THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES: EMBRACING A VIEW OF THEIR. - COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, SLAVE AND FREE LABOR, SLAVERY INSTITUTIONS, PRODUCTS, ETC.. OF THE SOUTH, eO'getber b(t HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL SKETCHES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES AND CITIES OF THE UNION-STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS, COMPARED WITH OTHER LEADING POWERS-THE RESULTS OF THE DIFFERENT CENSUS RETURNS SINCE 1790, AND RETURNS OF THE CENSUS OF 1850, ON POPULATION, AGRICULTURE AND GENERAL INDUSTRY, ETC., NVWITII AN AP,PENDIX. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III. BY J.. E BOW, PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, ETC., IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA. PUIJBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF DE BOW'S REVIEW, MERCHANTS' EXCHANGE. NEW-ORLEANS; 167 BROADWAY, NEW-YORK; AND EAST BAY AND BROAD STREETS, CHARLESTON. 1.85 1853. The two opening papers in the volume, upon Southern Direct Trade and Commerce, are from the pen of Lieut. M. F. Maury; the one on Southern Industry is by Gov. Hammond; those on the Future of the South and Southern Industry are by Thos. P. Kettell; The South's Position in the Union was contributed by Dr. Cartwright; South, How Affected by her Slave Institutions, by D. J. McCord; South, Value of Life in, by Dr. J. C. Nott; South Carolina Capabilities, Gov. Seabrook; the two papers on Sugar, pp. 195, 207, are by J. P. Benjamin; that on Turpentine, page 350, by Edwin Horiot; on United States Immigration, by J. B. Auld; on Virginia, by R. G. Barnwell. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by J. D. B. DE Bow, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States. GENERAL INDEX. African Slave Trade......... vol. iii. p. 132 Abolitionism.....-..- ---—.-.ii. 250 Africa, British Settlements in -----— i. 112 Agriculture-South Carolina and Louisiana Agricultural Societi es-p rogre ss of and agricultural knowl edge at the Sou th papers upon Sugar Manufacture —Ora tions of Hon P. A. Rost an d J. D. B. De Bow............................. i. 62 Agricultur e of the Westa.-.....ii. 2 Agricultur e of Kentucky ------------ i. 403 Agricultural products of United S tat es by the Census 1850.-.-. - ------------ i. 78 Agricultural products of United States, Ap pendix. - ---------------- i. 454-iii. 498 Agricultural products, Analysis of ---- i. 81 Agricultural products, new ones for the South....................i. 81 Agricultural Systems ------------— ii. 391 Agricultural product s, n ew on es f or U nited States......... i 391 Agriculture-Louisiana Agricultural Society -Address of J.D. B. De Bow. —-- i. 169 Agricultural Library.................i. 74 Alabama-history, progress, resources, from discovery to 1852......... i. 43-iii. 480 Alabama-resources and share contributed to national wealth..-... ----------- i. 57 Alabama-iron and other mineral pro ducts............i. 59 Alabama-coal lands.................i. 60 Alabama-rail-roads............ ii. 446, 528 Alabama-factories................. i. 233 America-interior valley of North America boundaries, appearance, climate, natural history, population.-.-...... —------ i. 1 America, British-our relations with; Cana da, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Lake Trade, New-Brunswick, &c - ----------- i. 9, 455 America, British-extent, progress, liberal principles, destinies -------------—. i. i16 America, South-history and progress, revo lutions, Spanish colonial policy, independ ence, Poinsett's views, North and South America contrasted, Araucania, Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, Colombia, Brazil,Ecuador, Grenada, Venezuela, Para guay, Peru, Uruguay, Patagonia, &c. i. 26 America, Central-Copan, Quirigua, Palen que, Guatemala............. i. 38 American and British Commerce Com pared...................... vol. i. p. 331 American Coinage..................i. 297 American Commerce-early growth. i. 307 American Commerce before Revolution i. 307 Amazon Valley........... i. 367-iii. 5, 20 Arkansas and its natural advantages.. - i. 84 Arkansas-resources of......i. 85-iii. 496 Arkansas-geology...i. 85 Arkansas-minerals..................i 86 Arkansas-mines...................-. i. 86 Arkansas-river lands and facts for emi grants.- i. 87 Arkansas-route through to the Pacific Ocean.......................... ii. 504 Arkansas-rail-roads...... ii. 444, 519 Area and population of the states.. iii. 425 Arts-growth of................... iii. 449 Ancient commerce...................i. 301 Antiquities of the Southwest...-.i. 46 Analysis of crops of the United States..i. 81 Australia, (see also De Bow's Review, De cember, 1852).................... i. 112 Baconian Philosophy............... iii. 449 Baltimore-history, resources, statistics Aof...........................i. 101 Baltimore-population and trade...... ii. 52 Bank capital of the states............ i 105 Banks of United States... - -.... -.. - - i. 290 Bank of North Carolina............. ii. 176 Banks and Banking Capital of the United States....i.............. 106 Banking-history of in United States i. 104 Baton Rouge Rail-road -—...-.-. ii. 537 Berlin and Milan Decrees, and loss of Ameri can property.......... i. 316 Boston-progress, and wealth and statistics of.... —-. — i. 100, 454 Boston-real estate, 1850..... ii 439 Boston-exports................ i. 320 Bolivia................i. 32 Boone, Daniel............. i. 404-iii. 488 Book Trade of United States -----— il. 558 British Colonial Empire-its extent — i. 109 British and American Commerce Cornm pared....-...... i. 331 British Commerce with United States. i. 321 British America....-............i. 9, 16 British Cotton Trade............... i. 124 A GENERAL INDEX. Civil Law in Louisiana........ vol. i. p. 428 Cities of the United States-their popula tion.............,........ ii. 559 Coffee and the Coffee Trade......... i. 278 Coffee Trade..........,.,....i. 287 Coffee-early history of..i. 278 Corn, Indian-its history............i. 391 Corn crop of United States.........i. 79 Corn Law of -Great Britain..........i 319 Coins, currency, etc.; material used for coin age, history of coins, interference of gov ernment with coins, value of ancient and modern coins; American coinage...i. 289 Coins-History of..............-...i. 292 Coal trade of Ohio.................. ii. 348 Coal trade of Pennsylvania......... iii. 552 Coal and Iron of West.....i. 385-iii. 511 Coal resources of Penn.....ii. 370-iii. 553 Coal of Alabama.................... i. 61 Coal of Arkansas..................... i. 87 Coal of North Carolina............. iii. 180 Coal of the World..-... i 1.. 558 Colombia........................... i. 36 Colorado Valley...-.. -. iii. 476 Consular System,..............i. 298 Commerce-its origin, progress, and in fluences.......................... i. 300 Commerce-progress of American, and his tory and statistics of our trade with all countries of the world........... 310 Commerce of Lakes........i. 445, 452 Commerce of America before Revolu tion -...-.-.., -Gold —-... Pi. 313 Commercial Statistics United States.iii. 554 Commercial statistics United States and t Great Britain..................... i. 331 Commercial Education in Universities.i. 332 Commerce and wealth of Boston-i. 100 & 454 Commerce-Ancient................i. 301 Commerce of Virginia......... iii. 460-463 Commerce of Baltimore.............I - --. 104 Commerce of Pennsylvania.......... ii. 369 Commerce of Philadelphia......... ii. 376 Commerce of New-York.... -..ii. 160 Commerce of New-Orleans.-.....ii. 150 Commercial Conventions at South.iii. 92, 110 Commercial resources ofthe South... iii. 120 Commercial resources of California...i. 272 Commerce of the South-its extension by s e a 4............ —------ iii. 14 Commerce of Charleston..... i -.244 Commerce-its purpose and destiny..i. 309 Commerce of America, 17th century.i. 311 Commerce from 1700 to 1776... i. 312, 313 Commerce from 1776 to I790........ i. 314 Commerce from 1790 to 1850........ i. 314 Commerce of United States.......... i. 327 Commerce of United States with Great Britain........................ iii. 553 Commerce of the different States.... i. 327 Commerce of Britain &United States.i. 331 Commerce of Canada. —............ i. 460 Commerce of Maine- -.-.... —.. - ii. 56 Commerce of Mobile...............ii. 77 Commercial Library-. ——...-,.i. 333 II British Manufactur;.ng System, vol. ii. p. 131 British Navy —..... —,............ ii. 192 British West Indies............... iii - 537 British Provision Trade............. iii. 44 Breadstuffs-statisties of foreign and Ameri can....... i. 88 Breadstuis" —'h'e'at,a-n-d"-C,or,n,,T-r,a,de.-i. 93 Breadstuffs-exports, flour, &c. from United States and elsewhere............... i. 97 Breadstuffs-preservation of wheat'and flour............................. i- 98 Brazil Coffee Trade................. i. 286 Brazil.............................. i. 32 Burr, Aaron............... i. 401-iii. 492 Cattle in United States -. - -... - -.. i. 78, 444 Caterpillar..................... i. 157, 167 Carolina, 167 Canal and Rail-road Statistics...... iii. 570, Canals of the North................ ii. 451 Canals of the West................ ii. 458 Cannelton Factory................. ii. 122 Calhoun's Letter on Slavery......... ii. 265 Calhoun's Memphis Convention Ite port.. iii. 440 Calhoun's Views on Internal Improve ments —-.-... —.-..... - -.. iii. 440 California-Fremont's Expedition....i. 264 CaliforDia-New American El Dorado, Mine ral products of, etc -------- i. 269-ii. 488 California-New Mexico, and the Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific.... i 256 California-Gold Product. 464 Canals of the Northwest.. 450 Canada-history, extent, resources, popula tion, institutions, progress, etc-... - i. 455 Canada-trade with U. S.-. i. 10, 17-iii. 531 Census returns of the United States 1790 to 1850......................... iii. 431 Canadian Commerce............... iii. 551 Census 1850-agricultural products.... i. 78 Central America.. i. 38 Ceylon Cottons.................... i. 197 Charleston, History of.. i. 243 Charleston, Commerce of ------- i. 245, 454 Charleston-its history, trade, commerce, manufactures, imports, education, health, c"'' " -'- "' - -' - -'- "' —.i. 245 Charleston-sta'tistical tables of-.i. 249-251 Charleston-Rice Trade............ ii. 408 'Charleston-Mortality.............. ii. 294 Charleston-Mortality.. —-.....-.-.iii. 90 Charleston and Hamburg Rail-road-its his tory. iii. 102 Charleston-Commerce............ iii. 138 Chesapeake Bay ------------------ iii. 468 Chicago Internal Improvement Conven tion ----------------------------- i. 254 Chica-,,o........................ - - ii. 556 Chain;lain, Lake................... i. 447 China Trade..................... i..i. 324 Chili............................ i. 31 " 35 .Cincinnati-statistics. trade and com.Mrce........... i. 251, 445,455-ii. 556 'Cincinnati hog trade................ i. 376 4 GENERAL INDEX. Cotton Culture in British Provinces..i. 195 Cotton-British Competition -----— i. 196 Cotton of Jamaica.................. —------------- i. 198 Cotton and Cotton Manufacture-History from Origin to Date............... —---------— i. 198 Cotton Manufactures of the U. S....i. 211 Cotton Manufactures in the United States History of.................... i. 216 Cotton Manufactures-Consumption of Cot ton......................... i. 219 Cotton Mills of New-England....... i. 220 Cotton Manufacture-Improvements in Ma. chinery, &c.................. i. 220 Cotton-Relation between Price and Manu facture...................... i. 222 Cotton-Present and Future Prospects of Great Britain in relation to Supply and Demand -.....................i. 223 Cotton Spindles in Great Britain,..- i. 227 Cotton Manufacture —How far carried.i. 228 Cotton Mills by Cotton Growers-An Ex port Tax................. —- i. 228 Cotton Factory, South Carolina...... i. 232 Cotton Factories in the South....... i. 233 Cotton Manufactures-Essay by Chas. T. James, of R. I.................... i. 233 Cotton, cost of transporting to European markets.......................... i. 462 Cotton Crop, 1852...i. 462-iii. 555 Cotton Crop United States.......iii. 555 Cotton Manufactures................ i 463 Cotton Crop of the World.......i 122 Currency of United States... i. 107 Currency of United States.......... iii. 575 Cuba Sugar Estate................ iii. 110 Cuba Tobacco.....................iii. 345 Cuba-Statistics of Population and Indus try...............i. 277-iii. 522, 531 Cuba trade.......................iii. 551 Cuba-our commerce with.......... iii. 577 Commercial Con ven tion of Virgini a.. iii. 463 Comm ercial Systems...............ii. 396 Commercial History of the U. S -.....iii. 381 Commerce of U. S.- early-......iii. 379, 392 Commerce of Britai n and United States com p are d ----—......... —-......iii. 435 Commerce of the World........ii. 557 Con stitution of the United States.... iii. 436 Convention at Memphis............i.. ii. 81 Coasts of th e United S tates...............iii. 395 Copy righ t.................... iii. 447-451 C redi t and capital-their influence... iii. 100 Cotton-histor y and statistics, with history of the plant, its manufacture and com merce...-..................... i. 114 Cotton Planter's Convention.............i. 128 Cotton Planter's Convention Reviewed, i. 134 Cotton Planter's Convention-the true reme dy...................- 16 —----- i. 137 Cotton Trade of the Southprices, stock,. supply, demand, foreign competition, con sumption, home and foreign statistics, &c.............................. i 139 Cotton Factori es of Lowell..s.. — ii. 76 Cotton Factories of Mexico......... ii. 99 Cotton Manufactures of United States-ii. 103 Cotton Manufactures...-.........ii. 131 Cotton Trade of New-Orleans....... ii. 147 Cotton goods, exports.-....... —--- i. 320 Cotton Statist ic s.........i. 146-ii. 557 Cotton, Sea Island.. ( E.................i. 127 Cotton Crop of U. S. 1851..........i. 147 Cotton Trade and Statistics...... i. 149 Cotton, and its Cost of Production... i. 150 Cotton-Meteorology, and the Cotton and Sugar Crops..................... i. 152 Cotton-affected by Frosts........ i 152 Cotton Trade of Great Britain....... i. 152 Cotton-Exports, 1851 ------—...-. i. 153 Cotton-Prices at Mobile for 16 years, (see New-Orleans).................... i. 153 Cotton Crops for a Series of Years... i. 154 Cotton-Diseases of the Plant, and the Remedies...... —--------------- i. 155 Cotton Preparation-Picking and Pack ing...........i. 158 Cotton-Baled with Iron Hoops...... i. 159 Cotton-Cost of Producing.......... i. 161 Cotton-Analysis of ------—..-... -.i. 164 Cotton Plant...-.-.-. —---------- - i. 165 Cotton Worm-History, Character, Visita tions..........-..-........... —-i. 166 Cotton Caterpillar.................. i. 170 Cotton Wors..........-............ i. 171 Cotton Plantation Statistics.. —.... i. 173 Cotton Receipts at New-Orleans, (see New Orleans)....-......-....... —---- i. 174 Cotton and its Prospects-American and Foreign Product; Demand and Supply of the World; India Cottons and Competi tion; Future Prospects, &c.-.-. —- i. 174 Cotton Culture in East Indies, (Prize Es say)............................i. 178 Cotton of India..............f......i. 190 Cotton Culture in the East.....E......i. 191 Danish West Indies............... iii.. 549 Denmark Commerce with U. S.......i. 323 De Soto's Expeditions............. i. 42 Deposits of the Mississippi..........ii. 17 Delta of the Mississippi. - -........ ii. 20 Deaths in United States, 1850.......iii. 428 Deaths in New-Orleans.-.... —---- ii. 148 Debts, United States and States....iii. 433 District of Columbia........iii 377 Direct Trade of the South....iii.1.. Direct Trade of the South with the Conki nent.........................iii. 117 Dutch West Indies............iii." East India Cotton................... i. 179 East India Rice...-..-...........- ii. 432 East India Sugar Culture........... iii. 299 Ecuador............................ i 37 Education in Virginia..............iii. 454 tlmore-Report at the Southern Merchants' Convention.....................iii. 110 Emancipation of Slaves............ii. 250 Emancipation in Kentucky.......... i. 407 Emancipation of Slaves inWest Indies iii.535 iu GENERAL Emigration from Great Britain.iii. 555-565 English Commerce, Early........... i. 305 Erie, Lake......................... i. 447 Everglades of Florida.-... -.....-i. 344 Exports and Imports of United States with all Nations.- - ---------------- iii. 581 INDEX. Gulf Stream i.................4i. 367 Gulf of Mexico......................iii. 7 Hay and Hemp Crop, U. S............ i. 80 Harper's Memoir on Slavery ------— ii. 205 Hanse Towns,.................... i. 325 Hayti............. i. 325-ii. 433-iii. 549 Hammonds' Letters on Slavery.... —---- ii. 238 Hayne, R. Y.-Commercial Report.. -- iii. 92 Havana........................... iii. 527 Health and Diseases at the South.... iii. 85 Historical Society of Louisiana...... i. 437 Hog Business of West............- i. 375 Huron, Lake....................... i. 452 Factories, Cost and Statistics of -.... ii. 125 Finances, United States and States-. iii. 433 Fires, Statistics of............i. 352 Fisheries of Florida................. i. 348 Fisheries of United States..........ii. 195 Fisheries, Statistics of..... i. 352, 463, 318 Flatboat Commerce of New-Orleans. -ii. 137 French in Louisiana................ i. 412 French Commerce with U. S.i. 322-iii. 553 French Colony in Alabama........... i. 56 French Navyv...................... ii. 192 Flax and Linen Factories........... ii. 133 Florida Wreckers. —....-....: —. -i. 407 Florida Peninsular Road... ii. 457, 522 Florida Resources --------------— i. 334 Florida Productions................. i. 336 Florida Everglades, and prospect of reclaim ing them into gardens for tropical fruits..........i. 344 Florida Coasts and Keys.... —-------— i. 348 Florida Tobacco,............ i. 349 Florida-Climate, Soil and Products..i. 349 Florida Sugar Lands ------------—............... i. 351 Florida Sugar..................... iii. 276 Foreigners in United States..iii. 399, 424 Foreign Trade of the South...... iii. 1, 105 ,Frankfort, Kentuky.. —...... —--- i...... 406 /Free and Slave Labor....- -—.....ii. 248 Fur Trade of America.. - i. 318-iii. 516 Fugitive Slaves................... iii. 426 Fugitive Slaves at the North........ iii. 128 Illinoi s.....i.........8-.-iii. 496 Illinois-Rail-roadsof.-.pren —alhn ii. 450 Imports and' Exports of -United States with all Nations..-. —-- -----— iii. 577-584 Indiana........ —----------------- iii. 497 Indiana-Resources, &c... i. 379; iii. 497 Indiana-Rail-roads of.... a.. ii. 450 In surrections a mon g Slaves. --------- ii. 231 Industry, new bran ches o f........... i. 390 Industry of South....-. ---------------— iii. 45 Industrial Revolution at the South-. iii. 76 Internal Improvements-Calhoun's Report on Memphis Convention Reviewed- iii. 441 Internal Improvements by Federal Govern ment-h ow distributed between States sin ce 1790............... i. 391-ii. 516 Internal Improvement Convention at Chi cago............................ i. 255 Inventions-their influence......iii. 451 Inundations of Mississippi. -.-.. eii. 13 India......................... i. 107, 190 Indians of Louisiana................ i. 415 Indigo-cultivation at South...iii. 50, 356 Indian Corn........................ i. 391 Indians of Alabama and Georgia. —-- i. 45 Indian Wars in the Southwest....-.i. 54 Indian Wars ofl,ouisiana...........ii. 251 Indian Territory..................iii. 497 Insurance of Character.............. i. 394: Insurance of Negroes..... ii. 299 Iowa....iii. 497 Immigration to the' U. S....i. 381-iii. 395 Iron Interests of United States. -...i. 395 Iron Resources of Pennsylvania. ii. 370 Iron product of the world..... ii. 558 Italian Comnmaerce.............. i. 304, 324 Galveston, Texas... —-------- iii. 339, 340 Georgia-Situation, Boundaries, Soil, Pro ducts, Minerals, Resources...-.-.. i. 354 Georgia-Population, Internal Improve ments, Enterprise, Manufactures, Springs, Education...............i. 358-ii. 521 Georgia-Products.................i. 361 Georgia-Topography...............i. 362 Georgia. —--------------------- iii. 141 Geology of Louisiana...............i. 436 Government-its Province.......... ii. 390 Gold and Silver —IU. S. Mint Statis tics................i. i373-ii. 558 Gold of California.............. i 374, 464 Gold Coinage.................i. 291 Gold, History of-...............i. 291 Gold of Virginia................... iii. 461 Gold Resources of California........'i. 273 Grain Trade of England....- - -..i. 89 Grain of the United States and world...-....... —------ i. 89-ii. 558 Grave-yards at New-Orleans........ ii. 139 Creat Britain-Commerce with -—.... -iii. 553 Greek Commerce........ —------------— i. 303 Guatemala.........................i. 41 4 Guiadaloupe.......................iii. 533 Jamaica....... —------------------------ iii. 535 Jamaica, growth of Cotton in..-. i. 198, 280 Java.-..........-.................-i. 279 Jewish Commerce..................i, 302 Kentucky —Description, History, Schemes for Separate Existence, Burr, Western Excitement, Population and Products of Kentu cky, Agri culture, Boone, Mineral Springs, Mammoth Cave, Internal Im provements, Education, Slavery, Statistics of Commerce and Towns -i. 398-iii. 490 Kentucky-Rail-roads..-.-.-. —--- ii. 444 Key-West-Wreckers of.... —----- i. 407 Keys of Florida.......... *...i. 337, 348 IV GENERAL INDEX. La Plata............................ i. 31 La Salle................i. 410 Law, John.-.......... —----------— i. 421 Lakes-Great Lakes of U. S., and Commerce of............................... i. 443 Lakes and Western Trade-.... i 445 Lakes and Valley Trade, Statistics of, with Population and Wealth of lake country of United States and Canada.-.-.- i. 447 Lakes and Western River Navigation.i. 449 Lakes, British and American Marine on, i. 451 Lake Commerce of 1850, &c......... i. 452 Lakes of United States.. -—....... i. 2 Land Titles of Texas.. -.. iii. 327 Lands-Public of United States. —i. 443 Lands-Public of United States, History of Land Office, Value of Sales, Prices and Grants, Area, Pre-emption, Mineral Lands, Statistics................. i. 438 Lands-Cultivated and Uncultivated in the United States.................... i. 78 Levees at New-Orleans............. ii. 136 Lexington, Kentucky........ —---------— i. 406 Libraries in the United States-... —-— ii. 558 Life Statistics-Whites and Blacks.-ii. 292 Life-Early in the West.......iii. 487 Louisiana... —--------------—. iii. 480,496 Louisiana-History and Progress; French and Spanish History, Purchase, Delivery, Terri torial G overnment, Code of 1808; Advances of State, Battle of Orleans, Black Code, Code of 1825, Jurisprudence, Courts, &c...................... i. 417 Louisiana-Minerals......-.-.....i. 434 Louisiana Historical Society........i. 436 Louisiana-Well Water............. i. 437 Louisiana-Her progress in Sugar Indus try............ i. 68 Louisiana-Origin of Sugar Culture... i. 69 Louisiana-Histories of...........i. 148 Louisiana-Purchase - -........i. 427 Louisiana-Laws................... i. 432 Louisiana-Early History. ii. 29; lii. 480, 491 Louisiana-Rice.................. ii. 426 Louisiana-Rail-roads....ii. 449, 536, 546 Louisiana-Sugar Crops...........iii. 284 Louisville, Kentucky, Commerce.i. 452, 407 Lowell Manufactories............... ii. 76 Lumber Business of North Carolina..ii. 182 Manufactures-Induements for, in South and West.......... ii. 107; iii. 500, 513 Manufactures-Influencte on the growt h of cities........................... ii. 121 Man ufactures-Progress of Cotton Man u facture in United States....... —. ii. 123 Manufactures-Extension of Cotton and Wool manufacture at the South r. ii. 124 Manufactures-Relative cost of steam and water poerpor..................... ii. 128 Manufactures of Great Britain- Progress in cotton, wool, flax, linen, silk, etc., with productions and persons employed-. ii. 131 Manufactures of the U nited States. iii. 429 Manufactur e of Shoes at the South ii. 130 Manufacturing Industry-Theorv of Manu factures, progress, origin, and growth of. cotton manufactures in all countries, Uni ted States manufactures, Southern manu factures. -..................... ii. 101 Manufactures-Value of home-made in U. Stat es --------------- - —. i. 80 Manufactures of Cotton-His tory and pro g res s ag —---------------------— i. 198 Manufactures of the Ancients........ i. 202 Manufactures, advantages of -----—.ii. 119 Ma nufacturing towns ------------— ii. 192 Manufactures of United States.....iii. 429 Manufactory-Cost of.-.....iii. 559 Mammoth Cave................... i. 405 Martinique.............iii. 533 Massachusetts in 1852. -.-.iii. 558 Matanzas.......................iii. 529 Memphis, Tenn..................... ii. 80 Memphis Convention, 1845 - --------— ii. 81 Memphis Convention, 1849 ii. 82, 506: iii. 440. Mexican Gulf, its military and naval de fences. -.-. —-- -----------—.. i. 363 Mexican Republic. —------- -----— ii. 85 Mexican mines and mineral resources — ii. 92 Mexican War-Services of South and North in...........................iii. 128 Mexico-Products, sugar, cotton, rice, and indigo........... -...- -------— ii. 99 M Mexico, New —............... —--- i. 266 Mexico ------------------— i. 325; iii. 557 Mexico, sugar production of........ iii. 284 Military strength of the South ii. 233 Militia of U. States.... iii. 582 Milwaukie........iii. 518 Michigan Lake..................... i. 447 Michigan....................... iii. 497 Mississippi River-Its sources, mouth and valley, Balize, etc...... -.... —..... ii. 1 Mississippi River, great importance of im proving......................... ii. 10 Mississippi River, deposits and changes at mouth...-...-.... —----------- - ii.. 17 Mississippi Basin..... ii. 20 Mississippi-Early History of the State. ii. 21 Mississippi-Character, soil, climate, pro ducts, prospects.....ii. 41; iii. 495 Mississippi, Resources of.........ii. 45 ~Mississippi Rail-Roads. a.........ii, 445, 523, Maine-Early History, physical aspect, agri cultural and mineral resources, commerce, manufactures, government, finances, popu lation, schools. colleges............ ii. 53 Machinery-Province of....... iii. 450, 558 Manufactures of United States 1850 -iii. 577 Massachusetts-Productive energies and spirit....................... ii. 67, 560 Maryland-Historical Events. government, resources, improvements, commerce, city of Baltimore..................... ii. 45 Master and Slave..................ii 212 Mail System of Britain and U. States.. ii. 352 McDuffie's Report at Southern Mercantile Convention....iii. 103 v GENERAL INDEX. ences, as affecting public order, and the safety and power of the state; abolition, emancipation, etc.............. -..-. -ii. 238 Negro Slavery-J. C. Calhoun's Letter to Mr. King....................... ii. 265 Negro Laws of the South...........ii. 269 Negro Population of the South, with refer ence to life insurance............ ii. 292 Negro Slavery-Origin, progress and pros pects of slavery in the U. States..ii. 393 Negro nature and destiny of........ ii. 308 Negro Slavery-Decline of Northern and growth of Southern.............. ii. 310 Negro Popufilation-Remedy for its ex cess............................ ii. 313 Negroes-Diseases and peculiarities of, by Dr. Cartwright................ii. 315 Negroes-Physical character of.. - ii. 329 Negroes-Management of, upon Southern estates................. ii. 330, 333, 337 Negroes-Houses for.............. ii. 338 Negroes-Black and Mulatto Population of the South....................... ii. 338 Negroes-Employment of, in cotton facto rie s............................ ii. 339 Negroes-Slave Trade of the South. ii. 339 Negro Civilization and the Dominican Re public......................... ii. 342 Negroes of ancient times... ii. 343 Negroes-(See Slaves)............. ii. New-Orleans-Receipts of Cotton at, since 1823..............s............ i. 174 New-Orleans coffee trade........i. 287 New-Orleans-Battle of..-.-. —---- i. 429 New-Orleans Municipalities - -— i. 435 New-Orleans Rail-RoadConvention. ii. 455 New-Orleans Rail-Road System.-. ii. 435 New-Orleans.............. ii. 135; iii. 484 New-Orleans custom-house revenues since 1801........................... ii. 139 New-Orleans-Vital statistics of. - ii. 141,142 New-Orleans-Imports from the interior, from 1840 to 1852...ii. 143. iii. 487, 559 New-Orleans-Exports of flour, pork, bacon, beef, lard, whisky, corn, etc.... -. ii. 144 NNew-Orleans-Exports of cotton and to bacco............................ b-ii. 144 New-Orleans-Exports of sugar and mo lasses..Wa.................i. lii 145 New-Orleans-Arrival of ships, barques, steamers, etc........ ii. 145 New-Orleans and New-York........ii. 145 New-Orleans-The commercial statistics of..M..i-.. n.....d...o. -ii. 146 & 149 New-Orleans-Vital statistics, mortality, etc., from 1785....... -.... ii 148 New-Orleans —Prices of commodities, etc., for different years -... —---—. ii 152 New-Orleans-Importance of increasing her foreign commerce-Her banking capi tal.....- ---------.ii. 152, 483 New-Orleans —-Commerce, &c. 1852.iii. 559 New-York-Value of real and personal es tate abstract in.its.moral.and..ii. 164 New.York-Commerce of-...ii. 163, 560 Mississippi Valley-Geology, hydrography, population, climate, natural history, &c.. 152...........i. 54; iii. 479 Mississippi Valley...i. 367 Mississippi Bars................... - iii. 18 Mine ra l Resour ces of Missouri....ii. 63, 66 Mineral Resources of Mexico........ii. 93 Mineral Lands of United States.. -.i. 441 Minerals of South Carolina........ iii. 135 Minerals of North Carolina......... ii. 180 Minerals of Alabama..........-.-i. 59 Minerals of Louisiana.-...-......- i. 435 Mines of gold and silver............ i. 293 Middle Ages-Commerce of......... i. 304 Missouri Rail-Roads.. —.....- ii. 449, 526 Missouri-History, government, courts, sur face, products, climate, rivers, towns, min erals, internal improvements, population, &c...................... ii. 56; iii. 496 Missouri..-.-...-. —----------- - iii. 147 Molasses-Product, &c. of U. States -ii. 70 Mobile-Commerce 1850-52.. ii. 70; iii. 555 Mobile-Topography, vital statistics, &c., &c............................. ii. 78 Mobile-Statistics of............... ii. 78 Mobile-Early History............... i. 48 Mobile and Ohio Rail-Road....ii. 445, 533 Mobile-Prices of Cotton since 1835 -i. 154 Mobile-Commerce in 1851-2...... iii. 565 Mocha...-............ —--------- i. 279 Money-Its early history _...-.-.-i. 289 Money —What it is................ i. 290 Monterey........................ ii. 503 Mouths of the Mississippi..........ii. 7 Mulatto Population South and North.- ii. 297 Mortality of United States.......... iii. 427 VI Nashville, Tenn.................... ii. 185 Navigation-Ship-Building in United States, particularly in West ------: ------- i. 185 Navigation-Merchant fleets and navies of the world ii. 192, 557 Navigation-Vessels built in United States since 1815...................... ii. 194 Navigation-Tonnage of U. States ii. 195 Navies of the world -. -. - - - - - - -... ii. 188 Navy Yards of the United States - -. ii. 191 Navy of United States, 1852....... iii. 573 Natchez War...................... ii. 23 Negroes in factories ---------------- i. 232 Negroes-Effect of emancipation in West Indies.... ii. 279 Negroes-Physiology of ----------- iii. 55 Negro Mania-The negro and other races of men ------------------------- ii. 19'i Negro Slavery-Memoir on, by Chancellor Harper, prepared for, and read before the Societ_v for the Advancement of Learning of South Carolina --------------- ii. 205 Negro Slavery at the South-(Gov. Ham mond's Letter to Clarkson,) introduction; the slave trade and futile attempts to abol ish it; prescriptive right of slavery; slavery in the abstract; in its moral and -religious aspects; in its political influ GENERAL INDEX. New-York-Commercial growth and great ness of New-York. - ------------ ii. 154 Netherlands..................... i. 324 New-Brunswick.................i. 11, 21 Newfoundland.............i. 11, 23 New Grenada...................... i. 36 New Holland............i. 112 New Mexico.............i. 266 Newspapers in United States. ii. 560; iii. 428 Nicaragua................ ii. 492 iii. 559 North America.................... i.'2 Nova Scotia...................i.11, 23 Norway...........................i. 323 Northern and Southern progress....iii. 122 Northern and Southern slavery..... iii. 131 Northern States-Their profit from Federal Uuion....................... iii. 365 North Carolina-Turpentine....... iii. 350 North Carolina-Colonial, revolutionary and subsequent history, physical condition, production, industry and resources, popu lation, towns, education, sects, courts, canals, rail-roads................ ii. 164 North Carolina.....-.......ii. 182; iii. 519 North West.......... iii. 490 N. Carolina internal improvements iii. 519 Planters-Should manufacture their own crops......................... i. 229 Porto Rico....................... iii. 531 Post-Office-History of, in all countries; operations and statistics of, in the United States, from the earliest periods, rates of postage, etc..................... ii. 350 Post-Office System of ancient times.. ii. 363 Post-Office statistics, from 1790...- ii. 361 Political Economy, government, etc.. ii. 385 Portugal-Commerce with U. States.. i. 323 Population-Future of United States..i. 382 Population Great West.. - - -. ii. 1; iii. 308 Population Massachusetts........... ii. 69 Population-Influence on Rail-Roads -ii. 436 Population United States since 1790 - iii. 391 Population-United States Census 1790..iii. 404; 1800, 405; 1810, 406; 1820, 408; 1830, 410; 1840, 415; 1850, 419. Population of the United States and Rus sia....... —--—. -----------------—. iii. 400 , Population of American Cities......ii. 559 Population of United States-Its laws, and general laws throughout the world.iii. 402 Population-Statistics of United States, by all the returns of census, &c., from 1700 to 1850..................iii. 404, 433 Population laws of in the world.....iii. 403 Population of U. States census 1850.iii. 573 Portage Laws United States, 1850.- iii. 570 Provision Trade United States......ii. 558 Public lands of United States..... - -.. i. 441 Public lands of the South.......... —------- iii. 26 Public Debt of United States....... iii. 92 Ohio-Commerce and resources of...ii. 345 Ohio-Wealth, coal trade, etc....ii. 347; iii. 497. Ohio River....................... ii. 404 Ohio Rail-Roads.................. ii. 449 Olives-Cultivation of, in the Southern States......................... ii. 348 Ontario Lake...................... i. 447 Opelousas Rail-Road..............ii. 541 Oregon-Rivers, etc., of...... i. 2; iii. 477 O'Reilly.........................i. 423 Overflows of the Mississippi........ ii. 13 Rail-Roads-Address to people of Southern and Western States............. ii. 434 Rail-Road and Transport, at horne and abroad.. —....... —- --—. ii, 457 Rail-Road Convention at New-Orleans, 1852..-.... —---—....... ii. 458 Rail-Roads in U. States, 1852.. ii. 471, 474 Rail-Roads-Progress in U. S. - ii. 478, 486 Rail- Roads-Prospects and progress.. ii. 478 Rail-Road communication between the At lantic and Pacific Oceans; progress of America, California and Oregon, Panama, Tehuantepec, &c................ ii. 486 Rail-Road Speed, accidents, etc......ii. 470 Rail-Roads-Benefits of............ii. 479 Ral-Roads-State aid to...........ii. 481 Rail-Road to Pacific.i. 260; ii. 507, 516,519 Rail-Roads of Georgia... i. 357, 359; ii. 521 Rail-Roads of North Carolina......ii. 183 Rail-Roads-Their influence on popula tion....................... ii. 437 Rail-Roads-Influence on industry. - ii. 438 Rail-Roads-Influence on wealth -—. ii. 438 Rail-Roads of Virginia.ii. 439; iii. 458, 464 Rail-Roads of Arkansas............ ii. 519 Rail-Roads in Georgia........-..ii. 571 Rail-Roads in Florida —..............ii. 522 Rail-Roads in Mississippi.......... ii. 523 Rail-Roads in Missouri.,......... ii. 516 vii Parauay........ i. 36 Pate'nt Rights and i:a'w's'.'.'.'iii. 451 Paper manufacture in United States.. ii. 384 Patagonia........................ i. 38 Pacific Rail-Road. i. 256; ii. 506, 516, 519 Pacific-Our commerce in......ii. 489, 490 Pacific Rail-Road................. ii. 487 Paupers of Great Britain........... ii. 251 Panama.......................... ii. 492 Parties in United States........... iii. 438 Pennsylvania-History. commerce, manu factures, agriculture............. ii. 365 Pennsylvania Coal Trade..........iii. 552 Peru........................... i. 31, 37 Pittsburgh, and its manufactUTing indus try ii. 375; iii. 509 Pilot System of the Mississippi..... ii. 8 Philadelphia-Commerce of the years 1830, 1851.................. ii. 374, 294, 374 Phoenician Commerce.............. i. 303 Philosophy-Growth of...........iii. 449 Plank Roads as compared with Rail Roads......................... ii. 377 Planters of the South-Their remedy..i. 137 GENERAL INDEX. Rail-Roads in Tennessee.........ii 526' Rail-Roads in Alabama..........ii. 528 Rail-Roads in Mobile and Ohio.....ii. 533 Rail-Roads in Louisiana........ ii. 536, 546 Rail-Roads in Texas............... ii. 540 Rail-Roads in Tehuantepec.........ii. 553 Rail-Road Statistics. —--------—.. ii. 441 Rail-Roads of South Carolina...... ii. 441 Rail-Roads of South and West. —--- ii. 445 Rail-Roads of the North........... ii. 451 Rail-Roads in the world............ii. 456 Rail-Roads-Great Convention of South and West at New-Orleans.........li. 459 Rail-Roads-System and Statistics in the United States..-. —------ - ii. 476, 461 Rail-Roads of United States -----— ii. 478 Rail-Roads-Speech at Nashville and Jack son................... ii. 479 Rail-Road and Canal statistics.....iii. 570 Rail-Roads of South Carolina......iii. 573 Rail-Roads of North Carolina.. iii. 569 Religious Statistics United States...iii. 574 Revolutionary War-Services of the South in. - ------------------------- iii. 127 Rice-History and Statistics of. -..ii. 392 Rice Planting.................. ii. 411 Rice-Analysis, crops, culture, etc..ii. 414 Rice-Culture of............... ii. 419 Rice in Southern States............ ii. 423 Rice Estate of Gov. Aiken..... ii. 424 Rice of the Uplands..-.-. —-- ii. 420 Rice of Louisiana -................ ii. 427 Rice Culture in East Indies.- ii 429 Rice Trade Carolina.......... i. 250 Rice Mills........................ ii. 404 Rice Culture, system of Carolina, etc.. ii. 423 Richmond........................iii. 458 Rio Janeiro........................i.... 34 Rio Grande Valley................ iii. 475 River Basins and valleys.-. —------ i. 368 Rivers —Their influence on progress -i. 369 Robb's Speech in the New-Orleans Conven tion ------ - -—. —--—......... ii. 152 Roman Slavery.....................ii. 230 Roman Commerce.................. i. 303 Russian Navy..................... ii. 192 Russian Trade with United States. i. 323 Shoe Ma nufactures at South.... —---- ii. 130 Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States...,.................... iii. 188 Silk and Silk Culture-Or igin, Earl y- His - tory, Progress-Manufac tur es, Silk in the United States; Advantages o f the South for the Silk Industry........... -iii. 160 Slater, the father of American cotto n manu tures..........i..........1i 213 Slaves-See N egroes. SlRuves-Fugitive at the North....... iii. 128 Slaves-Dangers which Environ Slavery in the Union...................... iii. 130 Slavery, North and South......... iii. 130 Slave Trade....................... ii i. 131 SlavrdeTrade of Africa............... iii. 133 Slavery Letters of Hammond...... ii. 233 Slavery-John C. Calhoun's Letter to Mr. King......................... ii. 265 Slave Labor........ - - -.......... S ii. 3 Slavery of the South, what element it de velops, as compared with t he North. iii. 62 Slave Stati stics of U nited States — ii. 304 -Slavery-I ts hist ory.....i. ii 8- - Ravery North and South......... ii. 310 - -Slaves-Remedy for their e xcess.... ii. 313 Slaves-Diseases, treatment, &c....ii. 315 Slaves-Management of............ ii. 331 Slave T rad e of the S ou th.. ii. 4034 /Slav e Labor in factories..ii. Slavery, etc...... iii. Slavery of the South -tpls adoeeniii. 48 Slavery-How to protect..... 12. S lave L aws of Louisiana -r c...-...- i. 430 Slavery contrasted with pauperism- ii. 213 Slaves —Religious improvement....ii. 216 Slave Laws of the South............ ii. - Slaves-Manumitted and fugitive m aiii. 426 South America...lipoee..i. 26 South America-Trade with U. States i. 325 South America-Commerce of-.. - - i. 372 South America- Future trade with iii. 10 South Carolin a-Industrial Institute. iii. 24 11 South-New products for. -....-.i. 83 Southern Military strength.......... ii. 233 Southern Slave Laws.............. ii. 269 South-Health of.. 22bnii. 299 South-Her tribute to the North. ii. 483, 485 Southe rn Field for manufactures..-. ii. 108 Southern C omp etition in manufactures.Tii. Southern Products, tonnage, &c...iii. 40 Southern Staples, and commerce in iii. 48 Southern Society, manners, &c...iii 66 Southern Planters, their character iii. 69 Southern Wealth and resources....iii. 70 Southern Cotton, sugar, rice, manufactures, internal improvements, &c....... iii. 74 Southern and Northern Trade. —-- iii. 97 South —Her capacity to compete with North in supplying her own wants. -... iii. 117 South —Her adaptation for sheep hus bandry........................iii. 189 South —Her interest in the Union..iii. 190 South Carolina Rail-Roads.....iii. 572|Southern Direct Foreign Trade.......iii. 1 San Diego.........ii 502 Savannah, Georgia..iii. 13, 5739 Savannah-Commerce....-. iii. 144 Savannah-Statistics of............ iii. 145 Sacramento, California.............. i. 263 San Francisco..............i. 264; ii. 502 Santa Fe -........... ——........- i. 269 Science and Art.-.-..... —------- iii. 448 Sea Island Cotton.................. i. 121 Silk and Silk Culture.............. ii. 558 Silk Growth of United States i. 80; iii. 179 Silk Worms..........iii. 169 Sierra Nevada............i 262 Silver-History......... —--—....-.i. 292 Sheep Statistics of United States,.iii. 188 Sheep-Best breed for the South.... iii. 194 ,Ship Building in United States......ii. 186 viii GENERAL INDEX. Southern Commerce-Its Extension by Sea............................. iii. 14 Southern Industry-Progress of; Prospects of Cotton Interests, &c......... iii. 24 South-Future of................... iii. 37 Southern Industry.................. iii. 45 South-Position in the Union-Emnancipa ou antion, Abolition, N atural Law of Slavery, Physic al Characteristics of Negroes, Fatal Results of Substituting White Labor for Black at the South................ iii. 53 South-How Affected by her Slave Institu tions........................... iii. 62 South and the Un ion-R esources and Wealth of the South, and What she has Cont ribu ted to the Growth of the Nation... iii. 70 Southern Industrial Revolution....... iii. 76 South-V alu e of Life in.-.. -.omoiii 83 Southern Commerc i a l Convention- Resolu tions............................. iii. 92 Southern Commercial C onv ention-Report of R. Y. Hayne..... ------------- iii. 92 Southern Commercial Convention- Report of George McDuffie... - -..... —..-. iii. 103 Southern Commercial Convention- Report of F. Elmore.....- ----------— iii. i 11 Southern Direct Trade to the Continent of Europe......................... iii. 1 17 Southern Foreign C omm e rce... —---— iii. 119 Southern Commercial Resources Compa red with thos e of the North...... h - E.ii. 120 South and the North............... iii. 123 South -H er Mode of Convincing the North Son the Slave Qu estion............ iii. 123 Sp eoua thern Uealth e..... iii. 124 Southern Resources.... —------------ iii. 124 South-Tonnagee Slave and Free States iii. 125 South-Public Domain of.......... 5ii 126 Southern and Northern Troops in the Revo lution....... T t —---------—..-. iii. 127 Southern and Northern T roops in the Mexi can War....-... ---------—.iii. 128 South Carolina-Minerals, Etc......iii. 134 South Carolina-Statistics-(See Charles ton)....-.... — - -----------—... iii. 135 South Carolina-Agriculture and Phvsical Capabilities, Territory, Climate, Soils, Navigation, Health, Minerals, Manures, Products, Etc................... iii. 136 Spanish W~est Indies............iii. 521 Spanish Trade with United States --— i. 322 Spanish Parties in the West.. ii. 32; iii. 489 Spanish Times in Louisiana -------— i. 422 St Louis-History of...............ii 62 St. Domingo............... ii. 342; i. 279 St. Louis-Commerce of - --------— iii. 572 St. Louis —Commercial Advantages of iii. 145 St. Louis, and the Prospects of Missouri. (See Missouri).................. iii. 146 St. Louis-History of.............. iii. 149 St Louis - Statistics of, and Com merce......... iii. 151 Statistics of United States, early com merce.................. i. 313 Statistics —Science of..,.>..........ifi. 157 'Statistical Bureaus in the States-.... iii. 157 Steam Tonnage of the lakes and of the West........................ i 448 Steam and Ship levees of N. Orleans-ii. 138 Steamers to South America... —-. iii. 9 Steamers from New-Orleans to Eng land....iii. 153 Steam in the WTest................ iii. 488 Steamers on the Hudson and the Mississippi rivers... —---------- ----------— ii. 460 Steamboat Accidents in West.- iii. 572 Steam Marine of United States ---— iii. 577 Steamships-Prospectus for Establishing a Line of Propeller Steamers between New Orleans and Liverpool...........iii. 153 Steam Boiler Explosions... —------- iii 153 Steamboat Disasters in the West.... iii. 155 Sugar-Cultivation-Manufacture of iii. 195 Sugar-Manufacture, Etc........... iii. 207 Sugar Manufacture-Crystallization of Su gar-Chemical and other Doctrines of Sugar....... iii 213 Sugar Manufacture. Sugar-Its Cultivation, Manufacture and Commerce, Etc..... iii. 249 Sugar Cane-Extracts from a Memoir on the Structure and Composition of the Sugar Cane,........................... iii. 262 Sugar Cane Culture on the most Successful Estates......................... iii. 266 Suger Planter:i, Notes for... iii. 269 Sugar Industry of Louisiana, iii. 275-277, 282 Sugar of Florida...............- iii. 276 Sugar of Louisiana....- iii. 282, 285, 286 Sugar Culture of Texas......... iii. 284 Sugar Trade of United States....... iii. 288 Sugar-ihnports of.................iii. 289 Sugar Manufacture in Louisiana....iii. 290 Sugar Culture in the Ea st I ndies... iii. 299 Sugar Culture i n Test Indie s....t.iii. 307 Sugar Estates of Cub a. -........iii. 311 Sugar Trade of the World..........iii. 312 Sugar-Process of Culture, Manufacture, Etc............................ iii. 314 Sugar-Address of Judge Rost on its cul ture..-...-. -... —------------- - i. 63 Sugar-Affected by frosts........... i. 152 Sugar and Cotton of Florida......... i. 343 Sugar of Mexico................. ii. 99 Sugar Trade of New-Orleans-Prices, &C....................ii. 152; iii. 482 Sugar Lands of Florida...-.........i. 351 Swedish Trade with United States.... i 323 Swedish West Indies.............. iii. 549 Tariffs of United States. i. 330; iii. 444, 445 Tehuantepec Route....... ii. 457, 492, 553 Tehuantepec Treaty. —---------- iii. 573 Tea Culture in the South.. iii. 51, 355, 356 Tea Trade of China...............iii. 52 Tea Culture in the South.."...iii. 355, 356 Texas............ii. 547, 551 Texas Rail-Roads............ ii. 448, 550 Texas Sugar............iii. 284, 331 Texas Annexation..............iii. 375 ix - GENERAL INDEX. Texas-Climate, Rivers, Lands, Pro ducts, Animals, Minerals, Government, Etc............................ iii. 321 Texas-Sugar Lands.............. iii. 331 Texas-Resources, Products, Etc...iii. 335 Texas-Brazos Country...... —-------- iii. 337 Texas-Her Natural Advantages... iii. 338 Texas-Growth of................. iii. 339 Texas-Galveston, Etc.. -.... -...-iii. 341 Tennessee..............ii. 444; iii. 496 Tennessee Rail-Roads.............ii. 526 Territories of United States.......iii. 393 Tobacco of Florida.................i. 349 Tobacco Trade of United States.... iii. 349 Tobacco-Prize Essay on the Culture and Management of.................iii. 341 Tobacco-Cuba....................iii. 345 Tobacco-Growth and Consumption of in United States................... iii. 346 Tonnage of Lakes..............i. 448 Tonnage of Great Britain and the United States...........'............ ii. 194 Tonnage of the different States..... ii. 195 Tonnage of Great Britain and the United States compared;............... iii. 435 Tonnage of Free and Slave States..iii. 125 Tonnage of the world............. ii. 557 Turpentine Business of North Caro lina............................ iii. 350 Turpentine —Process of Manufacture, Pro fits, Etc......................... iii. 350 Turpentine Business in Georgia....iii. 354 United States-Territorial Extent of.iii. 393 United States - Sea and River Shore Line........................... iii. 395 United States-Immigration into... iii. 395 United States-Operation of the Laws of Population in Europe and U. S..iii. 400 United States Provision Trade......ii. 558 United States Emigr ation..........iii. 555 United States-Exports and Imports sinc e 1790......................... iii. 378 United States Expenditures at the North and South..................... iii 97.. United States Popular vote......... ii. 508 United States census', 1850.......iii. 573 ha United States Navy, 1852..........iii. 573 United States Religious statistics.. iii. 57 4 United States Population and Represent ation. —-.... —--—. —-------— iii. 574 United States Currency.-..... —— iii. 575 United States Steamers. —------- iii. 577 United States Manufactures, 1850... fli. 577 United States shipping and tonnage.iii. 579 United States com'l statistics.. iii, 577, 584 Upland Rice...................... ii. 426 Uruguay.........................i. 38 Valleys of North America.......... i. 2 Valley of the Mississippi........... ii. 21 Venezuela......................i. 34 Vessels built in United States.... ii. 196 Virginia-Internal Improvements...iii. 458 Vine Culture for United States.... i. 81 Vital Statistics of Mass........... ii. 71 Vital Statistics of Mobile........... ii. 79 Vital Statistics of New-Orleans.. ii. 141, 148 Vital Statistics of South........... iii. 85 Union-Its Stability-British Policy in re gard to Tropical Products and the Slave Trade, Commercial Advantages of the South...................... iii. 356,357 United States-Progress of population from the earliest settlement. i. 309; ii. 558, 560 United States-Its commerce with other powers......................... i. 321 United States Commerce with France and England _.. iii. 554 United States-Mint operations since 1793.. i. 373 United States-Iron interests..i. 397 United States Public Lands........i. 441 United States Fisheries.............i. i. 463 United States Post System........ ii. 361 United States Rail-Road System....ii. 478 United States-Mortality by census of 1850.....,.iii. 428 United States Tariff............. iii. 445 United States Sugar Trade...i......l. 288 United States Tobacco Commerce...iii. 349 United States-Progress of the Republic Growth of States and Population..iii. 367 United States-Early and Growing Com merce of........................ iii. 378 United States-Commerce and Navigation Progress of from 1790........... iii. 386 United States-Population, Debt, Loans, Revenues, Etc., since 1790....... iii. 391 United States- Centre of it Moving West....,.,., iii. 393 Wheat Crop of United States........i. 78 Whale Fishery.................... i. 315 Whitney's Rail-Road.......... ii. 493, 499 White Labor unsuited to the South.. iii. 61 Washington Navy Yard............ ii. 191 West Indies-British............... i. 108 West Indies-Sugar trade, &c...... iii. 307 West Indies-Emancipation of slaves. iii. 38 Western Rivers-Loss of life on....iii. 154 Western Statistics................iii. 51 2 Wine Manufacture at the South.-.. iii. 476 Wisconsin....................... iii. 497 Western Manufactures...... ii. 108; iii. 469 Western Trade of New-Orleans..... ii. 147 Western Steamers, insecurity of... ii. 456 iii. 510. Western Pork trade................. i. 375 Western River commerce........... i. 445 WesternSNavigation................ i. 449 Western Canals................... i. 450 Western Population..ii. 1, 558; iii. 499, West-Efforts for disunion. —-- i. 400, 425 Wreckers of Florida............... i. 407 Yazoo Land iClaims............t. 50 Yellow Fever in Charleston......... i. 248 Zoll-Verein...... ---------—............. ----- i. 325 x NOTICES OF THE PRESS-INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. IT is an invaluble treasury of information. The public will be supplied with one of the most valuable works of reference that can be added to an American library.-Charleston Mercury. THE work will form a vade mecum for the library of the statesman and political economist.C h arleston Evenidg News. IT supplies a want that has long been felt in relation to this country, and compares in usefulness io the celebrated Progress of the Nation, by the late G. R. Porter, Esq.-United States JfConomist. De Bow's Industrial Besourees.-The work contains statistical and other intelligence upon all general topics relating to commercial and industrial pursuits in the United States and foreign countries, and as such deserves to be placed on the shelves of the library, as an indispensable American compendium, by the side of McCulloch. In no similar space can so much be found so readily relating to the statistics and progress of the Southwest and the Soutb.-N. O. Picayune. THE work will be a valuable addition to the library of the merchant, manufacturer, planter, and statesman, and the public have every guarantee of its ability in the active and intelligent services rendered by Professor De Bow to the industrial interest of the country, for many years past, in the pages of his invaluable and widely circa. lated Review —Harpers' A~lagazine. De Bow's Industrial Aesources.-The work is arranged after the manner of an encyclopedia, and abounds in a variety of useful information, and many valuable statistics compiled from the returns included in the last census. It is a work which should be in the hands of every merchant and business man, who could not fail to derive profitable information from its pages. Mr. De Bow appears to have spared neither pains nor labor in compiling this varied and comprehensive work. —B'altimore American. De Bowv's Industrial Resources.-Among the sources of reliable statistical information may be mentioned, the two principal comimercial magazines of the country- the Merchants' Magaz ine of New-York, and De Bow's Review of the Southern and Western States, conducted by J. D. B. DeBow, professor of political economy, &c., in the University of Louisiana, and published at NewOrleans. The former is well known to the mercantile community; but the latter, though extensively patronized, and a standard authority at the South, has not received from the merchants of the North that support which an enlightened regard to their own interests would seem to demand. The statistical information embodied in its pages respecting the staples of the South and West, which form the basis of a great part of all our leading commercial transactions, is immense. More than three large volumes have been published upon COTTON alone, and more than a thousand pages upon SUGAR. In point of literary merit too, it is unsurpassed. The leading articles have been written with a vigor of thought and purity of style not excelled, if equalled in the annals of commercial literature, and the intellectual tastes fostered by them are exceedingly favorable to mental growth aud worldly prosperity. Mr. De Bow has published a condensation of all the important papers, articles and statistics, that have appeared in the twelve published volumes of his Review, in three, entitled; " The INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES," and I sincerely trust that no intelligent merchant will overlook the advantages he will enjoy, in possessing this vast depository of reliable and valuable information.-Freedy's Practical Treatise on Business, 1852. The In dustrial Resources of the Southern and Western States, by J. D). B. DeBow.-To the merchant it furnishes valuable materials concerning the great staples of the States South of the Potomac; and he will look in vain elsewhere for the copious historical and statistical details which are here supplied in reference to the agricultural productions of that rich region. We may note particularly the topics of Cotton, Tobacco and Rice-their history, cultivation and progressive increase, until they now form so prominent features in the export trade of the country. The discussions embraced in this series, upon these great staples, and upon those of Sugar, Hemp, Indian Corn, &c., and upon the momentous subjects of Manufactures, Internal Improvements, and Commerce of the South, are such as will claim close attention from the merchant who desires to be familiar with the whole country.-N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. De Bow's Industrial -Resources.-An important work of wide sweep and variety of contents is The lezdcstrial Resources of the Southern and Western States, to be completed in three volumes. The editor and author of the work is J. De Bow, Esq., the conductor of the Commercial Magazine published under his name at New-Orleans. We would merely announce the issue of this first volume of one of the most important publications of the day, indispensable for statesmen, merchants, political economists, and whoever would be p ossessed of a complete library. —Literary World, N Y. Industrial Resources of the Soutk a nd West, by J. D. B. De Bome.-We thin k tha t n o merchant or public man should neglect to secure the valuable information embodiedgin the authentic reports and statistical tables of these volumes. Professor De Bow's reputation as a scholar and statist, is a sufficient guaranty for the accuracy and completeness of every paper contained in the collection. —R. B..Tournal, iV. Y. ASHLAND, Maay 20, 1851. Dear Sir-I have received and looked into the 9th volume of your Review of the Southern and Westeri States, as I had occasionally into some of the prepvious volumes~ I take pleasure in saying that it embodies a great amount of valuable and useful information in respect to political economy, agriculture, commerce and manufactures, and other statistics, diligently collected and well arranged. Without concurring in all the speculative reasonings of the work, I think it eminently entitled to public patronage. Wishing that your persevering exertions may be justly appreciated, and may be attended with encouragement and success, I am your obedient servant. H. CLAY. J. D. B. DE Bow, Esq. NOTICES OF THE PRESS. useful information in relation to the great staples od the South, than can be found in an y oth er periodlcal. As t hese staples form the basis of a great partof all our lea ding commer cial transactions, the above work is an indispensable part of eve ry business ms man's libra ry.-Rail-Road Journal, N. Y. De Boo's Review.- We are persuaded t hat no more use ful p ublicatio n than this emanat es from the Ameri can press. Its range of topics is, in dee d, a wide one, but it is always filled with va luable statistical papers, and its literary department is highly interesting. Mr. De Bow is well known as a s chol a r and a w riter. A recent address delivered by him before an agricultu ral society, has pleased us so much, that we could f ind i iin o ur hear t to quarrel for n ot contributing more frequently in propria persona to the pages of his magazine.-Southern Literary Messenger, Ricof moend, V. De Bow''s Review.-The work is printed in a style creditable to the press, and its contents are such as to render it a valuable adjunct to the similar work de voted to the commerce of the United States, published by Hunt, of New-York, &c.-Boston Daily Adv. Do Bow's Review.-This periodical performs for the South and West the same office which the Merchants' Magazine performs for this part of the country. We learn that its circulation is rapidly increasing. The present number contains many valuable articles, among which is one by the Editor, on the " Progress of the Great West," full of interesting statistical information and speculations. It is to the credit of the mercantile class that works of this kind find encouragement among them. —N. Y. Evening Post. De Bow'9s Review. —We rejoice that so good a work has been established at New-Orleans, and apparently well established. It can hardly fail to secure patrons in every part of the country.-N<. Y. Tribune. De Bow's Review.-This is the title of a monthly journal of trade, commerce, commercial policy, agriculture, manufactures, internal improvements, and general literature, published at New-Orleans by J. D. B. De Bow, and is well worth the attention of the merchant and the statesman. It is second to no other work of the kind in this or any other country, and must soon become authority for everything relating-, to matters of which it treats. We notice among its contributors some of the most distinguished writers in the Union.-NV. Y. Herald. De Bow2's, Review has been upon our table for several days. This work is well worthy of attention, not only in the section of country in which it is published, but at the North, as it contains a great amount of very valuable information which cannot be found elsewhere. It is properly the complement of Hunt's Magazine, and in connection with that work. forms a complete record of mercantile and commercial facts. We commend it to the notice of our readers, and to the favor of all who are interested in the commerce of the South.-N Y. Courier and Enqui-er. De Bowls Review.-It abounds, as usual, with able articles on the commercial, social and political questions of the South and West, and in statistical information. It is a work that ought to be cherished with liberality by the southern people. and it ought to be consulted by all statesmen, who aspire to the distinction of nationality.-Southei-n Press, Wash. ington. De Bowls Review.-It is conducted by a man of rare capacities and qualifications for such a work, as its pages abundantly attest. In addition to the editor, it has among its contributors some of the ablest and most distinguished writers of the Soutb and West.-tashingto* Us De Bow's Review. —This Review is; an able one. We anticipate and realize invaluable information from its pages, as to the progress and industry of the flour ishing districts of which it is the hIerald and organ. — Simmond's Colonial Magazine, London. De Bow's Review.- We need hardly say that we are charmed with this Review, when we add that we read t tlhrough at a heat.- Skinner'* Farmer's Library, Ve. -York. De Bow's Commercial Review contains much valu able matter of Commercial and Miscellaneous charac ter. Success to our namesake. The paper in it which interests us the most, is that entitled "COMMEUrRCEc AND AGRICULTURE SUBJECTS OF UNIVERSITY INSTRUC TION," from the pen of the accomplished editor of the Review, in which he submits the plan of a Professor ship of Public Economy, Commerce, and Statistics for our Colleges and Universities. The planhas our hearty approval, and will, we trust, ere long be adopted by some of our higher institutions. The article on "CHARLESTON AND ITS RESOURCES," we shall endea vor to find room for in a future number of the Maga zine.-Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. De Bow's Review is one of the most useful of the monthly publications, accumulating at such periods a large and valuable body of statistics and opinions, such as we rarely find in any other form of publication. The editor is a person of rare industry and enthusiasm. His work is particularly important to the commercial community of the South.-Southern Quarterly Review, Charleston. De Bow's Review.-Weo are exceedingly pleased to hear of the success of this work, so important to the South, and so creditable to its literary enterprise. It comies to us monthly, freighted with toie most valuable and reliable information, in relation to the sources of that section of the country, and ought not to be missed from any northern library.-Democratic Review, N. Y. De Bow's Review.-It gives' us great pleasure to state, that J. D. B. DE Bow, editor of the Commercial Review, has been selected to fill the chair of Commerce and Statistics in the new University. Mr. D has, in the columns of his popular and widely circulated journal, shown himself to be familiar with the commerce and statistics of the South and West, and also a zealous advocate for disseminating widely accurate information upon these important heads. We want more educated merchants, a more intimate knowledge of the history of commerce, and of the principles and theory of political economy, trade and manufactures.-Bankers' Mlagazine, Boston. De Bow's Review.-Suppose one should desire to keep himself advised of the state of our domestic and foreign trade, and also of the commerce of all nations, where else would he find this information in a form so convenient, satisfactery and cheap, as in Hunt's Magaz;ne. Should he desire to combine with commercial information a knowledge of the great interes ts of the South, her agriculture, manufactures and internal improvements, where else could he find so much information in so small a compass, and at so cheap a rate, as in De Bow's Review?-Western Jourxal, St. Louis. De Bow's Review.-This Review, now in its sixth year, has not as yet received the attention which it deserves at the North. Itis amply supported, we learn, at the South; and for this reason, as an accredited organ of the commercial interests of that great region of our oountry, should find its readers in all circles. We should be more anxious to learn what views are taken of our great producing interests, and of the natural questions which agitate the country at headquarters.- Literary World, Ne -York. De Bow's Reviewo.-The statistics are collected with great care and industry;- and the work presents more INDEX TO VOL. III. SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE, by Lieut. Maury........................... 1 SOUJTHERN COMMERCE-Its Extension by Sea,.................................... -14 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-Progress of; Prospects of Cotton Interests, Position of South Carolina, Influence of Mechanic Arts and Manufactuires, What the South is Capable of in Cot ton Manufactures, Labor at the South, Facilities for Steam and Water Power; Employment for the Poorer Classes, Etc --....................................... —------------------------------------------—. 24 SOUTH —Future of,........................................... —-------------------------------------------------—................ 37 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY,............................................................ 45 SOUTH-Position in the Union-Emancipation, Abolition, Natural Law of Slavery, Physical Characteristics of Negroes, Fatal Results of Substituting White Labor for Black at the South.............................................................................. 53 SOUTH-How Affected by her Slave Institutions-Slavery at the South, and the Elements of Character and Civilization it Developes on British Authority, and how they Compare with those of the North................................................................... 62 SOUTH AND THE UNION-Resources and Wealth of the South, and What she has Con tributed to the Growth of the Nation.................................................. 70 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION........................................ 76 SOUTH-Value of Life in............................................................... 83 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION-Resolutions........................... 92 .... Ad~~ " ~Report of R. Y. Hayne................ 92 ,,so~,,s;~~ "' aof Geo. McDuffie............... 103 ,,<~,,s~,' " "of F. Elmore......... i 111 SOUTHERN DIRECT TRADE TO THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE............. 117 SOUTHERN FOREIGN COMMERCE............................................. 119 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL RESOURCES COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE NORTH.......... —--------------------------------------—.............. ----------------- 120 SOUTH AND THE NORTH......................................................... 123 SOUTH-Her mode of Convincing the North on the Slave Question........................ 123 SOUTHERN WEALTH............................................... —--------------------------------------------—............. 124 SOUTHERN RESOURCES......................................................... 124 'SOUTH-Tonnage Slave and Free States................................... —---------------------------------—............ 125 SOUTH-Public Domain of.................... —----------------------------------------------............ 126 SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TROOPS IN THE REVOLUTION................ 127 ,,, G " " MEXICAN WAR..... 128 SLAVES-See Negroes. SLAVES-Fugitive at the North.............................. —-......................... 128 SLAVES-Dangers which Environ Slavery in the Union.................................. 130 SLAVERY NORTH AND SOUTH........................................-.......... 130 SLAVE TRADE................... —--------------------------------------------------—....... 131 SLAVE TRADE OF AFRICA.............................. -........ —-------------------------------------—..... 133 SOUTH CAROLINA-Minerals, Etc.................................................. 134 SOUTH CAROLINA-Statistics-(See Charleston)..................................... 135 SOUTH CAROLINA- Agricultural and Physical Capabilities, Territory, Climate, Soil, Navi gation. Health, Minerals, Manures, Products, Etc....................................... 136 SAVANNAH, GEORGIA........................................-.................... 139 SAVANNAH-Commerce............................................................. 144 SAVANNAH-Statistics of..........................................-.................. 145 ST. LOUIS —Commercial Advantages of................................................ 145 ST. LOUIS, AND THE PROSPECTS OF MISSOURI, (See Missouri)................... 146 ST. LOUIS —History of............................................................... 149 ST. LOUfS-Statistics of and Commerce................................................ 151 STEAMSHIPS-Prospectus for Establishing a Line of Propeller Steamers between New-Or leans ai)d Liverpool.................................................................. 153 STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS................................................... 153 STEAMBOAT DISASTERS IN THE WEST........................................ 155 STATISTICS-Science of............................................................. 157 STATISTICAL BUREAUS IN THE STATES........................................ 157 SILK AND SILK CULTURE-Origin, Early History. Progress-Manufacture, Silk in the United States; Advantages of the South for the Silk Industry; Communications from Practi cal Men, Etc........................................................................ 160 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES, by Ely.................... 188 SUGAR —Cultivation and Manufacture of............................................... 195 SUGAl-Manufacture, Etc............................................................. 207 SUGARt MANUFACTURE-Crystallization of Sugar-Chemical and other Doctrines of S u g a r.............................................................................. 213 SUGAR-Its Cultivation, Manufacture and Commerce-Vegetable Principles, Properties of Cane Sugar, Molasses, Treacle, Cane Juice, Saccharine Matter, Analysis of Sugar Cane, Varie ties of Sugar Mills, Etc.............................................................. 149 INDEX. SUGAR CANE-Extracts from a Memoir on the Structure and Composition of the Sugar Cane, by M. Payen.................................................................. 262 SUGAR CANE CULTURE ON THE MOST SUCCESSFUL ESTATES... —--------- 266 SUGAR PLANTERS-Notes for..................................................... 269 SUGAR INDUSTRY OF LOUISIANA.............................................. 275 SUGAR OF FLORIDA...................................................... 276 SUGAR-Production and History...................................... —----------------------------------------—........... 277 SUGAR-The Early History of........................................................ 282 SUGAR CULTURE IN TEXAS..................................................... 284 SUGAR OF LOUISIANA..........................-................................. 285 SUGAR CROP OF LOUISIANA..................................................... 286 SUGAR TRADE OF UNITED STATES............................................. 288 SUGAR-Imports of.................................................................. 289 SUGAR MANUFACTURE IN LOUISIANA......................................... 290 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES....................................... 299 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES...................................... 307 SUGAR ESTATES OF CUBA...................................................... - 311 SUGAR TRADE OF THE WORLD................................................ 312 SUGAR-Process bof Culture, Manufacture, Etc.......................................... 314 -EXAS-C limate, Rivers, Lands, Products, Animals, Minerals, Government, Etc........... 321 TEXAS- Sugar Lands................................................................ 331 TEXAS-Resources, Products, Etc.................................................... --— 335 -TEXAS-Brazos Country............................................................. 337 TEXAS-Her Natural Advantages...................................................... 338 -TEXAS-Growth of................................................................. 339 -TEXAS —Galveston, Etc.............................................................. --— 341 TOBACCO-Prize Essay on the Culture and Management of............................. 341 TOBACCO-Cuba —--......................................................... 345 TOBACCO-Growth and Consumption of, in United States............................... 346 TURPENTINE BUSINESS OF NORTH CAROLINA............................. 350 'TURPENTINE-Process of Manufacture, Profits, Etc..................................... 350 TURPENTINE BUSINESS IN GEORGIA.......................................... ---------------------------------- 354 TEA CULTURE IN THE SOUTH............................. —---------------------------------—.... —-.......355, 356 UNION-Its Stability-British Policy in Regard to Tropical Products and the Slave Trade, Commercial Advantages of the South, What the North Gains out of the South, Etc.-..356, 357 UNITED STATES-Progress of the Republic- Growth of States and Population........... 367 " Early and Growing Commerce of................................... 378* " Commerce and Navigation-Progress of from 1790.................... 386 Population, Debt, Loans, Revenues, Etc. since 1790.................. 391 Centre of it Moving West.......................................... 390 " Territorial Extent of............................................... 393 " Sea and River Shore Line.......................................... 395 " Immigration into. —...................... —--—............................ 395 " Operation of the Laws of Population in Europe and United Statcs ----- 400 Population from Earliest Times, with all the Census Returns. —------- 400 " Census of 1850-Analysis of Growth of Population every Ten Years Population, Square Miles, Density of Regions North, South, East and West, Etc..................................-........... 420 " Census Statistics-Comparative Tables.... —----------------------- 423 Finances, and of the States, Debts, &c. —---------------------—................ 433 Commercial Navigation Compared with Great Britain —------------- 434 " Tariffs-Internal Improvements, &c., Copy-right and Patent-right....... 436 -VIRGINIA-Early History-Education, Schools and Colleges, Government, Resources, Inter nal Improvements, Slavery........................................................... 453 VIRGINIA GOLD MINES................................................-.......... 461 'VIRGINIA COMMERCIAL CONVENTION-Resources, Industry and Improvements of Virginia, her Contest for the Trade of the West, and Proposed Foreign Trade............ 462 VINEYARDS OF THE SOUTH............................................... —- -— 468, 471 WESTERN VALLEY-Progress of the Great West in Population, Agriculture, Arts and Commerce.......................................................................... 475 WEST-Commerce and Resources of, Etc.............................................. 511 WE ST-Advantages for Manufactures.............................513 WESTERN HUNTERS AND) TRAPPERS..........................................516 WISCONSIN-Progress and Resources................................................ 518 WISCONSIN-Mineral Resources.................................................... 519 WEST INDIA ISLANDS-Position, Importance, Etc., Cuba, Porto Rico, Martinique, French, British, Danish, Swedish, Dutch West Indies, Etc. Etc.......................... 519 APPENDIX-Canadian Commerce, 551-Cuba Trade, 551-Coast Trade of Pennsylvania, 552-Commerce of United States with Great Britain. 553-Cotton Crop of United States, 555-Emigration from Great Britain, 555-Mobile Commerce, 1851-2, 555-Mexico in 1852, 557-Massachusetts in 1852, 558-Manufactory, cost of, 559-Nicaragua, 559-New-Orleans Commerce, &c., 1852. 559. 568-North Carolina, 569Postage Law, 1850. 570-Rail-road and Canal Statistics, 570-Steamboat Accidents, 572-St. Louis, 572Savannah, 573 —Tehuantepec. 573-United States Navy, Religion, Population, Cnrrency, Trade and Commerce with all Nations, 1851, Tonnage, Manufactures, Steamers, Militia, etc., 573-Cuba, 577. IV INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES. We did succeed in impressing one gentleman, at least, with our notions. Him we knew well; he was an enterprising. go-ahead fellow. Requiescat! Captivated with the idea of subsidizing the French in thle noble enterprise, he petitionied the Virginia legislatutre to grant him the charter for an Atlantic Steam Navigation Company. He wanted no privileges, no favors, but simply the charter; for he was sure that with the charter and his energies, he could gain the French over as allies and induce them to select Norfolk for the American terminus of their line. The legislature refused the charter. The French, meeting with no sympathy on this side, receiving no overtures from the South to send their boats to Norfolk, proceeded to build their vessels. They selected New-York for their American station, and sent over their steamers filled with officer s a nd servants so be dizened with "toggery," th at passengers could not tell one from the other. Finally, after a trip or two, one of these steamers, loaded dow n with passengers and freight, put to sea from New-York, and after getting fairly out into blue water, discovered that the sugar had been forgotten. The captain made a speech at the breakfast table the rnext morning, and offered to put back for sugar if the passengers would say so: but it was too late. The passengers had already become sour. This sugar business broke up the line. Johnny Crapo retired from the contest, and left the field to John Bull, to be by him enjoyed without a competitor for some ten or twelve years. No human sagacity could penetrate 6learly enough into the future then, to see all that has since actually turned up in the way of ocean steam navigation and steamship enterprises; but there is little or no doubt that, had the suggestions of this journal, at the time they were made, been adopted by the advocates of direct trade in the South-that, had the legislature of Virginia granted that ocean steam navigation charter, Norfolk would at this day have been the centre of steamship enterprise for the United States. The French steamers would have been built there; they would have been commanded and controlled by Americans who would never forget their sugar, nor make their passengers sour. 1 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE.-Some twelve or fift een years ago t here w as a move at the South in favo r of direct trade. C onve ntions we re held at various places, and resolutions were pass ed binding th e merchants of the South, like the oath which o ld Neptune administers to sailors when crossing the li ne-," N ev er t o kiss the maid when they can kiss the mistress, unless they like the maid the best:"-,' never to eat hard bread when they can ge t soft, unless they p refer t he h ard." S o our conriventions resolved, that southern merchants should never buy in the North, when they could purchase a t the South, unless they could buy cheaper at the North. Welgt t hought then, that much might be don e to recover back to the South its lost trade. But we we re of opinion that it could n o t be done merely by taking sailors' oaths, or by passing Neptunian resolutions. It could not, we thought, e ge done, unless mercha nts w ould put their hands in their pockets but this they were not peprepare d to do. And so the impulse thehen give n to southern commerce ended, we believe, with a cargo or two of sugar that was imported from the West Indies in to Norfolk d irect, in stead of being carried right by the capes of Virgini a to NewYor k, and th en s ent from there back to Norfolk. W e mind t he time well when these onventions took place; our hear t was i n the move, and our spirit wet along wi th th e delegates every time. It was in 1837-8, along there-when the British government was about writing Q. E. D. to the practical demonstration which the " Sirius," the " Liverpool," and the " Great Western," were just then giving to the great problem of Ocean Steam Navigation. France, the French, and the King of the French, were burning with the desire not to be outdone by England. They had the money ready, and were looking for a port on this side to which they might start an .opposition line of steamers. It was then proposed that the South should offer to take part of the stock, provided the French would select Norfolk as the terminus for their lineand thus get the line into the hands of Americans, for we "1felt it in our bones," that, even at that day, we could beat John Bull. VOL. III. SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. tion-and such to New-York for the corner stone of her commercial edifice. Virginia saw these advantages, and slept upon them. She knew that Nature had placed them there, and made them hers. She never dreamed that man could take them a" ay. But man has. The enterprise of marl has extended the back country of New-York from the sea to the lakes; from the waters of Long Island Sound to the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. It has turned the commerce of the St. Lawrence down the Hudson, and placed the mouth of the Mississippi as much at Sandy Hook as it is at the Balize. Thus did New-York while Virginia was sleeping. Just as she was beginning to wake up, chance and the course of events threw in her way the steamship enterprise of the French. Her merchants, however, could not get their hands in their pockets, or rather they stood with their hands in their pockets for ten years, and quietly looked on while New-York was projecting her plans, displaying her enterprise, and monopolizing all those steam advantages; and now that NewYork has got fairly under way, they in the South are again rousing up the people and calling their conventions in favor of steamships and direct trade. Better late than never. We welcome the move with all our heart, and mean to support it with all our strength-save and except the Neptunian resolutions. We do not go for them. We do not wish to discourage the move for a line of steamers firom Norfolk to Europe, as great as the odds against Norfolk now are. We know that there are business men in the South, who, if once they put their hands in their pockets and their shoulders to the wheel, have energy, enterprise and capacity enough for anything that energy, enterprise and capacity can effect. While we do not wish to discourage that move, therefore, we have a proposition to make, which, by timely adoption, will, we think, do much towards recovering for the South her lost advantages, and that with interest. This proposition is another steamship enterprise It may meet the fate of the former one, but if so, the end of the next fifteen years will show its rejection to be a piece of short-sighted policy, more to be deplored than all the inaction heretofore observed by Virginia with regard to her natural resources and commercial advantages. The South wants to regain her direct trade. Let us first examine how the South came to lose it, and the North to get it. We shall then know the better how to proceed, and what to do towards recovering it. The course of navigation from Europe to this country used to be down along the coast of Africa to the region of the north-east trade winds. These winds are fair winds for getting to the westward. Ships took them, and ewith them ran over to the United States; This would have established foundries, ma chine-shops, and ship-yards at Norfolk, and hav e placed her ten or fifteen years ahead of New-York in the steamship business. Nor folk would then have been enabled to get the contract s from the g overnment for establish ing those lines of splendid steamers that are now giving such a tremendous impetus to the business, the trade, travel and traffic of New York. The lines to the is thmus would ha ve be l onged to Nor folk. Hers would probably have been the Havre and Bremen lines. And the Old Dominion might have claimed also what is now the aCollins' line." Geographically speaking, Norfolk is in a position to have commanded the business of the Atlantic seaboard. It is midway the coast. It has a back country of surprising fertility-of great capacity and resources; and as far as the approaches from the sea are concerned, its facility of ingress and egress, at all times and in all weathers, there is from Maine to Georgia, from the St. John's to the Rio Grande, nothing like Norfolk. The waters which flow past Norfolk into the sea, divide the producing from the con suming states of the Atlantic slope-the agri cultural from the manufacturing-the ice ponds of the North from the cotton fields at the South-the potato patch from the rice plantation-the miner from the planter. And these same waters unite at this one place the natural channels that lead from the most fa mous regions in the country for corn, wheat and tobacco, to the great commercial marts. In order to satisfy any one of the vast natural advantages which Norfolk has over any other Atlantic seaport, let us compare the back country which naturally belongs to this ancient borough and modern city, with that which naturally belongs to New-York. We hope the reader will refer to a map of the United States, and with his pencil trace a line on it to include all the country which is * drained into the Hudson River:-f-or that is the back country which naturally belongs to the city of New-York. Now let him, in like manner, draw another i line to include within it all the country that is drained into the Chesapeake Bay; for this is the back country which naturally belongs to Norfolk. To do this, he will begin and run along upon the ridge-the " Divide," the western people call it-between the Delaware and the Chesapeake. Running thence northwardly, his pencil mark will include all of Pennsylvania that is in the valley of the Susquehanna-all of Maryland this side of the mountains-the valley of the Potomac, the Rappahannock, the York and the James rivers, with the valley of the Roanoke and a great part of the State of North Carolina, whose only outlet to the sea is via Norfolk. Such is the back country that nature has given to Norfolk tor her commercial fouffda 2 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. falling in with the southern coast first, and making the land of Charleston or the capes of the Carolinas or of Virginia, they would then take a fresh departure fe,r New-York, Boston, or their port of destination, wherever it was, among the New-England states. This made of Charleston and Norfolk a sort of relay station, and placed them on the wayside of the commercial highway, leading from Old to New-Eugland. It was rarely that vessels were found in those days to sail more than four or five knots under the most favorable circumstances. About two miles the hour was the average rate of speed for merchantmen in those days. It was not so fast as the gulf stream would carry a lo,g. Along the route now pursued by vessels bound from Liverpool to New-York, the winds are adverse, and the gulf stream has to be stemmed nearly all the way. The merchantmen of the last century were incapable of beating up against wind and tide both; consequently the northern passage was closed to them, and the usual route was to follow the track of Columbus-pass through the Sargasso Sea, catch the north-east trades, and getting on the parallel of some southern port in America, to steer due west until they made the land. If the merchantman of that day, after thus making her land-fall, ascertaining her position and keeping away for her port, met a north-west gale or a snow-storm, as in winter she was very apt to do off New-York or Boston, her course was to runts back south, and to lie in Charleston until the next spring, waiting for good weather and a fair opportunity for going northward again. Though the existence of the gulf stream was known more than two centuries ago, the fact that its waters were warmer than those of the sea along side of it, and the idea that this difference of temp eratur e c ould be mad e available for longitude at sea, was not promulgated to navigators until 1796-7. This is an epoch in navigation, and from it commences an era in the course of trade between the old world and the new. I n those d ays, if the mariner at sea could lay his out-spread hand down upon his chart, and say that it certainly covered the place oft his ship, he was called a " lucky dog," and entitled to be considered a navigator. We beg leave to illustrate, and to instance, as we go along: In 1779, when John Adams wa s returning to the United States from his first mission to France, he came in a French man-of-war, and men-of-war were much better navigated in those days than merchantmen. After leaving the shores of France, they did not discover their longitude until they got soundings in the waters of Amesrica. We quote from his diary. " Saturday, 17th." It was July. "Three days past we have sounded for the Grand Bank, but have not found it."* Two weeks after that, viz., on the 31st, when they did find bottom, he remarks: " The weather, the wind the discovery of otr longitude, give us all fine spirits this morning." A modern vessel would sail across the Atlantic while th e frigat e " Sens ible" wa s se ek - ing her longitude. Such was the course of navigation, such the difficul t ie s in the wav o f t rade a cros s the Atlantic prior to 1796, tha t Charlest on and Norfolk, of necessity, became the half-way houses, e gati r ot o tr the great en trepots of traffic, the points of communication between Europe and the " colonies."t From 1776 dates a new era in the political affairs of this countr y-and t rom 1796twenty years after-an d so on at inte rvals of twenty years, dates regularly a new era in the affairs of commerce and navigation. Then, in'96, it was made known to navigators how, by dipping a thermometer in to the water as they approached our shore s, they might tell whether they were in or out of the gulf stream-whethe r the y wer e on this or that side of it, and consequently know their longitude. This was a discovery. It was hailed as such by the whole sea-faring community. Works were written on " Thermal Navigationn;" and the st reaks of hot and cold water in an d nea r the gu lf st ream, w ere likened to blue and red ribbons, which Providence had stretched on the green bosom of the Atlantic, to warn the navigator of his approach to our shores, and to tell his longitude. At that time, too, great improvements in naval architecture were about to take place. The keels of the fastest ships that we have in our navy at this day were laid then. These discoveries and improvements enabled ships bound from Europe to approach the coast of the United States with the gulf stream for a beacon; and they, moreover, enabled merchantmen, by being swift of foot, to turn the windward better, and consequently to beat over from Europe against the gulf stream and the prevailing westerly winds of the direct route. Thus traders began to come direct to our northern ports, instead of first touching at the southern for a land-fall and good weather. Thus Charleston ceased to be a half-way house, and was made an outside station. The South; quietly and in silence, looked on while this revolution was making its changes. After another period of twenty years, viz., in 1816, another era in commercial affairs, and the business of the sea, was commenced. In that year, Jeremiah Thompson, Isaac * Life and Works of John Adams, Vol. III. pp. 226-7. I I 3 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. light goods, small parcels-all special orders were executed in that way. So completely had they monopolized everything for NewYork, in the way of foreign business, travel, and correspondence, that in the year 1837, when they had served out their twenty years, there was not a single vessel that cleared from Boston for Liverpool. But they had run their twenty years, and another era in the business of commerce was about to arise. In 1837 commenced the era of Ocean Steam Navigation, though twenty years before that the South had sent out an avant courier from Ge orgia; but the South rested content wit h the honor of being the first to stride across the Atlantic under steam. Thi ws was th e time-'37-when the idea was thrown out that Virginia should offer to co-operate with the French and invite them to send their steamers into Norfolk. The steamers, contrary to all expectations, gave an impulse to the packet ships, the packet ships re-acted upon the steamers, and both greatlyincreased in numbers and enlarged the business of the country. Boston got its line of steamers, sent its ships to Liverpool, and recovered all the trade, and more, too, that it had lost when steamers first began to ply. The steamers, it was found, so far from interfering with the regular " Liners," created a business of their own. New-York looked on quietly for ten years, before she understood this matter, or began to move in it. But New-York, during the interval, was feeling the way with English capital, as in the mean time Norfolk might have done with French. Finally, New-York got the federal government'committed to the tune of many millions for her steamship enterprise. Thus backed up, New-York launched her ocean steamers, and now leads the world in that navigation. There is room for opposition both to Europe and the gulf, but New-York is a powerful competitor, and the odds are now greatly in her favor. It is curious to look back at the important commercial and political events which have taken place regularly at intervals of double decades, one after the other. We commence with 1776: every generation continues in the majority for about twenty years. When the people, therefore, who had the ascendency in'76, had passed into the minority, their successors-the next generation-signalized the occasion and their accession to the majority, by turning the Atlantic coast, in a commercial point of view, upside down; by removing Charleston from the half-way to an outside station on the road between the old world and the newfor at that period the direct trade of Charleston alone was greater than that of NewYork and all the New-England States toge Wright, an d o thers-in honor of wh om the city of New-York should erect a monumentcommenced the system of packet ships. They put thr ee-vessel s of 300 or 400 tons each, on the line to Liverpool, to sail on stated days regularly once a month, or thereaway. The croakers all thought, and m any said, that these ships would be " no go "- that they were entirely too large, and that often the day of sailing would arrive when there would be neither freight nor passengers to take. But the staid old Quaker who was in the concern knew what he was about. He sailed on the regular day, and gave hi s cap tain s t he p ostage upon all t he letters conveyed to and fro, and for a qui ck passag e he promised them a new gown f or their wives, sometime s a new coat for' them selves. The, L iners," as the packet ship s of New-York came to be called, went on increasing in n umbers n and size and in favor with merchants and ship-owners, until the sea became white wol ith their sails, and NewY ork the f ocu s from which they d iver ged to all ports of th e world, and to which they all returned. Opposition line s were g o t up t o Liverpool, and i ngnd ependent ones established to London and Havre. Be side s these, lines of packet ships, p acket brigs, and packet schooners were established between New-York and every seaport town in the United States. They all had their regul r d ay of sailing, and daily fleets of them were t o be t seen g o ing out and coming into the harbor of New-York. Having their regular days of sailing for New-York, they would bring anything at any r at e of freight that would pa y for putting in an d t aking out, rather than return empty. Hence they woul d tak e for a mere song, pine wood from Virginia, naval stor es from Nor th C arolina, stones from New-England, ores fr om C uba, &c., whic h last were again taken withou t freight to England, because Cuba ores served for ballast. Thus the packet system buil t up NewY ork, and made her the great centra l market for all the surplus produce of all sorts from all parts of the seaboard. Whatever the country produced for sale, samples of it were brought by the packets to the wharves of N ew-York, and thus the warehouses of th at city became an imme nse v ariety store in which is to be found whatever is to be bought or sold in the United States. The packet ships carried the mails across the Atlantic. They made New-York the point of communication with the Old World; and they controlled the business of dispatch for the whole country. They were the "Adams' Express" of the day. The merchants of the North and the South all sent by 1 them for their spring and fall fashions —their' 4 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. - all the elements of the most valuable com merce are there, and they are of easy deve lopment. s We hope the reader will consult the map l as he follows us in what we are about to say. l Of more than twice the size of the Misl sissippi valley, the valley of the Amazon is entirely inter-tropical. An everlasting sum] mer reigns there. Up to the very base of - the Andes, the river itself is navigable for t vessels of the largest class. The Pennsyl vania 74 might go there. A Lnatural canal through the Caciquiari connects it with the Orinoco. Giving drain age and fertility to immense plains that cover two millions of square miles, it receives from - the north and the south innumerable tributaries, which, it is said, afford an inland navil gation up and down of not less than seventy or eighty thousand miles in extent. Stretched - out in a continuous line, the navigable streams of that great water-shed would more I than completely encircle the earth around at . its largest girth. All the climates of India are there. InI deed, we may say, that from the mouth to the sources of the Amazon, piled up one above the other, and spread out, Andeanp like, over steppe after steppe in beautiful un broken succession, are all the climates, and all the soils, with the capacities of produc tion, that are to be found between the regions of everlasting summer and eternal snow. The valley of the Anmazon is the place of production for India-rubber-an article of commerce which has no parallel as to the increase of demand for it, save and except in the history of our own great staple since the invention of the cotton gin. We all re collect when the only uses to which India rubber was applied were to rub out pencil marks and make trap-balls for boys. But it is made into shoes and hats, caps and cloaks, foot-balls and purses, ribbons and cushions, boats, beds, tents, and bags; into pontoons for pushing armies across rivers, and into camels for lifting ships over shoals. It is also applied to a variety of other uses and purposes, the mere enumeration of which would make us tedious. New applications of it are continually being made. Boundless forests of the syringa tree are found upon the banks of this stream, and the exportation of this gum, from the mouth of that river, is daily becoming a business of more and more value, extent and importance. In 1846-7, pontoons for the British army in India, and tents for the American army in Mexico, were made in New-England from the India-rubber of the Amazon. It is the best in the w orld. The sugar-cane is found there in its most luxuriant growth, and of the richest saccha rine development. It requires to be planted but once in 20 years. ther. The philosopher, with no other instrument than the water-thermometer, did all this. When thi s generati on had f retted out it v sway of tw enty years in the majority, had reached its sere and yellow leaf, and ipassed into the minority, i ts succ essor s ignaliz ed its installation by the establishment of the packet system-a system which is at the bottom and the top of New-York's commercial ascendency, operating as a sort of first principle amo ng the real causes of the great busine ss prosperity of that city. If we were asked to trac e back to th e very source those influences which first obtained expression in the construction of the Erie canal, we should point to the water-thermometer and the packet system. It was on account of the prosperity, the commercial advantages, power and influence, that NewYork derived from these, that she was enabled to undertake that work. Each new work added more and more to her power and wealth; but the key to it all, the very foundations of that wealth and power, commenced with the water-thermometer and were laid in the packet system. The water-thermometer and the packet system gave her the power to remove the commercial mouth of the, St. Lawrence from the Straits of Belleisle to Sandy Hook —to turn the Mississippi valley upside down, causing the produce thereof to flow north and enter the sea under the highlands of Neversink. These are go-ahead times, and the rising generation is crowding so fast upon us of the Ocean Steam Navigation era, that, though we have but five years of our allotted time left to run, we doubt whether our successor will not crowd us out before the full term of our double decade shall have expired. Before 1857, we hope to see the Isthmus pierced with commercial thoroughfares and great national highways-before'57, we hope to see the proposition which we have to make, in full blast, recovering and restoring back to the South in ten-fold measure, all its lost advantages-its foreign commerce, its direct trade, its importing business, and commercial prosperity. Great Britain and Europe are not the only countries in the world with which commercial intercourse is desirable; nor are they the only ones whose trade can enrich and make prosperous. Let the South not forget to look to the South. Let her study the immensity of the commercial resources which lie dormant in that direction. Let her see if she have not the ability now to hasten and assist the development of them; and being developed, to command, to reap, and enjoy them. Behold the valley of the Amazon, and the great river-basins of South America. Unexplored there, is a wilderness of treasures; i i t i 0 b t d v i i t b 5 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. the natural receptacles, for the surplus pro duce of nearly three-fourths of the whole extent of arable land in th e t wo Americas. Moreover, these two marine basins of the s out h are also the nat ura l o utle t, north and south, for the productions of not less than 70~ of latitude. The Mississippi runs sout h, and crosses parallels of latitude; it conse quently t ra verse s a great diversit y of clima t es, an d floats down to the gulf a gre at varietyr of produce-a larg e assortment of staples. Its tributaries f low east an d west; a nd each one contributes to the main stream itself many productions that are peculiar to its own latitude and climate. The Amazon flows east. It runs along a parallel of latitude. Save and except the changes due to elevation, its climates are the same, and its banks, from source to mouth, are lined with the same growth. Its tribu taries run north and south, and the products supplied by one of these, to the main stream, are duplicates of the products to be contri buted by all. In our river valley, winter and summer, spring and autumn, mark the year and divide the seasons; in the other, the seasons are the wet and the dry, and the year is all summer. One valley is in the northern hemisphere, the other in the southern. When it is seedtime on one side, the harvest is ripe on the other. The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico are twin basins. They are seas Mesopotamian, and wholly American. The great equatorial current having its genesis in the Indian Ocean, and doubling the Cape of Good Hope, sweeps by the mouth of the Amazon, and after traversing both Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, it meets with the gulf stream, and places the commercial outlet of that river almost as much in the Florida Pass as is the mouth of the Mississippi River itself. Two travelers may set out from the Yucatan Pass; one north for the sources of the Missouri, the other south for the head waters of the Amazon. If, when the former reaches the base of the Rocky Mountains, he will cut a tree down, and let it fall in the river, so that it will drift with the current without lodging by the way, it will meet in the Straits of Florida one cut and cast in the Amazon, by the other traveler, from the sides of the Andes, and floated down that river in like manner. The natural route of the drift wood from both to the open sea, is through the Gulf of Mexico, around the peninsula of Florida, and so out into the Atlantic through the gulf stream. These twin basins are destined by Nature to be the greatest commercial receptacles in the world. No age, clime, nor quarter of the globe, afiords any parallel or any conditions of the least resemblance to these which we find in this sea or gulf. There, too, are produced, of excellent quality and in great profusion, coffee and tobac co, rice and indigo, cocoa and cotton, with drugs of virtues the most rare, dyes of hues the most brilliant, and spices of aroma the most exquisite. Soils of the richest loam and the finest alluvians are there; the climates of India, of the Moluccas and the Spice Islands, are all there; and there, too, lying dormant, are the boundless agricultural and mineral capacities of the East and West, all clustered together. If commerce were but once to spread its wings over that valley, the shadow of it would be like the touch of the magician's wand-those immense resources would spring right up into life and activity. In the fine imagery of their language, the Indians call the Amazon the "King of Rivers." It empties into the ocean under the line. Now look: Nature has scooped out the land in Central America, and cut the continent nearly in two there, that she might plant between the mouth of the "King of Rivers" and of the "Father of Waters," an arm of the sea capable of receiving the surplus produce which the two grandest river basins on the face of the earth are some day to pour out into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. These two sheets of water form the great commercial lap of the South. This sea and gulf receive the drainage of all the rivers of note in both continents, except the La Plata on the south, and Columbia on the west, the St. Lawrence and those of the Atlantic seaboard on the east. Excluding the inhospitable regions of Patagonia on the south, and Labrador on the north, and referring only to the agricultural latitudes, the two Americas cover an area of land, in round numbers, of about ten millions of square miles. To not less than six of this ten, this sea and gulf are the natural outlet. Of these six, about two-thirds are inter-tropical, producing a variety of articles to which the other parts of the continent never can offer competition. Nature has so ordered it. With scarce the exception of a " ten mile square," the whole lof this immense Caribbean water-shed, which is nearly double the area of Europe, is composed of fine, rich arable land. The rainless coasts of Peru, the sandy plains of Lower California, the great salt desert of the north, and the Sahara-like desert of Atacama at the south, all lie without it; they fall within the other four of the ten millions. They are unarable; and, therefore, as they are unfit for cultivation, they sho uld be, in this classification, arranged with the inhospitable regions of Patagonia and Labrador. So classing these barren places, we discover the startling fact, that these two rivers are the natural outlets, and the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico are 6 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. stream to the great market places of the world. To one who has never stu died the course of the winds and currents o f t he s ea, and th e influence which they exert upon the routes which vessels must pursue in order to accomplish the i r voyages to and fro across the ocean, it, appears startling to be told that the shores of the southern states, of Florida and the Carolinas, are on the way-side of vessels bound from the mouth of the Amazon, the Orinoco and the Magdalena rivers to Rio de Janeiro as well as to Europe. The way out upon the high seas from the mouth of these rivers, and from that of the Msississippi, is practic a lly one and the s ame. To a vessel under canvas, Norfolk is not half as far, in point of time, from the mounth of the Amazon, as is Ri o in Bra zil. On account of the wi n ds and currents o f the Atlan tic, a vessel bound from the Amaz on to Rio, has first to sail to the north ward until she reaches the n or thern parallel of 25~ or 30~ before she can begin to stand south. It is the s a m e, no matter what b e he r destination, provided it be not the West Indies, nor any of the port s in the Caribbea n Sea, o r Gulf of Mexico. Norfolk and Charleston may be called half-way houses from the Amazon and the Gulf, to New-York, to England and Europe, and to all ports in Africa, South America, India, and around Cape Horn. Indeed, they are the half-way houses from Amazonia to all the markets o f the wor ld, the way to whi ch is a cro ss th e seas. We wish to fix attention as to the great advantages which our geographical and physical position gives us of the United States, in contending for the commerce to which the valleys of the Amazon, the Orinoco and the Magdalena are destined at some day to give rise. Before we submit the proposition which we design to make to the merchants of the South in particular, and to the people of these United States in general, we wish to call attention to another physical condition which nature has connected with the South American trade, and particularly with the commerce to which her river basins are to give rise. And that is, that not only do none of these civer basins, but none of the continents of the southern hemisphere, afford the contrasts for forming sea-faring communities among their inhabitants. Who ever heard of Brazilian seamen, or of the " mariners of Peru!" We have heard of the Gauchos, the Llaneros, and the horsemen of South America, but never of its seamen. In order to become sailors, people must use the sea; and that they may use it, familiarity with it from boyhood and in early life is one of the pro-requisites. Preliminary to this pre-requisite is a deeply-articulated, * What other arm of the ocean is between two continents with opposite seasons. Where is there another gulf stream uniting the waters of an Amazon with the waters of a Mississippi-an extra-tropical with an inter-tropical river-and placing the commercial outlet of both before the doors of one and the same people? Where in the wide ocean, or the wider world, is there another Mesopotamian Sea, that is the natural outlet for a system of river basins draining an extent of arable and fertile lands greater than the continent of Europe can contain-that yield all the productions of the torrid and the temperate zones-and that are so situated withal, that from opposite hemispheres, with their opposite seasons, they will deliver into the markets a crop every six months? Famine can never visit such a land. The double chance of a crop in double hemispheres frees it from any such liability. In consequence of the winds and currents of the sea, the course of navigation from the mouths of these two rivers, as well as from all parts of the gulf and Caribbean Sea, is such, as to compel every vessel that trades in their markets, whether it be with the produce of the great Amazonian valley at the south, or the mighty valley of the west-we repeat, the course of navigation is such as to compel every vessel so freighted for Europe, for Africa, for India-nay, for Rio de Janeiro and for South America itself, to pass the very offings of our southern ports on their way to market. From the Gulf of Mexico, all the great commercial markets of the world are down hill. A vessel bound from the Gulf to Europe, places herself in the current of the gulf stream, and drifts along with it at the rate, for part of the way, of 80 or 100 miles a-day. If her destination be Rio, or India, or California, her course is the same as far north as the Island of Bermuda. And when ther e s hall b e established a commercial thoroughfare across the Isthmus, the trade winds of the Pacific will place China, India, New-Holland, and all the islands of that ocean, down hill also from this sea of ours. Il that case, the whole of Europe must pass by our very doors on the great highway to the markets both of the East and West Indies. This beautiful Mesopotamian Sea is in a position to occupy the summit level of navigation, and to become the great commercial receptacle of the world. Our rivers run into it, and float down with their currents the surplus articles of merchandise that are produced upon their banks. Arrived with them upon the bosom of this grand marine basin, ~there are the currents of the sea and the winds of heaven so arranged by nature, that they drift it and waft it down hill and down 7 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. shore-line-a sea-front richly indented with bays, bights, gulfs and harbors, thrusting themselves far up into the country on one hand, with capes, promontories and peninsu las pushing far out into the sea on the other -thus increasing the length of water line thus bringing the inhabitants and the sea into close proximity and into the presence of each other. Let any one of our readers who lives between the tide-water and the Blue Ridge, cast about him, in his neighborhood, and tell how many boys and young men have left it and their country-life to become sailors; small, indeed, is the number. Even there the people are too far from the sea to take to it for a living. Now let him take the map and look at the stiff, rigid shore-line, not only of South America, but of the southern continent generally, and then let him compare their almost isleless coasts with the finely articulated and beautifully contrasted