overcame his numerous enemies
astonished them.  In 1370, Fernando sent a powerful armament to
the mouth of the Guadalquiver, where it was defeated by the fleet of
the Castilians. The English sent a fleet against the French king, the
ally of Enrique; but his activity was still victorious; the English
fleet was defeated. Juan, the son and successor of Enrique upon the
throne of Castile and Leon, had to contend with the same enemies as
his father. Fernando, of Portugal, entered into a league with the
duke of Lancaster, in England, the object of which was to dethrone
Juan. The young king showed that he was quite equal to the contest.
In 1381, off Cape St. Vincent, his fleet triumphed over that of Fernando, and Alhneida was forced to submit to him.
As Arragon was continually engaged in hostilities with the neighboring powers, her people became both skilful soldiers and seamen.
Her fleets were equal to any which then rode the sea, and numerous
victories had established their reputation and caused them to become
objects' of fear.  Under Alphonso V., the Catalonian seamen were
constantly employed in the operations against the Genoese and the
inhabitants of the islands of the Mediterranean.  No single engagement worthy of mention took place upon the sea-the fleets of Arragon being employed in blockading during the siege of the ports of
the various islands.  In 1432, Alphonso set sail upon an expedition
against the Neapolitans.  After a successful attack on the isle of
Gorbes, where he defeated the king of Tunis, the piracies of whose
subjects had long afflicted the people of his coasts, he proceeded to
Sicily. There he was forced to wait, on account of the number of
his enemies, who now included the Pope, the emperor Sigismund, the
duke of Milan, the Venetians, Genoese, and Florentines.  On attempting to besiege Gaeta, garrisoned by Genoese and Milanese, he
was forced into a naval battle, in which his fleet was not only defeated, but almost annihilated. The king, Alphonso, and his brothers
Juan and Enrique were taken prisoners and conducted to the city of
Milan, from whence, however, they were soon liberated. The war
was renewed, and this time with more vigor by the Arragonese.
They defeated the fleet of the duke of Anjou, and invested the capital, Naples.  A rapid succession of victories over the combined forces
of the Genoese and Neapolitans secured the object at which Alphonso




262             UNIVERSAL NAVAL AVAL HISTORY,
had been aiming —the Two Sicilies, and the Neapolitan throne for his
son.  Under the reign of this ambitious monarch, the power of Arragon reached its greatest height. -Her fleets were invincible, and commanded the western Mediterranean.  No important naval transactions
are recorded as having occurred during the interval between the death
of Alphonso I. and the union of Arragon with Castile and Leon, under
Fernando and Isabella.  The naval events of their reign, which were
of the very highest importance in every point of view, will fall under
the reader's notice in the next chapter.
ANCIENT SPANISH GALLEY.




SPAMISH AND VENETIAN COSTUMES, SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTEIR XIX.
PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIAN EXPEDITIONS.
r   f -*-URING the reign of Joam I. king of,/  -JE,   ti~_~-   Portugal, the most brilliant deeds of
valor were performed by his martial
rtb \~f1I ~sons, in -the expedition against the
Moors of Africa. The fortress of
___w~   1.     Ceuta, on the African side of the
Straits of Gibraltar was the object of
this expedition.  It was inhabited by
~ pirates whose depredations were a
source of great annoyan.ce to the commerce of the Portuguese.  The fortifications were strong and defended by
r the bravest portion of the N1iahomedan population. During the progress
/ of the preparations, the greatest secresy was preserved, in order to prevent the increase of the garrison. It
(263)




264              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
SALA BEN SALA.
wMaS given outt that the armament was to be led against the count of
Holland.  At length, having collected a considerable number of
vessels from most parts, and been joined by adventurers from most
nations of Europe, accompanied by his sons and his chief nobles,
Toam-(  embarked, proceeded towards the Straits, and about the middle
of August, 1415, arrived before Ceuta.  Sala ben Sala, the Moorish
governor, a man advanced in years, but of undaunted courage, prepared for a vigorous defence.  In spite of his opposition, however,
the troops were disembarked without loss, and the Moors, who lined
th.e coast were forced to seek the shelter of the fortress.  The ardor
of the two infantes caused them  to pursue the fugitives so closely
that both entered the fortress at once.  Perceiving that they were
accom\anied by no more than five hundred Christians, the former




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PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIANS.                  267
sent messengers for assistance, and were soon joined by a few hundred
more.  By this time, another of the princes, Pedro, had disembarked
and hastened to join his brothers, Duarte and Enrique.  The Moors
had rallied and were fighting desperately for their native hearths.
The enthusiasm of the young princes was so great that they got separated from their followers in the pursuit, and Pedro, with four others
found himself surrounded by a host.  The five heroes maintained their
ground until relieved by a party of Christians.  The king himself
disembarked and then the Mahomedans fled.  The Portuguese flag
was hoisted upon the ramparts and the success of the expedition
seemed complete.  A small but select garrison was left in Ceuta, and
the king then returned, with the armament, to Lisbon.
No sooner had the fleet of Joam  departed, than the Moors commenced their preparations for the recovery of their stronghold.  For
three years after the reduction of Ceuta, the little garrison, under the
conduct of the valiant Don Pedro de Menezes, was constantly called
upon to repel the attacks of the enemy. At first they advanced to
the harbor, and burnt the few vessels that remained there.  But the
sallies made by the Portuguese knights drove them off with terrible
slaughter. In 1419, the place was invested by sea and land by an
army and fleet from. Grenada. The valor of the besieged was extraordinary. Fearing, however, that the fortress must ultimately surrender, if not succored, the Portuguese king ordered two of his sons,
the infantes H-enrique and Joam, to sail, with a considerable armament.  As they appoached the place, they perceived that the Mahomedans had landed, and furiously assailed ]Don Pedro, who, with his
brave little band was making terrible havoc among them.  The hosts
of the enemy were totally routed, whilst the infantes took or dispersed
the Moorish vessels, commanded by a prince of the house of Grenada.
This splendid success attracted the attention of all Europe. Don Pedro
became one of the most celebrated heroes in the history of the days of
chivalry.
In the reign of the same prince, Joam I., the Portuguese began their
great career of maritime discovery. His son Henrique, who had studied
mathematics and navigation, was the first to enter on this course. To
facilitate his long meditated enterprise, he fixed his abode in the kingdom of Algarve, on the most elevated point of Cape St. Vincent, a
point which he considered favorable to his astronomical observations,




268             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
and where he founded the Tour of Sages. The first voyage, with two
of the frail barks of that period, was undertaken in 1419, and extending only about five degrees of latitude, was unsuccessful. In the following year, however, three vessels being equipped for a much longer
adventure, arrived at the Madeiras, which had been previously discovered by Machin, an English navigator.  A subsequent expedition
penetrated as far south as Sierra Leone, within three degrees of the line.
From this time half a century elapsed before any Portuguese vessel
ventured beyond these latitudes, though the Canaries were, in the
meantime, discovered by some Biscayan mariners. The pope granted
to the Portuguese the dominion of the regions which might thenceforward be discovered from Cape Bojador to the Indies.
The reign of Duartes the son of Joam I., was rendered disastrous, by
the calamity of the plague and the result of an expedition against
Tangier. The restless ambition of Fernando, the king's brother, hr..
ried him into this enterprise.  The preparations for it oppressed the
people for some time, and the hindrances to the completion of the
armament were regarded as ominous of a disastrous termination. The
fleet sailed on the 22d of August, and on the 26th arrived before
Ceuta. The forces numbered six thousand men, which was considered
by some as inadequate to the undertaking, but the princes, Fernando
and Henrique burned to distingush themselves, and with their usual
impatience they resolved to proceed to Tangier —Ienrique by land
and Fernando by sea. The fleet arrived first before the town, which
was defended by Sala ben Sala, with seven thousand 3foors. The Portuguese commenced the siege at once, and continued it thirty-eight days
without success.  At length, a general assault was ordered.  But it
failed, despite the valor of the assailants.  A  large arlmy of the
Moors then advanced to force the Portugese to raise the siege. A long
and bloody battle was fought, and the valiant invaders were forced
to enter into a treaty with the Moors, by which it was agreed to surrender the fortress of Ceuta and their artillery, arms, and baggage.
Fernando was to remain as a hostage. They were even then constrained to fight their way to their ships.  The once proud armament
then returned ingloriously to Lisbon.
After a long and dreary captivity, Fernando fell a victim  to the
cruel treatment of the Moors. No attempts were made to ransom him
or to avenge his death, until 1457, when Alphonso had succeeded




PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIANS.                  269
Duarte upon the Throne of Portugal. That king had been very zealous in making naval preparations to assist in a new crusade; but the
death of the pope, who so enthusiastically supported the holy war,
and the dissentions of the Christian princes, left Alfonso at liberty
to direct his forces against the Mioors.  The ports of Lisbon, Setubal, and Oporto were filled with the vessels of the armament. It was
determined to invest Alcacar Seguer. In September, 1457, the armament, consisting of above two hundred vessels, and carrying twenty
thousand men, sailed from the three ports, effected a junction at sea,
and steered towards the Moorish coasts. On the 17th of the following
month, it arrived before Alcacar Seguer, where the disembarkation
was effected with but little loss. On the following morning the inhabitants agreed to evacuate the town. The Christians then entered it,
and the government was confided to Duarte, de Menezes, son of the
heroe of Ceuta. The king of Fez, with a large army of Moors, soon
came to attempt the recovery of the place, and Alphonso, thinking his
forces too weak to contend with them, ordered Duarte to maintain the
town, while he sailed back to Portugal for reinforcements. Nobly did
Duarte vindicate his claim, as the son of the valiant D)on Pedro. The
Moors were repulsed in their assault, with so great a loss, that they
retired for reinforcements.
The successful conquest and defence of Alcacar Seguer stimulated
Alphonso to make another attack upon Tangier. The armament engaged in this expedition was repulsed owing to the incapacity of Fernando, the king's son, who commanded it.  The disastrous result of
this undertaking, depressed Alphonso as greatly as his former success
had stimulated him. But in 1471, he embarked thirty thousand men
on board three hundred and eight transports, and proceeded to invest
Arsilla, a fortress on the Atlantic, about seventeen leagues from the
Straits of Gibraltar.  This ancient and wealthy city was vigorously
assailed by the Portuguese and as vigorously defended by the Mahomnedans. Most of the inhabitants, scorning submission, perished with
arms in their hands. The Portuguese spared none. This success so
terrified the inhabitants of Tangier, that they abandoned their city,
and it was immediately occupied by the Portuguese. For his successes
in these expeditions, the subjects of Alphonso gave him the surname
of Africanus. But he appears to have been utterly unworthy of such
a distinction.
23*




270             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORYo
COLUMBUS.
Animated by the discoveries of the Portuguese, as soon as Ferdinand and Isabella had united the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile,
and formed the kingdom of Spain, they were induced to aid and favor
all attempts to perform the like services for them.  The discovery of
the new world by Columbus, attracts the notice of posterity to this
reign.  To Isabella must be in part ascribed the glory of this enterprise. At first she received with natural coldness the proposals of
Columbus; but, overcome at last by the representations of a monk,
the friend of Columbus, and still more by the resistless reasoning of
the navigator himself, whom she admitted to her presence, she borrowed the sum of money necessary for the armament and bade him
depart. This was in April, 1492. In the same month of the following year he returned fiom his first voyage, bringing the undoubted
evidences of his having discovered a new world.  He was received
with extraordinary honors and appointed admiral of the Indies, with
suitable means to support the dignity.  With a fleet of eighteen vessels, containing one thousand two hundred seamen, three hundred




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PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIANS.                 273
mechanics, twelve priests to convert the heathen, and a large number of horses, sheep, &c.,
he again left Spain, in September, 1493, and,   happily reached his destination.  On returning
~.~      from this second voyage, he was driven into
/~           the harbor of Lisbon, and was there compelled
to acquaint Don Joam  with the productions,
climate, and riches of the New World.  That
) monarch resolved to fit out some vessels of disCARDINAL XIMENES.  covery in the same direction.  This led to a
dispute with the Spanish sovereigns, which, being referred to the
pope, was decided in a singular manner.  He seemed to consider that
he had a right to divide the globe between the Spaniards and Portuguese. A line three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape lde
-Verde islands was allowed as the limit of the Portuguese claim.
After the death of Isabella, Ferdinand was declared regent of Castile, as the Castilians would not recognize a prince of Arragon as their
sovereign.  IHe was active and successful.  In 1509, at the suggestion of Cardinal Ximenes he proposed an expedition against Oran, on
the African coast. The cardinal defrayed the expense and accompanied it.  Oran was stormed and forced to receive a Christian garrison.  The following year, Bugia, on the same coast, was captured,
and Algiers, Tunis, Tremeien, and other places acknowledged the
supremacy of the Christians. Another armament reduced Tripoli.
The death of Ferdinand in 1516, put an end to his conquests.
While the Spanish sovereigns were thus actively engaged in discovery and conquest, the Portuguese spirit of maritime enterprise was
not sleeping.  A fort was founded on the coast of Guinea by order
of Joam II., and fiom that time the Portuguese derived an immense
revenue from the trade with the natives.  To prevent other European
vessels from securing any of this valuable commerce, Joam took care
that the voyage should be represented as both difficult and dangerous;
and impossible to be undertaken in any other vessels than fiat-bottomed round smacks, at that time peculiar to Portugal.  But the discovery of Guinea was but the beginning of Portuguese enterprise.
Joam suspected that by coasting the African continent, a passage to
the East Indies might be discovered.  He sent two travellers to explore the western coast of Africa, and obtain the necessary informaS




274             UNIVERSAL NAVrAL HISTORY.
tion whether the trade with the East Indies would be valuable, and
after their return, learned that the natives knew the continent terminated ill a great cape far south. Joam then resolved to attempt the
passage to India.  He fitted out two squadrons-one under the command of Joam Alphonso de Aveiro, the other under Jayme Cam. The
first discovered the kingdom of Benin, and there the death of the commodore put an end to the expedition.  The other, under Jayme Cam,
proceeded to the coast of Congo, and entered into a commercial treaty
with the natives.  A number of expeditions followed this one as far
as Congo; but the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope was not made
until 1487.  It was discovered by the enterprising and skilful seaman, Bartholomew  Diaz. In the following year, Vasco de Gama
doubled it on a voyage to India. This latter expedition occupied two
years and was filled with "hair-breadth'scapes."  At one time De
Gama was forced to cannonade a Mahomedan city in Mozambique,
and at another, a mutiny among the crew compelled him to take the
helm himself.  He arrived safely in Lisbon, however, and his narrations were received with astonishment and delight.
Manuel, who had succeeded Joam II., immediately equipped a fleet
of thirteen vessels, which were confided to Don Pedro Alvares Cabral.
This fleet was driven westward by a tempest, and the coast of Brazil
was discovered.  In a second voyage to the same coast, Cabral lost
several of his ships.  Many encounters took place between the Mahomedan merchant vessels and those of the Portuguese, btlt the Portuguese were always successful.  A number of Indian and Arabian
vessels were burned in the harbor of Calicut, and the city bombarded.
A small squadron of Portuguese vessels was successful in a contest
with a fleet belonging to the Moors and the king of Calicut, as the
foYmer was on its way to the Indies.
But the most extraordinary of the voyages undertaken by the Portuguese in their frail vessels, was one, under Vasco de Gama, in 1502.
This renowned navigator had been created admiral of the Indies, and
he readily undertook a voyage no longer considered dreadful.  He
set out with ten vessels, and was Accompanied by his uncle, Vicente
Sodre, with five more.  His cousin Estevan de Gama had orders to
follow him, with four additional vessels; and, in the following year,
six more were despatched into the same seas-three, under Alfonso,
and three under Francisco de Albuquerque.  Having doubled the




PORTUGUESE AND CASTILIANS.                275
ALBUQUERQUE.
Cape, Vasco resolvecl to confirm the influence of his country on tile
African coast, especially in Sofala and lozambique.  He cannonaded
Quiloa, in revenge for the treachery clisplayecl  by the inhabitants on
a former occasion, to his men.  Off the coast of Ialaba.r, Vasco was
joined by his relative Estevan, which increased his force to nineteen
ships; and he then resolvel to vindicate the authority of his nmaster.
He capturel an Egyptian vessel laden with treasure, and took terrible
revenge upon the Moors anld Hindoos for their treacherous conduct to
the Portuguese.  Not satisfied with seizing several valuable ships, he
cut off the hands, head, and feet of thirty.two Moors, which he sent
in a bark, as a present to the governor, and furiously cannonaded the
city of Calicut.  Leaving his uncle, Sodre, to continue the work of
destruction, Vasco then sailed to Cochin, to see after the state of the
Portuguese factories there.  He soon received an invitation to return
to Calicut and make peace with the Moors and Hindoos, which he
wasA credulous enough to believe wasb sincerely meant. On his arrl'rival,




276             UNIivYEAL NAVAL IHISTORY
VASCO DE GAMA.
before he was aware that hostilities were intended, his fleet was surrounded by above a hundred Moorish and iHindoo vessels.  Had not
Sodre, who had been ordered to cruise off the coast, unexpectedly
appeared, the destruction of the Portuguese would have been certain.
But, with his kinsman's aid, Vasco soon triumphed over his enemy.
Sodre was left with six vessels, to maintain the Portuguese conquests,
and Vasco returned home. Four small squadrons, under the Albuquerques, arrived soon after to assist Sodre, but that commander, by
neglecting the factories and engaging in piracies5 had almost caused
the ruin of them. The Albuquerques left only one hundred and fifty
men in the fortress, when they also returned to Portugal.  If the
historians of the time speak truly, this little garrison performed won
drous deeds —mintaining the fortress against a large army of Hin



rORTUGUESE AND CASTILIAN.                   277
doos.  Their commander, Pucheco, immortalised himself, and his
valorous deeds have been lavishly praised by the Portuguese.
It would be mere repetition to give the history of the various armaments sent out from Portugal to act against the Moors and Hindoos
who endeavored to interrupt and destroy their commerce.  They all
display the skill and daring of the navigators and the naval power of
Portugal in a favorable light.  The principal admirals who conducted
these expeditions were Francisco de Almeida, the Albuquerques, and
Lope Soares.
The successes of the Portuguese in the East aroused the jealousy of
Ferdinand of Castile; and by the representations of a navigator, named
Ferdinand Magellan, (or Fernando de Magalhanes,) he was induced
to equip five vessels, and giving Magellan the power of life and death
over the crew, ordered the navigator to attempt his favorite proj ect-the
discovery of a route to the Indies by sailing southwest from Spain.
Magellan embarked at Seville in August, 1519, and doubling Cape
de Verde, passed the islands of that name, and plunged into the vast
western ocean. Reaching the Brazilian coast, he cautiously proceeded
southward.  Nothing but the. indomitable resolution to succeed, and
the ardent zeal he felt in the undertaking could have made the intrepid Magellan persevere, alike in opposition to the elements and his
crew. He, at length, passed into the dreaded straits which bear his
name, where he lost a number of his crew by severe weather. Having
cleared the straits he steered towards the equator, where the air was
milder and he hoped to get provisions.  As the squadron proceeded
through the boundless Pacific, and no land appeared, the crew mutinied;
but the energy of Magellan suppressed their conspiracy. He despatched one of his vessels in search of provisions; but instead of
obeying this order, the captain returned to Europe. At length, considering the absent vessel as lost, the daring navigator continued his
course westward, and, after a passage of fifteen hundred leagues, unparalleled for its boldness, reached the Phillipine islands. Here closed
the career of Magellan.  Having achieved immortal fame, as one of
the conquerors of the deep, he fell a victim to the barbarity of the
inhabitants of the isle of Zebu. In many respects, Magellan was the
most extraordinary man of his age.  All who can appreciate the difficulties he surmounted in traversing so great a distance in unknown
seas will render the tribute of admiration.
24




CHARLES V.
CHAPTER XX
THE NAVAL OPERATIONS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL FROM
1516 TO THE PRESENT TIME.
HE reign of Charles V. raised Spain
to a degree of importance in Europe
-fi','~!'i~[.     which his death considerably diminished, and which could have been'~F..~'~       sustained only by a successor as am-'  bitious and fortunate as that emperor. The Spanish forces obtained, many signal victories upon  land
during  the wars that convulsed
Europe, but it does appear that any considerable naval expeditions
were undertaken, or even that their fleets met an enemy fit to cope with
them.
After the death of Charles, the United Provinces of the Nether(278)








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SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.                     281
lands revolted, and after a struggle suceeded in gaining their liberty.
In this quarrel, Elizabeth of England, took part against Philip, which
brought on a war between England and Spain, in 1587.  The naval
and military power of Philip was considered much superior to that
of the Queen of England, and he resolved to invade that island. Accordingly, extraordinary preparations were made, and in May, 1588,
brought to a conclusion. The Spaniards, confident of success, gave their
fleet the name of the Invincible Armada. It affords a good picture of
navies as they were in that age.  It consisted, at this time, of one
hundred and thirty vessels: sixty-five of these were galleons and
larger ships; twenty-five were pink-built ships; nineteen tenders; thirteen small [frigates, four were galleases; and four galleys.  The soldiers on board amounted to nineteen thousand two hundred and ninetyfive, the mariners to eight thousand and fifty; of these, three thousand three hundred and thirty soldiers, and one thousand two hundred
and ninety-three mariners had been supplied by Portugal: besides
which, the rowers in the galleases amounted to twelve hundred,
and in the galleys to eight hundred and eighty-eight.  There were
also on board two thousand four hundred and thirty-one pieces of artillery, and four thousand five hundred and seventy-five quintals of powder: three hundred and forty-seven of the pieces of artillery had likewise been supplied by Portugal. Two thousand volunteers of the most
distinguished families in Spain, exclusive of the sailors and soldiers
already mentioned, are stated to have accompanied the expedition.
Philip's preparations, in the Netherlands, of a further force, were
not less advanced than those of Spain. Besides, a well appointed
army of thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse, which the Duke
of Parma had assembled in the neighborhood of Nieuport and Dunkirk, that active general had provided a number of flat bottomed vessels, fit for transporting both horse and foot, and had brought sailors
to navigate them from the towns in the Baltic.  Most of these vessels
had been built at Antwerp; and, to prevent the Dutch from intercepting them should they pass by sea, they were sent along the Scheldt to
Ghent, thence by the canal to Bruges, and so to Nieuport by a new
canal dug for the particular occasion. This laborious undertaking, in
which several thousand workmen had been employed, was already
finished, and the duke now only waited for the arrival of the Spanish
fleet; hoping that, as soon as it should approach, the Dutch and
24*




282             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
English ships, which cruised upon the coast, would retire into their
harbors.
The details of the regular force which the English assembled to
oppose the Armada, both by sea and land, are minutely given in a
manuscript now in the British Museum (MS. Reg. 18 C. xxi.,) formerly belonging to the Royal Library.  At the time when Queen
Elizabeth began her preparations, her fleet did not amount to more
than thirty ships, none of them near equal in size to those of the enemy.
Ultimately, however, the different descriptions of vessels, large and
small, which formed her navy, amounted to one hundred and eightyone ships, manned by seventeen thousand four hundred and seventytwo sailors. The military force consisted of two armies, one for immediately opposing the enemy, under the Earl of Leicester; the other
for the defence of the queen's person, commanded by Lord Hunsdon.
The army appointed for the defence of the queen's person amounted
to forty-five thousand three hundred and sixty-two, besides the band of
pensioners, with thirty-six pieces of ordnance., Lord Leicester's army
amounted to eighteen thousand four hundred and forty-nine; the total
of both armies to sixty-three thousand five hundred and eleven, besides
two thousand foot who were expected from the Low Countries. The
forces of the Presidentship of the North remained stationary, in case
any thing should be attempted on the side of Scotland; as were also
the forces of the Presidentship of Wales.
The Armada was to have left Lisbon in the beginning of May, but
the Marquess de Santa Cruz, who had been appointed admiral, at the
moment fixed for the departure was seized with a fever, of which he
died in a few days; and by a singular fatality, the Duke de Paliano,
the vice-admiral, died likewise at the same time. Santa Cruz was reckoned the first naval officer in Spain; and Philip found it extremely
difficult to supply his place: he at last filled it with the Duke de Medina Sidonia, a nobleman of high reputation, but entirely unacquainted
with maritime affairs. Martinez de iRecaldo, however, a seaman of great
experience, was made vice-admiral.
In these arrangements so much time was lost, that the fleet could
not leave Lisbon till the 29th of May. It had not advanced far in its
voyage to Corunna, at which place it was to receive some troops and
stores, when it was overtaken by a violent storm and dispersed. All
the ships, however, reached Corunna, La Coruna (the Groyne, as it is




SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.                     283
called by our historians and sailors,) though considerably damaged, except four.  They were repaired with the utmost diligence, the king
sending messengers every day to hasten their departure; yet several
weeks passed before they were in a condition to resume the voyage.
In the meantime a report was brought to England that the Armada
had suffered so much by the storm as to be unfit for proceeding in the
intended enterprise; and so well attested did the intelligence appear,
that, at the queen's desire, Secretary Walsingham wrote to the English
admiral, requiring him to lay up four of his largest ships and to discharge the seamen.  Lord Howard was happily less credulous on this
occasion than either Elizabeth or Walsingham, and desired that he
might be allowed to retain these ships in the service, even though it
should be at his own expense till more certain information were received.
In order to procure it, he set sail with a brisk north wind for Corunna,
intending, in case he should find the Armada so much disabled as had
been reported, to complete its destruction. On the coast of Spain he
received intelligence of the truth: at the same time, the wind having
changed from north to south, he began to dread that the Spaniards
smight have sailed for England, and therefore, returned without delay
to his former station at Plymouth.
Soon after his arrival Lord Howard was informed that the Armada
was in sight.  He immediately weighed anchor, and sailed out of the
harbor, still uncertiain of the course which the enemy intended to pur-,ue. On the next day he perceived them steering directly towards
lhim, drawn up in the form of a crescent, which extended seven miles
*tom one extremity to the other.  Plymouth was at first supposed to
ce the place of destination; but it was soon apparent that the Duke
de Medina adhered to the execution of the plan which had been laid
down for him by the court of Madrid. This was, to steer quite through
the channel till he should reach the coast of Flanders, and, after raising the blockade of the harbors of Nieuport and Dunkirk by the English and Dutch ships, to escort the Duke of Parma's army to England,
as well as land the forces which were on board his own fleet.  Lord
Howard, instead of coming to close and unequal fight, contented himself with harrassing the Spaniards on their voyage, and with watching
attentively all the advantages which might be derived from storms,
cross-winds, and other accidents.
It was not long before he discerned a favorable opportunity of at



284             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
attacking thee vice-admiral, Recaldo.  This he did in person; and
on that occasion displayed so much dexterity in working his ship,
and in loading and firing his guns, as greatly alarmed the Spaniards
for the fate of their vice-admiral.  From that time they kept closer
to each other; notwithstanding which, the English on the same day
attacked one of the largeat galeases.  Other Spanish ships came
up in time to her relief, but in their hurry, one of the principal
galleons, which had a great part of the treasure on board, ran foul
of another ship, and lost one of her masts.  In consequence of this
misfortune she fell behind, and was taken by Sir Francis Drake;
who, on the same day, took another capital ship, which had been
accidentally set on fire.  Several other rencontres happened, and in
all of them the English proved victorious. Their ships were lighter,
and their sailors more dexterous, than those of the Spaniards.  The
Spanish guns were planted too high, while every shot from the
English proved effectual.  The Spaniards, however, still continued to
advance till they came opposite to Calais, where the Duke de M~edina,
having ordered them to cast anchor, sent information to the duke of
Parma of his arrival, and entreated him to hasten the embarkation of
his forces.  But the duke, though he embarked a few of his troops,
informed.Medina that the vessels which he had prepared were proper
only for transporting the troops, but were utterly unfit for fighting;
and for this reason, till the Armada was brought nearer, and the coast
cleared of the Dutch ships which had blocked up the harbors of Nieuport and Dunkirk, he could not stir from his then station (at Bruges)
without exposing his army to certain ruin. In compliance with this
request, the Armada was ordered to advance; and it had arrived
within sight of Dunkirk, between the English fleet on one hand and
the Dutch on the other, when a sudden calm put a stop to its motions.
In this situation the fleets remained for a whole day.  About the
middle of the night of August the 7th a breeze sprung up, and Lord
Howard had recourse to an expedient which had been planned the
day before.  Having filled eight ships with pitch, sulphur, and other
combustible materials, he set fire to them, and sent them before the
wind against the different divisions of the Spanish fleet. The Spaniards beheld these ships in flames approaching them with great dismay: the darkness of the night increased their terror, and the panic'flew entirely through the fleet.  The crews of the different vessels,




SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.                     285
anxious only for their own preservation, thought of nothing but how
to escape from  immediate danger.  Some weighed their anchors,
whilst others cut their cables, and suffered their ships to drive before
the wind. In this confusion many of the ships ran foul of one another, and several of them received such damage as to be rendered
unfit for future use.
When daylight returned, Lord Howard had the satisfaction to perceive that his stratagem had produced the desired effect. The enemy
were still in extreme disorder, and their ships widely separated and
dispersed. His fleet having received a great augmentation by the
ships fitted out by the nobility and gentry, as well as by those of
Lord Seymour, who had left Justin de Nassau as alone sufficient to
guard the coast of Flanders, and being bravely seconded by Sir Francis
Drake, and all the other officers, he hastened to improve the advantage which was now presented to him, and attacked the enemy in
different quarters at the same time with the utmost impetuosity and
ardor.  The engagement began at four in the morning of August the
Sth, and lasted till six at night. The Spaniards in every rencontre
displayed the most intrepid bravery; but, from the causes already
mentioned, did little execution against the English, while many of
their own ships were greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were
either run aground, sunk, or compelled to surrender.
The principal galeas, commanded by Moncadla, having Manriquez,
the inspector general, on board, with three hundred galley slaves and
four hundred soldiers, was driven ashore near Calais. Fifty thousand
ducats were found on board of her. One of the capital ships, having
been long battered by an English captain of the name of Cross, was
sunk during the engagement.  A few only of the crew were saved,
who related that one of the officers on board having proposed to surrender, he was killed by another who was enraged at his proposal;
that this other was killed by the brother of the first; and that it was
in the midst of this bloody scene that the ship went to the bottom.
The fate of two other of the Spanish galleons is particularly mentioned by contemporary historians, the St. Philip and St. Matthew:
after an obstinate engagement with the English admiral's ship, they
were obliged to run ashore on the coast of Flanders, where they were
taken by the Duteh.
The Duke de Medina now not only despaired of success, but saw




286             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
clearly that by a continuance of the combat he should risk the entire
destruction of his fleet.  The bulk of his vessels rendered them unfit
not only for fighting but for navigation in the narrow seas. He therefore determined to abandon the further prosecution of his enterprise;
yet even to get back to Spain was difficult: he resolved, therefore, to
sail northwards, and return by making the circuit of the British isles.
Lord Seymour was detached to follow in his rear, but from the bad
supply of ammunition which he had received from the public offices
was deterred from renewing an attack which, in all probability, would
have led to the Duke de Medina's surrender.
A dreadful storm arose, after the Spaniards had rounded the Orkneys, and the whole fleet was dispersed. Horses, mules, and baggage,
were thrown overboard to lighten a few of the vessels.  Some of the
ships were dashed to pieces on the rocks of Norway; some sunk in
the middle of the North Sea; others were thrown upon the coasts of
Scotland and the Western Isles —the wreck of one being still visible,
it is said, at Tobermoray, in the Isle of Mull; and more than thirty
were driven by another storm, which overtook them from the west,
on different parts of the coast of Ireland. Port na Spagna, on the
coast of Antrim, near the Giants' Causeway, obtained its name from
this circumstance.  (See Trans. of Geol. Soc. vol. iii. plate 10.)  Of
these, some afterwards reached home in the most shattered condition,
under the vice-admiral Recaldo; others were shipwrecked among the
rocks and shallows; and of those which reached the shore many of the
crews were barbaronsly murderedcl, from an apprehension, it was pretended, that in a country where there were so many disaffected Catholics it would have been dangerous to show mercy to so great a
number of the enemy.  Camden says,'They were slain, some of
them by the wild Irish, and others put to the sword by command of
the lord deputy, for he, fearing lest they would join with the Irish
rebels, and seeing that Bingham, governor of Connaught, whom he
had once or twice commanded to show rigor towards them  as they
yielded themselves, had refused to do it, sent Fowl, deputy marshal,
who drew them out of their lurking holes and hiding places, and beheaded about two hundred of them."
The Duke de Meclina having kept out in the open seas, escaped
shipwreck; and, according to the official accounts, arrived at Santander in the Bay of Biscay about the end of September, " with noe more




SPAIN  AND PORTUGAL.                      287
than sixty sayle oute of his whole fleete, and those verye much shattered."
Strype, in his Annals, reckons the Spanish loss upon the coast of
England to have amounted to fifteen ships and above ten thousand
men, besides seventeen ships and five thousand three hnuadred and
ninety-four men sunk, drowned, and taken upon the coast of Ireland.
The statements, however, published at the time, apparently upon
authority, say, "In July and August, ships fifteen, men four thousand seven hundred and ninety-one; sunk, &c., upon the coast of Ireland, seventeen ships, five thousand three hundred and ninety-four
men:" making a total of thirty-two ships, and ten thousand one hundred and eighty-five men.
Thus ingloriously failed, from causes impossible to be foreseen, as
well as from mismanagement, this expedition of the invincible Armada; proving that" Though man with man may strive with fearful might,
He hath no armor to contend with Heaven."
Under Philip II., the Spanish power reached its height.  He not
only ruled Spain and Portugal, but the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily,
and Sardinia, the duchy of Milan, the Canary and Philipine Islands,
and the immense colonies in America and Africa.  Such a kingdom
needed powerful naval and military forces to keep it in subjection.
But the people of Spain became indolent and enervated, and the wealth
brought by their maritime discoveries was the great cause of the ruin
of their power.  Long wars exhausted their finances, and their forces
were inadequate to maintain what they had subdued.  Their naval
operations were unimportant for many years. The gradual increase of
the English, French, and Dutch maritime power destroyed that command of the sea which the Spanish and Portuguese once possessed,
and the skill and intrepidity of their seamen seemed to diminish in
proportion. France and England triumphed over the Spanish fleets
in the wars of the eighteenth century, and compelled her to give up
many of her valuable islands, in order to secure peace.  These naval
affairs will be mentioned in the histories of the victorious nations.
In October, 1804, the English seized the Spanish frigates which
were carrying the produce of the American mines to Cadiz, for which,war was declared against that power.  The victory of Nelson, at Trar




288              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
falgar completely annihilated the Spanish naval power. Twenty large
vessels were captured by the English, and the remainder of the fleet
much damaged.  In the war which broke out between the Spaniards
and the French republicans, the French army which had entered
Spain was beaten in two battles by the emperor, and numbers of the
enemy and their whole squadron at Cadiz surrendered; but these successes did not save them from  being subjected to the power of the
conqueror of Europe, for a time.
In 1820, preparations were made by Ferdinand VII. to suppress
the American insurgents; but these preparations only served to exhaust the resources of th.e state; and the insurgent privateers captured
Spanish vessels in sight of the coast, while the officers were literally
dying of hunger.  Cadiz at length obtained permission to fit out
fiigates, at its own expense, for the protection of its trade, which was
seriously threatened with annihilation.
At present, the Spanish navy is scarcely worthy of mention.  In
1802, it numbered not less than sixty-eight ships of the line, forty
frigates, &c.; but, in 1834, it was reduced to two ships of the line,
four frigates, and eighteen smaller men of war; and at present most
of these have become disqualified for service.  This being the state
of facts, the once important and renowned navy departments, as they
were styled, of Ferrol, Cadiz, and Carthagena have been abolished,
and there is now but one naval station-(Cadiz, What a miserable
remnant of that power which once ruled the sea! Internal intrigues
and the continual strife of factions have diverted attention from this
source of greatness. The Portuguese navy is at present reduced to
five frigates, four sloops-of-war, and several other vessels bf smaller
size.  In 1783, and still, in 1808, the naval force of Portugal consisted of ten ships of the line, eighteen frigates, &c., all in good
order, and, in 1825, it numbered at least five ships of the line, while
at present there is none.  This is a melancholy neglect, but it is
owing to the same causes as the decline of the Spanish naval greatness.




GREAT BRITAIN.
CHAPTER XXIr'HE NAVY OF GREAT BRITAIN FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TILL
THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY..cF.T       E have now to give the history of
the rise and progress of the mighti+K..(:-,    est navy of the present day.  Its
history involves much of that of
k \\ /, 7                    France, and wherever it is conve— _-.::,./......,........nient, the progress of the navy
with which the British have mostly
contended will be mentioned; this course will avoid repetition and
shorten the chapter devoted to the history of the French navy.
The ancient name of Britain —v" Clas Merden," —'  the sea-defended
green spot," indicated alike her fertility and natural protection. The
wants of an insular people soon taught the Britains comnmerce, and if
vessels were not necessary for defence, they were required for fishing
and to convey the product of a rude agriculture and still ruder manufacture from one part of the island to the other.  If reliance is to be
placed upon -the voice of tradition, "the roving fleets of Britain,"
T               25                      (289)




290              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
and the invention of a sail and rudder for ships, had been commemorated by her bards.
Though little is recorded of the vessels dignified by the name of
"ships," it may be safely inferred that the largest of them was only a
sort of coracle, constructed of twigs covered with ox-hides, capable of
holding three or four persons, and, in summer, of passing to Ireland
and across the British Channel. A small sail on a single mast, a
paddle like the ancient clavus over each quarter for a rudder, and a
few oars, seem to have completed the furniture of these frail barks,
whose farthest voyages did not occupy more than six days.
Some improvements must have been made in the construction of
British ships, before the arrival of the Romans; and the description
which C(esar gives of the vessels of the Veneti, a people settled near
the entrance of the Loire, may with certainty be applied to those of
this country, because it is unlikely that there should have been any
material difference between them, and because the Venetan fleet had
been reinforced from  Britain.  "Their ships," says Coesar, "were
built and fitted out in this manner: their bottoms were somewhat
flatter than ours, the better to adapt them  to the shallows, and to
sustain without danger the ebbing of the tide. Their prows were very
high and erect, as likewise their sterns, to bear the hugeness of the
waves, and the violence of tempests.  The hull of the vessel was entirely of oak, to stand the shocks and assaults of that tempestuous
ocean.  The benches of the rowers were made of strong beams about
a foot in breadth, and were fastened with iron bolts an inch thick.
Instead of cables, they fastened their anchors with chains of iron;
and used skins and a sort of thin pliant leather for sails, either because they wanted canvass, and were ignorant of the art of making
sail cloth, or, which is more probable, because they imagined that
canvass sails were not so proper to bear the violence of tempests, the
rage and fury of the winds, and to propel ships of that bulk and burthen.  Between our fleet and vessels of such a construction the encounter was this.  In agility, and a ready command of oars, we had
the advantage; but in other respects, regarding the situation of the
coast, and the assaults of storms, all things ran very much in their
favor; for neither could our ships injure them with their prows, so
great was their strength and firmness; nor could we easily throw in
our darts, because of their height above us, which also was the reason




GREAT BRITAIN.                        291
that we found it extremely difficult to grapple with the enemy, and
bring them to close fight.  Add to all this, that when the sea began.
to rage, and they were forced to submit to the winds, they could both
weather the storm better, and more securely trust themselves among
the shallows, because they feared nothing from  the rocks and cliffs
upon the ebbing of the tide."
COsar having resolved to await the arrival of his fleet; it was no
sooner seen by the Venetans than about two hundred and twenty of
their ships, well fitted for service, and armed with all kinds of weapons,
formed a line of battle.  The IRoman commanders, aware that the
enemy's ships were proof against the prows of their galleys, were
doubtful how to proceed; and though they erected turrets on their
decks, yet, being still overtopped by the lofty sterns of the Venetans,
they could not throw their darts on board them, while the missiles of
the Gauls, being impelled from  an eminence, fell with great violence
on their men.  In this emergency, the Romans had recourse to a
novel artifice. They affixed scythes to long poles, and, having fastened
them in the enemy's rigging, rowed off their galleys. The ropes by
which the yard of each vessel was suspended were thus cut away;
and, the sail falling, their vessels became unserviceable, because the
Gauls depended entirely upon their sails and rigging.  Thus disabled, the V/enetans tried in vain to escape; a dead calm ensuedl, and
the Romans obtained a complete victory.
On his first invasion of Britain, Caxsar, observing that his soldiers
were appalled by the manner in which they were encountered, ordered
some of his galleys, a kind of vessel less common with the natives,
and more easily managed than the transports, to advance a little
beyond those ships towards the shore, and attack them in flank. This
proved of considerable service; for the surprise occasioned by the
form  of the galleys, the motion of the oars, and the working of the
engines, caused the Britons to halt, and soon after to give way.
Finding that the ships used in the Mediterranean were not suited
for northern seas, Caesar ordered a particular class of vessels to be
built for his second invasion of Britain. He directed that they should
be lower than his former ones, for the convenience of loading and
landing, on account of the shallowness of the British coast; and he
increased their width that they might carry a greater number of
horses, and at the same time be light and fleet, to which object low



232              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ness in the water greatly contributed.  On his return from Italy, he
found that, notwithstanding the scarcity of materials, no less than six
hundred transports had been built according to the above mentioned
plan, and that twenty-eight galleys were nearly ready for launching.
Strabo says that these ships were of an intermediate size between
Caesar's own swift sailing vessels, and those of burthen which he had
obtained in Gaul, that they might be as buoyant as possible, and yet
resist the waves, and be left on the strand without injury.
The whole of the Roman fleet assembled at Portus Itius, in Gaul;
except forty of the ships, which had been previously wrecked by a
storm.  The whole fleet reached the coast of Britain about noon; nor
did any enemy appear in view.  But as Casar afterwards understood
from the prisoners, though a great army of Britons had repaired to
the coast, yet terrified by the vast number of ships, which together
with those of the last year's expedition, and such as had been fitted
out by particular persons for their own use, amounted to upwards of
eight hundred, they retired hastily from the shore, and hid themselves
behind the mountains.
Though it is said in one place that eighty transports were sufficient
to convey two legions, their size could not have been great; for, like
galleys, they were propelled by oars; and, having lost many of those
vessels in a gale which arose in the night after his arrival, C(esar
thought it safest, though a work of great labor and difficulty, to draw
all his ships on shore, and inclose themn within the fortification of his
camp, which service occupied his army day and night for ten days.
While the Britons learnt little of marine architecture from  the
Romans, their conquerors are said to have adopted from the islanders
b)oth the form  and the name of a peculiar kind of fast sailing boat
called  pietc."  These boatts, which were very long, like a modern
iinuace, were smeared with -wax, probably to quicken their passage
thr'ough the water, and contained about twenty rowers.  As their
principal use was to gain intelligence, or to dart suddenly upon an
enelmy it was desirable that they should remain unseen as long as
possible; for which reason their sails and rigging were dyed of a
light blue color, to resemble the sea, and their crews wore clothing of
the same hue.
No other information exists respecting the Anglo-Saxon navy than
what can be gleaned from  incidental allusions to the subject in t:a,




GREAT BRITAIN.                       293
Saxon Chronicle and Laws; and, though these notices are neither so
explicit nor so copious as could be desired, -they are of much interest.
Only four kinds of vessels are mentioned by name in Anglo-Saxon
records, namely, "ships;"' C long ships," "ceols;" "hulks," " scs;":  and "boats;" and as very few pictorial
representations of British or Norman ves-\    < sels before the eleventh century have
J i''  been discovered, the shape, size, and other
particulars of Anglo-Saxon ships can only
~ -~      A       be inferred from the annexed imperfect
representation.
The reign of Alfred the Great was distinguished by several naval
expeditions and improvements in the construction of vessels.  In the
year 897, the south coast was harrassed by the daring, predatory bands
of the East-Anglians and Northumbrians, who arrived in a vessel
called the " rsco." To oppose these "' esco," Alfred commanded " long
ships" to be built.  These are said to have been twice as long as the
others, with sixty oars and more, and to have been swifter and steadier
than any before constructed. The newly invented vessels proved very
efficient in protecting the shores from the pirates, and in navigating
the tempestuous seas of the north.
The naval power of England is thought to have been.twice displayed
in a peculiar manner by king Edgar; first, by his having been rowed
on the river Dee by eight tributary kings. and secondly, by a charter
granted to a Worcester church, in 964, in which he styled himself,
"'Edgar, king of England, and of all the kings of the islands, and of
the ocean lying round Britain, and of all the nations that are included
within the circuit thereof, Supreme Lord and Governor."  If the
monkish historians of the time are to be credited, the navy of Edgar
consisted of three thousand six hundred sail, all very "stout ones,"
divided into three squadrons, one of which cruised on the north, another on the east, and the third on the west side of Britain.  Edgar
is said to have collected these squadrons every year, and taking command, to have sailed round his dominions with them in the following
manner:-Imnmediately after Easter, he ordered the whole fleet to the
west part of the island, and then, sending it back, proceeded with the
western fleet to the northern coast, and thence with the northern divi25*




294              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
sion he returned to the eastern coast, to prevent the invasions of the
pirates and to train his people to war.
It is consistent with the history of a maritime people, that one of
their early sovereigns, though himself a usurper, should have owed his
crown to the navy.  Canute was chosen king by his fleet, and in the
~Witan, or Great Council at Oxford, which elected his son Harold to the
throne, in 1036, it is expressly stated that almost all the thrones north
of the Thames, and the " lithomen, or naval men of London," were
present.  The laws of the Witan, under the reign of Ethelred made
many provisions respecting the navy; which shows what consideration
the Saxons gave it. Until after the Norman Conquest, the little that
is known of naval affairs is contained in the Saxon Chronicle.
The invasion of Julius Caesar, with at first eighty, and the second
timie with six hundred ships; the arrival of the Angles in the year
448, under Hengist and Horsa, with "' three long ships;" of Ella and
his three sons in 447, with three ships; of the two eoldormen, Cerdic
and Cyrnic, his son, in 495, with five ships; of Port and his two sons,
at Portsmouth, in 501, with two ships; of the West Saxons, in 514
with three ships; of Northmen, out of Harethra-land, with three
ships, in 787, the crews of which killed the king's reeve, and which
are said to have been the first Danish ships that ever canme to England-are the only notices of a maritime nature till the ninth century.
In 883, a Danish and Norwegian fleet arrived on the southern coaslt1
of England, and King Edward was defeated in a sanguinary battle
with the crews of thirty-five ships at Charmouth. About two years after,
the Danes combined with the Welsh and forming a large fleet, they
again made war upon Egbert; but they were completely beaten at
Hengstown, in Cornwall. The next engagement with the Danes took
place in 837, at Southampton, where the eoldorman Walf heard defeated
the crew of thirty-five ships; but in the same year, the Danes were
successful at Port, in Dorsetshire, and, in 840, the crews of the same
number, possibly of the same ships, retained the field, after a battle
at Charmouth, with Ling Ethelwolf. Few, if any, of the contests appear
to have taken place at sea, and the first known naval battle with the
Danes occurred in 851.
The accession of the renowned Alfred, early in 871, forms as memorable an epoch in the Naval and Military, as in the Civil History
of Britain. Having both previous to, and after, his accession repeatedly




GREAT BRITAIN.                      295
defeated the Danes on land, he proceeded to sea in the summer of the
year 875, in commiand of his fleet; and, in an engagement with seven
ships, captured one and put the others to flight. Alfred's next naval
exploit was in 882, when he captured four Danish ships after an obstinate resistance; their crews having been "'sorely distressed and
wounded before they surrendered."
In 885, two sea fights occurred: in the first, sixteen Danish pirates
were taken at the mouth of the Stour, and their crews slain; but, as
the Saxons were returning with their booty, they met a large fleet of
pirates, which defeated them.  In the same year, another large fleet
attacked the old Saxons; but the Frisians having joined them, the
Saxons obtained, it would seem, two victories.
A successful descent of Ethelwald, with all " the ships he was able
to get," and to whom the people of Essex submitted in 904; the
arrival, in 918, of a large fleet fronm Brittany, which pillaged part of
North Wales, and made the bishop of Landaff prisoner, who was
afterwards ransomed by the king for forty pounds,-are the only naval
events recorded in the reign of Edward the Elder, who died in 925.
He was succeeded by Athelstan, who, after subduing the Anglo-Danes,
became the first monarch of all England. In 933 Athelstan invaded
Scotland with his fleet, as well as with his army; and his exploits at
the great battle of Brumby, in 937, are described in a contemporary
Saxon poem. Anlaf, the Northmen's chieftain, is said to have escaped
in his vessel; and his followers " departed in their nailed barks, bloody
relic of darts on dinges ocean, o'er the deep water, Dublin to seek,
again Ireland, shamed in mind."'
A rich and appropriate present was made to Athelstan by Harold,
king of Norway, about the year 931, of a ship adorned with a golden
prow, having a purple sail, and armed with a complete bulwark of
golden shields. Athelstan is memorable for being, it is said, the first
English sovereign who confederated with a foreign monarch against a
common enemy. He entered into a treaty with Louis'a Outremer, of
France, by which he engaged to assist him in crushing a rebellion, by
an English fleet. An English squadron, accordingly, appeared off the
coast of Flanders, as soon as the rebellious forces had crossed the
Rhine, and not only protected the coast towns, but invaded the territory of the enemy.
The Danish pirates were a constant cause of annoyance to the




296              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Saxons during the reign of Ethelredl, the Unready, and their number
and courage struck terror into the king's troops, so that they could not
be induced to stand before the invaders. In the year 1000, better fortune attended Ethelred in his contests with the Danes, and after somae
unsuccessful attacks they were glad to accept an offer of peace. No
sooner had a truce been agreed to, than Ethelred commanded that
every Dane in his dominions should be put to death; and the massacre
took place accordingly, on the 13th of November, 1002. This horrible
slaughter is said to have been caused by the discovery of a conspiracy
to murder the king and the Witan, and take possession of the kingdom.
At last the numerous and devastating incursions of the Danes roused
Ethelred to exertion.  Great efforts were made to form a navy, and
for that purpose a tax was levied upon all. In 1009, these ships were
ready, and "there were so many of them  as never before had been
among the English nation in any king's days."
It has been calculated that the tax must have produced eight hundred ships, and armed thirty thousand men. This numerous fleet was
directed to rendezvous at Sandwich, to be in readiness to defend the
coast: but Ethelred's usual ill fortune attended him; or, as it is forcibly
expressed, " but still we had not the good fortune, nor the worthiness,
that the ship force could be of any use to this landc any more than it
oft before had been."
Twenty of Ethelred's ships were enticed away by Wulfnoth, a South
Saxon, father of the celebrated eorl Godwin; and, when eighty ships
under Brihtric were sent in pursuit of him, they were dispersed by a
gale of wind, of unprecedented violence, and miany of them  driven
ashore.  Wulfnoth; taking advantage of this circumstance, hastened
to attack the distressed vessels, and bunt the whole of them.  Intelligence of this event having reached the king, who was with the other
part of his fleet at Sandwich, the crews were struck with despair; and
Ethelred, his nobility, and council having all deserted the ships, the
sailors rowed them back to London,  " and they let the whole nation's
toil thus lightly pass away."
The naval operations during the reign of Canute the Great and Edmund Ironside are unimportant, and the records of them very scanty.
Edward the Confessor ascended the throne in 1041, and in 1044, he
went to Sandwich with eighty-five ships. In the next year he collected
as large a fleet at that port as had ever been seen in England, in con



GREAT BRITAlIN                       297
sequence of Magnus, king of Norway, having threatened to invade his
country.  The Norwegian king, however, did not see fit to carry out
lhis intention. The Saxon king put to sea in his ships to operate against
the pirates; but it does not appear that any action took place. In the
dissentions of the Saxon eorls, in the time of the Confessor, the navy
was a favorite resort both for the security it afforded, if in flight, and
the facility of moving if becoming the assailant. The celebrated eorl
Godwin and his son Haroldl, afterwards king, were frequently in rebellion against the king, and at one time, by their powerful naval force,
threatened to obtain the mastery; but an arrangement was effected
with them.
Early in 1066, eorl Tostig, with a large fleet appeared off the Isle
of Wight, and levied money and provisions.  He then went into the
Humber with sixty ships, whence he was driven by the land forces of
eorl Edwin; and being forsaken by the butsecarls, he proceeded to
Scotland with only twelve vessels. Meeting the king of Norway with
three hundred ships, Tostig placed himself nnder his commandcl, or,
as is said, "became his man;" and with their combined force sailed
up the H-Tumber to York, where they defeated the [English under the
eorls Edwin and Morcar.  The Northmen were, however, soon after
completely routed, their leaders were slain, and driven to their ships
by king Harold, after a long and sanguinary battle at Stamford Bridge,
in Yorkshire on the 25th of September, in which Harold was wounded.'When " the Normen were put to flight, the English from behind hotly
mnote them, until they came, somle to their ships, some were drowned,
and some also were burned; and thus in divers ways they perished,
so that there were few left: and the English had possession of the
place of carnage."
In the spring of that year, the largest fleet and army ever seen in England were assembled at Sandwich to resist the invasion with which England was threatened by the Duke of Normandy. Harold continued at
Sandwich for some time; but either from  the belief that the ships
would not be wanted, or, as the annalist says, because their crews refused to serve after the feast of the Nativity of our Lady, the 8th of
September, when their provisions were exhausted, the king allowed
them  to return to their homes; and the ships were sent to London,
many being lost on their passage.
When William, Duke of Normandy, resolved upon asserting his




298              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
right to the crown of England, by invading the island, his chief
barons and other subjects opposed the scheme; but the arrival of the
pope's bull, excommunicating Harold, and sanctioning the claim  of
William, turned reluctance and indifference into enthusiasm, and the
Normans entered warmly into the design.  The baron Fitz-Osbert
offered sixty ships filled with soldiers, the bishop Odclo forty, the bishop
of le Mano thirty, with crews and pilots and all the rest of the Norman
barons, a number of ships proportioned to their revenues.  Money,
armor, stores, provisions, and all other necessaries for the enterprise
were freely bestowed. England appeared the modern Land of Promise.
William appointed the mouth of the Dive, a small river between the
Seine and the Orne, as the place of general rendezvous for his ships
and army; and, after being kept there nearly a month by contrary
winds, his fleet anchored off Saint Valery, near Dieppe.  Heavy rain
and bad weather, during which several vessels with their crews had
foundered, greatly depressed the spirits of the troops and seamen; and
they inferred from these untoward events, and the prevalence of a foul
wind, that God was offended with the design, and had thus manifested
his displeasure. Fearful that they might abandon the enterprise, William, himself a prey to anxiety, and not altogether free from the superstition of his followers, stimulated their frames by strong liquors,
while he fortified their minds by religious associations.
Writers differ much as to the number of the Norman vessels, and
of the soldiers they contained.  Four hundred ships with large masts
and sails, and more than a thousand transport boats, and sixty thousand troops, is the estimate of the learned historian of the event;
while other authorities rate the fleet from  six hundred and ninetysix to one thousand, but one writer says there were three thousand
which carried sails. The great variation in these accounts may probably be attributed to some writers having included, while others omitted,
in their enumeration, the smaller transports and boats. An approximation to accuracy might be obtained if the exact number of the soldiers were known; but, as this is also doubtful, there are no means
of arriving at the truth on either point.  However greatly William's
forces may have been overrated, it is certain that he invaded England
with a large army both of cavalry and infantry; andc, as it made only
one passage, the small vessels of which it consisted must have been
very numerous.




