PEPOR T 
ON THE
IMPORTANCE AND ECONOMY
OF
*t~nitasp +    WEtRPsf~ur  to  +1tts
BY JOHN  BELL, iLD..,
OF PHILADELPHIA.
NEW  YORK:
PUBLISIED BY EDMUND JONES & CO., PRINTERS AND STA'iIOLER8,
No. 26 JOHN STREET.
1859.








~J                                 CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Ancient Egyptian Hygiene,.                           5
Carthaginian Hygiene,...    6
Public Hygiene of Ancient Rome,                                     7
The Cloacae,..                             8
43                 Pestilential Fevers,.                                     10
The Aqueducts,..                                       11
Agrippa,...                                          13
Barbarism and Civilization,.....                15
Causes of Pestilence,.                                    20
Venice,..                                          22
Amsterdam,.                                     23
St. Petersburgh,.                                           25
Neglect of Sanitary Legislation,.                             27
Community of Interests,...                             32
Paving,...34
Cleansing of Streets,........       37
Economy of Street Cleaning,.                               37
Sewered and Unsewered Districts compared,                          38
Sewerage and Sewer Gases,......43
The Remedy for the Sewer Miasms,                                   57
System of Sewers,.                                     65
Disposal of Sewage,.                                     76
Ventilation,..                                     79
Defective Ventilation-Crowded Streets and Habitations,       81
Predilection of Cholera for Old Haunts of Disease,           91
Public Lodging-Houses,......                               93
General Want of Ventilation,.......94
In Schools,,....99
In Hospitals,.                            100
In Work-Shops and Factories,                          102
Seamstresses,......        103




CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Printing-Offices,.                                 103
Pulmonary Diseases from Defective Ventilation,         104
Defect of Light,..                             104
The Remedies,.....   107
Model Houses,..                                   110
Model Lodging-Houses;.....                 111
Means of Ventilation,..                   112
Different Modes,..                          114
Chemical Ventilation,.                                121
Ventilation of Schools,.                                127
Ventilation of Hospitals,.                               128
Factory Ventilation,.......       132
Ventilation of Sewers,..                             134
Su{pply of Water,........135
Water in Leaden Cisterns and Pipes,                          138
Effects of Bad Water for Drink,...                         139
Intemperance,......146
Preventable Diseases and Mortality,  150
Sanitary Improvements,..                                   160
Pulmonary and Cutaneous Purification,                              164
Public Squares and Parks,.....                          165
G.ymnasia and Museums,.....          166
Ablution and Bathing,.......167
Public Wash-Houses,.                       170
Nuisances,.......                             171
Slaughter-Houses,......    174
Cow-Houses,......   177
Interments in Cities,.....   180




R EP:-O R T.
This is one of the subjects to which the Committee on
the Internal Hygiene of Cities has been specially instructed to direct its attention. It is that on which, in the:division of-labor, I am required to be the reporter. The:materials for the purpose are ample, and it only requires the
labor of selection' and arrangement to make them available
for immediate instruction and guidance in the.work of sani 
tary reform. History, notwithstanding its imperfect notices of the real condition of the people of the differeit
countries whose progress it professes to narrate, furnishes,
when read and studied in a proper sense, large contri-butions  More especially is this true with regard to. -contemporary records, which, while they manifest awakened attention to existing evils, point out at the same time the
means of amelioration and improvement. In the use to be;
made of the knowledge obtainable from so many sources,
and to be brought to bear in aid of sanitary reform, it will
be safer to incur the charge of iteration rather than of failure to impress the public mind with the vast importance
of the questions involved in the discussion, and with the
pertinency and force of the facts adduced in elucidation/'of
principles. We must not imagine that a knowledge of
sanitary matters, possessed by a small number of infelligent
and inquiring minds, is at all indicative either of the
knowledge or the zeal of the public at large. Our reform,
like every other that has been successful, requires iteration, and again iteration.
Ancient Egyptian Hygiene.-The mere mention of ancient
Egypt'suggests to the minds of all readers her pyramids and
obelisks, with their hieroglyphics, -the splendor of Thebes and




Memphis, the superstitious observances of her people in
their alleged worship of animals, and of their -embalming the
dead, both- of their own and the brute kind. The annually
overflowing and fertilizing Nile, with its innumerable canals
for irrigation, is also a theme for admiration.  But the
wise; sanitary measures which secured health to the inhabitants, and their'protection from pestilence, by a system of
irrigation and methodical distribution of the waters of the
great river, and the practice of embalming the'dead, under
religious. sanction, are scarcely deemed to be worthy of
notice by the historian; certainly they are not impressed
on the minds of the youthful student in such a manner
as is called for, both by the importance of the facts themselves, and as suggestive of theduty of a government to
exercise. unceasing vigilance in all matters that relate.to
public hygiene.. Unless the process of converting the dead
bodies, not only of men but of animals also, into mummies, had been in a great measure universal, it would have
been difficult to prevent putrefactive exhalations from continuaily filling and poisoning the air,- owing to the difficulty,
not to say impossibility, of securing deep and permanent burial
for the dead in a land like that of Egypt, the soil of which is
undergoing continual changes of surface by.the annual overflow
and washing of the Nile.  With a similarly wise provision of
means best calculated to preserve the public health, one, if not
more of the ancient kings, made those great artificial excavations, the lakes of Mceris, the effect of which was protection
against the impetuous flow of the Nile at its rise,- or the too
persistent delay of its waters at its fall; and, in either case,
to diminish, if not entirely prevent, an exposed marshy surface
with its deleterious exhalations.
Carthaginian Hiygiene.-We are all familiar with the
memorable incidents of the wars growing out of the rivalry
between the Romans and the Carthaginians; but few are




7
aware that paving the streets was first practised in Carthage, and that the: example was followed'by the Romans,
or that a copious supply of water for the use of the inhabitants of that city, was brought, after immense labor and- expense, by an aqueduct more than fifty miles in length, and
of such dimensions that a man could stand erect in it.  The
cisterns for the reception and distribution of the water
-through the city were of corresponding magnitude; and even
-now in rowing along the beach, the mouths of common
sewers are frequently discovered.  In a like spirit of regard
for the public health, the Carthaginians set apart ground for a
public cemetery, beyond the suburbs of the city, which became
a true Necropolis, a city of the: dead, of which notice will- be
taken when we come to treat of the evils of intramural interments.
Public- Hygiene of, Ancient Rome.-Favorable. as
the site of ancient Rome, extending over her seven hills,
might. at first appear for, early'habitation and defense, it
may be safely said that we should never have heard of
the eternal city, never would she have become mistress of
the world, if her rulers and people had not early felt the
importance of sanitary measures, and carried them out witha persistence and an ability which should serve as models
for all succeeding ages. Much of the ground between the hills
was little better than a swamp, owing to the trickling down of
the small springs from above, and to the frequent overflowing
of the Tiber. Unless, therefore, the ground could have been
thoroughly drained; it must have remained, in a great measure,
uninhabitable; and the seven hills would have continued to
be the seat of merely so many separate villages, the abode: and
refuge of a half-shepherd, half-robber population, who had the
Capitoline hill for their citadel, and Rome would have barely
acquired the rank of' an inferior Latin city, under the rule of
her neighbor and subsequent rival Alba Longa.




eZo ac.-ce.-With not only an intentness to meet existing
w.ants, but W'ith apparently. a prescience of the future greatness
and.dominion of Rome, the work of drainage and sewerage was
begui by her kings and continued during the republic on a
seale of such magnitude, and in a manner so enduring, as to
be -unsurpassed and rarely equaled by any subsequent labor
of the same kind in other countries. The C(loaca 2Laxima
Which carried off the: waters of the Felabrum, at the time a
marsh between the Tiber in one direction, and the Capitoline,:Palatine, and Aventine hills in another, rivals.the largest.of
the pyramids in solidity and amount of material; and exceeds
-.them all in unquestionable utility. The inner diameter of this
river-like trimural sewer was more than thirteen.feet, and.such as to allow it to receive other large affluxes.."Earthqfiakes, the pressure of buildings, the neglect of fifteen hundred years, have not," writes Niebuhr, "moved a stone out
of its.place; and for ten thousand years to come, these vaults
will stand uninjured as at this day."  The Minor Velabrum
wa c.eontinuous with the marshy districts, known afterwards
as the. Forum and the Suburra, which were drained by appropriate tunnels opening into..the main trunk.  In the centr.e of
the Minor Velabrum was a bog or swamp called lake Curtius,
which was long an unabated and unmanageable nuisance.
-The -mrth of Marcus Curtius' sacrificing. himself for the good
of his country, by plunging, mounted; and armed, into this
yawning abyss, which was henceforth closed forever, would,
if clothed in the language of sober reality, probably-read as
follows, in the style of an obituary notice: M"M arcus Curtius,
edile, while superintending day.after day, the drainage and
filling up of the unsightly and insalubrious Minor Velabramm,
ands being exposed -all:the time to the fervid rays of an..utumnal sun, contracted a pestilential -fever, under which he
sankr a martyr to his love for Rome, to whose welfare he gave
*his.life.as a sacrifice.  Peace -to his manes!  Eternal: honor
to his memory."




.llthese -reclaimed marshes became memorable in the hi
tory of Rome, as sites for mrany of her most useful and orna
mental buildings and streets.  In the Velabrum were constructed the cattle and fish markets, Forum  Boarium, and
Forum Piscatorium, the temples of Fortune and Vesta, the
Arcus Quadrifrons. and the Circus Iraximus. The Forum,
long known by that simple designation, and afterwards called
Forum Romanum, was a place for public meetings, and also
a market-place; it was surrounded by buildings of various
descriptions, both useful and ornamental;- shops, arcades,
columns, triumphal arches, and temples. This is not the time
-to speak of the historical associations of the Roman Forum,
where the Comitia were held, where Cicero harangued, and
where the triumphal processions passed.  The once remote
and marshy suburban village,. the,Suburra, became after'its
drainage and the desiccation of the soil, the site of the amphi.:
theatre of Titus Vespasian, more generally known as the
Coliseum, and the triumphal arch of Titus.
But, notwithstanding all the pains and expense lavished on
the vast subterranean drains (cloacce), it was always a matter
of extreme difficulty-to keep the ground of, the Velabrum.: and
the'Shuburra sumfficiently dry to be healthy; and hence these
quarters were the:residence of the plebs or commonalty. Julius
Caesar, in the early part of his career, occupied an humble
house in the Suburra.  Of a similar marshy nature was the'
plain lying between the Tiber and the Pincian, Quirinal, and
Capitoline hills, on which a good part of modern Rome: has
been built. Part of this plain, in an early period of ancient
Rome,'was cleared. of trees, and made a field for gymnastic.
exercises and feats of mimic -war (.Campus liartius).  Large
groves were, however, retained, among which Augustus
erected'the,Mausoleum called after him; and behind it beautiftil walks were laid out.  Another part of the p!ain:: was
covered with: innumerable palaces, wooded gardens, three




10
theatres, an amphitheatre, and magnificent temples, contiguous one to another.  To have drained this district, as a
necessary preliminary for such various and splendid constructions, must have been a work of considerable labor and time,
as we have an opportunity of learning from the experimental
observations of an eminent Italian savant (Brocchi).  He
shows that, at any spot over the whole plain, water is readily
procured at the depth of a few feet'from the surface, and in
such quantity as to furnish, were it necessary, an adequate
supply to the whole city. by means of wells, and without having recourse to the aqueducts.  With a knowledge of the
buildings which bordered the Campus Martius on three sides,
and the still more numerous and imposing ones in the Forum
and the Suburra, previously noticed, we see the necessity for
completing the simple yet extensive underground constructions in the way of sewers, before a firm foundation could be
proctired for the more various, massive, lofty, and ornamental
edifices erected on the surface.  The lesson is a fruitful one,
and ought never to be lost sight of in the founding and laying
out of new towns.  In many of these a proper system  of
drainage and sewerage is an after-thought, and hence when
executed, it is at an immense cost, and often after much sickness, suffering, and mortality among the first inhabitants.
Pestilential Fevers.-PPaving, the necessary accompaniment
of sewerage, and without which the latter must always be imperfect, was not begun in Rome until an advanced period Qf the
republic, when -the practice was said to have been adopted from
the example of the Czrthaginians. The early deficiency in this
respect, and the inadequate supply of water for washing out
the sewers, allowed of the extrication and escape of effluvia,
which, added to the exhalations from an exposed and wet
surface, still in part subjected to overflow of the Tiber, gave
rise to those epidemic and aggravated periodical fevers, which




uWnder the vague name of plague (pestis) ravaged the city and
the Ager Romanus, now the Campagna di Roma, at different times, and carried off large numbers of their inhabitants.
The state of war in which the Romans were, with the exception of short intervals, so constantly engaged, must have complicated the features and augmented the violence and fatality
of these pestilences. Without professing to have made antiquarian or much historical research, it seems to us that these
visitations were not so destructive in the latter years of -the
republic, and under the first emperors, notwithstanding the
greatly increased population of the city, as they' had been
uunder the kings and in the first centuries of the republic.
The difference in these respects must be traced to the extended
system of paving and of sewerage, and the abundant supply
of water brought by the, aqueducts.  Brennus at the head of
his victorious Gauls, after having held possession of the city
for six or seven months, during which period he laid close
siege to the Capitoline hill, on whose summit the surviving
citizens had taken their last stand, was' finally obliged to
retire, owing to the sickness that destroyed so many of his
soldiers, much more than to the gold with which it was said
he;,was bought off. The Gauls encamped around the Capitoline hill, in the Forum and the region of the Velabrum, were
unavoidably exposed to the causes of fever growing out of this
low and unhealthy situation, acted on by the fervid rays of a
summer and autumnal sun. Reference has been already
made to the ground in this region being sometimes overflowed
by the Tiber; and we may now add, that, even as late as the
time of Augustus, it was, on such occasions, impossible to
pass from the Palatine to the Aventine mount without the aid
of a boat, for which each passenger paid' a quadrans, or
about a cent of our money.
lTZe Aqueducts.-On an equally large and magnificent
scale with the subterranean conduits and galleries for the




12
purpose of sewerage, were the numerous aqueducts Which
traversed Rome in all directions.  They were nine in number,
and conveyed into the city, at distances varying' from seven
to sixty miles, a supply of water adequate for both public
and:private -uses-cleansing  the. cloaques, supplying -the..numerous baths,' and.naumachiae, and.the houses.for all
domestic purposes.  One of these aqueducts, the Martian,
-conveyed the waters of three separate streams in as many chan-;nels.'The first aqueduct, made in the fifth century from the
foundation of Rome, was almost entirely subterranean.  In
~such cases, openings to the external air were made at intervals of 241 feet, for the purposes of ventilation. With the
growth of' the city, and the extension and multiplication of
-the sewers, it became more than ever an'object to keep these
underground passages free from  obstructions,- and hence
Whether Rome was at war or at peace with the neighboring
states, the government, both in the time of the republic and
~in'that of the empire, exercised unceasing vigilance, not only
in these important matters, but in every thing that: bore relation to the public.health. The comprehensive jurisdiction of
the ediles indicated the supervision, as well. of public buildings-temples, theatres, &c.-as of-private edifices, to such
an, extent that they should neither endanger nor incommode
passengers on the streets, but also of baths, aqueducts, common sewers, and- control of the markets and houses of.publicAresort-taverns and hotels, as we should call them at
the present day. The ediles'took care that the health of the
people should not suffer by bad provisions, which they threw
into the Tiber, nor their morals:by bad women, whom they
had authority to banish- from the city.  Officers were.also
specially 4appointed to take care of the aqueducts.  These
Curatores Aquarum were invested with considerable authority.; being attended, when they went out of the city, by an.architect, secretaries, two lictors, three public slaves, &c..




After: reading:the account given by Strabo -of the quantity
of water introduced into the city being so great. that whole
rivers seemed to flow through the streets and sewers, what. a
contrast-is offered to our minds when we'turn over the pages,
of the Parliamentary reports- made a few years ago, showing
the lamentable deficiency in this respect both in London: and
many of the great and even small towns of England. Tot
such an extent did this'prevail, that hundreds of thousands:
were deprived not' only of an adequate supply for. washing
their clothes, and for purposes of personal cleanliness, but
also for- drink itself.  The only fountains to which they'had access were thos'e of liquid poison; the only edifices
to  rejoice their eyes, and to which they might claim
entrance, by spending -the pittance earned by their- daly
toil, were gin-palaces. In most of our cities on: this: side' of
the Atlantic, provision has been made for an abundant supply
of water for the use of their inhabitants; and our municipal
authorities might, with propriety, repeat the' language of
Augustus, who, in reply to a popular clamor about the dearness and scarcity of wine, reminded the people of'Rome, "that
no man could reasonably complain of thirst, since the aqueducts of Agrippa had introduced into the city so- many copious:
streams. of pure and salubrious water."  There is reason to
fear that this appeal in favor of the unsophisticated appetite
for water, as contrasted with the acquired relish for alcoholic,
stimulants, would be received with as little favor in the,
Christian capitals of Europe and America, as it was in
pagan Rome.
Agrippa.-There is no name in IRoman history and records
so eminent for his- numerous and extensive additions to the chief
means of promoting the health, as Agrippa, the son-in-law and'mot trusted counselor of Augustus.: Hee increased the number
of the public sewers, and exercised a continual and caref super




14
vision over all of them. So numerous were these subterranean
galleries, that the entire city might be said, in the language
afterwards used by Pliny, to be suspended over innumerable
arches (urbs pensilis). Agrippa contrived, in addition to other
means, to collect several minor streams into a larger one, and
to divert the entire current into the sewers, so as, in a
measure, to flush them, as we would say nowadays, and
thus to drive before it all refuse and fetid accumulations. He
carried his supervision so far as to see in person to the cleaning out of the sewers, for which purpose he used to enter
some of them in a boat. The civil authorities of Rome displayed continued watchfulness, in order to prevent the waste of
water brought by the aqueducts; and, among other laws to
this effect, there was one which prohibited the diverting of the
water, that flowed over the castella or reservoirs at the termination of the aqueducts, to private purposes, to the detriment of the health of the city, by thus preventing the washing
out of the sewers. By the like attention to drainage and cultivation of suburban districts, and indeed of all Latium, the
country was rendered in a great measure healthy, and became
the favorite retreat of the wealthy Romans during the hot
season. These delightful villas could not, even if they were
yet entire, be now inhabited, on account of the altered condition of the soil, and its alleged consequent extrication of the
pervading and destructive malaria.
Following the construction of the aqueducts, and the introduction of so great a body of water as was conveyed by them
into Rome, was that of the Public Baths, some of which, as
those of Diocletian, were almost small towns, comprising, as
they did, every kind of structure f6r bodily exercise, religious
worship, reading, and recreation, in addition to the vast
lavacra, and other appliances for bathing in water, vapor, or
hot air, as taste or the bodily health might require.  Some
reference will again be made to these establishments, towards
the close of this report.




15
Barbarism  and Oivilization.-History tells us.of the
immense population of ancient Rome at the height of her
power, and the villas which overspread the surrounding
country; both town and country preserving and maintaining a vigorous and unremitting observance of the laws
enacted for the public health. From the same source we
learn the melancholy and contrasted picture of Rome, fallen,
depopulated, and rendered almost desolate by her barbarian
invaders, and the consequent entire neglect of all sanitary
legislation.  Such was the wide-spread ruin which followed
the repeated irruptions of barbarian conquerors and despoilers,
Goths, Huns, Vandals, and Lombards, that, in the eighth.
century, as we read in the pages of the learned and accurate
Muratori, a considerable part of Italy was covered with forests
and marshes -of great extent, and infested with wolves and
other wild beasts.  The same state of desolation prevailed in
other countries of Europe.  Rome herself, fallen from her.
high estate, exhibited the melancholy spectacle of a great city
in ruins; the adjacent country a gloomy solitude, and disease
reigning supreme over the surviving inhabitants.  Plundered'
first by Alaric, and spared by the ferocious Attila, who had
laid waste the whole empire, her greatest sufferings were.
caused by Totila, who besieged Rome, and cut the aqueducts,
in order to facilitate the capture of the city. By this means
the country around was overflowed,,ponds and quagmires
were formed, and the air became in consequence poisoned.
The Lombards exceeded, if possible, those who had gone
before them- in the work of destruction, in which we must
include that of drains, dikes,- and -sewers. Even if these had
not been destroyed or closed up by foreign enemies, there,
were not inhabitants left in sufficient number to keep them
entire and to cleanse them. With progressive barbarism.ancl
decay of all the useful arts, a knowledge of the very existence, and, consequently, of the direction of most of the sewers,




was lost.. There was no longer any, police, nor tne commonest
attention to public hygiene.  Frequent references were made,
in successive centuries of the dark or middle ages, to the
stagnanuwaters in the vicinity of Rome, and their retention
in the vaults and the rained buildings of the city, as - con-.
stant cause of taint of the incumbent air.  During the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, few of the inhabitants:, of
Rome reached the fortieth year of life, and a very smal
number survived the sixtieth year, On the advance of the
Emperor Frederic Barbarossa on Rome,' it was asserted by a
Writer at the time, that its pestilential air' offered a better
means than its soldiers, of protection to the city against,an
enemy. When the Popes returned to Rome, after an absence,
of seventy years'(1306 to 1376) in Avignon, the city only
contained thirty thousand inhabitants.  This return became
the signal for setting about the work of restoration and improvement, and among the measures of this nature most coltributive to the public health, was the construction of new and
tih repairing and opening some of the old sewers. Noticeable
viaences of improvement in the sanitary condition of Rome,
effected by drainage, were presented.in the changes wrought
in the quarter of the Vatican, and in that corresponding with
the ancient Campis Martius. The first, in the time of Tacitus,
was eminently unhealthy, owing to the marshy nature of the
tound;  but it was so much improved in this particular by
the Popes, as to be made the site for the Church of St, Peter
and the Palace of the Vatican.  In fact, many of the largest
churches and finest palaces in modern Rome are so many
evidences of conquests over marshy ground, in order;o give
space and stable foundation for their erection, and also, to
render access and occupation easy and safe. Modern Rome,
tiaongh the Popes, has in part imitated and in part turned to
direct account the construction of the ancient aqueducts, so
that by means of three of these art-directed rivers, the city is




17
amply supplied with water, not only for the. domestic and personal wants of the inhabitants, but for the purposes of cleansing the streets and supplying numerous fountains.  The
gushing streams and. jets sent out from these last, diffuse a
grateful coolness through the surrounding air, during the raging and oppressive heats of summer. The most rigid Protestant, in going the rounds of sight-seeing during the dog-days,
must feel his odium theologicum oozing out at every pore as
he approaches the magnificent fountains of Termini, of Trevi,
and of the Piazza XNavone, formerly the Circus Agonalis,
or sees a river foaming like a cataract at the Pauline.
The calamities which followed the irruption of the German
and Scythian nations into the Roman empire, lasted for four
centuries; and during this period it were vain to talk of public
hygiene. No longer were ediles and questors to be found,
nor were similar officers created by the barbarian conquerors.
Even after. the outlines of a new order of things were visible,
and modern history began its records, a long time elapsed
before any pains whatever were taken to preserve the health
of communities by sanitary regulations.  The cultivators of
the soil, herding rather than dwelling together round the
castle df their lord and tyrant, were badly fed and worse
lodged; and both in town and country the purifying aid of
the bath ceased to be sought for, and in fact was no longer
procurable.  The first memorable step towards a better social
and political organization of the people who overran andl subjugated the Roman empire, was their collection into commercial communities.  Ingenuity, enterprise, and taste were
rapidly developed; and with the increase of the wealth of the
state there ensued greater individual comfort and enjoyments
— better means, in fine, of procuring health, and avoiding
disease. To huts, and dark and unwholesome habitations,
succeeded spacious, if not always well-aired and well-lighted
mansions; and avenues obstructed by mud and filth were re2




.18
placed by paved streets; while here and there a fountain gave
evidence of a recognition of the virtues of running water, and
rendered it probable that abundance for use was secured before indulgence in ornament was allowed. This ameliorating
process was chiefly observable in the free cities of Germany
and Italy; and it was after a much longer period that even
the capitals of powerful kingdoms, such as London and Paris,
were wanting in most of the essentials for the preservation of
the public health.  The streets were narrow and unpaved,
and with their own mud were mixed up all kinds of garbage
and offal; the houses were for the most part small, damp, and
badly ventilated; water for both public and private wants,
household and personal, was deficient in quantity; and when
procured often tainted with impurities.  The supply of food
was irregular, and never in the variety required for the purposes of health. In all the cities'of Europe, in the middle
ages, the population was excessive, owing to the insecurity of
persons and property outside the walls during their frequent
and almost continual wars, and to the consequent flight of
large numbers from the country, who sought' refuge in the
city from the sudden fury of a barbarous enemy. It mattered
but little whether the town were large or small; there was
always a disproportion between the number of its inhabitants and the space for habitation and change of air'Hence
we cannot be surprised that any noticeable deviation from the
customary states of the atmosphere, or, still more, interruption to the regular supply of food, should have been followed in city, town, and hamlet, with pestilence in its most
appalling and deadly forms.  Even if we were ignorant
of all the particulars of bad medical police, or of its entire
neglect, and of the mode of living during this period, we still
could not fail to see in these melancholy chapters of the devastations from epidemic diseases, a want of adequate public
hygiene, if not a total ignorance of its principles. In propor



tion, on the other hand, to more conformity with, and a better
appreciation of, these latter, was there an abatement, if not
entire disappearance of these scourges of mankind.  Sanitary measures, methodically carried out, were followed by
improved public health and increased duration of the life of
the individual.
Vital statistics enable us to speak with confidence of the
progressive ameliorations, in these respects, which accompanied
advancing civilization. The mortality in Paris in the early
part of the fourteenth century has been estimated from a manuscript document to be 1 in 20; whereas the average mortality of the inhabitants of that city, in the very poorest
arrondissement or ward, as we might term it, in which poverty
and destitution are extreme, was 1 in 24, in the first third of
the present century.  The average deaths in all Paris at the
same date (1830) was 1 in 32, and among the more wealthy
inhabitants, 1 in 42; and hence we are safe in saying that
the mechanic of the present day, who resides in the French
capital, is better off:on the score of air and the appliances for
supporting life, than the rich inhabitant at the opening of the
thirteenth century, notwithstanding that the population is more
than 300 times greater now than it was then. The difference in
the vital statistics of the two periods thus compared is easily
explained by the entire neglect of public hygiene in the former,
and the careful attention which it receives in the latter. A1though paving of the streets of Paris had been begun in the
twelfth century, under Philip Augustus, yet it was of very
limited extent at the beginning of the fourteenth, when Philip
the Fair was king. At that time the streets of Paris gave out
abominable stenches, so obstructed where they with mud,
dung, and other execrementitial substances and offal of all kinds.
Even towards the close of the. century things were no better, if
we may judge from a proclamation of Charles VI., which speaks
of the pavement being so broken up into ruts, that it was dan



20
gerous m many places to ride either on horseback or in a
carriage; and that, owing to the accumulation of refuse of all
kinds, grave diseases and death were common. With few
exceptions, the houses were little better than hovels. Even
down to the early period of the reign of Louis XIV., the
greater number of the streets were still unpaved, or paved
only on one side and at certain distances; they were obstructed also by the same kind of abominations already mentioned.'Historians remark that, after the paving of Dijon, the ancient
capital of Burgundy, in the middle of the fourteenth century,
dysentery, spotted fever, and other diseases became of less
frequent occurrence in that city. MA still more striking example
of the effect of improved sanitary legislation in increasing the
average duration of human life, is exhibited in the registration
of thebirths and deaths, and of the population of the city of Geneva, during the last three centuries. M. Marc d'Espine, in a
late work on " Comparative Mortuary Statistics," shows, that
theprobable life at Geneva in the sixteenth century was rather
less than 5 years; in the seventeenth century 11 years; at
the beginning of the eighteenth 27 years; at the end of the
century 32 years; and now it is 44 years. M. ]Mallet'had
previously ascertained from the same documents, that the mean
duration of life in Geneva, in 1833, was nearly the double (or
as 40 years 5 months to 21 years 2 months) of that reached'
rather more than two centuries before.
Causes of Pestilence.-Nearly all the great cities of the
world have been founded on the banks and at the confluence
of rivers, or on the sea-shore, where the ground is low, flat,
and often marshy, and liable to be in part flooded by heavy
rains, or the overflow-of a'djoining, rivers.  In localities like
these, almost invariably at particular seasons, and under certain regularly recurring atmospherical influences, fevers of a
periodical kind afflict the first inhabitants. It was so, as we




21
have: already stated, at Rome; and in the cities and, small
towns, too, of modern Europe, as well as those in America,
the same unfavorable localities have produced the same effect,
until the industry and art of the inhabitants have been exerted
to alter the surface of the ground by firm pavements and judicious draining, so that the water coming from the houses, and
that falling in the streets in the shape of rain, shall readily flow
into the sewers beneath, in place of being allowed to stagnate
in ruts, hollows, and pools, and afterwards, with the aid of
heat, to bring about a putrefactive fermentation of all the refuse
accumulated, in the shape of vegetable and animal offal, and
other matters which are thrown or otherwise find their way
into the streets. A compost thus formed of all kinds of abominations, in union with the filth retained in most of the houses
of Europe during the middle ages, was a perpetually sustaining cause, not only of periodical fevers, but of plague itself.
The meterials of wood, and lath, and: plaster, of which the
houses were chiefly built, by retaining moisture and yielding
to decay, must have greatly contributed to the evolution of
foul and unwholesome air, which was added to the permanent
supply in the streets.  Fire in some instances came opportuliely to purify the air, while it destroyed the dwellings in
a city. The great fire of London in 1665, which followed the
great plague, destroyed thirteen thousand houses and eightynine churches, in four hundred streets; but it left the English
capital free, ever after, from the plague.  The benefits would
have been much more complete if the streets had been laid out
after a general and uniform plan, instead of preserving the old
lines, although many of them were, made wider. To this last
circumstance, and the better construction of the houses, both
as regards the. material, brick, and the larger access of light
and air, was the new city indebted for a higher sanitary standard' than it had ever attained before. But the imperfect
paving and drainage of London still left it open to intermittent




22
feov&  and dysentry, both of which prevailed every year. It
will surprise many persons, general readers too, when they are
told that the mortality from the former cause alone, in a population at the time not greater than that of Philadelphia, was
from one to two thousand persons annually. Now, it scarcely
figures on the mortuary list, owing to the great sanitary improvements in the metropolis, especially under the heads just
mentioned. In former times, it appears that Walbrook, Sherbourne, Longbourne, and Oldbourne, were really brooks, often
closed up by filth, and in some places the currents'so much
obstructed as to form pools. A large portion of the country
also, around London, was a marsh, and indeed the banks of the
Thames, from Lambeth to Woolwich, was one continued
swamp.  All these parts, however, have been underdrained,
extensive sewers formed, the ditches filled up, the river banked
out, and the site generally rendered so dry, that London is
now unquestionably not only the most healthy capital in
Europe, but on the score of salubrity, is scarcely rivaled by
any city in the world.
Venice.-We have been accustomed to read and to speak
of the wonderful and almost miraculous progress of Rome,
from a small and insignificant beginning to universal empire,
and to expatiate on the firmness, courage, and martial spirit
of her people, which bore them up under the most trying and
adverse circumstances. Viewed under another, and hygienic
aspect, her career must excite our surprise and admiration to a
still geater extent, when we reflect on the eminently unfavorable geographical situation of the city, as every way adverse to
health, and to the growth in numbers, wealth, and splendor
which she ultimately attained. It would indeed be difficult to
adduce a stronger and more convincing proof of the importance
of sanitary measures, not only for the prosperity, but for the
existence of a city, than was exhibited in the history of Rome.
But in more modem times the same instructive lessons have




23
been taught, with even greater force and point, by the foundation and growth of the three great cities of Venice, Amsterdam,
and St. Petersburg.  Had the refugees from the mainland,
who fled, before Attila and his Huns, to the small islands, in
the lagunes of the Adriatic, hesitated to procure a stable and
permanent abiding-place for themselves amid the waters, and
to set about laying at once the foundations of a mart for commerce, they might, perhaps, have had a line in history, telling
of their love of freedom and of their success as fishermen and
buccaneers, but never would the world have heard of the name
of Venice, or of its extensive trade and political power. Never
would the spectacle have been exhibited of a great city rising
as it were out of the sea, and resplendent with marble palaces,
and churches, and piazzas, and with rich tessellated pavements,
and houses, -many of them, palatial in size and architectural
decorations, and nearly all of these edifices, both public and
private, built on piers. There was pavement-foundation of a
new kind, and upon a large and costly scale; but how fully was
the expense repaid! Where canals take, in most cases, the
place of streets, these are necessarily small, if not insignificant; but their pavements required a heavier outlay than that
of many of the broad avenues of other cities. What shall
be said of the engineering skill in making the canals, and in
preserving their requisite levels, as well as of the labor in preventing undue accumulations of offal and refuse of all kinds
cast into them.  The entire exemption of the inhabitants of
Venice from periodical fevers, is well calculated to excite surprise under any view which may be taken of the peculiar topographical features of the city. During the summer months
the lagunes give out very unpleasant odors.
Amsterdcam  had as small and unpropitious beginning
as. the Queen of the Adriatic, and like that of the latter,
it was a, maritime one. Its founders were, first, a few fish



24
ermen, and then a few traders, whose early efforts were directed to prevent themrefrom sinking in the morasses on which they
had erected their humble dwellings, and from having these
swept away by the sudden rising of the stormy Zuyder Zee.
Drainage by canals gave them something like terra flrma in
their marshes, while dykes sheltered them from the capricious
fury of the ocean. Industry and enterprise thus early exercised -were not long in being directed into the channels of an
extensive and lucrative commerce, which brought the inhabitants wealth and a mercantile marine. Its tonnage constituted
a large part of that of the Seven United Provinces, and this,
at the close of the seventeenth century, was nearly equal to
the tonnage of all the rest of Europe. Amsterdam presents
the spectacle of a flourishing and handsomely-built city, of
more than two hundred thousand inhabitants, with well-paved
and clean streets, which sometimes run parallel to, and sometimes are intersected by, numerous canals, and with public
and private edifices evincing durability, taste, and wealth.
The whole of them rest on piles; and hence the common remark, assuming the tone of complaint, that a house costs as
much below as above the ground. It should be remembered,
however,, that a house is worth little above-ground anywhere,
as a residence, unless the under-ground be well kept, and rest
on a dry and properly-drained soil.. Notwithstanding, however, all the pains taken to keep the canals of Amsterdam,clear of accumulations of filth or other obstruction, the depth
of water is often insufficient to prevent offensive and injurious
exhalations, which affect the health and lessen the mean duration of the life of the inhabitants.  What is here said of Amsterdam applies to nearly all Holland.  The people of that
country, inhabiting a barren soil, alternately marsh and sand,
and almost submerged by water, and breathing an atmosphere
the most unfriendly to human comfort, so far from retiring be-,forethe encroachments of the ocean, erect barriers to restrain




25
its fury, give new channels to their sluggish waves, drain by
numerous canals their marshes and morasses, and convert, as
it were, the elements which seemed to be the means of destruction, into so many sources of wealth and power.
St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian empire, rests, like
Venice and Amsterdam, on made ground, once an area of
marsh and bog, near the mouth of the Neva. Its foundation,
unlike, however, that of the free cities just named, was owing
to the, despotic will of one man, Peter the Great, who triumphed over nature, but at an enormous sacrifice of human
life.  History tells of forty thousand men having been employed at one time in the preliminary work of draining of the
soil, and filling up pools and quagmires; and of three hundred
thousand men having lost their lives before the work was completed.  Now, we look at a magnificent capital, containing a
population of half a million of souls, with its wide and long
streets, its grand stone quays extending for three miles on
each side of the Neva, its apparently endless lines of imposing
houses in a uniform style of architecture for entire blocks and
even streets, interspersed with churches and palaces and government edifices. All this has been created within the period
that has elapsed since the foundation and first settlement of
Philadelphia. Well.might it be said, after a study of the rise
and growth of all the great capitals and celebrated cities of
the world, that the first and the most important chapter in the
history of civilization is that of drainage. If there be exceptions,
they will be found, for the most part, to strengthen and enforce the general.practice, by showing the inconveniences and
loss caused by its neglect.
Berlin'.-As a part of the contrasted picture of neglect of
the most important measures of sanitary legislation in cities,
we may adduce the instance of Berlin, the capital of Prussia.
For the first half of-the seventeenth century, its streets were




26
not entirely paved; and at the beginning of the century they
were never swept.  The new market was paved as late as
1-679. How different the state of things in the commercial
and free city of Augsburg, the paving of which was begun in
the early part of.the fifteenth century; and in the earliest periods it had subterranean passages or sewers. In Berlin, on
the other hand, in the latter part of the seventeenth century
(1671), every countryman who'came to the market was required to carry away with him a load of dirt. Hog-styes were
erected on the streets, sometimes under the windows. Berlin
had no regular sewers or underground drains at as. recent a
date as 1846.  A sluggish but considerable river, the Spree,
almost stagnates in the town. It might be made a grand
cloaque, connecting with the other drains when covered, and
the whole of them, as well as the streets, could be washed by
water raised by engines, at a cost not greater than that now
incurred for stucco worlk, and other outside decorations for the
houses. Large puddles of filth are allowed to collect before
the doors even of the best houses, which, especially in the last
months of summer, diffuse a most horrible stench. It must
be admitted, however, that the low situation of the town renders drainage a matter of great difficulty. Laing, the traveler,
speaking of Berlir as he found it 1841, says: "It is a fine
city, very like the age she represents-very fine, and very
nasty. The streets are spacious and straight, with broad margins on each side for foot-passengers; and a band of broad
flag-stones on their margins, make them much more walkable
than the streets of most continental towns. But these margins are divided from the spacious carriage-way in the middle
by open kennels, telling the most unutterable things. These
open kennels are boarded over only at the gateways of the palaces, to let the carriages cross them, and must be particularly
convenient to the inhabitants, for they are not at all particularly agreeable."  "If bronze and marble could smell, Bluch



27
er and Bulow, Schwerin and Ziethen, and duck-winged angels,
and: two-headed eagles innumerable, would be found -on their
pedestals, holding their noses instead of grasping [as in the
case of the generals] their swords."  Berlin is still so far behindhand in the comforts of life, as not to have water conveyed
in pipes into the city and the houses.  "Three hundred thousand people have taste enough to be in dreamy ecstasies at
the singing of Mladame'Pasta, or the dancing of Taglioni, and
have not taste enough to appreciate or feel the want of a supply of water in their kitchens, sculleries, drains, sewers, and
water-closets."  No surprise need be felt that Berlin was
scourged with the cholera in 1831, and again with still greater severity in 1837.  Putting aside drainage, the Prussian
capital is, in the width and general arrangements of the streets,
and the better ventilationof the houses, superior to the French;
but yet the proportionate mortality from Cholera was much
greater, or at the rate of nearly 2} to 1 in 1831, in the former
than in the latter city-which, as commonly described, was
so great a sufferer. In the second attack (in 1837), the mortality was still heavier in Berlin, or, as the difference between
1426 and 2174 deaths. There, as in nearly every city, in
which the Cholera made its attack, the greater number of
cases, and the chief mortality, were found in dark, narrow
streets, inaccessible-to the rays of the sun and to winds, and
in low, damp habitations, especially near the water.
_/eglect of Sanitary Legisiation.-During the last two
centuries, colonization and incidental conquest have exerted a
powerful influence on the: political and social relations of the
different countries in both hemispheres, from which neither
Hindoo nor Chinese, Turk nor Tartar, Indian nor Negro are
exempt.  Consequent upon the vast extension and the openings of new channels of commerce, have been the foundation
and growth of many cities, the inhabitants of which, in' their




28
eagerness for gain, have hardly allowed themselves, until
recently, time to attend to the obvious requirements of public
hygiene.  Looking too much at the surface, they have often
neglected proper draining and sewerage, and the means of procuring an adequate supply of water; and, more surprising still,
a renewal of fresh air by suitable ventilation.  The consequences of this neglect have been the production of febrile
and other diseases, which have not only destroyed life to a
fearful extent, but retarded industry and greatly interfered
with social progress and educational amelioration. These evils
are not confined to Calcutta and New Orleans, to Cairo and
Constantinople; they are but too apparent in Liverpool and
Manchester, and Glasgow, and New York; and, although
in less degree, in Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, not to
speak of our great inland, towns on the Mississippi-and -its
tributaries, and on our.great Lakes. Little admonished by
the history of former ages, the people of Europe and America
have paid but scant attention to the best measures for preventing diseases, and for preserving health among the masses.
The poor, and the destitute, and the degraded, have been too
long allowed to remain in their ignorance, to grovel in their
filth, and while suffering acutely themselves,? to spread around
them the contaminatico and contagion of the diseases of body
and of mind, which inevitably result from their neglected con-.:dition. The philanthropic few have, from time to time, remonstrated  they have also recommended, and as far,7.as
their limited efforts would allow, have carried out improve-.ments; but the -former have never obtained a full public
hearing, and the latter were too partial in their nature to
prune,: still less to eradicate, the wide-spread and constantly
growing evils. The Plague of Asia and Africa, the Yellow
Fever!of. America, the Typhus Fever in Europe, and the
Chol1a'min all quarters of the world, have spread fright and
death, l' ike elicited many legislative arid, m'inicipal enact



29
ments, and given rise to acts of heroic devotion for the:relief of
suffering and humanity; but until a recent period they -have
failed, notwithstanding their frequent and dreaded visits, to
fix the attention of the several communities, among which
they have been most rife, on their real, and as far as could.be
ascertained, their preventible causes.  It is under these circumstances that Hygeia may be invoked, not merely as the
handmaid of Medicine, but as the potent divinity saving her
teris of thousands of lives, while the latter can only hope to
rescue her hundreds, after incredible efforts and expense on
the part of her immediate votaries.
Concurrently with the increase, and both as an effect, and,
in turn, a cause of commerce, have been the vast extension
and multiplication of manufactures within the past century,
and the concentration of human beings, in consequence, far
beyond what would be allowable on any principle of hygiene.
Deprived, as so many tens of thousands are, in the great
manufacturing cities and towns of Great Britain and France,
of the common air and common light, pent up in close and
damp, often underground lodgings by night, and forced to ex-.traordinary and yet partial bodily efforts by day, receiving an
inadequate supply of food, and tempted by their overpowering feelings of exhaustion and depression to seek for temporary renovation and excitement in the use of ardent spirits,
or fermented and drugged, erst. called malt liquors, what
wonder that they are invaded by disease in every shapefevers, pulmonary consumption, scrofula, and all that can
disfigure and deform? -The picture is a.gloomy one, aAd
suggestive of fearful forebodings; it has long enlisted.-, the
sympathies of the benevolent, and has at last startled the self-.
ish and. the avaricious, who feel a well-grounded alarm.at
the probability of the continued sufferings and degradation of
-a neglected, if not. despised, class of their fellow-beings-.diminishing their own gains.  But we must not scrutinize




30
motives too closely, if the acts be of an ameliorating and
kindly nature.  Enlightened public spirit is urging those
who have the power, to make the requisite reforms, and, in
legislative enactments, as well as in voluntary associations
and individual liberality, satisfactory proofs are given of a
new and better state of things.  Recurrence will soon be
made to this subject. In some of the towns of England, of
late years, public baths have been opened, and public washhouses erected, so as to insure to the poorer classes cleanliness
of person and clothing, two great means of preserving health,
and, indirectly, of aiding the cause of morals; the mind receiving from the body's purity a secret sympathetic aid.
The burden of sanitary legislation is protection of the
public health, compatibly with the rights. of person and property, and the pursuits of industry.  The common right
of all is entire enjoyment of the material conditions for
healthy life.  This right is seldom  obtained, in its full
latitude.  It is too often neglected by those who might,
with care, enjoy it;  and, still oftener, it is withheld
or violated by force or selfishness in such a way that
the people in mass find it difficult to obtain justice. The. contest between cupidity and sanitary rights is sometimes unavoidable, but more frequently it arises from the ignorance
on. the part of the opponents of reform.  So soon as people
are congregated in cities and other marts of business, they discover, on coming to a common understanding, the necessity
of giving up the indulgence of individual will when it conflicts
with the public good. Hence municipal laws for regulating
thoroughfare, and for the introduction and export of various articles of commerce, especially the products of agriculture. Every citizen is insured the right of way through all the streets,
in the pursuit of business or pleasure; and he is protected by'
stringent laws from the dishonesty of those who would sell
him tainted meat, or provisions at short weight. It is not




31
in any view of sentimental philanthrophy or of ascetic restriction, but in the name. of humanity and justice, that so
many of our fellow-citizens, in all the walks of life, are.urgent
for similar prohibitions against the retail trade in -liquid poison,
the product of alcoholic distillation-the original noxious effects
of which on the animal economy are still further increased by
the addition of some of the most subtle and active poisons derived from other sources.
Individual caprice and heedlessness are checked in acts
which conflict with the rights of the majority, in fact, of the
public at large, as when a person would extend the front.of
his house beyond the regular line, or pile up goods or wares
in the middle of the street.  It. would be well that some limitation should be put: also to the height of the house, in order
that a whole neighborhood and the passers-by may not be put
in jeopardy, or sufferfrom the loss of limb and life itself by the
fall of these lofty structures, which are neither dedicated to
religion nor to any public.use, but which seem to be merely
monuments of the silly vanity of individuals.. The exclusion of
the cheerful and, genial sunlight from the street, and the restricted ventilation produced by such lofty piles, might count
for something, even though questions of this nature do, not
enter into the calculations of cost and profit by the first
owners. Paving and draining and sewerage are also recognized
parts of city police and sanitary legislation, to which all holders of property are made to contribute, for the public good as
well as for their own personal benefit.  Public convenience
and public health are subserved by these means, the performance or which is insured by regularly appointed agents, and
boards of health.  Few will be found in the large cities of
Europe and America to contest the propriety and wisdom. of
all these measures of public hygiene, to which must be added
the procuring a suitable supply of pure water, although, in
many smaller places, they may be, at first, thought to be un



32
called for, and to involve an expenditure of money beyond the
good to be obtained. It is seldom, however, that experience
does not show the groundless nature of these objections, both
in a sanitary and economical point of view. There are not
wanting, indeed, persons in every country, Christian or: Mohammedan, who claim, as one of their reserved rights, the
privilege of having their'senses of sight and smell assailed by
emanations from all kinds of offal and' garbage, and the stagnant water of gutters, as if to mark the difference between
town and country, and, at the same time, their freedom from
restrictive laws.  There are als9 not a few who, with tastes
akin to those of the preceding class, claim that their house is
their castle, and that they have a right to exclude the air from
it as carefully as if they were in a state of siege, and had been
obliged to close every aperture through which an enemy's missile might find entrance.
Community of Interests.-State policy, isself, however
little affinity it may seem to have to philanthropy and philosophy, is deeply concerned in the inculcation and enforcement.of the true principles of public hygiene. The power of a state
depends on the population, wealth, and productive industry,
and on the cultivated intelligence of its people; trammels on
all of which are created by whatever deteriorates the physical
strength and the health of any portion of them. Permanent injury to the public health exerts, at the same time, an
unfavorable influence on the social state; and hence - poverty,
with its frequent concomitants of hunger and the daily alternations of eager expectation of relief and of depression of the
feelings, has ever been a promoter of secret and political disorganization. While philanthropy incites to more extended
efforts for the relief and prevention of sufferings which are the
result of a breach of the natural laws or those of health, expanded philosophy teaches that, although some classes in every
city pay the heaviest penalties, yet there is no one class ex