shore-lines of the northern hemisphere; the Gulf of Mexico with its gems; the peninsula of Florida; its string of islands; the sounds, and bays, and gulfs at the north; the Mediterranean, reaching a thousand miles and more back into the heart of the continent; the Red Sea, separating it almost in two; the Baltic and the Black; the gulfs and bays and bights and peninsulas of India and China. Let him look at these physical features; let him contrast the two hemispheres in this respect, and see how much more maritime in feature one is than the other; let him study these features on a map of the world, and he will perceive how that nature has decreed that the seat of maritime power, strength and greatness shall be in the northern, not in the southern, hemisphere. Another condition required in the constitution of sea-faring communities is a niggardly soil, or other sources of a scanty livelihood to the laboring man. In these days, men forsake the land for the sea only, when the sea affords better means of living than the land. Where in the history of the world did the people of any nation ever become maritime in their habits, when their climates were mild, their soil kind, and lands cheap? There is no such instance on record. Who ever heard of bodies of men forsaking the cheap lands and beautiful climates of the Mississippi valley to become mariners, only that they may wring from the seas a hardearned, coarse, sometimes scanty and often dangerous subsistence? If the Mississippi valley do not produce seamen enough to fetch and carry its own produce across the ocean, and to do its own commerce, much less will that of the Amazon with its softer climates and more benignant soils. Therefore, whatever be the e xtent ofi the business which the Amazon may have to offer commerce, the f Etching and the carrying of it must be done by sailors from our own side of the equator. Why may the y not be Vir ginia and Carolina sailor s? Those sta tes have along the se a shore pine barrens poor enough to drive men, women and children all to sea for a living. In the Amazonian trade, the winds for us are fair to go and fair to come. And we of the Atlantic sea-coast are the only people for whom they are favorable both ways. The voyage from the capes of Virginia or from Charleston to the Amazon, is the most certain voyage, as to the length of time, t[rat is to be found between any two ports in the Atlantic Ocean. In eighteen or twenty days, a sailing vessel can go and come, the year round. The N. E. trade winids carry her there; and they bring her back. They are "soldier's winds." Therefore, among the inducements which the South has to move her in the matter of commencing to establish commercial relations and business ties in that direction, is the future one of com peting, in her own vessels and with her own sailors, for the carrying trade of that magnificent water-shed. The proposition, therefore, which we have to make, is with regard to a line of steamers from Norfolk, Charleston or Savannah, to the mouth of the Amazon. Para is its "New-Orleans." It is the city at its mouth. It has a population of some 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants. There is a line of steamers already in operation from Ikio to Para. From Savannah to Para, the distance is about 2,500 miles; from Para to Rio, 2,100. This, at the rate of the best performance of Collins' steamer " Baltic," would give for the passage between Rio and the United States thirteen days for coming and thirteen for going. The time occupied now in going and coming by sailing vessels, is about ninety days. Suppose we lengthen this computed passage, and base our estimates upon the supposition that the time to Rio, by this line of steamers, will readily require twenty instead of thirteen days, viz.: ten to Para and ten thence to Rio. The effect of such a communication would be to turn the whole correspondence and travel connected with the Atlantic slope of South America, through Norfolk, or whatever port may be selected for the American terminus of the line. No European nation can successfully compete with us in this line of steamers, because their distance from Para' is more than double ours. Now it should be recollected that our corn 8 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. mercial transactions with Brazil and the valley of the Rio de la Plata, are already worth more than they are with any of the countries of Europe, except Great Britain and France. At this instant, the ", Levee" at Para affords foreign commerce enough from the valley of the Amazon to give annual freight to a fleet of fifty sail. But this is nothing to what it will do when the stimulants of civilization, agriculture, navigation and commerce shall be applied to that prodigious wilderness of wealth. Of more than twice the area of the Mississippi valley, that of the Amazon is much more bountiful. There the labor of one day in seven is enough to crown the board of the husbandman with plenty. The vegetable kingdom sits enthroned there in surpassing grandeur, sublimity and power. Its energies are in ceaseless display, its forces in perpetual activity, vigor and health. There, is there no falling of the leaf; no season of repose in the vegetable economy: and consequently, no period for the decay of vegetation; no time for the development of noxious gases and pestilential miasmata. As soon as these are evolved from one plant, they are absorbed by another in the perpetual summer; the result is, a climate of great salubrity. The display there of the vegetable force is terrific. Here with us, as we travel along the sea-shore, we see the vegetation standing back and separated from the water by the battle-ground between the waves and the land. Strewed with debris, and covered with fragments thrown up from the bottom of the sea, or uprooted from the base of the hills, this field of battle with us is a sandy, barren waste. In it, no subject of the vegetable kingdom is permitted to take root; and not a member of the whole animal family is able to gather even the most scanty means of subsistence from it. The scene of the most perfect desolation to be found on the face of our planet, is the field of strife on our shores between the waves and the winds and the dry land. In Amazonia, the mineral gives place to the vegetable kingdom in the conflict, and a new combatant enters the field. The forces of the vegetable kingdom there, march down for the fight to the very water's edge. A storm arises; the waves come and beat back the vegetation, bearing it down and heaping upon it piles of sand and shells cast up f rom the depths below. In a few days the tremendous power of vegetation recovers, and is seen marching down over the sand banks and piles of fragments, and planting its foot again upon the water, in the water and under the water, and pushing out its advance-posts in lines of green far into the sea. The lilies of the valley at tain such gigantic vigor and proportions that a single leaf will float a man. If there be such a display of vegetable growth in the wild state, of what is such a clima te not susceptible when it shall be assisted by the arts of cultivation? Peruvian bark- cascarilla and cinchona,e a s the Span iards call it-is foun d in the valley of the Amazon, and nowhere else. It is cut from the banks of one of i ts navigabl e tributari e s, pa cked upon the backs of Peruvian sheep - car ried up beyond th e clouds in to th e regions of perpetual snow on mountain tops, and tran sporte d beyon d the Ande s, 600 mile s to the Pacific Ocean; arrived there, the ceroon, which, a t the place of production in the gre at Amazon basin, was worth only a few pence, now commands fromn eighty to one hundred dollars. Thus the world is supplied, over the mountains and around Cape Horn by sheep, asses and ships, with that drug. Were steam once to force its way up the Amazon, this drug would come down the river and pass by our doors on its way to market. That trade, in its present state, is worth upwards of half a million annually. The use of quinine is increasing, and the demand therefore for the bark must continue to increase. On the steppes of the Andes, where they serve as a water-shed for the Amazon, are to be found flocks numbering thousands of sheep covered with fleeces of the finest and the rarest wool; and yet it is scarcely worth the shearing, so great are the difficulties of getting it to market. Nevertheless, were it possible to place this wool on a raft that would keep the current, and were it to be thus launched on the stream where the flocks go to drink, it would drift down the Amazon; and being delivered by it to the winds and currents of the sea, it might, without other guide, be found in the gulf stream off Cape Hatteras; so direct is the natural route even from the remote corners of that valley to this country. Such are the physical conditions which invite the South to the study of the comnmercial resources, the advantages of trade, and the interests to her navigation in that quarter. In the valley of the Amazon are mines of silver and gold of immense yield. There, too, are found and wrought the great quicksilver mines of the world; and there, too, situated far down towards the Atlantic in that valley are the mines of diamonds, of gems and precious stones, which have dazzled princes, lent splendor to the crowned heads of Europe, and added brilliancy to the pageants of all people. There is now on the statute books of Portugal a royal ordinance forbidding any of 9 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. the productions of India to be cultivated in Brazil. This was when Brazil was Portu guese; and when PortugaLwas apprehen sive lest the spices of Brazil would injure her eastern commerce and possessions. The cinnamon of Amazonia is superior to that of Ceylon; its gums and ornamental woods are said to be of surpassing beauty, variety, excellence and value. Men of science who have studied the physical conditions of Amazonia and India, and who have compared the climatology of the two regions, are of opinion, that in this magnificent wilderness of America are to be found both soil and climate suitable for the producti)n of every spice, gum, resin and drug that is grown in the East. The spirit which moved men in the days of knight-errantry, which drove them in the time of the crusades, and which, at a later period, carried them across the seas, and conducted them to the New World in search of adventure and geographical discovery, is still as rife in this country as ever it was in the world. But it has assumed a new character: it has doffed the tinsel array of former times, and laid aside the pomp and circumstance with which it was wont to influence the imaginations of men, to dazzle their minds, bewilder their judgments and beguile their energies. Guided now by the lights of knowledge and improvement, which ornament the age in which we live, this active, restless and misdirected spirit of former times has been tamed down. Eminently utilitarian in its character, it now goes abroad with commerce, and seeks adventures in the fields of honest industry-achievements in the paths of peace. It is this spirit, which, if once permitted upon the wings of free navigation to enter the grand river basins of South America, will cause the wilderness there to blossom, and the whole land to smile under the till age andl the worship of a peaceful and happy population. Therefore, let the South look to the South for trade and commerce; let her, in the peaceful Christian spirit of the day, cultivate with Brazil the relations of friends and neighbors; let her foster, by all means in her power, liberal commercial relations with a region which has such vast possessions, such countless treasures, such infinite resources, to make valuable its future commerce-rich and great the people who are to enjoy it. There is no colonizer, civilizer, nor Christianizer like commerce. Encourage commerce, therefore, with the valley of the Amazon, and you encourage its settlement, and its cultivation, and the development of its resources. Andl in doing this you keep bright also that precious chain with golden links, which binds nations to gether in pe ace a nd friendship. In the whole do main of fiture comme rce, the greatest boon for t h e people of the Unit ed States is the settlement of Amazonia. We are bound to enjoy largely of the com merce to which such settlement is to give rise. The people who go there will, for many generat ions yet to come, be dependent upon the United States for their manufactories, for articles o f fancy and luxury, and fo r all varieties o f merchandise, save and except those articles-and they are in their unelab orated state-wh ich hethey may dig from the mine, or gather from the field o r the forest. The climate there is unfavorabl e for the workshop, and the soil will rea dily yield to the husba ndman the r ichest of h arvests wherewith, by exchange and barter, all hi s wants may be satisfied. What would any of the maritime nations not give for a monopoly of the co mmerce of the valley of the Mississippi as it now is — and what is that commerce now, compared to w hat that of the valle y o f the Am azon must be. Settlements there, will transfer the productions of India and place them in Amazonia at our feet; so tha t the ships of all nations that may flock there to buy and carry them aw ay, will have t o pass by our gates. Surely an enterprise that has for it s future the possibi lity of such results-an enterprise which has tor its object the liftting up of the Indies an d the setting of thetn down within a week, by steam, at our very doors-surely an enterprise which looks to such a revolutio n i n the com merce of the world-to such a carrying tr a de, and to such a monopoly of it to ourselves -cannot fail to find favor with every true-hearted American, whether he come from the North or the South, the East or the West. The beginning, it may be said, is too small for the end-the means proposed not adequate to the result. Not so: the fall of an apple was the beginning of a science. Have we not seen how, by dipping a thermometer in the sea, our Atlantic coast, as it regards the course of navigation and trade with Europe, was turned end for end? And how, by Jeremiah Thompson's packet ship of 300 tons, and the enterprise of New-York, the Mississippi valley has been turned upside down, and the commercial mouth of the St. Lawrence River lifted up, and brought by canal and railway down to Sandy Hook? We do not mean to commit ourselves to the position that a line of steamers from Norfolk to Para would be self-sustaining now. We have been speaking of the future, and maintaining that the establishment of' the line now would give the South many and great pro 10 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. spective advantages that the South, perhaps, never would enjoy to the full extent, unless she commence now, and prepare foundations suitable for that magnificent commercial structure, which is certainly at some day to arise out of that valley. To encourage the enterprise now, there is the carrying of the Brazilian and the Buenos Ayrean mails. The correspondence between the United States. Para, Rio, Montevideo, and the Argentine Republic, is extensive; and the revenue to be derived for the transportation of these mails would, with or without previous contract? go far towards supporting the line; and the sources of all its business, freight, passengers, and mail matter, would rapidly increase. So far, geographical position only is in favor of the South. The facts we have stated, the arguments we have used, commend the enterprise as strongly to the North as to the South; and if the South do not make haste soon to take it tip and embark i n it, we may rest assured the North will not be slow. The contract for carrying the mails would protect those who may be first to embark in this field from competition for a few years, which, while the company is getting a foothold, is no small consideration. It is useless, because the attempt would be vain, to draw a picture of what commerce and navigation with the Amazon, or on the Amazon, or up the Amazon, or down the Amazon, would do in a few years; or how the silver from the mines of Potosi and Pasco. the gold of Peru and Bolivia, and copper and tin, would all flow downt the Amazon to the Atlantic, instead of crossing the Cordilleras to the Pacific. We are now informed of gold diggings, placers and washings, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, that would vie with those of California. They are in the Indian country or'Amazonia; but the energy and enterprise to fight, dig and wash, are not to be found among the people there. This, howevet, we regard as among the least valuable of the immense resources of that valley. Subdued to commerce, it would be a boon indeed. There is, moreover, another point of view in which the valley of the Amazon, with its magnificent and interesting future, presents itself to the American mind. That view we will hastily sketch, presenting only the mnain features of it. That valley is a slave country. The European and the Indian have been contending with its forests for 300 years, and they have made no impression. If ever the vegetation there be subdued and brought under-if ever the soil be reclaimed from lhe forest, the reptile, and the wild beast, and subjected to the plow and the hoe, it must be done by the African, with the American axe in his hand. It is the land of parrots and monkey s. Wherever they are found, there the African delights to dwell; and he alone is equal to the task which man has to accomplish with the axe in the valley of the Amazon-s At the North, the spiri t o f emancipation has been pressing the black man down to the South. He is now confined al mo st upon the waters of the gulf the lhe Soul th, the te sam e spirit ha s pressed him up to th e North, and assigned to him the valley of the Amazon as his l ast resting-place upon this continent. When that vall ey is s ubdued and peopled up, it i s not for us to divine what will happe n- it is too far away in the midst of the future fo r our ken. Sufficient is it for us to know, that even then God, in his own wis e pr oviden ce, will ord er the destiny of the black and the white ra ce to b e fulfilled, what ever it may be. The re for e, humanly speaking, and humanly perceiv ing, the se ttlement of the valley of the Amazon, its relations to this c ount ry, i ts bearin gs upon o ur f uture commerce and instit utions, a ppe ar to be so close, so intimatey and withal so potential, that the destiny of the United States seems to be closely connected with i, wrapped up in, and concealed by this question. Storms will come at sea, and crises will arise opl the land; but no mariner or statesman ever e scap ed the one o r avo ided the other by failing to prepare for them. Whe n the ship is too much pressed-knowing that she may be-the prudent seaman has all, ready provided and at hand, the means of relieving her. In doing this, he considers the safety of the vessel, of the cargo, and of all on board. We propose to follow his example with regard to the ship of state. The institution of slavery, as it now exists in this country, fills the minds of its statesmen with anxious solicitude. What is to become of it? If abolished, how are so many people to be got rid of? If retained, how are they to be controlled? In short, when they have increased and multiplied according to the capacity of the states to hold them, what is to be done with them, whether they be bond or free? The "slave states," so called, have the black lines drawn about them. There will soon be no mnore Mississippi lands to clear, no more cotton fields to subdue, and, unless some means be devised of getting rid of the negro increase, the time must come-and sooner or later it will come-when there will be an excess in these states of black people. This excess will be brought about by the operation of two causes-natural increase of the blacks on one hand, and emigration of the whites on the other. The slaves may go from one slave state to another, but they cannot go out of the slave territory. Therefore, in the slave terrritory must they remain obedient to the command, "increase and multiply." As their numbers spread, and as their labor becomes less and less valuable-as in t I 11 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. process of time it seem likely to do-owners true; but they did not command the master will sell or leave their negroes behind, and to let the slave go free. Before the time emigrate to other parts-thus, by their ab- came ronnd for the slave to go free, he had, sence, increasing the proportion of blacks to in most cases, been taken off to the South, whites. and sold there; so that the so-called emanci The New-Etngland States and the Middle I pation at the North was simply a transfer to States did not emancipate their slaves; they the South of the slaves of the North-an act banished them. They passed their post-natal of banishment; nothing more. and prospective laws of emancipation, it is Statementfrom the Census Tables of the Free Colored Persons in the New-England and in the Southern States: 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. New-England............... 13,156....17,317... 19,488.... 20,756.... 21,331.... 22,634 Southern States............. 27,983....51,923... 91,402....115,373....156,633....183,766 Per cent. of increase. New-England............................3.1..........1.2..........0.6..........0.3..........0.6 Southern States....................8.5........7.6......... 2.3..........3.5..........1.8 Besides their natural increase, the free natural multiplication taken together-is de blacks of New-England receive large acces- cisive as to the practical increase at the South sions to their numbers from the free colored of the difficulties in the way of setting the emigratnts and runawayslaves fiom theSouthl. slaves free. In their own mute style, these Itis well known that the tide of emigration of figures proclaim with unutterable eloquence the free men of colo,r flows North;-there the injury and the wrong which fanatics, never has been a reflux of it towards the styling themselves the friends of the black South. man, have inflicted upon his race. With a Thus, what is taken from the South by free colored population of 27,983 in 1790, the emigration is added to the North; and there- South in the next ten years, by natural infore, in a comparisonl of the free colored sta- crease and emancipation, swelled this class by tistics between the two sections, the whole 23,940. The natural increase due the basis amount of emigrtation frotm the South appears of 1830, (156,633,) is nearly six times that as a doubledifference. It issubtractiveon one due the basis of 1790 (27,983.) It ought to side of the equation, and additive on the be, certainly;-yet what do we see in the other. above figures? Why, that with the large Bearing these statements in mind, it ap- basis of 1830, the decennial increase is but pears friom the above-quoted statistics, that 27,138-only 3,193 more from 156,000 in comparatively but few slaves have ever been 1830, than from 27,000 in 1790! Why, the emancipated at the North; that as between free colored race must have fallen off wonderthe New-Et,.gland and the southern states, fully in its powers to " increase and multithe southern have been the p)rincipal scene ply," or emancipation must have become of emalcipation; that notwithstanding the much less in vogue among southern people emigration from the South. the South has, now than formerly. within the fifty years between 1790 and Not only do these figures and facts, but the 1840, doubled the number of her free blacks stattite-books also, show that the practical nearly six times; whereas the New-England difficulties of emancipation have been greatly states have not, in the same interval, doubled increased at the South. We see that from theirs once; and that, moreover, during the 1790, the increase of the free colored popuperiod of prospective and post-natal emanci- lation at the South has fallen off from the pation at the North, ten slaves received their average annual rate of 8.5 to less than 2 per freedom at the So)th to one at the North.* cent. More properly speaking, the ratio in The decrease of emancipation at the South, which it has fallen off is as 8.5 to 1.8. between the first and the last decade of the The South coitid not, if she would, banish above table-the falling off from 85 to 18 per her slaves, and then tell the world that that cent. in the sources both of emancipation and is emancipation, for she has no place of banishment to send them to. * In drawing this comparison, allowance should In the spirit of truth and candor, we do not be made for the emigration offree blacks from New- think we venture too far when we assert it England to Canada, and the North Western states, as a probability, that neither New-England and also for the circumstances that after the free nor the middle states would have passed laws went into effect in the New-England states there remained no more slaves to emancipate. But when they did the emancipation acts which making allowance for all this, and arguing from the sent their slaves into banishment, if thev had supposition that the natural increase offree persons not had the South or some other place to of color is the same North as South, we shall still send them off to be left with the conclusion that the South has emancipated many more slaves than the North ever did,' Now, suppose that Maryland and Virginia, considering the matter rateably. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri, should 12 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. among the many results of this line of steameters, is the entire suppression of the African slave trade with Brazil, by a substitution therefor of a slave emigration from the United States. At least so it appears to us. The negroes from the Middle* and the NewEngland states, who, under the emancipation laws of those states, were forced into the markets of Virginia and other southern states, did not thereby become more of slaves than they were before. There was a transfer of the place of servitude-that was all. Not a slave the more was made. But he that was taken from the north to the south remained in the country. Suppose he had been sent to South America instead of to South Carolina, it would have still been the same to him; but how different to the country! There would in that case have been a transfer of the place of servitude, as before; but, according to the anti-slavery tenets of fanaticism, a curse the less would have remained upon the country. This subject opens to the imagination a vista; in it the valley of the Amazon is seen as the safety-valve of the South, and this line of steamers as a strand, at least, in the cord which is to lift that valve whenever the pressure of this inst itution, be tha t whe n i t may, s hall become to o powerful upon the ma chine - ry of our great ship of state. As in the breaking away of the storm, a streak of clear sky is welcomed by the mariner whose ship has been endangered by the elements, so, this Amazonian vista is to us. It is the first and the only streak of light, to our mind's eye, that the future throws upon the final question of slavery in this country. Every steamship has her safety-valve; but every steamship is not obliged to use it always. It is there in case of necessity. So with the valley of the Amazon: we need not go there ourselves, nor send our slases there immediately; but it is well to have the ability to go or to send, in case it may become expedient so to do. This line of steamers, by the commercial ties which it will establish, by the business relations which it will beget, by the frequent intercourse which it will bring about between the valley of the Amazon and the southern states, will accomplish all these great results, and more, too. The subject is immense-its magnitude oppresses us. We commend it to the serious consideration of our merchants and statesmen; and in so doing, we venture, though with diffidence, to ask the question: Will not one or more of the states most concerned in the successful issue of the enterprise, give it encouragement?-M. F. Maury. wish to pass post-natal free laws, or a law of the so-called em sancip atioth, can it be imagiled t hat the remaining slave stat es w ould permi t the slave s from those states to be crowded down upon them-to be brought there and so ld, as thos e of the New-England s tates were when they were emancipated. We know te f ree s tates would not per mit the libor rated slaves to come o ver, in any cons id e rable numbers, into their b orders. The n ew c onstitution of Indiana, so far as s he is concerned, i s conclusive upon that point. It is not to be supposed that the state s in question will ev er em anc ip ate, if the liberated s lave s are to stay where they are. Emancipation and citizenship both, to the slaves of the souther n states, is ra ther to o much to expect fr om any o ne of them. T here are in the United States at this time, abou t thre e million s of slave s owned by less than three millions of people. We shall not u se too large a figure if we set down the average value of ea ch slav e at $400, or in the aggregate at twelve hundr e d milli ons of d ollars. T otal emancipation- itmakes no odds how gradual- even i f commenced now, would cost the se three millions of American citizens -or, in a large sense, t he p e ople of the fifteen slav e st ates, 1,200 millions of dollars. Did ev e r any people incur such a tax F. History affords no example of any. The slave population increases at the rate of 21 per cent. per annum. Therefore, unless an outlet be found for the slave population-as slaves-the difficulties of emancipation in thes e United States, so far from decreasing with time, will become greater and greater, and that, too, they are doing at a tremendous rate, and with a frightful ratio, as year after year rolls round. The fact must be obvious to the far-reaching minds of our statesmen, that unless some means of relief be devised, some channel afforded, by which the South can, when the time comes, get rid of the excess of her slave population, she will be ultimately found with regard to this institution, in the predicalment of the man with the wolf by the ears — too dangerous to hold on any longer, and equally dangerous to let go. To our mind, the event is as certain to happen as any event is which depends on the contingencies of the future, viz.: that unless means be devised for gradually relieving the slave states from the undue pressure of this class upon them-unless some way be opened by which they may be rid of their surplus black population-the time will come-it may not be in the next nor in the succeeding generation-but, sooner or later, come it will, and come it must-when the two races will join in the death struggle for the mastery. The valley of the Amazon is the way; in this view, it is the safety valve of the Umlon. It is slave territory and a wilderness. One 13 . Calling Middle States, New-York, New-Jersey, a nd Pennsylvania, only. SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. passes the word fore and aft through every state, and asks who wan t s? If Salem merchants s h ould demand one farthing more than t ho se of New- Yor k are willing to take, th e tele graph would give the order to New-York. And so with eve r y other article know n to c ommerce. Southe r n an d west ern me rch ants no w, by reason of steam and lightning, c an s tay at home, send ou t o rders, and get from France and England their supplies m uch s ooner th an a few years ago they could get them fr om Baltimore, New-York or Philadelphia, after having gone there to order them. The consequence is, that southern and western merchants do this; and there are now inthat section of the country, house s engaged in importing from ab road. The fact is, the producer and consumer are much nearer together than they used to be; consequently, the factor does not keep the large stocks of former times on hand. He draws from the sources of supply just in proportion as the channels of demand are glutted or free. The chances of speculation are small, and profits are brought down to the smallest figure. All these circumstances have impressed themselves upon the business of the country, imparted new features to it, and made necessary important changes in the mode and means of conducting it. These changes, and the causes of them, have powerful bearings upon the subjects which the convention is called to take into consideration. ;They, and the operations of the warehousing system, have caused men of business to establish in St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Louisville, &c., foreign importing houses. The duties collected in these three cities for the current year, amount to nearly half a million, and the value of the foreign merchandize imported direct to, upward of a million and a half. These importers and the warehousing system are recovering back to the South a portion of the direct trade. The duties collected at Charleston this year are greater than they have ever been; and Charloston imports largely of Havana cigars for New-York. It is true that the quantity of produce coming to New-Orleans in search of a market, has fallen off; and, consequently, the number of vessels arriving and departing, has decreased. This is what has alarmed, and justly alarmed, the people of New-Orleans. The cry is, " What's the matter? Here, there is decline, where there ought to be robust, vigorous health; depletion, where we ought to look for habits plethoric and full. What is it that has brought our city to this state of decline ~." It appears to me that a satisfactory answer to this question is SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITs EXTE.NSION BY SEA.-Most of the railroads run across the ridges, and go from valley to valley. In one sense, our navigable watercourses may be considered as inclined planes, and the river craft as gravity cars, which, taking advantage of a physical principle, convey the produce to market at a cheap rate along the natural descents of the country. Hence the very striking feature in our internal improvement system: the railroads and navigable rivers cross at right angles. This is the rule. The Hudson river railroad, and some of those which are either in contemplation or in process of actual construction in the south are the exceptions which make that rule general. Can the steam-car on the land successfully compete in the transportation of merchandise with the gravity car on the water a This is one of the questions which will no doubt command the deliberations of the convention. Its members will be far better able to judge than I am, whether the condition of your part of the country be such that railways may run along parallel with your magnificent water courses, and live. But in considering it, it should not be forgotten that this is an age of advancement and improvement. It was but a few years ago only that it was said, and the world believed, that the power of steam could not compete with the free winds of heaven in propelling vessels to and fro across the ocean. And I am not prepared to saythat railways maynotcompete with the Mississippi in the transportation of merchandise, as well as of travelers. Times have greatly changed: you all can recollect, gentlemen, when the price of cotton depended upon which way the wind blew. If easterly winds prevailed so as to preventthe arrival of the cotton fleet in Liverpool, up went the staple. Some swiftfooted packet was dispatched over with the intelligence, and he who could outride the mail, and reach your markets first, made his fortune. But steam and the telegraph have done away with this. There is no more room for that sort of enterprise, as it used to be called. New-York and New-Orleans, with the forked tongue of the lightning, now talk daily together about the price of cotton and everything else; and there is no more chance for the merchant to display his enterprise by gettingcontrol of private and peculiar sources of information. All information now as to the state of markets, is common. Salem once had command of the tea-trade. Her merchants, ascertaining that the stocks on hand were small, and the sources of immediate supply scanty, would club together and buy up, for a speculation, all the tea in the country. But now, a cargo of tea arrives-the fact is known. The telegraph 14 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. a necessary preliminary to the treatment of, a decline in the quantity delivered at Newthe case-to the application of remedies. Orleans from the upper country has pre It is in the domestic trade, I apprehend, ceded. that the great falling off has taken place; To satisfy myself as to the correctness of or rather, I should say, it is in the export these views with regard to the import trade trade by sea, whether domestic or foreign, of the Mississippi River, I called upon the and not in the imports by sea, where the Commissioner of Customs, who has oblidecline is; and if a decline in the quantity gingly furnished me with the following tabuof produce going out of the mouth of the lar statement of the gross revenue collected Mississippi has taken place, why, of course, at New-Orleans, &c., for the last five years: GOVERNMENT RECEIPTS FOR CUSTOMS. Nea-Orleans Cincinnati St Louis Louisville 1847...................$1,621,357 08......... $31,793 04..........$52,751 69......... $8,752 98 1848...................1,714,880 43.......... 56,874 79.......... 60,618 38.......... 8,648 81 1849.................. 1,594,742 27.......... 41,859 65.......... 54,334 04......... 26,663 26 1850..................1,924,698 41......... 133,838 76.......... 122,914 91......... 59,901 00 1851..................2,296,636 08.......... 149,187 15..........211,526 19..........64,795 37 and sent thence to New-Orleans, is beginning to go and come direct to New-Orleans, in order to save the transhipment. Many of the agencies that used to be employed between the producer and consumer, have been stricken down by the lightning; and the tendency of steam and the telegraph is to bring the producer and consumer more and more into direct intercourse. In evidence of this, we ma y point to t he importing houses that a re s pringing up in the ci ties of the valley. In St. Louis, for e xample: there, the whol esale mercha nt s do not, as former ly, bu y o f the Eastern importer, and, of course, pay him his fees, com miss ions and profits; but th ey a re beginning no w to go direct to the foreign producer, as the eastern i m porter does, and o rder direct; thus saving the expense s o f a n agency, or the part of one at least. The enterprie of Illin ois has created another mouth to th e Mis sis sippi, and placed it in Lake Michigan. Much of the produce which formerly touched at New-Orleans o nf its way to market, now goes through that canal; and for certain articles, its influence is felt even on the plantations in the state of Louisiana; for some articles, even from there, are turning about and flowing up stream: sugar is one, molasses another. Before this canal was opened, the sugar of Louisiana, in order to reach the consumer in the lake country, had to go down to NewOrleans, then round by sea to New-York, then up to the lakes, and so across by water, boxing the compass to get to Chicago. Now that canal is beginning to supply that whole region of country with sugar and molasses, which it attracts up the Mississippi. This lessens the receipts of freight at NewOrleans; but it benefits both producer and consumer; and it is not, I apprehend, any part of the objects of the convention to interfere with a business so legitimate and proper as this is, and which all the railways in the world can no more bring back than they can stop up that canal. It is the object of the "The revenue collected at Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Louisville, and other ports similarly situated, was derived from importations of foreign merchandise at New-Orleans. " The importations of coffee (free) at New-Orleans, do not appear in this statement. " The returns since 1st July, 1851, compare favorably with last year up to the present date. " Dec. 15th, 1851. C. W. R." There are other places in the valley where duties are collected also; but this table shows a regular, steady, and business-like increase in the direct importations of foreign merchandise into the Mississippi valley by way of New-Orleans. The duties upon it have increased during the five years ending with the 30th June last, in round numbers, from $1,715,000 to $2,722,000, or at the average rate of nearly 12 per cent. per annum. Now, the reason that the export sea-trade of New-Orleans has decreased, and its foreign trade increased, if traced back to first principles, will be found depending for an explanation upon steam and lightning, upon the improvements of navigation and ship-building, and upon the obstructions to navigation at the mouth of the Mississippi River. In consequence of the first of these, a punctuality and a certainty have been given to commercial transactions, which, as before stated, have broken up almost entirely those transac tions which were formerly known as " commercial speculations." Punctuality in filling orders and delivering goods where they are required, is now a vital principle to wholesome commerce. Dealers and factors are brought down to the smallest margin for commissions and profits. Merchants will tell you that profits now consist in parings made by close cutting: a little here, and a little there. Therefore, to save the handling of the produce of the Mississippi valley, once on its way to market, is profits. Hence, all that produce which used to be shipped from New-Orleans to New-York, and then re-shipped thence for European markets, and all that foreign merchandise which used to be imported into New-York, 15 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA.' on the other. Those cotton ships are not good provision and assorted-cargo carriers. The clippers are for that. The new models beat steam. One of them (the Flying Cloud) has been known to sail 430 statute miles in one day, and upwards of 1,100 miles in three consecutive days. These ships cannot come to New-Orleans. The bar will not admit them; and one of them can go to California and return while a "cotton droger" is getting around Cape Hlorn. Besides, the winds are such, that a vessel, bound from New-Orleans to Brazil or California, has to go out of the gulf into the gulf stream, and then steer northwardly, till she reaches the parallel of 35~ or 40~, so that it is not greatly out of her way to touc&at NewYork. Hence, most of the trade with California in produce of the Mississippi valley is carried on by the way of New-York, on account of the bar at the mouth of the Mississippi. In all these circumstances are to be found lamps for our feet, and lights for our eyes, as we attempt to devise the ways by which enterprise and energy may restore to New-Orleans all the advantages which their absence from her high places has suffered to be taken away from her, or to be withheld, because never enjoyed. The objects of the convention, as set forth in the committee's circular of November 4th, 1851, "are, as far as possible, to bring about a concentration and unity of effort in all these states, in the extension of their rail-road systems, and in bringing into more active connection their population and their industry." But it seems to be the wish of the committee that I should confine my attention to "the extension of southern and western commerce, the home and foreign t rade, &c." The refore, being invited out to sea, I shall let the rai l-roads, which it is the special object of the convention to encourage, alone. I take my departure from the premises above stated, and treat of extending the commerce of the Mississippi vallev, &c., by sea. The apparent decline in the busines s of New-Orleans i s, as I have alread y in timated, due to the effects of the telegraph and railroad, and to the improvements in steam, ship-building, and navigation. This is the root of the matter. What, then, are the steps which the South and West ought to take -what are the measures which they ought to adopt, in order to insure to them that degree of commercial wealth and prosperity, which their resources and their geographical position entitle them to expect l The answer to this question lies under several heads, and the principal of them are these: 1st —A liberal policy on the part of NewOrleans, {ouching fees of various kinds, to convention to assist the su gar and the molasses to get to Chicago by railway, if sugar and molasses s hall prefer that, to wat er carriage. W e buy Virginia hams here in Washington now th at ar e cure d i n Terre Haute, o n th e Wabash. By the old and natural roads to m arket th at could not be; the route of the h am w ould have been down to New-Orleans, t hence by ship to New-York, and thence b ack by a packet into the c apes of Virginia, and so up the Potomac to Washington-a two or three months' voyage, d urin g which, in consequence of the climates through it must have p assed, and the stowage it must encounter, it proba bly wo uld have come t o life a gain. At any rate, it would have been alive by the time it reached this place. N o w, in consequence of t hese rail-roads, whi ch have been t apping the Mississippi valley, t he " Westihalias" of Terre Haute can reach here in a week by paying i cent a lb. T hey com e up the Ohio, instead of going down; and across by rail-road, instead of around by water. The commercial history of this ham is that of much produce i n the v alley of the Upp er Mississippi. Here, therefore, in these tapping railways, is to be found another of the silent causes which have lessened the d eliveries of produce at New- Orleans. To add to the deleterious effects upon NewOrleans of this tapping of the Mississippi River at the other end of its valley, and on the eastern side, are the bars at the Balize, and the influence which the depth of water there exercises-the baneful influence which the bar there exercises upon the models and the sailing qualities, and, in fact, upon the whole economy of the ships that are built for the New-Orleans trade. And it is bad for the owners to be compelled to build ships that will not answer equally well for all trades. The best carriers, therefore, cannot come to New-Orleans. If they could, New-Orleans would soon find her merchants shipping the produce that lines the levee direct to its foreign port of destination. As it is, the ingenuity of ship-builders has contrived models for cotton ships. These are immense carriers, and can take cotton to England at rates which a few years ago would have been considered ruinous to owners. These vessels being once loaded and over the bar into blue water, will take cotton to Liverpool nearly as cheap as they will to New-York or Boston. The voyage is short, and perhaps the chances for a return cargo are better in Liverpool; therefore, they go direct. In these facts and circumstances, and in this view of them, we can see the operation of causes which tend to increase the foreign export trade on one hand, and to decrease it 16 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. cultivation; and it would also vastly improve the navigation of the river. An object of so much importance to the health and prosperity of so many people, in so many states, is certainly worth looking after; and the work, when done, should be done in the most thorough and effective manner. Therefore let us pray Congress for the appointment of an engineer who shall plan the work; and for the enactment of a statute requiring the states to have the work done according to that plan. This work is to last for all time. Suppose, therefore, merely for the sake of illustration, that one of the states above Louisiana should be unfortunate in the adoption of a plan; that after having let the work, accepted it, and parted with the lands, experience should prove the plan toube bad or the work to be useless. Louisiana then is overflowed in spite of herself; and her works, which we will suppose were really sufficient, are thus in danger of being rendered of no avail. The prosperity of the valley is to be greatly affected by this work of embankment drainage, and reclamation; and. therefore, the best talents that the country affords should be employed to direct it. III. More than fourteen feet water cannot now be counted upon in crossing any of the bars at the Balize. Vessels drawing sixteen feet are sometimes dragged over them through the mud. As for the ability of New-Orleans, or th e people who send their produce the re on its way to market, to avail themselves of the improvement in ship-building, as long as the passes of the river are obstructed by bars, it is out of the question. The sailing qualities of ships are according to their models; their models are regulated by their draught; and their draught is controlled by the depth of water on the bar. Therefore, the people of the great valley of the West, the men whose labors and whose enterprise have put the heart of the country where it is, and who supply all those great staples out of which the business of commerce raises revenue for the government-therefore, I say, those people must be doomed to second and third rate ships to do business for them upon the great waters, because that government will not do its duty. Had the people of the Mississippi valley been true to themselves, no representative of theirs would have ever been found recording his vote more than once against an appropriation for keeping the mouth of that river free and open for ships of the largest class. A year or two ago, the Secretary of the Navy was kind enough to yield to my solicitations, and to direct a series of observations to be conducted upon the habits of the Mississippi River, at Memphis. This series com. mencod tst March, 1850, and was continued which the produce that comes there shall be subjected. 2d-Emba nkments, t o confine the Missis sippi River in its channe l. 3d-To deepen the w a ter on one of the b ars in the p asses of the river. 4thrThe establishment o f lines of se a steamers. 5th-Atte ntion to the min eral res ources of our regio n of coun try, and a free use of its manuf actur ing facilities. 6th-The opening of comm erc ia l highways across the Isthmus. 7th-The establishment, in the Mississippi valley, of a navy yard, depot, and w orkshops, w h ich in wa r s hall have strength, capacity, and resources enough to give us command of the Gulf of Mexico, and control of the com mer ce passing through it. 8th-T he free navigation of the Amazon River, and the building upb there of those business relations and friendly ties, which hold nations together in the bonds of peace and friendship. These are the measures-th e mean s ar e simple: th ey c onsis t in a firm reliance upor our own abilities, wi th a de t ermination to perform our p art in t he mat ter, and to require the gov ernment to do its part as well. Such are the quest ions which I propose to consider, except in so far as the proposed rail-roads may be involved in the case. That, as already remarked, I leave to wiser h eads. It' the pe ople of the South and West will be but true toemevsi themselves-if they will put their shoulders to the wheel, and, as one man, appear, in the per s ons of their rerepresentatives here, in t he h alls of Congress, and insist upon fair, even-handed justice in the appropriations for public w ork s, that course of legislation will follow, which long ago ought to have b e en adopted with regard to the Mississippi River, and kindred subjects. I do not present these measures, or any of them, as substitutes or rivals to the proposed system of railways; nor do I hold them up as measures which will, ought, or should divert attention from the railways. There will be ability enough in the Convention to treat all of th ese measures, and to present each one to the public in its true bearings upon the common weal; and there is energy with enterprise enough in that region to carry them all on together. II. The drowned lands in the Mississippi valley have been ceded to the states in which they lie, upon condition that those states, in reclaiming them, will confine the river within its banks. The reclamation of these lands would improve the climate of a vast region of country, and make it much more salubrious; it would add vastly to the wealth of those states by giving, value to the lands, and greatly increase their commercial resources by bringing immense regions of these vacant lands under VOL. II. 2 11 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. i streams and good turnpike roads leading into , a city, it is found, by ample experience, that a few rail-roads, well placed and brought r into the same city, will vastly increase its e business~ and, hence, its prosperity. r What is singular about these railways is, that they do not interfere with the turnpikes . northe river trade. They create a business a of their own. y So it is with lines of steamships. They do p not interfere with the coasters and the sail ing packets, which answer to the turnpike and s river craft of the interior. But they also t create a business of their own. Look what s the European steamers have done for New York and Boston. So far from interfering - with the business under canvas, from those t cities, they have stimulated it, and made it more active. Ever since steamers began to ply between New-York and Liverpool, the N New-York packet ships have been increasing - both in number and size. And it is as idle for us of the South and West to repose upon f the great commercial advantages which na ture has vouchsafed to New-Orleans, or that region of country, by reason of her own geo graphical position, and the geographical position of the Gulfof Mexico-it is as idle, I f say, for the people to rest quiet, and expect the proper lines of steamers to come to them, as it has been for them to rest quiet upon the t advantages which the Mississippi River gave them, while around them was enterprise and activity. Other cities and sections tapped the Mississippi valley, and sent rail-roads there for their own benefit and advantage. They may also, from the same motives, send their steamships to ply about New-Orleans. 1 The people of New-Orleans have waked up to the reality of'their position in one of those respects. The watchful are never caught asleep twice; and it is time they were begin ning to be up and doing in the other. VI. As soon as there is a commercial t thoroughfare across the Isthmus, which will i. unload, handle, and transport the breadstuffs with the other heavy produce of the Missis sippi valley, across the Isthmus, and put it on board ships in the Pacific for less than it costs to get it as far as Cape Horn, on the way, that moment is the Gulf of Mexico raised to the summit level of this world's commerce. All nations will then be down hill from the Gulf; and the people who inhabit the great valley of the West, and who pass its produce down through the Mississippi River into the Gulf, and deliver it there to the winds of heaven, or the currents of the sea, may then 'take their choice, and go with it by down stream or fair-wind navigation, to any market place upon the sea-shore in the wide world. Then, New-Orleans, instead of New-York, should glut the markets of California and Peru with breadstuffs, cucuyos and merchandise. a Then, the valley of the West, instead of the coal mines of England and the mines of Penn daily for a year, by Robert A. Marr, Passed Mid. U. S. Navy; a most intelligent officer and a patient and indefatigable observer. His attention was directed, among othe things, to the volume of water, as well as the quantity of sediment, borne down the rive] by Memphis. His observations were most carefully made According to them, and upon the supposition tha t the year gave a fair average, there go b Mem phis daily, 471,550 cubic yards of sanc and mud, or silt, as it is called. Because the river runs faster at Memphis than it does at and below New-Orleans, and because, as the current slackens, the silt is precipitated, we are, I presume, correct in the inference, that the waters of the Missis sippi'River are more heavily laden with silt as they'pass Memphis, than they are when they reach the Balize. Now we know very well, and we derive the knowledge from many years of observa tion, that the Mississippi River does not raise its bottom, below New-Orleans, at the rate ot more than a few inches in a year/if at the rate of an inch. To cross the bar at either of the passes, a vessel has only to sail a few hundred yards. Suppose the bar were to rise up at the rate of one or two feet, instead of a few inches in the year; the channel-way across the bar' for ships need not be more than 300 or 400 feet wide; and how much dredging would it take to excavate annually a layer of mud one or two feet deep, from a channel-way a quarter of a mile long, by 300 or 400 feet wide? This is the matter about which'the government has, for the last twenty years, been having examinations made. Examinations will never satisfy. Let us make the experiment.* I have no doubt whatever as to tile practi. cability of deepening one or more of the bars of the mouth of the Mississippi, and by dredging, of keeping any required depth of water there. A gale might now and then interfere with it. But it is a case in which experiment, and experiment alone, can properly decide, It is worth the trial. I hope, there. fore, that the delegates to the Convention, and the people whom they represent, will take the matter in hand, and not rest till Congress causes the experiment of deepening one of the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi to be made. This is no New-Orleans question: it is not confined to the valley, nor to the people of,the South and West. It is a great national concern. The people of Missouri, Iowa, and Tennessee, of Maine, Massachusetts andl Texas, are as much interested in this matter as are those of Louisiana. IV. Steamships are the railways of the sea. Notwithstanding -there be fine navigable * See an article upon this subject, in one of the numbers of the " Western Review," published at St. Louis. I$ SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. Sylvania, should supply the vast demands which the Pacific Ocean has, and the far greater whic' it will have, for coal. It will give New-Orleans the command of a better coffee market than any she now has; and she can then send coffee, along with Louisiana sugar, up to that other mouth of the Mississippi which Illinois enterprise has discovered in Lake Michigan. Therefore, let the people of the South and West take time by the forelock, and wake up Tennessee and Kentucky, and other parts, to their duty, in that great maufacturing and mining region which nature has fitted them to be. The people of South America and California, and the isles of the Pacific, will depend on them for merchandise; for the ports and outlets to market of the western people; an(d southern states will then be the half-way house on the great market-ways. England and Europe, to reach the " grand ocean," as the French navigators style the Pacific, will have to pass by our very doors as they go, and come within call as they return. A magnificent future is that which commerce, by the laws of trade, and the decrees of nature, holds in store for the people of the South and West. If we will only do our part, the prize is won, and the wealth and the power are ours also. VII. Should there ever be, and doubtless there will be, several such highways across the Isthmus; and should war ever again occur among maritime nations, is it to be supposed that the belligerents, be they who they may. will look on and see us quietly enjoying all the advantages of these thoroughfares, and becoming thereby a head and shoulders taller than all the nations in the world? No, never. Moreover, we are bound by that golden cord which never has, and-as far as it depends upon the people from my part of the country, whom I now address-which never can be tarnished or weakened-by the faith of this great nation, are we bound to maintain the neutrality of those highways. That we may do this-that we may be true to ourselves, and secure in the possession of that great edifice of commerce, of wealth, grandeur and power, the keystone of which you have assembled to put in, the naval supremacy and command of the Gulf of Mexico, a mare clausum, and an American sea, is a sine qua non. It will never do to let Great Britain, or any other power, command that sheet of water with her ships of war. To whom shall its defences be entrusted, but to us of the South and West, who have so much at stake there. It is well known that we will fight hard for our cotton bags. Therefore, fortify the Tortugas, and build up the navy-yard at Memphis. The South and the West have been thimble-rigged out of that navyw yard. The law made it a naval depot, or dockyard. It has been converted into a rope-walk, and there by it ha s be come a by-word a nd a reproach, if not an eyesore t o its friends. I repeat here wha t I have re cent ly h ad occasion officially to say upon the same subject; " The ente rprise of Ame ri can citizen s is about to ope n one or hhore commercial highways across the Isthmus. The access to them lies through American waters. They will be the channels of communication between the dis tant s hores of the nation-its grea t highways from one part of the Unio n to the other. " The faith of the nation has been pledged, touching the neutrality of some of these communications. The country will expect its navy to keep them open in war, and to preserve unsullied the national faith. " The way to these thoroughfares, and the road to market from the Mississippi valley, run side by side through the Gulf of Mexico. "1 No system of measures for providing for the common defence can be considered either complete or effective, unless it secure the command to us of this mare clausum. Its commercial importance, already great, will, in a few years more, be paramount. " Already the natural outlet for millions, it is destined to surpass all other arms of the sea for its commerce, its wealth, and its national importance. " The currents and winds at sea are such as to unite, in the Florida Pass, the commercial mouth of the Amazon with that of the Mississippi. "The market-way across the seas, from the valley of the Amazon, the Orinoco, the Magdalena, the Atrato, the Coatzacoalcos, the Rio Grande and the Mississippi, passes through or upon the borders ofthis sea. " The works are projected which will turn in that direction the commerce of the East; and all the ships engaged in it, whether from Europe or America, will sail through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, passing by our doors both coming and going. ", Through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, the country requires safe conduct in war for its mails, its citizens, and their merchandise, as they pass to and fro from one part of the Union to the other. " The natural outlet to a system of river basins, that include within their broad dimensions 70 degrees of latitude-the most fertile lands in either hemispheres, and an area of them exceeding in extent the whole continent of Europe-this arm of the ocean that is spread out before our southern doors, occupies that position upon which the business of commerce is to reach its summit level. " Here is to be the scene of contest be. 19 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. tween maritime nations in war. Here are the gateways of the ocean; and the power will hold the keys thereof that has the naval supremacy in the Gulf of Mexico. " The great sea-fights of this country are probably to take place here." In the valley of the Mississippi nature has placed the means, and our free institutions, the men for defending that gulf and the interests connected therewith. Unless we avail ourselves of these resources, it will be difficult and expensive to command it in war. Therefore, in providing a system of national defences for our interests in that quarter, one of the first steps is to complete the navy-yard at Memphis, and make of it an establishment worthy of its objects, and capable of giving force and effect, in time of war, to the immense naval resources, power and strength of the great valley of the West. To Memphis, Pensacola, and the fortifications at Key West and Tortugas, ought to be mainly entrusted the defences of the Gulf of Mexico. It has been said, " It is too expensive to build a navy-yard at Memphis; piles will have .to be driven at the edge of the river;" yet it is not too expensive to drive them in the bottom of the sea at New-York, and build there a dock, which the Secretary of the Navy, in his last annual report, tells the country has cost $2,146,255. I do not comprehend the logic which makes it too expensive to provide for the common defences in the Gulf of Mexico, the most vital part in our whole system, when it has been by no means too expensive to provide defences for the Atlantic. Provide as effectually, or as ineffectually, we care not which, for the common defence of the Gulf as for tha t of t he A tlantic. All we want is justice, even-handed, impartial justice. According to the report of the Secretary of War, just presented to Congress, on the subject of fortifications, the amount expended upon the army and navy, exclusive of dock-yards, in providing for the common defence since 1816, has amounted to upwards of seventy-five millions of dollars. How much of this has been expended upon gulf defences, or for the benefit of the people whom I address? Precious little. We all know the Atlantic states have enjoyed a double benefit: first, of having the works in them; and secondly, of drawing the money for them from the South and West, and spending it in the North and East. To me, gentlemen, it is immaterial whether a proper naval establishment at Memphis will cost one or twenty millions of dollars to found it. Let us have it, I say, if it be necessary. If the country want it, and if great interests of state demand it, shall a nation like this expose itself to injury and insult because it cannot afford to supply the necessary means of defence to any part of it! Let us have an establishment there worthy of its object and of the people whose purposes it is to subserve. It should be the pride and the boast of the entire Mississippi valley. In times of peace it would stand you in the place of a great university for teach i ng the higher branches of man y of the mechanic arts to your you ng men. The workshops con nected with suc h an establishmen t would be filled with a ppre ntices whom the go vernment pays while the y are learning their tra de. These workshops would draw to your s ection of country many of the most skilful mechanics. The y would st imulate the industrial pursuits of th at region, and assist i n the development of its mineral resources. These are some of the advantages whic h such establishments carry along with them in peace, and make the ir pres ence so greatly to be desi r ed along the Atlan tic borders. You ha ve as se mble d to plan foundations f or your future commer ce; to provide the means for defending that commerce, appears to me to be inti mate ly an d n ecessarily connected with the subject of your deliberat ions. He nce t he reason fo r call ing your attention to a suitable naval es tablishment at Mem - phis. VIII. The free navigation of the Amazon isne 11 me d oon ha the greate st c omme rci al boon that the pe opl e of th e South and West-inde ed, t hat th e pe o ple of the Unit ed States can crave. Th at river-basin is but a continu atio n of the Mississippi v all ey. The Mississippi takes its rise near the parallel of 50~ north latitude, where the climates are suited to the gr owth of barley, wheat, and the hardy ce rea l grains. The river runs south, cro ssi n g parallels of l at itude, and changing w ith every mile its climate, and the c harac ter or quality of the great agricultural staples which a re produced on its ban ks. Having left behind it the regions for peltries, wheat and corn; for hemp and tobacco; for pulse, apples, whiskey, oil and cotton; and having crossed the pastoral lands for hogs, horses and cattle, it reaches, near the latitude of 300, the northern verge of the sugar cane. Thence expanding out into the gulf, with all these staples upon its bosom, to be exchanged for the produce of other climes and latitudes, it passes on to Key West and the Tortugas; and there at that commercial gateway to the ocean, which opens out upon the Tropic of Cancer, it delivers up to the winds and the waves of the sea for the distant markets, the fruits of its teeming soil and multitudinous climes. 'Then comes in the great valley of the Amazon- taking up the agricultural produce and staples which the Mississippi had just i I t t t i 20 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. reached, and pushing the variety beyond the equator, it increases, and far down into the other hemisphere diversifies the wonderful assortment, until sugar and coffee, rice and indigo, drugs and spices, cocoa and cotton, cochiueal and tobacco, India rubber, dyewoods, peltries, flax and wool, gums, various ornamental woods, mines of silver, gold and precious stones, of new varieties, kinds and virtues, have been reached, and added to the list of countless treasures, boundless commercial capacities, and dazzling resources, of these two magnificent water-sheds. Save and except tea, which is the only articl e of commerce that is g athered from the field, the fo rest or the mine, that is not to be found in one or the other of th ese tw o river basins, everything that is grown or cultivated upon the face of the earth is to be found in equal, if not in greater perfection and abundance, in one or the other of these valleys, than in any other part of the world. One of these is in the rear of New-Orleans -the other, in its front. It is for this convention to say whether these two rivers shall be united in the bonds of commerce or not. The Amazon, with its tributaries, is said to afford an inland navigation, up and down, of not less than 70,000 miles. The country drained by that river, and water courses connected with it, is more th an half as large as Europe, and it is thought to cont a in nearl y as much arable land within it as is to be found on that continent. It ha s resources enough to maintain a population of hundreds of millions of souls. The navigation on that rive r is at present such, that the pe ople of the upper country can make but one trip in the y ear. The y have there, in their delightful climate of an everlasing spring, the calm season and the trade-wind season. The trade-winds blow up the river. In the ca lm season, the na - tives, in t heir ru de bungaloes, loaded with the produce o f t he upp er cou ntry, drift down with the current. A rrived wi th thei r stuff at Para, th e y s ell a lmos t fo r dollars what they got for cents at the place of production. Having completed the business of the season, they wait for the S. E. trade-winds to set in; with them they return, and complete the business and the trading for the year. To afford the Convention an idea of the business carried on, by sea, with Para, I quote returns of exports for the year ending Dec. 31st, 1850, which Mr. Norris, the American Consul for that port, has had the kindness to furnish me: EXPORTS FROM THE PORT OF PARA FOR TH Y]EAR ENDIBG DsC. 31, 1850. Sara- Cleaned India I.in Spice, parilla, Annatto, Rice, Cocoa, Balsam Cotton, Rubber, glass, Arro- Arro- Arro- Tapioca, Arro- Arro- Copaira, Arro- Arro- Arro bag b4s bas Alquieres bas bas Cansdas ba bas ba To the United States.. - -....58..1,638... 3,254....3,990....28,479....1,130........50,069.... - Total Exports........ 1,633.4,558..6,655... 7,595...82,606.. -283,753.... 1,837....3,132....79,335....,, 834 Tonka Gus. Rice in Beans, India Rubber Sugar, Dry Green Gras4 ran, NRus, Hk, Arro- Shoes, Arro- Hid Hi des, Rope, Afro A'queire. Alqueires bas Pairs ba No. No. Inches baa To the United States....... 21,889.... -....74....143,247.... -....11,581....10,196.., - Total Export..............47,528.... 63,676.... 92....240,999...9,55.....5. 26,463.... 12,670....,581....93 head navigable waters of the Amazon, 600 miles, among the clouds and snow-capped mountain-ranges, to the Pacific. It now goes west, and when it arrives at the seaport town of Artica, it i s worth annually, half a million. With the right to send an American steamboat up the Amazon, all this stuff would come east and flow down that river. With the free navigation of the Amazon, a steamer might load at St. Louis with the produce of those high latitudes, and deliver its cargo right at the foot of the Andes, where the Amazon leaps down from the mountain into the plains below. With a portage easy to overcome by the hand of improvement, she could then ascend the steppes of the Andes, travel several hundred miles farther up, and deliver her cargo within hail of Cuzco apd the mines of Peru. The free navigation of that river is in, This is a growing business. A friend who has crossed the Andes, and is now on his way home, down the Amazon, informs me that parts of the Puna country, of Peru and Bolivia, and in which the waters of the Amazon take their rise, are already over-populated; that portions of the Amazonian water-shed, over which he had passed, are " rich in flocks of sheep; and all that is wanted is a close market (which the free navigation of the Amazon would give) to induce the shepherds to raise millions." No other part of the world grows wool like this. It is peculiar. He reports fine sugar and coffee plantations there, with cotton growing wild; also, there are cinnamon groves, and forests of the tree from which the Peruvian bark, which affords quinine and physic to the world, is taken; and being put on the back of these sheep and asses, is transported from the 21 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. produce of one latitude for the produce of another, and for this simpl e rea son: that the planter who grows sugar in Louisian a, does not wish to exchange it f or Brazil or any o ther su gar. He may exchange it for Brazit l c o ffee, or for Brazil anything e lse that is not sugar. For this rea son, Eur ope, for h undre ds o f years past, has b een strug gling fo r t he commerc e "of the East;" an d for no othe r rea son, than that latitudes and climates, and consequently wants and produce, th at are not to be found or satisfied in Europe, abound in " the E ast." In a commercial sense, the valleys th at are drained by the " father of waters," and the " king of rivers," as the Amazon is called, ar e c o mplements of ea ch other. Wha t one lacks, the other supplies. Together, they furnish all those products and staples which ecomplete the list o f a rticles in the circle of commerce. The right of our people to go with their M iississippi steamers into the Amazon, will when exercis ed, draw emigrants to th a t valley, who, being there, will become our customers; and as soon as the proper impulse is given to their commerce and their industrial pursuits, we shall find there at our doors, instead of away on the other side of the world, all the productions of "the East." In short, " the East," in one sense, will be brought within eight or ten days' sail of New-Orleans, instead of being removed to the distance of four or five months off, as it now is. Several nations, as Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil, are the owners of the Amazon and its navigable tributaries Brazil is the principal owner. All the lower Amazon is hers; and she has given none of the upper countries as yet the right of way through it to'and from the sea. The question then is, do the people who are represented in this Convention set any value upon the right to steam and trade up and down the navigable streams of that magnificent water-shed? At present the country is for the most part a wilderness. of howling monkeys and noisy parrots; its boundaries are fringed with settlements; but only here and there, when you leave the outskirts of the valley and begin to penetrate into the interior, are the traces of civilized man to be found. To obtain this right is the work of diplomacy. But the states and people who have been invited to this Convention, may by their action, influence that diplomacy. Brazil may be invited to give the free navigation of this river away as a boon to civilization, and make it common to the world. But it is not to be supposed that Brazil will part with such a jewel1 without a consideration. eluded, I conceive among the subjects, with regard to which the committee has invited me to express my views to the Convention; and I hope the Convention will deem it not unworthy of their careful consideration. Considering the softness of its climates, the fertility of its soils, and the lavish hand with which nature stands ready to fill for the husbanidman the horn of plenty there; and when man is thus surrounded, considering that his industrial energies are for the most part addressed to the tillage of the earth; and considering, moreover, the character of the people who inhabit that valley of the South, and the character of the people who inhabit this of the North; we are struck with the fact-and it is a physical fact-that the valley of the Amazon is but a commercial appendage of the Mississippi; and that it rests with us and the course of policy which we may pursue, whether this physical fact shall be converted into a practical one; and whether the South will suffer the geographical advantages of its position with regard to that region to go by default, as it has similar advantages in other cases. Attention to this subject cannot be given too soon, or too earnestly. Its importance is great. Legions of benefits and advantages are to flow from it; i many of them are palpable and obvious; some are dim in the mists of the future; but all of them are certain. In short, as a commercial matter, the free navigation of the Amazon is the question of the age. As time and use shall develop its bearings, our children will weigh the effects upon the prosperity of the country, of the free navigation of the Amazon with the acquisition of Louisiana. They will place them in the balance together to contrast and compare them; and on considering the effects of each, they will dispute and wrangle as to which of the two has proved the greater blessing to their country. I inclose, herewith, a pamphlet, entitled "Commercial Conventions-Direct Trade, &c.," in which the subject of steam communications with the mouth of the Amazon, but no further, is treated.* The question which I propose for the especial consideration of the Covention, relates to the free navigation of the Amazon itselfto the right of the people of the United States to send their steamboats to that river, t o ply up and down it, as they do upon the waters of their own Mississippi, and to buy, sell, and get gain on the banks thereof. Commerce, so far as climate and soil are concerned in ministering to its wants and in imparting health and activity to its influencesi, is based upon an exchange of the * This paper is published in preceding pages of this volume. 22 SOUTHERN COMMERCE-ITS EXTENSION BY SEA. nations should have the same rights to build and launch boats on the Mississippi River that our people have; that the right to take freight from one landing or town to another, and to trade up and down the river, should be as perfect and as complete to the foreig ner of whatever nation, as it is to th e American citizen- wha t would be the effect Such a surrendering of the " coasting trade," as the river-trade may be properly called, might possibly induce a few for eigners to send o ver their capital and build boats. But these boats, to compete with our own boats, would have to be manned by our own watermen- officered by our own people. And such a law, therefore, might interfere with American owners. But, instead of such a privilege being offered to all nations, suppose it wereloffered only to Brazil, in exchange for like privileges to our own citizens upon her rivers-what would be the result then? Why, this: Brazil has not even the energy among her own subjects to put boats upon her own rivers, where they have the monopoly of trade and navigation; much less would her subjects have the enterprise to come here and put boats upon the Mississippi, to run in competition with our own. On the other hand, we, who have the enterprise, the energy, the skill in boat-buildiing, would, with the knowledge, over all the world, which we have in steamboat river navigation, go to the Amazon, and enjoy there something like a practical monopoly. For it is not to be supposed that, if we offer to divide our Mississippi River trade with her subjects, on condition that she will make a like division to us of her Amazonian trade —it is not, such being the conditions, to be supposed, I say, that any other nation would on either side be admitted into the arrangement. Tlhere is but one Mississippi River, and but one Amazon, in the world; and there is no equiva. lent for the free navigation of the one, but the free navigation of the other. Therefore, no nation on the earth can buy and sell a commercial jewel of such value. 'The question, thus narrowed'down, is simply this: In enlarging and extending the foundations of the commercial system, which is to make of the United States the greatest nation the world ever saw, and of the Mississippi valley the heart and centre of it-are you willing to give the free navigation of this river for that of the Amazon. The subject of the free navigation of the Amazon and its tributaries, is a vast one. I have barely touched it. Nor is it necessary for me to attempt a discussion of it: do it justice, I could not. To go into the merits of it, either with the committee, or before the Convention in whose behalf I havre been drawn into the subject, I have not the time; and if the time, not the abilities. I merely Shall it be bought with a sum of money 1 Or shall the free navigation of the Mississippi be offered to Brazil in exchange for the free navigation of the Amazon? By our own laws, an English vessel, or the vessel of any other nation at peace with us, is as free to sail up the Mississippi River, land and take in a cargo at St. Louis, and to come down again, as she is to go up the Chesapeake Bay to Baltimore, or the Delaware to Philadelphia. But do such foreign vessels go up to St. Louis! No. Why? Because when they arrive at New-Orleans with their cargoes of foreign merchandise, which they have brought across the seas, they find it cheaper to send it up in one of our river-boats, than to take it up themselves; and, therefore, though foreign vessels, by our own laws, may go up and come down, yet the free navigation of the Mississippi, to this extent, has proved of no practical value to any of them. Would they go up farther if they could? Still the time was, when the free navigation of the Mississippi River was a question of deep and absorbing political interest to us; and we may infer, therefore that the diplomatists of the country would act, when the proper time comes, with more confidence touching the offer to Brazil of the free navigation of the Mississippi for that of the' Amazon, after having learned the opinion and wishes upon the subject of the people of the Mississippi valley. Admitted upon the Amazon with their boats, our people would desire to participate there in what is called with us "the rive r t trade;" for considering that the habits of the Amazonians are not at all aquatic, it is not by any means probable, that Brazilian enterprise would be sufficient to supply the boats and boatmen requisite for this river trade. She cannot do it now. But are we prepared to let Brazliian capital, and Brazilian subjects, compete with our own people for the business-the river trade -of our own Mississippi waters. We should ask nothing of Brazil which we are not willing to render to Brazil. Are we prepared, therefore, to offer to admit Brazilian subjects to an equal participation with our own citizens, of the trade of the Mississippi River, on condition that she will admit our citizens to an equal participation with her own subjects in the river-trade of the Amazon and its tributaries! That is the question as to which I desire to draw an expression of opinion from the Convention, because I believe that that opinion, being regarded as the opinion of the people of the Mississippi valley, would have a bearing upon the subject, as one of a practical nature, and of paramount importance. Suppose that the United States should deslare that the citizens and subjects of all 29 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. wished to put the question, and to subscribe myself, gentlemen of the committee, a man of the Southwest, and one who, having the interests of his country greatly at heart, is, with his feeble power, at the service of the committee and Convention in all things for good.-Lieut. M. F. Maury. do in South Carolina? But a small portion of the land we now cultivate will produce two thousand pounds of ginned cotton to the hand. It is thought that our ave rage production c annot exced e e n d ed twelve hundred pounds, and that a great many planter s do n ot gro w over o ne thousand pounds to the ha nd. A thousand pounds, at five cent s net, wil yield about two pe r cent., in cash, on the ca pita l invested, and twelve hundred p o un ds but three per c ent., after paying c urre nt plantation expenses. At such rate s o f i ncome our state must s oon become utterly impoverished, and of consequence wholly degra ded. De-n population, to the utmost possible e xtent, must take place rapidly. Our slaves will go first, and that institution from which we have heretofore reaped the greatest benefits will be swept away; for history, as well as com mon sense, assures us, beyond all chance of doubt, that whenever slavery ceases to be profitable it must ceas e to exist. These are not mere paper calculations, or the gloomy speculations of a'brooding fancy; they are illustrated and sustained by facts, current facts of our own day, within the knowledge of every one of us. The process of impoverishment has been visibly and palpably going on, step by step, with the decline in the price of cotton. It is well known that for the last twenty years, floating capital, to the amount of five hundred thousand dollars per annun, on the average, has left this city and gone out of South Carolina, seeking ana finding more profitable investments than were to be found here. But our most fatal loss, which exemplifies the decline of our agriculture, and the decay of our slave system, has been owing to emigration. The natural increase of the slaves in the Southi since the prohibition of the African slave trade, has been thirty per cent. for every ten years. From 1810 to 1820, the increase in South Carolina was a fraction above that rate. From 1820 to 1830, it was a fraction below it. But from 1830 to 1840, the increase was less than seven per cent. in ten years; and the census revealed the painful and ominous fact, that the number of slaves in South Carolina was eighty-three thousand less than it should have been. No war, pestilence, or famine, had visited our land. No change of climate or of management had checked the natural increase of this class of our pops lation. There can be no reasonable doubt that the ratio of its increase had been as fully maintained here as elsewhere. But the fact i; that, notwithstanding the comparatively high average price of cotton from 1I 30 to 18 40, these slaves had been carried off by their owners at the rate of eight thousand three hundred per annum, from a soil producing to the hand twelve hundred pounds of cotton, on the average, to one that yielded eighteen hundred pounds. And there is every reason to appre. hend that the census of next year will sB,Qw~ SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. -PROSPECTS OF THE COTTON INTEREST; POSI TION O F S OUTH CAROLINA; INFLUENCCE OF MECH ANIC ARTS AN D MANUFACTURES; WHAT T H E SOUTH IS CAPABLE OF IN COTTON MANUFACTURES; LABOR A T THE SOUTH; FACILITIES FOR STEAM AND WATER POWER; EMPLOYMENT FOR THE POORER CLASSES, ETC.-The Institute whose first annual exhibition is about to be opened, is something new in South Carolina. If it succeeds in its purposes, a new era in our history will be dated from this anniversary. Hitherto our state has been as purely agricultural as a civilized community can ever be; fand for the last sixty years our labor has been chiefly devoted to the production of one market crop The value of this agricultural staple has been for many years gradually declining, and for the last seven or eight has not afforded to our planters an average net income exceeding four and a half per cent. per annum on their capital. Within the last few months prices have somewhat rallied; but there is. -not the slightest ground on which to rest a hope that they will ever hereafter, for any series of years, average higher than they have done since 1840: on the contrary, it is inevitable that they must fall rather lower. Thonsumption of cotton, even at late average prices, cannot keep pace with our increasing capacity to produce it; and the article may, therefore, be said to have fairly passed that first stage of all new commercial staples, in which prices are regulated wholly by demand and supply, and to have reached that, in which, like gold and silver, its value, occasionally and temporarily affected by demand and su pply, will in the main be estimated by the cost of production. Now, on lauds that enable the planter to produce an average crop of two thousand pounds of ginned cotton for each full hand, or for every thousand dollars of capital permanently invested, he may realize seven per cent. per annum on his capital, at a net price of five cents per pound, or five and a half to six cents in our southern orts. There is an abundance of land in the South and south-west, on which, unless the seasons change materially, or the worm becomes an annual visitor, all the cotton which the world will consume for many generations to come may be grown at this rate. We have ample slave labor to cultivate it, and the result is inevitable that the average of' prices must soon settle permanently about this point. If these views are correct, what are we to 24 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. that the whole increase of the last decade,' which m ust amount to on e hundred thousand, has been swept of f by the s till swelling tide of emigr ation. U nder th ese circumstances, the question may well be asked again, what are we to do in South Carolina?-for it is but too obvious that s om e thing must be done, and done promptly, to arrest our downw ard career. T o discuss this questioyn fully in all its bearings, and give a satisfactory answe r, would consume mno re tim e th an c an b e al lowed on this occasion; but I trust its importance will be nay excuse, i f I trespass by a somewhat ela borate examination of some of its essential features. The firs t rem edy for our decaying prosp erit y w hich naturally suggests itself is, the improveme nt of ou r agricultural system; and of late years a great deal has been said upon this subject. Th at it is susceptible of great improvement is very clear; but it is equal ly and lamentably true th at littl e or no thing ha s as yet been done. It must be owned, that neither our agricultural societies nor our agricu l tural essays have effected anything worth speaking of Anl d it doe s seem that, while t he fertile regions of the south-west are open to the c ott on pl anters, it is vain to expect them to embark, to any extent, in improveme nts which are expensive, difficult, or hazardous. Such improvem ents are never made but by a prosperous people, full of enterprise, and abounding in capital, like the Engl ish, or a people pent up within narrow lim its, like the Dut ch. Our cotton region is t o o bro ad, and our southern people too homogeneo us f or m etes and bounds, to enfo rce the necess ity of improving any particular locality, and our agriculture is now too poorly compensated to attract superfluous capital, or stimu late to enterprise. It is clear that capital, enterprise, some new element of prosperity and hope, must be brought in among us from some yet untried or unexhausted resource, before any fresh and uncommon energy can be excited into action in our agricultura l pursuits. In fact, if prices had not gone down, and our lands had not worn out, it may be said, with great truth, that we have too long devoted ourselves to one pursuit to follow it exclusively much longer with due success in all those particulars which constitute a highly prosperous and highly civilized community. It is a common observation, that no man of one idea, no matter how great his talent and his perseverance, ever can succeed; for both human affairs and the works of nature are complex, exhibiting everywhere an infinite variety of mutual relations and dependencies, many of which must be comprehended and embraced in searching after truth, which is the essential basis of all real success. So if, guided by the light of history, we look back over the long track of time, we shlall find that no nation devoted exclusively to one pursuit has been prosperous or powerful for any extended period. Even the warlike Spartans zealously promoted agriculture. And Rome began to decline from the moment that she ceased to draw her soldiers and her generals from her fields and vineyards. But a people wholly agricultural have ever been, above all others, in all ages, the victims of rapacious tyrants, grinding them down, in ancient times, by force of arms; in modern, by cunning laws. The well-known fact suggests the obvious reason, and the reason illustrates our present condition and apparent prospects. The mere wants of man are few and limited. The labor of one can supply all that the earth can yield for the support often. If all labor, there is useless superabundance; if few labor, there is corrupting sloth. And if advancing civilization introduces new wants, and the elegancies and luxuries, as well as the necessaries of life, are to be obtained, the products of agriculture are the least profitable of all articles to barter. Besides that most nations strenuously endeavor to supply them from their own soil, they are usually so bulky and iso liable to injury that they can seldom be transported far, and never but at great expense. It is only when an agricultural people are blessed with some peculiar staple of prime importance, nowhere else produced so cheaply, that they can obtain, habitually, a fair compensa betion by e xporti ng i t. But in the present state of the world, when science and industry, backed by accumulated capital, are testing the capacity of every clime and soil on the globe, and the free and cheap communication which is now growing up between all the ends of the earth enables wealth and enterprise to concentrate rapidly on every favored spot, no such monopoly can be long enjoyed if sufficiently valuable to attract the cupidity of man. South Carolina and Georgia were, for some years, almost the only cultivators of cotton in America. As late as 1820, these two states grew more than half the whole crop of the Union. They now produce about one-fifth of it. Such is the history of every agricultural monopoly in modern times. But we may safely go further and assert, that even when a people possess a permanent and exclusive monopoly of a valuable agricultural staple, for which there is a regular, extensive, and profitable foreign demand, if they limit their industrial pursuits to this single one they cannot become great and powerful. Nay, they cannot now attain the front rank of nations, if they also pursue, as we do, most of the other branches of agriculture, and maintain, as we do not, an independent government of their own, and exercise the power of making war and peace. The typesof man have been infinitely varied by his wise Cre. ator. Our minds are as diverse as our forms and features. The tastes, the talents, Baa~ 25 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY —PROGRESS Of. the physical capacities with which we are endowed, are as widely different, and as strongly marked for their appropriate pursuits, as those pursuits have been diversified by Providence. War and public affairs call into action a large proportion of the highest qualities of man, and these, sustained by a simple husbandry, did, in ancient times, make some nations powerful and prosperous. But war is no longer profitable. National pillage is at an end, and territorial aggrandizement, a doubtful benefit at best, is both uncertain in its tenure, and costly to maintain. Now and henceforth, national grandeur, to be real and lasting, must be based upon the arts of peace. And in these noble arts the competition of nations has become so keen and persevering, that every one must develop, to the full extent, its natural advantages, and keep in constant play each and all of the natural endowments of each and all its citizens, or it will fall rapidly behind in the arduous but steady march of progress. The soils and climates of Italy, Spain, and the low countries, are as prolific, and the native genius of their people is, doubtless, equal to what it was in the days of Augustus, Charles the Fifth, and Van Tromp; yet they have sunk from the highest almost to the lowest point in the scale of nations. But their pursuits are no longer diversified as they once were. Their ships have been swept from the seas-their armies from the land. Their manufactures have been superseded, and commerce has deserted their ports, while they have introduced no new industrial avocations to supply their losses. All the endowments of the whole people being no longer taxed to full and wholesome action, they have languished in idleness, and nalional decay has, of necessity, followed. So with us. Our agriculture, though it might embrace a wide range in such a climate as ours, and furnish us with highly compensating exports, cannot, even with the assistance of public affairs, absorb all the genius, anddrawout all the energies of our people. The infinite variety of gifts which it has pleased God to bestow on man, must be stimulated into useful action by an equal variety of adequate rewards. It is to the never-ceasing demands of advancing civilization, in all its stages, for new arts, new comforts, and new luxuries, more knowledge, and wider intercourse of men with one another, that we owe all the discoveries and inventions which have ameliorated the condition of humanity. And every new conception, every new art, every new combination of pursuits, industrial and intellectual, which has expanded the genius, and augmented the power of man and nations of men, has rendered it more and more impossible for an individual of one idea, or a people of one occupation, to attain prosperity and influence. Since, then, even a flourishing agriculture could not of itself make us permanently rich or great, the greatest improvements that could be made in our present decaying system, would be but a partial and insufficient remedy for the evils under which we labor. Wpe must take a wider range, and intr oduce additional pursuits, that will enlist a broader interest, that will absorb all our redundant capital, and awaken all the intellect and energy now dormant in our state. On this occasion, however, we will confine o ur dis -. cussion to new industrial pursuits. If we look around us we shall see that those nations only are powerful and wealthy, which, in addition to agriculture, devote themselves to commerce and manufactures; and that their wealth and strength are nearly in exact proportion with the extent to which they succeed, in carrying on together these three great branches of human industry. The principle of the Trinity, perfected in the Deity, seems to pervade all the works of nature and the affairs of man. Time divides itself into three parts-three lines are necessary to inclose spacema proper government must be distributed among three fundamental departments, and the industrial system of a people must, if it would flourish, embrace agriculture, manufactures and commerce, and cherish each in just proportion. Commerce, experience shows us, is the hand-maid of manufactures. Agriculture does not create it, as our own example proves, for we have literally none we may call our own. With eight millions of agricultural exports, South Carolina has scarcely a ship, or a sailor, afloat upon the seas. The Institute, whose anniversary we have met to celebrate, was founded, in part, for the purpose of assisting to lift the mechanic arts from the low condition they have hitherto occupied in South Carolina and the South, and to stimulate our people to avail themselves of the manufacturing and commercial resources they possess. These resources are little known and less appreciated, but it is demonstrable that'our southern states possess natural advantages, which enable them to compete successfully with any other, in manufacturing the principal articles now required for the necessities, the comfort and the luxury of man. While, with our abundant materials for shipbuilding, our noble bays and rivers, and our shore line of twenty thousand miles of seacoast, we have only to make the attempt, to obtain, beyond rivalry, the entire command, of at least our own commerce, In the distribution of these natural advantages, the share which has fallen to South Carolina is not inferior to that of any of her sister states. And the present stagnant and retrograding condition of our uncompensated industry, loudly appeals to us to make an effort to secure the full enjoyment of them. .But there are difficulties, serious diffcul 26 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. sary that its smallest parts should be as perfectly adapted as its largest, to the end in view; and the nicest care is necessary in keeping it in operation. And so throughout the whole mechanic range. Thread by thread the cloth is woven. Thle Smith's work is wrought blow by blow. The car penter removes a shaving at a time. The ship grows as the spikes are driven. But the same attention to detail is requisite in every other avocation, in every line of busi ness, in every branch of science, in every de partment, public and private, of human affairs, and the neglect of it is everywhere attended with the same utter failure of valuable results. Of all the causes which have combined to impair the agriculture of South Carolina, the most injurious, per haps, is the habitual want of personal atten tion to details by the planters themselves, and the impossibility of procuring subordi nate agents, who will bestow that thorough and systematic care on small matters, which is absolut ely ind ispe nsable to successful husbandry. It is certain that many of the most re nowned men and nations of antiquity, looked upon manufactures, trade, commerce and all the mechanic arts with aversion and con tempt The citizens of Sparta were pro hibited'from engaging in them. Aristotle denounced them. Plato excluded them, as far as possible, from his republic. The Greek'-s and the Romans left them to foreigners and slaves. Cicero was disgusted with the idea "that the same people should become, at once, the lords and factors of the universe." France, in later times, forbade her noblemen to engage in trade, and even, in the last century, as great a philosopher as Montesquieu, thought that England had impaired her greatness by permitting her noblemen to do it. Thus this prejudice and fallacy is of ancient date and illustrious descent. Yet none could be more absurd, more false, more fatal to all who have adhered to it, individually or nationally, in modern times. Modern civilization took its rise in Italy, and the first clear dawn of it reveals to us Venice and Genoa, commercial and manufacturing cities, at the opposite outlets of the fertile plains of Lombardy, leading the van of progress. The first established era of refinement, is still known as the age of the Medicis-the merchant princes of Florence. The commercial and manufacturing league of the Hanse Towns next civilized the north of Europe, and from them it was that England learned those arts of agriculture, manufactures and commerce, which have made her the most powerful nation that ever figured on the globe, and her people, truly andl emphatically, and grandly, too, the " the lords and factors of the universe." Shall we, following the false lights ef t ies to be over come, ere th is can be effected -and s trange to sa y, these d iff icultie s are almost wholly of a moral char acter. The re is no want of genius, or energy, or skill, or, as yet, even of capital, in South Carolina. We have all these, perhaps, in full propor tion to our nat ural advantag es. But ign o rance and pr ejudice are to be encountered petty in terests, f als e reason ing, u nsound cal culation, and p erhap s abov e all, certain traditional habits of though t and acti on. T he ancient and i llu strio us calling of agriculture, whi ch, w hil e it cherishes and promotes a gener ous hospitality, a high and perfec t courtesy, a lofty spirit of indepen dence, and uncalculating love of countr y, and 'all the nobler v irtues and heroic traits of man, is apt to engender a haughty contempt of all mechanic arts, as uncreative in their nature and entirely devoted to petty details, w hich c r amp the genius and character, and are wholly inconsistent with those grander asp irations which make the capaci ou s intell ect and exalted soul. Th e agriculturist, it is said, is the sole producer-the m echanic only shapes and changes-commerce simply transfers. T hese di stin c tion s are only v erbal-mere wo rds without any philosophical or r ational meaning. God alone creates. He provides the a gricultu r ist with his might y m ach in e, the earth, and his allpowerful agents, air, wat er, heat. Op er ating with these, the cultivator c hang es a se ed into a plant, wi th l eav es, blossoms, bolls and cotton. The mech anic i nvents, almost create s his own machine, and by the aid of science, decomposi ng the very eleme nts, he compels their energies, long cunningly hid, to perform the tasks he sets them in perfect accordance with his will. The agriculturist has converted seed into cotton of little value as it passes from his hands. The mechanic converts it into cloth, fit for immediate and indispensable use; but first he has converted wood and iron into machinery, that can perform the labor of a thousand men; he has turned water into steam to give it life, and has spun from the produce of a single seed, a thread more than a hundred and sixty miles in length. Which is the most wonderful work? Which requires the most comprehensive genius? Which is the nearest approach to the creative power. Whoever, by the application of capital, industry or skill, adds value to any article, is, to that extent, undoubtedly a producer. The merchant who transports the cloth from Charleston to California, and thereby enhances its value, is a producer, as well as the manufacturer who has made cloth from cotton, and the planter who has made cotton from seed. It is true, as charged, that the mechanic art deals extensively in minute details. In the construction of machinery, it is neces 27 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY —PROGRESS OF. other ages, or the silly impulses of ignorant prejudice, disdain a career as great and glorious as that of England? Or shall we, individually, shrink from a strict and faithful attention to details, in all our pursuits, from the preposterous belief, that such a course is inconsistent with greatness of intellect and magnanimity of soul? Bacon said, with profound truth, that "he that cannot contract the sight of his mind, as well as disperse and dilate it, wanteth a great faculty." The truly great man contracts and expands his views with equal facility, and sweeps, with the same ease, the narrow defi les of detail and the broad fields of generalization. Cesar, it is said, could call by name every soldier in his army. Charlemagne, whose achievements made the epoch commonly recognized as separating modern from ancient history, took care to have the superfluous eggs and garden vegetables of his private estates sent to market. Alfred, the founder of the British monarchy, translated the fables of 2Esop, and wrote others himself. Napoleon won his mighty battles by calculating steps and counting minutes. Those overwhelming armies with which he crushed, so often, the combined powers of continental Europe, were concentrated on a given spot, at a given hour, by orders issued months before to many corps separated by hundreds of leagues, in which not only the precise route of each was pointed out, but their daily marches, their halts, their rendezvous. the obstacles they would encounter, and the movements by which they were to be overcome, were all accurately and minutely designated, Can we then say, that it is only narrow minds and dull spirits that stoop to investigate and carry out details? The idea is ridiculous. It is also said, that where manufactures and commerce flourish, morals are corrupted and free institutions do not prosper. It is uIndoubtedly true, that when men congregate in cities and factories, the vices of our nature are more fully displayed, while the purest morals are foster/~d b rural life. But, on the other hand, the compensations of association are great. It develops genius, stimulates enterprise, and rewards every degree of merit. It is not true that these pursuits are hostile to political freedom. the truth is the reverse. Honest husbandmen, scattered far and wide over the surface of the country, are slow to suspect, and still slower to combine in opposing, schemes of usurpation. A steady loyalty and an earnest aversion to change, are their invariable characteristics. Merchants and manufacturers, next to lawyers, have always been the first " to snuff tyranny' in the tainted breeze," and foremost in resisting it. Th~ comm~ercial andl ~anufac~turing people of the North, in t hese s tates, would not bear, for a day, the aggressions on their rights, to which we of the South have been for years ha bitually s ubmitting. The firs t bat t les fo r popular liber ty, i n moder n times, were fought in Holland and Flanders; a nd the indomitable fr ee spirit of the sturdy tradesmen and a rtisan s of Ghent and Bruges will ever be renowned in history. But it is strenuously contended th at the introduction of manufactures in the South would undermine our free-trade pri nciples, and destroy the last hope of the Ngreat a gricultural interest. It i s susceptible of dem onstration, that the consequences would necessarilv be precisely the r everse. The manufacturing people of the Nort h desire a hig h t ariff for no other purpose but to compe l th e nonmanufacturing people of the South to buy from them, in preference to fore igner s. If the South man ufact ures for itself, th e game is completely bl ocke d. We wi ll, of c ourse, use th e p ro d uctions of our own looms and work-shops, in pre feren ce t o a ny ot hers; and the North will then clamor, as t he English manufacturers are now cla moring, fo r entire free trade, th at they may exchange their industrial pro duct s, on the most favorable t erm s, with for eign nations. This result is as inevitabl e as it is obvious. While it is'the object of this Institute to promote all the mechanic arts, and every branch of manufactures, eve ry one is aware, that the advantages we possess for manufacturing cotton are so superior, t hat far the greater portion of the c apita l and enterprise, that may be embarked in manufacture s, will be absorbed in this branch, until it reaches its maximum producti on. By e stablishing th is m anufacture, we s ha ll lay the foun dation of many others -in fa ct, of all other s which we can prof i tably carry on. All these manufac. tures, a nd the entire range of mechanic ar ts, pressingly demand, and a re wholly en-s titled to, the utmo st consideration and encouragement from the South; but, on aet count of its transcendent importance, and because we are now nearly, if not quite, parepare d to eng age in it extensively, I shall co nfin e my ob servations almost exclusively to the manufacture of cotton, and examine, so far as time allows, its prospects and bearings on state and individual interests. Already the South, through the almost un. noticed enterprise of a few of her citizens, more than supplies her own consumption of coarse cotton, and ships both yarn and cloths, with fair profit, to northern markets. Yet the political influence of the manufacturers of the South is nothing, It cannot send a single representative to Congress -perhaps not even to a state legislature. To augment that influence to a point that would make it felt, manufacturing must be so extended that , a foreign mnarket would be indispensable; 28 SOUTHIERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. for the home market, now nearly supplied, would soon be glutted, and the moment a producer goes into the foreign market, he hoists the banner of free trade. If our Southern manufacturers stop where they now are, content with supplying home con sumption, they will desire a high tariff; but, if they aspire to competition with the world,' they will contend for the lowest duties upon all importations. This is exemplified, not only by the present state of things in Eng land, but by the fact that our northern manufacturers, now wrestling with the British in China and Brazil, are violently opposed to any duty on tea and coffee, for which they exchange, in those countries, their cotton cloths. The heavy expenses of the British government compel it to tax these articles. T his give s ou r ma nufactu rers a great advan tage, and shows the value, even in our foreign intercourse, of a cheap government at home. But the g reat que st io n is, can we compete with other nations? Can we, of the South, manufacture cotton here on such terms as to enable us to triumph over the immense capital, the far-famed cheap labor and practised skill of the great nations who ar e now so far i n advance of us in this branch of industry? I d o not speak of the northe r n sta tes, because, in t he very first e ffort, w e have d riv e n them from our markets, an d have already commenced the contest with them for their own, in the only clas s of go ods we have yet attempted. It is clear the y cannot stand a moment in our way, when we have once fairly started for the prize. There is a small amount of cotton manufactured into the finest stuffs, by the hand labor of the most wretched and ill-compensated operatives in the world. For this we will not contend, since the paupers of Eu. rope have scarcely yet wrested it from the starving Hindoos. Skill, capital, cheapness of labor, of raw material, of buildings, machinery, motive power and transportation, combined with fitness of climate and security of property, constitute the elements of cheap and profitable manufacturing. All these we must consider in estimating our ability to compete with others in supplying cotton goods for the great markets of the world. As regards skill, it is a mistake to suppose, that, in manufacturing cotton by machinery any great degree of it is necessary in the operative. In a few months, an intelligent youth may learn all that is requisite in most departments; and, in a few years, he may perfect himself in the whole art. We need not go beyond the limits of our own statescarcely of this city-to have experimental proof of this. But skill belongs to capital. In six months, with sufficient funds, we may draw from any and every quarter of Eurrop~e and the North, on reasonable terms, the full amount and precise kind of skill we may desire, with as much certainty as we could bring, by order, a cask of wine or a bale of woo lens. And capital follows profit s. In the present age, whereve r on the globe i t can be practical ly an d satisfactorily demon. strated that ample and sec ure returns