GREAT DRITAiN.                      299
fBlIP OF WILLII TEI CONQUEROR.
It appears that the Conqueror's ship was distinguished by having
at its mast head a sort of square, white banner charged with a gold
cross within a blue border, surmounted by another cross of gold, which
is supposed to have been the gonfanon given to him by the pope; but
it may have been his usual ensign.  His ship is larger than any of
the others, and contains ten men.  The prow is ornamented with a
lion's head; and at the stern is the effigy of a boy blowing a horn,
and holding in his left hand a gonfanon. It is remarkable that in the
list of William's fleet before referred to, this ornament should be expressly mentioned; and the ship itself is there said to have been the
gift of his consort, and called "'iMora," which is supposed to mean
6manlsion,) or ((habitation."
Two other ships of the Conqueror's fleet are thus represented; and
they differ only from that of the Duke, by being smaller, by the sails
being divided into horizontal compartments, by their being laden with
horses, by the absence of any ornament at the stern, and in one of
them, also at the prow, and by there being no shields round the
gunwales.
As the Bayeux tapestry affords the best, if not the only contemporary representation of ships, it is desirable to describe all the naval
subjects that occur in it. The first vessel introduced is that in which
Harold sailed for Normandy, in 1065.  He, appears in a large boat,
with seven men and one mast, but without a sail: it is being pushed
off from the shore with oars, and has an anchor over the bows. AL




300             UNIVERSAL  NAVAL HISTORY.
THE HORSE BOATS.
smaller boat is near it. IHe then appears in a ship with one mast, and
a very large green sail, going before the wind, containing fourteen
men, with shields round the gunwales; and one shield is suspended
over the bows.  He is next seen landing from another representation
of his ship, the sail of which is of four cloths, party colored, and the
prow and stern are ornamented with lions' heads.  A boy is at the
mast head, apparently to look out; two men are pulling, and a man
holds an anchor in his hand over the bow. Harold is then seen landing from a boat at anchor, and is arrested by Guy, Count of Poitou.
The ship in which Harold returns to England has no peculiarity from
the others; but the vessel which brings a messenger to inform William of the death of Edward the Confessor, and Harold's accession,
has only four men, one of whom carries out in his hand a small anchor
without a stock.
Preparations for the invasion are shown by men hewing timber, and
cutting it into planks for ship building.  The ships are afterwards
launched, and the process is remarkable. Two ropes being affixed to
their bows, and drawn through a block on a post; the vessels are
pulled by several men to the water.  The Conqueror's fleet is represented as consisting of twelve ships of different sizes; and some have
from three to eight horses on board. On reaching England, the mast
was struck by being lowered forwards, and the horses were landed by
leaping over the gunwale; which prove that the vessels were of very
small size, and low in the water.  All the ships are marked horizon



GREAT BRITAIN,                       301
tally by four or more lines, perhaps to represent plank; and these
divisions are always differently colored, —blue, yellow, red; blue, yellow, red, or blue, yellow; or blue and yellow; the Conqueror's vessel
being painted alternately, brown and blue.
William's ship sailed much faster than the rest, and was so far
ahead of the fleet, that at daybreak the next morning none of the
others could be seen.  HIe, therefore, sent a sailor to the mast head
to look for them: "I see nothing but sea and sky," he exclaimed;
and the ship was immediately brought to an anchor.  A good breakfast and spiced wines having been served, the man was again sent
to look out, when he descried four vessels; and, ascending the mast
for a third time, "I see," he said, "a forest of masts and sails." As
soon as the body of the fleet had come up, William weighed, and his
army landed without any resistance, at Pevensey, near Hastings, on
the 28th of Septemlber, 1066. When the army had disembarked, he
ordered his ships to be drawn on shore and destroyed.
Harold was then at York, recovering from a wound.  As soon as
he heard of the arrival of the Normans, he conducted his forces southward, and though the English army was greatly inferior in numbers
to the enemy, he nobly refused to compromise his rights.  The battle
of Hastings, fought on the 14th of October, gave a new dynasty to
England.  Harold died like a hero in the midst of the fight.  When
William had subdued England, he fo und himself entirely without the
means of defending her shores.  The greater part of the navy had
been carried to Ireland by Godwin and Edllund, the sons of Haroldcl,
and William had destroyed the vessels which conveyed his forces across
the Channel.
In the five years which elapsed after his accession, William succeeded in supplying the first necessity of a maritime nation, by forming a navy.  In 1071 he sent a naval as well as a land force against
the rebellious earl Mlorkar; and in the following year he invaded
Scotland both by sea and land, when lMalcolm was compelled to imake
peace, give hostages, and b"become his man."  In 1073, king William crossed the Channel with an army, and subdued the province of
Maine.
The navy received much attention during the reign of Henry
the Second, who ascended the throne in 1154.  When England was
menaced with an invasion, in 1161, by the Count of Boulogne and
26




302             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORYo
Flanders, whose fleet was said to consist of six hundred ships, king
Henry was abroad, engaged in a war with France; but Richard de
Lucy, the justiciary, collected so large a force on the coast, that the
attempt was abandoned.  Early in March, 1170, while the king was
crossing the Channel from Normandy, so great a storm  arose in the
middle of the night, that his fleet was dispersed and much damaged.
With great dificulty Henry's ship reached Portsmouth, but one of
the others, in which his physician, and Henry de Agnellis, a distinguishecd baron, with his two sons, and some other persons of the
royal household, had embarked, foundered.  It is said, that the passengers and crew amounted to four hundred; but this statement is
either one of the usual exaggerations of the chroniclers wherever they
mention numbers, or the ships of the twelfth century were at least
four times larger than they are supposed to have been.
Richard the First had taken the cross before his accession; and
soon after that event, he agreed with Philip of France that they should
proceed together to the Holy Land.  Great preparations were made
throughout England to provide a fleet and an army for that purpose;
and at the beginning of December, 1189, numerous ships were assembled at Dover from all parts of England to convey the king and his
followers across the Channel.  On the 11th of that month he embarked for Calais, and joined the French monarch at Rheims, when
a treaty of friendship and assistance was entered into between the two
sovereigns. Richard soon after appointed "justices," or admirals, and
issued the first regular code for the government of the fleet.  The
code consisted of thirty-seven articles, and received the appellation of
the Laws of Oleron.
In the mean time a fleet had been collected at Dartmouth from all
parts of England, Normandy, Poitou, Brittany, and Aquitaine, in
which such of the crusaders as had not accompanied the king by land,
and the engines, stores, and other materiel for the army, were embarked.  These ships were to join Richard at Marseilles; and the
fact is deserving of particular attention, because it is the earliest
evidence yet discovered of English vessels having been sent on so
distant a voyage. Part, if not all of the ships, sailed from Dartmouth
towards the end of April, 11 90; but, owing probably to the unfitness
of vessels so constructed and rigged to pass the Atlantic ocean, many
disasters befel them.  For five days the wind continued fair; but on




GREAT BRITAIN.                       303
Ascension day, the 3d of May, before they had crossed the Bay of
Biscay, it changed, and blew so violently that the ships were clispersed.
Philip of France had arrived a few days before; and while he
greeted his royal ally with every ostensible mark of confidence, he is
supposed to have been secretly envious of his magnificent appearance.
The late period of the year prevented Richard from proceeding immediately to the Holy Land, and the two kings with their followers,
wintered at Messina.  Many of the galleys of the English fleet were
so much injured by a species of worm  called "beom," that it was
necessary to careen and repair them.
On the 30th of i~arch, 1191, the French monarch sailed for Palestine; and information being brought to Richard that his mother, the
queen dowager of England, and his betrothed bride, Berengaria of
Navarre, had arrived at Reggio, on the opposite coast, he crossed the
Faro, and returned with the ladies to gMessina. on the day of Philip's
departure.  About the same time the fleet was reinforced by thirty
busses, bringing soldiers and provisions from England.  Either from
its being the season of Lent, or from Richard's unwillingness to delay
his voyage, he did not solemnize his nuptials at Iehnssina. Every preparation being made, and the troops and stores embarked, he entrusted
Berengaria to the care of his sister Queen Joan, and placed them on
board a large buss, or dromon, commanded by Sir Stephen de Turnham, the commander of the fleet.  On the morning of Wednesday
the 10th of April, all the large ships put to sea; and as soon as the
king had dined, he followed them  down the Fare with the whole of
his galleys.  The English fleet has been variounsly described; but
most writers agree in stating, that it consisted of thirteen dromons,
or very large busses, one hundred and fifty smaller busses, fifty-three
well armed galleys, with several galleases, and other light vessels.
The busses and ships were of great burthen, wonderful fleetness, and
strongly and compactly built. Each of the large ships carried, besides
her crew, forty valuable horses, with the necessary armor, and the
same number of foot soldiers.  The money for the expedition was
distributed among the ships and busses in case of accident, and they
were stored with provisions of all kinds for one year.
On Thursday, the 11th of April, when off Etna, a calm obliged
them to anchor; but a light and favorable breeze springing up the




304             UNIVERSAL NAVA L HISTORY.
next day, Good Friday, they weighed and made some progress.  In
the night they were again becalmed; and on Saturday the 13th, the
fleet experienced so heavy a gale from the southward, that the passengers and crews alike were sea sick and frightened; and the ships
becoming ungovernable, many of them were dispersed. " Despairing,"
says the historian, "of all human aid, they trusted to God alone."
During the whole storm, Richard remainecl cool and collectedl, encouraging all around him by his speeches and example.  Towards
evening the gale abatedl, and the king's ship, which was indicated
during the night by a light at the masthead, brought to, that the
scattered vessels might gather around her.  "RIn truth," says Vinesaufn,'the king watched and looked after his fleet as a hen doth over
her chickens."  All, except twenty-five vessels, having appeared in
the morning, they proceeded with a fair wind to the island of Crete,
where the king anchored on the 17th of April.
Among the missing vessels was the ship in which his sister and
bride had taken their passage; but the next day, seeing nothing  of
those vessels, he continued his voyage.  A favorable breeze impelled
the fleet "with bellying sails and masts slightly bowed, not unlike a
flight of birds; and the following morning they found themselves
close to Rhodes."  It seems that, either from having missed the port,
or from being unacquainted with the coast, the vessels lay to, off that
island until the 22d, when Richard landed, and, being taken ill, continued there for some days.  Naturally anxious to learn what had
become of his sister and Berengaria, he sent galleys in all directions
to look for themn, and for the other missing vessels.  Meanwhile the
queen's ship, with several others, had reached Cyprus, which was then
in the hands of Isaac Comnenus, styling himself emperor.  When
the vessel with the two queens on board entered the bay of Lymesol,
Isaac invited the ladies'to land; but they declined, saying they only
wished to know if the king had passed.  The emperor then armed
four galleys; and the commander of the English ship, suspecting his
intentions, immediately weighed and stood out to sea.
On the Gth of Ml~ay, Richard appeared off the harbor of Lymesol,
where he found the ship with his sister and bride on board, and was
informed of the manner in which they had been treated by Isaac, and
the fate of his three ships and their crews.  Indignant at Isaac's conduct, he immediately sent two of his knights to demand satisfactions








Jll!               NN.;                                                                               _ __;-=~ —---— * ~;_~,.?,I 
RIC,-HARID CCEUi DE, LON.APTPIMING TH~E CITY OF L.IMESOLo




GREAT BRITAIN.                      307
The emperor pretended to be highly displeased, and his offensive
answer, "Ptruht Sire, I have nothing to do with the king,"' so excited Richard's displeasure, that he instantly determined to attack
the town. Having commanded his people to arm, Richard leapt from
his ship into a boat, and was followed by a host of knights and
soldiers, in galleys and smaller vessels. Isaac opposed them with a
large body of his " griffons," and barricaded the town with doors and
windows of houses, old galleys, casks, and other things; but nothing
could resist the impetuous valor of the crusaders. Coeur de Lion
himself struck the first blow: Lymesol soon fell into their hands; and
the emperor, completely defeated, took refuge in the mountains. The
next day, the ship with the two queens, and the rest of the fleet, anchored in the port.
The emperor Isaac was compelled to bind himself to serve under
Richard, in Palestine, and to surrender all his castles, and pay twenty
thousand marks in gold.  But he broke the treaty, a few hours after
it was made.  Richard then sent an army in pursuit of him, and so
completely was he defeated that he came and voluntarily submitted
himself to the discretion of the conqueror.  Richard ordered him to
be placed in silver chains, and confined in a castle in Palestine. Cyprus was, therefore, the first conquest in a distant sea made by the
English armaments.
The king returned to Lymesol, and soon afterwards his fleet was
reinforced.  On the 5th of June, he embarked, and with all his galleys, proceeded to the scene of his future glory. Before he reached
Palestine, however; he became the hero of a naval battle. On the
7th, when near Baruth, an immense ship was discovered ahead. This
ship is described as having three tall, tapering masts, and being elegantly painted. She is said to have had on board, upwards of one
thousand five hundred men, selected Turks, for the defence of Acre.
Richard ordered a galley to be sent alongside of the Turkish vessel
in order to ascertain her real character; but the Turks almost destroyed her crew with their arrows and Greek fire.  Richard instantly
led his vessels to the attack.  An obstinate conflict ensued, in which
the Turks had the advantage, on account of the height of their ship.
But one resource remained to the English king. He ordered the
vessels of his fleet to strive to pierce the sides of the enemy's vessel
with their iron prows.  This was executed, and the Turkish vessel




308             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
sank, and all her crew, except fifty-five were either drowned or
slaughtered. Great importance was attached to the capture of this
great ship, as, if it had arrived at Acre, the city never would have
been taken by the crusaders.
King Richard landed at Acre on the 10th of June, and was received
with great enthusiasm by his companions in arms who were besieging
the town. Though the English galleys were of great use to the army
during the remainder of the crusade, nothing of a strictly naval character took place. Having concluded a truce with Saladin, and being
greatly reduced by illness, king Richard determined in September,
1192, to return to Europe. Early in October, the queens Berengaria
and Joan sailed from Palestine for Sicily, and on the 8th of that
month, Richard took his departure in a larges buss; but owing to
contrary winds, he was nearly a month at sea before reaching the
island of Corfu. Procuring three galleys on the coast of Romania,
he crossed over in a small vessel, and agreed with the masters of the
galleys to convey him and his suite to Ragura and Tara. To avoid
being recognised, he wore his beard and hair like those of a pilgrim.
But his expenditure and retinue being inconsistent with his appearance,
his rank was suspected.
Near Vienna, he was arrested by order of the Duke of Austria,
and kept in confinement a year and five months.  Towards the close
of 1193, the king was ransomed and returned to England. No important naval transactions occurred during the remainder of his reign.








__I_____~__~~~~~~~_ ~                                      )2}~_ __
~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V........ ~ ~            ~            -~ —-— ~~L — 
KING JOHNtS FLEET UN'DER'. T',  rL (Jr   SLT 71,'GAILING TO THE PORT OF DA]_




CHAPTER XXII.
PROM 1200 TILL THE DEATH OF EDWARD THE SECOND, IN 1326.,_ -.u,, ING John is considered by some as the founder
of the British Royal Navy. He made a close
approach to a regular naval establishment;, A  and the right of England to the sovereignty
X of the narrow seas is said to have been solemnly asserted and enforced.  Having esV_-:             tablished himself on the throne, and raised
an army, he collected ships enough to convey
it to Normandy, and embarked at Shoreham, for Dieppe, about the
middle of June. He remained abroad until the 27th of February in
the following year, when he arrived at Portsmouth, from Harfieur.
Early in 1213; the pope, after a long controversy with king John,
absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and exhorted all Christian
princes and barons to unite in dethroning him.  The king of France,
who was constantly upon the watch for a chance to gratify his ambition, eagerly seized upon this pretence, and made extensive preparations to invade England. John took vigorous measures for the defence
of his dominions.  By the middle of April he had assembled a numerous fleet and a large army at Dover.  In the meantime, a quarrel
arose between the king of France and the Count of Flanders, because
(311)




3 $12           UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the latter refused to support Philip in his attempt upon England. The
French monarch, to punish the count, entered Flanders with his whole
army, and all the ships which were in the Seine, for the purpose of
conveying the French troops to England, were sent to the port of
Damme. Though the harbor was of "a wonderful size," it could not contain all the French ships, which are said to have amounted to seventeen hundred sail; so that many of them anchored on the coast. The
Count of Flanders naturally called upon King John for assistance, who
immnediately ordered his fleet, consisting of five hundred vessels, and
having on board seven hundred knights, to proceed to Damme under
the command of the Earl of Salisbury, the Duke of Holland, and the
Count of Boulogne. Salisbury, greatly surprised to find the port full,
and the coast covered with vessels, sent to reconnoitre the strange fleet;
and learned that they were French, and that the greater part of their
crews had landed and gone inland to plunder. He instantly attacked
the ships, and three hundred vessels laden with corn, wine, and arms
fell into his hands.  The cables of the prizes were cut, and, the wind
being off the land, they were soon on their passage to England. About
a hundred or more of the others, which were either drawn upon the
strand or driven upon the shore, were burnt, and part of their cargoes
brought away. Not satisfied with his success, Salisbury and his brave
companions landed, and pursued the French for some distance; but
King Philip sent so large a force against them that he was compelled
to retreat, and hastily embarked. The biographer of that monarch
gives a different account of this affair.  He says, that, except a few
knights and soldiers who were left to protect the ships, all the French
forces were besieging Ghent when the English fleet appeared off
Damme; that Salisbury and his soldiers rushed into small boats and
took possession of the vessels outside the port, and the next day
attacked the ships in the harbor as well as the town; that the king
quitted Gherat, and drove the English to their ships, slaying and drowning nearly two thousand, and making many prisoners.  Important as
the capture of the French fleet must have been, since it induced Philip
to burn the remainder of his ships and to quit Flanders, this event
cannot be considered to have added much to the naval renown of England, and it is chiefly memorable for having been the first engagement
between the ships of France and England.
During the summer of 1216, the straits of D)over and other parts




GREAT BRITAIN.                      313
of the English channel, appear to have been filled with the vessels of
Prince Louis, of France, under the command of the celebrated Eustace, the Monk; for when the pope's legate demanded permission of
king Philip to go to England, he willingly promised him protection
throughout his own dominions; but he added, "If you should happen
to fall into the hands of Eustace, the Monk, or any other of Louis's
men, who infest the sea, do not impute it to me should any harm befall you."
Disgusted with the conduct of their faithless sovereign, the English
barons offered the crown to Louis, the eldest son of the king of France,
who eagerly accepted the proposal.  A fleet of six hundred ships and
eighty cogs having been collected at Calais, Gravelines, and Whitsand, by Eustace, the Monk, for this service, the prince embarked with
a considerable force; but, owing to a strong northeast wind, the ships
were dispersed, and Louis was obliged, in his single vessel, to anchor
at Stonar, in the isle of Thanet, on the 21st of May. Meeting with no
resistance, Louis proceeded with his ships to Sandwich; and after subduing the whole of Kent, except Dover castle, he joined the confederated barons at London.
King John did not long survive this formidable attempt to deprive
him of his crown, as he died at Newark on the 19th of October, in the
same year.
When Henry the Third ascended the throne, he was but ten years
of age; his capital and part of his dominions were in the hands of the
invading prince, and many of his most powerful subjects adhered to
the cause of his enemies. But never were such difficulties surmounted
more rapidly than these.  The earl of Pembroke, the guardian of the
kingdom, defeated and destroyed the hopes of Prince Louis, and of
the English barons who were his confederates. Soon after their discomfiture, the French fleet, which was coming to their assistance, was
completely defeated; an event of the greatest interest; for it was the
first regular sea fight, worthy of the name, between the ships of England and France, and the precursor of that series of victories which
crowned the navy of Britain with glory.
As soon as the news of Louis's defeat at Lincoln reached France,
Robert de Courtenay collected an army for his assistance, which embarked at Calais, in a fleet of eighty ships, besides galleys and smaller
vessels, under the command of the famous Eustace, the Monk; and
27




314              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
on the 24th of August they put to sea, intending to proceed up the
Thames to London.
Hubert de Burgh, the king's justiciary and Governor of Dover
castle, impressed with the necessity of preventing this formidable force
from landing, immediately took measures for the purpose.  Addressing the bishop of Winchester, the marshal, and other great personages,
he said, "If these people land, England is lost; let us, therefore,
boldly meet them, for God is with us, and they are excommunicated."
His ardor was not, however, shared by his audience, who replied, "We
are not sea soldiers, nor pirates, nor fishermen: go thou and die!" Not
discouraged by this answer, De Burgh sent for his chaplain, and
having hastily taken the sacrament, he, with an emphatic oath, thus
enjoined the garrison to defend their post: " Ye shall suffer me to be
hanged before ye surrender the castle, for it is the key of England."
Affected to tears by the exhortation, and still more by the fate that
seemed to await their chief, they pledged themselves to obey his commands.
Sixteen large and well armed ships, manned with skilful seamen belonging to the Cinque Ports, and about twenty smaller vessels, formed
the English squadron. Assembling some of the bravest of his knights,
among whom were Sir Philip d'Albini, Sir Henry de Turberville, Sir
Richard Suard, and Sir Richard, a natural son of King John, De
Burgh led them to the ships, and immediately put to sea.
The enemy were at some distance from Calais when the English
sailed, but all the accounts of the engagement are defective in nautical details, while the few that do occur are very obscurely expressed.
It appears that the wind was southerly, blowing fresh; and that the
French were going large, steering to round the North Foreland, little
expecting any opposition.  The English squadron, instead of directly
appraching the enemy, kept their wind as if going to Calais; which
made Eustace, the French commander, exclaim, "I know that those
wretches think to invade Calais like thieves, but that is useless, for it
is well defended." As soon as the English had gained the wind of the
French fleet, they bore down in the most gallant manner upon the
enemy's rear; and the moment they came close to the sterns of the
French ships, they threw grapnels into them, and, thus fastening the
vessels together, prevented the enemy from  escaping;-an early




GREAT BRITAIN.                       315
instance of that love of close fighting for which English sailors have
ever since been distinguished.
The action commenced by the crossbow men and archers, under Sir
Philip d'Albini, pouring volleys of arrows into the enemy's ships
with deadly effect; and, to increase their dismay, the English threw
unslaked lime, reduced to a fine powder, on board their opponents,
which being blown by the wind into their eyes, completely blinded
them. The English then rushed on board; and cutting away the
rigging and haulyards with axes, the sails fell over the French, to use
the expression of the chronicler, "-like a net upon ensnared small
birds." Thus hampered, the enemy could make but a feeble resistance;
and, after an immense slaughter, were completely defeated.
Besides, Robert de Courtenay, William de Baris, Ralph de Tornellis, and other distinguished persons, the English captured one hundred and twenty-five knights, and more than a thousand soldiers of
inferior rank. The loss sustained by the English is no where mentioned,
but it does not appear to have been great  The action was in all
points of view glorious to the skill and valor of the victors.
Prince Louis succeeded to the throne of France, in July, 1223, and
jeing called upon by the English government to fulfil his promise to
restore Normandy, Maine, and Anjou, he peremptorily refused to do
so, entered Poitou and then took possession of Rochelle, and other
towns. It was therefore determined to send a considerable force to Poitou,
under the Earl of Salisbury, and Prince Richard, the king's brother,
who was soon after created Earl of Cornwall and Count of Poitou.
Warlike preparations were accordingly made, and vessels ordered to
be provided for the conveyance of troops to France. The fleet assembled at Portsmouth, in May, 1226, but, in consequence of the conclusion of an armistice for twelve months, between France and England, it did not assume the offensive.
Towards the close of 1241, Henry, instigated by his mothers who
had married the Count de la Marche, determined to assist the count
in his quarrel with the French monarch; and on the return of the
Earl of Cornwall from the Holy Land, in January 1242, it was agreed
that the king should conduct an army into Poitou in person.  Great
preparations were made for the expedition.  Henry went to Portsmouth on the 21st of April. Having completed his arrangements
and taking with him thirty casks filled with money, the king sailed




316              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
from Portsmouth on the 10th of May, accompanied by the queen, his
brother, the Earl of Cornwall, seven other earls, and three hundred
knights; but the wind failing, the fleet was obliged to anchor again.
On the next day, however, they put to sea, and before the 16th,
arrived at St. Matthew, in Brittany, from whence they sailed to Rions
at the mouth of the Gironde, where the king landed and proceeded
immediately to the city of Pons. Though the French monarch ordered
twenty-four well armed galleys to be at Rochelle to resist the invasion, they offered no opposition to the English fleet.
Henry having requested military and pecuniary assistance, reinforcements and supplies were sent to Gascony, under the direction of
the Cinque Ports.  The nobility of England and Ireland, ashamed to
remain idle at home while their sovereign was waging war abroad,
wished to join the king, and so many of them embarked for the purpose, that their ships formed a large naval force. As soon as the
French sailors and pirates, who were guarding the opposite coast,
heard of the expedition, they armied and fitted out ships and galleys,
and put to sea to attack the English; but, before the fleets met, both
were completely dispersed by a sudden storm. Driven before the
wind in great confusion, the crews scarcely knew friends from foes,
and consulted only their own safety.  The French ships being, however, nearer to their own shore, and the wind more favorable for
them, they succeeded in getting into harbor; while the English and
Irish ships, "fearing alike," says the honest historian, "the elements
and the French, fled in shame, in fear, and bitterness of heart, they
knew not where, and came to remote and unknown coasts."  So great
were the sufferings of those on board, that the Abbot of Evesham, Sir
Richard de Burgh, and many others never recovered their health,
and, unused to a foreign climate, languished until they died; whence
it may be inferred that part of the fleet was driven on the coast of
Spain or Portugal.  This event was severely felt by the king; and,
to revenge himself, he issued orders to the Cinque Ports to commit
every possible injury upon the French at sea, as well to merchant
ships as to vessels of war. Not satisfied with obeying these commands, the sailors of the Cinque Ports acted with such ferocity, that
they "slew and plundered like pirates," as well their own countrymen, returning from  pilgrimages, as foreigners, "sparing neither
friends nor neighbors, kith nor kin."




GREAT BRITAIN.                      317
The French adopted vigorous and successful measures to protect
their shores. After many shameful defeats, the wardens of the Cinque
Ports were obliged to apply to the Archbishop of York for assistance;
and their statements present a deplorable picture of the English navy.
They said, they had been thrice repulsed by the enemy with ships,
men, and goods, especially by the inhabitants of Calais that neither
the ships of the Cinque Ports, nor even the whole English fleet, were
capable of resisting the fleet which the French had prepared; and
they entreated the archbishop to consult with the king's council on
the imminent danger that threatened the country. They added, that
the Count of Brittany, with all the shipping of Brittany and Poitou,
well armed and equipped, was waiting to intercept vessels passing
between England and the king; that, to increase their distress, the
Normans and sailors of Whitsand and Calais scarcely permitted them
to fish; that the pirates who guarded the high sea with their galleys
would not suffer even pilgrims to return home; and that such was
the position of the king, that Bordeaux might be considered his prison, unless money and ships were immediately dispatched to him.
At the time when this representation was made to the Archbishop of
York, he could hardly venture to send the king's ships of burthen to
him; and he, therefore, earnestly advised Henry to settle his affairs
there, and hasten to England.  The king adopted this advice.  He
embarked about the end of August, 1243, and landed at Portsmouth
on the 25th of September.
The introduction of the mariner's compass is one of the most
remarkable events of the thirteenth century. It at once gave the
navigator more confidence in making long voyages, and prevented the
accidents so common before, when the polar star was not visible.
The reign of Edward the First, who ascended the throne in 1273,
was not remarkable for maritime events. A great and enterprising
prince, his abilities found sufficient employment at home.  Alfonso,
king of Castile and Leon, having undertaken an expedition against
the Saracens, he sent to request the assistance of his brother-in-law,
the king of England.  Edward accordingly ordered the authorities of
Bayonne to build and equip twelve ships and twenty-four galleys for
that purpose. In the conquest of Wales, which was affected during
this reign, the fleets of England performed considerable services, in
the conveyance of troops and the dispersion of the Welsh pirates.
27*




818             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORYo
The first naval transaction of any moment in this reign arose out
of a quarrel between two common sailors, and led to the most important consequences. In 1293, two of the crew of an English ship,
in some port of Normandy, landed to get water, and meeting with
several Norman sailors, a dispute ensued which produced blows on
both sides.  One of the Englishmen was slain, and the other fled to
his ship, followed by twenty of the Normans. The vessel immediately
put to sea and was pursued by many of the Norman ships.  Shortly
afterwards, the French squadron fell in with six English ships, which
they attacked, and having captured two of them, they hung their
crews, together with some dogs, to the yards of the vessels. They
then cruised in the Channel for some% time, committing such outrages,
that they "made no distinction between an Englishman and a dog."
It was never in the nature of English sailors to submit to such infamous
treatment; and without waiting for the approval or assistance of their
sovereign, they determined to be revenged.
The four ships that had escaped were joined by many others from
the Cinque Ports, and eagerly sought the enemy; but not finding
them  at sea, they entered the Seine, where they were discovered at
anchor, and instantly attacked. A sanguinary conflict took place,
which terminated in the defeat of the French and the loss of six of
their ships.  Several other partial engagements occurred, attended
" by great slaughter on both sides, shipwreck, and rapine-both thirsting for blood;" but no particulars are mentioned of any of these
affairs. It was at length determined to try their strength in a pitched
battle, on the 14th of April, at a spot mid-channel between England
and France, indicated by anchoring a large and empty ship.  The
English enlisted the Irish and Dutch sailors in their cause, while the
Normans had obtained the assistance of the French, Flemish, and
Genoese.
On the appointed day the two fleets, well armed, met at the rendezvous. The weather was very tempestuous: hail and snow fell
heavily, accompanied by a high wind; and the chroniclers observe,
that the courage of the respective combatants was as unequal as the
elements.  The English fleet does not appear to have exceeded sixty
ships, while their opponents had more than two hundred. After a
desperate conflict, "Almighty God," say Knyghton and Hemingford,
"was pleased to give the victory to our side:" and they add, with




GREAT  l3RITAIN.                    319
their usual exaggeration, that "many thousands perished by the
sword, beside those who went down in their ships, who were almost
countless. Our men brought away about two hundred and forty ships
laden with spoil."
Though the French appear to have been the aggressors, Philip demanded redress, and summoned Edward to appear before him as his
vassal.  Edward refused, and Philip took possession of Gascony.
This the English king resolved to recover by force of arms. In 1294,
effectual measures were taken to maintain the naval power of England.
The king divided his fleet into three large squadrons, and placed the
ships of Yarmouth and the adjacent ports, which amounted to fiftythree sail, under the command of Sir John De Botetourt; those at
Portsmouth, under Sir William  de Leybourne; and those of the
western ports and Ireland, under a good knight of that country, called
Ormond.  After an efficient number of vessels were collected at
Portsmouth, the army, which consisted of five hundred men at arms
and twenty thousand foot soldiers, sailed about the first of August, but
the ships having been dispersed off the coast of Cornwall by contrary
winds, they were obliged to put into Plymouth, and did not quit that
port until the early part of October. No naval battle took place
during this expedition.
The first instance of the grant of what are called "Letters of Marque
and Reprisal," is supposed to have occurred in 1295. Bernard d'Ongressill, a merchant of Bayonne, then part of the dominions of the
king of England, was the owner of a ship belonging to that place,
called' the "St. Mary," laden with almonds, raisins, and figs, which
vessel, while on her passage from Barbary to England, was driven by
stress of weather into Lagos, in Portugal. When at anchor, some
armed Portuguese came from  Lisbon, boarded the vessel, robbed
d'Ongressill and the crew, and took the ship and cargo to that city.
The king of Portugal having received one-tenth part of the spoil, the
remainder was divided among the robbers.  By this proceeding,
d'Ongressill said he had lost seven hundred pounds; and he prayed
Sir John of Brittany, then lieutenant of Gascony, to grant him letters
of marque-literally, "license of marking the men, and subjects of
the king of Portugal, especially those of Lisbon, and their goods, by
land and sea," until he had obtained compensation. Accordingly, in
June, 1295, the king's lieutenant granted d'Ongressill, his heirs,




320             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
successors, and descendants, authority for five years to "mark, retain,
and appropriate," the people of Portugal, and especially those of Lisbon, and their goods, wheresoever they might be found, until he had
obtained satisfaction. This license was confirmed by the king on the
3d of October, with the condition, that it should cease as soon as restitution had been made.
In 1297, Edward resolved to assist the Count of Flanders against
the king of France. He embarked in a cog, called after himself, the
"Edward," at Winchelsea, on the 22d of August.  The king took
with him a large fleet, and an army consisting, if we may credit the
chroniclers, of fifteen hundred cavalry, and fifty thousand foot soldiers, of whom thirty thousand were Welsh. He landed at Slugo on
the 27th of August, but no sooner had he taken up his quarters, than
a quarrel arose among the sailors of his fleet, arising out of old dissentions between the people of the Cinque Ports and those of Yarmouth. The men of the Cinque Ports seem to have begun the affray,
by boarding the Yarmouth vessels, slaying their crews, and burning
above twenty ships. The king's commands were entirely disregarded;
and only three of the Yarmouth vessels could make their escape.
This event shows the daring and lawless habits of English sailors at
the close of the. thirteenth century. The king returned to England
in March, 1298, and no further important naval operations are recorded
until his death, which took place in July, 1307.
King Edward the Second had been affianced before his father's
death, to Isabel, the only daughter of the king of France, and he lost
no time after his accession in claiming his bride.  Hle sailed from
Dover on the 22d of January; and. on the 28th of that month, his
nuptials were celebrated at Boulogne in a most splendid manner.
The king returned to Dover on the 7th of February. In the war with
the Scots, under Robert Bruce, a fleet of fifty ships, under Sir John
de Caunton, was of much service in supplying the English troops
engaged in the war, and in clearing the sea of the numerous pirates
which infested the coast.  Several small squadrons were fitted out
during the Scottish war, to harass the coasts of the enemy, but they
effected nothing worthy of mention.
In the war with France, which broke out in 1324, the greater portion of the contest was maintained upon the sea. Each power made
every exertion to display its naval strength. Edward commanded




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GREAT BRITAIN.                        323
the authorities, in the various ports of his realm, to equip every ship
for war, and with all their might to attack and destroy the ships belonging to the king of France, so that the French, being the originators of the war, might feel its effects.
A disgraceful peace was concluded with France in May, 1325, Edward yielding the point which gave rise to the war. But an inexorable hatred existed between the two  kings, and  hostilities were
soon renewed.
No fact in the naval history of the thirteenth and early part of the
fourteenth century is more remarkable, than the piratical habits of
the: sailors of England and other countries. During a truce or peace,
ships were boarded, plundered, and captured by vessels of a friendly
power, as if there had been an actual war.  Even English merchant
ships were attacked and robbed, as well in port as at sea, by English
vessels, and especially by those of the Cinque Ports, which seem to
have been nests of robbers; and, judging from  the numerous complaints, it would appear that a general system of piracy existed, which
no government was strong enough to restrain.  Remonstrances and
demands for satisfaction were constantly made by one sovereign of another, for some aggression committed by his subjects at sea; and when
justice was not obtained, letters of marque and reprisal were granted,
which were, in fact, permission for individuals to take the law into
their own hands, and to obtain compensation for their own private
injury from any innocent countryman of the aggressor.
The title of " Admiral " is attributed to no less than twenty-one persons in the reign of Edward the Second.  Few of these individuals,
however, are' deserving of much consideration, either from their station, or their services; and some of them were so obscure, that little
*is known of their history, except that they held the office of admiral.
The most prominent, both for rank and service, were Sir Simon de
Montacute, Sir John de Cromwell, Sir John Sturmy, Sir John of
Argyle, and Sir John de Caunton.




CHAPTER XXIII.
FROM THE DEATH OF EDWARD THE SECOND TILL THE DEATH
OF HENRY THE FIFTH.
HE name of Edward the Third is
__.'      identified with the naval glory of
~-~ >, England.  Though the sagacious
__ i__   Alfred, and the chivalrous Richard
commanded fleets and defeated the
_ __________-___________'-__ enemy  at  sea, Edward's  glory  was
still greater.  He gained, in person, two signal victories —fighting on one occasion, until his ship
actually sunk under him, and was rewarded by his subjects with the
proud title of " King of the Sea."
The isle of Cadsand, near the entrance of the Sluys, was garrisoned
by many Flemish knights and'esquires, who did so much mischief to
the English by intercepting them on their passage to and from England, that Edward determined to dislodge them.  Accordingly, in
(324)




GREAT BRITAIN.                      325
November, 1337, Henry, Earl of Derby, and Sir Walter Mauny were
ordered to proceed to Cadsand, with five hundred men-at-arms and two
thousand archers. They embarked at London, and with the first tide,
reached Gravesend. On the 10th of November, the expedition arrived
off Cadsand, and, the wind and tide being in their favor, they prepared to attack the place "in the name of God and St. George."
"6 Then," says Froissart, "they sounded their trumpets, quickly armed
themselves, put their vessels in order, and placing their archers forwards, sailed rapidly towards the town." The Flemings, to the number of five thousand, under Sir Guy of Flanders, brother to Louis,
Count of Flanders, "a good and sure knight, though a bastard," made
every preperation for receiving them, and drew up his troops on the
dykes and sands.
As the ships approached the harbor, the English archers shouting
their national war cry, shot their arrows with such effect, that the
Flemings who defended the entrance were compelled, with many
wounds, to retire. The troops then landed, and a hand to hand fight
enlsued, with hatchets, swords, and glaives. Though the Flemings
displayed great bravery, they were at last defeated, with the loss of a
thousand men, and Sir Guy of Flanders was made prisoner.  The
victors then sacked and burnt the town, and carried the plunder and
prisoners to England.  When the king was informed of their success,
he showed great satisfaction."
Having resolved to assert his rights to the crown of France by an
invasion, Edward collected a large fleet and army at Orwell, and sailed
for Antwerp, where he arrived on the 16th of July, 1338. The French
squadrons committed terrible devastations on the English coasts, and
captured some large ships.  They were assisted by the Genoese and
the Spaniards.  The inhabitants offered a determined resistance to
the invaders, but their numbers were generally overpowering. In July,
1339, a fleet of thirty-two galleys appeared off Sandwich; but finding
the inhabitants prepared for them, they did not dare to land, and
diverged to Rye, where they did much mischief. An English fleet
approaching, the French ships took to flight, and were chased into
Boulogne. Not satisfied, however, with forcing the enemy into port,
the English entered the harbor, took several of the French vessels,
hung twelve of their captains, burnt part of the town, and returned
with their prizes to England.  Soon after, Sir Robert Morley, an
28




326             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
English admiral, burnt five towns in Normandy and no less than eighty
ships.  But the general superiority of the French upon the sea, at
this time, was clearly evident.
No year was more memorable in the naval history of England than
1340. Early in January, Edlward the III. formally assumed the
title and arms of the king of France, and at once resolved to enforce
his claim by the most active measures. He sailed back to Orwell
from Flanders, and preparations were immediately begun for a large
expedition. Every ship carrying twenty tons and upwards was or-,dered to be well manned and equipped, and sent to Sandwich for the
king's passage. About the 10th of June, when all the preparations
were completed, and the horses shipped, Edward was informed that'Philip of Valois had assembled an immense fleet at Sluys to prevent
his landing.  He disbelieved the report, and said he would at all
events attempt to cross the Channel. But he was at last induced to
wait till he had collected more ships from the northern and southern
ports, as well as from London. Within ten days, a fleet of about two
hundred sail assembled, and more soldiers and archers arrived than
were wanted.
King Edward sailed about one o'clock on the 22d of June, with
two hundred vessels, and on his arrival on the coast of Flanders, was
joined by the northern squadron, consisting of fifty sail, under Sir
Robert Morley.  On the 23d of June, about noon, Edward arrived
off Blankenburg, ten miles to the westward of the mouth of the Siuys,
and discovered the French fleet lying in that port. The opposing
fleet numbered one hundred and ninety vessels, nineteen of which
were larger than any the English had yet seen.
The French ships were manned with above thirty-five thousand
Normans, Picards, and Genoese; and this formidable armament was
commanded by Sir Hugh Kiriet, having under him Sir Nicholas Bahuchet, who received the honor of knighthood on the morning of the
battle, and the celebrated Genoese admiral Barbenoire.
As the tide did not suit for attacking the enemy, the remaining
part of Friday was occupied by the English in deliberation; and
towards the evening, or early the next morning, the French fleet
removed from Sluys, and proceeded in three columns to Grongne,
nearer the entrance of the river. It is doubtful whether Edward was
or was not assisted by the Flemings, the English writers having denied




GREAT BRITAIN.                      31:7
it, while those of France assert that the French stood their ground
until their enemies were joined by some Flemish ships; and though
the king alludes to the Flemings in his dispatch, the passage is
rather obscure.
At sunrise on Saturday, the 24th, the two fleets were at no great
distance from each other; but the state of the tide prevented the
English from entering the port until about noon. No writer has
mentioned the direction of the wind, or the exact localities; and there
are few of those other nautical details which are indispensable for the
perfect comprehension of a naval engagement.
Having gained the wind, the English bore down upon the enemy;
and the battle began soon after noon, by Sir Robert Morley, the admiral, attacking one of the van ships, apparently the "Christopher."
He was nobly seconded by the ship of the Earl of Huntingdon, which
was supported by that of the Earl of Northampton. Sir Walter de
Manny's was the fourth ship engaged, and he was speedily followed
by the other vessels. Showers of arrows, quarrels, and other missiles fell on all sides; and as soon as the ships came in contact, the
crews fastened them to each other by hooks and grapplings, when the
men at arms, seizing their swords, lances, and hatches, a fierce hand
to hand fight took place, in which the combatants performed numerous feats of valor, many having fallen, many being taken, and many
rescued.  The French displayed their usual bravery, having, says
their conqueror, made a "noble defence;" but unable to resist the
impetuous courage of their assailants, several ships in their van were
boarded and carried with such immense slaughter) that four hundred
dead bodies were found in one ship alone, and the survivors leapt
headlong into the sea. Among the ships thus gallantly won, were
the celebrated "Christopher," and three large cogs, called the "Edward," "Katherine," and "Rose," together with some French ships.
The French banner was instantly struck; that of England again
floated from the masts of the recaptured ships, and the 1" Christopher,"
"that fine and beautiful ship," was immediately manned with English
archers, and sent to attack the Genoese galleys.
On the defeat of their van, the French seem to have abandoned all
hope of success. Instead of their second and third lines maintaining
the contest, they endeavored to escape; but finding themselves surrounded by English ships, the crews threw down their arms, and




528             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
rushed into the boats, which, becoming overladen, sunk before they
reached the shore, and about two thousand men are said to have perished. The fourth line, consisting of sixty vessels, mostly Genoese,
under Barbenoire, and including the French barges, escaped.
The battle must have lasted for at least ten if not twelve hours, as
Edward says, the enemy defended themselves all that day and the
night after.  At the close of the action the fourth line put to sea, and.
though followed until the middle of the night by some English ships,
twenty-four not only made their escape, but they seem to have beaten
off their assailants, and captured or destroyed two vessels of the English; for Hemingford says, "in this last battle," the ship containing
the king's wardrobe was taken, and all on board, except two men and
a w oman, slain, together with a galley belonging to Hull, the crew
of which had all been crushed by stones.  Part of the twenty-four
vessels which had effected their escape were, however, captured a few
days after the battle.
According to some authorities, no less than twenty-five, and, according to others, thirty thousand French and Genoese perished on
this occasion, including those who were slain, those who leaped into
the sea on their ships being boarded, and those who were drowned in
the boats.
No English writer specifies the loss of the victors, but all agree that
it was comparatively small. One Flemish writer rates it at four thousand persons, among whom were twelve ladies. King Edward is said
by Froissart to have proved himself, with his own hand, a very noble
knight. The battle was not distinguished by any display of nautical
skill on either side; but was simply decided by personal valor and
strength, in hand to hand conflict. This great victory securely established the maritime superiority and naval renown of England.  A
truce was soon after concluded with Philip, and Edward returned to
London.
Edward was soon drawn into action again by the death of the Duke
of Brittany.  Two claimants appeared for his dominions-the Count
of Blois and the Count of Montfort.  Edward warmly espoused the
cause of the Count of Montfort, and as the other claimant was the
nephew of the king of France, he found ready support from his uncle.
Considerable preparations were made for the conveyance of troops into
Brittany.  Sir Walter Manny was appointed commander of the expe



GREAT BRITAIN.                       329
RELIEF OF IIENNEBON BY SIR WALTER MANNY.
dition, and he seems to have sailed on the 20th of March, with about
one hundred and twenty men at arms and a thousand archers. Owing
to contrary winds, his ships were sixty days on their passage; but
they arrived off Hennebon at a most critical moment.  The Countess
of Montfort, "who possessed the courage of a man, and the heart of
a lion," was then closely besieged in that town by the Count of Blois.
Sir Walter speedily compelled the count to raise the siege, and his
valor procured the sweetest of rewards-a kiss from the countess herself.
The Count of Blois had a powerful ally in Don Luis, of Spain, who
brought a large squadron of Spanish and Genoese vessels to his assistance.  This was at first very successful in its descent on the English
coast and shipping, and obtained much booty. But it was attacked
and entirely dispersed by Sir Walter Manny and Sir Amery de Clisson.  Being informed of the support which the Countess of Montfort
28*




C30              UNIVERSAL  NAVAL HISTORY.
had received from the king of England, the Count of Blois sent Don
Luis, Sir Charles Grimaldi, and Sir Otho Doria, off Guernsey to intercept her on her return to Brittany, with a squadron of thirty large
ships, having on board three thousand Genoese, and a thousand menat-arms.  The English squadron, in which was Sir Robert of Artois,
the Countess of Montfort, and a number of the English nobility, consisted of forty vessels of various sizes; but none of them was so large
or so strong as nine of Don Luis's ships; besides which he had three
galleys that overtopped all the others, and were severally commanded
by the chiefs, Luis, Grimaldi, and Doria.
It was late in the afternoon when the two fleets came in sight of
each other; andcl, as soon as the English sailors perceived the Spaniards,
they exclaimed, "My lords, arm and prepare yourselves; for here are
the Genoese and Spaniards approaching us."   Then the English
sounded their trumpets, displayed their pennons and standards with
the arms of St. George, arrayed their archers, and advanced boldly
towards the enemy in full sail.  As they approached, the Genoese
shot their crossbows and the English archers their arrows, inflicting
many wounds; and when the ships came in contact, so that the lords,
knights, and esquires could use their swords and lances, then was the
battle hard and fierce.  The countess, who was armed, was as good
as a man, "for she had the heart of a lion," and bore a very strong
and trenchant glaive, with which she fought with great courage. Don
Luis in his galley, like a brave knight, anxiously sought his enemies,
being desirous of revenging the injury he had sustained in this year
at Quimperle. The Genoese and Spaniards hurled large bars of iron
and S"archgays"* from their ships upon the English archers with great
effect; but thick weather and the darkness of night soon rendered it
impossible to distinguish one vessel from another, and the combatants
separated without any advantage being gained on either side. Both
fleets anchored, and dressed their wounded, preparing to renew the
fight.' A little before midnight, however, "so violent and so horrible
a tempest arose, that the world seemed coming to an end," and the
boldest wished themselves on shore, for the ships and barges clashed
against each other with such violence, that it seemed they must be
* A sort of pike, or lance, borne by archers; but, according to Froissart, a machine which was
thrown on an esnemy.-oqigtefort




__ID.   __  _      _.__         FOR    ___. = = e 
g         \~~\/ 
EDWAF  ILSIgFORd        RN








GREAT BRITAIN.                      333
riven asunder. By the advice of their crews, the English lords determined to weigh and make for the land; and, reducing their sail to
half a quarter of its usual size, the vessels bore away for Brittany.
Edward passed over to Brittany in October, 1342.  Don Luis and
the two Genoese admirals, were very successful in their attacks upon
English ships carrying provisions for the army, and did great injury.
It is an extraordinary fact, that within three years after the capture
of the " Christopher" and the a"Edward," and other large galleys at
Sluys, England had not ships of war able to cope with the Spanish
and Genoese squadron, which appears to have obtained an almost undisputed command of the narrow seas.  A truce was concluded with
France in January, 1343, which was to last for three years and eight
months. Edward embarked for England towards the close of the same
month, and a long and stormy passage, in which his life was frequently
in imminent danger, landed at Weymouth, on the 2d of March.
The truce was soon broken by the faithless Philip; and Edward
immediately prepared for another invasion of the French dominions.
He'embarked from the Isle of Wight on the 10th of July, 1346, and
sailed on the 11th, with a fleet which has been estimated by some
writers, at a thousand, and by others at sixteen hundred sail, eleven
hundred having, it is said, been large ships, and five hundred small
vessels. Edward was accompanied by the Prince of Wales, numerous
earls, barons, baronets, and knights, four thousand men at arms, and
ten thousand archers, besides Irish and Welsh foot soldiers; but, as
has just been observed, the number of ships was probably exaggerated, or the amount of the troops much underrated. On the 12th
of July, the armament arrived at Le Hogue, and the king landed as
soon as the ships had anchored; but it was not until the 18th, that
all the troops, horses, and stores were disembarked.  A great part of
the fleet was ordered to return to England; but two hundred ships,
with one hundred men at arms, and four hundred archers, under the
Earl of lIuntingdon, were sent to ravage the coast. By the 30th of
July, the English forces had destroyed more than a hundred sail of
the enemy; some of these of a very large size.
In 1350, another wreath was added to the laurels won by Edward
and his valiant son at Poictiers and Cressy.  A Spanish fleet, under
the command of Don Carlos de la Cerda, had captured and plundered
several English ships during the truce, and then sailed to Sluys for




334              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
merchandise. This, Edward resolved to attack, and punish so perfidious an enemy.  Being informed of this, La Cerda armed his ships
with every kind of artillery and missiles, among which were large
bars of iron, and filled them with soldiers, cross bowmen, and archers.
Edward embarked on the 28th of August with the Prince of Wales,
the young Earl of Richmond, and a large number of the most distinguished of his nobles, in a fleet of fifty ships and pinnaces. The
king made his arrangements as soon as he embarked; but he was
compelled to remain at anchor three days, waiting for the Spaniards.
Having completed their rich cargoes, the Spaniards put to sea.
They had forty large ships, all of the same class. Each mast was
surmounted by the usual embattled "top," filled with stones and
flint, and protected by soldiers.  In number they were superior to the
English, and felt confident of success.  The battle took place on the
29th of August, 1350.
After a severe action, the Spanish fleet, which had, Froissart says,
"given the king of England his people plenty to do," was entirely
defeated. Twenty-four, if not twenty-six, large ships were captured,
and the remainder took to flight.  Edward then ordered his trumpets
to sound a cessation of arms, and soon after nightfall his ships anchored at Rye and Winchelsea.  The king and the Prince of Wales,
with his young brother of Richmond, hastened to relieve the fears of
the queen, who was lodged in an abbey about two leagues from the
coast.  Her attendants had seen the battle from the hills, and when
they informed her that the Spaniards had forty large ships, she naturally felt the deepest anxiety about her husband and children. The
night was spent by Edward and his knights in revelry with the ladies,
conversing of love and arms; and the next day, when most of the
barons and knights who had shared the honor of the engagement
waited upon him, he thanked them  greatly for their services, and,
taking their leave, they returned to their homes.
In many of its features, the sea fight of "L'Espagnol sur Mer,"
stands unparalleled in English history. Equal valor and superior
tactics have been displayed on many occasions; but never before was
a sea fight marked by circumstances of so chivalrous and remarkable
a nature. Not only the chief nobility of England were present, but
they were led by their sovereign and the Prince of Wales, who both
participated so largely in the dangers of the day, that they fought until