33
empt from'similar inflictions. The rich man, in his spacious
mansion, has a direct personal interest in the health and domestic comfort of his poor neighbor; and the more secluded
and shut out from the world, in a dark court or alley, is this
neighbor, the greater is this interest. His open windows will
give entrance,' not only to the refreshing breeze, but also to
the poisoned air emanating from congregated beings in the
confined lodgings, and from the unremoved refuse or offal adjacent. It is thus that Typhus Fever, beginning in the hovels
of the poor, finds its way into the luxurious abodes of the rich.
Wereit necessary to continue inthis line of argument, we might
point to the importance of sanitary legislation for the employer or master manufacturer, as well as for the operatives and
workmen. His real interest will not consist in obtaining
from them the greatest possible amount of work from day to
day, without reference to their having a due proportion of
time for sleep, and of moderate recreation in the open air.
Nor will it be good economy to stint these persons in the
quantity of wholesome food which is necessary not merely
to remove the cravings of hunger, but to renovate the body
weakened by labor. The landlord, who desires to have his
houses always occupied by good paying tenants, will not be neg-ligent:of either their health or their morals. -He will not
speculate on the powers of endurance of human beings, when
deprived of fresh air by residence in close, damp, and badlyventilated rooms, and who! are compelled to inhale an impure
and vitiated air, the product of their own respiration, and the
exhalations from the accumulated filth of cess-pools, and of;yards choked up by offal. The' inmates of such habitations
are, necessarily, less fitted for labor and active employment
of every kind; lose more time by sickness, and are carried
off in larger proportion by death than those in more favorable
hygienic conditions. Their nervous system is weakened in
the functions of the senses and of the brain; and, even if in-.3




34
temperance should not add its baneful influenoe to their
distress, they are more susceptible to the causes of moral
disorders and the temptations to evil doing.  Men, thus
wearied and worn, depressed in body and in mind, and
deprived of all the genial excitement from fresh air and light,
and shut out from all the objects which might remind them of
nature, under her more pleasing aspects, become careless of
themselves, indifferent to the wants.of their families, and
regardless of the obligations contracted with employer and
landlord, or with the administrators of the laws.  They are
unfitted for prolonged and regular labor.  They are bad workmen, bad tenants, and unsafe neighbors. We shall conclude
what is to be said of the benefits of a good sanitary system,
both to the rich and the poor, -by repeating- that right royal
sentiment of Prince Albert, on the occasion of his taking the
chair at a meeting of the "Society for.improving the Condition
of the Working Classes.": "IDepend upon it," said theprincely chairman, "that the interests of the often,-contrasted
classes are identical, and it is only ignorance which prevents
their uniting to the advantage of each other."
Paving. —The sanitary reforms which have been carried
out within the last ten or fifteen years in Great BritaiQ, and
those which are still in progress, following as they do a careful investigation of the evils and abuses to be corrected,
enable us to speak with additional confidence of the importance and economy of sanitary measures to cities,.and to
adduce a large -body of facts alike pertinent and convincing.
Your reporter will content himself with'introducing -at this
time some statements takdn from a mass of evidence'which
he had previously -collected for other purposes.  To begin
withpaving, it might'be sufficient to say that' the evils from
neglect of it are pointed lout in most of the reports on the
health of towns, but we cannot' forbear from'again adverting
to the effects.witnessed in London. Before the streets'of that




35
metropolis were paved, the inhabitants were as great sufferers
from periodical fevers as those of the worst situated rural
districts in our own country, and until underground drainage
had been adopted to some extent, dysentery was common and
largely fatal. Drawing on home experience, it has been found
that in Philadelphia, the exemption of the inhabitants from
intermittent and bilious remittent fevers has, with great uniformity, followed the paving of the streets.  The space now
called Dock street was, in the early days of the history of
Philadelphia, a miry swamp, traversed by'the sluggish stream
Dock: creek, on either side of which periodical fevers, of
all grades, prevailed with a violence equal to those met with
in the most sickly districts in distant. States.  The. exposed
surface having been paved, and the creek partly filled up and
covered over, and made the line of a great culvert, no person
residing there now-has any apprehension of fevers, such'as
those that affected the former dwellers there. A like change
from the operation of a similar cause has been wrought in the
districts of Southwark, Kensington, aud Richmond.  The
change in the sanitary condition of Southwark is the'more
obviously. due... to paving and subsequent attention to scaven-.gering, as the greater part %of the drainage is on the surface,
owing to the limited extent of sewers.
An important lesson is deduced. from.the history.of the
foundation of new cities, or the extension of the streets of old
ones, viz.: that paving ought to precede the erection of
houses, and drainage follow habitation at a very early period.
A. neglect of these two' preliminary conditions for public
health has been productive, in.all ages, of a feaiful. waste of
life; we say waste, because the deaths werereadily preventable. Actually at this time the pavement of'the seventymiles of streets in Boston furnishes a cheap protection to
the inhabitants against the evils- arising.out of. the. constant
presence- and accumulation. of -town mud and filth, and other




36
abominations which it would be impossible to remove from
any ground not coated in this way. This is the more evident when we learn that for the length of seventy miles of
streets, there are but twenty-five miles of sewers, many
of which were some years ago one third to one half filled
with mud. Baltimore is mainly indebted to- street pavement
for the drainage which is done at the surface, as the aggregate length of all the sewers ten years ago did not exceed
two miles. One of the most remarkable examples of the
beneficial change in the health of a city produced by paving
its streets, is furnished in the history of Lduisville, Kentucky,
which'from being called the grave-yard of the West, is now
regarded as one of the. most healthy cities of that extensive
region. Intermittent fever was, as we learn from Dr. L. P.
Yandell, a regular annual visitor, and occasionally a form:of
bilious fever prevailed, rivaling Yellow Fever in malignity,
and threatening to depopulate the town.  The citizens,
awakened, after the fever of 1822, to a sense of their condition and to the means of mending it, set about a system  of
improvement, the chief feature of which was paving of the
streets and filling up of the ponds. The change in the sanitary character of Louisville is the more noticeable, as it was
brought about without the aid of subsoil drainage by sewers.
It has been truly said that fever loves the banks of rivers,
the borders of marshes, the edges of stagnant pools;- it makes
itself at home in the neighborhood of cess-pools and badly constructed drains, and takes especial delight in the incense of
gully-holes. It should be added'at'the same time, that fever,
at least of the periodical: kind, will be prevented from showing itself by its favorite haunts being covered with a good
pavement, so as to separateat once and permanently from the
sun and air, the' bed of moist putrefactive materials which
ferment and give ris'e to the continual' evolution:of noxious
gases.' But the guardians of the public health must notrelax




their -vigilance after the construction of suitable street- pavements, for,:unless there be enforcement of a regular system of
scavengering, their surface will soon be covered with semifluid-mud, and offal, and vegetable and animal reffse, which
will represent too faithfully and fatally the banks of rivers, a
marsh, or the edge of ponds, and the contents of cess-pools
and gullies.
Cleansing of the Streets.-Cleansing of the streets, by a
proper system of scavengering, is called for, both by the requirements of health and of comfort. The streets have been
said; with justice, to be the reservoirs whence we are supplied
with fresh air, and if it be impure in them, it is impure everywhere. It is not enough to prevent the access of foul air fromn
untrapped and unwashed drains, but also from surface filth,
and the remains of any kind accumulated in the streets.
Further, continues the writer who makes these remarks, Mr.
P. H. Holland, of Manchester, dirty streets cause dirty
houses, dirty clothes, dirty persons; every one walking in
them  in wet weather carries into his house some portion of
dirt, to increase the difficulty of domestic cleanliness.  In
dry weather the same effect is perhaps more powerfully produced by constant clouds of dust.
Economy of Street Cleaning.-The great obstacle to increased cleanliness of the streets, is the expense of frequent
scavengering. Mechanical ingenuity has, within a few years
past, obviated, in a considerable degree, this objection.'Mr.
Whitworth, the celebtated mechanic of Manchester, has perfected a sweeping machine, by means of which he is enabled
to sweep the streets of that town three times as often as they
used:to be by hand, and at thesame cost. In Birmingham,
Leeds, London, and several other places, this machine- has
likewise been worked with success. In Liverpool, from some
unexplained  cause, it has not given  equal satisfaction



38
The expense of cleaning the streets and ash-bins, &c., is
balanced by the sale of: ashes and dust by the parishes of
London.  The experience- of Edinburgh shows that, under
proper'fficers, the daily cleaning of the city, and of its
numerous courts'. and closes, is attainable- at the moderate
expense of ten-thousand' dollars a year..In Aberdeen,-the
work is done daily, at a profit to the city of a sum equal-to
three thousand dollars.  In. Hull, they have discovered that
they can readily dispose of to small farmers-who find it their
interest to collect it-the refuse from the houses, even'in the
courts.and alleys, which are inaccessible to. carts.  Small
streets,',as well as courts and alleys, are apt to be neglected
by the scavengers,'and- if any of these be' unpaved, stagnant
puddles are the consequence, and the atmosphere, necessarily
close and confined in such spots, becomes still further deteriorated by the accumulations of refuse and filth, not to speak
of the presence of open privies.
Sewered and Unsewered Districts compared. —In contrasting the effects. on'the health of the inhabitants of sewered
with unsewered districts in, the same town, we are-met by the
remarkable example. of Ashton-under-Lyne in England, in
which -the duration of life is six years more in the former than
in the latter portions.  Equally marked results have been obtained from the sanitary records of Chorlton, a township of
Manchester.  While the mortality in the undrained-streets
amounts to four per cent., in the drained districts it is
only two per cent.; and that we do not overrate the'influence
of drainage, is proved by the fact that some streets containing
3500 inhabitants, and exhibiting a mortality of 1 in 32 of
the population, were elevated immediately after having obtained the benefit of sewerage to such a scale of health, that
the deaths decreased to 1 in 50, or in other words, the deaths
were diminished 20 a year out of every 110, even as a first
effect of putting the streets in a proper condition as to sewer



.39
age. Other districts of Manchester give the same instructive
lesson. In Liverpool it was ascertained that although the
high mortality of 5.4 per cent. occurred in both sets of courts
in that city, yet that more than 22 persons in every 100 of
the undrained courts had serious cases of illness, while only
10 in 100 suffered in the same way in the drained districts.
The sanitary history of every city contains evidence of the
improvement of the public health following a good system of
sewerage. Proof is also furnished in the contrast offered bee
tween the preferred and fashionable streets as we now find
them, and the same spots before they: had the benefit of paving and sewerage. In London.the west end of the city, and
Westminster, the seats of' the residences of the nobility, and
where are found the courts of law'and the two houses of Par-.
liament, were once extensive marshes, nearly uninhabitable
on account of the fevers which annually prevailed there. In
Paris a regular system of sewerage has converted sickly and
almost abandoned districts into' those now known as the
Faubourg  Montmartre, the  Chauss6  d'Antin, and  the
Faubourg St. Honor6, which are remarkable for the business transacted in: them, and the wealth of their inhabitants,
Rotherhithe, a district of London, on the south bank of the
Thames,.has been the favorite haunt of the cholera in' successive periods of appearance of that disease from 1831-2 to
1854. Its sewerage was deplorably defective, being by open
sewers connected with the river.  Malignant cholera spread
to a much greater extent on the line of open sewers than in
the other poor and densely inhabited places.  In other districts, we are told that the line of habitations, badly cleansed
and suffering from defective drainage, formed the line of
cholera cases in 1831-2. The reports of the medical inspectors, appointed by the Board of Health in London; in
1854, concur in showing that wherever cholera has become
localized, it was found to be connected with obvious remov



40
able causes. Of these, the principal were the open ditches
used in most instances as sewers, or receptacles of all descriptions of filth, and receiving the drainage of num'erous privies.
Generally speaking, the mortality from cholera was greatest
in the lowest levels, owing, as may readily be supposed,; to
their imperfect drainage, and consequently to the greater
humidity and impurity of the air of such places. The advantages that might be expected from greater elevation are
lost however, by.defective or inefficient drainage, as in the in.
stance of the district of Kensal, in the parish of Chelsea, near
London, if not now an integral part of the metropolis. This district, with the advantage of having at least 50 feet higher elevation than the rest of the parish, and an open airy situation, had
a death-rate from epidemic disease, principally diarrhoea, nearly
double that of any other district in the parish; although if we
exclude epidemic disease, it is actually the healthiest of the
Chelsea districts.  The defective sanitary arrangement, on
which this state. of things depends, is described by Dr.
Barclay, Medical Officer of Health for Chelsea, to be inefficient
drainage,. fecal fermentation, and the impregnation of the atmosphere with'unwholesome emanations from foul drains,
ditches, and cess-pools.  It has been said that the course of
Typhoid Fever in a town may be tracked by that of neglected
sewerage. In Croydon, a town not far from London, in consequence of a new but badly constructed system of drainage,
there occurred "an alarming outbreak of Fever, (Typhoid),
-Diarrhea, and Dysentery."  And the relator, Dr. Letheby,
adds, that Dr. Carpenter, of that towvn, informed him  "that
even now he can tell where the pipes are stopped, by the occurrence of Diarrhcea or Fever in the houses through which
[the foul gases are forced."   Typhoid Fever has been reprepresented to be a better test than even Diarrhcea of the
sanitary state of a town.
The unhealthiness of an urban or suburban district, and its




41
liability to visitations of Fevers -and.Cholera, depend in no small
degree on its low. situation and its proximity to river-banks,
or to stagnant water,. and too, commonly still on its imperfect
drainage.. It was said, in reference to the intimate relations. between the activity of the disease, and the proximity
of the river Thames, that two causes are at work in such a
locality. -First, increased humidity, and, secondly, and more
especially, the large evaporating surface of foul water, by
which noxious effluvia are continually given off, and poison,
to a certain extent, the atmosphere through which they.are
diffused. On this point, the language held by Dr. Grainger,
will properly find a place on the present occasion: "It is almost
needless to point out," writes this gentleman, " that when the
numerous sewers of a city reach the stream, one part of their
contents widely mingling with a large body of water, under-.
goes solution, and thus presents a' physical condition favorable
to: their subsequent; escape into the atmosphere in the form: of
mephitic gases; whilst other portions, owing to the diminished velocity, sink. to the bottom, near the edge of the river,
and thus become deposited on the banks of putrid mud,, which
will at the next tide, being laid bare to the action of the sun and
air, exhale poisonous effluvia."  This writer adds, thatsome
facts came to his knowledge, showing that it is precisely in
those spots at the stream, which receive the principal body of
sewerage, that Cholera especially ravages the population. We
may add that it was so.at Hamburg and at Berlin, in the
latter of which cities open drains emptying their contents into
the sluggish Spree, would be productive of still greater mischief. In Paris, the evils from this cause have been felt, and
suggestions were made some years ago, and have been in a
measure carried out, to construct two great tunnel sewers, one
on each side of the Seine, to receive and transmit to some dis-t
tance below the city all the sewerage of the different branchsewers. A similar project is now discussed in London, so




42
that the Thames may cease to be, as it has been fora long
time -past; the great common and open sewer of the metropolis.
In Philadelphia and New' York, reforms' are called for in this
matter, so that the mouths of the. sewers, which discharge
their contents into the rivers of these two cities, shall'not be
exposed at low' tide, and give out poisonous effluvia, which
either directly generate malignant Fevers, or serve as exciting
causes on organisms predisposed by atmospherical extremes,
such as high heat and humidity. Without involving ourselves
in doctrinal questions as to the origin of Yellow Fever, we are.
sure of receiving, from all quarters, the admission of the general sameness of the localities of this disease, and that these are
distinguished by their'consisting, for the most part; of alluvial
and made soil, and by their being deficient in suitable drainage
and analogous means of preserving the surface dry and clear of
accumulations of filth -and the like decomposed organic remains,  What is said of the Yellow Fever in.New Orleans
will apply to other' places in which it has committed its worst
ravages, viz., that it -attacks, generally,; at first, the most susceptible, who live in the filthiest,' worst-drained and paved,
and worst-ventilated, and most crowded portions of the city.
In, Philadelphia, invariably from the first visitation of the
Yellow Fever in 1699, to the last slight one in 1853,. the history of the origin of the first appearance of the Fever is.told in
nearly the same language, viz., in Dock street, near the. drawbridge, the former mouth of Dock Creek, in different parts of
Water street, or at the water-side, or on one of the wharves,
between Kensington on the north,. and Southwark on the south
end of the city. In 1699 it broke out in the.vicinity of the dock
at the'end of Spruce street; and in 1853 on or near the: wharf
at theDelaware corner of South street-the two spots being less
than three hundred yards apart. Near the latter of the two,
the mouth of a large sewer.was exposed at low tide, and, the
emanations from its imperfectly discharged contents left to




43
poison the air arounId.i In New York, a still worse state of
things prevails,.not'only from the same' cause, but from the
slips and docks,; especially on the East River, being made the
receptacles for all kinds of offal and refuse, thrown into them
from the wharves and the vessels.
SEWAGE AND SEWER GAsEs.'-The: virulent and actively
poisonous nature of the emanations from sewage, whether at
the terminations of the sewers left exposed, in the ~manner
now described, or in the course of its passage under the
streets of a city, from gully-holes or leaks in the public sewers,
as well as in the private drains leading into'these latter, have
been: investigated with considerable care of late years both in
London and Paris.  In the British metropolis, Drs. Barker.
and' Letheby; the -first in a paper in thq Sanitary Review and
Journal of "Public Health, Vl.:IV., the second in. a Report
to the Commissioners of Sewers of the City of London,
have entered very fully and ably into the subject. Dr. Barker instituted a number of experiments on animals, with a
view of showing the, toxical effects of the chief gases in
sewer emanations, viz., carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
and ammonia, or rather sulphide of ammonium. -A mouse,:
exposed in a cage to the air of a cess-pool, within three inches
of the surface, although it was well fed at intervals, died on
the fifth day. Dogs thus exposed suffered from vomiting,
diarrhcea, and febrile symptoms, rigors, restlessness, thirst,
and loss of appetite.  The gases above named were then experimented with separately.  A puppy, exposed to less th'an
two per cent. of sulpheretted hydrogen in the common.air,
was destroyed in two minutes and a half, without a struggle,
and so small a proportion as 0.428 per cent. killed another
in an hour.  A dog, exposed to 0.205 per cent. of this- gas,
was affected within a minute by tremors, and fell on his sid.
The:action- of the heart became irregular, and within four




44'minutes the respiration had  bpparently ceased, but after
awhile-was-renewed. After one hour and thirty-eight minutes
the dog was removed'from the box containing air mixed with
sulpheretted hydrogen as above. The respirations, which had,
previously, at one time-three quarters of an. hour from the
beginning of the experiment-been 112 and even 120 in a
minute, became suddently stertorous, as in apoplexy. On
the removal of the dog the respirations -were stertorous, the
limbs rigid, and the head was drawn backwards  -the animal
died nine hours and thirty-eight minutes after the commencement of the experiment. A second dog, similarly exposed,
suffered at first, but soon revived, and at the end of five
hours, was removed without exhibiting any morbid effect.
Another was attacked with tremblings and diarrhoea after
breathing the gas; a fourth with all the appearances of intoxication.  Ammonia and its salts produced what Dr.
Richardson, in his Essay on the Causes and Coagulation of
the Blood, considers to be unmistakably typhoid symptoms.
The minute quantity' of. 0.056. per cent. or 56 parts of sublphuretted hydrogen in a thousand of common air, is sufficient
to' produce serious symptoms-eructations, tremors, rapid and
irregular respiration, extraordinary rapidity of the pulse, and
diarrhoea. The -inhalation of carbonic acid in small proportions was: followed by diarrhoea. Dr. Barker arrived at the
following conclusions, which may be received as a fair expression-of the facts:
"The symptoms which have been noticed as resulting
from the inhalation of shlpheretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium, and carbonic acid, are sufficient: to account for the
effects arising from cess-pool effluvia, without seeking for any
farther product from such emanations. Comparing the experiments with cess-pool air with those in which separate gases
were employed, the inference seems:clear to my mind, that
the symptoms arising from the inhalation of cess-pool atmo



45.sphere -were due mainly to the- presence of a: small amount of
sulpheretted:hydrogen, which gas was always present.  Ifthe
experiments with the cess-pool air: be placed side by side: with;
those in which sulpheretted hydrogen, in the proportion Of
0.056 per cent. was administered by inhalation, the analogy
between the two sets. of results will be sufficiently unmistakable."
Before inquiring into the nature, and the effects onthe animal
economy of sewage -gases, Dr. iLetheby examines the nature
of sewage itself-as far as observed by this writer, in reference
to what is met- with in England. The matters to be dealt
with in the public sewers of every town and city' are very complex, for they are composed not only of the solid and liquid
ejecta of the population, but also of the fluid refuse of every
branch of industry.  They consist of the filth of kitchens,
laundries, and dye-houses; the drainings from stables, slaughterhouses, and the public markets; the various liquid impurities
of trade and manufactories; and the washings of the streets
and-alleys;:all of which, with the ejecta of the inhabitants
and aa large quantity of water, compose the sewage of towns.
In Paris and the French towns generally, and in our American ones, a difference prevails in their sewage from: that of
London and other towns -in England,. in the circumstance::of
the small quantity of-human ejecta which~ is conveyed'by
private sewers into the public ones in France and the United
States.  Altogether, it- may be said, that the ejecta of the
inhabitants of LOnildon and the washings of the streets daily,
furnish about 233 tons; of solid -matter to the sewage, of
which 152.6 tons are of dry matter, and 293.6 of moist, and
these with the trade refuse, are, diluted with about 84million gallons of water. -It has been estimated, as data for:
part of the preceding calculations, that 2 to 2-, ounces of dry
solid matter are -contained in the, excrements per: diem, of
eachmember of the -population.  Another mode of' estinat-'




46
ing the composition of sewerage is founded on the analy~
tical' results of its examination at different times  and
places.  These show that the  sewage discharge by day
is richer in solid material than the night sewage is; and
that there are  considerable  differences in  this respect
between the contents of sewers situated in different'quarters of the city.  "Taking the average. of all the, results
obtained in the examination of the metropolitan sewers, it
may be. concluded that the' sewage -which flows into the
Thames contains about 904 grains of solid matter in the gallon:; of which about 29- are.suspended, and 601 dissolved:
there being about 15 grains of organic matter in each of these
constituents."  "The mineral constituents of sewer-water are
chiefly carbonate of lime and common salt, with small proportions of the alkaline sulphates and phosphates. They are
derived from urine and from the water supply- The mineral
part of the insoluble matter-consists, almost entirely of the
debris of the streets, and detritus of wheels and horse-shoes.
Their amount is about 15: grains per gallon; which, in the
aggregate, is as near as possible 81 tons per day for the
whole of the metropolis, or 19 for the city."  "Then, of the
total amount'of 485.5 tons of solid matter contained in the
sewage of one day, about 152.60- tons are the.ejecta of the
inhabitants; 81.08 tons the pulverized granite and, iron on
the roads; 102.04 the saline matter contained in the water
supply; and the residue, 152.78 tons, is from  trade and
rmanufactures.  The total amount of organic matter in all
this is. about 215.14 tons; of which half is in a state of solution, and the rest is suspended.
"The physical properties of the- sewage are peculiar, for
when- it.:is. examined -under the microscope, it is found that
-the clear. supernatant part contains a:large quantity of amor-phus organic matter, with the filaments of various fungi.: It
swarms with animal life, as beaded.pirulina, vibribnes,- and




47
monads; and soon after exposure to air the higher forms of
infusoria  appear,: as paramecium, vorticella, rotifera, &c.
Besides which it contains small particles of animal and
vegetable tissues, as the fibres of cotton, wool, &c."  "The
mineral part is composed of the debris of the streets, as
particles'of granite, flint, and carbonate of lime, with a large
quantity of the black' sulphuret of iron.  When the sewage
has a very unpleasant odor, and is- charged with sulphureted'hydrogen, it never exhibits much- sign of animal or vegetable
life, notwithstanding that it contains an abundance of decaying organic matter.  This is the case with the foul contents
of the nearly stagnant sewers."
i'he putrefactive decomposition of sewage is noticed by
Dr. Letheby.  Looking at the enormous quantity of organic
matters contained in. sewage, and its minute subdivision,
proportion of water, and temperature, it is not surprising that
its decomposition should be attended with the evolution of a
large amount of noxious gas,' or that it should at once take
on the putrefactive change, and begin to.evolve foul gases,
before it' enters the sewers. "Under ordinary circumstances,
the solid excrements do not ferment in less than three or four
days, but here' the catalytic influences are so strong,.that
putrefaction begins at once, and:it is always of the same:-kind
as that'already in- progress in the old sewer matter..  This
tendency to accelerate and direct the decomposition is-very
remarkable.  Its power lasts for weeks after the sewage has
ceased to ferment, or it will operate immediately.in all kinds
of organic substances.  Blood, sugar, feces, urine,- and other
fermentable bodies are rapidly changed by- it; and they
evolve' compounds of a. most'offensive. character.  Common
sugar, instead of being fermiented into" alcohol;.is converted
into lactic- acid, which smells like' putrid pig's-wash; then.. it
passes -into butyric acid, and gives hydrogen and carbonic
acid, with the odor of rancid butter and human perspirationi."




48
Dr. Letheby points out the important part which the oxygen
of the atmospheric air performs in the sewers, by giving birth
to mineral products, as water, carbonic acid, the sulphates,
phosphates, and nitrates, which are the final products of
decay.  "Its influence, therefore, is most salutary, and ought
not to be-disregarded. Experiment has also shown that the.oxydizing power of the air is promoted by water, by porous
substances, and by the fixed alkalies."  Dr. L. ascertained
that: -it is the solid. part of the sewerage which continues to
ferment and keep up the putrefactive action for months, evolving large quantities. of ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, marsh
gas, and carbonic acid. It is the sedimentary matter which
is the chief cause of the effluvium, and to this the writer afterwards directs attention.
The Na'ture of the Sewer Gases.-Dr. Letheby judiciously
precedes his observations on this subject by the observation,
that little can be really done in the way of providing a
remedy for the sewer miasms, until something is definitely
known of their nature and composition.  He has endeavored
to procure the knowledge wanted, by three sets of investigations, viz.: "1. From. inquiries into the composition of the
gases dissolved in sewage; 2. From  an analysis of the
gases evolved during its putrefaction; and 3. From an examination of the sewer air itself.'  The clear liquid of
sewage, when heated, evolves all the gases which were held
in solution. These consist of carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, marsh gas (carburetted hydrogen), and nitrogen. Their quantity varies from about 32 to 76 cublainches per
gallon; and the proportion of carbonic acid varies from 36 to
72 per cent.; the sulphuretted hydrogen from 0.9 to 3.1.  A
fact, full of significance, in relation to the condition of that
river in its course through London, is stated here. It is, that
Thames water, near to the shore at low tide, contains the same




-ga^J-rly.the same proportion. It was observed that these
gases are abundantly evolved wherever the sewerage becomes
stagnant, Dr nearly so. From the thick slushy matter in one
sewer (that of: Catharine-wheel alley) the carburetted.hydiogen, among other gases, bubbled up in such quantities that
it could be ignited with ease, and would thus set fire to the
neighboring bubbles and produce a sheet of flame that would
extend for some distance. along the surface of-the sewage.
"-The gas contained 63 per cent. of inflammable air; 17.6 of
carbonic acid; 14..1 of nitrogen,: and: 0.2, ofsulphuretted hydro-.
gen. The amount of ammonia contained in the liquid of sewage is also considerable.  It ranges from 3 to 15 grains in
the gallon of ordinary sewage, and from 15 to 41 in that of
nearly stagnant sewers.: In-.addition to, all these, therezare
other volaic compounds which have not yet been isolated,
compounds which give to the sewage its "peculiar odor, and
which Dr. Letheby surmises may-also cause its poisonous:ac-.tion., -Looking at the experiments:of Dr. Baker, previously'noticed,'we may doubt-the necessity of searching for other
and unknown toxical agents to give rise:'to morbid pheno:ena Ywhich:are already strictly ascribable to known gases. The
English writer made experiments similar to those perf6rmed
thirty years ago in Paris by Gaultier de.Claubry, which show,the great'dimintion of, oxygen, the increase of nitrogen,
and the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen in sewer air.  He
was able to coindense the organic vapor which rose from the
sewer air, as had been done by the French commissioner appointed to report- on the cleaning and purifying pf the public
sewers of Paris, at the time just mentioned, and of which Parent-Duchatelet was a member. The liquid thus' obtained
had a very disagreeable and putrid and.ammoniacal odor, like
that of bad sewage.
On the subject of the properties- of the sewage gases and
their effects on the animal system, we gather some interesting
4




.50:facts from Dr. Letheby's Report. He begins with sulphuretted hydrogen, which experiments, performed many years ago
by Dupuytren and Thenard, show to be eminently poisonous,
even in very minute quantities. Horses are killed by an attmosphere containing one part of it in 250 of the air; but
much less is hurtful if it be breathed for any length of time.
It is on record, that the men who were engaged in cutting
through the bed of the river, for the construction of the'Thames tunnel, suffered severely from the effects of the gas,
although the- proportion of it in the air was hardly to be discovered by lead paper, and could not, therefore, have exceeded one part in 100,000. It is true that it sometimes came in
gushes,from the fissures of the mud, but the quantity was
rarely sufficient to be recognizable by its odor.  Strong and
robust men were, however, reduced to a state of extreme exhaustion by breathing it for a few months, and several of them
died from. this cause. The symptoms with which they were
affected were giddiness, nausea or actual sickhess of stomach,
and -great debility. The men became emaciated, lost their
appetites, and fell into a state of low fever, from which, il
several instances, they did not recover.  Chloride of lime and
other prophylactics were used, but.the evil did not entirely
cease until the tunnel was opened from end to end,,and free
ventilation established. Dr. Taylor mentions another remarkable instance of the same kind of poisoning, which occurred
in the summer of 1857, at Clayton Moor, near Whitehaven,
where there is a row of small cottages built on the refuse slag
of some neighboring iron furnaces. In the course of two
days, in the month of June, thirty of the inhabitants, all of
whom had been for some time previously annoyed by an offensive smell, were made seriously ill by it. In a family of.seven persons, consisting of a husband and wife,'and five
children, who had retired to rest in their usual health, two
were found dead the next morning, and the others were:in a




state of insensibility.' Before the day was over, another of
them died, and in the course of the week a fourth.  In the second case, -a strong, healthy man came home from his nightwork, and went to bed; but an hour had hardly elapsed when
he also was found dead.  And in a sixth instance, a child
was taken ill in the morning and was a corpse at night."  In
an inquiry instituted on the occasion -in order to discover the
cause of the mischief, Dr. Taylor came to the conclusion that
it was the sulphuretted hydrogen, generated by the action of
water on the refuse slag upon which the houses were built.
If the explanation be a correct one, the case is a remarkable
instance of-the poisonous action of this gas, for the rest of lead
paper failed to show the presence of the poison except in mere
traces,, that is, in quantities which could not have been greater than one part in 100,000 of the air.  "These experiments
and observations show that sulphuretted hydrogen gas is:a
powerful narcotic poison; that in a concentrated state it kills
immediately, as with the energy of prussic acid.  In a more
dilute form, it causes death by lingering stupor, and when
more diluted still, so as hardly to be discovered by the odor,
it prostrates the vital powers, and produces a low fever, which
may end fatally."
"Carbonic acid is also produced by the decay of organic
matters.  It is found in the air of sewers to the extent of 0.5
to 2.3 per cent., and the gases evolved from the sewage itself
contain about 19 per cent. of it.  If the gas has been produced
at the expense of the oxygen of the air, as happens in sewers
and crowded rooms, the effects are more strongly marked,: for
under these circumstances as little as three per cent. will
quickly destroy life, and even the proportion of from 1.5 to 2
per cent.- will cause almost immediate distress and feelings of
suffocation, with oftea giddiness and headache, and a sense of
weight and throbbing of the temples.  This is' sometimes followed by a slight delirium, and then by an irresistible desire
to sleep, the stupor of which passes slowly into coma."




52
Ammoniac is anotner copstituent'of the seWer air,s and is -a
product of putrefaction.  It is known by'its peculiar.odor
and' alkaline reaction. It'is lighter than the common air- in the
proportion of'590 to 1000,.  "When ammonia. is inhaled in
a- concentrated state, it produces immediate asphyxia; when
it'is somewhat diluted with air, its action is chiefly on the
lungs; -and when it is.more diluted still, and is breathed for
a considerable time, it liquefies the: corpuscles'of the- blood,
and produces' the symptoms of typhoid fever."- These.observations are-confirmed by Dr. Barker's experiments.  Dr.
Richardson, already quoted, in the same sense, finds, from
experiment, that the continued action of ammoniacal gas,
even when it is largely diluted with air, is:peculiarly injuri'
to the animal economy: the tongue becomes-: dry -and dark,
thereis' an involuntary" action of the muscles, varying. from
mere twitching to violent convulsions —; there are insensibility,
extreme sensitiveness to sound, obscurity of sight,~ and ultimately, if matters are pushed far enough, death by' coma.
The state of the organs after death tends to the same conclusion.. Thle blood'is' dark and fluid;-: the- serous' membranes'
show petechial spots,': and the tissues are softened.  " But,'
adds Dr. Letheby, "there is another property of ammonia
which is more dangerous still - it is that of conveying the less
volatile products of putrefaction into the air.  In all probability it is the purveyor of the miasms of infected districts,
as it is known. to have the fetid compounds of'animal andl
vegetable decomposition.  It Was the agent which gave validity to the putridities of the Thames during the hot weather,
and it is the medium by which the- more, offensive matters of'coal gas are held in suspension.  Nor is it less powerful -by.by diffusing the sweet odors of plants and the subtle constitu-'ents of many perfumes.  It may, therefore, act for' good as
well as for evil.
" TAe volatile compounds of ammonia, with carbonic acid




53
and sulphuretted hydrogen, are also injurious.  The fist::act'like the alkali itself, and the second like. sulphuretted hydro-?
gen. -I' have found that one part of hyposulphate of ammonia
in 1:000 of air will kill birds almost'instantly, and one. Iin
500 will kill rabbits.;"
~'ight  carburetted hydrogen, or marsh gas,,is. also found'in the atmosphere of sewers, but it rarely occurs in such proportion as to be dangerous'; now and then, however, it accumulates, as it does' in coal mines,-and becomes explosive."
MAliners are often obliged to work in an atmosphere containing
from 8 to -10 per cent. of the gas,' but they experience no ill
effects from it,'until the proportion rises to about 20 per cent.,
and then they- feel giddy, with a sense of weight upon the
forehead'
" Coal gas is likewise present in the sewers; it is not
found there, but escapes from the street. mains.  The quantity which- is let loose in this manner is. enormous   Gas consumers say that from 12 to 35 per cent.: of all the gas manufacturel in London is lost.  Now supposing that of this, the
leakage amounts to five'per cent., which my friend, Mr.
WrIight,' informs me..is about the quantity, then as much as
386,400,000 cubic feet of gas escape into the'public ways of
the;m'ietropolis.every year,; or rather more than- a million- cubic
feet every day; and in the' city it amounts to about 25,000,;000
cabic" feet per.annm, -or: nearly 70,000 cubic feet peri ay.
Most of'this' must:find its way' into the sewers, -and therefore
is a:'matter'of some- importance.- -The chief-:constituents:of
coal gas: are hydrogen,:and light carburetted hydrogen.':The
former amounts to about 40-per cent.-: of the gas, and the latter
to 45.  The other constituents are- about 7 per cent. of carbonic oxide,.2: of'.nit'rogen 1 of carbonic acid, and 5 of' the
condensable hydrocarbons, lbesides which, there- are -always
traces of ammonia, bisulphuret of carbon, and coal- tar.:. The
p-rincipal'danger from this gas; is its- inflammability; and its




54
property of forming an explosive mixture with atmospheric.air."  " Dr. Taylor has attested the record of seven cases of
death from the action of coal gas, and it is probable that the
air was not charged with more than 8 of 9 per cent. of it in
any, one of them."
Dr. Letheby cannot speak with certainty of the organic
vapor which is contained in sewer gases, "except that it is a
matter in a state of active decomposition; and experience has
long since decided that matter in this condition has power to
disturb the equilibrium  of other organic molecules, and to
propagate to them its own state of decay. When this occurs
in the living animal body, it is productive of the most terrible
consequences.  Our ignorance of the nature of this organic
vapor -is not surprising, when we consider that we are.equally
uninformed of the composition of the subtle miasms and putridities which abound in the air of infected districts, and in
the, vapors of organic decomposition."'Sometimes these
miasms are colorless, but in the case of the sewer gases, it is
the organic. vapor which gives, them their peculiar smell, for
when the sulpheretted hydrogen is entirely removed, there are:still the characteristic stinks which have been so accurately
described by Parent-Duchatelet."
T. What are the dangers of the Complerx Sewer Gases
themselves p  Experience has shown that they are of two
kinds, namely. the dangers which are incidental to.the, poisonous.action of the gases; and those which arise. from their.explosive property."   Observation has proved that. these
gases are. among the most active poisons. Passing., over a
description of the acute. forms of poisoning by them when in"haled in their undiluted state, it may be stated, as most german to the present inquiry, that when these gases are much
diluted with atmospheric air, they produce a general prostra-,tion of the vital powers. "The appetite fails,; the bowels
become.disturbed;- diarrhcea of a chronic character sets in.;




55
and the sufferer is either worn out by exhaustion, or he falls
into a state of low fever, from which it is difficult to raise
him."
Dr. Letheby gives additional point to this part of the subject by mentioning a few cases of chronic poisoning in which
the effects were produced by the inhalation of very small quat
tities of sewer miasm. We cannot forbear from repeating his
narrative, under a belief of their extreme appositeness to the
immediate purposes of this report, and for the lessons of caution which they furnish. One of the most remarkable instances
of this is recorded by M. D'Arcet. Hie states that there was
a small lodging in Paris, consisting of a bed-room and ante.
room, which had been successively tenanted by three vigorous young, men, each of whom died within a few months of
his occupying the place. D'Arcet was requested to examine the rooms, and ascertain the cause of the evil. He found
that a pipe from a privy in the upper floor ran down by the
side of the wall near to the'head of the bed where the inmates
slept. The pipe was unsound, and the wall was damp from
leakage of the soil into it; but there was no perceptible smell
in the room when D'Arcet examined it; nevertheless he
had no doubt that.the deaths of the former occupants
were referable to the emanations from  the wall.  The
pipe was therefore repaired, and from that time the upiwholesomeness of theplace was cured. Again, in August,
1831, twenty-two boys living at a boarding-school in Clapham, near London, were suddenly seized with alarming
symptoms of irritation of the stomach and bowels, with
twitchings of the muscles of the arms and excessive prostration of strength. Another boy had been similarly attacked
three days before, and he: died in twenty-five hours; one of
-the others died in twenty-three hours., A suspicion of acci-.
dental poisoning naturally arose, and the various utensils and
articles of food used by the family were examined, but nothing




56
of- a deleterious' nature. was.found.  The.only circumstance
which. appeared to explain- the.accident. was, that two days
before the first child was taken ill, a foul cess-pool had been
opened, and the matter of it diffused over a garden adjdining
to the children's -play-ground.  This was coIsidered to be the
cause of the disease, and the opinion was formed not only by
the medical attendants, but also by Drs. Latham, Chambers,
and: Pearson, who personally examined the whole of the particulars.  The third instance to which I shall refer is of more
recent date, and' has been a subject of considerable discussion.
In the month of August, 1852, an attempt was made to drain
the town' of Croydon by means of small- stoneware pipes,
which were not only of insufficient size, but were imperfectly
cemented together.  The consequence was, that a large quantity of the sewage escaped into the earth, and drained away
to the neighboring ditches.  This became a subject of great
annoyance, and in a short time it produced an alarming out-,
break of Fever, Diarrhoea, and'Dysentry.  In the report from
the Poor Law Commissioners on'the sanitary condition of the
laboring population of Great Britain, there are many examples
of the morbific action of sewer and cess-pool gases.  There is
one case which is remarkable for its significance.  "On the
north side of a street in Derby there are fifty-four houses, all
of the same description,. and inhabited by the same class of
persons.  Six.of these houses in the very centre of the row
became the abodes of fever, and.of sixteen persons. attacked
with the disease, five' died.. The fever was nowhere else in
the row, and on inquiry it was found that these, and these
only, were exposed to the action of sewer gases, and the miasms
from cess-pool matter which had soaked into the soil.'
It is impossible to carry the.. observations and experiments
of Drs. Barker and Letheby in:our minds without our comprehending. the noxious agencies: by which obstinate and often
fatal diseases of the digestive organs, and low fevers, are.pro



duced in those par-ts' of a town where- the inhabitants are
continually exposed:to the operation: of the gases -above'
mentioned. - These arise from vegetable and animal matter in
decay ahd decompos;ition, from obstructed gutters, open drains;
or from cess-pools, and the mouths and gully-holes of iewers,
and accidental'ope.nings in these latter.  Even when not directly poisoned by the continued inhalation of a corpt
atmosphere always charged with these gaseous poisons, the
people thus'exposed. acquire such a predispositionhave- their
vital energies so much reduced —-are primed as it-were-that
a slight change in the ordinary conditions of the atmosphere,
or diminution of their accustomed food, —seres as a spark -to
ignite into febrile fire their weakened and; susceptible fraimes.
On the, means of' remedying the sewer. miasms, or of pre'
venting- the offensive -and toxical -effects -of the emanat-ios
from sewers,- we cannot':do better than in-roduce that portion
of:Dr. Letheby's report, the title' of which was'furnished inm a
preceding page.  His manner of treating the subject gives: it a
freshness'and value that cannot fail to be. acceptable. e.ven
after the interesting report of Dr. Van Bibber.  At any rate,.
coming directly; in our. line of practical precept in all that:relates to sewerage and sewage, we have not: hesitated: to' apply
it to our own purposes.,-THE REMEDY FOR THE' SEWER M.SMS. -This is the great
question which: you "have submitted:to.:me for: consideration,' and
the preceding. facts show.clearly enough that.  it is-. n importantquestion-, I am far;:from -thinking,. with i.your engineer,:-that -the":
mischief occasioned by sewer gases is not of such.;magitude sto
be worth a remedy that may cost: sixpence a'.head. to- the popul4ation; nor do I believe that if you: had t'emporized withth.e:Ratter,
and had yielded to thie demand on:the part of the public, to dcose
up'.the ventilnting g:::ratings, which; arie now so' offensive, and ha
thus'. turned the foul gases into tihe house-drains, the nuisanceu;o-ul: d
have been regarded simply as' a- domestic'evil, for which the'ree




58
was to be sought privately and individually by those who felt, the
annoyance; in fact, such a proceeding would have been unworthy
of the trust which is reposed in you as the custodians of the public
health, for it would have been a matter of life or death to the
great bulk of the, community.
"At all times attempts have -been made to, destroy or neutralize
the offensive products of decomposition; and the simplest way of
doing it has been by the.use of another secret —a perfume of volatile oil, which would cover or mask the offensive body:' These
were the correctives employed in religious worship. They' entered
into the composition of the ointments of the high priest and the incense of the altar, and to this day they have enjoyed a reputation
and general popularity which they have not, deserved, for their
action is not on the putrid product, but merely on the sense of
smell, which they blunt to the action of the offensive vapor. In the
middle ages, when the plague, the black death, and sweating sickness, and pestilential fever desolated the cities of Europe, immense
importance was attached to the use of perfumes; fumigations, with
costly spice and rich-snrelling Oriental drugs, were largely used in
the houses of the rich, but with no good effect. The ancients also
knew the value of fire as a disinfectant; and they also made use of
-the fumes of burning sulphur.
"But the' right knowledge of the action of disinfectants and
deodorizers dates from a very recent period, for so late as the year
1773, Guyton Morveau, one of the best chemists of France, thought
that the vapors' of muriatic acid were the most powerful of dis-.infectants; and later still, in the year 1803, Dr. Carmichael Smith
obtained a grant of ~5000 from Parliament, for a suggestion which
is' nearly valueless, namely, the-employment of the fumes of nitrous
{acid. Chlorine gas was discovered by Scheele in 1774, and soon
afterwards its disinfecting properties were noticed by Berthollet,
but its use cannot be dated farther back than the present century,
when Guyton Mlorveau and: Dupuytren first pointed out. the great
value of it as a disinfectant; and even then it was not generally
employed; in fact, its present popularity dates only from the time
that chloride of lime has been largely manufactured for bleaching
purposes. Within the last twenty years almost all the refuse




59
products of the arts, and a great number of special compounds, have
been recommended for the deodorization of sewage, &c.,They all"
act in one of two ways; they either give stability to the organic
matter, andso check its tendency to decay, or they operate on the
putrid vapors, and destroy their offensive properties.  This they
do, either by fixing the effluviumj and forming compounds which
are inert, or by breaking up the putrid molecule and changing its
nature, or by expediting the process of decay, and hurrying it on
to the last stage of oxydation.
"Those substances which give stability to organic matter are
properly called anti-septics or anti-putrescents.  They have always
been more popular than any of the second class of deodorizers, because of their importance in the arts.  Salt, sugar, vinegar,
creosote, and the empyreumatic oils of wood, peat, coal, &c., are
examples.of this class.  So also are chloride of zinc, sulphate of
copper, and corrosive sublimate, substances which have been respectively patented by Sir William  Burnett, Mr. Margary, and
Mr. Kyan. Alum and the astringent matter of many vegetables
have likewise been used for ages as the means of preserving gelatinous tissues in the form of leather. None of these, however,
except the chloride of zinc, is applicable to the case before us, and
that operates more as a deodorizer than an anti-putrescent.  In
fact, as I have already stated, the matters of sewage are always in a
state of decomposition, and cannot, therefore, be treated with much
advantage; unless the anti-septics'are applied to them before they
enter the sewers; and this, I need not say, is altogether impracticable.: Even in Paris, where there are special contrivances for
such a purpose, it fails, because of its utter impracticability.
"Of the second class of substances, namely, the deodorizers and
disinfectants, there are many which deserve. notice.
"Those which combine with the putrid gases and fix them into
involatile fo'rm, are the metallic oxyds and their salts, as chloride
and sulphate of zinc;- acetate and nitrate of lead; sulphate,
muriate and pyrolignate of iron; impure muriate of manganese;
the refuse of bleaching works; common alum; the fixed alkalies;
and the salts of lime and magnesia.  Most of these compounds
unite with sulpheretted hydrogen and ammonia of sewage, and so