are to be obtained from its inv estment, t hither capi. tal will so on flow, a nd skill b e found to manage it. If it can be shown that mor e can be m a d e by cotton factories in the South than elsewhere, and th at prope rty is secure with us, it would be vain to attempt to pre vent the c oncentration here of capital for the pur pose, unless the laws absolutely forbid the erection of th em. We ha ve a ll s een what an enormous amoun t of capital has been in vested in cotton planting, within the last thirty years, in consequence of its being thought highly profitable. Not less than $500,000,000 have be en so in ves ted, i n that period, n otwiths tanding the most vigorous measure s have been o pen ly made during ne arl y the whole of it, from various and pow. erful quarters, not merely to make insecure the planter's profit, but to a nnihilate his p ro. pertry and desolate his co untry. But, here tofore, under equally formidable circum s t a n ces, the pr ofits from manufacturing have been far greate r th an fr om plant ing co tton, and the personal superint enden ce of the capi talist far less laborious. In fact, this manu facture cannot fail, wherever it can be experimentally shown that it may be car ri ed on with the greatest success, to attract capital in preference to all other s; f or i t has hithert o afforded, and s till affords, the largest returns on its investments of any othe r perma nent industrial pursuit the world has ever known. It is well known that a great proportion of the largest fortunes amassed in England, in the last seventy years of unparalleled accu mulation, has been made by cotton manuftac turers. So numerous and influential has this successful class become, that they are fami liarly distinguished there by a distinct and appropriate name: they are called *'cotton lords." It is understood, that thirty-three and one-third per cent. is not a very uncommon profit on their capital. This is the rea. son, and a sufficient one, that the consump tion ()f cotton in England augmented from 100,000,000 pounds in 1816, at the commencement of peace, to 600,000,000 in 1846, being art increase of six-fold in thirty years. For the same reason, the consumption in the factories of the United States increased, during the same period, from some 32,000,000 pounds to above 190,000,000 pounds, being about the same proportion. Since 1846, after the reduction of duties by the act of that year, the increase of factory consumption has been beyond all precedent. It was, last year, 45,000,000 pounds greater than the year before; and for the first sixr menlhs of this year, the ratio of increase was still larger. It declined during the last six months, ill con.sequence of the temporary high price of cot I 29 SOUTlIHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF., me to detail. But it is believed that southern factories may with complete success. Whether they can or not, depends, of course-supposing capital and skill abundant-upon which can manufacture cheapest; for, transportation from our ports to foreign markets will be but little, if anything, more expensive than from her own. The means of making a comparison between th e cost of manufacturing cotton in England and this country, especially in the South, are not abundant, but we have some special fact s in point, and a vast body of general ones th at may be brought to bear directly on t he question. A practical manufacturer, Mr. Montgomery, of Glasgow, who is now in this country, and who had previously written several treatises on cotton spinning, published at Glasgow, in 184(), a work on the comparative advantages of cotton manufacturing in Great Britain anrid the United States. It is regarded, I believe, as good authority on both sides of the water. In that work he estimates the cost of a factory in the United States, containing 5,000 spindles and 128 looms, at about $104,000, including the buildings, motive power and all other machinery. The expense of working it a fortnight, he puts down at $1,954. He exhibits the cost of a similar factory in England, which amounted to but $44,000. and the charges per fortnight were only $1,123. Notwithstanding this striking difference in the cost and charges of the two factories, on summing up and including the value of the goods produced, and the price of the raw material, Mr. Montgomery demonstrates that the final cost of manufacturing cotton is three per cent. in favor of this country. This important conclusion is owing to two items. First, the 128 looms here turned out 16,000 yards of cloth every fortnight more than the same number did in Great Britain; and, secondly, the charges on the raw material, from the southern seaport to the northern factory, were only eleven per cent., against twenty-seven and a half per cent., the charges to the British manufacturer. Supposing a southern factory to have been erected at the same cost as a northern, and worked at the same charges, the difference in our favor, inasmuch as the eleven per cent. expenses would be saved to us, would amount to nine per cent. over the British-an advantage, against which compe tition could not long be maintained in any equal market. Since Mr. Montgomery wrote, the English have abolished the duty on cot ton, which he estimated at four and a half per cent. This placed them nearly on a footing with the North, but still left six per cent. in favor of the South. Since then, they have increased their speed in Englanid, but it has been by an increased outlay for power. If they have reduced the cost of manlufacturing, it has been by improvement in machinery, of which it is in our power to assail ourselves almost immediately. But in this ton. These facts sh ow, not only t he imme nse rofits derived from ma nu factur ing cot ton, eut t hey prove that they hav e been a s great i n our northern states as in England, since the factory consumption has increased in both with an extraordinary coincid ence of equal r atio-unless, indeed, our northern capitalists are content with less profit than those of England, which will not readily be believed. WLat their preci se gains have been, w e h ave no certain data for estimating. They have always be en seek ing to e nhance them by gov ernment protection, and, accordi ng to their own statements, have been carr ying on a ruinous business. Yet they have amassed sufficient wea lth to ape, at grea t expense, the styl e o f the English grandees, and have won for themselves a title alsothat of "lords of the loom a nd spiim nning jenny"-while manufactur ing towns have b e e n springing up at t he North, and growing off, as if by magic, into cities. In the South a few factories have fairly got under way. They have had to struggle with the obstacles incident to every new business, and with prejudices, some of which I have glanced at. Experience has not demonstrated what profit can be regularly counted on, though it has been highly encouraging to all who have judiciously embarked in them. It is an important and well-ascertained fact, that, during the past year, the comparative increase of factory consumption has been greater in the southern states than in England, or elsewhere. And it is confidently believed, from the successful experiments which have been made, that, if all our natural advantages for manufacturing cotton were properly developed, under the social and political approbation of the state and the South, the profits arising from it would be so great, throughout the cotton region, as to attract abundant capital and skill fiom almost every other quarter. England is the great dread of all those who turn their attention toward manufacturing. Her capital, her enterprise, her pauper labor, her vast commerce and indomitable energy, have hitherto broken down, or held in check, the cotton manufacturers of the old world. If they have thriven in this country, and kept pace with her in the ratio of increase, it may be said, with great truth and force, that thus far we have done little more than supply our home market with the coarser fabrics, and that a high protective duty has been deemed necessary to enable us to do this; that the only two foreign markets in which our manufacturers have attempted to contend seriously with her, pay for our g'oods in articles that enter the United States free of duty, which is equivalent to a direct bounty to our manufacturers, paid by our government; and that it yet remains to be shown, that we can compete with the English ill the open and equal markets of the world. I d1o not believe that our northern manufacturers can ever do it, for reasons which time does not permit 30 SOUTHIERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. tion of one hundred, than it is in South Car olina, with a population of twenty-two, to the square mile. Ultimately, however, the value of labor must depend on climate and soil. Wherever men can work the most, and under a just and secure government live at least expense, there, in the long run, labor must be the cheapest. In England, factory labor is now limited by law to sixty hours a week. In our northern states, the average of available weekly labor is esti mated at seventy-three and a half hours i in the middle states, at seventy-five and a half hours; and the further south we come, the more it is susceptible of increase. Cold, ice and snow, rarely present impediments to working in the cotton region, and the steady heat of our summers is not so prostrating as the short, but frequent and sudden, bursts of northern summers. If driven to that ne ces sity, there is no doubt we can extend our hours of labor beyond any of our rivals. The necessary expenses of the southern laborer are not near so great as are those of one in northern latitudes. He does not require as much nor as costly clothing, nor as expen sive lodgings, nor the same quantity of fuel, nor even an equal amount of food. All the fermented and distilled liquors which, in cold climates, are in some sort necessaries, are,here uncalled-for and injurious indul gences. Corn and bread and bacon, as much as the epicure may sneer at them, with fresh meat only occasionally, and a moderate use of garden vegetables, will, in this region at least, give to the laborer greater strength of muscle and constitution, enable him to undergo more fatigue, and insure him longer life and more enjoyment of it, than any other diet. And these, indeed, with coffee, constitute the habitual food of the great body of the southern people. Thirteen bushels of corn, worth now, even in the Atlantic south ern states only about $6 on the average, and one hundred and sixty pounds of bacon, or its equivalent, worth about $9, is an ample yearly allowance for a grown person. Garden vegetables bear no price except in cities. If sugar and coffee be added, $18, or at most, $19, will cover the whole necessary annual cost of a full supply of wholesome and palatable food, purchasedin the market. Such provisions, and in fact all sound provisions, are dearer in Europe and the North, than they are with us-much dearer than they could be well afforded here, if a steady and sufficient market gave encouragement to their production. It may, indeed, be safely estimated that each arable acre in the southern states can, with proper culture, maintain a human being, and that we might support within our limits at least 200,000,000, in a far better condition than the operatives and peasantry of Europe now are. Such are our vast prospects for the future. The precise country, where the prices of numerous items use d in a cot ton factory have not yet, by any m ean s, reached the minimum, the cost and charges of such an establishment as Mr. Montgomery describes, have fallen largely since 1840. According to Leonard's Princi pia, published last year, a factory running 5,000 spitndles and 140 looms, may be put up at the North now twenty-fire per cent. cheaper than Mr. Montgomery's estimate; can be worked at charges twelve and a half per cent. less, and will turn out ten per cent. more cloth. In addition to this, the average price of cotton has, for some years, been about half the price at which Mr. Montgo mery's estimate was made, while charges have fallen very little, if any, and cannot now amount to less than an average of thirty three and a half per cent. to the British manu facturer, notwithstanding the abolition of the duty. These facts seem to prove, that com petition with England, in this line of manu factures, is not likely to turn out near so dis astrous as we have been taught to believe by northern alarmists, deeply interested to spread such opinions in this country. They give us also some idea of the causes which have led to so rapid an increase latterly, in the con sumption of raw cotton in America. The conclusion might be drawn that even the North may, in the long run, triumph over Great Britain. But our northern brethren have one, to mention only one, fatal and omi nous disqualification for carrying such a con test to extremes. With them, owing to their social and political condition, the tendency of wages is constantly to rise. If they are lowered much, or lowered long, the security of property is at an end. They can substitute no labor for that which is virtually entitled to suffrage, and their governments, controlled by those who live by wages, have no power to protect capital against the demands of labor, however unjust. In the South it is wholly different; and so soon as experience shall enable us to handle our own resources skilfully, it will be found, besides, that we have as great advantages over the North and over England, in cheapness of motive power of all kinds, and in facilities for constructing buildings and machinery, as we have in the raw material to be manufactured. The great item of cost in manufacturing, next to the raw material, is that of labor. And the final result of the great struggle, for the control and enjoyment of the most important industrial pursuit of the world, will probably depend on its comparative cheapness. WYe are forever told of the " pauper labor" of Europe, and for the reason I have just given, the North is, perhaps, excusable for never having been able to look with composure at this bugbear. The cheapness of labor is undoubtedly much influenced by density of population, though labor is dearer in Massachusetts, with a popula 31 SOUTHERN INDSTRY —-TPROGRESS88 OF. he cents per yard, with cotton at seven cents a re pound &ere. And these very goods, made at r- this establishment, at this rate, have recently ly taken the first premium at the exhibition h in Philadelphia. Thus, in addition to sound at theoretical reasoning, we have strong practd tical proofs to lead us to the conviction, 2, that the cotton region is entirely competent st to convert the whole cotton crop into goods a- of all descriptions, at a cost so low as to disi- tance all competition. And the South has e only to address herself earnestly to the great it work to accomplish it, in a space of time r- that no one, not intimately acquainted with t, our people, would deem credible, if sugss gested now. Great Britain spins two-thirds is of the amount of our cotton crop. It is esd timated that she employs $200,000,000 in n the gigantic operation. On this data we may r safely calculate that $400,000,000 invested e here would enable us to consume all the raw o material we produce. These figures seem e enormous, but they should not startle us. - Within the last twenty years the South, e while she has fallen off in no other branches r of industry, has invested $400,000,000 in - cotton planting; $50,000,000 in sugar o planting, and not less than $50,000,000 in e factories and railroads. Why then should it be questioned that she could, in twenty years more, herself furnish the capital to 1 manufacture all her cotton? - P Tile immense benefits the South would derive from such a result, are not generally f appreciated. Few have the remotest idea of them. Indeed, they would be so vast as to defy all previous calculation.' Little more than half a century has elapsed," said - Mr. McCulloch, in 1833, " since the British 1 cotton manufacture was in its infancy, and it r now forms the principal business which is I carried on in the country, affording an ad. vantageous field for the accumulation and f employment of millions and millions of capi l tal, and of thousands upon thousands of workmen. The skill and genius by which these astonishing results have been achieved, , have been one of the main sources of our power; they have contributed, in no com w aon degree, to raise the British nation to the high and conspicuous place she now oc cupies. Nor is it too much to say, that it was t the wealth and energy derived from the cot ton manufacture, that bore us triumphantly through the late dreadful contest, at the same time that it gives us strength to sustain burdens that would have crushed our fathers, and could not be supported by any other people." If the manufacture of a portion of the raw material produced by our labor and our soil-and in 1833 she manufactured but a fourth of what we now produce-was of such incalculable advantage to England, what imagination can assign a limit to the power and prosperity we should enjoy, to tost of maintaining a labor ing ma n at th North, I have not seen stated. But there a] abundant statements in England, not diffe ing materially, for they have scientificall reduced the sustenance of their so muc dreaded " Dauper labor" to the exact poir that will enable it to perform the allotte task. The Edinburgh Review, of 184~ stated that a gallon of flour per week, jul half our allowance of corn, was indispensa ble, and the average price of that was esti mated at eighteen pence. At this rate th British workman pays for bread alone, abou $18 50 a year, or full as much as will fur nish here an ample supply of bread, meal sugar and coffee. The prices of provision cannot materially fall in England, for she i largely dependent on foreign supplies, ant becoming daily more so; while here, even is South Carolina, with a certain market fo corn at twenty-five cents a bushel at th~ barni, it would be cultivated, in preference to cotton at six cents in our ports. All these facts show that while wages have fallen al ready in Europe to the lowest possible point, we have a large margin left for thei reduction here, should circumstances de mand it, and that we have no reason tc dread her " pauper labor" in the future. W, have only to lift our mechanic arts from their present neglected condition, and learn to avail ourselves of the resources whicl Providence has lavished on us, to sweet over every obstacle which such labor may now present, to our immediate enjoyment ot the entire monopoly of our own great staple. In fact, the average rate of factory wages in the South is already lower than at the North, and but little higher than it is in England. As soon as operatives can be trained here to take the places of those necessarily brought from a distance, at extra cost, to fill the higher departments of manufacturing establishments, the average of wages, and of all charges for working, will, of course, fall considerably. And let it not be forgotten that, as I have already stated, notwithstanding cur almost entire want of experience, and all the disadvantages which our few and widely-scattered factories-newly erected among a people wholly unused to such pursuits-having no faith in them-in fact, strongly prejudiced against them-must, of course, labor under, they already produce better yarn and cloths, of the qualities attempted, than the northern manufacturers, and are successfully competing with them at their own doors. Mr. Leonard, in the recent work to which I have referred, states the cost of yard-wide No. 14 sheeting at 5.26 cents per yard, at northern factories, with cotton at 6 cents per pound there. The Graniteville factory, in this state, had not been in operation nine months, before it turned out precisely the same cloth, at 4.84 32 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY —PROGRESS OF. the height of grandeur we might attain, if we manfully put our sickles into the field, and reap for ourselves, by our own industry and enterprise, the whole harvest, which the cotton plant, the inestimable gift from Heaven to us, is capable of yielding. But to bring the subject more nearly home to ourselves, and our immediate interests, let us briefly consider what advantage South Carolina would derive from manufacturing the cotton she produces, and how far she is capable of doing it. The value of the cotton manufactures of Great Britain in 1846, an average year, was, according to the best authority, in round numbers, $205,000,000. The quantity of raw material consumed was about 600,000,000 pounds, and the average price paid by the manufacturer is stated at ten cents per pound, which is equivalent, say to seven cents in this city. Now the average annual production of South Carolina is about 100,000,000 pounds, and if, to make our calculations clear, we assume that the whole of it was, as it might have been, manufactured in Great Britain, in 1848, the value of the fabrics made of our crop was, to the manufacturer there, one-sixth of the whole, or $34,000,000. But we, in South Carolina, obtained only $7,000,000 for it; intermediate agents got about $3,000,000, and the British manufacturer realized, for his share, $24,000,000. These are not speculations or conjectures. They are recorded facts, which may be verified by reference to unquestion able documents. If we had manufactured our own crop in South Carolina, we should have received as the reward of our in dustry, in addition to the $7,000,000 which we did realize, all of the $24,000,000 which fell exclusively to the British manufacturer. If, looking to the future, we estimate the price of cotton in this city at six cents per pound, or $6,000,000 for our whole crop, and reduce the value of it, when converted into goods, to $20,000,000, clear of charges beyond this port, we shall still, by manufac turing it here, increase our net income by the immense sum of $14,000,000 per annum. How would the failing industry of South Carolina recuperate under an increased an nual expenditure of $14,000,000 within her limits. How would her cities grow, and new ones spring, into existence 1. How would her marshes be drained, and her river swamps be dyked in, until pestilence was driven from her land, and virgin fields of exhau,5t less fertility, conquered for her agriculture? W~hat rail-roads would be built along her thoroughfares, and what steamships would be launched upon her waters. How manv colleges, and schools, and charities, would be founded and endowed. How would her strength be consolidated at home, and her influence abroad augmented and extended ~. I am not conjuring up ideal visions to exZ VOL. III. cite t e main aol the imagination. All these things have been actually done. They have been, in our own times, and under our own eyes, carried out and ma de legible, living, self-multiply - ing and giant-growing FACTS in Old England and New-England; and they have been mainly accomplished by the in calculable profits which the ir genius a nd ent erpris e have realized on the products o f OUR LABOR. But the question will naturally be asked, can South Carolina manu fact ure 100,000,000 pounds of cotton. Has she, without drawing from abroad, which is not desirab le if it can be obviated-has she the capital, the motive powers of machinery, and the opera - tives, that will enable her t o to do it to advantage. The answer is, yes! a nd t he t ruth of i t may be demonstrated in a few words. To manufacture this amount of cotton, $40,000,000 of capital would be an ample and liberal investment, that wo uld cover all contingencies, if made judicious ly. Now, for the want of pro f itable inves tment, a much larger amount of South Carolina capital h as, within the last twen ty yea r s, actually left our state, and been lost to us foreve r. An d th at, without di minish ing our agricultural prod u ctions, or foreign exports, which have increased considerably in quantity, if not i n value, since 1830. I have already shown, that from 1830 to 1840, upwards of 80,000 slaves w ere carried frogir our s tat e, an d it may be assumed a s certain, that full as many have goe e within thes e las t te n years. These 16Q.,00.0 slaves, at $400 each, were alone worth $64.000,000. But for each one o f the s e slaves, at the very least, $100 w o rth of land and o ther propert y must have been suld here, and the cash proceeds transferred with them beyond our borders. This would amou nt t o $16,000,000 more. And i f to this be added the $10,000,000 which, made here by mer cantile and other pursuit s, has been sent elsewhere for investment, as has undoubtedl y been done e he, we have, without compu ting in terest, the immense sum of $90,000,000, of which, within these last twenty years, South Carolina has been drained, in currents which still flow, and bid fair to flow deeper and broader every year. No one is to be blamed for the transfer of this vast amount of capital. No one is under obligation to make or keep unprofitable investments. It is not to be ex pected. It never will be done to any great extent by enlightened and enterprising men. But if we had embarked in manufactures twenty years ago, as successfully as others, and afforded to capital here-returns of thirty, or twenty, or even ten per cent., not a dollar of that $90,000,000 would have left the state. The slaves might have gone, and the lands they cultivated might have been sold —but the enterprising owners would have re mained here, and the full cash equivalent of 3 3;3 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. this property would have remained with them. In their hands, it would not only have sufficed to erect all the factories requisite to spin our entire crop, but the vast overplus of $50,000,000, would have constructed and paid for thousands of miles of rail-road, and built fleets of steamships and merchant vessels, sufficient to carry our augmen ted comm erce i n di rect lines to all the great marts of the world. If we begin now, and, instead of removing el, sell, for a time, the superfluous increase of our slaves, the proceeds, a dded to t he floating capital otherwise a ccumulated, will enable u s to accomplish all these objects in a much shorter period than twenty years, and bring in upon our state a flood-tid e of p rosperity, th at will cover every hill and valley-every bog and barren wi th de posits more valuable than those of California. But if ample capital we re supplied, h ave we in South Carolina sufficient water power, advantageously located, or can we, on reasonable terms, generate steam power to manufacture our who le crop! The immense pine f orests which line our rail-roads and navigable streams, will, if judiciously managed, furnish fuel for all the factorie s we shall want, a t $1 25 a cord, f or ge n erations yet to come. At this rate, fue l can be supplied as ch eap ly a s the best Cumberland coal, at $3 a ton, or 12 cents a bushel, which is c heaper than the same quality of c oa l i s fu rni shed to t he Eng lish factori es. T he c ost, of steam engines, enhanced n ow only by th e charges of transportation, w ill be proportionably reduced as the mechanic arts advance, under the f ost erin g spirit of manufactures and commerce. As t o water power, without looking furth er, the s and-h ill streams, which course through the pi n e barrens of our middle country-the heal thiest region, take the y ea r r ound, on the surface of the globe are, it is well asc ertained, capable of put ting in motion millions of spindles and their complemented machinery-spindles enough to consume several times the amount of our crop. These streams fall from eight to fifty feet in the mile, are subject to no back water, or unman ageable freshets, and, being fed by perennial springs, are rarely affected. seriously by drought. Innumerable mill sites, with large tracts of land, may now be purchased on them, at from fifty cents to a few dollars an acre. The building of factories on them would instantly enhance the value of other p',arts of a tract which might be sold, beyond they whole cost of the original purchase and expe,nditure fordams, so that ample water power may be obtained here for absolutely nothings- Four rivers navigable for steamboats, an d several'others navigable for large craft, floset through this region to the sea, while three rail-roads already traverse it, and a fourth is partly under contracts The cheapest transportation may therefore be commanded, and every necessary of life is proportionably cheap. Above the falls, the rivers themselves, and their numberless tributaries, afford an almost inexhaustible supply of water power, while provisions, at low rates, are abundant. With capital, motive powers, cheap provisions, and convenient transportation at our command, it would only remain to' obtain operatives, on fair terms, to render our capacity to manufacture our cotton crop, complete. For this purpose, about thirty-five thousand, of all ages, would be requisite. There is no question but that our slaves might, under competent overseers, become efficient and profitable operatives in our factories. It may be of much consequence to us, that this fact has been fully tested, and is well known and acknowledged, as it would give us, under all circumstances, a reliable source. But to take, as we should have to do, even three-fourths of the required number from our cotton fields, would reduce our crop at least one-third-a reduction that would seriously affect the great results we have in view. It would also enhance the prices of labor and provisions; not so much by the legitimate and profitable process of increasing the demand, as by diminishing the supply; and it'would curtail the relative power ofthe agricultural class. If purchased by the factories —the only feasible plan of using them- their cost would add fifty per cent. to the capital required for manufacturing. While, in their appropriate sphere, the cultivation of our great staples, under a hot sun and and miasma, that prostrates the white man, our negro slaves admit of no substitute, and may defy all competition, it is seriously doubted, whether their extensive and permanent employment in manufactures and mehanic arts, is consistent with safe and sound policy. Whenever a slave'is made a mechanic, he is more than half freed, and soon becomes, as we too well know, and all history attests, with rare exceptions, the most corrupt and turbulent of his class. Whereever slavery has decayed, the first step in the progress of emancipation has been the elevation of the slaves to the rank of artisans and soldiers. This is the iprocess through which slavery has receded, as the mechanic arts have advanced; and we have no reason to doubt. that the same causes will produce the same effects here. We have, however, abundant labor of another kind which, unable at low prices of agricultural produce to compete with slave labor, in that line, languishes for employment; and, as a necessary conse quence, is working evil to both our social and political systems. This labor, if not quite so cheap directly, will be found in the long * run, much the cheapest; since those who are 'capable of it, will, whether idle or employed, -43 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY —PROGRESS OF. inevitably, in one way or another, draw their support from the community. According to the best calculation, which, in the absence of statistic facts, can be made, it is believed, that of the three hundred thousand white inhabi tants of South Carolina, there are not less than fifty thousand, whose industry, such as it is, and compensated as it is, is not, in the present condition of things, and does not promise to be hereafter, adequate to procure them, honestly, such a support as every white person in this country is, and feels himself entitled to. And this, next to emigration, is, perhaps, the heaviest of the weights that press upon the springs of our prosperity. Most of these now follow agricultural pur suits, in feeble, yet injurious competition with slave labor. Some, perhaps, not more from inclination, than from the want of due en couragement, can scarcely be said to work at all. They obtain a precarious subsistence, by occasional jobs, by hunting, by fishing, sometimes by plundering fields or folds, and too often by what is, in its effects, far worse -trading with slaves, and seducing them to plunder for their benefit. If the ancient phi losopher had the slightest grounds for saying that it would require the plains of Babylon to support, in idleness, five thousand soldiers and their families, we may infer how enor mous a tax it is on our resources, to maintain to the extent we do now, and are likely to have to do, directly and indirectly, our unemployed, or insufficiently employed poor. From this class of our citizens, thirty-five thousand factory operatives may certainly be drawn, as rapidly as they may be called for, since boys and girls are required, in large proportion, for this business. Nor will there be any difficulty in obtaining them. Experience has shown that, contrary to general expectation, there exists no serious prejudice against such labor among our native citizens,i and that they have been prompt to avail themselves, at moderate wages, of the opportunity it affords of making an honest and comfortable support, and decent provision for the future. The example thus set of continuous and systematic industry, amongt those to whom it has heretofore been unknown, cannot fail to produce the most beneficial effects, not only on their own class, but upon all the working classes of the state. And, putting aside the immense contribution of manufactures to the general prosperity, it would be one of the greatest benefits that could possibly be conferred on the agriculture of South Carolina, to convert thirty-five thousand of her unemployed or insufficiently compensated population into active and intelligent workmen, buying and paying for the products of her soil, which their families consume. But it has been suggested, that white factory operatives in the South would constitute a body hostile - to our domestic institutions. If any such sentiments could take root among the poorer classes of our native citizens, m ore danger may be apprehended from them, in the present state of things, with the facilities they now possess and the difficulties they have now to e nc ounter, than if the y were brought together in factories, with constant employment and adequate remuneration. It is well known that the abolitionists of Ame rica and Europe are now making the most strenuous efforts to enlist them in their cru sade, by encouraging the exclusive use of what is called " free labor cotton," and by in flammatory appeals to their pride and their supposed interests. But all apprehensions from this source are entirely imaginary. The poorest and humblest freeman of the South feels as sensibly, perhaps more sensibly than the wealthiest planter, the barrier which nature, as well as law, has erected between the white and black races, and would scorn as much to submit to the universal degrada tion which must follow, whenever it is broken down. Besides this, the factory operative could not fail to see here, what one would suppose he must see however distant from us, that the whole fabric of his own fortunes was based on our slave system, since it is only by slave labor that cotton ever has been, or ever can be, cheaply or extensively produced. Thus, not only from natural sentiment an;! training, but from convictions of self-interest, greatly strengthened by their new occupa tion, this class of our citizens might be relied on to sustain, as firmly and faithfully as any other, the social institutions of the South. The fact cannot be denied, that property is more secure in our slave states than it is at present in any other part of the world; and the constant and profitable employment of all classes among us will increase, rather than diminish that security. There seems, then, to be no impediment whatever to our embarking, at once, in the manufacture of our cotton, and to the full extent of consuming our entire crop, in competition with the world. We have at hand, and within our grasp, all the elements necessary for erecting and carrying on manufacturing establishments; and we have the raw material on the spot, and at a cost one-third below our European, and one-eighth below what our northern. rivals are compelled to pay for it; and we have it, also, in far better condition. When it reaches our factories, it will not have been compressed-often not put in bales; it will not have been drenched in rains and rolled in the mud of wharves, nor bleached and rotted by exposure, in its long travels by land and sea. It must, therefore, necessarily, make smoother, stronger, and more durable fabrics, of all descriptions, here, than can be made of it elsewhere. And this is fully exemplified by the fact, that botl~ 35 .SOUTHERN INDUSTRY-PROGRESS OF. the factory in this city and that at Graniteville have, in the very first year of their operations, carried off the highest prizes at northern exhibitions. The greatness of a nation mainly depends on the greatness of its natural advantages, and the use it makes of them. The highest gifts of heaven avail nothing-in fact, if profuse, they become curses-unless judiciously, skilfully and energetically appropriated. The wealth of England, which equals all that is fabled of the East, and the extent and power of her empire, are all due, in the first instance, chiefly to a wise and vigorous development of her natural resources. Surrounded by the ocean, commerce was evidently a vocation for her. Possessed of mines, in which coal and iron are interstratified, she was invited to manufactures. So soon as she had consolidated union and peace within her borders, she bent herself earnestly to these great pursuita, and devoted to them her genius, industry, and enterprise, until, at length, she has circled the globe in her giant arms-shakes every bearing tree on its surface, and draws into her lap the most precious fruits of all its climes. When the steam-engine and powerloom, the saw-gin and slave labor, combined to develop the greatest of all industrious pursuits, she was prepared to take the lead in it at once, and distance every competitor, to the present day; and McCulloch has exaggerated nothing, in estimating the value of this pursuit to her. Great as England was, sixty years ago, when she received the first bale of cotton from our shores, and much as she had done, her power and achievements befor e bear no comparison with what she has accomplished since, and is able to accomplish now. To speak only of her industrial operations: while all her manufactures have increased, even woolens, linens and silks, in spite of the substitution of cottons-and her annual production of iron has risen from one hundred thousand to a million of tons —her consumption of raw cotton has grown from some 15,000,000 lbs. to over 600,000,000 lbs. per annum, and the yarn and fabrics she makes of it exceed in value nowall her other manufactures together. It is this unparalleled manufacture, thus seized and appropriated, that has finally made her commerce equal to that of all other nations, and London the sole centre of the exchanges of the world; while it has so stimulated her agriculture, that she would now be largely exporting provisions, if it had not also, notwithstanding her extraordinary wars in every quarter of the globe, and the millions she has lost by emigration, doubled her population in the last fifty years-an event which has never happened within a century before. Yet this manufacture, whose astonishing results of every kind seem more like enchant ment than reality-and in tracing whose ac tual history, we feel as if we were perusing some story of magic, in which fairies and genii make kings of peasants, and build gorgeous cities of marble and palaces of gold-this wonderful manufacture belongs of right to us. God, in his bounty, has manifestly designed it, and all for attendant benefits, for the people of the cotton-growing region. And he has given us, also, every physical advantage necessary to its full development. We have as much sea shore as England. We command the gulf, appropriately called the great " Heart of the Ocean," and through which, brushing our shores, in a few years more, almost the whole commerce of the globe will pass. We have coal and iron. We have, besides, immense forests and noble streams without number. We have capital and labor, and the raw material is peculiarly ours. It only remains for us to prove to the world, that we have the courage to claim our own, and the genius and energy to maintain the rights and secure the blessings which a kind Providence has bestowed upon us. I trust it will not be supposed, that, while thus advocating the encouragement of the mechanic arts, and extensive manufacturing among us, I look upon them in any other light, than as means, not ends; or, that I regard them even as the highest means. A profound philosopher of antiquity has said that "occupations of utility and necessity ultimately terminate in the pursuit of the beautiful and true." Of this there cannot be a doubt; nor that these occupations exer cise a most important influence on the edu cation, character and destiny of every indi vidual and every community of men. Who ever is incapable of faithful and persevering industry is not capable of anything great. But the proper cultivation of the mind and morals must, in the main, be directed by a higher conception of the useful and the ne cessary, than would confine them to the mere exercise of any manual or mechanic art. And in training up a truly great peo ple, no effort must be spared to enlarge all the faculties of the intellect, and to purify and elevate every sentiment of the heart. These are the springs and guides which finally sustain and direct all political, social and industrial institutions, and raise a nation to true prosperity and grandeur. But I see no incompatibility between the pursuits I have endeavored to recommend, and the ex ercise of the highest powers of the human mind, and the cultivation of the noblest sen timents that dignify our nature. Nor would I be thought, by any means, desirous to see the mechanical and manufac turing spirit and influence prevail over the agricultural, in this state, or in the South. Of all the industrial pursuits of man, there is none so free from vicious contamination, 36 SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. ble examples of the folly of emancipating a race incapable of freedom; and the mind of the devout person who contemplates the condition ofthe ci-devaat slave colonies of those two powers, must become impressed with the fact that Providence must have raised up those two examples of human folly for the express purpose of a lesson to these s tates, to save which from human errors it has, on more than one occasion, m an ifestly a nd directly interposed. It was doubtless the fact that, at the e ra of the Revolution, many of the southern states began to feel the burthen of unproductive slaves, and tha t a growing disposition to be clear of the m man ifested itself simultaneously with the mammonp ro mpte d philanthropy of England. A great danger was thus springing up, whe n the inventions of the cotton-gin, the carding-machine, the spinning-jenny, and the steamengine, combined to weave that network of cotton which formed a n ind issoluble cord, binding the black, who was thr eat ened to be ca st off, to human progress. It may be well, in this connection, to make a hasty s ketch of the progress which bl ack emancipation, under English tutelage, h as made. The forcing of Africans upon these colonies by the Englis h govern me nt, a gainst the earnest remonstrances of the colonies, Virgini a in particular, w a s a main re ason i n the list of grievances, why the authority of the crown should bethrown off. When th is was accomplished, the disco ntinuance of the s l ave trade was decreed, and the traffic decla re d piracy by the United States. The English gover nment fo llowed this e xample, and the republican government of France einancipated suddenly the blacks o f St. Domingo, giving over that fine island to the horrors of black civil war and plunder. From that time up to 1823, but little progress was made. In that year Mr. Buxton introduced a bill into Parliament for the abolition of slavery. Mr. Canning amended it on its passage, so as to prepare for gradual emancipation. Lord Bathurst notified the colonial legislature of the fact, This induced lively remonstrances on the part of the colonists, but these did not deter the government from taking those preliminary steps in 1831, which resulted in the bill presented by Lord Stanley in 1833, and which was adopted June 18, and sanctioned by the crown August 28, 1833. The principles of the bill were briefly these:: After the 1st August, 1834, slavery ceased; all blacks above the age of six years became apprentices, under three ~heads-.lst. Rural Apprentices, attached to the, roil. -:2nd. Rural Apprentices, unattached. 3rd. Non-Rural Apprentices. The. two first classes were to work six years for-their masters without pay, and the third. clans four years. The labor was limited to 45 Aours per-w/eek. The blacks could ~63 in all its relations and tendenc i es, a s agriculture; none which, if properly conducted, r equires clos er observation of natural facts, more rigid a nalysis of cau ses and effect s, or the exerciseo hheer of higher powers of generalization; none better calculated to impress on man the duties th u ie o this life, and lift him to the habitu al contemplation of another. Politically, it is nearly imp ossible that agriculturists can combin e a nd act in concert, but on the bas is of truth, of virtue, and of right. If they are slow to refo rm, the y are conservative of all that i s pu re in every institution. It is, therefo re, of t h e utmost importance in all g ov ernm ents - e specially in one so democr at ic as our own-and in a ll social systems-especially w here, as in our s, so much equality prevails-that the p repo nderati ng influence oe s hould be agricultural. And with i ts immense and necessarily permanent super iority in wealth and nu mbers, there should be n o s erious app rehe nsion that any other interest can override it here. If that should h app en, i t w ould prove that the agriculturists were not true to themselves; that they no lo n ger cherished those frugal and industrious habits, and that manly spirit, which are their appropriate characteristics; and that they neglected to cultivate those high and virtuous sentiments, and to imbibe for themselves, and instill into their children, that knowledge and love of knowledge, which constitute, after all, the only genuine sources of real and enduring power.' Gov. Hammond. SOUTH- THE FUTURE OF THE. -The osition which the Southern United States Eold to the commercial and industrial world, is one of the most remarkable phenomena of modern times. When we reflect upon the origin of black servitude in America;its comparatively valueless results as long as Great Britain derived direct profit from the African trade; its sudden and wonderful change when, coeval with our national independence, it began to weave that thread of cotton which has gradually enveloped the commercial world, and bound the fortunes of American slaves so firmly to human progress, that civilization itselfrmay also be said to depend upon the continual servitude of the blacks in America. With the independence of America ceased the profits which Liverpool and London had derived from the African slave-trade. Simultaneous with that loss of profit, the philanthropy of Wilberforce was awakened; and continued and persevering efforts were from that moment, through the space of half a century, made to bring about the enfranchisement of all black slaves. These efforts have been measurably successful with all countries where the number and importance of the blacks were inconriderable. France and England afford nota 37 SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. considerable interests in any of them. Those efforts which have been made by the English ministry to manufacture in Europe freedom for slaves, as they manufactured a claim against Greece, a nd a k ing for the Mosqui toes, by mean s of new clothes and old rum, serve only as a severe sarca sm upon the whole system of European governments. All the nations of Europe, including Eng lav nai inte and, c ontamiserabl e slaves de luded with the name of fr eemen. No t the most advanced of these reac these races has reached the degree of improvement, politi c ally and physi-t cally, that marks the black race in the south ern United States. Fro m the nature of their geographical positi ond esls, it resultsthat although most of the nations of Europe contain races whose life, liberty and property are at the mercy of masters, without a ppeal fr om the ir caprice, yet none of these are black. In t he United States, none but black hold a subordi nate position; hence no kin d of slave ry i n Europe is bad except black. In this view, the Englid h government. after it set rum Samboe astrid e o f a cask of Jamaica, with the style and title of King of the Mosquitoes, used its influence to induce the little piratical n a tion s of Europe which possessed black slave s, to free them, an d get their pay out o thehe skins of the white sla ves. The Danish government followed the Englis h example of turn ing s lave s into a pprentices without wages. In 1846 the Swedish government paid $50,000 to free the few blacks in the isla nd of Saint Bartholomew, which amounted simply to turening adrift a few useless negroes. The mos t brilliant triumph s of this nature were, however, in Tunis, Egypt, and Bohemian Wallachia. In the last-named country, the re is a population of 1,747,815 souls. includin g Go ts, a th Lmis, Gepide, Huns, L ombard Tartars, Turks, and Gipsies. The se are ani staves, most abject and miserabl e, hardly above the savage condition-the women being compelled t o do the labor, l iving in underground caverns, and using dry dung as fue l to cook a scanty meal. These poo r creatures are owned by a nobility and clergy, who are exempted from taxes and the payment of private debts. The most inconsiderable in numbers and lowest in the social scale, a re the Gipsies, o f whom there a re ab ou t 150,000, owned by individuials and the government, the latter holdilg about 60,000. They pay 30 piastres, or $2 10 per annum, per head, for the privilege of being at large, upon binding themselves not to quit the c,untry. In 1846 the government was induced to waive its ownership of these poor creatures, who are butt strolling vagabonds, and this " triumph of philanthropy" was proclaimed throughout Europe as a long stride towards universal freedom, and an example to the United States, although the slavery of all those not belonging directly to the government remains as before. their time of apprenticeship of their masters, if they had the means. The power of punish ment was transferred to the magistrates. The compensation for the blacks was to be atthe rate of theiraverage value in each island, between the years 1822 to 1830. Thus the whole number of slaves was 780,993, and their value, ~45,281,738. This sum was paid in full in cash and work. Thus tths in money, amounting to ~20,000,000, and the remain ing four-.sevenths in the right to the work of the prtedials six years without pay, and non predials four years, The number of claims w as, fo r pradials attached, 5,562; do, unt attached, 1,708; non-predial3, 9,075. Th e av erage v alu ation wa s ~ 44 15s,; the a verage money paid fbr each slave, ~19 15s. 4ld. T he w ork of a slave generation in the West Indi es was valued at 7ith years, and the years of apprenticeship assigned were considered foer -sevenths of the pay. Although the British government, with its usual self sufficient insolence, laid claim to the fall merit of paying for the slaves, these had to contribute a large share of the remunera tion for themselves.. This arrangement, how ever, dissatisfied everybody. The slaves, who had hoped for immediate emancipation, were very impatient under this regulation, while the government agents s(o harassed the plan ters, that they were glad to sell out the time of the apprentices. In Jamaica. from. August, 1834, to August, 1839, $300-000 were paid by apprentices to masters for unexpired time; and, finally, when the four years of non-prmdial service had expired, the planters abandoned the remaining two years of the pi-wdials, and Au gust, 18388; was a day of jubilee. The valuators then reported the number of' preedials at 218,669; noni-predials, 37,144 total apprentices, 255.313. Free children, under six years, 38,899: aged, 15,656-total, 310,368, against 309,167 apprentices and 38,754 free children, returned in 1834; showing an increase of 145.children, and a decrease of 53,354 apprentices. The first use of freedom was a prompt refusal to work at all;, some demanded $1, $2, and $3 per day, and. the best authorities show that the islands are fast sinking back to a state of savage nature. The productions, of the island are yearly diminishing, notwithstanding an increased consumption of, and advance in the price of' sugar in England. As the exports of the West Indies fall, the markets they afford for the sale of British goods become circumscribed,. In 1836, they took ~3,786,45,8 of British goods; in 1848, ~-1,434,477 only. Simultaneously with their West India experimnent, the British government exerted all its influenice with the small nations of Europe to procure the nominal emancipation of such black slaves as were of no material import. Acet either ta tte several states, or to anyi 38. SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. In relation to labor, the consequences are the same as in Jamaica, viz., a prompt abandonment of work at any price. In 1836, 4.932 hands produced in Martinique 6,056,990 lbs. of sugar, or one bhd. each; in 1849, the proceeds averaged one hhd. to 34 hands. The official returns of the French government fbr 1849, are not yet received; those, however, for [847 and 1843, the last being the year of abolition, are as follows: The next "grand triumph" of freedom was a successful negotiation, in 1847, with the Pacha of Egypt, for the release of his black slaves. The population of Egypt numbers 2,500,000; the larger proportion being Arab Egyptians, and are all the property of the Pacha. There is in Egypt no personal liberty whatever. The government claims and en forces its right to the labor of every man, willing or not willing; and no labor is per formed unless under the immediate direction of the government officers, from whom alone the individual can procure supplies. Amidst this community, of slaves, there are Caucasian men and women, white slaves to the rich, and a few negro slaves brought from Nu midia. The English philanthropy had such an effect upon the Pacha as to induce him, March, 1847, to free the last named, allowing the rest to remain as before! Soon after, similar influences began to work in the Barbary states, where the absolute de pendence of all persons, in life, liberty and property, upon the nod of the Bey, makes life valueless to a man. The trade of these poor, creatures, who send three caravans a year into the interior, involves the bringing back occasionally a few negro slaves. As these were no particular benefit to the Bey, who owns the whole 2,500,000 people, he was induced by the English agent, for a small consideration, to follow the illustrious example of that ultra-democrat, the Pacha of Egypt, and alter the style of the servitude of those blacks, and Exeter Hall had another "triumph," and again the United States were bade to imitate the glorious example of the Mediterranean pirates. The experience of the French government in its dealings with the black race, has been even more unfortunate than has been that of the English. The bloody disasters which overtook the once magnificent possession of St. Domingo, have, for more than half a century, remained a monument of black brutality. Taught somewhat by that lesson, the French government, in 1831, by a law of that year, provided for gradual emancipation in its remaining colonies. Under the operation of that law, the number of slaves diminished from 294,481 to 258,956, in 1835. The productions of the islands were not. however, materially checked, and the system seemed to work well. The revolution of February, 1848, repeated the error towards the blacks committed by that of t791, and slavery was suddenly abolished. That the same bloody results have not followed, is because the home government promptly laid the islands under martial law, as the only means of preserving the whites from massacre. The presence of a sufficient force is all that stays for the moment a war of races. IMPORTS FROM AND EXPORTS TO THE WEST INDIA COLONIES FROM FRANCE. Imports Exports T otal 1847.............73,347,168.. 39,954,084.. 113,301,252 1848.............35,992,153.. 19,239,604.. 55,231,757 Decrease.... frs. 37,355,015.. 20,714,480.. 58,079,495 This shows a decline of more' than one-half in the first year, and for 1849 it is greater, as indicated by customs returns. The sugar im ported into France fell off one-half, and was made up by receipts of foreign slave sugar. The experience in relation to St. Domingo will be con firmed in t he other islands. Wehvehave thus stated roughly the course of abolitionism, in order to understand the lesson which it conveys. It is this. The black race has inhabited t he African contine nt as long at least as the white s h ave oc cupied Europe, and theyellow and treye ad t races Asia. All these have mor e or less advanced from th e rudest savage stat e, in wannrer an d degree, according to their inherent intellectuality. Toje black race, however, has made no progress what ever. - They were without invention, almost without language, and destitute of the facul. ties or the wish to advance. These beings, or such of them as had, by the fortune of ain ternal wars, become the victims of their can nibal captors, were rescued from that fate to becom e the forced cultivators of the so il in the newly discovered countri e s of America. A few years of. that compulsory labor was supposed by the English government6so to have changed their natures, that, made free, they would not resume the indolent and savage habits which had marked the race since the creation, but would become so per severingly industrious for wages. as to enable their employers to compete with the slave owners of Cuba and Brazil, in supplying Europe with sugar, coffee and cotton; keep in employ one-fourth the people of Great Britain; maintain her merchant marine, and enable her to continue her commercial and manufacturing supremacy. The erroneous ness of this view has, by experiment, now been proved to all the world. The experiment has been sufficiently tested by emancipation, in the manner we have sketched, in the colonies of France and Eng land, and by increase of free blacks among the whites of the United States; and it has been proved, beyond the possibility of a doubt, that the black race cannot even maintain the position to which they are raised by a few Xyears of servitude, without continued coer 89 SOUTH-THRE FUTURE OF THE. tion. Left to themselves, they will not work, no matter how great may be the inlducemenlts or facilities, but sink back mentally to the dark superstitions of their cannibal natures. This truth has not only been demonstrated, but admitted by the best English authorities, even those which formerly were the most hopeful advocates of black equality. The policy of the English was, and continues to be, in relation to its West Indies, to cause them to be abandoned by the whites, and become entirely black colonies, in the sole possession of the descendants of slaves. Already, however, the rapidly sinking condition of the colonies has convinced the thinking men of England, that the scheme is impossible; that to abandon them to the blacks, is to abandon them to worse than a state of nature; and means of retracing the unfortunate steps taken appear to be earnestly sought for. In contemplating these facts, there presents itself this important consideration, viz., the four articles which are most necessary to modern civilization, sugar, coffee, cotton and tobacco, are products of compulsory black labor. Whenever coercion has been removed from that labor, its productions have ceased, and the experiments to prove this fact conclusively, have been made in localities where the results, although injurious to the experimenters, have not much affected the general interestsof mankind. England itself, at this moment, by a sort of retribution, is in some sort the slave of southern blacks. She it was that created American black slavery, and her existence has now come to depend upon its products. There are few persons who reflect upon the immense superstructure of wealth and power which is reared upon the foundation of American slave culture of cotton. The United States trade is almost altogether based upon that industry. Although the cotton manufactures are made at the North, they are based upon slave labor. Some approximation may be arrived at, taking the last year, 1850f T XPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES,1850. Southern Value of produce exported wshole production Cotton, raw.......... 71,984,616........ $105,000,000 manufactures. 4,734,424...... 100,000,000 Tobacco.............. 9,951,223........ 15,000,000 Rice.................. 2,631,557........ 3,000,000 Naval stores......... 1,142,713. 2,000,000 Sugar............... 23,037........ 12,396,150 Hemp............... 5,633.......... 695,840 Provisions from New Orleans.......... 3,523,80{r........ 138,691,990 And other articles frem the South.......... 6,000,000 Total................ 99,997,012 Northern and Western exports............ 34,903,22I Total exports....... 134,900,233 Under the head of " other articles from the South," are embraced corn and flour from Virginia, manufactured tobacco, snuff, and there might also be included gold to the extent of $1,000,000 per annum; but we have not included -gold in the exports. The provimions from New-Orleans embrace flour, pork, bacon, lard, beef and corn, exported to foreign ports direct from New-Orleans, and which are purchased from the north-western country for sugar, to bacco and co tton sent up the river, an operation equivalent to an annual export of those articles The value is thus given in the New-Orleans price current, and it will be observed that the whole amount exported from the Union of these articles is $19,146,658, consequently one. fifth of the whole export of farm produce goes from New-Orleans. It is thus apparent that 75 per cent. of the exports of the Union are the product of slave labor iia northern ships, and that consequently, as the imports of the country are paid for in the exports, 75 per cent. afthe importations are the remuneration for the product of slave labor. Inasmuch as that the whole exports and imports of the country, taken to, gether, are derived 75 per cent. from the slave labor, the same ratio of freight is derived by the shipping, which is owned as follows: U'NITED STATIS TONNAGE. Owned Registered Enrolled Total 184. Total 185 I.ner.ee South.............. 159,956....... 334.845....... 494,797........ 743,805...... 249,008 North.................1,201,930......... 1,456,314.........2,658,244........2,791,649........133,405 Total................I1,361,886........ 1,791,159......3,153,041......... 3,535,454........482,413 The registered tonnage is that engaged in a marked step in advance. Aecording to the the foreign trade, and the enrolled that of official returns, the 2,700,.000 tons of the the coasting trade. Although much the United States ships engaged in foreign trade, largest portion is owned at the North, the make one voyage in a year; that is to say, result of the comparison is, that the increase two passages, one out and one home. The to the South in the last two years has been freights will average $12 per ton each way; double that of the North, and, moreover, that this gives $64,800,000 freights earned in a increase of the South has been 50 per cent. year, of which $48,600,000 is earned hy of what was owned in that section in 1848, northern ship-owners by carrying slave pro 40 SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. by's reply had very little force, and we refer to it here merely as an illustration of a single point. The pamphlet showed, that as the exports of the country are mostly from the South, the proceeds returning in shape of goods belong to the section whence emanated the means of paying for them, and the duties exacted from these goods were therefore taken from the South. Mr. Derby remarks: d ucts and their proceeds. The coasting transportation of sou thern pr oducts by northern vessels will give $7,000,000, making $55,600,000 ear ned by the shipowners. To earn hi s sit is this money, it requires that ships should e be built, and the census return for 1840 showe d the value of ships built in the Union for that year to be $7.016,094; and as the Tre asury Re port s show ed th e tonnage built in that year to be 120,988, which give s a n average of $55 per ton, the census was probably correct. Of the $7,016,094, less than $300,000 was in slave states; all the rest w a s expended at the North among all those who live by that manufac turing, lumber-men who float the monarchs of the forest to the seaboard for the shipwrights to fashion, architects, shipwrights, blacksmiths, sheathers, caulkers, riggers, corda ge and sailmakers, w it h hei b ake their backers, the hemp and flax grow,ers, and canv as weav er s. Thus affording immense employment to bus y ship-yards, until the ship "a taunto" has passed the hands of cabinet mak er s and upholsterers, and is ready for her cargo, which employs gangs of stevedores, cartmen, shopmen and clerks, with p remiums to insurance offices, until, her shipping articles complete, under t he command of a thriving pilot, 20 stout seamen, whose families are provided with " draw bills" for their wages, sheet home her canvas to the breeze, and she seeks in foreign climes a profit upon her southern cargo, to remunerate the outlay of capital that has created her and given activity to so many interests. The privilege which the northern states have thus enjoyed in being free carriers for southern produce to Europe, as well as of bringing it to their own water-courses for conversion into goods to be re-carried to the South, and sold at a profit above the cost of the raw material, with freights, insurance, exchange, commissions and wages superadded, has formed the marked distinction which is manifested between the present condition of New-England and Canada. Why is it that the latter, possessed of English enterprise and capital, and endowed with large expenditures on such public works as the Welland and Rideau canals, are impoverished, idle and retrograding, while New-England is advancing with rapid strides to wealth and power? Clearly because the latter enjoys freely the right to carry and manufacture the products of slave-labor, from which Canada is excluded. This fact, and the fear of being deprived of the privilege involved, has excited much interest of late in NewEngland; and C. Haskett Derby, Esq., a well-known factory and rail-road speculator, undertook, in the last October number of Hunt's Magazine, to reply to the able pamphlet entitled, the " Union, and how to save it," and published in Charleston. Mr. Der " Let us examine his theories as to duties. It is a very simple one. Not that the South has directly paid such duties, for they have been paid principally at the North; but the whole theory rests upon the fact that the duties are paid on imports; that the South supplies nearly two-thirds the exports of the Union; and the duty being levied on the proceeds, are paid not by the consumer, but by the South." This is slightly misstated; the Sou th is both the consumer of the goods and producer of the means of paying for them. Again, says Mr. Derby: "Take a case in point. A New-England ship sails for Charleston with a cargo of granite, ice, fish, and manufactures. She exchanges them for lumber, rice and cotton. She then sails for Liverpool, makes freight and profit; then to Cardiff, where the proceeds are invested in slate or iron, and returns to Boston. What has the South to do with these imports? They have been bought by the North and paid for-how do'they belong to,' and how are they' to be divided among the producers of the exports?'" The question is not of a few stones, a little ice, and a few fish, but of that large amount combined in the last enumerated word, "manufactures," and which Mr. Derby slurs over so glibly. Now the robbery consists precisely in that operation. The " manufactures" which this New-England ship carries to Charleston, as the means of buying cotton, are raised in value 30 per cent. by the present tariff, and by the old tariff 80 per cent.; that is to say, Liverpool being the largest market, regulates the price of cotton. Fair cotton is now fourteen cents, and certain Lowell sheetings 7 cents per yard; that is to say, two yards of the latter are given for one pound of cotton. But the English will give three yards for one pound. The tariff says, no; and the government, for every three yards imported, takes one. It is not only the duties upon the articles actually imported, of which the South pays so large a share, but upon a corresponding advance caused by the duty upon all northern manu factured articles; that is to say, one-third of all the produce sold by the South to the North, and paid for in manufactured goods, is confiscated to the use of the manufacturers. Mr. Derby makes the following very strange assertion: " But does the slave use the costly lin ens, s ilks, woolens, liquors, coffee, sugar, tea, and other valuables from abroad? Clad in coarse attire, eating his coarser fare, he little knows of such luxuries. Our imports now average at least ninety dollars per head ftor our white population. The slave 41, SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. cannot average one-third of this amount. The great consumers are the whites, both southern and northern. "Let us allow for this difference, and the consumption of foreign imports in the slave states will fall below three-tenths of the entire importation. The slave states will consequently be found to pay less than three-tenths ofthe entire duties,-less than their ratio under the Constitution." The white population of the Union, by the present census, will be about 17,000,000. "Ninety dollars per head" would give for imports $1,530,000,000, say one thousand five hundred and thirty millions. The actual imports are $163,000,000. So much for his accuracy of calculation. But, says he, the imports are luxuries which slaves don't use. We cannot see how that alters the fact. If by means of a high tariff the northern manufacturer obtains one third of the southern produce for nothing, he may, of course, buy luxuries, or, as we have lately seen done, buy the office of minister to England, and become the toady of dukes, or indulge his taste in any way. Let us take an illustration from the Massachusetts census. qUMBER OF COTTON AND WOOLEN FACTORIES, SPIN DLES AND LOOMS IN MASSACHUSETTS. Cotton. Woolen. Factories Spines Factories Spindles 1840...... 276...... 624,540......144..... 113,457 1850.......337......1,220,752......191..... 208,648 It appears that the number of spindles has doubled, consequently the consumption of cotton has doubled, and of wool the increase has been 80 per cent. The capital invested in cotton has risen from $17,414,079 to $35,000,000, and the persons employed from 21,000 to 35,000. The South has had to pay the North 30 per cent. more for woolen as for other goods, than they would have been furnished for by the other customers for rice, cotton and tobacco; and it is the operation of this tribute which has caused the factories to double in ten years. Of the chief staples of the South, the productions, exports and home consumption of the last year have been nearly as follows: Home Total Exported Consumption Production Cotton..........71,984,616.. 33,615,386.. 105,600,000 Tobacco......... 9,951,223.. 5,048,777.. 15,000,000 Rice............. 2,631,887.. 400,000.. 3,031,557 Naval stores..... 1,142,713.. 800,000.. 1,942,713 Sugar........... 23,037.. 12,396,150.. 12,419,147 Hemp........... 5,633.. 690,207.. 695.840 Total...... $85,738,779.. 52,950,520.. 138,689,297 world, while the manufactures of the North were taken at a fictitious value, created by the operation of the tariff. If, after purchasing on such terms, the northern merchant chooses to export that produce, Mr. Derby asserts the South has not been fleeced, because the identical articles brought back do not go to the individual planters. To illustrate: Suppose fair cotton is twelve cents pe r lb., regulated by the cash price in Liverpool, and that for one lb. of such cotton the Ma nches ter man will give thre e yar ds of a certain description of cloth, val ued at eight cents. A New-Engla nd manufacturer asks twelve cents for the same cloth, and gets it, because Congress imposes four cents per yar d oil the Ma nchester cloth. Th e northrern me rchant then sends two yards o f c lot h, and obtains one lb. of cotton; he then sends abroad t he cotton an d buys silk wi th it. Mr. Derby says the South has nothing to do with this luxury! Yet th e t rade is based upon the southern product, which has been obtained by the North, under t he operation of the t ariff, cheaper th an it o therwis e c ould have bee n. In the same manner, a vast nort hern capital operates upon the same base s. We have seen that th e shippin g is mostly owned at the North, and draws its revenue fr om the southern freights at an average of $40 per ton. The northern shipping is worth $111,665,960. The capit al invested in commercial houses is $81,000,000, including dry goods and tobacco-shops; in cotton factories, $105,000,000; in machine-making and other trades incident to factories, $2,000,000; in rail-roads dependent upon factory prosperity, $30,000,000. These items make together $329,665,960 of capital employed at the North, which depends altogether upon slave labor, and which would be annihilated and valueless in the event of emancipation, as was the property of the West Indies. Large as is this northern interest in the United States dependenit upon slave labor, it is far interior to the British interest, also dependent upon slaves. One-half of the whole external trade of Great Britain is dependent upon cotton. Thus, the declared value of cotton goods exported in 1849 was ~26,890,794, say $130,000,000; and the whole export was ~58,848,042, say $290,000,000. The cotton goods manufactured constituting so large a portion of the exports, of course the imports of which, raw cotton, was ~ 12,838,850, or $54,000,000, purchased with those goods, are dependent upon the same basis. The immense shipping interest also derives its support from the same source. The amount of British capital directly invested in cotton is, by the best authorities, given as follows: Capital employed in The purchase of raw material........ ~12,838,850 Wages of operatives.................. 12,000,000 Hand-loom weavers..................... 7,000,000 Mils, looms, &c........................ 35,000,000 Total......................~...?66 838 850 Or in United States money.................$320,826,4'" The largest portion of this home consumption has been exchanged with the North and West; with the latter on equal terms, receiving breadstuffs, provisions, &c., in exchange. With the North there has been received merchandise, enhanced one-thir d in value by the operation of the tariff, or, as Mr. Derby expresses it, that produce has been purchased by the North in exchange for manufactures. The southern produce was given at its cash value ia the markets of the 42 SOUTH —THE FUTURE OF THE. facture for the world in 1827. The Amtnerican market has, however, become glutted by home competition. The following figures give the cotton consumed in the United States at three periods: The number of factory operatives and hand loom weavers and bleachers, 1,300,000, and the number of persons dependent on the manufacture, 2,200,000. If we add to the capital directly invested in cotton the pro perty which depends upon it in a collateral manner, the result is not far from $700,000, 000. and on the continent, $200,000,000, making, probably, $1,230,000,000 of property, with 7,000,000 of people, which depend for their existence upon keeping employed the 3,000,000 negroes in the southern states. When we reflectupon the vastness of this industrial fabric, reared upon the frail foundation of black labor, and find persons rashly meddling with the only incentive to that labor, the most stupendous example of human folly presents itself. The time is, however, rapidly approaching, when the South and West will manufacture the greatest proportion of their own raw products; and that large shipping interest in Europe and the North which depends upon the transport of the raw products, will find itself confined to the carrying of goods; while the markets of the world will come to depend upon the Mississippi valley for wrought fabrics, as they have hitherto done for the raw material. New-Orleans may become the Liverpool of America, communicating by the father of waters with that vast region which is to be the Manchester of the world. The essential difference between the position of the cotton manufactures in the United States and Great Britain may be illustrated by a few figures. The consumption in the United States last year was given at 595,269 bales, say 238,107,600 lbs., which is very nearly the quantity which Great Britain manufactured in 1827, that was 249,804,396 lbs. The difference is in the quantities consumed at home, and this is indicated in the value exported as follows: Such has been the progr ess of cotton manufacture and consumption in this country for twenty years! It has increased from 12 to 32a yards each for a po pulation th at has inc re ased 10,000,000, or nearly doubled. Il a late En glis h return, the we ight of cotton spun i n 1849, in England, is t g i ven at 626, 710,660 lbs.; net weight of yarn, 558,163,700 lbs.; weight of yarn exported in good s and yarn, 4121,742,935 lbs.; weight con,sumed at home, 136,420,765. This, among a populati on of 31,000,000, gives arn average of 41 lbs. each, o r 13- y ards, being over 19 yards per head less than the United States on sumption. These figures show, in a most rema rkable d egree, not only the superio r con dition of the people of the United States but the over - wrought st ate of the cot ton manufacture, wh ich is now in a depressed state. y et an c annot compete with England by exporti ng to neutral markets, be cause the scale of production has be en un der a systemn of protection which forbids sales on a fair fboting with English goods. It is evide nt, from th e prim ary f act tha t a large portion of the industri a l pro sper ity of both Old and New England de pends upon a staple drawn from the southern- states of wamerica, that the seat of manufactures has occupied a wrong localit —that is to say, it has, in relation to facility of production, oF cupied a position disadvantageously situated when purely econ om ical principles are taken into account. For the most ready productions of manufactured goods, it is necessary th at a ll the mate ri als of which the y ar e composed should be found, together with the motive power, in neighborhoods capable of prop ducing the best and cheapest bod for the support of the operatives, -and that all these circumstances should exist, and be easily accessible. It has, however, hitherto never been the case that all these means have been combined in any one locality. England has possessed the most of them, and, in the earlier years of her progress, sufficient to supply her demands. Her geographical position is such, surrounded by the ocean, that no wind can blow from any quarter of the compass without favoring her commerce. From which point soever the breeze proceeds, it is fair for the arrival of some of her ships, and for the departure of others. This facility of communication before the age of CONSUMPTION OF COTTON AND VRALUE OF FABRICS EXPORTED IN UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN. Value of Cotton Goods Cotton, lb. Value exported G. B., 1827... 249,804,396.. $34,972,615.. $84,658,382 U. S., 1850.... 238,107,600.. 26,787,105.. 4,734,424 143 CONSUMPTION OF COTTON PER HEAD IN THE UNITED STATES. Cott.., p.,, h.d, C.tto., lb. P.P.I.tim q..l to y.,,d 1830.. 50,804,800..12,866,020.... 4 lbs.....,..12 1 1840..118,357,200..17,069,453.... 7 "....... 21 1850..238,107,600..22,000,000....10Y, 11....... 32% Thus it appears that the consumption of cotton goods in England was very small, almost the whole of the manufacture was exported. In the United States, last year, an equal quantity was manufactured, and more than the whole of it consumed, because a considerable quantity was imported in additic)n. This is an important difference. The English manufacture had grown up during a ar, and when there were no manufactures in any other nation; she had the supply of the world, but not the means of consuming herself. Since then, manufactures all over the world have sprung up, and the United States have built up and supplied a market at home equal to the whole English manu SOUTH-THE FUTURE OF THE. steam, gave her immense advantages, as it' made her ports the depot for the raw prodiuce of all countries, and the source whence, after being wrought up by English industry, goods were derived by all nations. With such advantages, the business of England could not but increase, until the demands of her operatives for food and raw materials exceeded the capacity of her own soil to supply them. The cost of these things to consumers would then naturally be enhanced by the cost of transportation and duties on the additional quantities imported, and thus an enhanced cost was occasioned at a moment when the competition of foreigners reduced the price of the fabrics. The mere fact of a larger transportation of raw produce was regarded as a good, in a political view, inasmuch as that, by employing more shipping, it fostered that navy on which England depended; but ift' that cost carried prices beyond the point at which foreigners could compete, it defeated its own object. The government, therefore, removed duties on raw produce, onl food, and finally abolished the navigation laws, in order that all those things might be supplied in England at cheaper rates. The virtual effect of these measures was to extend the breadth of English soil, because they placed at the command of her people the products of vast tracts of land in other regions. Gradually, however, the countries which produced t il e most of those raw products, came to work them up into goods, and by this competition QUANTITIES OF FOOD AND RAW MATERIALS IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 1850, 8 ms. to 1836 1847 1848 1849 Sept. 5. Animals...N............ none........ 219,679....... 203,440....... 185,235......... 98,742 Hams........cwt............ none.........17,203......... 7,717......... 12,282.......... 9,346 Bacon........ "..................1,433........ 90,530....... 211,315....... 384,325....... 295,040 Beef............................ 1,222....... 112,683....... 144,857....... 144,638....... 105,918 Butter....... "............... 143,149....... 314,126........294,427....... 282,501....... 211,239 Cheese.......................134,643....... 354,802....... 441,635....... 397,648....... 208,592 Rice.......................98,227...... 1,560,402....... 996,372........ 925,316....... 320,504 Pork...............................29....... 235,798........ 254,070....... 347,352....... 181,170 Sugar...................... 3,856,562......8,209,527......6,869,931...... 6,925,851...... 4,206,784 Molasses..................... 622,479....... 949,823........ 517,534...... 1,062,661....... 590,510 Tallow......"..............1,005,276.......1,099,275......1,498,359...... 1,468,719....... 161,733 Lard............................... 342,040........185,838....... 215,088 Total................... 5,863,020.....18,944,168.....11,547,757...... 1 2,187,136...... 6,506,106 Cocoa........lbs............... 1,084,170...... 5,716,375......6,442,986........7,769,234.......1,963,129 Coffee....... "..............23,275,041..... 37,472,153.....37,153,450......34,431,506..... 20,967,150 Pepper...... "............... 2,359,573...... 2,967,000..... 3,125,545...... 3,296,079...... 1,906,734 Tea................... 36,574,004..... 46,326,582......47,774,755..... 53,460,751..... 34,334,900 Tobacco................... 21,803,775..... 26,545,020.....27,098,314..... 27,488,621..... 18,109,321 Pimento..................... 344,458.......1,366,625.......2,338,200...... 3,881,800........ 21,500 Total.... "...............85,461,026.....120,391,755.....123,933,250.....129,327,991.....177,596,234 Flour and Grain in quarters...... 420,024..... 12,303,751......6,327,244..... 11,882,900...... 6,089,098 Cotton.................... 326,407,692.....486,951,800.....717 443,100.....758,841,600.....485,877,200 Wool........ "...............42,718,514......62,592,598.....69,343,477..... 75,100,883......55,350,864 Silk......... "............... 5,658,211...... 5,603,915...... 9,593,724...... 7,021,761...... 4,981,676 Hemp......................72,352,200..... 91,301,100.....95,177,100.... 119,127,300..... 55,137,040 Flax....... "...............81,916,100.....118,460,012....164,666,100.....203,009,900.....114,102,675 Total...................531,237,896.....764,849,425....1,053,321,701....1,163,092,444... 715,469,451 If we now take the cwts. and lbs. together in lbs. for each year, we have results as follows: 44 to reduce the prices of fabrics; and the English returns show that, while the quantities of food an'd raw material imported were imi-nensely increased, the value of goods made from them was not increased. In the year 1842, the policy of admitting food and raw materials began to be adopted; we have compiled a table of the profress of the country since that year. In this connection it May be well to allude to the financial difflC.Ities of the English government which led to this change. For many years rior to IP,42 the revenue was deficient, an every means btid been adopted to swell the amount,. In 1840, the Chancellor, Mr. Baring, had caused to be imposed an additional duty of five per cent. upon all imports. By his calculation that amount would cover the deficit. The result was the reverse. The customs, after the imposition of the five per cent., did not yield so much as before. The ministry changed, and Sir Robert Peel's principle was adopted. This was by remitting duties to promote a larger consumption of the taxed art-cles, and, by so d' 9, to enable the people to pay. Since that time, duties, amounting to nearly El 1,000, 000, say $50,000,000, have been remitted, and the aggregate customs'revenue has increased $10,000,000. In order toshow the details of which the table is composed, we annex the following, showing the actual quantities of food and lead'pg raw materials imported for consumption in 1836, and for the last three years BOUTH,ERN INDUSTRY. Animals Flour and grain Food, Raw Materials, No. in quarters. lbs. lbs. 1836....... none................ 420,024............... 772,275,871............... 670,868,216 1842..................5,340...............2,572,620............... 778,971,593............... 732,507,490 1843..................2,100...............1,379,290............... 599,362,269............. 884,287,381 1844..................8,008............2780,392............... 843,214,168.............. 922,924,124 1845............... 28,675...............1,308,260............ 948,615,050..............1,038,859,643 1846.............. 122,458...............4,056,414............... 961,234,984............... 741,607,365 1847.............. 219,679..............12,303,751............ 1,576,810,655............... 764,849,425 1848.............. 203,440...............6,327,224..............1,433,305,932............ 1,053,221,501 1849................185,235..............11,882,900............ 1,490,480,220..............1,163,092,444 This increase of food and raw materials now very Iow-a bushel of grain is carried imported for the use of English operatives is from New-York to England for 10 cents, and almost incredible. The dye stuffs, of which 3 lbs. of cotton for one cent. If we take the weight for 1849 was 185,249,650 lbs., are these two figures as the average for all the not concluded. If we estimate the cost of freights, it will be far within the mark; the transportation at the simple freight now cur- cost will then stand as follows: rent, it will give a high figure. Freights are Quarter, Freight, Food and Materials, Freight, Total Grain. Dollars. lbs. Dollars. Freight. 1842.......... 2,582,620........2; 058,096.......... 1,511,479,083........ 5,038,268......... 7,696,359 1844..........2,280,392.......... 2,224,314......... 1,766,138, 292........ 5,887,127..........8,11 0,441 1849.......... 11,882,900..........9,506,320..........2,653,672,672........ 8,345,242......... 17,851,562 the world. exist together, of the best qualities and in limitless abundance; land and its produce, raw materials and motive power, lie in juxtaposition, and goods can there be turned out in such a manner that England's fr eight account alone will be a prodigious profit to the manufacturer. Th e posi tion o f Ne w-En gland is very similar to that of old England.n We fin d coal and ir on going thither from Pennsylvania; sugar, cotton, pork and flour, from New-Orleans; wool and food from Illinois and Wisconsin, to be sent back in the shape of goods. It was the water-power and industry of NewEngland that made the cost of transportation light; but improvements in steam machinery has made power "locomotive," and motive power is now existent in the midst of those materials which nature has with such prodigality bestowed upon the South, and the blacks are equally serviceable in factories as in fields. There are conditions which shadow forth the greatness and power of the South, and as she rises in power and wealth she will elevate the black race with her. She will have, however, to encounter the jealous hatred of rivals whose philanthropy will be developed as her prosperity increases. It is, however, through the long lesson of industry taught by white surveillance, that the great work of regenerating the black race can be accomplished.- T. P. Kettell. If w e n ow compar e t hes e f reights with the declared value of textile fabrics, we have results as follows: 1842 1844 1849 Freights.......... $7,096,369...8,1 1,,M1.. 17,831,562 Value Exports.. $150,765,298.190,925,705.193,991,780 As compared with 1844, the amount of freights has increased $9,700,000, while the value of the goods has risen but $3,000,000. Thus, without taking into account the price ofthe articles, the freight account is 6,700,000 or 3~ per cent. against the English manufacturer; and that difference, as seen in the table, is constantly increasing. The effect of the famine year, 1847, was to enhance the import of food an d dim inis h that of raw ma - terials, since when bot h i tems are more than ever. It is now very apparent, from the general principles evolved in these tables, that England cannot continue to increase her demands for food and materials brought from a distance, and compete with those countries which have all these things within themselves, and with which the freight amount is nothing. What a strange absurdity it Is to see silk going from China and France; cotton from the southern United States; wool from Australia; coflee and sugar from Brazils; wheat from New-York, Michigan, Odessa and Poland; hemp and flax from St. Petersbura; pork and lard from Ohio and Illinois, all concentrating in Lancashire, to be returned in the shape of goods to the localities whence they came! Such a state of things never could have been brought about but for the geographical position of England giving her control of the ocean. The progress of internal improvements making land carriage equally favorable with that by water, has developed regions like the valley of the Mississippi. where all those articles which the marine of England seeks in every section of SOUTHERN INDUSTRY.-It has become very apparent within the last fifteen years, that the leading object of southern industry is far less productive than it was in the infancy of the cotton culture; that is to say, the average prices of cotton have not been maintained, even although the production has not largely increased since 1840. This diminished value of production appears to be progressive, growing out of causes 45 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY. which have developed themselves in the rials of manufacturing industry, the raw thirty-five years of peace which the world at materials have been supplied in greater large has enjoyed since 1815. In all that abundance, causing a continued fall in the time, communication with distant countries values of each. Taking England as the has been multiplied, new sources of supply workshop of the world, we may construct a and demand have been opened, and great table of raw materials imported from time to as has been the improvement in the demand time. for those articles which constitute the mate-, IMPORTS RAw MATERIALS INTO ENGLAND. Hemp Flax Silk Wool Total lbs. Cotton 1835...............72,352,200.... 81,916,100...4,027,649...41,718,514....196,013,963... 326,407,692 1840................... 82,971,700....139,301,600.... 3,860,980....50,002,976....276,137,356....531,197,817 1845...................103,416,400....159,562,300... 4,058,737....59,813,855.... 325,851,292....682,107,700 1850............... 117,971,100....204,928,7,00....4,942,417....72,674,483....400,516,700....714,502,600 1851, 10 mos........ 117,504,000.... 98,645.300....3,863,651....69,924,106....290,637,556....666,223.760 Thus each of the five great materials of observed, that this is only the increased retextile fabrics was greatly increased in sup- ceipt of raw materials into the workshops of ply, and some of them in a greater proportion England. Those of the continent have reeven than cotton. From 1835 to 1850 the ceived similarly increased quantities. Now, last rather more than doubled in quantity, if we compare the quantities of those articles that is to say, in the last year the import which England has derived from the United was 388 millions pounds greater than in States in each year, we have results as 1835. So, also, of the four articles, the import follows: was 204 millions pounds greater. It will be Coto eor G.B1. ip.,t cott., F.onh,, Cotton export a. a. smport cotton, Four other articles, Total import, U. S, to G. lB. lbs. raw material, lbs. 1835............................. 270,084,400........326,407,692........196,013,963........ 522,421,655 1840.............................. 494,915,090...... 531,197,81 7.........276,137,856....... 807,335,073 1845........................605,144,686........68 2,107,200........325,851,292........1,007,958,992 1850...............................431,531,091...... 714,502,600........400,516,700....... 1,115,009,300 1851............................... 666,223,760.......290,537,056........ 956,760,816 tinually made more effective by the ingenious combinations of the che a pest among them into the new fabrics. Thus, fa brics of silk and wool, wool wo and cotton, silk and cotton, silk, cotton and wool, have all assumed different textures and different proportions of each material, according to the relative cheapness of each; consequently, the price of any one has always been checked. by that of the others, and the value of all has been influenced by collateral circumstances. Thus, the strange operations of the so-called republican government of France, in 1848, injured the trade of the world. The genius of republicanism is individual, state and national independence; the intelligent and self-dependent exercise of the individual faculties make up the sum of a nation's prosperity. The great evils which overtake France and the other countries in Europe flow from centralization. The government, bv means of taxes, absorbs the sum. of the nation's earnings into the national treasury, and disburses it thence in the support of officers, cliques, and interests. It was supposed that when the revolution took place, that this state of things would be done away with; that the onerous taxes under which the people groaned would be remitted, and that a cheap government would permit the individual energies of the people to develop themselves. Instead of this, a most iniquitous and ignorant clique of demagogues In 1835 the United States furnished onehalf of the raw material of English manufacture; in 1850, about one-third only. Notwithstanding the continued fall in prices, other raw materials work more and more into fabrics which but a short time since were exclusively cotton, and the same operation apparent in this table of English consumption manifests itself also in all the markets of the continent, as well as in the United States. Through its means, the profits of the cotton culture are materially reduced, as also are the profits of English manufactures under general competition. It will be observed of three principal materials, silk, cotton, and wool, that the events of the last quarter of a century have tended to promote'supply more particularly in the last ten years, in which time the Chinese trade has been brought into greater regularity in supplying silk, and Australia has become the great wool country, while the United States cotton power has been emninently developed. In the same period, also, the industry of Russia has received a more intelligent development, supplying greater quantities of hemp and flax at cheaper rates. All these sources have enhanced the supply of raw material for textile fabrics fifty per cent in ten years, and, perhaps, somewhat faster than the demand for the goods produced would take them up. The influence of one material upon the other has been con i i 46 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY. gained power, increased the taxes, and gave a new impulse to the pernicious centraliza tion. Thus, under the absurd pretence of employing people, the government ordered 10,000,000 fr. worth of silk, in one order, at Lyons.' They paid for it 61 per yard out of the public treasury, and sold it at auction at 25 cents per yard. That silk was bought mostly by New-York houses, and may now be seen and recognized by its rich tri-color, supplanting cotton material in linings for garments. This is one item only out of a vast number of fallacies committed by the most disgusting demagogues that ever bur lesqued government. Such operations des troy the profits of regular industry, by inter fering with those immutable laws which cannot be disturbed without inflicting injury upon regular business, and that injury has been more or less apparent in thje present year. A singular combination of circumstances seems now likely for a time to reverse that course of events which, for so long.a time, has multiplied the raw materials. Among the most prominent of these are the gold discoveries of California, Sandwich Islands and Australia. The tendency of this, particularly in the latter country, is to check if not destroy the wool crops in those regionsthe shepherds having very generally deserted their flocks for the gold regions. The case of the Australian colonies, (for this purpose they may all be considered as one,) are as different as can possibly be imagined; besides the usual occupations of agriculture, they have, as everybody knows, become a field for pastoral enterprise on a scale of unequaled magnitude. The sheep, which constitute their principal wealth, are divided into flocks counting from four hundred to a thousand in number, each of which is intrusted to the care of a single shepherd. Two of these flocks are generally driven together to the same station, where a third person resides, whose duty it is to change the hurdles and watch the sheep by night. The country being infested by wild dogs, it is absolutely necessary that some one should always be present with the sheep, in order to protect them from this cause of destruction, and the force required for this purpose is about three men to every twelve hundred sheep. Now, in the year 1848, the number of sheep in New South Wales and Port Philip exceeded eleven millions six hundred thousand, not to speak of the flocks of South Australia or Van Diemen's Land. It is not, probably, unreasonable to calculate, that in the three years which have elapsed since this return was made, the number of sheep has increased to at least fourteen millions. This enormous amount of property exists from day to day by virtue of the unceasing care and attention bestowed upon it by the shepherds, under a rigid sys tem of central superintendence; without that care, it could not exist for a single week. Now, let our readers imagine the effect which must be produced on the mind of the proprietors of these fourteen millions of sheep by the in formation that a gold field has been discovered, which is certain to attract away from their existing engagements every shepherd and hut-keeper in their em ployment. It will be vain to attempt to re tain them by offers of increased wages. One employer of labor may compete with another, but who can bid against the imaginary riches of an El Dorado, in-which every ad venturer expects to find a splendid fortune impatiently awaiting his acceptance. Nor is this all. The shearing of the sheep, which takes place about the month of Octo ber, is an operation not generally intrusted to the shepherds, but to persons who travel round the country for the purpose. Shear ing cannot be long deferred in Australia without ruin to the fleece, from the presence of a seed of a particular grass, well known to the purchasers at our wool sales. If the fleece is not shorn before November, it is very greatly deteriorated in value. Now, those professional sheep-shearers are exactly the persons who, from their itinerant way of life and reckless habits, will be the first to swell the ranks of the gold-finders. Add to this, that the reckless and desperate characters who, having served their sentence of transportation, now swarm in all the Australian colonies, will flock to the gold-field as a common centre, not so much with a view to labor as to profit by those opportunities of plunder which such a scene of confusion and excitement must necessarily afford, and we have enumerated causes quite sufficient to overthrow a social and economical system far more firmly established than that of New South Wales. In China, the production of silk threatens to undergo change in the next year, in consequence of the apprehended convulsions in British India. That infamous government is, it is well known, supported almost entirely by the fiendish opium trade; and even the mercenary philanthropy of the English is so shocked by it, that there is very little doubt but that the charter of the East India Company, which expires in May, 1853, will fail to be renewed. A company so powerful, having at its control 350,000 troops, will not, however, relinquish its power. It can conquer China, and throw open the opium trade, by which its consumers may from 5,000,000 be increased to 50,000,000, and the speedy depopulation of even that country, which counts its inhabitants by hundreds of millions, may be effiected. The appalling crime of poisoning a whole nation to become possessed of its country, is actu 47 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY. alluded, the southern United States have felt the increasing necessity of varying the pronluctions, by producing more food to supply the plantations with necessaries, in order to obviate the purchase of them, and,(omething like a retrograde movement has manifested itself in respect of cotton. In the early his. tory of the cotton trade, indigo and many other productions entered into the iindustry of the planters; but these were speedily all absorbed in the superior profits of cotton, which has, as we have seen, gradually diminished in profit before the increasing competition of other raw materials, anid the increasing skilfulness of their application. There has, therefore, manifested itself' a desire to raise other articles, in order to divide the labor and expenses of the plantation. Possibly to this fact, added to the deterioration of many cotton lands, may be ascribed ,he statitfary character of the production since 1840. In the last five years the number of' bales produced has been 11,306,844, an increase of ten per cent., only, over the previous five years. It is to be considered in this connection that the products of the slave states have not increased nmaterially per hand in the present r century, exclusive of the cotton crop. If we take a table of the export values of the lead. ing southern staples with the total number of slaves, the total production will appear to be nearly as follows: ally in contemplation b y the E nglish philanm thropists. In Russia, the thr eat en ing aspect of European politics is such as to threaten a disturbanc e of that inland peace which has so fostered and de veloped the flax culture. These events, which may diminish the supply of th re e great staples, are, however, l ikely to pr omote a greater supply of cotton. T he em ancipat ion of India, and the application of English capital to coton production and transportation, w e ar e assu red by Mr. Bonynge, in the work before us, would produce a supply equal to that of the United States in quantity and quality; and the diminution of the quantities already sent to China would throw back upon the European merchants an increased supply to encounter the enhanced production of Egypt and Turkey, where the sultan has, by the distribution of seed and other modes of encouragement, sought to engage his subjects in the culture, and with more or less success. The French in Algiers are also not without a certain degree of success in that culture, while the high prices of the past year have drawn such quantities from the British and the West Indies, as to afford striking evidence of the ability of those regions to supply under continued high prices. Duting the course of the competition from the other raw materials to which we have Produs Narevsl Rice Tobacco Sugar Cotton Total t PrSue 1800................ 460,000. 2,455,000.. 6,220,000.. -.. 5,250,000.. 14,385,000.. 893,041..16 10 1810................ 473,000.. 2,626,000.. 5,048,000..... 15,108,000.. 23,255,000.. 1,191,364.. 19 50 1820................ 292,000.. 1,714,923..8,118,188.. 1,500,000.. 26,309,000.. 37,934,111..1,543,688..24 63 1830................ 321,019.. 1,986,824.. 8,833,112.. 3,000,000.. 34,084,883.. 45,225,838..2,0C9,053..22 66 1840................ 602,520.. 1,942,076.. 9,883,957.. 5,200,000.. 74,640,307.. 92,292,260..2,487,355.. 37 11 1850.............. 1,142,713..2,631,557..9.951,023.. 14,796,150.. 101,.834,616..130,556,050..3,179,509..43 51 1851.............. 1,063,842.. 2,170,927.. 9,219,351..15,385,185..137,315,317.. 165,034,517..3,200,000..51 90 forts of the workers have increased in a similar ratio. If, now, we deduct cotton from the aggregates, it appears that the production per haltd ill 1800 was $11, and ill 1850, $8, a decline of $3 per hand. Probably one reason of the decline is the less rigorous treatment of' the blacks. Their natural idleness of temnper has been more indulged., and they have been more liberally siipi)(,rted; consequently there has been an absence of those devastating insurrections whic(h were so fi'eqiietit ill the West Indies, and which led to abolition. The average production of the cotton states per hand an,d Her head of the whole population was as tbllows: These figures for naval stores, tobacco and rice, are the export values, and not ihe whole productions of which there is no accurate record. The figures for cotton are the cri,p valued at the export rate in official returns. Those for sugar and molasses are those of the New-Orleans prices current. As all these products are the results of slave labor, in addition to what supplies food for consumption, they are very nearly the exchangeable values produced per hand, and the increase has been pretty regular, with the exception of the decade 1820-30, during which the oppressive tariffs of 1816-24-28 were in operation. The increase by this scale has been in fifty years $27 41 each hand, and the comrn-. Total Populatioa Product including Product Slaves per hand White free blacks per head 1800.............. 893,041........ $16 10..........1,702,980.........2,621,361..........$6 1810.............1,191,364.........1950.........2,208,785........3,480,904.......... 7 1820.............. 1,543,688.........2463.........2,842,340.........4502 224......... 8 1830.............2,009,053.........22 66......... 3,660,558.........5848,303.......... 8 1840..............2,487,355.........3711.........4 632,640.........7,384,434.......... 11 1850.............3,179,589...43 15......... 6,432,669..........9,830,889.......... 133 48 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY. among those who produced the raw material and the producers of the raw material paid for th e wr ough t g o ods prices enhanced by the t ariff 30 per cent. abov e what the same goods could have b een purchased for elseo where- that is to s ay, on $105s328,000 worth of goods, $40,000,0,0: t ribute wa s pai d t o the manufacturers by t he c onsumers of goods. By these means it is that the aggregate production of the southern states average s o n data furnished by the census of 1840, $58 per head of all the populatio n, whi le t hos e of the New-England states average $84 per head. Th e manufacturers, almost with one accord, assert that they cannot continue operations without a tariff which shall enable them to obtain such prices fro m the co nsumers of goods as will enable them to pay high wages t o op eratives-that is to say,slave labor must pay the high wages of white t abor a t th e North. Suppose now, that slave labor did not exist, that neither raw material was furnished to manufacturers from the South, nor a market afforded to them for their wrought fabrics, would the wages of the North average as high as they have hitherto done? If the process was reversed, and the North had to pay the S'uth 30 per cent. advance on the ir product s, the average of th e southern products would by so much be enhanced, and that of the North be diminished in the same ratio-that is to say, from an average of $34 per head at the North, production would sink to an average of $60, and the average southern production from $58 would rise to 71 per head; instead of being $24 less, it would be $11 per head more than the ave. rage of northern productions. The object of the work of Mr. Bonynge, which we have now under notice, is to bring about some such result as this, viz., by diversifying the industry of the South with a greater variety of products, at least as profitable in their culture as cotton, to equalize the profits of the two regions, and cause the industry of the South to enrich that region as well as the North. The objects. of cultivation which he proposes to introduce are tea, coffee, indigo, mango, bamboo, india rubber, cane, lime, nutmeg, citron, &c. The leading articles are the three first. The quantities of these articles consumed in the United States, England and France, are Thus cotton has been the main article for employing the blacks, as it has alao been of northern industry. The manufacture of cotton at the North has now reached the same extent as had that of England in 1830. Thus the quantity consumed in the United States in 1850 was 609,237 bales per census, which, at 400 pounds per bale, gives 243,694,800 pounds. M'Culloch gives the extent of the English coton trade in 1880; and if we assume his figures as the rate for the manufacture of the same quantity in the United States, the result is as follows: 1830. 240,000,000 lbs. cotton, 7d................ ~7,000,000 Wages, 800 weavers, spinners, bleachers, ~22 10s. per year...................... 18,000,000 100,000 engines, machinists, smiths, &c., at ~30 each............................ 3,000,000 Wages, superintendence, machine mate rials, coals, &c., and profits, &c........ 6,000,000 Total..................................~34,000,00 Value goods exported.................. 19,428,664 Value consumed at home............... ~14,571,336 1850. 243,694,800 lbs., 11I c................. $26,775,000 Wages per Census. 33,151 males.................$7,846,536 59,136 females..............8,440,968 - 16,287,504 80,000 engineers, &c., at $400............ 32,000,000 Wages, metals, profits, &c................ 35,000,000 110,062,504 4,734,424 $105,328,080 By this calculation, the value of cotton goods made in the United States is $110,062,504, from the same quantity of cotton which yielded a value of $173,000,000 in England in 1830. This calculation gives the raw cotton at the actual export average of the year, which was not quite so high as the price in England in 1831, but does not embrace the cost of transportation to the factories. McCulloch gives the average wages of spinners, weavers and bleachers, at about $2 00 each per week. The American wages are $3 00 for girls, including board, and $4 00 male and female. The average wages of other parties employed are higher in the United States than in England. The census value of the cotton goods made in the Union is $61,869,184, or forty-four millions less than that arrived at as above. The census can, however, in no degree, be depended upon, at least as far as the tables which have yet appeared afford evidence by analysis. This result follows, however, that England sold more than half her whole manufacture, while the United States consumed the whole of the same quantity made, and they found a market VOL. HII. Mr. Bonynge has been a success ful indigo planter, and a successful tea planter, in the East; and he affirms and shows that these vast crops can be produced in the United States as profitably as any other product, and in as great quantities. Indigo, it is known, was one of the first staple exports of the. 4 49 M'CULLOCH'S COTTON TRADE. I UNITED STATES COTTON TRADE. V.I.. Cofee............. 232,000,000 lbs....... $58,ooo,ooo Tea............... 70,000,000 11...... 20,000,000 Indigo............ 20,000,000 11...... 20,000,000 Total......... 