GREAT BRITAIN.                      335
their ships sunk under them.  Even the king's second son, though
but ten years old, was exposed to the perils of the day, and thus the
renowned John of Gaunt made his first essay in arms on the element
upon which British valor was so often triumphant. This was the first
victory gained over a Spanish fleet by the English, and their king
received the noble title of "King of the Sea."
The English squadron now commanded the neighboring seas, only
interrupted occasionally by the small, but daring squadrons of Scotland. But their triumphs seem to have given too great a feeling of
security; for, in 1360, so far was the navy neglected, that the French
fleets ravaged the coasts of England with impunity.  Military ardor
was centred in the conquests of France after the memorable victory of
Cressy, and the navy was sacrificed and the shores of England exposed
for that object.  At length, an attack upon Winchelsea and the barbarous acts there perpetrated by the French roused the people to
action. A large fleet was equipped and placed under the command
of Sir John Barclay, and the depredations of the French were fully
retaliated.
It will be impossble for us to record every naval transaction of such
an active maritime country as England, who was forced to employ
fleets wherever it was necessary to transport troops to the continent
or Ireland. Nor is it necessary to obtain a view of the progress and
greatness of that navy.  This will be made as evident from the most
prominent achievements, and will save a great deal of uninteresting
detail.
The triumphs of the early part of Edward's career form a humiliating contrast to the disasters which began towards its close, and continued during the whole reign of his successor.  In April, 1372, a
small squadron, under the Earl of Pembroke, was despatched from
Southampton for the relief of Rochelle, which was besieged by the
French. Being informed of this, the king of France sent the fleet of
his ally, the king of Castile, consisting of forty large ships and thirteen barges to intercept the English squadron.  The Spanish squadron was commanded by Ambrosio Bocanegru, and he was assisted by
other naval commanders of great reputation.
Pembroke arrived off Rochelle on the 22d of June, and found the
Spaniards lying at the mouth of the harbor.  When the English and
Poitevins saw that an engagement was inevitable, they encouraged




336             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
each other, though they were not nearly equal, either in men or large
ships, to the enemy, and prepared for battle, placing their archers in
the bows. Besides great numbers of men at arms and brigands, who
had cross-bows and cannon, the Spaniards had great bars of iron and
leaden bolts. Having weighed and gained the wind,, their large ships
bore down on the English with loud shouts and great noise, which were
responded to by similar cries; and Pembroke conferred the honor of
knighthood upon some of his esquires  "for honor." The fight was very
severe, and the English were greatly pressed, or, as Froissart quaintly
expresses it, had enough to do; for, as in the action off Winchelsea,
the Spaniards derived great advantage from the height of their ships,
as it enabled them to fling their missiles, with which they expected to
sink their enemies, upon them with terrible effect. Pembroke, D'Angle,
and the other knights, both English and Poitevin, gave many proofs
of chivalry and prowess, and never did men act more valiantly.
Inferior in numbers, and with much smaller ships, it was extraordinary
that they could maintain so unequal a contest for so long a time. They
fought, however, until night, with the loss of only two barges laden
with provisions; and the two fleets then separated and came to an
anchor.
As soon as the day dawned, and it was high water, the Spaniards
disanchored, and sounding their trumpets, prepared for battle, and
taking advantage of the wind to surround the English ships, bore
down on them with all sail set. As soon as the ships came in contact
the Spaniards fastened themselves to their adversaries with iron chains,
and a fierce and cruel fight ensued. Pembroke's ship was attacked by
four large Spaniards full of soldiers, under the command of Cabeza
de Vaca and Don Fernando de Peon.  The English, as on the preceding day, suffered heavily from the stones and iron bars which were
thrown from the overtopping decks of the Spaniards, and Sir Aimery
de Tarste, a gallant Gascon knight, and Sir John Lanton, a knight
of the earl's body, were killed.  After an obstinate resistance the
Spaniards boarded and carried Pembroke's ship, and made him and
his companions prisoners. Sir Simon Housagre, Sir John Mortaigne,
and Sir John Touchet were slain; and Sir Robert Tinfort, Sir John
de Gruieres, and Sir John Tourson shared the captivity of their noble
chief.
The battle, nevertheless, raged with great fury until nine o'clock,








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GREAT BRITAIN.                     339
and never did people at sea toil harder than did the Englisn and Poitevins on that occasion.  Sir Guiscard d'Angle and Sir Otho Grandison, gallantly defended their ships against those of Bocanegra and
De iRojas, but, at length, the English were completely beaten, and
all the ships fell into the enemy's hands.
Not long after this complete victory the French obtained possession
of Rochelle by capitulation.  The Spanish fleet off Rochelle was soon
increased in strength, and placed under the command of Evan of
Wales and Don Rodrigo de Rosas.  They then meditated an attack.
upon the English coast, and Edward made great exertions to equip a,
fleet capable of coping with them. At length, an armament was collected, and placed under the Earl of Salisbury. It sailed from Cornwall for the coast of Brittany, and entering St. Maloes, burned eight
Spanish vessels and put their crews to the sword. Then proceeding
to Brest, the French were compelled to raise the siege. But these successes were compensated by the burning of a large fleet of ships and
barges in the Bay of Brittany, by the Spaniards. In June, 1337, Edward III. died, after a glorious reign of more than fifty years. The
disasters in the latter part of his reign were caused by circumstances
entirely beyond his control; as long as he possessed the means he was
victorious.
When Richard the Second ascended the throne, the English navy
was almost annihilated, the treasury exhausted, and the king of France
preparing an expedition to invade the realm.  But few preparations
were made to resist, and the French landed at various points and committed great devastations.  Occasionally a small squadron of English
ships, under some daring commanders, obtained some slight advantage over the French. One gallant exploit is worthy of mention. Sir
Thomas Percy, brother of the Earl of Northumberland, put to sea
with one ship, two barges and several smaller vessels. Falling in with
fifty ships, partly Flemish and partly Spanish, laden with merchandise
belonging to the French; he desired the Flemish to separate themselves from their allies, as England was at peace with Flanders. This
they refused to do, and Percy instantly attacked the whole convoy.
Awed by his courage, and thinking he would be reinforced, they offered
little resistance; and twenty-two ships having surrendered, he returned
with his prizes to port. Sir Thomas Percy and Sir Hugh Calvely, a
kindred spirit, were soon after this appointed admirals; and their




340             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
courage and activity almost cleared the channel of the enemy's squad.
rons. But another disaster overtook the English. A violent storm
destroyed a great part of their fleet, and deprived her of some of her
bravest warriors.
In February, 1385, Charles the Sixth, king of France, who was
then in the seventeenth year of his age and full of military ambition,
assembled a fleet of six hundred ships for the invasion of England.
The command of this formidable armament was given to Sir John de
Vienne, admiral of France. The English sought to ward off the blow
by negotiation, and obtained a truce of two months. In that time,
ships were fitted out in all the English ports, and a fleet sailed under
the two admirals, who were to guard the seas during the summer.
They frequently saw the French armament; but dared not attack it.
However, by the valor of the English garrison of Calais, a large number of the French vessels, which were separated from the squadron
at various times, were captured, and their crews destroyed, or made
prisoners.
In June, 1386, the English fleet, of more than two hundred sail, under
the admiral, Sir Thomas Percy, put to sea, and the French fleet retired
to Havre. France had never witnessed such extensive preparations as
were made for the invasion of England in 1386. The spirit of William
the Conqueror seemed to have revived in Charles VI. Every available vessel and soldier was pressed into the service. It is said that
the fleet assembled at Sluys and Blankenburg numbered thirteen hundred and eighty-seven sail. The ruin of England was counted upon
as certain. But after various attempts to get under way, the invasion
was postponed until the next year —in spite of the murmurs of the
soldiery. Soon after, the English fell upon the squadron, when it was
almost deserted, and burned or captured the greater part of it. This
broke up the expedition.
Something of the naval glory of England was revived at this time
by the defeat and capture of a greater part of a Flemish fleet of one
hundred sail, by the Earl of Arundel. This commander was very successful in his descents upon the coasts of the French provinces. He
injured Normandy to the amount of two hundred thousand francs.
Hostilities with France were at last terminated in June, 1389, by the
treaty of Lenlingham.
The depredations of the English pirates upon the coast of Brittany




GREAT BRITAIN.                        341
roused the Bretons to take vengeance upon them, and in July, 1443,
the English,suffered a complete defeat. By the advice of Sir Oliver
de Clisson, the constable of France, the Bretons collected twelve hundred men-at-arms and a great number of cross-bowmen and light
troops, to intercept the English on their return home with their piratical spoil. They chose the Sire de Penhoet, Sir John, his son, admiral of Brittany, and Sir William du Chatel, all knights celebrated
for their valor, for commanders, and embarked in thirty vessels at
Chastel Pol, near Morlaix.  The squadron weighed anchor on the 1st
of July, and sending some small vessels to reconnoitre the position
of the English, they discovered them at the extremity of the coast,
in the Pace of St. Matthew, on the day after embarking.  At dawn
of day, the English steered towards home instead of seeking the
Spanish at sea, and every exertion was made to bring them to action.
The Bretons formed their fleet in two divisions, one under Sir William du Chatel, and the other under his colleagues; and seeing this,
the English divided their fleet in the same manner.  The Bretons
began the battle by boarding their adversaries with great impetuosity,
uttering terrible cries; but they were received with equal courage, it
not being easy to decide which displayed the most ardor, fought with
the greatest rage, or sustained the battle with most bravery and constancy. After the action had lasted six hours, the English, finding
that they could not keep their ground with their ships in two divisions,
united them in one body.  The French did the same, and the combat
was renewed, both sides using all their engines and missiles, and then
fighting hand to hand. The English maintained the combat until all their
missiles were exhausted, when five hundred of their men being either
slain or drowned, their courage gave way, and forty ships with sails
and one carack surrendered. Some of the soldiers threw their weapons
into the sea, with the hope of being put to a lighter ransom if they
were taken unarmed, or more probably, to prevent them from falling
into the hands of the conquerors; whereupon the Breton captains ordered these brave fellows to be thrown overboard after their weapons.
One thousand prisoners, and all the English ships, were brought into
port; and, after sending intelligence of the victory to their duke and
to the French lords, the Bretons filled their ships with fresh soldiers
to follow up their success, and carry the war to the shores of England.
Several unimportant actions took place between small squadrons of
29*




342             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the French and English vessels, during the remainder of the reign of
Henry IV.; and the coasts and commerce of both countries suffered
continually.  It seemed as if no truce or treaty of peace could prevent the vessels of France and England from entering into hostilities
whenever an opportunity offered.
Few of England's monarchs took as much interest in her navy
as Henry V. He ordered and superintended the building of larger
vessels than the navy had ever possessed, with  the determination to acquire the dominion of the sea. His efforts to restore and
improve the navy were amply rewarded by success as glorious as that
he achieved upon the land.  Having asserted his right to the crown
of France, and rejected all overtures for an amicable settlement,
Henry collected a fleet of fourteen hundred vessels of various kinds,
carrying about six thousand men at arms, and twenty-four thousand
archers, and sailed from England on the 11th of August, 1415. The
king and his forces disembarked near Harfieur, on the 14th, without
meeting opposition. The town was immediately besieged and the fleet
blockaded the harbor. After a gallant defence of thirty-six days,
Harfieur surrendered on the 22d of September.  The fleet was then
sent back to England, while Henry boldly marched into the interior.
After the great battle of Agincourt, the victorious king returned to
England with a large number of prisoners.
In August, 1416, the Duke of Clarence sailed from Sandwich with
three hundred vessels, full of English, men-at-arms and archers, and'riving off Harfleur, came in sight of the French fleet, under the
constable of France. The English at once prepared for battle; and the
French no less "eager for the fray," advanced boldly in their "seacastles," to meet the enemy. The action began about nine o'clock on
the morning of the 15th of August.  The large ships then came
violently into contact, and their crews fastened them to each other, by
cables, chains, and hooks.
Three great caracks and many smaller vessels, with all their crews,
were captured, and a hulk was sunk.  The remainder of the French
fleet escaped into Harfieur, whither the English were prevented from
pursuing them, on account of the sands and other dangers on the coast.
the largest of the caracks, which one writer says was called, from her
ize, and, probably, also, from  her color, the'"Mountnegrie," and
Ihich is said by another writer to have been called the "i Mother of








NY'V.o AT AGINCOURT.




GREAT BRITAIN.                      345
a11,' in her efforts to escape, struck upon the sands and foundered. A
carack which had been driven about some days before the battle,
drifted from her anchors, and was likewise wrecked. Fifteen hundred
of the French were killed, and about four hundred made prisoners;
while the English did not lose more than one hundred men. For some
days the corpses of the slain were seen floating on the sea, " as if they
were seeking for other burial than that of the fishes."
Extensive preparations were made in February, 1417, for an expedition to Normandy, under Henry, in person; and an army of sixteen
thousand four hundred soldiers, one thousand carpenters and other
workmen, and fifteen hundred vessels assembled at Southampton. The
French fleet, assisted by the Geonese, collected at Harfleur and
scoured the channel occasionally. But their principal object was to
intercept Henry's expedition. The king yielded to the remonstrances
of his council, and concluded not to expose his person. He, therefore,
sent a squadron to sea, under the Earl of Huntingdon, who defeated
the French fleet on the 25th of July. Henry then embarked and
sailed with his immense fleet for Normandy. He directed his course
to the Seine, and disembarked at Tongue, about four miles from Harfleur. The fleet was then sent back and dispersed to the respective
harbors which had contributed it. Henry returned to Dover, in February, 1421, and died in February, 1422, in the castle of Vincennes.
During his reign the naval power of England commanded general
respect, and the disasters of the preceding reign were forgotten in the
glory of the great triumphs by sea and land.
The mode of fighting at sea underwent but little change under
Henry V. Fleets still continued to come to close quarters, and the
contest was decided by hand to hand conflict. Cannon were introduced into the navy, but their service was not rated high. In all hand
to hand contests with the French, the English were victorious; and
in view of this fact, it is strange that the French did not give more
attention to the study and practice of tactics. The reason may lie in
the chivalrous spirit of the day, which made courage to meet an
equal foe on equal terms superior to the skill which triumphs by
manceuvres.
L —




CHAPTER XXIV.
FROM THE DEATH OF HENRY THE FIFTH UNTIL THE REIGN
OF CHARLES THE FIRST.
HE naval affairs of England during
the early part of the reign of Henry
VI. were unimportant; and the contest between the houses of York
and Lancaster, distracting the attention of the nation, prevented the
navy from receiving any consideration. No recollection of brilliant achievements could attract the care
of the government to the navy. When the Earl of Warwick deserted
the cause of Edward IV., he and a few followers seized some Flemish
vessels, he found lying in the neighborhood of Calais, and sailed to
the dominions of the Duke of Burgundy. There a reconciliation was
effected between Warwick and Queen Margaret. A fleet was prepared
to conduct them to England; and they sailed to Dartmouth. After
landing, Warwick, (the kingmaker) had astonishing success, and in less
than six days, he found himself at the head of sixty thousand men.
Edward was forced to fly the kingdom. Having narrowly escaped his
enemies, he embarked on board of a small fleet which lay off Lynn, in
Norfolk. While at sea, he was chased by some ships belonging to the
HIanse Towns, then at war with England. But he escaped all dangers
(346)




GREAT BRITAIN.                      347
THE GREAT HARRY.
and landed in Holland. Heo returned to England nine months afterwvards, and succeeded in crushing his enemies and securing himself
upon the throne until his death.
After the Earl of Richmoand had determined to dethrone the aspiring Richard IlH., he collected five thousand men, and set sail from
St. Mialoes. On arriving in England he received the news of the bad
success of his adherents and returned to France.  But he was soon
joined by a large number of the Lancastarians, and assisted by the
king of France; and after considerable preparation he set sail from
Harfleur, and landed at Milford Haven, in Wales, on the 17th of
August, 1485. Under the vigorous administration of Henry VII.,
all kinds of industry flourished, and the kingdom recovered somewhat
of its foreign influence, which had been lost during internal convulsions.  Henry was too avaricious to engage in any expensive naval
expeditions.  But under his direction some improvements were introduced in that important arm of warfare.  The largest ship which had
yet been built in England was constructed in this reign.  It was
called the "Great Harry," and cost fourteen thousand pounds.




348             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Henry VIII. had not long been seated on the English throne before
engaged in a war with France; ostensibly, for the purpose of recovering the provinces anciently annexed to the English realm. His arms
were successful upon land; but not so upon the sea. A French fleet,
under the command of Primauget, containing the "Cordelier," a
vessel of extraordinary dimensions, and carrying six hundred men,
sailed from the harbor of Brest. The English fleet of forty-five vessels, under the command of Sir Thomas Ruyvet, encountered the
French squadron, and a hard fought battle ensued. "The Regent,"
was the largest ship in the English armament. Sir Charles Brandon,
commanding an English vessel, attacked the Cordelier, but met with
such a warm reception, that Sir Thomas Ruyvet, in the Regent, was
obliged to hasten to his assistance. The combat then became obstinate.  Primauget projected fire from his vessel to the Regent, and
the flames soon communicated to the other; and the two ships were
destroyed. The fleets then separated and returned to their respective
ports, satisfied with each other's strength. The French were decidedly superior upon the sea during this short war, and were, therefore,
able to balance the victories of the English land forces. Peace was
concluded on the 7th of August, 1514.
The spirit of discovery which so excited the Spaniards and the Portuguese during the latter part of the fifteenth century, extended its
influence to England.  When the discovery of the new world was announced, a strong desire was manifested in England to participate in
the glories of exploring it. In the reign of Henry VII., in 1497,
John Cabot and his son, Sebastian, explored the coasts of America
from Labrador to Virginia, and discovered Newfoundland.  Two voyages for the discovery of a northwest passage to India were undertaken in the reign of Henry VIII., at the suggestion of a merchant
named Robert Thorne; and the exploits and adventures of the subsequent English navigators, Sir Francis Drake, Cavendish, Frobisher, and
others, are well worthy a place in the niche of Fame, by the side of
those of Ferdinand Magellan.  Their recital, however, would involve
much repetition and, perhaps, be foreign to the purpose of this work.
The naval wars of Henry VIII. were of so desultory a character as
to require no farther notice than this:-They were carried on against
the French and Scotch; and such was the superiority of the English
that their enemies were glad to avoid so unequal a contest.  Henry




GREAT BRITAIN.                      349
QUEEN ELZABETH.
fully established the system of privateering which, in warfare has
been pursued ever since. He invited skilful naval architects from
foreign countries, and rewarded their labor munificently; so that ships
ofi the best construction were launched in the English ports. An
idea of a first rate ship at this time, may be formed from the king's
largest ship, called the "Henry, Grace a, Dieu." It was of a thousand tons burthen. Its complement of men was three hundred and
forty-nine soldiers, three hundred and one sailors, and fifty gunners;
and it was armed with nineteen pieces of brass ordnance, and one
hundred and three of iron. This amount of artillery may startle; but
30
~ -i —-:Iun ~~.... ~_~~  ~~ ~~nsa LI;PBEH
%ullly ~~~ esalselth   ~tmofpivteig    hci   afr   a
30




350             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
it must be remembered, that the cannon was much inferior in calibre
to that which is now used.  The largest ships had five masts, scantily
supplied with sail; and the general appearance of one was very much
like that of a Chinese junk of the present day.
As the reign of Henry VIII. presented few opportunities of testing
the naval strength of England, there were fewer still under Edward
VI. and Mary. The all-absorbing subject of religious reformation
predominated at this period, and caused the state of the royal navy
to be overlooked; at all events, we know that from the end of the
reign of Henry VIII[. to the accession of Elizabeth, it had greatly
decreased. In consequence of this, the energetic queen found difficulty
in sending a small fleet to the assistance of the Scotch reformers, in
1560, although it was a measure in which she took much interest.
Even twenty years after her accession, the largest ship in her fleet
was only one thousand tons burthen, while the smallest was scarcely
sixty.  But a sovereign like Elizabeth, and the increase of the
resources of England, would have created a navy, if none existed.
We have already, in the history of Spain, given a description and
history of the Invincible Armada, together with the attacks upon it
by the English fleet. It is only necessary here to add, that the
destruction of that formidable armament raised the reputation of the
lord high admiral, Charles Howard, to a great height; and in 1596,
a report being circulated that the king of Spain had again entered
into preparations for an invasion of Englandcl, Lord Howard and the
Earl of Essex sailed with a fleet of one hundred and seventy-four ships
-twenty-four of which were Dutch-to destroy the Spanish fleet at
Cadiz.  The English arrived at Cadiz on the 12th of June; and on
the following morning, they entered the harbor and commenced an
attack upon the Spanish ships, which was carried on with great fury
on both sides until noon, when the enemy's ships were much shattered, and rather than surrender them, they came to the desperate
resolution of setting them on fire. This was done with such precipitation, that numbers of the men were obliged to plunge into the sea,
and would have perished had not the English rescued them.  In the
time of this conflagration, the Spanish admiral's ship and several
others were blown up, with all their crews on board. The few vessels
which were not sunk or burned, were run on shore.  Cadiz was then
taken by eight hundred men, under the Earl of Essex, and a large








4
I I',,
j'i8AILING OF THE EXPEDITION TO CADIZ,




GREAT BRITAIN.                    353
SIP. FRANCIS DRAKE.
number of merchantmen were burned by the Spaniards to prevent
them from falling into the hands of the English.  On the return of
this most successful expedition, the queen conferred the title of Earl
of Nottingham on the valiant Howard; and, afterwards, when the
Earl of Essex threatened the kingdom with invasion, he was made
lord lieutenant general of all England, and conducted the sea and land
forces with signal ability.
Among the many illustrious naval commanders of the reign of
Elizabeth, none ranks higher than Sir Francis Drake. He has the
honor of being the first commander who circumnavigated the globe,
and his daring procured him the reverence of all as "the English
hero." So great was his reputation after his famous voyage round
the world, in which he had done so much injury to theSpaniards,
that, in the attack upon the Spanish Armada, a galleon surrendered
to him at the mere mention of his name. His various adventures and
exploits would fill a volume of themselves.
X              30*




354             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
77q'-            -— =-JAESI,,
JAXES I.
In pursuing his peace policy, James I. did not neglect the navy.
On hearing of the encroachments of the Dutch and French, in 1604,
he despatched a fleet, under Sir William Monson, to maintain the
rights which had been transmitted by his predecessors. This admiral
obliged the Dutch and French to pay the accustomed honors to his
flag in the narrow seas for a period of twelve years.  He also cleared
the seas of pirates. On the establishment of the East India Company,
in 1612, they fitted out a fleet of four large ships, for war as well as
trade, and sent them to India. There they were assailed by an overwhelming force of Spaniards and Portuguese; but completely defeated
them.  In consequence of this success, the company increased their
force by building a merchant vessel of twelve hundred tons, named
the "T' Trades' Increase," and sent it to India.




GREAT BRITAIN.                     355
James increased the navy more than one-fourth during his reign,
and caused a ship called the "Royal Prince," to be built, which was
then reckoned a masterpiece of naval architecture. It was one hundred and fourteen feet in length, of fourteen hundred tons burthen,
pierced for sixty-four pieces of ordnance, and richly adorned within
and without with painting, carving, and gilding. The only expedition undertaken by James I. was that against the Algerine pirates, in
1620. Six royal and fourteen merchant vessels were sent on this
errand, under the command of the vice-admiral of England, Sir Robert
Mansel.  On the arrival of the fleet before Algiers, a negotiation was
opened with the governor, which terminated without any advantage
to the English. The fleet continued in the Mediterranean during the
winter; and in the spring the admiral resolved to make an attack
upon Algiers. The attempt was made in May; but from gross mismanagement, it failed, and the fleet returned to England. In the
meantime, the Dutch were fast rising to naval power; and thinking
themselves able to cope with the English, they frequently insulted
their coasts by capturing enemies immediately under their batteries.
Their punishment was reserved for another reign.
e  CABO




v hisfl  fath'.if E Sll      ofnoticOeALES I.dr
liL. gI      $          against Cadiz and Rochelle, both'  @                                    Z              | F of which terminated in disgrace.
In consequence of war being de(356)
r~~~~~~~HRE L    
I~ ~  ~ ~ ~ ~ I c o s    q     e     c ofi wa   b in de
(356)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j   i 




GREAT BRITAIN.                      357
clared against Spain, an English fleet was fitted out, in 1625, to act
in the Mediterranean, aided by the Dutch, the whole strength of
which fleet amounted to more than eighty sail. It carried an army of
ten thousand men, and was commanded by Lord Wimbleton.  But
such was the delay caused by the disputes between the naval and
military commanders, that the Spaniards had time to fortify the city
of Cadiz; and though it was finally taken, the enemy saved all their
shipping.  A  disease soon after spread through the English fleet,
and the armament was forced to return home-suffering all the consequences of a discomfiture. Another fleet of one hundred ships, under
the Duke of Buckingham, was sent to the relief of the French Protestants at Rochelle. This was still more disgraceful to the English
nation.  It was undertaken to satisfy the pique of the Duke of Buckingham, against the French king.  The French had no naval force
which could meet this fleet at sea; and although the Spaniards reinforced them, they did not venture a battle.  But the imbecility of
Buckingham ruined all.  He wasted time and resources in a hopeless
siege of the port of St. Martin, in the island of Rhe; and finally was
attacked by a French army and totally routed with the loss of two
thousand men. The remainder of his forces returned to England.
But these unfortunate expeditions could not diminish the maritime
supremacy of England.  The French, Dutch, and Spaniards were
successively forced to acknowledge it. When the rupture between
Charles I. and the Parliament occurred, the latter obtained the command of the shipping; and were thus enabled to prevent the arrival
of reinforcements for the king. But when the Earl of Warwick was
displaced from the command, a large portion of the fleet deserted the
cause of the Parliament, and placed itself under the command of
Prince Rupert. Such was the order with which the contest was maintained at sea, that when the Parliament assumed the government, it
could muster no more than fourteen ships of two decks. So great was
the energy of the new administration, however, that three years after
the execution of Charles, the Parliament had twenty-three ships of
first, second, and third rates, thirty-two fourth rates, and fifty of inferior size. (1651.)
In 1652, a war with Holland broke out. The Dutch, by the practice
and victories of half a century, had become the great maritime power
of Europe. They possessed one hundred and fifty line-of-battle ships;




358              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
OLIVER CROMWELL
and their resources were so extensive, that they could create fleets
with a rapidity truly astonishing. They were thus far superior to the
English at the commencement of the war. It is not our purpose to
enter into the details of the contest any further than is necessary to
show how the result was attained. The nature of the Dutch coasts
forced them to construct their vessels with flat bottoms, to draw as little
water as possible; while those of the English were larger, deeper, and
swifter in sailing. The war was maintained for two years, and the
English admiral, Blake, obtained several glorious triumphs. The Dutch
suffered more in that time than during the whole of their eighty years'
struggle with the Spaniards-expending six millions sterling, and losing
eighty ships, twenty frigates, and seventeen hundred merchant vessels.
They were also obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of the English
upon the sea. Even with all the losses sustained during the war, Eng



GREAT BRITAIN.                      359
land, at the end of it, possessed one hundred and fifty ships, more
than a third of which had two tiers of guns.
The lofty views of Cromwell were directed to the establishment of
the influence of England abroad.  Two fleets were sent to sea under
Blake and Penn; one was to proceed to the Barbary States and the
other against the Spaniards at Hispaniola. The first fleet, under Blake,
succeeded in capturing a richly laden Spanish flotila, sinking the vessels,
and obtaining booty to the amount of six hundred thousand pounds
sterling, with which the fleet returned to England. The second fleet,
under Penn and Venables, failed in the immediate object of their expedition, but conquered the valuable island of Jamaica. So little, was this
conquest valued, that, on their return, they were thrown into prison.
When Charles II. was restored to the throne, England possessed an
almost irresistible navy, and the sovereign, himself, was skilled in
ship building and naval affairs. A war with the Dutch, the only commercial rival, was immediately resolved upon. The commencement,
however, was dishonorable to England. A fleet was sent to take possession of Cape de Verde, the island of Goree, and the settlement of
New York, in 1664, without any declaration of war. This was accomplished. But the Dutch took active measures to recover their lost
ground. The celebrated Admiral De Ruyter performed this service as
speedily as they had been taken by the English. A powerful British
fleet was soon at sea. It consisted of one hundred and fourteen ships
of the line, and twenty-eight frigates and bomb-ketches, under the
Duke of York. Soon after sailing it was encountered by a nearly
equal Dutch force, under Admiral Oldam.  Both nations fought
with determined bravery, until Oldam's ship blew up, upon which the
Dutch retreated, after losing nineteen ships; while the British lost but
one fourth rate. The battle was fought off Lowestoff, on the 3d of
June, 1665, and was the most signal victory the English had ever
gained. The Dutch had six thousand men killed, and two thousand
three hundred taken prisoners. The Dutch were, besides, unfortunate
this year, in having the vice-admiral and rear-admiral of their East
India fleet, and four ships of war, two fire ships and thirty merchantmen taken by the English.
The States were soon reinforced by France and Denmark, and in
condition to contend with the victor.  Their united fleet consisted of
ninety-one ships of war, carrying five thousand seven hundred and




360             UNIVRRSAL NAYAL HISTORY
CHARLES II.
sixteen guns and twenty-two thousand four hundred and sixty-two
men. The hostile fleets met on the 1st of June, 1666, in which the
Dutch, under the famed De Ruyter, and the English, under Albemarle, maintained the conflict for four days, when the latter were partially defeated, and both were willing to retire and repair losses. After
this great sea fight, the longest continued upon record, the Dutch had
the credit of appearing at sea before their enemies and even braved
them on their coast. But the English fleet of eighty sail and nineteen




GREAT BRITAIN.                      361
fire ships, under Prince Rupert and the Duke of Albemarle, was soon
at sea, and encountered the Dutch on the 25th of June, off the North
Foreland. A desperate battle was fought, and, although the Dutch
were commanded by the great admirals De Ruyter and Van Tromp,
they were completely defeated, with the loss of twenty ships, four
admirals, many captains, and about four thousand men killed and
three thousand wounded. The English loss is said to have been one
ship burnt, and three captains and about three hundred men killed.
After this severe blow the Dutch were obliged to keep their ports
during a whole year, while the English swept the seas, insulted the
coasts of Holland, and even burned its ships within the protection of
their harbors. Some efforts at negotiation were then tried by Charles,
which the Dutch spun out in order to gain time to retaliate upon their
enemies. The English in the full idea that peace was certain, had
neglected their naval force, so that only two small squadrons were
kept up to act against the Dutch. The latter then threw off the mask,
rejected the proposals of Charles, while their fleet of seventy ships of
war, besides fire ships, weighed anchor and arrived at the mouth of
Ahe Thames, June 7, 1667.  Every obstacle was surmounted; Sheer-:ess was taken, and the ships in the river were captured or destroyed.
itondon itself trembled as the Dutch approached, and the worst fears;f the inhabitants would have been realized, by an attack upon the;apital, if the French king had sent his fleet, as agreed upon.
At last the country slowly recovered from this home thrust, and
%dopted measures to remove the hostile armament. A fleet, under Sir
Jeremiah Smith, sailed northward to intercept a richly laden Dutch
convoy, and De Ruyter was ordered by his government to follow and
protect their commerce. The English were thus relieved from immediate apprehensions of danger. After this signal success on the part
of Holland, terms of accommodation were proposed and ratified at
Breda, August 24th, 1667.
Five years after the treaty at Breda, another war with Holland
broke out This time, the French and English were united. In 1672,
without a declaration of war, the pliant Sir Robert Holmes was sent
to intercept a Dutch convoy of seventy sail, on its passage from
Smyrna; and the fleets met at sea like those of two nations that were
at peace with each other.  The English admiral then commenced a
furious onset, but was finally beaten off with much damage, and the
31




362             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
THE EARL OF SANDWICH REFUSING TO LEAVE HIS SHIP.
convoy proceeded in safety.  After this shameful attack and defeat,
war was proclaimed in regular style. The Dutch were prepared.
They had ninety ships of the line, and fifty frigates and fire ships,
with the brave and skilful De Ruyter to command them.
The first great naval encounter took place on the 19th of May,
1672, off Soleby. There the Dutch fought and defeated, after an
obstinate battle, the English and French fleets, under the Duke of
York and Mareschal d'Etrees. In this contest, the French are accused
of having stood aloof while the English maintained the fight. The
Dutch were prevented from gaining a more decisive victory by the
bravery of the Earl of Sandwich, who, with the loss of both ship and
life, covered the retreat of the English.  This brave officer immortalized his name by refusing to leave his ship, when her destruction
was certain. During the rest of this short war, several minor encounters took place, in which Holland, alone, was able to make head
against her combined enemies. At length, the Dutch and English




GREAT BRITAIN.                     363
perceived that they were ruining each other's commerce, and advancing
the ambitious projects of the French king. A peace was, therefore,
concluded, independent of Louis XIV., in 1674. The only naval
expedition of any importance during the remainder of the reign of
Charles II., was the one sent against the corsairs of Tripoli, under
Sir John Narborough. This was completely successful, destroying
many of the fleets of the pirates and inflicting terrible chastisement
upon the Barbary States in general.
Under such men as De Ruyter, Von Tromp, Blake, and Albemarle,
the tactics of naval warfare were considerably improved.  The most
material alteration was that of making a battle depend, not upon a
series of individual combats of ship against ship, but of squadron
against squadron.; More was made to depend upon manoeuvering,
and less upon the size and strength of ships. The principal missives
used in the contest, were round shot, double-head, bar-spike, crow
bar, case and chain shot; and, in addition to this, arrows, with fire
works at the end, were sometimes shot from the windward against the
sails. When the vessels neared each other, hand grenades and stink
pots were hurled at each other to sweep the decks. After a mutual
cannonade, if one squadron showed symptoms of yielding, fire ships
were sent into the middle of it; and thus almost every battle was
followed by a conflagration.
Under James II. the English navy was restored to a greater degree
of efficiency than it had possessed under his predecessors, as from it,
as Duke of York, he had derived his reputation.  At the revolution,
England had one hundred and seventy-three ships of various rates,
requiring forty-two thousand seamen to man them. A force like this,
under proper management, would have rendered invasion impossible.
But the miserable administration of James lost him the confidence of
the nation; and when William of Orange landed at Torbay there was
no fleet to oppose him.  The accession of William established a closer
union between England and Holland, which, of course, operated
against the views of the ambitious Louis of France.  That monarch
espoused the cause of James, and sent a fleet of eighty ships of the
line, five frigates, and thirteen other vessels, with a powerful land
force, to reinstate him on the throne. The fleet sailed to Ireland,
and the army was landed in safety. The French fleet of twenty-four
ships of the line, was attacked in Bantry Bay, by Admiral Herbert,




C(J~              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
JAMES II.
with twenty-two ships of the line and five smaller vessels. The action
was kept up for some hours with great spirit; but as Herbert was
unable to bring all his ships up to the work, and found the contest
very unequal, he did not risk a close fight. This prudent conduct
was rewarded by King William by creating him a peer, with the title
of Earl of Torrington.
This was but a slight experiment on the part of France; for in
1690, Louis, who had skilfully concentrated his naval forces while
the other fleet was at sea, unexpectedly sent an armament of seventyeight ships of war and twenty-two fire ships to sea, as an invading




GREAT BRITAIN.                      365
WILLIAM III.
force.  To oppose this large armament, Lord Torrington could only
collect thirty-four ships, which were joined by a Dutch fleet of twentytwo sail.  The English admiral was unwilling to risk the nation's
honor, and therefore, held off until he received the order of Queen
Mary, to fight at all events.  In obedience, he bore down on the
enemy, on the morning of the 3d of June; but from the inferiority
of the combined fleets they sustained a severe defeat off Beachy Head,
the English losing two, and the Dutch six of their largest ships. The
Dutch were indignant, as having borne the weight of the contest; and
to appease them, Lord Torrington was sent to the Tower of London.
31*




366             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
The popular fear was this time the means of England's safety. Every
naval preparation was made, and the French were reduced to shelter
in port, while the English fleet, under Russel, kept possession of the
sea.
Louis now prepared for a decisive naval effort. But he miscalculated the strength or activity of the English and Dutch. His fleet
of sixty-three ships of the line, prepared for the invasion of England,
was opposed by a fleet of one hundred English and Dutch ships, and
in a battle near La Hogue, the French were so terribly defeated, that
the few ships which escaped sought shelter in their harbors, while
their enemies rode the sea in triumph. The English, in the confidence of victory, now began to remit their naval vigilance; while
Louis made great efforts to repair the damage his navy had sustained.
He was enabled to send into the Mediterranean, in the next year after
the defeat of La Hogue, a fleet of seventy-one ships of war, besides
bomb ketches, fire ships, and tenders, under command of Marshal
Tourville. This great armament was then triumphant, and the British
fleet, under Sir George Rooke, was encountered off Cape St. Vincent,
and after a hard fought battle, completely defeated, with the loss of a
convoy, the value of which was one million sterling. Sir George,
however, brought off the greater part of his ships of war.  A number
of minor disasters befell the British flag, and the French destroyed a
considerable quantity of shipping at Malaga, Cadiz, and Gibraltar.
Early in 1694, a powerful English and Dutch fleet, under Russel,
was sent to sea, to cover a descent in Camaret bay; but the expedition
was defeated, with severe loss from the batteries erected by the celebrated Vauban. These advantages led the French to style themselves
lords ofboth seas-that is, the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In June,
a more powerful English and Dutch fleet was sent to the Mediterranean, upon the approach of which, admiral Tourville retreated to Toulon.
From this time till the close of the war, the French were unable to contend with their combined enemies, and in the series of minor engagements which followed the English, under Rooke, Benbow and Shovel
were triumphant, and kept the coast of France in constant alarm. But
the small squadrons of the French swift sailing vessels committed great
depredations upon the commerce of the English.  Their ships were
considered as the best models. In the desultory system of warfare to
which Louis was forced to resort, he was completely successful; and




GREAT BRITAIN.                    367
obtained a peace soon after on more favorable terms than he had expected-the only advantages gained by the English were the recognition of William III., as king of England, and the supremacy of the
English navy.
The dearly purchased peace was not of long duration. Louis espoused
the cause of the son of James II., and war was again declared. The
English and Dutch fleets, under Sir George Rooke, and vice-admiral
Benbow, kept the French coasts in awe and maintained the supremacy
of England in the West Indies, in 1701. On the accession of Anne,
in the next year, she appointed her consort, Prince George of Denmark, lord high admiral. Sir George Rooke, who had been appointed
admiral of the fleet, and vice-admiral of England, took command of
the great fleet of thirty English and twenty Dutch ships of the line,
exclusive of small vessels, which made in all about one hundred and
sixty sail, with fourteen thousand troops on board, under the Duke
of Ormond. This armament put to sea on the 19th of June, 1702,
and appeared before Cadiz, but the attempt miscarried. The English,
however, were completely successful in their attack upon the French
and Spanish squadrons in the harbor of Vigo. The French, unable
to resist the attack, sunk and burned a number of ships; but ten ships
of war and seven galleons were taken, together with a great amount of
treasure, which inflicted a severe blow upon the enemy and added to
the fame of the allies. Sir George Rooke returned in triumph to England, and the fortifications to the harbor of Vigo were demolished by
Sir Cloudesly Shovel.
In the next year no important naval operations occurred. In 1704,
Sir George Rooke, and Sir Cloudesly Shovel were again sent to the
Mediterranean to look after the French fleet, when they resolved to
make an attempt upon Gibraltar, which was attacked and carried with
trifling loss on the 25th of June. The English fleet then proceeded
up the Mediterranean, and on the 9th of August, the French fleet was
seen and chased; on the 13th it was overtaken. A furious engagement followed which was maintained until night, when the French
bore away to the leeward. The English admiral attempted to renew
the contest on the following day, but the Count de Toulon declined,
and at last disappeared. The English fleet in this action consisted of
fifty-three ships of the line, exclusive of frigates; and the French fleet
numbered fifty-two ships of the line and twenty-four galleys. The loss




368             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
was equal; though not a ship was taken or destroyed by either. After
the battle, the English fleet sailed to Gibraltar to refit; and leaving a
squadron under Sir John Leake, Sir George Rooke returned to England,
%where he was received with all the demonstrations of respect due his
long services.
The French made an attempt to recover Gibraltar in the succeeding October, in the absence of the English squadron; but on its return
they were forced to withdraw with the loss of two frigates, and a number of smaller vessels. In January, 1705, they made another attempt
for the same purpose; but were still more unfortunate; for Sir John
Leake and Sir Thomas Delkes having arrived with a powerful fleet,
they almost annihilated the French squadron.  In the course of the
summer, the English fleet assisted at the capture of Barcelona, and in
every quarter'the navy maintained its wonted superiority. The French
navy was reduced to about thirty ships, and was unable to appear at
sea. Peace was concluded at Utrecht, after eleven years of destructive
warfare, in which the achievements of Marlborough upon land, and
Rooke, Russel and others upon the sea, contributed to the glory of
the English reputation.  The navy of Britain, at this period, stood
pre-eminent.  The former great naval powers, Spain, Portugal, and
the northern kingdoms, had now declined into a state of insignificance.
The French were humbled, and the Dutch were in close alliance with
the invincible power which truly ruled the sea.
ADMIRAL BLAKE,




QUEEN ANNE.
CHAPTER XXVI.
FROM THE PEACE OF UTRECHT TO THE PEACE OF PARIS IN 1783.
FTER the peace of Utrecht, the different powers
of Europe set about repairing and increasing
their navies.  Spain, especially, actively prepared for another contest. The overwhelming?,I, _'   _  superiority of England was so manifest, that if
they had done so, she would have swayed
Europe at will.  The death of Queen Anne
and the accession of George I. in 1714, were
tlhe imnediate causes of another war.  The active and able Cardinal
~FTY                                 C(369)




3 70            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Alberoni, who presided over the councils of Spain, directed his efforts
to the creation of a navy, and such was the persevering character of
his proceedings, that, only three years after the peace of Utrecht,
Europe was astonished at the appearance of a Spanish fleet of thirty
ships of war in the Mediterranean, destined for the reduction of Sardinia.  The English government despatched a squadron of twentytwo ships into the Mediterranean, under Sir George Byng, to maintain
the British authority.  The ambitious Alberoni, expecting active
hostilities, increased his exertions. Five hundred transports, which
carried a formidable land force, were protected by a fleet of twenty-seven
ships of various rates, two fire ships, four bomb-ketches, and seven galleys. But this fleet was met by Sir George Byng, off Cape Passaro,
on the 11th of August, 1710, and so utterly discomfited, that all the
ships were taken except three, which were saved by the conduct of
their vice-admiral, a native of Ireland.
Alberoni now thought the most effectual method of annoying
Britain was by espousing the cause of the Pretender; and as his
naval resources were diminished, he hoped that an invasion of Scotland, on behalf of the Stuarts, might be accomplished successfully
with a very moderate force. The Duke of Ormond was chosen to
conduct the expedition; and he obtained from the Spanish court a
fleet of ten ships of war, and transports having on board six thousand
regular troops, with arms for twelve thousand more.  This armament
sailed from Cadiz in the latter part of 1718, but was dispersed and
the greater part destroyed by a storm off Cape Finesterre. These
schemes were so much beyond the resources of Spain, that a great
outcry was raised, and Alberoni was dismissed.  Peace was then concluded with England. (June, 1721.)
Having thus controlled the old monarchy of Spain, England was
next called to employ her power against the youthful and rising
empire of Russia.  A fleet was sent into the Baltic, under Sir John
Norris, to act against the Czar Peter, if he did not accede to the proposals of peace with Sweden. The czar was much enraged at the
interference of England; but no sooner did the red cross flag appear
in the Baltic than the Russian fleet withdrew, and peace was soon
secured. The same interference had the same effect in 1726.
Although there was a cessation of hostilities between England and
Spain, there was no cordial feeling of amity between them, and they




GREAT BRITAIN.                      371
seemed but waiting for an opportunity to injure each other.  The
English fleets commanding the seas committed many outrages upon
the Spanish coast and their shipping; and the Spaniards had not the
means of retaliating. The naval history of the reign of George I.
was thus void of interest, merely because there was no opposing
power to excite a display of strength.  But this tide of undisputed
success now threatened to become fatal to England, by creating an
excess of confidence, which rejected the idea of improvement; and
thus, while the French and Spaniards were busy in improving their
marine architecture, the English doggedly adhered to the old principles of ship building. Their vessels were very heavy in their sailing, awkward in stowage, and confined in their decks. Yet with such
ships the English mariners could and did annihilate the fleets of their
opponents.
The many attacks upon the British trading vessels by the Spaniards
whom no treaty could bind -while they had wrongs to revenge, at last,
in 1739, caused the English government to adopt active measures
against them. Admiral Vernon, who was sent with a fleet to annoy
the Spanish trade in the West Indies, had often boasted that he could
take Porto Bello, with only six ships; and being permitted to try the
experiment, he succeeded, by a combination of extraordinary temerity
-  _.......  and good fortune.  Commodore Anson
was sent with a squadron to distress
the enemy in the South Seas, and a
more formidable armament was placed
under the command of the hero of Porto
Bello.  But scarcely had the foolish
delirium on account of this exploit subsided, when the English were equally
~___~~~   ~depressed by the failure of the expedition against Carthagena, in which a
noble fleet and land force were miserably sacrificed, between the blunders
COMMIODORE ANSON.   and dissentions of the two English commanders., Even the return of Lord Anson, with all the treasure he
had captured in his voyage round the globe, was insufficient to heal
the irritation of the people.
The French, who had looked smilingly on the disasters of their




372             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ancient rival, were now eager to share in the anticipated triumphs of
Spain. They, therefore, resolved upon an invasion of England on
behalf of the Pretender. An army of fifteen thousand soldiers, under
the command of the celebrated Count Saxe was to be escorted to
England by a strong convoy, under Admiral de Roquefeuille, and
landed upon the coast of Kent.  The armament set sail in January,
1743, but the measure, which depended so much upon secrecy for
success, was discovered, and an English fleet, under Sir John Norris,
sailing to meet them, the enemy were obliged to put back into port.
France then declared war against England.
We can but mention the principal events and the general character
of this war.  The united fleets of France and Spain, after having been
blocked up in the harbor of Toulon, was encountered by Admiral
Matthews, on February 11th, 1744, with a very superior force.  The
battle consisted of a series of skirmishes through four successive days;
but such was the confusion of purposes between the British commanders, that the result was wholly indecisive, although from the strength
of the English fleet the destruction of their enemies seemed inevitable. A court martial was held in England upon this occasion, at
which Matthews, who had gallantly rushed upon the enemy, was dismissed from the service, and the second in command, who had stood
aloof, refusing to co-operate, was promoted immediately and entrusted
with the command of a powerful armament of sixteen sail of the line,
eight frigates, and two bomb-ketches, together with a land force of
five thousand eight hundred efficient men. L'Orient was the object
of attack; but from mismanagement, this expedition completely failed.
In June, 1755, Louisbourg, in the isle of Cape Breton, which the
French had fortified at a vast expense, was taken by Commodore
~Warren.  A few days after the surrender of Louisbourg, two French
East India ships, and a Spanish ship, laden with treasure, sailed into
the port, on the supposition that it still belonged to France, and were
taken by the English. In addition to this territorial loss, the French,
in October, 1747, suffered a severe naval defeat.  Rear-admiral
T-awke, with fourteen ships of the line, fell in with nine ships of the
elnemy, besides frigates, under the command of De Letendeur, in the
latitude of Belle-isle.  The English admiral immediately gave chase
alvd the two fleets were soon in contact. The battle was well con



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GREAT BRITAIN.                       o )
tested, and lasted from noon till night, when all their ships struck,
except two, which escaped in the dark.
Amidst these important movements, a minor warfare, in which the
strength of the French was chiefly exerted, had been kept up by
privateers and cruisers. As the combined navies of France and Spain
did not muster above fifty ships of the line, they wisely avoided
general engagements, in which they could have no hope against the
superior strength of the enemy. Instead of this, they harassed the
British trade by flying squadrons, and compelled their enemies to keep
watch in every sea, and waste their strength in destructive efforts to
capture fortresses. Such were the exertions of the belligerents to annoy each other, and so far did they succeed, that both parties were
glad to conclude a peace at Aix-la-chapelle, in 1748. The French obtained better terms than might have been expected from the relative
strength of the parties at the commencement of the war.
The history of the relations of France and England may be characterized as a long war, with an occasional truce. In 1755, symptoms
of the renewal of hostilities were plainly evident. At Brest and other
French ports, there was a suspicious refitting and mustering of ships;
and while it was avowed that this armament was intended to act in
North America, the British were amused with professions of peace
until it had actually set sail. Upon this, admiral Boscawen was sent
out with eleven ships of the line, and one frigate, to watch the motions
of the enemy. He was soon reinforced by six ships of the line and one
frigate, and repaired to the banks
of Newfoundland, at which the
French also arrived; but there was
so thick a fog at the time that
neither party was aware of the
neighborhood of the other. After
having thus missed each other,
Lord Howe fell in with a part of the
French fleet at cape Race, and in
the action that ensued, he succeeded in capturing two of their
ships.  The French then proLORD HOWE.           claimed war; and in consequence
of the increase of their marine, they were confident of success. But




376             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the British navy, already a match for the united navies of Europe,
was augmented so rapidly, as to make these hopes ridiculous. Before
the end of the first year of the war, the British cruisers had captured
above three hundred merchant ships and eight hundred French seamen.
Irritated by these losses, the French now attempted to alarm the
English by the threats of an invasion, and began to assemble a
powerful armament at Toulon. The plan succeeded so effectually,
that England was filled with groundless apprehensions. But although
France was conscious of her inability to execute such a threat, her
ships were not assembled at Toulon in mere idle bravado; and in the
beginning of 1756, the fleet sailed on the expedition against iMinorca,
then occupied by an English garrison.  The English had long been
informed of the extent of the French preparations, but, for reasons
which have never transpired, did not send a feet to the Mediterranean. On the same day that the French sailed from Toulon, Admiral
Byng was sent, with a very inadequate force, to oppose their matured
preparations. His only chance of success was an arrival before them.
But as the French arrived some weeks sooner, and without resistance
landed an efficient army, the delay was fatal.  The French fleet was
more powerful and efficient than that of the British; but still Byng
bore down upon it, and after an undecisive action, obliged it to withdraw and escape during the night. Byng had but a handful of men
who had been sent to reinforce the garrison at Minorca, and he knew
these could only add to the number of prisoners if landed, and he,
consequently, deemed it useless.  The garrison of Port Philip was
forced to surrender upon honorable terms; and Byng returned to
Gibraltar to refit for a second contest.
The conduct of Byng in these operations against the French made
him the subject of a great deal of violent and totally unjustifiable
reproach. It was alleged that he should have destroyed a superior
fleet, which he had forced to leave its object. Such was the popular
clamor, and the violence of party spirit, that Byng was court martialed,
and in spite of the recommendation of his judges, that he had acted
bravely, and, therefore, should be shown mercy, he was condemned to
be shot, which sentence was carried into effect on the 14th of March,
1756. It is now generally agreed, that the execution of Byng was
a " judicial murder."
In the following year, the British ministry determined upon a de



GREAT  BRITAIN.                       377
DEATH OF ADMIRAL BYNG.
scent upon the coast of France, to counteract the effect of Byng's
failure; and a fleet, consisting of eighteen ships of the line, besides
frigates, fire ships, bomb-ketches and transports, under Sir Edward
Hawke, with a formidable land force, under Sir John Mordaunt, was
assembled for this purpose. The secret instructions of the British
commanders were to attempt a descent at or near Rochefort, and after
capturing it, to burn and destroy all the docks, magazines, and shipping they found there. They sailed in September, and landed at Aix,
a small island at the mouth of the Charente, leading up to Rochefort,
and finding there a paltry, half finished fort, they attacked and demolished it.  After this, instead of proceeding directly to the main
object of their commission, they spent several days in deliberating
what should next be done, while the French, in the meanwhile, fortified themselves so strongly, that when lawke and Mordaunt had
finished deliberation, they discovered that the opportunity for action
had been lost. They then returned home, having accomplished nothing
with their expensive armament. Both commanders were tried by court
martial, but acquitted.
In the early part of 1758, two naval deeds were achieved that
redounded to the honor of England. Admiral Osborne had been for
32*




378              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
some time blocking up a French fleet in the harbor of Carthagena,
when he saw four ships of war, under the marquis du Quesne, coming
to its relief.  He immediately sent a detachment of his fleet to encounter them: but they fled in different directions. Each English
ship then selected its chase and pursued; the enemy were overtaken
and compelled to stand at bay; and after a hard fight, the French were
so completely worsted that only the smallest vessel of the squadron
escaped by superior sailing. The other three large ships were taken
or destroyed.  A few days after this, Sir Edward IIawke attacked a
French fleet of five ships of the line, six frigates, and forty transports,
lying off the island of Aix, and having three thousand soldiers on
board, besides a large quantity of provisions and stores, for the supply of their settlements in North America.  As soon as Hawke stood
in to attack them, the French ships slipped their cables and fled in
different directions; but the greater number of them  grounded in
shoal water. There they threw their cannon, stores and cargoes overboard, that they might be warped nearer shore, and thus secured their
escape. The destruction of the material, however, effectually defeated
the object of the expedition.
The course of German affairs, to which those of England were
generally subservient, rendered it necessary to make a diversion in
favor of the allies, by a descent on the coast of France; and preparations were made for the attempt. Two squadrons were fitted out:
one, of eleven ships of the line, under the command of Lord Anson
and Sir Edward IHawke, was sent to the Bay of Biscay, to watch the
enemy and harrass their navigation; the other, consisting of four
ships of the line and seven frigates, under Commodore IIowe, escorted
a hundred transports conveying a powerful land force, under the Duke
of Marlborough, (grandson of the great duke,) on the chief object of
the expedition.  Landing near St. Maloes, an attempt was made to
carry that strong place, but the land forces could not act without the
ships of war, and when the ships of war were ready, the French had
made the town impregnable. The only thing effected by Marlborough
was the destruction of some shipping and military stores; after which,
the French mustering in superior force, compelled him to embark his
troops. Several attempts were made to land at other parts of the
coast, but contrary and violent winds prevented, and a scarcity of
provisions compelled the armament to return to England.