60
farttherefore, they remove the unpleasant smell of it,- but.they d
not touch'the organic vapors.  Besides which, they are difficult to
apply,-and are:very costly." In fact, putting aside. all the- working
expenses that would attend their use, the mere cost of the: deodorizers alone would range from- ~20,000 to' -upwards: of.~1,000,000
per annum. for the city: sewage, and- from ~1,000;000 sterling. to
~48,000,000 for the sewage of the whole of' London.  This,
together with: the insufficiency of their power as deodorizers, and
the difficulty of applying them  while. the. sewage is: within -the
sewer, deprives them. of all practical utility.. That power which
they possess, namely, the power of coagulating a great. part.of the
soluble. matter of..sewage, and favoring the precipitation of. the insoluble; can only be applied with-. any chance- of, success -after the
sewage has left the sewers; and, even then, there- arebut two of
them,- namely, lime and the superphosphate of lime with magnesia,
that can... beused:with advantage.:.';" Of.the second class of disinfectants,. those which.act.: chemically.on the volatile matter, nd.-  break them up,.- so as to form new
coimpounds, which are inert, the most important are. chlorine,
chloride of lime, hypocl:lorous acid, sulphurous acid, and -nitrous
-acid. - The first three:ofthese, namely, chlorine:and its.oxy-compounds, operate by, abstracting:hydrogen from the putrid vapors,
and perhaps,.also,'by decomposing water,.and!setting: the oxygen
free to destroy. the miasm.  The power is remarkably great, as may
be seen by the action of chlorind  or chloride of:lime- on ordinary
sewage.  Eight grains of chloride of lime, or.less than:an ounce. of
the- solution of chlorine, will completely deodorize.. a gallon. of
sewage; -and- the diffusion of-a little- chlorine through the..worst
kind'-of.- sewer.gases, is sufficient.instantly to. deprive them.:.of their
offensive odor.  Nevertheless chloride' of -lime is a costly. agent&
If it.be.used-in.the:proportion of only — eight grains- to the; gallon,
it will:cost nearly ~57,000 a.year for.the deodorizatiolr of. the city
sewage, -and nearly-~237,000. for the sewage of all London... As
for the.gas itself, it is almost. impossible so to apportion. and manage
thie.diffusion of: it: in the sewers: as.not to. have the:chlorine or the
se.wer- gases in excess.'"Sulphurous acid and nitrous. acid are: still less.:manageable, and




besides that theya are costly,:and.not nearly as powerful in their
action- as chlorine.- - Like chlorine, however, they disorganize the
pfirid molecules and decompose the hydrosulphuric compounds, and
fix ammonia; but like it-also they are powerful irritants, and couid
scarcely be let. loose into the sewers without- danger to the workmen.
-' "The last of the disinfectants are those which expedite the process of decay, to combine with oxygen, and to become inert.  Of
this class there are two members, namely, those which act chemicaily, and ~supply oxnygen,-of themselves, to the offensive compounds,
and.those which merely- facilitate oxydation by their physical properties.  The mangngnates and permanganates of potash -are the
best examples of the first class, and contain a large proportion of
oxygen, which they -freely, give the putrid organic matter, and*so0
destrioy it.  These compounds have been patented byl Mr. CondJy,
of Battersea, and he supplies them in a-state of solution of various'
strengths. - That which I have used in my experiments contained
niearly'six per cent. of the- permanganate, and could.be supplied at
a shilling a gallon.  One hundred and fifty drops of it were-sufficien:t' to deodorize'-:6! -gallon' of ordinary sewage; but the -disadvaintage of it- is,: thlat-it has no power to, destroy the foul gases which
have already -escaped into the sewer air.  Besides this,:the cost of
the material,- even if it were -used in. proportion of 150 grains t.
the -gallon, would be about ~753000.. a year for the. city sewage, or
miore than;three millions-per annum for:that: of the whole. metropolis. -Looking, however, merely at the chemistry of the subject,
it'must be admitted  that MIr. Cdndy's  -solution is.a powerful and
Valuable disinfectant.
"'he second of this class of disinfectants are the ag^ents which
promote oxy dation by a -physical property, that is by bringing the:putrid matters into contact with atmospheric oxygen.  There are
three of them, namely, fire,- water, and porous solids. The. first
effects the change by active combustion, and the others by the
s lower process of oxydation, which is called. eremacausis or slow
burning:. All- of them, however, are complete in their action,
an;d. are under different circumstances- more or less manageable.
and useful.
"- The value of fire as a disinfectant was. known and has been




62
recognized sinte the remotest time. The sacrificial' altars of early
nations were the rude methods by which the agent was employed;
and so fully did the ancients believe in its salutary action, that in
times of pestilence it was often resorted to as the only effective
means of purifying the atmosphere. In the. popular mind there
has always been a notion'that the plague of London was exterminated by the great fire. Powerful, however, as the agent is, it does
not appear to be applicable'to the destruction of the sewer gases,
notwithstanding that the use of it for such a purpose has always
been a favorite idea with every new commission to sewers, and is
the basis of most of the amateur schemes of the present day. Mr.
B azalgette has stated, in his evidence before the House of Commons, that putting aside all the difficulties for controlling the course
of the air, in the main channel of the sewers, and stopping the
leakage from the thousands of openings in the street closets and
drains, the mere cost of fuel for the furnaces would not be less
than ~80,000 a year, and perhaps it might reach to upwards of
~200,000.
" The destruction of the sewer miasms by the agency of water is
not quite so unmanageable, and has therefore received attention from
many of the leading engineers of the present day. Mr. Bazalgette
says of it, that it is the best and the only available means of purifying the sewers. As to its salutary action there can be no doubt,
for its power Uis a disinfectant in the presence of atmospheric air is
manifested in every river in the kingdom. Wheresoever the putrid
refuse of a town mixes with a large volume of fresh water, there
the process of oxydation is quickly carried out, and the offensive
matters are rendered innocuous. Even the river Thames, except
at a peculiarly dry and hot season, finds within itself a means of
purification which is quite equal to the contaminating influence of
the soluble organic matter that flows into it.  This is effected by
the physical power which water possesses of transferring oxygen
from the atmosphere to the putrid products, -and this is so great that
-it will even destroy the soluble organic constituents' of ordinary sewage without-further dilution with water.  I cannot inform you
very accurately what quantity of water is nec6ssary for the purpose
of disinfection. Already there is a daily supply of about thirty-one




63
gallons to each of the inhabitants of this metropolis. But'this is
evidently not sufficient to cleanse the sewers, for, independently of
the existence of a putrid atmosphere, there is the stronger evidence
of their foulness and the condition of the sewage which is discharged
after a heavy fall of rain. And even if it could be determined precisely what amount of water would effect the purpose,- there is still
the difficulty of distributing it so as to scour out all the channels;
for this could not be accomplished without special contrivances for
delivering the water at the head of every drain. I do not therefore,see much prospect of success in this mode of dealing with the subs
ject.
"The last means of destroying the offensive matter is by the
agency of porous solids; and this may be applied either to the sewage itself,- or to the gases which are evolved from it. The best
examples of such an agent are common clay and charcoal.- Both
of them operate in the same way, namely, by condensing the putrid
vapors within their pores and upon the surface, so as to causa them
to unite with atmospheric oxygen, and produce in fact a species of
slow combustion, by which the miasms are gradully consumed. To
effect this, however, there must be a free access of atmospheric air.
Hence it is these substances have but a limited power of deoxydation where they are mixed with a liquid sewage, or are so overcharged with water as to be incapable of absorbing oxygen.
" Every one is familiar with the deodorizing power of common
earth; in fact, the grave-yards of every city testify to the enormous
quantities of organic matter that can be disposed of through. its'
agency, and no one who has witnessed the rapid deodorizing power
of clay when sewage or night-soil is distributed upon the land, can
doubt its efficacy. The Chinese have long taken advantage of this
power, for they mix night-soil with one third of its weight of fat
marl, and knead it into cakes, which are common articles of commerce. In practice also, it is found that a ton of clay will deodorize
*about.three tons of the solid matter of sewage. Bitt, powerful as
is this action, it is not applicable to liquid sewage.  Even in the
case of charcoal, which is a much more energetic deodorizer than'
common clay, the power is speedily lost when it is mixed with fluid
refuse. Dr. Hofman found that four cubic feet of charcoal began




64
tojoIsb their power of deodorization when about seventy-eight galions,:or rather nmore than three' times their bulk, of the sewage had
passed t1hrough: them.: Mr. Blythe's experiments are to the same
/effect.:  To this I may add that the cost of this mode of deodorization would be upwards of ~230,000 a year fur the city sewage. The
~remedy would be but imperfect, to say' nothing of the fact that it
would contribute largely to the-solid matter already in the.ewers..
" The most effective way of using charcoal as a deodorizer, is to
take'.advantage -of its power of- absorbing the putrid miasms when
they are in a vaporous condition.  This power is remarkably great.
It was noticed by Sausure as far back as 1814, that charcoal took
from 75.90'times its bulk of: varibus gases..- Count Morozzo had
also observed the same fact, and had directed attention to it; and later
still, Messrs. Allen and Pepys:found that different kinds of charcoal
had different powers of absorption; and yet it is only very recently
that we have been well informed: in this matter, and we owe our
knowledge of it to the researches of Dr. Stenhouse, who in 1853
had his attention directec to the fact, that when dead bodies of large
aniimals:are covd   lyer charcputrefyith a layer ch, they ptrefy without
eVolving any unpleasant  odor, iotwithstanding -that they are kept
for many months.
"Charcoal as an Air-Filter.-These results suggested the use of
charcoal as a respirator and an air-filter, and soon after!Dr. Sten.
house proposcd it as a purifier of the foul gases which escape
from the street gullies, the sewers, ventilators, and the drains of
private houses. One of his air-filters is in'action in- the justice-room
of the Mansion House, and anotheris in the justice-room of:Guildhall, and Dr. Stenhouse reports that their operations have been
successful and continuous for a long time.  I have myself repeated
some of Dr. Stenhouse's experiments during the last twelve months,
and have ascertained that the offensive gases from a close cess-pool
are completely deodorized by passing them through a small box containing about thirty-six cubic inches of' coarsely powdered.: peat
charcoal.  I have had this in continual action for three months,;
and although the charcoal has not been renewed, yet it does not
show any sign of derangement or loss of power.




65
" All kinds of charcoal are not however, equally valuable for the
purpose. Dr. Stenhouse found that wood charcoal and peat char;.
coal are the most effective. Mr. Blythe's experiments at the Board
of Health, and the inquiries made in my own laboratory by Mr.
Fewrell, are to the same effect. The cause of this superiority is
doubtless due to the great porosity of vegetable charcoal. Liebig
states that the pores in a cubic inch of beech-wood charcoal must,
at the lowest computation, be equal to the surface of one hundred
square'feet, and several other chemists have estimated it at more
than double this amount. Hence the extraordinary physical power
of wood charcoal in condensing gases and vapors within its pores;
so that when it is exposed to an atmosphere containing the putrid
products of decomposition, it absorbs and oxydizes them by a species of combustion that is as effectual as if they were passed through
the ignited coals of a furnace.'" Now in making a practical application to these facts, it is manifest that we have in common wood charcoal a powerful means of
destroying foul gases of sewers. How it is to be applied is fortunately a question of but little embarrassment, for let the sewers be
ventilated as they may, either by open gratings in the street or by the
rain-water pipes of the houses, or by pillars of the gas-lamps, or by
tubes carried up at the landlord's expense from the drains of every
house, or by especial shafts of the public street-in fact, let the
gases go out of the sewers how they will and where they vll, you
have but to place a small box containing a few pennies' worth of
charcoal in the course of a draft, and the purification of the air will
be complete."
SYSTEM OF SEWERS.-TO procure the most efficient system
of sewerage, by a well-connected system  of sewers, and to
determine their proper level, and the degree of declination of
which they are capable, according to the situation and nature
of the soil of the place, as well as to ascertain what are the
best materials for their construction, and the diameters best
adapted to give them proper powers of transmission, are questions which, although they must be investigated and deter5




mined by the- ivil- engineer, are still of livelyinterest to the
professional            T:sanitarian   Thus, for instance,. he- will:tell us
that the very large sized sewers, such as- the: Cloaca i-axima,
Unless intendead for trunk sewers running the entire length of
-the, city, are: not serviceable.  Egg-shaped culverts of a
moderate size, and, preferably still, circular pipes of small
diameter, and perfectly smooth: and glazed, are superior, by
r to the sewer with upright sides and flattened segmental.invert.:  It would be difficult to estimate the great amount
that might be saved not only by a judicious system of sewerage, but even. by a. proper form 0of sewers, unless from data
iuch as those furnished some. years ago by, Mr. WTilliams in
his  examination before Commissioners of whom. we have precedingly spoken.  In the Westminster district:of London, in
forty miles of covered drains built during a period of ten years,
a loss of a sum  equal to 333,348 dollars was, incurred by
faulty construction,..   thIn e, whole metropolis, which includes
the. city of London, Westminster, the iolborn and Finsbury districts, and the Tower Hamlets, also the Surrey and
Kent portions, wh:: ich include the borough'of' Southw*ark, it
appears that, during a period of ten years, about 220 miles of
sewers were built. The difference between the expense actually inulrred in this work by the construction of upright
sided sewers with man-holes, and that which-would have been
required by egg-shaped'pr arched sewers, with a flushing apparatus, was. a quarter of a million of pounds sterling, or about
one million:and two'hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
There is much less:friction and risk of detention: f sewage
when the conveying duct is egg-shaped or circular.'.Even
the; opening of gully-holes,,or the, introduction of a gully
neck in the crown of the arch to admit the suriface-water of
the street into the sewer, produces accumulations. The plan
so -common.in London of forming the opening of private or
house-drains at right angles to the. sewers, and, to aggravate




67
thedifeulty, of having: them to.t approach the c;uvert: at.:an
elevation -of eighteen inches or two feet.above -the latter,  com —
bines: both objections.;-, that: of flattened.,invert and thejtion -of. two sewers-: at. right ahgles-: to. each other. -When
sewers -meet at right angles, there: is a; diminution- of velocity,
and. eddies are fornf d, as well as injurious accumulations of
deposit above the. point of meeting; the rectangular mode.of
junction: of-the sewr.s increasing. the:resistance more than
200 per cent.  It is; of great importance that the internal
surfacei:of -the sewer should. be perfectly smooth, and in order
to-retain this property, that it should -be built of indestructible
materials, in: part for reasons already assigned, and -also.. to
prevent inequalities:and; cavities from  being formed, and' the
risk.. of falling of' the, entire wall by. its- becoming a - burrow fo
rats, -which have a great partiality for public sewers.  Of
Sequal necessity is a suitable declination, in the line:of the
sewer, from its upper end, or in the heart, of the: city, to its
ermin.ation in a r-iver,-or i a: reservoir for the purpose..'.-.r.
Hosking, whose calculations were made on certain.. low situations in Westminster, assumes that a fall of two inches. the
hundred feet, with a good back-water ftom  a river, at, equal
intervals,: would be sufficient.; So imperfect was the ublic drainage, not many years ago,
in:even the best parts of London, as in. Regent street and
Portland place,' that, according to the testimony of Mr. Guthne, before the Health of Towns Commissioners, there was
not, at the time he made his observations in those streets, one
gully clean in twenty that were not greatly choked up, and
this even during heavy falls of rain.  An idea may be had of
the little interest felt in a system of progressive sewerage, from
the fact, that in some large towns of England, as Wigan,
Rochdale, and Boltoni there was not, some years since, the
slightest knowledge of the. plans of the sewers already made.
Neglect of this kind should serve as a warning to the'municipal governments in the United States to avoid similar faults.




68
The escape of deleterious emanations from sewers is prevented by traps:or valves at the opening in the upper part,
and the termination of the other end under W:ter; and, if the
opening at this end is exposed at low tides, by closing it with
a gate.:In London, Liverpool, and Glasgow, and in Paris and
Hamburg, as well as in Boston, New YoAk, and Philadelphiaj
the mouths of the sewers are exposed at low tide, and constitute
an offense to the nostrils, and a probable source of disease. Of
the ventilation of sewers we shall speak Mafter awhile. Unless
there be an abundant supply of water for keeping the lower
and branch drains free from obstruction and accumulation,
they will prove a source of annoyance and disease.  To give
effect to these means, a general and systematic survey of the
different levels of a town should be made, and a uniform plan
of sewerage adopted.  aMuch trouble, expense, and sickness
will be saved in its subsequent history, if these measures be
adopted in the beginning of every new town.  The rise of
such is common enough in our widely extended country, id*
which the direct wants and necessities of trade, and emulous
speculation are continually urging its people to new schemesthefoundation of a second Tyre or Alexandria, of another
Persepolis, or Carthage, or Rome. As a general rule, each
house-drain at least ought to be provided with a trap or valve
to prevent the escape of emanations from the drain into the
house.  Especially is this necessary where the supply of
water-is not enough to keep the drain clean. Mr. Sinmpson,
advocate' of Edinburgh, urges strongly the advantage'of a
separation of sewers' proper from surface-drains; -the first
holding sewerage proper, the second giving passage'to rain
and melted snow. -He-recommends the entire abandonment:
of built sewers, and the substitution of close pipes or tubes in
their room.
The entire separation of sewerage from rain-fall is strenuously urged by Mr. F. O. Ward, in a letter' to William Cun



:69
ingham, Esq., Member of Parliament, in relation to the punification of the river Thames. Mr. Ward's cardinal proposition
is, " that the whole of the rain-fall is due to the river,:the
whole of the sewage to the soil."  And again, "that just as
on::the one hand, the sewage proper should be carefully diverted from the Thames, just so, on the other hand, should
the rain-fall be directed to the Thames, to aid its scour-which
suffers from every drop withdrawn.  To divert a rain-brook is
to mutilate a river."  Both sewage and rain-falls are rendered
useless by admixture.
The proportions of the two, apart from economical considerations connected with the disposal and utilization of sewage,
forbid recourse to! the same system  of conduits for their conveyance.  The average weight of the residuum  (excludi"g
moisture)- yielded to the sewage by each man, woman, and
child in London, is about two ounces per diem, and by the
entire population, 139 tons in this period.* This is an insignificant quantity, if delivered as fast as produced.  "But instead of taking measures to secure to London this regular decimal evacuation, we keep, on the most moderate estimate, at
least- twelve months' exereta constantly  stagnating' under
ground, as deposit in the cess-pools and sewers.  The mass of
putridity thus constantly retained in subterranean' London actually equals one day's evacuation of the whole population of
Europe and Asia, numbering eight hundred millions."
The rain-fall on the London drainages, Mr. Ward thinks,
may yield to the sewage some eighty or ninety millions of
tons annually-a total about equivalent to the annual total of
sewage.  Were the fall- of rain equally distributed throughout- the year, it could, like the sewage,'le easily disposed of.
*. Dr. Letheby, as will have been' seen in a preceding page, estimates the
dry solid excreta of each inhabitant of the metropolis, to amount to from 2
to 21 ounces, and the entire amount of solid matter contained in the sewage
of one day, to be about 152.60 tons.




70
But. so: far from.t, hisbeiAng the case, the.. whole of':the rain4a's
on one hundred and -fittwo  days of the year, andof-the annual-twenty-four inches,.,sixteen.fall-::on..forty-four days-or
two thirds of the rain:in about -one eighth of the. days.., The
disproportion~ between sewage -and. rain-fall: is:such that, in
one,day in, Atwelve,. the.former is to -the latter as one to four:and three quarters;.. in- ten. days in the year, as one to nine and
a half; and on:some few occasions, annually it is.as one-to.nineteen,..and upwards.. Nor is the rain-fall assigned -to each
rain-day diffused over twenty-four hours. of time:; - so.that, for
example,. seven millions of tons of rain, equal -to more than a
month's sewage, sometimes fall on London in a single. hour.',"Thbe mixed streams. of rain-fall and sewage,liable to be
thus suddenly swollen, exceed the capacity of any-tunnels that
can be built for their diversion from- the river, and would.overflow in.any mechanism at our disposal for their distribution
upon the soil."
Let us, with Mr. Ward, consider the effect of a sudden rainstorm -falling on London,.- and pouring throh  the  overchrged: subterranean receptacles..-in the: shape of.sewers, partially banked up with.the.accumulated s.eage.        ppose it
were to sweep into the- river nine or ten days' accumulation of
filth.; this- would be enought.o discolor the. tidal river, and in
hot weather. render.its waters.- putrescent for. several -days.
The money-loss on every such occasion would:be, in ammonia
only, without reckoning phosphorus, nearly sixteen thousand.pounds sterling-$80,000,.
Up to the point of meeting.of. the two streamlets,. the. one
of the rain from roof and area, and the other.of the sewage,
from closet and sinm, we.are free to apply. each of. them -to its'proper use.  " We can send the unpolluted rain-fall to scour
the river, and the undiluted sewage to fertilize the land. But
directly this junction-point is passed, directly the rivulet of
cistern-water, rich with its freight of ammonia and phospho



111,: meets: and mingles with the casual rain-fall, the two
waters become, "as we have seen, a worthless,- unmanagble
mixture,. equally'unfit for agricultural and-urban use.-'.Not
only do they cease -to be' our property, and pass beyond'the.
control-of art,'but: they revert'to:the domain of-nature, spoiled
even for her: simplec service.' For. this'error we are  punished
by pestilence."
Mr.'Ward speaks in terms -of'gratification -at his h  g,
with his friends, succeeded'in'establishing the tubular drainage
of houses and streets, after' a ten' years' strUggle with the
engineers. The -.tubular sewers'" are now working successfully
by hundreds of miles, not only' in provincial towns, but' in
the' emetropolis'itself," Thewriter is co nfident "'that thi'tubular
purification of the'Thames,-  ill utimately  superede — the
monstrous tunnel:process, which, if.adopted,-would cot' us
many:-millions, and' turn out- a gigantic failure, after all""'
-Dr.:Huxly proposes to combine the embankment of the
Thames -on both'-sides,- throughout:the. metropolis, with'the'
forma-tion-of main sewer canals, the contents' df'which shall:be
subject'to a tidal flushing towards the mouth of the'iv'er
twice:. dailyfrom flood to two thirds ebb.~ The fall in the canals
should be only. that, of the river itself.' At. certain interals,the canals:would leave.: theriver edge:(the embankments to.cease),. and' take. a' subterranean course by- tunnels -.five i
number, and- in length twenty'miles' on: the:north side, and'thee in: number, and seventeen. miles:'in length on: the:south
side- of the river.'-By' means ofthe upper divergigs from t:he
river,. the port of London would be' left' untouched, w  -ie the
lower:. -tunnels would obviate sharp bends in the river, which
would.offer obstacles if;followed in the course' of the canals..';
The, depth; of the'canals -.-should: be three' feet below:_the
lowest'ebb of' the stream'; their'height, four'feet below the
soil and' pavement'of the'.:embankment. -Taking: the ise:'of
the Thames at London Bridge..at twenty feet, the canals would




72
thus be twenty-five feet in depth, and the top of-the.embank.
men t. six: feet above high water. The breadth of the canals
might be determined according. to the area: required-say
twenty feet, which would give a sectional area. of five hundred
square feet. All London. surface-water, as well as sewage,.
should be allowed to enter the canals, both as an assistance to
the movements of their contents, and a means of frequently
lessening the amount of the ri'ver-water abstracted from the
eanals for the purposes of navigation.'If the saving of the sewage for the purposes of agriculture
be a settled question, the required accessibility. might be obtaed at those points on the.canals where~ it is proposed to
make them  open to the air (Rainham  Creek, Gray's
Thurrock,. and Plumstead Marshes).'.,Greatness of the cost is," Dr. Huxley thinks, "about
the'last consideration which ought to deter from any scheme.embracing the power really to do the work. If five millions
sterling were required and spent, five per cent thereon would
not exceed two shillings per head per annum on the population of London.."*
The editor of the Sanitary Review, Dr. Benjamin. W.
Richardson, in some remarks and suggestions on this subject
(No. xiv.), while noticing the exaggerations respecting the
existing evil, admits the necessity of cleansing..the Thames,
and- that such arrangements should be made as shall at once
lead to the constant and ready removal of the sewage with
which the water is loaded.  " Among the temporary plans for
relieving the river of its dirty burden, the one, most'likely to
answer the purpose for the present, and it may be for: the
future,, consists in adopting for the direct removal of sewage,
a'system, resembling the present water-conveyance system.
A series of pipes laid down  on the river-side to receive the
sewage flow, and convey it towards the sea from the city,
* Sanitary Review, No.'iii.




73
would at once meet the emergency," as in the plan proposed
by Mr. Austin, and in that as described, on a grand scale, by
Dr. Huxley, just now placed before our readers.
"There is yet," writes Dr. Richardson, "another idea
which has occurred to us, and which deserves at least as much
consideration as the majority of the schemes which have been
brought before the, public. This idea suggests that floating
reservoirs might be constructed for the reception of the sewer
flow. We see no reason why the contents of a sewer might
not be intercepted by a floating reservoir, through which the
water part of the sewage might filter, and which, when charged
with the solid and valuable sewage matter, might be lugged
away for its contents, to be disembarked elsewhere, and disposed of for agricultural purposes. We doubt not, that with
this arrangement rendered practicable, all the cost of sewage
removal would be undertaken by private enterprise.  The
lading of sewage vessels with valuable cargoes, indeed intro.
duces merely a new business for the river sailor."
In London, as we learn from the instructive " Report on
the Results of Examinations made in relation to Sewerage in
several European cities," by E. S. Chesbrough, Chief Engineer of the Board of Sewerage Commissioners, Chicago,
there were, in a grand total of 934 miles of covered and 400
of open sewers, 126 of pipes, in 1855. The first pipe sewer
was laid in 1848. The greatest length of any one is two and
a half miles. Mr. HIaywood, Engineer of the city of London,
has always laid circular pipes; none smaller than nine inches,
nor larger than fifteen inches diameter; the joints are put
together sometimes with puddled clay, sometimes with cement.
The return of reflux odors, one of the greatest objections to
house-drains, is prevented by three modes pointed out by Mr.
Simpson: " First, the water pan in and the sigmatic curve
under the water-closet and sink; next, another sigmatic
curve, if the descent will make it safe, where the pipe joins




74
h;e main. streetdrin:; anad ~th:irdly,:a dei ceately h: flap,valv*e. of galva zed ironat the extreme en  of he ttube, where
it discharges intothe: main drain.  The valve will:always -be
shut, except-:when opened by a flow from  the house."   In
th.::severe winters of our climate,. obstructions -.to -the::easy.WArxkrng of these:.. contrivances will. not' unfrequently occur,
owing to the water freezing lin the supply-pipe.  Fot his
se. ersMr:S.- rightly asserts that water in unstinteda: proportion is indispenisable,:i but;. especjially for a system of tubular
sewers, which cannot be cleansed by any other method.:For. drains, earthenware pipes,. glazed, arepreferable to brick
onduitss, which sometimesti alm o  of:exudation of their contents.
The.;sie -:of a —pipe:for:a  ain -wl cepend —on the nuniber of
hoAses -;. In;one -instance, in.London,. an 18-inch- dran was
cT.ried 400, feet.at the back-.of; forty houses, where there was
a good supplym of water:and-it was kept cl;dean.
Ro:bert L. Viele,..Esq.:, Civil;and Topographieal Engineer, in
a statement'n the Sena-te Committee Report, expresses unhesitatingly his.opmion, that one of the: chief  auses- o:  ror-.aty of.the  city,;ofiNew Y.ork, "is. ito be fou-nd in.:the
d~efectiv: e drainagi.:certain. districts: of the: cityand f:rtherore,:t.hat.this.is an:_evil which is increasing as the city. extends.
its:el:f-owards:-. the northern- portion.-of the island, and that the
main -el-ements by':.whichk this..evil is increased,  are the socalleddty. improvements,. o grading: of streets;.or avenues which are
oW...... bei.ngca.med.. forward."
M.-:iele:;then': deseribes:the intricate: topography of, the
i Sland of New Y:ork::'- Abrupt ledges of rock,:-deep antd-'n:rro~wvalleys, siudden':upheavals and contortions of the geograpielformations" with a: surface varying in elevation from'  5 o..-t0. fet above:high:-water ma-rk.,i W inding along this varied
~S-fae in:every.: direction:,: are the original drainage -.streams,
one-of':them of. such an: extent:- that it was formerl'y used for
m-illp-poses'-::No attention:hving been     paid to -the orina




tpography of the island, in the -aangement of strtets- tand
a"venues, — deep aitch ehexcaat'ionst anrd -highl e.mbankments hi-e
beien-n.ade so that thesel-atter. cross.ithe old va.lleys of~dtain-'age, and tlecome —so:many da'ms:- fr the- coll'ection- of — water  ll
over the:isand, which in-Sumrer are. convertedl into:' -" stag.
gant:pools,-r —eding pestilene: and. disease."  The- earth
dumpned.:in to:abso-rb the water,.when it:.is,;desired to -imrov:e
thes.e lots,; soornbecomes saturated:and forms a        nsort of sponge
-through which: the water ascends, and.continues: tobe a-: perimanent;9'source'of humid and noxious- exh:ations.::Nosystem
f seerge — in -which- the - sewers -are only ten: or twele feet
below' the-:gre:of the streets, can:remedy this evil, -whei;n
so me instances the- uncdergrot'nd streams are forty feet belo
the' -ade- of -the streets, "'being thiyi feet betweenthe-bottom
of -tie:-seweir -'and.the water of.draina~ge."  -Melaneholy evidoein
of-the evils "arising from habitation of a made soil, thus,imp
perly; drained, is afforded i-n-:-the — sacrifice of -lives: amng the
wretched victims - sent' to the present " Halls of Justice,' or
thae- "-,tombs,-"'as they: are appropriately call,  -which-;are
built on the- site of the olold  ollect Pond,'seventy feet deepit tas here! that Fitch launched his first steamboat. -The po'-d
Was'connected:with the Hudson River, by a stream:runing
througOh-what -is now Centre -and Canal streets; in this seetion
bof the city it is impossible to have dry cellars.
In:giing farther currency to Mr. Viele's statement of -the
actual impediments to a complete system of drainage of'the
city of'N    York,'and of his remedy,] which we subj oin, our
design is, as in the cases of hygienic deficiencies in other citieS,
not merely to incite to a reform in them, but ealso to fmnish
warning to new cities, or those in embryo, against'the  comlsscin of lsimlar mist'kes and omisslons in their inciplent
plans for civic improvement.  Mr. Viele describes his re'media
mieasures as follows:'"The-remedy -to  be appliedin- the::lower: part of theq r'.tis




76
to.widen the narrow streets, and to raise the grade where the
streets pass through the original depression of the surface.
Narrow streets, under any circumstances, are a curse to a city.
They are too generally the abodes of vice and crime.  In
them an ordinary sickness spreads into a pestilence, and a
fire into a conflagration.,They are always filthy in summer,
and frequently blocked up with snow in winter.  They are
not fit for business purposes, for they stifle commerce; nor for
residences, for they breed disease.  Wide streets, on the contrary, are more healthful and cheerful for residences, and more
useful and valuable for business purposes. There is less danger
from fire, as the flames cannot spread across the street. They
are. cleaner in summer, and are never: impassable in winter.
By constructing lateral drains along the slope of the.dejressions in the lower part of the city, and connecting them with
the sewers, they will intercept the water in its descent, and
prevent its accumulation in the original basins; and then raising-the grade as is proposed in the accompanying profile of
Worth street, at the same time widening the streets and perhaps discontinuing some of the short and insignificant streets
inthe 6th Ward, the health of the city. will be improved one
hundred per cent.  So far as regards the upper part of the
city, it is absolutely necessary that some system  should be
adopted for the free flow of water along the channels of the
original drainage stream.  This can be done by building more
substantial culverts beneath the streets, and by the construction of permanent drains, so built as to admit of the percolation
of water through the interstices of the covering.  These drains
should be excavated to a firm substratum, and every property
owner should be compelled to construct, of a uniform character, that portion of each drain which may pass through his
property."
Disposal of Sewage.-,The subject of the application of
sewage for agricultural purposes has been freely discussed of




77
ate years, especially in connection with its deodorization, and
subsequently the free and more general use of it -than could.be
obtained in its unaltered and-offensive'state.  The practice f
the Chinese, the most economical cultivators of the soil, is quoted
at the same time, and their practice of uniting clay with fecal
collections, and selling the compound for manure, referred to.
Objections have been made to the deodorizing of sewage by
chemical agents, on the ground of their neutralizing the.ammonia, and destroying one of the most active of the exciters
to vegetable growth. It has been computed, that if the whole'
drainage of London could be employed for manurial purposes
at a sufficient distance from the city, the annual increase in
the value of thee land to which it would be applied, would exceed half a million of pounds sterling, or'about two millions
five hundred thousand dollars.  An estimate by Mr. -Smith,
a distinguished agriculturist, places this question in a strong
light., It rates the annual average'value of the excreta of
each individual at five dollars; so that, taking the whole
population of Great Britain and Ireland at twenty-eight millions,. we are positively, says this writer, throwing away
every year that which is equivalent to twenty-eight millions
sterling, or 140 millions of dollars.  The actual salable va'lue.
of the excreta in Belgiu-m is thirty-seven shillings, and at
this rate, continues the English writer just named, we may
be said to be depositing the worth of fifty-one millions sterling in the ocean that washes our shores.
According to Dr. Lyon Playfaii, a pound of urine is capableof increasing the production of grain by an equal weight; so
that even allowing for some exaggeration in this estimate,
the human urine wasted in the British kingdom Could serve
-to produce more than all the grain required for the consumption of their entire' population, besides affording through its
fertilizing influence on lands at present imperfectly tilled, or
not'tilled at all, a source of employment to a superabundant.
laboring population.




.r. Campbell,n -:an address on the utiization of seowage,:;-.   ",The:chief:element of the manurial vlue::of town
eweafge.'is' the::excremental.: material, an.d this, in:the- instance
6f-1Lt6ndon, with: apopuliation of 2,600,-000, amounts annually
to -53,393 tons of dry solid,* which, as I have already shown,
contains ingredients which give it- a value of fifteen pounds
Sterling ($75) per ton, at least.
The quantity of ammonia which this contains,
do- is capable of produ-ding, is.......... -11,440 tons.
Thee phosphoric ac;id,...........    1,839: "
hda:the potash, -&c...:,331: "
These. three items- make, up a'money value -of:6 about.836,834 potundls: sterling, equal: to 4,14; 170 obllas,.
iThe number of methods that have been proposed- for obtaining manure from town::sewge may be considered,  Mr. Campkell thinks, umder thre: heads.'1. Filtration through various media,: and after -the:addiion:f.chemical substancees.
2. Precipitation by:'means of various- Sreagents
S. Irigation..
Reviewing-:thethree. modes here named,i:Mr.;-Cam.pbell. incei s to-: that by irrigation, and concludes,;that: by no, process
of- chemistryhitherto known, can a highly valuable. solid material be procured from town  sewage alone..Mr., Ward,: inhis letter to Mr. Cunningham, of which we
have: already made large use (p. 509), says on:the present:theme:;  " In'the' first place I would remind you,' that to throw
away the'-ammonia and: the phosphorus of theLondon sewage,
is- virtually to throw away bread.-. Town sewage, which many
engineers Took upon as  refuse to be: discharged, I regard' as
property to be administered..-. The proper- outfall for the London sewage is not this or that point of'the river or of the sea,
* There must be some mistake in this estimate, which is not made more
thai a!third of that made by Dr. Letheby.




but a'a suitable tract of:!and.o.ging exhauti ng crops    ifty
farms of.:a thousandc:acre's.each might be:raised in vale.at
least ten pounds per..acre p:er-.annum, equivalent to fiveiper
cent. to- ten millions: of capital.  This ought not to bet-thr
-into the-sea."
VENrLMTIoN. —,Tw   great. requisites  for the  healthy
existence  of human:. beings,::: are. due- supplies of.pure
air and of pure water. -Without these, the most abundant
food: and all the appliances furnished.by science and )art will
be of little avail; and yet, by a:singular inconsistency in
human conduct,: there would seem..-tobe a fixed. determination
on theipart:of the majority of mankind to.deprive themselves.of" these essential -.elements: of:; health.-; Air, in.. anlespecial
~manner, i:s'shut; out.from  habitations. by all kinids of con,
trivances,~ or, when allowed ingress,. it:.is deteriorated-.:by ad
mixture'with emanations.from- decayed  organic. matt.er or
from living bodies brought;.together.in.large.-numbers,. to.:meet
the. wants of what zis -called ci.ion.
The -iatmosphere- by- which we -are surrounded and from
which,'-by means of respiration, o ur —bodies derive, the;oxygen,
or vital element of the air —that': necessary for, the supporti;of
life-is at the- same:time the great:reservoir into- which flow:
all the,exhalations from:the bo'dies of men and animals, and
those'-resulting from  the anima-l and vegetable decay whi-ch
takes place on the -surface of:the -soil.: If not carried:into
space, in- the -uppe     r -air by  winds, -tbey: would  provea destructive poison-to  all -the people congregated in. cities
and-towns. -- The process by- which these exhalations are removed is ventilation,; - and the more - complete —it-. - is, -- the
healthier are the inhabitants:;- as, on the rother hand, its ixm-:
perfection- ana —neglect are productive,of diseases: of. the worrst
kind-. Streets are so many channels for:conveying the- equisite air -to the inhabitants of the houses on either side of them;




80
Wandr the wider and more numerous are these channels, the
more completely is their object, in this respect, attained.  Propodtions ought to be preserved between the breadth of a street
and the height of the houses in it.  If the latter be very high,
and the former narrow, both the air and sun are prevented
from reaching the street, and lower portion of the houses.
Still greater detriment, in this respect, is experienced by the
occupants of narrow alleys and small courts, in which unfortunately the crowd of inhabitants is greatest, and the' supply of
fresh' air and suitable: ventilation the least.  Every sanitary
investigation, down to the last'made in New York, goes to
show the magnitude of the'injury done to the public"health by
this last-mentioned state of things.  The ills thence resulting
are on'the increase, since they follow, too generally, in certain
but not well-defined proportions, the growth of the cities
themselves. No' excuse, therefore, will be offered for dwelling
on this subject, first by presenting the'-darker and. repulsive
features, and then under its remedial and preventive aspect.
Few pause, saypDr. D. B. Reid, to consider the necessary
consequence of 20 respirations per minute, 1200 per hour, or
28,800 in a single day and night for every adult human being,
and of his abstracting, during this period of twenty-four hours,
from the'atmospheric magazine, his portion of air, amounting
~to fifty-seven hogsheads, of which he retains vital- oxygen to
the amount of about twenty pounds, that enters into his blood,
and there serves to maintain the activity of all the functions
of life, corporeal as well as mental.  It has been estimated
that about one fourth of all the air drawn into the lungs by
inspiration is altered in these organs, and is no longer fitted
for respiration. The alteration consists, first, in the abstraction of the vitalizing element of oxygen; ~and secondly, in the
addition of the" deleterious and poisonous gas-carbonic acid
- which, together with volatilized animal matter, is given out
by -expiration, and passes' into the outer and common atmo



,sphere.  But if.instead of a. free inhalation- of pure. aitmoSpheric air, there takes. place: that of a noxious or impure air,
from.which'the exhaled carbonic.acid has not been.c-.eried
away, two results ensue:first, the individual fails to receive
his'proper proportion of oxygen, while he suffers from the. inhalation of the noxious carbonic acid gas; and secondly, the.
lungs are unable to eliminate from the blood with their usual
freedom  the noxious products,-including this very carboiic
acid, or its base, carbon, the retention of which, together.ith
the animal matter (previously mentioned) inl the system, is
productive opf serious disorder -in itself, and predisposes to the..attacks of current diseases.;  This abnormal condition.,of
things will continue, with aggravation, on to a fatal termination,
if the same air, be breathed over. and over again, without its
being displaced by a purer; air; that is, without ventilation
being Carried on. Bad:-ventilation, as well said. by r. Reid,
is also. injurious to the mind as to the body; and, where:it is
utterly neglected,:not only produces headache and apoplexy,
but, conjoined with other circumstances, is prone to favor that
depression which leads at times to low spirits, and even to
suicide.
Defective  Ventilation-Crowded  Streets  and  Habiitations.-Taking into account the physiological.data just
mentioned in  connection with  the facts previously  described, of the  noxious effluvium  of -the  gases result.
ing from the putrefaction of animal and vegetable: matter,
we -find a ready explanation of the great amount of sickness and high death-rates among the crowded courts and
cellar population in Liverpool, Birmingham, New York, and
other cities.  In Liverpool, in 1841, there were 2,398 courts
containing 68,365persons.. In the parish; of Birmingham, the
older and more densely inhabited parts of the town, there.were
2000. courts, containing 50,000 inhabitants.  In Liverpool
it was not enough, for outraging humanity and common.sense,
6




that., gloomy and badly ventilated as the houses themselves
were in the courts,- there were-foand cellars sunder, more:- than
one half of them, or 1272. in number,: occupied by 6290
persons.  The whole number of cellars in, Liverpool  -was
7892,: containing a population of nearly'.40,000 persons, or
-five' persons on an average to. each cellar Aar:  Awre;, as-we are,
of the impossibility of a ventilation of these courtsand cellars,:and the continued deterioration of the air by-exhalations -from
them and their inmates, we need not. wonder;.at: the: bad emi-:nence which that city, aftertheregistration act had goneinto full
operation, unexpectedly acquired, on thewscore f, disease, and
the short average duration oflife-of its inhabitants, takimg. them
in theaggregate. - Reference has been made'in a::previous part:ofthis report to the greater amount of sickness and mortality in
-the undrained than in the drained cellar districts'of: -Liverpool.  The concomitant evils attending this crowded popula-:'tion are tersely described by Dr. Reid, in speaking of the
8000 houses in Nottingham, built back- -to:' back;andsid-e to
side, and with no other'outlet than the street-door.:;''" Suffice
-it to say, that in such quarters -it is hardly possible that. a
family can preserve for any-term  of years, either decency,
mnorals, or health.". Worse, if possible, than the scenes exhibited in some English town's, is the condition' of the poor
in the chief cities of- Scotland.  Dr. Arnot, among..other
details, relates that in some of the wynds of Edinburgh and
Glasgow, there were no sewers- or drains, and the. dung-eaps
received all the filth whidh'the swarm of wretched inhabitants
could give: he  learned that a considerable part -.of tihe
rent of the houses was paid by the produce of the: dung-heaps.
The interior of these houses, and their inmates, corresponded
with their exterior.  "We saw half-starved wretches crowd-ing together to be warm, and in one bed;. although in the
middle of the day, several women were imprisoned under a
blanket, because as many others, who had on their backs.all




the articles: of dress that blonged to the::paty, were then
out of doors in the: streetsi"
The pictures drawn some years back by Dr. J. I-H. Griscom,
ofthe diseases and mortality caused by residence ""inthe damp
dark; and chilly cellars " of New York, and of "the degraded
habits of life, the filth, the degenerate. morals, the:con fined
and crowded apartments, and insufficient food of those who
live in':more elevated: soil, engendering, a different train of
diseases, failed to arrest the attention of the authorities The
evils have been allowed to go on increasing, until at last their
alrmning excess has led to official investigations, the results
of w'.hich fully confirm all that Dr. Griscom, and other san:tarians'on the spot, had previously proclaimed.::. -They ate
embraced in a "Report of: the Select- Committee:appdoitaed
to investigate the Health Department. of the: City of:New
York7," which, togetherwith:.a large amount f appended docu-ments, in: the:shape of medical iand other testimony, and
tabular matter, was transmitted to the Legislature, February
3, 1859.  A startling fact which tells;in a few. figures the,deplorable state of the public health in the -city -of New York,
is its gradual1 deterioration,..with some interruptions.and short
rises, uring the last:forty-six years..   Thus, we learn:tha
in 1810, with a population: of 96,713, the  deaths were 1 in
4.6.6; -whereas, in  1857,- with: a population of probably
7: 0,000, the deaths were 1' in.27:. 15. The: testimony of Dr
Griscom, in Committee, is fullW of instructive. details, direc t
and comparative, on the subject of-the causes.of the:increase
of death-rates in New York:.!He shows that if the mortality
of London bore the same rati6 as that of -New York to popu-,
lation, it would have been 92,784, in place:of 56,786, which
was its' actual mortality.  Dr.:.G. quoted from the Report.of
a.;Committee of the Association for'-Improvihg the Condition of
th4eLaboring Classes, in the City of New York,: in which: the.dwlings in many parts of the city are thus characterio.4:




84
"Crazy old buildings; crowded iear tenements in filthy yrds,
dark, damp basements, leaky garrets, shops, out-houses, and
stables, converted into dwellings, though scarcely fit to shelter
brutes, are the habitation of thousands of. our fellow-bei'ngs
in —this wealthy, Christian city."  "In Oliver street, Fourth
Ward, for example, is a miserable rear building, 16 feet by 30,
two stories and garret,: three' rooms to each of the first and
second floors, and four in the attic; in all, ten small apartrments, which contain fourteen fcamilies.  The'entrance is
through a narrow, dirty alley, and the yard and appendages
-of the filthiest kind."  In Cherry street, is a "tenementhouse," in two lots, extending back from the street about 150
feet, five stories above the basement, so arranged: as:to contain
120 families, or more than 500 persons.  "But -the most
objectionable habitations in -this district are the cellars, in
some instances six feet under ground, which have to be bailed
out-after every rain-storm, and are so damp as to destroy.health, so dark as to prevent industry, and so low that ventilation is impossible.  Though utterly unavailable for every.other use, they are rented, at rates which ought to procure
comfortable dwellings, to persons who have become as debased
-in character, as the condition is degrading, in which they
live."  Many of the poor of the Sixth Ward " are in a-condition incomparably worse than the hovel-dwellers, where father, mother, children, and' Swine live and lodge together.":Inithe Eighth Ward, " Rotten Row," so unlike the fashionable locality in London thus called, " consists of eight houses
on either side of the street, fronting each other, with as many
more in the rear, containing, in all, about two hundred and
fifty families, and not less than one thousand two'hundred and
fifty- persons, in a space of about one hundred and eighty feet,
by, perhaps, a depth of fifty feet on each side.  The pestiferous stench and filth of.these pent-up tenements exceed description.  In one room, says a visitor, six.people are living, with




hens scratching'about on the bed.- Every corner of these
buildings is occupied-cellars and garrets."  The cellar population of'New York is believed to be twenty-five thousand.
What makes- the case worse with the occupants of these tenements and cellars, is, the circumstance of-many of them being
emigrants. from Europe, particularly from Ireland and Germany,. who, during their voyage, had suffered from defective.ventilation, in their being crowded between decks, and compelled to breathe much of'their time a damp and impure air.
Among the diseases arising from, or singularly. multiplied and
aggravated by, what Dr. Griscom terms "internal domiciliary
-causes,"' are Cholera Infantum, Diarrhcea, and Erysipelas,
which have been increasedin a high proportion since 1820.
ODr. Samuel Rotton, in his testimony before the Committeei
repeating, in a summary manner, what had been said by: Dr.
Griscom, and, to a certain extent, also by Dr. McNulty, affirms the'chief caluses -of the mortality in New York to arise
from a great number.of the inhabitants living " with the'smallest amount of air that is necessary to keep life in them,
and:the smallest possible quantity of light with which they
can possibly see and get along with; and these causes have
been proven by Dr. Griscom to produce much greater'mortality than bad bfood: or bad, clothing, because, the people who
have lived in the same way, with- the same food and clothing,
in better localities, have been seventy-five per centurn better
with regard to mortality than those who lived in cellars and'other-dark, unventilated, and miserable;places."  During the
cholera season of 1849, in New York, Dr. Rotton noted the
fact of.the great mortality from the disease among the occupants of cellars, and hence, it became his invariable- practice
to:have such persons, when attacked, immediately removed.
He does not know of a, single case of'recovery of those who
were not remQved. "The reason is obvious," continues::Dr..R.  "In many of them I was obliged to wade my way upon




biek4s, -before: I'ould. stand. upon the floors,:for the water
~'wo~uld'cover —.my' fee:t."  In th  same year,. Rotton attended -a great many patients who were attacked with Typhus or
Ship- Fever, and with results:similar to those just -npticed in
regatrd to Cholera,.  - 11 whom -he could: not remove from  the
cellars,- died —whereas, those- who were situated in' well-ventilated places. fared much better.  He mentions: the -cases- of
two men lying sick with'Typhus Fever, " in a: back alleyway.", "His constant recommendation, at- every visit, to admit
fresh air, was as constantly disregarded, and on'.his return, each
day,:he found: the. windows again closed, the door:closed, and a
number of persona living in the same rom with the:sick.. -'At'last, Dr. Rotton, becoming: exasperated:broke out every.:pane
of glass in the upper portioni of the  indows.' His. patients
gradually improved, and recovered.  D,. D.- Meredith Rieese,
in lhis!t-estimony.before - the Committee, lays down the prop.o-:sition, that- "The trittecriterion -and best.indexof atmosj.heric
ipurity, -in -any bity, or other locality, is..manifested in..young
children, whose- greater.- susceptibility:.to morbid.causes,. by
reason of their greater dcelicay of - structure, rende rs them the
earliest. victims: of atmospheric poisons,. Hene the; fearful
aggregate.of infant mortality in New York, wich.authentic
statistics disclose, is-.at..once the fruit. and the proof. of the. contiminated air they breathe,, in the wretched, habitations.of the
poor,,' where- confinedl, and- -venil ate  apatments-. render
healthy respiration. impossible."   Dr.:Reese:. assigns other
"catuses for infant mortality, which do not come.under our prese'nt' head, but which- are.. suggestive of the importance..and
necessity of s.anitary. reform, not only in New York.   but in
most other' cities.  His; views-on the.eceedingly interesting
topic of infant mortality in..large cities, haye- been-: embodied
in': a.Report to the'American Meedical'Association, which  he
offered as part of. his testimony before the: New: York Committee.