322,000,000 11...... $98,000,000 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY. lower vat; the upper vent is for drawing off the water, the lower one for drawing off the indigo, and a quantity of the water which could not be well drained off, without disturbing the fecula. The fecula is then put into a small vat, either of wood or masonry, and allowed to rest some time, and then more of the water is drained off. It is then taken to be boiled in a boiler generally from six to ten feet square, and fo uor or five de ep, and all froth car efully skimmed off. It takes five or six hours to boil it. Th e boiler is made of copper or iron, as the par ty may fancy. " When boiled, it is let out from a vent in the bottom of the boiler into a vat, where the fecula soon subsides, and more of the water is then drawn off. It is then filled into square cases, pierced with small gimlet holes at about two inches apart; in the wooden square is placed a cloth fitting to the square; and then the boiled indigo, still retaining a good deal of water, and consequently of a thin consistency, is filled into the square; a lid is then placed on the top of the square, which fits into it, and all is placed under the press; and as the lid is pressed down into the square, it forces the water through the cloth, and through the holes in the side of the frame; then when all the moisture that can be pressed out is done so, the sides of the square or box are taken off, and the indigo left on what had been the bottom. The whole is then divided by a board, or measure, into eight parts, and cut through by a piece of wire, giving sixty-four squares; then each square or cake is placed on a hurdle in the shade to dry. The doors of the drying house are locked up, and the indigo in that state takes a month to dry; when it is packed in a strong, coarse case, and sent to market. "In precipitating the indigo, it is not good to use anything. Lime is destructive, and gum makes it hard, and liable to crack, which is not liked." southern colonies, and still grows wild, waiting to receive a little of that improved and scientific attention which has been withheld from it during seventy years. In some localities of the South it still continues to be raised, and the export returns of the present year show an export value of $3,000 domestic indigo. At the commencement of the present century, before cotton had absorbed all the energies of the South, there was exported 134,000 pounds of indigo, at 62 cents per pound. Since that time th e dem and f or ndig o has increased in the propor t ion of the suppl y of raw m aterial s req uiri n g to be colored; and t he Eas t Indies now export 13,000,000 pound s of indigo, which sells on the spot in Calcutta fbr $1 to $2 per pound, and the finest descriptions at $2 45. Thus, the relative value of cotton and indigo has changed places: the former, in half a century, has fallen from $1 to 8 cents per pound, and the latter has risen from 62 cents to $2. The culture of indigo has been abandoned to India, where, in spite of the high prices, the infamy of the government, the robberies by the officers, the inroads of the Tartars, the idleness of the people, the uncertainty of the seasons, conspire to destroy profits. All these circumstances reduce the chances to one good year out of three. Mr. Bonyaige shows pretty conclusively, that the plant may be raised advantageously in the southern states, without any of these drawbacks upon 8uccess. He describes the process of culture and manufacture thus: "I will give the above items in tabular order, with an estimate of the probable expenses in America: Cost of 200 to 250 monds, or 16,000 to 20,000 lbs. plant, say........................ $36 00 to 40 00 Three men to fill and empty 3 vats.......... 15 cents. Raising water for 3 vats. 25 " Half of one man's salary to boil................. 6 " Nine men to beat 3vats.. 45 " Two men to press the in digo................... 10 " Expenses of conveying 200 monds, say........ $2 00 " Fireman................ " Wood................... 30 " Packing and chest, sixty cent. 3% monds....... 20 " $3 56...... $3 56 to 3 56 Total expenses per 75 lbs........... $39 56 to 43 56 To which are to be added expenses of law-suits, loss of advances-making it at the very lowest, 53 dollars. "The land is plowed or hoed, say some nine inches deep, and the soil is pulverized, i.e., clods well broken, roots of grass and weeds carefully taken away; then the seed, mixed like flax-seed with clay, is cast in the ground, and a very light harrow; a bush with moderate weight on it is used often in India. If weeds spring up with the plant, it would be necessary to take them out; the plant, after a few showers, covers over the land, and keeps down all weeds. It grows even to some six feet high, varying from four feet to five feet. When it gets, or before it gets, to its full height, and before the leaves get yellow in the least, the plant should be cut, and carried to the factory the same day. All plants should be cut very early in the morning, and then placed in the vats, or otherwise notto be heaped up to get heated. Each vat may be made to hold from 5,600 to 8,000 lbs. of plants. The plant is all placed horizontally in the vat, and when filled up, hurdles are laid up on the top of the plant, and beams are laid across the hurdles; the ends of the beams being secured at the side walls of the vat. The water is then poured in, and the plant is steeped for ten hours or upwards, depending on the heat very much. The water is then drawn off from a vent, at the bottom of the vat, into another vat built at the base of the one in which the plant had been steeped. The beams are then raised off the hurdles, and the hurdles taken away; and the steeped plant is taken out of the vat, and made use of for firewood. A large quantity of potash might be obtained from it. " The water being drawn off from the upper vat, the steeped plant is then beaten up by six men entering into it, and beating with their hands until the coloring matter which is contained in it begins to show itself in small atoms. The men then got out, and the indigo or fecula subsides, and soon after the water is drawn off. There are two vents in the PROBABLE EXPENSE IN AMERICA. "It is necessary to ascertain in some way the produce per acre. Thirty monds would be a good produce per biggah; the biggah measures 20 khudams (steps) of five feet each; the step in India, or khudam, is the space between where the right foot is raised from the ground, to where it rests on the ground again-twenty khudams, equal, therefore, 100 feet; that squared is 10,000 feet-43,560 square feet in an acre-therefore 4Y. or more biggabs in an acre, and consequently there would be 130 monds, 50 He, then, following his own experience, gives the cost of culture and manufacture in India, with the probable expense in America: SOUThtERN INDUSTRY. or 10,400 lbs. of green plant on an acre. The biggah was generally calculated five to an acre. " But as the above is my own experience in measuring and weighing, I will here follow it. Now the ground where I had been cultivating that indigo was excessively sandy-so that at the lowest calculation 130 moonds, or 10,400 lbs. of plant, may be put down for an acre in America. " For indigo I would give five men to prepare an acre and sow it, not that the labor is greater than in cotton; weeding, one man; cutting the plant, six men per acre; the conveying it to the factory would cost little, as the factory could have the lands around it under indigo, which could not be the case in East India. Therefore, years. The value of this article to commerce is very considerable in the United States. It pays a duty of 20 per cent., a nd the value imported is about $1,000,000 for 1,500,000, or about 70 cents per lb. avera ge. Into England, the import av erages 9,318,300 pounds, worth $6,000,000, and into France about as mucT more. If in the United States suc h re - sults as those which the e xperience of Mr. Bonynge points out, can be realized, the consumption could be imm ense ly promo ted, and the c rops of t he South become secon d in i mportance. But, perhaps, to eerthe Am erican, the most interesting chapters of Mr. Bonynge's book are those which treat of the te a t rade. The world has been so accustomed to regard China as the sole source of supply for t ha t p ure, most healthy, and delicious beverage, that it is not without some degree of incredulity tha t the subject of transferring its culture to our shores is apparent. Nevertheless, Mr. Bonynge's experience in the culture, general intelligence and knowledge of our southern country, eminently entitles his exposition to the most profound attention. That gentleman had four tea plantations in the Assam country, and was quite successful as far as making choice tea went. The cause of his retiring is thus briefly given by himself: For preparing and sowing land, 6 men per acre, at 20 cents................................ $1 20 For weeding, 2 men per acre, at 20 cents...... 40 Cutting plant, 6 men per acre, at 20 cents..... 1 20 Conveying to factory, a man and horse, say.. 60 Two men to fill and empty one vat............ 40 Two men to beat two vats................... 40 One man to boil six vats, 3 part of his wages for two vats............................... 8 Firewo o d, and man, two vats................ 28 P acking and chest, 3 r r monds, say 60 cents- hm 20 Raising water, two men for six vats-for one vat........................................ 7 $4 83 As 220 monds of plant make 75 lbs.,of indigo, therefore as 130: $4 83:: 220: or $8 17 per mond. " This is not much more than one-sixth the price it would cos t i n India. In America, all t he beat ing of v at s and raising of water could be done by mach in ery. The s owing of indigo would be from 1st of Ap ril, and the manufacturing w ould end the middle of September. The indigo plant requires to be only weeded once, and there can be no hoeing after the seed be sown. If it is shown that the manufacturing with labor at twenty cents in America, is cheaper than in India, where labor is put down at five cents, it arises from the purchase of the plant. The indigo fails so often in India from causes s hown, that if the ryot did not get a fair profit when successful in saving his crop, to pay for former losses, he could not go on. "Paying for labor 50 cents per day, the expense of 75 lbs. would be, " The Hon. East India Government induced me by letter. promising me a grant of Koojoo, Buramanjan and Gin-lang, and protection for myself and people, to enter the Tartar country-of a part of which they had taken possession. On the strength of these promises, I proceeded to the country, with the view of civilizing the people, and also to better myself. I worked hard in that out-of-the-way country (which, although larger than some of the United States, has not yet found a place on the maps of the world) for five years. During that time, the Tartars took up arms to drive the British from the country, but proved unsuccessful. However, government, for cause or causes not assigned,land without any notice to me, withdrew the guard from Koojoo, and also the surrounding guards, and so resigned the country, to all appearance; and the Tartars, who viewed me as the then sole representative of the Company, holding their land on the Company's authority, assembled at night and destroyed my property, and killed several of my servants." Preparing and sowing land, 6 men per acre... $3 00 " weeding 2 "... I 00 Cutting plant............... 6................. 3 00 Conveying to factory.......................... I 00 Vats, filling andemptying, 2................ 1 00 Beating vats............... 2................ I 00 Boiling....................................... 10 Firewood, &c........................... 25 Packing and chest, 33 monds, 75 cents, 1-5.. 15 Raising water............................... 20 $10 70 Then follow long extracts from Indian publications, giving a full account of the events which ruined his hopes there, and determined him to try his fortune in our own country, not only more peaceful, but possessing greater advantages than even China for that culture. We have not space to copy his very interesting chapters upon this head, but commend to our readers the work itself, which contains also some valuable hints upon other objects of culture. We will append, however, the estimated cost of a tea-farm in the four years, according to the experience of Mr. Bonynge, in Assam. " Say 220 monds at 75 lbs. of indigo. Therefore as 130: $10 70:: 220: $18 10 for 75 lbs. " The lowest description of indigo sells in Calcutta for not less than 30 dollars for the 75 lbs. The average price for good, for the last years, would be about 65 dollars for 75 lbs.; but the best Bengal indigo is rarely under 80 dollars, and from that up to 100 dollars. Some time ago it had been up as high as 340 Rs. or 170 dollars; that is, the sale price obtained by the planter at Calcutta, for 75 lbs."X The causes of loss and failure which belong to India, and which do not pertain to America, taken into consideration, the raising and manufacture of indigo would appear to be far more profitable than cotton or even sugar, which has made such progress in the last ten "In the t e n the fourth year, on th e 100 acres, I have ~ shown that 30,000 lbs. of tea cost to manufacture, I 51 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY, &c., $1,082 50, being but 33 cents per lb., and that, by use ofmachinery, the quantity might be mauufactured for 2% cents per lb., calculating the expense of slave labor at 20 cents per diem. " But calculating it at 50 cents per day, for free labor, it would be as follows: Hoeing 100 acres, 2 men per acre........... $100 00 Sieves (additional) 50 at 50 cents each........25 00 Plucking leaves, say 1,200 lbs. per acre, of green leaf, one man 60 lbs. at 50 cents, or 120,000 lbs.............................. 1,000 00 Manufacturing, one man to 60 lbs. green leaf, or 120,000 lbs....................... 1,000 00 Charcoal and firewood, 10 cents per 100 lbs. dried leaf, or 30,000 lbs.................. 30 00 Packages for 80 lbs. 50 cents or on 30,000 lbs...................................... 187 50 Total expense......... $2,342 05 30,000 lbs. for $2,343, or 7 4-5 cents per lb. " This would be a means of not only enriching the cultivator, but of keeping up the price of labor to some $180 a year, and would leave the cotton trade and rice trade to fewer hands. It would give employment to the many, encourage immigration, and give to all a greater degree of prosperity. "The trade of a tea-maker might be made an item the first season, but after the first crop every man in the business would be au fait. T herefore I d o not put down any item for a tea-maker. The rolling of t he l eaves might be don e by machinery, and would at h i rs e mte n fo the first estimate, in which I allow the expens e of a slav e a t 20 cents a day, be a saving of 1 6 cents. per lb.; or, i n the second estimate, wherein I allow the hir e of labor to be 50 cents per day, a saving of 3m ce nts p er lb. Leaving the cost of l abor 50 cents, still, with m ac h inery, simple in its structure, and therefore of very trifling cost, tea w ould cos t th e pl anter only 4 7-15 cents per lb." The g eneral view of the trade between the countr ies of Eu rope and America wit h China and the East Indies, is one of great interest. The oppressive Indian government is supported almost altogethe r by the s a le of its op ium to China and England, and the United States chiefly supply China with the means of buying that opium, by purchasing its silks and t eas. N ow, the certain mode of destroying Engli sh rule in India, and consequently of upsetting thei r schgmes for suppl anting United States cotton, is to support China in the production oftea. The national disadvantages which China labors under from the absence of roads, the topography of the country, the destitution of wood for tea chests, and the want of means of transportation, more than counterbalance the cheapness of labor, while the land of the South will produce better and larger crops of tea with less liability of injury from drought. The tea plant is more hardy than cotton, inasmuch as hard freezing will not aftect it. The time will undoubtedly come when the culture and manufacture will occupy the fields of Virginia and other southern states, to the great profit of the owners. The annual contribution of the United States to the support of the British East India Company is about $5,000,000 per annum, being the value of the tea purchased in China. This will appear more directly from the fol lowing balance-sheet of a year's trade with China, drawn from the treasury reports. IMPORT AND EXPORT FROM AND TO CHIIA, 1850. EXPORT. Domestic Produce. Ginseng, lbs.......... 367,448.......... $122,916 Beef, lbs................ 1,226.............12,872 Butter and cheese, lbs....40,531.............. 8,178 Pork, &c........ -...... 17,578 Flour, bbls.......... 3,156............. 19,280 Corn, bushels............4,172........... 2,511 Spirits gallons.......... 9,951..............4,429 Soap, lbs.................77,032..............4,430 Bread, lbs................ 54,700.............. 2,250 Cotton goods.............. 3..........- 1,203,997 All others............... -.............87,020 Total domestic....................... 1,485,961 Foreign Goods. Silver..................... $25,000 Lead, lbs.............. 1,294,240............. 53,617 All others................ -............. 40,639 Total foreign goods....................... 119,256 Total exports......................... $1,565,217 IMPORT. Tea, lbs............... 28,743,376........ $4,585,720 Sugar, lbs................944,060............ 27,023 Cotton goods........ -............3,299 Silk goods........................ 1,443,448 Matting............................... 81,423 Tin....................................1 05,843 Indigo, lbs................43,465.............14,461 Hemp, cwt..................435 5..............5,951 Manilla, cwt...............6,290.............34,587 All other imports......... —.............291,717 Total imports................$6,593,462 Balance of imports paid by bills on $5,028,245 London..........................I Thus, five millions dollars per annum is paid by bills on London, drawn against United States cotton, mostly sold in that market, and diminishes by that extent the amount of specie drawn from London, or during the past year has increased the amount sent there. The London bills given by the United States dealer for tea, are by the China merchants paid over to the East India Company for opium and by them rentted to London where they are paid by cotton or gold sent from the United States. The tea so imported is in amount at an average of 16 cents per lb., and costs 20 cents, freight, &c., included; while Mr. Bonynge shows that it can be raised on our soil for four cents. The cotton in the Atlantic states costs six cents, and laid down in Liverpool seven cents, and sold at that to reimbu rse tea bills coming from India at twenty cents per lb. Then, three lbs. of cotton, which cost eighteen cents on plantation, are given for one lb. of tea, which could have been raised for four cents. Now, if that tea were raised at home, so as to supply the 30,000,000 lbst per annum, which the United States requires, there would not only be a direct saving of $3,600,000 upon this article, but the diversion of employment would add as much to the value of cotton. Not only so, but the 80,000,000 lbs. of tea which England now requires, would be drawn from the United States; and she 52 SOUTHERN DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. would be forced, instead of being independent in respect of cotton, to be still more dependent for another tropical product. The necessity on the part of the South for introducing some new staples, is involved in the course of the progress of the great West. The valley of the Mississippi will become, eventually, the great seat of manufacture for the world; and the states west of the Alleghanies must produce articles so similar to those of the Atlantic states, that the actual interchange of commodities must yearly become less. The tea, coffee, and sugar, which are now imported in northern vessels, and which find their way west in exchange for farm produce and raw materials, may all be raised at the South as successfully as the last-named, sugar; and while the course of western industry will gradually separate the East and West, both will be found in stronger ties and more absolute dependence to the South. If' to the cotton, rice, and tobacco, which England and Western Europe now draw from the South, the great items of tea and indigo are added-and there seems to be no serious obstacle in the way, while profit lures to the enterprise-then, indeed, will the era of southern prosperity have dawned, and oscillations upon any branch of culture may always be made to relieve any over-production of the others. The cultivation of sugar is a remarkable evidence of what may be done. Pennsylvania boasts that in twenty-five years her coal production from nothing rose to $15,000,000 per annum; but the sugar production of Louisiana has exceeded it in less time. WVhile commending the work of Mr. Bonynge to our readers, we would remark, that that gentleman has undertaken to supply the genuine tea plants and the other plants which he seeks to introduce, to order; and quite a number of South Carolina gentlemen have entered into it with spirit.-Kettell. communication, and of the first article in the Medical Journal, I herewith send you, is respectfully to call your attention to the result of some scientific investigations that I faintly hope may be converted into an instrument of good to assist in saving the Union, if brought upon the political arena at this important crisis. Some time ago I was appointed by the Medical Association of Louisiana to make a report on the diseases and peculiarities of the negro race. In performing that duty, the third of a century's experience in treating diseases in a section of country where the white and black population are nearly equal, lent me its aid. A vast number of facts, standing thickly and closely along the o bscure by-paths, tha t n one but southern physicians travel, have been interrogated, and the imp ort ant tru th d emon strated,' that the same medical tre atmen t, under the same external circumst ances, which benefits or cures a white man, often in jure s or kil ls a negro, and vice versa." It may not b e unworthy a great statesman to inquire, if what is true in medicine may not be true in g over nment, and to investigate the question, whether the laws and free instit uti ons, so beneficial to the whit e man, may no t be de trimental and deteriorating to the negro. That a great difference exist s be tween the organ ization of the white and black man, has lo ng ago been proved by anatomists. Scemmerring, for instance, a learned author of the last ce ntu ry.-Difference in physiology also implies difference in structure. The practice of the negroes i n e xpos ing their bare heads and backs, through choice, to the rays of a sun hot enough to blister th e s kin of a white man, proves that they are under different physiological laws from him-not from habit-(as such habits cannot be acguired,)-but from difference in structure. Comparative anatomy, physiology, and the phenomena drawn from daily observation, prove the fallacy of an hypothesis, that foreign writers, chiefly English, have been very industrious in propagating in this country, for the last twenty years, "That there are no internal or physical differences in mankind, whether white or black." The reception of this hypothesis, as if it were an established truth, by a considerable number of our people, lies at the bottom of all those political troubles that endanger the Union; as it takes for granted that the personal freedom, so ennobling and beneficial to the white man, would be equally so for the negro. When this hypothesis was first announced by Gregoire, in the national asserntn:, France, Ro espierre, to stifle all objections, cried out, "Perish the colonies, but save the principle." The prosperous colony of Haiti, with a population equaling a third of then United States of that day, was toral fom 53 SOUTH'S POSITION IN THE UNION. - EMANCIPATION - Ai3OLITION - NATURAL LAW OF SLAVERY-PHYSICAL CIIAR.&CTERISTICS OF THE NEGRO-FATAL RESULTS OF SUBSTITUTING WliIT& LABOR FOR BLACK 4T THE SOUTH, ETC. NF,W-ORLEANS, July, 1851. DP,Alt SIR-There is shut up in the archives of the science of medicine enough of hidden knowledge to save the Union now and forever, if it were brought to light. Knowled,,e is not -power, unless it is made active by being set free. Imprisoned in the dissecting-room, or in the student's closet, it is like light under a bushel. To be made an element of political power, the aid of the politician, the greater the better, is needed to give it an impulse that will send it to the -cottage of every voter. TtLe object of this SOUTH9S POSITION IN THE UNION. France, not so much by the negroes in rebellion, as by the French army, under Southonax, having been instructed by the home government to carry out Robespiere'sr principles. Under that abolition principle, Haiti became a free negro republic, and instead of going up, pari passu, with us, immediately began to perish, and continued to perish, until it voluntarily threw itself into the arms of despotism. The British East India Company got the indigo culture transferred from Haiti, then making three-fourths of all the indigo in the world, to the East Indies, and have ever since monopolized it. The negroes got liberty, and after shamefully abusing it for more than half a century, voluntarily gave it up as a thing of no value to them. Nowhere were the doctrines of the French revolution more strongly denounced than in Great Britain; yet, after the practical workings of those doctrines were found to enrich the British East India possessions with a monopoly of the indigo culture, the same doctrines were sent across the Atlantic in almost every English book, newspaper and periodical, urging us to give the negro liberty; the same thing as to urge us to give up our cotton and sugar culture, and let British Asia monopolize it as well as that of i ndigo. None know better than our friends, the British, that free negroes will not work, (having tried the experiment,) and that white people cannot endure the hot sun of a cane or cotton field. To give an hundred millions per annum for a second-hand abstraction of Jacobin coinage, would be paying too dearly for a whistle to amuse the North,. and a sword to pierce the South. The hypothesis that would place the negro on a political and social equality with our free white citizens, is urged upon us by a foreign people, who have neither social nor political equality among themselves, and whose laws and usages make distinctions where Nature makes none. Yet without annulling the artificial distinctions, dividing her own subjects into classes, Great Britain has permitted her pulpit to be desecrated, and her literature corrupted, to break down the distinctions that Nature has made between the white and the black races inhabiting the United States; her subjects preaching a false French hypothesis to us, as a sound Christian and republican doctrine, and taunting us daily as being only half-way Christians and republicans, because we do not receive it. Having profited by the dissensions springing from the seed of their own sowing in the East Indies and elewhere, the East India Company, the lords of the loom and those in their interest, have almost out-Yankeyed the Yankees, (as they call all Americans,) being in a fair way to carry back American manufactures to England, and the cottrax and~ sugar culture to its old home in India, by humbugging us with abo-t lition literature, abolition divines and agents, like Ge orge Thompson, to give up our glo rious Union for a vain abstraction of Jacobin origin. Great Br itain would, no doubt, form most favorable and hi ghly friendly commer cial alliances with any s ecedi ng st ate or states, just as long an d no lo nge r tha n it would take a bitter and blo ody civil war be tween the North and the South to break up Amer ica n man ufact ures, a nd t o transfer the agricultural weal th of the South to Britis h Asia, whe re she ha s already hundred s of thou sands of Chinese (acco rdin g to Leonard Wray, Esq., the auth or of th e' East India Sugar Planter," a late work published in London) engaged in the cultiva tion of s ugar and c otto n, the exp eriments with Hindoo laborers not having been satisfactory. But the hypothes is which is undermining our Union, "that the neg, o is a white man only painted black," has no foundation i n Truth or Nature. All histo ry d isproves it. The science o f comparative anatomy bear s positive testimon y a g ainst it; the dark color not being confined to the skin, but pervadin g, to a certain exte nt, every membrane a nd muscle, tinging all the h umo rs, and even the brain its el f, with a shade of darkness. The st atue of the negro in Westmin ster Abbey, kneeling before that of Mr. Fox, is at once recognized as a veritable son of Africa, although made of the sam hte white marble thus disproving, by the artist's chisel, th e mischievous sophism which makes color the only difference. Observation also proves that the negro is unde r different physiological laws from the white man. The Bible declares the same thing, as it gave him the significant name Canaan, or " Submissive knee bender," to express his nature, and doomed him to slave ry, as a condition the most consonant to that nature. That book gave him but one commandment, to serve his brethren, to be their servant of servants-clearly implying that they are responsible for his observance of the other ten. Domestic slavery is made a blessing instead of a curse to the Ethiopian or Canaanite race, by a different conforma tion of body, cast of mind, and turn of thought, imparting to that race a fitness for that institution, and an unfitness for any other. Hence justice, mercy, and the best interests of the slave race suffered no viola tion. (as Voltaire vainly thought, and rejeted the Bible as a fable on that ground,) but was promoted by Joshua taking their country from them, and reducing them to bondage; inasmuch as their organization, not less than that of children, rendered them unfit for in dependance. If both the North and the South were to study the African character more closely —-the natural history of the Ethiopian or Canaanite, and what the Bible 54 SOUTHrS POSITION IN THE UNION, reveals concerning him-our happy and prosperous confederacy would be in no danger of dissolution. The former would see that personal freedom is in opposition to the negro's nature-and the latter would perceive, that, by the action of a higher law than the Constitution, or anything that fanaticism can do in the Union, or out, there is no more danger of his leaving servitude, provided it be the proper kind of servitude, to go in quest of liberty. than the ox his straw in search of animal food. The consciences of many of our Northern people are very tender, because American liberty, equality, and republicanism do not come up to the abstract notions of British and some other writers of what such things ought to be. Our admirable system of government is founded on the Baconian philosophy carried into politics, and not on impracticable abstractions. It would not reach the ideal, impracticable standard of liberty, equality, and republicanism, if the negroes were turned loose, until the women and children were allowed to vote, and all political and domestic restrictions removed from them. Natural distinctions in society is the rock on which American republicanism is builtbuilt on any other foundation, it never has stood, and never can stand. By virtue of those distinctions that Nature alone has made, women, children and negroes are assigned to such places only as best suit their physical capacities; nor could a female ora baby become the head of our government, as females and babies sometimes do in those tottering governments founded on artificial instead of natural distinctions in society. Nor is our slavery, slavery in the European sense of the term. It is not like bondage in Algiers, nor like want created to diminish wages, stalking about in Great Britain and Ireland, begging service from door to door, without food or shelter; but it is only a relation in conformity to the natural adaptations of the persons consigned to that condition. Nor are women and children in slavery among us, as crazy theorists have asserted, but only in a relation or state, in conformity to their nature, as the negroes are. To break up this fitness of things would be to break up the government. The restraints of the domestic or fireside government having been removed by the predominance of impracticable notions of liberty in France, mobs of women and boys overawed the National Assembly at Versailles, in the days of the French revolution. At a later period, Bolivar, foolishly trying to improve on the model government left by Washington, turned loose the negroes of the republic of Colombia. Where is the republic of Colombia? It is not on the map of the world. It was there, and you remember when. It has gone. To know how and why, let Nature be called o n t o answer. She will s ay, th at it was when political fanaticism violated her by disregarding the distinctions which she had made, that the Frenc h republic fell, and Colombia was blot ted out from he r place among the nations. It would be bad eno ugh t o bre ak up o ur confederacy for the b en efi t of a few negroes, or even of all Africa, at the expense of the white race; but it would be madness to do so t o impose on th e m a thing t hat has alw ays b ee n ratsbane to their minds and morals. It is unnecessary for me to apprise you, that the great mass of the peo ple North and South, of both po litical parties, view with pride and admiration your patriot ic efforts in the caus e of Union, and that you are acknowledged here and elsewhere,, as everywhere within i t s boundaries, as the chief defen d er of the Union, the laws, and the Constitution. Your arguments are amply sufficient to preserve the Union against the a c etion of those who are sa t is fied with it a s it is, a nd are only a nxi ous th at the obligations imposed by it be resp e cte d by th e people of all he ste Bt the s tates. But they hav e no tendency to restrain that por tio n of the pe ople at the North, wh o believe the Union does to o mu ch for the slaveholding i n t erest in remanding fugitives from service back into bondage; nor those of the South, who believe it does too little, or worse than nothing, and is about to be perverted into an engine to crush them. Both these parties are growing parties, and will, if not checked, soon out-number the constitutional or Union party. The belief is industriously propagated at the North, by George Thompson & Co., that the Constitution tolerates injustice in authorizing the enactment of laws to restore fugitives to the bondage from which they fled-and that all such enactments are violences offered to the conscience of a moral and religious people, being contrary to the higher law of God. Great numbers are inclined to favor such opinions, who are not with Mr. Thompson and his abolitionists, but are willing to carry out the laws in good faith, until they have an opportunity to alter or change them. Even your eloquence cannot long make the North ern people love~ an Union requiring them to do violence to their conscience in obeying the requirements of the laws done under it, if by so doing they believe they are violating a higher law of God. Nor could you re strain such, even among your neighbors, from agitating the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Law, although you were to lift the curtain of time, and make them behold with their eyes the grass growing in the streets of Boston, their trade and manufactures de stroyed, the South locked against them, their pockets drained to support a war against their former best friends and customers, and their 55 SOUTH'S POSITION IN THE UNION. best blood flowing in the unnatural strife. to them-nor did they want it-nor would You know that the sons of the Pilgrims are they have accepted of it had it been offered made of that stuff to lose all these to save to them, because its exercise would have their conscience-conscience is the same been unsuitable to the sex of the one and whether pinned to a false Jacobinical French the tender age of the other. As they were hypothesis, asserting the negro's right to in colonial times, so are they now, and so liberty and equality, or to the eternal word of are the negroes-each of these parties being truth, derived from Nature, and revealed in left to move in those paths wherein it has the Bible, denying that right. Fanaticism, always found its greatest happiness. true religion and patriotism are alike in some It is erroneous to suppose that the cotton respects, being insensible to the dollar argu- and sugar interest, grown up since the adopment, and alike unappalled by the fire or the tion of our preqent Constitution, has perpet sword obstructing the cause that either has uated domestic slavery in the South, which espoused. Although your eloquence has as otherwise, ere this, would have been volunmuch power in the South, yea more than tarily relinquished. The extension of the any other man, it cannot long keep up the cotton and sugar culture, so far from being love of union among our people, if that po- misfortunes to the slaves, has tended, more litical compact be perverted from its original than anything else, to ameliorate their conintention of securing peace and equality into dition; because the product of their labor is an instrument of aggression, in the hands thereby sufficiently valuable to enable their of an unbridled majority, to rob us of our masters to supply them with all the necessaequality, and to kick us into a corner to rycomforts of life, being prompted thereto, if dwell as submissionists, until the iron not by humanity, by the motives of interest. heel of power treads us into the dust. Here, The most efficient, and, of course, the most if not five, as Mr. Clay would say, are two profitable laborers, are those who are the bleeding wounds requiring to be stanched to most active, healthy, happy, and contented. save the Union, if not from immediate, from To be active, healthy, happy and contented, ultimate dissolution, and who are to stanch there is a higher law, which says, their griefs them? The sovereign people. They have shall be inquired into, their troubles removlong been trying, but they work awkwardly, ed, and they shall be well fed, lodged and not having the requisite knowledge of the clothed. Interested motives, if nothing else, anatomy of the body politic, and not under- would force the master, whose slaves are standing its internal organization sufficiently profitable to him, to protect them from what to know, that, from the laws of necessity, are called the abuses of slavery, and to besome parts of the complex machinery must stow on them every comfort and attention be made to honor and others to dishonor; that the most tender humanity would give. some to gather, and others to consume the Everything which enhances the value of the products gathered-that, like the human sys- slave improves his condition; as it brings tem, it is composed of elementary organs, as the self-interest of the master the more different in their nature and structure, as the strongly to bear in protecting him against brain from the stomach, or the muscles from abuses, and in adding to his comforts. On the bones, and that the stimulus that moves the other hand, everything that diminishes one will not mnother-being endowed with his value, or that of his labor, whether it be different kinds of sensibility. By going the introduction of Chinese laborers into deeply into the organization of our political India, or the exclusion of slave labor from institutions, it will be found that domestic any state or territory where it would be proslavery is not a blot or excrescence upon fitable, operates injuriously against the inthem, but a component part of their struc- terests of the slave, who may with truth say, ture, and cannot be excised or cast off "Save me from my friends, and the laws of without destroying the organism uniting all God will make it my master's interest to take the parts of this confederacy into a grand, care of me." Slavery, before and at the wonderful, and progressive whole, such as time of the formation of our present Union, the world never saw before. The reason is, was not as good a condition for the blacks of that the African is not constituted in mind or the South as it is now, because the profits of body, in the skin or under the skin, like the that kind of labor were not sufficient to afwhite man, but is a being peculiar to him- ford the laborers the comforts of life they self, and unlike any other kind of man, So Sow enjoy. different was he from the rest of the popula —'?Their value was also so inconsiderable tion, that when our fathers brought him into/ that self-:interest was not so watchful as the Union, they retained him in the same pos' now, to protect them against gross personal tion he occupied anterior to his admission i o abuses. But if their labor were ever so unit. Nor did the Revolution, the state Constifu- profitable, they would not be emancipated tions, or that of the Federal Union, make ~ny in the South, as they have been in the North, change in the government of women nd for the plain reason, that,. if turned looses children-no political power being accee they would be a tax and a nuisance too heavy 56 SOUTH'S POSITION IN THE UNION. but too willing to kill the world's last hope of republican institutions, to get rid of a sin that has no existence as a sin, from anything said against it in the Old or New Testament; but is only inferred to be a sin by a Jacobinical sophism picked up amongst the ruins it so largely helped to make of republican institutions in France, and from thence exported to America by British agency-particularly that of the East India Company, whose charity towards us, in making us sensible of a new and unpardonable sin of the deepest dye, which the BibIe winked at and tolerated, would be rewarded by a monopoly of the cotton and sugar culture, in their vast conquests in Asia. Are not the very parties who are now urging our northern people to set at defiance the Fugitive Slave Law, and to agitate its repeal, the very parties in the interest of the East In dia Company, who first stimulated our northern people to commence a system of aggression against the southern states some fifteen years ago, by establishing anti slavery societies in this country, similar to those in Great Britain, which played such a conspicuous part in sacrificing the West India planters to promote the aggrandizement of British Asia. The slave-labor of the West Indies coming in competition with East India sugar, it was policy to give it up to en courage the larger interest. Hence slavery was abolished over a territory about half as large as South Carolina, (the whole of the British West India Islands only having seventeen thousand square miles, that of South Carolina, hi tre th irty-three thousand,) and containing a population not exceeding a sixth or seventh rate state in our Union, in order to open a way for the establishment of the sugar culture on a grand scale in a vast sugar region in Asia, having a territory of upwards of one million of square miles, and one hundred and fifty millions of inhabitants. The experiment is succeeding. To succeed with cotton, and every other southern product in British Asia and New Holland, it is foreseen that nothing stands in the way but the associated or slavelabor of the United States, Brazil and Cuba. Already do the East Indies, according to Leonard Wray, Esq., produce more sugar than the United States and the British West India islands together. The same parties, who moved the British Parliament to sacrifice West India interests, have been for more than fifteen years sowing the seeds of discord between the North and the South on the subject of slavery. No sooner was the policy of abolishing that institution in the British West India Islands, to extend the culture of sugar, (throughout a country that a line from Boston to Newv-Orleans would for the white population to bear, and a war of extermination wou ld b e the consequence. The few that w er e emancipated in the northern states have been a nuisance, a tax, and a blurthen to the white inhabitants, h alf f illing the northern prisons, penitentiaries, and almshouses. The white population of the souther n states have no other alternat ive but t o k eep them in slavery, or to drive them out, wage a war of extermination against the m, or go out themselves, and leave their f air land to be c onverted into a free negro pandemonium. But why not keep them in slav ery? T he wh it e and the red ants make slaves ofthe bl ack ants, yet the y are the very i nsects to which the Holy Scriptures refer us to learn wisdom. For every negro in slavery in the Sout h, there are more than an hu ndr ed thousand negro intfo ii alat in t the sam-r. vSlavery, there fore, of the black to theasoied mwladinaktible with the economy ef Nature. T he institution cannot be founded in sin, or w e w o uld not have been ref er red to the i nsect slaveholding sinners to learn wis dom. The pro ducts of s lave labor form a very essen tial par t of the wealth and prosperity, not only of our entire republican co nf ed eracy, but of the world at large; a single product of that labor furnishes a cheap c loth ing f or the inhabitants of the globe, w ho, h aving less to pay for clothing, have more to expend in purchasing knowledge, and more time to spare in cultivating the moral virtues. If it be a sin, it is unlike any other sin, in doing good to the whole world instead of evil.* To dispense with the products of slave-labor would not be much unlike dispensing with the offices of the liver in the human system, because it is a dark, ugly organ, gathering and distributing black, sluggish blood, without a drop in the portal circulation, (as it is technically called,) reaching the free vital air, as every drop of blood in every other part of the system is continually doing in the lungs. Yet unlike every other organ in the human body, the liver thrives, by digesting that which every other part rejects, and sends from it to be vivified by the free air in the lungs before it will drink it in. It is worthy to be remembered that our fathers were practical men, and founded our government on the truths taught by experience, and rejected the sophisms of the a priori logic of the illuminati. Unfortunately those sophisms have outlived the many republics they have killed. One of these sophisms which teaches that " the negro is only a lamp-blacked white man debased by slavery," has led many of our northern people to believe that slavery is sin, and has mlade some of them * See Family Library for Natural History of the Ants and their slavery institutions. 57 SOUTHIS POSITION IN THE UNION. not reach across,) carried into effect, than forthwith George Thompson, member of Parliament, the British Anti-Slavery societies, and all the writers, lecturers and agents in the interest of the East India proprietors, with one accord, made a simultaneous movement on the United States, proclaiming war against slavery. They boldly planted the anti-slaverybanner in our northern states, and instigated the formation of abolition societies in our country, bound by their organization to wage an uncompromising warfare against the institutions of the South. Has the foreign influence, that presumed to meddle with American institutions, been moved thereto by motives of humanity? Malcom, the celebrated Baptist preacher of our own country, who traveled all over the East Indies, found there ten millions of people in the most odious personal bondage, whom the West India emancipation act expressly reserved in slavery at the very time that the abovementioned parties were prosecuting the most violent hostilities against negro slavery in the United States. The greater part of those persons in our country, who would, if permitted, interfere in the affairs of Cuba, have the political aggrandizement of that island, the happiness and best interests of its inhabitants, at heart. Can the same be said of George Thompson, member of Parliament, and the vast multitudes whom Great Britain has so long permitted, if not incited, to interfere with American affairs, in trying by every means to break down a political institution in the United States, which, if they could succeed in, that great foreign power, at peace with us, can hardly help knowing, wil l rend our Union into fragments, destroy our pol itical strength as a nation, break up our commerce, manufactures, and agriculture, and convert our happy land into a field of desolation! The foreign enemies of American republicanism and the interested East India propri. etors, tong- ago found out that the conscience of the Puritans is particularly tender on the subject of southern slavery; hence they have been, and still are, continually stinging it by upbraiding them as guilty of sin for being in the Union with slaveholders, and for not resisting, by violence and blood, the execution of the Fugitive Slave Law. The northern people do not want the fugi. gitives as constituent parts of their own society; they had rather not have them, if their conscience was not continually stung and gored by such John Bulls, as George Thompson, the Bast India proprietors, and the members of the British and Canadian Anti-Slavery Societies. to keep the poor fugitivres as a sign of their having washed their hands of the sin and guilt of slavery-.a siga they know would be. as matters now stand, the death warrant of our Union. Aggressions on southern rights and inte rests, t h us brough t ab out, have awake ned the South to the n ecessity of adopting some effectual means of repelling t hem. Hence have a risen all the differences between the two sections. Th e southern min d has adopted the a posteriori method of reasoning on the slavery question, and the n or thern the a ripori. These two methods of considering the subject have brought the two sections to exactly opposite conclusion s. An admixture of the two modes of reasoning fo r a long time gave the great mass of the people, North an d South, mixed and indefinite notions on the merits of the question. The apriori logic leadlima them to look upon domestic slaver y as an evil, while the facts, observations, a nd experience of the inductive mode of investigation clear ly proved, that if it be an evil, it is on e o f t ho se the o retical evils fo r which the re is no remedy without incurring greater evins-in other wor ds, no e vi l at all. Yet the admission of its bein g an evil, by distingu ished southe rn men, preve nte d the m erits of the questio n from being looked i nt o b y the public. Such persons contented themselves i n waiting on time and circumstances fo r s ome safe and effectual method of removing the evil, like many good people are wai ting fo r the millennium to remove the evils incident to the relation. of master and apprentice, parent and child, husband and wife. While Mr. Jefferson was casting about for some remedy to remove the evil of having the country filled with a slow-motioned, in. efficient, profitless black population, who, for want of brisk motion of the body and attention of mind, could not compete with the white man in the ordinary branches of indus. ry add the arts, and who were half naked and starved near his own door, the rich cotton, cane and rice fields were opened in the burning South, where free white labor is much farther behind slave labor il efficiency, than the latter behind the former in other branches of industry in a cold climate. The slow-motioned, sleepy-headed negro population, whom Mr. Jefferson did not know what to do with, and to use a common expression, "could not earn their salt,." suddenly became, by the introduction of cotton, cane and rice, superior to the white man in efficiencybenefiting themselves, enriching their masters, the whole South, and the entire Union. The products of their labor being thrown into the markets of the world, became a new and important basis of manufacturing and commercial wealth-products which their labor alone could produce, in sufficient abundance and cheapness, to supply the wants of mankind. Neither party, North or South, has viewed the question of nlegro slavery in a philosophi 58 SOUTH'S POSITION IN THE UNION. cal point of view. It has been mere experi- i ence on the one side, and mere theory on the f other. You and the rest of our statesmen t have been so well satisfied with the working of our political system, that you and they a seem to have been content to direct and guide t it, without looking into comparative anatomy for the physical differences in the population t that would explain the paradox of slavery in a free republic, and demonstrate the reason and justice of our political institutions, in not t according to all classes the same privileges. Much of the knowledge, in regard to the physical differences between our white and black population, is confined to a few scientific men in private life, and to those persons in the South who have had. opportunities of acquiring it by observation, but have not the requisite acquirements and opportunities for diffusing it. Knowledge, to be diffused among the mass, and to be brought into practical use, must first pass through the alembic of some superior intellect to be refined and purified. I cherish the opinion, that if you were to seek for that particular kind of knowledge, (touching the true nature and character of our negro population, and on which our peculiar southern institutions rest as a basis,) you could find it, and when found, could diffuse it. Its diffusion would be like oil on the troubled waters, quieting the conscience of the North on the subject of slavery, or at least starting a new train of thought, that would naturally lead the northern mind, step by step, to a quiet conscience and freedom from responsibility for niegro slavery in the South. Northern agitation and aggression would cease, and southern agitation and secessionism would also cease, as soon as the provocations causing them should be removed, or even a fair pros.pect of their removal, by a new train of thought started in the North by a northern political chieftain renouncing the prejudices of education, and coming out boldly and plainly for the truth. South Carolina would not now stand alone with secessionism on her banner, if you, a northern statesman, whose politics have heretofore been in opposition to the southern majority, had not taken the noble stand you did take on the laws and Constitution, and boldly faced northern fanaticism. Believe me, your course in facing political death,n yin defying fan aticism in the North, and touchin g ge it with the spear of Ithuriel, has restrained the hands ready to unfurl the secession banner in almost every state south, and, but for you, would have been unfurled ere this. One step further, and you restrain South Carolina herself, not by drawing the sword, but by diffusing thought. By diffusing thought, you defended-the laws and the Constitution, by bringing northern patriots into the field to repel the aggressions of northern fanaticism. By diffusing thought, you could bring over America to your standard, in defen ding the f o undations on whic h republicanism, the laws, the Constitution, and the Union, are constructed. To go into an analysis, or to invite an an alysis of tbu slavery mater ial in that foindation, so as to ascertain its dif prerent c omposition, and nature, would be to tak e the desired step, that would do more to strike d own the secession banner in South Carolina, than could General Scott, atwn the hea d of the largest army that was ever mustered into the s ervice of the United States. If Sou th C arolin a were t o s ee the northern people, under a northern leader, discarding Jacobinical sophisms, and examining i nto the question, as ou r fathers did, for the best political position for the black population, by the light of experience and the inductive method of arriving at truth, she would pause long and deliberately before making the fearful experiment of secession, because there would be grounds of hope that that method of investigation would ultimately revolutionize northern political opinion, by demonstrating that the negro is not a white man painted black, as they have heretofore supposed, but a different being, of a different nature; and affected in directly opposite directions from the white man by the things called liberty and slavery. The public sentiment so predominant at the North, that the negro can be washed white by personal freedom, political and social equality, and that it is a sin and a shame to Christianity, republicanism and humanity, to let him remain so long unwashed, has led to a system of fanatical aggression at the North, which South Carolina believes will bring swift and sure destruction upon her, if she remains in the Union, and hence she is preparing to leap, as from a ship on fire, into the gulf of secessionism. She is deaf to the recital of the dangers she may encounter out of the Union, believing that sure destruction awaits her in it. But if public sentiment North could be directed, by the force of some strong and commanding intellect, into another channel of thought, calculated to lead to the truth, she would have hope-hope would make her pause, as she only leaves the Union because she sees no hope of safety in it. The North could not object to a consideration of the question on the higher law basis, and to inquire into the reasons why our fathers, anterior to the Revolution, during that period and at the formation of our present Constitution, kept the negro under the same institutions he is still under in the South. These reasons will be found, not so much in this inferiority of mind, as in a marked difference in his disposition and nature from either the white man or the Indian. Observing that, by the operation of -some higher law, he was essentially different from any other human being, they retained I t I d fd h a y d d 9 s 'an t r e e0 al d a nd t 59 .1 - SOUTH'S POSITION IN THE UNION. him under institutions compatible to him, but incompatible to either the white man or the Indian. Without taking sides in the controversy, either for the North or the South, but only for the truth, you might render the country a great service, by directing public attention to the only safe and sure mode of finding the truth. The truth found would, no doubt, put South Carolina and Massa chusetts where they were in the days of the Revolution, shoulder to shoulder in the cause of American liberty, power, and pro ress. A misunderstanding between the North and the South has arisen, and those who were foremost in the Revolution for union and concert to make America strong, are now foremost iii those measures of disunion and strife, that, if persevered in much longer, will make her weak and contemptible in the eyes of the world. The one party claims as rights what the other party does not regard as rights-the right of property in man-the right to hold man in bondage. The one claims the right by virtue of Nature's laws, the lessons of experience, and the laws of necessity. The other denies the right on the abstract principle, that presumes that all men are alike, and entitled to the same privileges and immunities. Both parties, except that portion under anti-republican and foreign influence, desire the truth. Both want justice, and nothing more. Both are seeking the welfare of the negro, and wish to reach it without destroying their own-the one contending that his welfare lies in slavery, and the other in freedom. As the premises cannot be settled by the parties themselves, it would be better to refer them to the umpirage of comparative anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and history. Comparative anatomy, if interrogated whether the organization of the white and the black man be the same or not, could put the question beyond controversy, and leave the North and the South nothing to dtspute about. Physiology could say whether the laws govw erning the white and black man's organism be the same or different. Chemistry could declare whether the composition of the bones, the blood, the flesh, skin and the secretions, be composed of the same element ary subst ances, in t he s ame propor tions and combinations, in the two races, or in different proportions and combinations. History, likewise, could throw much light on the subject of what has proved best for the negro. Mr. Seward and the higher law advocates in the North could not consistently object to your recommending the higher law mode of investigation, and settling for ever this vexed question. I venture to prediet that it would show him the higher law, which keeps the negro in servitude, written in his organization. The a b olition divines, who preach the higher law, could discover the sam e thing that anatomy will reveal, written in Hebrew in the ninth chapte r of Genes is, and in other places in the Bible. The common highe r law abolitionists, who have not ti me to devote to the dissecting-room or to the Hebrew, could see the higher law any night of their lives, by looking at a negro asleep, breathing the mephitic air called carbonic acid gas, manufactured in his own lungs, being caught and con fined by the covering the higher law compels him to put aro u n d his face. The effect of confining, by covering his face, his own breath, to breathe over and over again the whole night and every night of his life, produces certain effects upon the blood and the brain requiring the chemist and physiologist to explain. But that explanation would only be repeating what comparative anatomy discloses, history tells, chemistry proves, and the Bible reveals, that by a higher law than the Union, the Constitution, or any other human enactments, the negro is a slave. The negro being a slave by Nature, no legislation is necessary to regulate slavery, or to say where it shall exist or where it shall not exist. The institution will regulate itself under the higher law of Nature, if that law be not obstructed by unwise legislation. Under the higher law, and not by any act of the Federal Government, it was abolished in the northern states. It proved, by experience, to be an evil in those states, because, from the nature of the products and the climate, it was found to be much less expensive to purchase free white labor than to be burdened with the cost and care of supporting such inefficient, wasteful, and slowmotioned laborers, as negroes were found to be. Hence, after the black population were somewhat diminished by being sent South, the balance, not very numerous, were emancipated. The emancipation acts of the northern states were supererogatory, as in most cases the northern masters were glad to let their slaves go free before the time fixed by law, finding them to be a tax and a vexation. Delaware and Maryland are now in a transition state, preparatory to becoming -free states-selling their slaves to southern planters, until their numbers be so far reduced as to make emancipation of the balance safe and practicable. But if they had no outlet open for thinning out their negro population, they would be compelled to keep them in slavery, and encounter the evils of a somewhat more inefficient, careless and expensive class of laborers, than incur the greater evils of being 60 SO TH8S POSITION IN THE UNION. overrun by a heavy population of disorderly, worthless, and unproductive free negroes. Negro slavery, from natural laws, if not interfered with, must ultimately be confined to that region of country South, where, from heat of the climate and the nature of the cultivation, negro labor is more efficient, cheaper, and more to be relied on than white labor. Virginia is a slave state, yet natural causes have almost excluded slavery from the larger half of her territory. Why not, therefore, give the whole subject up to the higher law of Nature to regulate? If negro slavery, from mistaken notions, be carried into a state or territory where slave labor is less efficient and profitable than white labor, natural causes will correct the mistake, as they have done in the northern states and in Alpine Virginia, by forcing it out again. On the other hand, no good, but much evil, will result from prohibiting slavery in any state or territory, where, from heat of the climate, and the products of the country, no other kind of laborers can do the required drudgery-work in the sun and live. The labor requiring exposure to a mid-day summer siUn, fiom the laws of the white man's nature, cannot be performed in the cotton and sugar region without exposing him to disease and death; yet the same kind of labor experience proves to be only a wholesome and beneficial exercise to the negro, awakening him from his natural torpor to a new life of pleasure and activity. In Africa, the West Indies, as well as in this country, experience proves that negroes will not labor unless compelled by the authority of a master. The question is, shall the white man bring disease and death upon himself by performing drudgery-work in the sun, or make the negroes do the work-the sun, which sickens and kills him, being a luxury to them? He in the shade, laboring and managing for their benefit as well as his own; they in the sun, working for the benefit of the common household, o' which they form a part, constitutes the relation of master and slave-an institution designed by Nature to be beneficial to both parties, and injurious to neither. Here, in New-Orleans, the larger part of the drudgery-work requiring exposure to the sun, as rail-road makling, street-paving, draydriving, ditching, building, &c., is performed by white people. The sickness and mortality among that class of persons who make negroes of themselves is this hot climate are rightfully great; while the mortality among all those classes enjoying the advantages ofa the relation of master and slave, you will be surprised to hear, is not greater-is not as great-as among an equal number in your own city of Boston. Our tables of mortality, compared with the cities of the northern states, prove that the mortality among children is not as great here as there; thus show ing that the great aggregate mortality of New-Orleans above that of the northern cities, is not owing to the climate or locality being unfriendly to human life, but is mainly owing to a large class of persons in this city violating Nature's lairs by making negroes of themselves. Our tables also show that in all over fifty, the mor tality is le ss than a t the North-for the plain reason, that neither c hi ldren nor old per so ns ar e much exposed to the sun. Lest it be tho ught th at all the advantages of the relation of master and slave might, at least, be attained for what you call the colored people, if emancipated under favorable circumstances, permit me to inform you, that emancipation in this city, many years ago, took place, from time to time, on quite a large scale. Great numbers of the colored people were not only set free, but were left handsome fortunes likewise. All of the pure blood, unlike the slaves, diminish in numbers, and those of the mixed race promise ere long to become extinct; The excessive mortality in this city is derived from the free colored persons who have no masters to take care of them-from the half free slaves, without masters to look to them, who are permitted to wander about and hire their own time, as it is called-from the foreigners who arrive here in a sickly condition from Europe; but mainly from the white people who make slaves of themselves by performing drudgery-work in the sun. When the mnortality occurring among these different classes of the population is subtracted from the aggregate deaths, the result is, that there is less mortality among all that large class, both of the white and the black population, who hold the relation of master and slave, than among an equal number in the northern cities. This brings me to a very important truth I wish to communicate to you, although I know your prejudices, in common with a large number of the northern people, are very strong and bitter against the institution of negro slavery in the South. You have, no doubt, been accustomed to look upon the South as very sickly and unfriendly to human life in comparison to the North, without divining the true cause for its bad reputation for unhealthiness abroad. Thirty. three years of observation and experience in the treatment of diseases in the cotton and sugar region have enabled me to generalize facts, and to discover the important truth, not less important in a political than in a medical point of view, that among all that large portion of the southern population holding the relation of master and slave, the sickness and mortality are not greater than among an equal number of people at the North. In other words, negroes, who have masters to take care of them, are as healthy in the South as any people in the world, and the white people in the South who have negroes to work for them, enjoy generally about as good health, coeteris ivaribus, as those of Pennsyl 61 62 SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. vania or New-York. On the other hand, all those negroes who have no masters to take./ care of them, and all those white people wh T o have no slaves to work for them, but mak D negroes of themselves by doing drudgery-' work, exposed to the hot summer's sun of t, the cotton and sugar region, are cut down by disease and death like grass before the scythe of the mower. Hence it would appear, that in the cotton and sugar region, Nature has ordained that the negro shall serve the white man, and the white man shall take care of the negro. Obedience to this law being rewarded with the health, comfort, peace and happiness of both parties, the security of the state, and its strength in war, and disobedience pun ished with disease, death, and anarchy-I will close this long communication, too long, I fear. for your patience, but too short for the subject, by an illustration from an actual matter-of-fact occurrence. A company, in making a neighboring rail-road running through the bat le-ground below this city, had a standing order for fifty laborers to be sent every day during the hot season of the year to supply the places of the sick and the dead. Yet a much larger number of negroes in the samne vicinity, at similar kind of work in the same hot sun, were as healthy as any people in your native New-Hampshire. You are thus told everything, in a word, that I have been trying to tell you, of the im- ra perative necessity of negro slavery in the South. Whether in the Union or out, law or no law, abstractly right or wrong, it is a question with the people of the South they will not debate, as it is a question of life or death. But where does this illustration of the important truth of the deadly effect of practical abolitionism, in putting the white man in place of the negro at hard drudgerywork in a hot soulhern sun, come from? It ,comes as a still, small voice, to whisper to northern prejudices, that black slavery, South, is better than white from the field of American glory —trom the very spot where the physical power of the greatest empire on earth, imposingly displayed in a well-organized and vast invading army, fell shattered before the American rifle. Without taking part for or against slavery in the South,'(tor which you nor any other northern man is responjsible, or have any right to meddle,) but only for the truth, and the Union the truth supports, you have only to make that voice heard and understood by your countrymen to gain a greater victory over the snakyhaired Discord that an artful foreign diplomacy has engendered between the North and the South, than you gained over Hulseman and the Austrians, or than did Andrew Jackson over our cc)untry's invaders on the same holy grounld that is nlow speaking to you.Dr. Cartwright —(addressed to Daniel Webstcr.) SOUTH —HOW AFFECTED BY 1IER 11S:ITTON. S -..S(L-A VERY AT THE SOUTH-WHAT ELEMENTS OF CHARACTER AND CIVILIZATION IT DEVELOPS, ON BRITISHI AUTHORITY~ AND HOW l-, GCO;P RE WITH '.THOSE OF THE NORTH.-f there is one sub j ct, (satys elr.'ri alay,aaf th e Middle Tem - ple,) "I If the re is one subject on w hich, more than another, misconception prevails in th is country, and on which prejudice o verrides the judgment, a nd philant hropy discards from its consideration ever y not io n of pr acti cability, i t is tha t of slave ry in the United Sta tes. On most questions connected with America, there is a disposition in many quar - t ers to jump at unfavorable conclusions; but on no subject s o much as on this, is decision sot r evio a ia independent of previ ous examination into th e circumstances of the case. Eu ropean prejudice fastens eagerly upon slavery, as a welcome crime to charge upon the American republic; and philan bthropy, in the headlong pursuit of its end, defeat s its own pu rpo se, by stumbling over the difficulties to which it is wilfully blind." "Few understand the merits of the case, becau se few c an examine intoth e n them. In the gene ral cry against Ame ric an slavery there is s o me justice, but more of prejudice and mistaken z eal." Thus speaks Alex. Mackay, Esq., barrister at-law of the Mi ddle Te mple, an d late tra veler in the Un ited State s; and, no doubt, when he th us writes, honestly supposes him self entirely exem pt fro m the overriding prejudice and misconceptions of which he speaks. He is, evidently, what is considered a liberal, intelligent gentleman, apparently desirous not to misrepresent, but to sustain himself above the vulgar prejudices of his country and time s. But, notwith standing, he, too, sees through a glass darkened and colored by prejudices that u n consciously exist in his mind. He, too, thinks slavery a great evil, a crime, in the South! Blacksto ne should have taugh t him t hat there must be intentio n to commit, to constitute a crime. The crime was long ago committed by his country, and the necessity and evil (if any evil) has been put upon the South, not by themselves, but by his country, and for her benefit, as the Bethune treaty will still show in black and white. Mr. Mackay thinks " it hangs about the social and political system, like a great tumor upon the body, which, however, cannot be suddenly cut away without risking a hemorrhage which would endanger life," and, therefore, very reasonably concludes that we, whose lives are in danger, ought to have the right to determine when the experiment should be made. But our Northern brethren, who, for good and valuable consideration received, have signed the titles, and warranted and guarantied our possession and full enjoy SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. ment of our "tumor," without let or hindrance, for ever, would now not allow us one day for consideration, but are resolved, nolens tolens, for an instant operation, though it should be attended with the trifling contingencies of lock-jaw and death. Thus, when apoleon was endeavoring to compel the agriculturists of France to cultivate beet for sugar, a caricature was published, representming a nurse thrusting a long beet down the throat of a struggling infant, saying at the same time, "Take it, honey-take it; your daddy says it is sugar." People, as well as children, should be grateful for favors. The great objection to slavery, say these our benefactors, is the immorality of our institution. And yet the morals, male or female, of the South, fear no comparison with those of the North. We verily believe, that the principles in excess, as taught by Dr. Franklin, have been the fruitful source of Yankee tricks, and have done more to degrade American character abroad, and to sow ivisions at home, than slavery and the slave trade combined. But, say these disciples of Franklin economy, slavery degrades the character of the master, takes away his "soft sander," and while it renders him effeminate, it at the same time makes him passionate, ungovernable and vindictive; arrogant, imperious and self-willed; cruel, tyrannical, sensual, irreligious and voluptuous; languishing, incapable and ignorant; neglectful of his duties, moral and political-in short, it leaves him devoid of virtues, divested of charities, and deprived of the kindly sympathies which connect man to his fellow-man. This, and more than this, we have seen repeated over and over in the northern catalogues of our demerits. Such might have been the opinion of the great mass of the people and politicians of Great Britain in'75, as to the character of their brethren in the southern slave-holding colonies of America, and may have helped to precipitate their government into those unwise and tyrannical measures which led to their separation and independence; but such could scarcely then have been the opinion of the people of Massachusetts when they sent their Josiah Quincy to southern slaveholders to solicit their aid. They were not then regarded, either in England or America, as inferior in the great virtues that distinguish a free people. Let Mr. Burke speak, for there can be no higher authority in England or America. After speaking of that love of freedom, the predominating feature which characterizes and distinguishes the whole of the American colonies, every one of which were then slave-holding colonies: "They are, therefore, not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according to English ideas, and on English principles. Abstract liberly, like other mere abstractions, is not to be found- n every nation has formed to itself somef f a vorite point, which, by way of eminence, becomes the criterion of their happiness." After speaking of the probability of resistance from the northern colonies, on account of the ir dislike of the Ch urch of England, he proceeds to say, that the sa me reason did not a pply to the sethe ohern c olonies, for th e Church of England formed there a large body, and ha d a regular establishment. " There is, however," says he, " another cir cumstan ce attending these colonies, which, in my opinion, fully counterbalances this di fference, and make s the spirit of liberty still more high a n d haughty than in those to the northward. It is, that in Virginia and the Carolinas they have a vast multitude of slaves. These people of the southern colonies are much more strongly, and with a higher and more stubborn spirit, attached to liberty, than those to the northward. Such were all the ancient commonwealths; such were our Gothic ancestors; such in our days were the Poles; and such will be all masters of slaves, who are not slaves themselves. In such a people, the haughtiness of domination combines with the spirit of freedom, fortifies it, and renders it invincible." "There is no way open," says Mr. Burke, "but to comply with the American spirit as necessary; or, if you please, to submit to it as a necessary evil." Can the North not see the applicability of this advice to their owr. encroachments upon the spirit of the South, and the probable result of similar contempt and injury. The history of our Revolution fully proves the truth of Mr. Burke's opinion. The talent, the courage, the patriotism-in short, the virtues, in every relation, brought out by that event, in the greatest slave-holding states, challenge comparison with those in any other colony. Look at the history of the states, from Maryland inclusive, South, where slavery then most abounded. They furnished Washington, Patrick Henry, the Lees, Carroll, Mason, the Pinckneys, Davy, the Rutledges, Sumter, Marion, Campbell, Shelby, and a host of others, who may well be contrasted with any that can be claimed by the North, although their pension-list is so much smaller than that of the North. There is certainly one thin-, in which the people of Massachusetts have excelled all at the South -their universal response when the pensionroll is called. Besides, the South had no Arnolds; and from the formation of our Union to the present day, our Jefferson, Madison, Randolph, Tazewell, Gaston, Macon, Lowndes, Cheves, Calhoun, McDuffie, Preston, Legar6, Crawford, Forsyth, Troup, &c., &c., neednot fear acomparison with their Quincys, Otises, Websters, Adamses, Van Burens, Clintons, Sewards, Sergeants, Binneys, or any others they can name. The superiority of southern over northern statesmen, 63 64 SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. into the presence of a more powerful life, and become at last extinct altogether." To express the belief, with the learned and scientific Morton and Agassiz, that the nef gro is a different and inferior race to the white, seems to be thought by some of our learned divines, quite a declaration of infidel ity. Some of the most pious and learned gentlemen, lay and clerical, that we know, think otherwise; and on the high Christian authority of the late learned Dr. Arnold, we , feel that we may safely rely, without doing , violence to the piety of any one. Dr. Ar nold, in his Miscellanies, p. 147, 160, 161, f says, that "he conceives it to be a principle most important to the right understanding of the whole of the Old Testament, that the revelations made to the Patriarchs were only partial, or limited to some particular points, and that their conduct must be judged of, not according to our knowledge, but to theirs." "It is very true," says he, "that there are some things in the first chapters of Genesis, which we cannot understand, and part of it possibly may be a sort of allegory or parable of which we have not the kev." Similar views have been expressed by some of the ablest clergymen in England and America, as to astronomy and geology. With some, more bigoted than wise, in our poor opinion, even the theory of Malthus, on population, has been considered as sufficient evidence of the infidelity of that distinguished divine. But Dr. Arnold comes in there to his rescue also, for he says, that he thinks God intend ed man to multiply in excess of food, or with a tendency that way, as a punishment for his disobedience, and as a consequence of his expulsion from the garden of Eden-and that the theory of Malthus is founded in Scripture, instead of being, as some suppose, an ti-Christian. (Misc. 160, 161.) Having been long accustomed to its institutions, the South is satisfied with them. It feels fully competent to manage its own affairs, and only seeks to maintain its constitutional equality. Let the North boast of its excellence in the various industrial pursuits; we do not envy her, but rejoice in her success. We are content with our agricultural products, by which they and the rest of the world are most cheaply provided; agricultural products, too, upon which the lives of many of them depend. Let any one visit the Narragansett country of Rhode Island, look into its interesting history, by Mr. Updike, and inquire into the manners, habits, and characters of its ante-revolutionary, and of its present people, and see what a contrast he will find in favor of the former. We have seen, known and admired some of the best specimens of its present inhabitants, and have heard them acknowledge their general degeneracy; and though admitted by all to be now the very best samples, yet it is from the very origin of the government, has been admitted by Mr. Alexander Everett, and the reasons for it assigned not m uch to the credit of the North. so ur citie s are quite as moral as theirs; and a s large a proportion of pers ons of c ha rac ter, educ ation, and g ood manners, can be found in southern cities as in those of the North. If the North excels th e S outh i n some th ings, the South, in her turn, excels i n others. No doubt the North excels in manufactures and the mechanic arts, ship-buildinog and navigation; but this, we insist, is owing to position and climate, and not to any difference growing out of our institutions; in other words, the difference of institutions has grown out of position-the simple result of int erest, and nowise th e frui o abrt lof "abstract libe o eerty." Wea, for generations, have been accustomed to our institu tions, and find them, in our humble opinion, best for us. Fate has thus placed the Euro pean and African races together, and thus live or die, they must, and we solemnly believe that any attempt to alter that relation now by the indiscreet hand of a third power, must produce the greatest calamity which could befall either. * It is of course perfectly easy (says the learned and pious Dr. Arnold) to say that we will have no slaves, but it is not quite so easy to make all the human inhabitants of a country, what free citizens of a country ought to be; and the state of our rail-road navigators and cotton operatives is scarcely better for themselves than that of slaves, either physically or morally, and is far more perilous to society." " It is," says the same writer, " the interest of every employer to get as much work as he can done for the smallest sum possible. Where is the church most hated? Where is the aristocracy most hated l Where is the alienation of the poor from the rich most complete? The answer will always be: wherever the relation between them has been most exclusively that of employer and employed. In other words, where the relation has been most purely mercenary. I do not say like that of master and slave, but actually worse." The Dr. in another place says: " The mixture of persons of different races in the same commonwealth, unless one race has a complete ascendency, tends to confuse all the relations of life, and all men's notions of right and wrong; or by compelling men to tolerate in so near a relation as that of fellow-citizens, differences upon the main points of human life, leads to a general carelessness and skepticism, and encourages the notion that right and wrong have no real existence, but are the mere creatures of human opinion." The same great authority tells us also, that among the races of men, some are much more easily distinguished than others; " being incapablc of taking in higher elements, [by crossing,] they dwindle away when brought a SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. observed by one of their intelligent old neighbors of this particular family, "that although their family had kept up the standard as well as any, yet that they were as far below that of their ancestors, both int body and mind, as those who had depreciated most were below us." (History of the Narragansett Church, 326.) The reason is apparent. It had been the most thorough slave country in New-England; the inhabitants had kept up the habits and education of English gentlemen; they cultivated their lands, and made most of the stone walls now existing; and these old walls may be, now, distinguished for their decided superiority, in neatness and durability, over those since made. They lived in large and commodious mansions, many of which remain to this day, with their old aristocratic air, quite superior to the little " slice-of-blocks," which the manufacturer now hurries up around the factory. They were hospitable and fond of society, simple in their manners, and elevated in their sentiments, surrounded by slaves, with abundance of horses and the provisions of life; they were a noble people and well may their sons love to dwell upon their memory, and to snatch from the ruinous progress of time every relic and picture of these olden days, however painful it must be to them to confess their " degeneracy from the old Narragansett race." The revolution, and consequent abolition of slavery, have rendered desert many sweet spots in that country, which were once the gardens and happy residences of the most polished and elegant people. Her fields are no longer cultivated. Her inhabitants are nowv crowded around her heated factories, breathing fetid air, instead of the sweetest that nature affords. Her great men are gone. Her gentry sadly diminished. Lovelv and interesting country, why could not tlese " desultory men, ever pleased with change " and false philanthropy, have placed their hands elsewhere than on your happy lot l W\e confess, with our good old English Anglo-Saxon prejudices, we think that country good for little, whose institutionis destroy or banish its country (entry, to make place for the factory and its inmates. As far as we have seen, we know no country whose agriculture is at a lower ebb than that of such parts of New-England as travel ers generally see. ~Ve have been told that the system of manufactures would greatly improve agriculture and the condition of the agriculturist; but the provisions for most of the factory workmen are now imported from other states, and the neighboring farmer is undersold, whilst the price of labor is raised by the competition of the factories and farm ers. " In a social point of view, (says Mr. Mackay,) there is this difference in America, between the North and South; VOL. III. that in the former, society, in it s narrower sense, takes its chi ef development in towns; whereas, in the latter, it is more generally confined to the r ural districts. This difference is chiefly attributable to the different systems which obtain in the distribution of property, and to o t he r caus es, social and political,which willbe presently adverted to. As a general rule in th e Nor th an d inVest, (where there s n s er te is n o slavery,) there is no such thing as country society, in the ordinary a cceptation of the term. The land is divided into some lots, e ach man, generally speaking, o ccupyin, only a u s much as h e can cult ivate. The whole country is thus divided into farms; there are few or no estates. The r ural population is, almost withou t except i on, a wo rking popul ation, with little leisure, if they had otherwise the mea ns, to cultivate the graces o f life. As you travel through the country., you s ee mult itudes of comfor table houses and good f a r ming establishments, but no mansions. Ther e is n ot, in fact, such a class in existence there, as is here known as the country gen try. A more un - promising set of materials fr om which to construct an elegant social f abric, can scarcely he conceived, than those northern and west ern farmers. Such is the phas e which rural life presents in the North and NVest, with a few slight exceptions," &c. Yet of the 12,113,000 in these free states, by the census of 1840, " we have not the more recent one by us," not as many as two millions live in cities, while of 8,633,400 of the slave-holding states not more than seven or eight hundred thousand live in cities. We have just given Mr. Mackay's account of the state of society of this great mass of 10,000,00b of Northern and Western rural population. As to the South, he proceeds:,In the South, on the other hand, things assume a very different aspect. In the states of Maryland, Virginia, and the two Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, as, indeed, in all the southern states, land is possessed, as is with us, in larger quantities; the owners, as in England, generally living on their estates. It is thus, that although Baltimore has its social circle, the chief society of Maryland is to be found in the country; whilst in the same way, the capital of Virginia affords but a faint type of the society of the state. In the rural life of these two states, and in that of South Carolina, [he might well have added other states, and particularly Georgia, Lou isiana, Florida, &c.] are to be found many of the habits and predilections of colonial times, and a nearer approach to English country life than is discernible in any other portion of the republic. The country is di vided into large plantations, containing, in many instances, many thousands of acres, on which reside the different families, in large l ande commodious mansions, surrounded by 65 5 66 SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. ' of gain, and envious of those who are more successful than himself. The former-I speak of the opulent and educated, [usually, here, those owning the greater number of slaves, and most in communication with them,] is distinguished by a highmiidcdness, generosity and hospitality, by no means predicable of his more eastern neighbors." "In point of manner, the southern gentlemen are decidedly superior to all others of the Union-there is more spirit and vivacity about them, and far less of that prudent caution, which, however advantageous on the exchange, is by no means prepossessing at the dinner-table or in the drawing-room. When at Washington, I was a good deal thrown into the society of members from the South, and left it armed, by their kindness, with a multitude of letters, &c. Many of them were men of much accomplishment, and I think it probable that Englishmen unconnected with business would generally prefer the society of gentlemen ofthis portion of the Union to any other which the country affords." Again: the Hon. Charles Augustus Murray, the son of Lord Dunmore, and accustomed to the first societv in Europe thus speaks of the native female society of New Orleans, also the pure offspring of a slaveholding country. " In manners, the Creole ladies are gay, lively and unaffected, and altogether possess as much personal attrac tion as has fallen to the lot even of the fairest average of the fair creation."' I must also acknowledge that I had seen nothing so like a ball since I left Europe; the contre-danses were well danced, and there was waltzing without swinging, and a gallopade without a romp, [a pretty good test of society.] The supper was exceedingly handsome, and, in one respect, wine superior to most of those given at ball suppers in London," and not right's champagne, usually given on such occasions in London. On the whole, he went away much pleased with the mirth and agreeable manners of Creole socie ty. At Charleston, he says, " a gentleman must be difficult to please if he does not find the Charleston society agreeable. There is something warm, frank and courteous in the manner of a real Carolinian; he is not stu diously, but naturally, polite; and though his character may not be remarkable for that persevering industry and close attention to minutiae in business, which are so remarka ble in the New-England merchant, he is far from deficient in sagacity, courage or enter prise. Altogether, with due allowance for exceptions, I should say that the Carolinian character is more akin to that of England; the New-England to that of the lowland Scotch." And all this, notwithstanding the early abolition of the law of primogeniture, the frequent division of property among all the children, and the fact that they are now mul titudes of slaves, and by all the. appliances of rural luxur y. It is th us that, removed as they are from the n ecessity of labor, and being interrupted in their retirement only by the occasional visits of their friends and neighbors, the opportunity is affonrdedaigieahscl th em ofcultivating all those s,cial qualities which enter in to our estimate of a country gentry. In the so ciety of the souther n Atlantic stat es, but particularly in that of the three las t menti oned, ther e is a purity of t one and an elevation of sentiment, together with an ease of manner and a general social aplomb, which are only to be found in a truly l eisure class. Any general picture of American society would be very incomplete, into which was not prominently introduced the p has e wh ich it exhibits in the rural life of th e South." Mr. Mackay seems to delight to dwell on the delightful society, male and female, of Virginia. Their easy grace, their frank hospitality, their warmth and fervor, proved very captivating to the cofd Englishman. In the warmth of the moment, he declares that Virginia "is at once the type and the most striking specimen of th e social developmn ent peculiar t o th e slave-holding states. of the Atlantic seaboard; and it is only illustrative of such that I have here particularly alluded to the more distinctive features of Virginian society." Speaking of Charleston, he says, " They have neither the pretension of the Bostonian, nor the frigid bearing which the Philadelphians at first assume about them, being characterized by a frankness and urbanity of manner which at once prepossesses the stranger in their favor, whilst they put him completely at his ease. This delighful phase of Charleston society is much to be attributed to its constant intercourse with the interior [the plantations in the country;] South Carolina, in its social characteristics, bearing a close resemblance to Maryland and Virginia." He also reminds the traveler that, as he proceeds south from Philadelphia, he will find the proportion borne by the negroes to the whole population increasing in each successive town which he enters. But in no place north of it are they so numerous, compared with the whites, as in Charleston; in 1840, they consisted of little more than one-half its entire population." And he might have said the same ofthe interior or rural districts of the state. Mr. Hamilton, the author of Cyril Thornton, thus gives his evidence: *' The poles are not more diametrically opposed than a native of the states south of the Potomac and a New-Englander. They differ in everything of thought, feeling and opinion. The latter is a man of regular and decorous habits, shrewd, intelligent and persevering; phlegmatic in temperament, devoted to the pursuits 8SOUtV-HOW AFFECTED B3Y HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS, ETC. ealncated'at home, and no longer at Oxford but where it is either a right dictated by na or Cambridge. Mr. Murray proceeds to say, tare, or the easy effect of circumstances and that, " while the society of Boston, Philadel- situation, the very corisciousness of authority phia and New-York is daily becoming more is apt to inspire a beneficence and hbtimaniity exclusive and tristocratic, that of the Caro- in the manner of exercising it. Thus we linian capital is becoming more republican." find the ancient Romans, although absolute "The tone of society, which here, as else- sovereigns in their families, with the jus vita: where, is under female control, struck me as et necis, the right of life and death over their being very agreeable; there is nothing in it children and theitr slaves, were yet excellent of that formality or ostentation which I had husbands, and kind and affectionate parents, been led to expect. I parted with much re- humane and indulgent masters. Nor was it luctance from some of my partners in this until luxury had corrupted the virtuous sim,condemned dance; [waltz;] they were pretty, plicity of the ancient mannlers, that this paagreeable and intelligent, and, in one res- ternal authority, degeieratiig into tyrannical tarhal~ ~ h abthrit,degneadigittrnia ,pect, have an advantage over most of their abuse, required tobe abridged in its power, northern sisters, (if the judge is to be a per- and restraire d in its exercise by the enact ~~~~son accusto~med to Englsh society,)I mnt of law. By an apparent contradiction, me a n, as regards voice; they have not that long as the paternal authority was absop articular intonation and pronunciation lute, the slaves ad chilren were happy w h i c h I had remarked elsewhere, an d which when it became weakened aitd abridged, m u s t have struck every stranger who has then t was that its tarrirs were from the v i s i t e d the other Atlantic cities. " excessive cor ti of manners, most se verely felt. Even, however, under the first Such, we have shown from the best evi- emperors, the patrio potestas remained in its 'dence, has been the character of southlern full force, arid tihe custoim of the patresfamislaveholders previous to the Revolution, and lias sitting at mneals with their slaves and down to the present day. Let the value of children, showed that there still remained institutions be judged by their fruit. They some venerable traces of that ancient and have always had English ideas of liberty. not virtuous simplicity. French, and, as Mr. Burke has said. on Erig- At the South, children are never put out lish principles. They never believed that all to nurse, but are brought upl tfrom their birth men were born equal. They never favored under the careful aid jealous eye of the mo"abstract liberty," but have had from the ther, and, as with the Romans, non tam in beginning their own system, and if you greteio quam in sermone matris. Southey, in please, their favorite point, which, by way of one of his letters, speaks of Shadrach Weeks, eminence, has become necessary, and therefore (a servant boy of his auint, vith whom he the "criterion of their happiness." If they are lived,) to whose compan1io pshi) he was ac"loud for democracy," it has been for the custorned when a child, for want of better: democracy of the white man, and not the and, many years afier, speaking of "Shad," negro. When they salute the negro as a he assures his friend, as if it were something political brother, they will treat him as such, extraordinary, or rnot to be expected, that and not as a dog were "Shtad" still alive, and he should meet All the greatest and freest people of anti- him, "be it where it might." he would requity were slaveholders. In Attica, Laconia, turn his salutation with a hearty shake of the and all the other prominent states of Greece, hand. We w)ti(ler if there could be foundl the slave population was much greater than a gentleman in thie wirile South, who would the free. The people, literally, (the citizens not, under simnilar- circumstances, which are only,) were in every instance a small mi- not uncommon, shake the black anid dirty nority. Speaking of the character of the paw of Cuffee or Sanbo? Romans, Lord Woodhouselie (Mr. Tytler) A great source, We are sorry to say it, of says:-" A virtuous but rigid severity of popular prejulice in Europre and elsewhere mannters was the characteristic of the Ro- ag,oinst the slaveh,Ilding states, has arisen mans utinder their kings, and (luring the first from a Yankee live of misrepresenting and ages of the republic. The private life of the blackening everything at the South. Some Citizens was frugal, temperate and laborious, of our readers m ny remrembter the account and it reflected its influence on their public given by Mr. Lyell, in his second visit to the character. The children imbibed from their United States, of the " abolitionist wrecker," infancy the highest veneration for their pa- in the railway cars between Cheliaw and rents, who, from the extent of the paternal Montgomery. " At one of the stations we power among the Romans, hat an unlimited saw a runaway slave, who had been caught authority over their wives, their offspring, and handcuffed; the first I had lallen in with and their slaves. It is farfrom natural to the in iroiis in the course of the present journey. human m?ind that the possession of power and On seeing him, a New-Eriglarider, who had authority shoald form a tyrannical disposi been with us iii the stage before we reached tion. Where that authority, indeed, has been Chehaw, began to hold forth on the miserausurped by violence, its possessor may. per- ble condition of the negroes in Alaliama, haps, be tempted to maintain it by tyranny; Louisiana, Mississippi, and some other states 67" SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS. slave-holding states, there is "a purity of tone," and,an elevation of sentiment," "a high-minidedniess, generosity and hospitality,'" rarely to be found at the North; and that 'sin point of manner, the southern gentlemeni were decidedly superior to all others of the Union,' and that'; Eng lish men, ullconnected with business, would generally prefer the society of gentlemen of t his portion of' t h e Union to any other which the country affords." Aga in, the lad ies a re found quite as virtuou s, gay, Iiv ely, unaffected, graceful, and possessing as much personal attraction a as has fallen to the lot e ven of the fairest average of fai r creation. Moreover, the se degenerate, slave-holding gentlemen of t he Sou th, are, "in character, more akin to that of England," th an thos e of New-Erglant d orof the North generally. Th en, rea llky, in the eyes of an Englishman, they have, in truth, degenerated less than any other s in Americas for w h at higher criter ion of p erfection can we have of mankind th an an English gentle, man! Why, and how is this? Without seeming to se e where it leadstMr. Mackay has siven the true ca use. "This difference is chiefly attributabl e to the different systems which obtain in the distribution of property, and to other causes, social and political." At the South, " th e co unt ry is divided into large plantations, on which reside the diffeient fam ilies, in large and commodious mansions, surrounded by slaves, and by an I ll the appliances of rural luxuries. It is thus the o pport unit y is a fforded t he m o f cultivax ting all those social qualities which en ter into our estimate of a countr y g entry." It is a mistake, in the author, to suppose that there has " obtained an y difference in the distribu tion of property between the North and South." In both, the law makes a genera l distribution amoW h,a all the childre n. We never knew a will to leave the testator's estate t o one child to t he exclusi on of others. Toleta ea into this Upeuliar institution, then," (slavery.) is all this due; though it may not consist exactly with that " abstract liberty," which, as Mr. Burke says,. is nowhere to be found. The South may be excused if it does not take every ass's advice, to avoid, if not that "1 favorite point," at least, that necessary one, wlhich, by way of " eminence," has thus been acknowledged, by their enemies, to be I' the criterion," not " only of their happi iless," but of their moral and social superi ority. We have long been taught by British literature to be proud of our Saxon ancestors, and we shall scarcely now be made ashamed of an institution under which they became so distinguished for the love of liberty. This, then, is the evil, the crime, the tumor of Mr. Mackay, which causes so much shame to our social and political system! All the good is to be counterbalanced by Mr. Mackay's seeing "all aged negro —his hair partially whitened with years-waiting on the 'Senate olf the United States! He, with other which I had not yet visited. For a time I took fo)r granted all he said of the sufferings of the colored race in those regions, the cruelty of the overseers, their opposition to the improvemenit and education of the blacks, and especially to their conversion to Christianity. I began to shudder at what I was doomed to witness in the course of my further journeyings iii the South and West. He was very intelligent, and so well informed on politics and political economv, that, at first, I thought myself fortunate in meeting with a man so competent to give me an unprejudiced opinion on matters of which he had been an eyewitntess. At length, however, suspecting a disposition to exaggerate, and a party-feeling on the subject, I gradually led him to speak of districts with which I was already familiar, especially South Carolina and Georgia. I immediately discovered that there also he had everywhere seen the same horrors and misery. He went so far as to declare that the pinty woods all around us were full of hundreds of runaways, who subsisted on venison and wild hogs; assured me that I had been deceived if I imagined that the colored men in the uipper country, where they have mingled more with the whites, were more progressive; nor was it true that the Baptists an d Methodists ha d been successful in mak ing proselytes. Few planters, he aft firmed, had any liking for the negroes, and, lastly, that a war with Englanid about Oregon, unpritncipled as would be tlie measure on the part of the democratic faction, would have, at least, its bright side, for it might put an end to slavery.' How in the world,' asked I,' could it effect this object?''Enland,' he replied, would declare all the slaves in the South free, and thus cripple her enemy by promoting a servile war." The negroes would rise, and, although, no doubt, there would be a great loss of lite and property, the South would, nevertheless, be a gainer, by ridding herself of this most vicious and impoverishing institution. This man had talked to me so rationally on a variety of' top cs so long as he was restrained by the comnpany of southern fellow-passengers from entering on the exciting question of slavery, that I now became extremely curious to know what business had brought him to the South, and made him a traveler there for several years. I was told by the conductor that he was a' wrecker;' and I learned in explanation of the term, that he was a commercial agent, and partner of a northern house which had great connections in the South." We have said before, that even Mr. Mackay is nmistaken it'he supposes that on this subject he can raise himself above this "overriding European prejudice," or avoid "stumbling over ditfficullties"' created by his own imag~inationl. Wet have shown, on the most respectable British authlority, that ill the rural society in the oldest and greatest southern (1)8 SOUTH-HOW AFFECTED BY HER SLAVE INSTITUTIONS. is becoming imbued with the notion that, in the course which was pursued in regard to the West Indies, if we have not gone too far, we acted, at least, with rashness and precipitation." We have given the character of the southern planters, as estimated by Mr. Mackay and others of his countrymen, not as they first conceived or were told when they first reached the North, but after being in society with them at home. Now, let us look over their travels,.and notice the little inconsistent prejudices which they exhibit here and there before-they have made this personal acquaintance, but are only receiving theirimpressions from our brethren at the North. Arrived at Washington, "what a motly heterogeneous assembly! Within a narrow compass you have the semi-savage' Far Westerner,' the burly backwood's-man, the enterprising NewEnglander, the genuine Sam Slick, the polished Bostonian, the adventurous NewYorker, the staid and prim Philadelphian, the princely merchant from the seaboard, the wealthy manufacturer, the energetic farmer, and the languid but uncertain planter." In the library he finds " the exquisitely formed and vivacious Creole, the languid but interesting daughters of Georgia and the Carolinas, and the high-spirited' Virginia belle, gushing with life, and light of heart, the elegant and springy forms of Maryland and Philadelphia maidens, and the clear and h igh-complexioned beauties of New-England." And again, in the House of Representatives, Mr. Mackay gives a sketch, characteristic of North, South, East and West. "'What pages of history of the Union may be read in the varied physiognomy of the House! Close beside you is the languid Carolinian, accustomed to have everything done for him, at his nod." And yet, " in character, so much akin to that of England!" According to the notion of most cockneys, Carolina and Georgia are the only slave states, and Georgia and Mobile the only producers of short staple cotton: hen-e this peculiar languor, and authority of the nod, which, of course, can exist in no other slave state. Not three years since, a maker of gins, in Massachusetts, asked us if they made cotton in South Carolina! How comes it that the belles of Virginia and Louisiana are not languid. But these same languid ladies Mr. Murray found, at home, " gay, lively, and unaffected, and possessed of as much personal attraction as has fallen to the fairest of creation." Mr. Mackay must excuse us, if, on this subject, we prefer the judgment of one of Queen Victoria's court, quite above that of a squire of any degree. Those who knew the members of Congress, from the Carolinas, in 1846-7, will smile at'the idea 4)f their negroes, daily swept the chamber-the black man cleaning what the white man defiles. Who will erase the moral stain that casts such a shadow over the republic?" Was ever such balderdash uttered before? "Near him was the door leaditng into the gallery. It was slightly ajar. The ceiling of the chamber was visible to him, and the voice of the speakers came audibly from withlain. Some one was then addressing the house. I listened and recogqtized the tones of one of the represeentatives of Virginia, the great breeder of slaves, [the anothier of that rural popul ation so much noearer in approach to his English gentry, than is disoernible in any other portion of t he r epublic; a phase of society they all so m uch admire; so pur e i n its tgone, and elevated in its seniiments, and social aplomb.] dogmatiziong upon abstract right s and constitutional -privileg tes. Wha t a commentary was that duoor wretch upon his language! To think that such w ords sho uld full up on such ears; the fr eem an speaking, the slave listening, and all wit hin the very san ctuary of th e eCty ons titUa.tion!" Did Mlr. Mackay never behold an aged negro. his hair partially whitened w ith y ears, in the drizzling raili the livelong day, sweeping the mud from the crose sing places in an Englishb c ity, to l et gentlemen, like Mr. Mackay, pass, without soilin g their p atent leather; while these humane ge ntleme n seltdom drop one penniy iln Y his crooked fingers," to quench the thirst or stay the hutger ,of the poor negro,'(much more an object of pity than he, who has the enviable birth of sweeu)in g the Se n ate chamber)? The writer of this aticle, of th e c ontrary, a slaveholder afrom birth, yea, for ge nerations, never passed ,one blite'-fie-lt for h'im as a distressed 1'ellowcountry man far from home and friends, whose demands for charity were more obligatory on him than those of the white man. Did Mr. Mackay never read the " Kniite Grinder?" The English boast of their act of emancipation. The W'est Indies had friends so long as they had creditors in England. The ,act was, in fact, only a liquidation, at onethird of the price of the property, ofthe debt due by them to their British creditors. Their friends were thus bought up. To the poor of England, sugar was made scarce, taxes increased, and idleness made plenty in those islands. The twenty millions did not 'go, as it was pretended it would do, to pay the wades of the freed negro; nor did its disbursement disturb the exchanges of 'London, for it remained there, and Jamaica and her sister islands have been left to struggle in the wreck, made so kindly for them by theirnational government. Yet we are even now told by Mr. Mackay, "1 to how great an extent the tide is now, unfortunately, turningf in Europe, if not in favor o>f slavery. at least of something very much approximating to it; whilst the public mind 69 SOUTH AND THE UI0ON1 peculiar languor. In the Senate, he himself' "foremost, for his pre-eminence in talents, purity of intentions and lustre of social qualities," places Mr. Calhoun, from languid Carolina. Could he have meant such men as Messrs. McDuffie, Badger, and Rhett? Mr. Mackay, perhaps, can reconcile these discrepancies. We think, however, that they show some inkling of old prejudices which still over-ride his judgment-similar climate and similar institutions produce similar characters. The same waiting upon, the same obedience to the nod, and the same climate, can scarcely produce " high spirit" in the Virginian, "vivacity" in the creole of Louisiana, and languor in the Carolinian and Georgian. What elevates and gives tone to the gentleman can scarcely make him languid. So much for the judgment of an impartial intelligent European upon the character of our people and institutions! It does not move us one jot to abandon them. Prejudice, everywhere, must cause contradictions and inconsistencies. We have no olbjection that the Englishman, or Northernman should prefer his own institutions. We are content with our own, and do not feel that we need their aid to amend them. " I can assert," says Mr. W. Thompson, a Scotch weaver, who traveled in 1841-42 in the southern states, (cited by Mr. Lyell,) and who lived and worked with persons of that class, where he was likely to see most-" I can assert, without fear of coutradiction from any man, who has any knowledge of the subject, that I have never witnessed one-fifth of the real suffering th at I h ave s een in manufacturing establishment s in G reat Br itain, and that the members of the same family of negroes are no t s o much sc att ered as ar e these of working men in Scotla nd, whos e necessities compel them to sep arate at an early age, when the American slave is running about gathering health and strength." " Certainly," says Carlyle,'1 emancipation proceeds with rapid strides, and might give rise to reflection in men of a serious turn. W,rest Indian blacks are emancipated. and refuse to work. Irish whites have long been emancipated, and nobody asks them to work, finding them potatoes. In the progress of emancipation, are we to look for a time when the horses are to be emancipated?" "Cut," says he, "every human relation which has anywhere grown uneasy, sheer asunder; reduce whatsoever was compulsory to voluntary; whatsoever was permanent among us to the condition of nomadic; in other words, loosen, by assiduous wedges, in every joint, the whole fabric of social existence, stone from stone, till at last, all now being loose enough, it can, as we already see in most countries, be o~verset by sadden outburs~ts of revolutionary THE SOUTH AND THE UNION.