GREAT BRITAIN.                     379
In the following August, the attempt was renewed by the fleet and
the army, under General Bligh; and although the French made a
stout resistance, the English troops effected a landing at Querqueville,
and destroyed the French line of defences.  Elated by this success,
the British commanders hoped to take St. Maloes; but still found it
too strong for their combined forces. Bligh, however, was resolved
not to leave the coast without doing some injury; and, therefore, he
made a bold dash some miles into the country, and defeated the enemy
in several light skirmishes.  He then retreated slowly and with
drums beating towards the beach of St. Cas, where the fleet waited to
receive him. The French assembled in large force, and when the
English reached the beach, and began to embark, they made a furious
assault upon them. The English were put to flight in five minutes,
and the greater portion of them bayoneted or driven into the sea.
One thousand men were slain or taken prisoners in this embarkation;
and England was astounded at the return of the baffled. and disgraced
armament. The French were highly elated by their victory.
After this unfortunate expedition, the war, as usual, dwindled for
a time into deeds of privateering, in which the English sailors were
so successful, that not a French ship could venture out of harbor
without being taken.  In the following year, the French, still meditating an invasion of England, collected a great number of flat-bottomed boats in the harbor of Havre de Grace; and in consequence of
these and other preparations, two English fleets were fitted out for
service, the one being placed under Rodney, and the other under
Boscawen. The first of these admirals repaired to Havre, where he
commenced a thundering bombardment, by which he overturned certain boats, and frightened the townspeople; while the latter made an
unsuccessful attempt upon Toulon. After the English retired from
Toulon> a French fleet stole out from that harbor, and Boscawen,
hearing of the circumstance, immediately gave chase, and overtook it
off the coast of Barbary. In the engagement which followed, the
French were defeated, with the loss of four large ships, two of which
were sunk, and two became important additions to the English navy.
The British then established a system of close blockade that extended
over the whole French coast. Thus Dunkirk was watched by Commodore Buys; Havre de Grace, by Lord Rodney; Toulon, by Boscawen, and Brest, by Sir Edward Hawke; while lines of British




380              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ADMIIRL RODNEY.
cruisers connected these so closely, that not a single ship could issue
from the hostile ports without notice.
The French were on the alert to discover an opening in the blockade.
The blockading squadron off Brest was driven off the coast by foul
weather, and obliged to return to England; upon which, Admiral
Conflans, with twenty-one sail of the line and four frigates, pushed
out in the hope of surprising and overpowering the smaller fleet blockading in the absence of Hawke.  But just as the French admiral had
almost succeeded in his purpose, Hawke suddenly reappeared and
gave chase to the enemy. Although of equal force, the French fled
to their own coast, hoping that that the English would be wrecked among
the shoals and rocks; but Hawke continued the chase and overtook
them  in the neighborhood of Belle-isle.  Here a furious battle was
fought on November 20th, 1759.  It continued till night, and the
French fleet, after considerable loss, hauled off and escaped to Rochefort. This victory not only ruined the hopes of invasion entertained




GREAT BRITAIN.                      381
by the French, but decided the fate of the war, as the French, after
this blow, were unable to accomplish any important naval enterprise.
The English naval power was also creditably displayed in the East
and West Indies, in Africa, and North America.  These operations
were too extensive and complicated to detail; but it was made evident
that at this time, England brooked no rival upon the throne of Neptune.
The death of George II., which occurred on the 25th of October,
1760, brought no intermission in the war which raged with unabated
violence. In the following year, negotiation was tried, but suddenly
broken off; and during the course of the negotiation, Belle-isle, on
the west coast of France was taken by Commodore Keppel, and Major-general Hlodgson, to the great triumph of the English nation.
Wishing to deprive the British of the use of the Portuguese ports,
France and Spain declared war against that country in January, 1762.
This measure seemed only to redouble the efforts and successes of the
British navy.  Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent; and Grenada were
taken from the French. From the Spaniards, the fortress of Havana,
in the island of Cuba, was taken, in which capture, the enemy
lost nine ships of the line and four frigates, while the British obtained
booty to the amount of three millions sterling. Manilla also fell into
the hands of the British; and thus were their enemies deprived of
their valuable foreign possessions by a superior navy. Such losses
made the French and Spaniards desirous of peace, which was at
length concluded at Paris, on the 11th of February, 1763.  Most of
the islands and territory acquired by the heroic achievements of the
navy were surrendered to the former owners, at which the English
nation were indignant.
The French only desired breathing time.  The rembrance of their
losses and defeats could not but make a brave and active nation
anxious to retrieve them. They employed the interval in strengthening the marine; and an opportunity for renewing offensive measures
was soon found in the rupture between Great Britain and her American
Colonies. In February, 1778, the French acknowledged the independence of the United States, and entered into a treaty by which
they engaged to assist them in attaining their object. At the commencement of this war, it was found, as usual, that confidence of success had produced a neglect of the navy.  Intelligence was received
that the French had a squadron of twelve sail of the line and six




382             UNIVERSAL  NAVAL HISTORY.
ADMIIRAL EPPEL.
frigates ready to sail from Toulon, under command of the well known
Count d'Estaing, to co-operate with the Americans in their efforts to
obtain independence. Admiral Byron was sent to oppose this fleet
on the 9th of June; but the boisterous weather effectually dispersed
the English fleet, and d'Estaing arrived at New York in safety.
The French had made extensive preparations to carry on the war.
Another powerful fleet of thirty-two sail of the line, and a large number of frigates, was being equipped at Brest, under the Count d'Orvilliers.  The English ministry were not aware of the strength of this
armament. They despatched Admiral Keppel, with only twenty sail
of the line and seven frigates and smaller vessels, to watch its motions
and protect the English commerce in the Channel. Having captured
a lookout frigate, the admiral learned the real strength of the enemy,
and returned to Portsmouth for reinforcements.  Ten sail of the line
were added to his fleet, and he was then a match for his adversary.
Unaware of this addition to the British fleet, d'Orvilliers sailed from




GREAT BRITAIN.                     383
Brest to attack it; but when he found it had increased in strength,
he endeavored to avoid an engagement. Keppel followed his adversary
through the manceuvres of several days, and at length brought him
to action on the 27th of July. The action was maintained with great
vigor upon both sides; but in consequence of the conduct of Sir Hugh
Palliser, the second in command, in failing to come up at the signals
of his superior, the English admiral was prevented from achieving a
victory otherwise certain. As it was, the fleets parted, a number of
the English ships being much disabled, and the loss in men being
about equal.
In addition to France, Spain now declared war against England,
and the united navies, consisting of sixty-five ships of the line and a
great number of frigates, swept the English Channel, and would have
taken Plymouth, but for a mistake in their geography. A Spanish
fleet blockaded Gibraltar, and reduced the garrison to great extremities. To preserve this valuable conquest, Sir George Rodney was
sent with a fleet to its relief, which he performed effectually by the
famous victory of St. Vincent, in which six large ships were captured,
one blown up, and the remainder of the squadron dispersed. But this
success was counterbalanced by the loss of the rich East and West
India fleets, which fell into the hands of the enemy. An attempt at
invasion was made by the French in January, 1781. They landed
eight hundred men upon the island of Jersey, and compelled the
governor to surrender. But the commander of the troops and volunteers, Major Pierson, suddenly rushed upon them and defeated them
with great slaughter. The expedition then returned.
The Dutch were soon numbered among the enemies of Britain.
They were the enemies the English had most reason to fear upon the
sea. They displayed a prowess worthy of their former reputation.
Admiral Zoutman, who was protecting a rich convoy, was met by
Admiral Hyde Parker, with an equal force, off the Dogger bank, in
August, 1781, upon which an engagement ensued, unparalleled for
desperation among the events of war. For three hours and a half the
two fleets continued to cannonade each other, until they sustained so
much damage that they lay like logs upon the water, incapable of
farther annoyance. At last, the Dutch admiral was able to bear
away for the Texel, which he accomplished with difficulty, succeeding
in saving his convoy. In the following year, the chief naval event




384             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
was the victory gained by Admiral Rodney, between the islands of
Guadaloupe and Dominique, in which De Grasse was defeated, with
the loss of eight of his best ships. By this success, the junction of the
French and Spanish fleets was prevented and the island of Jamaica
saved. In the same year, Gibraltar was attacked by a fleet of the
allied powers, but relieved by Lord Howe, with a much inferior
force. The gains and the losses during the war had been so equal,
that neither party could boast of obtaining any decisive advantage;
and accordingly, each believing that a continuance of the war would
result disasterously for itself, a peace was concluded in 1783, by
which, after mutual restitution, the different powers found themselves
in the same condition as at the commencement of the war, except that
their resources were nearly exhausted.
~-Z~                                         I 




EARL ST. VINCENT.
CHAPTER XXVII.
FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS IN 1783 TO THE PRESENT DAY.
HE peace was continued until the
breaking out of the French revolution, by which another war was precipitated -England upon one side
an.,,.,..... and France and Holland upon the
X'___ —       -. other. The English fleets obtained
the laurel of victory in the West
Indies, where they captured several
islands belonging to the French.
Z            83                    (385)




386             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
The enemy confined their efforts to privateering; and in this they
were so successful, that in the month of May, alone, (1793,) they
captured ninety-nine British ships, while only one of theirs was taken
in return.  Necessity at last compelled them  to risk a general
encounter at sea. As the return of a large fleet of merchantmen,
laden with grain from the West Indies, was expected, Admiral Villaret was sent with the Brest fleet to protect the arrival of this valuable
convoy. Lord Howe, who had been watching this armament for a
long period, suspected its destination, and went in pursuit with twentysix sail of the line. As soon as the French, who were of equal force,
saw the approach of the enemy, they formed the line of battle and
occupied the first day in preliminary skirmishing. On the next, May
29th, 1794, an engagement took place, without advantage on either
side, after which, in consequence of a thick fog for two days, nothing
could be attempted.  But on the 1st of June, Howe, who had now
gained the weather-gage of the enemy, renewed the encounter, broke
their line, and after a terrible cannonade, completely defeated them;
capturing seven ships and sinking another. The French, however,
saved their convoy. The English fleet was so much crippled by the
encounter, that instead of giving chase, Howe was obliged to return to
port.
During the same year, two naval engagements upon a smaller scale
took place. They were equally honorable to the British flag. While
cruising with five frigates off Guernsey and Jersey, Sir John Borlase
Warren descried, off the latter island, a squadron of four large French
ships under M. Desgareux. The French commander offered battle; and
the British commander, who had gained the weather-gage, and placed
his squadron between the enemy and their own coasts, engaged them
to great advantage. The conflict lasted three hours, at the end of
which, two of the French ships struck their colors; the others attempted
to escape; but one was overtaken and captured, and the others got clear
off. The other affair was in the East Indies, where two British ships
encountered and defeated four ships of the enemy, off Mauritius, in
October. The French escaped in a crippled state.
In 1795, Parliament voted one hundred thousand seamen for prose.
cuting the war; and an expedition, under admiral Elphinstone, was
sent against the Dutch possessions in Africa. The Cape of Good Hope
was obliged to surrender, and this important acquisition was obtained




GREAT BRITAIN.                      387
with the loss of only seven men.  An expedition was also sent to
Quiberon bay to assist the French royalists, by a descent in that
quarter.  But the renowned Hoche attacked and defeated the troops
as soon as landed. In March, 1796, an engagement took place in the
Mediterranean, between a British fleet, under admiral Hotham, and one
of France, under admiral Richery, which was indecisive. In June,
admiral Cornwallis sustained a running fight, with five ships, against
thirteen of the enemy; and this last fleet was defeated off L'Orient,
by Lord Bridport. As in former times, the French were successful as
long as they confined their efforts to privateering, in which the more
scientific structure and superior sailing of their vessels gave them decided advantages; and they were victorious as long as they did not
seek to meet the British in a general encounter. In consequence of
the rapidity of her victories and conquests by land, France could
now avail herself of the resources of other nations; and Spain was
compelled to lend her ships for the purpose;s of her enemy.
A Spanish fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line endeavored to effect
a junction with the French and Dutch armament at Brest, from whence
the united fleets were to sail for the invasion of Britain. To prevent
this union, Sir John Jervis set sail to meet the Spanish fleet, and met
it near Cape St. Vincent, on the 14th of February. Though numbering but fifteen sail of the line, the English fleet, principally through
the heroic disobedience and exertions of Nelson, obtained a splendid
victory.  Four ships were captured and about seven hundred of the
enemy killed or wounded. The loss of the British was three hundred
men killed or wounded. This victory created considerable elation in
England, on account of the great disparity of the forces engaged in
it and the consequent skill and daring displayed in the achievement.
Sir John Jervis received his title of Earl of St. Vincent, a pension
of three thousand pounds sterling a year and other marks of distinction, in consequence of this victory.
But while Britain had reason to be proud of her ocean bulwarks, an
event occurred which she had greater cause to fear than the most
perilous naval defeat. This was the mutiny in the fleets, which first
broke out at Plymouth, on the 17th of April, 1797. There had been
a spirit of discontent among the seamen for some time, caused by their
being defrauded in the quantity and quality of their provisions, in the
midst of their heroic exertions. The seamen refused to proceed to




388             UNIVERSAL NAVAL IIS TORY 
BATTLE OF CAPE ST. VINCENT.
sea. They appointed delegates from every ship, and drew up petitions
to the admiralty and the House of Commons, in which they stated
their wrongs and demanded redress.  Their reasonable demands were
obtained by their firmness, upon which they returned to their duty.
But while the mutinous spirit was thus quelled at Spithead and Sheerness, it was far otherwise at the Nore. At this station they went
further in their demands, and whatever might be their justice, resolved to maintain them by force. They took possession of the ships,
chose officers from their own number, and proceeded to shut up the
mouth of the Thames, and interrupt the national commerce. The
government stood firm, and, at length, the mutineers relented and
returned to duty-their leader, Richard Parker, being tried and executed.  Had not the appearance of a hostile armament recalled the
seamen to their sense of duty, the co-operation or even the neutrality
of the fleets during an invasion by the French, might have proved
fatal to Britain.




GREAT BRITAIN.                       389
THE DUTCH ADMIRAL DE VINTER SURRENDERING TO ADMIRAL DUNCAN.
Having failed in their proposed invasion of England, the French resolved to make a descent on Ireland, by the aid of the Dutch navy. A
Dutch fleet, under Admiral De Winter, lay in readiness, in the Texel.
Admiral Duncan, who had blockaded this force for a considerable time,
was forced to retire for a short time, upon which De Winter seized the
opportunity to-push out to sea. He was soon overtaken by the active
Duncan, with an equal force, upon which the Dutch fleet formed in
order for action between Camperdown and Port Egmont, with the
shore at nine miles distance. Duncan threw himself between the
enemy and the shore, and ordered each of his ships to close with an
antagonist, without waiting for forming an order of battle. This daring
and novel plan was fully successful, and the victory of Camperdown
became one of the brightest in English annals. Eleven of the largest'33*




390             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORL~
_________________~    — fi —-r  -— r_-i —z-   -hi~ 2j~ — --   --
B1 I.of'I-' -lS
B3ATTL  O  Tr[{;:iL'.
Dutch ships were taken, including that of De Winter.  On board the
British admiral's ship, Duncan was the only man on deck unwounded
In the meantime, the French Directory made extensive preparations, with the ostensible object of invading England; but, really, for
the conquest of Egypt. The English were completely deceived, and
a large army, under Bonaparte, was embarked at Brest, escorted
by a fleet under Admiral Bruyes. Bonaparte arrived off Egypt on
the 13th of July, and landed his troops. The fleet lay moored off
Aboukir. But its destruction was at hand. Lord Nelson had been
sent in pursuit of the armament, whose destination was then unknown.
After a long and fruitless chase, in which he visited Corsica, Naples,
Ialta, and even Egypt before the French arrived there, he returned
to the latter coast on the 1st of August, where he descried the whole
noval force of the enemy at anchor and drawn up in the order of
batt'le. This was all Nelson sought. By the bold manoeuvre practised




GREAT BRITAIN.                      391
at the Camperdown, he got between the enemy and the shore, broke
their line, and gained, what he justly termed, not a victory, but a conquest. Of the whole French fleet only two ships of the line and two
fiigates escaped.  Never, since the days of antiquity, was a naval victory attended with more important consequences. It broke the ascendancy of France in Europe, and ruined her hopes of conquest in Asia.
The hitherto invincible Bonaparte was shut up in Egypt, where he
could receive no reinforcements. This great victory, called generally,
the "Battle of the Nile," raised Nelson to the reputation of being the
greatest of naval commanders. Honors of all kinds were heaped upon
him by the different courts of Europe.
As a counterpoise to such advantages, the power of Britain was less
successful in other quarters.  Minorca was captured by a British
armament without the loss of a man; but at the end of the same year,
the British were obliged to abandon all their strong positions upon
the coast of St. Domingo. A fleet, under Admiral Mitchell, entered
the Zuyder Zee, when an attempt was made to drive the French out
of Holland, upon which, Storey, the Dutch admiral, surrendered his
fleet of twelve ships without resistance; but the army under the Duke
of York, was so injudiciously disembarked and subsequently so unskilfully commanded, that, after many disasters, it was glad to purchase
the liberty of retiring. Indeed, by land, the genius of Bonaparte was
irresistible. But every part of France was blockaded, and the British
were triumphant upon the other element. Up to the year 1800, the
navy had destroyed or taken eighty sail of the line, one hundred and
eighty-one frigates, two hundred and twenty-four smaller ships of war,
seven hundred and forty-three French privateers, fifteen Dutch, and
seventy-six Spanish ships.
A formidable combination against the British maritime supremacy,
had been matured by the efforts of the French.  The Czar of Russia
was drawn into it by Bonaparte, and the accession of Denmark and
Sweden soon followed. This coalition was matured in 1800, when
the northern powers began their hostile operations against the British
commerce, and the czar laid an embargo upon all the British ships in
his ports, to the number of three hundred, the crews of which he
threw into prison. The naval resources of the three powers apparently
justified such a step. Russia had eighty-two sail of the line, and
nearly forty frigates; Denmark, twenty-three sail of the line and




392              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
fourteen frigates; and Sweden, eighteen sail of the line and fourteen
frigates, not including the smaller vessels of war of various denominations, which each of these powers possessed. Both sides of the
Sound were fortified, and batteries were erected on the island of
Amack, and on the Sproe, in the Belt, plentifully furnished with
artillery men and red hot shot. Copenhagen appeared impregnable.
A British fleet of eighteen sail of the line, four frigates, and thirty
smaller vessels of various kinds, commanded by Sir Hyde Parker,
and under him, Nelson, the soul of the enterprise, set sail from Yarmouth, on the 12th of March, for the attack on Copenhagen.  The
fleet entered the Sound; and by keeping to the Swedish side, escaped
the opposite batteries at Cronensburgh. On approaching Copenhagen,
the road was found fortified with a strong line of ships and war vessels,
mounting together six hundred and fifty guns, flanked by formidable
batteries, and a strong chain was drawn across the harbor.  After
two days spent in reconnoitering, Nelson offered to lead the attack,
and on the morning of the 2d of April, the battle of Copenhagen
commenced.  We cannot detail the numerous difficulties of navigation surmounted by Nelson, before his ships could be placed along
side of the enemy, and the various changes of fortune which took
place after the action commenced. The Danes fought with a spirit
worthy of their ancestors. But on the side of their enemies, equal
valor was directed by superior skill; so that after a terrible cannonade
of five hours, the Danish fire slackened, at the end of which Nelson
was in possession of most of their ships and batteries. Nelson then
sent the Danes a note, entreating them for their own sakes, to desist
from further resistance.  The Prince Royal of Denmark yielded, and
an armistice of fourteen weeks was agreed to.
Nelson, who was now invested with the chief command, resolved to
follow up his successes by an attack upon Sweden; and on learning
that a Swedish squadron of six sail of the line, was actually in readiness to join the Russian fleet, he shut up this small force behind the
forts of Carlscrona, leaving a squadron sufficient to keep it in blockade.
He then repaired to the Revel Roads, in which he anchored on the
14th of May, intending to give the Russian navy a "Nelson touch."
But fortunately for that navy, the Czar Paul was assassinated, and his
successor, disclaiming all hostility to the English, freed their shipping
from embargo.  All differences were soon after adjusted.




GREAT BRITAIN.                      393
After these great exertions, the war dwindled into a series of petty
encounters upon the sea, which generally resulted in favor of the
British.  An enterprise undertaken against the French coasts in
August of this year, terminated unfortunately. As the object of the
French still continued to be the invasion of England, they had collected a great number of gun boats and other vessels at Boulogne. In
consequence of these preparations, Lord Nelson was sent to watch this
station, with a considerable armament.  He had already done the
French flotilla some damage, and resolving to attempt its complete
destruction, he sent a large force of gun boats and other vessels during
the night, to make a sudden onset.  But when the attack was made,
it was found that a very strong netting was braced up to the lower
yards of the French vessels, and that each was moored at the head
and stern with iron chains, and defended by nearly two hundred
soldiers, and land batteries and musketry from the shore. These difficulties baffled the valor and skill of the assailants, and after a loss of
eleven hundred and seventy-two men, the British were obliged to
retire. The success of the British fleet and army sent against the
French in Egypt, under the command of Lord Kleith, Sir Sindey
Smith, and Sir Ralph Abercrombie, more than compensated for the
defeat at Boulogne. The French were beaten, and compelled to evacuate
the scene of their former conquests.
A  treaty of peace between France and England was signed at
Amiens on the 27th of March, 1802. The two nations seemed desirous of a more friendly relationship than had hitherto existed between
them, and the conclusion of the horrors of war was hailed by the majority of the French and English with great satisfaction; but the flattering prospects of anticipations of long peace were destined to be
disappointed. Bonaparte knew that when he ceased to dazzle and
astonish, he could no longer be the idol of France; and, accordingly,
he endeavored to bring about another struggle for supremacy. It was
alleged that the English government had perfidiously broken the
treaty, and the most active preparations for war were made in all the
ports of France and England. War recommenced in May, 1802.
The fleets of Britain blockaded all the ports of their enemy, and
captured a number of their foreign possessions. Bonaparte intimated
his designs to invade the British isles, and collected and equipped an
immense number of flat bottomed boats, at Boulogne. Before these




394             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
could be used as transports, it was necessary to break through the blockade
of the enemy. But having no navy adequate to the enterprise, the French
were compelled to let their flotillas repose at their stations.  Several
attempts were made by the English to blow them up by means of a
machine called a catameran; but they all failed. However, after creating a great deal of unnecessary alarm, the invasion was given up as
hopeless by Bonaparte. Spain was soon induced to join the enemies
of England, by the burning of four of her ships in the harbor of Cadiz,
by an English captain.
The naval history of Great Britain, during the year 1805, was
fraught with events of such magnitude as to command the attention
of the civilized world.  France, Spain, and Holland were leagued
against her.  There were British fleets stationed in the Texel, before
Brest, Rochefort, Vigo, Ferrol, Cadiz, Carthagena, and Toulon; and the
scene of operations extended from thence westward to Trinidad, the
Antilles, and Jamaica. The French Toulon fleet, of eleven sail of the
line and two frigates, under Admiral Villeneuve, ventured to sea on the
last day of March, when the British fleet, under Nelson, had been
obliged to anchor in the Gulf of Palmo. At the same time, the Rochefort squadron, six sail of the line, and two frigates, was equally fortunate in getting to sea.  The Rochefort squadron sailed to the West
Indies and committed some devastations; but as soon as it was known
that admiral Cochrane had been sent against them, the French put
back to Rochefort, which they reached in safety. The armament, under
Villeneuve, had scarcely got to sea, before it was pursued by the active
Nelson, who swept over the whole Mediterranean in quest of the enemy,
but in vain. Villeneuve reached Cadiz in safety. There he was joined
by a Spanish fleet, swelling his force to eighteen sail of the line, and
with this armament the French sailed to the West Indies; but hearing
that Nelson wasin pursuit of him, he determined to return. There
was destruction in the name of Nelson.  The combined fleets of
France and Spain, which now consisted of twenty sail of the line, three
large ships armed en flute, five frigates and three brigs, pursued its
homeward course without molestation till it was encountered off Cape
Finisterre, on the 22d of July, by a British fleet of fifteen sail of the
line, two frigates, a cutter and a lugger, under Sir Robert Calder. The
French, notwithstanding their superiority, stood on the defensive.
The canonade continued four hours, and the British captured an




GREAT BRITAINb                      395
LORD NELSON.
eighty-four and a seventy-four; but they did not follow up their success. The remainder of the French:fleet hauled off in safety. On
his return to England with his prize, Sir Robert Calder was tried by
a court martial, and reprimanded; which shows what the victories of
Nelson had taught the nation to expect of an admiral.
Villeneuve reached Ferrol in safety; and receiving another reinforcement, he put to sea, and entered Cadiz, compelling Collingwood's
small squadron to retire. In the meantime, Nelson had returned from
a pursuit unexampled in history. During the short space of seventyeight days, he had twice traversed the Atlantic ocean, without finding
the enemy. He arrived at London on the 20th of August, and having




396             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
learned there of the arrival of the French at Cadiz, he willingly
accepted the task of encountering them. A powerful armament was
fitted out, and on the 14th of September, he hoisted his flag on board
the Victory, at Portsmouth, and proceeded on that expedition which
was to be his brightest and his last. The chief difficulty was to get
the French to sea; and to accomplish this object, Nelson was obliged
to use a stratagem.  He kept aloof from Cadiz, thereby offering them
free passage; and to increase the inducement, he detached a squadron
from his fleet, as a convoy to Malta, knowing that a reinforcement was on
its way from England to join him. The plan completely succeeded.
Villeneuve and the Spanish admiral Gravina, supposing Nelson had
no more than twenty-one ships, boldly put to sea, on the 19th of October, with eighteen sail of the line and fifteen frigates. But Nelson
had now received the expected reinforcement, and, on the 21st, he
came up with the combined fleet, which was almost becalmned off
Trafalgar.
Having telegraphed the glorious motto, "England expects every
man to do his duty," Nelson bore down for battle at noon, at the head
of the weather column, while Collingwood, at the same time, moved
forward with the lee column. The lines advanced in the order of their
sailing. The plan adopted by Villeneuve was admirable, and might
have succeeded against another antagonist. Still conceiving that Nelson
had only twenty-one sail, the French admiral had detached twelve of
his ships to double upon the British after the action had closed, and
thus place half of them  at least between two fires. But when he
discovered the real force of the enemy, he was obliged to alter this
arrangement, and adopt that of a crescent convexing to the leeward.
The onset was commenced by Collingwood, breaking through the
enemy's line, at the twelfth ship from the rear, and closing his vessels
upon the French and Spanish ships, until the muzzles of their cannon
were actually in contact. Nelson, with the weather column, had
designed in the same manner, to break the van of the enemy, at the
tenth or eleventh ship; but finding them lying too close together for
such a purpose, he ordered each vessel to close with its antagonist.
Thus the conflict became a hand to hand trial of courage and activity.
The French and Spaniards fought desperately on the occasion; but
the British, under their great commander, were determined to conquer,
and nothing can withstand that determination when backed by superior




GREAT  BRITAIN.                      397
YLI,SON;  MIOI'e'ATl. Y WOVUt-NDED.
skill.  Nearly every one of the crew of the Victory was either killed
or wounded by the tremendous fire of the small arms of the French,
and at half past one o'clock in the day, the heroic Nelson was mortally
wounded, being shot through the backbone, while standing on the
quarter-deck.  After the battle had continued for about three hours
with unabated fury, Gravina, the Spanish admiral, seeing many ships
34




3 9 8           UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
dismasted and a large number in possession of the English, collected
all that could obey his signals and sailed away for Cadiz, as had been
foreseen from the beginning of the day. The five headmost ships of
the enemy's van, under command of Rear-admiral Dumanoir, were not
able to avail themselves of this opportunity, their retreat being cut
off; they therefore made sail on the larboard tack, keeping up a
heavy fire upon every ship within their reach. Only one was arrested
in the flight; and the battle of Trafalgar ended with the capture of
nineteen sail of the line, of which nine were French, and ten were
Spanish.
The battle of Trafalgar was the most destructive of all naval contests and was followed by a storm which continued for several days
after, in which a greater loss of life occurred than in the desperate
conflict. The victors made every exertion to rescue their subdued
foes from the destructive elements. The British loss amounted to
four hundred and forty-three killed, and twelve hundred and twentyseven wounded. The loss of the enemy was very great. By the
wreck and sinking during the battle, some thousands perished. In
the captured ships, twenty thousand prisoners were taken, including
the troops. Only four of the prizes could be brought into Gibraltar.
The rest were wrecked, or destroyed by the victors. The relies of the
French fieet, under Dumanoir, was met on the 2d of November, off
Ferrol, and after a hard fight of three hours and a half, the whole
force surrendered.  This completed the annihilation of the French
navy. The death of Nelson was felt as a public calamity; and even
such a victory was thought dearly purchased by the loss of such a
hero.
At the close of the year 1805, Bonaparte, anxious for the preservation of the French possessions in the West Indies, collected eleven
ships of the line, and several frigates, and sent them to that quarter,
under command of Villaumez and Jerome Bonaparte. A portion of
this squadron was captured by Admiral Duckworth, and the rest were
wrecked and every ship destroyed but that of Jerome Bonaparte,
which succeeded in reaching L'Orient. In the meantime, a close
blockade was kept up on the French coast. The British ships now
boldly ventured to attack the French ships in the ports, under protection of batteries; and in this species of warfare, Lord Cochrane was
particularly conspicuous.




GREAT BRITAIN.                    399
The principal naval exploit of 1807, was the bombardment of Copenhagen and the capture of the whole Danish navy. The British
government, apprehending, that, as the Danes were so much under
the influence of Bonaparte, he would make use of their naval resources,
determined to strip them of their shipping for a time. For this object,
forty-two sail of the line, carrying twenty thousand men, set sail from
England, while the British consul endeavored to convince the Danish
government of the rationality of such a process. The Danes prepared
for a stubborn resistance; but in spite of their gallant defence, Copenhagen was almost destroyed by a bombardment of several days, and
the fine fleet of sixteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, a multitude
of brigs and gun boats, and an immense quantity of naval stores fell
into the hands of the British. This cruel and destructive attack upon
a nation at peace with the English cannot be justified by any of the
laws of civilized nations. The Danish fleet was not restored until the
conclusion of a general peace.
In 1809, Great Britain made extraordinary exertions to carry on
the war, and sixty-four millions pounds were placed at the disposal of
the government.  In this year, the most powerful armament that
Britain had ever fitted out, was despatched on the "unfortunate"
Walachean expedition. Thirty-nine sail of the line, thirty-six frigates,
and a multitude of smaller vessels, conveying an army of forty thousand men, would have promised success to any enterprise; but it was
commanded by the inexperienced and incompetent Earl of Chatham.
This mighty armament appeared off the coast of Zealand, on the 30th
of July, and landed troops who met with no resistance till they came
to the town of Flushing. Instead of leaving a small force to blockade
that place, and pushing on to Antwerp, the British commander commenced a regular seige of it, and though he compelled it to surrender,
the forces of the enemy had assembled so rapidly in the meanwhile,
that the main object of the expedition was lost. Leaving fifteen thousand men to garrison Flushing, the armament which had cost twenty
millions of pounds sterling, returned home. This was the worst conducted enterprise of the war.
The only interruptions in the career of naval triumph met with by
the British were in the war with the United States.  The notice of
the victories achieved by the infant navy of the descendants of the
English will be given in the history of that navy. Suffice it here to




400             UNIVRRSAL NAYAL HISTORY.
say, that the Americans were almost invariably successful. The English fleets found considerable employment in the operation against the
Barbary States; where Lord Exmouth and a Dutch and English combined fleet almost destroyed Algiers, killed many thousands of the
inhabitants, and compelled the dey to abolish Christian slavery forever. This wholesome chastisement was so effectual, that for seven
years the Algerines refrained from their wonted piracies against the
Christian powers; but this state of things was irksome to a people
accustomed to plunder and violence, and in 1823, they resumed their
old practices. An English fleet was sent against them, and fear this
time reduced them to submission.
By a treaty signed at London, between Great Britain, France, and
Russia, it was agreed to interfere in the struggle between the Greeks
and the Turks.  The British fleet, under Sir Edward Codrington,
reached its station in February, 1827. An armistice was concluded
between Sir Edward and Ibrahim, commander in chief of the Turkish
and Egyptian forces, upon the faith of which, the Turkish and Egyptian fleet was permitted to anchor unmolested in the bay of Navarino.
The French and Russian fleets soon joined the English, and some
indications of a violation of the armistice being given by the Turks,
the fleet of the allies weighed anchor and sailed in the form of a crescent towards the Turkish fleet. The opposing fleets were soon front to
front, and the first gun being fired by the lurks, the battle of Navarino commenced.  The close and heavy cannonade was continued for
four hours. But the enemy, notwithstanding their numbers and ferocious courage, were no match for steady, European valor, backed by
science and experience.  Ship after ship, belonging to the Turks,
was reduced to a wreck, or set on fire by its own crew; so that the
whole bay was covered with wrecks, and enveloped in conflagration. The
havoc and slaughter so peculiar to a sea fight seemed on this day to be exceeded in the bay of Navarino. One feature of the contest is particularly
worthy of note. The French and British sailors, fought side by side
and seemed to emulate the deeds of each other. Several times during
the hottest of the fight, the French vessels saved their English allies
from being overpowered by numbers, and the English fully reciprocated the conduct of those whom they had been taught to consider
as their natural enemies. The Turkish and Egyptian fleets were almost
annihilated, and the independence of Greece secured; but the gallant




BATTLE GP NAVARINO.








GREAT BRITAIN.                      403
admiral,  Sir Edward Codrington was not honored by his government
for this splendid victory. Party spirit led to his recall from the command in the Mediterranean.
The battle of Navarino was the last great achievement in which
the English navy has participated; and it was fully equal to the most
glorious deeds of those who have been so long the rulers of the ocean.
Latterly, the naval strength of the other great powers of Europe, and
of the United States, has been so much increased, that they are in a
condition to dispute the sovereignty so long held by England. At
present, the navy of the United Kingdoms numbers upon the whole,
nearly seven hundred vessels; one hundred and twenty-five of which
are steamers, ninety-nine ships of the line, eighty frigates, and the
rest smaller vessels. The great extent and distance from the mother.country, of the foreign possessions, make such a navy an indispensable
requisite for their preservation.  The highest naval officer of Great
Britain is entitled the "Admiral of the Fleet," who, when he embarks,
is distinguished by the hoisting of the union flag at the main top-gallant mast head.  The vice-admiral takes rank with the lieutenantgeneral of the army; the rear-admiral ranks with the major-general.
Admirals, being commanders in chief of any squadron, carry their
flags at the. main top-gallant mast head, from which they are designated as admirals of the red, of the white, or of the blue. Ireland
has four vice-admirals, Scotland one, and the governors of colonies,
generally, hold a commission to preside over vice-admiralty courts, from
which there is an appeal to the English court of admiralty. The
principal naval stations and depots are Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham, and Plymouth.  At each of these there is a vast collection of
the stores and equipments necessary. for such a mighty navy.




CHAPTER XXVIII.
FRANCE.
N our history of the British navy
we have unavoidably given a general idea of the rise, progress, and
___  achievements of its often vanquished, but indefatigable rival
of France. It but remains to notice that which had no connection with British history, and thus to fill
up the picture.  There will be found as noble an exhibition of skill
and valor in French naval annals as in those of any other nation; and
though for a long period held inferior in power to England upon the
sea, the French vessels, were considered by the English themselves,
as the best models, and the daring activity and skill displayed by
a Renaud and a Thurot, forced admiration from their enemies, so
capable of appreciating such qualities.
We are informed that Charlemagne was forced to create a navy to
protect the coasts of France from the attacks of the daring pirates
of the North, towards the close of the eighth century. The vessels
composing this navy were, doubtless, of a construction similar to those
of the Northmen and the Saxons, which have already been described.
(404)




FRANCE.                           405
But this navy does not appear to have been very efficient, or else was
much neglected; for the attacks of the Normans were always successful, and they even sailed up the Seine as far as Paris, during the reign
of Charles the Bald, the grandson of Charlemagne. Their retirement
was purchased by heavy sums, which only made them more eager to return. Their fleets, at length, took possession of some islands in the Seine
and Loire, which seemed as depots for booty and as points of departure
for further conquest: and, finally, they obtained a permanent footing in
France, under the celebrated Rollo.
The fleet used by William the Conqueror, in his invasion of England has already been described; but we may observe here, that the
reported number and character of the vessels exhibit the naval power of
the inhabitants of Normandy in a favorable light.  The fleet is said
by some to have consisted of three thousand vessels of all kinds and
sizes, created principally by the contributions of barons of Normandy.
The greater portion of the fleet was destroyed by William after landing his forces.
In the crusade in which Philip Augustus and Richard Coeur de
Lion joined their forces, the French king was compelled to make use
of the Genoese and Pisan galleys for the transportation of his followers, which seems good evidence that, at that time, (A. D. 1191,)
France was without a navy.  But after John had ascended the throne
of England and had lost the greater portion of his continental territory,
Philip prepared a formidable fleet for the invasion of Britain. This,
however, was destroyed by the English mariners, as related in the
naval history of Great Britain. In the crusade, undertaken by St.
Louis, in the early part of the thirteenth century, a vast fleet was
employed to convey the forces of the invaders.  But the vessels were
all obtained from Venice, Genoa, and Catalonia, each of which was
considerably enriched by the necessity which compelled the crusade
to make use of its maritime resources.  This expedition to the Holy
Land, though at first successful, afterwards met with a series of disasters, among which was the destruction of the greater portion of the
fleet. Not more than one-third of those who embarked in it returned
to France.
A  second crusade was undertaken by St. Louis, in 1270.  The
French fleet was joined by thirteen English vessels, commanded by
the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward I. of England, and sailed




406              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
from Aignes-Mortes on the 1st of July.  From that moment every
thing went wrong. The vessels had scarcely started before the water
and provisions began to fail, and a mortality immediately broke out
among the troops. The fleet first sailed to Tunis, where the Mahomedans were plundered and slaughtered without mercy. But a terrible
retribution visited the barbarous ones who robbed and butchered
under a banner of peace.  A malady broke out, to which St. Louis
and many of his distinguished followers, fell victims. At last, the
remnant were relieved by Charles of Anjou, and the whole embarked
to return home. But a terrible storm overtook them off Trapani,
which wrecked eighteen of their largest ships, and a still greater
number of transports, in which many knights and warriors, and an
immense store of military equipments were swallowed up by the sea.
The remainder arrived safely home.
For a long time after this expedition, the French monarchs purchased the use of the Genoese galleys whenever there was a necessity
for naval operations.  The inhabitants of the sea coast of Picardy and
the other northern provinces were bold and skilful mariners, who
were constantly engaged in piratical expeditions against the coast of
England. With them, the French navy originated, and by their exertions was it for a long time an efficient arm of warfare. English fleets
could make but little head at this time against the almost constantly
allied fleets of France and Spain, and they sustained some notable
defeats, more than compensating for the two naval victories of Edward III.
When war with England occurred in 1385, Charles VI. collected
and equipped a tremendoug fleet for the invasion of England.  Every
port, from Prussia to Spain, contributed to swell its numbers, till no
fewer than thirteen hundred and eighty-seven vessels were assembled
at Sluys, where the embarkation was to take place.  But the dissentions of the French nobles and a disastrous shipwreck destroyed the
hopes of the king; and all subsequent attempts during his reign ended
in the same way. The admiral of the vast fleet was Sir John de
Vienne, who was proven to have been one of the ablest and bravest
naval commanders of his time.
The commerce of the Mediterranean was shared by Marseilles,
Montepelier, and Beaucaire, during the latter part of the fourteenth
century; and a great number of French vessels employed in it were




FRANCE.                         407
occasionally formed into fleets for the service of the state.  In the
struggles which followed the appearance of Joan of Arc, this was
especially the case.  Fleets fitted out by the merchants of these
French Mediterranean towns transported armies to various places
upon the coasts of the British continental provinces, and contributed
materially to the final expulsion of the invaders.  After the death of
Joan, one of these merchants, named Jacques Ceur, who had made
the south redound with his commercial renown, contributed the greater
portion of his enormous wealth and his trading vessels to the service
of his king. This and his subsequent exertions in his country's cause,
make him worthy of a place on the scroll of Fame, beside the warrior
maid of Orleans.
During the war with the Venetian republic in the reign of Louis
XII. the French fleet were equipped at Marseilles to act in concert
with the land forces of the king. Contarene, the Venitian admiral,
was encountered by a French cruiser, Pregent de Brideux, who came
with his galleys into the port of Genoa, and pursued the Venitians
almost to Civita Vecchia.  This same naval commander was made
admiral by Louis; and soon after defeated the English fleet in Brest
harbor, and made several ravaging descents upon the coasts of the
enemy. (A. D. 1513.) The battle in August of the same year between the largest ships in the French navy, under Primauget, and
eighty of the English vessels has already been mentioned. The "'Cordelier," the largest of the French galleys, which was burned in this
action, is said to have carried twelve hundred men, beside her crew.
No further trial of naval strength occurred during this war.
The warlike ambition of Francis I.,
which brought him into contests with
Charles V. and with Henry VIII.
of England, made it necessary forhim to maintain a considerable navy.
The Genoese were generally in alli-, ~  En tance with him, and their powerful
fleets were often employed by him.
When, in September, 1524, Marseilles was besieged by land, and blockaded by sea, the Spanish fleet, under
FRANCIS I.         Admiral Moncarde, which had been




408             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
MIDREW DORIA.
compelled to give up the blockade, was attacked near Nice, by the
French Vice-admiral, La Fayette, and the famed Genoese admiral,
Andrew Doria; and after three of the galleys had been sunk, the
remainder of the fleet was driven on shore, and burned by the
Spaniards themselves, to save it from falling into the hands of the
enemy. Andrew Doria was employed as an admiral for a long time
by the French ministers; but being a frank, blunt sailor, he conducted himself too independently towards his employers. They caused
the king to view him with suspicion, and treated his advice in naval
affairs with disrespect.  Finally, tempting offers induced him to enter
into the service of Charles V., and became one of the most active and
successful of the enemies of Francis.
In August, 1543, the French king received a valuable and timely
addition to his naval strength by the alliance of the celebrated Barbarossa, who joined the fleet of the Count D'Enghien, with one hundred and fifty sail. The combined fleets forced an entrance into the
port of Nice, took possession of that city and compelled the garrison
to retreat to the fort. The crescent was displayed from the walls, side
by side with the standard of France. The fort was bravely defended.




FRANCE.                         409
Barbarossa, offended at some demands of the French commander, and
hearing of the approach of a hostile fleet under Doria, could not be
induced to stay during a long siege, and accordingly sailed away to
iilnidule his piratical propensities.
Henry VIII. leagued with Charles
V. against Francis, in 1544, and the
allied monarchs invaded France at different points. Several towns were capX! ~    tured by Henry, with but little oppositioh. In the following year, Francis
undertook the siege of Boulogne, the
most important port of the English
forces, and  to  prevent  its being
victualled by the English fleet, he
-1.    j       li iw equipped above two hundred sail, beX;Y    sides galleys, commanded  by Admiral D'Annebaut, with which a descent on England  was  projected.
D'Annebaut sailed  to  the Isle of
Wight, where the English fleet was
/I< ~   lying at anchor, at St. Helen's. It conHENRY VM.          sisted of less than one hundred sail,
and the admiral thought it wise to remain in that road, in order to decoy the French into the narrow channel and among the rocks. For two days, the fleets fired on each each
other, but the damage done was inconsiderable.  One of the largest
English ships, the Mary Rose, went down, but whether from  the
enemy's fire, or from  accident, was a matter of some doubt.  The
French fleet soon after returned, having effected nothing.  A peace
was concluded soon after this between the rival princes.
Henry II., the successor of the chivalrous Francis, did not neglect
the navy.  He entered into a league with the Turks against the emperor of Germany, and made extraordinary exertions to carry on the
war vigorously.  Thirty galleys equipped in the Mediterranean, were
sent to join the fleet of Solyman; and twenty-five others were sent
to cruise and blockade the ports of Spain or those of the Low Countries. The imbecility or neglect of the French admiral, Dragut, prevented the junction of the allied fleets, so that the Turks were left to
35




410              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
combat the imperial fleet alone. This, however, they were quite e:d'g
to, and they succeeded in defeating the Admiral Doria. The French
fleet was of litle service during the war. A truce was soon concluded,
by which the French monarch obtained considerable territory.
Hostilities were renewed as soon as Philip II. had succeeded Charles
V. as emperor. The same admiral continued in command of the French
fleet, and although much more numerous, its operations were characterized by the same want of activity. In fact, the navy of France was
always most shamefully neglected till necessity compelled the government to give it some share of its attention. The admirals were generally
men of consideration and active politicians; but possessed little maritime
knowledge or skill.  The French were inferior in naval enterprise to
the Spaniards and Portuguese, and the vast field for exertion opened
by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and of America, did not
excite their efforts. Internal dissensions occupied the thoughts of
king and people.
When Louis XIV. ascended the throne, in 1650, he found the navy
-in a poor condition. While the English and Dutch covered the ocean
with nearly three hundred ships of war, the whole maritime force of
France consisted of fifteen or sixteen great barks, which the Duke
de Beaufort had led against the pirates of Barbary, and when the
states gene'ral summoned Louis to join his fleet with theirs in the war
with England, there was in the port of Brest but one single fire ship,
which the government was ashamed to order to sail, but which it was
necessary to send in order to fulfil the engagements of the nation.
The achievements of De Ruyter, however, enabled the allies to conclude a peace on favorable terms.
The vast schemes of Louis made the creation of a navy necessary.
An alliance was formed with England by which that power agreed
to send fifty-six ships to join a French fleet, and war was then declared
against the Dutch; but their great admiral, De Ruyter, defeated the
combined French and English fleets and maintained the command of
the sea against them. The principal French naval commander at this
time was the Count d'Estre6s, who was an honor to the infant navybeing both brave and skilful.  In 1674, the Chevalier de Vallette,
with a few French frigates, broke the line of blockade, maintained
before Messina by a Spanish fleet, and relieved the garrison. Shortly
afterwards, a French fleet, composed of seven vessels, of sixty and




FRANCE.                         411
eighty guns, together with many fire ships, appeared before the same
place.  The fleet was commanded by Duquesne, a mariner whom Colbert had selected. The Spanish fleet was beaten and driven from
those latitudes, and Messina fell into the hands of the French.
Fortune seemed to favor the French on the sea. The court of Madrid
courted the alliance of Holland; and De Ruyter was sent to the Mediterranean with twenty-three large ships.  Duquesne had just put
Toulon in a state of safety, while escorting a convoy to Messina. On
the 8th of January, 1676, in sight of that city, between the islands
of Stromboli and Salini, he met the combined Dutch and Spanish
fleets, which endeavored to shut him up in the straits. A battle ensued, which was long and obstinate, but attended with no decisive
results.  Duquesne, leaving the enemy's fleet much damaged, proceeded to Sicily, entered the strait, and reached Messina. The allies,
after vainly endeavoring to blockade the port, went to besiege Agousta.
Duquesne followed, and came up with them near the Gulf of Catana.
He had thirty-seven vessels under his command, and De Rulyter had'thirty-nine. They fought for ten hours. The Dutch at last took advantage of the wind, and sailed to Syracuse. De Ruyter had received
a mortal wound.  Seven days after, the greatest of the naval commanders of Holland breathed his last. Deprived of their gallant chief,
the combined squadrons could not long continue the contest with Duquesne; but they made a desperate effort. Twenty-seven vessels and
nineteen galleys were assembled at Palermo. Duquesne and the Duke
of Vivonne proceeded to attack them with twenty-eight men of war
and twenty-five galleys.  The allies experienced a complete overthrow. Their line of battle was forced at the first shock; half of their
vessels were wrecked in the port; twenty-five ships were sunk, with
five thousand men, and the remainder were either taken or dispersed;
and the port of Palermo was devastated by the victors. This was the
most complete naval triumph ever gained by the French. It opened
to her magnificent views. The empire of the sea seemed to belong
to her, where there did not exist a single Spanish vessel, and from
which it was thought easy to exclude the English and Dutch forever.
But Louis was more anxious for the success of his enemies than for
that of his fleet.
In 1677, the Count d'Estre6s captured from the Dutch the fortress on
the islandof Cayenne; and shortly afterwards he beat the Dutch Admiral




412             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Bruck burnt his fleet, and captured the island of Tobago. These were
the last naval achievments of this war, in which France combated the
rest of Europe, and dictated the terms of peace. Louis XIV. reached
the height of his fortune. When a general war recommenced in 1687,
France had become a maritime power of the first rank. The military
port of Brest was enlarged, that of Toulon created, at an immense
expense, and rendered capable of containing a hundred vessels of war,
with an arsenal and proportionate materiel. The like was done at
Dunkirk, and on a still greater scale at Rochefort.  Companies of
coast guards were created, and sixty thousand new sailors were obtained from the mercantile shipping. In a short time, Louis XIV.
had two hundred ships, and a hundred thousand men to man them.
These mighty naval preparations were due to the activity of the Marquis de Seignelay, a son of the great Colbert.
To prove to Europe that this navy would be capable of maintaining
its rank among its marine rivals, Louis sent his squadron, under the
orders of Duquesne, to clear the Mediterranean of the pirates by whom
it was infested. He avenged himself on Algiers by a new art discovered by a Frenchman.  This art consisted in the employment of
bomb ships, by means of which maritime cities could be speedily
reduced to ashes. There was then living, a young man named Bernard Renaud, commonly known by the name of "the little Renaud;"
and who, without having served in a ship, had become, from the force
of his genius, an excellent mariner.  Colbert loved to detect merit in
obscurity, and had taken him into favor. It was chiefly by his exertions, the workmen succeeded in constructing galliots.  He did not
scruple to propose to the council, that Algiers should be bombarded
by the fleet.  The proposition was thought extravagant; and, of
course, Renaud had to bear that contradiction and that unsparing
ridicule which every inventor ought to expect; but the firmness and
eloquence of this man induced the king to permit the experiment. In
consequence of this decision, Renaud caused five vessels to be constructed, smaller than ordinary ships, but with stronger timbers,
without a deck, with a false tiller in the hold, on which they formed
masses of brick work, capable of receiving the mortars which were to
be employed. With this preparation, Renaud sailed, under the orders
of the old and successful admiral, Duquesne, who was entrusted with
the command of the whole expedition. But the admiral and the








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FRANCE.                         4 i
ADIRAL DE TOURVILLE.
Algerines were not a little astonished in the sequel, to see the effect
of the bombs. In a short period, a great portion of the city was consumed, or in ruins. This art soon found its way to other nations, and
added to the instruments of destruction already in the hands of warriors.  Thrice was Algiers bombarded by Duquesne and d'Estrees,
and forced to give up all Christian prisoners and sue for peace.
Louis espoused the cause of James II. of England, when that
monarch was forced to leave his dominions. lHe furnished the banished king with twenty sail of the line, with which he proceeded to
Ireland.  The Chevalier de Chateau Renaud, who had defeated the
English fleet commanded by Admiral Herbert, had landed five thousand men in Ireland, and on his return, captured five Dutch ships.
A  fresh convoy afterwards left the ports of Brest, Rochefort, and
Toulon.  "Thue ports of Ireland and the English Channel were filled
with French vessels." At length a fleet of seventy-two line of battle
ships, and twenty fire ships, commanded by Tourville, vice-admiral of
France, and having under his orders the Chevalier de Chateau Re