The morbid.ffees. of crowding and..deficient ventilation
are well; illustrated by.comparison with' an- opposite condition
of things,. as set forth by Dr. Richard S. Kissam.  The comparison is of the state of health -of two wards in New York,
the.most healthful and: the -least healthful. In the Sixth Ward
there were twenty-five thousand. inhabitants in 1856, having
one: thousand four.hundred dwellings, and the deaths were one
thousand and eighty-nine.  In the Fifteenth Ward the popu-'lation was twenty-four thousand- and forty-six, who occupied
two thousand four hundred and forty-five dwellings, and the.deaths among whom were four. hundred and thirty-six.  The
proportion of deaths in: the Fifteenth Ward is one in fifty-five,
and in the Sixth.Ward one in twenty-three.  The contrast,
as set forth in the Report:itself, between the Fifteenth and the
First Wards in 1857, was still'-greater.  The proportions
were-  in 69.68 in the former, and 1 in 21.96 in the latter..Dr. Kissam states the.difference between New York and Philadelphia, on the score -.of public health, to be, that- almost
every family in -the latter city has a tenement in itself; the
member's ofit are well provided and comfortable.. "The city,
of course, has a larger number of houses in- proportion than
our own. It is very sdom that there is more than one family
in a house'; but herej -as has been stated, there are- twenty or
thirty families in:one house."  To the question,  "Then
you regard ventilation as. a great principle _onnected with
the' preservation of.:health?" Dr..Kissam  replies: "Most
assuredly, even. in higher walks than among the poor.  Our
Academy of Medicine will sit, night.after night, being poisoned, -so: that those who: are sensitive on this point, invariably.
have a.headache the next.day.. The Historical Rooms, the.new
building: is. very badly..ventilated.  The s ubject of ventil&;:
tion is one.that.:seems to escape.the attention. of builders as
well as of.officers."
Examples of the.connection of overcrowding with the de



88
velopment of Typhus, Scarlatina, and Cholera, are numerous.
Some striking cases of this nature are recorded by Mr. Cox,
in the Sanitary Review, April, 1858. In the limits of two
streets, in the village of Bromley, fifty-three cases of fever occurred. The disease did not extend to the rest of the village,
neither did it break out elsewhere within the district. The
evident cause of this local fever, and its mortality, was the
"awful" overcrowding. Each house consisted of four rooms,
about twelve feet square.  "An entire family lived and slept
in each chamber. In one, Mr. Cox counted seven human
beings, who occupied the same filthy couch-a father,
mother, three adult daughters, and two younger children.
In a second room, six persons slept, viz., a widow, her two
grown-up daughters, an adult son, and two young children."
It is unnecessary to say that the rooms were indescribably
foul, fetid, close, and disgusting.  "In the above instance,"
continues Mr. Cox, "we can have no hesitation in ascribing
the concentration and severity of the fever-poison (if not indeed its actual development) to the vitiated atmosphere produced by the overcrowding." He made every inquiry, but
was quite unable to trace the origin of the disease to any other
sources. Dr. Duncan, of Liverpool, described, some years
ago, a filthy,'pent-up court, one of the thousands in that city,
with'an area of only one hundred and fifty square yards, occupied by one hundred and eighteen inhabitants, or about one
and a quarter square yards to each. This average breathing
room is only one half of what it ought to be at night. In this
court, fifty cases of fever, or nearly one half the population,
were attended by the Dispensary in a single year. Some of
the most frightful ravages of Cholera on record were owing to
the direct pulmonary poisoning by impure air and animal effluvium, accumulated for want of suitable ventilation. Examples of this nature have been furnished in all parts of the
civilized world-in the East Indies, at Karrachee, among the




89
troops, at Juggernaut, among the native population, also' m
the crowded and ill-ventilated barracks;'in England, among
the brickmakers at Southal, the hop-pickers at East Farleigh,
the pauper children at Tooting, the lunatics in the Wakefield
Asylum, -the convicts at the Wakefield Old Prison, the inmates of the Millbank Penitentiary, and of the Taunton
Work-house. At a time when no case of Cholera had occurred
in the neighborhood of Tooting, and when, indeed, even Di'a
rhoea was not at all prevalent in the village, three hundred of:
the inmates of the establishment were smitten with the secret'
pestilence, and of these no less than one hundred and eighty'
died. -The girls, whose dormitories were the most overcrowded
and the worst ventilated, suffered, more severely than the boys.'
The, essential cause of all this mortality was declared to be
"the inordinate crowding of the establishment."  The numbers; crowded together into the dormitories were so great, that
each'boy had only one hundred and fifty cubic feet, and each
girl one hundred and- thirty-three cubic feet of air allowed for
respiration, and some of the apartments were, at the same
time, so fasultily constructed-there being windows on one
side only-that no effective ventilation could possibly be kept
up.
How far this scant supply  of the pabulum  vitc  falls
short o-f the requirements of health, may be inferred from the
~recommendation of the inspectors of prisons in England,
some years ago, that every prisoner should have one thousand
cubic feet -of air, and from the estimates which have been made
in other quarters, that health and strength cannot be mai-.
tained'in a space of'less than seven hundred to eight hundred
cubic'feet; and that to live and sleep'in a space less than four
hundred:to five hundred cubic feet for each individual, is not
compatible with safety to life, even where there' is no extrinsic
or superadded cause of atmospheric impurity.  And let it not
be supposed that even the first-named spaces would be suffi



eciu ien    a hermetieally-losed: box or -chamber, forife woull
become extinc- tlo ng before the oxygen had been consumed.*
IiPhiladelphia, - we' have had- some sad..reminders of the: per —
nicious effects of overcrowdinig and want of ventilation inthe
mortality, and preceding horrors in the: old Arch Ste-et Prison
-durg the cholera season of 1832, and in theBlockley Almshouses in. the epidemic of 1849.:.We may note Wdso similar
catastrophes: in..the  Bucks County Poorhouse,  and  the
Baltimore Almshouse.   Although- Philadelphia, -Boston; and
Baltimore. compare advantageously.with New York in theirannualt death-rates,. yet. they:have:also their darkl:spots,
their: -bad: districts,;. in -which:physical: is associated  with
moral. degradation.and impur.ity,: and. Cholera claiims. its
largest.pportion o.f- victims,.  Whatever effects may be attributed to bad or-defective supply of food.. in the production
of.-this disease, it has- been. said, with no' doubt'much-truth,.  the state.of health, as well.as the proclivity todisease, is
influenced much. more by the. condition of the: air..that is
breathed:than, of the. food that is eaten.  The foul and:-fetid
amosphere,: continues.the English. writer,t$ of our Whitechapels,...and -Bermondseys-aided often by" intemperance-has
more to do with the haggard looks and earthy complexion' of
the.se denizens.than even penury or want.  Dr. Letheby, in
visitinfg some. of the rooms tenanted by poverty-stricken beings
crowded together,.found the.-atmosphere so close and. unwholesQme,.and- infected with- that peculiar fainty and sickening
siell.so characteristic. of the filthy haunts of poverty, that he
endea.ored: to discover.:th  special offending element,  E.e as-'
cetained: that the contaminated and reduced air was not only
defiient in. due proportion of oxygen,, but that it contained
three times the usual amount of carbonic acid, besi.des.a qantity of alkaline matter that:stank abominably, doubtless tho
*:Brit. and For. Med,-Chir. Review, v01. vii., 1851.
t- Ibid.




91:
product of putrefaction of thevarious fetid.and stagnantex.
halations.- that are given off. fom the unclean body, and a
pestilential:scourge of disease, the consequence of heaping hum-an- beings into such contracted localities.
Observations have-been: made, and to such an extent as to
justify the belief, that the  intensity and mortality of Scarlet
Fever are greatly increased by overcrowding.  Mr. Cox,:already. quoted, describes an outbreak of this Fever with fearful'
and uncontrollable malignity in a dismal court at. the back.of
Covent.: Garden,. London.  There were altogether: nineteen
cases in- the three houses, whereof ten terminated fatally...: Mr.
Cox.; " can.confidently attribute this fearful mortality to; the
overcrowding;. as, although the disease; prevailed extensively
in the. neighboring streets, it did' not-assume the same maig
nity of type, and yielded to remedial'measures."  Both.r,.
Co;x. and a friend who accompanied him, and shared the professioa Icduties with him- on his visits to this forbidding spot,
contracted the disease, and narrowly escaped iwith their lives.
Measles have nearly:" double -the mortality in:.the crowded'
north-western distriets, that they-have in comparatively thinly
peopled south and: south-east ones of England.. Evenothoagh
-wemust attribute a:good deal' to the ready t:ransmission:of'contagious- disease. among' a. thickly planted population,.we
can hardly doubt, as- suggested by Mr. Simon, that a- general
weakness of constitution, conjoined with defective sanitar
arrangements, greatly aggravates the.fatality of the contagious
diseases" in question.
Predilection - of -holera for Old Taunts of Disease.-.
Dr.. Laycock, in his highly interesting:report to the Health of
Towls Commissioners,' on the; Epidemics of York, tells Us,
that:thei first-. steps of- the plague which used to ravage that
ancient:city in the middle ages, down' to the early-:-part: iof
the. seveirteenth -cenytu, seem to have been very similar to
hoes ofthecholera in 1831, marking: the baddifed:dis.




92
rits by its course, as did the' latter.  "It is a:singular
coincidence," remarks Dr. Laycock, "that while the cholera
commenced in.the Hay-market, near the traditional spot of
the'plague under consideration (in- 1604), and probably near
to that of 1551, the first death from cholera tbok place also-in
the parish of St. Michael, Spurriengall, and on June 5th." It
was in this parish, and on June.4th, 1604, that the first death
from plague occurred.  The first case that-occurred in the
tow>n of Leith (Edinburgh), in 1848, took place in the same
house, and within a very. few feet of the same spot where the
epidemic of 1832 commenced its course.  On its re-appearance in the town'of Pollockshaws, it snatched its first victim
from  the very same room and the very bed in- which it had
broken out in 1832.  Its first appearance in Bermondsey was
close to the same ditch in which the earlier fatal cases occurred;: 1839.  At- Oxford, in 1839 as in 1832,. the first case
occurred in the opunty jail.  This return to its former haunts
has been observed in several other places, and the experience
in foreign countries has been similar.  At Groningen, in Holland, the disease in 1832 attacked, in the better part of the
city, only two houses, and the epidemic broke out in these
two identical houses on the visitation of 1848.-'But'it was
observed, that while in both epidemics, those of 1832 and 1848
-9,` the disease was localized in precisely the same districts,
several of them have changed places in the relative degree in
which- they have suffered:The earliest case of cholera in
Chelsea (near London), in 1848, is said to have been in
Whitehall- Court, and- there it continued to exist until the end
of the. epidemic in 1849.- The first, case in 1854 was in the
same place, perhaps also -'in the same house, in both visitations. A very similar fact is presented by Augusta-Court,min
which the-three earliest fatal cases of cholera, in Chelsea,:ocurred: in February, 1832;3 and which being revisited in 1854,
continued to furnish victims to the pestilence'throughout the




ealy' duration of the outbreak.  Kent and Mew'streets,
Southwark (on the'south side of'the Thames),: which were
severely visited at an early period of the last epidemic, were
also' among the first -seats of cholera in 1832. Dr. Acland
relates. that, with one exception, every yard and every street
in St. Thomas's parish, Oxford, which had been attacked-by
cholera in 1832 and: 1849, was revisited in 1854,
It is evident, from these and many more analogous facts,
that, although we are unable to explain all' the conditions for
the development of cholera, it is impossible for us to deny
the great influence of locality on its production.
Public ]odging-Houses.-To speak of overcrowding is:at
once suggestive of public lodging-houses, long a recognized
and prolific source of disease and vice. They are in all large
cities the nightly resorts, not only of the migrating laborer
and traveling artisan, but, also, of the loi~er mendicants,
thieves, and prostitutes. - It was no uncommon thing, as Dr.
Duncan related, when writing on the sanitary state of Liverpool: for the keepers of lodging-houses, in that city, to cover
the floor with straw, and to allow as many human beings' as.
could manage to pack themselves together, to take -up their
quarters for the night, at the charge of a penny (a little over
two cents) each.  The havoc made by the cholera in' the
lodging-houses-of Manchester was terrible.  In some of them
as many six or eight bodies were contained in a single room,
which-was crowded promiscuously with men, women, and
children. Dr. Howard, after showing the lamentable extent
to.:which they become hot-beds of febrile, diseases of the most
violent and fatal character, owing mainly to' their filthy and
unventilated condition, thus describes the morals of their
frequenters, and their malign influence in this- way on the
young and inexperienced:." They serve as open receptacles
of crime, vice, and profligacy, and as nurseries in which the




:94
young:and yet uninitiated become familiar with every species
of immorality.  They are the haunts of the most depraved
and abandoned characters, as well as. the most miserable and'suffering objects of the town (Manchester); and constitute one
-of the most influential causes of the physical and moral
degradation of. our laboring population.". In, Glasgow, where
the same evils prevailed to an alarming degree, the' loginghouses have been subjected-to. regular municipal supervision
and ordinance, and, as we are told, with- excellenit'effects.
Partial inquiries made in our large American cities, reveal a
state, of things approaching to the evils just pointed out as so
common in those of Great Britain, and which call imperatively
for the ameliorating and reforming influences introduced with
success of late years in different parts of this kingdom.  To
these we shall soon advert.
General W'at of FVentilation. —But the evilconsequences
of crowding and defective ventilation are not confined, to.thepoor and the destitute.  Wherever people.are brought
together for religious worship, for amusement or recreation,
in the- halls of legislationi' and of law, in school-rooms,
hospitals  almshouses, and prisons, the neglect of:sanitary measures, and especially of ventilation, is the rule.
Attention to this,, paramount means of preserving health is
the exception.  Nor are the mansions of. the rich and tasteful
exempt from the penalty' of infraction of one of the chief if not
the very first of the natural laws.  This stricture is still more
applicable to modern than to old houses.
In modern houses,' the neglect of ventilation is extreme, as
far as regards recourse to any other means of obtaining it than
the windows of the rooms.  All the fire-places, as they used to
be called, are hermetically sealed by slabs of marble, and
when the register of the flue, by which warm air -is.introduced,'S closed, as at night, or when the room becomes too warm in




95
the day, there is no- aperture,',either for the -admission. of. fresh
air, firom without, or for the:.escape:-of foul air from within.
During the night, the windows and doors. are closed, and- the
qupply of air fitted for respiration becomes exhausted long before morning, especially: if, as. is so commonly the: case, there be
several-persons sleeping in the same room.  Headaches, restless slumbers, nervousness of various kinds, palpitations, oppressed -breathing, and loss of appetite, are no unusual effects
of defective ventilation in the houses.of the wealthy, who, at
the. very time, may be commiserating.the- poor for their small
and close apartments. It is indeed time that architects should
wake: up, and'think of: constructing houses. in which the in,
mates can live without a continued infraction of the laws, by
compliance with which alone they can. enjoy health and serenity: of mind.  Benevolent individuals and societies havetaken
the state of the defective lodgings of the poor into consideration,.and have set about, in some instances with entire success,
the devising and execution of the needful remedies.. Let us
hope that the rich will, in due time, come in for a share of
this well-directed philanthropy,.
We hear much of applied science, but the community has
yet: to learn its direction towards a better system of either -public or private- hygiene.  -Both proprietors' and builders. of
houses are, for the most part,' quite innocent of.the desired
knowledge of this subject.  Division of rooms for: business.-or
family wants in the interior, and decorations externally after
some:order, GQreek or Gothic, or a barbarous blending of both,
are the only things thought of in relation to modern structures.
How the inmates are'to'procure. an adequate and continuedsupply of fresh air, and how to get clear of that whichh.is impure, are not even secondary matters: they are sometimes
discussed as curious questions ofrphilosophy, but seldom with
a view to their direct bearing on health.  Wearied, oppressed,
and giddy;. and.with. palpitating hearts and hurried breathing,




96
how many, after leaving a church, have mistaken theirreally disturbed states of the physical man for those which' result from
the workings of the Spirit; and have retired to their homes,
full of terrors for the state of their soul, when, in reality, th.y
were suffering from a disorder of their corporeal functions, induced by the impure and half-poisoned blood circulating
through their veins? - We are familiar with the "blue Monday" of dissipated and drunken workmen and laborers, who
pay the penalty of a recognized gross infraction of natural laws
on the preceding Sunday, but we are not often aware of the
well-defined "blue Monday," as exhibited in feelings of languor, depression of spirits, and unevenness of temper in those
who have sinned against these same natural laws, albeit in a
different manner, by their three goings to - church, including an
evening service on the Sabbath, and breathing all the while
an impure air. Dr. D. B. Reid, who visited numerous churches in hot weather, to observe the effects of bad air on the con-.
gregations, gives the result in a very graphic sketch, which we
regret not having room to insert. We would refer to his work,.entitled Illustrations of the Theory and Practice of Ventilation, with remarks on Wiarm Air, EZxclusive Lighting,
and the Communication of Sound, for much valuable information on the entire subject embraced in our present notice.
The same author has favored the public with a more recent
treatise on  Ventilation in American L)wellings, with a
series of illustrative diagrams; and to this eminently practical
work,. Dr. Elisha Harris has contributed an Introductory
Outline of the Progress of Improvement in Ventilation.
The volume is replete, with instruction on a most interesting,
we might say vital topic.
Dr. E. Harris, after stating "the imperative necessity of giving prompt and efficient attention to the removable sources of'danger and disease which exist in our communities," presents
the subject in' a very lucid manner in the shape of the following propositions:




97
" First'. We would refer to the fact that more than one half
the entire population of the city of New York -reside in crowded tenement-houses, and that'there is no statute or municipal
law regulating the construction, ventilation, or the space alioweed to specified numbers of residents therein'.  Hence
crowding such structures to their utmost capacity has become
the rule rather than the exception. And it may here be stated,
that our city has an underground or cellar population of more
than twenty-five thousand persons.
"- In the 17th Ward'alone, there are 1257 tenementhouses, having 20,917 rooms, which are occupied by 10,1.23'families, embracing a total number of 51,172 persons; thus
giving an average of about four persons to each suit of two
apartments,. one only of which is usually occupied as a dormitory, and that one often a dark, close room, of a capacity only
of from 500 to 800 cubic feet. Now, in a close apartment of
only 600 cubic feet, a single person cannot spend six consecutive hours, in air of ordinary temperature, without impairment to health.
"Dr. Reid's estimate of ten cubic feet of pure air per minute, for the respiration of an adLilt person, is certainly quite
low enough for an average of comfort and safety, and with
such an allowance, the air in such an apartment would become
*too much vitiated for healthy respiration at the expiration of
sixty minutes or one hour; and allowing that the air is partially replenished. during that brief period, the atmosphere
would be decidedly unwholesome at the expiration of two or
thi'ee hours.  Or, taking the lowest estimate within the limits
of safety, as given by Dr. Neill Arnott, viz., about three
cubic feet per'minute,' such an apartment could not be considered a. healthy sleeping-room for a single person. much less
a safe dormitory for a whole family.' In some'of the lower wa-rds of the city, the tenementhouses- are much more densely crowded than in those just




98
mentioned.  In one of them, containing from 120 to 150 families of three to ten persons each, there are but about forty
feet of frontage and sunlight.  In two of the smallest of those
apartments, eight cases of malignant typhus have been seeia
at one time.  And at the last visitation of cholera, the first
cases of that malady occurred in that pent-up and overcrowded locality.
"LSecond, Small-pox, typhus fever, and every other pestilence find a genial and prolific soil in such crowded, unventilated structures as the habitations of the poor in our city, and
from them the germ's of fatal diseases are continually conveyed
-to the dwellings of the more favored classes.
Third, The fashionable and gregarious custom of crowding our hotels and boarding-houses is becoming a hazardous
practice, unless more attention is given to the'hygienic condition and wants of such establishments-very few of which
have hitherto been provided with any thing like systematic antd
efficient ventilation, or perfect drainage.  The recent fearful
endemic at the National Hotel, in the city of Washington,
should teach an important practical lesson on this subject.
"Fourth, The drainage or sewerage, and the necessary
measures for securing general cleanliness and a pure atmosphere, are not yet suitably provided for by law.
" Fifth  Architecture, in its applications to private residences as well as to public edifices, has not yet had primary
or suitable reference to man's hygienic interests. Adaptations
-for a sufficient supply of pure air and suifllight have been.sacrificed to architectural effect on the one hand, and to a mistaken economy on, the other.
" The vital importance of a correct understanding and estimation of such considerations as the foregoing, must be manifest to all who intelligently investigate such stubjects; and to
-the political economist, the merchant, and the moralist, these




99
topics are invested with relations quite as interesting as those
that' lead the physician and:the philanthropist to study them."
Dr. Reid was one of the Commissioners appointed by
Queen Victoria for inquiry into the state of large towns'and
populous districts; and his opinions are founded on large experience
In Schools.-The greatest sufferers from the general ignorance of elementary physiology and hygiene among architects,
controllers and teachers, are children in schools, both public
and private; the latter just now' probably the more punished
of the two. We need not repeat from the report of the Commissioners just mentioned, the distressing particulars of the
wretched state of the cottage schools in the different parts of
England, nor of the dame and public schools of Liverpool and
Manchester some years ago. Abundant matter for comment
and stricture is offered to observation in the schools of the
United States.  The fate of the school children of poor or improvident parents, who reside in narrow streets, courts, or alleys, is peculiarly hard; for, after suffering from partial suffocation during the night and a part of the day in their own
wretched homes, they'are subjected to a similar, if not more
injurious process'in their school-rooms, into which they may
be said to be entrapped, and thus cruelly treated under the
show of kindness and regard for their welfare.
Of all the various edifices in which a number of persons are
gathered together, and for whose protection and benefit an efficient system of ventilation is needful, none are of such paramount inmportance as school-houses, -and none have been so
generally, and we might -add so cruelly neglected. The children who sit in them for many hours daily, require, above all
other members of the community, a continued supply of fresh
air for their healthy growth, and to allow of their tender
brains being taslked without detriment and continual danger




100
to their intellects, and a depression of spirits and languor so
opposed to their instinctive feelings and tendencies.  The
originally indolent boy becomes at school a hater of lessons.and books, associating as he does with it all that is wearisome 
and dull; while the boy desirous to learn, and emulous of distinction, becomes exhausted by his brain-work, and-his nervous system acquires a morbid sensibility which remains with
him during all his after-life. The unrenewed air of a schoolroom soon becomes charged with the noxious exhalations both
from the lungs and the skin. The latter organ, in a vast majority of the poorer children, and in not a few of the wealthier
class, becomes, for want of due attention, almost coated
with perspirable and other matters, and is a source of continual poisoning of the air of an ill-ventilated room. The architectural arrangement of nearly all the schools in England, as
far as they were examined some years ago, was, with few exceptions, deplorably defective, especially where the scholars
slept in the building, Among many instances of the same
kind, we may state that, in Manchester, the blue-coat boys
suffered from scurvy, which was removed in. a great measure
by an amended diet, and by ventilation of the dormitories
after a fixed method.  But it is not necessary to look abroad
to find a general neglect of school hygiene, evidenced even in
what all call first-class seminaries, as well as in those of less
pretension and with humbler inmates.
In Hospitals.-All medical men must be aware, at the present time, how much the mortality is increased in hospitals
and' asylums of every kind by a confined air, rendered noxious by want of ventilation.  The greatest. skill on the part
of. the professional corps, the most attentive administration of
well-selected medicines by intelligent and humane nurses, are
nullified by the inmates of a hospital breathing an air not continually renewed, and which, if allowed to remain stationary,
even for a very short period, becomes charged with emana



101
tions, gaseous and animal, of the most deleterious kind. It is
not too'strong language to say, that a renewal of the air in
hospitals, which implies adequate ventilation, is a question of
life or death: every hospital in which the atmospheric air remains vitiated, so far from being a benefit to the poorer classes, becomes a public calamity. Better that its inmates should
remain in their own wretched tenements, deprived of all me~dical attendance, than to be subjected to the concentrated poison of the large wards of a'hospital. Many years ago, during
a season of epidemic visitation of small-pox in Philadelphia, it
was found that the mortality from this disease was greater
among the inmates of the hospital at Bush Hill, of which your
reporter was at the time the chief -medical attendant, than
among the sick in the city, many of them living in confined
courts and dirty alleys, who came under his care as dispensary
patients. As ilustrative of the contrasted effects of crowding
and bad ventilation on the one hand, and of improved ventilation on the other, reference may be made to the Lying-in Hospital, Dublin, in which there died 2,944 children out of 7,650;'but after ventilation, the deaths, in the same- period of time,
and in a like number of children, amounted'only to 2.79.
The quantity and poisonous nature of the exhalations
continually given out in the wards of a hospital occupied by the sick, are strikingly shown by Montfalcon and
Poliniere in a treatise on the Health of Great Cities,* when
speaking of the HTotel ]Dieu, the great hospital at Lyons.
The large fever wards of this building represent a cross, at
the centre of which is a vestibule surmounted by a dome and
a cupola; in it is placed an altar of marble, over which is a
smaller dome. From the wards thus communicating with the
vestibule, the impure air and exhalations escape into the dome
and cupola, which act as so many. funnels, and thence through
suitable openings they find exit into the outer air.  The
* Traite de la Salubrite dans les Grandes Villes, suivie de l'1ygiene de Lyon.




102
amount of mephitic air accumulated in the dome and.cupola,
and afterwards expelled, is incredible, as no one could form
the least idea of it when visiting the wards and breathing an
air exempt from all bad smell in them. But if workmen at
this very time ascend to the cupola, especially near its top,
they will suffer so much from the close and foul air which has
risen from below, as to be unable to continue their work, at
the longest, for more than half an hour.  Sometimes even
after half an hour's delay in this infectious medium, they come
away pale and oppressed, and so disordered' that sometimes
they sink down in a state of syncope. Many workmen are
obliged to succeed one another, to perform the work of a single
man.
In TWork-shops and Factories.- The work-shops of persons
eengaged in various mechanical employments are for the most
part exceedingly deficient on the score of ventilation, and their
inmates in consequence encounter much suffering and disease.
Dr. Southwood Smith relates many distressing details of this
nature, which came. under his own observation.  There was
a room in London, sixteen or eighteen yards long, and seven
or eight yardsiwide, in which eighty working tailors sat, and
so closely to each other, as to be nearly knee to knee; one
witness told of his having known young men, tailors from the
country, faint away in the shop from the excessive heat and
closeness. It was. of frequent occurrence in such work-shops,
that. suits of clothes of a light colo~r were spoiled- from'the
perspiration -of the hand, and the dust and flue which arose
during the work. In winter, these places are still more unhealthy, as the heat from the candles-it may now be said
gas-and the closeness are much greater.  The entrance of
fresh air through an open window is objected to by thosenearest to it on account of the draught, and generally they prevail in keeping out the cold-that is, the fresh air.  The
effects of continued exposure to this i'mpure and deleterious




103
air, were to drive away many before their labors were over,
and to take away the appetite of those unaccustomed to the
place.  "The niatural effect of the depression," continues the
witness before the Commissioners, " was that we had recourse
to drink as a stimulant; gin being taken instead of food. I
should say the greater part of the habit of drinking was produced by the state of the place of work, because whbn men
work by themselves, or only two or three together, in cooler
and less close places, there is scarcely any drinking between
them.'"
Seamstresses, Sec.-What has been said of the journeymen
tailors, applies with too much force to the individuals of the
other sex, who work in milliner and dressmaker shops, with
the additional aggravation of their being sometimes kept up
late at night to finish the dress promised by the employer for
the next day. Even when working alone in their small and
close! rooms, from morn to night, in a half-bent. posture, they
are objects of deserved pity, as victims to the sin of a neglect
of hygiene.
Printing Ofices, in which germinate so many young
Franklins, do not exhibit, if we may judge from the indifference of those who work within them, the shrewdness of their
professed model, in either devising or availing themselves of
known measures for the promotion of health, foremost of which
is attention to the respiratory function.  If it be true, as
alleged, that pressmen are less liable than compositors to pulmonary consumption, we have additional confirmation of the
fact, pointed out by Dr.'Guy, of the greater frequency of this
disease among those who are habitually exposed to a close
and impure air, and especially if, at the'same time, they are
deprived of all exercise. The saving nature of this last is
evinced under the circumstances just stated.
Nautical hygiene shows that outbreaks of cholera have,
occurred aboard ship from defective ventilation.




104
Pulmonary Diseases from Defective JVentilation.-It has
been observed that, as a general rule, the frequency of pulmonary diseases in England is greater among the males than
among the females, in the proportion of 100 to 94-as regards
the country generally; but that in particular districts and
towns, the greatest death-rates from these causes are on the
side of the females.  The difference is attributable to the confinement in factories or in shops, and even in their own
houses, of this part of the population, while engaged in making textile or other fabrics.  -n three of the registration disricts in which this difference prevails, a good proportion' of
the adult females are engaged in industrial manufacturing
pursuits-these' being chiefly conducted at their own homes.
Exceptions,' not yet explained, occur in this matter in some
counties in England. We are, after all, safe in adopting the
opinion expressed by Mr. Simon, namely.: " In proportion as
the'male and' female populations are severally attracted to
indoor branches of industry, in such proportion, other things
being equal, their respective death-rates by phthisis are increased."  In the lace-making districts, the female deathloss seems always to exceed the male.  "The pulmonary
death-rate is usually excessive in towns where both males and
females are largely employed in the manufacture of textile
fabrics; but the difference in the mortality of the sexes is
rarely great."  So in Manchester, which, as one of the cotton
manufacturing districts, has a high pulmonary mortality, the
difference in tlhedeath-rates of males and females is slight;
both being largely engaged in the industrial. occupations of the
place. In comparing this state of things with what occurs in
Liverpool, we find that city, with a higher mortality still,
does not show it so much in its female population, who are
not engaged in any special employment.
Defect of Light.-Next to the apparent determination to
exclude fresh air from the habitations of man, and'from all the




105
places in which people assemble for the purposes of religious
worship, business, and pleasure, is the apparent determination
to prevent full access of light to the human -body. The paramount importance of light to vegetation, so that through it
plants acquire not only their verdure but the variegated colors
which we admire in their flowers, as well as their requisite
firmness of texture and the distinctive flavor of their juices,
seems to have received only a.passing application, suggestive
of its producing analogous effects on animals.  The bleaching
and.sickly character of vegetables, which follow the privation
of solar light, and their sleep during the night, showing greatly diminished vital activity, find their parallels in the influence
of the same cause on the animal economy. Comparative physiology furnishes additional proof in the same line of argument. When the eggs of a frog are put in water, in a vase
with opaque sides and top, so as to exclude' the light, they
evince no change; whereas, eggs in water of the same quantity and temperature, exposed to the light, undergo a gradual
development,.and exhibit in due tithe young tadpoles. The,subsequent transformation of these beings is not prevented,
but it is retarded by their being kept in darkness  Edwards,
who made these experiments, thought that. in countries in
which nudity was allowed by the nature of the climate, exposure of the whole surface of the body to light, or to insolation, as we may term it, was very favorable to good bodily
conformation. Humbolt seems to incline -to the same opinion.
He asserted that deformity and deviations from the natural
standard of symmetry are very rare in certain races of men,
especially among those with a highly-tinted dermoid system.
The sinister effects of want of the sun's light in underground
apartments, and in houses,'narrow alleys, and in deep courts,
almost,blocked out from  its -genial access, ought to share
largely with humidity and impure air in the" production of
scrofula and scurvy, and must count its full share inithe




106
etiology of anaemia and chlorosis, and of the pallid and earthycolored skin of miners, and the tenants of prisons, as also of
those: persons who lead a sedentary life in ill-lighted habitations.  Dr. Brown, of  Chatham, near London, calls attention
(Sanitary Review, April, 1858) to the injurious effects of
underground kitchens.  He would have. large room for comment in some of our cities, especially New York, in which
there are not only. underground kitchens, but where also it is
quite common to meet with dining, and sometimes sleepingrooms thus situated.  This vicious architectural arrangement
is too common also in Philadelphia. Dampness is generally
associated with the want of light, and performs a' not unimportant part in causing disease, by withdrawing from the body,
as Dr. Brown supposes, "its normal proportion of electricity,
arnd thus occasions disorders that depend upon diminished
nerve force.  These are ague, neuralgia, certain forms of rheumatism, epilepsy, chorea, and asthma, with some other, affections, such as dyspepsia."  The servant girls of London exemplify, in their etiolated-condition, and their breathlessness,
as well as the ansemia under which they suffer, the evil effects
of dampness and of deprivation of the solar rays.  The functions peculiar to their sex ate carried on imperfectly, or are
absolutely suspended; hence the headache, the pains in the
side, the palpitation, and the dropsical ankles so frequently
witnessed in this class. Organic disease of the heart is originated by these causes in some instances. Another consideration stated by Dr. Brown, but not bearing on our present
theme, is the exhaustion attendant on the frequent ascent
and descent of stairs.
Dr. Elisha Harris, in his replies to' the New York Committee, lays great -stress on the privation of sunlight to a vast
proportion of the population of the city, "not only in workshops, in warehouses, in- counting-rooms, and in basements;
but in the modern tenement-houses, the hotels, the school



107
rooms, the churches, and the private dwellings."  He adds,
and with becoming warmth of language: "So important ics
light to human health, that it should be made a legal offense
for any party to deprive a neighboring dwelling of light." He
repeats an observation of Sir John Wylie, for many years
physician to the Emperors.Alexander and Nicholas, of Russia,
viz.- that in a certain barrack at St. Petersburg, the more
tality an the dark side, that from'which sunlight was always
excluded, was two hundred times greater than on that side on
Which the sun shone, and penetrated into the windows and
doors of the apartments.
THE REMEDIES.-After a tolerably full notice of the
impurity, and, still worse, the virulent properties and effects of the air; caused by overcrowding and  defective
ventilation, we are the better prepared to inquire into
the means of the cure, and still better, because acting on
a larger scale, the prevention of the evils described.  The
measures for meeting this object must be undertqken and
carried out on a scale commensurate with the extent of
the obstructions to be overcome. They require for their
successful performance, discreet but firm legislation. First
should be carried into effect the recommendation of the English commissioners already noticed, viz.: to empower the local
and municipal administrative bodies, to raise money for the
purchase of property, with a view of opening thoroughfares
an.d widening streets, courts, and alleys, so' as to improve the
ventilation of the densely-crowded districts of towns, as well
as to increase the general convenience of traffic. Practical
suggestions in this line occur to us on learning the steps taken
by the present Emperor of France, for the improvement and
embellishment of Paris. There may be a difference of opinion
respecting the motives which influence the French ruler in the
great changes which have been brought about, and others still
in progress and projected, in the interior of the capital; but




108
of. one thing we may be well assured, that the public health
will gain immensely, and this through the external ventilation procured by the new wide and magnificent streets, which
intersect, and, in degree, break up the crowded dens of miserable tenements, in dark and narrow streets, occupied by- a population ready at any hour to engage in scenes of public revolution or of local outbreak and bloodshed. With a view of
securing better ventilation, the Commissioners farther recommended, that courts and alleys be not built of a less width
than twenty feet, to be open at both ends; and that they have
an opening of not less than ten feet from the ground upwards,
at each end; the width of the court. being in proportion to the
height of the houses. Streets are not to be of less width than
thirty feet.
Local acts, as authorized by acts of Parliament, have, already been passed in Liverpool, Leeds, and London, and
doubtless in other cities and towns, since our attention was
last directed to this point, prohibiting the use of cellars in
dwellings, unless they are so constructed as to provide protection against the existence of the evils which we have just
pointed out. The Commissioners farther recommended that,
after a limited period, the use of cellars as dwellings be prohibited, unless the rooms are of certain dimensions, and are
provided with a fire-place, and window of sufficient size, made
to open, and that said dwelling have an open space in front;
and also, that the foundation be properly drained. Prohibitions have been suggested, if not laid down by actual enactment, against building houses back to back-a vicious practice,
which effectually prevents both a deep supply of light, and
any adequate ventilation by a through current of air through
each house.
"The French Government has appropriated 10,000,000
francs to encourage the building of workmen's dwellings.
Many model cottages are now being elected in the neighbor



109
hood of Paris; each is designed for four families, and each
containing four'rooms, is to be let at 150 francs a year. They
are to be exclusively for laboring men and their families, and
to be supplied with water and gas. One hundred and fifty
more of these chalets are to be erected in and about Paris;
and already 15,000 applications have been made for them to
the Administration.
"At Mulhouse, a society had expended, up to the close of
1855, 900,000 francs, for a like object; the Government
having contributed 150,000 francs.
C"At Genoa, where the municipality expended 12,500,000
francs, during the last invasion of the Cholera, chiefly for the
relief of those living in defective, unhealthy dwellings, a company has been formed to erect houses for4 workmen, in which
the King of Sardinia has taken 150 shares.
"At'Berlin, there is a Building Society, under the patronage of the Prince of Prussia, with a capital of 200,000 thalers,
which yields 4 per cent. on the investment. It has now 202
occupied dwellings, and 27 work-shops.
" In Tuscany, the Grand Duke,-in October, 1844, issued a
decree, empowering all municipal magistrates within his territory, who imay deem it expedient, to form a commission for
providing the means of cleansing and rendering wholesome the
dwellings actually let or occupied by any other person than
the proprietor, which are in such a state as to be dangerous to
the health of the occupants or community.
"There are also societies to improve the dwellings of the
working men at Parma, Dresden, Brandenburg, Bremen,
Chemnitz, Locle in Switzerland, and many other places.
"The houses erected are incomparably better than the ordinary dwellings for the same class; the rents are lower, with




110
the privilege generally to the tenants of becoming proprietors."*:M2lfodel Houses.-After State and municipal governments
shall have done their duty, by wise and liberal enactments,
and providing means for giving them effect, a large field will
still be left for the exercise of individual benevolence, or of
voluntary associated effort, to carry on a series of auxiliary
measures, which are necessary to the completion of those of a
public and administrative nature.  Among these it is pleasant
to be able to announce, not merely the inception of plausible
plans but their already successful execution, as in the erection
of model-houses in town, and model-cottages in the country,
for the use of the working classes in England. The new
buildings, though small, are on a footing of comfort and sanitary
arrangements, as to a due supply of water, warming, and ventilation, equal, if not superior, to lariger mansions inhabited by
the wealthy. The trials so far verify a remark made by the Rev.
Mir. Girdlestone, Who has taken an active and praiseworthy
part iln sanitary reform: "that one of the most efficacious
means of elevating the condition -of the laboring classes is the
improvement of their dwellings."  At Birkenhead, opposite
Liverpool, dwellinks have been erected in a style so neat as to
approach to elegance, by the Dock Company, for the accommodation of the workmen employed in the construction of the
docks and warehouses. of that new  and flourishing. town.
Tenements have also been erected at the same place by Mr.
William Laird, called " Morpeth Buildings," and.others by
Mr. Robert Hughes; the former consisting of, sixty-four, the
latter of seventy dwellings. The first is built on the Scotch
plan, in flats, or suites of rooms on a floor, and constitute eight
blocks, each block consisting of eight dwellings.  The blocks
* The Fourteenth Annual Report of the New York Association for Improving the Conditiodn of the Poor, for the year 1857.




are four stories high, with no yard or cellar, and each flat is
divided into two dwellings.  Each dwelling consists of three
rooms-kitchen, parlor, and bed-room, or two bed-rooms. The
kitchen is provided with a range and oven.  Separated from
the kitchen, by a well-fitting door, is a water-closet, with an
abundant supply of water for this and all other purposes.
Through the centre of each block, from top to bottom, runs a
square shaft, containing the water and gas-pipes belonging to
the eight dwellings.  A small iron -door, about ten inches
square, is fixed to one corner-ot a recess, close to the ground,
through which all the dust and dirt are- swept; the dust-shaft
receives the dust from all the eight dwellings by eight similar
openings, and decends to a very large dust cellar beneath the
level of the house, from which it is removed at stated periods.
Each house is ventilated by two air-bricks-that is, a space
equal to the size of:a brick is left open for the admission of
ail, covered within and'without by an iron grating, and ca;ble of being closed by an iron shutter, if necessary.  One of
these openings is placed near the ceiling, for: the escape-of
vitiated or heated air.  There is only one appliance, external
to the person, wanting in. these houses, viz.: the bath.' In
New York, tenements of:this description have been con-.structed; and, where ground is so valuable, and the population so dense, in some of the worst districts, they must be
regarded with favor, although they may qllow of but comparatively limited external ventilation.
-Jfodel loodging-houses have likewise been built in. London
and other places with the most satisfactory results.  The
houseless, the destitute,'and the very poor are comfortably
lodged, at the same time'that they escape the contamination
both of disease and vice, for- a very small sum, but which is
remunerative to the proprietor.  At a meeting, some years
back, of the "Society for Improving the Condition of tke
WTorking'Classes," -Prince Albert presiding, it was stated'-by




112
Lord Ashley,, that the new lodging-houses gave nightly lodging, with every accommodation f6r cleanliness and decency, at
the rate of four pence (eight cents) a night; so entire was the
success and so remunerative was the profit obtained, that
upon a sum of about 13,000 or 14,000 pounds sterling
(65,000 to 70,000 dollars) expended on these lodging-houses,
they were now receiving an income of very nearly 1500
pounds, or (7500 dollars) a year. Great improvements have
been brought about in common lodging-houses throughout the
kingdom by Lord Graftenbury's act, as it is called.
With such examples of successful sanitary reform before
them, the people of the city of New York need not hesitate
day before entering on la similar course, and thus regain
high health-rate which it once enjoyed, realizing the benefits
due to its naturally favorable si'tuation, and to certain hygienic
measures which have been completed on a large scale at (great
cost. In the words of the Committee of Investigation of the
health department of the city of New York, we can say: "A
healthful river flows beneath its streets and avenues, supplying every habitation with sufficient water to allay thirst, to
prepare food, and to promote cleanliness.  The island on
which it stands is laved by two noble rivers, whose tides uplift
and cleanse the respective streams. Its sewerage is advancing
with rapid stretches from street to street, and the fresh breezes
from the ocean temper the coldness and moderate the heat of
its climate."
MEANS OF VENTILATION.-When persons speak of tile
necessity of fresh air for health, they are not always aware of
the various purposes which it serves in the animal economy.
It is a" thing," a substance to be weighed and measured as
we would water. It is a food, the introduction of which into
t.plungs is' more necessary than that of the substances commonly reckoned as food which are introduced into the stomach.
The call for the aerial food is incessant, allows of no pause 3




that for the solid and liquid food is periodical and allows of
postponement for many hours. Using the terse language of
a recent writer, when speaking of the air: "It affords
mechanical support; it is a heat-modifying medium; it swal-'lows all gases exposed to it; it supplies a'food to man, out of
which he is in part built up; it feeds him with the active
principle by which the warmth of his body is sustained. The
chief sustaining element of the air inspired in- breathing, is
the oxygen, which forms a fifth part of the whole of the
atmospheric sea." The minute terminations of the branches of
the bronchioe, themselves ramifying from the windpipe, and
called air-cells, amount to about six hundred millions.  The
air in these cells, and chiefly its oxygenous portion, permeates their sides and enters those of the minute blood-vessels,
which are'ramified over them, and thus finds entrance into
the blood with which it mixes, and which it so changes as to
fit this vital fluid for the nutrition and building up of the
new and assisting to remove the old materials of the organs.
While the blood is thus; changed by the introduction of oxygen, it gives off, at the same time, its gaseous refuse in the
form of, carbonic acid and animal exhalations.  There is no
tampering with the respiratory wants: the lungs must have
their due supply of pure air, or the entire animal organism
suffers-the lungs suffer, the heart suffers, the brain suffers,
and the mind works slowly; the stomach is weakened in its
functions; muscular movement is enfeebled; the senses are'dull; the natural color of health'is replaced by pallor.  The
movements of inspiration and expiration, which make up respiration, constitute the natural ventilation of the living frame.
This living ventilation is carried on unceasingly from birth to
death, by the infant as well as by the adult, by the profoundest
philosopher as well as the solitary artisan in his close polluted
atmosphere, or by the sailor nursed amid storms, in a pure and
invigorating air.'Whether the circumambient air be pure or
8




114
pestilential, we drink of -it twenty times a minute; if of the
latter kind, we look old in our youth; if of the former, we
maintain the appearance of youth in old age.  The average
chance of living.to the proverbial age of threescore years and
ten may be considered the measure of the purity of the air we
breathe.*
fDi'ferent Xodes.-All the different modes for ventilation
are reducible to three heads  1. To ventilate by heat, or by
a chemical process. 2. By pumping, or a mechanical process.
3. By the pressure and movements of the atmosphere
without let or hindrance.t  Dr. Reid, both in his work before
mentioned and in his Report to the Commissioners on the
Northern Coal, Mine Districts, enters fully into this interesting
question, which he presents under the following aspect:
"Ventilation depends essentially on three conditions: the
quality of the external air; the quantity that can be made to
flow through it in a given time, including the mode of distribution and the regulation of which it is susceptible, whether
in regard to the temperature communicated to it, or the force
with which it impinges on the system; and its freedom from
any noxious ingredients that may be developed by lamps,
candles, fire-places, or by any other special cause., Where
sanitary measures have secured the purity of the external
atmosphere by effective drainage, cleansing, and prevention of
nuisances, one-half of the remedy may be secured, and without such measures no system of ventilation can be successful."
"Were it generally known," writes Dr. Reid, "that the
movement from'an ascending current from lamps is always
accompanied in non-ventilated apartments by a proportionate
descent of vitiated air, which may have previously supported
combustion, and that the descent, though limited at first,
* Dr. Hutchinson. Jour. of Pub. Health, vol i
t Sanitary Review, vol. ii. p. 208.