*-RESOURCES AND'"TEALTH OF' TIHE SOUTH, AND-, WHAT SHE HAS CONTRIBUTED TOWARDS THR GROWTH OF THE NATION.-A citizen of a distant section of the co nfed era cy, which isfar nearer to the sun than your own, and is, basking in h is autumn al rays, whilst you are receiving refuge, from shivering blasts, I am not ignorant of the people among wh om I find myself, and need not now be informed, of the ir gro wing greatnes s and power. We have heard of the cease less industry, and en e rgy, and enterpris e of the North, an d th th d they h ave become proverbial wi th us. We, know that your shipping have circumnavigated the globe, and that the white wings o f your commerce flap in every haven or islet where Christian or savage man asks i n his necessities fo r bread o r broadclot h, and that with a daring grasp you have seized from old Neptune himself the ver y trident o f the seas. Ve know that the hum of your machinery is never hushe d, and that ten th ousand t ime s ten thousan t fabrics of ingenuity an d skill are sent out each day fromin the granite factories, which, like feudal palaces, fro wn down upon your water -co urses, or from the dense lanes of your metropolitani cities. We know that you have leveled hills, surmounted rivers and valleys, and even arms of the great sea, and intersected on a thousand lines your plains, and hills, and valleys, by those i ron wa ys of civilization, the rail-road; and that your people, with their Panidora's box of'-' notions," fly hither and thither with a celerity God only knows how great! You di,g down into the, innermost bowels of the earth, and bring up; coal and iron-you hew out of vast mountains huge granite blocks, and turn into, profit even the very curses of God: your * The above paper comprises but the corrected notes of an Address prepared to be delivered last summer by invitation at the Fair of the American Institute, New- York, and is of necessity crude ace ill digested. 70 rage; and lying, as mere mountains of ana,rchic rubbish, solicit you to sing Frateri4ity, &c., over it,, and to rejoice in the,. new remarkable era of human progress wehave arrived at.",My friends, I grieve to. retaind you, but it is eternally the fact: Whom Heaven has i-n-ade a slave, no parliament of men, nor power that exists on earth,, can render him. free. No; he is chained by fetters whith. parliaments, with their mil — lions, cannot reach. You can label him (the African) free; yes, and it is. but labeling him a solecism-bidding him t,(>.be the parent of solecisms wheresoever he,goes.", Benevolent philanderings 1"',-Seeds of that portentous disease now enyenoi-aing ptoleta,rianlife!" "SocialismandFourierism." -Mc Cord. SOUTH AND THE UNION. winters, which change streams and fountains alike into solid ice, and leave throughout the length and breadth of your wide dominions literally " no green thing alive" Your population has magnified and multiplied, and in its denseness been compelled to seek every available outlet, so that if they want a piece of ice at Tinibuctoo, or a friction match at Nova Zembla, a Yankee trader will be found present there, and ready to supply the want. Your small towns swell into great ones, and your wonderful Manha'ttl rivals already the leviathans of the old world, which have had the benefit of ages of refinement and civilization. Thus you are, people of the North; and here, to-day, as I look around me upon this extraordinary museum, which your farmers, your machinists, apprentices, artisans and manufacturers have fabricated in their ingenuity and enterprise, I seem to see, as through a diminishing mirror, and at one glance, your active and busy millions reflected, like that mirror, in which it is fabled one of the Ptolemies could see every thing that was enacted in Egypt. I will not deny that I am astonished and delighted, and that in my own region I would imitate very much what belongs to your character and career; but at the same time I must be allowed to say, in kindly in tention, and with the utmost frankness, I am not ashamed to name that region in the same breath with your own. In the true spirit of my countrymen, I will even go fur ther, and add, so nearly are the good thin(gs of this world balanced, and so much do I t)e lieve in substantial blessings we have the ad vantage, that I would be very far indeed from changing places with you in the con federacy! The sun shines not alone for the North, nor the stars-nor have you the winds, and the rains, and the dews to your self, though the snows be all your own Your people seem often, however, to think and to act as if it were otherwise, and Godc had made the world entirely for them, and no part of it for us, the " outside barbari ans," beyond the "pillars of Hercules," interpreted to mean landmarks of' Mason and Dixon," the very outposts of all civiliza tion and progress. Think not that we of the benighted South, like the British chief tain, when carried in the triumphant pro cession of the conqueror to Rome, are going to marvel in surveying all of your great and wonderful works, that you have envied us, notwithstanding OUR PooR tiUTS on the banks of the Potomac, or by the shores of the Mexican Gulf! No, no, sirs: the South has nothing to blush for; and no son of hers may hold down his head when any people upon earth are in discussion. Whilst we are surprised, we are not envious of the career of any of our neighbors, being able to show in turn a career of progress and advancement which, when correctly appreciated and understood, must satisfy the minds of the most exacting. We do not shun the comparison, but rather court and invite it; and here, to-day, in your swarming hive, and where I see smiles of proud triumph upon every li p, an d hear every voice eloquent in your praises, I take high pleasure in calling up in vivid m emory the region which I proudly call my HOnME-the beaut iful i nner domestic life and high civilization which marks the society of the SOUTH-the pregnant cane-fields of the Lower Mississippi, the fleecy gossypium, overrunning its millions and millions of acres, in rank luxuriance, and at once giving food and raiment to the laboring mil lions of the old and the new world. '"'hat have we of the plantation states been doing towards the extension of this great confederacy 1 How have our people been employed in every period of their his tory. WVhat is now our social and politi cal position, and what does the future promise us? Fellow-citizens, much misrepresentation of the South, in every point of view, has been but too common, and we are ourselves somewhat at tault in not diffusing correct information which it is in our power to give. Ignorant or bad men have found capital in traducing our institutions and our people, or in underrating our position and import ance in the confederation. I have supposed that in the great and liberal city of New York, and before an institution which pro fesses to be AMERICAN, that this subject of the SOUTH is one of the most interesting that could be brought into discussion, and that having invited me, a Sozuthern man, to speak, you will freely and willingly hear me for my cause, and be patient that you may hear. I begin with COMMERCE. It is by our commercial relations that we are known to the rest of the world. This rears for us fleets and navies, and from it come the rev enues for the most part of the nation. Be fore the Revolution, or from 1760 to 1769, the southern colonies, with a less population than New-England, New-York and Penn sylvania, exported nearly five times as much produce. In the same period Carolina and Georgia exported twice the value of New York, Pennsylvania and New-En gland. In the years 1821 to 1830, New-York alone ex ceeded these states. Under the policy of the federal government of protecting American ship-builders and ship-owners, who, from the peculiar nature of the country, are from the North, the larger portion of this trade has been attracted away from our ports andl con centrated in yours. Yet is the case unakf fected, if we may still trace the products of,u 71 SOUTH AND THE UNION. our industry and our skill. Whatever may be the value of the great foreign trade of the nation, it is evident the imports of the country must only come in exchange for the exports, and that, if we had nothing to export, we could get nothing in return. Whence then does this nation seek its exports? Let us take the last five years. In 1846 the exports of Northern growth or manufacture, and much of this manufacture is out of Southern material, were $27,331,290, whilst those of Southern produce, cotton, tobacco, rice, naval stores, &c., were $74,000,000, or, three times as much! In 1847 the Southern exports were $102,000,000, against the Northern $48,000,000; in 1848, $98,000,000, against $34,000,000; in 1849, $99,000.000 against $32,000,000. Thus then is it, that the South is lending annually to the North 100 millions of dollars to be used by her as capital in conducting the foreign imports of the country, which nearly all come in your ships and to your cities, and enrich your people in an extraordinary ratio! MIr. Kettell, of New-York, estimates the profits which have been made by northern ship-owners upon southern productions, at $40,000,000 in round numbers. WVhat has the South been doing in GENERAL INDUSTRY? She has carried the production of COTTON, which, at the close of the last century, was thought by Mr. Jay and others never could be an American product, to an extent which has distanced the wildest calculations; in the fineness and excellence of its production, excelled every nation upon earth, monopolizing the industry entirely to herself Of what avail has been British competition in the East, on a soil adapted to the culture, with labor so cheap that a beggar in this country would starve upon its results, with the fostering regards of ministers and agents? Of what moment have been the rivalries of the Pacha of Egypt, of the West Indies and South America? Southern enterprise and industry have triumphed over all, and has, for a quarter of a century, monopolized the staple to themselves. The cotton wool and its fabrics of the South are even sent to China and to India, where the cultivation of the plant seems to have thrived as far back almost as the fabulous age of Fohi, and where it has been manufactured into fabrics so delicate, that the orientals call them " webs of woven wind."* It is this cotton which employs the millions of New-Engl and, an d whi ch thro ws the grave statistician of Old En gland, McCulloch, into ecstasies: " Little more t han half a century h as elapsed sinc e the British cotton manufacture was in its infancy, and it now forms the principal business carried on in the country, affording an advantageou s f ield for the a ccumulation and employment of millions upo n millions f ca pital, and o f t th o usand s and th ousands of workmen. The skill and geniu s b y wh ich these astonishing results have been achieved, have been one of the main soeurces of our power. They have contributed in no common degree to raise the British nation t o the high and conspicuous place she now occupies. Nor is it much to say, tha t it was the wealt h and energy derived fro m the cotton m anufacture that bore us triumphant ly th rough the late dreadful wars; and at the same t ime that it gives u s strength to endure burdens that would have crushed our fathers, and could not be supported by any other people." I will next take the article of SUGAR. In 1804, when Louisiana was purchased from France, her sugar product, we have it oi the highest authority, wa s ne xt to nothing. Indeed, it was only in 1796 that Mr. Bore conceived, as Judge Rost assures us, the desperate purpose of making sugar, amid the general existing prejudice that the juice would not "grain." Crowds from every quarter came to witness his experiment, near New-Orleans. " Gentlemen, it grains," was the exclamation of the sugar-maker; and from the Balize to the Dubuque-from the Wabash to the Yellow-stone-the great, the all-absorbing news of the colony was, that " the juice of the cane had grained in Lower Louisiana." Half a century has passed since then, and the population of our country increased from 4,000,000 to over 23,000,000 of people, whose cousumption of sugar is more than half supplied by the industry of Louisiana, and will, in a few years more, in the rapid progress of the state, be entirely so supplied. -The gross product of the last five years has been nearly 1,200,000 hhds., against little over 600,000 hhds. in the previous five years. The crop of 1849-'50 reached nearly 250,000 hhds., of the value, with molasses, &c., of about $15,000,000. Within a year or two, one hundred new sugar estates will be opened. WThat other community can show as favorable results. Our product is already one-sixth the product of the world, and one-half the product of Cuba; and while we have been at work in developing it, Great Britain has seen her rich sugar colonies dwindle into insignificance, and must look abroad even for the supply of her own * In the table of supplies we may observe, that while other countries have been nearly stationary, our production has advanced with great rapidity. In twenty years our average crop has increased from 818,000 bales to 2,351,000, or nearly three hundred fold. If the period of 25 years, from 1825 to 1850, be divided into five equal intervals, the increase for each will be found to be 27, 37, 38, and 15 per cent. In the same time the production of all other countries has only risen from 383,000 to 440,000 bales, ,having absolutely declined in the lastfive years over 16 per cent. In the first period of five years, the crop of the United States constitute d 68 per cent. of the whole! In the second, 74; in the third, 77; in the fourth, 80; and in the fifth, 84 per cent. of the whole. As our bales have increased very much in weight, and are now much larger than those of other countries, our advance has been still greater, and our rank still higher than these figures indicate, ' —Prof. 3IcKay. I I r I c e d t e 0 0 s n e rn c e d sd at d re0 72 SOUTH AND THE UNION. wants.* The investment in mere,machinery, &c., with us, is of the most costly kindnot less, perhaps, than $15,000,000; and experiments on the most liberal and largest scale are continually prosecuted. Five years ago, two of our most intelligent citizens went to the Spanish West Indies to examine into the state of the sugar industry, and returned with the gratifying intelligence that they could find nothing there to learn, but that in every respect the Louisianian was in adv.-nce. These things we have effected, though " Tile slaves by which-Cuba canes are cultivated, are, in spit e of the suppression of the slave trade, imported from Africa. at a cost which, on an average, does not exceed, the price in Louisiana of a good pair of mules. The climate there permits these slaves to be worked with as few clothes as they were ill the habit of wearing in their native country; whilst our slaves are, generally at least, as well fed and clothed as laborers are in Europe. Canes in Cuba ripen during fourteen or eighteen months, and require no plowing, no ditching, and hardly any weeding; their rattoons last fifteen or twenty years. With us, after having tilled our soil in a manner no farmer in the United States would be ashamed of, we must get sugar out of our canes, on an average, eight months after they have come out of the ground, and must re-plant every second year. They grind six months in the year; we can hardly calculate on half that time. With all these disadvantages against us, our planters make fully as many pounds of sugar to the working hand as can be made in Cuba." Louisiana planter excel: he deserves also commendation for the manner in which he has embellished his country. His leisure hours are devoted to the beautifying of his estates, thus rendering the margin of the Mississippi a continuation of bea utiful vi llage s, surrounde d by tro pi c al pla nt s and trees." The same gentleman is t rans ported into ecstasies on descending the lower Mi s sissippi, and vie w in g the cane-fields of our thriving state: " I cannot describe the delight lf elt when I first en te re d of the state of Lou isi ana. Its ri ver, the creator of this rich alluvial territor y, after h avin g tosse d and rolled its mighty waters against the wild shores of the upper country, carrying away and building up, inug t tr a c nd a t ing vast tracts, and leaving e verywhere traces of its destructive sway, begins at once to slacken its current and keep its turbid st rea m with - in the bounds o f fertile banks, gliding maj estically through highly cultivated pla ins, c overe d with the graceful sugar-cane, the uniformity of which is contin ua lly d iversifieda by beautiful dwelling s, gardens, and the towering chimneys of the s ugar-houses, t he hands ome f ronts ofwhich stand forth in the picturesque background of the forest, forming an everchanging scene. "The traveler who floats in one of the gigantic palaces of the southwest, can from the high deck behold with delight the enchanting scenery the whole day long, and look with regret on the setting sun, which, gradually withdrawing behind the dark outline of the cypress forest, leaves this lovely country reposing under the dark mantle of night. Not less beautiful and well cultivated are the shores of the great bayous and tr;butaries crossing the state in all directions. I invariably met with that far-tamed hospitable welcome peculiarly characteristic of the Southern gentleman and planter." But this is not all. We have Texas, which already produces as much as Louisiana did in 1822, and which, in many parts, is abundantly adapted to the culture; and Florida, which, in time, will enter the competition for a large share of the results. I will not pause to consider our tobacco and our rice, though they cannot be considered contemptible, since the value we annually export in these articles, alone, is one-third the value of the exports of all the North, in every product whatever: nor shall I refer to less important staples. But I have other testimony. In 1849, the government sent a special agent, Mr. Fleischman, to examine the sugar industry of Louisiana. This gentleman, on his return, made an elaborate and valuable report, in which he says: "There is no exaggeration in saying, that there is no sugar-growing country, where all the modern improvements have been more fairly tested and adopted, than in Louisiana, and where such perfect boiling apparatus is used, fulfilling all the conditions that science and experience have pointed out as necessary for obtaining a pure and perfect crystalline sugar, combined with the utmost economy of fuel. " The success ofthese improved modes is due to the enterprise and high intelligence of the Louisiana planters, who spare no expense to carry this importanrt branch of agriculture and manufacture to its highest perfection. They have succeeded in making, strictly.from the cane-juice, sugar of absolute chemical purity, combining perfection of crystal and color. I This is, indeed, a proud triumph,' says Professor McCulloch, in his valuable report to Congress.' In the whole range of the chemical arts, I amn not aware of another instance were so perfect a result is in like manner immediately attained.' " What was supposed impossible has been accomplished by the Louisiana planter, notwithstanding the obstacles of the late maturity of the cane, early frosts, and other incidents occurring there, which casualties are unknown to the sugar planter of the tropical regions. But not only in the raising of cane and the manufacture of sugar does the Let us turn now to the subject of MAsNoFACTURES. Let the North no t s uppose she has the monopol y here to he rself. A great revolution is in progress. Already th e staples of Southern manufacture are exhibited at your fairs, which elicit, as your own Reports s how, the hi ghe st approval and admiration. The p rod uc t of Sout hern looms compete in your own m arkets in the hea vier cot - ton fabrics. The South knows her advantage, and is pushing it with a vigor and energ y wh ich nothing c an now ar rest. She is buildinin up a n Institute at Charleston, which will in time vie with your own, and at its great F*IR, last November, made an exhibition which excited universal surprise and admiration. These fairs will multiply in her limits. Alreadv the amount of cotton which she annually consumes in manufactures is between 80 and 90,000 bales, or about as * SUGAR CROPS IN JAMAICA. 1804........1 12,163 h hds. 1844........ 34,444 hhds. 1805........150,352 " 18t5........ 47,926 " 1806........146,601 " 1846........ 36,223 " 1807........135,o03 " 1847........ 48,554 " 1808........132,333 " 1848....... 42,212 " Janaica in 1850, by JOIIN BIGELOW. 73 SOUTH AND THE UNION. much as the consumption of the whole North in 1830! Every day our capitalists a r e investing in new mills, and the planters themselves are urged into the business on t h e assurance that they ca n add at th e lowest forty dollars to every bale of cotton they produce. In the states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee, 130 mills are at work, with 140,000 spindles. These mills have a bounty of from 1 M to 2 cents, on every pound of cotton used, in the saving of transportation and other expenses, and it is exhibited in their profits, which are not behind those of the most favored in the world. All of this we have done in scarcely more than ten years; and no one can consider the subject without arriving at the conclusion, that the South is becoming, and will become, perhaps jointly with the West, the great cotton manufacturing region of the world. Were she to work up her 2,500,000 bales of cotton, and receive the profit at $40 each, she would realize from 70 to 100,000 millions; or if the 600,000 bales manufactured in the United States were manufactured in her limits, she would have 25 millions of dollars to add to her present enormous annual products! Hear what Mr. James, a northern man, says upon this subject: "Thus, then, the products of the western country whether descending the White River or the mighty stream of the Missouri; whether floating along the current of the Mississippi or its t ributary branches, many of t hem noble rivers, and, like the Illinois fltowing through territories of exuberatant and inexhaustible fertility; whet her de scen ding along the stream of the Ohio itself, or any of its secondary w aters, will only have to paus e in their descending progress, turn against the current of the Tennessee for two or three days, and then in forty or sixty hours, a cco rding to the rat e at wh ich carriages shall be made t o travel, may be plac ed in Augusta, on navigable water flowing into the Atlan tic, or in another day on continued railroads, may be delivered in Charleston or Savannah, in Atlantic ports possessing every advantage that mercantile enterprise may require. Six days, therefore, of uninterrupted travel, may take produce from the confluence of the Ohio and the Mississippi to the shores of the Atlantic, and in twelve days a return cargo may be delivered at the same points!" Accordingly the Charleston and Hamburg rail-road was built, which was at the time the longest rail-road in the world! Scarcely had it been completed, when the citizens of that great emporium were found still urging onwards their great enterprise of reaching the Ohio or the Mississippi, and they projected the Louisville and Cincinnati railroad, over five hundred miles in length, and which had the appearance of the most stupendous project known to human industry! The road failed from the extraordinary revulsions of the times; but as it is now in process of attainment by the addition of successive links to the chain, the great credit of the enterprise must be given to the South, and to the practical minds who were engaged upon it. At a time when New-York was communicating with the WVest through two rivers, two canals, and the lakes; and Philadelphia through the same number of canals, two rail-roads, and eight hundred miles of river, the Charlestonians were at work in substituting, in the language of General Hayne, " In the cotton-growing states, fuel for the generation of steam-power is abundant, and its cost is scarcely more than one-tenth part of its cost in New-England. Why, then, should not the South, even if utterly destitute of water-power, manufacture at least a considerable portion of the cotton grown in her own fields? The bare saving in transportation, commission and fuel, when compared with the amount they cost the manufacturer in NewEngland, would twice cover the cost of steam-power at the South, including engine, repairs, the pay of engineer, and, in fact, all incidental expenses. I repeat the inquiry then-Why should not the South become the manufacturer of her own product? She would thus retain to herself at least a considerable portion of the many advantages now derived from it by others. For one, the writer can assign no other reason why this is not done, than inattention to, and neglect of the most certain and infallible means to promote the best interests of the community." " A direct communication between the western states and the Atlantic by the shortest route, a route by which goods will be conveyed in three or four days from Charleston to Cincinnati-a route 340 miles nearer than that by New-York, 240 nearer than that by Philadelphia, and 40 miles nearer than that by Baltimore, even should the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad be carried to Pittsburg." Let us take these south ern states in the ir order. We have Maryland with her Chesapeake a n d Oh io Canal and her Ch esapeake and Ohio R ail-roa d, drawi ng off the produce of the West to Baltimore. We have Virginia, with her Virginia and Tenness e e Railroad, intended, when finished, t o con n ect Memphis with Richmond; as also several other roads directed towards the West, to say nothing of the great James River and Kanahaw Canal, which, in the language of Governor Floyd, will soon float to Richmond the flatboat which has been loaded at the Falls of St. Anthony. In North Carolina, we have the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad, 186 miles in length; the Gaston and And how is it with INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS? It is admitted, from the denser population, the larger commerce, and the less navigation privileges of the North, she has gone very far ahead in the extension of internal improvements. But here again the South has no cause to blush. In all communities strictly agricultural, where the people travel little, and where the freight to be transported is necessarily bulky, the greatest discouragements are opposed to the construction of railroads; yet has the South not been entirely inactive. As early as 1828, when there was not, according to the Railroad Journal, "a locomotive in successful operation in America, Stephen Elliott, of South Carolina, spoke to his fellow-citizens in the following remarkable and prophetie manner: 74 SOUTH AND THE UNION. Raleigh Rail-road, &c., and at the last session of the Legislature was chartered a road from Charlotte to Goldsboro', 210 miles in length, spanning the finest and most improved parts of the state. South Caroliia, with her great road to Hamburg, and its Columbia and Cam den branches, reaching in length, altogether, over two hundred miles; and her road in construction to Greenville and to Charlotte, N. C., which will add as much more in length, demands an honorable mention, and she will find herself, in two or three years, in immediate rail-road communication with the Mississippi River at Memphis, and with the Columbia at Nashville, and will give an impetus to Charleston which will make it soon a formidable competitor with the North. Georgia, though she may not like the compliment, has made such progress as to be called the " Massachusetts of the South." She has the Macon and Western Road, of 100 niles, at the cost of $1,500,000; the Georgia Road, from Augusta to Atlanta, 171 miles, and cost $3,500,000; Central Road, 191 miles, and cost $3,000,000; Memphis Branch Road, cost $130,000; the Western and Atlantic Road to the Tennessee River, 140 miles, and cost about $4,000,000. Thus have six hundred and sixty miles of rail-roads been constructed and equipped within the last fifteen years, at a cost of about $12,000,000, two-thirds of which has been furnished by individual enterprise and capital, and the rest by the state. Alabama is next upon the map. Though she has but one successful road in operation, viz., from Montgomery, she is yet pressing it forward to the Georgia line with commendable zeal. Her citizens are determined not to be outdone in this competition, and they have already, by their contributions, placed their great railroad from Mobile to the Ohio River beyond the possibility of failure; being nearly 500 miles in length, and requiring $6,000,000 or $8,000,000. The grant of public lands lately made by Congress to this road, places it upon a sencure basis. There are also other roads projected and chartered in Alabama, of which we may mention one to connect Montgomery with Pensacola; another from Selma to the Tennessee River; a third to connect with the Mississippi Road to Vicksburg; a fourth from Mobile to Girard, thus reducing greatly the travel to New-York. When we come to Louismnan, we find a somewhat different state of things from the rest of the South. So small a part of her population is native and kindred, and devoted to the advancement of this state, it cannot be wondered she is far behind. Latterly, however, a better prospect dawns. Her great city, ANewOrleans., finds that in the ceaseless race for power and position, she will be distaniced by northern competition, unless efforts equally herculean are put forth. She will make the se e fforts, an d t he bes t guarantees for it are, that a company is now organized there for the construction of a rail-road across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and active interest is taken in a road to Jackson, Miss., and other similar enterprises. It was my intention, fellow-citizens, to have carried out this subject with many in teresting details and statistics; but I have been interrupted in the midst of it by a se vere attack of indisposition, lasting through out most of the short time given to me by the society for preparation. Was I wrong then in saying, that no son of the South need hold down his head when her name is mentioned? Here are six or seven millions of people, occupying fifteen states, including Kentucky and Missouri, who, in addition to the supply of their main wants, are furnishing annually upwards of $100,000,000 in exportable products to the nation, and who, it is but fair to say, in the last half century, have produced of such ex portable products $3,000,000,000. How has this money been expended? Ask your artisans, and manufacturers, and merchants, your rail-roads and hotels, your shipowners and builders, and sailors, do not all of these know what customers the South have been to them? Of those innumerable products of your industry which I see scattered with such a liberal hand around me here, how many are destined for southern markets? And would not the closing of these markets be a greater calamity to you than a war with all of Europe combined? I suppose, in the season just closed, which has seen your hotels all crowded to their doors, that at least 50,000 southerners, or those supported at the South, have been traveling at the North, for pleasure, for health, &c. Supposing each one of these to have expended but $300, there is an aggregate of' $15,000,000, which your people have derived from our traveling propensities, in a single year! WVhat is the gross amount of your various products consumed by us, is alnost impossible to be given. The figures would astound you if they were. The south has ever been fondly attached to the Union, and the land which claims the author of the Declaration of Americani Indepeindence, and the Father of the Republic, both as her own, has never been wanting in chivalrous devotion to that Union. Takin, the statislics of ttre Revolutionary war, and supposinog the average period of enlistment was about the salme for all the years at the North and at the Soulh, it will be found that in the first five years, or fri-om 1775 to 1780, when the war was chiefly at the North, the so,uthern states supplied each year about one-third the whole number of enlistments. As soon, however, as the war extend]ed southward and be. came general, the southern states rapidly ads 75 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. and holiest of all laws forbids it-that of selfdefence and self-protection. No other law catn be recognized by us; and a separate confederation will be formed, for which there are at the South all the resources of wealth, and power, and opulence! God grant there may never be such a dire alternative. Gentlemen, let us cultivate a better spirit for each other, intermixing and associating upon terms of friendliness, and reciprocating, in the exchanges of our industry and our enterprise;-mindfutl of the glorious old times of the republic, when our fathers at Bunker-Hill, York Town, or NewOrleans, or in all of the perilous periods of ,sur history, stood shoulder to shoulder, and breast to breast. With such a conicord of heart and purpose, what a nation have we made of this, and what madmen are you to urge its inevitable destruction! All eady does our empire extend over a domain wiler than that of the C(esars in their proudest days of cotnquest. From the island of Btazos, in the Gulf of Mexico, to the Straits of F,ica, on the northern Pacific; fromn the Aristook valley to the Bay of San Diego, the Urnioinii extends its leviathan proportitns. The inhalt)itatits of these extreme points-more distant apart lhan the old and the new world on the casual routes of travel-are brothers and fell,)w-citizeris, under common laws and with a cornmnor destiny. It is as though the Shetland Idands and the Bosphorus, Siberia and the gates of Hler-cuiles, were made the outpostsof an ernXsire which embraced the whole of Europe. For silch an empire, Alexander and C(esar sighed ill vaini, and Napoleon deluged the world in blood! vatcecd, supplying one-half, and for 1780,'81, '82,'83. more than otne-half of all the enlistmelits of so)ldiiers! In the late war with Mexico. whilst the North suip)lied but 2o2,136, the S,euth supplied 43,214, or twice as many effective men. I will not pause to enumerate the statesi men a nd chiv los ophers, the general s and schola rs, who have come from this quarter, atnd whose fine belongs to the nation. The heritage of their glory and renown should be prized ft}ever. It is sometimes said, that the South is deft~ient in military strengtth. Canr that people be very weak at home, who have contributed, a s I hav e shown, so much to the wars of their country, and who gave the commar Cders- i gnchief in all the w ars we h ave aad- -thle Rev olution, th aro. the war of 185, the lt war with Mexico-Washington, Jacksoln, Tay lor, Scott. These are the people, fellow-citizeiis, whom the cours e of y ou r p oliticians, demag,,gijes, ill-advised citiz ens, and even many of the better classes among you, have for the last teif y e ars been estranging rom their fellow.siipi wit h yoat, and embittering by provocations and tau n ts, which could not be endured patiently by the tamest and m os t s ervi le wretchees upon earth, m uch less by a brave, impetuous, and chiv alrously honorable people-seisitive to the slight est wrong, generously reciproc ating kintdne sses-cognizoanit of their rights and their duties, and brave e nough t o d efend t he one, a nd just etnough to observe the other in all th ceir relatioir s w ith thevr fellow men. tI am aware this is a delicate subject, and you must iot suppose I s hall be so far want qng in propriety as to carry it out at any length upo n this occasion. In th e c onnection, however, it was but a solemn duty to refer to it. The total value invested il slave property at the South, cannot be much short of $_00,000,000; and if we suppose the value of plantations and all improvements dependent thereon to be as much more,we have $400,000,000, a sum one-third as great as the whole foreign trade of the nation with all countries, in exp orts and import s, and r e-exports, from the Revolution to thepresei t time,added together in one great column! Let the North then abate the spirit which is doing so much to endanger the Union, and which has induced the southern states calmly to contemplate its dissolution as a thing which their stern necessities may very soon imperiously dictate to them. Several of these states have already convened in primary assembly, to deliberate upon this gloomy alternative. As a man solemnly responsible to God for his actions and his words, I say, with my hand upon my heart, if the agitation of this slave question be longer continued in Congress, all the power on earth, not the bayonet, nor the cannon, nor fleets, and navies, and armies, canP keep the Union together. The highest SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL RFVOLUTION.*-The committee who were entr usted with the dity of inviting the assembling of this Convrentioni, has instructed me, one of its members, to recapitulate a few of the advan - tages which were propose d from its a ctio n: and also to stugest some practicable means, if such exist, of making that action felt widely, generally, and beneficially, throughout our limits, it the fhture. The meeting of a body like this, constituted from so many sources, and embracing so much of the talent of so many great states, at a point like New-Orleans, which has been considered hitherto as dead to every other consideration than that of levying tribute upon nature, in sleepy apathy, is an event of no ordinary mnoment in the history of the southwest, It evidences a revolution in progress amtong us, which even two years ago could not have been predicted without hazarding the character of sanity, and throws, amid all the discouragements by which we are surrounded, a broad gleam of sunshine upon our future hopes and prospects. 76 * Speeeh by the Editor in New-Orlea-ns, and at Jackson (Miss.) Railroad Convention, Jan., 1832, SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. tury, Charleston continued to contest the palm with New-York. But how has that st r uggle e nded 7 Wh o dare s grapple with that colossal city, with out t he certainty of being ground into powder? What has become of southern commerci a l competition, now that New-York and New-Englrcmd corduc t nine-tenths ofth s the imports of te couintr and one half of its exports, though nearly all of the se e xports, with which, of coutrse, the imports are purchased, are of southern material, and more tha n an equal propor tion of the imports are for southern consumption?I Thus it is calculated th at the South lends ir onm year to year a t radi ng c apital to the North amounting to nearly one hunded mill mio ns of dollars, and upon which the North receives the entire pro fits! Can it be wondere d at, then, that the North grows rich, and powerful, and great, whilst we, at best, are stationary? The first steamship that ever crossed the broad Atlantic sailed from the southern port of Sa vannah; and in 1339, when the practi - cability of this description of navigation was fully demonstrated, Virginia was talking of negotiations with the French, in older that Norf o lk might be made the ter minus of a line cont empla ted from Havre-yet, at th is day throughout the length and breadth of the South, what steamer seelks a European portthough the North rapidly approximates to a daily line? The South had within her limits once the longest rail-road in the world, and pr-ojected, and actually commenced constructing the first great rail-road across the mountains to the teeming West; and how has she pursued this movement? Whilst the Northl has opened innumerable commIunications with the valley, and is draining it of the most valuable products, in return inundating it with the products of her workshops and her commerce, enriching herself beyond the dreams of her own enthusiasts, what single communitirication has the South to that valley, except what nature has given her-the great river and its tributaries-a communication which must soon be superseded by the works of art. After twenty years' experience, notwitllstarnding our early promise, and with equal population with the North, we have but one-third the actual miles of rail-road constructed, though our territory is five times as great. Iii other words, the North has twelve times, or inicluding Texas, eighteen times the extent of railroads to the square mile that the South has; and each mile of northern territory has expended thirty times as much upon such roads as each mile of southern territory.t These are stubborn facts, gentlemen, whatever reason may be assigned for them; and though one or two of the southern states may Yet, gentlemen, let us not argue too strongly, from what, after all, may be but the most deceptive appearances. Our disappointments have been so many and so bitter in the past, and we have had the chalice broken so often at our lips, that it is impossible, even with all the sanguinie characteristics of our nature, not to be agitated with doubts and fears. Our addresses, our reports, our discussions, may be destined to be as evanescent as the breath which utters them, or as valueless as the paper upon which they are inscribed; and the heritage of our fathers be ours still, in all the future, to "resolve and re-resolve," yet "die the same." I am wrong, perhaps, to doubt for the West-the giant West, which has sprung from swaddling clothes into colossal habiliments; which has promised nothing, yet fulfilled everything-but yesterday a wilderness, to-day, nourishing and supporting as many thronging, ac tive, enterprising millions, nearly, as did Great Britain, when she resisted, during the Napoleon wars, the shock of all the armies in Europe. But what shall we say of the South-the old South, which fought the battles of the Revolution-which gave the statesmen, the generals, and the wealth of those early times-which concentrated then the agriculture, the commerce, and, even to some extent, the manufactures of the continent, but which has lost, or is losing everything else, save that agriculture; and even this last resource growing less and less remunerative, threatens in the event to complete her beggary? How much has the South promised, and how little has she fulfille d? H er manufactures originated coeval with those of the North, and when there were not fifteen c o t ton factories in the whole Union, she had constructed an immense one in her limits. Nearly half a century has passed since then, and yet the South, thoutgh growing nearly all of the cotton required for the world's consumption, leaves 29-30ths of the profitable business of its conversion into f abric s to other and to f oreign hands! A nd how h as it been with our commerce? When New-England struggled with the whale in northern se as, the rich argosies of the South, laden with abundant products, were seeking the markets of all Europe. Seventy years before the Revolution, Maryland, Virginiia, and Carolina, as the chronicles tell us, furnished the entire exports of the colonies, and imported more largely than New-England or New-York. Fifty years befbre the Revolution things had but slightly changed, and the exports of New-York, New-England, and Pennsylvania together, were less in amount than those of the single colony of Carolina. Even in 1775, the exports of New-York were ~187,000; Carolina, ~579,000; Virginia, ~758,000. Imports of New-York, ~1,200; Virg~inia and Maryland, ~2,000;i Carolinla, ~6,000. Georgia, a new plantation, equaled New-York! As late as the close of the cen * The calculation is, of course, intended as an average one. t See address to the people ofthe South and West, in De Bow's Review for August, 1851. 77 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. constitute, in some sort, an exception, as for instatlice, Georgia, which has lately made rapid strides beyond her neighbors, no one can ob,e,t to is that we have not stated the propositic,, with general fairness and truth. We have been content to be solely agriculturists, anid to exhaust the fertility of an abuiilauit soil, believing that all other pursuits being derivative only, were of less importatce, and even dignity. The fashion of the South has been to consider the production of cottlri, and sugar, and rice, the only rational pursuiits of gentlemen, except the professions, andl like the haughty Greek anid Roman, to. class the trading and the manufacturing spirit as essenttially servile. I admit the day is passitig away, but it is passing too late to save us, un1 less we display a degree of vigor and energy far lih.yoiid what past experience would bid us hope. The planters of the South perceive the position of peril in which they are placed. They have a slave force which has increased in numbers 711,085 in ten years, anid which must be shut up forever %Nithin its present limits, though the productionis of these slaves have not increased in value in proportion, or in aniythitig like it. Is this not a significant fact, and does it not encour age dark forebodings of the future? Yet the result is but natural, and clearly deducilile from the rules of legitimate political ecotnoy. Mere production from the soil soon finds its limit and limits population. Geitleisient of the West, you too already begin to fteel this truth; for have you procured a market for your breadstuffs and provisions at all comparable withi your capacity to supply theta? Twenty years ago your exports were one-half of what they are at present, though yoir population has increased four-fold since theii; and when, in 1846, under the pressure of foreign faminie, you exported three times you,' exports of the present year-you demonstrate(l the inexhaustible character of your graniaries, atnd that want of demand which beeitns ahleady to press so severely upon you. The planters of the South have lately met in c)iovention, at Macon, Ga., and propose another convention in May next, ill Montgomtery. Some of their delegates were sent to this conventiotn. But what is it they propose? It is not to create a demand for their labir in its present exercise, or to create new results ftor that labor, but letting things remain as they are, to affix a certain arbitrary standard of price, and by a combination among themsnelves, preserve that standard, in defiance of all extraneous influences. It is barely possible that something may come offthis scheme that shall tell upotn their future prosperity It is p,)ssible that there are other plans which may be adopted, more promising of success, or at least that something is practicable to relieve the planters, as things now stand; yet we must be allowed to entertain some doubt in the matter. Gentlemen of the South and the West, the true mischief under which we labor stands upon the surfaces and requires no probing to discover. Four times the number of grain growers find but a two-fold increased market for their products, and 750,000 additional slaves are becoming consumers ill a larger degree than producers. Here is labor expended without profit-alost to all t he purposes of improvement, and of advanced prows)erity and wealth. Where, then, shall we look for a practical remedy? We must diversify, or find new employment for labor. And how is this to be done? I answer, I. In the construction of a system of railroads t/rough our limits.-It is a metrit of railroads that they have the highest influence in diversifying the industry ot'a people. They open a country and extend population, thus creating the very trade that supports them. They raise the price of lands by bringing them into more immediate connection with market, and thus pay back the investment, without reference to their actual earnings, which, in addition, are usually as large as those of other descri)tioins of investment. They build up cities, as all experience shows, and, by giving certainty, speed and economy to communication, make manutiatories practicable where otherwise we in vain would look {br them. The example of Georgia is in point, where a thousand villages are spring. ing up and manufactories extending, thus acquiring for her the reputation of the Massachtusetts of the South. Every rail-road in New-Englanid develops in its course manufacturinig villages, and few of these villages may be fotunid there without such communication with the capital. The South has been content with the cumbrous machinery of her wagons, and with the frequently interrupted and dangerous navigation of her rivers; and this has been the case with the West. Thus iine-tenths of our country has been literally shut out from market for more than half the year, and, during the remainder, pays the penalties of delays and losses, whi(h are never incident to rail-roads, and which counterbala~nce the advantages of cheaper freights, though, as to actual cheapness, it may be affirmed that rail-road communication among us could be made as cheap, all things considered, as that conducted at present on the rivers. We know that the inmmenise steamboat interest of the West is now actually pay. ing no dividend, being a most hazardous bu. siness, and that it is so much capital almost unproductively employed, and thus lost to the country. Yet, what are our rivers and our steamboats? Floating AEtnas, which belch forth their bolts of death in the moments of our greatest fancied security and repose. Never could a convention have met at a more propitious moment than this. Bie have just passed through a season of the most frightful losses of life on our rivers, and have witnessed 78 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. a prevalence of low waters calculated to break up the commerce of any people upon earth. LIook at the Ohio, the Cumberland, the Reil, anrid the Arkansas rivers. Until the other day, the memory of man scarcely runs back to the time when we would navigate them securely with our larger steamers; and hardly have the showers descended, and their waters swelled( again, before several of them are locked tip in icy repose. Can a people, relying 1upon such communications, expect prosperity? Can industry thrive, or must they noit remain in a semi-primitive state, arind incapable of that combination of effo)rt which alone secures natural prosperity? Place the North in a similar position for twelve months, and her towering manufacturing palaces crumble into ruinsi3, and her ships rot upoln their stocks. She found even her great canal to the West, her Mississippi River, would not suffice, b[it built two great rail-roads, almost the greatest in the world, parallel to it. Our planters frequently lose more by their incapa city to reach market during high prices than would build a rail-road to their d-,ors. It is believed that sufficient was lost last year, in that mnianner, to have half built the road firom New-Orleans, through Mississippi, to the Tennessee line. What embarrassments, too, have our merchants experienced during the same time, from the impossibility of receiv ing the consignments uponl which heavy ad vances have been made? Is not this disas trous to trade, and have we not felt it so? No people on earth have the means of building rail-roads so economically, so speedi ly, anrid with such certainty of success, as we of the South and West. As compared with the North, what we have already built has cost, on the average, not half so much. Our country is level-we have no right of way to purchase. We have abundance of timber on the spot, and will only pay the expense ot f working it, and, throughout the South, have an available cheap negro labor, which, if diverted from agriculture into this field, wol(nhi diminish nothing of the money value of our crops, and thus make the rail-roads a clear gain to the wealth of the country. Wherever negro labor has b een a ppli ed, it has bee n w ith gre at success. Of the 700,000 neg,roes, whose labort has added nothing to, th e we alth w e had te n yea r s ago, could 100,000 be divert ed to the construction of railroads, the South might open several thousand miles every year, and would have the same means of ironing them tha t she has now from her other resources. Let no one object that our population is too scattered; this will condense it, and invite immigration, which now takes altogether a northern direction, because here nothing is held out to it. Besides, denseness of population has not been the secret of success to the North. NewEngland, though no denserthan Ohio, hasthree times the extent of rail-road; and the small State of Maine, t hough l ess dense in propor tion to territory than Kentucky or Tetnes see, has actually constructed more miles of rail-road than bo th of these gre at states to gether. Even at the Sout h, Georgi a, with a million of inhabitants, and the usual density, has twice or three times the extent of rail road in her limits than all the southwest to - gether; and Sou th Caro lin a has twore than Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas, though her population is not one fourth so great. It is common to say that the people of the North have greater propen sities to travel, and thus more readily sup port their rail-roads than we would. Now, this is not true, as we know that no people are more sociable and fbnd of locomotion than the southern people, even with all the diffi culties that environ them. And were it true, we know that the disposition to travel in the North did not create the rail-roads, but was created by them, being prove(] by the fact, that most of their great roads carry fi'om five to tell times the number of passengers which were argued for them on the basis of their previous travel, and several times as much freight. Another advantage enjoyed by the South and the West is, that there is an immense public domain belonging to the government, an,d will soon belong to the states, which can be procured for the mere asking. and which will go a great way towards building our rail roads. The grant to the Mobile road, it is thought, will iron the whole route. Texas and Louisiana, and Mississippi and Alabama, are peculiarly favored in this manniier. There has been a principle adopted in Ten nlessee, which I hope to see adopted in all the southern states, and which this conven tion should recommend, viz., that the states endorse the bonds of all companies for the purchase of iron after they have laid the track, etc.. and take its mortgage tupr)n the work, to secure it in the event that the com panies fail to keep down the interest oIn their bonds, or to cancel them at maturity. This is a plain duty of the states, and, in addition to the power vested in the counties and parishes to tax themselves, would secure for us, in ten years, results which not even' a dreamer could anticipate. A sound division would be for the state to take 1-3 interest, (Virginia takes 3-5,) individuals and corporations of cities 1-3, and let the rest be obtained by taxation. Thus, all interests would be called oil to contribute to the construction of our great proposed lines. Whence this disposition to throw the valley of the Mississippi into the lap of the North, thus rolling, as it were, commerce up stream, and reversing the natural state of' things i Thie rail-roads and the canals point in that directionl, and everything is absorbed ill the rapacious exactions of New-York And Boston. Is there not a greater reciprocity between 79 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. of Kentucky, has demonstrated, that where the coal and the iron, and the provisions are, there will be the seat of manufacturing empire; and by a calculation as close as it is perfect, has demonstrated for the Ohio Valley the prospective Manchesters and Lowells of the Union. We think this the truth, but not the whole truth. The South has only to make a systematic and combined movement to break down northern supremacy in this particular. What practical difficulty is there in the way of her supplying the whole demand of America, at least, for coarse cottons and yarns? The material may be used upon the spot where it is grown, thus saving all the expense of shipment and insurance, and interest and commissions, equivalent to two or three cents a pound, or to a protective tariff ereejoyed by the South over the North of from 25 to 33 per cent. Our experiments, when fairly tested, have been successful; and it is worthy of remark, that the embarrassments of northern mills during the last year, were not in the same degree felt by those of the South, whilst southern cotton goods already take the palm even in northern markets. Our surplus negro labor has here a wide field open; and every one familiar with the mere mechanical and unintelligent operation of tending the machinery of a cotton-mill, will admit that negro labor, properly organized and directed, can be as effective as the ignorant and miserable operatives of Great Britain. Where it has been tried, atid the experiments have been numerous enough. it has proved successful. If twenty Ilanters, working twenty hands each, were to set aside, on the average, five of their hands for purposes of manufacture, there would be one hunldred hands, in addition to the younger ones, now almost unproductive. The machinery for these hundred hands, and the rude buildings, would not exceed $40,000, or $2,(000 each, and thus, without materially diminishing their lproduction of cotton, it could be thrown into a shape which would double its value. Are such combinations among the planters practicable? If they are not, they are at least practicable to our people. Blat, says one, we have not the capital to spare. I admit we have not at present, because it is diverted into different channels; but if we will withdraw it, we shall find there is quite enough among us. Or even if we had not the capital, it will be easy to invite it from all sections of the Union, and the world, if we can demonstrate, as we can, a higher degree of profit for it here. But we must have laws to favor such organizations, and a sound and liberal system of financial credit and banking. How much of the mighty capital of the North is foreign, accumulated by debt, or invited by the hope of profit? The South can have as much, if she will but make the effort. But, gentlemen, we should soon have capital enough, and to spare, if we could add to the interests of th e South and the West than between those of the West and the North? Is there not a demand here for western produce, and one that will grow as we advance together? Have we not ports and harbors at least equal to the North? Are not the Northwest and the West as much interested in keeping up the speediest and the best outlet to the Gulf of Mexico as they are to the Atlantic seaboard? And are not rail-roads superseding every other means of outlet? We scarcely yet appreciate the importance of the Gulf of Mexico, this great southern sea, which should as much3be guarded by the South as the British channel is by the English..Look at its fertile and abundant islands, capable of' supplying the tropical products of' the world, if in hands adequate to their developmenit, and who can doubt that, before the century has passed away, these islands will be overrun, peaceably or even forcibly, by a people who, in fifty years, have planted ten millions of freemen in a wilderness! Great God, can we even conceive what will be the future importance of these islands! But then, look fturther. The Gulf of Mexico sweeps into the Caribbean Sea, and unlocks for us the whole of South America-a region which. with Anglo-Saxon amalgamation, may, in the progress of history, be as important as the present importance of our own country. In its great bosom blend the waters of the Mississippi and the Amazon rivers, which dwarf all others in the world. There is a wilderness of treasures in this valley of the Amazon. "1 Of more than thrice the size of the valley of the Mississippi," says Lieut. Maiiry, *' the valley of the Amazon is entirely inter-tropical. An everlasting summer reigns there. Up to the very base of the Andes the river is navigable for vessels of the largest class. All the climates of India are there. Indeed, we may say, from the mouth to the sources of the Amazon, piled up, one above the other, and spread out, Andean-like, over steppe after steppe in beautiful, unbroken succession, are all the climates and all the soils, with capacities of production that are to be lound between the regions of perpetual summer and everlasting snows." The Gulf of Mexico opens to us the Pacific and the Indies, through whichever of the Isthmean routes that may be selected, though the one by Tehluantepec is clearly best adapted to the wants of the southern and western states. Even should a route across the continent be secured, that route must cross the Mississippi at a southern point, if Texas be true to herself, and th us the importance of converging western roads ill this direction. TI. Having constructed a system of railroads netting every section of our territory, the South and West will naturally resort to manuhictulres, which is our second great remedy fo~r the evils which the present shows and the future foreshadows. Hamilton Smith, so SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. the brief period of two or three years, the most wonderful results. To England, to France, to South America, the Pacific, the West Indies, the Gulf-to southern ports, everywhere, these steam lines are in active and daily operation. Thus, gentlemen, you see how the exten sive commerce of the North has been built up. You may build rail-roads, erect factories, hold conventions, but you cannot redeem the commercial apathy of the South unless you are content to adopt the same expedients. Where have we, throughout the length and breadth of the South, packet-ships sailing for Europe, on a regular day, freight or no freight? We have none. The result is that business, which cannot wait for time or tide, goes naturally where there are such ships. What single steamship have we from a south ern port for Europe? Thus, our correspond ence and our passengers, and our valuable return freight s, must t ake the circuitous pas sage to the North. One of our southern cities has determined to remove this stigma, and has, we believe, with state aid, actual l y taken t he s tock for t wo steamers for Europe. Will the South favor this movement, or will these steamers, after a brief career, be bought up by the North, and placed on the California line? They will assuredly be, if southern men continue to find nothing good in Naza reth, and go seeking after the flesh-pots of a northern Egypt. In New-Orleans, a year ago, several enterprising gentlemen discussed the subject of a line of foreign steamers from this port. They got up a circular; they proposed a company of four hundred and fifty persons, subscribing $1,000 each, and two steamers of 1,500 or 1,600 tons burthen, capable of carry ing two hundred passengers, and three thou sand two hundred bales of cotton. The British Consul, Mr. Mure, a practical mer chant, demonstrated that these ships would pay 42 per cent. per annum. Yet, who has come forward to take a single share? And has not the whole projection already taken its place with the thousand others which have dragged the South down to her present level? Gentlemen, will these things continue? You are aware that the people of Virginia have lately held a commercial convention, and determined, so far as they are concerned, they shall not continue. They even appointed delegates to this convention. More lately, the planters of the South convened at Macon, Ga. The continent of Europe consumes 600,000 bales of southern cotton, the most of which is obtained through Liverpool, thus exacting a tribute both from the producer and consumer. "Any measure," says Col. Gadsden, " which would tend to the distribution, by direct intercourse with many markets, of what they may consume of cottons, in exrchange for the commodities they are prepared to offerr in return, would, to some extent, re tutr p resent earnings those that we sit pa tietly bynd e e ga and see Englad and the North re alize by the co nvers ion o f' our products into f abrics, and even those for our own use. There w ould be added $40,000 to $80,000 annually to th e capital of t he Sou th, which would soon give us a degree of power and wealth enjoyed by no other people. III. The next point, gentlemen, to which th e attention of the South should be called in th e diversification of it s industry, is the exten sion of it s fo reign commerce. Can any one assign a suffici ent reason for the fact, that the whol e bus iness of exchangin g the products of the South for tho se wh ich a re required froin othe r countrie s fo r our consumption, is l eft to other hands p Northern writers assure us th iat they m akem rom forty to fifty milli ons annually out of this business which we com placently leave t o them. You may say that the North is mor e maritime; this is true, but not necessarily, as we infer from the fact that the souter fom n the wol rein commerce i the early period s of our history was relatively much larger tha n now; and in the nations of the old world, the most maritime and commer cial w ere alwa ys those of the South. It is only latelv that the trident of th e seas is swayed by n orthern hands-a sufficient proof that, i n th e nature of things, there is no ne cessit y f or it. I t ha s b een t he resu lt of arti ficial causes. A commit tee of th e Boston Council, in ac counting for the extraordinary progress of that city, fix it in t he extensive construction o f rail-roads, and t he establishment of semi mo nthly steamer s t o Europe. The business of these steamers, it wa s at first thought, would be simplvy the mail and passengers. Yet the freights, in stead of paying government duties, as they did at first, of $29, have reached as high as $217,000 on a single trip. B efo re the es tablishment of these steamers, Lieut. MaTry tells us, there wa s not in a whole year a single vessel cleari ng from BostoIl for Liverpool, so completely had NewYork monopolized the business. New-York led the way ill the establishment of European packets, though it was universally argued that t hey would not succeed. At first, three small vessels of 300 tons each, were put on. They sailed on regular days, freight or no freight. They took at the lowest rates rather than go in ballast. Public interest attached to them, and they increased in numbersvessel after vessel, and line after line being added, until these regular vessels were up at last for every port in the world. Boston, nearly undone by the enterprise of NewYork, turned into a new channel, and fostered a line of foreign steamships. Upon this the Gothamites were not content to look long ill idleness. They got the government commit. tedl in their aid, and then launched out into the business of steamships —performing, in VOL. hII. 6 81 SOUTHERN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. medy the revulsions which concentration at a single point produce, and, as supply and demand are made to harmonize, would in time lead to a more healthy and regular trade, and more steady and remunerating prices." Thirteen years ago the South was greatly aroused on this subject of her foreign trade, and several large conventions, embracing the talent and enterprise of half a dozen states, were held in Macon, in Augusta, in Charleston; but from this spasmodic effort we declined again into that torpor which has been exhausting our life-blood. Some of the most gifted and practical sons of the South reported in its committees, and demonstrated as perfectly as could be done, the evil and the remedy.* Never were more able and convincing papers put to the world-but we have not heard them. I trust that this convention will republish them among its documents. Thus, gentlemen, we have a true picture of our past history, and our present position. The agriculturists, the merchants, the manufacturers, the internal improvement advocates, are represented here. We are here with credentials from executive offices, from municipalities, and public meetings, and repre sen t te n or eleven states. It is difficult to get such a convention together. The work before us is great and pressing, and shall we be content to adjourn before it is performed l Gentlemen, a great reform, like that which is necessary in our position, is not to be achieved in a day. It requires organization, agitation, the dissemination of information, the frequent meeting of practical men, memorials and addresses. The day of deliberation is at last followed by the day of action. It is thus that conventions have their great value. They bring about an association of effort, arouse dormant energies, stimulate emulation. They are a blessed invention of our popular institutions, and are not less in importance than the meeting of our constituted authorities. It is the misfortune with us, that when we have been aroused in the past, it has been by paroxysms, and never followed by sustained efforts. We have come together in convention, but when the convention adjourned, there was the end of it. Nobody had power to act in the recess. The thing soon passed out of mind. Thus was it with the Commercial Convention of Augusta, of Macon, and Charleston-the rail-road meetings of Memphis and St. Louis; and thus will it be with those the other day of Richmond and Macon; and thus will it be with ours, unless we take some measures to prevent it; and what are these measures 1 Let us preserve and perpetuate this organization. Let the members now pre se nt, wh o have been selected as judici ously as any that ever met in the countr, resolve h th con eo at they will continue these meet ings, and carry on these discu ssions, until all the grea t fruits we desire are reaped. It may take yearsbe it so-but let us not adjour n a bso lutely now. Let this convention resolve itself int o an association for the promotion of the great industrial interests o f the so uther n an d western states. Let us provide for its future annual meetings, say at Nashville, at Jackson, at St. Louis, at Mobile, at Charleston, e tc. Let the next meeting be at Nashville, in January, 1853. Let us appoint committees now, in each of the states, to report at that meeting up on all the great questions. Let the Nashv ill e committee be charged with the duti e s of gettin g u p t he ne xt convention, and sending out the ad dre ss. Thus this convention will become in time the gre at centre of the indust rial in - terests of th i s region. It will collect through i ts committees and correspo ndence extensive information, which will be distributed gratuitously at the annual meetings. No one can estimate the good that will be effected. It will be the focus to which leading pra ctical mind s w i ll be d rawn. It will be in session a lwa ys by its com mitte es It will be felt each moment, and throu ghout all our limits. No m ore pow erf ul agency could be devised. The men of science have found it so, with their society meet in g, by turns, in all of the great cities of the Union. So with the physicians, whose convention adjourns over annually, from one part of the Union to another. Why should not a like planbe adopted by the practical and industrial interests which involve everything of our future hopes and prospects? Gentlemen, resolutions will be offered in the convention, corresponding with these views. 1 trust that they will be adopted, and that the members here assembled will pledge themselves to each other to continue to meet at the stated annual points; that they will prepare for these meetings by the collection of information, and if placed upon committees, that they will cordially and earnestly -perform the duties entrusted them; that they will operate upon their communities in keeping up fresh appointments of delegates, direct from the people, from year to year. The matter involves a little pains and a little expense, but who would decline as much in promoting such great results; and what citizen can be true to his country who would hesitate to serve her thus? The beneficent effects will accrue to us, and to those who may succeed us on the stage, in all the future. For this consummation let us' devoutly pray. * For proceedings of these Conventions, see De Bow's Review, vol. iii. iv. v. vi. I 82 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. insurance, the probabilities of life, the chances of profit or loss, responsibility often inc ur red, &c. Th ey are attracted and guided solely by the one-sided ere pres e ntations of interested parties. A new mutual insurance company springs into existence, got up probably by a fe w men without c a pital i n t he hope of making a good speculation. Pamphlets are printed and circu lated, newspaper puffs are put fre p th in every direction, showing the immense and increasing profits of the se cond, thi r d, and fourth years, all of which is very plausible and imposing. The statements may be false, or th e s tatements may be true, and the impostors may be as badly deceived as the public, fo r the y ar e the mselves too ignorant t o kno w the dangers of t he mac hine the y have pu t i n mot ion. A company may work admirably for a few years, and eventually wind up disastrously. Several hundred, or several thousan d b a dly selected lives may go on sm oothly for several years; but m an y o f these being insure d for life, if they do not (and they canno t if bad ly selected) reach the average duration o f life, on which life insurance is based, a heavy loss must follow. Life insurance in Europe, like marin e and fire insurance, is based on long experience and ample statistics. Tables of mortality there, have been k e p t for a lon g ser ies of years, and the l a ws are fix ed. In our country vital statistics are very imperfect, and our climate, habits, diseases, &c., are so different, that the same rules are wholly inapplicable. Statistics must be accumulated through some threescore and ten years before the laws of mortality here can be fairly made out, and our way clearly seen. It is to be feared that life insurance companies now, like banks a few years ago, are becoming affairs of speculation, and that some of them will terminate not less unfortunately. There is an over anxiety for patronage, and a carelessness in selecting risks, which is often apparent, and which should cause the prudent to pause and reflect. The great success of the Equitable, and some others of the long-established English companies, is held up as a proof of the advantages of mutual life insurance; but the story is but half told. Mr. Morgan, than whom there is no higher authority, has shown that this great prosperity is attribu table to circumstances which cannot occur again. The premiums charged some years ago by the Equitable, were nearly double what they now are; and besides this, during the first twenty-five years of the company's existence, half the insurances were aban doned by the insurers, in many cases after they had paid for a considerable number of years. Yet we see trumpeted forth the SOUTH-VALU'E OF LIFE IN THE.-The protection afforded by marine and fire insurance companies is now so well established that no prudent man can be found to risk a ship at sea, or a house in town, without a policy. We have in the United States not only become familiar with the doctrine of probabilities, on which such companies are organized, but our experience has been sufficiently long and large to establish fully their safety and utility. Life insurance, on the contrary, with us is still in its infancy, and its importance not yet fully realized. Marine and fire insurance have done much towards giving a firm and steady march to commerce and all those transactions which bring prosperity to individuals and nations, and life insurance is but another strong link in the great chain. There is no certainty in human events. The calculations of the merchant - the harvest of the planter-the fate of a ship at sea-the very existence of the world for another day, are all but probabilities, and we should not forget that nothing is more uncertain than human existence. " In life we are in the midst of death," and a day or an hour may paralyze the hand which feeds the helpless. In a country like ours, whe re with untrammeled energies and eager grasp, we are pressing along the road which leads to fortune and greatness, we unfortunately sometimes travel too fast, and great commercial convulsions are inevitable consequences, which bring ruin on individuals the most prudent and cautious. Bankruptcy comes, and often under circumstances which leave little hope for the future. Take a person so situated, or one who is living on a small income, with the uncertainty of life hanging over him, and how much more cheerfully would he toil on, could he say, come what may, my life is insured, and my wife and children are sure of something to save them from want. The proportion of those in any community who have capital to invest, or who are able to buy an annuity, is very small, but the proportion is large of those who could lay aside a few hundred dollars annually for life insurance. The small savings of an income might thus be laid out in a good mutual insurance company, where it would not only be safely, but profitably invested. But while we are thus setting forth the advantages of life insurance, and placing it on the same platform with marine and fire insurance, we must not omit to warn against its dangers and deceptions. The great mass of those in the United States who insure their lives, (and thus become co-partners in the concern,) are utterly ignorant of the business they have embarked in; they know nothing of the history and principles of life 83 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. success of the Equitable, in order to tempt the unsuspecting. But let it be steadily borne in mind, that not the chance of large profits, but security of the investment, is the first and paramount consideration. When an individual, at the end of the year, pays to an insurance company the small savings of his hard and anxious toil, the question to be asked is not, is there a hope that I am to reap compound interest? but, are my wife and children or my creditors sure of the amount I have bargained for. Wie have no space here for following out this point as well as many others, and our only hupe is, that we may do something t o w a r d s stimulating investigation, and ind u c i n g persons to inquire into the condition and conduct of companies before trusting t h e m too far. In order to give more weight to what I have said, I will here introduce a quotation or two from McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, an authority which will not be called in question. If what he says of English companies be true, with how much more force will it apply to those of our country? " Security, in life insurance, is the paramount consideration. It is, we believe, admitted on all hands, that the premiums were at one time too high; but we doubt whether the tendency at present be not to sink them too low. A great relaxation has taken place even in the most respectable offices, as to the selection of lives. And the advertisements daily appearing in the newspapers, and the practices known to be resorted to in different quarters to procure business, ought to make every prudent individual consider well what he is about before he decides upon the office with which he is to insure. Attractive statements, unless they emanate from individuals of unquestionable character and science, ought not to go for much. Life insurance is one of the most deceptive businesses; and offices may for a long time have all the appearance of prosperity, which are, notwithstanding, established on a very insecure foundation. If a man insure a house or a ship with a society or an individual of whose credit he gets doubtful, he will forthwith insure some where else. But life insurance is quite a different affair. The bargain is one that is not to be finally concluded for perhaps fifty years, and any inability on the part of an establishment in extensive business to make good its engagements, would be productive of a de - gree of misery not easy to be imagined." Life insurance companies are divided into three classes. First, joint stock, who pay fixed sums upon the death of the individuals insuring with them, the profits going exclusively to the proprietors. Second, mutual insurance companies, in which there is no proprietory body distinct from the insured, who share among themselves the whole of the profits of the concern. Third, mixed companies, combining the two former plans in various degrees. \Ve will not detain the reader by comments on the comparative merits of these, but will content ourselves with another extract from McCulloch, which contains some excellent hints: "The advantage to a person insuring in any one office as compared with another, must plainly depend on a comparison between the premiums demanded, the conditions of the policy, and above all, the security which it holds out. It may appear on a superficial view, as if the Mutual Insurance Companies would be, in all respects, the most eligible to deal with, inasmuch as they have no proprietors to draw away any share of the profits from the insured. It is doubtful, however, whether this advantage be not more than balanced by disadvantages incident to such establishments. Every one being a pa rtner in t he concern, has not only hi s own life insurcd, but is part insurer of the lives of all the other members; and may be, in this c apacity, shou ld the affairs of the society get into disorder, incur some very serious responsibilities. The management, too, of such societies, is very apt to get into the hands of a junto, and to be conducted without the greater number of those interested knowing anything of the mat ter. Th ere is al so considerable diffic ult y i n c ons t ituting suc h societies, in dis tinguishing clearly between the rights of old and new members; for supposing a society to be prosperous, it is but reasonable that those who have belonged to it while it has accumulated a large fund, should object to new entrants participating in this advantage. But the affairs of a society conducted in this way, or making distinctions in the rights of its members during a long seTies of years, could hardly fail of becoming at last exceedingly complicated; nor is it, indeed, at all improbable that the conflicting claims of the parties in some of the societies of this sort now in existence, may ultimately have to be adjusted in the courts of law, or by an Act of the Legislature." All the life insurance companies of the United States are north of the Potomac, as are nearly all the writers on vital statistics, and we are well satisfied that a want of local information and personal observation have led them into many grave errors respecting our condition at the South. From a half to one per cent. more is demanded on southern than on northern risks, and we propose now to inquire if there be sufficient reason, under all circumstances, for this distinction. As our subject opens a wide field, which cannot be explored in the limits of a periodical, we shall confine ourselves to a brief inquiry into the health and longevity of our southern seaports, Charleston, Mobile, NewOrleans, etc. We have already said that vital statistics in the United States are yet in their infancy, and we think a capital error has been committed in basing the operations of insurance companies in this country, particularly the southwest, upon the experience of those of Europe. In Belgium, France, and England, for example, and we may add New-England, population is dense, the means of subsistence and comforts of life difficult of attainment, marriages com p arati vely few, and the population must necessarily present a very different picture from that of our southwestern states. There, comparatively few children are born, and the average age of the living population must be higher than he?re. In Europe, the old maids and bachelors serve to swell the average age of the population, while in the southwest, by marrying and propagating, they would reduce it. 84 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. think a satisfactory explanation may be given. May it not be accounted for by the well-known fact that in very old people, in whom the vis vitae becomes much exhausted, there remains little power to resist extreme cold. The difference between town and country in the south is not great, but at the north the centenarians double those of the country, because the inhabitants of cities are not so mIth exposed to extreme cold as those ofren the country; they are protected from the winds by the multitude of houses, and their dwellings are better built for excluding cold. We will here introduce a table from Quetelet's " Recherches sur la Reproduction et la Mortalit6 de l'homme aux differens ages, et sur la population de la Belgique," which he gives "in order that we may ascertain at what ages extreme heat or extreme cold is most to be feared. We add also a table from Mr. Shattuck's "Report on the Census of Boston," in which evidence is given of the influence of cold over old people. Suppose the whole population of Connecticut and Tennessee were struck dead at the same moment, the average age of all the dead in Connecticut might be forty, and that of Tennessee but twenty. But this would not prove that the longevity of the one is greater than the other, yet the fact is so construed and gravely set forth by statistical writers at the north. Whether a population be a young or an old one, it should be remembered that disease and death are every where doing their work, and that the heaviest mortality every where is below the age of five years. So it is evident that the average duration of life, taken alone, proves nothing,-the lowest average may be in the healthiest country. Our northern friends, though fully satisfied of the greater mortality in all ages below threescore and ten throughout the southwest, both town and country, than in New-England, yet are obliged to admit the greater frequency here of instances of extreme longevity. This fact has much puzzled writers on vital statistics, but we Deaths during the Deaths in July Months of for 100 Deaths Jan'y July in January Deaths in Boston over 60 Still Born........................ 269...... 215..... 0,80.....January..........1,09 per cent First month after birth...........3,321......1,719..... 0,52..... February.........1,16 4 to 6 years.................... 878...... 600..... 0,59..... March............1,02 8to12 ".................... 616......447.....0,73......April.............1,02 12 to 16 ".................... 409......420......105......May.............,80 16 to 20 ".................... 502......545......1,09......June.............,69 20 to 25 ".................... 361......796......0,93......July..............,77 25 to 30 ".................... 793......724......0,92......August...........,97 40 to 45 ".................... 818...... 613..... 0,75..... September........,75 62 to 65 ".................... 968......525......0,54......October..........,94 79 to 81 ".................... 658......332......0,51......November........1,04' 90 and upwards.................. 252...... 99..... 0,39..... December....... 1,05 " centenarians, so far from proving high longevity of a population, is evidence of the reverse they are sai d to exist in the greatest proportion in the most sickly places. This may be strictly true, but we are not prepared to accept the proposition as demonstrated, particularly when laid down as broadly as it usually is. In temperate malarious districts, where the general mortality is very great, it is possible some might not be susceptible to the influence of this atmospheric poison, and amongst the few survivors, a few centenarians would form a large relative proportion; but all this does not prove that every country is a sickly one, where many live to a hundred years. We are satisfied that there are many portions of the south which would show as low mortality for all ages below ninety, and less above that age, than any portion of the north, if the population could be confined to those localities for one hundred years. Charleston and New-Orleans are often cited as instances of sickly places abounding in centenarians, but we shall give goods sons further on for the This table certainly affords strong evidence of the unfavorable influence of cold on old age. The climate of our northern cities is remarkable not only for extreme cold, but extreme heat; the range of the thermometer in many of the northern portions of the United States is double what it is along the Gulf, where we are not only exempt from extreme cold but extreme heat. As might reasonably be expected, the climate of our northern cities presses hard upon the aged, as we know it does upon infancy and childhood. There is still another reason for the great proportion of centenarians seen in Charleston and New-Orleans, which we think will be clearly established before we close. Besides being removed from the fatal influence of extreme cold, the old inhabitants who are thoroughly acclimated are exempt from the summer diseases of the climate, and have few of winter to contend with. Life ceases because the machine is exhausted by the wear and tear of time. It has b een contended by most writers on vital statistics, that a large proportion of 85 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. opinion, that these cities, to their native or acclimated inhabitants, are, perhaps, the healthiest in the United States. But leaving out of the question cities, which we shall show have climates and diseases peculiar to themselves, and wholly different from the country which surrounds them, the climate of the gulf coast, including Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana, is very imperfectly understood by persons at a distance. Although much has been written concerning the relation which exists between topography of southern countries and miasmatic fevers, all the laws and fine-spun theories of book-makers are put to flight by the facts every day witnessed in this region. Heat, moisture, animal and vegetable matter are said to be the elements which produce the diseases of the south, and yet the testimony in proof of the health of the banks of the lower portion of the Mississippi River, is too strong to be doubted,-not only the river itself but the numerous bayous which meander through Louisiana. Here is a perfectly flat alluvial country covering several hundred miles, interspersed with interminable lakes, lagunes and jungles, and still we are informed by Dr. Cartwright, one of the most acute observers of the day, that this country is exempt from miasmatic disorders, and is extremely healthy. His assertion has been confirmed to me by hundreds of witnesses, and we know from our own observation, that the population present a robust and healthy appearance. Why this is so, it is impossible to say; a country of this character on the Atlantic coast, would be almost uninhabitable by white population. The planters around Charleston desert many places of more favorable aspect, in summer, and retreat to the city for health. The coast of Mississippi, Alabama and Florida, presents in many respects a different topography, and yet is considered a healthy c ountry. I n point of temperature this is o ne of the most agreeable climates in the United States, and the coast is dotted along the whole gulf with delightful watering places and summer residences, to which the population resort for health and pleasure; and yet when you build a town, even on a sandy desert, as at Pensacola, yellow fever springs up and attacks strangers, while the natives are exempt. Whether it be an endemial position of bilious fever or not, yellow fever comes with concentrated population, usurps the field and reigns with undivided sway. Though many other parts of the south and west present much interest, the main object of our present investigation is the climate of our southern seaports, and on the single point of acclimatiorn turns the value of all our conclusions. On this point our northern writers are little infotrmeed, and although we can here but glance at it, we can eas ily, if need be, bring forward abundant evidence to satisfy any candid man of the truth o f the positions we take. It is now gener ally admit te d tha t yellow and bilious fevers are distinct diseases, differing in thei r causes and nature. No one pretends that an attack of intermittent or bilious fever affords protection against yellow fever, or that yellow fever will prote ct against the former. No one denies that an in dividual may be attacked an indefinite number of times by intermittents or remittents, or that one attack even predisposes to others, and yet it is agreed on all hands that one attack of yellow fever affords almost perfect immunity against a second, provided the subject confines himself to the yellow fever region viz, the Atlanti c and Gulf coast from Charlest on southward. In truth, we may s afely challenge a denial of th e fact, that one attack ofyellowfever, or a long residence in a yellow fever city, affor d s a better protection against this disease, than does vaccination against small-pox. The citizens of Charleston, Savannah, Pensacola, Mobile, NewOrleans, West India towns, etc., may exchange one city for another with perfect impunity. On the subject of acclimation we are fully borne out by Professors Harrison, of NewOrleans, and Dickson, of Charleston,-two of the best authorities we have. The facts are so well known as to need no argument amongst medical observers. Yellow fever is generated in crowded populations, perhaps exclusively; while bilious fever, on the contrary, is the indigenous product of southern soils. In fact, there would seem to be something antagonistic in the causes of these diseases. Generally, along the southern seaboard, when the forest is first leveled, and a town commenced, intermittents and remittents spring up, and in some places of a malignant and fatal type. As the population increases the town spreads, and draining and paving are introduced, yellow fever, the mighty monarch of the South, who scorns the rude field and forest, plants his sceptre in the centre, and drives all other fevers to the outskirts. As the town grows, the domain of yellow fever spreads, and the others recede. There is a middle ground where the two meet and struggle for supremacy. Here we see all imaginable grades, from the simple intermittent up to the most malignant yellow fever; but whenever they come in contact, intermittents and remittents are compelled to wear the livery of the master spirit. Here we see the groundwork of the erroneous conclusions of those authors who contend for the identity of intermittent, remittent, and yellow fevers,. 86 SOUTH —VALTE OF LIFE IN THE. month, etc., ther?t.wometrical range, etc., from 1834 to 1846. (twelve years.) By JOHN L. DAtwso, M. DI., C ity Re gister." Below will be found a n abst ract of this report, which we have made out with much care from the crude mass of material. This abstract contains a large portion of the data from which our con c lusions are drawn, and will enable the reader to judge of their legi timacy. Th e repo rt and abstrac t em brac e all the deaths and causes of death in the city of Charleston for the eighteen years-it is impor ta nt to be a r in mind, that we have, in the abstract, for the convienience of comparing different epochs, div ided the whole te r m i nto three periods of six years each. W e have also, for the pur pose of facilitating comparison with othe r places, a rranged our table on the plan of the dis t i nguished s tatistician, Mr. Farr, of London-the same plan has also been adopted by Mr. Shattuck in his report on the census of Boston, for 1845, a volume replete with instruction. The causes of death as laid down in our table are divided into:-First, Zimotic dis eases. Second, Sporadic diseases. Third, Old age and external causes, such as violence, poisoning, drowning, &c. We shall here, as on other occasions, ex tract freely from our article in the Charleston Medical Journal, as it contains statistics which are new to the readers of the Commercial Review, and necessary to the illustration of our subject. Zimotic is a term used by Mr. Farr to de signate all epidemic, endemic and contagious diseases. It is the property of Zimotic dis eases to prevail more at one season than at another, or more in one locality than another, and to become epidemic, endemic, or conta gious, under certain circumstances. This class, as it will be seen, includes all fevers arising from morbid poisons, as intermittents, remittents, yellow and typhus fevers; also, small-pox, measles, scarlatina, influenza, &c., and the greater or less number of deaths from this class has been assumed as the best test of the salubrity of the climate. Sporadic diseases embrace all those which do not belong to the above class, as our table will show. Old age and external causes cannot be call ed diseases, and should, therefore, particular ly the latter, be separated from the other classes in estimating the influence of climate on health. The following table, as we have stated, ex tends over eighteen years, which are divided into three periods of six years each. The aggregate number of deaths for each period is given from a~ll causes, the number from each specified cause, and the per centago which each one bears to the whole, Though occasional cases of severe bilious fever may occur in southern seaports, most of which are contracted out of town, epidemics of bilious or congestive fevers are wholly unknown. The highest number of deaths in Charleston, during any one year for the last eighteen, from all fevers except yellow fever, is eighty-one, and the aggregate for this whole period is but six hundred and fifty-six, -a result which will much astonish those writers who are not familiar with southern statistics. These facts illustrate very clearly the peculiarity of city climates and diseases. If the population of Charleston, for example, which has varied little from thirty thousand for the last eighteen years, had been living in the country around the city, or scattered through the bilious fever region of the south, no one can estimate within one thousand of the number of deaths which would have occurred during this long series of eighteen years. The statistics of Charleston show a lower mortality amongst its acclimated population than any northern city, and the physicians of Mobile and New-Orleans will give the same testimony in favor of these cities. Mobile and New-Orleans, too, possess the great advantage over the former city, of being sur rounded by healthy country. When these W cities escape yellow fever, which attacks the unacclimated alone, they enjoy an exemption from all disease which is almost inlcred ible. Charleston is the only southern city in which bills of mortality have been faithfully kept for a sufficient length of time. We shall now proceed to give more in detail the statistics of this city and the deductions made from them. The bills of mortality of Charles tonI may be fully relied on, and are pecu liarly valuable from the fact that the popula tion has been little disturbed by immigration and emigration, and has not fluctuated much in amount. The population of Charleston was as fol lows - Whlte Colored Total 1830.. 12,928........17,361........30,289 1S40.. 13,030........16,231......... 29,261 102 inc.,..'11l30 dee...... 1,028 decrease. This table shows that the whole population in the period of tell years decreased 1,028, while the white population alone gained 102. WVe have good reason to believe from these and other facts, that from 1828 to 1846, the eig hteen years e mbraced by our tables, the fluctuation was of very limited extent. We have before us a " Report of the Intermenzts in the city of Charleston, with the name and number of each diseasefrom 1828 to 1846, (eig,,hteen years,) the prevailing diseases in each 87 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. TABLE I. ABSTRACT OF THE CAUSES OF DEATH IN CHARLESTON, FROM 1828 TO 1845 Nnmber of deaths in In each hundred thers the periods were deaths in 1828... 1834...... 1840.....1828...... 1834...... 1846 CAUSES OF DEATH. to...... to...... to...... to...... to...... to 1833...... 1839...... 1845...... 1833...... 1839...... 1845 All causes..................................4,143......5,229......3,583.................. Specified Causes.........................3,968... 5,080......3,503................. 1. Zimotic Diseases........................ 952......1,900...... 765......23,99.....37,40......21,83 SPORADIC DISEASES. 2. Of Uncertain of General Seat............ 506...... 548...... 426......12,75......10,78......12,16 3. Oftthe Nervous System................. 593...... 605...... 606......14,94......11,90......17,29 4. Of the Organs of Respiration........... 910...... 878......813......22,93.....17,28.....23,20 5. Organs of Circulation................... 16..... 27...... 33...... 0,40...... 0,53...... 0,94 6. Organs of Digestion..................... 417...... 549...... 399......10,50......10,80......11,39 7. Urinary Organs........................... 6...... 2...... 5...... 0,15...... 0,05...... 0,14 8. Organs of Generation.................. 35...... 51 48...... 0,88...... 1,00...... 1,37 9. Organs of Locomotion................... 21.......14.......14...... 0,56...... 0,27...... 0,39 10. Integumentary System.................. 7...... 9...... 7...... 0,17...... 0,17...... 0,19 11. Old Age.............................311...... 299...... 226...... 7,83...... 5,88...... 6,45 12. Deaths from External Causes............ 194...... 198...... 161...... 4,88...... 3,89...... 4,59 tIn each 100 there were deaths in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~deaths in 1828 1834 1840 tot to to CLASS THIRD. 1833 1839 1845 Trismus Nascentium.........2,31.... 1,63.... 4,56 C ramp.......................,20....,00.... 00 Nervous Affections............1,6120 70....,09 00 Brain-Diseases of............37.... 33....,62 In each 100 there wer deaths in Diarrhtea............ f_......_..26..._. 129.. -7 CLDsS FiST. 2 1828.1834 1840 to to to 1833 1839 1845 Cholera.......................,35 7....,7.... 0,11 Cholera Infantur.............,12.... 1,23.... 2,02 Cholera Asiatic................,0.... 7,70.... 107 Croup.......................2,8 4....,76.... 1,22 Diarrhnea....................2,62..... 1,29..... 71 Dysentery...................2,62.... 1,29.... A71 Bowel Complaint.........,9.... 2,503,614 Erysipelas...................1....,03....,05 Fever.......................1,08.... 2,16.... t,23 Inflammatory............ 10.... 0 157...., 05 " Intermittent.............07.... I09.... 68 Re mitten t.............. 2,34.... 2683.... 1,42 ~'Countryj............... 1,96....,68....,31 "Yellow.................]1,46.... 11,06....,74 "Congestive............,00.....-,07....,34 "Typhus................ 1,23.... 1,55.... 2,65 -looping Cough.............. 2,66.... 1,37.... 1,74 Influenza.....................,27....,35....,28 Measles......................,65....,84....,88 Searlatina and Sore Throat... I,96.... 2,50.... 3,62 Small Pox.................... 1,58....,00.... 1,,51 Syphilis.......................02....,00.....105 Thrush....................... 0,57....,25....,51 Parotitis......................,0.O..~.,01....,00 Dengue......................,45....,00....,00 CLASS FOURTH. Asthma.............09.... 7.... 4,8 Consumption................16,L65.,00 6, h-ydrothorax................~ 1,76.... 1,73.... 1,99 Laryn-,tis....................,05....,00....,05 Bronchitis...................0,.07.... B17i.... 722 Pleurisy......................83.... 45....,48 Pneumonia..................12,...0.....48 Inflammation of Lungs.......,30.... 57.... 59 Haomorrhage of Lungs.........02..... 05.... 00 Lungs-Diseases of..........,25.... 12.... 22 Catarrhal Fever and Catarrh..2,04.... 2,48.... 2,22 CLASS SIXTH... Colic s......................... 80... 5.....3,39 Dyspepsia...................,07......05.....14 EnteriDis.................. Gastritis.................. 1,51..... 1,94..... 2,56 IGflammation ofubowels.... Hernia........................,10.... 1,05.... 1, Intussusceptioens..............,02....,02,.....,00 Peritonitis...................,02....,1I.....,05 Teething.................... 4,03.... 4,97.... 5,16 W~orms and Worm Fever..... 2,o4.... 1,49.... 1,13 Liver-Diseases of.............05....,01....,00 Jaundice......................, 30....,21....,31 Organs-Diseases of.........O............,28 CLASS SEC_ON D. Abscess......................,8..,35.. Atrophy.......................,02..,,01 Cancer.......................,65.... 29...8 Debility...................... 3,22... 2,45.. Dropsy......................7,18.... 6,4....5 Gout...............................,01.... Hpemorrhage..................12...,27.... Inflammation. ~...............,12...,09... Mortification..................,25....,07... Scrofula........................,30....,39... Tumor........................,I0....,05.... Marasmius ----—.i..............,27'....,29... Spine Diseases,...............,02....,01.... CLASS SEVERNTH. Diabetes..................,0... Cystitis.......................00.... Gravel........................ 12... Nephritis....................,02-.... CLASS THIRD. Apoplexy....................2,46.... 2,18.... 3,22 Cephalitis..................... 78.... 1,12.... 1,08 Convulsions................4,76..... 3,03.... 3,93 Delirium Tremens.............12.... 53.....,08O Coup de Soleil................,07....,01.... 602 Epilepsy.....................1,27....,5.......37 Hydrocephalus................42,...... 57..... 48 Insanity....................... 42..... 35.... C51 Paralysis...................1,43.... 1,18.... 1,54 Tetarus......................17.....,35....,82 CLAss FIFTH. Aneurism.....................02... O!,,....'08 Heart-Diseases of............37.... 145.... 185 ,37 139 ,85 1,90 6,93 102 ,28 ,oo ,Os 134 loo 177 ,Os loo..... 100 loi.....05 'CIO....;02 CLASS EIGHTH. Childbirth.................... Puerperal Fever............... 05.... Oi-,ans-Diseases 10.... CLASS NINTH. Rheumatism.................. 52.... Joints-Diseases af....... .. 00.... 109'...'05 110.... 134 '39 00 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. most of the northern cities of the United States. The important question now comes up, viz.: who are they that die from these Zimotic, diseases? Are they acclimated citizens of Charles ton, or are they not? And we beg the reader to bear in mind the general remarks which have been made on the subject of acclimation. The deaths in the second period of our table exceeded those of the third by 1,135, or 148 per cent. By turning to class 1st in Table I., it will be seen that the deaths from yellow fever in three periods were 58-562-26, a very striking contrast certainly. Look at the heads Fever, Bilious Fever, &c., and we find a greater mortality from these causes also in the second, than in either of the other periods; many of which deaths, no doubt, were erroneously excluded from the head Yellow Fever. The Table II., which we give below, besides some other interesting facts, reveals the following one, which will go far towards answering the question who are they that die from the endemic diseases of the climate? viz.: the deaths for the "not natives" were in each of the three periods, 764-1,418 — 659,. showing that the mortality amongst this class of population rises and falls as these causes act with greater or less force. If the table be taken in detail, year by year, this law is seen to be invariable. Ill the great epidemic of 1838, for example, there were 482 deaths amongst the non-natives, and so on with the other years. A portion of the deaths from yellow fever are amongst native children of the city, who, as we have stated, though far less liable to this disease than foreigners, are not considered as fully acclimated. It should be remembered also, that 392 of the deaths, or 8 per cent. of the second period, were from Asiatic cholera, which should be excluded from the calculation in estimating the influence of climate on the acclimated. In each 100 there were deaths in 1828 1834 1840 to to to CLASS TENTH. 1833 1839 1845 Fistula.....................,00.... 01....,00 Ulcer........................,07.... 05....,05 Skin-Diseases of.. 10.... 09....,14 CLASS ELEVENTH. Old Age..................... 7,83.... 5,88.... 6,45 Number of deaths. First Second Third CLASS Period Period Period Burns and Scalds......8........ 3...... 5 Casualties................. 40....... 55...... 48 Drilliing Cold Water........O........ 0...... 0 Initemnperance.............93.......80......45 Drowned.................. 26....... 36......43 Executed...........................I..... 2 Fractures...................2........5...... 1 Cold-Effects o f............ 13........7...... 1 Htydrophobia................2........0...... 1 Murdered................... 0........0...... 1 Poisoned................... 2........1...... 2 Suffocated..................,........4...... 2 Suicide.....................6........6......10 CLASS THIRTEENTH. Causes not specified.......175..... 149......90 The reader cannot fail to be struck, on the first glance at this table, by the great disparity exhibited in the gross mortality of the three periods; and the fact is equally prominent that this disparity is attributable to the increase or decrease of Zimnotic diseases. The mortality for each of the periods was as follows: 4143-5229-3583. From the Zimotie class the deaths were in each period, 9521,900-765, or for each 100 a per centage of 23,99-37,40-21,83. Here is strong evidence of the influence of endemics and epidemics over mortality; and the general fact has been taken as sufficient proof of the insalubrity of Charlestonl and other cities simi.larly situated as to climate. The average mortality for a series of years, has been estimated by Dr. Dunglison in his work on "Human Health," at one in thirty-six, which places that city below, and very far below, TABLE II. SHOWING THE GROSS MORTALITY FOR EACH YEAR, AND THE RATIO OF THE WHITES, BLACKS, NATIVES, NON-NATIVES, SEXES, ETC. rub~ by~ —— Total Total Total Grand Not Deaths of Deaths of Males Females Males Females Whites Blacks Total Native Native Whites Blaciks 1822........284....142......253....246......426... 499.... 925.... -.... 1823........217....132..... 213....250......349....463.... 812....185.... 629.... -.... - 1824*...... 434....198..... 222....205...... 632... 427....1059... 382....677.... -.... 1825........228....125......253....234..... 353...487.... 840....165.... 675 -.... - 1826........203....108.....217....236......311....453.... 764.... -..... - 1827t...... 258....124......216....205......382....421.... 803.... -... 1828t.......232....126......222....213......358....435.... 793.... 168....625....1 in 36,14....1 in 39,91 1829....... 183....124......205... 250......307....455.... 762....102....660.... 42,28.... 38,15 18300.......209..120...... 199....235......329....434.... 763....143....620.... 39,45.... 40,00 1831........164...114..... 218....237......278... 455.... 733...150....583.... 46,69.... 37,93 1832........142....108......161....149......250... 310.... 560.... 96..464.... 51,91.... 55,35 1833........145.... 91......136...170......236....306.... 542....105....437.... 55,00.... 55,75 183411....... 192... 116......158...226......308....384.... 692....166....526.... 42,14.... 44,16 1835~1...... 189....112......176....187.....301....363.... 664...181...483.... 43,12.... 46,44 * 236 deaths from yellow fever. t 63 deaths from yellow fever. t 26 deaths from yellow fever. ~ 32 deaths from yellow fever. 11 49 deaths from yellow fever. ~1 26 deaths from yellow fever. 89 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. TABLE II.-Continued. WHITES. COLORED. , —- A d-_ - - Tot Tol Total Grand Not Stales Females Males Females Whites Blacks Total Native Native 1836*.......196....123.....443....410..... 319....853....1172....181.... 4.... 1837....... 172....102.....180....176..... 274....356.... 630... 144... 486... 1838t...... 551...158..... 277....223..... 709...500....1209... 482..727.... 1839t...... 307... 127.....195....227..... 434....422....1856... 264... 592.... 1840.......184.... 73......177....171..... 257....348.... 605....179..426.... 1841....... 120.... 80......187....173..... 200....360.... 560.... 94..456.... 1842....... 171.... 88.....165....170..... 259....335.... 594... 113....481.... 18431!...... 131.... 83.....237....246..... 214....483.... 697.... 89.... 608.... 1844~...... 109.... 79.....173....192......188....365.... 553... 108....445.... 1845....... 119....127.....153....171......246....324.... 570.... 76....494.... * 392 deaths from Asiatic cholera. t 354 deaths from yellow fever. t 134 deaths from yellow fever. 23 deaths from yellow fever. 11 2 deaths from yellow fever. ~ 1 death from yellow fever. very sensible and instructive paper on the subject, from the pen of Dr. John Harrison, may be seen in on e o f the number s o f the New-Orleans Medical Journal.' It is difficult to obtain well dig ested statistics of many of our northern cities. Those o f Philadelphia some year s back, have been made out by Dr. G. Emerson, so well known for his accuracy and ability on this and other subjects. On a comparison of the tables of Dr. Emerson with those of Charleston, it would appear that there are more deaths in Philadelphia f rom all fevers, including typhus and malarial, than from all fevers in Cha r leston, including yellow fever. From 1820 t o 1830, in Philadelphia, the deaths fr om fevers were 13 and 5-10 per cent. on all the death s. In Charleston, for the l ast eighteen years, including two epidemics, the a ve rage mortality from fever s w as 11 and 4-10; leaving out yellow fever, which a ttacks almost exclus ively strangers, the mortality from other fevers will not be found to exceed seven per cent. We must now bring to a close these too br ie f remarks on th e zimotic class. Putting fevers aside, Char les ton, as regards cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, liver complaints, &c., as the table yshows, will c ompare f avorably with e nthe northern town s; and when, in addition to these facts, we reflect o n the comparati ver immuni ty which southern towns enjoy, from other scourges of the zimotic class, viz, small-pox, measles in several forms, scarlatina, hooping-cough, and typhus, (from all of which I have not seen twenty deaths in my practice during the ele ven years I have been iu Mobile,) we may con clude that the climate of southern seaports is not so very bad afte r all that has been said agains t them. The diseases of the organs of respiration form a very interesting point of comparison between the North and South. Though plhthisis here is much more common than even our medical gentlemen are willing to admit, yet no one will contend that as many persons die South as North of diseases of the Many of the causes of death, which by the too arbitrary arrangement of Mr. Farr, are thrown into class second, are but sequel&, of fevers, and in effect should really belong to the first or zimotic class. Debility, dropsy, diseases of the digestive organs, and old age, forexample, caused, as our table proves, much the heaviest mortality in those years in which fevers were most prevalent, and consequently pressed with greatest force on the unacclimated. The mortality amongst the whites for the last six years average 1 in 58, and during these years there were few fevers, and consequently few of the sequela just mentioned. It is well known that typhus, as well as other epidemic diseases of the North, are ei the r wholly unknown, or press but lightly on the South. What are termed malarialfe-vers are looked upon as the great outlets of life here. We have already stated that the aggregate number of deaths from all the fevers in Charleston, (excluding yellow fever,) for eighteen years, was but 656; and the aggregate from yellow fever during the same period was 646; and there can be little doubt that the acclimated population of Mobile and New-Orleans are just as much favored. There is every reason to believe that by proper police regulations, yellow fever might be almost entirely banished from our cities. In Charleston, there have been but two epidemics of this disease in the twenty-two years, and these have been attributed to the great fire of 1838, which destroyed a large portion of the city, and left the cellars, which became filled with water and rubbish, exposed to the summer's sun. In that year, 354 died with the yellow fever, and in the next, 1839, 134 died. In these years, it should be remembered, a large number of unacclimated mechanics flocked in to re-build the town. In Mobile, from 1829 to 1837, a period of eight years, during which time the streets were beautifully shelled and drained, there was no yellow fever. Since that time, shelling has been neglected, and the disease has oc curred five times, and twice as very exten sive epidemics. No doubt much might be done towards improving the health of New-Orleans. A curre fiv time, an twic as ery eten- * The reader will also refer with advantage to the N Th e reader will also refer with advantage to the article on Disease and Health in Southern Cities, by Dr. Hort, in the Commercial Review for March, 1847.