416             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
naud, met, on the 10th of July, 1670, at Beachy Head, on the coast
of Sussex, the Dutch and English fleet of sixty men-of-war and thirty
frigates and fire ships, under Admiral Herbert. The engagement
lasted ten hours; seventeen of the allied fleet were disabled, and either
run aground or burnt; the remainder took refuge in the Thames and
the Dutch harbors. Emboldened by this success, Seignelay, "who
dared every thing," caused the galleys of the Mediterranean to be
brought on the ocean-a novel spectacle for England. The fleet,
revictualled at Havre, divided itself into many squadrons of cruisers;
the galleys were made use of to effect a descent on Tynemouth, where
they set fire to a number of men-of-war and merchant vessels.  The
French fleet was unable to prevent the passage of William III to
Ireland.
After James had been defeated and returned to France, Louis
caused a fleet of twelve ships of the line and ninety transports to sail
from the harbor of Brest, in order to land a large army and a great
quantity of stores in Ireland. The land forces, under General St.
Ruth, were defeated at Aghrim, and then the French fleet, receiving
the fugitives from that fatal field, returned to France. Seignelay left
the navy in a flourishing state, and his successor, Ponchartrain, prided
himself upon the excellent manner in which the marine was sustained.
He had no difficulty in collecting three hundred transports between
Cherbourg and La Hogue, in 1692. The defeat of the French fleet,
under Tourville, has already been described in the naval history of
England. Tourville was a brave and skilful admiral; and such was
his conduct in the battle of La Hogue, that Louis XIV. gave him the
baton of a marshal. The defeat was owing to the great superiority in
numbers of the Dutch and English.
On the 29th of June, 1693, Tourville attacked, between Logos and
Cadiz, a convoy of the Levant, escorted by twenty-seven ships of war,
commanded by Admiral Sir George Rooke. But fifteen ships of the
escort escaped. The rest were taken or sunk with the convoy, consisting of eighty sail. The victory cost the allies more than forty
millions. But it was not so much the navies of France and Spain
that damaged the commerce of England and Holland, as the corsairs,
who were most active in their depredations.  Squadrons, or single
cruisers, commanded by Duguay Trouin, Jean Bart, Forbin, Nesmond,
Pintis, Ducasse, enriched with the spoils of the merchants of London,




FRANCE.                        417
ADIRAL DUGUAY TROUIN.
Cadiz, and Amsterdam, the privateers of Dieppe, Dunkirk, Havre, and
St. Malo. In the course of nine years, the last mentioned city saw two
hundred and sixty-two ships of war, and three thousand three hundred
and eighty merchant vessels brought into its harbor. The Dutch had
the mortification to see on their coast, a corsair from Dunkirk disperse
their fleet, snatch from it a convoy of grain, which Louis had caused
to be brought from the Baltic, and return to Dunkirk through the
midst of an English squadron which blockaded that port.
In 1711, a fleet was fitted out by the French merchants, and placed
under the command of the famous Duguay Trouin.  This expedition
was sent against Brazil. It forced an entrance into the port of Rio
Janeiro, burned a Portuguese fleet, and compelled the city to pay a
ransom  of more than eight millions. No further naval operations
took place until the peace of Utrecht, in April, 1713. After the
death of Louis le Grand, the English held undisputed command of
the watery realm. Feeble ministers, thinking only of their own
pleasure and aggrandizement, left the navy to dwindle into insignificance. The celebrated Marshal de Saxe, maintained the glory of
BB




418             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the French upon land, and effectually beat back her thick-coming
foes.
In January, 1756, war with England commenced.  A fleet was
armed at Brest; and while the English were deceived by preparations,
as if for an invasion, the Marquis de Montcalm set sail for Canada.
A fleet from Toulon disembarked, unobserved, under the walls of
Minorca, twelve thousand men, commanded by iRichilieu. An English
fleet, under Admiral Byng, attempted to relieve the garrison, but
failed; and in the action with the French fleet, under La Gassompiere, was repulsed.  The French fleet in the Indian Ocean was twice
attacked by an English fleet, under Admiral.Pocock, but the result
was indecisive.  The French fleet then returned home.  Dubrais's
successes and positive reverses had at this time almost destroyed the
naval reputation of France.
But one brilliant effort threw a lustre over the French name
Thurot, one of the first, if not the first, commanders in French naval
annals, had for a long time, unfortunately for his country, held an
inferior station.  He was in command of a small squadron blocked up
in Dunkirk by a superior force under Admiral Buys.  But, watching
his opportunity, he managed to issue from  his confinement;. and
although his force consisted of only five small ships of war, and about
fifteen hundred soldiers, such was his known skill and daring, that the
news of his escape spread terror through the whole of England. So
great, however, was the overwhelming force by which he was immediately pursued, that he was obliged to fly to the northern seas for
refuge, where he endured incredible hardships. But indignant at the
thought of returning hom'e without performing some exploit worthy
of his reputation, Thurot actually landed in Ireland, and took the
town of Carrickfergus. This was the close of his brilliant career.
On February 28th, 1760, he was attacked by Commodore Elliott, and
slain in the engagement, upon which his ships surrendered; so muchdepends upon the life of a great leader.
The Seven Years' War gained for the English the reputation of
being invincible upon the sea. But the ardor and prospects of the
French were revived during the struggle of the American Colonies
for independence. When Louis XVI. had concluded a treaty with
the United States, he did not limit his manifestation of a favorable
disposition to mere words; but hastened to send a fleet of twelve sail








. lE —-~ —~~~~~- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ONE'  ECOYOB   UALUE




FRANCE.                        421
COUNT DESTAING.
of the line, under Count d'Estaing, to New York. The battle of
Ouessant, fought July 28th, 1778, in which, during the whole day,
Count d'Orvilliers sustained a contest, the force on each side being
equal, tended to renew the naval ardor of the nation.  The islands of
St. Domingo, St. Vincent, and Grenada, were captured by d'Estaing;
and Senegal was taken from the English. Sixty-six ships of the line,
French and Spanish, cruised on the ocean. The West India fleet,
under Count de Grasse, sustained a severe defeat on the 12th of
April, 1782, off Guadaloupe.  The English admiral, Rodney, triumphed chiefly by a bold manceuvre, before unknown to naval tactics
-that of breaking through the enemy's line. The French fought
bravely. Eight of their ships struck to the enemy and bne blew up.
Their loss was three thousand slain and double that number wounded.
The loss of the British was much less. Little substantial advantage,
however, was derived by the English from their victory. Admiral
Graves, sailing home with the prizes, experienced a terrible shipwreck,
and three thousand souls perished.  Peace was concluded in 1783.
36




422              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COUNT DE GRASSE.
The French revolution of 1789, involved that people in a war with
most of the nations of Europe. At first the forces of the republic
were every where defeated.  The people of Toulon surrendered their
town and fleet to the English. The revolutionary army approached,
and, principally by the skill of Napoleon Bonaparte, then a lieutenant,
compelled the English to evacuate the town. Before their departure,
they burned most of the vessels which they could not bring off. The
French met with  an almost uninterrupted career of success upon
land, while the English were equally victorious upon the sea.
Almost all the French colonies in the West Indies were taken without
difficulty.
In the course of the year 1796, the French made an attempt to
invade Ireland, in order to assist the United Irishmen, who were discontented with the conduct of the British government. The fleet
escaped from Brest, without being discovered by the English squadron.
It consisted of a large number of transports, escorted by seventeen
sail of the line and a number of frigates. But a train of circumstances
occurred which rendered the expedition abortive. The time of sailing
had been delayed beyond the proper period, and at the point of sailing, a dangerous mutiny broke out among the troops. After the
ships left the harbor, two of them ran foul of each other; a large
seventy-four was wrecked; and on the 23d of December, when the




FRANCE.                         423
fleet reached the coast of Ireland, it was dispersed by a storm. Finding that the season for action had passed, the shattered squadron
returned to its station at Brest. During the remainder of the war, the
French were not able to get more than one fleet to sea, and that conveyed Napoleon to Egypt, and was annihilated in the battle of the
Nile, already mentioned in the naval history of Great Britain. Napoleon compelled the Dutch and Spaniards to use their naval resources
against the British, but they met with no success. The efforts of the
French themselves were confined to collecting flotillas of gun boats,
at Boulogne, in preparing to invade England.  Like'all the other
attempts of the French for that purpose, this one ended in nothing.
The war was rekindled in May, 1802. Bonaparte made the greatest
exertions to collect and equip a sufficient number of transports for an
invasion of England. A vast number of flat bottomed boats were collected at Boulogne. But though the English people were considerably
alarmed, the blockade of their squadrons prevented these extensive
preparations from doing them any further damage. The escape of Admiral Villeneuve, with the Toulon squadron, through the blockading
lines of the British, its reinforcements, chase and destruction by Nel-l
son, have been detailed. In the great sea fight off Cape Trafalgar,
Villeneuve and his Frenchmen did all that a brave and skilful commander could have been expected to accomplish.  Had he continued
with his first plan of battle, the result might have been different.
The great loss of the French in ships and men must be attributed to
the desperate valor with which they fought. It is true, nineteen of
the French and Spanish vessels were taken; but not until they had
inflicted a terrible loss upon the victors, and had a greater part of
their crews killed or wounded. By the battle and the violent storm
immedliately following, the greater part of the naval force of France
was destroyed.
After the battle of Trafalgar, Bonaparte was not able to effect much
upon the sea. A fleet, under Admiral Villaumez and Jerome Bonaparte, which was sent against the English in the West Indies, was destroyed by Admiral Duckworth and a violent storm, and the vessel of Jerome Bonaparte alone escaped to France.  The French then
confined their enterprise to the land. The British held the sea
against all except the infant republic of the United States.
After the fall of Bonaparte, and the restoration of tranquillity to




424              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
France, the navy was considerably enlarged and improved, and has
been increasing in efficiency ever since. A fleet, under Admiral de
Rigny, joined the English and the Russian fleets in the bay of Navarino, in 1827, and, in the great battle fought there, on the 20th of October, the French reputation, for bravery and skill, was nobly maintained. There they, who had long looked upon each other as natural
enemies, fought with noble emulation, side by side; and the credit of
that glorious victory belongs equally to both.
In 1845, the navy of France consisted of twenty-three ships of the
line, thirty frigates, twenty-two sloops of war, one hundred and fiftyfour other vessels, four steam frigates, and forty-one other steam vessels, all in active service; while twenty-three ships of the line, twenty
frigates, three sloops of war, and two schooners were in the navy
yards, and four steam frigates, and eighteen other steam vessels still
on the stocks. The increase is very rapid. The principal naval stations
are Brest, Toulon, Cherbourg and Rochefort.
~~;"-~~~~I —-~~~~~-~~-~~-~~~-~~I~~~t~~'~~
23i'~"




CHAPTER XXIX.
THE NETHERLANDS.
(         lI HE  naval history of the country
which produced such admirals as
(De Ruyter and Van Tromp, and
which, for a time, rivalled the great
power of Britain upon the ocean,
__ ___   cannot but be interesting.  The
~-<~~:~-~~ —~             Netherlands once comprised the Lowlands, or northwest declivity of the great basin formed by the forest of
Ardennes, the Vosges, the Hunsdiick, the Siegengebirge, the Spessart,
Odenwald, and Hartz, in the valley of which the Rhine flows down
through the Netherlands. The Northern portion of these countries,
situated between the Meuse, the Ural, and the Rhine, was anciently
called the islands of the Batavians. The part of the Netherlands,
north of the Rhine, was inhabited by the Frisians, a brave nation
36*                 (425)




426             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
who maintained a long struggle with the Romans, and subsequently,
with the Franks, by whom they were subdued in the seventh century.
The Frisians early engaged in commerce and piracy, and were involved
in frequent contests with the Scandinavians.
The history of the Netherlands is essentially that of a patient and
industrious population, struggling against every obstacle which nature
could oppose to its well being. The extraordinary result, in which we
see the capability of man, is due to the hardy stamp of character imprinted by suffering and danger on those who had the ocean for their
foe. The Frisians, from the earliest period of their establishment in
the country, maintained a commercial intercourse with England. They
defeated the Romans upon the sea, but numbers and discipline finally
subdued their spirit. When the country was brought under the sway
of Charlemagne, the Frisians and the Flemings were united, and aided
each other in the construction of dykes to keep back the ocean.
About the/year 800, the Normans began their piratical descents
upon the coasts of the Netherlands. The Flemings, under their great
chief Baldwin, of the Iron-hand, successfully resisted the daring bands;
but after the death of that brave chieftain, they succeeded in establishing themselves in the country. In 1066, the state of Flanders, then
flourishing and powerful, furnished assistance, both in men and ships,
to William the Bastard, of Normandy, for the conquest of England.
Flanders maintained an extensive and profitable commerce with the
northern nations, and the navy of the country was respected. The
Counts who governed the Flemings were amongst the foremost in the
expeditions to the Holy Land. It is said that the pope's nuncio found
difficulty in preventing the women from embarking in these expeditions-so anxious were they to share the dangers and the glory of the
men in combating the Saracens. Whole fleets of Dutch and Flemish
merchant ships repaired regularly to the coasts of Spain and Languedoc, in the thirteenth century, such being the extent of their maritime
prosperity and their influence upon the commerce of other nations
The Flemings were the Genoese of the north.
A Flemish squadron decided the great sea fight near Sluys, between
the French and English, in 1340. It remained a spectator during
the contest of a whole day, and then hastening to join the English,
completed the defeat of the French.  In the latter part of the fourteenth century, after an obstinate contest, the Duke of Burgundy an



THE NETHERLANDS.                     427
nexed Flanders to his dominions. But the spirit of the Flemings was
that of republicans struggling against feudalism; and such was their
strength, that the dukes of Burgundy were forced to allow them to
continue their maritime connection with Great Britain, when they declared war against that kingdom.
The province of Holland, which enjoyed a degree of liberty almost
equal to Flanders, declared war against the Hanseatic towns in 1450.
Supported by Zealand, Holland equipped a fleet against the pirates who
infested the coasts, and assailing their commerce, soon forced them to
submission. Holland, Flanders, and Brabant continued to flourish and
increase in maritime power during the wars between France, England,
and the emperor of Germany; although their commerce was considerably annoyed by the French cruisers. Under the vigorous administration of Charles V., the spirit of the people of the maritime cities was
encouraged, not oppressed; and all the evils inflicted by the naval
depredations of the enemy were speedily remedied by industry and
perseverance.
The Dutch and Zealanders distinguished themselves beyond all the
other subjects of Charles V., in the two expeditions which the emperor
undertook against Tunis and Algiers. The two northern provinces furnished a greater number of ships than the united quotas of all the rest
of his states. From the death of Charles the increase of the commerce
and maritime power of the Netherlands was astonishing. The opulence of the towns of Brabant and Flanders was without example in
Europe. All the evils produced by luxury were fully demonstrated,
and it was necessary to introduce sumptuary laws for their mitigation.
The port of Antwerp was so crowded with vessels that each successive
fleet was obliged to wait long before it could obtain admission for the
discharge of its cargoes. The discovery of America opened a new field
for the exertion of maritime enterprise, and the people of the Netherlands were ready to take advantage of it.  They soon became worthy
rivals of the Spaniards, Portuguese and English.
It was one of the objects of the crafty and cruel Philip II. to
diminish the power of the people of the Netherlands.  He visited the
country; but his plans were discovered, and, for the time, defeated. A
fleet, under the command of Count Horn, the admiral of the United
Provinces, waited at Flessingue to form his escort to Spain. On the
20th of August, Philip set sail; turning his back forever on the




428             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
country which offered a check to his despotism; and after a. periloul
voyage, he arrived in Spain. The perseverance and cunning of this
lover of despotism at last succeeded in creating a revolution in 1566.
He had aimed at this, in order to build his power upon the ruins of
social happiness. Internal discord diverted the attention of the
Netherlanders from their commerce-the source of their prosperity,
and their maritime power rapidly declined. Pirates infested and
ravaged the coast; and thus, from both sea and land, the whole extent of the Netherlands was devoted to carnage and ruin.
The naval force of the patriots began in 1570, to acquire that consistency and power which was so soon to render it the chief means of
resistance. The privateers and corsairs which began to swarm from
ports in Holland and Zealand, and which found refuge in those of
England, sullied many gallant exploits by instances of the excess of
desperation; so much so, that the patriotic leader, the Prince of
Orange, was forced to withdraw the general command of the navy
from the lord of Dolhain, and to replace him by Gislain de Fiennes,
one of the exiled nobles of Antwerp. Many of these nobles and ruined
merchants purchased or built, with the remnant of their fortunes, numerous vessels, in which they carried on a most productive warfare
against Spanish commerce through the extent of the English channel,
from the mouth of the Embo to the harbor of La Rochelle.
When John de la Cerda was appointed by Philip to succeed the
tyrannical Duke of Alva in the government of the Netherlands, he
appeared on the coast of Flanders, with a considerable fleet. On the
11th of May, 1572, the fleet was attacked by the patriots, and many
of the vessels, with their rich cargoes, burned and captured before
the governor's eyes.  To avoid a rupture with Spain, the queen of
England interdicted the Dutch and Flemish privateers from taking
shelter in her ports. William de la Marck, Count of Lunoy, who now
had the chief command of this daring force, was distinguished for his
uncompromising hatred to the Spaniards. He bore the surname of
"the wild boar of Ardennes." Driven out of the harbors of England
he resolved on some desperate adventure; and on the 1st of May,
he surprised and captured the town of Brille, in the island of Voorn.
This was the first step towards the establishment of liberty and the
republic. In a few days, in consequence of this exploit, every town in
Holland and Zealand except Amsterdam and Middleburg, declared for








DRYNAT OF R.F4UESEN-S'S FLEET, JANUARY 2.9, 1574.




THE NETHERLANDS.                      431
a republic. The single port of Flessingue contained one hundred and
fifty patriot vessels, well armed and equipped: and from that period
may be dated the growth of the first naval power of Europe, Great
Britain alone excepted.
The Spaniards succeeded in taking the Hague; but they were
repulsed before Alkmaer, and their fleet was almost entirely destroyed
in a naval combat on the Zuyder Zee. The Count Bossu, the Spanish
admiral, with about three hundred of his best sailors was taken in
this fight. Alva was succeeded by Requesens in his office of governor, in 1576. At that time, Middleburg was besieged by the patriots,
and reduced to great distress. Requesens resolved to relieve it. He
assembled at Antwerp and Bergen-op-Zoom, a fleet of sixty vessels
for. that purpose.  But Louis Boisot, admiral of Zealand, promptly
prepared to attack this force; and after a severe contest, he totally
defeated it, and killed De Glimes, one of its admirals.  This battle
took place on the 29th of January, 1574; and in the following February, Middleburg surrendered.  All Zealand was now free; and the
intrepid Admiral Boisot gained another victory on the 30th of May,
destroying several of the Spanish vessels, and taking some others,
with their admiral, Von Haemstede.  Frequent naval enterprises
were also undertaken against the frontiers of Flanders, harrassing the
enemy at every vulnerable point.
In 1585, Antwerp was besieged by the celebrated Alexander, Duke
of Parma, with a large army. He completely surrounded the city
with his troops. But the success of the siege depended upon getting
the command of the navigation of the Scheldt, a river of great rapidity
and immense width. The only way to effect this was by throwing a
bridge across it; and despite the great difficulties of the project, the
duke and Barroccio, a celebrated Italian engineer, succeeded in accomplishing it. The bridge was completed, and defended by a large
number of cannon. Resolving to save Antwerp, if possible, the states
of Zealand sent forward an expedition, which, joined with some ships
from Lillo, gave new courage to the besieged. Every thing was prepared for the destruction of the bridge-the only hope of the citizens.
An Italian engineer, named Giambello, was at this time in Antwerp,
and by his talents had long protracted the defence. He invented the
terrible "fire ships," and with some of these formidable instruments
and the Zealand fleet, the attack was at length made.




432            TUNIVRRSAL NAYAL HISTORY.
On the night of the 4th of April, the army of the besiegers was
amazed by the spectacle of three huge masses of flame floating down
the river, accompanied by numerous lesser appearances of a similar
kind, and bearing directly against the prodigious barrier, which had
cost them so much toil. Astonishment was followed by consternation,
when one of the three machines burst with a tremendous noise. The
second and larger fire ship burst through the bridge of boats and
struck against one of the estocades.  The effects baffle all attempts
at description. The bridge, men, cannon, and the huge machinery employed in the various works were blown into the air and dispersed in
all directions. By flood and flame, the Marquis de Roubais, other
officers, and eight hundred soldiers perished. The river, forced from
its bed at either side rushed into the forts erected by the besiegers,
and drowned numbers of the garrison, while the ground far beyond
shook as with an earthquake. Had the Zealand fleet come in time to
the spot, the whole plan would have been crowned with success; but
by some want of concert, it did not appear, and the town received no
relief. Another attempt was made to destroy the bridge rebuilt by
Alexander, by sending an enormous vessel, called the "End of War;-"
but this floating citadel ran aground; and, after a siege of fourteen
months, Antwerp capitulated on the 16th of August. The Prince of
Parma was elevated by the triumph of his valor and perseverance to
the highest pinnacle of military renown.
The United Provinces were enabled to send constant aid to Henry
IV. of France, in his war with the League; and nothwithstanding
this drain, their armies and fleets augmented every day. Prince Maurice had succeeded William of Orange as captain-general, and his conquests were uninterrupted, now that the Duke of Parma, the great
general of that age, was dead (1597.) After the establishment of
peace, the United Provinces were without a rival upon the sea. In
Europe alone, they had twelve hundred merchant vessels in activity,
and upwards of seventy thousand sailors constantly employed. They
built annually two thousand vessels.  In the year 1598, eighty ships
sailed from their ports for the Indies or America. In short, the people
of the Netherlands found in all quarters of the globe, the reward of
their skill, industry, and courage.
War was renewed in 1600; and being unsuccessful at first upon
land, the states-general determined to undertake a naval expedition,




THE NETHERLANDS.                      433
greater than any hitherto attempted. A fleet of seventy-three vessels,
carrying eight thousand men, was soon equipped, under the orders of
Admiral Vandergoes; and after a series of attempts on the coast of
Spain, Portugal, Africa, and the Canary Isles, this expedition, from
which the most splendid results were anticipated, was shattered, dispersed, and reduced to nothing, by a succession of mishaps. During
the siege of Ostend by the royalists, begun in 1601, the contest was
maintained with vigor upon the sea. The siege was principally conducted by the brothers, Frederick and Ambrose Spinola.  Frederick
was killed in one of the naval combats. Ambrose adopted such vigorous measures, that after a siege of three years the town was reduced
to ruins. The garrison fought as long as they had foothold. The
town was taken in September, 1604.
In 1605, a Dutch squadron, commanded by Hautain, admiral of
Zealand, attacked a superior force of Spanish vessels, close to Dover,
and defeated them with considerable loss. But the victory was sullied by an act of barbarity. All the soldiers found on board of the
captured ships were tied two and two, and flung into the sea. Some
contrived to extricate themselves, and gained the shore by swimming;
others were picked up by the English boats, whose crews witnessed
the scene.  The British seamen could not remain neuter at such a
moment. The Dutch vessels, pursuing those of Spain, which fled into
Dover harbor, were fired upon by the cannon of the castle and forced
to give up the chase. In this year, also, the Dutch captured the.
chief of the Dunkirk privateers, which had so long annoyed their
trade, and they cruelly ordered sixty of the prisoners to be put to
death.  But the humanity of the people prompted them to rescue
them from the authorities.
The maritime enterprise of Holland, forced by the imprudent
policy of Spain to seek a wider career than in the narrow seas of
Europe, were day by day extended in the Indies. To ruin, if possible, their increasing trade, Philip II. sent out the Admiral Hurtado,
with a fleet of six galleons and thirty-two galleys. The Dutch squadron
of five vessels, commanded by Wolfert Hermanersoon, attacked them
off the coast of Malabar, and his temerity was crowned with great
success. He took two of their vessels, and drove the remainder from the
Indian seas. He then succeeded in establishing the connection between
the Dutch and the natives of some of the islands of the East Indies.
Cc              37




434             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
The Dutch naval operations during 1607, were more brilliant than
those on land.  Admiral Hautain, with twenty ships, was surprised
off Cape St. Vincent, by the Spanish fleet. The formidable appearance of their galleons inspired a perfect panic among the lDutch sailors.
They hoisted their sails and fled, with the exception of one ship,
commanded by Vice-admiral Kleazoon, whose desperate conduct
saved the national honor. Having held out until his vessel was quite
unmanageable, and almost his whole crew killed or wounded, he prevailed on the few remaining to agree to his resolution, knelt down on
the deck, and putting up a brief prayer for pardon for the act, thrust
a light into the powder magazine and was instantly blown up. Only
two men were snatched from the sea, and these, dreadfully mangled,
died breathing curses on the enemy.
This disaster was soon forgotten in the rejoicing for a brilliant victory, gained the following year by Heemskirk, so celebrated for his
voyage to Nova Zembla, and by his conduct in the east.  He set sail
from Holland in March, determined to signalize himself and honor
the Dutch reputation by some great exploit.  Receiving intelligence
that the Spanish fleet lay at anchor in the bay of Gibraltar, he
prepared to offer them battle. Before the combat began, he held a council of war, in which he urged upon his officers the imperative necessity for them either to conquer or die. He led on to battle in his own
ship, and to the astonishment of both fleets, he bore down against the
enormous galleon in which the flag of the Spanish admiral was hoisted.
As Heemskirk approached, D'Avila cut his cables and attempted to
escape under shelter of the town. The Dutchman pursued him through
the whole Spanish fleet, and soon forced him to action. At the
second broadside, Heemskirk had his left leg cut off by a cannon ball,
and he almost instantly expired, exhorting his crew to win the fight
or perish. Verhoef, the captain of the ship, concealed the admiral's
death; and the whole fleet continued the action with a valorous spirit.
The victory was soon decided.  Four of the Spanish galleons were
sunk or burned; the remainder fled.  The death of Heemskirk paralysed the victors, as soon as made known. They sailed back to Holland with the body of their lamented chief, without thinking of any
further exploits.
In 1617, the United Provinces seem to have successfully claimed
the honorary empire of the sea. The Dutch sailors were even daring




THE NETHIERLANDS.                    435
enough to violate the British territory, and set fire to the town of
Crookhaven, in Ireland.  The peace-loving James I., passed lightly
over this outrage, intended to provoke a contest with England. After
the accession of Frederick Henry to the power enjoyed by the celebrated Maurice, of Orange, the Dutch concluded treaties with England
and France, and assisted both kingdoms with the loan of their ships.
They maintained a strict neutrality in the war between France and
England, which subsequently broke out; but prosecuted with activity
and success the war against Spain.  Their triumphs over the Spanish
fleets were brilliant and decisive.
The West India Company confided the command of their fleet to
Peter Hein, a most intrepid and intelligent sailor, who proved his
abilities on many occasions-two of them of an extraordinary nature.
In 1627, he defeated a fleet of twenty-six vessels, with a much inferior
force. In the following year, he had still greater fortune, near the
Havana, in the' island of Cuba, in an engagement with the great
Spanish armament, called "The Money Fleet," to indicate the great
wealth it, contained. The booty was carried to Amsterdam, and the
whole of the treasure, in money, precious stones, indigo, &c., was
valued at twelve million florins.  This was, indeed, a victory worth
gaining; and it relieved the republic from embarrassment. Hein
perished in 1629, in combating the indefatigable pirates of Dunkirk.
In every quarter, upon their favorite element, the Dutch were successful and extended their power.
The great victory of Van Tromp, known by the name of the battle
of the Duoro, from being fought off the coast of England, on the 21st
of October, 1639, raised the navalreputation as high as it could be
carried. Fifty ships taken, burned, and sunk were the proofs of Van
Tromp's triumph, and the Spanish navy never recovered the loss.
The victory was celebrated throughout Europe, and Van Tromp was
the hero of the day. He continued to be the chief admiral of the
navy, both in fame and rank, during the remainder of the war, which
ended in 1648. The Spanish government, after an eighty years' contest, acknowledged the independence of the states-general, and entered
into commercial relations with them.
The time had now arrived when the wisdom, the courage, and the
resources of the republic were to be put once more to the test, in a
contest only paralleled by ancient history.  The naval wars between




436             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ADMIRAL VAN TROMP.
Holland and England had their real source in the inveterate jealousies
and grasping ambition of both nations, reciprocally convinced that a
joint supremacy at sea was incompatible with their interests and
honor, and each resolved to perish rather than yield. The passage
of the famed navigation act by the parliament of England precipitated
the war. Ships were seized by the Dutch in reprisal, and every thing
being prepared, they commenced hostilities in earnest.
In May, 1652, the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, commanding fortytwo ships of war, met the English fleet, under Blake, in the straits of
Dover; the latter ordered the Dutch admiral to strike, which order
was answered by a broadside. A bloody contest of five hours followed.
The English fleet was inferior in number of vessels, but superior in
their size.  One Dutch vessel was sunk, another taken, and night
parted the combatants. Soon after this battle, Blake put to sea with
a numerous fleet; Van Tromp followed with a hundred ships; but a
violent tempest parted these furious enemies, and retarded for a while
the encounter they mutually longed for.




THE NETHERLANDS.                    437
n1th              oE   AsI bte' Mebi
ADXMAL DE RUTTED.
On 16th of August, a battle took place between Sir George Ayscue
and the renowned De Ruyter, near Portsmouth, each having about
forty ships; but with no decisive results. On the 28th of October,
Blake, aided by Bourn and Penn, met a Dutch squadron of nearly
equal force off the coast of Kent, under De Ruyter and De Witt. The
fight which ensued was desperate and bloody; but although the Dutch
had the worst of it, the battle was not decisive. In the Mediterranean, the Dutch admiral, Van Galen, defeated the English captain,
Baddeley, but bought the victory with his life. And on the 29th of
November, another bloody conflict took place between Van Tromp and
Blake, near the Goodwin Sands. In this determined action, Blake
was wounded and defeated; five English ships taken, burnt or sunk;
and night only saved the fleet from destruction. After this victory,
Van Tromp placed a broom at his mast head, to intimate that he
would sweep the channel free from English ships.
To retrieve the national honor, the English sent eighty sail to sea,
under the command of Blake, Dean, and Monk. Van Tromp and
De Ruyter, with seventy-six vessels, were descried on the 18th of
37*




438              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
February, escorting three hundred merchantmen up the Channel.
Three days of desperate fighting ended in the defeat of the Dutch,
who lost ten ships, of war and twenty-four merchant vessels. Several
of the English ships were disabled; one sunk; and the carnage on both
sides was nearly equal. Van Tromp acquired the highest honor by
this battle; having succeeded, though defeated, in saving almost the
whole of his immense convoy. On the 12th of June, and the day
following, two other actions were fought; in the first, the English
admiral, Dean, was killed; in the second, Monk, Penn, and Lawson
revenged his death by forcing the Dutch to regain their harbors, with
loss. On the 21st of July, the last of these desperate contests for
superiority was fought. Van Tromp issued out once more, determined
to conquer or to die. He met the enemy, commanded by Monk, off
Scheveling. Both fleets rushed to the contest. The heroic Dutchman,
animating his sailors, with his sword drawn, was shot through the
heart with a musket ball.  This event, and this alone, decided the
battle, which was the only decisive contest of the war. The English
captured or sunk, nearly thirty ships.  The body of Van Tromp was
carried with great solemnity to the church of Delft, where a magnificent: mausoleum was erected over the remains of the hero of the sea.
This memorable defeat and the death of this great commander,
-added to the injury done to their trade, induced the states-general to
seek for peace; but Cromwell insisted upon conditions which the
Dutch could not recognise. At last, an inglorious peace was concluded.
In 1656, it became evident that a new war could not be avoided.
Denmark, the ancient ally of the republic, was threatened with destruction by Charles Gustavus, king of Sweden, who held Copenhagen
in blockade. The interests of Holland were in imminent peril should
the Swedes gain the passage of the Sound.  De Witt persuaded the
states-general to send a fleet to the Baltic, under command of Admiral
Opdam.  This intrepid successor of the immortal Tromp, soon came
to blows with a rival worthy to meet him.  Wrangel, the Swedish
adrmiral, with a superior force, defended the passage of the Sound;
alnd the two castles of Cronenberg and Elsenberg supported his fleet
\;ith their tremendous fire. But Opdam resolutely advanced: though
sulfeering extremely from an attack of gout, he had himself carried on
delK, where he gave his orders with admirable coolness and precision.
The rival monarchs witnessed the battle. A brilliant victory crowned




THE NETHERLANDS.                     439
the efforts of the Dutch admiral, dearly bought by the death of the
brave De Witt, and Peter Florizon, another admiral of note. Relief
was poured into Copenhagen. Opdam was replaced in his command
by the still more celebrated De Ruyter, who was already greatly
esteemed for his valor and skill; and after a nine months' contest, the
king of Sweden was compelled to consent to peace on favorable terms.
These transactions raised the United Provinces to the pinnacle of
naval reputation. The Algerines were swept from the seas by a series
of small but vigorous expeditions. Trade and finance were reorganized, and every thing seemed to promise peace and prosperity. Cromwell had died, and was succeeded by Charles II.  That monarch,
instead of entering into an alliance with the people who had sheltered
him in adversity, was carried away by the commercial jealousy of the
English; and after many acts intended to provoke hostility, war was
declared on the 22d of February, 1665. A great battle was fought
on the 31st of June. The Duke of York, afterwards James II. commanded the British fleet, and had, under him, the Earl of Sandwich
and Prince Rupert. The Dutch were led on by Opdam; and the victory was decided in favor of the English, by the blowing up of that
admiral's ship, with himself and his whole crew. The loss of the
Dutch was nineteen ships. De Witt, the pensionary, then took command of the fleet in person.  He soon gave proof of the adaptation
of genius to a pursuit hitherto unknown, by the rapid knowledge and
practical improvement he introduced into naval tactics.
The republic exerted its utmost energies. The harbors were crowded
with merchant ships, and De Ruyter was ready to lead the fleet. The
English also prepared boldly for the shock. The Dutch fleet, commanded by De Ruyter and Tromp, the gallant successor to his father's
fame, was soon at sea. The English, under Prince Rupert and Monk,
were equally active. A battle of four days' continuance, one of the
most determined and terrible upon record, was the consequence. The
Dutch claim, with the appearance of justice, to have had the advantage. But a more decisive conflict took place on the 25th of July,
when the English triumphed, the Dutch having three admirals killed.
In this desperate contest, De Ruyter, when certain of defeat, strove
to meet his death; but exposed to a thousand bullets, none struck
him.
De Witt now amused the English with negotiation, while a powerful




440             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
fleet was equipped. It suddenly appeared in the Thames, under command of De Ruyter. This daring admiral took Sheerness, and burned
many ships of war; almost insulting London itself in his predatory
excursion.  He then returned to Holland, and peace was concluded
in July, 1667, the palm of superiority belonging undoubtedly to the
Dutch. But they soon had to contend with a greater power. An
alliance was formed between Charles II. and Louis XIV., the object
of which was, the humiliation of the United Provinces. A base and
piratical attack upon the Dutch Smyrna fleet, by a large force, under
Sir Robert Holmes, on the 13th of March, 1672, was the first act of
hostility by the English. Through the prudence and valor of the Dutch
admirals, the attempt completely failed. A declaration of war immediately followed.
When the French army invaded the United Provinces, De Witt
took active measures for defence.  He equipped a fleet of nearly a
hundred ships of the line, and half as many fire ships. De Ruyter,
now, without exception, the greatest commander of the age, set sail
with force in search of the combined English and French squadrons,
commanded by the Duke of York and Marshal D'Estrees.  He encountered them at Solebay, on the 6th of May, 1672. A bloody
engagement followed. Sandwich, on the side of the English, and
Van Ghent, a Dutch admiral, were slain. The Dutch had the advantage; but the victory was not decisive; Holland was now forced to
submerge her fertile soil to save it from the ravages of the successful
French land forces, and she sued for peace. The terms proposed by
the two hostile monarchs were so dishonorable, that the Dutch, driven
to desperation, resolved to perish rather than accede to them. Under
the great Stadtholder, William III., Prince of Orange, they made
every exertion for defence as well as for aggression.
Two desperate battles at sea on the 28th of May and the 4th of
June, in which De Ruyter and Prince Rupert distinguished themselves, only proved the valor of the combatants, leaving victory
doubtful. England became ashamed of the unjust war, and Charles
was forced to make peace on the terms proposed by the Dutch, who
were now free to pursue the war against France. The campaign of
1675, offered no remarkable event. But in the following year, the
great De Ruyter was killed in an action with the French fleet in the
Mediterranean.  The constant maritime rivalry between England




THIE NETHERLANDS.                    441
and the United Provinces was diminished in 1675, by the marriage
of the Prince of Orange and the daughter of the King of England.
Peace was attained in August of the same year.
On the 21st of October, 1688, the Prince of Orange, with an army
of fourteen thousand men, and a fleet of five hundred vessels, of all
kinds, set sail, from  Helvetsluys; and after some delays from  bad
weather, he safely landed his army in Torbay, on the 5th of November. His object was the dethronement of James II. -He had been
invited over by a large majority of the English people, tired of the
tyranny of bigotry, and anxious for a Protestant ruler. In a few
weeks, William was triumphant in all quarters, and was crowned,
with his wife Mary, in February, 1689. He still preserved his title
of Stadltholder of Holland, and thus was the monarchy and the
republic united in the same individual.
War against the power of Louis XIV. was the favorite project of
William.  He soon returned to the continent and put himself at the
head of the forces destined to act against the French. During this
war the naval transactions were unimportant. The French privateers
were generally successful in their attacks upon the English and Dutch
vessels, and obtained much booty and greater renown. Peace was
concluded in September, 1697. But it was of short duration. The
ambitious designs of Louis were still cherished, and precipitated
another contest. William III. died in 1701, leaving the pensionary
of Holland, tHeinsius, to carry out his plans of resistance to the
French.
The powerful genius of Marlborough made the war a series of
brilliant triumphs for the Dutch and English, upon land. The naval
operations of Holland offer nothing remarkable. The States had always
a fleet ready to support the English in their enterprises; but no
eminent admiral arose to rival Rooke,Byng, and Benbow. The principal Dutch commanders were admirals Allemonde and Waponaer.
During the thirty years following the peace of Utrecht, concluded in
1713, the republic attained the summit of its power. At peace internally and externally, there was leisure for giving more attention to
trade and commerce, and to the improvement of the army and navy.
The attempt to despoil the Empress Maria Theresa of her splendid
possessions, which was made by Frederick the Great, of Prussia, caused
another European war, in which Holland and England sided with the




442             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
empress, and France, with her enemies. No naval operations of
importance were undertaken by Holland during the war; and from
this period. may be traced the decline of the maritime greatness of
the once rival of England.  Holland was compelled to submit to
various indignities offered to her commerce by the jealousy of the
English, which, in the time of Tromp and De iRuyter would have
resulted in war.
The American revolution seemed to revive the spirit of the Dutch.
The right of search was resisted, and war declared against England
in 1781. The British Navy was triumphant in the East Indies, where
the Dutch lost several valuable islands, the fruits of their enterprise
and courage.  An effort was made to deprive Holland of the Baltic
trade. A squadron of seven vessels, commanded by Sir Hyde Parker, was
encountered on the iDogher Bank, by a Dutch squadron, of equal force,
under Admiral Zutman. An action of four hours followed, maintained with the -courage of ancient Dutch heroes. A storm separated
the combatants, and saved the honor of each; for both had suffered alike,
and victory belonged to neither.  The peace of 1784 terminated this
short, but to Holland, fatal war. The commerce of the republic had
suffered greatly during the struggle. But it was destined to suffer still
more. Holland was overrun by the republican armies of France, in
1797, and forced to join in the war against England.  Her marine
was nearly annihilated, and some of her most valued possessions in
India were taken by the invincible fleets of Britain.
On the 11th of October, 1797, the English admiral, Sir Adam Duncan, with a superior force, encountered the Dutch fleet, under De
Winter, off Camperdown, and chiefly, by a bold and successful manceuvre, defeated him, and took the admiral and ten vessels. A series
of severe and well contested engagements took place near Bergen, in
which the whole of the Dutch fleet was captured and conveyed to
England.  Napoleon annexed Holland to France, in 1810. He introduced the conscription law, by which the naval forces were much
increased, at the expense of the national industry. Evils of all kinds
afflicted the country until the rise of the people and *the proclaiming
of William, Prince of Orange, as king of the Netherlands, in 1814.
The regeneration of Holland was then rapid and complete.
In May, 1816, a Dutch fleet, under Admiral Van der Capellan,
joined the English, under Lord Exmouth, in the bay of Algiers, and




THE NETHERLANDS.                      443
compelled the Dey of that piratical people to recognise the laws of
nations. Nothing further of a naval character occurred until 1823, when
the king established premiums for the encouragement of naval architecture; since which time, the navy has been constantly improving in
size and efficiency.  When the Dey of Algiers, in violation of the
treaty of 1816, renewed, in 1824, his demands for presents, the commander of the Dutch fleet in the Mediterranean, Admiral Wolterbeck,
replied, that his government had no intention of yielding to them;
and at the same time threatened to begin hostilities if the Dey persisted. Whereupon the pirate sovereign renewed the treaty of 1816.
At present, Holland and Belgium are separate states.  The navy
of Holland consists of nine shlips of the line, nineteen frigates, and
thirty-seven sloops of war, brigs, &c., fourteen steamers, and eightyseven gun boats. Besides these, the Dutch have twenty-one vessels of
war, in the East Indies. Flushing is the great naval station and depot
of the kingdom. The regulations for the government of the navy are
very much the same as those of Great. Britain.  Except a few gun
boats, Belgium has no navy.
ANSId
h/I
~.~'~ —~",///////~:~;,;  ~~~(~?~"~~'j~'~-l~~~'~Y'i;~"' Mff~