115
may suddenly reach:the'floor, greater anxiety woul. be-manifested to give vent to such products by a superior apertiue."
Dr. Guy very justly remarks that no system of ventilation
can come into general use' which does not prevent draughts,
which is not cheap, and which -interferes to any great extent
with existing structural arrangements.
The great number of plans for ventilation would impl tha- t
an easy and efficient system  is not yet reached.  They
are,: however, encouraging, as they afford evidence of a:'m
creasing desire to become acquainted with the subject,-. ani-t
give it a practical bearing.  The extension to.:which this
report has already unexpectedly reached, will forbid my. entering into details, or even, repeating the outlines of all.-.the.- dif.
ferent plans which I gave some years back (1850), in:. a repit
on Public Hygiene, read; before the College of' Physicians'. o
Philadelphia.
Beginning with the third:'head of the plans of ventilatn,
which looks to the natural movements of the air by a simple
interchange between. that of the interior of a house or:: other
building, and the external atmosphere, Dr. Reid thinks,-:.that
a well-constructed window, capable of being opene dabove
and below, realizes,' when the fire-place is well, arranged, all
the essential conditions for effective ventilation, in. the 
ments or tenements occupied by the poorer classes.'-:: Thi
he admits however, will only answer. when the weather is -not
se vere. -- It'also.assumes, what in our towns now is: becoming
a rare thing; viz.: a  open fire-place. This last is replaced By
a stove, rormre generally still, by a register for the admission
-owarm air froi the air-chamber heated by the furnacebelow.
-One of the simplest, and at the same time. a most. entle
and efficient mode of entilation, isthe admission of exteal
air thrugh a perforated zinc plate, or fine wire gauze, whii
is to' replace.a pane of glass-in a window of the room:tobe:
ventilated.  The plate is -perforated with-"'290 holes to..he




116
Asqnaremeinch   It;,or the gauze wire, is generally introduced.in.the upper part of the window, and'in the place of the corner pane the farthest from the fire-place.  Instead of the
eontrivances just mentioned, the pane of glass might itself be
perforated.  The fine orifices prevent the air from coming in
itha rush, which would occasion. discomfort, and they tend
t- adiffse the air equally and gently through the apartment.
aught is' felt unless a person be seated immediately
d.e.-..' the window. - But the benefit is not limited to the intriduction of pure atmospheric air into the room. - There is,
Pa:ihe time, an interchange between it and the internal heated
a:gdi4rpure air, which thus finds vent and is carried off. The
inerchange takes place on the same principle with the diffionof vapors and gases, even though they differ from each
otherin temperature and specific gravity. It is in this way that
Jeays respirator acts, by mitigating the coldness of the:e::tea-e  air in its admixture. wihthe warm internal air, just
s:ap4inmg from the. lungs in respiration.;  The plan of ventila-.i now: described is recommended by its. simplicity and.its.eapness.. It is applicable to ordinary sleeping and sittingrooms,.in a privat  use,. as well as to shops, in which, owing
to t:'he..general absence of-an open chimney, or any other
means- of permanent communication with the external air, it
s- mo..re urgently required.  During the first winter in which
your reporter had charge of the men's wards of the COmmercial Hospital at Cincinnati, he caused gauze wire to be
substituted for a pane of glass, in every other window,' and:the effects were immediate and perceptible, both in a diminu-.tion, if not entire exclusion, of the unpleasant: odors which
p.evaded the wards, the ceilings of which were very low,';wd
wivch were heated by large -coal stoves in the centre of each
-ward.  On the following winter, the gauze wire was substitited for the pane of glass in the other windows of'the large
iyard, and with the best effects. At the conclusion of'his first




117
to:  of duty in thespring  his- colleagues in the Ohio Medical
College were pleased to compliment him on what they. termed
his successful practice in the Hospital. As statistical returns
were wanting, one could not attach much importance to this
favorable opinion: but if the patients could have spoken, they
would have expressed themselves in very decided terms, of
commendation of the plan: by which they could breathe with
some comfort, especially during the night, and obtain, at.the
same time, alleviation from the excitement and pains of fever
and. inflammation.
Another plan of ventilation still, based on the natural
movements of the air, without the aid either of mechanical
or chemical nieans, is by' an opening in the wall or ceiling
which leads to the external air, and which is protected by a
shield or disk, say two inches larger than the aperture.  The
external air, in impinging against the side of this shield, is
split up into a thin circular radiating sheet, and at a short
distance below, not more than two feet, a person cannot' feel
cold entering, nor can the hand detect a draught at eight or
ten' inches distance from the edge of the disk. The sheet of
air may be modified according to the di tance of the shield
from the aperture. A still farther precaution has been used
by Dr. Guy, who adopted this practice for admitting air,;
through a window-pane of glass. It is to have the sides of a
close-fitting shield perforated, and thus to have the air broken
into jets.  The plan of ventilation through openings with
shields ordisks before them, has been modified by Mr. Leather,
of Sheffield. He introduced it for supplying the day and bedrooms of the Eccleshall Bierlow Union Poor House with fresh
air, and, as he said, in his evidence before the English Commissioners for Inquiry, &c., so often referred to in this report,
it answers the purpose admirably.  An opening is to be
made in the outer wall, and a flue carried from it betweenthe
floor timbers, to the middle of the ceiling, where the air passes




1;18
into the room; in order -to prentthe current"  of air from
rushing downwards, the aperture in the ceiling is masked by
a large circular iron plate. The purpose of this has been
already explained. It is fixed.on a screw passing through its.centre, and by turning the plate round, the aperture may be
closed or opened, little or much, and the supply of air regulated
at pleasure.  Mr. Hosking, in his valuable -work on the
"Proper Regulation of Buildings in Towns," suggests
different'plans for ventilation.  One of the simplest, and
which comes under our present head, is by means of "opposite air-flues, or flues opening to the same apartment, in
opposite walls, the -flue on one side giving vent to the spent
air-at the highest level the room affords, and that on the
other side delivering fresh air at the same high level."  This
plan will go far to fulfill the indications previously stated by
Mr. H., viz.: the expulsion of foul air from apartments by
processes which act independently, and which cannot operate
offensively, as by cold draughts; and such processes must be
moreover inexpensive, to give them  any chance' of being
largely adopted. The plan just offered will be more complete
where there is a fire, whose place is arranged, and whose combustion is fed with air, in a manner previously described by
Mr. Hosking, so as to insure its own immunity from ignorant
interference, while it requires no manipulation that a'child:  not supply.'For the -details of his plan, by which the
fsh -air:from without is introduced behind and about ithe
ge or stove, and made to do the double duty of feeding: the
ieaand supplying the room for the purposes of respiration, I
m-st:refer those curious on the subject to the workitself.
The.:l an is very analogous to the one recommended long
before'by Franklin.  The air-syphon ventilator originating'with Dr. Chowne, is recommended by its simplicity and easy
use, and its adaptation to the general ventilation of'buildings,
of ships, and of mines; and if a little care were taken in pro



119
viding for its application in architectural designs, many useful
results, both in regard to artistic display.; and hienic com,
forts, would be realized.  The general principle  he air.syphon ventilator rests on the curious fact, that.    ube:of
the syphon shape be placed in a room with.the -lo-ng.. end
uppermost, a current of air will immediately play thiroughit,'
in the downward direction.of'the short, and in the upward
direction of the long, leg of the tube.  Another and still mo're
simple process of ventilation is that recommended by Dr.
Corwan.' It consists in simply bisecting all tubes or outlets
by which a current of air is desirable.- The bisecting consists
in,the introduction of a second tube within the first, so as to
allow space between the two.  If smoke is to ascend, it: will
be drawn up in a steady and rapid stream on one or other side
of the septum, and a downward current more -or lessactive".
will be established in the, other,  " Smoky chimneys, for
example,. with their legionary train of evils, and inconveniences,
would be impossible, were their spaces properly subdivided;
for no disproportion:in the. relative strength of either upward
or downward currents would.prevent their independent estab-.
lishment.  The short: andever-smokirg chimneys-. of small
tenements and upper chambers might thus be made efficient;
and in cases where bisecting the tube was impracticable, suspending a central tube would probably succeed. The pipings
of stoves, if so constructed, would be far more certain in their
action, while the downward draught could be easily converted
into an efficient bellows- for the fire."  Mr. Mcllennell, of
Glasgow, has constructed his patent ventilator on this system.
-It. consists mainly of air-tubes arranged concentrically, the
inner. discharging the vitiated air, while the fresh supply flows
down the outer tube..It is almost automatic in its action,
requiring little or no, attention in ordinary circumstances. —.It
removes. the air as it is vitiated, and supplies its place-.with
pure air in the exact amount required, in currents so gentle as
to be scarcely perceptible."




-120
Mr.. Roberton describes the mode of ventilation of the.hos.
pital at Bordeaux, whih is on the same principle as thatiadvo,
cated.by    Hosking. It consists in having isolated wards,
and the:  open to the air, from sideto side and from end to
end, by means- of long windows, so. that a current of air is
always passing through, in correspondence with the natural
laws of the atmosphere. In carrying out this, the natural plan
of ventilation, the perforated zinc or glass plates are most
useful.
-Under the head of mechanical or physical means of ventilation, come wind-sails, chiefly used-on board ship, the bellows
or pump, the fan and the screw. The fanner and screw may
be looked upon as modifications of the same instrument. All
these mechanical plans are described by Dr. Hutchinson,: in:
the Journal of Public Health, vol. ii. In this connection,
reference may be made to Dr. Arnott's' single ventilating
pump, his gasometer ventilating machine-in fact,. an airpump-also his double-current warming ventilation   In the
Niger expedition, the steamers were ventilated after a plan
proposed by Dr. Reid, which rested in the plenum and vacuum
principles. A fanner or ventilating machine was put,in motion either by the machinery of the steam-engine, or by the
"kroomen," or when in the rivers, the paddles being disconnected from the engine, by the paddles, themselves, which
acted as water-wheels. From the ventilator a series of tubes~
extended to all the compartments of the vesseL  When-the
fanner worked on the "''vacuum principle," the vitiated air
was drawn by it from the various compartments, and was discharged at an opening in the. circumference"'of the fan-box..When the."plenum princzple" was resorted to, the fresh external air was connected with the centre, and' blown into the
distribution tubes to the several compartments. By these
means it was hoped that, under any circumstances, freshair
might be infused into, or vitiated air extracted from, the hold,



121
or any part of the vessel. At some periods of the voyage, the
air was drawn through a medicator, with the intention of
removing carbonic acid, and of evolving chlorine.
Chemical Ventilation.-For nearly all useful purposes,
and as an agent, in some sort, always present, and readily
brought into play, heat is the most. efficient agent, and it is
that:which' gives rise to - chemical -ventilation.  In factthe
questions of warming and ventilating apartments are closely
related and, interwoven one with another.  There. can be'no'
ventilation:where there is no movement of air, and this move-'.
ment, apart from some mechanical contrivances of very'limit6d
use and power, is always imparted by heat; one portion:of airrarefied by heat, rising and being replaced by a cooler one,.
and so on. As long as.we. have a fire we have a' ventilator;
and when the difference between the temperature of a. roomior.
hall of any description, and that of the outer air, is noten..:h.
to cause an active movement of the air, or where this is mixed
with much watery vapor or gases, it is necessary to procure
the aid of artificial heat, or a fire, in order to give the requisite
movement to the (air, and thus insure ventilation.  With this
view a fire is'made in the upper part of the tower of a building'to- be ventilated, and flues are constructed to establisha!com:munication between the room.,or hall in which persons are
assembled, and the chimney of the fire-place, or a comm'ot
central flue contiguous to and heated by this fire. A few"
large::... gas-burners will answer the purpose of this last, and
with less- trouble to the attendants, and less risk to the build;
ing. The impure air is by this means drawn, as it were, from
the various rooms below, through the prepared apertures at the
upper part, or near the ceiling, and' passes along the flues
which-converge at the central flue, whence it finds itsway
into. the'open air, at such a height, and with such a rapidity
of movement, as to ins4re its diffusion. through the atmo-.




122
sphere, without its exerting anyinjurious effectse on the people
out- of doors, or, in - fact, without the possibility of its reaching
them. BBy methods of this kind, we could ventilate all places
in which people congregate for any length of time, as churches,
schools, and lecture-rooms, courts of justice, concert, and dancing-rooms, and theatres, or-in which a number of persons are
confined from infirmity or sickness, as in hospitals and.other'aylums, or for crimes, as in prisons. The ingress air, or that
from without, is to be introduced in quantity bearing. a relation to the number of persons assembled, and to the quantity
~of egress air through the discharging flues. When, however,
it is necessary to procure artificial warmth for the comfort of
t"he:parties assembled, in any of the ways just'mentioned,
then the heating apparatus will rarefy the air sufficiently to
insure, -after it has been used in respiration, its rising -and
being carried off by exit' flues opening into the external atmo-:
ssphere. These flues for egress air should be somewhat of a
~valvular form, because air, except under a powerful and: quick''motion, will, fiom any cause, regurgitate into the apartment:or hall, By the internal valve for egress air, we must be
understood to mean some valvular machine opening into a
heated chimney-flue, which may pass up the:side of the
chamber.  The internal valve is, therefore, chiefly applicable
to private rooms or buildings constructed on a similar system.
"More than sixty years ago, Franklin spoke of the advantages
ous:system of making a communication into a smoke-flue
near the ceiling of the wards of the Pennsylvania Hospital,
anId thatsuch -an opening, together with another in:each door
of the ward, made them all "perfectly. sweet."
The ventilating valve of Dr. Arnott has got into extensive
use, and when correctly fitted up, works well. It is placed
in -an opening made for the purpose from the room into'the.
chimneyflue, near the celig, by which -all the noxious air,
caused by the lreathing of persons in the room, the combus



12.3
tion of gas or other: bodies'for lighting, &c., is allowed at
once, in obedience to the chimney draught, to pass away;
but through which no air or smoke can return. The valve.is
a metallic flap to close the opening, balanced by a weight on an
arm behind the hinge. The weight may be screwed on its
arm to such a distance from the axis, or centre of motion,.
that it shall exactly counterpoise the flap; but if a little farther off, if will just preponderate, and keep the flap, when not
acted on by entering air, very softly in the closed position.
Although the valve, therefore,' be heavy and durable, a breath
of air suffices to remove it; which, if from the room, opens.
it, and if from the chimney closes -it; and when' no such force
interferes, it shuts.  The valve is so regulated originally, as
to settle always in the closed position. An important part of
the arrangement is the wire, whiclt descends like a bell-wire,
from a valve to a screw or peg fixed in the wall within the reach
of a person's hand, by acting on which the valve may be
either entirely closed, or left free to open in any desired degree.
In cold weather, or with few persons in the room, the valve,
when only opened a little, allows as much air to pass as is
requisite. - A flap of thirty-six square inches area is large
enough where there is a good chimney draught, for a fullsized sitting-room with company. It is essential for the successful working of this ventilating-valve, that the chimney
draught be uniform and good, so that no more air' shall enter
at the chimney-flue over the fire, than can' escape at the chim.
ney-pot above.  iVhere the room is warmed by a- stove or. by
furnace, there is less probability of any obstacle of thiskind
to, the chimney taking in air at the ventilating valve.
Mr. Ewart has constructed-a more simple, and it is alleged,
effective valve, than Dr. Arnott, for the small cost of a sum
not exceeding a dollar.  The valve is composed of oiled silk,:
on a frame, on. which are six large openings, admitting the
egress of air with great freedom. Very similar to this con



124
trivance, is one also suggested by Dr. Arnott.' It consists of
a square iron tube. of from three to six inches in -diameter,
and so long that the outer orifice shall be flush with the wall
of the apartment, and the inner one enter the chimney. These
tubes are usually from four to six inches in length. At the
orifice entering the room, there is either a plate of perforated zinc
or a piece of fine wire-work, from the upper and back part of
which hangs a piece of ordinary or oiled silk, which acts as a
valve, so as to allow the warm and vitiated air to pass up the
chimney, and to prevent any -smoke from entering the room.
The annoyance of a smoky chimney is removed by this
mechanism. When it is found necessary to close up the valve,
either upon lighting the fire, or in cold weather, or when a
room is first inhabited, or finally, if the chimney should be on
fire, a slide connected with the tube can be drawn up and
cover the whole aperture.
In constructing a house, Dr. Hutchinson recommends the
introduction of a sufficient flue for air. All chambers should
receive the air below the level of the head of the inhabitant,
and this air should be carried away at the highest point of
the chamber, in the ceiling or immediately below it. This
direction is not applicable to the flues through which heated
ingress air from furnaces, or analogous heating apparatus by
steam or hot water below, finds its entrance into a room. Its
-diffusion takes place without difficulty.  Supposing, -as is the
ease in summer, that no movement is communicated to the
air by internal heat, and no external supply is obtained by
heated air which had just come from the external atmosphere,
then must the ingress air be low down; and while entering it
should be dispersed or broken up into small streams'or thin
sheets, as previously recommended, so that no draught can be
felt by the inmate of the chamber. It is necessary that the
air should be admitted imperceptibly, and thus receive the
natural radiant heat of the chamber as quickly as possible.




125
Perforated floors were adopted by Dr. Reid,-in the  ouse-of
Commons; this again: being covered by hair clothso'Q that
the supply of air be broken up into small currents.  The oh..
jectiQns to this arrangement mere found to be, that the air not
only brought with it all'the'ist and dirtaiand taint from the
feet, but it was likewise'directed upon this part of the body,
thus increasing the discomfort of "cold feet," from Whi'ch
many persons suffer.  In large buildings, as churches, where.there is. generally underground convenience for directing'the
air. through some favorable. quarter below. the floor,' into the
body of the building, and that in particular spots, not near the
feet, as in the aisle, this system  of perforated floors may be
found to' answer.  In private rooms, there remains only the
side-wall for ingress- air, and the place recommended in.prference, is the top of the skirting board which surrounds:,,the
room.  But even here some of the objections occur which:.>
~t.ervene with the plan of perforated floors, viz., the escape "of
dust which would adhere to the borders of the slit, if not partially obstruct' it, and be. impelled at other times.into-. the
room by the draught of',the ingress.air.  This latter. may be
broken into a sheet-like form  by'other means, which have
been already mentioned.  Corresponding with the passage
round the lower part of the room for ingress air, and free from
the objections brought'against this, is another passage for the
egress air made by openings. just below the cornice, which
communicate with the external air, and are wide enough to.answer the desired purpose without interfering with the ornamental character of the cornice, or the general style- d.the
finest apartment.
Among, the latest and most valuable for.efficiency and'gene,ral applicbility, is the plan of ventilation of dwellingsa.And
other edifices, suggested and put in execution by Dr. J. H.- Gisgom, of New York.  It pertains to the " chemical A.eth:.e' motive power of the.air beig. heat, but rAquiring.:no



126
tra expenditure of fuel, the heat used for the pupose being
only the waste heat of the furnace by which the house- is
warmed. The arrangement consists in the construction of
independent ventilating flues?' the walls of the house, in
proximity to the hot-air tubes, so that the two may be connected together by means of a lateral or branch tube, by
which a current of hot air may, at any desired moment, be
transmitted from the hot-air,tube to the ventilating flue. By
this means the ventilating flues, which terminate in the open
air like an ordinary chimney, will be warmed by the hot air
from the furnace, when the ordinary hot-air register is closed,
as at night in a dwelling, or in a school-house after school
hours.
If properly constructed, of brick, or smooth stone, the walls
of a flue will, after a current of hot air has passed through it
a short time, become sufficiently: heated to rarefy the air within; thus giving the, flue a good ventilating power, even after
the current of hot air has been withdrawn.  For example, if
the hot-air register of a parlor be closed at ten o'clock at night,
and the heat, instead of being thrown back into the furnace,
is allowed to pass through the lateral tube into the ventilating
flue, and so continue till six the next morning, it is evident
that, during those eight hours, the interior of the ventilating
flue must -become thoroughly: heated, so that the next day,
when the current of hot air is restored to the parlor,, the heated
sides of the ventilating flue will continue to rarefy the air
within them for many hours, and perhaps even days, afterwards.
There being no danger of a reaction of the air of the flue
through the ventilating register (as is the case when ventilating
openings are made in ordinary fire-flues), connections:with
the apartment to be ventilated maybe made at'any point, and
even carried to the opposite side of the house, between the
beams of the ceiling, to ventilate distant apartments. Dr.




G.iscm's. m method:has. the advantage' of being applicable.to
aU edifices warmed:by hot-air furnaces of any:descrip,
which, in general, are those most needing ventilation. This
arrangement may be introduced into many houses already
erected, by'connecting the hot-air tubes with such. of the
ordinary chimney-flues as are not used with fire.
One of the principal advantages apperfaining to this. plan,
is the capability of having a large number of ventilating flues:
put in connection with the furnace. In fact, the number may
correspond -with the number of hot-air registers, and thus any
desirable amount and extent of ventilation be obtained.'Ventilation of Schools.-Happily: we can now speak-of.a
marked reform in this matter, which began in Boston, and prom-'
ises to spread to other and remoteaplaces. A committee, consisting'of Dr. Henry G. Clark, E. G. Loring, Esq., and the Rev.
Charles Brooks, under an appointment of the School Committee
of Boston, to inquire into the subject of the ventilation of schoolhouses, and to indicate'.the means of remedying defects,.'reported, after the successful performance of their task, that the'
grammar school-houses were.then in a better condition, in respect to their ventilation, than any other public schools in the'!world. The first-named gentleman of the Committee, whoiis
our- colleague on the present occasion, was mainly instrumental
by his ingenuity and perseverance, in bringing about these
improvements. In Philadelphia and other cities, many of-the.
public schools received the benefit' of the visits and:reforma
tory suggestions of -the, Boston Committee.  Statues:-ha:
been..reared, and other: honors. conferred, for much less services
than were rendered by these gentlemen.  They ought to: have
received at least an' ovation from the grateful chi.dren. and
teachers. in -the public schools.  Commendatory reference may
be. made at this time to the very useful volume of Mr. Henry
Barnard on School Architecture in the United States.  From




1-28
-e 142 to page 165, 2d edition, the reader wi:llnd   tiedetails on the subject of warming and ventilaig'shools
and other public buildings.  Among the apparatsf:   for:the
purpose, Chilson's furnace and ventilating stove, and'also
Emerson's ejecting and injecting ventilators, are noticed in
terms of commendation, such as had been previously bestowed
on them by the Committee.  Mr.. Emerson very properly insists on.the admission of warm air into a school-room, as indispensable to. its proper ventilation; and he enforces..'his
views on'this point, by refusing to allow his ventilators to be
put up in any school-house that is not, by. some means, supplied with fresh warmed air.  He objects, like most people
who have attended to the subject, to the use of all such stoves
and furnaces as emit their heat through and from.. red-hot iron;
and he- recommends what large experience sanctions, that
whenanthracite coal is used, the stove or furnace in which it
is burned be lined with brick or stone.
The great and crying iieglect.of external venitilation in
nearly all the schools, both public and private, in cities, tells
heavily on the health of their inmates.  No adequate, and in
most cases, no space at all is allowed'for the children to obtain fresh air, and to engage in:healthful exercise and sports
during the hours of recess from study. Not only are out-door
exercises imperatively' demanded for the purposes of full respiratory'effect by expansion of the chest, but also of allowing
thebody to receive its erectposture,:and the limbs their'free
play, all of which is prevented  en      children are, seated,
and leaning over a'table-' or desk.
Ventilation of- Hospital. —It has been well remarked
y the: French authors (MM. Montfalcon and Polini re) of
a- work. already cited-a Treatise on" the Health' of' Great
Cities-that the more numerous and diversified are the
causes of vitiated air in a hospital, the greater is the neces



129
siyt for vigilance in obviating its- oentrence.  tvery patient
ought,-these gentlemen think,,to have at least three hundried
cubic -inches of pure air per hour at his disposal; and every
ward of a hospital so well tetilated, that the most -delicate
sense of smell. could not detect any unpleasant odor; and
finally, the temperature -.should be always- kept at 600 F.
Ameliorating influences, to the extent, in some instances,- of
entire reform of old abuses, are now at work in the ventilation
of hospitals and benevolent and charitable asylums of all kinds.
This is more particularly observable in the asylums for the:insane, some valuable suggestions and improvements in the interior'ecnomy of which- have been manle of late years'bytheir medical superintendents.  At their meeting in Utica, 1n
1849, they declared it to be their unanimous opinion, "that:
the experiments recently made in various institutions'in this
country and elsewhere, prove- that the best means of supplying warmth in winter, at present known to them, consist in
passing fresh air from the external- atmosphere over pipes or
plates, containing Steam at a low pressure, or water, the tem.
perature of which in the boiler does not exceed 212~ F., and
placed; in. large air-chambers in the basement or cellar of the,
building to be heated."  These gentlemen also declared "that
a complete system of fixed veatilation was absolutely indiapensable in every institution, like hospitals, for the ordinary
sick or insane, and where all possible benefits are sought: to
be derived from these arrangements;- and, "that no expense
that is required to effect these objects thoroughly, can.be
deemed either misplaced or injudicious."
The. union of mechanical, with chemical means of ventilation of. hospitals; has: been- recommended. A  small power
would be' siufficient to abstract the air rendered heavy by the
carbonic acid, which is accidentally diffused in consequence
of being condensed before it arrives at the ventilating tubes;
This might be done by means of a ventilator on the bellows
9




130
plan, similar to that adopted by. Hales, or the still more.sim
ple one, the exhausting, air-pump of John Taylor, for the
ventilation "of coal mines, -which is worked by a:;regulated
power on the principle of clock-work, and with the addition of
an. apparatus for opening the valves.  "The expense of labor
to raise a weight every day to keep it in constant action,
would be," Tredgold thinks, "much less than the expense of
fuel and attention to produce the same effect by fire, the action
being more certain. To produce the effect we desire, the best
plan seems to be to have open gratings in various parts of the
i passages, with tubes from each to the place of the ventilator;
-and the gratings fight be provided with slides, so that the
action might be confined more to particular parts, -as occasion
might require."  Another important part of the ventilation of
hospitals is that of the water-closets.  An effectual plan for
attaining this end is to connect a flue at one end with the descending pipe of the basin, or with the well below, and at
another end with the chimney of a fire that is constantly kept
up. Even where the water-closet pipe empties into a cess-pool
privy below, this arrangement is, as we know from actual experience during a period of seventeen years, quite successful;
even in a case in which, although water is introduced by a
pipe and stop-cock into the'basin of the water-closet,.yet there
is no addition of a trap or: syphon. It is necessary for the
proper effect of this plan, -that the lids of the privy, below. be
kept down, otherwise there will bexan upward and offensive
current of air from the cess-pool, interfering with the draft from
this into the chimney, as just described
At this present time two novel' systems of warming.and ventilation seem to divide scientific opinion and support in Paris.
The one is by Mi. IDuvoir, the advantages'of which are said
to be: 1st. That it'insures free ventilation; 2d. That'it warms
and ventilates at the same-time; 3d. That'it is cleanly and
inexpensive; 4th. That in hospital wards, where the emana



tions from the sick are offensive and pernicious, such.- ema
nations can be borne away, directly from above downwards,
by having the upper opening in the ventilating shafts:in
each ward closed, and the lower one open.. The wards are
thus constantly swept clean of all hurtful gaseous products.
Among other public buildings is the " Hospital de' Lariboiire," to which the system of M. Duvoir has been applied.
Strong testimony is borne by distinguished judges of the value
of its action and of-its successful application.*  The second
apparatus for warming and ventilation, is that contrived
by Van Hecke.   The apparatus for heating the, men's
wards at the Neckar Hospital, consists of three furnaces in a
cellar, which heat air that is distributed by flues to the hospital.! The quantity of air heated is considerable, and hence
it need not be raised to a high temperature: this, when epter-.ing the wards, is not -more than 86~ to 95~ Fah. It acquires
the proper humidity by passing over contiguous reservoirs of
water.  The ventilation is procured by the agency of a small
steam-engine placed in the cellar, but its boiler- in a suitable
place outside the building, which sets in maitn a ventilator,
that derives its pure air from the garden, and~ injects it into a
strong suction-pipe placed under ground, and running the
length of the entire building.  This chief pipe is divided into
secondary ones, which convey the air to the furnaces, and
thence into the wards situated on different stories. The air
enters into the wards in large sections, and without producing
sensible currents.  The impure and vitiated air escapes by
flues, which convey it dut above the roof.  This system may
be defined to be, warming the hospital wards by means of
three furnaces; mechanical ventilation by propulsion; complete appropriation of the steam vapor, which, after- doing its
first duty in the engine, is employed to meet the necessary
wants of the patients, such as baths and washing.  The yen* Sanitary Review, vol iL pp. 423-4.




tfilatbg. r atus propels from sixty to one hundred and tiwenty.' cubic inches of pure air hourly for each bed. Registers
allow of the' diminution of the. amount of warm aix brought
by the different flues.
Factory~ Fentilation.. —Were we to speak of the bodily ills
from factory labor, as arising in part from defective ventilation, we should be met by the counter opinions of Drs. Ure,
Thackrah, and W. Cooke Taylor, in England, and MM.  Vilierm6, and Benoisten-Chateauneif; in France.  Dr. Ure contends that, from  the very nature of the machinery used in
cotton mills, it is impossible to crowd the operatives, and
especially thosei nine-tenths of them  children, who tend
the'open-spurred mules.  As respects the growth and develpment: of persons engaged in factory employments, Sir
David Barry, in his Factory Commission Report, relates, as the
results of personal oqbservation, that many of the girls were
beautifully formed, who: had been from ten years to maturity.
in the mills,  On the subject of ventilation, M. Villerm4
states distinct, after a careful calculation of data, that' the
great-body of thme employed in the cotton mills have a better
supply of air at:their work than at their homes, and better,
alsq, than great numbers of other classes of work-people. Dr.
W. Cooke Taylor says: " I would be very well contented to
have as large. a proportion of room and air in my own study,
as a: cotton spinner;in any of the mills in Lancashire! "  We
must look then, it would seem, for the causes of the greater
proportionate mortality among the manufacturing than among
the agricultural population, to, the confined lodgings and
crowding in the parts of the town in which the former sleep
ad spend. the time not given to work, and to the want of
andant nutriment, and also in a large number, to habits of
intemperance.  There are, however, some. facts recorded
which might serve to qualify the favorable opinions of factory
life. Thus, for insta-nce, fewer.recruits of the proper strength




133
and staiture.for militairy servie are obtainable now.-thAn 1hei' -
tofore from Manchester. Again: a corps levied from:-ihe
agricultural districts in Wales, or the northern counties of
England, will last longer than one recruited from the manufacturing towns, as fi'rom Bimingham and Manchester, or near
the metropolis.
All classes might turn to useful account, for the purposes
of ventilating both the rooms in -their own houses and the
larger ones in public buildings, the presence of artificial lights,
especially those furnished by gas. A truncated cone of zinc,
the upper part of which is narrower than that of an ordinary
gas-shade, and resting, like the latter, over the burner, will be
perforated near its upper border by one end of a tube of Zinc,
which will at the other end be carried through the outer wall,
or else into a chimney, and thus be a conductor for the air of
the room rendered impure by the combustion of the gas and
the breathing of persons in the room. This mode of ventila
tion is particularly called for in small rooms or shops in which
the air soon becomes contaminated, and exerts a:noxious
effect: on those employed in them. There is one instance of
an exit- tube for gas, so elegant that it would grace any
drawing-room, applicable for the lights over the mantel-piee
at each side of the looking-glass, introduced by Prof. FaradaT.
Dr. Hutchinson makes an observation which will be consoling to those of us who encroach on the midnight hour
while engaged in the labots of the desk,  "It is an error,"
he tells us, "to suppose that gas is more injurious to the constitution than. candles  scientifically the common ieans of
lighting, whether by candles, oil, or eamnphene, are all: gaslights, The work of a gas company is to take from the coal
a certain product, and send it to our houses for combustion;
when we burn the candle, &c., &c., we do in the sitting-rooi
the work of the gas c6mpany, taking from the material thi
same product-which the gas company sentds to us in pi6pe;




'therefore, if there is any difference, it is in favor of gaslights."
Ventilation, of Sewers.-This is done, first, by air-shafts,
and gratings over them, at certain distances from each other,
which permit the escape of the emanations from the sewer
below into the atmosphere;: 2d, by establishing a communication between the: sewers and the rain-water spouts of the
houses; but it is necessary to trap these latter, for, otherwise,
they might allow of the escape of the foul air into the windows
of sleeping-rooms. A common. method in Paris is to allow of
the escape of the foul air of the sewer through lofty shafts or
chimneys, so that it shall be disseminated at a height which
would prevent its annoying the people in the streets, and the
inhabitants of houses of ordinary elevation. These shafts are
placed, as much as'possible, in the least frequented parts of
the city; but even then the air escaping from them:is a
source of more or less annoyance.  Sometimes fires are made
in these chimneys,- and. thus a strong upward draft is-pro-cured, and a large amount of gases extracted. A simpler and
more economical plan,'is to connect -the sewers with the furnaces or chimneys in large manufactories. The only drawback
to -a measure of this kind' is the occasional risk of sewer gases
exploding when subjected to flame.
As ventilation is a means of purification of sewers, a remark
may be here made opportunely, that water is, the best purifier,
by/its diluting the sewage and accelerating its onward progress; and.hence the freer and bolder the flushing, and the
more frequently water is introduced into:the sewer, the less
occasion will there be for ventilation.  In Paris the gutters and
sewers are flushed daily with water from  the hydrants,, 24
hours in the morning, and the same length of time in the afternoon.  With an adequate' supply of- water, and the:impetus
derived from the height of the reservoirs of supply, there is no




135
necessity for this system of flushing, if the water which passes
through each house as waste be turned into drains, both private and public. Mr. G. Gurney reported, four years ago, to
the Office of Works in London, a successful experiment which
he had-made for removing or destroying the effluvia- of sewers.
He accomplished this object by means of the steam jet, which
produces a current through the sewer and conveyed with it the
noxious exhalations which are then decomposed and rendered
harmless by their being made to pass through a coke fireas
they are drawn off. The -objection to the frequent use of the
steam jet in the same sewer would be the disintegration of the
mortar, and action on the surface of the bricks on the inside of
the culvert.
SUPPLY OF WATER.-One can hardly overrate the importance of a full supply-of pure water to meet the requirements
of health, whether we look to the individual or to the congregated numbers in cities and populous districts. Water, in an
average state of purity, is indispensable for digestion and the
elaboration of good blood, as, on the contrary, if it be hard,
and contaminated with vegetable or animal matters, it perpetually disorders digestion, and gives rise to the innumerable
secondary affections of the kidneys, skin, and nervous system,
and an impairment of bodily strength and activity. Next to
its importance as a drink is its use for culinary purposes; and,
after this, bathing and preserving, due personal cleanliness,
and thus -enabling the skin to perform its important functions,
which are so necessary to the feeling and the possession:of
health. Closely, almost inseparably, connected with its usefilness in this way, is its paramount office in the washing of
our garments and household linen. In the house itself it.is
impossible to remove, without the aid of water, the deposit of
dust and fine ashes that arise-from smoke, and the air andgases given out in respiration. As a means of preserving public health, which is but a collective term for that of the indi



vWduals who constitute:the public, water ranks next to a'
Unless it be o'btained.in abundance,-there capnot be elea:streets, nor can either scavenging, by removal of surface-refuse,
or isewerage, by carrying off through underground conduits
this refuse and exuviam of all kinds, be properly performed.
-The Report of the Commissioners on the Health of Towns,
made about fifteen years ago, revealed a sad deficiency of
water supply in nearly all the cities and burghs of England.
Only twenty-six out of the fifty towns in which their invesgations extended, were supplied with water, under the provisions of any act of Parliament.  Even'in these the supply was
very deficient, and in many of them it only extended to a part
of the town; the poorest and most populous portions receiving
from it little or no benefit. At Birmingham, only8,000 out
of 40,000 houses are stated to have been separately supplied;
and at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where the Cholera made its first
attack in 1831, it was stated that the company supplied about
one-twelfth of the'dwelling-houses, and that very few of these
had either tanks or tubs. In Bristol, containing, with Clifton,
upwards of 100,000 inhabitants, not more than 5,000' perg t e m      e...
sons,.constituting the -most wealthy families, are supplied
with- water by pipes'laid into their houses; the- remainder
were dependent on public and private wells.
In contrast with these deficiencies, and extravagant prices
the poor pay for water in many places, is its abundance in
other towns, as Nottingham and Preston, for example. In the
former, the supply amounts to 40 gallons per diem to each
family; and in the latter, to 45 gallons. The intermittent supply of water at certain points in a city is reprehensible, both
on the score of time and morals, not to speak of the confusion
and; quarreling in the crowd of persons collected round the
water-stands. It cannot be said of our chief cities, Boston,
INew York, Philadelphia, &c., as it was by the Commissioners
when speaking of the defective supply of water to the poor in



hal-.aitns:of so many of the English towns: " The present dif
ficulty, and the'labor, after a hard days work, of obtaining
water, have a very great effect on their economy, their habits,
and their health.- The obstacles to the maintenance of domes:tic or personal cleanliness soon produce habits of personal carelessness, which rapidly lower both the moral and physical Condition of the whole:population.:"
The following is an estimate of the average consumption of
water, per head, in some of the chief cities, including not only
what is drunk, but what is consumed per?liem in domestic
and manufacturing purposes, also for baths, stables, gardens,
washing the streets, extinguishing fires, &c. By an inhabit-.
ant:'of Paris, 2} gallons; of London, 20; ofPhiladelphia, 30;
of New York, 40; of Boston, 43; of Edinburgh, 19; of Glasgow, 27; of Vienna, Constantinople, and Montpelier, in
France, 15; in all France, 5 gallons.
Various means, on a large scale, have, been adopted' to correct the impurities of water destined for the- supply of great
cities.  These consist chiefly in filtration through gravel, sand,
and'charcoal.  Boiling the water, by destroying the animal and
vegetable matter which river and rain-water so generally contain, destroys the taste and odor dependent on this cause.;
but recourse to such a process cannot form a part of public,
however useful it may be in private, hygiene.  Boiling also
precipitates some of the earths which were united with carbonic acid; but the neutral saline contents of the water still -remain; arind hence it retains the peculiar flavor which' was
owing to this cause.
The saving, in the less wear and tear of clothes, and in the a-.
tides of soap and soda, by the use of soft water in the place of
hard, is very great.  In London, for example, the cost of soap
used per annum is estimated -at upwards of five millionsof
dollars.




138
Water in Leaden Cisterns and, Pipes.-A common cause
of the. deterioration of the purity of water arises from the mode
of transmitting it from the reservoirs and main pipes to. dwelling-houses in leaden pipes, for the purposes of domestic economy. It sounds paradoxical to say, and yet the assertion -is
quite true, that the purer the water, as respects its freedom
from saline impregnation, the greater is the danger of its acting
on the lead, and converting a portion of it into a salt which is
there held in solution. When we speak of pure water, we suppose it to contain carbonic acid, by which its solvent power is
greatly increased.  Hence rain-water readily acquires an impregnation of lead from roofs,'gutters, cisterns, or pipes made
of this metal.  The saline substances, on the other hand, found
in spring and river water, impair the corrosive action of
water and air, and thus exert a protecting power.  Of these,
the carbonates and sulphates are the most powerful; the
chlorides or muriates the least so. Dr. Taylor believes that if
the sulphate'of lime forms only the five-thousandth part of
water, no carbonate of lead'is formed; and this salt dissolved
in the, above, or in larger proportion, in distilled water, will
still confer in it the properties possessed by river water.
Dr. Dana, who doubts the protecting property of the salts
of lime, suggests that the changes in the lead is produced by
a galvanic action between it and iron, which may be developed
by very: slight difference in the state of the,lead, as where the
soldering is with the usual mixture of this latter and the more
fusible metals. Dr. Dana proposes, as substitutes for leaden
pipes in the conveying of water: "1. Wood wherever it can be
used; 2. Cast iron or wrought iron tubes; 3. Copper, protected by pure tin.  The use of all other metals, or alloys of
these, in the present state of our knowledge and experience in
these objects, ought forthwith to be abandoned."  Dr. Christison,speaks of an "-effectual remedy" which has been lately introduced by a patent invention for covering lead pipes, both




139
externally and internally, with a thin coating of tin.  Litflein~
convenience can result from the use of leaden pipes where:the
water flows through them by hydraulic pressure, as they can
be speedily emptied before using the water which comes fromthe larger iron pipes beyond them. It is only in cases of slow
entrance, and retention for some time of water in leaden pipes:
and cisterns, that the question just discussed becomes a practical one, affecting the public health,
EFFECTS OF BAD WATER FOR' DRINK.-Favored, as the inhabitants of most of our large cities are, in an abundant supply
of pure water furnished to them, they are beginning to forget
that they ever drank that which was bad, and cannot realize
fully the disastrous consequences of the habitual use of such a"
fluid.  Generally, however, people are more easily led to believe, even if they are not themselves fully sensible of the f theact,
that bad water is injurious to the health than that the air
which they often breathe over and over again is a poison.:
One of the first sanitary.measures of a growing and thriving
population is to procure for themselves a suitable supply of
good water.  All the people of antiquity were alive to this fact.,
The means on a large scale adopted for the purpose both in
Rome and Carthage have been referred to in this report.  Itis:
not necessary for me to enlarge on this point, and I proceed to
mention, as a warning to-allyoung cities, the evils from using
bad water, and as an incentive for them to take measures to procure that which is good. When this, our natural beverage; is
impure, it proves to be a cause of protracted ailments in ordinary seasons, and in those of epidemic visitations it acts as a-directly exciting cause of disease' and death. In marshy regions,;
in which periodical fevers abound, water is deemed by some,
on good evidence, to be as actively a contributing cause as the
bad air itself.  But its malignancy has been particularly conspicuous in the production of Cholera; Dr. Lankester, in describing the three kinds of water drunk by the inhabitants




.140
of Lodon, v.:h 1, that of'the Thames anwd New -River; 2,
tht of deep wells, 150 feet for example, below the:suface 
and 8dly, the surface well-waters, points out the fact that
these last contain organic matters "'of precisely the same na-:trTe -a those found n rivers, which are the receptacles of house
sewetage and saline matters, common salt, ammonia, the phosphat'es, nitric acid, &c., all indicative of animal excretion.
Carbonic acid is largely present in these surface-waters, and
from the pleasant drinking qualities it imparts to them, actually makes the more impure waters the most popular, and the:most dangerous."  Dr. Liddle, Officer of Health to the White
Chapel District, relates the following incidents: -"In a street
at Salford, containing ninety houses, 2S deaths from Cholera
occurred in thirty of these houses, the inhabitants of which
drank water from a well into which a sewer had leaked;'i
the remaining sixty houses, where pure water was drunk, there
were 11 cases of diarrhcea only, and no deaths."*
Ai gigantic experiment, as Mr. Simon calls it, was made involuntarily and in ignorance by the parties who so largely suffered under it, in its -progress during two epidemics in the
southern districts of London.  It is related as follows:
"These districts (comprising nearly a fifth of the population of
the Metropolis) have been notorious for the great severity with which
Cholera has visited them.... Throughout these districts, during the
epidemics of 1853-4, there were distributed two different qualities
of. water; so that one large population was drinking a tolerably
good water, another large population an exceedingly foul water;
while in all other respects these two populations (being intermixed
in  the same districts, and even in the same streets of these district1)
were living under precisely similar social and sanitary circumstanceo.
hAnd when, at the end of the epidemic period, the death-rates of
these populations were compared, it was found that the Cholera mortality in the houses supplied by the bad water had been three and
a half times as great as in the houses sup-plied by the better water,
* British and Foreign Med.-Chir. Rev., Jan. 1859.




:Sh. proof of.. th  fita:  -.influeanc  of foul water w   rendered
still s.tronger; by reference. to what. had occurred in the epidec of
1848-9.  For on that occasion the circumstances of the tw.vo popu
lations.were to some extent reversed. That company which, during
the later epidemic, gave the better water, had given,, during.,the
earlier epidemic, even a worse water than its rival's; and the popul
lation supplied by it had at that time suffered a proportionate
cholera mortality.  So that the consequence of an improvement
made by this water-company in the interval between the two
epidemics was, that whereas, in the epidemic of 1848-9 there had
died 1925 of their tenants, there died in the epidemic of 1853-4Qnly 611; while among the tenants of the rival company (whose
supply between the two-epidemics had been worse insteadtf better)
the deaths which in. 1848-9 were: 28-8.0, had in 1853-4 increased
to 347 6. And when these, numbers are made proportionate:to the
populations or tenantries concerned.in the two periods respeeti.vely,
it.is found. that the cholera d.ath-rates per 10,000 tenants of: the
companies were about as follows: for those who in 1848-9 drank
the worse water, 125; for their neighbors, who in the same epidemic drank a water somewhat less impure, 118; for those who in
1853-4 drank the worst water which had been supplied, 13Q,; for
thhose who- in this epidemic drank a comparatively clear water,'3'7.
The -quality-of' water which (as is illustratedi in the first three: of
these. numbers) has produced such fatal results in the metropolis
causing two?-thirds, of the cholera deaths- in thoseo parts of London
which-have most s.everely suffered from the disease,, has been: riverwater. polluted by town drainage-water pumpedfrom the. Thames
within range of the- sewage of London-water which, according to
the. concurrent testimony of chemical and,microscopical observers
was; abundantly: charged with matters in-. course of ptutrefactive
change."  (Mr. Simon's. "Report," p. 14.)
Dr. Sutherland, in his report to the General Board of
Health onl the cholera epidemic of 1849, says, that the injurious
effects of unwholesome water, had been manifest'in nearlyevery affected plae;- and adds, that a number of most severe
andI fital outbursts of Cholera were. referable to no other cause




'142
except the state of the water-supply, and this especially where.it -had been obtained -from wells into which the contents of
sewers, privies, or the drainage of grave-yards had escaped.
Since that time much additional evidence of a confirmatory
character has been collected.  Two examples are recorded by
Dr. Acland, in his valuable and interesting "Memoir on the
Cholera in Oxford "-the parish of St. Clements, which suffered. a large mortality in 1832, when the inhabitants had
filthy water from a sewer-receiving stream, and an insignificant
mortality in 1849 and 1854, when the water was derived
from a purer source. The other case is that of the county
Jail, in'4hich cases have occurred in every epidemic, whilst
the city jail, which is not far from the other, has uniformly
escaped. The only apparent difference between the two establishments in 1854, seems to have been that the supply of
water for the use of the county jail, and of which the soup
and gruel were made, was pumped from a filthy well-pool,
within ten feet of one'of the prison drains. No sooner were
the supply-pipes disconnected with.this impure source, than
Cholera and Diarrhoea ceased. It appears from anelaborate
inquiry by the General Board of Health, at the close of the
cholera epidemic of 1854, that the contrasted effects of the
disease on the people of two large sections of:the population,
-are:only explicable by the fact that one division, comprising
a population of about 268,171 persons, drank impure water;
whilst the other, numbering about 166,906 persons, used a
clearer, and comparatively pure water.  The two classes
resided in the same localities, breathed the same atmosphere,
comprehended the same classes, and averaging the same
habits of life; in short, placed in circumstances nearly identical, saving the difference in the source whence they obtained
their water for drink. The mortality from Cholera among the
drinkers of.impure water-of water impregnated with the
sewage of the metropolis, and containing in solhtion a large




143.
antity of saline matter, derived from  the intermixture of
sea-water —being at the rate of 130 to every 10,000; that.of
the drinkers of the pure water being only at the rate'of 37 to
every 10,000 persons living.*
In the report on Epidemic Cholera in London, in 1854, by
Dr. Sutherland, much interesting information is afforded on
the influence of water upon the spread of the disease.'The
-deduction from the microscopical.and chemical examination of.the.water used in the, houses and neighborhoods where:the
disease was most prevalent, by Dr. Hassall, was: "That
there is no water supplied to the metropolis that does not!.
contain. dead and living organic matter, animal:and vegetable.
But the Thames  Ditton water, supplied.by the'Lambeth
Company, is by much the purest of the waters, while:the
Southwark and Vauxhall water is one of the worst, and-the
waters- of. the other companies might be arrayed in a series
between these two."  From  an inquiry instituted- by. the
Registrar-General, the following results appear: "In 26,107
houses that derived the water from Ditton, 313 deaths from'.Cholera occurred in ten weeks.. In the. 40,046'houses that
received the impure. water from Battersea, 2445 persons, it
was ascertained, died from Cholera in the'same time.' T'he
deaths in the latter districts exceeded by nearly 2000 the
deaths that would have occurred if Cholera had only been as
fatal as it was. in the houses that derived their. water from
Ditton."  Dr. Sutherland makes the following remarks upon
these results: " When it is considered that the sanitary condition of'the population does not materially differ, except in
the quality of the water.supplied by the two companies,'.it is.
difficult to resist this statistical evidence of the predisposing
effect of the Battersea water,' and of the loss of life which has
arisen from its use.t
* British and Foreign Med.-Chir. Rev., January, 1857.' Ibid. July, -1855.