-ED. 90 D,,.th'.f D.th f Whit. Bl.k. 40,68.... 19,64 47,37.... 46,79 18,30.... 33,00 .29,93.... 39,00 50,70.... 46,64 65,15.... 44,80 50,30.... 47,85 60,88.... 32,98 69,30.... 43,36 52,96.... 48,54 SOUTH-VALUE OF LIFE IN THE. chest, including acute and chronic. We have last six years, the only years for which we no space here for following out this point, have all these details. It includes blacks and and must refer the reader for our facts to the whites, and it is to be regretted that the two Charleston Medical Journal. castes cannot be separated at all ages, as we We give below another table, which will could thus be enabled to judge better of the afford data for comparison with other cities effect of climate on each race. on some important points. It embraces the TABLE III. OF MORTALITY FOR CHARLESTON FROM 1840 TO 1846, SIX YEARS, SHOWING THE MORTALITY OF THE DIF FERENT MONTHS, AND THE AGES AT DEATH. Under 1 year. I to 5 5 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 January..............35........33........ 9........ 11...... 23......23.......28....... 18 February.............29......28.......16....... 1 2...... 2 9....... 30.......31....... 17 March.............37...... 28........12...... 12...... 28........ 32........27...... 22 April..............52.......52 34...... 3.3..... 23.......28........37........40...... 30 May..................67... 40....... 17.......33.......33........22.......30....... 18 June..................74........46.......17...... 24....... 33....... 32........25...... 29 July..................86....... 53.......16........ 24........46.......32........27....... 19 August...............85........70........21.......22.......39.......43.......30.......21 September.......... 57.......44.......11........24.......62........40.......35.......32 October............ 40...... 40.......4.......14.......32.......36.......37........19 November.......... 53.......34....... 3...... 20.......29........20........27.......16 December.......... 44.......33........11.......18........37........49.......35........21 Total............ 659...... 483...... 150...... 239......420...... 395...... 372...... 262 Average....... 109,83....80,50.....25,00.... 39,83.... 70,00.... 65,83.... 62,00......43,66 Per centage...... 18,46.....13,53......4,20......6,69.....11,76......11,07.....10,42......7,34 31,99 60 to 70 to 80 to 90 to 100 to 110to 70 80 90 100 110 120 Total. Average. January.............17...... 16.......15.....1... 6........ 3...... 0........ 236...... 39,33 February..........15........17....... 7........ 2....... 0...... 0......233...... 38,83 March..............26........16............. 3........ 3............253...... 42,16 April 24-.........24......22........ 9....... 4....... 1....... 1......318...... 53,00 May...............22........ 17........ 8....... 3........ 0............311...... 51,83 June.............. 22........11.......10.......3....... 0...... 0......326...... 54,33 July................ 2.......13......9........ 2....... 0.............349......58,16 August.............18.......10...0............ 7........ 0............373......62,16 September...2..... 16..1. 8.....................................0. 357......59,66 October........... 17...... 13....... 1........ 6.............. 0...... 271......45,16 November.........18.......21....... 7....... 2...... 0....... 0...... 250......41,66 December........... 7....... 13...... 16........ 4........ 3...........292...... 48,66 231...... 185.......112......46...... 1 2......3..... 3569..... 594,83 Average....... 38,50.....30,83......18,66......7,66......2,00.......,50 Per centage 6,44 5,18........5,18.....3,13......1,28......,33.......,08 l contrary, no one regards the bilious fever regions of the South with more horror than we do. Though we are satisfied that the gulf coast generally and many portions of the Atlantic states will compare favorably with our north-eastern states, we wish it borne in mind that we are now illustrating the climate of sea ports a lone. When, then, we take into consideration the fact that yellow fever attack s only the unacclimated, and that bilious fever s do no t affect to any exte nt the southern sea po rts; that these cities a re co mpa ratively e xempt f ro m many other zimotic diseas es, as we ll as those ar is i n g from cold; that t ables of mortali ty include al l classes, and that it is only the better classes who apply for lif e insurance, we have strong reasons for concluding that the mortality in Charleston for the last six years may be assumed as a safe measure for estimating the probabilities of life in that city, as well as in those of the gulf. We will here bring to a close our imperfect sketch, and must refer the reader who is curious in such matters, to more extended We are forced for want of space to pass this table without comment, and to omit a comparison of North and South by the various methods which have been resorted to by statistical writers in order to determine the longevity of places. Judged by every test, the comparison is favorable to Charleston. We will remark, in passing, thie low degree of mortality amongst children in Charleston compared with northern cities. In Charleston, the mortality under five years is 31 per cent., while in Boston it is 46, and in other northern and European cities the per centage is still greater. The ave rag e m ortality for the last six years in Charleston for all ages is 1 in 51, in t cluding all classes. Blacks alone, 1 in 44; whites alone, 1 in 58, a very remarkable result, certainly. This mortality is perhaps not an unfair test, as the population during the last six years has been undisturbed by emigration and acclimated in a greater proportion than at any former period. We do not wish to be considered an apologist of southern climates generally; on the 91 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS. life statistics, which we have given in the Southern Journal of Medicine, published in Charleston. The Southern cities cannot expect, nor do they deserve justice on the subject of Life Insurance, until their vital statistics are properly kept. The subject is one of great importance, and should be looked to. of the resources of own country, and that for this purpose suitable agents should be sent abroad to induce foreign capitalists and merchants to establish agencies and form co-partnerships in our cities, with the assurance of their receiving a cordial welcome and zealous support. " Resolved, 5. That similar efforts should be made to bring about a co-operation between our merchants and capitalists, and those of Europe, for the purpose of immediately establishing lines of packet ships and steamers, whereby regular communications, at stated periods, may be secured-and that all other proper measures should be adopted to effect, as speedily as possible, this all-important object. " Resolved, 6. That in the opinion of this Convention, it is essential to the success of any scheme of direct importation, that a demand should be created in our own ports for all the goods so imported, which can only be effected by opening free communications with the interior by an extensive system of rail-roads, canals, and turnpikes, by which the merchants of the interior may be enabled to lay in their supplies on better terms than they could procure them from any other quarter. "Resolved, 7. That among the measures auxiliary to the important objects we have in view, this Convention cannot but regard as of deep interest and importance, the adoption of the proper means for introducing COMMERCIAL EDUCATION among the youth of our country-the training them up to habits of business and thereby establishing a body of merchants, whose every interest and feeling shall be identified with the country which has reared and sustained them. " Resolved, 8." This resolution applied to the revival of the old " Southern Review," of the palmy days of southern literature, the objects of which were thee defene of our institutions and the development of the resources of the slaveholding states. A committee of twenty-one, of which the venerable and distinguished Chancellor Harper was chairman, and of which the following individuals were members, prepared the report: Committtee-William Harper, Robert Y. Hayne, G. A. Trenholm, J. K. Douglass, F. H. Elmore; C. G. Memminger, A. Blanding, from South Carolina. William Dearing, A. D. Miller, I). C. Campbell, A. H. Stevens, J. Phinizy, J. Cowles, from Georgia. John H. Crozier and Thomas C. Lyon, from Tennessee. Abner McGehee, E. A. Holt, from Alabama. Mitchell King, William Patten, from North Carolina. James Gadsden, Wm. J. Mills, from Florida. SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTIONS.-We were turning over a package of old and valuable documents that had been stored away in our library, a few davs since, when it chanced that several pamphlets emb r a c i n g the proceedings of southern and western merchants on the subject of this trade and commerce, came to light. We turned over their pages with great interest, and marvelled that a movement begun in such a spirit and prosecuted for a time with so m u c h vigor, could at last have been suffered to die away and pass as it were from memory. Where are the men that instituted the conventions of Augusta, of Charleston, and of Macotn. Where are those delegates from the Carolinas, and Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee, Florida and Mississippi, whose enterprise appeared to have no bounds v It is scarcely ten years since then. Has anything been achieved that was desired, or has despair seized upon them to deaden and destroy their energies l We would recall those scenes and times. We would bring upon the stage again the actors and the events. Perchance the day will come-a better and a brighter one for the South, for which they sighed. The last of these conventions was, we believe, held in 1839. There were present from South Carolina, 170 delegates, from North Carolina, 3; from Georgia, 33; from Alabama, 5; from Tennessee, 5; from Florida, 3; Mississippi and Louisiana were not represented. Among the resolutions adopted were the following: "Resolved, 1. That the commercial capital and credit of the southern and south-western states should be so extended and enlarged, as to enable our merchants to carry on the business of direct importations on an extensive scale, and on the most advantageous terms. "Resolved, 2. That for this purpose, it is highly important that a portion of the capital now absorbed in other pursuits, should be directed to commerce, for which the strongest inducements are now offered by the passage of laws in several of the states, authorizing the formation of limited co-partnerships, and from the reasonable assurance that such investments will be as profitable to individuals as they must be beneficial to the community. "Resolved, 3. That our banks should extend all the aid in their power to this trade, and afford the necessary facilities for carrying it on successfully, by enlarging the capital and extending the credit of those who may engage in it, to the utmost extent consistent with the safety of these institutions and the public welfare. "Resolved, 4. That the proper efforts should also be made to bring in foreign capital and credit, in aid SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION-REPORT OF ROBERT Y. HAYNE, (1839.)-Near two years have elapsed since the first commercial convention assembled in Augusta, for the purpose of promoting "A DIRECT EXPORT AND IMPORT TRADE WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES." It was foreseen by the projectors of this great enterprise, that it would be a work of time, and that its final accomplishment could only be effected by the exertion of extraordinary zeal, energy, and perseverance. They were well aware that essential changes in the habits an d pursuits of a people —and especially in the course of their trade-could be brought about only by slow degrees. They knew that the end proposed, no less than the means to be adopted for securing it, would come into conflict 92 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. with too many deeply-rooted prejudices and conflicting interests, to permit them to es cape censure and avoid misrepresentation. In the very beginning, they pointed out these as among the difficulties to be encountered and overcome, before they could expect to reap the full reward of their patriotic exer tions. Nevertheless, we have gone steadily forward in the consciousness of rectitude, and under a deep and abiding conviction that the "commercial independence of the South" is too closely connected with the welfare, prosperity, and honor of this quarter of the Union, ever to be abandoned while there remained the smallest hope of ultimate success. The evil complained of is, that the southern and southwestern states, while producing near three-fourths of the domestic exports of the Union, import scarcely one-tenth of the mnerchandize received in exchange for them. The foreign commerce, which derives its existence from the productions of our industry, and which is the unfailing source of so much wealth to others, is carried on by the citizens of other states, causing their cities to flourish, while ours have been falling into decay. The profits of the agency by which this trade has b e en carried on.for us, has been estimated at tell millions of dollars annually. The annual loss to Georgia and South Carolina cannot be less than three million s, while Mississippi (whose exports even now amount to 816,000,000,) must lose a million and a half annually. No one acquainted with the present course of trade and the usual measure of mercantile profits, would, we presume, estimate the gains of the northern merchants from the almost exclusive possession of the carrying trade for the South, at less than from 10 to 15 percent.,* which would exceed the amount ab ove est imated. The na tural, indeed inevitable effect of this state of things upon the plantation states, has been t o subject theirn industry to an indirec t tax, whic h has c onsumed s o large a portion of their annual profits as to deprive them, in a great measure, of the means of accumulating the capital equally esse n tial to the success of commercial pursuits as t o the genera l i mprovement of our country. It has been supp osed t w t t hat wsoith ures the vast resources of the cotton-g rowing states, t he mere abstraction of a few mllion acannual ly, by an unfavorable course of trade, could not very materially diminish their wealth, or impair their prosperity. But let it be re c olle cted, tha t the sum drawn annually from these states, by the combined operation of all the causes which have con curred in divert i ng to the North the profits of southern labor an d capital, a re by no means inconsiderable in amount. In addition to the ten millions of dollars yearly abstracted by the unfavorable course of our foreign trade, the ACTION. OF THrE FDERAL GOVERNMENT in the collection and disbursement of the public revenues, has operated as a burden to an equal or even greater amount. The system of raising, by duties on foreign goods, nearly the whole amount necessary to meet the wants of the government, including the discharge of an immense public debt, was, of itself, calculated to depress the industry of the cotton-growing states, which was almost exclusively employed in raising the products which were exchanged for the very articles thus enormously taxed. But when these duties were extended to an amount greatly exceeding the wants of the government, ranging from 25 to upward of 100, and amounting on an average to 40 per thus purchase for us, charge us only ten per cent. which is a very moderate calculation (as we believe imports to the Southern market may be safely arranged at twenty per cent.) we pay upon our imports one million eight hundred thousand dollars. Thus making upon exports and imports three million six hundred thousand dollars, which we pay for the pri vilege of taking the Northern markets in our route to those offoreign countries. This is a calculation in respect to our oven first markets. Add to the amount the expenses and charges upon goods before they go into the hands of the consumers, and the sum total will be very greatly increased. " If this amount must be paid, why shouid it not be paid to our own citizens? If we must employ agents, why should we not select those who will return the profits they derived from us, back to us again? Why should not the legislature of the state put forth its most liberal power to attain the people this most desirable end? Wivhy should not the. people themselves, while the resources of this noble and prospero u s state are full of youth and energy, seize upon an enterprise which thus promises such beneficial results?-results of no chimerical, vague or uncertain character, but taught us by the lesson of facts, ascertained by the best proof-the proof of experience itself. "If we take the article of cotton alone, and enter into a calculation of the loss occasioned to the plant ing interest of the South and West by an indirect * In an able report made by Mr. Porter to the Legislattire of Alabama, the following striking views are presented of this branch of the subject: "i Of the two hundred and eighty thousand bales of cotton which find their way to market from this state, probably one hundred thousand reach NewOrleans bv the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers, and the balance passes through Mobile. That portion of the amount which reaches Mobile, and is not shipped to Liverpool and tIlavre through New-York, is shipped directly to the foreign market in vessels owned in the latter city, after being purchased by capital ownved there likewise; so that we may estimate the entire amount of our exports of cotton (worth eighteen millions of dollars) has to reach the European market through agents who are not citizenis of the state, and upon whom we need not be necessarily dependent. This probably costs us one million eight hundred thousand dollars. But it will be asked, can every producer sell for himself? We say, no; but if we employ agents, let them be our onvii citizens, who will return the profits they make back into the same community from which they are derived, and the burden will cease to be intolerable. Again-the same channels return us our mports. These consist of dry goods, cutlery, and groceries, which we indirectly purchase to a large amount from Europe and the West Indies, through New-York, by the same agents. If our imports equal in value our exports, which is the stated rule, and those who 93 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. cent., imposed for the avowed purpose of affording protection and encouragement to those, the productions of whose industry (free from all taxation) came into direct competition with the foreign goods received in exchange for our cotton, rice, and tobacco, when the vast amounts thus extracted WERE ACCUMULATED AT THE NORTH, and were expended on the army and navy, the fortifications, public buildings, pensions, and other various objects of national expenditurethe balance being distributed in INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS-of which we receive but a small share, can it be a matter of wonder or surprise, that even with the richest staples in the world, the South should exhibit the extraordinary spectacle of a country making hardly any progress-while the more favored, though comparatively barren regions of the North, were seen constantly advancing in wealth and prosperity. This UNEQUAL ACTION OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT-as it was, in the first instance, the most prominent cause of the subversion of southern commerce-has constantly operated in preventing its recovery, by stimulating the commercial industry of the North, and building up northern cities at the expense of those of the South and Southwest. To show the magnitude of this evil, it is only necessary to advert to the fact, that the gross amount received from customs has been es bama. Her estimated crop of cotton for the year ending 30th September, 1838, is 309,807 bales. This, calculated at four hundred pounds to the bale, gives 123,932,800 pounds. One and a half cents freight is...........$1,858,842 Commissions, shipping, insurance at five per cent. on amount of crop, is, viz., $12,392,280, at $40 per bale, is equal to 619,614 Add one and a half cents per pound for baggage, factor's commissions, trans portation to Mobile, which is.......... 1,858,842 Total.......................... $4,337,298 Deduct this from $12,392,289, the value of our crop at home, and we have left us $8,054,982. "VWhen, in addition, it is recollected that this amount is again indirectly expended abroad in purchasing our articles of consumption, we will perceive that the most ruinous consequences follow. The destination and disposition of our products for the last twenty years, have not been made subjects of consideration by our citizens, nor their importance estimated. We content ourselves with buying and selling again, without inquiring farther than to know that our crops increase, and that we dispose of them readily. We do not perceive the great drain which is made from us by the capital of others. Foreign capital purchases our produce, but it is taken up instantly by foreign imports. Poreign merchants act as our agents in the two transactions, but spend not a dollar of the money we pay among us again. The immense value of our labor is thus taken abroad, and it is well known that we live humbly, make no expensive improvements, spend little in the luxuries of life, and have few means at the close of the year. Where, then, goes the value of our labor, but to those who, taking advantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and after turning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with our money, to enjoy their easily-earned opulence at home I", trade, we will be astonished at the result. The estimated crop of cotton for the year ending 30th September, 1838, is 1,891,497 bales. This cotton is transported by sea either to the Northern ports, or directly to Europe. Of this number, 1,165,155 bales go to England; 321,480 to France; 63,009 to the North of Europe; and 25,895 to other foreign portsmaking a total of 1,574,629 sent abroad. Deduct this number of bales from the entire crop, and wAre find that 226,868 bales are used at home, and returned to us in domestic manufactures. It is but reasonable to estimate the freight paid upon the number of bales shipped abroad at one and a half cents per pound. If this be calculated upon 1,574,629 bales, supposing each bale to contain 340 pounds, which gives 535,373,860 pounds, it is shown that the prod uc ing s tate s pay for freight alone, $8,030,607 90. Other charges, such as commissions, shipping, insurance, may be said to amount to at least five per cent. Now the amount of the crop shipped valued at thirty dollars per bale, is $47,238,870. Five per cent. upon that amount is....$2,361,943 50 To which add the freight, which is.... 8,030,607 90 And you have a total of.............. $10,392,554 40 " This immense amount deducted from a crop of the value of $47,238,879, is distributed among those who act as the transporting and selling agents of the producer, all of whom live north of the Potomac river. The South thus stands in the attitude of feeding from her own bosom a vast population of merchants, ship-owners, capitalists and others, who, without the claims of her progeny, drink up the lifeblood of her trade. " It cannot be here asserted that a deduction should be allowed for that portion of the Southern crop which is shipped directly from the southern ports to foreign countries. The tonnage register will show that nine-tenths of the shipping employed belong to Northern capitalists. " Now let us bring this calculation home to Ala 94 timated at the enormous sum of nine hundred millions of dollars, nearly three-fourths of which were levied on goods received in exchange for the productions of the South and Southwest, and nine-tenths of it expended north of the Potomac. Now, if one of the effects of this most unjust and unequal system has been to stimulate the industry of the North, and thus to throw the importing business almost entirely into the hands of northern merchants, then it is manifest that we have been deprived of the profits to be derived from the importation and sale of an amount of foreign goods, which, estimated by the value of our productions, could not have fallen far short of a thousand millions of dollars-the entire value of importation being estimated at nearly three timesthat amount-a sum so vast that the usual profits on the importations would have been abundantly sufficient to have changed the entire face of our country, and given us a capital fully adequate to all the purposes of the most prosperous foreign commerce, and the most extensive system of internal improvements. But there is another view of this subject, entitled, we think, to more weight than it has yet received. The prosperity of states depends in a far greater degree upon their ACCUMULATED CAPITAL than is generally supposed. A people whose industry is ex SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. hausted at the bare supply of their wants, can make but small advances in science or the arts. All great public improvements must be the result of capital, accumulated by years of successful industry. The man who lives by his labor, has neither leisure nor inclination, and if he possess both. has not the means of improving his own condi tion. much less of developing the resources of his country. And whatever may be the productions of any country, if the consump tion be equal to that production, it is clear that capital cannot be accumulated to any great extent. National wealth chiefly de pends on the excess of annual production over the annual consumption. This consti tutes, at all times, and under all circum stances, A COMPARATIVELY SMALL POR TION OF THE WHOLE ANNUAL PRODUCTION, much the greater part of which must neces sarily be consumed in the support of the producers. Now, according to this law of society, which is founded in the very nature and constitution of man, it is manifest that the yearly abstraction, whether it be by the action of the government or the operation of an unfavorable course of trade, of even a comparatively small portion of the annual gains of the people, may so far affect their prosperity as to leave them in the condition of a community making no advances what ever in wealth and prosperity. If the millions, therefore, which have been abstracted by the government from the southern and south-western states, and expended elsewhere, had been left here to accumulate, and to be applied to all the uses of society; if our citizens even now derived all the profits -which our great staples still furnish to the merchants and manufacturers of the North, we would not hear continued complaints of that want of capital, which we are told opposes so great an obstacle to the success of our schemes. The addition of even one million and a half a year (to rate it no higher) to the commercial capital of Mississippi, Georgia, and South Carolina, for the last ten or fifteen years, would at this time have placed these states in a condition of the high est prosperity. One of the most unfortunate consequences of the subversion of souther n commerce has been t he depriving us of that DIVERSITY IN THE PURSUITS OF THE PEOPLE on which, we are persuaded, the p rosperity of e very c ommunity, in a great measur e, depends. The citizens of the southern and s outh-western states, driven from the animating pursuits of commerce ae, h ave, i t is undeniable, devoted themselves too exclusively to agriculture. With us, the usual routine of business has been, to produce as much cotton, rice, and tobacco, as our land and labor would afford. Whatever profits could be derived from the transportation, sale, and manufac ture of these articles, or from the busines s of conducting the exchanges, w we were con tent to leave in th e ha nds of others. If, at the end of th e year, th e plant er found that he h a d s uppor ted his family, and was not brought into debt, he was well coniten t. The fort una te few whose inc omes exceeded their expenditures, were n atur ally led to the extension of their plan tations rather than to the investment of thei r surplus in commerce or manufactures. Except in the immediate neighborhood of the citie s (whose bank and other stocks have commanded the attention of a fewo of our wealth y planter s) the regular course has b een to i nves t the entir e pr ofits of agriculture in lands and negroes. The poorer class of planters have thus been in duced to sell out their possessions to their more wealthy neighbors, and have gone with the proceeds to other states, while the ac quisition of more land, and the production of more cotton have been regarded as the only objects worthy of the attention of those who remained at home. The most disas trous consequences have resulted from this unfortunate habit among our agriculturists. In the first place, the increase of the quan tity of cotton thus produced has not been attended by a corresponding increase in the profits of the planter. According to a law in political economy, well understood, and which admits of a few exceptions, a mere increase in the quantity of any article of ge neral consumption, seldom increases its money value in a corresponding degree, while the lessening of the production not unfrequently enhances that value. Hence the practice of the southern planters of devoting their whole attention to the increase of their cotton crops is not attended by a corresponding increase in their value. It is'a notorious fact, that the shortest crops of this article are not unfrequently the most profitable, and it can hardly be doubted that if the whole surplus of our agriculture for several years past had been applied to other pursuits, instead of being invested in lands and applied to the production of more cotton, the cotton crop would have been worth, at this time, nearly as much as it is at present, while this surplus, invested in commercial or other pursuits, or applied to public improvements, would have added to the wealth and improved the character of our people, and, by diversifying their pursuits, have stimulated their industry and strengthened our peculiar institutions.* * From what has been here said, we would not be understood as indulging in any fears that cotton is an article, the production of which is at all likely to be overdone. It is the cheapest raw material out of which cloth can be made, and is destined, we have no doubt, to supersede to a great extent all manufactures of wool, flax, hemp, and silk; and when shirting and sheeting, sails, carpeting, hats, blankets, and even broadcloths, shall be made, as they shortly will be, entirely of cotton,, the world will 95 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. From this brief review of the subject, it will be seen that the present depressed state of southern commerce has been brought about by causes which, however powerful, have, in a great measure, CEASED TO EXIST, and that the opportunity is now presented, by improving our present advantages, of removing them altogether, and regaining all that we have lost. The national debt of $420,000,000 has been fully paid. The tariff, already greatly reduced, is gradually receding to th e "revenue standard." In a littl e more than two years, by a proper vigilance on th e par t of our representatives in Congress, and a firm determination on our own, to insist, in the terms of the compromise act, on the reduction of the tariff to the "revenue standard," based on "an economical administration of the Federal Government," with the continued preservation of the blessings of peace, so indispensable to our welfare, we shall soon be relieved from a system which has sapped the very foundations of our prosperity, and reduced us almnost to a state of " colonial vassalag,e." For the rest, we must depend upon ourselves. That the difficulties under which we have labored have not arisen from anything inherent in our situation or character is abundantly proved by our past history. The statistics of the United States enable us to present the world the following statements, exhibiting at one view the true history of the rise, progress, and decay of southern commerce, and pointing out with unerring certainty the causes of that decay. We extract them from one of the documents already published by the convention, which cannot be too frequently read, or too carefully studied. "There are no data to show the imports into the several states from the year 1791 to 1820, but the general fact may be assumed, that the import trade of New-York and other northern states, has been constantly progressing, while that of Virginia and South Carolina has as regularly diminished. From 1821, to the present time, we have sufficient data, and they exhibit the following as the state of the import trade: Years New-York Virginia S. Carolina 1821...... $23,000,000.... $1,078,000.... $3,000,000 1822........35,000,000........864,000...... 2,000,000 1823...... 29,000,000........681,000......2,000,000 1824........36,000,000........639,000......2,400,000 1825...... 49,000,000........553,000......2,150,000 1827...... 39,000,000........431,000...... 1,800,000 1829........43,000,000........ 375,000......1,240,000 1832...... 57,000,000........550,000......1,213,000 "Thus the import trade of New-York has gradually increased from ~189,000 sterling, about $840,000, in the year 1769, and from about three millions of dollars in 1791, to the enormous sum, in 1832, of fifty-seven millions of dollars! while Virginia has fallen off in her import trade from two and a half millions of dollars, in 1791, to $375,000 in 1829, and $550,000 in 1832, not a great deal more than the freight of half a dozen ships! " From these calculations a few curious facts appear. The imports of New-York were, in 1832, seventy times as great as they were in 1769, and nearly twenty times more than they were in 1791. Virginia, on the other hand, imported in 1829 about one-eleventh of what she did in 1769, and about one-seventh of what she did in 1791. In a period, too, of eight years, the aggregate imports of New-York amounted to three hundred and eleven millions of dollars; those of South Carolina to about sixteen millions, and those of Virginia to about five millions! New-York imported, therefore, in 1832, eleven times as much as Virginia did in eight years preceding, and nearly four times as much as Virginia did in eight years preceding, and nearly four times a s much in tha single year of 1832 as South Carolina imported in a period of eight years. Again New-York imported in one year, (1832,) nearly fifty times as much as South Carolina in the same year, and about 110 times as much as Virginia. " Having shown the decline of Southern trade, we proceed to inquire into the causes of it. In the course of our research the reader will discover the prime cause of our present embarrassments. "The Committee of Ways and Means, in their report of the 5th March last, say:' Our collectors have had under their control a gross revenue of $946,000,000, and our land receivers $107,000,000, making $1,053,000,000. They not only had control of this vast amount, but they were permitted to pay without warrant from the treasury, and before the mon ey passed out of their hands, all the expenses of our custom-houses and land-offices and debentures, wi hich alone amounted tofour orfive millions annu ally, and sometimes more.' "' Though we find some difficulty in reconciling this statement with the actual receipts and disbursements of the Government as reported annually to Congress, and with the expenses of collection as discoverable from the sources of information which lie within our reach, without supposing greater losses in the transit of the public funds to the treasury than are stated to have occurred, it is probable that our diffi cualty arises from our limit ed means o f research, and that the committee are substantially, if not literally correct. " The nine hundred and forty-six millions of re venue raised from the customs were levied from foreign merchandise, received in exchange for do mestic productions; for though the term customs, in financial language, embraces duties on tonnage, clearances, light-money, &c., &c., these are compa ratively so insignificant that they will not materi. The time was when the people of the South were the largest importers in the country. In 1769 the value of the imports of the several colonies was as follows: Of Virginia................. ~851,140 sterling. New-England States........ 561,000 New-York................. 189,000 Pennsylvania............... 400,000 South Carolina.............. 555,000 " The exports were in about the same proportion: Virginia exporting nearly four times as much as 1N-ew-York; and South Carolina nearly twice as much as New-York and Pennsylvania together; and fiv e time s as much as all the New-England States united. 1' The same relative proportion of imports is preserved until the adoption of the Federal Constitution, when we find them to be in the year 1791 as follows: consume, not only all the cotton now produced, but four times the quantity. Still the quantity produced may be diminished without lessening ourprofits, and the capital thus diverted from agriculture to co m - merce and manufactures will be a great gain to the country. The Southern States must always be e ssentially nariciltulral. It is well that it should be so; slave labor is best adapted to agricultural pursuits. Still we should be great gainers by div ersifying in some degree the pursuits of our people. 96 II Of New-York...................... $3,22.000 Virginia........................ 2'486,000 South Carolina................... 1,520,000 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. ally affect the estimate. Those who think differ- and importing. Will the reader compuite the amount eutly, may allow for them the odd tbrty-sixtiiillions. of them on twenty-five hundred millions worth of Of the domestic productions given in exchange for goods, and make a fair allowance for the portion of foreign merchandise, nearly three-fourths were of them consumed at the South? southern growth-we will say two-thirds, which "In 1835, the long-endured national dlbt was ex we know, in the whole estimate, to be under the tinguished, after having absorbed from the treasury mark. Without disturbing the vexed question, about four hundred and twenty-two millions of dol'who pays the duties,' we may state, then, what all tars. The larger portion of this sum was paidto the will admit, that the government has been indebted citizens of the United States; of whom, thoseresid to southern industry for six hundred and thirty ing north of the Potomac were to those residing millions of money. If the expenses of collecting one south of it, in the ratio of 165 to 11; and those in thousand and fifty-three millions of revenue were Massachusetts, New-York and Pennsylvania, to 'from fbur to five millions annually anl sometimes those in all the other states, as 150 to i176. Whence, more,' it may safely be assumed, that the expenses but from their commerce, did the northern states of collecting the six hundred and thirty millions acquire the means of loaning so largely to the go amounted to one million annually. IHad the south- vernment? Whence, but from the same source, did ern people, then, shipped their own produce to these states acquire the power to loan thirteen times foreign markets, and brought the return cargoes to as much as all the southern states put together? their own ports, they would have had eight and And with the power to lend, was it no advantage to I'orty millions distributed among them since 1 89, them to have been enabled to lend, uponl the best se simply in the pay of their revenue officers. This curity in the world? would have gone into the pockets of individuals, to be' So much for our own voluntary self-impoverish sure; and so goes all that constitutes the wealth of ment. A word or two upon those contributions a nation. Here would it have been received, and which we have made to the fortunes of our northern here expended. Insignificant as it may seem while brethren,and which may be denominated compulsory. we are contemplating thousands of millions, when " The actual disbursements of the General Cov we rellect uponi the influence which the compara- ernment have been about one thousand millions of lively trivial sum received by the states fromi the dollars, exclusive of the surplus revenue. The surplus revenue has had upon the southern states, greater part of this immense sum was disbursed we cannot doubt that its efibects woull have been among the several states. A rateable distribution of most benignly felt. This sum divided among the this fund between the northern and north-western, cities of Norlolk, Wilmington, Charleston, Savan- and southern and south-western states as they now nah, Mobile and New-Orleans, would have quieted stand, would have been nearly as follows: many a disturbed bosom in the trying reign of the According to whole population, as........ 7 to 5 protective system Savainnah's portion of it would " white as 7 to 3 white "as........7o3 have defrayed the whole expenses of the govern- representation as 5 to 3 ment of Georgia for nmore than thirty years; nor, it "area, as..................4 to5 is believed, would the portions of thlie othlier cities are, as.... to 5 have done less for their states. Whatever the sum "'Howhave they actuallybeen? lJp to 1830, there may have been worth, we mus t be considered as had been expended in the sever al states and terri having thrown it away ourselves. Let us at least tories two hundred and eighteen millions of public remember, that if the tariff should ever be revived, money, in fortifications, light-houses, public debt, (and hints to that effect have recently fallen from pensions, and internal improvements; of which high authority on the floor of Congress,) a direct sum, one hundred and ninety-five millions were trade wvill in some measure mitigate its rigor; and disbursedin the northern and northwestern states; thus far tend to the preservation of the Union. and twenty-three millions in the southern and "If we suppose the value ofthe goods upon which south-western. The national debt constitutes by the six hundred and thirtv millions of duties were far the largest item in this account, and it was but levied, to have been but fiour tires the value of the equitable that this should be paid to the lenders in duties, it amounitedi to $2,50(0,c0(),0. itow were the proportions of their loans. But in the matter these goods brought to this countr- atnd distributed? of internal improvements, the southern division The northern merchant has come hither and bought should have received a ninth more than the northfrom the southern planter produce of equal value ern. The disbursements under this head wereabating from the price, all the expenses, direct anid north of the Potomac, in round numbers, four milincidental, of tranisportation-l ie has insured them lions seven hundred thousand; south of the Potomac in northern offices, and shipped them abroad in his two hundred and sixty-seven thousand; or nearly owvn vessels-exchanged them at a small profit for 18 to 1.* Pensions 17 to 2; light-houses (consider foreign tuerchandise —brought it home-paid one our coast) 2 to 1; fortifications, equal but never fourth of its value to the governent —added that equal alfterward, and never to be equal again. The amount and all the expenses of importation, and expenditures on the Cumberland road alone, were fifteen to twenty per cent. for his protits to the price about nine times the amount expended lbr internal and exposed it for sale. The southern nerchant has improvements in all the southern and south-western now gone to him; lingered the suintiier through states together; and without that, the proportion with himn at a heavy expense-bought a portion of North and South was as 8 to 1. these goods-re-shipled them in'rorthern vessels " But this gives us a very inadequate idea of the exto southern ports-added twentty-five pet ceiit. miore tent of the disbursements in the several states. It to the price, to cover his expenses and profits and tues not the first cost, and the annual expenses sold the m t o the southern pl)anter. Ail the disburse- of the national establishments, most of which are menits made in this process, save such as are made at the North; nor the pay of the oificers, principal, abroad, are made amonu northern men; all the pro- and subordinate, in the several departmients of the fits, save the southern niercait's, arc made by government, most of whom are citizens of' the northern men; and the southern planiter, who sup- North; nor the ten thousand other items of expense, plies nearly all the foreign goods of the coultry, gets which go to make up the grand total of' $1,000,00()0,000 his portion of them burdened cit every expense Whoever will take the trouble to follow these exthat the government,c merch a nt, i atisurer, seanlai penditures through all their details for a year or wharfinger, drayman, bo atman and wvaonler ca i two, will come to the conclusion, that of the svhole pile upoil tihem. is burdens, of course, are need-!sums disbursed among the states, little short of lessly increased by the amount o f the expenses in- eiglt-tenths have gone north of the Potomac, or curred in landing the goods at northern ports, and bringing them the nce to southern markets. Every * While the above was i the press, the approi t em in the endless catalogue of charges, except the priationrs of the last Congress for internal improvegovernment dues, mway he considered a vohmntary ments appeared. They are as follows: tribute from the citizens of the South to their breth-North and north-western states......1,189,315 ren of they w ouldl all hase gone to South and south-western states....... 284,000 our ow n people, had we done our own exporting New-Yorkalon e.................. 358,443 VOL. II. 7 97 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. tercourse, must in general be Iess advantgeous to the producers than the direct trade. If then the trade of the South had not, by adventitious causes, been forced out of its natural channels, our cotton, rice, and tobacco, would naturally have found their way across the Atlantic from our own seaports, in ships owned by our own resident merchants; and it is equally certain, that the goods received in exchange for those productions would have been returned to us through e am ana e lthe same channels. Well then may we inquire, by what extraordinary combination of circumstances, by what "mighty magic," it could have happened, that when the imports of the United States reached the enormous amount of "one hundred and ninety millions of dollars, those of all the Atlantic states, and the states on the Gulf of Mexico, should have amounted only to twenty millions," while, at the same time, out of $107,000,000 of domestic exports, the latter actually exported $78,000,000-South Carolina and Georgia furnishing exports to the amount of $24,000,000, and actually importing only $3,500,000. It is vain and idle to allege, that this extraordinary state of things has arisen entirely from the want of capital, or the want of ships-from the unhealthiness of the cIimate, or the want of enterprise on the part of our people. All of these causes combined are wholly insufficient to account for the extraordinary REVOLUTION which has been effected in the course of trade during the last thirty years. The truth is, that the commercial capital that we formerly possessed, and which was then found to be fully adequate to all the purposes of a direct trade, has been abstracted from us, and diverted into other channels by the causes to which we have already adverted, and southern ships and southern commerce, have all shared the same fate. The objection, that the health of our southern seaport towns opposes any serious obstacle to a direct trade, is altogether imaginary. With the single exception of the yellow or stranger's fever, which seldom makes its appearance at the South oftener than once in four or five years, and from which the cities of the North are not entirely exempt, we are actually subject to fewer fatal epidemics, than our Northern brethren. The bills of mortality of the different cities of the Union will show that the general health of our cities is at least as good as that of the cities of the North. Consumption alone destroys a greater number of lives in the cities of the North, in proportion to their population, than are lost in Charleston and Savannah from yellow fever and consump tion combined, deducting from the latter the number of strangers who come here in the last stages of the disease for the restoration to citizens domiciled north of the Potomac. About seven hundred thousand dollars of the one thousand millions disbursed, were raised from the customsthat is to say, from duties on foreign importations, two-thirds of which were received in exchange for southern productions. The southern states, then, have virtually put into the treasury four hundred and sixty-six millions of the seven hundred, and drawn out one hundred and forty. The northern states have put in two hundred and thirty-three rmillions, and drawn out five hundred and sixty, fractions rejected. The effect of these disbursements is like a shower of gold upon a people. They are far better. They clear rivers, improve harbors, and open roads and canals which give permanent facilities to comm erce. They plant national establishments, gather villages aroun d them, and found other public works, through which there is a constant str eam of treasure flowing from the government to the peopl e in their vicinity." To t e wl on a this we will only add the pregnant examp le of th e c ity of Charleston. For sev e ral years prior to, and including the year 1807, the imports in the city of Charleston, estimat ing thei r amou nt by the duties received a t to the custom-houseuthe average rate of d uties b e ing th en about 12o per cent. amounted, on an average, to about nine rmillions of dollars annually. From that period, under the operat i on of the " restrictive sy steme," th Ui with the importations (ith the exception of three years, from 1815 to 1818, immediately after the peace) gradually declined, u ntil 1830. In that y ear the imports had fallen to one million. But from that time, and especially since the " American System " has received a f atal blow, and the government has commenced retracing its steps back to the "Free Trade System," our imp orts h av e b een ste adily increasing, so that they now amount to about three millions of dollars, and if we shall go on improving, will soon reach their former amount. No on e c an shut his eyes to the inference to be drawn from th ese facts. It is as clear as the sun at noonday, that if the southern states, prior to the creation of the Federal Government and the adoption of the restrictive system, were actually able to carry on a profitable direct trade with all the world, of which they have been deprived by the causes to which we have already adverted, that these causes being removed, there can be no insuperable obstacle, to the resumption of that trade. Difficulties we certainly shall have to contend with, growing out of our present want of capital, and the established habits and pursuits of our people. But when it is considered that we are proceeding upon such sure grounds-that the end at which we aim, is of such transcendent importance to us and to our children-how can we allow ourselves to despair of success! It surely can require no argument to establish the po sition, heretofore asserted, and which no one has yet attempted to controvert, that it is the natural course of trade to exchange directly the productions of different countries —and that all indirect and circuitous modes of in 98 SOUTIHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. of their health. We will here state for the information of those who have been deceived by exaggerated reports on this subject, that until the past summer, Charleston had not been visited by the yellow or stranger's fever, for a period of fourteen years-that it was then confined, as it always has been, almost exclusively to strangers-the native popula tion continuing to enjoy their usual health that its continuance was limited to a few weeks, and those not embraced in the usual business season-and that the appearance of the disease has been attributed to extraor dinary causes not likely soon to recur. Under these circumstances, the force of the objec tion founded on the supposed sickliness of the seaports of the South and South-west, may be duly estimated. If these cities, however, were really as unhealthy as they have been commonly supposed to be, and, like the cities of the North, were liable to have their harbors closed up by ice, during a portion of the business season, still there would be nothing in all this, to prevent our exchanging directly the productions of the South for those of other countries. While our cotton, rice and( tobacco, do actually find a market abroad, and are paid for in foreign goods, what possible difference could it make on the score of health, whether our returns were received directly from Europe, or coast wise from New-York? The truth however is, that from the first introduction of com merce among nations up to the present time, it has seldom happened that any place was found to be too unhealthy for the establishment of an import and export trade, exactly conm mensurate with its productions and its wants. We do not complain that our cotton wants a market, or that ships and merchants are not found to carry it abroad and bring back the returns-but what we complain of is, that the profits of these exchanges are enjoyed almost exclusively by those who do not live among us, to the great injury of our own people and our own country. There are three causes, however, which have been assigned for the depression of southern trade, which, it must be admitted, have exerted, and still continue to exert, a a powerful influence over our destinies, and which must be removed, at least to some extent, before we can hope for complete success in our present enterprise. " The first is the want of a commercial capital adequate to the great demands of a direct export or import trade. " The second, the want of a sufficient demand, in our own ports, for the goods which, in the event of the establishment of such a trade, would be received at these ports. " Third, the want of lines of packets and steamships running at stated periods betwveen our own ports and those of Europe. "These are the real difficulties to be overcome, and which must be surmounted, before we may cal - culate confidently ott the entire success of our efforts." Le t us cons ider each of thes e in the ir or der. 1st. Capital. To provide the capital ne cessary to carry on the direct trade to the extent desired, these plans suggest them selves. A portion of the capital now en gaged in agriculture, should be invested in commercial pursuits. We have already shown that this may be done not only with out injury, but with positive benefit to the agriculture of the South and South-west. It is not desired that our planters should leave the cultivation of their fields to engage in the business of the counting-house. All that we would propose is, that they should set apart a portion of their annual surplus, and invest it in commerce. To enable them to do this without risk to themselves, the legisla tures of several states have, at the instance of the convention, authorized the formation of limited co-partnerships, by which means the opportunity is afforded to every one of in vesting such portion of his capital as he may think proper in commercial pursuits, without incurring a risk of losing in any event more than the amount so invested. It has been well observed, that if every planter in our country would invest only the tenth part of a single crop in this way, the deficiency in our commercial capital would be at once supplied. We confidently believe that the profits to be derived from such an investment, would be greater than if the same amount were applied to the usual purpose of making more cotton — indeed, we are persuaded, that the profits of agriculture would not thereby be sensibly diminished, while the profits of commerce would be greatly enlarged. We are well aware, that it is not in the course of human affairs that such a concert of actfon could be brought about among our planters. But we do hope and believe, that the example already set by so many of our public-spirited and patriotic citizens in this respect, will be ibllowed by others —that limited partnerships will be extensively formed, anid that by diverting a portion of their capital to commercial pursuits, our planters will contribute largely to the creation of a capital adequate to all the wants of a direct trade, and thus lay a sure foundation for our success.* * One of the incidental advantages that would grow out of this diversion by our planters of a portion of their capital from agriculture, would be the establishment of some of their sons as merchants, instead of devoting them as at present, almost exclusively, to the learned professions-in which so few succeed-or setting them with a few negroes to plant worn-out lands, the usual consequence of which is emigration or ruin. It is impossible to estimate too highly the advantage of preparing by setITABLE EDUCATION a portion of the youth of our country of the most respectable families, for MERCANTILE PURSUITS. Such a measure, if generally adopted, would, by elevatin g the mercantile character, and connecting our merchants closely with all the great interests of the state, give increased dig 99 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. Credit also may, to a great extent, be made these institutions should follow this example. to supply the place of capital for the purposes But the furnishing credits in Europe is not of the proposed trade. There is no one who sufficient; the banks must likewise enable is at all acquainted with the usual course of the importer to realize the price of his goods trade, who does not know, that the amount sold on credit to the country merchant, in of money used in commercial operations, time to meet his engagements to those inwhether consisting of gold or silver, or bank stitutions. This can only be effected by bills, is very inconsiderable in proportion to freely discounting the paper received for the total value of the exports and imports of these goods, "whether the same shall have a country. These usually balance each more or less than six months to run." The other. And as our cotton exported is paid co-operation of the country banks in collectfor by the goods imported, the great mass of ing and remitting the proceeds of such paper the business is carried on through the me- to the banks on the sea-coast, will also be diumn of bills of exchange. The course of extremely desirable. We are aware that the business as now carried on thirough New- there are limits to business of this character, York, aflords an apt illustration of this posi- which the banks cannot prudently transcend. tion. The New-York merchant, when he But we are satisfied, that if all of the banks orders his Charleston correspondent to pur- in our southern and south-western importing chase for hiii a cargo of cotton, directs him cities would agree to lend themselves to this to draw on him fobr the amount, and these object, s'o far as they could with a due regard drafts hlie meets by bills on Liverpool drawn to their own safety, the aid thus received upon his agent there, who pays them out of would go very far indeed to advance the the proceeds of the cotton, when sold. The direct trade. But the great source to whlich goods shipped for the southern market via we look with entire confidence for the supply N1ew-York, pi)ass through the same process, of all deficiencies in this respect, is the introand tihus it often happens that the whole duction of loreign capital. While England, operation is effected without the actual use our great customler, is abounding in capital, of any money, except, perhaps, the amount seeking investments at half the rates of infor which the bills are in the first instance terest allowed in this country, what but a sold in this country, which goes into the want of covfidence (resulting from a want of hands of the factor, thence passes into those informatioit, and of established commercial of the )planter-is paid to the merchant for connections here) could possibly prevent the goods, and bA him returned to the bank from introduction of any amount of British capital which it was originally borrowed. Credit, necessary to carrying on the direct trade thereifore, it will be seen, comes largely in between Europe and America. We know aid of capital in all these operations. It is that before this trade was driven from our credit which has furnished the merchants of ports by the causes already stated, foreign New-York with by far the greater portion of capital was to a very large amount actually their available means, by which they have employed in that trade-that British houses been able to monopolize so large a portion of were established here, and that a very sucthe southern trade. It is not intended to in- cessful business was thus, for a long time, tiiiat;, that the introduction of an increased carried on. Why should not this businessbe amount of capital is not indispensable to any now revived?. Let the proper measures, great extension of our direct trade-all that then, be taken to inform foreign capitalists of we mean to say is, that the amount required the opening now presented at the South for will not be so great as is commonly sup- the profitable employment of their capital posed-certainly not so large as to oppose among us. Let them be induced to establish any insuperable obstacle to its acquisition. agencies and to form co-partnerships among Our banks have already done much, and will us, for carrying on the direct trade. Let doubtless do much nmore, to further an object them be brought to unite with us in the esin which these institutions, in common with tablishinenit ot' regular lines of packet-ships the whole community, have the deepest in- and steamers, to arrive at stated periods at terest Under a recommendation made by our principal ports-and our work will be a former convention, sonme of our banks have done. And can they not be persuaded to do established credits in Europe, the use of this? To effect it, nothing more can be newhich has, to a considerable extent, been cessary than to give them the requisite ingiven to the direct importer on the most li- formation. A commission, composed of a beral terms. It is very desirable that all of few of our most intelligent and experienced merchants, charged to make known the nity and importance to commercialpursuits. Though wants and resourcesanl desires of the plan we mnay niot be able to bring back the golden age of tation stated on this subject, would, we are comemierce, when "Merchants were Princes," we satisfied, find no insuperable difficulty in may reandoabtyhiolpge atopseeieni ecitipytug ad a- effecting the object, either in England, France portance to peat of the most elevated ranks il so- or Holland. Let them be authorized to say Pciety in our behalf, that the whole southern and 100 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. south-western country has been raised up from its lethargy, and is now not merely deeply sensible of the vast importance of this trade, but unalterably determined to establish and extend it. Let them go prepared to exhibit our resources, and invite them, in the name and behalf of our people, to unite with us in doing whatever may be necessary to establish a direct import and export trade on a. permanent basis. Let the avenues already opened, and daily extending in all directions, for the transportation of goods into the interior for the supply of the wants of that vast and fertile region, be pointed out to them. and the transcendent importance of these connections be fully explained and illustrated -and, above all, let them be assured, that in engaging in this business, they will find among our people a general disposition to countenance and support them by all the means in our power-and we cannot bring ourselves to believe that the merchants and capitalists of Europe, can be so blind to their own interests, as to hesitate to engage at once in the work, with that spirit which characterizes all their enterprises. Such are the various resources to which we may look with a becoming confidence for the creation of the capital and credit necessary to the perfect success of our great scheme. It will-be seen that they are abundantly sufficient It is by no means essential to our success, however, that they should all be brought at once into full operation. The good work once begun, must and will go on. WNVe have dwelt thus largely on this point, because it presents to the minds of practical men the greatest difficulty in our case. 2d. I,STERNRrAL IMPROVE,:ENTS.-Equal in importance to the creation of a sufficient capital for carrying on the direct trade, is the furnishing a market for all the goods that can be imuported-indeed, it may be assumed as indispensable to our success, that rail-roads, canials, and turnpikes, must furnish the great cianntels of communication thlroulgh which the goods brought into our ports must find their way to the consumers in the interior. For. tunately for our enterprise, the southern alnd southwestern states are now engaged in vai-i ,oUS schemes of improvement, all hleaving in view the extension of the connectioli between their commtercial cities and the inhabitants of the interior. Fromn Virg'itfia to Florida inclusive, a nd fr om te c s t the Atlatic to the Mssisbsippi and the Ohio, rail-roads are everywhere in progress, which, when completed, wil afford tihe ready means of supplying our whole interior country with tfreignr goods in the -shortest time, and on the cheapest terms. By these several lines of communication, the country metrchant will find a ready access to our po ts, where he will be able to lay in his supplies on at least as good terms as he could in New-York, in addition to the saving of time and money, in aioiding the tedious and cir ciiitous routes through which he now receives his supplies from that city. In the mean time, and until these rail-road connections can be established, prompt measures should be adopted, and especially by rail-road companies, to esta bli sh lines of communication by w agons, fiom the termini of th es e roads to the point s wher e a d emand ,nay exist for the goods so transported. In the "Address to the Citizens of the Unie tted States," issued by the Conventio n which assembled in Augusta in October last, statements were submitted which showed conclusively that the cost of importation from New-York to the i nterio r town s o f tile southern and southwestern states greatly exceed what w oul d be incurred on the importation of simpilar go ods th rough our own ports wchen conveyed by rail-roads into the interior, even if charged with the highest rates of transportationl. From that statement, it appeared that while the expenses now incurred on the importation of $10,000 worth of goods from New-Yotk into Montgomery, Ala., amounted to $1,383, the same amount of goods might be received by rail-roads through Charleston or Savannah, at a cost of $451, making a saving, by means of the direct trade and railroad transportation, of $931 34, upon an investment of 91(0,000; and if the purchase were made in Mobile, and the goods transported by the river, the difference would be still gr-ea~ter. Results equally striking are exhibited on a similar importation to Knoxville, Tennessee. It has indeed been ascertainied that on 362,000 lbs. weiglhtof goods imported into Knoxville by a house in 1836, the first cost of which was $70,000, and brought by land and water fi'om Baltimore, New-York, Philadelphia, and New-Orleans, the charges amounted to $13,750 —near 20 per cent. on the first cost, the time required being on an average sixty days.; while the time required by a rail-ro)ad would be three days, and the charges would not exceed $5,068-less than one-half of the present cost. We refer to tihese cases merely as affording an illustration of the facilities that will be at; forded by rail-roads for the disposal of all the foreign goods, that, under a system ot direct trade, can be brought to our ports in exchange for our productioins. The two branches of this system are so interwoven with each other, that tl-hey cannot be separated without the destruction of both. We have constantly before our eyes, however, a st'iking example of the effect produced by these comr-muniications with the interior upon the course of trade, which it is proper we should refer to, because the members of this body will now * See address in behalf of the Knoxville Convention, p. 14. Now that Charleston is connected with the Tennessee River and the valley of the Mississippi, these reflections wfil more naturally occur. Charleston is rapidly building railroads to her , moluntains. 101 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. be enabled to inform themselves fuilly upon the subject. The Charleston and Hamburg m rail-road has already, in a great degree, effected a revolution in the trade of this city.' Seconding the efforts made by a number of public-spirited merchants, who have engaged largely in the wholesale importing business, the directors of this road have been enabled to furnish facilities to the country merchants for visiting this city, and inducements for laying in their supplies here, which have already enlarged the business to an extent far exceeding the expectations of the most sanguine of our friends. Indeed, under the impulse which the public mind has here received by the proceedings of our Convention, the construction and projection oft rail-roads, and the revival of trade, calamities which at former periods, of our history might have l eft Charleston for many long years a mouldering heap of dust and ashe s, have serv ed only to invigorate her effoirts, andl sitrengthen her resolution, and thus to lay the f ounrdations of a more deep rooted and abiding prosperity. The same influerece has been pelt i n Savannah and Augusta, and indeed in all the cities of the os N-ork uthiern and southwestern states where s imi lar works of interna l improvement have been executed, or are now in progress. So far, then, a s this branch of our scheme is concerned, it is only necessary that we sho uld p ersevere. We will only add, that these great works should be carried on in a liberal and patriotic spirit, without jealousy and distrust, with a determination to build up i n the s outhern and southwestern states one grand system, every portion of which, like links in a common chain, may tend to bind together all of its parts. 3d. LINES OF PACKET-SHIPS AND STEAM ERs.-The last point to which we deem it necessary particularly to advert, is the estab lishment of a regular line of packet-ships and steamers. This we deem to be indispensable to any success at all commeifsurate with ourjust expectations, or the vast extent of the productions and resources of the southern states. Practical merchants alone can duly estimate the importance of being able to com mand their supplies from abroad, at all times, and at the shortest notice. The state of the markets, and the actual or expected demand for goods, must regulate importations, alad if these goods cannot be directly imported when they are wanted, they must be importedr through New-York and the other northern cities. It is triue that the extension of the direct trade will of itsell' have a tendency t(> supply the requisite means for carrying it on, both as respects capital and ships; but as a first step it would be of incalculable imlportance that a regular line of packets to our principal seaports should give the same facilities to our southern importers that are now enjo,yed by those of New-Yol-k. With these facilities our merchants would be enabled to enter into fair competition with the merchants of New-York, Philadelphia, and Boston. We have alreadv indicated the best, if rot the only means of effecti,,g this object. We recur to the subject here only to irpress as deeply as possible upon the minids, not only of the mnemiibers of this body, but of our merchants and fellow-citizerns generally, the absolute necessity of exerting themselves promptly andl strenuously for the immnmediate removal of this difficulty. Somethi-njg may be effected by a concert of action among ship-owner's now engaged in the direct trade; but it is chiefly by the formationof conmpaiies or co-partner-ships, composed of American and British houses, that success in tlhis object is to be secured, In one way, however, we mnay all reti1zer essential aid, not only in the accomplishmrent of this object, but in promoting all those mneasures on which the success of our,,vhola * HISTORY OF THE CHARLESTON AND HIAMBURG RAILROAD.-Alexander Black, Esq., of Charleston, politely furnished us, when in that city, with one of the first annual reports of the Board of Directors of this road in 1833. From this we learn that the books of the Company were opened for subscription 17th March, 1828. Half the stock was taken. The Company was organized May, 1828. There was but one other road in the Union, the Baltimore and Ohio, which at all approached this in contemplated magnitude. The Board constructed an experimental road of five miles in length, which we remember to have seen worked by wind and sails as a schoolboy holiday. In August, 1830, the stock was increased to $581,340 and the road at once authorized. On 15th November, Mr. Allen, as chief engineer, examined the route of location. He reported a line 14 mites shorter than expected and five miles less than the commonly traveled road. On 28th Dec. Messrs. Gifford, Ilolcomb & Co., contracted for building four miles of road. and 17th March, 1831, Messrs. Gray & Conty contracted tbr 3C more. The eastern division to Branchville, 62 miles from Charleston, was opened for public traveling 7th November, 1832-being one year, ten months and twenty-one days from its commencement. On 7th May it was opened to Midway, 72 miles. In May, 1833, says the Report of Major Black, "the track is opened by felling the trees, two hundred feet wide, throughout the line, except within nine miles of the city, and a few miles in the valley of Horse Creek, near Hamburg, which has been deferred, owing to the reluctance of some of the landholders to have their timber destroyed. " The excavations are entirely completed. Ditches and lateral drains, sufficient for present purposes, are formed. All the bridges to accommodate the public, neighborhood and plantation roads are built; the foundation, whether consisting of piles, sills, sleepers, or trussel work, is completed for th e whole distance of 136 miles; the caps and transverse pieces are permanently fixed on for the distance of 1354 miles; the rails are laid and keyed, for 134Y, miles; all requisite braces for stiffening to strengthen the road is completed for I34 miles; the iron is spiked down permanently for 98 miles; and the surface is prepared for 24 additional miles. Nine turn-outs or passing-places have been constructed; twelve pumps or watering-places have been established. The iron for Ware's contract, six miles, is delivered, and the balance of the road has its surface prepared for the reception of the iron, except about 14 miles. " Amidst the many disappointments and difficulties, necessarily arising in an undertaking so novel and extensive, it must be matter of -Tatulation to reflect that the line of railroad, now finished, on which our engines travel, is greater in extent (in consecutive miles) than any other iri the world."]EDITOR. 102 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. scheme depends, viz.: by contributing to enlighten the public mind, by acting on public opinion, and exerting an influence in every way for the promotionti of the object. If the people in this quarter of the Union could become duly impressed with the magnitude o f this question, and the vital interesLs involved in it; if they could only be brought to feel in all its force the withering influence of the existing system on their prosperity and welfare; could the y but realize the immense losses annually sustained by our being rendered tributary to the cities and merchants of the North, and perceive the incalculable advantag,es that would flow from the establishment of the commercial independence of the South and southwest-then might we confidently rely on the continued display of that noble zeal, that determined energy, and untiring perseverance, which, trampling down all opposition, would in the end assuredly crown our efforts with triumphant success. In the attempt to enlighten the public mind, and influence public opinion on this subject, there is one instrument which may be successfully used, not only for the accomplisheient of our present object, but also for the protection of all the other great interests of the slave-holding states-we allude to the establishment of one of those periodicals, which, in modern times, has been found to exert almost a controlling influence over the - sentiments and opinions of mankind. If the press has effected a revolution in the moral condition of the human race, and is still found to exert a supreme dominion over the mind of man, one of the most imposing forms in which its mighty power has ever been exerted, is that ot Reviews, which, conducted by master minds, and embodying the great truths of science, philosoph:y, and politics, are well calculated to form and control opinion, and thus to direct the conduct of men. While other quarters of the Union have such organs, through which to disseminate their principles and op)inioiins, and to maintain the policy best adapted to their situation and institutionsthe slave-holditig states will never stand on an equal footintig, until they too are possessed of a faithful exponent of their principles. The revival of the Southern Review is, therefore, an object of great interest to the South, and we would earnestly recommend that the earliest occasion should be seized for its reestablishment on a permanent basis. In prosecuting the views which have been thrown outt for the consideration of the Con. vention, we utterly disclaim any unfriendly feeling towards our northern brethren, or any portion of the Union. Though we openly avow our object to be the restoration of our trade, we shall attempt to effect it only by fair and honorable means, and in a spirit of getlerous rivalry. A.nd though we have strotigly deprecated the "unequal action of the federal government," which, under a system of SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENE TION. —REPoRT OF GEORGE M'DUFFIE.-Of the numerous subjects deeply and intimately connected with your permanent prosperity and happiness, which have. during the last fifteen years, demanded of you all the consideration which your intelligence could bestow, and all the exer tions your patriotism could contribute, none have come more directly "home to your business and your bosoms," than that upon which we now propose to address you. The struggle in which you were so long en,aged, in relieving your commerce from the burdens imposed upon it by partial legislation, has been terminated by a compromise, which, if finally carried out in the liberal and magnanimou s spirit in which it was conceived, cannot fail to perpetuate the apolitical harmony which it was the mea-is of restoring. But it is not to be disguised, that the system of high protecting duties, falling mainly upon the productions of the exporting states, combined with the system of federal disbursement, which expende(d the revenue resulting from those duties almost exclusively in the northern states,'has converted the slight superiority originally possessed by the northern cities, in the business of foreign importatiotns, into an overwhelming preponiderance, and diverted almost the whole of the immense commerce of the southertl and southwestern states into artificial. circu,itous, and unnatural channels. In the commercial relations of extensive and wealthy communities, it was to have been expected that effects would for some time survive their ca uses; and accordingl,-y that portion of the commerce of the United States which is appropriately our own, consisting of an exchange of our agricultural productions for the manu[actures of foreign countries, is still carried on principally through northern cities, by the agency of northern merchants, who levy a transit duty-voluntarily paid, to be sure, but utterly incompatible with a just and enlightened view of our own interests. Now that the system of compulsory tribute is greatly reduced, and rapidly coming to a 109 high duties, and extravagant expenditures. has operated so injuriously to our iliterests-yet we present these views, not in the language of cot-nplaint, much less in a spirit of disaffec. tion-but as truly indicating the causes ot'tbe evils for which it is now proposed to provide a remedy. Ncr do we wish to be understood as intending to exclude the productions of the northern states f'rom our estimate of the advantages to be derived from a direct trade. Our object is, free and open trade A,ith the whole world-and all that we desire is, that in carrying on this trade, whether at home or abroad, our own ships and our own capital should be duly employed, and our merchants be allowed to participate in its advantages. SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION, estimate, the aggregate imports of all the staple-growing states, like those of South Carolina and Georgia, would no doubt sink down to less than one-seventh part of their exports. Such being the actual state of our foreign comulerce, it deeply concerns our welfare to inquire, in the first place, whether it is a sotund and natural condition of this great interest? and if it be not, what are our available means of placing it in a natural and healthful condition? That it is neither a natural nor a salutary condition, will be apparent from a few obvious considerations. Viewing the subject as one strictly of political economy-and in that light only are we now considering itNew-York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts ar e, bfor all such purposes, to be retarded by the staple states as foreign communities; not less so than Great Britain and France. The bonds of our political Union, as confederated states, however they may bear upon other aspects of the subject, have no bearing whatever upon the question of national wealth as it relates to the several states. The federal constitution, giving it the utmost amplitude of construction, cannot annihilate the intervetting distance of a thousand miles; nor has it annihilated the separate and independent organization of the states. We cannot, therefore, regard the wealth of New-York or Pennsylvania as the wealth of South Carolina or Georgia, or as contributing towards it, upon any other principle than that mutual depelidence happily existing between commercial communities, which makes the prosperity of the one conducive to that of the othe-, in proportion to the extent of the exchanges ot' their respective productions. Every cotton planter must have perceived, that the price of his staple depends more upon a prosperous condition of the trade of Manchester, than upon that of all the cities of the United States, north of the Potomac. And, however it may shock the nerves of that false and mistaken philanthropy which somtetimes assumes the guise of patriotism, we must be excused for pconfessi ng" the homely virtue of preferring the prosperity of our own respective communities, though de rived from a direct trade with foreign countries, to that of our northern confederates, derived from the same sources, but at our expense.* Applying these plain and obvious principles to the existing state of our commercial relations, it is apparent that the profit made by the merchants of New-York and other northern cities, upon the exchange of our staples for foreigu merchandise, is as effectually abstracted from the wealth of the staplegrowing states, as if those cities belonged to *~ Mr. M'Duffie is here assuming the extreme doctrines of Free Trade and State Independence. close, we are called upon. by every consideration of' enlightenied sel f-interest, to signalize our complete commercial emancipation, by throwing off this system of voluntary tribute, which can continue only by our consent and co-o)era tion. A candid and dispassionate survey of the actual condition of our foreign commerce, as cormpa ned with our gre a t natural advantages, w ill demon strate that to bring about this cons ummation, of so devoutly to be wished," by every patriotic citizen of the southern and south-wiprteste n states, nothing m ore i s ne cessary thean a resolution on our part to accomplish it. To will is to do it. A brief analysis of ou r foreign c ommerce will now be presented, Taking the imports and exports of the United S tates f oir the fiscal year 1836, as (I criterion, we have the followvinig extraordinary statistical phenomena: The imports of the whole of the United Stat es, amou nt ed, in round ngumbers, to $190,000,000. Those of New-York alone amoun sted to $118,000,000, wh;le those of all the Atlantic states so,uth of the Po tomac, and the states on the Gulf of Mexico, amounted to only $20,000,000, and those of South Caroliiia and Georgia to only $3,400,000. During the same year the domestic exports of the United States amounted to $107,000,000, of which New-York exported only $19,800,100, against an import of 118,000,000, while the states south and south-west of the Potomac, exported 78,000,000 against an import of only $~0,000,000,and South Carolina and Georgia, each having a commercial seaport, with a safe harbor on the Atlantic, exported $24.000,000 against an import of only $3,400,000! The contrasts here exhibited are absolutely astounding, and it is confidently believed they are without any parallel it the history of independent states. New-Yor k, it will be perceived, imported six times the amount of her exports, while the southern and southwestern states imported little more thatn onefourth of the amount of theirs, and South Carolina and Georgia imported less than oneseventh part of the value of theirs. The case of these two states furnishes the fairest criterion for determining the degree of that ruinous disparity which exists between the exports and imports of the states which produce the greatest agricultural staples, which are almost the sole foundation of the foreigti commerce of the whole Union. New-Orleans, from its geographical position, imports West India productions for the Valley of the Mississippi, and specie from Mexico for the United States generallv-articles which are not obtained in exchange for the staples of the south-western states, and form no part of the commerce by which those staples are exchanged for foreign prodcsctioals. I~f only that part of the imports of New-Orleans which is obtained from abroad ill exchange for cotton, were taken into the 101 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. a foreign jurisdiction. We are very far from comlplainin'g of our fellow-citizens of the North for reaping the golden harv et which circumnstances presented to their enterprise. They deserve commendation rather than complaint. Our purpose is to stimulate the enterprise of our own merchants; to recover, by a fair and equal competition, the advantages they have lost; and to invoke the patroniage of our lellow-citizens generally, to sustaini them in ~uch a competition, and such a competition only. We should our-selves furnish ai example of that mock patriotism of which we have spoken, and which is too often used to disguise a selfish purpose, if we were to advise our fellow-citizens to purchase from our own importing merchants, when better bargains could be obtained from our northern competitors. We only ask a decided preference when the terms are equal, an is shall endeavor to show in nue time that such terms can be afforded, with a liberal profit to our importers. We propose now to exhibit a rough estimate of the annual loss of the exporting states by the indirect course of their foreign trade; or, more accurately speaking, of the annual addition that would be made to their wealth, by the establishment of a direct export and import trade with foreign countries. The excess of the exports of the southern and south-western states beyond their imports was, in 1836, sixty millions of dollars. As the value of our imports always exceeds that of our exports, even when our importations are not excessive, by an amount equal to the increased value of our exports in forei gn markets beyond our custom-house assessment, and the estimated cost of importing the merchandise obtained in exchange for them, it may be safely assumed, that the northern cities imported il the year above stated, seventy-two millions of foreigni merchandise. which was purchased by the staples of southern and southwestern states, and faiilly cronstituted a part of their foreignr commerce. Estimating at 15 per cent. the profits of the northern merchants, and all the expenses and risks incident to the transhipmetits and transfers of an indirect instead of a direct route to the seaports of the southern and sooth-westerti states, it follo)ws that the people of these states sustained a loss of $0o,800,0)00 in that year, by the indirect course of their fioreign commerce. By the same process of reasoning. we reach the conclusiont that (Georlgia and South Carolina sustained a loss, in the same year, of $3,000,C00. In coming to this result, however, it is assumed that foreign merchandise can be imported as cheaply into our southern Atlantic cities, as into the cities of the North. This assumptionl, however (contrary or preconceived opiinions, is believed to rest upon the solid foundation af undeniable facts. A great deal is habitually said about the natural advantages of New-York as an importing city; and these are taken for granted. without reflection, from the mere tact of her great commercial prosperity. But what are these natural advantages? She is, no doubt, from her position, the natural emporium of the foreign commerce of mos t o f the New-EYtglaod and middle states and by her m agnificent canal, she will cont inue to command the trade of t he northwestern states, until an equally or m ore mcgnificent channel of internal commerce shall supply the whole Valley of the Mississippi with foreign merchandise, by a short e r and cheaper r oute, t hrough the seaports of the South. But the quest io n sti ll reclrs, where are her natural advantages o ver the cities of the South, or the Atlantic, or the Gulf of Mexico, for carrying on the foreign commerce of the staple-growing states? Does the Atlantic present a smoother surface or safer navigation between Liverpool and New-York than it does between Liverpool and Charleston or Savannah? Do merchant vess(-Is enter the harbor of New-York under more propitious gales, or ride in it with more safety, than in the harbor of Charleston? These questions are conclusively answered in the niegative, by the fact, known to every merchant who is practically acquainted with the subject, that treights from Liverpool to Charleston or Savannah, are actually lower than from Liverpool to New-York. This is one of the natural incidents of a direct trade. Vessels coming from Europe for cotton, would of course prefer bringing merchandise to a great cotton market, where a direct exchange could be effected, than to a city a thousand milqs distant from the market, involving the necessity of a coastwise voyage, in addition to that across the Atlantic. If, then, merchatndise can be transported from Liverpool to Charleston or Savannah, cheaper than to New-York, what other element in the cost of importation turns the scale il favor of New-York? Are house-rents, and the general expenses of living, lower in New-York than in Charleston or Savannah? House rent is notoriously much higher in New-York than in any of our southern seaports; and if the concurrent testimony of travelers is to be credited, the expenses of living there, and every species of common labor. are greatly beyond what they are in Charleston or Savaninal. It is thus that the alleged natural advantages of New-York, so far as relates to the trade of the South, vanish, when exposed to the test of scrutiny, and resolve themselves into the mere beauties of a magnificenit harbor. But we not only deny the alleged natural advantages of the northern over the southern Atlantic cities, for carrying on the exporting and importing business of the staplegrowing states, but we assert that the natural advantages are incontestably on the side of our own seaports. What is the commerce in question, divested of the' factitious up 105 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. pendages of an artificial system, but simply an annual exchange of cotton and other staples, to the amount of some eighty mil lions of dollar,, for merchandise imported from England, France and other foreign countries? It is perfectly plain, therefore, that the more simple and direct the opera tion, the less complicated, involved and mystified, the cheaper will the foreign manufacturer obtain the cotton, and the American cotton planter the merchandise for which it is exchanged. The foreign manufacturers, and the American planters, are equally interested in establishing this system of direct exchange; and it can only be effected by bringing the foreign manufactures directly to the cities of the cotton-growing states, and making these, instead of New-York, the great marts for vending foreign manufactures on the one hand, and the raw material on the other. Considering the obvious economy of this direct system of exchanges, it seems strange that the foreign manufacturers have not established their agencies, both for selling goods and purchasing cotton, in those cities in preference to others. Cotton can certainly be obtained cheaper in New-Orleans, Mobile, Savannah, and Charleston, than in any northern city; and manufactures can as certainly be sold on better terms, for the consumption of the cotton-growing states, if they will bear the expenses, charges and risks of an indirect importation through New-York. But no just estimate can be formed of the benefits of this proposed system, which does not embrace its tendency to supersede, not only the complex machinery of intermediate transfers anti agencies, required in an indirect trade, but to a very great and salutary extent, the use and agency of money. Money is itself a very costly agent, and wherever a direct exchange of commodities, or in other words, barter, can be substituted for successive sales and purchases, the use of the sum of money that would have been required to effect these sales and purchases, is superseded by the direct exchange, and is just so much saved to the parties concerned. In the extensive operations of foreign commerce, a very near approach can be made to this system of barter. Indeed, our great agricultural staple possesses a twofold attribute. This is an invaluable article of consumption, and at the same time, while passing firom the producer to the consumer, without any additional cost to society, it performs the functions of money, or bills. of exchange. And in the disor dered state of our foreign and domestic exchanges, and of our money currency, which threatens a long continuance, this inappreciable production of our favored soil and climate, promises to become a still more important agent in the transactions of our -commerce. Does not this, we con fidently ask, give to the seaports of the cotton-g rowi ng states a mos t decided advantage over their competitors at the North? The cotton of the South an d the southwester n states i s the actual capital which sustains four-fifth s of our foreign commerce. To that extent the credits ob tained in Europe are obtained upon the faith of that capital alone. Shall the people of the South and southwest, with these palpa b le fact s s taring them in the face, any longer rema in obnoxious to th e repr oach o f owning and furnishing the capital of our foreign commerce, and yet permitting the people of distant communities to enjoy its golden profits? Every consideration, pub lic and private, of patriotism and of interest, decidedly forbids it. A field of honorable competition antl profitable industry is opened to our enterprise, where the public benefac tor and the private trader, the patriot and the merchant, will be united in the same person. If the Medici of modern Italy. while they acquired incalculable wealth, added a princely lustre to their house, by embarking on such a field of enterprise, what citizen of our republican states would hesitate to blend, in the ensigns armorial of his family, the titles of patriot and merchant, when he is animated by the noble purpose of rescuing his country from a state of commercial dependence, as degrading to her character as it is injurious to her prosperity? Every political community should en deavor to unite within itself, and have under its own control, as far as circumstances will permit, all the elements of national wealth. The wealth of the staple-growing states is derived almost exclusively from agricultural productions, which find their market prin cipally in foreion countries. It is the de mand of that market chiefly which gives them their value, and from that market we obtain most of the various commodities required for our consumption. Foreign commerce, therefore, is an element of our wealth scarcely less essential than agriculture itself. Is it, then, com patible with that self-praised independence which should belong to every free state, to entrust the almost exclusive agency of con ducting this great national interest to the citizens of other and distant states, who do not reside among us, and who so far from having any sympathies for us, constrain us to believe that many of them are deeply prejudiced against our civil institutions 1 We beg you, bellow- citizens, to give to this view of the subject that grave and deliberate consideration which it so obviously demands. We speak more from the records of our own satd experience than from the speculations of theory, when we express the opinion, that &the commercial independence we are now 106 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. seeking to establish is indispensable to the preservation of our political independence. Can it be believed that the enormous and oppressive impositions of the protective system would have been so long and patiently borne, if our own proper commerce had been carried on through our own cities, and by our own merchants? If these had exported our agricultural staples, and imported the manufactures for which they were exchanged, would a doubt ever have been entertained that the high duties imposed upon thos e m anufactures, with an explicit view to their prohibition, was a burden specifically laid upon the productions of our industry, t ak ing just s o m uch fro m their value, compared with the value of the simila r and riv al productions of other countries? W ould th e p eop le of the southern and so uthwes tern states have subm itted, in 1832, to the levy of 24 millions of federal revenue from sixty millions of their imports, to be carrie d off and disbursed in dis t an t communities, making "our barrenness an inventory to particularize their abundance! " Y et a ll this, and more, did we patiently endure for years; ma ny of us, owinge to the confusion of ideas, resulting from the disjointed condition of our foreign commerce, doubting whether the burthen was not a benefit conferred upon us by a parental government. Let this fatal separation of our agriculture and our commerce, and the unnatural alliance which has been productive of such pernicious fruits, exist no longer. "It cannot come to good." We ought never to forget, what we have too many painful proofs that others will not, that we are distinguished from our northern confederates by peculiar domestic and civil institutions, which are inseparably identified with our great staple productions, and which we hold to be absolutely exempt from all foreign scrutiny or interference whatever. And however we may deprecate the event of a dismemberment of our confederacy, we cannot be blind to the existence of causes which make it oneof the possible contingencies for which it is the part of wisdom to provide. In such an event, our foreign commerce, as now carried on, would be thrown into utter derangement. This commerce, as well as our agriculture, should be carried on by those who have an interest in the preservation of our institutions, and who, in case of a political convulsion, would seek no distant refuge or separate destiny. Having now briefly shown the extent of our loss by the indirect course of our foreign trade, our great natural advantages for reclaiming that trade, and the strong motives by which we are invoked to enter upon the good work without faltering and without delay, we now propose to consider the obstacles, real or supposed, that stand in our way, and the means of overcoming them. The principal of these is the alleged want of capital. We have already shown that we have, in our great staples, the whole of the actual capital which sustains our foreign comme rce. But this capital belongs to the plante r, and the want o f capital allud ed to, is the mon ey capital necessary to purchaseo the c otton, co nver t it in to foreign goods, and distr ibute these to the r etail merchants. We are strongly inclined to th e o pinion th at it i s pri ncipally by the agency of credit, instead of money capital, and that c red it resting upon our staples, that this branch of comme rce has been hit her to carried on by nor thern merchan ts. So far as credit is to be used as an agent in con duc ting it-and we believe it is one of the most legitimate purposes of a well-r egulated system of credit-it cannot be doubted that our own merchant s have decided advantages over oe o those oft a e n ar t the North. They are nearer to the great fund by which that credit is to be u l timately redeemed, andl can more easily avail themselves of the use of it. But to prevent misapprehension, we deem thi s the proper place to explain our views onthe subject of credit, and the extent to which it ca n be safely and legitimately used as a cheap su bstitute for m oney. Credit we regard as the legitimate offsprin g of commerce a nd free institutions, and a most active and salutary agent in the pro - dinction of nationa l an d i ndividual wealth. Far from bening demoralizing in its tendency, it is pre-eminently the reverse, as it essentially implies mutual and extended confidence, fou nded upon general, know n and established habits of hon es t y and pu nctuality. It can exist only in an atmosphere composed of such elements. But though we de e m thus highly of credit, paradoxical as it may seem at the first view, we regard debt, in itself, as being very far from a benefit, and in the extent to which it is habitually carried in our country, a very great, and sometimes a demoralizing evil. That credit which is; merely the correlative of indebtedness, is not the credit of which we have spoken. To illustrate our meaning, we could not select a case more strikingly appropriate than that of the foreign commerce now under discussion. We annually export, for example, to Eur o pe, agricultural staples to the amount of eighty millions, and i mport merc han dise to the same or a corresponding amount. If this were a transaction between two individuals, or even between two governments, it is obvious that no money would be required to effect the exchange, however numerous might be the separate sales and purchases into which it might be subdivided. If the European, for example, would purchase cotton to the amount of a million to-day it would be certain that the American would have occasion to 107 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. purchase that amount of merchandise to morrow; and, instead of keeping a dead capital in money, to pay backward and for ward through the extended operations of the whole year, they would make use of mutual credits, either in the form of conventional tokens, or entries upon their respective books. This would be an example of credit in its most safe and salutary form; at the same time performing the functions of money, and avoiding the evils of debt. And even as this commerce is actually carried on by the sepa rate operations of unconnected individuals, bills of exchange, under a well-regulated system of mutual credits, might be made to perform the same function, to a much greater extent than it has b ee n hitherto done. This branch of credit r ests up on th e solid founda tion of prop erty, and it can scarcely be doubt edthat importing merchants, resid ing in th e staple-growing states, could organize a muc h mor e perfect system with the manufacturers of Euro pe, n a than any that has heretofore existed. T hey have great advantages over the northern merchants in this respect. They are nearer to the consumers, know b etter the extent and nature of their wants, and can supply t hem n by a more rapid operation, involving less delay, and requiring shorter credits from abroad. Short credits and quick returns, making a small capital, by frequent operations and moderate profits, answer the purpose of a large one moving more slowly, will be the true policy of our importing merchants. For such a system, our means of internal communication, unobstructed at all seasons, and consisting, to a great and rapidly increasing extent, of railroads, will afford facilities unknown to any other portion of the United States. But to enable our importing merchants to introduce this system of short credits in their foreign transactions, the co-operation of our planters and consumers is indispensable. A radical change must be made in their system of economy. Their habit of laying out their incomes before they get them, and requiring a credit in all their dealing for the year, till the close of it, or until they sell their crops, even if it be longer, is the root of the evil of our whole system of credit. It musti be eradicated if we would produce a great and salutary reform in our commerce and credit. If the planters require a long credit, the merchants, wholesale and retail, through whom they were supplied, would at least require an equally long credit, so far as they purchase upon credit. A large money capital becomes thus necessary for the importing merchants, that a long credit may be extended to the planters, who, so far from really requiring credit, own the whole capital which pays fear our entire annual importations! This is a complete inversion of the natural order of things. Tshe planters producing and possessing that which constitutes almost the whole of our annual wealth, and having the means of giving credit to ever y o ther class, require credit of all others! How doe s this happen? The answer is easy. There is no mystery about it. It result s from starting at the wrong point and exp endi ng ever y year the pro ceeds of the c omi ng crop, instead ofthe crop already m ade. If e ver y planter would adopt th e s ystem o f e xpending, in the cur rent year, the income of the year preceding, and of making all his purchases for cash, instead of on credit, he would most palpably promote his own interest, an d in dividually contribute his part to a general reform of the most vital importanc e to the whole country. Highly as we estimate credit, in the operations of c o mmerce, w e believe it may be affirmed as a gener al t ruth, that d ebt is a most consuming moth to the planting interest. What practi c al plante r can doubt, that for the cred its annually obtained by himself or his neighbors, at the sales of the estates of deceased persons, and in various other modes, he pays from 15 to 20 per cent. more than the same proper ty would cost if purchased with cash in hand. Let the suggested change in our economy, then, be no longer delayed. Every planter who adopts it will at once perceive its salutary effects upon his own comfort, independence and prosperity; and he will have the consolation of reflecting that he is at the same time performing the duty of a patriotic citizen. We confidently beheve it would dispense with one-half of the capital that would otherwise be necessary for carrying on ouir foreign commerce by a system of direct importation. But whatever may be the agency of a well-regulated credit, ill bringing about the proposed reform in our foreign commerce, a very considerable money capital will nevertheless be indi.spensaible to its complete accomplishlment. Nor call it be doubted that the staple-growinig states have the m.fst abtundant resources for supplying this description of capital, if the planters, who are our principal capitalists, can be induced to abandon the suicidal course they have heretofore pur sued, of devoting their whole income (generally by anticipation) to the purchase of lnegroes to produce more cotton, and apipropriate even a moderate portion of it to ai(d in the accomplisthment of this great enterprise. If every planter would take a dispassionate and comrprehensive view of his own individual interest, lie would perceive that the blind inistinct of accumulation which prompts him to make the crop of one year the means of increasing that of the next is the rnmst fatal policy he could pursue. It is a system which, irl the very nature of things, must itnevitably defeat its own purposes. It will hardly be stating the case too strongly, to say that at 1108 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. least one-half of the incomes thus devoted to the increased production of cotton are devoted to over production, and that they are consequently appropriated, not for the benefit of the cotton-planters themselves, but for that of the foreign and domestic consumers of their great staple. The principle of political economy laid down in the report of the select committee, and from which this conclusion is deduced, was known to practical men long before it was promulgated by any writer on the theory of wealth. It is founded upon the universal experience of mankind. If the supply of any article materially exceeds the effective demand, a competition is created among the sellers, which depresses the price greatly beyond a due proportion to the excess in quantity, In like manner a deficient supply creates a competition among the buyers, which increases the price in a corresponding degree. So general is this principle, that we may safely affirm that in any probable state of the demand for cottoni, a small crop, if not extremely small, will produce a larger aggregate income to the cotton-planting states than a large one. Between the extreme points where high prices check consumrnption on the one hand, and low prices check production on the other, there is a wide range for the operation of this principle. There is no class of producers so likely to suffer from over production as the cottonplanters. Widely dispersed over an immense territory, without the means of consultation oir concert among themselves, they cannot prevent the habitual occurrence of excessive crops, unless they adopt a system which will of itself have a constant tendency to prevent it. The basis of that system should be the investment of at least a fair proportion of their net annual income in some other profitable pursuit, instead of investing it in land and negroes; and we believe that there is no such pursuit that promises a more abundant raward to industry and enterprise than the direct importation of foreign merchandise through our southern seaports. Where, for example, a man of known integrity, capacity and industry, with a moderate capital, shall be eng,aged or disposed to engage in the business of foreign importationis, what more public-spirited and profitable appropriation can a planter make of a portion of his surplus capital than to invest it in this importing concern, as a limited co-partner, under the wise enactments recently adopted in several of the staple-growing states? One-half of' the net income of the cottonplanters, thus applied for a few years only, would furnish abundant capital for conductiDg our whole foreign commerce. May we not confidently anticipate. therefore, that the planters who are so deeply interested in the results of the great commercial reform we are atte-mpting, to effect, and whose co-operation is so indispensable to success, will put their shoulders to the wheel at once, with a firm resolution to contribute every aid that ma y be required for the accomplishment of so glorious an enterprise? Taking it for granted that all the difficulty anticipated on this score will vanish before the public-spirited enter prise o f our capitalists, we l oo k- fo rward with ho pes equally sanguine, to the removal of t he existing obstructions to the in tercourse b etween our importing cities and th e vast interior which they a r e d estined to supply with the manufactures of foreign countries. In thi s v iew of the subject, too high an estimate Catl scarcel y be placed upon a rail-road communication between the Southern Atlantic cities and the navigable water s of the West. The most high.