=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~-/' ~ ~~~-,~,.L~/~!r     -----— ~''" —- "'' —~~-                                 ~I —---
-    ~~~~~~~~CQNSTANTI'\OPIE.
CHAPTER XXX.
TURKEY.,~......;HE account of the naval operations
liii  uumi~~      of the Turks becomes important af/1           ter the capture of Constantinople,
IliaS_'-"~~ —"f~'in 1453.  Th.ey were then brought
into contact with the Christian nations of Europe, who were anxious
______7,'/S\\01ltS it   to prevent the extension of their
conquests, and whose principal arm
_______ =of warfare was the navy.  The immense fleet which Mahomet II. employed in the attack and capture
of Constantinople has been described in the conclusion of the history
of the Roman empire. It was superior in number of vessels to any
(444)




TURKEY.                        445
fleet which could have been fitted out by either of the Christian na.
tions; but inferior in the construction of the galleys and in the skill
of the seamen.
The harbor of Constantinople was made the naval station and rendezvous of the Turks. In 1455, the enterprising Mahomet sent a
fleet against the islands of Rhodes and Chios; but the attempt on both
failed. However, the island of Cos was reduced, and this was a little
satisfaction to the ambitious sultan. Fleets were employed by the
same monarch in his wars against the heroic Scanderbeg, and in the
conquest of the Morea and Negropont; but no naval contest of importance took place. The successors of Mahomet II., Bajazet II., and
Selim I., were warlike monarchs, and gave the army and navy constant employment. The Turks at this period possessed a maritime
power, before which, even that of the Venitians was forced to yield.
Fleets, irresistible from the number of vessels composing them, kept
the sea, and conveyed the large armies upon their expeditions of conquest. Egypt several times felt the power of the sultan, and was
forced to succumb.
Solyman II., surnamed the Magnificent, ascended the throne in
1519. He was as ambitious and war-loving as any of his ancestors.
In 1522, he invested the city of Rhodes by sea and land. The fleet
consisted of four hundred sail, and the army of one hundred and
forty thousand men. The siege lasted more than six months, and an
immense number of the Turks fell before the heroic knights by whom
Rhodes was defended.  But they were at length so reduced in number and strength, that a capitulation was agreed upon, and Solyman
entered the city on Christmas day, 1522.
Barbarossa was the most celebrated of the Turkish admirals up to
this period. He ravaged the coasts of Italy, and took the cities of
Bisertia and Tunis, in Africa.  But in 1536, he was forced to retire
before Charles V. of Spain, who retook the city of Tunis. Solyman
then turned his forces against Italy; which country was in danger of
being overwhelmed, when, a Venitian captain having taken and
burned some Turkish vessels, the sultan changed his design and
resolved to chastise the Venitians.  Several trifling encounters took
place upon the sea, in which the superiority of the Venitians was
quite evident; but peace was concluded in 1540.
A Turkish fleet, under Barbarossa, assisted the forces of Francis L
38




446             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
of France, in his operations against Charles V. It appears, at this
time, the power of Solymnan was as much dreaded upon the sea as
upon land. A large number of his subjects were constantly engaged
in piratical expeditions; and, in time of need, therefore, he could
collect a large and efficient naval force in addition to that maintained
at the government expense.
In September, 1571, the greatest naval contest in which the Turks
were ever engaged took place. The Sultan Selim, the successor of
Solyman, had involved himself in a difficulty with the Christian
powers, and they resolved to punish him, if possible.  The Christian
fleet, of Papal, Spanish, and Venitian vessels, collected in the port of
MNessina. It consisted of two hundred and fifty ships, manned by
fifty thousand men, and was placed under command of Don John of
Austria, natural son of Charles V., for whom the title of generalissimzo
was then invented. The pope, having proclaimed a general season of
fasting and prayers throughout Christendom, sent a strong corps of
ecclesiastics to officiate in the fleet, and a consecrated standard to be
displayed from the admiral's ship. Absolution was promised to every
sinner who should fight for the faith, and Heaven was opened to the
slain. Don John was urged to give immediate battle and to feel sure
of victory. Selim, on the other hand, was not backward in preparing
to meet the danger, though part of his forces were employed in
reducing the island of Cyprus. He equipped a fleet much larger than
that of the enemy.  It was entrusted to the Pacha Ali, who proved
himself well worthy of the charge. The sultan animated his subjects
with the promises of the Mahomedlan paradise, if they fell, and tempting rewards if they won the battle. The two fleets met in the Gulf
of Lepanto. What the Christians wanted in numbers they made up
in superiority of equipment. The prows of their galleys were closer,
and better defended, and their soldiers better provided with offensive
and defensive weapons. They made general use of helmets, coats of
mail, and fire arms, whilst many of the Turks defended their bodies
with large leathern shields; and had no more destructive missiles
than arrows. Moreover, fortune turned against them at the moment
of onset; for the wind, which had hitherto been favorable to them,
now blew in the sails of the Christians.
The battle, as of old, began with the admirals, Don John and Ali,
after a short cannonade, closed, and grappled. Both crews rushed




*   ill     IT
lilii~~~~~~~~~~il,iiiiillilll  r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Pl
I!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1N
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_                                               it!iiil~~iiiiiliiI ~ ~      ~-i5A —    {-~~i1  
iii ~       ~              ~             ~              46 
77K; iii i i
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TURKEY.                         449
DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA.
to the contest, meeting in desperate struggle, upon the gunwales.
Three times did the Spaniards gain the deck of their adversary, and
as often were they driven back.  Perhaps the Turks would have followed up their advantage to complete victory, had not Don John, in
the critical moment, received a reinforcement of two hundred men.
By their assistance, the Turk was again boarded, and with success.
The slaughter was indiscriminate and terrible-the crescent being
lowered and replaced by the cross. The head of All, planted on a
pole, and hoisted at his own mast head, filled the breasts, of his followers with momentary consternation. Scarce was this result manifest, ere the cry of " Victoria! victoria!" pealed from the Christians
-and led on by a host of heroes, -a Colonna, a Veneiro, and a
DD             38*




450             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Doria,-they rushed upon the enemy. Nor did the Turks tamely
yield the victory. The ships grappled; the enemies fought hand to
hand, and sword to scimitar. Turks and Christians had never fought so
valiantly; even in that heroic age. At length, whilst the result was still
in suspense, the Turkish galley slaves, taking courage at the efforts of
their fellow Christians, suddenly rose, broke their chains, and attacked
their masters with them, and repaid them, in a few moments, for
years of cruelty. In an opposite manner, the criminals who performed
the same office at the oar in the Spanish and Italian galleys, having
asked leave of their officers, and been unchained and armed, boarded
the enemy with a fury rendered irresistible by despair, and the hope
of obtaining liberty or martyrdom. At length the few Turks that
remained, began to think of flight. Thirty galleys only escaped to
Constantinople, through the skill of the intrepid corsair, Ulucciali,
who carried away the standard of Malta as a trophy, and one prisoner,
the Spanish poet, Cervantes.  A few reached the neighboring shore
and abandoned their ships; one hundred and thirty were taken; the
rest were either sunkli, burnt, or battered to pieces; ten thousand
Turks were taken; twenty-five thousand slain; fifteen thousand Christians were released from the servitude of the oar. Nor was the victory
cheaply purchased; ten thousand Christians were among the victims.
Europe resounded with the shouts for this glorious victory. When the
news reached the pope, he is said to have exclaimed, in ecstacy,
"There was a man sent from God, and his name was John."  Don
John was pronounced the greatest warrior of the age.
Notwithstanding the prodigious loss sustained by the Turks in the
conflict of Lepanto, the confederates reaped but little advantage from
the victory; and next year, Kalij Ali Pasha, who had succeeded to
the post of high admiral, fitted out a fleet of two hundred and fifty
galleys, with which he ravaged the coasts of Christendom, and maintained his ground so well wherever he came, that the confederates
could gain no advantage over him. The Turkish power, however,
declined from this period. The increase of the civilization and power
of the western nations not only prevented the extension of the Turkish
dominion, but made it a matter of extreme difficulty to retain the
country first conquered. The navy continued on a respectable footing
during the reign of the successors of Selim, without being involved in
any notable contest. The Venitians alone opposed the Turks upon








SAILING OF THE VENETIAN FLEET UNDER ADMIRAL FOSCARI.




TURKEY.                          453
the sea; and generally with success. The numerous wars with the
Germans and Russians, and the constant internal dissensions, made
the necessity for a powerful army and navy apparent.
Amurath the III., the; sixth emperor of the Turks, was constantly
waging war against either the Persians, the Germans, or the Venitians.
In 1594, he was at peace with the Venitians and the Persians; but
at war with the emperor of Germany.  A  fleet was sent into the
Adriatic to besiege Zegna, a city under the sway of the Germans. The
better to effect this, Amurath sent an ambassador to the Venitians, to
request them to permit the fleet to pass along the Adriatic and have
the use of their ports, as need should require. This request the Venitians refused, fearing the treachery of the Turks. Thus baffled, the
Turkish admiral landing his men in various parts of Italy,did much
harm, but especially in Calabria, where he surprised the town of Rhegium and burned it.  Not far from  Messana, four ships were taken,
and some few shots exchanged with galleys from the East. The Neapolitans, for the safety of their coast, put to sea thirty galleys, to
which were joined the galleys of the pope, the Duke of Florence, the
Genoese, and the knights of Malta. The provident Venitians, also
put to sea a fleet of about a hundred sail, some being ships, and some
galleys, under the leading of Foscari, their admiral.  These fleets
were too powerful for the Turks to encounter, and delivered the inhabitants of the coast from fear. The sultan could command the services
of an immense number of vessels and seamen, but not such as could
contend with able Venitians; and a battle was never ventured except
when the Turks had a greatly superior force.
In 1770, a year in which the Russian arms were crowned with success in the war with the Turks, a Russian fleet of sixteen or eighteen
ships, entered the Mediterranean, and landed a body of troops on the
Morea. Hearing that a Turkish fleet had passed the Dardanelles, the
Russians sailed to meet it. This fleet consisted of fifteen ships of the
line, of from ninety-six to sixty guns, three large frigates, and seven large
armed vessels, besides galleys.  A battle ensued, in which the Turks
were defeated; and having imprudently retired into a neighboring
harbor, they were, next day, entirely destroyed by the Russian fire
ships; one ship of sixty-four guns, was taken. After this triumph, the
Russian fleet blocked up the mouth of the Dardanelles, interrupted
the Turkish trade, prevented provisions from reaching Constantinople




454             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
by sea, and raised contributions from most of the islands on the Archi.
chipelago. No Turkish fleet could be found to resist them.
In March, 1821, the fire of liberty was kindled in Greece. The
people of that country had long suffered from the cruel, merciless oppression of the Turks. They formed the bravest of the soldiers of
the empire, and their corsairs were the most active and skilful seamen. Upon the waves the Greeks were generally successful-achieving many brilliant exploits.  The blue and red flag soon waved on
one hundred aad eighty vessels, mostly of ten or twelve guns. The
Hydriots cruised in the Turkish waters, and blockaded the ports. On
the Achaian Sea, the Greek pirates frustrated the plans of the navarchs
of Hydra, and the European powers were forced to protect their vessels by cruisers. The Turkish navy, at this time, was in a wretched
state, and certainly, in no way fitted to contend with the bold seamen
and swift vessels of the Greeks.
When the first Turkish squadron left the Dardanelles, May 19th,
1821, the Greeks constantly pursued it with their fire ships, avoiding
a general engagement; and June 8, they attacked a vessel of the line,
which had got ashore at Tenedos, burned it, and compelled the rest of
the squadron to return to the Dardanelles. Another great fleet, under
the pacha, Karu Ali, strengthened by Egyptian, Tunisian, and Algerine vessels, drove away the Greek flotillas, supplied the Turks in
the Morea with provisions, arms and reinforcements, and burned and
captured a number of Greek fishing vessels, but it effected nothing
decisive.  Hardly had it returned to the Dardanelles, when the Greek
fleets renewed their blockade, and became, as formerly, masters of the
ZEgean Sea and the Gulf of Saloniki.
In 1822, a Turkish fleet, under Hali Bey, was sent to reinforce the
garrisons in the Morea.  But the attempt to reduce the country
utterly failed. In revenge, the fleet sailed to Scio, and landed troops,
who reduced the island from a paradise to a desert, massacreing the
unresisting as well as those who attempted to defend themselves. Some
of the people escaped in their vessels, but the greater portion were
either butchered, or sold into slavery.  Ipsara, Tine, and Samos were
threatened with the same fate. But the, Ipsariots, having already made
preparations to send their families to the Morea, hovered round the
Turkish fleet with seventy small vessels, among which were several
skilfully constructed fire ships.  Forty-three Ipsariots and Hydriots,




TURKEY.                         455
devoting themselves to death, rowed with their scanmpavias, a kind of
gun boat, into the midst of the fleet of the enemy, as it lay in the road of
Seio; and in the night of June, 1822, Captain George attached fire ships
to the ship of the capudan pacha, and to another vessel of the line. The
former blew up, with two thousand two hundred and eighty-six men;
the latter was saved. The Turks were at first stupified; but their
rage soon broke out, and the last traces of cultivation, the mastic
villages, were destroyed.
After an obstinate contest, the Turks were forced to abandon the
greater part of Greece by August, 1822.  The Turkish fleet, which
had laid at anchor four weeks in the Gulf of Lepanto, and had bombarded Missolonghi without success, set sail with the plague on board.
An unsuccessful attempt was made' to break through the line of fiftyseven Greek brigs, which blockaded Nauplia; and then the fleet came
to anchor at the entrance of the Dardanelles, off Tenedos. On the 10th
of November, seventeen daring sailors of the band of forty Ipsariots,
dressed like Turks, conducted two fire ships under full sail, as if they
were flying from the Greeks, whilst two Ipsariot vessels pursued their,
firing blank cartridges, into the midst of the Turkish fleet, and fastened one of them to the admiral's ship, and the other to that of the
capitana-bey. Both were soon in. flames; the former narrowly escaped;
the latter blew up with eighteen hundred men; the capudan, however,
got on shore before the explosion took place.  Three frigates were
wrecked on the coast of Asia Minor, one thirty-six gun vessel was captured: storms destroyed a part of the Ottoman fleet, and of thirty-five
vessels, only eighteen returned, much injured, to the Dardanelles.
The seventeen Ipsariots were rewarded with naval crowns by the
ephori. The Greeks were once more masters of the sea, and renewed
the blockade.
Both parties prepared for a war of extermination in 1823. An immense army and an efficient fleet were raised by the exertions of the
sultan. The Greek minister of the marine, Orlandi, organized the
navy which consisted of four hundred and three sail, with cannon; the
largest was the Hercules, of twenty-six guns. The rich Hydriot,
Miaulis, was admiral, and there were three vice-admirals.  The disputes of the government with the Hydriot monarchs had a bad effect
on the naval operations. The Greek fleet, however, gained a victory
on the 22d of March, 1823, over an Egyptian flotilla, destined for




456             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Candia; but it was unable to prevent the landing of Turkish troops;
and the daring expeditions of the Ipsariots and Samiots on the coast
of Asia Minor, were without important results.  When the fleet of
the capudan-pacha finally appeared in June, the Greek ships retired
and contented themselves with supplying their garrisons with fresh
troops and provisions.
The Turkish fleet, again having the plague on board, sailed to the
Archipelago, avoided the Greek islands, delivered Saloniki from
blockade, and returned to the Dardanelles, after a few indecisive engagements with the Greeks.  Mavrocordato conducted a division of
the Hydriot fleet, to the Gulf of Lepanto, in November, and compelled
the Barbary fleet, which was blockading Missolonghi, to withdraw.
The campaign terminated in favor of the Greeks.  The Porte, though
much exhausted, had greater resources for the next year than the
patriots, who were weakened by quarrels of the different chieftains.
A great number of the transport ships of the Russians, Austrians,
and others were hired by the capudan-pacha, in April, 1824, and they
sailed out of the Dardanelles, to destroy Ipsara and Samos. Mehemet
Ali, Pacha of Egypt, was induced to send twenty-thousand men, disciplined by French- officers, under his son Ibrahim, and a large fleet,
to reduce the Greeks to submission.
Ismael Gibraltar, admiral of the Egyptian fleet, subdued Candia,
and the capudan-pacha succeeded in relieving the Turkish garrison of
Negropont and took possession of Attica. The small, but strongly
fortified, rocky island of Ipsara, had made itself formidable to the
Porte, by the number of its vessels and fire ships, in which the most
daring of the islanders carried terror and destruction into the Dardanelles. Khosru, the capudan, obtaining exact information of the
state of the island, resolved to attempt its capture; but first, he offered
pardon and protection to the Ipsariots. They rejected his proposals,
and prepared for the combat.  Khosru left the shores of Mitylene
early in July, with two ships of the line, six frigates, ten corvettes,
several brigs and galliots, a great number of newly built gun boats,
and more than eighty European transport ships. The fleet surrounded
the island. The men-of-war began to fire upon the town and forts, and
a landing was effected on the opposite side. The Ipsariots had put the
old men, women, and children on board of their vessels; these were
taken or sunk by the Turks.  The city was attacked on all sides.




TURKEY.                          457
The Greeks fought from  street to street, and yielded but with their
lives. After a desperate struggle, two forts, the last foothold of the
Ipsariots, were blown up by themselves, and heroes and conquerors
found an equal grave.
This terrible blow united the Greeks more firmly and stung them
to more daring activity. Hydra and Spezzia manned their ships, and
Ipsara was retaken by the brave Admiral Miaulis, and the ships there
saved. In all directions, the Turks were beaten by forces far inferior.
In the meantime, the second part of this bloody campaign began.
The Egyptian fleet, comprising nine frigates, fourteen corvettes, forty
brigs and galliots, and two hundred and forty transports, with eighteen
thousand land troops, set sail from Alexandria, July 19. Ibrahim
was instructed to bring reinforcements to Candia, and then invade the
Moriea.
The. Egyptian and Turkish fleets united in the Gulf of Bondroun,
in September, and some battles took place with the Greek fleet. The
battle at Naxos, on the 10th of September, lasted the whole day. The
intrepid Kanaris blew up, by his fire ships, an Egyptian frigate of
forty-four guns and a brig. The Greeks lost ten small vessels. At
length, the Ottoman fleet broke off the contest, and retired to Mitylene, with'the loss of several transports. Khosru then turned back to
Constantinople, with fifteen sail, and Ibrahim, with the rest of the
fleet, to the Gulf of Bondroun.  Miaulis soon after attacked the latter
off Candia.  Ibrahim  lost a frigate, ten small vessels, and fifteen
transports.  Weakened by the plague, which visited the fleet, he
drew back to the harbor of Rhodes, where the well known admiral,
Ismael Gibraltar, died.  The attack on the Morea was frustrated for
this year.
After such activity on the part of the Greek fleet, the internal dissensions once more weakened the operations of the army and navy.
The campaign of 1825 was opened by the landing of Ibrahim Pacha
in the Morea.  M[issolonghi was besieged at the same time, and the
capudan aided both with his fleet. When Ibrahim laid siege to Navarino, in May, Miaulis attacked his fleet on the night of the 12th, and
burned an Egyptian frigate, two corvettes, three brigs, and many transports. But the inactivity of the Greek capitani caused the capitulation
of Navarino.  The capudan lost several ships in May, near the cape
D'Oro., in an engagement with the Greek Admiral Sactouri, and
39




458             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
could not arrive in time to support the siege of Missolonghi. During
the terrible struggle at that place, Miaulis arrived with his fteet,
burned several Turkish ships and forced the rest to retire.
The campaign begun under such favorable auspices by the Turks
and Egyptians, had an unsuccessful termination. The capudan-pacha
had received the command of the Egyptian fleet at Alexandria, about
the end of August. There the brave Kanaris had, with three fire
ships, in vain forced his way into the harbor, with the intention of
burning the fleet.  The affairs of Greece now appeared hastening to
ruin.  The fleet of seventy-three men of war and twenty-three fire
ships, arrived too late to save Navarino; and the capitani squandered
the money with which they were to provide troops. However, a new
naval force was equipped at Hydra, and strengthened by this accession of vessels, Miaulis appeared in January, 1826, in the waters of
Missolonghi, and defeated the fleet of the capudan-pacha.  But all
attempts to supply the garrison with provisions and reinforcements
failed. Another engagement between the fleets took place in the Gulf
of Patras, on the 27th and 28th of January, when the Greek fire
ships, under Kanaris, destroyed a frigate and many small vessels;
and then Missolonghi was relieved. Five times had this heroic garrison repulsed the immense numbers of the besiegers; but it fell, after
a glorious struggle, April 22d, 1826.
Lord Cochrane arrived in Greece, and took chief command of the
sea forces, in 1827. After many attempts at negotiations, the Greeks
renewed hostilities with undaunted activity. On the 9th of September, 1828, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet entered the bay of Navarino.
A British squadron, under Sir Edward Codrington, appeared on the
13th.  To this, a French squadron, under Admiral Rigny, and a
Russian, under Count Heyden, united themselves on the 22d. They
demanded from Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of hostilities.  He promised this, and went out with part of his fleet, but was forced to
return, and he continued his devastations of the Morea.  The three
squadrons then entered the bay, where the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was
drawn up in order of battle. A shot was fired and two Englishmen
killed. This was the signal for a deadly contest, (October 20, 1827,)
in which Codrington nearly destroyed the Turkish armada of one
hundred and ten ships. One part was burned, another driven on
shore, and the rest disabled; none struck their flag.




TURKEY.                         459
An involuntary suspension of hostilities now ensued, during which,
the depredations of pirates became more serious.  The admirals of
the three squadrons remonstrated with the Greek government, and
after a number of capital punishments, the safety of the sea was
secured.
In March., 1828, the war between Turkey and Russia began. The
Russian admiral, Ricord, with one ship of the line and three frigates,
blockaded the Dardanelles, in order to prevent supplies from reaching
Constantinople. The Greeks fitted out a great number of privateers.
Operations were suspended during the progress of negotiations, andpeace was signed at Adrianople on the 14th of September, 1829. The
independence of Greece was achieved; and the power of Turkey
humbled.
The Turkish navy now numbers ten ships of the line, ten frigates,
and a number of other vessels. The chief officer bears the title of
capudan-pacha.  Constantinople is the principal station and rendezvous for all vessels employed in the service of the empire. The naval
regulations and discipline have undergone considerable alteration by
the exertions of the sultan to adopt the European customs; but they
are still very inferior in efficiency, even to those of Egypt. The
decline of the empire is rapid and steady.




CHAPTER XXXI.
RUSSIA.
-— _: _ p g, ~ —-     USSIA has but a trifling distinct naval
history. In the numerous wars against
the Turks which she has waged, her
fleets have been found serviceable and
have been victorious; but as yet she
has won no laurels like those which
have crowned the English navy, nor
produced any commander worthy of
high rank as a conqueror.  The navy
of Russia began, as her power and her
European influence began, with Peter the Great.
When Peter had resolved to make an effort to gain the throne, in
opposition to his half sister, Sophia, he collected an army of twenty
thousand men, and at the same time engaged himself in creating a
naval force. He easily succeeded in seating himself upon the throne,
(460)








.......:~-~-:-:'z    ~            — ~_.<A?_?                 -_
PEE  ~HE GlE~TGIIGAVC0~  TTEHNE




RUSSIA.                        463
and then resolved to carry out his plans for the formation of a large
army and naval force.  A Dutchman, named Karsten Brand, was
appointed perpetual ship builder, and in 1693, the emperor sailed to
Archangel in his own ship, the St. Peter.  In 1694, he entered
Archangel with several Russian vessels, and appointed Prince Romanadowiske, admiral of the fleet. The new ship yard at Woronesch, on
the Don, furnished the emperor, as early as 1696, with a fleet of
twenty-three galleys, two galleases, and four fire ships, with which
he defeated the Turkish fleet, near Azoph. When Azoph fell into
his hands, he ordered fifty-five ships of war to be built, and sent a
number of young nobles to Holland and Italy, to learn the art of
ship building. Thus he hoped to keep possession of the key to the
Black Sea.  In 1697, Peter went to Holland, and, under the name
of Peter Michaeloff, worked at ship building for more than two months.
Having completely mastered the art, he went to England, and visited
the royal ship yard. He returned to Russia, in September, 1698.
During the war with Charles XII. of Sweden, Peter distinguished
himself by capturing a large number of Swedish vessels of war, and
attained the rank of rear-admiral. His next object was to distinguish
himself in such a manner as to merit the title of vice-admiral. Having
obtained a naval victory at Twermunde, and entered St. Petersburg
in triumph, the Admiral Romanadowski saluted him with "Hail!
vice-admiral!" and thus his ambition was gratified.
In 1716, the imperial admiral took command of the combined
Russian, Danish, English, and Dutch fleets, numbering eighty vessels
of war, and gained the command of'the Baltic. Subsequently he
succeeded in devastating the coasts of Sweden, despite the opposition of the English, Swedish, and Danish fleets. In July, 1724, he
conducted his fleet against Sweden, and having succeeded in achieving
his object, he returned to Cronstadt in triumph. The Russian navy
now consisted of forty-one ships of war, with two thousand one hundred and six cannons, and fourteen thousand nine hundred and sixty
sailors.
Catharine, the sucessor of Peter the Great, was principally occupied
with the internal affairs of the empire, during her short reign. Nothing
remarkable occurred in Russian naval history until 17623 when the
able Catharine II. took possession of the throne.  She increased the
land and naval force of the empire, and invited distinguished foreign




464               UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
commanders to enter her service. The Turks were defeated in several
encounters upon the sea. But the Swedes defeated the Russian fleets
in a subsequent war.  During Catharine's active reign, the Russian
fleets acquired considerable influence in the Mediterranean, and complete control in the Black and Caspian seas. In August, 1828, the
Russian fleet on the Black sea destroyed a Turkish flotilla, and the
batteries on the coast near Constantinople.  In February, 1829, another Turkish flotilla was destroyed near Nicopoli, and the fortress
of Sizeboli, on the Gulf of Bourges, was taken by a'Russian fleet,
under Admiral Greig.
At present, the naval power of Russia, is only inferior to that of
Great Britain and France, and is constantly increasing. Her fleets
command the eastern Mediterranean, and the Black and Caspian seas,
in the south, and the Baltic sea in the north.  Cronstadt is the prin.
cipal naval station on the Baltic, and Sebastopol on the Black sea.
The navy consisted, in 1840, of fifty-six ships of the line, carrying from seventy-four to one hundred and twenty guns, forty-eight
frigates, carrying from forty-four to sixty guns, and a large number of
sloops of war, brigs, and steamers.
____________.. -  _=
11_/111111~~~~ ~                              _...e. _    _.. _ _T                      _ _PS  _UR _
TIEE EXCHANGE, ST. PETERSBURG.




A CHINESE JUNK.
CHAPTER XXXIIo
CHIINA..___:____e=______  HE history of the Chinese is of all others the
_____~~T     ~~  most singular and interesting.  Generations
after generations have passed away, and still
the customs and modes of life prevalent two
thousand years ago hold undisputed sway.
China changes but her generations, remaining
in all else the same. Possessing an extensive
A       d~-~ c~~    ~ sea coast, with many fine harbors,, and being
enterprising and industrious, the Chinese have ever been a commercial
people. It is more than probable that the most important instruments
of modern warfare and navigation were the inventions of the Chinese.
It is generally conceded that the destructive gunpowder was long
known in the East, before its introduction into Europe; and the use
of the magnetic compass can also be traced to the same quarter.
The first certain information concerning maritime or commercial
affairs which has been handed down, is the account of the construction
of several extensive canals for the convenience of inland commerce, in
thie seventh century after Christ. The vessels used in this commerce.,
which was very extensive, were flat bottomed, because of the greater'
(465)          EE




L4  G ~UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
facility in drawing them over the embankments of the singular locks,
without unloading them. They were built high and commodious.
In the early part of the thirteenth century, the celebrated Tartar
chief, Zinghis Khan, subdued the greater part of China, and his
greater son, Kublai, completed the work. As the Tartars approached
the imperial city, the whole court fled in consternation, and went on
board of some barks which were lying near the mouth of Canton river.
Some Tartar vessels were sent in pursuit of the wretched fugitives,
whose terror, at the sight of the hostile fleet, seems to have amounted
to madness; for one of the grandees, seizing the infant emperor in his
arms, jumped with him into the sea, and was instantly followed by the
empress and chief minister-who thus all perished. Kublai Khan
was then acknowledged as Emperor of all China, which at this time
must have included the greater part of Asia, if the records of the conquest of Zinghis and Kublai are to be believed.
Kublai seems to have paid more attention to commerce than any of
his predecessors; and to him the Chinese are indebted for the stupendous national work, the Grand Canal, connecting Pekin and Canton.
There were none capable of resisting his power upon sea or land; and,
therefore, we see no mention of a navy regularly organized existing
under his reign. Once only, a fleet was sent against the Japanese to
reduce them under the sway of Kublai; but a storm destroyed it, and
the attempt was not renewed.
It was in the reign of the twelfth emperor of the Ming, or native
dynasty, that the rapid progress of navigation which followed the discovery of America and the Cape of Good Hope, first brought the
European ships to the shores of China. The Portuguese, who were the
great navigators of the age, having made several voyages to India,
ventured still farther eastward, in 1516, and reached the port of Canton. Some alarm was created in Canton at the appearance of strangely
built vessels, and it was supposed an invasion was intended. Consequently, the fleet of eight vessels was surrounded by Chinese war
junks, and it was with difficulty that the admiral, Pedro de Andrada,
obtained permission to proceed with two ships, up the river to Canton.
Leave was obtained to establish a factory on the coast, and to send
trading vessels to Canton once a year; and thus was a regular commercial treaty concluded between Portugal and China.
Not long after, the Spaniards, on the "errand of gain," sent out




CHINA.                         467
ships to China, and the Phillipine islands. The coasts of China had
from time to time been infested with pirates, who were the terror of
all the maritime towns, and who sheltered themselves in the islands
of the adjacent seas.  One chief, by the name of Limahon, made an
attack on the town of Manilla, and treated the inhabitants with the
greatest cruelty.  A Chinese fleet, under Admiral Omnicon, was sent
in search of the formidable corsair; but he had already been defeated and driven from the China seas by the Spaniards, in return for
which, the admiral consented to introduce a number of the foreigners
into a Chinese city.
The Dutch also sent ships to China, and established several factories;
and thus was a regular maritime intercourse completed between China
and the principal commercial nations of Europe. One of the most
formidable opponents of the Tartars in their second conquest, about
1644, was a maritime chief, named Koshinga, a noted character in the
history of those times, not only for his loyalty to the Chinese royal
race, but also for his exploits against the Dutch. Ching-che-hong, the
father of Koshinga, one of the richest merchants in China, fitted out
a fleet at his own expense, to support the native prince, but after the
accession of the Tartar, Shun-che, he accepted the offer of a high post
at court, leaving the command of his fleet to his son, who remained
faithful to his native sovereign. This chief was the terror of the Indian
seas, where no foreign vessels dared to appear during the wars. At
length, the Tartars having taken Nanking, laid siege to Cant6n, which,
by the aid of Koshinga's fleet, was enabled to hold out for eight
months; but was at the end of that time, obliged to surrender, by
the superior skill and valor of the Tartars.
Koshinga openly continued his resistance to the new dynasty. He
formed the bold project of conquering the island of Formosa, and
landed on it with twenty thousand men. A desperate conflict took
place with the Dutch, and in the end they were forced to abandon
Formosa and take refuge with the Japanese. Koshinga then retained
the sovereignty of the island until his death. His son was equally
active and skilful upon the sea.  He constantly ravaged the coasts;
and the naval force of the empire not being strong enough to contend
with the pirates, the emperor was forced to order the inhabitants of the
sea shore to retire towards the interior, and leave a barren country to
the invaders. A great number of sea coast villages were destroyed,




468             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
and much distress produced. Formosa was surrendered to the emperor
by a grandson of the chief Koshinga.
Hea-King, who ascended the throne in 1795, was an unpopular emperor, and his dominions were constantly in a state of insurrection. The
pirates of the Ladrone islands renewed their depredations on the coast.
Among these was a noted chief, named Ching-yih, who was no less
famed and feared than Koshinga had been. He levied contributions
on all vessels that appeared in the Chinese seas, plundered villages on
the coast, and did not hesitate to give battle to the imperial fleet. He
had a most powerful force at his command, and committed all sorts
of devastations with impunity. Ching-yih was accidentally drowned;
but his lawless practices were continued by his widow, who took command of the fleet, and fought with the bravest of the rovers. For some
time, this pirate queen maintained her rule of the Chinese seas; insomuch that no merchant ships could navigate them, without a pass
from her, and the payment of a certain amount of toll. At length,
disputes arose among the pirate captains; and the chieftainess, fincling
her position a dangerous one, entered into a regular treaty with the
governor of Canton, retired with distinguished honor and then the
pirates submitted.
In 1839, the difficulties with the British merchants concerning the
opium traffic commenced.  Lin, the Chinese governor, blockaded the
British factories and vessels on the Canton river, and demanded that
twenty thousand chests of opium, then on board of the vessels, should
be given up to be destroyed, according to the order of the emperor.
To save the factories, the merchants agreed to surrender the drug, and
it was accordingly landed, and destroyed by the governor. Soon after,
the British merchants retired to Macao, a settlement belonging to the
Portuguese.  A quarrel occurring between some British and Chinese
sailors, and one of the latter being killed, it was demanded that the
murderer should be given up. This the English refused, and Captain
Elliott removed the whole fleet of English vessels to the island of
Hong Kong. The High Commissioner Lin, then decreed that all
trade between the British and Chinese should cease.
The Chinese fleet, under Admiral Quan, a gallant veteran, much
respected by friends and foes, then prepared to attack the British fleet,.as it lay in the harbor of Hong Kong. But the Chinese were driven
btank with great loss, several of their vessels being destroyed in the




CHINxa.                                    469
5HE E3IPEROR OF CHINA.
action. This defeat was a serious blow to the authorities of Canton,
who had placed much dependence upon Admiral Quan. The emperor
was  for a time deceived into the belief that Quan had  been v ictorious,
and under this imlpression, he bestowed a high Tartar title upon him.
40
W;-i i ~ lloil1 11 ~   111111lll   llii~~llll 11I~lllllilllrl 6U i
""'    11111~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~n
I~I~ ""'"'~~~~ ~
ME~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rl
II~ ~ ~~   EEMPRP  FCIA
acin       hs   eetws           eiu         bo      ote    uhrteso           atn.who  had  placed   much  dependence  upon  Admiral  Quan.  The  einpero r;'.,
wasfo   atie   eceve   itoth    blie   tatQun      ad    ee   vctrius
an   ne       ti    mresoh        bsoe              ahg     ata      il   uo        ii




470             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
However, the admiral was continued in command of the fleet, even
when the emperor was truly informed of the circumstances; but Lin
was removed from his office of governor.
In the meantime, edicts were daily issued, threatening to close the
ports forever against the English, if they continued to act in defiance
of the imperial command. Lin and his successor exerted themselves
to strengthen the fleet, by building a number of gun boats of larger
size, and superior in construction to the generality of the war junks.
Nothing of importance occurred until June, 1840, when an armament
arrived from India, under Admiral Elliot, which joined the British
fleet, already assembled at Hong Kong. A bold attempt was made
by the Chinese to destroy the whole fleet by sending fire ships among
the vessels; but most of them exploded before coming near enough
to do mischief, and the experiment failed. This disappointed greatly
the mandarins, who were so confident of success, that a proclamation
had been issued, warning all other vessels to keep clear of the British
fleet.
The fire ship scheme having failed, high rewards were offered to
any who would kill or capture the English or take their ships. In
consequence of this temptation, a large number of prisoners-soldiers,
sailors, and one female —were captured; but were released in a few
months, by a treaty between Admiral Elliot and Keshen, the high
commissioner. The English took possession of the island of Chusan,
in July, without opposition. The emperor, furious at these proceedings, commanded the viceroy to repair at once to Pekin and answer
for his neglect., He also wrote to the governor of Ningpo, commanding him to cause to be constructed some vessels upon the English model. The governor forwarded the order to the head of the
naval department at Ningpo, who, being utterly ignorant of the construction of English ships, and fearing the consequences of disobedience, killed himself in despair.
Towards the close of 1840, Admiral Elliot sailed up the Peiho
river, to hold a conference with the high commissioner Keshen. This
wily politician detained the English fleet at Canton, in amicable negotiation, and at the same time, strengthened his forces for an attack
upon Chusan. At length, the English admiral, growing impatient,
sent word to Keshen that if the treaty was not confirmed by eight
o'clock on the morning of the 7th of January, 1841, hostilities would




CHINA.                         471
be renewed. No answer was returned, and, therefore, upon that morning, some of the Bogue forts were assaulted and taken, with a dreadful
slaughter of the Chinese.
The appearance of a hostile fleet above these forts, caused great
consternation at Canton. Seventeen war junks were burned, or blown
up.  Keshen then entered into a treaty with the English admiral,
and the Bogue forts and all the captives were returned to the Chinese,
together with the island of Chusan.  Another article of the treaty
provided that compensation should be made for the destruction of the
opium.  This, the Chinese would not fulfil; and Elliot was again
compelled to proceed to attack the forts of the Bogue, a narrow pass
in the Canton river. An immense number of the Chinese and Tartars
were collected in them and their vicinity.  The attack was successful,
after a brave resistance from the band of Admiral Quan, who was
killed in the struggle. The emperor was much grieved at the loss of
his able and veteran admiral, and had him buried with great honors.
Keshen now represented to the emperor that there was no hope of
contending with the enemy unless other ships were built and cannon
cast. For this and other offences, he was deprived of his office and
disgraced.
Orders were now issued to the high admiral to sweep the barbarians
(the English) from the seas; nothing less would satisfy the emperor.
Early in May, the Chinese made several attacks upon the shipping in
Canton river, and captured, plundered, and burned the British and
Dutch factories.  It was now resolved to make a direct attack upon
Canton; and while a part of the fleet sailed up the river to invest it
on that side, the rest, under General Sir Hugh Gough proceeded by
another branch of the stream to a different point.  The siege proceeded rapidly, and there is no doubt Canton would have been taken;
but Elliot preferred making terms with the authorities for its ransom,
and a treaty was accordingly concluded. The arrangements of the
English admiral not being approved by his government, he was superseded by Sir Henry Pottinger, who arrived at Macao, in August, 1841.
The new commandant gave the Chinese authorities to understand,
that they must either accede to all the demands of the English government, or expect that they would be forced into compliance. A
fleet, consisting of thirty-four vessels, most of them steamers, appeared
off the strongly fortified fort of Amoy on the 6th of August, and




472             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
BURNING OF THIE BRITISH FACTORIES BY THE CHINESE.
summoned the city to surrender. This was done, and the British
took possession of it. Chinghae, a large and populous city at the
mouth of the Ningpo river, was also strongly fortified; but more desperately defended. The city was bombarded by the British fleet, and
a great number of the inhabitants killed. Chinghae was taken on the
10th of October, and on the following day, the fleet proceeded up the
river to Ningpo, which was taken without resistance.




CHINA.                         47;' ~:  _....
-~ 4ijj'~~I, /Z- 4   _______
=-~    ~~~~il~ —-— =~-~ —~ —j..'.= *
GONG KONG.
In March, 1842, the Chinese attempted to recover Chinghae and'ingpo, by land attacks, and Clhusan, by a fleet of junks; all three
~.ttacks were repulsed.  The British fleet then proceeded up the Yang~se-keung river, or " Child of the Ocean," and captured several large
cities, after much fighting with the brave Tartars. About the middle
of August, the fleet came within sight of Nankin, the ancient capital
of the empire, where a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the
British obtained all their demands, just or unjust. Five important
ports were opened to the commerce of the invaders, and Hong Kong
ceded to them forever.
For several centuries the Chinese have made no progress in ship
building.  Their vessels have neither mizzen, bowsprit, or topmast.
They have only a main and foremast, to which is sometimes added
a small top-gallant mast.  The mainmast is placed almost in the
same part of the deck as in European vessels; but the foremast stands
40*




474             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
much further forward. They use mats for sails, strengthening them
with whole bamboes, equal in length to the breadth of the sail, and
placed about a foot from each other. Two pieces of wood are fixed
to the top and bottom of the sail; the upper serves as a sailyard, and
the other keeps the sail stretched when it is necessary to hoist or
lower it. No pumps are used.  The anchors are made of the hard
wood called iron wood, which, the Chinese say, is much superior to
the metal, because the latter will bend; but the former never does.
The Chinese are acquainted with the art of manceuvring a vessel, and
make excellent coasting pilots, but very bad sailors in the open sea.
There are two orders of mandarins, who superintend all maritime
affairs-the Hai-tao, who inspect the sea coasts, and the Y-thuen-tao,
who keep the harbors in repair, and have the care of the emperor's
vessels. A large number of vessels can always be commanded for the
service of the government, but their bad construction, and the miserable character of their seamanship, render them of little service against
the men-of-war of the western nations. Doubtless, as the intercourse
of the Chinese with other nations increases, the policy of adopting
their vessels and warlike instruments will be made clearer, and national vanity will not interfere with the means of national safety.




CHAPTER XXXI.
RUSSIA.
-— _: _ p g, ~ —-     USSIA has but a trifling distinct naval
history. In the numerous wars against
the Turks which she has waged, her
fleets have been found serviceable and
have been victorious; but as yet she
has won no laurels like those which
have crowned the English navy, nor
produced any commander worthy of
high rank as a conqueror.  The navy
of Russia began, as her power and her
European influence began, with Peter the Great.
When Peter had resolved to make an effort to gain the throne, in
opposition to his half sister, Sophia, he collected an army of twenty
thousand men, and at the same time engaged himself in creating a
naval force. He easily succeeded in seating himself upon the throne,
(460)




476             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Towards the conclusion of 1775, it was determined by Congress to
fit out a naval force to assist in the defence of American independence,
and an anxious search was made for friends able and willing to act as
officers on board of their vessels.  The celebrated Paul Jones offered
his services, and was immediately appointed first lieutenant of the
Alfred, one of the only two ships belonging to Congress, and on board
that vessel, at Philadelphia, he hoisted the pine tree and rattlesnake
flag-the first banner of independence-with his own hands.  In the
course of an active and successful campaign, having found means to
gain the confidence of the marine committee, he had not served many
months, before he received a captain's commission.
In November, 1777, Captain Jones sailed for France, in the Ranger,
a, new sloop of war of eighteen guns, with despatches of the victory
of Saratoga. It was intended as a reward for his services, that he
should be appointed to the command of the Indian, a fine frigate,
built for Congress, at Amsterdam; but the American commissioners
thought it best to assign this vessel to the king of France, and Jones
continued with the Ranger. Having convoyed some merchant ships
to Quiberon bay, he there received the first salute that was given to
the flag of Congress by a foreign power. Eager to retaliate upon
Britain her depredations upon the American coast, Jones soon after
entered the Irish Channel, and approached his native shores as an
enemy. This cruize lasted twenty-eight days, and he returned to
Brest, with two large vessels of war as prizes, besides having destroyed
many valuable ships and thrown the whole coast into a state of alarm.
The French ministry, to testify their good will towards the United
States, had promised to furnish Jones with a ship, in which he was to
display the American flag. At length, after much delay, and having
applied in person, at Paris, he obtained command of the Duc De Duras of forty guns. The name was changed to "Le Bon Homine Richard," in compliment to the saying of Poor Richard, in Franklin's
almanac, "If you would have your business done, come yourself; if
not, send."
In this vessel, badly manned, and not much better furnished, Paul
Jones sailed as commodore of a little squadron, consisting, besides his
(wn ship, of the Alliance of thirty-six guns, the Pallas of thirty-two,
the Serf of eighteen, the Vengeance of twelve, and two privateers,
which requested leave to share the commodore's fortunes.  After




_ _ _ _ _ _ _    _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. --  ---  --   -— ~   -r'BDD-P
LE BOBI E~~i'RME!%IC~tARD~ AND  THE     CAPU:{]I FT   HE8~IAI.








UNITED STATES.                    479
taking several prizes, the Serf, the privateers, and at length the Alliance, deserted the squadron. The commodore's good fortune, however, did not desert him. On the 15th September, he was, with his
own ship, the Pallas, the Vengeance, and several prizes, at the entrance into the Firth of Forth, where they made every necessary disposition to seize the guard ship, and two cutters, that rode at anchor
in the roads, and to lay Leith, and perhaps Edinburgh, under contribution. The wind, which was fair in the night, opposed them in the
morning. However, on the 16th, the little squadron continued all
day to work up the Firth. At this time, a member of the British
parliament observing them from the coast of Fife, and mistaking them
for the king's ships, sent off a boat to inforqm the commodore that he
was greatly afraid of Paul Jones, and to beg some powder and shot.
Ou.r hero, much amused with the message, sent him a barrel of gunpowder, with a civil answer to quiet his fears, and an apology for not
including shot in the present.
Next morning at daybreak, every thing was in perfect readiness to
commence the engagement, and two tacks more would have brought
the strangers alongside their enemies, when, at a critical moment, a
sudden gale of wind swept down the Firth, raging with such violence,
as completely to overpower them, to sink one of the prizes, and drive
all the rest of the squadron fairly out to sea. By this failure, the
captains of the Pallas and Vengeance were so much disheartened, that
they could not be prevailed on to renew the attempt.
Continuing their cruise, after various adventures, the squadron suddenly discovered the homeward-bound British Baltic fleet, off Scarborough castle, escorted by the frigate Serapis, and the Countess of
Scarborough. After a long engagement, in which Paul Jones displayed the most astonishing skill, intrepidity, and presence of mind,
the Countess of Scarborough struck to the Pallas, and the Serapis to
the Bon Homme Richard, which latter ship was reduced to so shattered a state, that next morning, after all hands had left her, she went
to the bottom. The Serapis was not in much better condition, the
commodore having, with his own hands, lashed the two ships together,
to prevent the enemy from availing himself of his superiority in
weight of metal.
This was the most obstinate naval contest on record. The Serapis
was commanded by Captain Pearson, a brave and skilful officer. Jones




480              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
~-~
C0)',1iODORE JOHIN PAUL JONES.
had not only to contend with a superior vessel; but, in the heat of
the battle, his vessel received several shots from the Alliance, as is
supposed, in mistake.  Nothing but the most determined courage and
superior ability could have triumphed under the circumstances. Jones
now took command of the' Serapis, erected jury masts, and with some
difficulty, conveyed his prizes to the Texel. There he took command
of the Alliance; and the Dutch being summoned to deliver him up
as a pirate and a rebel, he was forced to put to sea. He contrived to
make his escape, passing the Isle of Wight and Dover, in the very
face of the English fleets.
Towards the close of 1780, Captain Jones sailed for America, and
having encountered in his passage, the Triumph, an English vessel
of twenty guns, he forced her to strike.  By permission of Congress,
the king of France conferred upon the daring captain, the cross of the
order of military merit; and Congress passed a vote of thanks for his




UNITED STATES.                      481
services. Surely this was a brilliant commencement of a naval career.
A large number of privateers were fitted out at Philadelphia and
other ports, which constantly annoyed the commerce of Great Britain.
Captains Alexander Murray, John Barry, Nicholas Biddle, Joshua
Barney, and others, distinguished themselves by their activity and
daring, either in eluding the large fleets of the British or in capturing
their single vessels. Many vessels were destroyed even in the British
seas, by a light squadron, under Captain Wickes, and the English
merchants thrown into a state of constant alarm. But few large vessels of war were within the command of the marine committee; and
the majority of the individual exploits were accomplished by vessels
with letters of marque, or by those fitted out by the different colonial
governments.
So destructive to the navigation of England did the privateering
system become, that the government resolved to refuse to exchange
any more of the seamen that fell into their power.  By-acting o& this
policy, they collected a large body of prisoners, in 1780, sending them
to England in their return ships, and sensibly affected the nautical
enterprise of the Americans, who had but a limited number of seamen. By the fall of Charleston, the regular American marine was
much reduced; but the alliance with France brought the large and
powerful French fleets to the coasts, and Congress thought it unnecessary to make any effort to increase the number of its vessels. Several
well contested actions were fought during 1780, between single ships,
in all of which the superiority of the Americans was clearly manifest.
The Trumbull, twenty-eight, under Captain James Nicholson, senior
officer of the navy, encountered the Watt, 34 or 36 guns, on the 2d
of June, and for two hours and a half the vessels lay within a cable's
length, cannonading with effect.  An accident-the mainmast falling
-prevented Nicholson from securing a complete victory.  However,
the ships separated, the Watt having lost ninety-nine men in killed
and wounded, and the Trumbull but thirty-nine. The Watt was in all
respects, except sailing, the superior vessel.
In March, 1782, the Delaware was much infested by the barges
and small cruisers of the enemy. With a view to keep the navigation
open against the marauders, the'State of Pennsylvania determined to
fit out a few vessels at its own expense. With this object, a small ship,
named the Hyder Ally, unfit for any thing but commercial purposes,
FF             41




482              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
CAPTURE OF THE GENERAL MIONK.
was purchased and an armament of sixteen six-pounders put aboard
of her. Lieutenant Joshua Barney was selected as her commander.
Convoying a large fleet of merchantmen, the Hyder Ally got into
the Delaware on the 8th of April, and soon after was attacked by the
General Monk, of twenty guns, commanded by Captain Rodgers, while
a British brig witnessed the action. The battle lasted but half an hour,
when the General Monk struck, the two vessels remaining foul of
each other. This was one of the most brilliant achievements of the
American navy, and Captain Barney received great praise for the skill
and daring he had displayed, in attacking such a superior force. The
fleet of merchantmen was saved.
The country was too much exhausted by the war of the revolution to incur the expense of a marine during a time of peace.  But




UNITED STATES.                       483
the rapid growth of the commerce, and its unprotected state, excited
the cupidity of the Dey of Algiers, who captured the schooner Maria,
of Boston, in July, 1785. This outrage was succeeded by others, until'I!I,111 i, the government of the United States
found the necessity of arming.  This
decided measure was taken after the
organization of the government under
the new constitution, and during the
presidency of Washington, Six frigates
were ordered to be constructed, and
the keels of the following vessels were
laid:- the Constitution, forty-four,
United States, forty-four, President,
forty-four, Chesapeake, thirty-eight,
Constellation, thirty-eight, and ConMODORE BARNEY.   gress, thirty-eight. This was the commencement of the permanent marine of the United States. These frigates
were not launched until some years afterwards, in consequence of the
arrangement of the difficulties with Algiers; but the officers appointed to command them were continued in the service.
The President in his annual speech to Congress, in December, 1796,
strongly recommended laws for the gradual increase of the navy. The
general war in Europe proved very injurious to the commerce of this
country, and French cruisers even captured British and American
vessels in our own waters. All attempts to obtain redress failed; and
in April, 1798, the President submitted to Congress, a plan of armament and defence intended to check these aggressions. Twenty small
vessels were ordered to be built, and in the event of an open rupture,
it was recommended to Congress to authorize the building of six ships
of the line. The United States, forty-four, was the first vessel got
afloat, under the present organization of the navy. Congress authorized
the building of twelve vessels, none of which was to exceed twentytwo guns; and on the 30th of April, 1798, a regular navy department
was formally created. The whole naval force authorized by law, on
the 16th of July, 1798, consisted of twelve frigates; twelve ships of
a force not exceeding twenty-four guns; and six smaller sloops,
besides galleys and revenue cutters, making a total of thirty active
cruisers.




484              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
The Ganges twenty-four, under command of Captain Richard Dale,
was authorized to cruise along the coast and capture all French vessels there to be found with hostile intentions; and the Constellation,
thirty-eight, Captain Truxtun, and the Delaware, twenty, Captain
Decatur, went to sea in June, 1798, to cruise along the coast, south
of Cape Henry.  Decatur, when a few days out, captured a French
privateer schooner, Le Croyable, fourteen guns, and sent her into the
Delaware.  This vessel was altered and called the Retaliation.  The
activity of the American government now astonished those who had
thought that it would submit to almost any insult. By the close of
the year, three frigates, eleven sloops, and brigs, and nine smaller
vessels were at sea, under the orders of the government. iMost of these
were employed in the West Indies, or in convoying between the
islands and the United States. The Retaliation was recovered by the
French frigate Volontaire, in November of this year; but other
privateers were captured by the United States and Delaware.
A number of efficient vessels were got afloat at the commencement
of 1799, several being built by the different principal cities and presented to the general government. On the 9th of February, the
Constellation, thirty-eight, Commodore Truxtun, while cruising on her
prescribed ground, encountered the French frigate L'Insurgente,
forty, one of the fastest sailing ships in the world, commanded by the
brave and skilful Captain Berrault. A close contest of more than an
hour ensued, at the end of which, the Constellation being in a raking
position, L'Insurgente struck her colors. In this brilliant engagement between well matched forces, the French ship was much cut up,
and sustained a loss of seventy men in killed and wounded.  The
Constellation suffered in her upper works, but was not much damaged
in the hull, and had but three men wounded. With much difficulty,
L'Insurgente with all her crew as prisoners on board, was conducted
into St. Kitts, after being three days separated from the Constellation.
This victory rendered the navy still more popular with the people
of the United States, and the new ships were constructed as fast
as possible. The Congress, thirty-eight, and the Essex, thirty-two,
sailed at the close of 1799 to convoy vessels as far as Batavia.
The Congress was much damaged by a gale and forced to return; but
the Essex, Captain Preble, proceeded on her cruise, carrying her
pennant, for the first time, to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope.




UNITED STATES.                     485.     __,_         _    r i              
CAPTURE OF I'INSURGENTE.
The largest American squadron was forced to cruise in the vicinity of
the island of Guadaloupe, in consequence of the number of French
privateers proceeding from that place.
On the 1st of February, 1800, the Constellation, thirty-eight, Commodore Truxtun, was again off Guadaloupe, when a French frigate,
La Vengeance, fifty-two, Captain Pitot, came in'sight. Although the
French vessel was so much superior, Truxtun bravely prepared for
battle. It commenced at eight o'clock in the evening, and was continued with obstinacy for five hours, within pistol shot. Both vessels
were so shattered, that they separated about one o'clock without coming to a decisive result. Truxtun succeeded in reaching Jamaica in
safety, and Pitot got into Curagoa in a sinking condition. In this hard
fought battle, the Constellation had fourteen men killed and twentyfive wounded —eleven of the latter afterwards dying of their injuries.
Her antagonist had fifty killed and one hundred and ten wounded.
It is said, that La Vengeance struck her colors three three times during
the action, but seeing that no notice was taken of it, they were hoisted
again. Considering the disparity of force, the action must be con41*




486             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COMMODORE TRUXTUN.
sidered as in every way honorable to the Americans. Truxtun gained
a great name by this, his second brilliant affair.  Congress voted him
a gold medal, and he was given the command of the President, fortyfour. The Insurgente soon after went to sea, under Captain Fletcher,
and nothing more was ever heard of her.
The year 1800 was actively employed on both sides in the West
Indies. The French captured a considerable number of merchant
vessels, and the Americans a large number of their privateers —upwards of fifty sail. Peace was concluded between France and the
United States, in February, 1801; and thus ended a struggle, in
which the marine of the United States was permanently established,
and most of the officers afterwards celebrated, commenced their career.
At the peace with France, the cruising vessels in the service were
thirty-four in number, and of these, when the law reduced the navy
to a peace establishment, fourteen of the largest were retained.




COMlMODORE DALE.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
FROM 1801 TILL 1812.
__________ N the 14th of May, 1801, war was
proclaimed against the United States
by the Bashaw of Tripoli, in conse-:=___               c quence of the refusal to pay tribute.
Algiers and Tunis followed the exikA  W t   9    \         ample. Before it was known that
Tripoli had actually declared war, a
squadron was ordered to be fitted out
and sent to the Mediterranean to
=________       y overawe the Barbary powers. This
(487)




488             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
squadron consisted of the President, forty-four, Philadelphia, thirtyeight, Essex, 32, and Enterprise, 12, at the head of which was Com.
modore Dale, an officer already greatly distinguished.  On the 1st of
July, 1801, the squadron anchored at Gibraltar, and thus prevented
the Tripolitan admiral from getting into the Atlantic.
The appearance of this squadron quieted the resentment of the
rulers of Algiers and Tunis. The Enterprise soon after captured a
polacre-rigged ship of fourteen guns, called the Tripoli, after a desperate fight, in which the Turk thrice hauled down his flag and as
often renewed the contest. The President appeared off Tripoli on the
24th of August, and after some small captures the prisoners were
exchanged with the enemy, with whom Commodore Dale was desirous
of concluding a truce.  The President then left her station and proceeded to Gibraltar.  She was succeeded by the Essex.  The return
of Dale's squadron was ordered by the 1st of December; but discretionary power being given, he left the Essex and the Philadelphia in
the Mlediteranean; the first to guard the Straits, and the other to
watch the Tripolitans, making Syracuse her port of resort. Thus ended
the first year of the Tripolitan war. Although little was done towards
bringing the enemy to terms, much was effected in raising the discipline of the navy.
Early in 1802, Congress provided by law, for shipping crews for
two years. Preparations were made for sending out a relief squadron,
consisting  of the Chesapeake, thirty-eight, Constellation, thirtyeight, New York, thirty-six, John Adams, twenty-eight, Adams,
twenty-eight, and Enterprise, twelve.  Commodore Truxtun was
selected to command this squadron. The vessels composing it did not
sail together, but proceeded singly and at long intervals to the Mediterranean.  The Constellation, under Captain Murray, blockaded the
port of Tripoli, and had an engagement with a number of gun boats
belonging to the enemy. The gun boats were a good deal cut up, but
succeeded in escaping. After waiting for a reinforcement, Captain
Murray was compelled to quit his station, and Tripoli was again left
without blockade.
On the 3d of May, the John Adams was sent to blockade Tripoli,
and was soon joined by Commodore Morris, with the New York, Enterprise, and Adams. An attack was then made upon a fleet of vessels laden with wheat, and guirded by some gun boats. These vessels




UNITED STATES.                    489
CAPTAIN MURRAY.
succeeded in reaching the shore, where they were protected by batteries. They were attacked in that position, however, and although the