The deleterious effects of impure water are not see in
cities- or large towns-alone; they occur in small: villages, sometimes in: the solitary farm-house-any place, in fine, in which
the pump or draw-well is: in the midst of a farm-yard or filthy
court;'receiving the surface-drainage of heaps of stable manure, pig-sties, &c. How often do we notice, says Dr. W. J.
Cox, green, slimy, stagnant pools, in the close vicinity, and
affor'ding the sole water-supply, of cottages.  Such a state of
things does not often occur in this country; but in too many
instances there is a neglect to obtain an adequate supply of
pure water, the penalty is paid in the frequent ocurrence of
bowel-complaint, and the sudden inroads of epidemic cholera,
which makes its attacks without any other apparent provocation, In the: new settlements -of the West, the enterprising
pioneer and his family often pay- a tax in the shape of disease,
and not: seldom of life itself, from the use of badt water or: its
imperfect supply; and in new towns other schemes of improvement are tried, before sanitary measures, both for present and
future protection, such as paving, drainage, and a supply of
good potable water, are thought of.
Dr. Cox tells us, that water tainted -with various organic
matters, whether gaseous, as carbide or sulphide of hydrogen,
or solid, as putrescent vegetable fibre, or vitalized, as algae,
conferve, hydre,. fungi, infusoria, &c.-is a very frequent
cause of severe visitations of bowel complaints during the
summer months.  Several instances came under his own observation, in 1853 and 1854, of the aggravation of epidemic
diarrhoea from this cause.  "That water falling on a growing
soil, and running off to lie in stagnant pools, is sure to become
tainted with animal and vegetable life, is well known; and
when to:this is supperadded the circumstances of the said soil
being highly charged with effete organic products, the water
thus collected'must necessarily be highly impure, and most
unfit for human consumption.  Yet very often- it forms the




145
only available source of supply."  Dr. Cox alludes to epidemic -carlatina siml1e.,6 showing itself in a small agricultural village in the west of England, in August, 1856.  Ther.e
occurred in all'thirty-eight cases, chiefly among the peasantry, wheref -three proved fatal.'Two of these were in one
house, the residence -of a wealthy farmer.  Here the disease
changed its character, assuming the worst asthenic type, with
intense throat-affection, and, as is so-frequently the case, defying all treatment.  The persons attacked were a servant
girl and three children, the two -oldest of the latter of whom
died.  The younger child and the servant girl recovered with
some difficulty. The probable cause of the malignity and fatality of the disease in this family was its bad water-supply.
It was derived from a shallow draw-well in the back-yard,
imperfectly covered, surrounded by heaps' of decomposing
manure and cow-sheds, the black drainings from which were
constantly flowing over the soiL  Dr. Cox examined the
water from this well on two occasions, before and after heavy
rains.  The first analysis showed sixty grains of solid matter
(chiefly nitrates) in the gallon, of which five grains were undecomposed organic matter.  Te second analysis (after the
rain) gave the enormous amount of between seven and eight
grains of organic matter. The rest of the village derived its
chief supply of water from a good-public well, situated at a
little distance in a large field, and properly covered from the,
weather.
Water tainted with putrid contents iends into the air. a
much larger quantity of noxious organic. matter than it receives from the air.  If we take the Thames river, for an
example, where it flows through London, it has been calculated that 4,0000000 of gallons of water rise daily, in the form
of vapor, from the surface of the river within the city limi'tcarrying with it into the atmosphere some; portion. of'he
putrid contents of the river.
10




:146
INTEMPERANCE. —The transition is easy from one noxious
drink to another-from bad water (nature perverted) to alcoholidcliquors:(art perverted)-viewed as the cause of so much
intemperance and disease, under a great variety of aspects.
As a question of public health it comes necessarily under our
notice, and as such alone it can be studied here.  We are not
called upon to arbitrate between the two doctrinal extremes
in regar4 to the dietetic usage of this class of drinks, but simply to look at things as we find them, and, as in the case of
any other form of physical evil afflicting a fellow-creature,
either standing by itself, or implicating at the same time the
moral and intellectual faculties, to limit, if possible, its diffasion, and to find means for its prevention.  The first of these
objects aimed at, is done by legislative enactments, enforced
by suitable penalties; the second, or preventive, is more
certainly brought about by individual will, aided by, and at
the same time aiding, voluntary association with others.
Everywhere drunkards, or, as they are usually called, the intemperate, which is the more correct term of designation, are
among the first victims of etjidemic, and also contagious febrile
diseases.  They are more readily attacked, and more readily
sink under disease, than any other class of persons.  "The
pernicious effects of intemperance, in predisposing to the disease [cholera], have been recognized by all writers, -in the
East Indies as well as the different countries of Europe.
What, then, must have been the mischief done by thisidebasing and life-destroying sin in a country like ours [England],
where it has been computed that upwards of twenty milnions
of sterling are annually spent upon ardent spirits, alone?"*
The value of temperate habits among the poor, in prolonging life and diminishing sickness, has been exhibited in the
comparison of temperance provident societies with other
societies. The Teetotal Society in Preston (of which how* Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev., vol. vii. p. 33.




147
ever, the numbers are rather small for the purpose of any
general deduction), presents, as we learn from the sanitary
report of the Rev. Mr. Clay, not merely the smallest proportion- of sick, but it also suffers the shortest average duration
of illness.  The annual mortality in the Temperance Provident -Society (of London), during seven years, has averaged
only 4 in 1,000.  In agricultural laborers, in the prime of
life, the most highly-favored of the working-classes, it is 8 per
1,000.  Among healthy persons, generally, it is rated at 10
per 1,000. Among clerks, at the same age, it is no less than
23 per 1,000.
It will naturally be asked whether sanitary measures,
which are admitted to be both necessary and praiseworthy,
or preventing the noxious effects of bad air, generated'by
street and household refuse and impurities, or by a neglect of
paving and sewerage, as well as for arresting the sale of tainted meat and spoiled provisions generally, should not also be'brought to bear against the abuse, if -not the use, of so active'a poison as alcohol, -especially in its stronger forms of combination.  In some countries in Europe the apothecary is forbidden to sell a poison without an express prescription or
order -from a physician; and in every country he would- be
looked upon as open to prosecution, if he passed across his
counter a poison, with a-knowledge that the purchaser: intended to make use of it at the peril, if not the cost, of his life.
Ought a man or a woman-for the sex is not always ashamed
to be seen engaged in such a calling-behind a bar, be allowed privileges not granted to an educated and careful apothecary.?  But, while we condemn the apothecary for selling a
small vial of' laudanum, the contents of which, if swallowed,
cause insensibility and other alarming symptoms, if not death
itself, we can not only tolerate, but give, as voters, -and legislators, and judges, our countenance to the bar-tender, whose
customer is allowed to drink his bottle of distilled liquor,, with




a:- similar  rsk of being made -dead-dunk-insible, a's  d
some-times ending his life in this state of insensibility.  No
termis of censure and condemnation are thought to be too
severe on the person who is administering, at stated intervals,
a slow but certain poison, with intent to kill; but men generally have little to allege against the person who also administers, across his bar, a certain poison, under the plea of his
ignorance of, it may be his indifference to, the consequences.
The more violent. nd acute paroxysmal disturbances, induced:bylalooh-lic drinks, sometimes excite alarm, but the popular
mind has not attained to a full knowledge of the subject, as
far as relates to its chemical and physiological relations; and
until it is enlightened on these points, we must be.slow to
censure those, who still foster, directly or indirectly, the habit
of intemperance, by refusing to sanction, or themselves to set
the example of, the avoidance of a practice which so soon and
so often becomes a habit, and a dangerous habit too.
One important effect of alcoholic drinks, which pervades the
entire organism, while it seems at first confined to the function
of respiration, is to diminish the amount of carbonic acid eliminated from the lungs and skin. Valentin, Prout, Fyfe, and
Vierordt, certify to this fact. Dr. E. Smith speaks of brandy
and beer as greatly decreasing the respiration, and the quantity
of carbonic acid exhaled. - Dr. Bockier found, from his experiments on his own person, that those beverages diminished by
at least one-fifth the amount. of carbonic acid exhaled.  In
1854, Mr. W. J. Cox, from whose paper* we are now borrowing, performed the experiment of collecting the carbonic acid
evolved from the lungs of two healthy individuals during one
hour, both before and after administering a dose of alcohol,
in the shape of whisky.  In the first case, the quantity of
gas evolved, previously to taking the alcohol, was twelve hun* Epidemics and their Every-day Causes, in Sanitgry Review, vol. iv. iv.
-259-o.




149
dred cubic inches; after it, nine hundred and fifty only.  In
the case of the other person, the quantities were respectively
nite hundred, and six hundred and twenty cubic inches,
These facts show, contiinues Mr. Cox, that the presence of
alcohol in the circulating current is always associated with a
diminished percentage of carbonic acid in the air,expired,
and in the exhalation from the cutaneous surface. The blood
becomes thereby loaded with effete carbon.  An analysis was
made by Mr. C. in 1850, of the blood of two deliriuim tremens patients. It was, in both instances, attenuated and defi-.
cient in plastic material; containing a great excess, or from six
to eight times more than common, offatty matters. Lecanu found
in one case of a sot, the still higher proportion of one hundred and
seventeen parts in one thousand. Now, any agent which checks
the depuration of blood in the lungs, and retains in themthe effete products of the circulation, as is done in the case of
the blood of a drunkard, must be eminently deleterious.  Ityet remains to be determined whether the blood of a moderate
habitual drinker is pro tanto in a similar state. Were; we to
draw conclusions from the prompt effects in the experiments
by Mr. Cox, we should answer in the affirmative.  This'
writer has, however, no hesitation in urging "the following
fact, which has received overwhelming proof, that the least
habitual excess beyond a very moderate indulgence in fermented beverages lowers the. vital properties of the blood;
destroys the normal tone of the nervous centres; and -as a
constant sesuela most powerfully predisposes the frame to the:
absorption  of epidemic  virus  of whatever kind. Pure
aerated blood affords the best safeguard against the attack of
any epidemic.  But the more perfect system of house ventilation, cleanliness, &c., will fail to secure this, if by the
constant imbibition of alcohol in excess, the functions of the
lungs and skin are interfered with, their healthy relations destroyed, and their *aste products retained within the current."




150
We have the encouraging reflection in nearly all the efforts
and plans of hygienic reform, that as one evil often gives
strength to another, so does the abatement of one evil aid in
bringing about a similar change in regard to another; and
hence, as living in filth, breathing a close and impure air, and
want of nutritious food, and of adequate hours of sleep, predispose to intemperance in the use of alcoholic drinks, so will
cleanliness, light, fresh air, proper food, and diminished toil,
do much to prevent the habit being formed, or to cure it if it
has been formed. Judicious sanitary reform is therefore favorable to temperance, as e converso, temperance is an indispensable auxiliary to sanitary reform-if only by its inspiring
the individuals who are to be its subjects with a desire, and,
at:the same time, the requisite bodily vigor, to engage in industriarpursuits.  Everybody must, by this time, be familiar
with the fact of the pecuniary loss to his family by the idle-.
ness of the inebriate, and the cost to the public treasury for
his ultimate support in the last stage of destitution; to say
nothing of the expense of measures of repression and punishment called for by the breaches of peace and crimes committed by the intemperate.
PREVENTABLE DISEASES AND MORTALMrT. —Having exhibited one view of the importance of sanitary measures for
cities, viz., that arising from the attention at all times given
to them as a necessary condition for growth and prosperity,
and the punishment in various ways, and often on a large
scale, when the subject has been neglected, we shall next take
a more pleasing and encouraging one, and which contrasts
strongly with the first. But before noticing some of the beneficial changes in the physical well-being and comfort, and
even an improved moral tone, which have resulted from sanitary reform, we have yet to say something on losses of life
and money incurred in many places, by the persistence in old




151
abuses, owing more to ignorance of hygienic laws, than to
purposed wrong-doing.or-want of humanity.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, taking the single county of -Lancashire,
in England, which includes indeed the large cities of Liverpool and Manchester in its bounds, showed some years ago,
by tabular statements, that there are every year in Lancashire
14,000 deaths, and 398,000 cases of sickness which mighti._e
prevented, and that 11,000 of the deaths consists of adults
engaged in productive labor. They farther show, continues
Dr. Playfair, that every individual in Lancashire lives -19
years, or only one-half of- the proper term of his life, and
that every adult loses more than ten years of life, and from premature old age and sickness much more than that period of
working ability. Without taking into consideration the diminution of the physical and moral energies of the survivors
from sickness and other depressing causes; without estimating
the losses from-the substitution of young and inexperienced
labor for that which is skillful and productive; without including the heavy burdens incident to the large amount of
preventable widowhood and orphanage; calculating the loss
from the excess of births resulting from the excess of deaths,
or the cost of the maintenance' of an infantile population, nearly one-half of which is swept off before it attains two years
of age,?nd about 59 per cent. of which never become adult
productive laborers; and with data in every case much below
the truth, Dr. Playfair estimates the actual pecuniary burdens
borne by the community in the support of removable disease
and death in Lancashire alone, at the annual sum oft five millions of pounds sterling-twenty-five millions of doll9rs.
He would draw attention to the columns respecting the number of preventable cases of death and sickness in Liverpool.
and Manchester, or in any other of the large towns, to showthe immense amount of money which might be saved by
proper sanitary arrangements.




152
Another view of the subject of preventable diseases and
deaths is presented in the following guise.: Taking the least
unfavorable sanitary conditions of. a certain number of people
living in sixty-four districts, in various parts of England, as a
standard, we may call the difference between this and the
general mortality as preventable, and make our estimates accordingly. The people now referred to dwell in sixty-four distrits, extending over 4,797,315 square miles, and their number
atthe last census was 973,070, or nearly a million of souls. Although living undoubtedly under many favorable sanitary conditions, yet investigations will lead to the detection of many
sources of insalubrity, such as small, close, and crowded bedrooms, anda neglect of cleanliness of person, and in the surrounings. And yet afterall, " theannualmortality per 1000 of this
million of men, women, and children, year after year, does not
exceed 17. Is it not evident, that under more favorable auspices., the death-rate would be still lighter? Under such sanitary
conditions as are known, and with all the appliances existing,
can we not imagine a community living a healthier life than
those isolated people?"* Setting out, however, from this standard, we are safe in affirming that deaths in a people exceeding 17 in 1000 annually, are unnatural deaths.  "If the people were shot,* drowned, burnt, poisoned by strychnine, their
deaths would not be more unnatural than the deaths wrought
clandestinely by disease in excess of the quota of natural
death; that is, an excess of seventeen deaths in 1000 living."
It may be alleged that an excess of deaths over the standard is inevitable in large cities, but, as justly remarked by
the Review, whose train of argument we are now following,
we lack the measure-line between the attainable and the inevitable loss.  "In London, during the sixteenth century, the
population lived about twenty years on an average, and 50
died out of 1000 living; consequently the excess over 17 was
S" anitary Review, vol iv pp. 87-8.




1.53
33, That this excess was npt inevitable is now demonstrated;
for, with a great increase in number, the population now lives
about 37 years, and the mortaIity has fallen to 25 in 1000.
Is the excess of 8 deaths a year among every 1000 living, inl
evitable? This cannot be admitted for a moment, if we regard
only the imperfect state of the sanitary arrangements which
the public authorities of London have within their power.
Nor can it be admitted that the excess of 5 deaths-or 22
deaths instead of 17-a year, on every thousand living, is inevitable in England and Wales, with evidence before our eyes
of the same violations of nature in every district."  Of the
420,019 persons who died in England in 1857, about 328,163
would have died had the mortality not'exceeded the standard
of 17 deaths in 1000 living. Of the difference, 91,856, or
what may be called the unnatural deaths, 18,328 happened in
the country, or in the village districts, and 73,528 in the town
districts. To extend the argument. Within the shores of
the islands of Great Britain and Ireland dwell nearly'eight
millions of people who " do not live out half their days; a huntdred and forty thousand of them die every year unnatural
deaths; two hundred and eighty thousand are constantly suffering from actual diseases, which do not prevail in healthy'places; their strength is impaired in a thousand ways; their
affections and intellects, are disturbed, deranged, and diminished- by the same agencies.
Dr. HIutchinson sums up the loss to the city of London,
growing out of the preventable deaths, 10,000 in number, and
of thepreventable cases of sickness, 20,000 in number, annually, to be, for funerals,' medical attendance, loss of wages, and
expense of widows and orphans, ~500,000, or $2,500,000..
In addition to this, he estimates the loss to the community at
~1,000,000, or $5,000,000. He charges to the same account
the sums that might be saved by the consolidation of existing
boards and companies, improved water-supply, suppression of




smoke-nuisance, and revenue from sewer-water, amounting-to
more than another million of pounds, or five millions of dollars.  This gives a sum of nearly three millions of pounds, or
fifteen millions of dollars,'lost by preventable disease and
death, and otherwise bad sanitary economy, to the city of London. Mr. Banfield's estimate of loss to the United Kingdom,
from these causes, amounts to fifty-five millions of pounds,
or two hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars, per
annum.
In the single State of Massachusetts an estimate exhibits
an annual loss to the commonwealth of $62,000,000 to
$93,000,000 by the premature death of persons over 15 years
of age.
Of the preventable mortality a large proportion occurs in
the early or infantile period. Parents, on the spot, would be
startled at the announcement that the probabilities are against
their child reaching its second year; and yet in Manchester,
Mr. Roberton assures us, in his account of the statistics of
mortality in that town, that for every 100 infants born (in the
township), upwards of 33 males and 26 females die within the
year; whereas in Dorsetshire, the proportions are less than
half those numbers. For the next period of life (from one to
two years), the percentage of male deaths is 18, and of female
deaths upwards of 16; but in Dorsetshire the proportions are
less than one fourth of this amount.
In Liverpool, the low sanitary state of which has been
already mentioned, the proportion of deaths to the whole population is as low as 1 in 28.75, and the average duration of life
is only 20 years. Some have thought that the large emigrant
floating population of Liverpool, chiefly Irish, contributed
much to the increased mortality and low average of life in that
city; but this is a fallacy, exposed by Dr. Playfair, who shows
that in both of these particulars they have greatly the advantage of the fixed resident population.




155
Not only is the mortality much increased by the preventable
causes of disease, but the physical vigor of the survivors is diminished by the same causes.  The recruiting officers in the
county of Lancaster, which used to furnish the best soldiers
in the country, complained to Dr. Playfair that the sons are
less tall than the fathers, and that the difficulty is constantly
increasing of obtaining tall and able-bodied men.
Diseases of the respiratory organs, including phthisis, exist,
according to Dr. Playfair, in the great manufacturing districts
of Lancaster and Cheshire, to a greater extent than in any
other part of the kingdom.
It has been estimated that the mortality among the poorer
classes in England might be reduced 20 per cent. by means
within administrative control, to say nothing of the abatement;
or removal of other causes depending on their personal habits,
which are intimately associated with those of the first-mentioned class.
In the town of Preston, we learn, from the full and exceedinglyf interesting report of the Rev. J. Clay, that, while the
deaths in the whole town are one in every 29 persons, yet in
streets which are described by him, where there is a neglect of
sanitary measures, and the inhabitants of which are equally
negligent, the proportion is one death in every 19 persons.
T~he large proportion of infant mortality in Preston, among
the working classes-those least favored on the score of sanitary protection-is an evident melancholy fact, bearing on the
same argument. With the gentry, the loss is only 17~ per
cent. -of infant life'(children under five years of age), while
the operatives' loss is 55.5 per cent. For the whole of England and Wales the p entage of deaths is 39.1.
The average age of deaths, including children, of the different classes in Preston, is still further confirmatory of the
position laid down. For "gentlemen," it is 47 years; for
"tradesmen," 32 years; and for "laborers," 18 years.




156:
In our own country the subject of infant mortality is one of
the. highest interest, especially in towns.  We would again
refer to a valuable paper on this very important subject, -by
Dr. D. M. Reese.
This gentleman, in his evidence before the New York Senate
Committee, asserts, and as we believe on good grounds, that:
"Infant mortality in large cities in a great multitude of examples,' &c., ending, "and life."  (See the Senate Committee, Rep. p. 99.)
On this subject, which is one of such vital importance to
the public health in all cities, instructive reference can be made
to Mr. Hartley's "Essay on Milk, as an article of Human
Sustenance."  The writer takes equally strong ground with
that assumed by Dr. Reese, -and in confirmation of his view,
he adduces a certificate, signed by fifty-eight physicians of the
city of New York, men of professional eminerice and worth,
affirming their belief, that the milk of cows, fed chiefly on
distillery slops, is "extremely detrimental to the health, especially of young children, as it not only contains no little
nutriment for the purposes of food, but appears to-possess unhealthy and injurious properties, owing in part, probably, to
the confinement of the cows, and the bad air which they consequently have to breathe, as well as the unnatural and pernicious nature of the slop on which they are fed."  Dr. Charles
A. Lee, in two letters to Mr. Hartley, adduces his personal ob-.
servations and experience to the same purport.*
Under the operation of improved sanitary measures in the
city of New York, the Committee of Investigation believe that
the amount of thirteen -millions of dollars, the estimated cost
of avoidable sickness and death, and the  unnecessary loss of
five thousand lives per. annum, migh'te prevented, with an
effect upon the happiness and morals of the people which can
neither be reckoned in figures nor expressed in words.
* Eleventh Annual: Report of thbi New York Association for Improving the
Condition of the Poor, for the year 1854.




157
The following is a statement of the number of the indigent
sick who were gratuitously provided for by the public institutions of the city of New York, in the year 1853:'' New York Dispensary.............       46,338
Eastern        "' ~..........'         19,706
iorthern........... 14,075
Demilt    "...                   ~  ~........  9,006
North-Western'...........    4,9:64
New York Hospital.................    3,526
Bellevue Hospital.............   4,836
Blackwell's Island Hospital..........    3,034
Ward's Island Hospital...................    10,794.
Marine Hospital.......................  4,1938
Total................. 121,217
"-Startling as are the above figures, they doubtless fall far
short of the reality.  To this. list of 121,000 sick, who are
chiefly unskilled laborers, of. the most destitute class, should
be added multitudes of the same class that are relieved.by
private benevolence, and the numerous organized charities: in
the city; also those cared for by the different churches and
beneficial societies; and last, but not least, the great body of
operative artisans, builders, &c., in humble life, whose occupations sometimes, but more frequently their. unhealthy dwellings, induce debility, sickness, and incapacity for labor."
". Infant mortality, in large cities, in a great multitude of.examples, which no man can number, is caused by the impure
and adulterated milk, and other unwholesome articles of food,
which are among the: necessaries of life. Our profession has
ever and anon sought to arouse public attention to this important subject, but in vain. Distilleries'in or near large
cities would be an intolerable nuisance and curse, apart from
the mischiefs of their mranufacture of alcoholic drinks, in view
of the single fact that, wherever they exist, their slops -will




158
farnish the cheapest food for cows, the milk from which is
more pernicious. and fatal to infant health and life than alcohol
itself to adults; poisoning the very fountains of life. So long as
distilleries are tolerated in cities, cow-stables will be their
appendages, and- the milk, fraught with sickness and death,
will still perpetuate mortality, especially among the Children
-of the, poor.. All the artificial adulterations of milk, as by
water or-chalk, &c., are harmless nay, laudable,. compared
with the poisonous supply obtained from cows fed on distillery
slops, for to this poison chemistry itself affords no antidote,
since it defies all analysis or synthesis-a poison sui generis,
iutterly destructive both of health and life."
The deaths from pulmonary consumption in England and
Wales are represented to amount annually to 36,000, of which
one half are said to occur in London. Dr. Guy attributes the
great mortality from this disease to be owing to "defective
ventilation of houses, shops, and places of work. Next to
this, in point of importance, is the inhalation of dust, metallic
particles, and irritating fumes. One cause, over which the
poor themselves can exercise control, is the abus:ef spirituous
liquors, a frightful source of consumption."  The death-rates
of consumption are susceptible of being much diminished.
Mention was made, under the head of Ventilation, of the
sufferings, from neglect of this matter, incurred by tailors.
The economy of a better sanitary system with them is set forth
as follows: " If the employers and the men had been aware
of the effects of vitiated atmosphere on the constitution and
general strength, and of the means of ventilation, the practicable gain of money from the gain of labor by that sanitary
measure could not have been less, in one large shop, employing two hundred men, than ~100,000 ($500,000).  Independently of subscription of the whole trade, it would diminish
their working period of life, and have been sufficient, with the
enjoyment of greater: health and comfort by every workman




159
during the time of work, to have purchased for him an annuity
of ~1 ($5) per week for his comfortable and respectable selfsupport during a period of superannuation, commencing soon
after fifty years of age."
When speaking of the greatly increased cost of sewers,
owing to defective arrangements in their first construction, the
amount lost in this way should be put under the head of
money that might have been saved by judicious sanitary
measures.
In comparing the mortality of the town of Salford, in
which thirty-one persons per thousand die annually, and of
Manchester, which is still greater, with the neighboring town
of Broughton, where only fourteen persons in a thousand die
annually, Mr. Chadwick enters into some instructive calculations, which go to show that there are 700 deaths annually
from preventable causes alone'; hence to remove these causes
might insure an annual saving of a sum of money exceeding
~40,000, or $200,000.  To effect this saving, the main thing
required is that the working classes should understand what
are the sanitary requirements to secure health and comfort to
their homes.  The above sum is based on the estimate that
there are twenty-five cases (Dr. Playfair says 28) of illness,
on an average, to one death. Each death costs, on an average, ~60, or $300; including funeral expenses, medical attendonce, loss of labor, and the like.  The reference to the necessity of awakening the intelligence of the working classes to a
correct view of preventive hygiene, reminds us of the advice
so forcibly expressed by Dr. Kissam, as to the means'of
abating the evils of poverty, so as to reduce the mortality
among the inhabitants of certain districts in the city of New
York. -Dr. Kissam says, with much force: " The poor must
haye good dwellings to live in, and they must have medical
missionaries to teach'them how to live. They are taught upon
almost every other subject than about how to live. They do




160:not knoW how to cook their food; they do not know that
they a~re poisoned when four or five of them sleep in a room
without ventilation."
SANITARY IMPROVEMENTS.-The importance and economy
of sanitary measures for cities are evinced in the great benefits
derived from sanitary improvements.  Hamburg suffered severely from the cholera in 1832. In 1842 occurred a grievous
calamity, as it was thought at the time, in a fire which destroyed nearly a third of the city. The rebuilt portion shows
that in it due attention has been paid to drainage and other
requirements; and the effect was tested in its having enjoyed
an exemption from the cholera of 1848, alike remarkable and
important. A comparison of the state of the poor, living in
the rebuilt parts of the town, with those living in' the old
parts, showed that not more than one of the former had been
attacked with cholera for ten of the latter.  Exeter, in England, affords another remarkable illustration of the' benefit obtained by the adoption of improved hygienic measures. These
consisted in improved drainage, an ample supply of good
water in every part, pulling down of old houses, the removal
of nuisances, and greater general attention to the sanitary
condition of the poor. In 183:2, before these reforms were
even thought of, the deaths from cholera werd 402, and a vast
amount of suffering, as well as heavy expenditures, inflicted
on the town. In 1849 not more than ninety-nine cases in all
occurred in Exeter, and one half of these took place in the'single parish of St. Edmund, in a low, unwholesome district,
near the accumulations of a main drain from the city, immersed in putrid exhalations. A still more instructive example is afforded by Nottingham. Upwards of 1000 cases
of cholera, of which nearly 500 were fatal, occurred there in
1832. At that time Nottingham, like Exeter, was badly supplied with. water, besides its being ill-drained, extremely filthy,
and very densely populated. The ravages of the pestilence




1.61
were confined in a great measure, to the worst localities, the
higher and better-conditioned district escaping almost entirely.  Since then very much has been done for the improvement
of the town. It now enjoys an almost unlimited supply of
wholesome filtered water. Nuisances were removed, and the
condition of the dwellings of the poor improved.  The result
was, that in the autumn of 1848, although a filthy village
within five miles of Nottingham.was severely attacked, yet
-the town remained entirely exempt, nor did a single case occur there until December in the following year, although there
had been much diarrhoea- during the season-a clear proof that
the epidemic influence had been. felt-when five fatal cases occurred. In the same line of encouraging results:from increased attention to hygienic reforms occurs. the example of
Tynemouth, eight miles below Newcastle and Gateshead, in
the north of England.  This town, like the last two mentioned, suffered severely from cholera.in 1848-49, losing 463 out
of its population of 64,248. Thus warned, active sanitary
measures-were adopted, and when in 1852 cholera was again
epidemic, those exertions were redoubled; and, as a consequence, 1852 saw Newcastle and Gateshead suffering "from
the most terrible outbreak of cholera yet experienced in England, whilst Tynemouth, only eight miles lower down the
river,:was exempt,'although numerous cases of diarrhoea plain-.
ly showed that over it-the. choleraic influence extended, but
found no congenial. soil."  Evidence to the same purport Was
furnished in different cities of the United States during the
cholera outbreak of 1849; as, for instance, in Boston and
Philadelphia-although the sanitary measures adopted did
not imply- organic changes, but were mainly confined to the
removal- or abatement of certain nuisances, domestic and
otherwise, cleansing the streets, &c.
As justly remarked by the British and Foreign RfediCoChirurgical Review,* to which we are continually indebted.
11         * Vol. vi. pp. 386-37




162
fr so much in all that relates to British:sanitary progress:
"But far more gratifying, -in every point of view, is the clear
testimony which the late epidemic afforded of the strikingly
beeficial results -of -substalntial structural improvements in
averting the fatal effects of choleraic disease.  From  a large
mjass of evidence we select the following facts as illustrative
of this most important subject: The three model lodginghousesin the metropolis-two of them situated in a most unhealthy district, and where there were numerous fatal cases
around-escaped almost entirely.  There were a few cases of
diarrhoea among the in-mates (210 in number,) and only one
case of cholera, which occurred in an old man intemperate and
n,-fed.  The complete immanity of the'Metropolitan Build-'ings' in- Old Pancras Road, containing upwards of 500 inmates, was equally striking, although within a few hundred
yards the epidemic was so severe that three deaths occurred in
one house, and the whold neighborhood was severely afflicted with diarrhoea. Of the metropolitan prisons, two suffered severely, while the seven others remained nearly-exempt.
In the model prison at Pentonville, whose sanitary atrangements are good, there was no cholera, and very little diarrhcea
among 465 inmates. GiltspurandNewgate prisons enjoyed, the
former a complete, and the latter an all but complete exemption,
although the district around suffered with extraordinary severity.
T1he case of the House of Correction, in Cold Bath Fields, is,
perhaps, the most instructive of all.  In 1832, when the number of prisoners was 1148, there occurred 319 cases of diarrhoea, 207 of cholera, and 45 deaths. At that time the drainage
of the prison was most faulty, the sewers having in places
fallen in and become choked with soil.  Subsequently the
whole sewerage was rebuilt, and on examination previous to
the late epidemic it was found to be in good order. The ventilation, also, of the cells had been improved, and a small
open fire was Placed in- each of the day-rooms.  Out of 1100




163
prisoners there was not a single instance of cholera, and only
a lfew cases. of diarrhoea, which speedily yielded to prompt
treatment.  Bridewell prison afforded equally satisfactory results.  In 1832 it was in a most filthy state, and the prisoners were much crowded.  Sixteen cases, four fatal, occurred
in the epidemic of that year.  The sanitary arrangements. of
the prison have since that period been rectified; and while
the pestilence raged on all sides of it, in houses separated only
by a narrow wall, no case of cholera took place, though fresh
prisoners of the very lowest class were daily brought in.
There was only one case of the malignant form of the disease
in  orsemonger Lane Jail, which is situated in a district that
suffered most severely.  The two public metropolitan lunatic
asylums of Bethlehem and Hanwell escaped without loss of
life, although cholera prevailed- extensively and severely within
a hundred yards of the former, and the latter was visited with
a rather sharp attack of diarrhoea, showing clearly that the
morbific influence was there."  To these remarkable proofs of
the exemption from a fatal epidemic enjoyed by good internal.hygienic arrangement, we may addthe case of the jail at
Taunton, a town with a population of 16,000, during the prevalence of the cholera in 1849. Not a solitary case even of
diarrhcea-occurred among the prisoners iai the jail; whicho bffers a remarkable contrast with the state of things at that
period in the work-house,. the inmates of which lost by death
from cholera 22:per cent. of their number, or 60 out of 276.
This last building:was low, badly drained, and most imperfectly,ventilated; there were numerous nuisances within the
walls; the people had insufficient space allowed them, and
personal cleanliness was very much neglected.  The space allowed for eah inmate was not above. two thirds of what was
requisite for -safety.  The stress of the attack was in the girls'
school-room, in which the greatest degree of over-crowding existed. The prisoners in the jail were much better cared for
than the poor-inmates of the Union Work-house.  Each cell




164
contained from 800 to 900 feet and-upwards of air, besides
being systematically ventilated and warmed, to maintain an
even temperature throughout the twenty-four hours. Moreover, each prisoner had. the means of personal cleanliness, and
attention to this was strictly enforced throughout the building.
The result was that the health of the prisoners remained
throughout perfectly good.
A similar exemption from cholera in 1849 was enjoyed by
the Eastern Penitentiary of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
PULMONARY AND CUTANEOUS PURIFICATION.-The consentaneous, and in a measure identical action of the lungs ana
skin, is not so generally known or attended to as is demanded
by the interests of both public and personal hygiene. The
lungs and the skin are both of them engaged in the same offices,
viz., I1 to evolve-gaseous and animal: matters, the retention of
which would be injurious.to the organism; and, 2, to introduce into the blood the vitalizing element, or the oxygen of
the atmosphere; and hence both organs, the pulmonary arid
the cutaneousj require a supply. of fresh air.'Both of them
require also the additional purifying aid of water.  The lungs
receive their share in the shape of ordinary atmospheric moisture,- and how they rejoice in this is, seen in the rosy cheeks,
implying active pulmonary circulation and respiration, of the
inhabitants of the moist climates of England and Holland.
The skin receives its share more commonly in the shape
of, water, directly applied to its surface, as in the process
of ordinary ablution, and of -bathing; and in some countries, on a large scale by vapor baths. Both the lungs and
the skin exact as a condition for the healthy discharge of their
fiunctions, that they shall have their air-bath for transpiration,
and their water-bath either as simple aqueous fluid or as vapor,:to deterge the respiratory and cutaneous surfaces, and to
enable them to cast off, in the first case, mucus, and in the




165
second, the perspirable and oily matters.  Cleanliness, in its
true comprehensive meaning, cannot be carried out so as to
meet the wants of the animal economy, unless we attend to
these requirements. Our senses revolt at the mere offer of dirty
water for drink; but nature displays equal repugnance when
dirty, that is, impure air is offered for breathing; and no less
injustice is done to the lungs by the inhalation of foul air, in
which are floating, at the same time, particles of fine dust, rising
from different substances in manufacture, than would -be to the
skin, if first, ditch or gutter-water, and then sand and dirt, were
sprinkled over it.  The very idea of swallowing or even tasting the fluid substances ejected as excreta, or thrown off by
disease, from the body of another person, or even from our own,
is abhorrent to all; and yet how few scruple, about receiving
into their lungs, by respiration, the impure exhalations from
the lungs of everybody in the same room with themselves. But
they are doing more at this time; they are inhaling not.only
the foul air which escapes from the lungs, but also that and
the kindred.cutaneous emanations of all those, present on such
an occasion.
Public Squares and Parks.-We make these remarks as
introductory to, and with a view of enforcing, not merely the
desirableness on the score of pleasurable bodily sensations,
but also the necessity on that of health, of out-door exercise
in a fresh and pure air, and of regular bathing inpure water,
whether it be fresh or saline.  Attention to these things'is a
duty which every individual owes to him or to herself, but
unless it be regarded at the same time as part of public hygiene, and carried into effect by proper sanitary measures, the
inhabitants of cities cannot meet the requirements of the -case,
and must suffer if they are not aided by judicious municipal
legislation.'The opportunities afforded for ventilation are
availed of to a certain and too often to'a very limited extent
in the house; t6ey are more effective in the street; but they




-can- only be, said to: have- reeeivTed their fi,- or in: ad measure
their satisfactory development in pu-bli gardens, squares, and
parks, in — whichn the delieate and- the valeatudinran- adults
mode' especially, and all  those of tender age, may find compensi'ation for their inabilityr to visit the suburban districts,.to breathe- fresh air, and to been livened by the sight of herbage, flowers, and trees, i'n their ha'bitual and ever-pleasing-livery.  These- advantages are all easily attained in the
spots of the kind-just designated, which on this' account can
never be too highly prized, nor too greatly multiplied.  But
there- is yet another: and a large class, namely,- the arisans
and-mechanics, whose engagements are such as t keep them
within the narrowest citity limits, and who, fatigued- and jaded
-with their prolonged toil, are too often prompted to fly for
present excitement -and relief too he drinking-i shop, or tavern,
in. place of drawing on the stimulants which nature affords in
te' cordial of a full measuref oxygen of the pure air ot these
open and -ornamented places.'Here they would experience, in
addition, the grateful excitement of the- senses in admiring
the grass-plots, and the rich parterres, with their slmubs and
flowers, while seated under the shade of the spreading trees,
and refreshed by listening to the falling water of a fountain,
while watching at the same time its feathery spray.  It is.in such places that town rivals the country, ahd that nature,and art join together to promote the public health, and incite to
innocent gayety and enjoyment.
Gymnasia and 3Jfuseums. —But something more':is required for the youth, and the. industrious mechanics and working men generally, of a city, than space for walking for
themselves and their families, important as this confessedly
is. (Grounds ought to be set.apart for gymnastic exercises
and various. manly sports, under the supervision of coimpetent
instructors.




167
Connected with these grounds there might be instituted
museums of natural history, models of machinery, and even
specimens of the fine arts; thus creating in the minds -of all
who would visit these places, associations of the most pleasing
and instructive kind. If we suggest these things as measures
of health, others might strengthen our suggestion by urging
them as an affair of morals.
Until within the last few years, it was thought that there
was snoThething in the Anglo.-Saxon disposition and character
which unfitted the people of Gre at Britain and the Unite.
States for a due appreciation of the benefits and pleasures of
public walks and gardens, and of museums and galleries'of.
art; and that if these places were; thrown open to the public,
they would be injured, if not destroyed, by the Vandal.multi-.'tude.  Trials made on a large scale, as for instance by thr0ow
ing open the British Museum, -in London, and the grunda:
and the palace, including the collection of paintings, at Hamp
ton Court, to the public of. all classes, have dispelled this
notion.  The following carries with it instruction.  On the
occasion of a projected chartist meeting at Manchester, which
greatly alarmed the municipal magistrates, Sir Charles Shaw,
the Chief Commissioner of Police, induced the Mayor to get
the Botanical Garden, -the Zoological Garden, and the Museum'
of that -town thrown open to the public. The effect was, that
not -more than 200 or 300. attended the political meeting,
which entirely failed; and scariely a dollar's worth of damage:
was done to the gardens or to the public institutions by'.the
working people, who were pleased with their share of the
entertainment.  A  farther effect produced, was, that the
charges before the police, of drunkenness and riot, were on
that day less than the average of that- on ordinary days.
Ablution -and Ba-tAing. —.As relates to cutaneousPuri,-.
cation, personal cleanliness ought to be regarded in the light




.168.of a sanitary measure of the first importance, and to come
within. the category of the cleansing of streets and houses. It
does -not engage attention to the extent that its importance
demands, whether we look to health or comfort.  The neglect
of cleanliness by the colliers of Lancashire, as recorded, by
Mr. Chadwick in his Report, is, we fear, not without a
parallel, either among the same classes elsewhere, or among
many others in better circumstances, but whose skin does not
tell the tale. to the eye so forcibly as if it were blackened by.
coal-dust.  Neither the men nor the girls employed in the
coal-mines ever washed their bodies.  "Their legs and-their
bodies, said a witness, are as black as your hat.' One
laborer remembered that a particular event took place, because
it was then he washed his feet.  The effects of these- habits
are seen in the work-house, in almost every pauper admitted..When it is necessary to wash them on their admission, -they
usually manifest an extreme reluctance to the process.  Their
common feeling was- expressed by one of them, when he declared it " equal to robbing him of a great-coat which he had
had for many years."
How many of those who walk our streets, in gay attire too,
wear a garment of this kind over their skins?  If the external surface of insects be covered with oil, so as to stop up
their spiracles, and the skin of animals of a higher grade be
covered by a layer of some impermeable substance, death resuits.  It needs little physiological kno'wledge to make us
aware-of the injury done to the functions of a human body,
by the skin being coated for years with the secreted, oily, and
perspirable matter.  The lungs, to which the skin is: auxiliary, must be overtasked in consequence, and rendered more
liable to disease.  That distressing, and too often unimanageable affection, albuminuria, or Bright's disease, is not unfrequently traceable to the imperfect performance of the functions of the skin.




169,
"It might savor of caricature," says Mr. Martin, one of
the Commissioners on the Health of Towns, &c., " were it
asserted that in regard to the laboring poor, it is only when
the infant enters upon breathing existence, and when the man
has ceased to breathe, at the minute of birth, and at the. hour
of death, that he is really washed; yet such a statement
would not be so far removed from the truth as it may at first
appear. To the great mass of the people, and from dawn to
the term of life;- the bath, as an- article of comfort, luxury,
and health, is hardly known, even: in name. In the chief
cities of the United States a better, and in some of them an
abundant supply of water, allows of the inhabitants having
bath-rooms in-their houses, for the purpose of cold-bathing;
and within these few years past, the increase of kitchen ranges
and boilers attached, allows of the use of a warm-bath.. But
the multitude, the masses of our population, both in town'and
country, are still wanting in these means of promoting health
and enjoyment; and we have ample cause for imitating, by
our- own municipal governments, those in England, which,
aided by the benevolence of individuals, have set about
the erection of public baths.  These, if not actually allowed
to be used by all applicants gratuitously, are accessible onthe payment of a very small sum.
As yet, the people of Christendom are behind the ancients,
particularly the Romans, and even the semi-civilized inhabitants of different countries at the present time, in the general
resort to the bath, and the readiness of access to this comfort
and solace by the people at large. Your reporter would venture to refer to a work of his (on Baths, &c.), for a variety of
details on the subject of bathing, as a part of public hygiene.
Warm as well. as cold water should be introduced into all
bath-houses, both for the purpose of more complete ablution and
detersion of the skin of all adheringlimpurities, and on account
of the differences in individual sensibility and vigor of frame,




170'ei-ther constant or connected with temporary indisposition and
weakness, short of actual disease. Warm baths might be supplied to the working-classes, Mr. Hawkesby thinks, at the
low rate of about six cents each, if taken by 200 or 300 daily.
By Sir Henry Dunkerfield's Act, the Parliamentary standard
charge, for -a warm-bath, is fixed at two pence (four cents),
and' when the bathers are in reasonable numbers, this sUlm is
represented to be quite sufficient to give a profit beyond expenses. Dr. Reid, in his report to the Commissioners, in
which he describes the means of ventilat'ing different kinds of
buildings, mentions the advantage of a limited supply of water
being procured,  " during the progress of the steam-bath, rendering cleansing, and the use of the flesh-brush, much more
convenient than in the or dinary water or vapor-baths."'
I It has been calculated that the waste-water of a steamengine of 500 horse-power would, at'an average temperature
of 70 to 75 deg. F., suffice to bathe 26,000 persons. A new
source of an abundant supply of water, of a somewhat elevated
temperature, adapted to personal and domestic wants, has
been opened of late years in Artesian wells. The most remarkable of these is the one at Grenelle, near Paris, which,
from a depth of nearly 2000 feet, sends up a volume of water
equal to 132,000 gallons every twenty-four hours,'at a temperature of 82 deg. F. Its softness and temperature adapt it
admirably to the purposes of a bath and of washing. clothes,
for both of which it is largely used.
Public  Wnash-ouses. —One of the marked improvements
in public hygiene of late years, and which bears evidence that
the spirit of philanthropy is abroad and active, is the establishment of Public Wash-houses, to which women of the poorer
classes can go, and have the use ofroomls, and all the appliances
for washing and drying-their clothes and those of their families,
on the payment of a very small sum. The trials so far, made




171.
inEnlaned and different cities of this eontry, have.hebe
quite -successful, and promotive of much- good and comfort to
the.parties for whom these houses are opened.  Inciden.al
but very decided benefit to the women who make use of the
conveniences thus offered, is enjoyed in the avoidance of the
dirt and litter, and confusion' and disturbance to the whole
family, on a washing day, in their own small and confined
rooms.'An improvement, or rather an exceecdingly useful addition,
has been made to the original plan, by the procuring of large,
airy rooms in which the infant children of the wash-women
wvhocome to wash their clothes, stay, and are watched and
nursed'by a person employed for the purpose. And yet a
step farther has been taken in the way of present as well as
future good to these juveniles.  It is teaching them the simple
elements of learning and morality.
NUIsANCES.-A few words. may be, said on the present occ~sion in regard to nuisances, a term which in the minds: of
many has an entirely too limited meaning for the cause of publie health, while, on the other hand, some of the more'sensitive and exacting would extend the list to an almost indefinite
extent.' Under the general -head of Nuisances -a.re included
special obstructions to thoe public health, such as accumul,.tions of dung and offal., pig-sties, open privies, obstructed
drains, pools of stagnant water, noxious smoke and other matters coming from manufactories, and especialy the animal refa-se invariably found in the vicinity of slaughter-houses, all
of which act with so much power in the midst of a dense pop
lation.''By an Act of Parh-iament, passed some years ago,
aggrieved parties can, by an easy course, procure a removal of
evils, when duly specified.  The Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act, passed in 1848, with the Amended Stute enacted the following year, are great steps in the way of
sanitry refrm.  They c:nstitute, together with the P.bZic




172
Ziealth Act and the Interment Act, a good beginning in a
course of wise sanitary legislation, which has already'done
much toward an amelioration of the great and many abuses by
which the public health in England had suffered so much.
French sanitary legislation is more precise, and at the same
timeq comprehensive, on the subject of nuisances.  It distributes into three classes all establishments which are adverse to
the comfort, health, and safety of the inhabitants;'and it
describes in what manner each is, unhealthy and annoying.......
Establishments of the first class cannot be allowed in the
vicinity of private dwellings, and their erection is only permitted by a decree of the sovereign council. To this category belong the manufacture of sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric
acids, as well as that of various chemical products, melting
establishments of fat'on open fires, work-shops for the preparation of taffety, leather, and varnished tissues, also of knackers,
tripe-men, and cat-gut manufacturers, and of thosein which
are prepared animal black,- glue, Prussian blue, blood-manure,
aiselle (a kind of dye), and starch, factories of fire-works, lucifer matches, and fulminating compounds.  The reasons for
placing these together, as the most dangerous' class, are vitia-'
tion of the air by the disengagement of emanations inimical to
health, the risk of fire, and the intolerable odors which they
emit.  Hence, if allowed at all,'it is only within a radius of
three thousand feet, after long and multiplied formalities, which
want of time prevents us from introducing in this place,
The second class of establishments of the manufacturing
kind'include those the removal of which from an inhabited district is not absolutely necessary, but which it is fit should only
be perinitted after a suitable inquiry to show that they are not
nuisances.  To this category belong lime or plaster-kilns,
when they are in constant operation, high-pressure steamengines, gas-works, currieries, tanneries, hat factories, foundries, manufactories of sulphate of iron' and zinc, of sulphate of




173
soda in close vessels, phosphorus, imitation jewelry, bituminous matter, chandleries of tallow and of stearine, and workshops -for the scraping and cleaning of copper vessels.
None of these can be called actually unhealthy to those in
their vicinity, but many of them are disagreeable, and seriously annoy others by their -smoke, their noise, the danger of
fires or by their offensive smell.
The third class comprises alli those establishments which
may be in operation in the vicinity of dwelling-houses without
inconvenience, but which must nevertheless be submitted to
the inspection of the Prefect of the Department, for his authorization.. They are,-lime and plaster kilns, used not more
than a month in the year, brick-yards, potteries, and'tile
works, manufactories of gelatine and isinglass, crucible founries, dye-works, &c.
There is nothing absolute in this classification, inasmuch.as
that a particular. manufactory, the processes of which are improved; may. pass from one category to another.
Considering'- the. excessive annoyances from  the -smoke,
especially from the burning of bituminous coal, in large cities,
such as London, and some of our own on this side of the Atlantic, it becomes a measure of the- first importance, as a question
of public health, connected with its effects on the lungs, by its
being constantly breathed, and on the skin, in relation to personal cleanliness, and to the interiors of houses, on the score
of domestic cleanliness, to' discover the means by which the
evil can be materially abated, if not entirely neutralized.. Experiments with more or less success have been made with this
view, the precise results of which, or. their relative value, need
not be introduced here.  Too - much importance has been
attached to the mere effect of lofty chimneys in removing to a
distance and diluting the heavy smoke and noxious fumes
which are evolved from manymanufactories.  In themselves




they n no- way destroy the emanations which are conveyed
into them; these'are discharged as much as before into -the
external atmosphere-; and experience has proved that even
very lofty chimneys, on which large sums have been expendeda, do not -iecessarily insure that amount of admixture -with-'the': common air which:is essential to prevent the ihost-inurious consequences of their deposit, even -at-very considerable
distances.  The  extent to which nauseous, acrid, and other
noxious fumes from manufactories often destroy the atmosphere of numerous dwellings, and sometimes of whole streets,
is. abundantly explained in the reports of- the Commissioners.
Slaughtek-Houses. —These nuisances, of the worst class,
were'clung to in England and elsewhere, with a tenacity such
as-might imply a thorough conviction of the use of them
being a time-honored privilege, interwoven with the dearest
rights of the people. The last -and decisive battle Qf old
prejudices -against' the clearest evidences of hygiene, -was
fought in the matter of the Smithfield'.Market and its
shambles, in the'very heart of London. We cannot introduce
~the subject better than by giving. the following portion of Ab-:stract of Evidence before t.he Select Committee of the House
of Commons on Smithfield Market, May,'1847.
Dr. Jordan Roche Lynch had:lived and practised for the
last fifteen years in the neighborhood-: of -Smithfield, -the
~ sanitary state of which was most defective.  The slaughterhouses-have a most injurious influence upon the district;
~:they generate fever,- and render the most simple diseases ma-lignaiif, and shorten the duration of life.  In Bear alley, a'lane running from Farringdon street to the old wall of Lon-don, called Breakneck Steps, -there is a slaughter-house
behind six or seven houses, which are inhabited by the humblest classes of society, The stench is intolerable, arising
from: the slaughtering of'the cattle, and the removal of the
fecal matters, the guts, the blood, and the skins of the animals.