-wrought visions of enthusiasm will, we doubt not, be found, in the r apid progres s of events, to sink down into insigiihficatmce, when compared with the splendid realities which time will soon develop; and we confidently anticipate that ten years hence history will exhibit to us results which the most excited imagination would not now venture to predict. This magnificent scheme of internal communication will give us the comlnand of the whole valley of the Mississippi, in spite of the established ascendency of the northern cities, in the business of foreign importations and internal commerce. For whether we scale the intelrposing mountain barriers, lilke Hannibal, or turn them like his more skilful successor and rival, the line of oper ations which will carry us to the centre of this immense theatre of commercial competition will be but half as long as that of our northern rivals; and, what is next ill importance, will be at all times unobstructed, while theirs will be closed up for several months aniiually, by the freezing of their rivers and canals. And though we may neither defeat the Romans in successive battles, nor drive the Austrians out of Italy by atnnlihilating successive armies. we shall perform all achievement more glorious than either that of Hannibal or Napoleon, while we conquer and bless, by the peaceful weapons of industry and enterprise, plains incomparably more rich and extensive than those which they overran and desolated by the destructive weapons of war. It is impossible fi-r any enlightened and patriotic citizen of the southern states to contemplate, without enthusiasm, the beneficial effects which will be produced on our commercial, social and political relations, by opening a direct communication with the great valley of the Mississippi. It will form an indissoluble bond of union between coinmunities whose interests are closely interwoven, and will give a tenfold activity to a commerce which even the Alleghatjy heights have not been able altogether to prevent. The commercial cities of the south Atlantic and of the Gulf of' Mexico are unldoubtedlly the natural marts of the western people for obtaining their supplies of foreig~n mrerchandise. It is there they find a market {or the 109 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. principal part of their own staple produc tions, even now, when they obtain their sup plies of foreign merchandise from the north ern cities, by a complicated iand expensive operation, and by a long and tedious trans portation. How decidedly it would be to their interest to obtain, by a direct exchange, their fbreign merchandise from the commu nities where they sell their domestic produc tions, avoiding all the expense and delay, and hazard of purchasing bills on the North! And how great and overwhelming will be the preference due to this direct intercourse of exchanges, when the transportation of their merchandise shall be but half in point of distance, and one-sixth in point of tine? Every merchant who understands experi mentally the importance of time in the trans portation of his merchandise, will at once perceive the decisive advantage which this circumstance alone will give to our southern cities over their northern competitors. We, therefore, regard the completion of the line of communication, to which we have alluded, as a principal and most efficient means of es tablishing a system of direct importations through our southern cities, and breaking the shackles of our commercial dependence. When it shall be completed, the commerce of foreign countries on the one hand, and of the great West on the other, will seek our southern importing cities, by a direct line of communication, so cheap and expeditious, that both parties will finld it their interest to meet there and effect their various exchanges. This great work, though itself an artificial structure, will be the means of throwing commerce into its natural channels. Entertaiming these views, we cannot but strenuously urge it upon our fellow-citizens, and the political authorities of our respective states, to give every practicable aid toward its accomplishment, and that of the lateral communications which may be necessary to render its benefits more diffusive. Let us act not only efficiently, but promptly. We must seize the propitious occasion now presented to us, lest it pass away and never return. The practicability of this railroad communication is no longer doubtful. Indeed, it may be said that it is nearly half completed by one route, and will be more than hal'f completed when the railroad shall have been extended, as it soon will be, from Augusta to Madison, in Georgia. Conntiecting this with the Charleston and Hamburg railroad, we shall have more than 240 miles of continuous railroad on a direct line to the navigable waters of the Tennessee, and conducting us to a p(,iit not more than 200 miles distant from those waters. On this subject we cannot be too deeply impressed with the necessity of sacrificing local predilections to the common good. Let that line be adopted which shall be the shortest, cheapest and best, with out the slightest regard to those conflicts of local interest, whic h are, a t best, compara tively unimportant, and perhaps purely im aginary. The great benefit which our whole interior is to derive from a direct trade, both with foreign countries and the western states, must be reflected from our importing cities. If it causes these to grow and flourish, the whole interior, within the sphere of circula tion, will participate in their prosperity, by a law which is as certain in its operation, as that which causes the blood of the animal sys tem to flow from the heart to the extremities. Such, fellow-citizens, are the views by which we have been actuated in calling your attention to the grave and important subject of this address. It was not to have been an ticipated that the purposes we so distinctly expressed through the report of our Select Committee would be so greatly misappre hended as they have been by some of our fellow-citizens. Surely we may claim the privilege, and urge the expediency of carrying on our own commerce, with foreign nations, directly through our own cities, and by our own merchants, with out justly incurring the imputation of hos tility to the northern states of this confe deracy. We are not aware that they have any prescriptive right to act for us, any more than they have to think for us. It is no hostility to their interests, but regard to our own, by which we are animated. " It is not that we love C.esar less, bnt that we love Rome more." We are certainly as anxious to encourage, upon principles of reciprocity, a direct trade with the northern states, as with any other portion of the world. Free trade with all the world, untrammeled by legislative restrictions, is the motto inscribed on our banner. We know neither friendship nor hostility in trade. Wherever we can sell highest and buy cheapest, that is our market; making 4o distinction between 'i Trojan and Tyrian." But we are opposed to an absorbing centralism in commerce, as well as in government. Our recent experience has but too impressively admonished us of the fatal revulsions to which it is calculated to expose us. Wie have seen a pecuniarv pressure in the city of New-York throw the whole country into embarrassment, and its currency and exchanges into the utmost confusion and derangement; whereas, if the commerce of the United States, external and internal, had been fairly distributed through its natural channels, scarcely a shock would have been felt by the great body of the people. This view of the subject causes us to regret that the extensive trade we carry on with the manufacturing states of the north, exchanging our raw cotton for their various manufactures —a trade highly important to both parties —is not carried on directly between the cities of 110 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL 0ONVENTION. the planting and manufacturing states, but like our foreign commerce, indirectly through the city of New-York. Almost the whole of our immense exchanges centre there; forcing thither, as it were, upon the heart, by something like a congestive process, the circulation of a system so vast, that it cannot be regularly and uniformly thrown out through the natural channels to the distant extremities. Periodical disorders and convulsions are the unavoidable consequence of such an unnatural and unhealthy condition of our commerce; and without pretending to speak for other portions of the Union, we confidently affirm that the people of the southern and south-western states are invoked, by considerations of the most enlarged patriotism, as well as of an enlightened selfinterest, to apply a speedy and effectual remedy. The means of achieving our commercial independence are abundant, and all the auspices are eminently encouraging. Let us embark in the enterprise with a spirit and resolution commensurate with its importance, and a splendid future will be the result and the reward of our labors. We have recommended, by a resolution unanimously adopted, that a convention be h e l d in the city of Augusta, on the first Monday in April next, to devise farther measures of concert and co-operation in this great undertaking. We trust and confidently anticip a t e that the people will meet forthwith in t h e i r primary assemblies, to select delegates to that convention, and that all the states interested will be fully represented. M ay H e a v e n smile upon their deliberations. sions o n th ese in quir ies, are many, and exceedingly complicated, requiring for their collection, consideration an d arrangeme nt, more tim e and opportunities th an the present occasion affords; and your committee being composed of merchants, d ealers, and planters, from th e interior of the states and territory represent ed i n th is co nvention, labor under m any difficulties, in the inve s tigation, in the result of which, t he com mittee, in common with all they represent, have a de ep inter est, being nothing less than the di scovery of those markets where they can sell their staples for the h ig hest, and buy the goodst h cnmt they cnsume at the low est prices. Such time and o pp ortunities as the y pos - sessed have been employed to the best of their a bility, and t h e y submit the result to t he consideration of the convention. The southern stat es have at a ll times bee n the pr oducers of staples of great richness and value in te me o the commerce of th e world, whic h from their earliest settlement as colonies, gave them a d irect trade with foreign na - tions, of an extent a nd importance gre atly beyond the ir prop ortio nate population. The growth and increase of this trade kept more than even pace with the increase of population, and enriched them with a p ro sperity before unparalleled. Si nce the Revolution, and during the period of free trade, it grew and expanrded to an immens e e xtent, as has been devel o pe d into o the report of the committee of twenty-one already submitted to the convention. The settlement of new states south-.west and west, of similar pursuits, institutions and staples, have swelled the products of their industry, until they are more than three-fourths of the domestic exports, and constitute to that extent the basis of all the foreign commerce of the United States. The fiscal action of the general gqvernment in the collections and disbursements of its revenue, has always been unfavorable to southern commerce, aud when the additional burden of the protective system was thrown upon the industry and trade of the planting states, the disastrous effects were apparent in the deserted cities and ruined prospects which blighted the prosperity and broke the spirits of her people. The direct trade which was her own by every law of commerce and of nature, and which should have grown and increased every year, grew less and less, until it almost disappeared, being by this unpropitious policy transferred to the northern ports and people. Discouraged by these burdens, our capital sought more propitious locations for its employment, or engaged in other business —our merchants and capitalists removing to the northern ports with their funds, or withdrawing from commerce and investing in other employments; while others, discouraged by their example, were not found to supply their SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTrION.-IREPORT BY F. ELMORE.-The committee of ten, to which has been referred the resolution of the Convention, directing them to ascertain and report whether goods have not been imported and sold at the southern sea-ports, upon as good terms, and at as fair rates, as they can be procured at the northern-and whether the country merchants cannot now procure at the southern seaports as full a supply and as good assortments, upon as fair terms, and as favorable periods of payment, as they can be procured elsewhere-and whether there exist any and what advantages in making purchases from the direct importers at the South, respectfully fully submit the following report: The inquiries to be made, in the foregoing resolution, are deeply interesting to all the friends of southern direct trade. If facts will justify affirmative answers to them, the success of the enterprise, if persevered in, is unquestionable, unless defeated by the untoward action of the Genieral Government, or a dispensation of Providence against which human prudence affords no safeguard. The facts necessary to entirely correct conclu III SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. permitted for the inquiry, to attain such cer tainty in the mnultitude of circumstances which must be considered; and even were it possible iii any given state of things, and at any fixed day, the constant changes of circum stances, the fluctuations of markets, and the thousand occurrences every hour arising to disturb the regularity of trade, the ex changes and the money market would, per haps the very next day, vary that statement, and present another condition of things; and so also if all the foreign goods brought into the country for its consumption were im ported by regular importing merchants more certainty might be attainable. It happens, however, so far from this being the case, that immense amounts of foreign goods are often poured into the United States, upon the great points of importation, under circumstances of commercial pressure and distress, producing great disturbance and fluctuation of prices. At such periods, the manufacturers, if pressed tbr money, instead of at once reducing the price of goods at their warehouses, (which is considered the last thing to be done,) generally prefer to make sacrifices of their surplus stocks at distant points. They sometimes ship to foreign ports, and sell by their own agents, on their own account, in which case they can lessen the duties by making out their invoices at lower rates, and also escape the addition which is put on the merchant by our revenue laws for the expenses on the invoice, being about five per cent. They sometimes mnake loans from mercantile houses having branches in other countries, and deposit their surplus goods as security, upon the agreement that they are to be sold for whatever they will bring, to refund the adIvan ce, it they are not paid whe n due. Gre at quantities of these goods, and also of failing merchants, are thrown upon the northern markets, especially New-York, and sold at auction for whatever they will bring. Great sacrifices are inevitable, and, at such times, purchases may be made at prices which would prove ruinous to the regular importing merchant, whether northern or southern. Stich instances should be considered as departures from regular trade, and as exceptions to its general, regular and steady course. Although they occasionally not merely influence, but control business and prices, such transactions are not fair examples for regular business; and whether they are beneficial, in the long run, to the trade and prosperity of a place, may well be doubted, as their tendency is to disturb commerce, and destroy the regular importing merchant. Betbre proceeding more into detail, it will be proper to remark, that the report will be confined, after a few remarks oin domestic goods, to those of foreign fabric and importation. The conlsumtption o~f domestic goods has increased greatly, and is still increasing>. It is generally estimated by the mrerchanlt to ex places and attempt t he bus iness they had been forced to abandon. The importing merchants of t he South became an almost extinct race; a nd her direct trade, once so great, flouri sh ing and ric h, dwindle d down to insignificanice. It would seem to be undeniable that if the same stat e of things by which these disas trous blow s we re dealt with such fatal effect upo n our d irect trade continues to exist, the South cannot recover what it lost under their o p eration. It becomes theorfore an import ant poin t to be det ermined whether any and wh at chanves o r modifications of these cir cumstantc e s hav e tak en place, which will enable the South again to enter into a strugg r n rle for her own diret trade with foreign nations, with any reasonabl e h ope or fair prospect of success. That such changfes have for several years been in progress is most certain-slowly and gradually, but ce rtainly an d beneficially.' The come promise act has already produced great amelioration, and every biennial reduction is an impulse t o enterpri se and trade, whi ch has al ready cau s ed much capital to return, and again filled the old channel with solmethine like its ancient currents of business. The legislatures of the plantin states h ave, wi th pr ude n t forecas t, availed themselves of the oppor tun ity, and by wise legislation done much to encourage enterprise, and aid individual efforts in the patriotic effort; and it is hoped will yet do much more for this great and vital measure, by lightening the remaining burthens which oppress commercial capital in the heavy taxation on its employment. Lightened of much of that oppressive taxation imposed by the national legislation, and animated by the prospect of still farther reductions, and a well-founded COefxlence in the fostering care of the state leffslatures, the race of importing merchants has revived, and, as individual and partnership firim,s, reappeared in our cities, and have embarked large capitals with great spirit in the business. It gives the committee great pleasure to add, that they have every reason to believe, that their operations have been conducted with the energy and prudence whiclh deserves and has been crowned with success as advantageous to them as it is beneficial to the country. If we conisidler the general principles which naturally regulate trade, we see no reason why foreign goodsiused in southern conisumption could not be bought by our own merchatits at the place of their production, and brou-glht directly to our markets as cheaply as they can be taken to the northern markets by their merchants. A careful comparison of all the elements of cost, could they be clearly ascertained, might enable the committee to arrive at exact concelusions; but it is imlpossible for the committee, in the time 112 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. commercial connection with Europe, and most especially in the greater facilities her banks give her merchants for credits in Eu rope, and by discounts at home for long periods, and on their customers' notes. Were the only question, which city can sell its merchandise cheapest in its own stores, the answer would probably be, that New-York can generally sell as low or lower than Charleston. But the true question for the southern country merchant is, can he lay down his goods at his home cheaper from New-York than from Charleston, or any other southern port? If he buys lower in New York, and the expenses of getting them home make them cost more than he could get them at from the southern port, his own interest as well as patriotism will influence him to deal at his own ports. In coming to a correct understanding of the cost of the goods at the . two markets, we must look into the circum stances which create cost and go to fix the prices of merchandise;-all the expenses attending traffic must be charged in the profits t and taken out of them, and consequently enhance the cost of its merchandise. These expenses, in some important respects, are believect to be greater in New-York than Charleston, and the following views are illustrative of this opinion: The foreign goods imported into this country are paid for chiefly by southern produce, or bills of ex change drawn on it. To buy this, the north ern merchant must employ his factor or commission agent, and pay from 1 to 2 per cent. commissions;-the southern importer is on the spot where the produce is, and buys, in person, this produce or bills, saving that commission. In general, exchanges on Eu rope are lowered by 1 to 2 per cent. at the South. At present it is not so; but the general experience has been that way, and the present difference in favor of the North may be ascribed, in a considerable extent, to the g reat amount of American loans niego tiated through New-York, creating a larger fund to draw on-a state of things temporary in character. House rents and store rents are believed to be twice or three times as high in New-York as they are in Charleston; clerks' wages are higher, and the expenses of fami lies and living considerably greater. Another charge, which, it is believed, goes considert ably to enhance the price of goods, grows out of the manner in which the mercantile , business is done in New-York. The importer t there, as a general rule, does not deal directly - with the country merchant. He imports in bales and packages, which he does not break, , but sells, in bales and packages, quantities too large for country merchants. The busi ness is divided, also, into almost as many - distinct classes of importers as there are dis- tinct classes of goods. Assortments, in quant tities to suit the dealer or country merchant, r can only be had from another class of mer tend already to 33 per cent. of the whole consumption. That they can be bought upon better terms where they are manufactured than at the southern ports, is generally conceded, except where the manufacturers have agencies at the southern ports, and sell at manufacturer's prices, including freight, insurance, &c. This, to a limited extent, is done, and may, and probably will in the course of time, be done to an extent commensurate with the demands of consumption. But if the southern merchant still goes to the northern manufacturer, and buys and brings the goods back with him for sale, it is not the less a direct trade, and he can buy as cheap. and, with the exception of the manufacturer himself, sell as low as any other competitor. It is manifest, that the merchant who buys his goods cheapest, ard has fewest burthens and expenses upon his business, ought to be able to sell his goods at the )*west prices. It is fair to presume, that what can be done, has been and will be done by our merchants, in fair competition, for the regular trade with their northern brothers. Let us see what are the elements which enter into the solution of the problem —which enjoys the greatest advantages in this honorable rivalry? In carrying out this comparison, it will be most satisfactory to select places which may be considered fair exponents of the two sections of the Union, and the committee therefore select New-York for the North, and Charleston for the South. In selecting Charleston, the committee are influenced by the fact, that, being there now, they are enabled to procure more information, authentic and at first hand, as to it, than of any other southern importing city; but it is believed that the same general principles and facts applicable to its trade, may, with such modifications as will readily suggest themselves in each case, be applied to the other southern importing cities respectively. In the South the ports are good and safe, and open all the year to ships. In the North, many and considerable obstructions exist during a part of it from cold and ice. The same may be said of their internal communications, the rivers and canals of the North being frozen, and the rail-roads obstructed by snows, and often for a considerable period of time. In the summer the southern ports are not so healthy, and their intercourse with the interior markets is less in amount and activity. The establishment of rail-roads, permitting the most rapid travel and perfect safety through the unhealthy districts adjacent, has greatly diminished the impediments of summer trade, especially with Charleston, and will, very soon, with other southern cities, to which similar improvements are extending. New-York enjoys great advantages from the perfect system of communication with foreign ports and her customers at home, her immense capital and custom, her VOL. III. 8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 11 SOUTHERN COMlMERCIAL CONVENTION. chants called jobbers. The jobbers, as they want for immediate retail, buy from the importers by the bale or package, and, breaking them, sell to the country dealers in quantities to suit their assortments. They are the regular customers of the importers; and if the importers sell to the country merchants, it is usually for cash, or on such rates and terms as will not interfere with the jobbers, who are their chief dependence, and necessary to their business. These transactions, although they assume many variations in the forms of business, may be illustrated as follows: The jobber buys of the importer, and gives his bankable note, payable at six or eight months, w hich can be c onve rte d at the banks to meet the importer's engagements-the jobber t akes the co u n try merchant's note, payable usually a short time b ef ore his note to the importer is due. The importer's profits are seldom as low as 10 per cent., often as high as 25, and may safely be averaged at 17;-t he profi ts of th e jobber face of the note for discount risk, expense of returns reqired on oath,;andewprofitseof are estima ted at the same, or per hap s a greater per cent., bec ause he has to include the loss which he must submit to in convert. ingto the paper of the country merchant into available funds, amounting to about 4 per cent. on southern notes, which occurs in this way: If' the no te i s offered for discount at a New-York bank, that sum is taken off the face of the n ote for dis count, risk, expense of collection, and exchange; or if the s ou thern merchant g iv es his n ot e payable in NewYork, the exch ange, risk of remittance, and agency, will cost as much, and should be add ed t o the cost of his goods. In Charleston, fiom 1 to 2 per cent. only is taken off, according to the distance the makers live from the city. In Charleston the country merchant d eals direct ly wi th the importer, who combines in his business all that is done in New-York by both importer and jobber; his profits may be said to average from 20 to 33 per cent., greater than either of them singly, but probably not greater, if as great, as both combined. They have two establishments, and probably each his family to support, he only one. But, admitting that generally goods may be purchased lower, notwithstanding, in New-York, yet there are other items of calculation to be taken into the account.'* The country merchant is sup posed to make his own selections in person. It will cost him considerably more, and take longer time both for him to go and return, and for his goods to be brought from NewYork. The interest which occurs on his money while idle-the risks, insurance and cost of shipping to and landing at Charleston, and commissions on forwarding to hi m when lan ded a t the several points of stoppage on the way to his home, ar e no inconsiderable elements of price to enhance the cost of the goods. In one point of view, the committee believe that New-York possesses an advantage not adverted to above; in a wise policy which burthens her merchants with less state and corporation taxation than some of the southern states and cities impose. The committee could not procure exact information as to the particulars; but it is understood generally, that thedpoit expenses, wharf fees, landing, &c., are considerably less. The taxes fall upon the sales only, are light, and paid by the purchaser, in fact. At the South, port expenses are greater. The states impose considerable taxes on stock in trade, while some of the cities aspiring to the import trade strangely discourage it by collecting a tax on every dollar's sale of merchandise made within their corporate limits-a tax both of the state and corporations, calculated upon returns required on oath, and which are in their nature inquisitorial, and repugnant to the merchant's feelings. For the want of packets and shipping, much of the import trade of Charleston is made by her own merchants through NewYork; the goods are bought by them in Europe, shipped in New-York packets to New-York-unloaded there, and reshipped to Charleston; in all such cases, there are increased expenses of commissions, insurance and freight on the voyage, and delay which is still more injurious; the goods therefore cost the importer more than similar goods coming direct to Charleston, but still are cheaper than he could buy them in New-York. Another and important consi Freight to Charleston, expenses, insurance, 8 70 loss on exchange, &c., at 5 per cent...... The cost of the goods to merchant landed in I 182 83 Charleston............................. * The following statement is made upon information furnished by experienced merchants. IN CHARLESTON. Cost, duty off.............................$100 00 Add duty paid by importer................... 23 50 $123 50 Profits, including interest for 6 months, and 4117 all charges, at 33 per cent................ Sold to country merchants for..............$164 67 Saved to Southern merchant by purchase in Charleston, exclusive of expenses of tra- 18 16 velling to the Nor th..................... $182 83 IN NEWV-YORK. Cost of goods, duty off, say................. $100 00 Duty paid by importer....................... 23 50 $123 50 Profits of importer, 17% per cent............. 21 61 Sold to jobber for..........................$145 11 Profits of jobber at 20 per cent............. 29 02 Sold to Southern merchant for.............. $174 13 114 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. A firm in the city of Charleston lately im ported a large supply of goods direct, and about the same time had an order filled for similar goods in New-York, which, they state to the committee, cost them full 15 per cent. higher than those imported direct. Among them was a case of cassimeres, a match case to one imported, the same in every respect, and costing near 30 per cent. higher than the imported case. Another firm of this city, largely engaged in the wholesale trade, has a partner residing in New-York, by whom about one-third of their stock is purchased there, the balance being imported,direct. They inform the committee, tha t the goods purchased in New York have cost them from 15 to 20 per cent. higher than similar goods imported direct. In regard to the assortments of goods now I in the southern seaports, the committee are uninformed, except as to Chlarleston-in which city the supply has been greater than any had there for thirty years past, contain ing excellent assortments of foreign goods. Ofdomnestics-the assortments, though better I than heretofore, has not, it is understood, been either as varied or good as at the North. The great market of New-York must afford more range of selection at all times, but it - may be questioned whether it affords a much greater variety of goods suited to the south- ern market, or of better staple. Most of the importing houses, during the past summer,> w had partners in Europe, who were well ac- quainted with the wants and tastes of the - southern people, and made their selections s to suit-and, notwithstanding the trade of - the city has been far greater than was anti cipated, they have still managed to keep , their stocks at a respectable rate, and are . now understood to have very good assort ments. A strong proof, not only that the .e assortments have suited the demand, but r that the rates have been better than could d be obtained at the North, exists in the int creased business; the sales of this season e notwithstanding the epidemic of the last; y summer, are computed at 25 per cent. ad vance on those of the year preceding. Many d intelligent and enterprising dealers from the interior towns, villages, and country, who - formerly traded to New-York, with a full e knowledge of all the facts necessary to pros per conclusions, have discontinued trading d with New-York, and made their purchases - here-and others, after persisting in going e there, and purchasing, have returned here, a, examined the stocks, and regretted they had e. lost time and money by going. While , greater activity has pervaded this market, a tcomparative stagnation has fallen upon that epart of New-York which has heretofore para ticipated largely in our trade. One firm, Id which has a house both in Charleston and ri New-York, sold on the capital employed the oration is the credit which can be had in the tw o places. It has been already shown, that, as a general rule, the credits given to the country merchant in New-York, will average from six to eight months. In Charleston, during the past season, the credits given by the wholesale merchants have gone from six to twelve months, averaging perhaps nine or ten months. The medium of payments is not less important-payments in New-York are by bank notes at a discount, or exchange at a premium. In Charleston the committee are informed, that the bank notes of most of the southern states are taken at par, constituting a saving of from one to three per cent. After weighing all statements and arguments submitted to the committee, they have come decidedly to the opinion that foreign goods may be imported into, and sold at the southern ports as cheaply and upon as good terms, as at the North; and perhaps it is not going too far to say, upon better-an extensive inquiry among them enables the committee to say, that such is the opinion generally entertained by the best-informed merchants. Acting upon this opinion, during the last season, they have made importations upon a scale greater than has been done in twenty years, and as the committee are informed, at rates that would allow their sales upon terms more favorable than the NewYork market has afforded. Many instances were laid before the committee, illustrating the operation of the direct and circuitous iiportationis on prices, from which the committee will select a few, coming from sources of the highest respectability, not as conclusive proofs that all the trade has been of a similar character, but as giving some data, by which the truth may be approximated. While it is conceded that the business of a single season, nor perhaps the cases cited are such proofs of the stability of the trade o~ its general character, as may be considered conclusive, yet when they come in supporl of the general principles upon which the committee have based their opinions, they cannot fail to have weight. One of the committee, an experience merchant, living more than one hundre( miles in the interior of South Carolina, im ported direct the whole of a considerabl stock of goods, for the last and present year' sales. He visited New-York afterward, an( examined the stocks and market carefullyhe states, that the same kind of goods wer4 as high or higher, than his would cost him all expenses included, at his own store One article especially was greatly more sc to wit, negro blankets-his standing him a his store in $25 the piece, while for the sam quality they demanded $33 in New-York~ price he could have sold for at home, an realized 32 per cent. profit. 115 SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL CONVENTION. a very short time get more goods of a given kind if needed-he thus makes a smaller capital do a large business, and runs little risk of sustaining losses by goods growing old on his hands and going out of fashion. The committee of twenty-one have urged with great force a view in relation to this branch of the subject, which cannot be too highly estimated, to wit: the accumulations which result to the capital of the country, by keeping its own trade and the profits on it at home, increasing the means of the importer for enlarging his importations, and extending his credits and accommodationsThe official reports from the Treasury give us some data on which to base a calculation, which may not be without its use. In 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, and 1838, five years, the exports to foreign countries, of domestic produce, from Charleston, was by customhouse valuation, $58,000,000, throwing off fractions. To this must be added for what was sent coastwise, perhaps 25 per cent. or 14,500,000, making in all, of domestic produce, $75,500,000, or an average of $14,500,000, by custom-house valuation. If the moderate rate of 10 per cent be added, as their value in foreign or northern markets/ where they are sold, it will make an average annual amount of near $16,000,000, which should have returned to Charleston, in the shape of goods and other supplies for the consumption of the country which furnished the exports. If from this amount two-fifths be taken for articles of domestic growth and manufacture, which we have received in exchange there will remain upward of $9,000,000 worth of goods consumed through Charleston, the importer's profits on which will not be less than 25 per cent. or two and a half millions annually. If its commerce were to remain stationary, and not increase for ten years to come, and we take this sum as the measure of profit, and admit that only one half of it or one and a quarter million of dollars, would be annually added to the im porting capital, without calculating any profits on this addition, twelve and a half millions would in that period be added to the perma nent resources of this most important class of our citizens. If the same principles of calculation are extended to the whole south ern country, the benefits grow immensely upon the mind, prefiguring a career of pros perity which will add vast power and influ ence to the South, and give new guarantees for the stability of her institutions. The safety of investments and the certain profits in our trade, will offer, when known, in ducements to the superabundant capital of other sections, and even of Europe itself, to seek a location among us in new mercantile firm~s, in partnerships or agencies of foreign houses, or loans to our own merchants. If a part only of these anticipations be realized, past year full 75 per cent. more goods in the former than in the latter city. These are gratifying evidences that'our trade is falling back'in its ancient channels, and again returning to fertilize and re-people its ancient home.* The last branch of the resolution directs th e committee to inquire if any and what advan tages exist in making pu rc ha s es from the direc t import er at the South. Many have been pointed out in the preceding pages of this r eport- other s hav e b een more ably and e mph atic all y explained in the report submitted by the committee of twenty-one. There are some of these w ich may be adverted to presently-for the moment, however, others not yet mentioned will be remarked upon. It is certainly good policy in the retail merchant to concentrate his dealings, if he can, at the same market, provided his supplies can be got there on as good terms. It has already been shown, that in Charleston the assortments are good, the supply ample, the terms fair, and the credits favorable. There are parts of the retailer's supplies which he can get nowhere so well as at the southern sea-ports —West India groceries for instance. By purchasing the other goods necessary for his business at the same market, he simplifies his business, contracts it to a single point nearer to him, and where he can avail himself of more means to meet his payments-all kinds of country produce may be taken by him from his customers, and made as available at the spot where he owes his debt, as money itself. Another advantage results from it. His customers will buy more freely when the goods are fresh. That merchant does the best business whose goods best suit the wants and tastes of his customers; he need buy no more at a time than will meet ready sale-for, being near his market, he can in * In one of the best New-York commercial papers, the Herald, of the 4th of May, inst., since the adjournment of the Convention, is the following paragraph of its commercial report. The confirmation it gives to this statement is perfect, as it estimates the f'alling off of Southern trade at 75 per cent. The insinuation that it is for want of credit to the Southern merchants, is undeserved, and will no doubt be duly appreciated by them. " The Southern trade may now be said to be over for the spring. It has been exceedinglylight, probably not more than one-fourth the amount from th e same sections during the spring of 1836. This is particularly true of the hardware business, which trade has, however, received a great accession from other quarters, and the aggregate sales in this line will reach, without doubt, 50 per cent. more than last spring. In consequence of the difficulties with the Southern banks, and the continued high rate of exchange, many orders have not been expected from that quarter; goods are therefore scarce, a fact which leads us to anticipate alarge fall trade from all quarters. Southern merchants are beginning to discover that prompt payments are, on the whole, the best policy. The question is now no longer with our merchant, is a man rich? but, is he prompt?" 116 SOUTHERN DIRECT TRADE TO THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. advances will probably take place in the wealth, developments in the resources, and an invigorating influence be produced on the arts, the industry, enterprise of the country, in all the benefits of which, no class will participate more largely than the country merchants. In the improved condition of their customers, new wants will spring up and a greater demand for goods arise, at the same time that a better market will be created at home, to buy from them whatever of the staples or produce of the country they may have to sell; and larger stocks and wider ranges of goods will be offered for the selection of their assortments, at prices and credits more favorable as capital and competition incur~mnyi as ob bane rmteBn J SOUTHERN DIRECT TRADE TO, E CONTINENT OF EUROPE. H en -tll, r- oapttptllnwt {a meeting to be held in this place, to promote the interest of direct trade to the continent of Europe from the south of the United States, I considered it my duty to say a few words about it-it so happening that I was present here at the time. You will excuse me, gentlemen, being a foreigner, thus to intrude upon your patience; but by giving you a short sketch of my life, you perhaps will think me competent to advise with you upon the important matter now before you. Born and raised in the northern part of the kingdom of Hanover, on the River Ems, after being well schooled, I was educated a merchant in the cities of Bremen, Amsterdami, Hamburg and London, from my 16th to my 30th year. In 1820, I left London, and although until then only engaged in general commercial business, I was sixteen years dealer in timber and lumber in Emden on the Ems, and was English and Brazil Vice-Consul the while. In 1837, I formed a co-partnership with my brother in Amsterdam; in 1839 I returned to the timber trade, principally in America. Forty-five years in commercial business at large, and in colonial articles: as cotton, rice, sugar, &c., and during that time scarcely twelve months without visiting the large commercial cities of Europe, always an attentive merchant. This perhaps, will entitle me to your attention. Your object, gentlemen, to make yourselves more independent of Liverpool. to saver ei, an d so many other charges by directIade to Europe, avoiding northern ports, qp uiplcidental expenses, is -oq n n i me Tntd By direct trade you not only save great and unnecessary expense, but you also will receive in return.uropean protjo b s,, chedapB.r: ezni,rationwill be invited this way, a nuildin f and ships wilt be en_cor l Direct trade has long since s Hl isted between Bremen and Charleston, WVilmington, Savannah, Mobile, New-Orleans and Galveston; but it remains for you, gentlemen, b y putting your own hands to the work, to extend and perfect good beginnings, and save to your own pockets and enterprise the fruits of your industry. To obtain the advantages of direct trade with the co ntinent of Europe, your attention has been particularly directed to t he cit y of Amsterdam. Allow me to mention to you some of the advantages and some of the disadvantages regarding that trade, that you may the better judge for yourselves. Amsterdam is. it - its merchants are eminent, and some of them rich; money is easy to be obtained from the Bank of Amsterdam at a low per cent. Amsterdam has communication by canals all through Holland. In about two years it will have a rail-road communication with Germany. By a branch of the Rhine it has communication with the German Rhine provinces, the most populous part of Germany. It is a market for cotton and rice, and imports largely of tobacco from Baltimore. All this is true; but again, while the wealth of Amsterdam is proverbial, it is with the merchant's wealth we are interested, and this is mostly employed in support of the society of commerce called in Dutch, " Handel Maatschappy," importing from Java, Sumatra, the Dutch East India colonies, China, &c., upwards of a million bales of coffee, 150 millions weight and more of sugar, spices of all kinds, Java indigo, Java tea, Java tobacco, rice and hides, and many articles from Japan-having a capital of seventy millions of florins. Twothirds of these importations are sold to Germany; three millions of Hollanders do not consume it. Germany is at any time so largely indebted to Amsterdam and Rotterdam merchants, that it is a question whether these merchants, proverbially cautious, would advance very largely on any great amount of your produce. The Amsterdam Bank will advance twothirds of the amount of produce at the exchange market prices, but the merchant who takes such advance must be ready any day to refund, even if prices go down. This in many cases has proved fatal, because if he fails to comply, his stock will be sold to meet his liabilities, and most always at ruinous rates. There are circumstances sometimes present, under which the bank will not advance; but these are exceptions. The inland communication by way of canal, is admirable. The most of them have their outlets at Amsterdam. This is a source of much wealth to this city. This trade does not extend beyond its frontiers, except, perhaps, on the side of Belgium, and and is confined therefore to three millions of Hollanders. 117 SOUTHERN DIRECT TRADE TO THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. The prosperity of a city and amount of trade going on, is often, and perhaps cor re ct ly judged by the increase of population. Now, the n, after the pea ce in 1815, Amsterdam had 200,000 in h a bitants, it has now about 212,000. Bremen h ad the n 30,000, and it has now 60,000. In Amsterdam you scarcely ever see new buildings going up. Bremen ha s been built an d re-built since 1815. Amsterdam is exactly as it was in that year; whereas, any o n e who knew Bremen in 1815, would hard ly re cogn ize it in 185l. My opinion, therefor e, is, tha t the large r proportion of your produce might b e sent to Bremen with m ore advantage than anywhere else. Bre men has scarcely its equal in the perseverance and intrepidity o f its eminent merchants. Before 1815, Bremen ha d very few vessels of her own; now she has two hund red, from 300 to 1400 tons; m ore than two-thirds of these trade to the Un ited States, and some with Sothh an d Cen t ral America, the Brazils and the Pacific. There are three regular lines, of four vessels each, to NewOrleans; regular lines to New-York, Phil a delphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Galveston, San Francisco, and other American ports. She exports more German emigrants than all the other ports put together. In Bremenhaven, the harbor of Bremen, are docks l arg e enough to admit your largest steamers, soon to be opened. I do not know the depth of water exactly on the bar of the Weser, but I once crossed it with a vessel of one thousand tons, drawing eighteen feet. The German fleet, frigates of war, are riding there in the harbor. The Washington and the Hermann, large class steamers, come and go regularly from New-York. Ship-owners have very small charges to pay there-scarcely any worth speaking of in comparison with other ports. American and English vessels repair there for emigrants. Your vessels at any time will load cheaper to Bremen, although four or five hundred miles further, than any port of Holland; labor is cheap there. The import duty is, I believe, only i or i per cent. on the value of all imported articles; and this is not levied by custom-house officers, but paid by the consignees at Bremen, upon their declaration on oath as Bremen citizens. It would not pay to have a lot of custom-house officers to collect so trifling a tax. Hence it is that you can buy wine, brandy, and quite a number of other articles, very near as cheap in Bremen as at the places where first sold. Bread-stuffs, meat, &C., are cheap, and labor cheap in consequence. If desired, I can furnish account sales and invoices of any article of export and import, which will demonstrate in favor of Bremen. The trade between the two ports of Amsterdam and Biremen and the The branch of the Rhine which makes Amsterdam's continuation with the German Rhine provinces, in the summer time between Arnheim and Utrecht, is often too dry even for small craft-in winter, ice prevents communication altogether. In such cases, nothing remains but to send the goods bound for Germany over Rotterdam, or by rail-road to Arnheim, to be forwarded thence on the Rhine. A communication of the railway from Am sterdam to Arnheim, up to the Oberhausen, where the Cologne Minden Rail-road passes, has been lately agreed upon-this may be finished in two years; then, and not till then, will Amsterdam have a regular railroad communication with the interior of Germany, which your interests will require. The Dutch colonies hitherto produced no cotton, but they produce a vast deal of rice and tobacco, and other articles. These, imported from, and produced in the colonies, are free of all import duty, being considered as home products; the consequence is, that they can be sold cheaper than Carolina rice and American tobacco. Probably the greatest incumbrance concerning trade with Holland, is the enormous charges freight vessels and ship-owners have to pay in entering her out-ports. Any vessel from Savannah will sooner sail at $12 for two tons to Bremen, although 3 or 400 miles further, than for $16 for the same to Amsterdam. I myself pay that differencebut who pays it? The importer from America, and lastly and really the planters. If your produce is imported into Holland in bond, you will have to pay those extra charges which the people in Hamburg and Bremen can avoid by getting the produce they want directly from your ports, which they do. Your sh ip-owner s have no t hing to load back from Holland but gin and Java coffee. There are no emigrants. If your vessel wants them, they have to sail from Bremenhaven, as some of them have-if emigrants should go by Holland, they would go by Rotterdam, but they will be few. Notwithstanding what I have said, Amsterdam is a proper place to ship some of your produce, but by no means make it your sole depot on the continent; in this you will find your error. Amsterdam has no regular steamers but two to Hamburg, and a few small ones to England; there are none to any port of the United States. Another charge on shipping to Amsterdam is the necessity for vessels of 10 feet draft of water and' upwards, to go through by the North Holland canal, which is very considerable; and in the winter this canal is closed; whereas the WAeser, the river that leads to Bremen, up as far as B3remenhaven, never freezes. 118 A SOUTHERN FOREIGN COMMERCE. niestitalt only, but of industry, capand- has enca tedlgeo has i ~begun to come over the spirit of her dreams. The swaddling clothes of the infant are about being torn asunder, and a new being will stand erect conscious of its own power, and with the toga virilis of true dignity and strength. We congratulate the South upon her emancipation from the fetters of old usages and slumbering energies. We have already spoken of the brilliant progress the South is makng.h epart melit of r.ona ifacti- Every paper were ceive adds fresh evidences of the fact. The spirit of enterprise and progress which is rife in their midst, is not confined to one section, nor do the illustrations of its effi ciency belong to one class of objects. The spirit of enterprise is eminently conta gious. Activity begets activity, and en ergies well spent engender new elements of progress. This fact is fully crrkobrated by the simultaneousness with which the southern states have commenced their march of improvement. of manufacH tories, the application of labor to capital in' new forms, has called into requisition larger \ and more profitable systems ofartificial inter- communication. Thus rail-roads and manu- factures have gone hand in hand, increasing.9 - the necessities of the existence of each- other, and contributing to their mutual suc Negxt to the above two features of her industrial progress, we regard the attemp.it now being made to establish direct trade a t h W ope ash calculable advantages and enduring, results. Wie would prefer not to see its success jeopardized by involving it with questions of -Qal y..'CX_l.rn or og1al -tge. Let it stand out by itself alone, towering high above all other interests. Let its consequences be calculated, and its in fluences measured. Let antagonistic feel ings be compromised, and their united efforts will succeed in perfecting a great and mag nificent work. The position which the South is fast acquiring demands it. The benefits which would accrue from its establishment would be immediate as well as las ting. The great State,- f South Carolioa Gwe or - gi', Alal Tennessee, l.hoi-d tol. _ved tson swill ho by thheir rail jhoa(ds, possenttoin- themhvpelvcss elemensts w-hicc-mill s he accompl-shifent o,p a l-,n y_ obiect. T'h-eir-Tesores ,4qe E d -s.4s~ -)ftheir la,bor abundant. XI)&a;brey- ly.kthe'hn wqlo_~ irl-Td ith-tke Staple f otton. The protu'ct i fs-'xfrF wi ll ring remunerative prices at all times, if sent to the proper markets. Heretofore they have been content to dispose of them in h such a manner as they could without any United St ate s is vastly i n favor of Bremen, and has been steadily on the increase since the Europea n peace o f 1815; in consequence, the merchants of Bremen know more of the trade you have in view, and understand rendering, all facilities a nd advances. If your mercha nts and planter s were to make Bremen the depot for your exports, that government would make itself a party, and extend every advantage and p erfect every mutual understanding. The advantage tha t B remen holds over Am s terdam in its communication with the interior of Germany, claims you r consideration. On the River Weser, a remarkable town called Munden, in the kingdom of Hanover, employs a number of steamers carrying merchandise up and down from Bremen, beside many land freightt vehicles for the interior to such as choose to meet the higher charges; but the principal communication is the rail-road, part of the great chain which interests in Hanover, unites Bremen with all Germany, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, &c. In four hours from Bremen the cars arrive in Hanover, where the rail-roads of all parts of Germany meet. In fifteen hours they are in Cologne, on the Rhine, which forms the communication with all the Rhine provinces; with Switzerland, Belgium and France. in twelve hours; in Berlin, the capital of Prussia, with 400,000 inhabitants; in ten hours, ins Leipzig, at the grand fairs; in six hours, in Brunswick, another fair-market; in eighteen hours, in Prague, the capital of Bohemia; in th irty.-six hours, in Vienna, the capital of all Austria; and in fifty-four hours, in Trieste, on the Adriatic Sea. I may be mistaken a little in regard to time, but there cannot be much of error. Tobacco and rice principally sold in Bremen, hitherto not a great deal of cotton, but at ally rate more than in Amsterdam. My own house in Bremen has made large sales. I have felt it my duty to compare commercially, the two cities of Amsterdam and Bremen, and leave you to judge; and sincerely believe, that in the accomplishment of your great object, direct trade with the continent of Europe, Bremen presents the greatest advantages. Germany is the heart of Europe, and Bremen the most available port for economy of charges, dispatch and safety. Letter from a German Merchant. SOUTHERN FOREIGN COMMERCE. -We have noticed with pleasure the advent of every new enterprise of genuine promise at the South. We have long believed that she has not made that judicious use of the talents entrusted to her care which her advantages afford, and which her necessities require. With a climate a_ld soil the choicest of the e lart a-g - d be the home 119 120 SOUTH-COMMERCIAL RESOURCES OF, COMPARED WITH THE NORTH. eoffrto spring ialt T-jaeli od oiffapen owm e of.theig3aof their grpwth into the sections cad_ni New avenues to wealth and en terprise would be continually unfolding themselves. Nor would these evidences of 'prosperity be regarded with jealousy by the -cities of the North. They, too, would share I an the general increase of trade. There ,'would be a more equal distribution of power and capital and wealth. And as commerce is liberal in the influence which it exerts, and cosmopolitan in its nature, it would banish from all our minds sectional feelings and geographical distinctions. The closer we draw the links of trade among ourselves and with other nations, the more improbable do we render the chances of collision, and the mutual interchange of products will lead to a reciprocation of courtesies that will finally bind all nations in a common brotherhood. effort on their part. They have most usu ally passed through a long and irregular circuit in finding a market for consumption. ---- Their cotton, their rice, and t -, su t whic n t'er consumers on the conti nent, pass first to Savannah, or Mobile or New-Orleans; thenc etw -'York, or Bos ton _ aon atimore; thence to Liverpool, and 1 /from that great storehouse of the / Keyey are distributed throhe - process through no th valuable com modities ar e t hus compelled to pass is un n atural and expensive. Three or four ship ments are made when one at least w ould , —uffice. The reductions in commisesio .... insurances\ and freight wh c t tram )a,(, port wd f-ou-Weffect, —wou-ma;e' these -". 9~'-necessaries not only cheaper to the coarse "'. er, but mor e pre_d4uer -........ In the singe Of otton the he markets of the continent, w hich should be supplied directly from the southern ports, receive more than half the quantity consumed from C_rt ,,~Britain, which is aninally hehfl hack in thy ~ ~.~,/+ WoT —-5arehouses of Live.rpol. ~,tie~: Qnt zol~ar S_t k-mz~ They dictate terms not only to this country, but to the whole of Europe. The ntiu se plied directlv by thee United States,. and by '~reat Rri tai n Respectivelyv-i0fr Consumption t-on the continent, is thus summed up in bales: SOUTH - COMMERCIAL RESOURCES OF, COMPARED WITH THE NORTH.-The agitation of the subject of slavery, which threatens to dissolve the Union, involves some very rious reflections, particularly to that portion of the community engaged in commerce and the inland trade between the North and the South. A glance at some of our business streets exhibits the immense trade with the South and South-west, and we contemplate with satisfaction the importance and value of the South to the North. /t w.b b e ~ t to er.f i f me of our legislators U/0nderstood more thoroughly the stsatistics o'f 1 trade between the North and South, and bet . tweet the Unitqd ~ta s and foreign coup 8rie.4.ey- would be better enable- to es timate the consequences that would be sure to follow disunion, upon the value of every species of property at the North, and chang ing its location to the South. Could these important points be seen by our public men at Washington, a better feel ing would prevail, and less acrimony would show itself, in meeting the questions which now agitate the country. The agiculturxle ofthe United btaBdd yar masotn tuntto all others, for upon this branch of industry commerce is sup ported andman,ufactures thrive. If we look at that section of the Union, which grows for export the largest in amount, and by far the most important commodity of any productions of this country, or of the world, we see that the South, where slave labor is employed, furnishes, in cott on e, the whole T Union with a large pro ton of the means 'to pay for the imports from foreign coun. tries. The following table will show the value of such articles of agriculture, produced at the South, as will always command a foreign market, for the past three years, viz.: Exports from Exports from United States Great Britai 1846............. 205,000............ 194,000 1847............. 169,000............ 215,000 1848............. 255,000............ 192,000 1849............. 322,000............ 254,000 1850............. 194,000............ 282,000 1851............. 265,000............ 285,000 This should not be so. It is for the interest of both producer and consumer that they should be brought more closely and more directly together; they should understand and appreciate the wants of each other. In order to secure these important objects, such intermediate agents should be dispensed with. The markets of Great Britain, and her markets alone should be supplied directly from the southern ports. T he markets of Germant p Franceyrv 'ne.ro. states-of Eurolej-should receive their[-s'upplydirectly from Charleston, Savannah, or Mobile, as the case may be, in the ports of Amsterdam, Hamburg, Bremen, or Havre. Our own coasting trade would supply the markets of New-England and the Atlantic states generally. Thus th,e influence of commerce would, :be mod eitiely diffuseh-,,f ] m-~'~ faip __q.-Bea —_,d and the change of commodities would be more common, and the comforts of life more widespread. The commercial cities of the South i! t a, SOUTH-COMMERCIAL RESOURCES OF, COMPARED WITH THE NORTH. 121 1849. 1848. 1847. Cotton........ $95,250,000.. $74,620,000.. $72,905,000 Tobacco....... 6,616,7,11.. 8,756,369.. 11,008,200 Rice........... 3,841,964.. 3,575,895.. 3,091,215 Naval stores... 1,624,190.. 1,864,319.. 1,798, s12 _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ $107,332,895..$88,816,754..88,803,027 To the above may be add ed sugar and molasses....18,417,500.. 16,486,000.. 22,746,430 To tal agricul tural produe- I tiolls of the j slave states $125,750,395.$105,302,574.$111,559,451 act as her own shopkeeper. She employs us, becauae-~,-wf, ta~',,''es.i in commerce. _'. Compel her to establish a... southern confederacy, and she must act for herself. Sh ecan bui! own essels fill them with theprdu her own soil, And/ m bdilpI~orffe?owngood not roi thie N6ith, but fr?m"-tlse forei gn countr{es who-ii'l by her cotton, rice and t bo -J'.. htairacau,. the North wpuldloe. look at the wealth and splendor in our large northern cities, we see evidences of the profit derived from commerce ad t Othe South. It is safe to estimate fifty per cen ount, d n paying duties, upon the cost price of most of the articles imported into the United States, before they reach the consumer. Who gets this fifty per cent.? It is ivided between the commission merchant, kic......2,59,32..2,31,84..3~7%5,829'shiip-owne r, ~impor~ter, ~'n-le'v6i ar-and~~~~Es~~Ef~-te-*Efsale and retail dealer. All, except the latter, L are identified with the institutions of the North-and who, in a body, realize, in profit ) out of this foreign trade, an amount ec Xt whole value of the cotton cro__. What would-be e onsequences if the IN orth were de prived o f th is immense inland Trade with the South, by far the most important of any ban nch, co nne cted as it is with their shs s and.manufacturig in Destroy te eten the inter course be twee n the North and the South, and one of the very first acts that would claim the attention of the South would be to engage in foreign commerce. They would noons do i, On preference t hebuying_froni the m North, but wToulad bte comp elled to take articles f'bri6 Uan -''re e r -u.. _ -_ -cr -he -r t.ton, ric.. tobacco, &c., which the North would be shute ou-t f1-om,- jus t to the exteNtthe- t constmptio ,5fthe free st~ s_.ou. — ~;, t is n-t ill-~yt-ie-'South would allow the North to compete w ith her i n the manufacture of N-olanse 8 0 tto0_u s _ _ efo llng tab l d h ave .ne _ 1 oq a.xing - an exp.rt_ukty_ on raw .cottf.- t hi'Fi,e-states)ithat would ensure a preference of their own manufactures in foreign markets, where northern fabrics have had the preference of the whole world. What a picture for the North to contemplate? What articles of production, besides manufactured goods, would they be enabled to export, to carry on even a competition with the South in commerce? The following tables show the extent of the exports from the free states, for the last three years: 1849. 1848. 1847. Cotton........ $66,396,967.. $ 61,998,294.. $53,415,878 Tobacco........ 5,804,204.. 7,551,122.. 7,242,086 Rice........... 2,569,362.. 2,331,824.. 3,605,896 Naval stores... 845,161.. 752,303.. 759,221 $75,615,7/00..$72,633,543..$65,023,051 It will be seen by the above tables, that' not only did the South furnish the staples- o amounting to 75,615,70,,-n-i 84~8'49-to.4avl for our imports, in part, to foreign countries but r"as,ue_ a-f lage " a"mntu iEt7- _m estic h et n consumption. iEvery S w-IF-h Sofuth, t ese exports frSofn- uth was the production of her own soil, and without which, our foreign trade would have been just so much more circumscribed. I t is well known that the North receives the great bulk of the im o a f egn countries; that, without the means furn' oi n cottonS rice and tobacco we sholdt be without the -ele-ments fornclt. so profitably and to such an extent, foreign commerce. Without these staple productions of' the S'out we o-tild be unabt4e o-bfuy, -or,- m other wo-rds, Hay. for the numerous articles of necessity and lux u ry:.$at" -~~m e ua ii.~ o~;m:f i'rap We annex the fo llowing tables to show the extent of the import trade, carried on almost exclusively by northern capital: STATEMENT of the value of imports into the United States, for the last three years, designating the portion received at the North and the South: 1849. 1848. 1847. New-York...$92,736,497.. $94,525,141. $84,167,352 Boston....... 26,327,874.. 28,647,707.. 34,477,008 Other ports... 14,716,030.. 14,200,043.. 11,161,667 Total North..$133,780,361. $137,372,891.$129,806,027 New-Orleans. 8,077,910.. 9,380,439.. 9,222,969 Charleston... 1,310,591.. 1,485,299.. 1,580,658 Other ports... 4,6&8,577.. 6,760,298.. 5,934,978 Total South...$14,077,078..$17,626,036..$16,738,605 From the above it is clearly shown, that t h e North acts as the great shopkeeper for the South. She employs us to take her productions, send them to foreign countries to be sold, and returned in A, ch, and oh. F tces. Dissolve the Union, and she would SUMMARY ofthe value of exports of such articles as were produced by the free states, or from abroad, by the capital of such as are identified with the in terests of the free states, viz.: 1849. 1848. 1847. Fisheries......... $512,177....$718,797... $795,850 Oil and whalebone 1,876,074.. 1,075,327.. 2,480,716 Candles.......... 159,403.. 186,839... 191,467 I; Of which there were exported to foreign countries, during the same period, derived from official returns, viz: in. I1 SOUTH AND THE NORTH. whole commercial people of the United States, the North will not refuse to meet the subject, now agitating the whole length and breadth of the land, in such a liberal manner, as will permanently settle the great question. at issue.-N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. Skins, furs and 1849. 1848. 1847. ginseng........ $839,194.. $770,427.. $811,612 Lumber, and arti cles manufactur ed from wood... 3,718,033.. 5,066,877.. 3,806,341 Ashes............ 514,603.. 466,477.. 618,000 Provisions, esti mated at.......10,000,000.. 8,800,000.. 7,300,000 Breadstuffs, esti mated at........ 10,000,000... 18,000,000. 42,000,000 Miscellaneous.... 1,800,000.. 1,500,000.. 1,200,000 $28,420,484. $35,584,744. $59,203,986 Manufactured goods, esti mated at....... 12,000,000.. 11,000,000.. 9,000,000 $50,420,484. $48,584,744. $68,203,986 SOUTH AND THE NORTH.-The returns of the census, says the Southern Press, are vindicating the institutions of the South in the most triumphant manner. The following are a few items concerning Georgia: POPULATION. Whites....................................526,417 Blacks.....................................382,294 908,711 Value of real and personal estate.......$ 334,660,217 -Amount of state tax.................. $328,247 18 " county tax.................. 170,803 53 $499,050 53 Number of deaths for the year preceding 1st June, 1850........................ 9,099 The mortality of the whole population in 1849-50, was one in 91 1-2. This table goes further to show the conse quences that would result from disunion, than any other proof we could have adduced. It would not only be mortifying, but disas trous to all of the great interests the Northa1 has at~ t~ ihv sbe rd u -os6vn from one hundred and fifty millions to ~-hlioons of dollars.; ltow would such a state of things affect real estate the cities$ ofthe North'l Whatl'e the e ect FTin flils-c6't;-alone. Such a falling off in the. commerce of New-York would at onte_ felt in every department of business.'If the Siv ie'si-:are[ii- Ven to a separation from the free states, the decline of the North, in tilerhier,ial ascendency, may be dated from that event. It would require more space than we can allow here, to trace the ruin that would follow to com.ierc We, manu factures and to credit generall We, at t{e orth, would have, Yes a dera- ur TencSy at home, iost of our own state and {,oyernlinent seecu.rities now- owneiC__spino7, byac _.lp. our market, to absorb wh at ea ,capal ossesd Kick. t e qulre asch a crisis oa j rb S!i~i-g-a newo order of things; for it would b6'e oliy to- suppose that we could go on and supply, for any length of time, the South with the manufactures of the North, upon the same terms as heretofore. -!le tariff upon northern Dnfactures w ot ls9 fraQmed as to give preference to t o s__~c ons e otquently, on e of the new changes would be the removal, to the South, of hosts of imp orters, many of whom are foreigners, and ave particular r ti,n for the North over the South. They could as well conduct theirbusiness in Charles ton or Savannah, as New-York or Phila delphia. Another change would be, the re moval of numerous small manufacturers, and, in time, many large ones, too. It is imnpossibld depict the consequences of dis -L.i /r _lth. t.,dan' -d ldm N, e ounatrDy-; for it cannsot bi dte ied, t.h at .the outh would at first suffer, but past expe rienee shows that the North has everything We-tust that witthee ftsl i etl e tt o uin. Wee trust that, with these facts before the The whit e population of Georgia is about one-sixth o f t hat o f the state o f New-Yor k. Yet Georgia has nearly half the property. He nce a white person- in Georgia is on an average nearly three times as rich as one in New-York. Even if slaves are excluded from the property of Georgia, she is wealthier in proportion to white population than NewYork. And then the health of Georgia is vastly superior. Out of a total population of 908,711, the deaths in a single year were 9,099. In the single city of New-York, with about half that population, they were about 18,000, or nearly double. Hence the average mortality of the city of New-York is tour times as great as that of the state of Georgia. The taxation of Georgia, state aind county, is about halta million-that of New-York exceeds seven millions. Hence the taxation of Georgia, compared to that of New-York on the basis of population, is less than onefourth, on the white basis is less than onehalf —on the property basis is less than onesixth! Yet with this overwhelming evidence of the superior social, political and financial condition of Georgia, she is excluded by New York from a common territory as immoral and unthrifty and-submits! SOUTH-A MODE SUGGESTED OF CONVINCING THE NORTH ON THE SLAVE QUESTION.-.' Resolved, That an association of ,ur citizens, sound in the maintenance of hcuthern principles, and devoted to the int!rests of the southern country, should be formed for the purpose of encouraging home 'industry in all its branches, and rendering the South independent of all individuals, and t s 122 SOUTH CONYINCING THE NORTH. corporations, and societies, inimical to her domestic policy. "Resolved, That we purchase from the North nothing that can be obtained from the South. "Resolved, That we reject, as far as lies in our power, the merchandise and produce of the northern states hostile to southern institutions. And for such merchandise as is indispensable, let it be bought from the southern merchant, who lives and dies in the South, rather than from the northerner, wh ose e arnings her e are sooner or later trans ferred to the North. " Resolved, That we encourage s outhern in - dustry, by ceasing, at once, the purchas e of ready-made clothing coming from the North. This importation to Mobile of boots, shoes, shirts, coats, &c., &c., is a reproach and dis grace to us. Our own tailors, shoe-makers, dress-makers and seamstresses, are at least as skilful as those of any other land. Let them meet with the encouragement they deserve. " Resolved, That we encourage southern agricultnre, by giving preference to all pro duce cultivated in the southern states, viz.: by using southern flour, and not northern corn, instead of oats, and fodder instead of hay. That we drink no ale, porter or cider made in the North, but enicourage the growth of southern hops and apples, and the establishment of southern breweries. " Resolved, That we encourage southern manufacturers, by consuming their goods in preference to all others; and that we use every exertion to extend their number and variety. That we give every encouragement to the new paper mill, just going into operation near Mobile. " Resolved, That we reduce the cost of foreign goods, by encouraging direct importations of all foreign merchandise, which we have until now imported through the North only. That foreign commercial houses favorable to southern interests and policy, be encouraged to establish branches and agencies among us, that our retail merchants may supply themselves at home, without the risk, trouble and expense, of importation from the North. The European markets would require a supply of our agricultural productions in exchange for their goods, in the ratio of our imports, thus giving vitality and stability to a direct trade. The cost of the goods would be so materially lessened as to make us independent of the North for them, and ultimately to destroy their manufacturing interests. " Resolved, That in the distribution of public office, the people should invariably reject all candidates who are not identified with the southern population. The humblest office commands a certain influence; and the incumbent should not be suspected of northern prejudices. "Resolved, That we c ease ou r subscrip tions to any newspaper, magazine or review, hostile to our l and and institutions. " Resolved, That pro fe ssional men, and particularly ministers of the gospel and in struc tors of youth, born in th e S outh, re ceive our patronage. We should beware of those who, unde r the garb of religion, poison the minds of the weak and the credu lous. Sti ll more should we beware of teachers who instil l into the minds of our children princi - ples averse to our institution. "Resolved, That we should e xtend our colleges and other scholasti c institutions by conferring on them new donati ons and priv ileges, exercising discrimination in the se lection of professors and teachers, in order that we no longer h ave occasion to resort to northern institutions for the education of o ur sons and daughters, whose mi n ds are likely to be there poisoned by de nunciations and anathemas against their parents. "Resolved, That we create and patronize an establishment for the publication of all elementary books of educa tion. " Resolved, sThat our summeerexcursions for hea lth and enjoyment be to our Iakes, our bays, to e i o ec t the Gulf of Mexico, to the bor ders of our s o uthe rn Atlan tic ocean, which con tain places of resort combining a ll t he varied advantages of sea-bathing, comfort and society, eq ual, i f not superior, to those of norther n watering-places. All the soutih ern states abound in delightful mineral spri ngs, to which the invalid and the man of leisure can repair for health and recrea tioi. —Alabama Paper. Col. Wigfall's Cure for the Crisis.-I would proposee the fo llowi ng amendment s to the Constitutio n of t he United States: 1. Let it be declared that the third clause of the eighth section of the first article, which gives to Congress the power " to regulate commerce among the sever al states," shall never be constru e d to confer any power over the slave tra de between t he states. 2. Let it be declared that the sixteent h clause of the same section of t he sa me article, which gives to Congress the power " to ex ercise exclusive legislation" over the District of Columbia and other place s in the slave states, shall never be construed to con fer any power over slavery in thos e plac es. 3. Let it be declared that the federal gov ernment shall have the power to acquire territory to belong to the states composing the Union, and that, when acquired, it shall be the duty of the government at once to subdivide it into territories of convenient size, designating the size, and establish over them territorial governments, with no pro visions as to slavery, giving to the people of Lthose territories the power of legislating for fthemselves upon all subjects except upon that of slavery, and allowing them, whe~n 123 SOUTHERN WEALTH-SOUTH, RESOURCES OF. they have a sufficient number of inhabitants, citizens of the United States, to meet and form state governments, and be admitted into the Union upon equal terms with the original states. 4. Let it be declared that the first article of the amendments to the constitution, securing to the people the right "peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a redress of grievances," shall never be construed to allow Congress the privilege of receiving, discussing, referring or reporting, upon any petitio n upon the subject of slavery. 5. Let the fifth article be so amended as to place thi s compromise, between the slaveholding and non-slaveholding states, upon the same ground as that between the large and small states, in reference to their equal representation in the Senate, and prohibit any further amendment of the constitution upon the subject of slavery, except by the unanimous consent of all the states. Could this exciting and dangerous ques tion be once removed, I see no other rock upon which our glorious Union is likely to be wrecked. Can any one doubt, that, if the amendments I have proposed had been originally adopted as a part of the constitution, the difficulties and dangers to which our Union is now exposed would have been all avoided? How fortunate for our country would it have been, had they been substituted in 1820 for the Missouri compromise! But it is not yet too late " to form a more perfect unio nT," and, by so doing, laugh to scorn the predictions of those who look to the dissol ution of the U nion of these states as evidence that man is incapable of self-government. All that we ask, from our northern brethren, is peace for the present and security for the future. Surely they will not refuse us so reasonable a request. To suppose it possible, would argue but little faith in their fraternal affection. The security which would accrue to us by the ratification of these amendments, is already ours by any fair construction of the constitution. We ask no additional rights to those already granted to us, and seek, by these amendments, merely such a construction of the compromise originally entered into between the different states, as will, for the future, remove all doubt and prevent all discussion. quantity consumed in India, and exported thence to China. We may, by approximation, however, arrive at a conclusion sufficient to illustrate our views. The quantity imported into the whole of Europe, from all parts of the world, during the years 1846, 1847, 1848,* and 1849, reached 11,502,000 bags of 300 lbs, which, at the average of prices for these years, 83 cents,t was worth $293,301,000. The production of cotton in the United States commenced in 1790, and in the next year only 81 bales were exported, and yet of 11,502,000 above stated, 8,922,000 went from the Southern states of America, which at the same price, (8S cents,) is worth $227,511,000. So that in quantity the production of the South is as 8,922,000 to 11,502,000, and the value is as $227,511,000 to $293,301,000, and thus we see that we produce more than three-fourths in quantity and value of this great staple. Iftheunascertained quantity consumed in India and exported thence to China, which is inferior in staple to ours, is set off against the quantity of our cotton consumed in the United States, (which I have not added to the computation,) the result, it is believed, will not be varied. " Let us look at this question in another point of view. The crop of the United States in 1823, was only 509,158, and yet the crop of the year 1848-9 had reached 2,728,596, more than five times as great in 1848, as it was in 1823, twenty-six years before. This was worth, at last year's price, (10 cents,) 81,871,000. Deducting 518,039 as the quantity consumed in the United States, We have for exportation, 2,227,844 bales, which at 10 cents, (a low estimate,) is worth.............................$66,825,320 If to this be added the other domestic productions of the South.............. 32,674,176 The whole value for Southern exports for 1849, will be....................$99,500,000 More than two-thirds of the whole domes tic exports from the United States for that year, which was................. 131,710,081 And more than three times as much as the whole domestic export from the North, for the same wear, which wast. 32,210,081 The remarkable fact is also shown that the domestic export of the South, exclusive of cotton, her great staple, is $32,674,176, while all the exports from the North are $32,210,081, leaving the value of her cotton over and above. The fact that the North consumes less than one-fifth of our cotton, while four-fifths find so ready a market on our wharves, is significant of the independence of the South; and the North might well be reminded, by her receiving all her supplies of raw materialfrom us, and sending it again to us in her manufactured goods, (even if less keen-sighted than our Northerners are reputed to be,) how dangerous is the policy of converting an ally into an enemy, and a customer into a rival." -SOUTH — RESOURCES OF.-B. Boykin, Esq., of Mobile, delivered, not long since, an able address before the Southern Rights' Association of that city, in which occurs the following interesting passages: "A disruption of the Union, carrying with it no little acerbity of feeling, would result in breaking up in a great measure the present system of internal trade-a trade which has made the North what it is, and which is the foundation of its wealth and prosperity. The following statistical facts will illustrate the immense loss to the North by the abandon SOUTHERN WEALTH.-We take this from an admirable address delivered by Wm. E. Martin, on the celebration of the anniversary of Fort Moultrie. This address is so interesting in many particulars, that we shall hereafter have occasion to extract more largely from it: * Compiled from tables of Collman and Stolterfoht. t The average is made from reports to the Prussian government by the Consul at Charleston. f Reports of Secretary of Treasury. "The c otton crop of the old world cannot be ac cu - rately estimated, for want of correct accounts of the 124 SOUTH-TONNAGE OF FREE AND SLAVE STATES. ment by the South of its connection with that section. They are worthy of the consideration of those who seek our overthrow, and by consequence their own ruin." " Direct Trade.-Th e New-York Courier, in an article on the consequences of disunion, condenses some important commercial figures and facts. The product of the slave states it puts down as follows: hands of the North. How much was left in those hands, and how many hundreds of thousands of people in the South would this have maintained? How many cities would it have helped to build? How much would it have served to reduce the per capita amount of taxation which we pay to our states? "Our tables show that within the three years above named, the value of the whole amount exported from the free states of ma terials of their own production, was $167, 209,214. That is, the South furnished to the exporting mercantile enterprise of the North within a fraction of as much as the whole of the exportable industry of that section. " The total value of all the imports into the United States within the three years, is stated as follows; 1849. 1848. 1847. New-York... $92,736,497.. $94,525,141.. $84,167,352 Boston....... 26,327,874.. 28,647,707.. 34,477,008 Other Northern ports........14,716,030.. 14,200,043.. 11,161,667 Total North. $133,780,361.$137,373,891..129,806,027 New-Orleans. 8,077,910. 9,380,439.. 9,222,969 Charleston.... 1,310,591. 1,485,299.. 1,580,658 Other Southern ports......... 4,688,577. 6,760,298. 5,934,987 Total South....$14,077,078.$17,626,036.$16,738,605 " Here it will be seen that the aggregate value of all the imports into the North was $400,959,279; while the total value of the imports into the South-was only $48,441,719! Yet, within this period, the South furnished of the exports, values to the amount of $213,277,194!"' ,. 1849. 1848. 1847. Cotton........ $95,250,000.. $74,620,000.. $72,905,000 Tobacco...... 6,616,741.. 8,756,360.. 11,008,200 Rice......... 3,841,964.. 3,575,895.. 3,091,215 Naval stores.. 1,624,190.. 1,864,319.. 1,638,612 Sugar 107,332,895.. $88,816,574..$88,803,02 Sugar and molasses.. 18,417,500.. 16,486,000.. 22,746,430 Total........ $125,750,395. $105,302,574. $111,549,457 C" Of which, there were exported to foreign countries, during the same period, derived from official returns, viz: 1849. 1848. 1847. Cotton.......$66,396,967.. $61,998,294.. $53,415,878 Tobacco...... 5,804,207.. 7,551.122.. 7,242,086 Rice......... 2,569,362.. 2,331,824.. 3,605,896 Naval stores.. 845,161.. 752,303.. 759,221 Total......... $75,615,700.. $72,633,543.. $65,023,051 ",Here it is shown that th e aggregate amount of the exports of southern industry made to foreign countries within three years, was $212,273,294. " How much of all this, does the reader suppose, was imported by the South? Why, as shown by our tables, only 48,441,719! The rest, $164,835,575, went through the SOUTH-TONNAGE OF FREE AND SLAVE STATES. The New-Orleans Bulletin condenses the following table from the Treasury Report on Commerce, 1851: TONNAGE CLEARED FROM THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEARS 1850 AND 1849. States - Tonnage, 1850. -, Tonnage, 1849. —_ Flee, Amerian Foreign Aggregate American Foreign Aggregate Maine................ 111,123...... 91,014......202,137......127,368...... 66,081......193,449 New-Hampshire........ 682...... 7,531...... 8,213...... 1,023...... 5,819...... 6,842 Vermont............... 81,073...... 1,783......82,856...... 97,218...... 825...... 97,543 Massachusetts.........272,278..... 274,674......546,752.....280,187..... 244,067..... 524,254 Rhode Island.......... 16,770...... 1,705...... 18,475......15,568..... 2,315...... 17,883 Connecticut........... 17,515...... 9,802...... 27,317.... 20,440...... 3,719...... 24,159 New-York............1,411,557......737,539.... 2,149,096.... 1,358,643..... 784,514... 2,143.157 New-Jersey.............. 150...... 981...... 1,131................ 428...... 428 Pennsylvania........... 81,276...... 30,342......111,618......93,322...... 27,005..... 120,327 Ohio.................. 15,485...... 18,322...... 33,807...... 6,957...... 9,821...... 16,778 Michigan............... 7,982...... 46,719...... 54,701...... 33,919...... 90,605..... 124,524 Illinois................. 1,043...... 998...... 2,041 964........ 2,796...... 3,760 California...............104,266...... 75,862..... 180,128...... -...... Total.............. 2,121,100.... 1,297,382.... 3,418,382.... 2,045,609.... 1,247,495.... 2,293,104 Slave Delaware.............. -...... -..... -..... 1,091...... 1,599...... 2,690 Maryland............. 89,296...... 37,533..... 126,819......118,276...... 31,652..... 149,928 District of Columbia..... 1,520.......200...... 1,720...... 2,320............. 2,320 Virginia.................42,091...... 23,367...... 65,458...... 58,989...... 10,589...... 69,578 North Carolina..........30,739...... 11,493...... 42,232...... 26,030...... 3,880...... 29,910 South Carolina..........72.222...... 52,830......125,052...... 88,738...... 58,401..... 147,139 Georgia...............21,039...... 51,524...... 72,563...... 31,150...... 53,713...... 84,863 Florida..................10,022...... 12,154...... 22,156...... 20.507...... 10,922..... 3,429 Alabama............. 32,268...... 80,717..... 112,985...... 76,523...... 71,593......148,116 Louisiana..............211,800..... 158,137..... 369,937..... 293,456..... 194,234..... 487,690 Texas.................. 591...... 3,017...... 3,608...... 1,035...... 1,631...... 2,666 Total.................511,588..... 42 9,964.....941,552..... 718,115..... 438,214....1,156,329 125 3SOUTH-PUBLIC DOMAINS OF. RECAPITULATION. 1850 1849 Am. excess Free states-American tonnage....................2,121,100........ 2,045,609.......... 75,491 Foreign tonnage......................1,297,282..........1,247,495 Excess of Anierican tonnage....................... 823,818.......... 798,114 798,114 Decrease of Foreign tonnage...................... 25,704 Increase of American................................................................... 75,491 1850 1849 Slave states-American tonnage.................. 511,588.......... 718,115........ 206,527 Foreign tonnage...................... 429,96 4..........438,214 Excess of American tonnage...................... 81,624..........279,901 81,624 Increase of Foreign tonnage....................................... 198,277.......... 206,527 FURTHER RECAPITULATION. Increase Free states-Aggregate tonnage in 1850.............................3,418,382 Aggregate tonnage in 1849...........................3....,293,104 125,278 Decrease Slave states-Aggregate tonnage in 1850.............................. 941,552 Aggregate tonnage in 1849...............................1,156,329 214,777 states the sentiment of "free land" is becoming immensely popular, and with' great candor gives the reason of it, and the great end which is to be consummated. The above classification of tonnage belonging to the non-holding and slave-holding states, furnishes an instructive subject of comment. It will be seen, that in the free states there was an increase inll the aggregate tonnage for 1850 over the preceding year; while in the slave states there was a decrease. Another fact is observable from the above recapitulation; in the free states, there was an increase in the excess of American tonnage; while in the slave states the reverse wa.s the case; the American tonnage decreas'ed to the amount of 206,527 tons, and the excess of foreign tonnage illc r e a s e d 198,277 tons, but in the a ggregate the talling off in the slave states was 214,777 tons, or nearly one-tfourth of entire sllipping list. By particularizing, we find, that in some of the southern states, the falling off in the year 1850 was most remarkable. In Maryland, the decrease was 23,000 tons; in the District of Columbia, 1,000 tons; Virginia, 4,000 tolls; South Carolina, 22,000 tons; Georgia, 12,000 tons; Florida, 9.,000 tons; Alabama, 36,000 tons; North Carolina, 14,000 tons, and Louisiana 118,000 tons. Texas is the only southern state that increased her tonnage in the year 1850. In the northern states, only four states experienced a decrease; these are, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Michigan anid Illinois. In the whole of the free states, the aggregate increase ill the year 1850, was 125,278 tons. Area of States Owned by Owned by Gen. States in acres State s Government. Missouri.....43,123,200....14,212,190.... 28,911,010 Alabama...... 32,462,080.... 15,214,048.... 17,248,032 Mississippi...30,174,080.... 18,480,377.... 11,693,703 Louisiana.... 29,715,840.... 8,790,282.... 20,925,558 Arkansas.....33,406,720.... 6,149,755.... 27,256,765 Florida.......37,931,520.... 4,414,255... 33,817,265 Aggregate... 206,813,240....67,960,907.. 139,852,333 Area of the six slave-holding states... 206,913,240 Owned thereof by the general go vernment.......................139,852,333 Owned by the states in their state capacity............................. 67,960,90 Thus, in the slave states the general government still holds the proprietary of 139,913,240 acres. " The population of the states alluded to, in 1790, and that in 1840, shows an increase so trifling, compared with that of the northern states of the Union, that it would require five hundred years for the states themselves to occupy the unemployed lands with a population as dense as that of any of the rural districts of Great Britain. Unable or indisposed to purchase the domain themselves, (and a northern speculator finds his prejudices superior to his interests in this respect,) the lands must remain in their primitive wastes, or become the homes ofthe worthy settler, whose repugnance to slavery need not prevent him from accepting as a gratuity that in which he is unwilling to invest capital. Now look at the consequences to the states respectively. The influx ofthis species of population would change the tone of the present minority to a great majority, and the institution of slavery would be abolished in twenty years. For instance, Arkansas contains 33,406,720 square acres of territory; of this the state owns only 6,149,755 acres, and the general government 27,256,765 acres. Hier population now is 97,574. Who will doubt that if a donation bill were 126 SOUTH-PUBLIC DO.-,TAINS OF.-A writer in the New-York Comn-iercial Advertiser, admits the fact, that throughout all the free SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TROOPS IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 127 passed at the present session, in five years Arkan- Stat GeC. Government. sas would contain 200,000 free-soilers to outvote Capacity for increase at this minority of 97,574? Now let us look at the pre- the rate of 100 to the sent population of these six states, the slave-holding square mile............ 10,622,000 increase, according to the landed capacity of the Capacity for increase at state, and the free soil increase, according to the same rate.............. 21,851,900 area allowed by the government domain. Or double the slaveholding increase; and while the latter are multiplying their hundreds, the former Present population, exclusive of slaves...1,222,121 will be multiplying their thousands." SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TROOPS IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 New-Itmpshir e.............2,824... 4,019... 4,483.... 1,783... 1,222.... 1,767.....700.....744.....733 Massachusetts.................16,444... 20,372...12,591... 13,437....7,738... 7,889... 5,298....4,423... 4,370 Rhode Island............... 1,193... 1,900... 2,048... 3,056... 1,263...... 915......464.'....481......372 Connecticut................ 4,507...13,227....6,563... 4,010... 3,544... 3,689...3,921... 1,732... 1,790 New-York................. 2,075... 5,344... 5,332... 2,190... 3,756....4,838... 1,178....1,198.. 1,169 New-Jersey................ -....9,086....2,908.... 2,580.1276... 1,267....823...... 660..... 676 Delaware.................. -......754....1,299..... 349..... 317..... 556...... 89.....164...... 235 Maryland..................-....3,329... 7,565... 3,307.. 2,849... 2,065.. 2,107.... 1,280.....974 Virginia.................... 3,180....6,181... 11,013... 7,836. 7,573.. 6,986.. 6,119...2,204.....29 North Carolina............. 2,000....4,134....1,281....1,287....4,920....6,132....3,545....1,105.....697 South Carolina............. 4,000....6,069... 2,000... 3,650....4,500... 9,132.. 3,000....3,152......139 Georgia..................... 1,000...2,300... 2,173... 3,873......837... 1,272......750.... 1,326......145 Pennsylvania.............. 400...10,395... 9,464... 3,684... 3.476 3,337.... 1,346.... 1,265.... 1,598 Total............. 37,623... 8 9,65 1 6 8,72 0 51,052...41,584...42,826... 29,346... 18,006... 13.476 South of Pennsylvania......10,180... 22,013... 24,032... 20,033... 20,679... 26,187... 15,521... 9,067... 2,594 Virginia, 2, 1000, 6 months; 1000 North Carolina, 8 month s; 4 500 South Carolina, 9 months. 1780.-Includes militia and conltitentals, 9000 New-York militia, for 2 nomonthlis; 1500 Virginia, 12, 3000 3 omonths; 3000 Nort h Carolina, average 12 months; 5000 South Car olina, average 4, 1000 a months. 1781.-Includes troops a nd militi a. All t h e M assachusetts and C onnecticut men are enlisted for 4 months. 1782.-South Carolina militia, for 4 months. 1783.-All continentals. Army at the North discharged 5th November, 1783; at the South, 15th November, 1783. Remarks on the Whol e.-\ average period of enlistment for all theyears to be about the same, North and South, it will be seen that in the first years of the Revolution, when the war was chiefly at the North, the southern states supplied, each year, about one-third of the whole number of enlistments * as soon, however, as the war extended southward, and became general, the southern states rapidly advanced, supplying one-half; and for 1780, 1781, and 1782, more than one-half of all the enlistments. Mr. Seybert refers to a paper presented to Congress in 1811, which shows the regular troops raised in the Revolution, number ser. viceable in camp, and expense of the army. 1775.-The numbers are those in Continental pay. The Virginians were 6 and 8 months' men, and state troops; the North Carolinians were 3 months, and Georgians 9 months. All others enlisted to 31st December, 1775. 1776.-The returns are actual, and approximate and include militia and continentals. 8000 of the men from northern states averaged but 4 months; 7000 firom the Carolinas averaged 6 and 8 nisonths. 1777.-Includes militia and continentals. 1113 New-Hampshiremen were tfor3 months; 2200 for 2 months; 2775. Massachusetts, 3 months; 2000 2 months; 1500 Rhode Island men, for 6 months; 2000 Connecticut, 2 months; 1500 New-Jersey, 2 months; 2481 Pennsylvania, 5 months; 2000, 3 months; 3420 New-York, 6 months; 1000 Delaware, 2 months; 1535 Maryland, 3 months; 4000 2 months; 1269 Virginia, 5 months; 4000, 2 months; 350 South Carolina, 8 months. 1778.-Includes militia and continentals. 500 New-Hampshire militia were for 2 months; 4500 Massachusetts, 2 months; 1000 New-Jersey, and 2000 Virginia, 2 months; 2000 South Carolina, 3 months; 2000 Georgia, 6 months; part of Massachusetts and Virginia militia were for guarding Convention. 1779.-Includes militia and continentals. 1500 New-York militia, for 3 months; 3000 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 Total men.........27,443... 46,891... 34,820... 32,899....27.699... 21,015...13,292... 14,556... 13,476 Serviceable in camp.15,000... 25,000... 26,000.....1,900... 18,000....19,000....10,000....11,000...12,000 —.__... Expense............. $20.064.666 24986.538..24986386..10794625.. 3000000...1942462.. 3631745...3775063 Total expenses, including sundry items....................................... $135,103,703. SLAVES-FUGITIVE, AT THE NORTHI. questions involved between the North and the South. 1. That the natural increase of the southern slaves exceeds that of any other condition of men on this continent. 2. That the general census cannot show the fact, because it adds to the natural increase of the white race here, the vast annual accession from foreign emigration; and on the other hand, it allows nothing at all for these vast annual deductions from slavenumbers, which are made through private emancipation, and escape and enfranthisement at the North; and hence, the census gives the white race the precedence in natural increase. 3. This being so, and such the cause, that the white population of the United States about doubles itself in every period of two and a half decennial cycles, or twenty-five years. 4. That the slave population of the United States more than doubles itself in every period of three decennial cycles, or thirty years, from the natural increase alone. 5. That the free negroes of the southern states double in about every period of three and a half decennial cycles, or thirty-five years, from the natural increase alone. 6. That the free negroes in the northern and western states double in about every period of four decennial cycles, or forty years, from the natural increase alone. 7. That the free negroes of the southern states are the most stable and least migratory of any class of the population of the United States, if we except their migrations to other slave states. 8. That considerably more of the free negroes migrate from the free states to the slave states, than from the slave states to the free states. That forty-nine fiftieths of all native negroes of the slave states who are found in the free states, are or were fugitive slaves when they left the slave states. SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TROOPS IN THE MEXICAN WAR.-The following tabl e was made up for the New-York Sun, from official data. In the preceding article is a table of the soldiers furnished by different states, in the Revolution. A writer in the Philadelphia North American conceives that we give too great a preponderance to the North, whose soldiers enlisted often, and for very short periods. This does most materially affect the case, and we are obliged to the writer for the correction. Mern Massachusetts.......... I Reg............ 930 Newr-York.......... 2............... 1,690 New-Jersey........... 1 Bat................ 420 Pennsylvania........ 2 Reg. and 3 Com 2,117 Ohio................. 5 " and 3 ".5,334 Michigan.............. 1 " and.. 970 Indiana............... 5 "..............4,329 Illinois............... 6 " and 1 Bat....5,971 Wisconsin............ 2 Corn.............. 146 Iowa.................. 3 "............... 229 Total from the free states................ 22,136 From states soutk of Mason and Dixon's Line. Maryland & D. C.....-I Com.............. 1,274 Virginia.................... 1,182 North Carolina....... Reg.............. 895 South Carolina........ 1 Reg.............. 937 Georgia.......... 1 Reg. and 12 Comr.. 1,897 Alabama.............. 3 Reg. and 13 Comr.. 2,981 Mississippi......... 2 Reg. and 1 Bat.. 2,235 Louisiana............ 7 Reg., 4 Bat. and 7, 041 1 Company.. X Tennessee..........5 Rg............. 5,090 Kentucky............. 4 Reg..............4,694 Missouri.............. 69 Comr.......... 6,441 Arkansas.............. 16 CoM.............. 1,312 Florida................ 4 Com.............. 298 Texas...............99 Corn..............6,955 Total from the South...................... 43,213 SLAVES-FUGITIVE, AT THE NORTH. -(SEE NEGROES AND NEGRO SLAVERY.)We have before us a pamphlet, published within the last few months at Washington, with the signature of R andolph of Roanoke, which examines critically many of the Census of Free Negroes in the New-England Statesfrom 1810 to 1840. 1810 1820 1830 1840 Increase in 30 years Increase pr. an. New-England States...... 19,487.... 20,736.... 21,181... 22,625..... 3 1-6 per cent..... 1-10 of 1 per cent. Census of Free Negroes in the six original Slave States,from 1810 to 1840. 1810 1820 1830 1840 Increase in 30 yrs. Inc.pr. an. Orig. Slave States.........84,254......112,578......145,091......158,356......60 per cent......2 per cent. Free Negroes in the M2fiddle and Free States, 1810 to 1840. ,Middle Free States 1810 1820 1830 1840 Increase in 30 years Increase pr. an. New-York............25,333......39,279......44,870......50,027.:.....95Y percent......3 5-6 per cent. New-Jersey..........7,843.....12,460.....18,303.....21,044.... 168 "......5.. Y Pennsylvania........ 22,492...... 30,203..... 37,970..... 48,954...... 117% " 3y Ohio................ 1,899.......4,723...... 9,538..... 17,342..... 813 ".....27 Indiana............... 373......1,230......3,629...... 7,165.... 18743 ".....62le Illinois..................613........,457..... 1,637...... 3,598..... 487........6 h Michigan.............. 120....... 174....... 261........7,07..... 500 2-3 " Tot. in Mid. States.. 59673.....78,545....116,217....149,204.....250 per cent....... per cent. Tot. in Mid. States........ 59673.....78,545.....116,217.....149,204.....250 per cent,.........,8 ecet 128 From Non-slaveholding States. SLAVES-FUGITIVE, AT THE NORTH. He now goes into a calculation of the annum less than the rate of increase of the white actual number of fugitive slaes who have population of. the United States, and falls but that much short, therefore, of doubling itself in every been, or are still protected and sustained at twenty-five years! So much for the minimum of the North, and arrives at results, we confess, increase. which were never apprehended in the tenth "But what are we to say of the maximum of in crease in these states, of this the most sluggish and part by us. aVe will give these results, and unthrifty class of people within our borders? On the course of argumentation which produced turning to the rolls for Illinois and Michigan, I them. found these states had been absorbed and deeply in The author takes the New-England states tent upon the manufacturing of free negroes, and I increasing their store at the amazing rate of up as least affected by runaway slaves from their wards of sixteen per cent. per annum, each, and as position, and finding the rate of increase of no community of living mothers ever gave births in t h e same populationinthesiquadruples, it was plain that these fabled procrea tlions were but the spoils of felonious plunder, and states-from the two he forms a mean, which under the niorals of the Free-soilers, that numbers is takcn as about the natural rate of increase. give law, and thefts give title, numerous and valuable This will give a higher rate than the reality, slaves are enticed from their owners and, in asso ciation with the vilest and most worthless that shame from the fact that some slaves do escape to the earth, they are hidden away in the chrysalis as New-Englandl, and many are manumitted at fugitives from labor, but soon to emerge and take the Sotth. However, adoptwing as fugitives from justice! Onlytothinkofan and SonthHo wvr,atiungiw th' in s me an, increase of sixteen per cent. per annum, the quad and contrasting it with the inc rease of free ruple of that of the United States, and which would blacks in the middle or border-line states, the double the free negro population of those states e x c e s s of such increase will measure the every six and a quarter years! But why should I a c t u a l loss which southern slavery has sus- dwell on these cases when there stands Ohio aug menting her free negroes out of the South's fugitive tained. From this, Randolph makes a slaves, until her rate of increase per annum has acdeduction of the slaves manumitted at the tually attained to twenty-seven per cent., which North since 1810, but whether he has taken would nearly double them seven times in twenty a- 1'......, figve years, or more than double them every four a figure high etough, it is impossible, with years; and even such a marvel is lost in the wonder our limited information, here to say. This that here stands Indiana by her side, conspicuous deduction is one-fifth of the whole increase over all, in the unexampled augmentation of her free negroes up to 62Y/ per cent. per annum! At above the natural rate, which would seem to this rate of increase, instead of doubling, like the be sufficient when it is reflected how large a population of the UIltited States, once in twenty-five portion of northern emancipated slaves were years, the free negro population of Indiana doubles, and has doubled itself in that time, fifteen times, and shipped off to the South before their freedom in a word, doubles itself every other year, with 12% could take effect. per cent. per annum of increase to spare! The following are the figures and facts of "I find the excessive augmentation of free negroes the calculation: (fugitive slaves) beyond the natural and usual means, in the states now to be named, to be as fol lows: "The increase ofpopulation in the United States is ew-York 3 5-6 per cent. unexampled in all the world. Even bating its ac - per centcession corn foreign emigration, and it is still wit h- ees v per cent.. 5,734 Fugitive Sve. out a rival. As it is, and as I have said, it doubles New-Jerse per cent; itself in twenty-five years. The rate of increase, excess over 2 per cent... 7,221 " therefore, is four per cent. per annum. o turn Pennsylvania 3 per cent.; to the free niegroes of New-England. They have I cess over 2_ per cent.. 9,602 dwindled and dwindled, until they have almost hio 27 per cent.; excess reached a stand still. Their annual increase or 2 per cent.......... 14,033 " " amounts to but one-tenth of one per cent! They Indiana 16% per cent.; excould not double themselves, at that rate, short of cess over 2 per cent.....6,502 " four hundred years! The South's fugitive slaves, Illinois 16 per cent.; exwhich New-England is known to shelter and fr ee cess over 2% per cent..... 2,535 " annually, without compensating their owners, (in Michigan 16% per cent.; exdependently of the large numbers she aids in cess over 2% per cent... 497 " escaping to Canada,) more than accounts for her en- Tot tire annutal increase, and consequently shows her t fugitive slaves inthe above estimates.... 4,24.n.0.eas native negro population gradually wearing out and above estimates......... wasting aa. Add the estimated number of "Even the free negroes of the six original slave fugitive slaves from 1840 to states of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 1850, upon the ratio shown Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, only show between 1830 and 1840.... 15,400 in 10 years. an annual increase of' two per cent., but the defi- T ciency is fully accounted for in the migration of free Total fugitive slaves from negroes from the old to the new slave states. 1810 to 180... 61,624 in 40 years. "But turning from these common-place details, 'Number of fugitive slaves and casting our eyes upon the columns portraying the er t te saesnprogress of free negroism, in those of the free states escaping to the states anwvhichll border on, or are almost equally accessible to Tually.... 1,540 the slave states, and lo! what wonders and con- To 61624 fugtvesaves valued at $450 each.................. $27,730,800 trasts strike and astonish us! The very vinidmum at $t eac h a,7,0 of increase in the seven middle free misu othetoss rannalyof1,4 tsestates, reaches fugitive slaves at $450 each..............$693,000 to 3%, per cent. per annum, while Massachusetts, with her great free negro thoroughfare of Boston, "I shall now strike one-fifth, or 20 per centum reaches no higherea tof n pution seven-eighthst f Stes peris rom the estimates of both the aggre reac hes incrigertanoseveihh ofponeperaio ino the Uiedstiates is bYork3h- pher cggenat.;ana cent. per in alt the rate ofver:2 per cent.. losses, reducing the former to $22,184,40, and the per annum, they would double every twenty-seven lyatter to $553,400; and (for good measure) casting ears, and it is but one quarter of one per cet e in e cnt. per into the account New-England's share ol liability VOL III. 9 129 SLAVERY NORTH AND SOUTH. to the South during the same period, for the like ag- gressions, and not less than five hu ndr ed sl aves, (valued at $225,000,) whom the North assists annually to escape to Canada. "Who are liable for the payment? Those who took the property —thoge who received it —those who kept it —those who gave it protection-and those who evaded or resisted its reclamation: The citizens of the free s tates are liable-the governments of those states are liable-or, in one comprehensive word, the North is liable. There is not a legal forum in Christendom, where such a claim, for such a cause, with equal proofs, between man eo and man, or nation and nation, would not be recog.tnited- ad enforced." and intelligent confrere, and have ever lamented that his services could not have been retained for the Review. Our best wishes are with him, however, in whatever field of usefulness he may be employed. On the 4th of July, 1776, domestic slavery existed in all the American colonies that declared independence of Great Britain. Of the thirteen original members of the confederacy, seven have abolished it. Nine slaveholding and eight non-slaveholding states have since been added to the Union. The following table shows the slave population in 1776: SLAVES.-DANGERS WHICHI SIHUN~en. -~dix Houston delivered, not long since, an address at Lexington, Miss., in which he reviewed the causes injuriousl y affecti ng t he prospects of the slave states, and concluded with a recapitulation, which, as the expression of the whole of a great matter in a nut-shell, we take the liberty of quoting: " 1st. From the abolition feeln ing in the North which thr eatens its destr uction, m anifested as follows: "2d. The exclusion of slavery from all the territories. " 3d. The abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, in the docks, navy yards, on the high seas, and in all plac es subjec t t o the legislation of Congress. " 4th. The opening of diplomatic relations with IHayti and Liberia. "5th. The Ebony line. "6th. The prohibition ofthe slave trade between the states. " 7th. Continual agitation, the formation of abolition societies, the union of the churches against slavery, and abduction of slaves from the border slaveholdirng states. " 8th. Nullification of the article of the Constitution providing lbr the surrender of the fugitive slaves. "9th. Receiving negroes as citizens in the nonslaveholding states, and claiming for them the rights of citizens in the slaveholding states, and the right to hold office under the General Government. " 10th. The colonization of Abolitionists in the border slaveholding states " 11 th. The seductions of the G eneral Government, vhich, by its wealth and patronage, bribes Southern members of Congress to betray their constituents. " 12th. Adverse legislation, and throwing the burdens of Government on the productions and labor of the South. " 13th. The enormous and vastly increasing expenditures of Government. " 14th. The expenses of defences against the Indians, exploring the country, surveying the Pacific coast, erecting light-houses, and supporting territorial governments in countries from which the South is excluded; which may, in the aggregate, be set down at no less than twenty millions of dollars per annum." 1. o iMa ssachusetts......................... 3,500 2. Rhode Island........................... 4,373 3. Connecticut............................ 6,000 4. New-Ifampshire....................... 629 5. New-York............................. 15,000 6. New-.Jersey............................ 7,600 7. Pennsylvania........................... 10,000 8. Delaware............................. 9,000 9. Maryland............................... 80,000 10. Virginia................................165,000 l11. North Carolina......................... 75,000 12. South Carolina.........................110,000 13. Georgia................................. 