Americans failed to destroy them, they suffered considerably. Commodore Morris then made an effort to negotiate a treaty, but did not
succeed. He left the three vessels before the fort, in command of
Captain Rodgers, of the John Adams, and sailed to Malta.
On the 22d of June, the Enterprise, under Lieutenant Hull, gave
information of the approach of a Tripolitan corsair of twenty-two
guns, with a large number of men, and succeeded in keeping her off
from the shore until the John Adams came up. A number of gun
boats full of men went to the assistance of the Tripolitan vessel, and
their cavalry lined the shore. The John Adams opened her fire upon




490             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the ship, and the Enterprise then occupied the attention of the gun
boats. A smart cannonade was maintained for forty-five minutes, when
the men of the corsair abandoned their guns, and great numbers
leaped overboard and swam ashore. The vessel then blew up, and the
gun boats escaped to the shore.  The squadron, soon after this affair,
visited several Mediterranean ports.  Commodore Morris was recalled, and being thought guilty of neglect of duty, was dismissed
from the service. This measure was considered by many as highhanded and unjust. Captain Rodgers was temporarily left in command
in the Mediterranean.
The government soon became convinced of the necessity of some
light cruisers, to render a blockade effective; and accordingly, four
finely modeled vessels, carrying from twelve to sixteen guns, were
constructed. A new squadron was selected and despatched to the Mediterranean.  It consisted of the Constitution 44, Philadelphia 38,
Argus 16, Siren 16, Nautilus 12, Vixen 12, and Enterprise 12. Commodore Preble was selected to command this force, and he arrived in
the Mediterranean in September, 1803. This excellent officer soon
made preparations for bringing Tripoli to terms. But before the
squadron could assemble for this purpose an accident happened which
must be mentioned here. The Philadelphia, Captain Bainbridge, in
chasing some small Tripolitan vessels, ran aground near Tripoli.
Every exertion was made to get her off; but she was soon surrounded
by the gun boats of the enemy, and after a sharp contest, Bainbridge
surrendered, having previously made the vessel useless, by boring
holes in her bottom. The prisoners were plundered of every thing
valuable, and conducted to the bashaw.
The Tripolitan ruler now had power to propose higher terms of
peace. He expected a high ransom for the officers and crew of the
Philadelphia. That vessel was secured, her leaks stopped, her guns remounted and she was then anchored within a mile of the bashaw's castle.
Commodore Preble soon received information of the capture of the
Philadelphia, and letters from Bainbridge suggesting plans of destroying her. Preble mentioned the project to Lieutenant Stephen Decatur,
commander of the Enterprise.  The exploit had strong attractions for
the ardent and daring temperament of Decatur, and he had just before taken a ketch which offered the means of success. The attack
was planned by the judgment of Preble, and Decatur appointed to








—.-.1.~                                                                                                                                                                               _ _____
___ ___ ___ ___ —_- ___ _.
BURNNG OP THE PItILAT)ELPHIA.




UNITED  STATES.                     493
execute it.  Sixty-two men were picked, as being most active, and a
number of midshipmen volunteering, the whole force which embarked
in the ketch, Intrepid, was seventy-four men.
The Siren and Intrepid came in sight of Tripoli on the afternoon
of the 9th of February, 1804.  During the night, a reconnoisance
was made; but a violent gale prevented the execution of the project
and drove the ketch out to sea. On the 16th of February, the attempt
to enter the harbor was renewed, and the attack arranged judiciously
by Decatur. Fire arms were only to be used in the last extremity,
and the watchword was to be, " Philadelphia." The greater part of
the men lay upon deck, secured from the sight of the Tripolitans, and
as the vessel entered the harbor in the evening, but ten or
twelve were visible, the Philadelphia then lay a mile from the town,'and near several corsairs and gun boats.  The ketch was hailed, and
the interpreter amused the Turks until she was swung alongside of
the Philadelphia. In an instant the men sprang up, and led by Decatur, Morris, and others, were soon upon the deck of the frigate.
The surprise was as perfect as the assault was rapid and earnest. The
Turks leaped into the sea, when driven from the stern of the vessel,
and the resistance was trifling. The combustibles were then passed up
from the ketch, and the firing was so rapid that some of the Americans who went below were almost smothered before they had time to
ascend. All escaped, however, and the Intrepid pushed off from the
frigate, as the flames burst out from every part of her. Three hearty
cheers were then given by the daring crew, and they took to their
sweeps;  This aroused the Turks and all their batteries were at once
opened.  The Intrepid sustained no injury and was soon beyond the
reach of the enemy's guns.  The success of this undertaking laid the
foundation of Decatur's reputation, and he was immediately made a
captain. It also raised the confidence of the American seamen.
It was July 21st, 1804, when Commodore Preble was able to sail
from Malta with his whole force, to join the vessels cruising off Tripoli.
The blockade had been kept up for some months with vigor, and
the commodore felt the time had arrived for more active operations.
He had with him, the Constitution, Enterprise, Nautilus, two bombketches, and six gun boats. To these were joined before Tripoli, the
Siren, Argus, Scourge, and Vixen. Opposed to this force, the Tripoli-' s had one hundred and fifteen guns in battery, and two large
42




494             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI.
galleys. two schooners and a brig, all well manned, were moored in
the harbor. The only advantages possessed by the assailants in the
attack, were those of spirit, discipline and system. The attack began
on the 3d of August, 1804, by two bombards, and then the fire on
both sides began to roar. The gallant Decatur headed a desperate
attack upon the gun boats of the enemy, and besides being severely
wounded, came near losing his life in a hand to hand contest with
a Tripolitan. He was only saved by one of his men devotedly interposing his arm, which received the blow intended for the daring captain. His brother, Lieutenant James Decatur, nobly emulating his
brother's example, was shot through the head. The commander of
another boat, named Trippe, also engaged in a hand to hand fight with
the Turkish leader of a gun boat crew, and killed him, after a desperate battle, in which the gallant American received eleven sabre
wounds. Several of the enemy's gun boats were captured, and the
rest forced to seek safety in flight. The bombardment and cannonade
were continued with effect by the squadron, and then, satisfied for the
time, Preble hauled off with his prizes.




UNITED  STATES.                      495
The attack was renewed on the 7th of August, and several gun
boats destroyed, and batteries silenced. The bombs were of little use,
on account of the crippled state of the vessels.  On the 16th, Preble,
who had been waiting for a promised reinforcement, resolved to begin
another and more vigorous attack.  The positions of the enemy were
carefully reconnoitered by Decatur and Chauncey, and every prudent
preparation made to -render the assault effective.  On the 28th, a
favorable position was taken before the town of Tripoli, and the gun
boats, under seven of the most intrepid commanders, proceeded in the
night to their stations.  At dawn on the 29th, the enemy opened
their fire, and thirteen of their boats engaged those of the Americans
in the former desperate manner. One of them was sunk, two were
run ashore, and the rest retreated. The fire of the Constitution frigate
was tremendous, and did terrible execution in the town.  One shot
passed within six feet of Captain Bainbridge, the captive commander
of the Philadclelphia. After withstanding and returning the heavy fire
of the Tripolitan batteries for a considerable time, the Constitution
hauled off, and the gun boats followed.
On the night of the 4th of September, the Intrepid, which had
been converted into an "infernal machine," sailed into the harbor,
under the conduct of Captain Somers and a daring crew, who had
volunteered for the service, which was, the destruction of the enemy's
vessels.  She was perceived; a fire opened upon her, and in a few
minutes an awful explosion took place, and not one of her devoted crew
escaped to tell her fate. The campaign terminated with this destructive effort.  Commodore Preble had exhausted his ammunition, and
the season was so far advanced, that it was dangerous to remain on
that exposed coast. The commodore had displayed all the qualities
of a great naval commander, and was deserving of the thanks voted
him by Congress. A powerful fleet was maintained in the Mediterranean, and Preble was succeeded by Commodore Barron.
The blockade of Tripoli was continued during the bad season of
1804-5, but no attack was attempted. A large reinforcement of bombketches and gun boats was received early in 1805. A treaty of peace
was concluded in June, by which the prisoners in the hands of the
bashaw were ransomed for sixty thousand dollars; but no tribute was
to be paid in future. The influence'of the Tripolitan war upon the
American navy was incalculable.  It raised its character among for



496             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
AFFAI OF TIHE OESAPEAKE.
eign nations, to a degree that secured our commerce respect, and
afforded many noble examples of heroic daring almost unparalleled.
After the settlement of the relations between the United States, Tripoli,'and Tunis, the Mediterranean squadron was gradually withdrawn
-no fear of any further demonstration on the part of those powers
being entertained.
The frequent insults offered to American vessels, and the Chesapeake and Leopard, and the President and Little Belt affairs especially, created a growing hatred between England and the United
States, and led to the second war between the unnatural mother and
her offspring.  The Chesapeake, under Commodore Barron, sailed
from Hampton Roads for the Mediterranean on the 22d of June,
1807. She had a new, undisciplined crew, and was totally unprepared
for a sea fight. A British squadron was stationed at the mouth of
Chesapeake bay, watching some French vessels.  One of the vessels
of this squadron, the Leopard frigate, 56, proceeded to meet the




UNITED STATES.                       497
Chesapeake, and sent a boat to her, with a request to search the vessel
for deserters. Commodore Barron returned answer, that there were
no deserters on board of his vessel, and his orders would not allow him
to let his people be mustered by any officers but their own. The
Leopard, then, being in all respects as ready for action as the Chesapeake was unfit, fired a broadside into the American vessel, wounding
Commodore Barron and his aid. Every exertion was made to get the
guns ready; but the means of discharging them were absolutely wanting.  For twelve or fifteen minutes the Leopard poured in her fire
upon an unresisting ship. But one gun was fired from the Chesapeakle,
and then she hauled down her colors.  Three men were then taken
by the Leopard as deserters, and the Chesapeake allowed to go into
Hampton Roads. This affair aroused a feeling of indignation in the
breasts of the American people.  Commodore Barron was tried by
court martial, acquitted of cowardice, but found guilty of neglect in
not clearing his ship for action.
After Congress met, the President interdicted all British vessels of
war from entering the American waters.. On the 18th of December,
a law was passed authorizing the construction of one hundred and
eighty-eight gun boats, a force only useful for defensive purposes.
The number of seamen was increased to nearly seven thousand. It
was also thought necessary to begin to construct a naval force for
operations on the lakes; the English having already a force on lakes
Erie and Ontario, and, accordingly, gun boats were placed on Lake
Champlain, and a brig of sixteen guns on Lake Ontario.
The British cruisers continued their impressment of American seamen, under pretence of searching for deserters, and all American
vessels were subject to a constant annoyance.  In the spring of 1811,
the President 44, Commodore Rodgers, when within six leagues of
the land, southward of New York, came in sight of a British ship of
war-the Little Belt 18, Captain Bingham. Chase was immediately
made, to get within hail; but the Little Belt stood away southward.
On getting within gun shot, Rodgers hailed the British vessel. No
answer was returned; but a single gun was fired by the Little Belt,
and then her whole broadside. The President, of course, returned
the fire, with interest, completely disabling the British vessel. Thirty
of her people were killed or wounded. The encounter caused great
GG             42*




498            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
excitement both in England and the United States. Captain Rodgers
and Captain Bingham told different stories of the affair, and particularly, in regard to firing the first gun. But as the statement of Captain Rodgers was made upon oath before a court martial, and that of
Captain Bingham was not, the former was entitled to the most credit.
The consequence of this affair was, an increased alienation of the people
of the two countries, which made it evident that an open rupture was
at hand. A large majority of the people of the United States cherished an intense hatred of the English government, and eagerly sought
every occasion to add to the flame of discord.




CHAPTER XXXV.
THE NAVAL OPERATIONS ON THE OCEAN OF THE WAR,
FROM 1812 TO 1815.
T the commencement of the struggle with
Great Britain, on the 18th of June, 1812,
the contrast of the two navies was remarkable. Great Britain had between seven hun~   *T  ((AI"  dred and eight hundred efficient cruising
vessels, the greater number of which could
i 1@ tl     be directed against the Unitedl States.  To
14~lX illll l g 0|I'- oppose this powerful force, the United:! s,:.  l.W!   a - States had three frigates of forty-four guns
each, three of thirty-eight guns, one of
thirty-six, one of thirty-two, three vessels of twenty-eight, two of
eighteen, three of sixteen, three of fourteen, and one of twelve guns.
The English bore. the reputation of being invincible upon the sea,
and the general feeling in America was that of distrust of their own
ability.
(499)




500             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Commodore Rodgers was soon at sea, with the President, United
States, Hornet, Congress, and Argus. It was determined to make a
dash at a large fleet of Jamaica-men, then expected northward. In
moving towards the gulf stream, the President, being ahead of the
rest of the squadron, fell in with the British frigate Belvidera, of 36
guns, Captain Byron. The President fired the first shot of the war,
and then both vessels poured their destructive thunders into each
other. The Belvidera was enabled to haul off much injured and with
seven killed and wounded. The President suffered less in injury to
the vessel, but had twenty-one killed and wounded. The Jamaica
fleet succeeded in eluding the American squadron, which then put
into Boston. During the whole cruise of seventy days, seven merchantmen and one letter of marque were captured.
The British collected a fleet as soon as they received the intelligence of the declaration of war, and a force, consisting of the Africa
64, the Shannon 38, Guerriere 38, Belvidera 36, and lEolus 32; all
under orders of Captain Broke, sailed with the hope of meeting this
squadron of Commodore Rodgers.  The British squadron captured
the Nautilus 14 guns, after a long chase, early in July; and thus was
an active cruiser lost to the American service.
On her return from a run to Europe, the Constitution 44, Captain
Hull, had gone into the Chesapeake.  Here she shipped a new crew,
and on the 12th of July, sailed southward. On the 17th, being out
of sight of land, a British frigate, in company with other vessels,
was descried. Sail was immediately made, and at dawn on the 18th,
the squadron of Commodore Broke was made out. They soon closed,
and the Constitution had two frigates on her lee quarter, and a ship
of the line, two frigates, a brig, and a schooner astern. Every preparation was made for a contest, and several shots exchanged with
the nearest vessels. It seemed as if the British squadron would overwhelm the Constitution as she tacked, and gliding away, was followed
by the whole force. The chase was continued, the Constitution gaining on the enemy, for three days and nights, and then the English
squadron hauled off to the northward. Throughout this long and
trying chase, the Constitution and her noble crew, extorted admiration
from the enemy.  A few days after, the English squadron separated,
in the hope of meeting the American frigate in single combat.
The Essex 32, Captain Porter, captured the Minerva frigate 36




UNITED STATES.                       501
ESCAPE OF THE CONSTITUTION FRO31 THE BIITISH SQUADRON.
guns, with one hundred and fifty soldiers on board, during a cruise to
the southward from New York; and soon after, the Alert 20 guns;
another British ship was taken by the stratagem  of disguising the
Essex as a merchant vessel.  The Essex continued to cruise to the
southward of the Grand Bank, running considerable risk from the
number of the enemy's frigates, and then put into the Delaware for
supplies.
The Constitution was not idle.  Hull sailed from  Boston on the
2d of August, and stood to the eastward, hoping to meet some of the
enemy's cruisers.  Several small vessels were captured, and burned,
and a privateer and a prize American brig were taken and sent into
port. The Constitution then stood southward, and on the 19th, came
in sight of a frigate which proved to be the Guerriere 38, Captain
Dacres.  Chase was made, and the Englishman shortened sail, and




502             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
_COMIMODORE HULL.
COMMODORE MULL,
prepared for battle.  The Constitution withstood the fire of the Guerriere, without returning it, as she could have done, until close enough
to do it with effect. The vessels were soon side by side, pouring a
heavy fire into each other, and as they touched, both parties prepared
to board; but the fire was too heavy, and neither had the opportunity.
The Constitution shot ahead and secured a raking position. Just then,
the foremast and mainmast of the Guerriere fell, leaving her a helpless wreck. She then, of course, surrendered. It being found impossible to keep the British frigate afloat, her crew was removed, and
the vessel blown up. Hull then returned to Boston, encumbered
with his wounded and prisoners. In this, the first single combat of
the war, the Constitution suffered in her rigging and sails, but little
in her hull. Her loss in men, was seven killed and seven wounded.




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UNITED STATES.                        505
y,,rlfl?DO  DEAt           t
COMIMODORE DECATUR.
On the other hand, the Guerriere was completely dismasted, had
seventy-nine killed and wounded, and received thirty shot as low as
five sheets of copper beneath the bends. - The battle lasted two hours,
but the greater part of the execution was done in one-fourth of the time.
The moral effect of the victory was remarkable. Although the Constitution was the superior vessel: the fact of her having conquered a
British frigate of nearly equal force in a regular engagement, destroyed the charmed circle of invincibility so long existing around the
British reputation.
The Constitution was soon ready, for sea again, and sailed, under
Captain Bainbridge, in September.  Congress did nothing of importance towards increasing the navy during the year 1812, and it was
left to the officers to demonstrate their ability to maintain the honor
43




606             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
of their country before it would confide to them sufficient means. The
United States 44, under Captain Decatur, encountered the British
frigate Macedonian 38, Captain Carden, on Sunday, October 25th, in
lat. 29~ N., long. 290 30' W.  The firing commenced when the vessels were within a mile of each other, and was continued for more
than an hour-the Macedonian suffering greatly, and the United
States but trifling injury. On taking possession of the British vessel,
Decatur found that she was fearfully cut to pieces, having received
one hundred round shot in her hull alone. Of three hundred men on
board, thirty-six were killed and sixty-eight wounded. The United
States had five men killed and seven wounded. Although heavier
in armament than her opponent the results of the contest were vastly
disproportioned in favor of the United States. The frigate and her
prize sailed for New York. The previous brilliant reputation of Decatur was confirmed and heightened by the bravery and skill which
he exhibited in the action.
A more equal conflict took
place in October. On the 13th
of that month, the Wasp, a ship
of war of 18 guns, Captain Jones,
sailed from the Delawareto clear
the coast, and get in the track
of vessels steering north. On the
night of the 17th, a convoy of
six English ships, under the
charge of a heavy brig of war,
was descried.  The commander
of the brig seemed desirous of a
COMMODORE JONES.       combat, and shortening sail let
the convoy proceed. The vessels were soon near enough to pour in
their broadsides. The fire of the English vessel was rapid, but that
of the Wasp was deliberate and deadly. The vessels closed, and the
impetuous crew of the Wasp sprang upon the deck of the enemy; but
there was little opposition. There was scarcely twenty of her people
left unhurt.  Lieutenant Biddle lowered the flag, and the officers
threw down their swords in submission. The battle lasted forty-three
minutes. The prize proved to be the Frolic, a sloop of war of 18 guns,
Captain Whinyates.  The Wasp was much cut up aloft, and had five




UNITED STATES AND MACEDONIAN.








UNITED STATES.                      509
WASP AND) PROMc.
men killed and five wounded.  The Frolic had been hulled at almost
every discharge, and her masts fell, as the vessels separated. Her loss
in men is not precisely known; but Captain Whinyates' statement
leaves us to infer, that the number of killed and wounded reached
between ninety and one hundred. The result occasioned much exultation in America.
These brilliant achievements followed each other in rapid succession. Scarcely had exultation for one victory gladdened the hearts of
the Americans when another was reported equaling or excelling it.
Victory seemed chained to the American flag; bound to follow wherever
it floated.  South of St. Salvador, on the 29th of December, the
Constitution, "Old Ironsides," under Captain Bainbridge, fell in with
the British frigate, Java, 38 guns, Captain Lambert. The battle commenced at 2, P. M., with a furious cannonade from both sides. Considerable manceuvring to gain a raking position followed; but neither
- assel succeeded, and they were finally brought alongside-yard arm
and yard arm. The fire was destructive for a while, and then the
43*




510             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COMMODORE BAINBRIDGE.
vessels got clear of each other, and the fire ceased-the American
captain thinking the enemy had struck. He busily employed his men
in repairing the damage in his rigging, and in about an hour, observing an ensign still flying aboard the Java, the fire was renewed, and
the enemy struck. This battle lasted about two hours, and was well
contested.  Although there was more manoeuvring than common, the
Java was literally picked to pieces by shot, spar following spar, until
she had not one left. Her hull was also greatly injured; and her loss
in men was sixty killed and one hundred and one wounded. The
Constitution did not lose a spar.  Of her crew, nine were killed and
twenty-five wounded. The Java was blown up, and the Constitution
made way to St. Salvador, where her prisoners were landed on parole.
On the 24th of February, the Hornet, 20 guns, Captain Lawrence,








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UNITED STATES.                       513
CAPTAIN LAWNRENE.
fell in with the brig Peacock, 20 guns, Captain Peake near Demarara
river.  Having got the weather gage, the Hornet poured such a tremendous fire into the enemy, that she struck and hoisted a signal of
distress, in thirty minutes. The Peacock was found to be rapidly sinking, and every exertion was made by the Hornet's crew to remove the
prisoners. In spite of this, however, nine of the Peacock's and three
of the Hornet's crew went down with the wreck. In this short battle,
the British had their captain and four men killed, and thirty-three
wounded.  The Hornet had one man killed and two wounded, in addition to two men badly hurt by the explosion of a cartridge. The
Hornet was superior in the weight of her metal; but there was the




514              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
same disproportion in the amount of execution done as in the affair of
the Constitution and Java.
These successes procured Captain Bainbridge and Captain Lawrence
medals, swords, and votes of thanks from the different legislatures,
and served to increase the popularity of the navy. On the 2d of
January, 1813, Congress passed an act, authorizing the building of
four ships, to rate not less than 74 guns each, and six ships, to rate
at 44 guns each; and soon after, another act authorized the building
of six sloops of war on the sea board, and as many vessels on the lakes
as would be required.
The Essex frigate, Captain Porter, left the Delaware in the latter
part of October; but did not meet an enemy for several weeks. Having crossed the equator in long. 300 W., however, she fell in with
and captured a British brig, 10 guns. This brig was put in possession of a prize crew, with directions to proceed to Boston. On its
passage it was overtaken and captured by a British frigate; and thus
the Essex lost her first prize. Captain Porter then cruised for some
time in the neighborhood of St. Salvador, and not finding the Constitution and Hornet, he resolved to sail for a cruise in the Pacific.
This was in January, 1813.  On the 5th of March, he anchored off
the island of Mocha, not having met an enemy for two months.
Hearing that Chili had thrown off the Spanish authority, and being
in great want of supplies, Captain Porter put into Valparaiso, where
he remained a week. Upon resuming his cruise, he captured a Peruvian cruiser, in search of American vessels, and two merchant ships.
Two privateers of 18 guns each, were captured, one of them, the
Georgiana, was equipped as an American cruiser.
It was soon found the Essex and Georgiana could not keep company,
in consequence of the bad sailing of the latter.  A number of other
captures were made, and Porter increased his force to nine sail. With
these, he swept the seas of the enemies of America, and established
his reputation as a great naval commander.  In January, the Essex,
and the Essex Junior, a prize converted into a cruiser, arrived at Valparaiso.  The rest of the prizes were sent home. Near Valparaiso,
the British frigate Phebe 36, Captain Hillyar, and the Cherub 20,
Captain Tucker, were met, and Porter was anxious to bring the Phoebe
to action, though a superior vessel. But the attendance of the Cherub
prevented the prudent commander from attaining his object. Having




UNITED STATES.                       515
3               _ =._______
CRUISE OF THE ESSEX.
heard that several other British cruisers were expected at Valparaiso,
Porter determined to go to sea.  In this attempt, a squall carried
away the main topmast, and drowned several men; and under these
circumstances, nothing remained but to regain the port, or fight both
the enemy's ships, in a crippled state.  The British vessels soon saw
their advantage, and approached the Essex to engage her.  The fire
was opened at four, P. M., and was destructive to the American vessel.
However, both of the enemy's vessels were compelled to haul off to
repair damages, so well were the guns of the Americans. served. The
attack was renewed under more favorable circumstances.  The Essex
ran down on her enemies, and though her decks were strewn with
killed and wounded, returned their fire with tremendous effect.  But
the Phoebe, possessed an immense advantage in her long guns, and she
was enabled to haul off, and play upon the Essex at pleasure.  The
slaughter on the American vessel rwas horrible.  Porter fought till
the greater part of his crew were shot down, his vessel a wreck and
on fire, and no officers living but himself to command her.  He then
felt it his duty to strike his colors.
In this desperate battle, the Essex had fifty-eight men killed and sixtysix wounded-nearly one-half of those on board at the commellncement




516              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COMMODORE PORTER.
of the action. Thirty-one were missing, most of whom were drowned,
in attempting to swim ashore, while the ship was on fire. The English ships were cut up more than could be expected under the circumstances, the Phoebe receiving eighteen twelve pound shot below
the water line. Their loss was five killed and ten wounded. The
Essex Junior was converted into a cartel, andl with the prisoners on
board, sailed for New  York, where Captain Porter succeeded in
escaping to Long Island. Thus terminated this great cruise. Its
end was as disastrous, as its commencement was fortunate; yet, at
all times, it was a display of almost unequaled spirit, perseverance,
and resources.
The victorious career of the American vessels was destined to
receive a severe check.




UNITED STATES.                      517
THE CHESAPEARE SAILING OUT OF BOSTON HARBOR.
The Chesapeake 38, Captain James Lawrence was lying in Boston
harbor in the latter part of May, 1813.  The British had stationed
two frigates, the Shannon 38, and Tenedos 38, off Boston, to watch
for American vessels. When it was understood that the Chesapeake
was ready to sail, Captain Broke, of the Shannon, sent Lawrence a
challenge to meet his vessel in equal combat.  The high spirited
Lawrence, although his crew were mercenary and mutinous, resolved
to accept the challenge. He sailed out in the bay, and at five o'clock,
P. M., on the 1st of June, the battle began, the vessels soon being
yard-arm and yard-arm. For six or eight minutes, the cannonade was
fierce and destructive on both sides.  The Shannon was enabled to
sweep the upper decks of the Chesapeake, and soon the American
44




518             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
frigate was left without an officer. Lawrence, and Ludlow, his first
lieutenant, were mortally wounded. The British boarded, and took
complete possession of the ship, with but little resistance. Lawrence
was carried below, and earnestly besought his crew not to yield. But
the men had not the means of resistance.. Few naval battles have
been more bloody than this. It lasted but fifteen minutes, yet both
vessels were charnel houses. The Chesapeake had forty-eight men
killed and ninety-eight wounded. The Shannon had twenty-three
killed and fifty-six wounded, principally by the broadside of the
Chesapeake.  Captain Broke was badly wounded. As soon as the
ships were clear of each other, they both made sail for Halifax. Captain Lawrence died of his wounds on the 6th of June, and with Lieutenant Ludlow, was buried by the enemy with military honors.
The capture of the Chesapeake produced a degree of exultation on
the part of the British, and of depression on the part of the Americans, which shows to what a state each had been accustomed during
the war. The British were overjoyed, because the victory was unusual;
the Americans were depressed, because they looked upon victory as
certain. Captain Lawrence rather gained. than lost in his reputation
by his bravery.  It was evident, he did all a commander could do
under the circumstances.
The Enterprise 14, Lieutenant Burrows commanding, left Portsmouth, N. H., on the 1st of September, 1813, and steering to the
eastward, in quest of privateers, reported to be near Manhagan. On
opening the bay, near Penguin Point, a British brig of war came in
sight, and both vessels at once prepared for a struggle.  The combat
lasted from twenty minutes past three, r. M., Luntil four. It was hot
and vigorous, and was distinguished by a novel'manoeuvre on the part
of the Enterprise. Having a stern chaser in position, Burrows kept
his vessel playing upon the bows of the enemy, while she was ready
at any moment to meet a change of position on their part.  The
colors of the British vessel were nailed to the mast, and she could
only be surrendered by hailing to the Enterprise to stop her destructive fire.  The brig proved to be the Boxer 14, Captain Blythe, an
officer of merit, who was nearly cut in two by an eighteen pound shot.
Her loss in killed, was supposed to be heavy, but was not ascertained;
there were fourteen men wounded. The Enterprise had one man killed
and thirteen wounded, of whom three, including her gallant captain,




UNITED STATES.                      519
_,_                                          = 
ENTERPRISE AND BOXER.
subsequently died. The Boxer was much cut up in hull and rigging;
the Enterprise suffered but little. The vessels were carried into
Portland on the 7th, and Lieutenant Burrows and Blythe were both
burried with the honors of war. This victory is considered as the fair
triumph of skill and bravery-as the opposing forces were equal.
In June of this year, the brig Argus 20 guns, Captain Allen, which
had caused the British merchants much alarm by cruising in their own
seas after the manner of Paul Jones, and Captain Wyckes was captured by the brig Pelican, Captain Maples, a vessel one-fourth larger
than the Argus. The crew of the Argus were exhausted, from their
constant exertions to escape the British frigates, and also intoxicated
at the time of the capture, from having partaken too excessively of
the freight of a vessel from Oporto, laden with wines. Yet in spite
of this state of things, the Argus was not surrendered until Captain
Allen was mortally wounded, and his first lieutenant, Watson, severely
hurt. The second lieutenant, W. H. Allen, continued the struggle
manfully, until no longer possible, and then struck. The Argus had
two midshipmen and four men killed, and seventeen wounded, in an
action of three quarters of an hour.  The Pelican had seven men
killed or wounded. The loss of this active cruiser was severely felt




520             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
itL'
CAPTAIN ALLEN.
by the Americans. But when all the circumstances of the action are
considered, it could not be thought a humiliation.
Shortly after the commencement of the war, the British had a hundred vessels in the American seas. About twenty of these were in the
Chesapeake.  When either of the vessels approached the land in a
favorable position for attack, there were always flotillas of gun boats
ready to annoy her; and one of the frigates came near being captured
on one occasion. She was saved by the interposition of another vessel
of the fleet. The attack was made by fifteen gun boats, under Captain
Tarbell, the fire from which was very effective.
In the summer of 1814, several new ships were put into the water;
among them were the Independence 74, the Guerriere and Java, 44
each, and the Wasp, Frolic and Peacock, ships of war.  The Frolic




UNITED STATES.                    521
CAPTAIN BLAKELY.
was soon captured by the British frigate Orpheus 36, Captain Pigot.
There was no action-the disparity of force being too great.
On the 28th of June, 1814, the Wasp 18, Captain Blakely, in the
neighborhood of the British Channel, fell in with the Reindeer 18,
Captain Manners. After a destructive cannonade, the vessels closed,
and the English made several trials to board the Wasp, led by their
commander in person; but they were repulsed with steadiness. Two
or three desperate efforts having failed, Blakely gave the order in
turn to board the Englishman, and in an instant, their flag was
lowered.  The contest lasted twenty-eight minutes.  The loss of the
Reindeer was twenty-five killed and forty-two wounded; among the
slain was Captain Manners. The Wasp had five men killed and twenty44*




52 2            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
two wounded. The Reindeer was reduced to a wreck. The Wasp was
hulled six times, and was filled with grape.  Blakely put a portion
of his wounded on board a neutral, and proceeded himself to l'Orient;
the prize was burned.
After being detained in port until the 27th of August, the Wasp
sailed on another cruise. She made three or four captures of merchant
vessels, and on the night of the 1st of September, encountered a
British brig of 18 guns, and after an action of thirty-six minutes,
compelled her to strike. Before the Wasp could lower a boat to take
possession, another brig of the same size came in sight, and she was
forced to abandon her prize, and prepare to meet the new-comer. The
brig came up and threw in her broadside, but the vessel which had
struck firing signals of distress, she went to her assistance. The
Wasp left so suddenly that she did not learn the name of her prize.
She had two men killed and one wounded; the latter by a wad, which
proves the closeness of the combat. Her hull was much injured, and
her rigging cut up. It is now known that the vessel captured was the
Avon 18, Captain Arbuthnot.  She sunk, and her people were saved
with difficulty. Her loss in the action was supposed to be between
thirty and fifty. The Wasp captured three other vessels, one of which,
the Atalanta, 8 guns, was sent to America, under command of Midshipman Geisinger. The Atalanta arrived at Savannah, November 4th, and
this was the last that ever was heard of the gallant Wasp and her noble
crew. Doubtless, however, the insatiable ocean took them for its own.
The Peacock 18, Captain Warrington, went to sea from New York
in IMarch, 1814, and proceeding southward, cruised in the vicinity of
the coast of Florida.  On the 29th of April, she met the sloop of
war Epervier 18, Captain Wales, and a close and well fought action
ensued.  There was no opportunity for manceuvring, and the battle
was decided in forty-two minutes, by gunnery alone. The Epervier
was reduced to a mere wreck, and had forty-five shot in her hull.
Twenty-two of her men were killed or wounded. The Peacock received
slight injury, and had but two men wounded. She was the heavier vessel, but, as usual, the disparity in loss was far greater than that of the
forces engaged. Specie to the amount of one hundred and eighty thousand dollars was captured in the Epervier. As soon as the vessels could
be got ready, they were, with difficulty, conducted to Savannah-the
sea swarming with British cruisers.




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UNITED STATES.                     525
CAPTAIN' WAR RING TON.
The President, Congress, and the other five frigates, were at sea many
months; but could not succeed in bringing a single vessel to contend
with them. Their prizes consisted entirely of merchantmen. The
predatory excursions of the British in the Chesapeake, gave rise to
many skirmishes with the detached militia of the country, in some
of which boats were taken from the enemy, and many of their number
killed or wounded. But the superiority of the English in their large
vessels, gave them power to choose their time and mode of attack, and
their success was in proportion. The government had equipped a
large flotilla to protect these waters, the command of which was given
to Captain Joshua Barney, an officer distinguished for his capture of
the General Monk, in the revolutionary war.  His operations were
boldly planned and executed; but he could not prevent the advance




526              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
RAVAGES OF THE BRITISH ON TIHE SHORES OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY.
of the British ships up the bay. The seamen and marines did all
that could be expected of brave men both on land and sea; the nunmbers and discipline of the enemy were overwhelming.  When Washington was taken, the inhabitants destroyed two vessels, then on the
stocks, together with a considerable quantity of naval stores, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy.
In all the operations in the defence of New Orleans, the navy bore a
full and highly creditable share. The flotilla of gun boats was placed
under the commancl of Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones.  On
the 15th of December, this force was attacked by the English, in forty
or fifty barges, and after an obstinate conflict, in which the assailants
lost more than a hundred men, they succeeded in capturing the whole
flotilla. The result, however, was considlered as a triumph on the
part of the Americans.  Several large men-of-war aided the efforts of
the defenders upon land, by their effective fire, and contributed in no
slight degree to the glorious result of the short campaign.




CHAPTER XXXVI.
NAVAL OPERATIONS ON THE LAKES.
--  HE English government
___.//_      hhad long maintained a
___ ~-'//,',           sm-__all naval force on the.:__,,__.__-l~i          great  lakes;  though
-".",'      much the larger portion
of  Champlain  being
within the jurisdiction
_  K    of the United States, it.~_~, ~had kept no. cruiser on
_____-   / ~     that water.  On Lake
Ontario, however, the
force was efficient. The
naval station  on  the
American side of that
527




528             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
COMMIODRE CHAUNCEY.
lake, was at Sackett's Harbor, not far from the commencement of the
St. Lawrence.  The United States had built one vessel of sixteen
guns, called the Oneida; but the superiority of the enemy, prevented
it from taking any active measures. When hostilities were fairly
begun between the United States and England, Congress selected
Captain Isaac Chauncey, to take command of the American forces on
Lake Ontario, and to superintend the construction of a number of
vessels sufficient to cope with the enemy.
A number of schooners were armed and equipped for service, until
the regular war vessels could be completed.  With the Oneida, the
entire flotilla that could be made available, mounted forty guns, and
was manned'by four'hundred and thirty men, marines included. The
British, at that time, had a force in guns more than double that




UNITED  STATES.                       529
-.,._,-_ —
THE CITADEL OF KINGSTON, FOM THE ST. LAWRENCE.
under Chauncey's orders; and as cruising vessels, their squadron possessed many advantages over those of the Americans. Commodore
Chauncey first appeared on the lake on the 8th of November, with his
broad pennant flying on board of the Oneida 16, having in company,
the Conquest, Hamilton, Governor Tompkins, Pert, Julia, and
Growler, each carrying four guns. The object of going out was to
intercept the return of the enemy's vessels, which were known to be
conveying supplies to Kingston. The flotilla had scarcely taken its
station at the islands, known as the False Ducks, when the Royal
George 22, much the largest ship that had yet appeared on the lakes,
was discovered near the shore. Chauncey immediately gave chase,
and actually followed this ship, of such superior force, until it' took
refuge under the batteries of Kingston.
It was then determined to attack the batteries and the Royal George
at the same time.  The American vessels gallantly sailed into the
harbor, and delivered their fire with effect, receiving in return the fire
of five batteries and the guns of the Royal George. The action was
II                 45




530             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
CAPTURE OF THE CALEDONIA AND DETROIT.
maintained for half an hour, when the weather looking threatening,
and the pilots refusing to be responsible for the vessels, Chauncey
ordered the flotilla to haul off, intending to renew the attack next
morning. In this spirited affair, the Americans suffered less than
might have been expected, considering the disparity of forces employed.
The Oneida had one man killed and three wounded; the rest of the
flotilla came off still better, having but a few wounded. The vessels
shortly after returned to port, bringing with them two or three small
prizes.  From this time until December, the American commander
had undisputed possession of the lake; although so much superior,
the British squadron could not be brought to action.
The United States had no war vessels on Lake Erie until the 9th
of October, when they obtained one through the gallant exertions of
Lieutenant Elliot, of the navy. This officer, being at Black Rock,
and seeing two British vessels lying under the guns of Fort Erie,
determined to cut them out.  With this object, he embarked at midnight, accompanied by fifty volunteers, and, in a very few minutes,
carried both of the vessels by boarding. The current, however, was so




UNITED STATES.                      531
~.  ~.~.
=        _=iij  Fuaia    =-             ---
SACKETT'S HARBOR.
strong, that they were run aground; and one of them, an armed vessel,
called the Detroit, was afterwards burnt. The other, a merchant brig,
called the Caledonia, with a valuable cargo of furs, was secured under
the batteries of Black Rock. The whole affair was honorable to Lieutenant Elliot and his brave associates, and clearly indicated what the
enemy might expect, when the Americans should have greater means
at their command on the lakes.
Both parties employed the winter of 1812 —13, in building. In the
course of the autumn, the Americans had increased their force to
eleven sail, ten of which were small schooners bought from the merchants on the lake. Neither of the ten was fit to cruise; but in attacking batteries and covering batteries, they were found to be exceedingly
serviceable. On the 26th of November, a new ship, pierced for 24
guns, and called the Madison, was launched at Saclkett's Hlarbor, and
the keel of another large one laid. About the same time, the enemy
made choice of Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo, to command their lake
forces.
On the 22d of April, 1813, the scluadron being ready, General




532             UNIVER RSAL NAVAL  IISTORY.
_        _~~~~_    I                               7=-__ -_
rAIR —OF= —-RT -G___EOR.-_ -_
CAPTURE OF FORT GEORGE.
Dearborn embarked seventeen hundred men. The troops were very
much crowded; the Madison, alone, had six hundred men in her.
On the 25th, the squadron got out, and sailed for York, where it
arrived next day without accident. The squadron was anchored about
a mile from the shore, and during the attack upon York, covered the
movements of the troops by a rapid fire. York was taken and remained
in possession of the Americans until the 1st of May, when they evacuated it to proceed upon other duty. The Duke of Gloucester, a vessel
which had been undergoing repairs, was captured, and a vessel of 20
guns burnt upon the stocks; a considerable quantity of naval and
military stores was destroyed or taken to Sackett's Harbor.
About the middle of May, Chauncey began to make preparation for
a descent upon Fort George. He reconnoitred the coast near that port,
himself, and having every thing skilfully planned, the squadron
weighed anchor on the 27th of May. Captain Perry was the sea
officer second in rank, and Chauncey confided to him the duty of




UNITED  STATES.                     533
QUEENSTOWN.
attending to the landing of the troops.  The marines of the squadro.n
were embodied in the regiment of Colonel Macomb.  When all was
ready, the advance vessels swept into the stations ordered them, and
opened their fire with effect.  The boats, with the troops under
Colonel Scott and Captain Perry, dashed in, and the forces were
landed without difficulty. Three hours after the landing was effected,
the town and fort were in quiet possession of the Americans-the
British retiring to Queenstown. In this brilliant affair, the navy had
hut one man killed and two wounded.  The trifling loss of the assailants must be attributed to the covering fire of the squadron.
In revenge for the blow at York, Sir James L. Yeo and Sir George
Prevost determined to strike a home thrust at Sackett's Harbor. On
the 28th of May, the Wolfe, Royal George, Morra, Prince Regent,
Simcoe and Seneca, with two gun boats and a strong brigade of barges
and flat bottomed boats, appeared off that station.  A conflict with
some gun boats followed, and twelve were driven ashore and taken
45*




534             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
after being abandoned by the Americans. The British troops, under
Sir George Prevost, then landed, and at first carried all before them.
But some regulars coming up, the enemy were driven to their
boats, with loss. The American squadron was of little assistance in
this affair. Had it acted as at Fort George, the result would have
been a more disastrous defeat for the enemy. But as it was, they were
allowed to carry away twelve boats used for transporting troops.
The General Pike, pierced for 26 guns, was launched on the 12th
of June. This raised the entire strength of Commodore Chauncey's
fleet to 108 guns. This force, however, was not all available. On
the 7th of August, the British squadron, consisting of two ships, two
brigs, and two large schooners, was seen to the northwest of the mouth
of the Niagara. Chauncey immediately put his fleet of thirteen sail
in motion, and it was expected a regular battle would ensue. As both
commanders knew how much depended upon the struggle, they were
anxious to get as much advantage as possible. After many manoeuvres,
a few shots were exchanged, and a gale springing up, two of the light
American schooners were capsized and, all of their crews but sixteen
men were drowned. After this accident, another long series of manceuvres followed, no advantage being gained by either party. Twice
was the line of battle formed and altered, and by the last disposition, two.schooners, the commanders of which let their zeal run away
with their judgment, were captured by the large ships of the British
squadron. Chauncey then thought it wisest to return to his station,
at Sackett's Harbor, in consequence of his inferior force, and a violent
gale.
The squadron arrived at Sackett's Harbor on the 13th, and the wind
failing, it took in supplies, and immediately started upon another
cruise. No important operations took place, however, and violent
storms again forced the vessels to return to the Harbor. On the 18th
of August, a new schooner, named the Sylph, was launched and
equipped with extraordinary expedition.  She mounted 10 guns, and
was considered weatherly. On the 28th, Chauncey sailed again. The
enemy was not seen until the 7th of November, when he was discovered off the mouth of Niagara. Pursuit followed, and for six days
the American squadron endeavored to bring the British to action, but
without success. On the 11th, the enemy was becalmed off the Genesee; when the American vessels got within gun shot before the




UNITED STATES.                      535
BUILDING    0F TH FLEET ON LiKE ERIE.
BUI;LDING OF THE FLEET ON L.KE ERIE.
English took the wind. A running fight of three hours ensued; but
the enemy escaped to Amherst Bay by superior sailing. As the Pike
succeeded in getting several broadsides at the enemy, he did not
escape without injury.  According to his own report, an officer and
ten men were killed and wounded. The Pike sustained but trifling
injury.
All attempts to bring the enemy to a decisive action failed until
the 28th of September, when Chauncey succeeded in getting him into
such a positi'on near York Bay, as would force him to fight, or acknowledge his inferiority. Sir James Yeo resolved to fight. A sharp
contest of about half an hour followed, sustained upon the part of the
Americans by the Pike and Madison. So well were the guns served
that the English squadron was forced to retreat, and a chase of two
hours ensued; but the superior sailing of the enemy's vessels enabled
them to escape. Chauncey, satisfied with having beaten his opponent,
then hauled off to the Niagara. The Americans lost five men, killed
and wounded by the fire of the enemy, and had twenty-two killed or
wounded by the bursting of a gun. The loss of the enemy was very
heavy, but is not accurately known. It is understood that two small




536             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
vessels struck their colors, but the Pike, eager for nobler prey, declined taking possession of them.  After this action, several of the
small vessels of the British were captured together with about two
hundred and fifty men. The Americans had undisturbed possession
of the Lake until winter closed all naval operations.
In the course of the winter of 1812-13, Captain O. II. Perry,
volunteered for the lake service.  Commodore Chauncey gladly availing himself of the presence of an officer of his rank, and known ability,
and sent him to command upon the upper lakes.  From  this time
until the navigation opened, Captain Perry was actively employed in
creating and organizing a force which might be sufficient to contend
with the enemy for the mastery of the waters of Lake Erie. By the
20th of June, 1813, Perry appeared on the lake,,with a squadron,
consisting of the Caledonia brig, and the schooners Somers, Tigress,
and Trippe. At this time, Captain Finnis, the British commodore,
had as a cruising force, the Queen Charlotte, a large ship of seventeen
guns; the Lady Prevost, a schooner mounting thirteen guns; the brig
Hunter, mounting ten guns, and three or four lighter cruisers.  A
ship of five hundred tons, to be called the Detroit, was building at
Malden.
The American force was soon increased by two brigs of twenty
guns each, and some schooners; but was blockaded in Erie harbor by
the British, under Captain Barclay, who succeeded Finnis.  Perry,
however, managed to get his vessels out during the temporary absence
of his enemy, and when he returned, he found the Americans so well
prepared to receive him, that he hauled off.  The American squadron
then moved upon the offensive. On the morning of the 10th of September, the squadron was lying in Put-in Bay, when the enemy was
discovered to the northwest. All the vessels were soon under weigh,
and an attempt was made to get the weather-gage of the enemy; but
it failed.  The line of battle was formed when the fleets were three
leagues asunder.  Captain Barclay formed his line, with the Chippeway, armed with a gun on a pivot, in the van; the Detroit, his own
vessel, next; and the Hunter, Queen Charlotte, Lady Prevost, and
Little Belt astern, in the order named. To oppose this line, the
Ariel, of four long twelves, was stationed in the van, and the Scorpion, of one long and one short gun on circles, next her.  The Lawrence, Captain Perry, came next; the, two schooners, having no




A~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ —-— ~ —-- ___  __  ___                                                                  _____ —.I1L OF lAKE EKi








UNITED STATES.                      539
COMMBIODORE PERRY.
quarters, keeping on her weather bow. The Caledonia, the Niagara,
Tigress, Somers, Porcupine, and Trippe were next astern in the order
named.
The wind was very light. The English line of battle was perfectly
formed, and the vessels made an imposing appearance. The American
~'essels could not be kept within the required distance of each other, on
account of the vast difference of their sailing qualities. About twelve
o'clock, the Detroit threw a twenty-four pound shot at the Lawrence.
The American vessels closed up, and the firing soon became animated.
The Lawrence appeared to be the principal aim of the enemy, and
suffered dreadfully.  At the end of a cannonade of two hours and a
half, the enemy having filled, and the wind increasing, the two squad



540             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
rons drew slowly ahead, and the Lawrence fell partially out of the
combat, her place being filled by the Niagara.  Perry now left the
Lawrence, and proceeded in an open boat through the enemy's fire,
to the Niagara, and the devoted vessel soon after hauled down her
colors, being a mere wreck, with but fourteen sound men on board.
The enemy then thought the day was gained, and gave three hearty
cheers. A short cessation of firing followed, as if each party was preparing for a desperate final effort. When the Americans again opened
their fire and proceeded to close action, they gave three cheers also;
and that was the knell of hope to the enemy. The firing became tremendous, and the conflict as close and deadly as possible between
squadrons followed. This was necessarily short. In fifteen or twenty
minutes after the renewal of the fire, the enemy struck their colors.
The action had lasted three hours and terminated in the capture of
the whole British squadron.
In this obstinate conflict, so far as the people were concerned, both
squadrons suffered in an equal degree; the Lawrence being cut up
almost beyond example.  The total loss of Perry's force was twentyseven killMd and ninety-six wounded —of which, twenty-two were
killed and sixty-one wounded on board the Lawrence, and twelve
were quarter-deck officers.  The injury sustained by the English,
though more divided, were necessarily great. They had forty-one
killed and ninety-four wounded, including twelve officers.  The forces
of the hostile squadrons were thought to be about equal under the
circumstances of situation and wind. Each commander displayed
considerable skill in forming the line of battle and bringing the vessels to action; but the triumph of the Americans was the result of
superior manceuvering towards the end of the battle, and a firm resolve
not to yield the day as long as there was hope.  For his gallant conduct, Captain Perry received a gold medal from Congress, Captain
Elliot, of the Niagara, received a gold medal, and rewards were bestowed upon the officers and men generally. It was a decisive triumph,
of which the nation had reason to be proud. Captain Perry soon after
resigned the command on the upper lakes, and Captaini Elliot succeeded him.
Powerful fleets were constructed by both parties upon Lake Ontario.
The Superior, the American vessel, under Commodore Chauncey's
orders, mounted sixty-two guns, and the whole squadron carried two




UNITED STATES.                      541
BURLINGTON BAY.
hundred and twenty-eight. The English had a force slightly inferior.
Thus had these inland seas become the scenes of the evolutions of
mighty armaments, where, but a few years before, nothing larger than
the Indian's canoe ruffled their waters. No operations of importance,
however, took place, the English being too wary to be drawn into an
engagement.
As in the autumn of 1814, the British determined upon an invasion
of the northern states by the route pursued by Burgoyne, in 1777,
the command of Lake Champlain became an object important to be
attained. Until this season, neither nation had a force of any consequence upon that water.  But the Americans soon saw the necessity of a squadron, and commenced several large vessels and some gun
boats. The English also began to collect and construct a number of
vessels.  Captain McDonough commanded the American force.
When the British army advanced against Plattsburg, in the early
part of September, McDonough's force consisted of the Eagle, a brig
of twenty guns, the Saratoga, a ship of twenty-five guns, the Ticonderoga, a schooner of seventeen guns, the Preble, a cutter of seven
46




542            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
_  _I-I
BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMLIPLAIN.
guns, and ten galleys, or gun boats, six of which mount~ed a long
twenty-four apiece, and fouri a long twelve apiece. On the 6th of
September, hearing of the approach of the enemy, McDonough formed
his squadron in two lines, distant forty yards, in Burlington Bay, a
little to the south of the outlet of the Saranac. The force of the
enemy was materially greater than that of the Americans.  It consisted of the Confiance, a frigate of thirty-seven guns, the Linnet, a
brig of sixteen long twelves, the Cherub, a sloop of ten guns, the
Finch, a sloop of eleven guns. Besides these, there was a force of
thirteen galleys, mounting twenty-one guns. Captain Downie commanded the whole force.
On the 11th of September, the enemy approached, MIcDonough
being resolved to fight at anchor. He came on abreast, and for a
while there was a deep silence aboard the American vessels. Suddenly, the Eagle discharged rapidly four guns. In clearing the decks
of the Saratoga, some hen coops were thrown overboard, and the
poultry permitted to run' at large. Upon hearing the report of the
guns, a cock flew upon a gun slide, and crowed. This slight occur



UNITED STATES.                       543
COIMMODORE MCDONOUGH.
rence strangely animated the men, and they gave three cheers. The
enemy came on, confident of superiority, and the battle opened. The
Confiance suffered from the American fire, which was directed to disable her especially, being so far superior to any of the American vessels. McDonough's ship, the Saratoga, also suffered from the broadside
blaze of the Confiance. The battle now became a steady, animated, and
gradually increasing cannonade. The men in the different galleys,
made several desperate attempts to board the smaller vessels of the
squadrons, but could not succeed. The Saratoga was, at length, left
in the middle of the battle, without a single available gun; and it was
only after the greatest exertions that McDonough succeeded in changing her position, so as to return the fire of the Confiance. After an




544              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
obstinate conflict of two hours and a quarter, the Confiance struck her
colors, and the rest of the British squadron followed the example.
In this bloody contest, the American squadron had fifty-two killed
and fifty-eight wounded. The Saratoga was hulled fifty-five times,
and the Eagle, thirty-nine times.  Several valuable officers were
among the killed and wounded, and the gallant McDonough sustained
the reputation he had acquired at Tripoli, for intrepidity. He was
struck down two or three times; but not dangerously wounded. The
loss of the British could not be ascertained.  There can be no doubt,
however, that the loss on. board of the Confiance alone was equal to
that of the whole American squadron, and it is thought that the entire
loss of the enemy in killed and wounded, was at least two hundred
men.  The Confiance received one hundred and five shot in her hull,
and was reduced to a wreck.  This must be considered a more brilliant triumph than that gained by Perry upon Lake Erie.  The force
of the English was so decidedly superior, that the victory could only
have been gained by superior skill and persevering bravery. Besides
the usual medal from Congress, Captain MeDonough received compliments and gifts from  the various states, and was promoted.  The
consequence of the victory was, the immediate retreat of the British
troops from Plattsburg, and the safety of the northern frontier,
during the remainder of the war. After this battle, the transactions
upon the lakes cease to be important. The Americans had the vantage
ground, and the remembrance of their triumphs stimulated them to
keep it.  Commodore Chauncey had to the last, retained the confidence of his government, as a judicious and active commander, and
although he hlad not the opportunity to connect his name with the
lustre attaching to a brilliant victory of squadron over squadron, it
was only because the vigilant and judicious Sir James Yeo feared to
meet him.




s-uRRrOND2R OF THE ]BRITISH FLEET ON LAKE CIIARPLAIN.








k"        ----  -— sCHAPTER XXXVII.
FROM THE COMMENOEMENT OF 1815 TO THE PRESENT DAY.
WO triumphs of the American navy upon the
-t i X    ocean during the war with Great Britain
-2  _      Sremain to be mentioned. They were fit to?   IPT- X  aterminate such a series. On the 17th of
I )ecember, 1814, the Constitution, under
Captain Charles Stewart, left Boston, and
cruised eastward, even to the Bay of Biscay, making a narrow escape from a British
seventy-four.  On the 20th of February,
two large vessels were seen in company, and proving to be enemies,
the Constitution gave chase, hoping to engage them separately. This
being impossible, Stewart still resolved to fight both; and succeeded
in getting in such a position, that the three vessels formed an equilateral triangle. In this masterly situation, the battle commenced;
the three vessels keeping up an incessant fire for about three-quarters
of an hour, when that of the enemy sensibly slackened. Some
manoeuvering followed, by which, the Constitution secured such a
position, and delivered her fire so effectually, that one of the vessels
struck, and on taking possession, was found to be the British ship,
(547)




548             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
Cyane 24, Captain Falcon.  The other vessel had hauled off, in consequence of the crippled condition of her rigging; but at the end of
an hour, ignorant of the fate of the Cyane, she came up and met the
Constitution coming in search of her. Broadsides were exchanged
immediately, and the English ship, finding her opponent too heavy,
endeavored to escape. In trying this, however, she received a fearful
raking, and at last, hauled down her ensign. Lieutenant Shubrick
was sent aboard to take possession, and found that the prize was the
Levant 18, Captain Douglas. During this cruise, the Constitution
mounted fifty-two guns, and carried four hundred and seventy men.
The Cyane was a frigate built ship, carrying thirty-four guns. The
Levant was a new ship, carrying twenty-one guns. The united force
of men in the two British vessels, was about three hundred and fifty.
Their loss was ten killed and twenty-eight wounded. The Constitution had three killed and twelve wounded. Captain Stewart gained
great praise from nautical men, for the manner in which he handled
his ship on this occasion; it being an unusual thing for a single ship
to engage two enemies and escape being raked.  The whole series of
manceuvres is amongst the most extraordinary in naval annals. It is
due to the British commanders to say, that they conducted their
vessels gallantly and well. Stewart proceeded with his prizes to Port
Praya, where he arrived on the 10th of March. On the return home,
the three vessels were chased by a British squadron, under Sir George
Collier, but succeeded in eluding it, by skilful manoeuvring.  This
was the last exploit of the Constitution. She had been in three obstinate battles within three years, and had captured five vessels of
war. The reason of her success was, that she was always well manned
and commanded.
In the middle of January, 1815, the President, under Commodore
Decatur, left New York for a cruise. During a violent gale the vessel
struck near Sandy Hook, and suffered considerable damage. A large
British blockading force was in the offing, and as soon as the President appeared, she was chased by the whole squadron. A running
fight followed in which the Endymion, the nearest British vessel was
much cut up and would have been taken but for the presence of the
rest of the squadron.  At length, after a long and close cannonade,
Decatur was compelled to surrender. The President had twenty-four
men killed and fifty-six wounded. She was a good deal injured in








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UNITED STATES.                     551
her hull, and most of her spars were badly damaged. The Endymion
had eleven killed and fourteen wounded. Decatur was shortly after
paroled, and he and all his surviving officers and men were subsequently acquitted with honor for the loss of the ship.
The Hornet, Captain Biddle, followed the President to sea, and
sailed to the island of Triston d'Acaunha, which Decatur had appointed
as a rendezvous. Off the island, on the 23d, the Hornet fell in with a
British brig of eighteen gun rate, called the Penguin. After a fifteen
minutes' cannonade, which proved very destructive to the enemy, he
closed with the intention of boarding; but the attempt to board failed.
When it was thought that the enemy had surrendered, Captain Biddle
sprang upon the taffrail to inquire if such was the case. Two marines
on board the Penguin discharged their muskets at him, one ball from
which wounded him in the neck. This exasperated the crew of the
Hornet, and as the vessels separated, they poured a terrible fire into
their enemy. Even when twenty of the British seamen came to the
side of the vessel and raised their hands for quarter, the crew of the
Hornet could scarcely be restrained from giving them another broadside. In this conflict, the vessels were fairly matched; being of the