175:When they clean the guts, the matter is turned out-; some; of
the heavier;parts of the manure are preserved to be carted
away, but a: great deal of it is carried into the sewers, which'have gully-holes; and in the summer months, the heat acting
upon the fecal matter ca-uses its decomposition; and carburetted'and suIphuretted. hydrogen gas, and carbonic acid gas,
all of which are fatal to- animal life, are disengaged, and rush
out of the gully-holes, so that a blind man's nose will -enable
hiAm to avoid approaching these outlets..  Whenever he goes
into places or houses contiguous to the slaughter-houses, he
is compelled to hold his nose all the time he is there, the
stench is so great. Dr. Lynch has patients in all these
houtses.  They are never free from the effects of this stench,
and when the people there are dangerously ill, he is without
the hope, by any exercise of skill, of restoring them to health.
He invariably makes it a rule to entreat them to conquer:their
repugnance to go into the Work-house, in order that they may;,
have better air; and if they accede, the medicines that would
have failed in the noxious atmosphere before, restore them, in
most instances, to health.
The people where such smells are, drink; it is a kind of
instinct; they fly to it*; they fancy, that the stimulus resists`the noxious agency of the foul air they are breathing.
Malaria, such as is generated in these slaughter-houses, is a
narcotic poison; it oppresses both body and mind; and
under the influence of this physical and mental depression,
they instinctively resort to the gin-shop, which aggravates
their distresses, by extracting from them the means -f living
perhaps better than they do, and it might have been added,
also, by the addition, in this way, of one poison to another.*
-Mr. Dunhill, civil engineer, whoamade the abstract from
which we have- been borrowing, relates also, that in Newgate
iad Leadenhall markets, the slaughtering was carried on in
* Journal of Public Health, vol. i., p, 244.




176
cellars, where there was a total absence of natural light, ven'
tilation, or drainage; the blood and.dung' being sometimes
allowed to accumulate therein for months together, or until
the pestiferous effuvia caused sufficient alarm and' sensation in
the neighborhood to:originate an indictment.  The water
supply was utterly inadequate, and was'obtained from the
most impure sources, while the machinery'was of the most
primitive and imperfect character.'In Aldgate (better known
as Whitechapel) Market, the open kennels and water-tables
-of the wood-way are to be seen almost daily streaming to overflow with blood and ordure. Immense quantities of skins,
offal, and dung, were also exposed on the public highway,
where thousands of pedestrians were continually passing to
arid fro.
We have spoken. of these nuisances in the past tense, under
a belief that they have been abated, if not entirely removed.
Smithfield Market has been finally closed.
Some of the witnesses before the Commons Committee,
spoke in high terms, from  personal observation, of the
French abattoirs, which form a striking contrast to the English slaughter-houses. Mr. Dunhill, on this point, remarks:'" In Paris, the influence of cleanliness, supervision, and' facilities for performance of the duties of the slaughtermen, was
very interesting to observe.  Their demeanor was' characterized by none of that brutality, apparent relish for cruelty, and
indifference to the dirt, filth, and disgusting scenes, which
those of our own country witness and participate in every
day of their lives. Not the least important feature. in the
establishment of outlying abattoirs is, that bone-boiling and
crushing, skin-dressing, glue, gut, horn, and manure-manufacturing, with numerous other noxious crafts in connection'with
the offal and refuse of slaughter-houses, highly prejudicial to
the public health,' and intolerable nuisances in the crowded
districts, where they are now carried on, would very soon




17:7
find their location outside -the town, in the neighborhood-.of
-the depots of the materiel which they require."
When the public abattoirs in Paris were completed, they
were handed over to the. use of the butchers, and all private
)laughter-houses were suppressed. Two indispensable conditions have been laid down for making use of an abattoirfirst, a copious -supply of good water; and secondly, complete arrangements for its being carried away after having been
used in the various processes of slaughtering the animals, and
in the washing and manipulations of their several parts.
Where the water cannot be brought by hand, it must be
pumped up by steam-engines.' It has been computed that a
single abattoir in Paris requires about 45,000 gallons of water
daily.  The sewers for the carrying off the waste and impure
water, are either special, and open directly into the Seine, or
communicate with public sewers, which have a uniform fall
towards the river,  Trials were made, but unsuccessfully, of
large pits filled with calcareous stones, for the reception of the
waters coming from an abattoir, and also of open drains to
convey the waters to the Seine.   Finally, an absorbing.Artesian well, 570 feet deep, was bored, and in this opening
all the bloody and saline water of the abattoir was allowed.to'
flow. The absorption went on at a uniform rate, and withaut
the escape of a single drop.of the inflowing water, or of any
odor, either inside, or 6xternal to the establishment.
In the public abattoirs, a. supervision can be, and is exercised over the health of the cattle.that are brought to be
slaughtered. None are allowed to be killed in them which
are laboring under contagious disease; nor can the' animals
affected with other diseases be slaughtered without the con-,sent..of the inspectors of the abattoir.
Cow-Houses.-These have become of late years regular
establishments in nearly all large cities. Though not diredtly
12




178
nor necessarily coming under the head of nuisances, yet inciL
dentally and too frequently they are made such.  The subject is doubly important-first, as it relates to the contamination of the surrounding air, by a failure to remove the excremental matters from the stables, and to keep them clean; and
secondly, by the bad milk obtained from cows pent up in
stables in which ventilation is not attended to.  Of the deleterious food given to these animals when kept in stables in
a city, and of the consequent.bad health  and diseases.
especially among the infantile portion of the inhabitants of a
city, we have already spoken.
Cow-keeping did not, elude the vigilance of the French
government. The regulations which exist have for their
object, to prevent overcrowding of the animals, to insure
cleanliness, and a sufficient ventilation of the stables.  It
appears, from a report of the Metropolitan Medical Officers of
Health on London cow-houses, that there are in that metropolis 846 of these establishments, containing 11,818 cows. The
Committee, in conclusion, offer the following rules for the regulation of cow-houses:
1. Every cow-house shall be paved with flag-paving or
other non-absorbent material, set and bedded in cement, with
a proper inclination to the foot of the stalls, so as to drain
into a channel leading, by a fall of not less than one and a half
inches, or ten feet in a trapped gully.
2. Every cow-house will be provided with a proper trapped
drain, to convey fluid matter alone into the sewers.
3. Every cow-house shall be furnished with an adequate
supply of water, and be washed thoroughly at least once a day.
4. All solid manure and refuse shall be carefully swept up
twice a day, be kept under cover, and be carted away every
~morning by seven o'clock from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and
by eight o'clock from Michaelmas to Lady-day.




179
5. Every cow-house shall be kept in proper condition, and
the walls be lime-washed at least four times a.year, within
fourteen days afterthe quarter.
6. Every cow-house shall have at least 8 feet by 4 feet for
each cow (when the cows are kept in separate stalls), or of 8
feet by 7 feet for every two cows (where the stalls are constracted to hold pairs), with a cubic capacity4 in either case,
of at least 1000 feet to each cow; shall be properly lighted
and ventilated, and when the state of the neighborhood requires it, shall be provided with tight roofs and ventilating
shafts, so as to convey the noxious exhalations above the level
of the adjacent houses.
7. Every yard in which a cow-house is situated, shall be
well paved with stone, or other impervious material (the- joints
of the paving to be run with grout), with such a slope towards
the channels and trapped gully, as to permit the rapid escape
of all fluids into' the sewer, and shall be washed at least once
a day.
8. The grain-bins and receptacles for wash, shall be kept
properly cleaned, and under cover.
9. No underground cellar, and no part of a dwelling-house,
shall be used-as cow-sheds.
Among the most grievous nuisances to which many neighborhoods have been subjected in London and other large
towns, is burial-grounds not adequate for complete sepulture.
Indeed, the practice of intra-mural interment, that is, of burial of the dead in a densely populated part of a city, must
altogether be regarded in the limlt of a nuisance. It is not
necessary to enlarge on this subject, as it has been made one
of saparate inves igation by your reporter, and as such it is
now oaTerel to the Convention as the completion of his labors
at this time.




180
INTERMENTS IN CITIES.
There yet remains one important branch of sanitary reform,
bearing on the public health, to which attention must now
be directed..It is interment of the dead in city limits.
Turning to present account the materials which, as chairmAia
of a committee appointed for -the purpose by the Philadelphia'County Medic'al Society, your reporter collected and presented
to that body, he now-offers this document, with some additions, as-a -cntribution, on -the part of the Committee on the
internal Hygiene of Cities, to the Quarantine and Sanitary
Convention.,.
The practice of intra-mural interments, -or of those within
the limits of ~ city ~or town, and especially in those parts of it
in which -people are congregated in numbers for fixed habitation, is always dangerous to the public health. It has caused,
-in numerous instahnces, sudden:death; and to a still greater:extent, it has been productive either of fatal disease, or of a
slow decay of the powers of life, and a breaking down of the
constitution. Enlightened legislation, from the earliest times,
has endevored to prevent, or if this could not be done, to
mitigate the evils attendant on interments in cities and towns.
Sometimes a religious sanction was given as the means best
adapted to attain these objects. This was the case in ancient
Egypt, in which, owing to the nature of the soil and the
annuaal overflow of the valley -of the Nile, inhumation could
- not be performed.in a proper manner; and hence the universal:resort to eiembalming. the dead, which came to be regarded both
-ts a dreligious and a hygienic -measure. The bodies thus prepared were afterwards deposited in grottos and in chambers
excavated- from tfhe rocks, the'walls of which were covered
with bas-relies -and fresco paintings, descriptive of the trades
uanid other occupations of the deceased.  The Etruscans, to
whom fRome was indebted for her ritual, her first sanitary
regulations, and the' construction of the great cloaque, took




181
wise precautions against the dead being a cause of disease and
of terror to the living, by arrangements for sepulture on such
a scale, that in their excavated cities of the dead, the traveer,
at the present time, sees sepulchral chambers so ample and
decorated, as to persuade him that he is actually in the houses
of the former inhabitants
In the primitive ages of Greece, the inhabitants buried their
dead in depositaries prepared for the purpose in their own
houses; and vaults in temples were sometimes used in this
way. But with the progress of refinement and better knowledge, the custom afterwards prevailed of carrying the dead
without the cities, and interring them chiefly by the highways.
Lycurgus, in this, as in most of his institutions, differed from
the rest of the Greek lawgivers, for he allowed the Lacedemo.nians not only to bury their dead in the city, but also a.ound
their temples. His object was to remove from the.minds of
the youth the fear of a dead body, as well as to destroy the
superstitious dread, that treading on a grave or touching a
dead body would defile. Burning the bodies of the dead
became general among the Greeks, from whom  the. Romans
afterwards borrowed the custom.
The ancient Jewish cemeteries were commonly situated
beyond the limits of cities and villages. It was, indeed, -the
custom among other nations of the East as well as among
the Hebrews, to bury out of the city, except in the case of
kings and very distinguished men. The Hebrews generally
exhibited a preference for burying in gardens, and beneath
shady trees. Large subterranean places' of interment were
frequently to be found in Palestine: in some instances they
were the work of nature; in some they were merely artificial
excavations of the earth, and in others were cut out from
rocks. Numerous sepulchres of this kind are still found in
Syria and also in. Egypt. Examples of these subter.an.an
quarries, used probably for the same purpose, are seen at




182
Marsala (the ancient Lilybeaum) in Sicily, Syracuse, Salerno,
Malta, and, in the north at Maestricht, &c.; and perhaps,
adds Mr. Burton,* the celebrated labyrinth in the island
of Crete was formed originally by excavations of the kind,
But by far the most remarkable are those discovered of late
years by Laborde, in the remains of the large and wealthy
city of Petra, the ancient Edom. They are of incredible
number and extent, and of various forms and dimensions.
Some of them are houses and palaces; but the greater number are tombs and the like sepulchral monuments. They not
only occupy the foot of the entire mountain by which the
valley is encompassed,- but the ravines and recesses which:
branch out from the inclosed area. Ranged in regular order,
like houses of a well-built city, they would extend, we are
told by the Rev. Dr. Olin, who visited the place, not less
than five or six miles'in length. The fagades of many of
these rock tombs are decorated with great architectural and
sculptural beauty; the more striking on account of the utter
solitude and desolationin which they are found.
The Carthaginians buried their dead at some distance from
the city. The Necropolis was situated beyond the suburbs,
or the new town, Megara, as it was called, which, itself,
was made up chiefly of gardens intersected by canals for the
purpose of irrigation.
In the brightest or the republican period of the history of
Rome, down to the time of Sylla, the ordinary method of
inhumation was practised in either public or private places..
The private were in fields and;gardens, often on the sides of
the most frequented roads, so as to attract the notice of those'
that passed, and it may have been also to remind them of
their mortality.  Hence the frequent inscriptions 6n the
tombs:  Stop, Traveler;  Behold, Traveler, &c. (SESTE
VIATOR; ARPICE VIATOR), seen on the Appian, the Aurelian,
* Description of the Antiquities and other Curiosities of Rome




183
the Flaminian, and other roads. Public places, such as the
Campus Esquilinus outside the Esquiline gate, were granted
by the Senate' for poor people. The vast accumulation of
the dead at this spot rendered the neighborhood so unhealthy,
that Augustus, with the consent of the Senate, gave part of it
to his favorite MIecenas, who built on it a magnificent house,
aid surrounded it by extensive gardens. The Roman law
was very decided in its prohibition of the burial of the dead
within the city; and only in a few exceptional cases was any
relaxation permitted. The vestal virgins and some illustrious
men were favored in this way. The right of sepulture for
himself within the poemarium, or open space left both within
aid outside of the walls, was decreed to Julius Caesar, as an
unusual privilege. By the emperors the original law was
anforced with a severity which was rendered the more necesSary by its frequent infractions on the part of the people, who
believed the worship of their household gods and the manes of
W4eir ancestors to be more acceptable in the vicinity of the
4ad. Adrian decreed the confiscation of the land on which
a tomb was reared within the city limits, and the exhumation
of the body which had been buried.
Burning the bodies of the dead, of which mention is made
in the laws of Numa and of the Twelve Tables, did not become general until towards the end of the republic. Under
the emperors the custom was almost universal, but it afterwards gradually declined on the introduction of Christianity,
and fell into disuse about the end of the fourth century. The
Romans prohibited both the burning and the burial of the
dead in the city; in the former case in order that houses
might not be endangered by the frequency of funeral fires,
and the air, contaminated by the stench arisingTfrom them.
The Senate House, contiguous to the Forum, was burned by
the flames extending from the funeral pile of Clodius.
The canons of the Christian Church, in imitation of the




184
civil law, were opposed to interments in cities, and also in
their churches, but with indifferent success.  Theperniciovus
examples set by the Emperor Constantine, who, in pursuance
of his expressed wish, was buried in the vestibule'of the
Basilica of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, and by
Honorius, who found a sepulchre in the portico of the Church
of St. Peter's, at Rome, soon had numerous imitators among
the patricians and great officers of the state. Vainly did suce
ceeding emperors forbid intra-mural interments, and endeavor
to, restrict the privilege to martyrs alone.  Mistaken piety,
superstition, and the vranity of the rich and the powerful, prevailed over imperial edicts, and before the sixth century there
were not only numerous interments in towns, but the practicf
of'sepulture in churches was also on the increase. The monk~
obtained permission to be buried in the cloisters of their con-:
vents, and the founders of churches procured for themselves
the same privilege.  Charlemagne, toward the close of the;
eighth century, seconding the wise reform of these abuses be-:;
gun by Theodolphus, bishop of Orleans, prohibited the burial
of the laity in churches, and eventually of all persons what,
ever. But the evil was not arrested, although attempts were'",
made'with this view by numerous great councils of the Catholic- Church, held in different parts of Europe, from the beginning of the ninth to the latter part of the sixteenth century.
Why prohibitions, enjoined under such solemnity, were so
long  and so extensively disregarded, may be understood
for the reasons already assigned. To these should be added
another and constantly nullifying cause, viz.: the cupidity of
the clergy, who derived large fees for the permission which
they granted to bury in churches or contiguous porticos; and
this often in despite of positive enactments by some of the
councils against such abuses.  Even somewhat less than a
century ago, or in 1766, the Parliament of Paris, disregarding
the remonstrances of the physicians, who had called the attention of the government to the danger of intra-mural burials,




185
continued the permission to the clergy to be interred in the
churches. It was not long, however, before the clerical body,
animated by a more enlightened spirit, gave up privileges
which were productive of so much danger to the public health;
and at the present time the traveler has an opportunity of admiring the numerous and tastefully-arranged suburban and
rural cemeteries in France, Italy, and Germany, which have
replaced the crowded and often closely body-packed and.
noisome grave-yards and church-vaults in the central parts of
the cities.
The practice by the first Christians of interring their dead
in the city of Rome, grew out of the peculiar circumstances in
which they were placed as a persecuted sect. As such they
were compelled to hold their religious meetings and to celebrate
their rites at night, and in retired and obscure spots; and for
this purpose no places were better fitted than the subterranean
caves and passages known ever since as the Catacombs. There
they met to worship, there they baptized their children and
neophytes; and in many instances they deposited their dead in
excavations made in the sides of these numerous galleries and
avenues. These excavations were originally begun, and must
have been carried on to a great extent for the purpose of pro-.
curing building materials. How far they were increased by
the primitive Christians in Rome, is a matter of doubt. The
length of these subterranean streets, in different directions, and
taken altogether, has "been estimated by late investigators at
about nine hundred miles. According to Father Marchi, the
Roman Catacombs may be believed to contain the prodigious
number of nearly seven millions of graves. When Christianity came to be tolerated so as to admit of freedom of worship
in the open day, grants of pieces of ground for the burial ofthe dead were made by converted publicans and Roman leaders, and' thus were begun the intra-mural cemeteries, with
their chapels, which, in process of time, became parish




186
churxches. Some of the cemeteries of the rural parishes were
after a time comprised in the limits of the city by its subsequent extension. The history of the quarries in the tufa hills,
near Naples, is similar to those of Rome: both of them supplied building materials, and both were converted into catacombs for Christian worship and burial. In the first centuries
after the Christian era, so far was interment in churches from
being allowed, that the presence of a solitary tomb was deemed to be sufficient cause for preventing the erection of a house
of worship. The cemeteries, however, were soon placed, probably by the terms of their original grants, under ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, and continued to be so during the middle ages,
and as low down as the middle -of the sixteenth century.  It
was owing to this circumstance that sanitary reforms, which
seemed to be of a purly mundane valve, were so slow in being
brought about. In modern times, the subject of the control
of cemeteries is properly viewed as a municipal affair, and as
such it ought to be studied and regulated with an eye solely
to the public good.
* It is not necessary to enlarge on the terrible penalties which
result from a neglect of the natural laws, established on an
unchangeable basis, by the Deity himself, nor to present in
detail the loss of life, and in other respects wide-spread injury
to the public health, caused by an infraction of these laws in
the long-continued custom of interments in churches and in
grave-yards within city limits.  Medical men have never
ceased to protest against it, and to point out the evils, sometimes amounting to frightful catastrophes, from  its continuance. In some instances these results were caused by the
escape of pestiferous air from recently-opened vaults in
churches; in others by its extrication on a larger scale, and
with more concentrated virulence, from the earth of old burying-grounds, which had been turned up with a view to their
being occupied for other purposes.  The efforts of Navier to




187
enlighten the-people of the government of France on the sub —
ject were so far successful, that a royal decree was issued in
the following year (1776) limiting the privilege of sepulture in
churches to some of the higher dignitaries in church and state.
In a small tract written a few years (in 1768) before this time,
the author anticipated many of the views and suggestions put
forward of late'years by Mr. Chadwick. Vicq d'Azyr ten
years later, yielding to the solicitations of his friend D'Alembert, snatched time from his profound studies and experimental
observations in anatomy and physiology, to translate a volume
from the Italian of Scipio Patioli, on the subject of the selection of proper places for interment, and the dangers resulting
from a neglect of the observances required on the occasion
Within the last few years the attention of the people of
Great Britain has been thoroughly aroused to the enormities
of intramural interments, especially as witnessed in London,
by the labors of Walker and Chadwick.  One cannot read
without feelings of sickening and disgust, the details of the
state of some of the grave-yards of the metropolis; and
it must be a matter of surprise to every reflecting mind,
that such scenes as are exhibited- in the pages of these
writers should have been so long tolerated by any people
pretending to civilization, or possessed of ordinary sensibility  and intelligence.  In  a  report on extramural
sepulture by the General Board of Health, it =was stated
that " there could not be less than two hundred, and probably
more, burial-grounds in London, situated at various distances
from each other, and each differing in extent. These constitute two hundred centres of more or less pollution, each
pouring out unceasingly, day and night, its respective contribution of decaying matter, but the whole together, reckoning
only the gas from decomposing human remains, amounting, as
we have seen, in one year, to upwards of two million and a
half of cubic feet. Whatever portion of these gases is not ab



sorbed by the earth-earth already surcharged with the accOumulation of centuries-and whatever part does not mix with.
and contaminate the water, must be emitted. into the atmosphere, bearing with them, as we know, putrescent matters
peiceptible to sense. That. these emanations do act injuriously
on the health of the people resident in the immediate neighborhood of the places'from which theyy issue, appears' to us, by
the evidence that has been adduced, to be indubitably established. From the law of diffusion of gases, they must be
rapidly spread thfrough the whole of the atmosphere that surrounds the metropolis, and though they thereby become diluted, and are thus rendered proportionally innocuous, yet that
they- do materially contribute to the contamination of the air
breathed by two millions of the people, cannot, we think, admit of reasonable doubt. We submit, therefore, that a case
is made out for the total prohibition of interments within the
metropolis, on account of the injiry resulting from the practice
to public health."  The argument of the General Board of
Health was a convincing one, and it led to the Interment Act
of 1850, the passage of which was probably facilitated by the
favoring influence of the clergy of the Established Church,
headed by the Bishop of London. Evidence was adduced by
the Board of Health, to show that severe complaints in the
vicinity of some of the church-yards, almost invariably prove
fatal; and also, that the pestilential atmosphere thus formed
became a fit radius for the poison of cholera during the fatal
year of 1849.
But the exhalations into the atmosphere are not the only
evils. Mr. George A. Walker had shown, years before,
that the fluid portions of the decomposing body pass into the
earth, and together with resulting gases, percolate through the
walls of houses and drains, and find their way into gully-holes,
and thence into the air of the streets.  It is not improbable
that legislative action: was quickened (in the case of the Inter



1_89.ment Act) by the annoyance to which the members of the
House of Commons were exposed from a stench exhaling from
gully-holes in the neighborhoo&d   M. Gallo, the surveyor,
declared it to be produced by the percolation of gases and anirmal compounds from the over-charged church-yard of St.:Margaret's, immediately opposite. Mr. Walker, in a letter
to the "editor -of the Journal of Public lIealth," in which
he had stated this fact, writes, in addition:'"I have frequently demonstrated that a single inspiration. of the- products of human putrefaction has, in innumerable individual
anM  collective instances, instantly destroyed life; in others
produced lingering consumption, typhus, scarlet fever, &c.,'&c.,.whilst in other-cases ruined health and crippled usefulness have been the clearly, traceable consequences resulting
from -exposure to human remains in a state of decomposition"'
A case related by Mr. Chadwick, and which came under his
own- observation, may be related here, as serving to point the
moraI- of a longer history in the same vein.  In one of his.walks with Professor Owen, he met -with a butcher, who, in
-eply to some inquiries about his health, stated the following
particu-lars.'This man had lived -a long time in Bear yard,
hnear Clare market, where he was exposed to two deleterious
-..influences-shambles on one side and a tripe-house on the
-other. His attention to his own impaired health, under such
circumstances, was quickened by -observing that it was -imp9ssible for him to keep birds, of which he was extremely.
fond, -in this place.  "You may hang up a cage," said he,
"'in any window of the corn-houses round Bear yard, and not
a bird will live out the -week."  What most annoyed them
among the congregation of odors, was the vapor rising from
-the fat in the process -of preparing the tripe.  Some time before this, he had occupied a room in Portugal street, overlooking a crowded church-yard, from which he often saw a dense
vapor rise, that had a very offensive odor. The butcher's




190
birds died there in brief time, and the good man found that
he could only preserve new purchases by removing his quarters to Vere street, beyond the range of deleterious emanations.
Among the many wise laws enacted for the benefit of the
people by the government of the republic, after the subversion
of the monarchy in France, were those relating to interments.
By a decree of the 23d prairial, in the year XII. of'the Republic (12th June, 1804), burial in churches, temples, synagogues, and all other edifices devoted to religious worship, or
in the limits of any city, town, or village, was prohibited;
and, at the same time, provision was directed to be made for
interring the dead in cemeteries beyond. town limits. It
was decreed in 1808, under the empire, that there should
be no dwelling built, or well dug, within 125 yards of the
new cemeteries. In Prussia, the distance of cemeteries. from
towns varies from  100 to 1000 yards.  Some English
writers recommend an interval of six to seven hundred yards
between the two. The French law requires that five years
must elapse before the same grave can be opened for a second
interment, so that time' may be allowed for the decomposition of the body first inserted, before another is deposited
in its place. In the case of the city of Marseilles, with a
population of one hundred thousand inhabitants, and an annual mortality of three thousand persons, it has been estimated
that six thousand square metres, or about six thousand five
hundred square yards of ground, would be required for the
purpose of interment during a single year; assuming that to
each body, separately, to be buried, there ought to be allowed
a space of two square metres, or six and a half square feet.
But as five years must elapse between successive interments
in the same spot, the entire extent of ground necessary for
the burial wants of a population of one hundred thousand
persons, is thirty thousand square metres, or about thirty-two




thousand five hundred square yards. Various estimates have
been made of the time that must elapse before the entire decomposition and destruction of the body, leaving only the
skeleton or the bones entire. Some, like Gmelin, make the
period thirty to forty years;. others, with Walker, at seven
years; Orfila, again, found, by actual experiments instituted
for the purpose, that a body, even when inclosed in a coffin,
would, after interment, be reduced to the state of a skeleton
in a period varying from fourteen to eighteen months. Much,
in all these calculations, must depend on the nature of the
soil in which interments take place. The legislation on the
subject of the time that should intervene between the deposit
of dead bodies in the same grave also varies.  In Hesse
Darmstadt, and in Prussia, an interval of thirty years is exacted; in the city, of Leipsic, fifteen years; in Milan, ten
years; in Munich, the capital of Bavaria, nine years.  The
law in France, as above stated, may be considered as meeting the exigencies of the case. Much less difference occurs
in the enactments prescribing the depth of the grave opened
for the reception of a dead body.  In most countries, including Russia, this is somewhat more than six feet; in
Frankfort on the Main, it is four feet seven inches; and. in
Lindon, the bishop used to direct a depth of between four and
five feet.
Danger to the public health does not end with the permanent closure of a cemetery, and by the discontinuance of
burial within its limits.  Years must elapse before the' soil
can be broken up for other purposes, such as the construction
of houses or the digging out of trenches or drains. It has
been found that the soil of a. burying-ground, in which a succession of bodies in large numbers has been laid, becomes in
process of time, unfitted to bring about the putrefactive changes
in bodies of more recent deposit, so as to render them, in a
great degree, innocuous. The soil, under such circumstances,




1.92
becomes saturated, to adopt language of recent introduction,
as. applied to this subject, and animalized to suich a'degree,
that it cannot be disturbed without exhaling poisonous vapors,.and gases, which, in many instances, have proved suddenly
fatal to those who inhaled them. Vicq d'Azyr tells of. the
breaking up of the soil of an old cemetery in the heart of the
town. of Riom, in Auvergne, with a design to public improvement, which was followed, soon after, by an'endemic disease,
that carried off a large number of the inhabitants, particularly,of the poorer classes; and it was..noticed that the mortality
was greatest in the neighborhood of the cemetery.  A similar
calamity, from the same cause, had occurred six years before,
in a small town called Ambert, also in Auvergne.  The- spot
on which had stood a convent of the Daughters of St: Genevieve, at Paris, was eventually appropriated for the erection:on it of several shops. All the first occupants of these new
shops, and especially young persons, suffered from diseases
nearly of the same kind —effects attributed, with good reason,
to the exhalations from the bodies -of those who had been buried
in this ground.  M. Tardieu, to whose work-a Dictionary of
Public.Hygiene,* &c.-we are indebted for the -preceding details,iwrites, that he has heard many of the old inhabitants
who occupied houses near the church of St. Severus, in Paris,
say, that when the weather was mild and damp, there arose
from the ground, which had been used for so many centuries
as a place of interment, a dense vapor, of such a sickening.nature-as to force them to close the windows, in order to escape
serious consequences.  Aniother incident to the -same purport,
which occurred-also in Paris, is worthy of notice.  After the
memorable three days -of July, 1830, great -difficulty was experienced in procuring.immediate sepulture for those who had
fallen in the fight. A provisional inhumation of a certain
number was directed to take place in the ground of the Market
-*Dictionnaire. d'Hygiene Publique et de Salubrit6. 0 vols. Paris, 185-4.




1'93
of  the: Innocents, the-spot anciently occupied is a cemetery,
in long use. A trenchwas accordingly dug, of about twelve
feet in length, by seven in width, and ten deep. When the
pavement was taken up, and. a layer of sand of about six
inches in depth removed, a dark and greasy earth was exposed:to view, mixed with bones and remains of coffins, which it
was necessary to break up. The exhalations arising,. in con-.
sequence, were so fetid and poisonous as to suffocate immediately one of the workmen.
Taking into consideration the alarming and often fatal effects following the disturbance of the soil of old cemeteries,.
the first republican government of France enacted as one -of
the clauses of the law respecting interments, of which we have
previously spoken, that no.cemetery after its final closure,.
should be appropriated to any other purpose short of a period
of ten years.  Grass or grain might be sown in it, and trees
planted, but no deep digging, or foundation for buildings
should be begun, until permission was regularly granted. for'the purpose.. Reference being had to the different opinions
held respecting the time required for the entire decomposition
of a body after its inhumation, it may be readily supposed'that there would be corresponding differences in the. legislative
enactments in different countries, in regard to. the period that
ought to elapse before a cemetery, finally closed, could.be used
for any other than its original purpose.
If we appeal to chemistry for aid in detecting the deleterious
gases given out from grave-yards, and more particularly from.
the- soil after it has been dug, as in opening a grave, or from
vaults in which the dead hadd been deposited, we learn that
the gas. most largely extricated is carbonic acid, and also
carbonate and sulphydrate of. ammonia. Dr. Reid states,
that, ih some church-yards he. has "noticed the gro-und
to be absolutely saturated with carbonic acid gas, so that
whenever'.  a deep grave was dug, it was filled in- some
1.3




194
hours afterwards with such an amount of carbonic acid
gas, that the workmen could not descend without danger.
Deaths have, indeed, occurred in some church-yards from'this:cause."  But chemistry still.fails to,enlighten us fully respecting -the nature or composition of those subtle poisons called
miasma, which under so many circumstances generate widespreading and fatal disease. The vitiation of the'air of the
hospitals, dormitories in barracks, and in crowded assemblies,
is, to a certain extent, made explicable by a minute increase
of carbonic acid in these places.  As evincing the great penetrativeness of these miasms, Dr. Reid tells us that he has
detected their escape from graves more than twenty feet deep.
The'extent of the facts now collected respecting the evils
attending the practice of interments in cities in different parts
of the world, and the almost uniform course of legislation, both
civil and canonical, prohibiting the practice, can hardly fail of
being applicable to the' actual condition of things in our own
country.  Looking at the large and increasing population of
our chief cities, the dearness of ground, and the economy of
building-space, now so carefully studied, every question relating to the public health becomes of more and more importance.
All preventable causes which diminish the purity of the air,
or vitiate it by the addition of deleterious gases and miasms,
ought to be, as far as possible, withdrawn. The increase of
rural or suburban cemeteries for the burial of the dead, has
doubtless had a share in abating the mischief which universal
experience shows - to be the frequently incidental, if not constant effect of interments in its more crowded districts.  It is
desirable now to take a farther and final step, and to ask that
the growing partiality for extra-urban cemeteries should become not only a common, but a universal custom, sustained
and enforced by formal municipal enactment.
Several years since, the Sanitary Committee of the Board
of Health of Philadelphia, made a report on this subject,




1956
and offered a, resolution, that in the opinion of'ine Board,;
interments of the dead within the densely populated parts
of the city of Philadelphia and adjoining districts, ought
to be discouraged.  A carefully drawn bill, accompanying
the resolutions of the Board, was sent to Harrisburgh for
legislative action, but without effect. The period which has
intervened between that and the present time has not diminished the evils complained of, nor rendered a reform lessnecessary i for the relief afforded by the voluntary extra-urban
interments has not kept pace with the increase of population.
The following language of the Sanitary Cdmmittee, Just
referred to, is as full of warning and monition to other cities
as it is to the people and the municipal authorities of Philadelphia: " Your Committee are convinced that the grounds
of our own metropolis are even now sources of danger to the
health of our citizens, and that every year the danger result-,
ing Ifrom these must augment.  Scattered as they are over
every neighborhood, surrounded by a dense and constantlyincreasing population, and many of them  already comparatively crowded with dead bodies, which are carelessly, and in
many instances superficially interred, some of the grounds,
particularly those belonging to the colored congregations, are,
even now, decided nuisances, injurious to the health of the
neighborhood in which- they are located." Dr. Wilson Jewell,
who has given much attention to public hygiene, does
not hesitate to declare, after careful personal inspection and
inquiry, that there is not a burial-ground in the thickly
populated -parts of' Philadelphia, which has been in use
during a period of fifteen to twenty years, which does not
contain twice the number of bodies that the ground is capable of allowing to be dcomrnpoed; in other words, that it has
passed its point of saturation.  In some cemeteries in this
city, it is no common thinog to d3posit three, tour, and even.
five, bodies in one grave, until their decomposing remains
reach within eighteen inches, and even a foot, of the surface.




.196
There -are grave-yards in the city, of modern date, which al..ready show marks 0of being crowded with the dead;. and' although when first -opened, they were on the borders of the
city.; and almost rural,'they are now surrounded by streets,
regularly built, which, ere many years have passed, will become' densely inhabited. One of the cemeteries thus situated,
and the first we believe laid out as a private speculation, alittle more. than thirty years ago, has' received during this
period, as Dr. Jewell was- informed, upwards of 11,000
bodies. It occupies a space equal to one of our Philadelphia
squares. Mr. White, some years ago City Inspector of New
York, in his' report for 1850, speaks pointedly of the nui* sances of many of the grave-yards of that city. He had'some of
them  closed during the prevalence of the Cholera in 1849.
Under such circumstances, a.sudden addition to the number
of interments in these places, as in times of epidemic diseases,
-would not.be without danger, and might. give rise to catastrophes on a large scale,. analogous to those which..occurred in
-foreign lands, and some of which have'been recorded in the
-present report.
Not having been required to invesigate the whole -subject
of interments, we' do not deem it necessary to specify.the kinds
of soil most favorable for the purpose of accelerating Ihe desired
changes in the decomposition of. the body buried, nor have
we inquired into the sanitary influence of plantations of trees
in cemeteries, with a view to the purification of the air of these
spots., We must not omit, however, referring to a plan re-.cently suggested, and in some places carried into effect, in
England. It is, to surround'the bodies of the. dead, before
they are finally inclosed, with a layer some four.'inches thick
of finely powdered wood or peat charcoal.  By this means the
decay of the animal textures would go on rapidly, and without
giving rise to dangerous exhalations.  In the burial.of the
poor this plan merits a favorable consideration,.and it must in



a197.
deed commend itself as worthy of adoption by all classes.!
The experiments of Dr. Stenhouse place the subject of the
operation of vegetable charcoa;l on dead bodies in a new and
instructive light, by showing, contrary to popular belief, that,
although a deodorizing and disinfecting agent, it is not an antiseptic.proper, which gives stability to organic matter, and prevents its decomposition.  Charcoal, and, in less degree, clay,
produce a species of slow combustion, by which the miasms
are gradually consumed.
Without being called upon to look at the subject of intramural interments under its purely moral and religious aspects,
we are nevertheless free to allude to the depressing, and in
such times morbid influence, exerted on- the community by its
being compelled to witness the -frequent, and in visitations of
certain fearful' epidemics, the almost continual succession of
funeral processions.  This is a matter of public health, in discussing which, medical testimony cannot be overlooked.
Were it necessary, clerical experience could also be invoked in
favor of suburban burials in preference to those in the city,
whether regard be had to the desirableness of the uninterrupted solemnities of.the burial service, the avoidance of whatever'would grate on the: already harrowed feelings of attending
relatives and friends, and the preserving unbroken the associa-'tions of an elevated and religious character, with the sight of
the memorials to the'dead and of the spot where their bodies
rest.   *   *   *   *
There are yet other matters worthy of notice which might
serve to show still further the importance and economy of
sanitary measures to cities, and of which  it would be'
-desirable to treat.  A topic of considerable moment in all
commercial cities  is the structure of the  wharves, so'that there shall be nothing  in  the materials of which
they are  made, susceptible  of decay and decomposition.
So also of quays in every town on the banks of a river,




198
and their construction so as to narrow the channel and diminish the exposed surface at; low water, on both of the sides of
the river. One measure in the internal hygiene of cities ought to
be a careful supervision of all stables, cow-houses, and piggeries, and vigilance in the removal of heaps of manure, accumulated under no matter what excuse. Ascending / the scale of
the duties of sanitary supervision, would come that of manufactories and of work-shops, which may be termed public, by
their extent and the number of persons employed; also of all
buildings in which people assemble in numbers at stated
times. Minute inquiries are made into the structure and arrangement of the rooms, and the number and plan of fire-places,'furnaces, and stoves, before an insurance against fire can be
effected. Why then should there be any hesitation about a
similarly careful investigation by the sanitary authorities, with
a view to insurance against preventable diseases among the
inmates of a house?
Iia concluding this report, its author must express his regret at not having had the time to treat in a rigidly methodical manner the various topics which have come under notice.
He submits, however, that, while adhering with some closeness to the terms of his instructions, he has made out a case
showing the paramount necessity for a methodical and liberal,
yet prudent, system of sanitary legislation, and the Wisdom of
adopting such a code as the Metropolitan Sanitary one, which
will be presented to the Convention by one of our Committee.
The time, we may hope, is not remote when the writer on sanitary subjects, especially if he desires exactness of detail, and
comparisons and results of an authentic kind, set forth numerically,.will not be obliged, as he now is, to procure most of
his arguments and enforcements of reform from abroad, owing
to the deficiency of statistical knowledge and the underrating its
value here at home, so that he is deprived of the requisite data
either to show with accuracy the extent of existing evils, or




199
to point out the means for their removal.  One measure of the,
highest importance, and without which nothing trustworthy
can be learned of vital statistics, direct or comparative, is a
system of births, deaths; and marriages, regularly carried out
in every State of the Union.








1D  R  -A- IF T
OF A
SANITARY CODE FOR CITIES,
(Reprted to the Committee on Internz Hygiene.)
BY HENRY G. CLARK, M.D., OF BOSTON,
ONE OF THE COMMITTEE.








CONTENTS.
PAGE.
PUBLIC HEALTH ACT,...                                           205
SANITARY CODE FOR CITIES,.207
Sanitary Survey,..                     209
Sewerage,.                           211
Cleansing,.....   215
Slaughter-Houses,...                                218
Markets,.....   218
Dram-Shops and Drinking-Houses,.                           221
Lodging-Houses,.                                          221
Cellars,....               222
New Streets.and Houses,                                    223
Supply of Water,.                                         224
Ventilation,..                           225
Pleasure-Grounds,......    226
Epidemic and Contagious Diseases,                          226
Vaccination,                                               227
Interment of the Dead,.....    227
General Provisions,..                    230
APPENDIX,...                233








205
DRAFT
OF AN ACT FOR ESTABLISHING.rENERAL AND LOCAL BOARDS
OF HEALTH, AND FOR OTHER SANITARY PURPOSES.*
AN ACT, in addition to existing Acts, for promoting the
Public Health.
WHEREAS it is expedient that further and more effectual
provision should be made forimproving the sanitary condition
of populous places: Be it therefore enacted by the Senate
and House of Representatives in General Court assembled,
and by the authority of the same, as follows; that is to
say:
I. This act may be cited for all purposes as "The Public
Health Act, 1860."
II. The Governor of the Commonwealth, with the advice
and consent of the Council, shall appoint five discreet and
suitable persons, three at least of whom shall be Doctors of.
Medicine, who, together with the Secretary of State for the
time being, and the Governor, ex-officiis, shall together be
and constitute a Board, to be called "The General Board
of Health;" and shall have and execute all the powers and
duties necessary for superintending and promoting the
general sanitary affairs of the State.
III. They shall hold their offices for five years, or until
others are appointed in their place; and -they shall be
~sworn to the faithful performance of their duty.
IV. They shall meet at such convenient times as they
deem expedient, and their necessary official expenses shall
be paid out of the Treasury of the State; but they shall
receive no other compensation for their services.
V. They shall appoint a competent person, who may also
be the Register-General, to be the Secretary or Actuary of' For the debate on this Report, see pp. 86, et seq., and pp. 226, et seq., of
the Proceedings.




-206
the Iboard, who shall receive such a salary, not exceeding
dollars per annum, as. the
Board shall determine, They shall also appoint, if need be,
a competent physician, who shall be styled a Medical
Health Officer, and another competent person for Surveyor,
who shall be removable at their pleasure, and who shall
receive such fees or other compensation as the Board may,
from time to time, determine.
They may also appoint and employ such other persons
as: may be necessary to carry into effect the sanitary laws
of the State, and delegate to them the necessary powers,
subject to the approval of the local Boards of Health, hereinafter provided for.
VI. They shall consider and decide upon- sanitary questions submitted to them by the State, cities, towns,'or
local Boards of Health.
VII. They shall, by reports or otherwise, diffuse information to the inhabitants of the State on sanitary matters;
and shall aid, by regulations, suggestions, and by furnishing blanks, &c., the various local Boards of Health.
VIII. The corporate authorities of the various cities and
towns of this Commonwealth are hereby authorized and empowered to establish local Boards of Health, and to enact
and enforce, generally and severally, such laws, ordinances,
and regulations, as they may deem,expedient or necessary
for promoting the sanitary condition of the said cities and
towns, and as are not inconsistent with the Constitution
and laws of the State.
IX. And the said authorities are also authorized to delegate to the said local Boards of Health, or other agents, all
the powers necessary for the convenient execution of said
laws, ordinances, and regulations.
X. All acts, and parts of acts, incompatible with this
act, are hereby repealed.