same size, and carrying the same number of guns and nearly the same
number of men. Yet with the advantage of the wind, the Penguin
was taken in twenty-two minutes. Her loss in men was fourteen killed
and twenty-eight wounded; among the slain was Captain Dickenson.
The Hornet had one man killed and ten wounded, including the captain and first lieutenant. Though the Penguin was hulled many times
and was much cut up in sails and rigging, the Hornet was'not hulled
once, and suffered little in her upper works.  This was the crowning
triumph of the war. It clinched the nail before driven, and the
superiority of the American navy, in every respect but numbers, was
incontestably established.  The Hornet had a narrow escape from a
British 74, on her return home. She was only saved by the perseverance of Captain Biddle, under circumstances which would have
induced most other commanders to surrender their vessel.
Thus terminated the war as far as it was connected with the American
marine. The result had produced a degree of confidence in the American people, only equalled by the astonishment and humiliation of those
so long accustomed to rule the sea. In all the different encounters
of the war, there had been displayed by the infant navy, a brilliancy




552           UNIVERSAL NAVAL HIISTORYo
~_~                         ~            ~. ~ —~ —~ESCAPE OF THE HORNET.
and rapidity of manoeuvring, and an accuracy of gunnery which commanded the admiration of all capable of judging of such things. But
to these qualities must be added, the determined and indomitable
spirit peculiar to a free people. This conquers where skill fails.
No sooner had the war with Great Britain ended, than it became
necessary to employ the naval arm against Algiers. Taking advantage
of the American cruisers being excluded from the Mediterranean by
the British fleets, the Dey of Algiers began his depredations upon the
little of our commerce that remained in and near that sea. No sooner
was peace concluded, than Congress passed an act authorizing hostilities against Algiers, and an efficient squadron sailed for the Mediterranean, on the 1st of May, under the command of Commodore Decatur.
On the 17th of June, the squadron captured the Algerine frigate,
3Mishouri 46, Admiral Rais Hamida, after a running fight of twentyfive minutes. The Algerines had their admiral and thirty men killed
and a great number wounded. None of the American vessels sustained any damage, except the Guerriere, which had four men wounded,
in addition to between thirty and forty-five men killed and wounded




UNITED STATES.                     553
by the bursting of a gun. So energetic were Decatur's operations,
that the Dey was compelled to sign a treaty of peace forty days after
the squadron left New York. The Americans obtained their own
terms. Tunis and Tripoli were also visited and made prompt restitution for injuries done to American commerce.
After the conclusion of peace with the Barbary powers, the United
States government seemed to feel the necessity of increasing the
strength of its marine. Several ships of the line were soon begun
and measures adopted for a regular increase. From that time until
the breaking out of the war with Mexico, in 1846, a period of thirtyone years, the navy became gradually most powerful and efficient.
Squadrons were soon maintained in the Mediterranean, on the coast of
Brazil, in the West Indies, in the Pacific, and in the East Indies.
Though not of great force, these were quite equal to the task of protecting the commerce which was constantly increasing in value. A
home squadron was not thought necessary until of late years. In 1837,
the Pennsylvanian 120, the largest ship of the line afloat, was
launched at Philadelphia. Besides this great floating battery, there
were then in the water four ships of 80 guns, and three of 74.
During the war with Mexico, which commenced in May, 1846, the
United States squadrons were only of use in the transportation of
troops and in assisting the attacks upon the Mexican coast towns.
Their enemies had no navy worthy of the name. On the determinae
tion of the government to resent what was called an invasion of the
territory of Texas, orders were sent to Commodore Sloat, commanding
the Pacific squadron, to take possession of the principal ports of California. He had under his orders, the frigate Savannah 52, the sloops
of war Portsmouth, Cyane, and Levant, each of 22 guns, with the Warren of 24. To this force was afterwards joined, the Congress 52, the
sloops Saratoga, Dale, and Preble, and the razee Independence. On
the 7th of July, 1846, Commodore Sloat appeared before Monterey,
in the flag ship Savannah, and took possessi   of the town and defences, without difficulty. At the same time, the Portsmouth took
possession of San Francisco. Commodore Sloat was relieved by Commodore Stockton on the 29th of July. The latter officer immediately
commenced active operations upon land, and within a month had complete possession of Upper California, while his vessels were stationed
at every port. His subsequent operations during the insurrection of
47




554            UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
CAPTURE OF MONTEREY.
the Californians do not belong to naval history, though the seamen
and marines formed the greater part of the army which defeated the
enemy in two battles, thus proving that their zeal and valor wanted
but opportunity to display themselves upon the sea.
In February, 1847, great preparations were made for a descent upon
Vera Cruz and the Castle of San Juan de Ulloa. The Gulf squadron,
under Commodore Conner, then consisted of three steamers, three gun
boats, and two schooners. This force had attacked the town of Alvas
rado in October; but the grounding of a steamer produced such a derangement of plans, that the attempt was abandoned. A large number
of merchant vessels were subsequently destroyed at Tobasco, by Conmmodore Perry. Early in M]arch, the United States army, under General
Scott, embarked on board the Gulf squadron, to proceed upon the attack
upon the city of Vera Cruz. On the 7th, the fleet arrived at Anton
Lizardo, when Commodore Conner and General Scott made a reconnoisance of the coast, and selected a portion of the beach, west of the




UNITED STATES.                     555
_ = _ A...., _~_.                                     7
=  ~~ -=   ___.=      =      =        
I —~____                         0 -_ —~-.~ —    -          -
- -— =Z=-` —~-E=V -> 
l'ERA ORVZ.
ite of Sacriflcios, as a suitable spot for landing.  This was effected
in beautiful style, and without opposition, on the 9th. Commodore
Conner permitted the marines to join the army as a part of the third
regiment of artillery. On the 22d of Iarch, General Scott opened
fire upon the City of Vera Cruz; and at the same time, the small vessels of the squadron approached near enough to throw a smart fire
into the castle of San Juan de Ulloa; but it was thought expedient
to withdraw them the next morning from their daring situation. Commodore Perry succeeded Commodore Conner in command of the fleet
before Vera Cruz, and actively co-operated with the land forces, and
contributed to the triumphant result of the siege. Towards the close
of the war, detachments of the Pacific squadron captured Guaymas
and Mazatlan, towns upon the Mexican coast.  Indeed, the greater
portion of the Mexican coast on the Pacific was kept under a strict




556             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
blockade by the United States vessels of war, successively under the
orders of Commodores Stockton, Shubrick, and Biddle. Since the
conclusion of peace between the two republics, no important naval
operations have been undertaken.
With regard to the present condition of the United States marine,
we may observe, that it is about one hundred fold more efficient than it
was at the commencement of the war of 1812. Steam vessels of war
are fast taking the place of the ships of the line; being found to possess such great superiority in rapidity of movement, and combining
strength with lightness of construction. The active naval force consists of ten ships of the line, thirteen first class frigates, two second
class frigates, twenty-three sloops of war, eight brigs, eight schooners,
nine steamers, and four store ships; and additions are constantly being made. There is no higher rank than that of post captain. Among
officers of the same rank, seniority determines precedence. The
principal naval depots and stations are at Norfolk, Philadelphia,
Brooklyn, and Pensacola. In all parts of the globe, as extensive as
our commerce, is the range of its protecting arm-the navy; and of
nothing has our country more reason to be proud. Hallowed by the
recollection of its achievements-even in its infancy reminding us of
the infant Hercules-we cannot give it too much of our attention and
admiration.




Il i n   -s    
THE CORACLE.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.
__ _ —    IjLTHOUGH, in the course of the work,
___-   we have alluded to the gradual improvement in the art of naval construction, it has been in so slight and scattered a manner, that it will fail in
giving that clear understanding of the
subject which is so desirable. It is not
so essential to this, that we should trace
naval construction in the history of all
maritime countries.  The progress of
47*                (557)




558             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
the British navy affords the most complete idea of the art-from  the
skin boat of the early Britons to the war steamer of the latest day;
and of that history we make use, to give the required information.
The vessels dignified by the ancient Britons with the name of ships,
were a sort of coracle constructed of twigs, covered with ox hides,
capable of holding three or four persons, and in summer, of passing
over to Ireland or Gaul. A small sail on a single mast, a paddle,
like the ancient clavus, over each quarter, for a rudder, and a few
ANCIENT BRITISH VESSEL.
oars, seem to have completed the furniture of these frail barks. The
canoe, consisting of the trunk of a tree, hollowed out and hewn into a
shape fitted for cleaving the waves, or a boat of birch bark, is the more
primitive vessel of the Indians of America.
The next improvement of naval architecture was the galley of one,
and then two, banks of oars. This was introduced by the Romans;
and was essentially the same kind of vessels used by ancient Grecians.
The following engraving will explain the distinction between these
galleys and the ships of the ancient Britons. The prow of the galley
was made strong and sharp, in order to sink the vessels of the enemy,
by striking them with all the impetus of oars and a sail. There was
a single mast in the middle of the vessel, and a square sail, raised and
supported by a transverse pole, or yard, was extended across the mast,
not far from the top, to which ropes were attached; and it was made




UNITED STATES.                     559
ROIMAN GALLEY.
to slide up and down freely, by a wooden hoop being placed in its
centre. The rudder, of which galleys sometimes had two, was affixed
to the side of the vessel, the handle being passed through a staple.
It was like an oar with a very broad blade. Over the poop of the
vessel, was a fan-shaped ornament, made of plants, called the Aplustre.
Behind this, the standard, or pennon, was placed, as seen in the cut.
This was the galley so long in use in the southern seas of Europe.
By the inventive genius of the Grecians and Romans, they were much
enlarged and improved.  The line of battle ship was the quinquereme, or galley of five banks of oars. The general features, however,
were the same.
SECTION OF A QUINQUEREME.
The vessels used by the Saxons, in their piratical excursions, were
very light, and so built as to weather out a storm, in which a larger
and stronger ship would be in danger of perishing. They were, gene



560             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
rally, swift sailers, in order that the pirates could assail any foe, and
escape if met by overpowering force.  They would even dare the seas
ill little skiffs, like those of the Britons. But for important expeditions, the Saxons had large and strong ships. They were built of
very stout planks, laid over each other in the manner practised at the
present time.  Their prows and sterns were very erect, rising high
out of the water, and the prow was ornamented by the uncouth head
of some animal. To the single mast was attached a large sail, which,
from its nature, could only be useful when the vessel went before the
wind. The vessel was steered by a large oar, and is supposed to
have carried about fifty or sixty men, though those used by Alfred
the Great were much larger.
The vessels used by William, of Normandy, to transport his army to
England, resembled greatly those of the Saxons. We have described
them in one of our chapters on the British navy. During the Norman
period, it does not appear that much alteration occurred in the mode of
naval construction. The vessels began to be made larger. Le Blanche
Nef, in which the children of Henry I. were wrecked, is said to have
held one hundred and sixty persons. The vessels used by Richard Coeur
de Lion, in his famous expedition to the Holy Land, possessed no
features distinct from those of William the Conqueror.  The sails were
sometimes painted, and emblazoned with heraldic devices, to make as




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                       561
imposing an appearance as possible; but the principles of construction
were not changed.  Afterwards, the custom  of adorning the head of
the vessel with the likeness of the head of an animal was dropped,
anad both stem and stern made alike, as in the preceding engraving
A  manuscript in Bennet College, Cambridge, supposed to have
been executed by Matthew Paris, in the thirteenth century, gives a
spirited representation of an attack upon a fortress by sea.  The ship
is particularly interesting, as it shows the height of the stem  and
stern, and the curious wooden stage erected for archers and slingers,
at the stern.  Another kind of vessel used about the same time, was
ATTACK UPON A FORTRESS ST.BEA.
the vissier, which was large and fat, being principally used for transporting horses, yet was furnished with a prow armed in such a manner, as would make it formidable in attacking an enemy. This vessel
was used by the French and Venetians, in their attack upon Constantinople, in 1204.  In that case, they were filled with archers and
slingers.       LL
kL




562              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
VISSIER.
Top-castles were used in the vessels of King Richard.  They were
placed upon the top of each mast, and held one or more warriors,
armed with slings, stones, or javelins. This was an exposed and dangerous position for soldiers. The archers of that period were sure
marksmen, and the mischief done by these top-men, drew the attention
TOP-CASTLES.
of their enemies to them especially.  The largest vessels at this time
in use, had two masts, (fore and mainmast,) with two square sails;
but they had no bowsprit, and the foremast raked considerably over
the bows. The bows and stern of the vessel were alike. A short
fighting deck, termed the bellatoriunm, or fore and stern castle, surmounted the extremities of the ship. The standard was erected in




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                       563
the forecastle, and the trumpeters were stationed in the stern-castle.
Beneath the stern-castle, sat the steersman, who still guided the vessel with his side paddles.  The cabins were reached by descending
beneath the castles, and the principal cabin was termed the tParadise
-a prostitution of the term.
VESSEL WITH FORE AND STERN-CASTLES.
Great doubt has long existed in regard to the time of the invention
of the modern rudder. No antiquarian has succeeded in tracing the
use of the rudder any further back than the time of Edward III. of
England, in the early part of the fourteeth century. All agree, however, that the paddles were not abandoned until long after the rudder
was known and used.  On the curious seal of the city of Damme,
attached to a charter in the year 1328, is a ship, with fore and sterncastles, in which the crew are holding banners. It has only one mast;
but there is a short bowsprit, with a rope from the outer end leading
in over the bows. At the stern is the present rudder, with pintle and
gudgeons; and the tiller is shipped over the rudder head, instead of
being placed in a cavity in it.  The vessels used by Edward III., at
the battle of the Sluys, in 1340, had rudders of the same description
attached, as will be seen in the following engraving, taken from the
seal of John Holland, Count of Huntingdon. It will also be observed,
that in this ship, the castles are not raised from  the deck, upon
platforms.




h64              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
In the opposite engraving we have a representation of vessels of
Alvau, used in the time of Edward III. of England, going upon one of
thbe many naval expeditions, in which that monarch engaged.  The
larger one, it will be seen, is highly decorated, the musicians being
stationed in the stern, and the bow occupied by a castle, filled with
eseln:. The smaller vessel has an armed prow, and is propelled by
oar- alone, Her stern is decorated with elaborate carving.
ONE IASTED VESSEL USED BY EDWARD nIL.
The Genoese and other southern maritime powers had vessels of a
mulch larger capacity than those of the English at the same period;
they were called caracks, and some of them  were vessels of even
fiec hundred tons.  After cannon began to be used in naval warfare,
GENOESE FOUR SIASTED VESSEL.




A         \   \
VESSELS IN Til TIET OF EDASID II.








NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                       567
about 1338, the Genoese built powerful men of war, some of whic~h
had four masts, as the one in the annexed engraving. This vessel is
remarkable for many peculiarities of construction. It is from a manuscript preserved in the British Museum, in which it is said that such
vessels as this were hired for the service of the English Earl of Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, surnamed the "Kingmaker."  The fighting deck has here given place to a covered poop, from whence the rudder is guided, as in a modern vessel. The general improvement in the
construction of ships is evident from the engraving.
In the sixteenth century, ship building had greatly improved, and
the large size of the vessels which were now constructed, completely
threw the old single masted ships into disuse, as men of war or trading
vessels; although exceptions to this rule may be met with, they occur
only in the early part of the sixteenth century. But before dismissing the old single masted vessel, we will present the reader with one
more example of a war ship of the fifteenth century, because it is a
very good specimen of the craft; and it will also aid by its contrast
with the modern improvements, in showing how much has been gained
WAR SIIP USED IN Tile FIFT~ENTIt CE2LTURY.




568              UNIVERSAL _NTAVAL HISTORY.
in appearance and utility. The engraving is taken from an illuminated copy of Froissart's Chronicles, preserved in the British Museum.
It is peculiarly valuable as giving a bird's-eye view of the deck of the
ship.  The turreted forecastle with its windows, and trumpeters, will
be noticed in front; the single mast in the centre, with its top-castle
and its one sail furled in the yard.  Behind is seen the raised poop
with the door leading to the cabins.  The ship is one in which the
Dauphin of France is about to embark with his soldiers.
Henry VIII. captured a large ship of war from the Scotch, in 1511.
It was called the Lion, by its builders; but the king of England
changed its name for that of " The Regent." Another ship still larger
was built by the Scottish king the same year. This vessel was two hundred and forty feet in length, by fifty-six in breadth; dimensions,
however, which were much diminished by the thickness of the planking, which was not less than ten feet. It carried thirty-five guns, all
upon the upper deck, besides three hundred smaller pieces of artillery,
and a complement of three hundred seamen, one hundred and twenty
gunners, and one thousand soldiers. The principal vessel in possession
of the king of England at that time-the Regent being blown up a few
months after she put to sea-was the Great Harry-an engraving of
which we have given in one of the chapters on the naval history of
Great Britain.
During the wars of Henry VIII. a light pinnace was used for the
LIGHIT'INSACE.




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                         569
disembarkation of troops, of which we give an engraving.  It is a
vessel square at the stern, carrying some few guns there and in the
head, and propelled by rowers.  It has a single sail, like the Genoese
boats, and is decorated at the sides with painted shields, in imitation
of the time when the soldiers' shields were ranged round the vessels.
These pinnaces sometimes served the same purpose as the modern
gun boats.
The continental vessels still continued small, if not used for long
journeys, or expressly built for ships of war, in the more modern
style. The cut here given, copied from a German print, dated 1540,
is a capital specimen of a war galley, a mere coasting vessel for the
transport of troops. It has but one sail, above which is the old topcastle, well armed with darts.  The sail, it will be perceived, is still
guided by the man at the helm.  In front of the vessel is placed a
large cannon, upon a portable carriage.  There are galleries at the
sides for rowers, and the centre is closed, packed with troops.
Mounted high upon the stern, the fifer and drummer, in place of
COASTING VESSEL.
48*




570              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
trumpeters, strike the inspiriting strain, and thus gaily and boldly does
the vessel speed upon her errand of battle.  On reaching an enemy,
the position of things is altered. Anxious for the man to man strife,
the vessels near each other as in the opposite engraving. Boats are
grappled and a combat still like that upon land, in its essential
features, ensues; but upon the  sea, "grim-visaged war," is more
terrible.
The vessels used for commercial and pleasure purposes, were of a
different construction. They were in no way fitted for a contest with
an enemy.  The deck was covered, and the rowers worked upon the
top of the cover.  The helmsman still sat in a covered recess, as his
predecessors had done from  the earliest times, managing the sail.
Improvement in this department was very slow, in consequence of
the proverbial prejudice of sailors against any thing new in the way
of navigation.
MERCHANT VESSEL.
The discovery of America exercised a vast influence upon the art
of naval construction. Necessity, and the hope of gain, were the




___Vso~   1-pI
NAVA  aOsBAT 








NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                      5 73
parents of invention.  The spirit of enterprise reached England in
the time of Elizabeth, and a galaxy of great navigators sprang up to
add new glory to a reign distinguished as one of the greatest periods
of English history.  The war ships of Elizabeth were, like those of
her father, of high build, with raised deck, two stories in height,
nmuch the same as the Chinese war junks of the present day.  They
were furnished with double rows of guns; and although clumsy looking, were very picturesque. This may be seen from the cut of the
great seal of Charles Lord Howard, of Effingham, the lord high admiral of England.  The seal exhibits a first rate man-of-war.  The
sail of the mainmast is painted.  The top-castles are large, particularly the centre one, where the old fashion of surrounding it with
shields of arms is still continued.  The vessel, upon the whole, has a
stately look.
GREAT SEAL OF HOWARD.
Drawings have been preserved, representing some of the vessels
composing the "Invincible Armada."  One, in particular, represents
a vessel with high decks, four masts, and external galleries, at the
stern.  Such ships were very unwieldly, and smaller ones had frequently the advantage over them.  Stormy weather, too, made them
difficult and dangerous to manage.




574              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
VESSEL OF THE SPANISH ARMADA.
We have now traced the progress of the "camels of the sea" from
the coracle of the early Britons, to the large and stately structures of
the time of Elizabeth.  There is but little difference between the
ships of the latter time and those of the early part of the seventeenth
century, a specimen of which, we give in the annexed engraving,
copied from one of the maps of Abraham Ortelius, the famous geographer. The high decksj and general aspect of the " Great Harry,"
are here visible, with all that quaint and clumsy construction which
was then followed by the naval architects. There is a striking similarity in all European vessels of this period.  The increase of commercial intercourse may be mentioned as the cause.  The general
build was the same, but it was varied to suit the requirement of peculiar
localities. Strength appears to have been the aim of the ship builders;
beauty of appearance, or swiftness, and ease of. movement, were
things left out of view.  In the following engraving of a vessel which




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                     575
1<
SHIP OF THE EARLY PART OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
conveyed the Duke of Anjou to Antwerp, in 1582, we see how much
of the old style was retained. The raised forecastle, the pendent hang..
DUKE OF ANJOU 3 SHIP.




576             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ing from the fore and top yard, and the covered place for the helmsman, are still found in vogue.
In 1609, the East India Company of Englishmen, built the largest
merchant vessel ever constructed-its burthen'being variously estimated at from  a thousand to eleven hundred tons.  This ship was
named the "Trade's Increase," by the king, who, with all his court,
at-tended the launch. Soon after, a man-of-war, called "'The Prince,"
of fourteen hundred tons burthen, and carrying sixty-four guns, was
constructed for the protection of the interests of the same company.
The form of the Dutch ships of war, used by the celebrated Admiral
Van Tromp, in the battle with the English, under Blake, in 1653, is
preserved in accurate drawings by Hollar. The heavy build, which
DUTCH waWR SHIP OF 1653.
characterizes these vessels, has been, to this day, the general feature
of the vessels of that nation.  Great strength, but great clumsiness,
is apparent, and these heavy monsters could be easily surrounded and
captured by lighter, but more rapidly moving vessels.  The English
had, thus, an important advantage over them.
At this time, it was the common practice, to bestow much labor and




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                          577
DUKE OF YORKTS ILEASURE BOAT.
cost on the decoration of ships.  The ingenuity of the wood carver
carried out tbe taste of the ship builder, and  enriched the vessel
IDUKE OF YORK'S SHIP,
XL L            49




6' 78             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
wherever it was possible.  The bow and stern were covered with a
profusion of carved work, including the royal arms, emblematic figures,
nymphs, and sea horses.  The following representation of the ship of
the Duke of York,'used in the ceremonies of bringing Catharine of
Braganza to England, about a year after the restoration of Charles II.,
is a good example of a ship of that period.  The duke, was lord high
admiral of England, and, therefore, his vessel was a first rate man-ofwar. The smaller vessels have the same general appearance as the
first rates. The same heavy build, is discerned among them. The
"Duke of York's pleasure boat," copied from a series of prints by a
Dutch artist, named Stoop, will give an idea of the similarity between
such craft and the more important vessels.  It is the " yacht" of the
seventeenth century.
From a print of 1680, we obtain a very excellent specimen of the
first rate man-of-war of that time.  The critical reader, will observe
many variations in the build of these vessels, and those of our own
day. The entire front of the vessel, as well as the carved sterns, and
M.AN-OF-WAR OF 1680.




NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.                      579
side galleries, do not belong to our ships; but, independently of these
things, modern improvements in ship building do not make this vessel
differ much from those in which Nelson and others "spread their
glory o'er the waves."
We have thus traced the art of constructing vessels from the first
rude invention to the commencement of the seventeenth century.
From  that time to the present, improvements have been rapidly
brought into use, and the modern ship of the line combines strength,
swiftness, and beauty in an extraordinary degree of perfection. There
is no necessity for giving specimens; they are abundant, and easily
obtained by all. Nothing can be more beautiful and impressive than
the sight of one of these mighty ships under full sail. Like a great,
white-winged bird, she seems to move along the deep and skim the
"heaving way."  Freighted with the heavy instruments of death and
defence-a floating battery-a ship of war is a thing to awe and
compel.
The application of steam as a motive power to purposes of navigation, has, of late years, created a vast revolution in ship building.
The superiority of steam vessels for naval warfare, is as apparent as
their advantages for commercial purposes; while from the invention
of Paixhan guns, and other terrible instruments of destruction, it
is probable that the ships of the line, so formidable at present, may
be thrown into disuse. A small steamer, of little weight of metal, is
more than equal to a ship of thrice its force.  Its rapidity of move.
ment, and its ability to act, as well with or without the once high.
rated advantage of the weather-gage, must give it an invaluable
superiority.  This revolution in ship building for warfare, will be
much accelerated by the introduction of bomb-cannon, an invention
which must soon be perfected.  Light, quick vessels,. will then be the
best required; since large ships present many times the surface of
the others, without a commensurate advantage in the number of cannon and rapidity of manceuvering. Ten bombs, projected from the
side of a vessel, would be as surely the destruction of an enemy, if
rightly directed, as a hundred. As forming part of a system for
coast defence, bomb-cannon, mounted upon steamers, would be terribly formidable.  Peaceful nations will be the gainers by the change,
and the establishment of peace generally, will be much facilitated, by
diminishing the power of numbers. M3ay such be the result.  No




580             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
consummation could be more devoutly wished, when the attendant
evils of all kinds of warfare are considered. But, patriotism will
glory in naval achievement, until that end is attained.
Within the last twenty years, there have been introduced upon the
Atlantic ocean, lines of steam vessels, opening a rapid and constant
communication between Europe and America. The initiative in the
enterprise was taken by a British company —the Messrs. Cunard &
Co.; and their means and profits increased so rapidly, that the merchants of New York became desirous of entering into competition with
them. Accordingly, an American company-the Messrs. Collins &
Co. —was formed, and several splendid steam ships placed upon the
route between New York and Liverpool. Another line connects New
York and Bremen.  The vessels of the Cunard line are large, commodious, and elegant, and in every way creditable to the enterprise,
liberality, and judgment of the proprietors, and all concerned in their
constrtuction.  The same remark applies to the vessels of the opposition line.  The advantages resulting from the improvements of the
means of intercourse between the two countries, are too obvious to
need mention here. The ultimate tendency of all such improvements,
is to draw closer the bonds of peace and friendship, and by creating
new ties and new interests, to lessen the cause of hostilities.
-;         ___




CHAPTER XXXIX.
NAVAL ANECTDOTES.
N this, the concluding chapter of?'X  i 1 k     the present work, a few anecdotes, illustrating the more re__ _ -           mnarkable traits of naval characz,'. l  71 ter, and exhibiting some striking
naval events are given. These
could not have been introduced
into the body of the work, without interrupting too much the
course of the narrative.  We
commence with the affair of the
G-aspee.
49*                 (581)




582             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
AFFAIR OF THE GASPEE.
N 1772, the brave sailors of RIhode Island gave the
X~       [British a small specimen of the naval spirit of the coloThe commander of the Gaspee, an armed British
schooner stationed at Providence, had exerted much
activity in supporting the trade laws and punishing the increasing
contraband traffic of the Americans; and had provoked additional
resentment by firing at the Providence packets, in order to compel
them to salute his flag by lowering theirs as they passed his vessel,
and by chasing them even into the docks in case of refusal. The
master of a packet conveying passengers to Providence, June 9, which
was fired at and chased by the Gaspee for neglecting to pay the requisite tribute of respect, took advantage of the state of the tide (it
being almost high water,) to stand in so closely to the shore, that the
Gaspee in the pursuit might be exposed to run aground. The artifice
succeeded; the Gaspee presently stuck fast, and the packet proceeded
in triumph to Providence, where a strong sensation was excited by the
tidings of the occurrence, and a project was hastily formed to improve
the blow and destroy the obnoxious vessel.  Brown, an eminent merchant, and Whipple, a ship master, took the lead in this bold adventure, and easily collected a sufficient band of armed and resolute men
with whom they embarked in whale boats to attack the British ship
of war. At two o'clock the next morning, June 10, they boarded the
Gaspee so suddenly and in such numbers, that her crew were instantly
overpowered, without hurt to any one except her commanding officer,
who was wounded. The captors, having despatched a part of their
number to convey him together with his private effects and his. crew
ashore, set fire to the Gaspee and destroyed her with all her stores.
The issue of this daring act of war against the naval force of the king,
was as remarkable as the enterprise itself.  The British government
offered a reward of five hundred pounds, together with a pardon if
claimed by an accomplice, for the discovery and apprehension of any
person concerned in the treasonable attack on the Gaspee; and a commission under the great seal of England appointed Wanton, the governor of Rhode Island, Peter Oliver, the new chief justice of Massa.




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                    583
DESTRUCTION OF THE GASPEl.
chusetts, Auchmuty, the judge-admiral of America, and certain other
persons, to preside upon the trial of the offenders. But no trial took
place. No body came forward to claim the proffered reward; som5
persons, who were apprehended in the hope that they might be induced by threats and terror to become witnesses, were enabled, by
popular assistance, to escape before any information could be extracted
from them; and in the commencement of the following year, the comn
missioners reported to the British ministry their inability, notwithstanding the most diligent inquisition, to procure evidence or information against a single individual.
A5~~~~Z




584             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
1f  J — K
THE BURNING OF FALMOUTH.
_____N__- N 1795, a British naval force burnt Fal_.... -  __    mouth.  Congress having intimated to
~ __ |     General Washington that an attack
-_ A        upon Boston was much desired, a coun-._,-!      cil of war was called, October 18, but.~' —    ====_         unanimously agreed that it was not expedient, at least for the present.  On
=    the same day, Captain Mowat destroyed
- A; =    a hundred and thirty-nine houses, and
two hundred and seventy-eight stores
and other buildings, the far greatest and best part of the town of Falmouth, (now Portland, Maine,) in the northern part of Massachusetts.
The inhabitants, in compliance with a resolve of the provincial congress, to prevent tories carrying out their effects, gave some violent
obstruction to the loading of a mast ship, which drew upon them the
indignation of the admiral.
Captain Mowat was despatched in the Canceaux, of sixteen guns,




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                       585
with an armed large ship, schooner, and sloop.  After anchoring toward the evening of the 17th, within gun shot, he sent a letter on
shore, giving them two hours for the removal of their families, as he
had orders to fire the town, they having been guilty of the most unpardonable rebellion.  A  committee of three gentlemen' went on
board, to learn the particular reasons for such orders.  He answered,
that his orders were, to set on fire all the seaports between Boston
and Halifax; but agreed to spare the town till nine o'clock the next
morning, would they consent to send him off eight small arms, which
was immediately done. The next morning the committee applied
afresh; he concluded to spare the town till he could hear from the
admiral, in case they would send him off four carriage guns, deliver
up all their arms, ammunition, &c., and four gentlemen of the town
as hostages.  That not being complied with, about half past nine, he
began to fire from the four armed vessels, and continued it till after
dark.  With shells and carcasses, and about thirty marines whom he
landed, he set the town on fire in several places.  About a hundred
of the worst houses escaped destruction, but suffered damage.  The
inhabitants got out a very considerable part of their furniture, and
had not a person killed or wounded, though the vessels fired into the
town about three thousand shot, besides bombs and carcasses.
General Lee reprobates their cowardice, in admitting such a paltry
party to land with impunity, and set their town in flames, when they
had at least two hundred fighting men, and powder enough for a battle. In the private letter wherein he expressed these sentiments, he
made no mention of the sailors being repulsed with the loss of a few
men; though this might happen in the close of the day, and give
occasion for its being related by others.  The burning of Falmouth
spread an alarm upon the sea coast, but produced no disposition to
submit to the power and mercy of the armed British agents.  The
people in common chose rather to abandon the seaports that could not
be defended, than quit their country's cause; and, therefore, removed
back, with their effects, to a safe distance.
_ _ _ _ _ ___ _   /  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _




686             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
LANDINEG ON ST. MIAPRYS ISLE.
GENEROSITY OF PAUL JONES.
~____=_ "~   — ~~~~N the life of Paul Jones, we find numerous instances of daring intrepidity as well as the most chivalrous
_.             Ax         generosity of spirit.  The following. - - -anecdote is in point.... ~.~  In cruising off the coast of Galloa   -    way, it occurred to him, that, if he,  could get into his power a man of
high rank and influence in the state,
he should be able, by retaining him
as a hostage, to insure to the American prisoners of war more lenient
treatment than was threatened by the British government. Knowing
that the Earl of Selkirk possessed a seat in St. Mary's Isle, a beautiful
peninsula at the mouth of the Dee, and being ill informed with regard
to the political connections of that nobleman, he destined him for the
subject of his experiment. With that view, he landed on the Isle,
about noon, with two officers and a few men; but, before they had
proceeded far, he learned that his lordship was from home, and that




'! I I~~~    I i/  /         I'  l I:it;11 fl!  I ir Ii it1!  i 
iIdll /t/1iIllltl I
Fl   fi!        1'/i It'ii
l~ii   lll ti i i/iliiit/]il~i1I/~t II    tI/I1!1;
IjB~ ~ ~~~~~!1  it l~1Iltlilli11/tl tI                /1t1I 
IPAUL JONES   ETURNS LORD  SELKIRKS PLATE.
PAUL JONES RE~TURNS LOR~D SELKEIRK'S PLATE.








NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      589
there were none but ladies at the house.  Finding his object frustrated, he now wished to return; but his crew were not so easily satisfied. Their object was plunder; and as they consisted of men in a
very imperfect state of discipline, and with whom it would have been
dangerous to contend, he allowed them to proceed. He exacted from
them, however, a promise that they should be guilty of no violence;
that the men should not enter the house, and that the officers, after
having made their demands, should accept of what might be put into
their hands without scrutiny.  These conditions were punctually
obeyed.  The greater part of the Selkirk plate was carried off in
triumph by the crew, and Paul Jones was, for a time, stigmatized as
a freebooter: but he nobly vindicated his character, by taking the
earliest opportunity of purchasing the whole of it, out of his own private funds, and remitting it safe to its original owner, without accepting the smallest remuneration. National prejudice has misrepresented
this transaction; and in order to heighten the popular indignation
against our hero, it has been common to state, that this attempt on
the person, and as it was supposed the property, of Lord Selkirk, was
aggravated by ingratitude, his father having eaten of that nobleman's
bread.  Nothing can be more false., Neither lMr. Paul, nor any of
his kindred, ever was in the earl's employ, or had ever the most distant connection with his lordship'or his family; and in a correspondeuce which took place between our hero and the Lady Selkirk, relative
to the restitution of the plate, a most honorable testimony was gratefully paid by the latter to the captain's character.
50




590             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
NELSON SUATED BY HIS COXSWAIN.
LORD NELSON.
ELSON lost the sight of one eye at the seige of Calvi,
by a shot driving the sand and gravel into it, and he
lost his arm by a shot in an expedition against Tenerifle; but the most dangerous of his daring exploits
~  I\ \    v were, boarding the battery of San Bartolomeo, board/b, A\>ing the San Joseph, the boat action in the bay of
Cadiz, and the famous battles of the Nile and Trafalgar.
Of these, perhaps, the boat action during the blockade of Cadiz was the most severe.  While making an attempt against
the Spanish gun boats, he was attacked by D. Mdiguel Tregayen in an
armed launch, carrying twenty-six men; fearful odds against his ten




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                       591
bargem.en, captain, and coxswain.  Eighteen Spaniards were killed,
the rest wounded, and the launch captured.
The Spaniards were more than two to one, and yet, he beat them.
But it was a hard and desperate struggle, hand to hand, and blade to
blade.  Twice did John Sykes, the coxswain, save Nelson's life, by
parrying off blows that would have destroyed him, and once did he
interpose his head to receive the blow of a Spanish sabre; but he
would willingly have died for his admiral.
Poor Sykes was wounded badly, but not killed.
When Nelson's health was established, after the loss of his arm, he
sent to the minister of St. George's, Hanover Square, the following
desire to offer up his thanksgiving:-" An officer desires to return
thanks to Almighty God for his perfect recovery from a severe wound,
and also for the many mercies bestowed on him."  He was humble
enough to be thankful to God; and continued so in the midst of all'
his successes.
The following is an instance of his coolness in the hour of danger.
The late lieutenant-general the Hon. Sir William Stewart, as lieutenant-colonel of the rifle brigade, embarked to do duty in the fleet
which was led by Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson, to the attack of Copenhagen in 1801.  "I was," says he, "with Lord Nelson when he
wrote the note to the Crown Prince of Denmark, proposing terms of
arrangement.  A cannon ball struck off the head of the boy who was
crossing the cabin with the light to seal it.  tBring another candle,'
said his lordship. I observed, that I thought it might very well be
sent as it was, for it would not be expected that the usual forms could
be observed at such a moment.'That is the very thing that I should
wish to avoid, Colonel,' he replied,'for if the least appearance of
precipitation were perceptible in the manner of sending this note, it
might spoil all.' Another candle being now brought, his lordship
sealed the letter, carefully enclosed in an envelope, with a seal bearing his coat-of-arms and coronet, and delivered it to the officer in
waiting to receive it. It is said that the moment was a critical one,
and that Lord Nelson's note decided the event."




692              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ANCIENT NAVAL FIGHT ON LAKE ERIE;
OR, A PIECE OF WTYANDOTT HISTORY.
[Communicated by Stanley Griswold, Esq., for the National Intelligeneer.]
DURING  my residence at Detroit,
I had the following story from the.. _..chiefs of the Wyandott nation,
(called by the French, Hurons,)
and principally from Walk-in-the-' Water,  a man of superior penetration and eloquence.
[Near two hundred years ago, as
well as I could recollect, their nation resided on the north shore of
Lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence river.  Opposite to them, on the
south side of those waters, resided the Senecas.  A woman, as happened, among other nations, was the cause of a terrible war between
them, which terminated in the expulsion of the former from the country.  She was the wife of one of the Seneca chiefs, to whom the Wyandott prince took a strong liking, and by stratagem carried her off..
The war immediately ensued, and was prosecuted with great cruelty
and slaughter for a long time. At last, a final battle came on, (upon
the northern territory,) in which the Wyandotts were worsted, and
were obliged to fly with great rapidity.  The greater part took a
course to the west, and their antagonists followed them vigorously till
they came to the straits of lakes Huron and St. Clair.  The fugitives
calculated to pass on the ice, but found it just broken up, and then
floating down the strait.  Their only alternative was, to throw themselves upon it, and leaping from cake to cake, they all safely reached
the opposite shore. Their pursuers, not choosing to encounter the
risk, returned home.
The nations among whom the Wyandotts now found themselves,
namely, the Potawattamies, Ottawas, and Chippewas, received them
with friendship, and gave or lent them  land to settle on.  At the
solicitation of the strangers, they even went so far as to fit out a fleet
of large and excellent birch canoes, with a view to meet the Senecas,




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      59 3
whom they expected on with a fleet from the east. These canoes were
chiefly built on the straits and higher lakes, and came to a rendezvous about where Malden now is. It is said they made a grand show.
The Senecas not having as good materials, were obliged to make use
of log canoes, hollowed out of the trunks of trees.  These were far
more clumsy and unmanageable than those made of the birch bark;
the latter being superior to our best skiffs, and may safely brave the
surges of the lakes.
The Wyandotts and their allies set out from their rendezvous, coasting the north side of Lake Erie till they came to Long Point, within
twenty or thirty miles of the eastern end of the lake. Here they
made a halt, not deeming it prudent to double the point till they had
looked around, it. For this purpose, they despatched a few men across
the point, who happened to meet midway, with about the same number. of the enemy, dispatched for a similar object. Each party retreated to their fleet, except one or two Wyandotts, who ascended trees
to ascertain the situation and number of their enemy and the nature
of their craft, which they found to be logs.
Now a grand manceuvre was set on foot-the birch canoe party
proceeded to the end of the point, and in full view of their enemy,
nput out directly into the lake.  The Senecas immediately pursued,
and when they had reached about midway of the lake, the birch canoes
turned upon them  and gave them such battle as could not be withstood.  All the Senecas were slain but one man, who pretended to be
dead, but was afterwards found alive, and was permitted to go home
to tell the catastrophe to his nation.
Thus closed the war, and the Wyandotts remained in peace in their
new station.  This is supposed to have been the first naval action on
the lakes.
Several circumstances conspire to gain credit to this relation.
MM             50*




594'UNIvIt  SAL NAYAL  HISTORY~
__    _    _..     _,_     ==\\\ \,_==_=___L.     =, =.
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GALLANT ACTION OF THE PRIYATEEIR GENERIAL ARMSTRONG.
IN  the last war between  the United
States and Great Britain, many gallant,   actionLs were pelformled by the American sailors in the  privateer service,
--  - ---  which have almost entirely eseaped
Ax_  the notice of history.  The following
will serve as a specimen.
The private armzed schooner Generatl
B:  Armstrong,  Captlain   Champlin,  of
eighteen  guns, being  within  fve
leagues of the mouth  of Surinam
river, on the 11th of March, 1814~ (!:.-:.covered a large sail to be at anchor undelr the land.  The crew of The General Armstrong supposed
her to be an English letter of mailTlle, and, consequently, Captain
Champlin bore down with the intention of giving her a starboard and
a larboard broadsicle, and then to board her.  The stranger, in the




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      595
meantime, had got sail on her, and was standing out for the American.  Both vessels thus approaching each other, had come within gun
shot, (the Englishman firing the guns on his main deck,) when the
General Armstrong discharged both the contemplated broadsides, and
discovered too late, that her antagonist was a heavy frigate.  She
nevertheless, kept up her fire, though attempting to get away, but in
ten minutes she was silenced by the enemy.  The last shot of the
General Armstrong brought down the enemy's colors, by cutting away
her mizzen gaff, halyards, and her mizzen and mainstays and Captain
Champlin, presuming that she had struck, made preparations to possess her; but the frigate opened another heavy fire upon the schooner,
killed six, and wounded the captain and sixteen of her men.; shot
away the fore and mainshrouds, pierced the mainmast and bowsprit,
and struck her several times between wind and water.  In this condition she laid upwards of forty-five minutes, within pistol shot of the
frigate; but, by the extraordinary exertions of the crew and the aid
of sweeps, she got out of the enemy's reach, and arrived at Charleston
on the 4th of April.
The following account of the capture of the General Armstrong, is
from Mr. Perkins's History of the Late War.
"On the 26th of September, 1814, the American privateer brig
General Armstrong, Captain Reid, came to anchor in the port' of
Fayal, one of the Azores, a Portuguese island in the Atlantic. On the
same day, the Plantagenet seventy-four, and the Rota and Carnation,
British ships of war, suddenly appeared in the roads.  At dark, Captain Reid warped his ship in under the guns of the fort for protection;
at eight o'clock, he observed four boats fiom  the ships filled with
armed men approaching him; after warning them to keep off, he fired
into the boats, killed seven men, and compelled them to return.  At
midnight, twelve large boats armed with swivels, carronades, and
muskets, attacked the brig, and after a severe action of forty minutes,
the contest ended in a total defeat of the party, a partial destruction
of the boats, and a severe loss of men.  Among the killed were the
first lieutenant of the Plantagenet, the commandant of the party, and
two lieutenants and one midshipman of the Rota.  It was estimuated
by the spectators on shore, that the boats contained four hundred men,
and that more than half of them were killed or wounded.  Several
boats were destroyed, two remained along side of the Armstrong,




9 6              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HIISTORY.
loaded with their dead and dying, only seventeen from  these twvo
boats reached the shore.  The British acknowledged a loss of one
hundred and twenty killed.  The sloops Thais and Calipso, were
loaded with the wounded and sent to England.
"Immediately after the first attack, Mr. Dobney, the American con1sul, applied to the governor of Fayal, to enforce the privileges of a
neutral port in favor of the Arnerican ship.  The governor expressed
his indignation at what had passed, but was unable with his mleans to
resist such a force.  His remonstrances to the British colmmnander
were answered by an insulting refusal.
"On the morning of the 27th, one of the ships took a station nea~r
the shore, and commenced a heavy cannonade on the brig.  Captain
Reid, finding further resistance unavailing, pcrtially destroyed the
brig, and went on shore with his crew  the British then set her onl
fire.  In this attCck, not only the privileges of neutrality, but the
safety of the tovwn was wholly disregarded. Several of the inhabitants
were dangerously wounded, and a nnumber  of houses destroyed."
IL   4IR -.t.MI_!I Wn Zvn, "i -. ~ ~ ~ ~ p~~-~='~~_=-T
a        W,1:L!T! 1
S~r=




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      597
j:]
ADM?!IRAL KEPPEI)   AND THE DE\Y OF ALGIERS.
HEN Admiral Keppel was sent to the Dey of
~.  ~w ~t  Algeirs, to demand restitution of two ships
which the pirates had taken, he sailed with his
~\   squadron into the bay of Algiers, and cast anchor in front of the Dey's palace. He then
landed, and attended only by his captain and
barge's crew, demanded an immediate audience
of the Dey.  This being granted, he claimed full
satisfaction for the injuries done to the subjects of his Britannic ilajesty.  Surprised and enraged at the boldness of the admiral's remonstranee, the Dey exclaimed, "that he wondered at the English king's
insolence in sending him a foolish, beardless boy."  A well-timed re



598             UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
ply from the admiral, made the Dey f6rget the laws of all nations in
respect to ambassadors, and he ordered his mutes to attend with the
bow string, at the same time telling the admiral, he should pay for
his audacity with his life.  Unmoved by this menace, the admiral
took the Dey to a window facing the bay, and showed him the English fleet riding at anchor, and told him, that if he dared to put him
to death, there were Englishmen enough in that fleet to make him a
glorious funeral pile.  The VDey was wise enough to take the hint.
The admiral obtained ample restitution, and came off in safety.
COURAGE OF AN IRISH SAILOR.
>',K ^ > HEN the British ship Tonnant was in close
action with the French rear-admiral's ship
Algesiras, the latter had her bowsprit over
the chess-tree of the former, so as to admit
i~~~  |    of a raking fire from the Tonnant, which did
great mischief to the enemy.  The foretop
of the Algesiras was full of French riflemen,
who, commanded, by an incessant fire, the upper decks of the Tonnant, which the marines on the poop, and officers and men on the
quarter deck, were suffering from considerably.  In the midst of this
carnage, an ordinary seamen, named Fitzgerald, made his way from
the main rigging of the Tonnant, by the sprit-sail yard of the enemy,
to the bowsprit of the Algesiras, and with his knife cut down the
French jack, amidst the loud cheers of his- shipmates and the shouts
and groans of the Frenchmen.  Notwithstanding the heavy fire of
musketry, and many hand-grenades thrown out of the foretop of the
enemy h he had regained the main rigging of the Tonnant, where his
gallant exploit terminated from a grenade, which struck him in the
back: he sunk between the two ships, with the tri-colored windingsheet under his arm, accompanied by the admiration and regret of
every officer and man in the ship.  This fine fellow was an Irishman,
of the humblest origin; but the greatest man of the great house of
Fitzgerald, never displayed more intrepidity or coolness in the hour
of danger than this poor Fitzgerald did.




NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      599
ADMIRALS HAWKE AND RODNEY.,_____   =_  =DM IRAL IHIAWKE has the
- _ — reputation of being not only'-4_~    ]~~ ~ ~brave, but also circumspect;
to the most consummate courage, and active spirit, he
a dded a temper cool and
deliberate; accident ruffled
him not; sudden misfortune.____ -. seemed not to take him by
_    surprise.  The following is
one instance of his coolness
and  steady self-possession.
When his flag was on board the Royal George, the ship once took fire,
owing to a collection of soot in the funnel of the stove of the great
cabin.  A man of less presence of mind would have given an alarm
instantly to the whole ship; but, instead of this, Sir Edward, who was
at the time dressing himself, went on deck without manifesting any
emotion, and taking aside the first-lieutenant, said to him in a low
tone, "Sir, the ship is on fire in my cabin; give the necessary directions for putting it out."
Capital I capital i Why, we should have cried out fire! as loud as
we could scream.
And by that means have gathered round you those who would
have only been in each other's way. I have given you an instance
of coolness in Admiral IHawke. The following is an example of
fidelity and integrity in Admiral Rodney.
After many instances of bravery and skill, he unfortunately engaged in election contests, and became so poor that he was obliged to
retire to France to escape from the pursuit of his creditors. When in
this forlorn situation, the Duke de Biron invited him to his house,
treated him very hospitably, and then hinted, that if he would enter
the French navy it would be greatly to his advantage. But the blue
jacket that would fight against his country, even to be lord high-admiral of an enemy's navy, would deserve to be tarred and feathered.
Rodney began to think that the duke was a little deranged in his in



600              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
tellects, but what was his surprise when the duke told him, that he was
commissioned by his royal master, the king, to offer him the command
of a French squadron, with unbounded advantages, should he accept
the appointment.
This was his reply to the duke. "My distresses, sir, it is true, have
driven me from the bosom of my country, but no temptation whatever
can estrange me from her service.  Had this offer been a voluntary
one of your own, I should have deemed it an insult, but I am glad
that it proceeds froml   a source that can do no wr'ong."
There is that in an upright and noble action which nommands re-;spect. The brave respect the brave, and the faithful respect the faithful all the world over.  The duke was so struck with admiration of
the British tar's patriotism, that he instantly became his friend.
NELTSON'S PRAYER AT TRAFALGAR.
T the battle of Trafalgar, Collingwood, in the Royal
Sovereign, led the lee-line of fourteen ships, Nelson,
in the Victory, was at the head of the weather line,
a!~!~I       consisting of fourteen ships.  Besides these, there
were four frigates.  The ships of France and Spain
opposed to the  British were in number thirty-three,
with seven large frigates.  The odds were great
against the English, but the superior tactics, and
well known bravery of Nelson, clothed him with power, and more
than made up the difference.  When every thing was prepared for
the engagement, Nelson retired into his cabin alone and wrote down
the following prayer.
"May the Great God, whom I worship, grant to my country, and
for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious victory, and
may no misconduct in any one tarnish it, and may humanity after
victory, be the predominant feature in the British fleet!  For myself,
individually, I commit my life to Him  that made me; and may His
blessing alight on my endeavors for serving my country faithfully!
To Him I resign myself, and the just cause which is entrusted to me
to defend.  Amen! Amen! Amen!"




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NAVAL ANECDOTES.                      603
THE SINKING OF THE ROYAL GEORGE.
gHE Royal George was an old ship; she
had seen much service.  Her build was
iX1@  _ - 0<         rather short and high, but she sailed well,
and carried the tallest masts and squarest
canvass of any of England's gun ships.
She had just returned from  Spithead,
where there were twenty or thirty ships
of war, a large fleet, lying under command
of Lord Howe.  It was on the 29th of
August, 1782.  She was lying off Portsmouth; her decks had been
washed the day before, and the carpenter discovered that the pipe
which admitted water to cleanse the ship was worn out, and must be
replaced. This pipe being three feet under the water, it was needful to
heel, or lay the ship a little on one side.  To do.this, the heavy guns
on the larboard side were run out of the portholes as far as they
would go, and the guns on the starboard side were drawn up and
secured in the middle of the deck; this brought the sills of the port
holes on the lowest side nearly even with the water. Just as the
crew had finished breakfast, a vessel called the Lark came on the low
side of the ship to unship a cargo of rum; the casks were put on board
on that side, and this additional weight, together with that of the
men employed in unloading, caused the ship to heel still more on one
side; every wave of the sea now washed in at her port holes, and
thus she had soon so great a weight of water in her hold, that slowly
and almost imperceptibly she sank still further down on her side.
Twice, the carpenter, seeing the danger, went on board to ask the
officer on duty to order the ship to be righted; and if he had not been
a proud and angry man, who would not acknowledge himself to be in
the wrong, all might yet have been well. The plumbers had almost
finished their work, when a sudden breeze blew on the raised side of
the ship, forced her still further down, and the water began to pour
into her lower port holes.  Instantly the danger became apparent;
the men were ordered to right the ship: they ran to move the guns
for this purpose, but it was too late.  In a minute or two more, she




604              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
fell quite over on her side, with her masts nearly flat on the water,
and the Royal George sank to the bottom, before one signal of distress could be given! By this dreadful accident about nine hundred
persons lost their lives; about two hundred and thirty were saved,
soine by running up the rigging, and being with others picked up by
the boats which put off immediately from other vessels to their assistalnce.  There were many visitors, women, and little children on board
at the time of -the accident.
THE BLOWING UP OF THE ROYAL GEORGE.
HEN  the dreadful event which has just been
related occurred, the Lark sloop, which had,{ t',/ g  /brought the cargo of rum, was lying along side of
the Royal George: in going down, the main. yard
of the Royal George caught the boom  of the,Lark, and they sank together, but this made the' 5 )  position of the Royal George much more upright
in the water than it would otherwise have been.
There she lay at the bottom  of the sea, just as you have seen small
vessels when left by the tide on a bank.  Cowper, when he heard the
sad tale, thus wrote:
" Ier timbers yet are sound,
And she may float again,
Full charged with England's thunder,
And plough the distant main.
4" But Kempenfelt is gone,
His victories are o'er,
And he, and his eight hundred
Shall plough the wave no more."
Admiral Kempenfelt was writing in his cabin when the ship sank;
his frst captain tried to inform him of their situation, but the heeling
of the ship so jammed the cabin doors, that he could not open them:
thus the admiral perished with the rest. It seems Cowper thought
that the Royal George might be recovered; other people were of the




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hi  jj —-  /-          -             i ~ 
____ 4 — -- - -          /1i'~/~
--— _.__,.~- --
THE ]3L0WINCG U? OF THIO ROYAL GPO oG~;








NAVAL ANECDOTES.                       607
same opinion.  In September of the year in which the ship sank, a
gentleman named Tracey, living in the neighborhood, by means of
diving machines, ascertained the position and state of the ship, and
made proposals to government to adopt means of raising her and getting her again afloat. After a great many vexatious delays and interruptions on the part of those who were to have supplied him with
assistance, he succeeded in getting up the Lark sloop.  His efforts to
raise the Royal. George were so far successful, that at every time of
high tide she was lifted from her bed; and on the 9th of October,
she was hove at least thirty or forty feet to westward; but the days
were getting short, the boisterous winds of winter were setting in,
the lighters to which Tracey's apparatus was attached were too old
and rotten to bear the strain, and he was forced to abandon the att;elIpt.  The sunken ship remained, a constant impediment to other
vessels wishing to cast anchor near the spot, for nearly fifty years,
when Colonel Pasley, by means of gunpowder, completely demolished
the wreck: the loose pieces of timber floated to the surface; heavier
pieces-the ship's guns, cables, anchors, the fire hearth, cooking utensils, and many smaller articles were recovered by the divers.  These
men went down in India rubber dresses, which were air and water
tight; they were furnished with helmets, in each side of which were
glass windows, to, admit light, and supplied with air by means of
pipes, communicating with an air pump above.  By these means they
could remain under water more than an hour at a time.  Large hollow
vessels, called cylinders, were filled with gunpowder, and attached by
the divers to the wreck, these were connected by conducting wires
with a battery on board a lighter above, at a sufficient distance to be
out of reach of danger'when the explosion took place. Colonel PasIcy then gave the word to fire the end of the rod: instantly, a report
was heard, and those who witnessed the explosions, say that the effect
was very beautiful. On one occasion, the water rose in a splendid
column above fifty feet high, the spray sparkling like diamonds in
the sun; then the large fragments of the wreck came floating to the
surface; soon after the mud from the bottom, blackening the circle of 
water, and spreading to a great distance around; and with it rose to
the surface great numbers of fish, who, poor things, had found a hid,
ing place in the wreck, but were dislodged and killed by the terrible
gunpowder.




608              UNIVERSAL NAVAL HISTORY.
THE EARL ST. VINCENT, LORD DUNCAN, AND LORD HOWE.;        -rS~.,,..   INCENT, Duncan, and Howe, are great names
as naval commanders.  One of the most brilliant victories mentioned in English history was
achieved by Vincent.  He went to sea at ten
years of age.  When posted, he was appointed'
to the Gosport.  Afterwards, he captured the
Pallas, a French frigate, and was present in Admiral Keppel's action with the French.  Under Admiral Barrington
he chased and fought the Pegase, a French seventy-four, capturing
her without the loss of a single man.  With his flag on board the
Victory, of one hundred guns, he came face to face with his enemy
on the 14th of February, 1797, fighting one of the most famous battles, and achieving one of the most splendid victories ever recorded iA
the roll of fame.
Duncan's victory over the ]Dutch fleet off Camperdown was a gallant affair, and it has handed down his name in the list of Britain's
warriors. Assembling his crew in the presence of the captured Dutch
admiral, he'kneeled down at their head to offer up his thanksgiving
to the God of battles.
Admiral Lord Howe, when a captain, was once hastily awakened
in the middle of the night by the lieutenant, who informed him, with
great agitation, that the ship was on fire near the magazine. "CIf that
be the case," said he, rising leisurely to put on his clothes,'"we shall
soon hear a further report of the matter.' The lieutenant flew back
to the scene of danger, and almost instantly returning, exclaimed,
"You need not, sir, be afraid, the fire is extinguished."  "Afraid,"
exclaimed Howe; "what do you mean by that, sir?  I never was
afraid in my life;" and looking the lieutenant full in the face, he
added, "'Pray, how does a man feel, sir, when he is afraid? I need
not ask how he looks."