207
DRAFT
OF AN ORDINANCE FOR PROMOTING THE HEALTH OF TOWNS.
SANITARY CODE FOR CITIES.
Whereas, by an Act of the Legislature, in the year 1860, entitled " The Public Health Act,," this Corporation has been
duly authorized and empowered to make all needful rules and
regulationsfor the prieservationof the health of its inhabitants:
Be it therefore ordained by the Councils of the Town of —,
and by authority thereof, asfollows, to wit:
I. This Ordinance shall be cited for all purposes as
"The Sanitary Code for Cities."
II. The duty of executing and enforcing the provisions
of this "Code" is hereby vested in a Board of Health, at
least one-third of the members. of which shall be Doctors
of Medicine, to be chosen by the Councils, or in such other
way as the legal voters'may determine; and they are
hereby constituted the local Board of Health, with all the
powers and privileges usually invested in Boards of Health,
and with such further especial powers as may be conferred
by the provisions of this Ordinance.
III. And said local Board, or its authorized agents, shall
have the right at all times to,enter into or- upon any
premises for the purposes of this Ordinance, and also to
call upon any of the officers or of the police, to aid them
in the execution of its provisions. 
IV. In the construction, and for the purposes of this
Ordinance, the following words and expressions shall have
the meanings hereinafter assigned to them; that is to say:
The term " person," and words applying' to any individUal, shall apply to, and include corporations, aggregate or
sole.
The; term  "owner" shall mean the person for the time
being entitled to the rent of the land or premises in con



'nection with which the term is used, wnether on his::wn
account, or as trustee or agent for any other person.
The expression, "Improvement Commissioners,'" shall
-mean the commissioners, trustees, or other persons, intrusted by any local act with powers of cleansing, paving,
or otherwise improving any town.:The-term ",-town" shall also include "cities,' or any
-othermunicipal corporation.': The: term  "land' shall include messuages, buildings,
lands; and hereditaments of every-tenure; -:also rivers,:streams, wells, and waters of every description; also ease-:ments of any description in respect of the foregoing par~-:: The term  "waste-pipe" shall mean the pipe which discharges the waste-water from within. any house into the
drain.: -The term " drain" shall mean any drain Qf, and used for
the drainage of one building only, or premises within the
same curtilage, and. made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom with a: cess-pool or other like recept.acle for drainage, or with: a sewer, into which the drainage, of two or more:buildings or premises., occupied by.different persons, is conveyed.
The term "sewer " shall mean and include sewers and
drains of every description, except drains to which: the:.word " drain," interpreted as aforesaid, applies.::.The term,  slaughter-house," shall mean and include
the buildings and places commonly called slaughter-houses
~and knackers' yards,' and any building or- place used for
slaughtering cattle, horses, or animals of any-description.
- The term "district't shall mean the entire area, places, or.parts of places, comprised within the limits of any district
towhich this " Code," or any part -thereof, shall be ap'id..:
The term "street" shall include. a square, circus, icrs



:209
cent,- terrace, place, row, mews, alley, court, passage, or
or other like place in which the houses are continuous, or
separated only by small intervals of space.
The word "house" shall include schools, factories -and
other buildings, in which more than twenty persons are
assembled at one time.
SANITARY SURVEY.
V. There shall be made, annually, a thorough sanitary
survey of the town or district, as the case may be; and at
any other time, when it shall appear from the returns to
the Registrar that the number of deaths shall exceed, annually, that of twenty-five to a thousand of the population
of such place.
And the Board of Health may, -if in their discretion they
think fit, direct the Medical Health Officer to cause public
inquiry to be made as to the following matters and things,
or -any of them; that is to say:- 
As to the sewerage, drainage, and water-supply;
As to the numnber and sanitary condition of the inhab-,
-itants;
As to the accumulation of filth;
As to- any other matter of which the Board may requj-e
to be informed.
VI., The said survey shall be made in the manner following, to wit:
The Medical Health Officer shall have the right to callupon the Chief of Police, who shall detail for this service a
sufficient number of the regular patrol force, who shall act
as inspecting health officers. But during an epidemnic season, or when any medical facts are to be obtained, the inspectors shall be Doctors or Students of Medicine.
Upon receiving his instructions, each officer will com-]
mence and diligently prosecute his inquiries; carefully no14




210:ticing the state of the streets, lanes, courts, passages, common stairs, houses, rooms, cellars, yards, or vacant lots -in
his assigned district; reporting in detail, and in writing, all
accumulations of filth; all cases where the waste-pipes,
drains, or water-closets are foul or obstructed; all cases of
prevailing sickness, especially where there is great overtrowding, or unusual destitution; also all cases of dead
bodies found in single-living rooms.
The reports may be made in the manner of the blank
forms hereto annexed. (See Appendix A.)
VII. When any nuisance or other source of disease is
discovered, notice, in the proper form (see Appendix B), is
to be served- upon the owners or occupants, forth-with to
abate the same, and in case of refusal or neglect for a
period of     hours, the Medical Health Officer is authorized and directed to cause the same to be abated or removed in the most summary manner; and he is hereby
authorized to call upon the Chief of Police, the Engineer,
the Registrar, and the Superintendents of Health,. of
Streets, and of Drains, to aid him in such removal.
The expense of such removals or abatements of nuisances (of which an accurate account is to be kept), shall:be chargeable to the owners or occupants of the premises.
These measures shall be so continuously pursued as to
prevent, as far as possible, any reaccumulation of. the
causes of disease sought to be removed, and each officer
shall be held strictly responsible for the sanitary condition
-of his assigned district.
All persons, acting under and by the. authority of this
order, may be authorized to enter upon and into any premises which it may be necessary to visit, in compliance with
its provisions; but their object'in so doing must be first
stated to the occupants, and all unnecessary annoyance to
them most carefully avoided.




211
SEWERAGE.
VIII. The said Board of Health may,if they shall think
fit, cause to -be prepared, or procure a map, exhibiting a
system of sewerage for effectually draining their district
for the purpose of this Ordinance, upon a scale to be prescribed by the General Board of Health;- and every:such
map shall be kept at the office of the said Board, and shall,
at all reasonable times, be open -to the inspection of the,
tax-payers of the district to:; which it aplies.
IX. All sewers, drains, or waste-pipes, whether at present existing, orwhich shall be hereafter constructed,,'shall
jbe entirely under the management and control of the Board
of Health.
X. The Boa-rd of. Health shall cause their district to be
effectually drained! upon' the plan recommended: by the
General Board of Health of Great Britain; and they shallhave:' power within such district from time to time to do
any of the followng hings:
(1.)T  repir arch over, enlarge, lessen, or otherwise alter,
any existing sewer or drain.
(2.) To construct any.y new sewer or drain, with a- like
power of repairing and altering the same.
(3.) To discontinue, close up, or destroy any sewer or drain.
(4.) To carry any sewer, drain, or pipe, for the distribution
of sewage, through, across, or under any turnpike
or other road, or county bridge, or any street, or place
laid out as, or intended for a street, or under any
cellar or vault -which may be under the pavement or
carriage-way of" any street or intended street, upon
condition of making good all-damage done by them:;
or if it is deemed necessary by the Surveyor of the
Board, into, -under, or through any lands whatever,.
upon making due compensation for the.,sime:




-212
Subject, nevertheless, to the restrictions hereinafter
mentioned; that is to say o
(1.) All waste-pipes,' sewers, and drains shall be'so constructed and kept as not to create a nuisance, or be
injurious to health.
(2): If, by the exercise of any of the above powers, any
person is deprived of the lawful use of any sewer or
drain, the Board shall provide for his use some other
sewer or drain equally convenient.' XI. The Board of Health are hereby empowered, upon
making due compensation, to do the following things; that:is to say:',(1) To construct, either' above or under- ground, such
reservoirs and other works as may be necessary for
holding the sewage flowing from the sewers of their
district, or to provide outfalls for the same.'(2.) To cause the sewers to empty into such reservoirs or
outfalls, by means of connecting sewers, or such other
means as they think fit.
(3.) To contract with any company or person for the sale
of such sewage, or for the distribution of it over any
land; and any such company for these purposes shall
have the same privileges, and be. subject to the same
conditions, as would the local Board.
(4.) To contract for, purchase, or take on lease any buildings, engines, materials,'or apparatus for the purpose of receiving, storing, disinfecting, or distributing any such sewage, and to lease or assign such
buildings, engines, materials, or apparatus to any
company or person with whom the said Board of
Health may contract as aforesaid.




213
(5.):To'purchase, or take on" lease anyland where such
purchase or leasing is necessary for carrying into
execution the-above objects.
XII. No person shall, without the consent of the Board
of Health,. do the following things, or any of them:. 
(1.) Cause any waste-pipe, sewer, or drain, to communicate with, or be: emptied into any sewer of the: Board
of Healt:'
(2.) Cause any vault, arch, or cellar, to be newly built or
constructed under any public street; and if any
sewer,: drain, vault, arch, or cellar is made;' in contravention of this Ordinance, the Board -of Health:may cause the same to be pulled down, if they -shail
think fit, and the expenses incurred by them in so
doing shall be repaid to them by the offender, and:
be recoverable from him in a summary manner.:. XIII. Any: owner or' occupier of premises adjoining anj
district, may, with the consent of the Board of Health,
cause any sewer or drain from such premises to communicate with any sewer of the Board, upon such conditions. as
they. shall mutually agree..XIV. Whenever it appears to the Board of Health that
any house or other building, already built, is.without any
waste-pipe, drain, or water-closet, or that.they do not
empty into such place as is efficient for effectual drainage,:
the'Board may by notice require the owner of such house
or building, within a reasonable time therein specified,. to"
make a sufficient drain, of a construction approved by. the
Board of Health, emptying -as follows: that is to say, if
the sea, ora sewer of. the Board -of Health, or any sewer
which they are entitled to use, is within one hundred feet
of the site of such' house or dwelling, emptying, as the'-Board may direct, either into the sea or such sewer; but,.




.:if no such means. of drainage are within that distance,tAhen,emptying.into such covered cess-pool, or other place, not
- being under any house, and not being within such distance
from any house, as the Board of Health direct; and if the
person, on whom  such notice is served, fail to comply
with the same, the Board may themselves do the work
required, and assess the expenses to the. owner or occupant
aforesaid.
XV. The following rules shall be observed with regard
to drains of houses not already built:
(1.) The drains of every such new house or building as
aforesaid, shall be covered in, and be of such size and
materials, at such level, and with such fall, as may,be effectual, in the opinion of the Surveyor or Engineer of the Board, -to secure a proper drainage of
such house or building, and its.appurtenances.
(2.) If the sea, or a sewer of the Board of Health, or a sewer
which they are entitled to use, is within one:hundred feet of any part.of the site of such new house
or building, the drains so-to be constructed shall
communicate with such one of those means of drainage' as the Board direct.
(3.) If no such means of. drainage are within that. distance,
then the last-m'entioned drains shall communicate
with, and be emptied into such covered cess-pool or
otherplace, not beingunder any house, and not being
within such distance from any house, as the Board
of Health direct.
(4.) The Board shall have the power of enforcing and
directing the construction of "dry privies," vaults,
or cess-pools, wherever the nature of the ground, the
building materials in use, the imperfect supply of
water, or any other circumstances, shall render this



necessary. for the public health, especially for the
preservation of- the purity of streams, springs,.or
other sources of fresh water.,
But: a. These privies or vaults shall be so constructed
that their contents can be periodically, conveniently,
and safely removed for agricultural or other pur-.
poses.  b. And they shall-be effectually deodorized
by some proper and sufficient drying. or deqdorizing,:
agent, so that they will not be dangerous or offensive, either while undisturbed or during the process
of removal.
(5.) Any house or building which, during the process of
repairs, shall be pulled down to the ground floor,
shall be subject to the same regulations as if:: it
were a new house or - building.
-XVI. If any house or building is built- or re-built, orany:
drain or vfult constructed contrary to the foregoing provisions, the owner of such. house or building shall be subject
to:: the following liabilities; that:is to say:
-(1.)'He shall incur such a penalt~ for each offense as the.
Board may:determine;  or,.(2.),The Board of Health, after due notice, and his failure
to comply: therewith,. may- thereupon  proceed- ~to.
do the. work required, and assess the  expenses
upon said owner.
CLEANSING.
XVII. The following. works shall be done: in respect to
scavenging:
(1.) All public streets;:/together with the foot-pavements
-thereof, shall be: properly cleansed and watered;,
all roads shall be properly cleansed, and the whole
br any part -of such —roads may, in the discretion'
of the Board of Health, be watered.




(2.)- All dust, ashes, and rubbish shall be carried away
from the premises of the inhabitants.:
(3.) All privies and cess-pools shall be, from time to time,
emptied and cleansed; but their contents shall
first'be deodorized. And the'Board of Health may
themselves undertake, or contract with any person'
to undertake. the aforesaid works, or any of them.
XVIII. No person, except by direct authority of the
Board, shall undertake to remove' any of the substances
mentioned in the preceding section, or obstruct the Board
or its agents in so doing.
XIX. In cases where' the Board of Health do not themselves undertake, or contract with any person too undertake,:the worlds heretofore named, they may make by-laws imposing on the occupier of any premises any or all of the'
duties of cleansing.  They may affix reasonable penalties
for the breach of said by-laws.'XX. Whenever the Board of Health shall be satisfied
that the number of persons occupying any tenement or
building is so great as to be the cause of nuisance, or sickness, or a source of filth-; or that any tenements- or buildings are not furnished with vaults constructed according to''the- provisions of this. Ordinance;  or with a sufficient
number' of privies or water-closets, with underground
drains; with proper ash-pits, or with a proper water-supply;; or that, from any cause, they are in a condition which.
is prejudicial or dangerous-to the public health, or' to the
health of the occupants themselves-they may thereupon
issue. notice in writing to such' persons, or any.of themthat:is to say,. the owner, agent, or occupant, or either of
them-to cause either or all of these deficiencies to be sup*plied, and the premises put into a cleanly. and proper condition, within such reasonable time as they shall appoint; and
in. case of neglect or refusal to obey such notice, they may




217
themselves cause the alterations and cleansings -to be:done
forthwith, and the expense of it shall be paid by such owner, agent, occupant, or other person. Or they may, if they
think fit, issue notice toathe persons inhabiting such tenement, or to the owner or agent, requiring them t& remove,
from, and quit the premises, within such time as the Board
may deem reasonable; and if the person or persons so notified, or' any of them, shall neglect or refuse tooremove
from said tenement or building, the Board of Health" are.
hereby fully authorized and empowered thereupon forcibly
to remove the same.
XXI. The Board of Healthmay make and issue by-laws
for the prevention of nuisances arising from filth, dust,
ashes, and rubbish, or from the keeping of animals, and'
may annex reasonable penalties for the breach of said bylaws..
XXII. The business of a blood-boiler, bone-boiler, boneburner, fell-monge'r, slaughterer of animals of any descripftion not fit for human food, soap-boiler, tallow-melter,
tripe-boiler, or other noxious or offensive business, trade or;
manufacture, shall not, without the consent of. theBoard,
be established, within the district; and the Board may:
make such regulations in regard to these occupations as
they may deem expedient.
XXIII. When the contents of any sewer, or any accumulations of filth, are discharged into any river or stream,:
in the bed of which the quantity of'water is So muchl.
diminished, either by drought during the summer, or by
any other cause,, as to be insufficient to keep the channel
clear, the Board'of Health may,' by excavations or other
operations, so deepen the channel as that the flow of water
will be accelerated, and the contents of said sewers or
drains be thereby prevented from accumulating and stagnating in parts thereof, to the injury of the health, and the:
annoyance of the surrounding population.




2'18
XXIV.;No person, without the licenxse of the lBoard of
Health, shall thr6w into, or leave in, or upon any street,
square, or vacant lot, or into- any pond or body of water,
within the limits of this town or district, any' dead animal,
dirt, saw-dust, soot, ashes., cinders, shavings, hair, manure,
Oyster, clam,'or lobster shellsa, waste water, rubbish, or filth
of any kind, or any refuse, animal,. or  vegetable whatsoever...or shall any person throw into,:or leave.in'or
upon any docki, flats, or tide-water,-within the jurisdiction
of this district, -any dead animal or other foul or offensive
matter, except as above provided..'XXV. The owners and occupants of livery'and other
stables, within the limits of the town or -district, as the
case may be,-.'shall not wash or clean their carriages' or:
horses, or cause them' to'.be washed or cleaned, in  the'streets, nor otherwise encumber the same; they shall keep
their'stables and yards clean,. and shall not permit more
than four cart-loads of manure to accumulate in or nearthe.
same, at' any one time between the first day Of May and'the first day of November; nor within that period suffer..he sabme to be removed,'except between the hour of twelve.at'ight and two hours after sunrise.
XXVI. Swine shall-not be kept within ihe limits'of:the
town without a permit from the.'Board of'Health. 
SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.
XXVII.- No place shall be used or occupied as a slaugh-:ter-hou8e except by..permission of the Board of Health;'and they m'ay make by-laws with respect. to their management, -and- for keeping the same in a wholesome state.
THE MARKETS.
XXVIII. The Medical Health Officer, or either of the::' iSpect or: orAgents of the Board of Health, may, at - all
peeto                                    may, a AI.R...




reasonable times, enter into -" and inspect any.shop, buildinmg, stall,:or Place kept or used for the sale of butchers'meat, poultry, or fish, or as a slaughter-house; and to' e
amine any animal, carc:ass, meat, poultry, game, flesh,:or
fish, which may be therein; and in case either of them,
being intended for the'food'of man, shall appear to be unfit
for such food, the same may be seized; and if it prove to be
unwholesome, he shall order the same to be destroyed, or
be so disposed of as to Drevent its being again exposed for
sale.
XXIX. No person shall be permitted to bring into town
for sale, or sell, or offer for sale, any fresh fish, until the same
shall have been cleansed of their entrails'and refuse parts.;
and such entrails and parts shall be thrown overboard bel.ow
loww-water mark; and-shall never be kept beyond the flowting: 
of. the next' tide l and until so thrown overboard, they shall
be kept in a close and safe manner on board the vessels or
-boats on which the fish.are brought.  And no person shall
sell, or-offbr for sale, fish of any kind, unless the: same be'
kept in covered stalls, fish-boxes,: or other houses, which shall:atways be cle  and in good order; or, in clean covered,carts,- or boxes, well secured from the rays of the sun.
XXX. No person;shall have in his possession.for: sale,:or'.shall'sell., or offer for sale, within the limits of the town, any
-vegetables whatever,' excepting green peas in the pod,: and
green corn in the inner husks, which have not previously
been divested of such parts or appendages as'are no't commonly used for food.
XXXI. No- person shall land on any wharf or other place,
or shall bring into town, any decayed:or damaged grains,
vegetables, or fruit, without a permit from. an officer ofthe-Board of Health, and in such manner as he may direct..
XXXII. No person shall sell any adulterated or:unwholesome food or drink; and if, upon.being notified by the Board




:220
to discontinue such practice, he shall neglect or refuse to
obey such order, he may be ejected from tlc. precincts of
the market, and such articles of food or drink may be
seized and destroyed.
XXXIII. If any person shall falsify any milk, by adulteration with water or. otherwise, or by the abstraction of its
cream, or any other substance originally belonging to it; or, if
anyperson having reason tobelieve it so falsified, shall sell the
same, or cause it to be sold, he shall be liable to have it seized
and destroyed, and to fine and imprisofiment, and to have
placards, stating his offense and the sentence imposed, posted
up-at his place of business or elsewhere, as the Board may
determine. This shall also applyto milk from diseased cows.
XXXIV. All bread, except as specially provided to the
contrary in this section, shall be sold by weight. 
A loaf of bread shall be two pounds in weight; and bread
may be: baked and sold in whole, half, three-quarter and
quarter loaves, but not otherwise, except in bread composed
in chief part of rye or maize.
Small rolls and fancy: bread, weighing less than one
quarter of a'pound each, may'be baked and sold without
regard to weight.
In every shop or place where bread is sold by retail, and
in each front window thereof, there shall be conspicuously
placed a card, on which shall be legibly printed a list of
the different kinds and qualities of loaves sold there, with
the price -of each per loaf, and half, three-quarter, and
quarter loaf.'All bread, except small rolls and fancy bread of less than
a quarter of a pound each, sold in any shop or place, shall
-be weighed in the presence of the buyer, and if found deficient in weight, bread shall be added to make up the
weight required by law.




': An.. person, who shall.violate any of the- provisions'. of..this act, shall forfeit for each offense the sum of
d.lollars, and he shall also be liable to the penalties provided
in Section XXXIII.,; XXXV. And the Board of Health is also hereby authorized to make, promulgate, and enforce such by-laws for the.:government of the market-houses and the sale of provisions
as they may'think expedient.
DRAM-SHOPS AND DRINKING-HOUSES.
XXXVI. All unlicensed  dram-shops and drinking-:
houses for the sale of intoxicating drinks, are hereby' declared to be nuisances, and may be abated as such, by'the
Board of Health.
COMMON LODGING-HOUSES.
XXXVII. No person- shall, keep a common lddging-house
*without a license from the Board of Health, after inspection by'the Medical Health Officer of the Board. And a'register shall be kept, in.which shall be entered the name
of every- person applying to. register any common lodginghouse kept by him, and the situation of every such house;
and the,said Board shall,. from time to time, make by-laws,
for fixing the number of*lodgers who may be received'intoeach house so registered;.for promoting cleanliness and
ventilation therein; and with: respect'to the inspection
thereof, and the conditions and restrictions under which
such inspectionmay. be made; and the person keeping
any such lodging-house'shall give accessto the same, when
required by any person who shall produce the written
authority of the Board, for the -purpose of inspecting the
same, or for introducing or using therein any disinfecting.process;'and the expenses incurred by the said Board in
such process shall be assessed and collected from; the
keeper of said house; and if any such keeper of such lodg



222
inghouse shall neglet or.r refuse to obey the directionsof
the- Board of  ealth, he shall..-forfeit his license.
CELLARS.
~XXXIIm..No c~llar or underground room. shall be let
or occupied separately as- a dwelling, without- being registered and licensed by the Board, and unless it possess the
following requisites; that is to say:.(1.)i Unless the same is in every part thereof at least seven
feet in height,. measured from floor to ceiling thereof:i nor,
(2.) Unless the same is at least one foot of its.height above
the surface of the street or ground adjoining,.or
nearest to the same; nor,
(3.) Unless there is outside of, and adjoining such cellar or
room, and extending along the entire-frontage thereof, and/upwards, from six inches below. the level of
the floor thereof, up to the surface of the said street
or ground, an open area of at least three feet wide
in every part; nor,
(4.) Unless the same is.well and. effectually drained, and
secured against the rise of effluvia from  aany sewer
or drain; nor,
(5.) Unless there is appurtenant to such cellar.or room the
use of a water-closet or privy, as the Board may
require; and. of an ash-pit, furnished with proper
doors and coverings; nor,
(6.) Unless the same has.a fire-place, with a proper chimney, or other ventilating flue; nor,
(7.) Unless the same has:an external window of at'least,
nine superficial feet in area, clear of the sash-frame,
and made to open in such -manner as is approved by
the Surveyor of the Board.




2-23
And whosoever lets, occupies, or continues to lei or,. knowingly suffers -to be -occupied, any cellar or underground room, contrary to this section, shall'beliable to forfeit his license, and shall be subject, if he persist, to such
other penalty as the Board may determine:,and every cellar or underground room,in which any person passes the':
night, shall be deemed to be occupied as a dwelling within
the meaning of this Ordinance-; but /the above rule shall
be qualified in respect to areas as follows:
(1.) In any area adjoining a cellar or underground'room,
there may be placed steps necessary for access to
such cellar or room, if the same are so placed as not
to be over-or across the said external window.::(2.) Over or across, any such area there may be s.teplsnecessary for access to any building above the cellar:.
or room to which such area adjoins,:if the same be'so placed as oqt to be over or across any such external
window.
NEW' STREETS AND HOUSES.
"'XXX IX. The Board, with the consent of -the town
councils, and with the advice and aid -of the Engineer or
Surveyor, shall fix and determine the following matters;
that is to say:
(i.) With respect to the level and width of new streets, and
the provisions for the sewerage and pavitg thereof.,(2.):With respect to the structure of walls of new buildings,
in reference to stability and the prevention of fires.
(3.) With respect to.the -sufficiency of the space in connee,
tion with buildings, to secure a free circulation of
air, and the ventilation of buildings.




-224
(4.) With reference to the drainage of buildings, to watercloses, privies, and cess-pools in connection with
buildings, and to the closing and prohibition of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human habitation.
The regulations of this Section and of Sections XX.,
XXXVII., and; XXXVIII, shall be considered also as particularly applicable, 4nd may be enforced in regard to
Model Houses, and to houses already built or occupied.. They may annex such penalties, and further provide for
the observance of these regulations by such by-laws as they
think necessary, and may alter or pull down any work
begun or done in contravention of such by-laws: Provided,
however, that no person shall be deprived by any by-law
of such right of appeal as is hereinafter given in respect of
by-laws.
SUPPLY OF WATER.
XL.. The following provisions shall be observed with
respect to the supply of water:
(l.) All public wells, pumps, conduits, or other works
used for the gratuitous supply Qf water to the inhabitant's shall vest in, and be under the control of, a
Board of Improvement Commissioners, or such persons as may be chosen for that purpose by the town
councils,,with the approbation of the Board of Health,
who shall have the right to direct the use of the
water for any sanitarfy purpose.
(2.) A sufficient quantity shall be supplied for domestic
purposes, the takers paying such fixed rates therefor
as may be determined; and,
(3.) May be supplied to any public baths or wash-houses,
or for manufacturing purposes, on such terms and
conditions as may be mutually agreed upon.




(4) A-sufficiEent. quatity shall be'provided for Iushing'sewers and drains, for putting out fires,for:cleaning
andwatering the.streets, andfor other public purposes..:,
-:..'....:.........'(5;.) -The expense of' providing a supply of water for: the
foregoing purposes, over. what shall be paid by the
takers, shall be assessed on the inhabitants, or paid.
in such other way as the- councils shall determine:
XLI.' Any person who6 willfully' wastes or fouls.the
water, or injures any of'the works for its supply, shall be',liable- to such penalties as the" Board or the Commissioners
shall'determine, and shall be also liable.to a suit for damage at'com"Mon law.
XLII. When it shall appear that any house or tenement
let -to other persons than' the owners' thereof is not in:atny
way supplied with water, the owners of such house'or tee'.
ment'. shall'be notified:bythe Board of Health to supply
the same;'' and in case of refusal, or neglect to do so within.
a: reasonable time', the Board may supply the same at-the
expense of the owner, o.r,.at'its option, vacate'the premises.
VENTILATION.
XLIII.:No cellar, lodging-house, or other "house," in-tended for the constant occupation-of not less -than ten
persons, or for. the occasional assemblage of. large numbers
of persons,;.shall be. used or occupied, except under. the
following conditions; that is, to say:
(.)'Unless:-the same shall be provided'with some effectual
-ventilation, as follows:
a.' By ventiducts for supplying fresh air of a' suitable temperature, which shall have a capacity of-not;
less than one hundred square inches for every twenty



226
five persons, and in the same proportion for any
greater or less number; or,
b. By some other mode capable of supplying pure
air to each person at the rate of four cubic feet per
minute.
c. By discharging-ventiducts, which open directly
into heated flues, or which are conducted into the
outer air above the roof, and then terminated by a
suitable cowl or cap, and which shall have a capacity
of: not less than two-thirds of that of the admitting
ventiducts-; or,
d. By an open fire-place; an Arnott's valve; an
opening into some other ventilated apartment; or,
e. By some other effectual method of expelling the
foul air.
(2.) Or unless the drains, vaults, and water-closets are securely trapped and effectually ventilated:
a. By connecting them withthe rain-water spouts; or,
b. If within.the house, as in the case of waterclosets, by a ventilating flue opening'above the roof,
or which is connected with a heated flue.
PLEASURE-GROUNDS.
XLIV. The Board of Health may, with the approval of
the Town Council, hold, purchase by agreement, take on
lease, maintain, lay out, plant and improve land for the purpose of being laid out as public walks or pleasure-grounds,
and support or contribute towards any premises provided
for such purposes by any person whomsoever.
EPIDEMIC AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
XLV. When any epidemic, endemic, or contagious disease
shall threaten the town, or affect any part of the same, in




order that meas'ures of:precaution may be taken with
promptitude, according to the exigency of ithe case, the
Board of Health may issue such directions and regulations
as they may think fit; and they shall provide for the frequent cleansing of streets and public ways, and for the,
cleaning, purifying, ventilating, and disinfecting of houses
by the owners or agents; for the removal of nuisances; to
provide for the sick by establishing and opening temporary
hospitals, and for the speedy interment of the dead; and,
generally, for preventing or nmitigating such malignant diseases, in such manner as to the said Board seems expedient.
And if any vessel, having any contagious or other malignant disease on board, or having come from ports where
such diseases are prevailing, shall arrive at either of the
wharves, or come to anchor near them, she shall be ordered
by the Health Officer to proceed to Quarantine, there to
report- herself to the Quarantine Physician.
PUBLIC VACCINATION.
XLVI. In order to prevent the spread of small-pox, and
to. diffuse the benefits of vaccination, it is hereby ordained'
~thatthere shall be provided a suitable apartment for the
Medical Officer of the Board, at which place he shall attend
at such times as the Board may direct; and he shall vaccinate without charge any inhabitant of this town, not previously vaccinated, who may apply for that purpose. And
he shall give certificates of said vaccination, without which
no child shall be admitted to the public schools. And he
shall also always have on hand, as far as practicable, a sufficient quantity of vaccine lymph to supply the physicians
of the public institutions.           -
INTERlMENT OF THE DEAD.
XLVII. The Board of Health, with the consent of the
councils, shall, from time to time, provide, in such places




22 8:' as, having regard to the public health, may appear to' them
expedient, and within or without the limits of the'district,
burial-grounds of sufficient extent for the decent interment
of the bodies of all persons dying.within-the district;. and
it shall be lawful for the said -Board, in:' case. it appears to.
them necessary-or expedient- so to do, to enlarge any burialground provided by them under this Ordinance, and to
make any road to such ground, or to enlarge or:improve
any: existing road for facilitating the approach,to such
burial-ground; and for providing any such burial-ground,.or improving it,- they may purchase any lands which it may
appear to them expedient to purchase for that purpose.
XLVIII. They may inclose and lay out the burial-grounds
thus:: provided, -and build'therein suitable chapels for the'prformance of the burial service, and such other buildings
and works as may appear to them fitting and proper..XLIX. WThen the said Board shall be ofopinion that interment (otherwise;' than in:the burial-grounds provided in'this Ordinance) should be discontinued; wholly; or subject
to any exception or exceptions, in any part or parts of the
town, they shall, after due notice,- order their discontinuance; and the grounds so discontinued shall be closed or
fenced up in such a manner as to protect the public health,
anrd secure proper respect to the bodies interred therein.
And'this section shall also be considered as applying to vaults
under churches and chapels, as well as to the open burialgrounds.
L'. No burial shall take place, or be permitted in any of
the so-closed grounds; or under, or'in any churches or chapels to which this order shall have been applied, except in
the cases following; that is to say;..
(1.)-'In case of long previously-existing' private rights of
sepulture, the Board may, in their discretion, give a




license, under such restrictions as may seem -tothem
proper.
(2.) Or'if, on representations properly made to them,? they
may deem the permission, if granted in exceptional
cases, not prejudicial to the public health.
LI. But any and all persons who may have, by any such
discontinuance or closure of any burial-ground, asprovided
for in section XLIX, been deprived of any rights of sepuiilture, shall have in the newly-consecrated ground the same
rights as they-respectvely would- have had-in the burialplaces thus closed and discontinued; or they shall-be otherwise equitably compensated therefor.
LII. The relatives of any deceased person, with the consent of'the Registrag, or other person having charge of the
closed ground in which the body of the deceased has been
-interred,and subject to the regulations of the Board, may
cause such body to' be:'removed to,' and re-interred in any
burial-ground provided under this Ordinance.
LIII. The Board, from time to time, may make regulations
as to the depth and'formation of the graves and places of
interment, the nature of the coffins to be received in the burialgrounds'thusprovidedthe time and mode of removing bodies,
and generally,: asto all matters connectedwith the good order
of such burial-grounds, and as to the conduct of funeral Processions, and the convenient exercise of the rights ofinterment
therein: and such regulations shall be printed and published,
and shall be-fixed and continued on some conspicuous part
of every such burial-ground.
LIV. All burials.shall be registered in books to be kept
for. the purpose, in'the manner directed, and by the officer
whose duty it shall be made by the Board of Health.
LV~. No burial shall take place, except upon the written
permit of the Registrar or Coroner, who, before issuing said




permit, shall require to be furnished with the name, sex, age,
rank, profession or occupation, and the residence at the time
of death, ofsaidperson; nor shall such permit be then issued,
except the cause of the death of said deceased person shall be
fully certified to the Registrar or other permitting officer, by
some regularly-licensed or competent physician or surgeon.
LIN,  The Board mayr, at, any ti neafterthe passage of this
Ordinanc.e, build,.orotherwise provide, in suitable and convenient locations, hoiuses for the reception. and care of the
bodies of the dead, previously to, and until interment,'and
makearrangements for the reception and care of such bodies
therein, and appoint fit officers for such houses. of reception;
and they may also appoint or provide medical or other officers,
who, in cases where the friends of the deceasedso desire, may
cause the body of the deceased to be decently removed to one
of-the houses of reception provided for under this section.
LV.II." Wakes'";shalln otbe permitted, wi/thout the special
leave, in writing, of the Board, or of its authorized agent:.nor then, if the death has been occasioned by any malignant
or epidemic disease; or if from any cause the health of those
who would be. there present, or of others with whom they
would: be in contact, would be, thereby endangered,
LVIII The Board may, from time to time,, fix, according
to a just and regular scale of charges, the rates in classes,
varying according to circumstances, of prices forthe conduct
of funerals; but so that in respect of the lowest of such classes,
the funeral may be conducted with decency and solemnity.
GENERAL  PROVISIONS.
LIX. There shall be elected or appointed annually,:or at
such times as shall be determined by the town councils, for
the. purposes of this Ordinance, the following officers, who




231
shall receive such compensation, and perform such specific
duties as shall from time to time be determined; that is to say:
(1.) A Registrar, who shall be a Doctor of Medicine, whose
duty it shall be to record the births, deaths, and marriages, and to regulate all funerals, and the proceedings thereunto appurtenant.
(2.) A Medical Health Officer-who shall be the principa
physician-in-ordinary to the Board of Health —ho
shall superintend, under the direction of the Board
of Health, all the sanitary measures ordered by the
Board; and who shall advise them generally as to' all
matter relating to the public health.
(3.) A Board of     Consulting Physicians, who shall.be
elected annually, and whose duty it shall be, in case
of an alarm of any contagious or other dangerous disease occurring in the district, to give the Board of"
Health all such professional advice and information
as they may request, with a view to the prevention
of such disease, and at all convenient times, when"
requested, to aid and assist them with their counsels
and advice in all matters that relate to the preservetion of the. health of the inhabitants.
(4.) An Engineer, or Surveyor, whose duty it shall beto
furnish all plans required for the use of the Board;
to advise in relation to the construction and grade of
the streets; the structure of the drains; the watersupply; and, generally, with regard to all plans for
improving the surface and substratum of the district.
(5.) Superintendents of Streets, of Health (or Cleaning), of
Drains, and of Burials; whose duty it shall be to
supervise,-and direct, and execute the details of the
various departments to which they shall be assigned,




-.23
under the direction of the Board, of the Health
Officer, or of such other persons as the Board of
Health may direct.
(6.) -.Such other officers as the councils may from. time to
time determine.
LX. Any person who shall violate the provisions of this:Ordinance, or any of them; or who shall obstruct the.Board, or any of its authorized agents, in the performance.of their lawful duties; or who shall do any. act or acts by:which the public health is endangered —-shall be fined.therefor:not less than    dollars, nor more than.  dollars,
for each and every offense, and-he shall be subjected to such
other penalty as the Board of Health, with the approval of
the councils, may. fix and determine, and which are not repugnant to the Constitution'and laws of'the State, or, in
Violation of the regulations of the General Board of Health.
-LXI. If any. person- feel aggrieved' by any order of the
Board of Health, or by. the. orders or acts of any, of. its
accredited officers or. agents,.he shall always have the right
of appeal to the -Board of Health; or, if he so elect, he
may prosecute such appeal in the courts' of law, in accord~ance with the Bill of Rights, as in such cases.made and
provided; but no such appeal shall be entertained by the
Board of Health, unless' said appeal is made within four..months next after making such order, or the doing of such
act, -nor unless ten days' notice, in writing, is given.to the'party against whom the appeal is brought, stating the nature and grounds thereof; nor then, unless the'appellant
enter into sureties duly to abide the decision of the Board,
orto -prosecute his appeal in the proper Court.
LXII. All Ordinances..and parts of Ordinances heretofore
passed, inconsistent.with this Ordinance, are herebyrepealed.




APPENDIX A.
FORM OF RETURN.
The Health Officer, or, Inspector, after ascertaining the
condition of his district, shall make his report in the following manner, viz.:
" Health Officer, A. B.,District, reports the
condition of premises No.,     street, to be as follows:
1. PREVALENT SICKNESS.
(Under this head state what the disease is, and how many
are. affected.)
2. OVERCROWDING.
(State. in figures the number of persons occupying thethe rooms or houses in badly situated localities.)
3. VENTILATION.
(State if there is any; and, if so, whether it is by doors,
windows, or fire-places-; especially when the apartments are
closed at night.)
4. DRAINAGE.
(State simply if there is any, and whether it is "'good" -or.'" bad." -
6. FILTH AND RUBBISH.
(State the kind, quantity (by estimate), and its specific
locality.)
6. WATER SUPPLY.
(State if there is a supply of water for cooking, washing,
or bathing, and of what kind.)
1:. DEAD BODIES IN SINGLE LIVING Roo Ms.
(State the cause of. death, and the general condition of the
apartment and its inhabitants.)
He shall also make a record, in a -book to be furnished
him for that purpose, of the same facts in tabular form,




APPENDIX B.
FORM OF NOTICE TO ABATE NUISANCES.
(To be served by any Officer competent to serve a civit process.)
CITY OF
OFFICE OF BOARD OF HEALTH, 18
TQO                              No.
SIR:-Your premises having been examined, and ascertained
to kbe in a condition which is, in my opinion,. prejudicial to the
public health, by reason of
you are hereby required, in conformity with the provisions of
an Order of the Board of Health, passed         to
wsthi;n       hours.
Health Oficer.
Approved.
Chairman Committee of Board of Health.
EXTRACT FROM THE ORDER.
"Ordered, That the Medical Health Officer, with the concurrence of the           Committee of the Board, be and he is
hereby authorized to take such measures- in regard to causes or
occasions of danger to the:public health of the city, as hemay
deem necessary and proper for its preservation."




REP ORT
UPON'
SEWERAGE, WATER  SUPPLY, AND  OFFAL.
RY JOHN H. GRISCOM, M.D., OF NEW YORK.








REPOR T.
IN his artificial condition of civilization, there are two
classes of circumstances which effect the health of man: 1st,
Those which are found exclusively within his domocile; and
2d, Those which are more particularly operative without his
dwelling. To the former-classbelong the'various impurities
of the atmosphere derived from respiration, combustion, and
exuberant moisture, the quality of food, the clothing, and
persotial cleanliness. Included in the latter, or extra-domiciliary causes of disease are terrestrial emanations, meteoric
changes, and the influence of those matters, which, having
been cast out from the dwelling, are suffered to undergo
decomposition in its vicinity..To me::has been assigned the duty of reporting upon
" the importance of an ample supply of water, an edequate
sewerage, and the proper' disposal of offal."
The first of these objects of inquiry-water-belongs to
both classes of circumstances, i. e., the internal and external
domiciliary. Used as a beverage, for cooking, for bathing, for
-washing, and cleansing generally, it'pertains to the internal
affairs of the household; as a means of cooling the atmosphere, of absorbing free gases, of cleansing the ways, and
of removing filth, its applications are chiefly external, and
in this direction, though more extensive as regards area,
they are less important than in their. indoor relations.
Of the vast importance of an ample supply of water for
failly use, an impression may perhaps be best formed by imn a
gining the horrors of a drought, in contrast with the comforts
of an abundance of this element furnished unstintedly; and




the measure of the comfort and health of a people, or even
of a single household, may be judged by the approach to
one or the other of these extremes, of the water afforded
to, and used by them. There is nothing extravagant in the
conjecture, that, in many of the very crowded portions of
cities, where dwellings rise to the height of five or six stories,
up to which it is impossible, by hand labor, to carry an
ample supply of water, that there, suffering and sickness
from the deficiency, are marked and decided, while nearer
the ground, the inhabitants, being better able to observe
rules of cleanliness, and to use it more freely in every way,
are on this account less prone to evils of many kinds.
Water should be second only to air in abundance and
accessibility; as the poorest has no excuse for self-privation
of air, nature pressing it upon him with the force of fifteen
pounds to the square inch, and he having only to expand
his chest to receive it, so should water be accessible to every
one, the poorest more especially, simply by the opening of
a valve, that there might be no excuse for its neglect.
Stephen Girard and John Jacob Astor could have made no
better disposition of their wealth, than to have given the
waters of the Schuylkill and the Croton to their fellowcitizens without price.
Passing to the subj ect of sewerage, we have to observe that
terrene exhalations in rural localities are a well-known cause.of various diseases, which need not be here enumerated.
From this cause every city should and can be, made almost
wholly free. However vicious may be the soil upon which a
city stands, a thorough system of paving and sewerage will
prevent the natural exhalations, and obviate the diseases
which will otherwise flow from them. But however well paved
and sewered a city may be, whereby its natural exhalations
are obviated, the formation of artificial marshes above
the stones of the pavement, and beyond the reach of the




239
sewers, by the accumulation of the offal of men and animals is equally bad, if not worse. The marsh miasm of new
countries which produces intermittent, remittent, and
bilious fevers, the scourges of u-ncultivated'regions, is the
result of vegetable decomposition only; but if to this there
be added a large proportion of animal matter, and the exhalations of the combined decomposition are suffered to invade our dwellings and surround us continually, the intensity
of-the' malarious poison is redoubled, and in addition to the
diseases just mentioned, we have Diarrhoea, Dysentery,
Cholera, Typhus Fever, and a general depression of the
vital powers, which renders every other disorder more
dangerous. Of such a character is the miasm of a city of
uncleaned and unwashed streets, where the debris of the
kitchens and manufactories are allowed to accumulate on
the surface, exposed to the decomposing influences of the
air,'the sun, and the rains, and where the fecal emanations
of the inhabitants arepreserved in sinks and cess-pools.
If even the tidal waters of such a magnificent sewer as
the river Thames are insufficient to relieve the city of London of the pernicious effects of its vast amount of animal and
vegetable debris and exhalation, how clean soever its surface
may be kept, how much more offensive and deleterious
must be the compound animal and vegetable malaria from
these same materials, stagnant upon the surface. They
form artificial marshes'more dangerous than the Pontine.
"The sewerage of large towns and cities consists of refuse
animal matters, of the excrementitial discharges of the inhabitants and myriads of the lower animals, of the blood
and animal fluids from slaughter-houses, knackers' iyards,
and, tan-pits, of the foul and contaminated waters from
gas-works, factories, and other establishments, and of refuse
vegetable matters in a state of decomposition from public




>240.narkets and other places."* The combined amount ofthese
matters- is  estimated at seven cubic feet (about fifty gallons) per diem, for each individual, which for the city of
New York, with a population of 700,000, rises to the daily
average of 35,000,000 gallons, and, annually, to the astounding quantity of twelve billions seven hundred and'
seventy-five millions of gallons (12,775,000,000).' To descant upon the necessity of the immediate and
thorough removal of this prodigious mass of waste animal, vegetable, mineral, and gaseous matter, which, were
it possible to concentrate it daily, in separate deposits,
would require for each day, a reservoir fifty per cent. larger.
-than the Croton distributing reservoir on Murray Hill, New.York City; to descant upon the absolute necessity of an
immediate removal of these immdnse masses of poisonous
matter far away from the precincts of human lungs; to
discuss the fearful results which would follow their reten-'tion-would seem to be a work of supererogation; and yet
we find even intelligent citizens and legislators,- almost
everywhere, doubting, hesitating, and procrastinating.
To all. such, we commend earnestly, and in the pure
spirit of patriotism, the following passages from the recent
aile work on Hygiene, before quoted. The remarks there
made, though written for the metropolis of Great Britain,
are equally applicable to New York, Philadelphia, or any
other'large and crowded city.
"In all large cities and towns t~here are plague-spots
where fever of the intermittent, remittent, or continued form:always prevails in greater or less intensity. There are districts and localties in ourmodern Babylon which are ever remitting the poison which generates Typhus Fever; there
Hygiene, by Dr. Pickford.




are'certain  squares a::  streets,:ay, - particular houses,:
t heinmates of.which; famiiy after family, for a long serie
of -years have been the victims.of Typhus Fever, -though.
the districts in which they are situated ate airy, and the soiilt
dry.
"'Open and imperfect. sewers, faulty, superficial.,. choked
up,and overflowing drains., imperfect traps:of cess-7pools and
w. ater-elosets,  a filthy condition of the earth's surface, togeher with intramural burying-grounds, slaughter-houses,
and slaughtering-cellars, and the. conversion of tidal rivers.into..clo.ac  maximne,-are the. fruitful sources of fevers,'diarrhoea, and dysentery, in all congregations, End on: ay.-One. spot., of great multitudes of human beings.'.'There is probably no subject so complex, so incal cuably
difficult to grapple with, especially if it be how to apply a
remedy, as-the drainage and sewerage of large overgrown'cities'. Yet, we must perceive, that unless this be efficiently.:
done, an ultimate limit is set by the hand of man himself to ynastses, to'peoles, and to nations.  Tlie air we breathe, loaded.with carbonaceous matter, sulphurous and sulphuric acid,
sulphate of ammonia, and sulphurretted ihydrogen, is' de —
prived, by the absence of vegetation, of the revivifying principle, oxygen, andishenceless fittedforthe necessary chang'es..of the blood effected during respiration. The earth which we
tread underour feet,4loaded with the ashes of our forefathers,
and rich with the remains of animal and vegetable matter of
~aages long goneby, saturated withthe putrefyifig contents of
m-yiadis of cess-pools and leaking: sewers. of our own day,emits at certain seasons -of the year the poisonous emanatioans
which' generate Typhus, Diarrhoea, Dysentery, and: Qholer.a;
whilst the waters' of our principal tidal rivers, conver.ed:.into open ~common sewers,  teem wi-th pestiferous'exhala16




242
tions, charged with the germ of disease, or the messenger of
death, If, under these favoring conditions, a pestilential epidemic invade our shores, it finds us an unprepared and easy
prey.
"The government of every state and nation would do
wisely to appoint a minister of public health, whose duty
it should be to superintend and watch over the health of
the community at large, to see that due ventilation is-observed in all-large and public buildings, and in the dwellings
of the poor; to ascertain that the water: is pure, and its
supply ample; to prevent all noxious and unwholesome
trades and manufactures being carried on within a given
distance from towns and dwellings; to prohibit intramural
burial-grounds, slaughter-houses, and slaughtering-cellars;
but, above all, to lay down, and carry out an effectual, efficient, complete, and common-sense plan of drainage and
sewerage for every town and city.
"Were the fearful consequences which result from the
reprehensible practice of converting our rivers into open
common sewers but thoroughly understood, and properly
understood, and properly estimated by the public, no expenditure of time or money would be deemed too great to
put an end, by penal enactment, to a system so disgusting, so
revolting, and so destructive to the health and lives of the
community at large; but more especially of those whose
avocations necessitate their daily and hourly exposure to,
and residence in the midst of its pernicious influence.
"Unless this montrous and suicidal evil be staid, London
will ultimately become the hot-bed of plague andpestilence,
and will, as a consequence, be depopulated and deserted, and
numbered with the cities of the world which have been.
Then, perhaps, may be fulfilled the prophetic visions of Volney, of Walpole, of Shelley, of Macaulay:' when London shall
be an habitation of bitterns; when St. Paul's and Westminster




243
Abbey shall stand shapeless and nameless ruins, in the midst of
an unpeopled marsh; when the piers of Westminster Bridge
shall become the nuclei of islets of reeds and osiers, and cast
the shadows of their broken arches on the solitary stream;'
or with Macaulay:' when travelers from distant regions shall
in vain labor to decipher on some mouldering pedestal the
name of our proudest chief; shall hear savage hymns chanted
to some misshapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest
temple, and shall see a single naked fisherman wash his
nets in the river of the ten thousand masts.'"