16,000 Total number of slaves in 1776........502,132 African slavery would have existed to this day in the northern states had it been sufficiently profitable; but as the climate was too cold for cotton, rice and sugar, slave labor was discarded-it did not pay. If concession be a merit, the South set an early example. She yielded two fifths of her slaves in 1787, in apportioning representatives; whilst the North retained every person of color within her limits, as a basis of power in Congress. This fact is an admission of property. What else could have induced the South to assent to this classification, or the North to claim the abatement, in the number of representatives, under the Federal Constitution? The subject produced much feeling between the two sections, and led to the first compromise in our political system. As to the propriety of slave labor, the North has no right to judge. She mnay cherish manufactures, run ships, cultivate o)rchards, or do whatever else she pleases within her own sphere, and the South says not a word; but when she turns champion of a false and misguided humanity, and takes upon herself the guardianship of the South, well may we resist the usurpation. For the last fifteen years we have protested in vain. From a few crazy memorials to Congress, abolition has swelled to its present hideous bulk. With Louisiana, we acquired from France in 1803, that immense region extending from the Mississippi to the Rio Grande, then a slave country. When Missouri applied for admission into the Union, in 1820, the North objected, because she recognized slavery in her constitution. This drew the line of 36 SLAVERY NORTH AND SOUTH. - We extract the following remarks from an address made a short time ago, in Macon county, Georgia, by our esteemed friend, Stephen F. Miller, Esq., a copy of which he has kindly sent us. 1The readers of the Review will perhaps remember Mr. Miller as having been associated a short time with us in the editorial department, where we found him a most laborious, active, untiring, 130 SLAVE TRADE, ETC. dtegrees 30 minutes, to quiet the troubled waters, and was the first exercise by Congress of the power to legislate on slavery under the constitution. After the treaty of 1819 with Spain, our western limits were greatly contracted. Beginning where Virginia and North Carolina connect on the Atlantic coast, and thence westward to the 100th degree of longitude, the Missouri parallel, crossing 25 degrees, formed the barrier to slavery in all states north of it and west of the Mississippi river. Since then we have added twenty-two degrees to the Pacific, making about 3,500 miles from ocean to ocean. For comparison I submit a statement, showing the relative strength of the North and South, in extent and population: FREE STATES. Sq. miles. Population., 1. Michigan................56,243........ 212,267 2. Illinois................. 55,405........ 476,183 3 Wisconsin..............53,924........ 30,945 4. Iowa 41.............50,914........ 43,112 5. Pennsylvania...... 47,000........ 1,724,033 6. New-York..............46,000........ 2,128,921 7. Ohio................... 39,964....... 1,519,467 8. Maine,0......... 6 m35,000.......p. 501,793 9. Indiana................ 33,809........ 685,866 l1O. New-tlampshire......... 8,030........ 284,574 11. Vermont................ 8,000........ 291,948 12. Massachusetts........... 7,250........ 737,699 13. New-Jersey............ 6,851........ 375,651 14. Connecticut............. 4,750........ 352,411 15. Rhode Island........... 1,200........ 108,830 Total.............. 454,340........ 9,783,710 7,560,000 a cre s in cultivation, worth $10.......................... $ 75,600,000 420o000 slaves in cotto fields, worth $600....................... 252,000,000 Capital invested in cotton......$32700,000,000 With the land and force here stated, the South is able to export annually 2,100,000 bales, worth $66,500,000-an interest of nearly 20 pe r cent. Out of this, however, expenses of every kind have to be paid, reducing the actual ga in prob ably to 8 per cent. This, we think, is about the medium of the cotton growing states. Perhaps it may slide as low as five per cent. Of course there are except ions; s ome planters realizing more a ths e s, and others less, accor ding to their skill and opp ortun ity. Besides the choice hands assigned to cotton, the remaining 2,000,000 of slaves in the South may be averaged at $400, making a total of $800,000,000 of that kind of prop erty employed otherwise. T he cotton mills, rail-roads, merchandize and shipping of the North may be mor tve, bu re productive, but are not equal in magnitude of value, or more essenti al to her well-being. In addition to cotton, two other important articles, produced exclusively by slave labor, ought to be mentioned-sugar and rice. These crops are of the annual value of $20,000,000, to say nothing of tobacco, worth $15,000,000 more, raised in slave states. Thus we have upwards of $100,000,000 annually, produced by slave labor, for market, exclusive of provisions. For nearly all this stupendous yield, and its multiplied exchanges, the North is the carrier, and commission merchant, levying enormous profits on the South. In case the Union is dissolved, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile and New-Orleans will be the importing marts for the South, instead of New-York and Boston. Manufactories are already established, and still rapidly advancing, in the South. Our neighboring city of Columbus is the future Lowell. As a mere question of profit and loss, which party will suffer most by disunion?-(See Negroes.) SLAVE STATES. Sq. mile,. Population. 1. Texas.................. 325,520........ 2. Missouri............... 67,380........ 383,702 3. Virginia................ 61,352.......1,239,797 4. Florida................ 59,268........ 54,477 5. Georgia................ 58,000........ 691,392 6. Arkansas............... 52,198........ 9,,574 7. Alabama............... 50,722........ 590,756 8. Mississippi............ 4,147..........7, 375,651 9. Louisiana.............. 46,431........ 373,306 10. North Carolina........ 45,509........ 753,419 11. Tennessee............. 44,00o........ 829,210 12. Kentucky.............. 37,680........ 779,828 13. South Carolina........ 28,000........ 594,398 14. Maryland.............. 11,000........ 470,019 15. Delaware.............. 2,120........ 78,085 Total................ 936,318........ 7,311,614 These tables include all persons whatever, white and black. Of the number in the South, 2,486,226 are slaves, according to the census of 1840. An enumeration is now in progress, which, we presume, will show an increase of about 30 per cent. in the entire population. Whilst conferring together on the blessings of the Union, let us briefly glance at our resources-that our adversary may take warning, as well from what he will lose, as from what we shall continue to possess, in the event of a dissolution. The cotton crop of the United States for the last ten years has averag,,ed 2,100,000 bales. To raise this quantity, let 500 pounds s T.A,&.-The recent hostile operations of the British on the coast of Guinea, which resulted in the destruction of the African town ot' Lagos, has given rise to special inquiries in the House of Commons respecting the present condition of the slave trade in Western Africa, the circumstances swhich led to the attack on Lagos, and the effect, good or lad, of maintaining a naval force on that coast for the suppression of the slave trade. These inquiries (says the Boston Courier) have brought out certain docurrmeunt from the British government, which contain 131 in seed to the acre, five bales to the hand, 450 pounds to the bale, and 7 cents per lb. be assumed in the estimate. We then have: SLAVE TRADE, ETC. banners flying amongst them. At some distance they halted, and the governor of the city, at the head of a few soldiers, advanced. When arrived irn front of our positions, he countermarched and made a circle from left to right three times round our seats, bowing each time when he came in front. On the last time he fired off a musket and danced before us; then, having shaken hands, he took a seat. The square in front of the palace, though extremely large, was densely crowded with armed men and women, squatted on their hams, their long Danish muskets standing up like a miniature forest, Banners abounded, those of the king being uniformly surmounted by a skull. This ghastly style ofornamenit appears to be particularly in request in Dahomey. The palace wall of red clay, standing about twenty-five feet high, extending over more than a square mile, was one continued line ofhuman skulls; yet it might be remarked that where decay had destroyed them, these ghastly ornaments were not replaced. On the thresholds and sides of the portals of the palace were also human skulls; but the practice of human sacrifice is fast vanishing from the kingdom of Dahomey." tsome very curious and interesting facts. We hall proceed to lay a f ew specimens before our readers: The first of these papers is a dispatch dated June 30, 184t), and addressed by Lord Palmerston to a Mr. Beecroft, conferring on that gentleman th e a ppoi ntm ent of Consul at certain places on the African coast, and instructing him to use every possible influence to induce the native kings or chiefs to exchange the slave trade for a more humane and profitable description of traffic. The British Secretary had already written to the Kin, of Da homey, to impress upon his nhjesty a knowledge of the fact that agriculture and commerce are more useful and advantageous than the stealing and selling of men, women, and children. The African monarch sent a reply, which furnishes in a striking manner the measure of his catpaci ty to jutdge of th e motives that induce the people of Christendom to interfere in matters relating to the slave trade, and which show, moreover, how little has been done to make the potentates of Western Africa view this question under a moral aspect: " The King of Dahomey presents his best compliments to the Queen of England. The presents which she has sent him are very acceptable, and are good for his face, When Governor Winiett visited the king, the king told him that he must consult his people before he could give a final answer about the slave trade. Ile cannot see that he and his people can do withort it. It is from the slave trade tiathe derives his principal revenue. This he has explained in a long palaver to Mir. Cruickshank. He begs the Queen of England to put a stop to the slave trade everywhere else, and allow him to continue it." Lieut. Forbes witnessed a specimen of des potic power which ill agrees with the concluding statement of the above passage. Ten persons of rank, who had given offence to the king, were led prisoners about the city, and compelled to dance, after which their heads were cut liff with large knives, in presence of the Buitish fiunctionary, and in spite of his entreaties and remotnstranices, The King of Dahomey has a regular cabi net; a Prime Minister, a Minister of Police, a Treasurer, a Minister (,f Justice, &c. He has eighteen thousand wives-if those who have counted them can be trusted-which we think rather doubtful. He has an army of Amazons, of which the following description is given: "The king then expressed a wish I should witness a review of female troops, and two regiments wiere at once paraded, but not before the ground was shifted and marked out for the manceuvring. The officers (females) were distinguished by arm lets of silver reaching from the wrist to the elbow, and carrying each a small whip. The whole were uniformly dressed in tunics of blue and white, armed with a musket, club, and short sword, carried cartouch-boxes, and went through several evolutions, skirmishing, firing volleys, &c., with much preci 26on." The letter concludes with another request of the king, from which it appears that this personage is shar-p-sighted enough to see that the prosperity of his subjects may prove dangeroustolhisdespoticpower. Many a king of Christendom has felt as awkwardly as the sovereign of Dahomey at seeing his people grow rich, without speaking his mind, so onestly as this sable monarch: " The king begs the queen to make a law that no ships be allowed to trade at any place near his dominions lower down the coast than Whydah, as, by measis of trading vessels, the people are getting rich, and resisting his authority. lie hopes the queen will send him some good tower guns and blunderbusses, and plenty of them, to enable him to make war. He also uses much cowries, and wvishes the queen's subjects to bring plenty of them to Whydah, to make trade. He wishes to see plenty of Englishmnen making trade at Whydah." In consequence of these negotiations, Lieut. Forbes, a British naval officer, was requested by the king to visit him at Abomey, his capital city. The following extracts from his inarrative will be read with a singular interest: "Having entered the gate of the city, which is ornamented with human skulls, and in the vicinity of the principal Fetish-house, lwte halted, and taking position in chairs across the road, waited for the ceremony of being met by the Cabooceers. In a short tinne an immense crowd advanced towards us, with The British officer treat ed hi s m ajesty to a basket of champagne, which was dispatched with great gusto at a dinner to which the former was invited. But the festivities were interrupted in an extraordinary manner: " After drinking ther majesty's health, the troops; hurrahed, and the salute commenced; but before it was half over we were obliged to scamper after the prime minister, and hide our faces against the vall, as a portion ofthe eighteen thousand royal wives were passing, ringing a small bell. These sable ladies are all over the town at all times, and no male may gaze on them unpunished." The King's wives are notable fighters, and when a slave hunt is undertaken they are sure to catch more than the same number of male troops. The scale of his operations may be estimated when we state, that in one expedition he captured no fewer than nineteentr-thousand men, women, and children. After sacrificinlg five hundred, he sold the rest for 182 SLAVE TRADE ON COAST OF AFRICA, SIERRA LEONE. 1840 to 1847, inclusive, was 249,800; the importation into the Spanish colonies, for the same period, was 52,027. According to the report of Mr. Westwood, acting consul at Rio Janeiro, there were in 1847, departures from that port of slavers- 11 under the Braztilian flag, 6 under the Portuguese, 15 under the American, 5 under the French, 3 under the Hamburgese-in all, 40; arrivals-4 unde r the Brazilian flag, 4 under the Portuguese, 15 under the American, 4 under the French, 1 under the Swedish, 3 under the Hamburgese-in all, 31. It is mainly by the use of the American flag that the pirates are enabled to baffle the vigilance of the British cruisers.,-See Ne,roe.. /SLAVE TRADE ON COAST OF . FRICA, SIER.RA LEOli.'-TherpR O-asettlements on t'iewst coast of Africa are, to the northward, Goree and Senegal, owned by the French; Bessao and Cacheco, by the Portuguese; Gambia, Bulama, and Sierra Leone, by the English, with Cape Coast, Prince's Island, and Fernando Po, to the south. The French do not export slaves across the Atlantic, although they tenaciously maintain domestic slavery in their settlements. On the contrary, the Portuguese in Bessao, Cacheco, and Cape Verde, carry on the traffic to a great extent under the flag of Brazil; as does Spain, also, preferring the Brazilian flag, which does not forfeit the vessel, and consequently remove it from the trade. The notorious slave-dealer, Governor Kitara, resides at Bessao; with him Pedro Blanco, Martinez of Gallinas, Felipe de Souza, called by the natives Char Char, of Lagos and Whydah. These are justly considered the most extensive dealers on the west coast, and their adventures frequently come under the surveillance of the Mixed Courts in Sierra Leone. To the southward of Bessao is the Nunez, situate on the river of the same name, and, under the dominion of the native chief, the Landewas, the resort of both French and English, whence are procured gold, ivory, wax, hides, coffee, and other productions; but in consequence of the frequent feuds among the chiefs, and incursions to the settlement for the object of plunder, the merchants have placed themselves under the protection of the British cruisers, which visit periodically. Rio Pongas, in the neighborhood of the Nunez, is almost exclusively engaged in the slave trade; consequently, legitimate commerce is little known there, nor is it the resort of any creditable merchant of the colonsy, as all mercantile operations there are of a very questionable character. From this place to Sierra Leone are the Isles de Los, Bogga country, from whence are procured exportation. His annual revenue from the sale of slaves is estimated at about ~60,000 a yrear. According to the latest accounts he had thrown off t he mask, and was laughing at t he credulity of the English, who had fancied that he would degrade himself by employing his Atnazonian body-guard in ti-e cultivation of cotton, or in any other peaceable pursuit. According to the testimony of Lieut. Forbes the permanent cessation of the slave trade is a thing hardly to be expected. No organized system is required fbr its support. It might be suspended for a century, and then renewed at a week's notice. The British, it seems, have no confidence in the pledges to abstain from the traffic given by the African chiefs; and, with this belief; it is not likely that their blockading squadroa will be withdrawn at P.resent. Averag~e casualties during the voyage Date Ann. aver. number exp. Per cent Amount 1798 to 1805........ 85,000...... 14........12,000 1805 to 1810........ 85,00 0........ 14........12,000 1810 to 1815........ 93,000.......14........13,000 1815 to 1817........ 106,000........ 25........26,600 1817 to 1819........106,000.......25........26,600 1819 to 1825....... 103,009........ 25........ 25,800 1825 to 1830........125,000........25........31,000 1830 to 1835........ 78,500.......25........ 19,600o 1835 to 1840.......135,810........25.......33,900 The following table shows the numbers (with the loss) exported from Africa to America, every year since 1840: Loss Years ~'umbe rs Per cent Amlount 1840................64,114.......2........ 1X,068 1841................ 43, 097........25........ 11,274 1842................28.400........25........ 7,100 1843................55,062........25........13,765 1844................54,102........25........ 13,525 1845................ 36,758........25........ 9,189 1846................76,117........25........ 19,029 1847................84,356........25........ 21,089 So it appears that the slave-trade was actively carried on in 1847, as from 1798 to 1810-while the casualties or loss attending the traffic had increased from 14 per cent. to 25, showing that while the vigorous means used to suppre ss th e traffic h ad failed of this end, they had aggravated its horrors. Brazil is the principal mart. The total number of slaves imported into Brazil, from 133 -SLAVTRADE OF AFRIC-,k.-The London Anti-s ry eporter publishes coPious extracts from recent parliamentary documents relatin,, to the African slavetrade, from which it appears that the traffic, after all the efl' rts which have been made to put it down bv force, has suffered little abaternent. According to the report of the SlaveTrade Committee, the average number of slaves, (with the per cent. amount of loss,) exported from Africa to America, were as follows, in the periods designated: 11 SOUTH CAROLINA-MINERALS FOR BUILDING PURPOSES, ETC. hides, wax, palm oil, small quantities of gold, groun d nuts, mats, gum, ivory, &c. WVe now come to the British colony of Sierra Leone, which merits particular attention from the solicitude with which the government has watched over it ever since its establishment. This colony was founded by the English in 1786, under the direction of Captain Tomson, of the navy, who took with him 400 distressed negroes from London, with about 60 whites, to prepare and cultivate that portion of the country which was ceded by King Tom for the purpose of colonization. This system, however, having soon failed, Messrs. Wilberforce, Thornton, and other intelligent persons, were induced to undertake the object upon a different system, justly reasoning that little benefit could be effected from the mere abolition of the slave trade, unless the natives were instructed in religion and the arts of civilization, which alone can render a people free. Instances have occurred of slave dealing in the colony by liberated Africans themselves, as in the case of the notorious Gibson, s entenced to five years in a chain gang, but who, through the cognizance of the driver, escaped to the Mandingo shor e, leaving th e driver to serve the sentence in his place. Other cases of Mohammedans, Mandingoes, and Foulahs or Timannees, residents in the colony, are established, who have inveigled liberated African boys or children out of the colony and sold them in the interior. Cooper Thompson reports from Teenmbo that he there found a family so disposed of, and had resided for many years, but was ultimately liberated by King Alimamlnee Foodi Bocarri. Cummings, a liberated African, on more occasions than one. has had bills presented to the grand jury against him for slave dealing; also a Mandigo, named Dowdah; but, from the manner in which the evidences are trained by the people in the interior, conviction is difficult, yet many have been punished severely. Aiding and abetting in the traffic is more than suspected. The purchasing of condemned slave vessels is a source of no inconsiderable profit, and of moment to the British merchant of the colony, sold as they are at a very low rate by the commissioner of appraisement and sale to the courts, and then re-sold to the Brazilian or Spaniard for double or treble the amount. In this way one of the most extensive merchants in the colony finds it not the worst part of mercantile speculations. It is scarcely credible that women should have connected themselves with this speculation, as buyers, sellers, and kidnappers, among whom, one of the most notorious, was the infamously-famed Donna Maria de Cruz, daughter of the dreadful Gomez, governor of Prince's Island. This disgrace to her sex, among other vessels captured by the British had the " Maria Pequena," seized by the ' Victor," sloop. The burthen of this slaver was but five tons-yet, besides her crew, provisions, water, and other stores, she had taken on board twenty-six slaves, who were found stowed away, but with less care than so many flitches of bacon, between the watercasks and the deck, a space of only eighteen inches inches in height. Six of the creatures were dead, and the rest in a state of starvation. SOUTH CAROLIN A.-MINERA,GS FO-R BUILDING PURPOSES, ETC.'-Building Materials.-It is owing to the difference in the facilities for transportation, that the granite, marble and flag-stone of Massachusetts and Connecticut are better known in Charleston and other cities, than those of the state, Inotwithstanding the abundance and quality of the latter. In choosing building materials, strength and resistance to external agents are among the principal requisites. For strength, granite stands high in the scale of building materials. Its tendency to decay may be ascertained where it has been exposed to the weather sfor a long time. If the feispar in a fresh fracture appears dull, and the rock is found to absorb moisture, or to contain much iron pyrites, it should be rejected, although otherwise it may present but little signs of decay. The fine-graitied granite of uniform appearance and structure is generally to be preferred where strength and durability are prominent objects. The granites and sienite around Columbia are of this character. Among the beautiful granites of the state, the perphyritic granite of Camden and Buffalo creek, and the red granite, near Columbia, are conspicuous. Of the siet)ites, those found in Abbeville, Fairfield and Lexington, are the most beautiful. The former resembles the Quincy granite, and the latter is remarkable for its white felspar, contrasting so strikingly with the black crystals of hornblende. The white and variegated marbles of Spartanburg and Lanrens, form excellent materials for building and ornamental purposes. When quarries are opened on the Saluda, it is probable, from the bands of actynolite running through the beds, that some handsome slabs may be procured. Flagging Stones.-Gneiss, besides furnishing an excellent building stone, is often sufficiently slaty in its structure to allow being split into slabs. A fine quarry of this sort is open in Pickens. In the lower part o'f York, g neiss is found having a similar st ructure; it passes into mica slate, which presents every 134 I TuQmey. SOUTH CAROLINA STATISTICS. appearance of making an excellent flagging stone. As this locality is very near the Catawba, a trial might be made of it in flaggingr the walks in front of the state-house. The mica slate found iu Fairfield is equally promising. Fire Stones.-Stones, useful for this purpose, must not only be infusible, but must have no tendency to crack or exfoliate. At the iron works, quartz rock is preferred for hearth stones and other similar purposes. As this rock frequently passes into compact or common quartz, and is then entirely useless, it should be remembered that the more arrenaceous the rock is, the better, the slight cohesion of the particles allowing expansion withou-t cracking or exfoliation. It should be free from iron Mica slates make good fire stones, when free from' garnets anid iron. Soap Stone.-This exceeding useful rock is of very fine quality, at some of the localities enumerated. The ease with which it can be shaped, added to its strength and refractory qualities, make it one of the most valuable of fire stones. For this purpose the solter varieties should always be chosen, and not those that contain quartz. A variety of this rock passing into chlorite, may be seen formed into tablets itn many of the churchyards in the upper part of the state. Porcelain Earth.-This material abounds through the primary regions, wherever the felspathic graniite is found in a state of disilltegratioti. ILocalities are so well known as "chalk-hills," that they need not be enumerated. A long-known locality occurs above Pendleton, and along the base of the mountaitis in Piclkens it is seen in several places; in Greenville, neat where the Pendleton road crosses the Salu(la; and in Abbeville, near the village, a remarkable locality was pointed out to me by Mr. Speirinr. This deposit is the result of the decomposition of eurite. A similar deposit is found near Cherokee ford, where it is used as a fire clay; and it is seen again on Mr. Hardint's land, on the branches of King's creek. But the finest exposures of this earth are found in the diluvium. As there is no hope at present of a manutactory of porcelain in the state, this earth will be found an excellent material for fire bricks. When it is found in beds in the diluvium, it is so verye fine that coarse sand must be mixed with it. But where it is found in p lace, it generally oontains quartz in sufficient quantity. Comnmon pottery i s mu ch i mprov e d, both in quality and appearan ce, by the addition of this earth, an d f rom its abundance, were a little more taste and ski ll combined in the matnufaicture, the pottery of this state would be unrivalled. A good,material for glazing pottery will be found in the undecomposed felspar of the granites, where it abounds; it shouldt be ground with borax, and brought ~o a proper consistency by adding water. Glas s Making.-Th e p ure white sand of the qu artz ro ck, a s well as that resulting from the de composition of the horrstone at Brewer's mine, would a n swer well foir the manuifacture of glass. TBte Pyritifeross Slate at Hale's mine, and at the Cowpeos, are covered with a white efflores cence of sta lphate of iron. At the former locality, the quantity o f s late thrown out from the mine, is sufficient t o justify anr attempt to manufacture copperas from it. Paints.-Red and yellow ochres abound i n Chesterfield district, of very fine quality, yet they seem scarcely to be used, even fbr domaestic purposes. All the preparat io n they need is s impl y g rinding. Whet Stones. —There are many localities where the niicaceous and talco-micaceous slates would answer well for whetstones. A noted locality occurs in York, and another at Ewbanik's, near Brewer's mine, in Chesterfield, and in the upper part of Lancaster. There are many others that I had no opportuniity of examining. Coal.-A glance at the table exhibiting the rocks of the state, will show at once that there is no possibility of the occurrence of coal-the immense series of rock which include the coal formation, between the clay slate arid the new red sandstone, being entirely wanting. Even this negative information, should it lead to greater economy in the use of fuel, particularly at the iron works, would not be useless. The geologists of England are cautioning their countrymen against the wilful destr uction of coal at home, and its unlimited exportation to foreign countries, for her coal beds, though immense, are not inexhaustible. The preservation of the forests in the mining districts of thie state cannot be too strenuously urged upon the owners of the land in those districts. The geologist who would close a report on the minerals and mines of the state, without adverting to the frighttftlf disregard of the future every where evident, would discharge his duty b,et indifferently. If al individual opens a limestone quarry, he supplies himself tfrom the surface of the bed, throws back the refuse and superincumbent earth, to be removed by some one else, or perhaps by himself. A gold mine is destroyed that a rich vein may be followed which offers immediate profit, and the stirface of the beds of iron ore is skimmed over to the destruction of the underlying beds, because a few tons can be obtained at a cheaper rate. Siuch a course as this needs no argument to point out its ruinous consequencees. 135 SOUI'H CAROLINA STATISTICS.-In the following table is exhibited, first, the total population of South Carol.iua, at P,3ch 136 SOUTH CAROLINA-CAPABILITIES, TERRITORY, CLIMATE, ETC. census taken by the United States; second, States census returns. The two last columns the slave population; thirdly, the number of exhibit the population, according to the state representatives in Congress for each decen- census, which is always one year in advance nial period; fourthly, the number of free of the federal reckoning: colored persons, all according to the United STATE CENSUS. Years Total Slaves Rep's Free eol'd White Slaves 1790................... 249,073........107,094........6......1,801............ - 1800...................345,591........146,151........8......,185................]1810....................415,115........196,365........9......4,554.......217,842........196,165 1820...................502,741........258,475........9......6,826.......231,828....... 235,219 1830....................581,185........315,401.............7,921........250,943........ 9. 7921........250,943........285,439 1840....................594,398........327,038...... 7......7......8,276..257,117.......298,115 1850.................... -................................. 280,385........358,714 WVhile the woods abound in game, including the deer and turkey, the ocean which leaves her southern border, and the numerous streams, both salt and fresh, that penetrate every part of her surface, yield almost every variety of the choicest fish. In relation to medicinal and culinary plants, her catalogue is large. To tobacco, indigo* and hemp, which on ce wer e st ap le commod ities; fruits and esculent vegetables that everywhere meet the eye, and othe r productions which minister to the comfor t or n e cessit ies of her people, it is needless, in this place especially, to dire ct your notice. So rema rkable, inndeed, is her topographical condition, that whealt and the sugar-cane grow profitably side by si de; a nd the orange and the o li ve ripens under the providen t c are of th e sam e family of cultivators, who extract t he saccharin e matter of the maple, but essay in va in to se cure the maturity of the native corn of America.t To comprehend this subject in all its relati ons a more detai led examin at ion is necessary. 1. South Carolina is most favorably situated,~ not o nly wit h regard to the sta tes o f the Union, but to the other portions of the rlobe. Mid way between the frozen regionsl of the north anthe nrad he burning heals o f the tropics, in her climate, seasons and pro duc - tions, it has been justly represented that she enjoys most of the advantages of all. If' we except tropical fi'uits, to which frost is fatal, her capacity successfully to rear all the grains, fruits and esculent roots, which enrich more southern countries, is nearly certain. Her latitude for cotton enjoys all extraordinary advantage. Much further south, the forcing nature of a vertical sun develops the plant too rapidly, thereby rutnning it into weed and * Except in Orangeburg, where it is still a source of profit to a few planters, indigo is nowhere grown in South Carolina. That it is not inferior to that of India, has, I understand, been recently proved. tt Wheat is cultivated in the state, with advantage, as low as N. L. 32~ 30'. t From bleak, cold winds, the northern side of the glassy mountains, it is said, will not produce maize. r Between 32~ 4' 30" and 35~ 12' north latitude, and 1~ 30' and 6~ 54' west longitude fromn the capitol at Washington; or 78~ 25' and 851 49' west longitude from Greenlwick. Slaves are not enumerated in our state census, but the numbers above set down are taken from the report of the ControllerGeneral, founded on the tax returns of the state. In the United States census, slaves are enumerated for the purpose of representation. SOUTH CAROLINA-AGRICULTURAL AND PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES OF; TERRITORY; CLIMATE; SOILS; SWVAMPS; NAVIGATION; HEALTH; NATURAL MANURES; MINERALS; AGRICULTURE; PRODUcTs.*-What, then, are the agricultural capabilities of South Caroliilna? In richness, variety and abundance, perhaps no part of the habitable globe, of the same territorial extent, exceeds them. Of the four great materials for human clothingcotton, wool, silkt and flaxt-her climate and soil are peculiarly adapted to the first three, and, in locations, to the last. Ofthe prominent articles of food, she produces rice, wheat, Indian c orn, oats, rye, barley, sweet and Irish potatoes, and the different varieties of the pea tribe. For the habitation of man, the earth, her granaries and forests, furnish an inexhaustible supply. Iron, so essential to the wants of every class in society, is superior in quality, it has been ascertained, to any found in the country. Gold, not too abundant to divert from other and more profitable pursuits, but an inconsiderable amount of capital, excites the enterprise and rewards the labor ofea portion of our citizens. In other minerals. hereafter to be noticed, she is neither deficient in quantity nor value. * We are obliged to Gov. Seabrook for his most able and elaborate essay upon the agricultural capacities of South Carolina, and the means of improving them-" prepared at the request of the State Agricultural Society." From this essay, we make such extracts as appear above, and regret space will not admit of more. Governor Seabrook passes in review the whole duty of the state and its citizens, in regard to public wealth. He is particularly excellent in the discussion of " agricultural societies" —" the pine lands" —" reclamation of swamps"-" deep plowing"-" drainages"-" manure"-" peat"-', sheep-walks"-" the grasses""rotation of crops"-" the cow pea," &Sc. t In 1759, South Carolina exported 10,000 lbs. of r aw silk. t Linam Vir nicum, or Virginia flax, is an indigenous plant, and of the same family with lin,4z?t wsitatissimtium, or common flax. SOUTH CAROLINA-CAPABILITIES, TERRITORY, CLIMATE, ETC. foliage;-it is, from the same cause, most exposed to the ravages of the caterpillar and other insects. Further north, the season is too short to mature an abundant crop of balls, while the staple deg enerates, and b ecom es l ess valuable. From the Sea Islands, the b est cotton known to commerce is exported. So cir cumscril)ed are the limits in which it can be grown, tha t a half degree (32s 10' to 32~ 40' nor th la titude) of the s ea-coast of North America, seems to be the p recise point where the length, strength and fir mne ss of the fibre are most hap pily bl ended. In reference to rice, our state enjoys almost a monopoly. 2. South Carolina includes 30,213 square miles, or 19,435,680 acres. Of this area. there is as little land in one body, the highest authorities' assure us, insusceptible of remuuer ating culture, as the United States call furnish. Undistinguished by mountains, with their agricultural disadvantages, it is worthy of remark that the spurs that make out from the great range which separates the waters falling into the Atlantic Ocean and into the Gulf of Mexico, are capable of profitable tillage to their very summits. 3. As a difference of twelve degrees of latitude exists between the western and eastern hemispheres, the countries oftlie latter which are subject to the same atmospherical influences with South Carolina, comprise the most delightful and fruit-bearing portions of France, Italy, Turkey in Europe, Russia, Tartary, and China. 4. Between the primitive and alluvial formations, the state is nearly equally divided. The soils, though of every kind, may be said to comprehend six varieties,t each the best suited to a certain crop, yet all of them capable of advantageously producing threefourths of the vegetable products grown in its limits. While local differences are every where observable, the surface and soil of the upper districts present a great similarity; and this is equally true of the lower country. In the former, the lands are broken and hilly; in the latter, level; oak is the natural growth of the one; pine of the other. Clay is the soil of much the larger portion of the state; and, except in the immediate vicinity of the ocean, is almost the universal substratum. A close, stiff land predominates generally in the parishes, and an open sand on the Sea Islands. The high lands of the country, above the falls of the rivers, are naturally much superior to those of the pine-covered region, but the alluvial bottoms of the former are greatly surpassed in richness by the river swamps of the latter. In its capacity for permanent improvement, the granite half of the state has been more highly favored by nature than the alluvial. This is mainly ascribable to the open texture, permeable to water, of its clayey subsoil, and the potash in the soil and subsoil formed by the decomposition of the felspar and mica of the granite. In a few localities, however, the depth of the substratum and its proximity to the surface, offer serious obstacles to its higher productions. These, among other causes, seem yet to be operating against the cultivation of perhaps the greater part of those peculiar soils known as the "Flat Woods" of Abbeville; those in the neighborhood of Dutchman's Creek and Wateree Creek in Fairfield; and the Black Jack lands of Chester. Deriving their fertility from the hornblende* disintegrated rocks which lie below the close clay subsoil, it would appear that steady industry, incited and directed by ordinary skill, was alone wanting to preserve and perpetuate the uncommon productiveness, which, in spite of lolg-continued and improvident tillage, still distinguishes these remarkable tracts of land. In reference to the soils of the primitive country, to one more peculiarity only, shall I now advert. Where the rocks lie horizontally, it is known that the soils derived from clay states frequently suffer from the impenetrable nature of the subsoil and the position of the underlying rocks. In the regions to which they are confined in this state, the y "are all highly inclined, presenting their edges to the surface and allowing the water to percolate between the strata." 5. The swamps, covering 2,000 square miles of land of inexhaustible fertility, are capable of thorough and economical drainage, and conversion into active and available capital. The pine lands, embracing about 6,000,000 of acres, constitute the most neglected section of the state. While in some quarters, they are erroneously regarded as valuable only for the abundance and quality of their timber, in others, the belief is equally unsound, that their productive capacity is limited to plants which flourish solely in a thin and feeble soil. That, in all its relations, it is a district of country of immeasurable value to our community, will hereafter be attempted to be shown. 6. South Carolina is most bountifully supplied with water. The base of her triangular form is washed byfthe ocean, and one of her lateral sides rests on a river accessible to vessels more than one-half its * Messrs. Ruffin and Tuomy, late agricultural surveyors of the state. t 1. Tide swamp, now appropriated to the culture of rice; 2, inland swamp, to rice, cotton, corn, peas, &c.; 3, salt marsh, to long cotton; 4, oak and pine, to long cotton, corn, potatoes, &c.; 5, oak and hickory, to short cotton, corn, &c.; 6, pine barren, to fruits, vegetables, &c. * Ilornblende contains about 12 per cent. of lime, and about 30 per cent. of iroin. 137 138 SOUTH CAROLINA-CAPABILITIES, TERRITORY, CLIMATE, ETC. lengthl, and small boats 100 miles beyond. mourning, the people of Abbeville, Union, Many bold and navigable streams, with Chester, and York, it is supposed that the numerous tributaries coursing through her planters of those districts are competent to territory in every direction, disembogue into the diminution of the sources whence they the Atlantic at distances from each other the spring. It is not unworthy of especial re most suitable for the purposes of intercom- mark, that the atmosphere of the swamps munication and traffic. Before reaching the and marshes, so poisonous to the white man, point where all traces of their distinctive is at all times innocuous to his slave. If it character are lost for ever, by united contri- were not for this merciful provision of an butions, they form a bold channel between all-wise Being, the alluvial region of South the main land and the Sea Islands the entire Carolina, in the immediate vicinity of its width of the state. Apart from the creeks water courses, would soon become a dreary and inlets of the sea, there is now an inland waste, and tenanted only by the beasts of navigation equal to about 2,400 miles. the forest. 7. Greenville is the only division of our Of the cities of the Union, Charleston, domain without the benefit of navigation. and, it may be added, Columbia, show a In all the districts, however, water courses lower mortality among their-acclimated inhaabound, which afford remarkably eligible bitants than any others. With regard to the sites for mills. The rocks cross the streams former, the number of deaths from all fevers nearly at right angles, and hence form a (the epidemic of the state), except from series of natural dams across their beds, and yellow fever, for the last eighteen years, is make falls that vary from five to eighty feet 656, and in any one year 81, in a population in comparatively short distances. In per- of between 30 and 40,000. From yellow haps no equal extent of territory are there fever, which has prevailed as an epidemic so many advantages of this sort presented. but twice in twenty-two years, for the same In connection with this subject it is proper period, the aggregate number of deaths is to add, that the metropolis of the state is 646. The average mortality for the last six only seven miles from the ocean; that its years, all classes included, is 1 in51; blacks harbor is spacious, well protected from alone,* 1 in 44; white alone, 1 in 58.t storms, and at all times accessible. 9. The natural means of resuscitating the 8. Surprising to many as may be the de- soil are abundant, and widely diffused. A claration, South Carolina, in reference to large portion of the lower country shows exher whole population, is a very healthy haustless beds of the richest marl. Limecountry, and by no means a sickly one with stone, though obtainable only in York, regard to her white inhabitants. Ifthe allu- Spartanburg, Laurens, and Pickens, exists vial region, and a few of the middle districts in such quantities in the first two districts, are subject to fevers in summer, the whole that, by railway communications, the entire state in winter is comparatively exempt from primitive region will, at no distant day, be the diseases to which more northern climes furnished with this earth, so essential to are peculiarly liable. The assertion, too, is the nutrition and development of plants. with entire confidence made, that, even While the seashore parishes possess unfailduring the hot months, in perhaps one-half ing supplies of salt mud, salt grass, and of her limits, foreigners may reside not only shell limne, two-thirds of the state are most with impunity, but with renovated constitu- amply furnished with swamp mud and peat. tions. In the neighborhood of every locality in which mephitic exhalations show the In Charleston," says De Bows Review of .. > l.,. ~~~~* " In Charleston," says De Bow's Review of fatality of their power, there are sites for May, 1847, "the mortality under 5 years is 31 per settlements where vigorous health, under cent.; in Boston it is 46. There are more deaths in the ordinary safeguards, is always secured. Philadelphia, from all fevers, including typhus and The entire sand-ill country and pine l malarial, than from all fevers in Charleston, includThe- entire sand-hiill country and pine lands ing yellow fever. From 1820 to 1830, in Philadelgenerally, as well as our towns and villages, phia, the deaths from fevers were thirteen and fivefurnish the most signal evidence ofthe salu- tenths per ceut. on all the deaths. In Charleston of teramshrcifune Itmyfor the last eighteen years, including two epidemics, brity of their atmospheric influence. It may the average mortality from fevers was eleven and here be appropriately observed that, while four-tentbs; leaving out yellow fever, which attacks from causes, several of which are among the almost exclusively strangers, the mortality from arcana of nature, the lower division is be- other fevers will not be found to exceed seven per comin c gradually but steadily healthier a t. coming gradually but s y hlt It appears from tables futrnished a writer in the portion of the middle zone is decidedly more Commercial Review, by Dr. G. Emerson, that the liable to maladies of a fatal character. If a average mortality in Philadelphia, among the colored better system of drainageo and other improve- population, from 1821 to 1840, inclusive, was one in ments in the cultivation of the ground do twenty-six; in Charleston, we know that for that ments in the cultivation of the ground, do time it was one in fbrty-four. In Boston the average not satisfactorily account for the one, certain mortality, it is said, (see writer in Boston Medical agricultural practices are perhaps sufficient and Surgical Journal, November, 1842,) is one in to explain the other. For the diseases which fifteen. Why, in reference to the colored popula o x plinhethe.. r thion, have vital statistics ceased to be published at occasionally clothe, in the habiliments of the North? 1Let the abolitionists answer. SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. exceed 2,000,000, or about one-tenth of her arable lands. 12. Taking the census of 1840 as a basis of calculation, South Carolina produces, communibus annis: Cotton.............................lbs. 61,710,274 Rice.......... 60,590,861 Sugar................................. 30,000 Wheat.................................. 968,354 Oats............................... 1,486,208 Indian corn.............................14,722,805 Rye..................................... 44,738 Tobacco............................... 51,519 Wool................................ 299,170 Tons of hay.............................. 24,618 Potatoes......................... 2,698,313 Silk cocoons............................ 2,080 Barley, buckwheat, hops, and wax....... 19,989 Value of lumber produce................. $537,684 Barrels of tar, pitch, turpentine and resin 735 If we divide their income, about $31,000,000, by the whole population, 594,398, the share of each is $52; of the white population alone $119. Of rice, wheat and potatoes, the quantity per head is 108 lbs.; if one-half of the amount of Indian corn be added, the quantity of bread food per head, omitting inferior productions, is 120 lbs. Of cotton and wool, the share to each inhabitant is 104 lbs. If the white population be divided into families of 4, (64,777,) there will be of horses and mules, 2 to each; of meat cattle, 8,4; of sheep, 3M, and of swine, 133. In reference to the whole population, the proportion of each, in meat cattle, sheep and hogs, is about 2y,. Supposing threefourths of the white families (48,582) to be engaged in agriculture, and that 2,000,000 of acres are in cultivation, each family tills 41 acres, and realizes $476, or $11 60 an acre. 10. Of minerals and the primitive rocks, the number of the former is' 28; of the latter, 9. 11. The botany of the state consists of about 3,000 species of plants; of these, 2,000 are flowering, and 1,000 unprovided with flowers as parts of their organs of fructification. In relation to the former, about 65 are naturalized; that is, foreig,n plants, introduced and now growing wild. There are about 150 grasses, of which 15 are natives; 30 species of esculent, (for man,) of which 3 or 4 are naturalized; and about 70 more used in medicine, agriculture and the arts, of which five or six are naturalized. 12. As a member of the Union, South Carolina in population occupies the eleventh rank; in territorial extent, the twenty-second; in the value of her agricultural exports, the fifth; in the value of the goods, wares and merchandise of the growth, produce and manufacture of the United States,* the thirteenth. The very large contribution of this state to the national wealth, which is determined bv the amount and value of her domestic exports, and not her imports,t comes, too, from a limited part of her soil. The estimated number of acres in cultivation in 1820, was 1,221,000; at present it does not 1820........... $8,690,539 1821.......... 6,867,515 18 22........... 7,136,366 1823........... 6,671,998 1824........... 7,833,713 1825......... 10,876,475 1826..........7,468,966 1827........... 8,189,496 182 8........... 6,508,570 18 29........... 8,134,676 1830........... 7,580,821 1831........... 6,528,605 1832........... 7,685,833 1833........... 8,337,512 SAVANNAH, GEORGIA.-Our immediate object ill this article is to institute a brief inquiry into the present condition of the trade of the city of Savannah; to examine some of its peculiar advantages for a general and flourishing commerce, both foreign and domestic; to survey for a moment those rich portions of country that in all probability will ere long become tributary to her commercial greatness; also to cast a glance over those nlumerous avenues and intersections that already in their downward course to the ocean are seekinig a resting-place in Savannah. This city may claim for itself that happy medium of climate-that juste milieu of tem perature that quickens without enervatingthat enjoys the crescive power of the tropical regions, without their noxious influences. Situated on the thirty-second parallel of north latitude, and eighlty-one degrees west from Greenwich, it enjoys a winter climate which, for softness and genial comfort, is unsurpassed itf not unequaled. Its proximity to the Atlantic (distant but seventeeni miles,) brings it within the reach of the refreshing sea-breezes, which temper the fervors of a summer solstice with a renovating coolness. The value of the exp o rt s from 1840 to 1847 inclusive, has been furnished by the Hon. W. J. Grayson; the information for the previous years is extracted from De Bow's Commercial Review. 1834................. $467,000 1835.................. 464,000 of1836........... t 701,000 y year ofspeculation t.r of,1841..$11. and high pri ces. 1837.................. 474,000 1838.................. 590,000 1839................... 640,000 year of high prices. 1842.................. 300,000 1843.................. 340,000 1844.................. 490,000 1845...................q90,000 1846.................. 280,000 1847.................. 387,000 The years 1840 and 1841, remarks the Hon. W. J. Grayson, (collector,) are omitted, the record in the office being incomplete. The first and second quarters of 1840 amounted to $192,000, and the last quarter of 1841 to $116,000. 139 ' EXPOITTED FROM CHARLESTON IN 1834......... $11,119,565 1835.......... 11,224,298 1836.......... 13,482,757 1837......... 11,138,992 1838.......... 11,017,391 1839.......... 10,318,822 1840.......... 8,990,048 1841.......... 8,598,257 1842.......... 8,091,542 1843.......... 7,010,631 1844.......... 8,578,515 1845.......... 8,366,250 1846.......... 8,284,405 1847.......... 7,783,038 t DUTIES RECEIVED IN CHARLESTON FOR THE YEARS SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. and is now universally allowed to be as healthy a city as any in the United States. The graver portion of our prescribed task remains to be considered, namely, tile advantages that Savannah presents to the man of business, the man of unappropriated capital, seeking for its most profitable investmentthe young man of enterprise, rich in stores of industry and knowledge of business, looking anxiously around him for a location in which he may bring forth his talents and his industry to best purpose, the sturdy mechanic with his ever ready hand, watching for a place where his labor may be remunerated with a comfortable subsistence; and we have not yet named the ship-owner, we have reserved him auntil now purposely, for he is an important item in our account. The immense amount of produce that is booked in the page of humal certainties to find an exit through Savannah to some market by water, either foreign or domestic, must with a moral certainty invite to this port the unemployed ships of the North, and that is saying a good deal; for the North have a greater propensity for building ships than we have for their employment. Our pine forests gradually disappear, they flo a t away North, they are re-edified, they re-ei thy r turn to us in th e f orm of st ately ships. That gigantic t re e th at the persevering cutter ha s with so much labor " tottled from its base," and brought to our market-t-th at mialt y tree, " meet for the mast of some t al l admiral," has vanished, and where is it? It is in yonder floating structure; it ha s regaine d its original an d dignified perpendicularity; it is the mast of a s hip of one tan thousand tons; it has come to assist in transporting our produ ace to a fo reign market. Thus our own children labor f or us; t hus our o wn pr oducts assist us to export our own products. The position of Savannah in rel ati o n t o other and surrounding states is a mark of nat ure's favor, and must in time plae a her high in the scale of commercial eminence. Florida, on the south, with hersa w s ha llo w st reams and incompet ent harbors, c annot choose but seek, through her valuable inland passages from Savannah. a larger portion of her foreign trade. The rail-roads commencing at Savannah, and re achi ng on to the west for the space of three hund red a nd e ighty-thre e miles, traver sing regions of e ndless va rie ty of products, will soon attain to the Coosa and Tennessee rivers, a distance of four hundred and thirty miles, uninterrupted except by a single portage of inconsiderable lenglh, at Macon; and this link will doubtless be supplied ere long, and one vast chain stretch its formidable and fruitfiul length from the waters of the Tennessee to the waves of the Atlantic. The same point, viz., the Tennessee River, is reached by another element and other regions, untouched by the first line, find all easy and practicable channlel for their tradle by the means of the Savannah River to the city of The Savannah River admits vessels drawing fourteen and a half tfeet of water to the wharves of the city; and it is but seldom now, in this age of improved models, that any freightitig ship, at least of American structure, is compelled from want of water to stop short of the city. When thisis the case, however, ( a nd this happens more fr equently with foreign ships than our own,) Four Mile Point offers a safe and commodious anchorage, where vessels of almost any draught may load and unload. The water of the river at this point is still fresh and fit for all alimentary Urposes. That destructive marine insect so fatal to vessels in salt and brackish water, the sea-worm, so called, is unknown in this river and should it have gained a lodgment in the bottom of a vessel previous to her entrance into these waters, a very short time is only necessary for the fresh water to destroy them. At this point, also, ships take in their water at low tide for their voyage. The Savannah is navigable for the most part of the year for steamboats of moderate draught to Augusta, two hundred and forty miles above the city of Savannah. The early history of Georgia shows that Savannah was then counted a place remarkable for its healthy location. Built upon a bluff of pure sand forty feet above the level of the river, it seemed for a series of years to have enjoyed a singular and happy immunity from all acute and fatal diseases. We read in the early annals of its settlement, that it was resorted to by invalids and men of leisure during the hot summer months, both for health and pleasure. In process of time, however, as population increased, antd agriculture and the clearing of the lands in the neighborhood of the city progressed apace, mephitic and unhealthy influences were developed, and Savannah lost caste {or a while, but only for a while, as a healthy city. When it is remembered, that with the influx of foreign population, ill adapted, from exotic constitutions and frequently from lax habits, to the warm climate of this parallel of latitude, came in also de. bilitating and often fatal diseases, it may well be questioned whether its ill health arose so much from local as from imported causes. Time and circumstances, however, have wrought another change, and what with the draining of contiguous lands and judicious municipal regulations, and the introduction of a better style of living both as to houses and food, and the greater adaptation of system to climate, and the gradual exhaustion of those deleterious influences brought into existence by the original turning up of the soil, exposure by the cutting down the sheltering forests from around the city; what with these causes, we say, and what with the perpetual though gradual, constant,though al most imperceptible rotation of all climates and temperatures, Savannah has again put forth her pretensions, 140 SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. Augusta, two hundred and forty miles; steam again takes up the line of march from the lat ter point for three hundred miles, to the Tein nessee. The citizens oft that state, no longer idle spectators of these efforts of their brethren of Georgia, are arousing themselves to the work, and give good promise of taking up the line where Georgia has left it, and carry img it to their capital. Pursuing this route, we arrive at the banks of the Cumberland, and following its course we are conducted to the flourishing city of St. Louis, but twenty miles below the mouth of the Missouri, and thus obtain in the valley of the great West the prize for which the Atlantic states are con tending with so much industry and perseve rance. RIeturning once more to Savannah, we ascend the Central Rail-road throughout its whole length, one hundred and ninety miles, and passing up the Macon and Western road, a distance of forty miles, we come to Barnesville, a point whence the most important road in the southern country must inevitably branch, and thus conduct the great tide of southwestern travel to a point from which Savannah is the nearest Atlantic city,-this latter road reaching Columbus lays open to the same favored emporium the rich cotton regions of Alabama. That this splendid work, when completed in all its branches. will draw naturally into the same current a large portion of the trade of North Alabama, North Mississippi, East Tennessee, and part of West Tennessee, can scarcely be doubted by him who has a map of the country before him and is capable of tracing the various routes and roads upon it, and observing their connection, and to that capacity adds the important acqui - sition of experience in the past operation of similar causes. What Savannah has so longbeen contented to forego for want of facilities of transportation, must inevitably be hers when the great line of road communication is completed. And so pressinig and powerful is the impetus of a mighty and growing trade in all these regions through which we have conducted the reader, that the result is inevitable; no possible state of things or chain of circumstances, however adverse, can delay it long. Again, Savannah puts forth her feelers through the waters of the Ocmulgee' to a point on that inoble stream where terminates the already graded rail-road fiom Albany. near the centre of the great cotton region m)f Georgia, a region based on the immense shell, lime and marl formation which runs through so great a portion of the southern states. Ala,ether route of equal importance, and promising equal if not greater advantages to Savannah, is one already much talked of and by many much desired, and one which at some period not very distant, must in the very nature of things be constructed;-we mean the natural and direct continuation of the Central R ai-road from Macon to Columbus. It is easy to foresee th e consequences of such a route to Savana, annahd difficult to perceiv e the v ast local interests that are naturally en-s listed in favor of thi s route o ver all others, for a crossing of the s tate o f Geor gia. Such a route, when completed, can result in but one consequence, namely, that of rendering the whole country between the Ocmulgee, Flint and Chatahoochee rivers, the natural allies and tributa ries to the trade of the Atlantic city of Georgia. From this irregular and des u ltory sketch w e perceive the vast pro spe ctive tra de o f Savannah; we view our hundred rail-roads, for we must call those roads hers that conduct a mighty stream of commerce to her bosom; we see her navigable and swiftflowing rivers, whose downward water bears the treasures of three fertile states to her wharves. From the unfinished and somewhat undetermined condition of the various lines of internal improvement in the several states of which we have been speaking, it will readily be seen that no very exact calculation can be made as to the period when they shall, as one grand system, united though distinct, tending all to one point, though measurably unconscious of their destination, conspire to produce those commercial consequences to Savannah of which we have been speaking. It may also be imagined that the aberration of purpose consequent upon the opposing influence of so many sectional interests, may for a while protract, though it cannot long prevent that almost uniform concentration of trade to the one most expedient point, the city of Savannah. Individual influence, seconded by the magic of wealth and strong effort, may for a while divert the course of trade unto unnatural channels; but trade, like material bodies, is ruled by attractive laws, and the great magnet will be ever the one constant principle-self-interest; *whereever this principle can be clearly discerned the tide of trade will follow. If, as we have attempted to show, the natural and most expedient and the most easily reached market for the vast products of the south and west, shall be SavannahsSavannah will be their destiny in spite of opposing interests, however cunningly and perseveringly arrayed these adverse interests may be. Savannah, once the centre of all the commerce which her position and the tendency of circumstances will most certainly entitle her to, her export trade must, by a parity of reasoning, be proportionately increased, both domestic and foreign, and this increase of business products will naturally beget a uniform and progressive increase of capital and enterprise; when these two great partisans in the strife for wealth unite their forces the triumph is complete. Savannah exported during the commercial year of 1843, 141 SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. 285,754 bales of cotton; 25,032 tierces of rice; 7,500,000 feet of pitch pine lumber; 5,175,000 cypress shingles; 66,000 oak staves. The direct foreign import for the same period amounted only to $279,896, but as a great proportion of the articles of foreign import consumed in, and transmitted through Savannah, arrive coastwise from New-York and other northern cities, it is difficult to form a calculation from any very certain data what is the actual value of the aggregate, direct and inldirect, foreign imports of Savannah, blended as the latter are with the coastwise imports during the period of which we have been speaking, viz., 1843. The registered, licensed and enrolled tonnage of the port of Savannah amounted to 17,920 tons, but the total amount of all tonnage frequenting our port cannot be readily arrived at, since most of the vessels engaged in the coasting trade sail under licenses which exempt them from entry or clearance at the Custom House, except when they have foreign goods on board. Leaving the amount of tonnage, thus arriving and departing without official notice, to coinjecture, we will proceed to refer to some data concerning recorded arrivals and clearances at the Custom House, from which will be seen, by comparison, what the whole might probably have been. From the 1st of October, 1844, to the same month in 1846, there entered coastwise the port of Savannah 719 vessels, comprising an aggregate tonnage of 196,791 tons, and during the same period, from foreign ports, 26,612 tons of American shipping, and 78,476 tons of foreign, by which enumeration a curious fact is brought to light, namely, that the foreign carriers of our own products outnumbered the native, in a ratio of three to one! The total amount of tonnage of all descriptions entered at the Custom House of Savannah during the two years last named was 105,08J, and the total amount cleared for the same period was 133,915; the difference between these two sunms arising in part from vessels remaining over in port at the commencement of the year with which we hegi ou-r calcuilation, and in part from vessels arriving coastwise with license, taking foreign freights and exchanging their licenses for registers, and thereby in clearing obtainiingr a record on the Custom House books. The value of foreign goods passing through the same channel, and for the same period, subject to duty, amounted to.7310,255 39, while those not liable to duty, though of foreign import, amounted to only -19,915 21; of specie for the salme period, there was an import of $65,423 86, makingi a grand total of foreign imports into the city of Savannah for the two years endlinig on the 1 st of October, 1846, of $595,5,94 50, wshile the value of domestic prodluce exported to foreign places arrived at the important sum of $7,353,186 86. If we add to this latter sum the value of the coast wise exports for the same period, which could not have been a less amount, we have nearly fifteen millions of exports for the two years. It must be kept in mind that during these two years Savannah had scarcely begun to feel the effect of the internal facilities of transport. To what a point, then, may we not reasonably expect her trade to arrive, when the numerous avenues completed in progress, and contemplated, shall le directed to one common centre, and Savannah be the grand depot of all. The central rail-road is destined, caeteris paribus, to accomplish for Savannah what the Erie Canal has done for New-York, accomplishing the prediction of General Bernard, who, after carefully examining and weighing all the local advantages of this city, exclaimed, "Savannah is destined to be the New-York of the South." If heedful exertion and liberal means are put forth these things must eventually come to pass. We had almost said that such a result would ensue from unaided natural causes, exertion and enterprise sleeping the mean while, but this is saying too much and hoping too much; we only mean to imply, by a strong figure, that the descending stream of trade only wants direction. It is but required of the merchants and men of capital to use the ample powers that circumstances have placed in their hands to give this direction. Savannah must not, however, imitate the rustic in the fable, who waited on the banks of the river for the waters to flow by, but rather dash on with bold step, and force the stream at every practicable ford, and where there is no ford, to call on their ingenuity and enterprise to make one. In proportion to the facilities of transport will be the augmentation of products; this we venture to assume as an incontrovertible position, and every new water communication, and every new rail-road opened through the state will cause thousands of hitherto uncultivated acres to start into life and fruitfulness. The present year, although the first since the rail-road has penetrated to the Cherokee country, affords striking proof of the truth of our theory, as exemplified in the increased value of the commerce of Savannah. The exports of the month of February, 1847, exceed those of the same month last year, by $839,477 75. In January of the present year our exports have amounted to $1,038,954 41, while the same month in 1846 exhibited but $262,124 52, an increase of $776,829 89 in the one month of January, and a total increase in the two first months of 1847 of $1,616,307 14; this enumeration is exclusive of the coasting trade. We do not wish to conceal the fact, nor would it help us to do so, that a portion of this increase has arisen from the greater value of our staple products, the cotton and rice crops I 142 SAYANNAH, GEORGIA. of Georgia the past year over that of the preceding. While we are speaking of thisI grand staple, it occurs to us to advert to the vast prospective increase in the cultivation of cotton in Georgia, as road after road pierces the numerous rich and fertile counties through which they must necessarily pass. The rail-road is at once the plow and the seed, the planter and the carrier; wherever its course leads through the hitherto track less regions of our state, energy is awakened, industry stinmulated and enterprise excited in the highest degree. As our rail-roads have but just reached the great grain country of the state, we cannot expect that important article of trade to have been much augmented ill quantity as yet, but the lapse of another year will show, in all probability, a result that will carry with it the conclusion that Georgia will ere long number grain and flour among her most important exports. Cass county and the regions adjacent, are fertile and immediately contiguous to the western and Atlantic rail-road, the natural feeder of the Central rail-road. They will, doubtless, become the granary of Lower Georgia, and after supplying all the domestic wants of the state, will ship their surplus to foreign countries, through Savannah. Those counties through which the state road runs are subject to peculiar temptations-two mnarkets are placed before them of nearly the same facility of access. On reaching Atlanta, two roads of nearly equal length invite their attention, and await their decision. Shall they pursue the path to Augusta and thence by the Hamburg road to Charleston, or is their patriotism enough to turn the almost equal scale? No such thing; patriotism has nothing to do with such matters. Trade is governed by its own laws, and so is the amor patriae of the present day. It follows, then, that the owner of the produce, who probab)ly accompanies it to market, will be swayed by motives of interest; if he finds the facilities offered on the Western and Macon and the Central roads superior to those of the Georgia and Hamburg roads, Savannah will enjoy the fruit of his labors, all other things being equal. It must be the studv of the presiding powers of the Central and Western roads to cultivate this result by good smooth tracks, plenty of cars of burden, and moderate'rates of freight-the latter should be so modified, and doubtless will be so, ere long, that a barrel of flour can reach the Savannah market at an expense of twenty-five per cent. less than it would pay to Charleston. The lumber business of Savannah has hitherto been an almost unnoticed item in the history of its exports, but it is now too well grown to be kept out of sight. It has becomle a trade of very considerable importance, and employs constantly more than two hundred vessels of all sizes; Eur ope, the western islands of the Atlant ic, the West Indies, all of the middle and eastern st ates of the Union, are its cu stomers. Nay, even the Celestial EImpire itsel f has b een fobund to be a market for it. The yellow pine of Geo rgia, the pinus austrtalocu is o f Michaud, is confe ssedly t the llost valuable, beca us e t he most durable and the mo s t beautiful of a ll the re sin ous woods for the purpose of st ructure. It differs from the pine of the same name of Nor t h as nd South Carolina in ma ny of its fe at ure s; the most striking one is its grain, for so the various lanivee, or concentric circles that coumpose the tree, a re call ed. The grain of th e Georgia pine is much c los er and finer than that of either of the other s tates, and the resinous matter with which all pi nes abound is more firmly incor pora te d w ith the wood, and less easily extracted by wat er or cli mate. So long as this vital principle of the wood is retained, the wood itself, if free from sap, is incorruptible, but when, frolic conspiring elementary causes, this natural aliment is parted with, (and this is soonest the case where the grain is coarse and the laminte far asunder,) a space is left open to the alterna tions of air and moisture, and these are the harbingers of decay. It has been objected by some that this theory is not sustained in the case of pine continually covered with water, such being known to remain sound for more than half a century. We answer that this case is not in the nature of an objection to the theory, inasmuch as it is not embraced in the position laid down; it is the alternations of air and moisture, of wet and dry, that cause the pine, and we believe most other woods of open texture, to decay. Neither is another instance, where pine is kept entirely dry, and so continues sound for as long a period as that continually covered with water, any more at variance with our theory. The durability of Georgia pine, in either of these predicaments, is greater than that of most known woods. It enters largely, as before remarked, into the construction of vessels, and is used by northern ship-builders in many parts of their business. It composes the flat of the bottom, the wales, water-ways, planksheers, beams, and indeed almost the entire between-deck work of the finest ships of our country. It is also used for keels, lower masts, top-masts, bowsprits; and for the interior work of the lower ho(lId of ships, such as clamps, ceilings, and thick streaks, it is much preferred. The betweendecks of a ship, when carefully finished with this wood, and well varnished, has a showy as well as a substantial appearance, and such a finish has become much the fashion within a fees years. To the great demand for this ,wood for ship-btuilding, we may add that I 143 SAVANNAH-COMMERCE OF. which is created by its natural fitness for all purposes about machinery, where wood is used at all; also the universal demand for Georgia pine throughout the U nited S tates for floors, ancd man y other purposes among housewrights. Engl and imports from the State of Georgia, t hro ugh the p ort of Savannah, at least twenty cargoes ofthree hundred thousand feet each, superficial measurement, per season; and when cotton freights are very low, the ratio of pitch-pine shipments is greatly increased. An acoentt of the British government, some few y ears a o, after exploring the pine regions of the southern country, from Virginia to Louisiana, pronounced the yellow pine of Georgia to be sup eri or t o a ny thing of the kind in the Unite d States. This opinion seems also to have been fully entertained by the contractor for the French government, who located himself in thi s state after a long and critic al s e arch after the best pine of the c oun try. The Woest I ndia Islands, both British and Fren ch, take off vast quantities of Georgia pine every year, for which they pay i c their own products, and in specie and bills of exchange. With these important outlets for the lumber trade of Savannah, an d wi th the constantly increasing demand for the article, we need no t b e surpri sed to find the exports of it, in ten years, more than quadrupled. The Savasonah and Ogeechce Canal, co nnecting the water s of the two rivers that give name to this work, and now nearly restored to a navigable c ondition, is destined to be the principal channel through which the lumber trade of Savannah is to be increased to a ver y great extent, so much so that it may so on b ear a very respectable comparison with the twvo gre a t staples of the state, cotton and rice. It rem ains to say a few words concerning th e p rob abl e increase in the product of this last-named important article of food. The very high prices obtained by planters for their rice the present season, will in all probabilitv excite many to a much more extensive cultivation of the article in future years. The introduction of machinery for threshing, cleaning, and preparing rice for market, has much tacilitated the trade, and has sent it abroad in a much fairer and more perfect condition, both as to grain and quality. Georgia rice may now be said to vie with, if not to excel, any other in the world. The inducements for cultivating it being increased by three important causes, viz.: increased value in market, facility of transportation, and foreign demand, it is not assuming too much, perhaps, to say that the rice crop of Georgia, centering in Savannah, will in the coming year exceed by 34,650 casks the crop of the past year, 1846. The cotton crop of this state, as before remarked, must be greatly increased by the cause we have mentioned, viz.: the improved demand, and facilities of transportation;'that th i s entire crop of more than three hundred and fifty thousand bales, together with a respectable portion of that of Alabama and East Florida, may, by proper exertion, all be secured for the benefit of the commerce of Savannah, can scarcely be doubted by any one acquainted with the simplest elements of cause and effect. The connection of Augusta with Savannah by a rail-road from the Eighty Mile Station on the Central Rail-road, running through Burke county, and having its first terminus in Wvanesboro', was a favorable idea for the interests of Savannah. It will remove beyond temptation the products of two or three counties that now lie more convenient to Augusta than to Savannah. It is not to be supposed that internal improvements in and about the State of Georgia will cease when all these roads we have named shall be completed; it is not in the nature of things that such should be the case; on the contrary, road will beget road, and track intersect track, until the entire state shall be brought into intimate union, not only with itself, but with its neighboring states, and thus gradually bring about the consummation so desirable for Savannah and so necessary for her commercial eminence. In this diffuse and irregular sketch of the present position and future prospects of the trade of Savannah, we have not aimed at tabular exactness, for it was difficult, with such materials as we had before us, to be very methodical; it was our design only to shadow forth, as it were, some of the strong features of the subject, and leave to time and the accumulation of more certain data, the completion of the intention. SAVANNAH-COMMERCE OF. EXPORTS FROM SAVANNAH OF COTTON, RICE, AND LUMBER, FOR TEN YEARS, AND VALUE REAL ESTATE. Years Total bags Cotton Toiai lb.. Cotten Total tres. Rice Toits feet ofLmber value N Rel Etate 1825................137,695.......... 49,570,200.......... 7,231.......... -......... - 1826...............190,578.......... 68,608,080..........11,433.......... -.......... - 1839................199,176.......... 71,703,360..........21,332.......... -.......... - 1840...............284,249..........10 2,329,640.......... 24, 39 2.......... -.......... - 1841.............. 147,280......... 53,020,800..........23,587..........14,295,200.......... - 1842................222,254......... 81,011,444..........22,064.......... 8,390,400.......... - 1843............... 280,826..........101,097,360..........26,281.......... 7,518,750..........$2,853,900 I 144 ST. LOIS —COMIMEItRCIAL ADVANTAGES OF. EXPORTS FROM SAVANNAH OF COTTON, RICE, AND LUMBER-continUed. Year, Total Bags Cotton Total lbs. Cotton Total tres. Rice Total feet of Lumber Value Real Estate J:844.............. 244,575.......... 90,492,650......... 28,543......... 5,933,251.......... 3,245,827 1845.............. 304,544........ 115,726,720........ 29,217......... 8,270,582........ 3,279,988 1846..............186,306.......... 74,522,400........ 32,147..........18,585,644.......... 3,306,734 1847................234,151.......... 98,343,420........ 31,739.......... 10,083,449......... 3,462,073 1848................243,233........ 104,590,190...........30,136........ 16,449,558......... 3,600,000 RECEIPTS OF COTTON AT SAVANNAH, FOR TEN YEARS, TO IST SEPTEMBEIR. 1838....................206,048bales................... 1844................. 243,420 bales. 1839....................196,618.................. 1845...................305,742 " 1840.................... 295,156.................. 1846...................189,076 " 1841.................. 146,273 "................. 1847....................236,029 1842....................228,396 "................... 1848................. 391,372 " 1843................... 299,173 " SAVANNAH.-The total population in 1810 the total population was 5,195; in April, 1848, was 13,573. being an increase 1820, 7,523; 1830, 7,773; 1840, 11,214. of 2,359, or 21 per cent., since 1840. In Increase in 38 years, 161 per cent. In the thirty years ending 1840, Charleston increased............................ 18 per cent. or, including the Neck or suburbs................... 66 {',.,, ~ " Philadelphia increased..........................137 " ~~"'4~I" Boston.......................... 151 " ~~~~" " "Baltimore..........................187 ~~" " "New-York "......................... 224 " ~~" " " ~New-Orleans'.........................492 " Since 1840 the whites in Savannah have ings, and 223 brick; 17 wood and 265 brick increased 23, the colored 18 per cent.; and storehouses. One-fifth of the houses are in every 100, the former are now 54, the owned by the occupants; ofthe male adults latter 46. There are 1,702 wooden dwell- about two-fifths are of foreign birth. COMMIERCE. Exports, 1825, cotton to foreign ports..................... 64,986 bags; 72,789, coastwise. '" rice "'.......................2,154 tierces; 5,081, " 1826, cotton "................ 108,486 bags; 82,094,, " " rice ".....................4,978 tierces; 6,478, " In 1839 the total export of cotton was 1284,249; rice, 24,392; 1841, cotton, 147,199,176; rice, 21,332; in 1840, cotton, 280; 23,587 rice; 14,295,200 feet lumber. EXPORTS, YEARS ENDING SEPTEMBER. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. Cotton to foreign ports....142,386 bags..... 193,099... 130,964... 182,073..... 77,852.. 119,321.... 55,801 " coastwise.......... 79,868 ".... 87,-27... 113,611... 122,471.... 108,454.. 114,830.... 70,293 Rice to loreign ports........5,933 tierces;.. 10,675... 10,307... 11,712.... 5,025.. 10,218.... 7,410 " coastwise............16,131 ".... 15,606... 18,236... 17,505.... 27,122.. 21,521.... 15,54g Lumber to foreign ports.. 5,019,400 feet;.. 5,532,750.. 3,034,064.. 3,333,646.. 13,365,968.4,886,425.. 5,544,563 " coastwise....... 2,471,000 "... 1,986,800..2,899,187..4,936,936.. 5,219,676.5,844,960.. - "The growing population-the great increase of the mechanical arts-the extended use of steam as applied to mills, presses, and other useful employments-are all evidences of a healthful state of the body politic. And this increase of steam power has been so noiseless, that it has attracted the notice of but few of our citizens, and most of them will be surprised to learn that of the eighteen establishmerits propelled by steam, fourteen of them have been erected within the last ten years." In the year ending 1st April, 1848, Sa- v a n nah exported to foreign ports 60,037 bushels corn; 412 bbls. turpentine; 30,000 yards osnaburgs; and imported 224,645 bushels salt; 374,992 gals. molasses; and $62,569 in iron, pig and bar. The number of vessels arriving in the same time were, from foreign ports, 41; and 6,925 tonnage; coastwise, 397; 99,409 tonnage. Foreign vessels from foreign ports, 51, of 28,766 tonnage; four ships with tonnage ranging from 572 to 721, are owned in Savannah, either in whole or in part; 1 bark, 6 brigs, 18 schooners, 9 sloops, 19 steamboats. In the ten years ending 1820, the average of deaths was 1 to 14; of average white population, in the ten years ending 1830, 1 in 17; ending 1840, 1 in 24; ending 1848, 1 in 33; amost marked improvement. The records of the black population, though preserved in the registers, are unfortunately not given in Mr. Bancroft's pamphlet, to which we are indebted for the above statem ents. I 145 ST. LOUIS-COMMERCIAL ADVANTAC.ES oF.-The Hoii. Edward Bates, in his oration on the inauguration of the Pacific Railroad, referred to the superior natural and commercial advantages of St. Louis in the following truthful and eloquent strains: 11 Here we are, in the centre of the great valley, the natural centre of the largest body of rich, habitable land on the face of the earth. A land large enough to maintain in comfort two hundred millions of people, every one of whom could bring the produce of his labor to this centre by natural navigation. Just below the conflUeDce of three mighty rivers-Missouri, Mississippi, and 10 VOL. III. ST. LOUIS, AND THE PROSPECTS OF MISSOURI. sition, and possess the, great advantage of being at the convergence of several navigable water courses of magnificent extent, and incalculable value and importance. Nature has done much for us; and it is precisely because she has done so much, that we have not felt the necessity of doing anything for ourselves, while our neighbors, at the North and at the South of us, are making the greatest exertions to triumph over nature, and to obtain by art those advantages which nature denied them. At the same time, it is not to be denied that our relations to the navigable rivers constitute our chief natural advantage. The great majority of emigrants, farmers of small means, from the eastern states, desiring to settle in the West, not desiring to compete with slave labor, direct their steps to the north of us, while the emigrating planter, with his negroes, seeking a western home, turns his course, for the greater security of his slave property to the south of us. Of the foreign emigration, our city has, it is true, received a very large share, and she has from that and other causes, chiefly commercial, prospered in an unexampled degree, while the interior of the state has also increased in population, but not with the same rapidity. For example, while St. Louis nearly doubled her population in four years, the counties bordering upon the Missouri river increased but about a third in the same time. But it is to be remembered that it is not alone with the interior of Missouri that St. ILouis finds a profitable traffic. Divert the trade of the upper Mississippi and of the Illinois from her, and the consequences would be felt to be of serious weight. Her commercial prosperity is founded very largely, if not chiefly, upon; what is called the'produce trade.' In this trade the productions of Illinois and Iowa, and even of Wisconsin, are extensively mingled with those of Missouri. In the past year, 1849, the number of steamboat arrivals from the Upper Mississippi were 806-from the Illinois River they were 686, while from the Missouri River they were but 355. The numerous barges, keels, flat and canal boats which arrive, come chiefly fron the Upper Mississippi and the Illinois. It is evident, therefore, that St. Louis traffic is more with other states than with our own. To the great productive capabilities of the country north of us, the inhabitants apply superior industry and energy. Time, in developing their resources and increasing their wealth and population, has also brought to them the disposition and perhaps the means to increase their facilities of intercourse, and to extend the range of their market. Hence we see them devising schemes of railroads to connect them with the lakes, and with the great chain of railroads which are penetrating the West from the Atlantic cities. WTe see railroads projected from Chicago to, Cairo, from Spring Illino is: and just above th in o the influx of the beautiful Ohio, whose fertile banks are alreadv teeming with industry, enterprise, and wealth. Look at a map of the vallev: its broad surfac e is divid ed into quarters, by the figure of a cross- a little irregular, t o be sure, but still a cross. The Mississippi is th e shaft, and the Ohi o and M issou ri are the limbs. A nd the shaft and the limbs are bristling with tributaries, each one of which is large enough to be considered in Europe, a mighty river, fit to be improved and cherished as the artery of a nation's commerce. " Look at the map, and not the distances and the commanding points. The driftwood that floats past our city plunges in the turbid waters of the Mississippi for twelve hundred miles before it is washed by the bright waves of the ocean. The water line of commerce from Pittsburgh to St. Louis is twelve hundred miles. Your steamers go up the Missouri, without a snag being pulled out or a sand-bar removed beyond our Western border, two thousand five hundred miles. Ascending the Mississippi, they push their bows into the very foam of St. Anthony's Falls: and above those falls, I know not how many hundred miles of placid water invite the venturous boatman to the far North. Go up the Illinois-you can find no stopping place there, for the Father of Waters is wedded to the lakes. In Illinois and NewYork, the duty imposed by the great gifts bestowed upon us, is partly done; and now, by the aid of their canals, you can leave the ocean in a boat, and entering the Mississippi or the Hudson, circumnavigate the nation. " WNe occupy the most important point on this great circuit. If there were not a cabin or a white man from the Ohio to the Missouri; if our forests were still in pristine solitude, and our prairies untracked, save by the hoof of the buffalo, or the moccasin of the Indian savage; I should still believeconsidering the extent and richness of the valley, the number, length, and direction of its rivers, and its capacity to produce, in boundless plenty, all that can minister to the comfort, wealth, and power of man-I should still confidently believe, that the greatest city upon the continent must be established within that span's length upon the map." 146 ST. LOUIS, AND THE PROSPECTS OF MISSOURI.-Thomas Allen has presented an address to the directors of the Pacific Railroad Company, which has been chartered at St. Louis, with the view of a present western extension to the -tate line, if possible, and eventually onward in the directioi-i of California. Mr. Allen's address is a very interesting one, and we extract those parts which relate especially to the city of St. Louis and its destinies: 11 Geographically, we occupy a central po ST. LOUIS, AND TIIE PROSPECTS OF MISSOURI. field to Quincy, from Springfield to Terre HIaute, from Peoria to Oquawka, from Ga lena to Chicago, from Alton to Springfield, Illinois, and froml St. Joseph to Hannibal, in our own state, the cost of survey in the lat ter case paid for by the state-all of them, but the first mentioned, commended to the public as probable links in the great chain which is to connect the Atlantic and Pacific. On the south of us we see projected and chartered the Missouri and White River railroad, and the Missouri and Mississippi River railroad; railroads in Tennessee, reaching to the Mississippi, while our coun trymen of the extreme South, aided and backed by the topographical corps of the United States, are urging forward a railroad by the Gila route, to the Pacific at San Diego, which should have a terminus upon the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Ohio. While these movements are going on around us, St. Louis is doing nothing, and proposing to do nothing, but relyings confidently upon the centrality of her posi tion, her large capital and advanced growth, and her great'produce trade.' Those who sought a friendly alliance with her in the East, and proposed to increase the facilities of intercourse by a railroad pointing directly to her, have been denied the right of way, and our neighborly city of Alton even pro hibited the Springfield and Alton railroad from touching the river bank, lest a long fer riage should give St. Louis the benefits which she hopes to appropriate exclusively to herself! What, then, with these schemes around us, against us, and avoiding us, is it, if any thing, expedient for us to do'! Can we do any thing? Is it possible for us to devise a scheme which shall, by its tendency to increase the settlement of the interior of our state, to increase our own traffic, to introduce new and different sources of wealth, place our prosperity upon a broader and surer basis l Can we, by any process, put ourselves ill a position which shall compel o ur enem ie s t o inquire, not how they shall bes t avoid us, but how they can b es t Let to us?. which shall increase our own production, our own consumption, and invite new and lasting ties of commercial and social incourse. "If; with the increase of trade and traders, the industrial arts and artisans be also multiplied, would not the mutual dependence of the two classes go far towards placing business upon a stable foundation? Suppose we were to cheapen and facilitate transportation, bring the raw materials cheaply and conveniently to the hands of art, to be worked into infinite forms in our midst, give animation to business during the whole season, uninterrupted by winter, would not our market become more brisk and extensive, our mneanls of supply increase; superior men be attracted andl engaged in every de partment, and sh ould we not be doing- much to make St. Louis the manufactory and mna chine shop, as w ell as the emporium and metropolis of the Mississippi valley a Na ture has endowed states as well as individu als, with va rious gifts. Els e commerce would not have e xisted. If a nother state e2x cels us in agricultural resources, we perha ps excel her in our mdiner al resources. One stat e may produce cotton andl sugar-we produce hemp and tobacco. Wheat may be the staple of one-cor n an d por k ma y be that of another. One people may exc el a no ther in a particular handicraft. But n o one state c an ei t he r produce everything o r man ufacture everything. But inasmuch as great diversity enters into the consumption of every people, commerce, by which they ex change the surplus of one kind of their pro ductions, fo r another k ind which they need which forms part of the surplus products of another people, becomes absolutely neces sary, And just in proportion as we in crease the diversity, the quality, the quan tity, and the cheapness of our surplus pro ductions, whether of the soil or of the fac tory, shall we invite, secure and extend our intercourse with other states and people. " What of these results, if any, should we obtain by a rail-road to the W0vest? "What lies to the west of us, within the reach of any rail-road we might be able to construct? There are extensive beds of iron ore, of copper, of lead, and of bitumin ous and cannel coal, and doubtless undis covered minerals of other kinds. There are fine forests of timber: there are fertile lands for tillage, and for grazing. There lies the route of the immense emigration to the great plains, to the land of Deseret, and to Cali fornia. There goes the trail of the Santa Fe trader, and the fur and Indian trader. There go the Indian agencies and annuities, and government stores, munitions and troops. There, upon the borders of the Mis souri river, lie the most populous counties of the state, embracing, at least, one-fourth of the whole people of the state. Here is St. Louis; there is Franklin and Gasconade, and Calloway, and Osage and Cole, and Cooper, and Howard, and Boone, and Lafayette, and Moniteau, and Saline, and Jackson, and Cass, and Ray, and Clay, and Platte and Buchanan, containing in the aggregate with Chariton and Carroll, not far from 250,000 people, and not less than 175,000 independently of St. Louis. "T There too, lies the Missouri river, turbid, dangerous, uncertain, full of snags -and sandbars, and ever changing channels, causing high insurance, costly transportation and subject to many drawbacks and disappointmcnts. Yet there the river runs, affording steamboat navigation for 2,000 miles to the west of us, and bearing a commerce which has trebled in three years, andl now requir 147 ST. LOUIS, AND THE PROSPECTS OF MISSOURI. ing an average of one steamer per day for every day in the year. Doubtless, during the past extraordinary year, not less than 40,000 persons have been passengers upon that river. But what may be regarded as the regular number of travelers, I have no means of ascertaining. It may not possibly exceed 15,000. The number of tons brought out by the steamboats, omitting flats, rafts and keels, estimating 355 arrivals here at an average of 200 tons the boat, would be 71,000 tons. Supposing them to carry the same up the river, and the total number of tons is 142,000, and we may add to the catalogue, as lying yet to the west, the fertile territories of the Indians, the great plains, the new state of New-Mexico, the mountains, the new states of Deseret arnd of California, and the territory of Oregon. " Now, then, in view of these people and objects, and territories, and things unnumbered and perhaps undiscovered, at the West, of what advantage would be a railroad in respect to them, and in respect to St. Louis 1. " The great modern historian of England has well said, that next to the alphabet and the printing press, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of mankind. We may add, truly, that the rail-road is the great apostle of progress. Though it has come into existence within the memory of most of us, and there be those among us who have never seen one, yet experience has demonstrated that it possesses magical powers to revolutionize commerce, to increase wealth and intercourse, to stimulate industry, and to develop and make available the resources of a country to the fullest extent. It has been proven to possess unequaled advantage for locomotion, and advantages which remunerate the cost. It has superseded the canal, and it is constructed without fear and with out loss, upon the banks of the most splen did water-courses in competition with the perfection of steamboat navigation. "1 It carries out the city into the country; it brings the country and its abundance into the city. It equalizes the value of the pro du cts of labo r, it g ive s new life to business, ch eapens and exp edites transportation, g ives it c erta inty a nd p unctuality, distributes the c o mfo rts of civilization, and makes tra vel a delight. What then would it do for us? Stimulating every species of industry in the vicinity of its route, it would, in the immense increase of production and travel, quadruple business. St. Louis, instead of being dull in the winter in consequence of closed navigation, would be lively through all the season. The merchants would no longer be subject to disappointment in send ing fo rward in thei r wood stil farmers and produce dealers in the interior would no longer be compelled to lose a season before realizing the value of their c rop s. The grazier would no longer be subject to loss in driving his stock to market, and the consumers and the packers would ge t better meat. Real estate in St. Louis generall y would be greatly enhanced in value, as it wo uld, likewise, along the entire rou t e, and within a day's journey of it, a nd in som e places its value would be increased a thousand fold. New towns would s pring up in th e interior, and all the tillable lands alo ng the route would be brought into cultivation. There wo uld not be a farmer in a ny of the co unties throu gh which the road should be located, but woulr fe e l its benefits in the enhanced value of his property and productive industry of every kind. * * F * * " Now let us, fdr a moment, imagine this road to be completed. Let us enter the depot, or station-house, which is the largest house in the city. Here we see boxes of merchan dize of all sizes, and various articles of house hold and farming utensils, hogsheads of sugar, sacks of coffee and of salt, barrels of molasses and of whisky, kits of mackerel, boxes of raisins, bundles of paper, wagons in pieces, small carriages, kegs of nails, bars of iron, boxes of Indian goods, and of hats, and of shoes, glass, tar and turpentine, and a vast variety of articles marked for the towns in the interior, and some of them for Santa Fe, and some for Deseret, which the men are at work placing in the freight train. - There is none of that disorder and flurry which ex ists upon the levee, but all is neatness and order, and conducted systematically, and under the strictest discipline and accounta bility. But the bell is ringing-we will take our tickets and step aboard the passenger train, with fifty or sixty other passengers, who are destined for various points along the line of the road. Off we go, at the speed of 25 miles the hour. We have not gone five miles when the pace is slackened, and we observe one or two gentlemen jumping off at their suburban residences. A few miles further is a platform and a turn out. Here several are waiting to get in, and several also get off to go to their dwellings. Here also we observe a string of open cars laden with coal. We pass on, scarcely having time to observe the fine residences which city gentlemen have constructed all along each side of the road; but we stop every few minutes to let offa passenger or two and take on as many more, so that our number is kept about the same. Here we pass a train, standing in a turn-out, loaded with wood,with a few cars of baled hay attached. The coun try on either side seems to be full of busy men, and every farm occupied. Directly we reacd a water station, where we observe immense piles of cord-wood, and many men still engaged, in hauling and cordling. Here, 148 ST. LOUIS-HISTORY OF, ETC. also, is a small refreshment house, and here again we leave and take a few pas sengers. Directly we come in sight of the Missouri, and catch a glimpse as we pass of a steamboat with a small freight and few passengers, puffing away, and hard on a sandbar. Soon we meet a freight train loaded with pigs of lead, and copper and iron, from Franklin county. In about two hours from St Louis we are at the Union station, where we discharge a few passen gers, and where we observe large piles of metal in pigs. Though stopping now and then to leave or take a passenger, or to sup ply the engine with water, we are soon in Gasconade county; we pass cars laden with cannel coal, and we discharge at the Hermann station a number of Germans and their b aggage, and w e observe some cars re ceiving freight, som e of it apparently pianos, and quite a number of pipes one would sup pose to be wine, all the manufacture of Her nann. Wie a re soon, h owever, at the cross ing of the Gasconade, whi ch is a grand brid ge soi asn of solid masonry, of great strength and durability. Here is quite an important station, and we notice a number of new buildings going up on lots sold ty the com pany, immense quantities of yellow pine lumber piled up, and a numb er o f ca rs, with an engine attached, ready to start for St. Louis wit h a heavy load of lumber. On we go, into Osa ge, s topping at t he Linn sta tion, an d discharging and r eceiving passen gers; bu t before we are aw are of it, we are at the Osage River, and at another fine structure, by wh ich w e c ross it. We ob serve a draw in the bridge, to admit of the passage of small steamboats A sinall boat is lying just ab ov e the bridge, discharging freight, consisting of a variety of articles from the Osag e valley, at a depot conveniently arr anged and a s eries of cars are receivi ng it. We obs erv e also here a few new build ings, and a yard full of live stock, destined f or St. Louis p er r ail-road. We hear of a scheme to penetrate, by a branch, the Osage valley. In scarcely t h ree hours from St. L oui s, were are taking a hasty dinne r at the Jefferson Cit y station, wher e w e meet the doswn t rain, wi th abou t fifty passengers, and wh ere we observe a number of ca rs also waiting their opportunity to pass down, loaded with b ac on and beef, hides and peltr ies, d ried fruits, beeswax, hemp, tobacco, eggs and poultry. We are scarcely an hour and a half from Jefferson City, before we are at the station called the Boonville station, a few miles south of that flourishing town. Here quite a number of passengers leave us. Our attention is drawn to a medley of noises arising from a freight train standing close at our sid~e. We discover, through the bars, as our train moves on, that it is quite a long train of freight cars, some of them filled with live hog s and cattle, an some loaded with hemp and itobacco, on their way to St. louis. We cross the Lamine, stop at the Salin e sta t ion, and we are struck with the fi ne appearance of the coun - try as we pa s s on, and o bserve numerous excellent farms. oTe leav e a f ew passengers at the Lexington station, a few miles south of that place, and reach our station, perhaps not far from the mouth of the Kansas, about tea time, having been ten hours from St. Louis. Here our remaining passengers, to the number of twenty or thirty, dispose of themselves for the night at a good hotel, intending in the morning to be off for Independence and Liberty, and Westport, and St. Joseph, and other places up the river. The hotel is quite full of passengers. there being as many to go down as up, and in the station house is a freight train getting, ready to start. It was remarked that there were not less than 1,000 tons of freight on the road this day, and 100 passengers. "Now, although this be an imaginary trip, who can doubt, whoknows anything of railroads, that the picture would be fully, if not more than realized, upon the opening of such a road?" 149 ST. LOUIS-HISTORY OF, ETC.-The an niversary of the founding of this already great city was celebrated with much 6clat on the 15th of February. The festival was in every sense worthy of the occasion. Wilc,on Primm, Esq., delivered the ad dress, from which we would extract a few passages of wide-spread interest. I.-Founding of th, City. 11 On the 15th February, 1764, Laclede and his party landed at the spot now occupied by our city, and proceeded to cut down trees and draw the lines of a town, which he named St. Louis, in honor of Louis XV., of France, a town which subsequently became the capital of Upper Louisiana, and which is now the commercial capital of Missouri. I could not, in justice to my audience, and on such an occasion, speak of the physical aspect of the country, more than to say, that St. Louis was then a wilderness, tenanted by the prowlers ofthe forest, and surrounded by untutored and savae bands of Indians, and that for lon years afterwards the beasts of the forest afforded nourishment, and rude huts on the ground, and scaffoldings in the trees, afforded shelter and protection to the generous and daring people who first exposed the bosom of our soil to the genial influences of social industry." 2.-Histoi-y and Progress. 11 From the time of its establishment, up to the year 1768, St. Louis had grown apace. The population had become settled; they had erected dwellings of a comfortable character, and had improved and culti ST. LOUIS-HISTORY OF, ETC. then living, upon whose authority it was then made, leaves in my mind no room to doubt the correctness of the fact. In this too, I am borne out by the authority of Stoddard, in the historical sketches of Louisiana. A"Ihe territory on which St. Louis stood, and that on which several other towns had been located, and the surrounding country, were claimed by the Illinois Indians, but they had acquiesced in the intrusion of the whites, and had never molested them. But when the rumor of an attack upon the town began to spread abroad, the people became alarmed for their safety." 3.-Trausfer of St. Louis to the United States. "Upon the transfer of the country from Spain to the United States, the introduction of American authority necessarily increased immigration of the Anglo-Americans, and the population slowly, but steadily augmented in numbers. On the 26th day of March, 1804, the coun try wa s constituted a District of the Unit ed States, under the name o f the District of L ouisiana, and on the 19th day of October of the same year, William Henry Harrison, then governor of the te rritory o f Indian a an d of the District of Louisiana, insti tuted the American authorities here. On the 4th of July, 1805, this country was erected into a territory of the United States, by the name of the territory of Louisiana, and on the 4th of June, 1812, it received the name of the territory of Missouri. "We have now to arrive at a period when a new era was to dawn, not only on St. Louis, but upon all her northern and western dependencies, when a power, greater tran that of the fabled lamp of Aladdin, was to be brought into requisition, and by its magic, to mature, as it were in a day, in the western wilds of America, an existence which, on the shores of the eastern continents, the lapse of centuries had not been able to produce. "In 1817, the'General Pike,' the first steamboat that ever ascended the Missis sippi, made its appearance at St. Louis. Those who lived here at that time, can well remember the fear and consternation of the people who saw the craft, breasting the sturdy current of the river, without the help of sail or oar, and they can also bear in recollection the execrations and fore bodings of the nervous and hardy voyagers, who felt and knew the days of the warp and cordele, and of the red feather in the cap, were to pass away. The stoutest man of a keel-boat, usually placed in his hat or cap, on landing, a scarlet feather, which was the gage of battle to any one on shore who would dispute his title to superior manathood." vated the neighboring l ands. Every thing, in short, connected with their position and prosp ects, wa r ranted the a nticipation of a peaceful and happy existence, under a mild an d p atriarchal form of provincial government. o In the mean time, however, the fact of the cession of Louisiana, (not the terms of the cession,) had been made known at New Orleans. In 1766, whilst great dissa tisfact ion o peai then prevailed, the Captain General, Don Antonio D'Ulloa, with Spanish troops, arrived ther e, and demanded p o sssess ion in the nam e of Spain. This was refused, and the p eople of New-Orleans, indignant at a proceeding which ha d t ransf erred them from hand to hand, like merchandise, drove back D'Ulioa from their shores. "In this stat e of quasi revolt, the population of Lower Louisiana rematained, clinging to their loved government of France, until the arrival of Count O'Reilly, in 1769. The inhabita nts of Upper Louisiana, fewer in numbers, a nd incapable of such resistance as had be en manifested by their southern brethren, were compelled to sub mit to Spanish authority. Accordingly, we find that on the 11th August, 1768, Mr. Rious, a Spanish off icer, with Spanish tro op s, perhaps the very same that had been driven from New-Orleans, arrived at St. Louis, and took possessi on of Upper Louisi ana in the name of his Catholic Majesty. " In February, 1779, Col. George Rogers Clark, u nder t he authority of Virginia after having struck many severe blows against the British power on this side of the Oh io Rive r, was in the neighborhood of St. Louis, raising men f rom amon st the Frenc h inhabitants of Cahokia and oaskaskia, for the p u rpo se of re-capturing St. Vincent's, now called Vinceytnes, and which was then in possession of the English under General Hamilton. " Understanding from the same source, that an attack was meditated upon St. Louis, by a large force under British influence, that too at a time when Spain was contending with England for the possession of the Floridas, Clark, with that chivalrous spirit, which has earned for him one of the brightest pages in American history, at once offered to the Lieutenant-Governor, LIeyba, all the assistance in his power to repel the contemplated attack. The offer of assist. ance was rejected on the ground that no danger was really apprehended. 'In my former sketch of the historv of St. Louis, I had placed the time of this offer by Clark in 1780 Satisfied that it was made anterior to that year, and whilst he was raising troops for the recapture of Vincennes, 1 anm not, however, permitted to withdraw the statement that such an offer was made. The testimtny of witnesses 150 ST. LOUIS-STATISTICS OF. permit him to rest from his toil. Besides these natural difficulties, communication with New-Orleans was at this time rendered dangerous, from the circumstance that a numerous band of robbers, under the guidance of two men, named Culbert and Miaglibray, had located themselves at a p lace called Cottonwood Creek,'La rivi6re aux Liards,' and begun a system of' depredation which was highly alarming and detrimental to those who navigated the Mississippi. As communication between the two ports could be effected but once a year, the boats were generally richly laden, so that the plunder of them was wealth to the plunder ers and ruin to the owners. The gay song of the voyager, as he kept time with the stroke of his oar, was the signal for the robbers to rush from their retreat. Armed at all points, they seized upon the vessels, and compelled the astonished and terrified crews to run them to shore. There they would divest thein of all that was valuable and leave them at liberty either to continue their route, or return to their place of de partulre. This system of pillage was carried on with success; it was rare that a boat passed these robbers unseen, and seldom did they see one which they did not pillage." 6.-First Steamboat on the Missouri River. " FRANKLIN, (Boonslick,) May 19, 1819. "ARRIVAL OF THE STEAMBOAT.-With no ordinary sensation of pride and pleasure, we announce the arrival this morning, at this place, of the elegant steamboat Independence, Capt Nelson, in seven sailing days (but thirteen from the time of her departure) from St. Louis, with passengers and cargo of flour, whiskey, sugar, iron castings, &c., being the first steamboat that ever attempted ascending the Missouri. She was joyfully met by the inhabitants of Franklin, and saluted by the firing of cannon, which was returned by the Independence. "i The grand desideratum, the important fact is now ascertained, that steamboats can safely navigate the Missouri." 4 —A(dmission into the Union. ", Passing over the fierce discussions which eventuated in the establishment of Missouri as one of the confederacy, 1820, we come to the year 1822, when St. Louis, by legislative enactment, was erected into a city by the name which she now bears. Since that time, what wonderful changes have taken place? Working her way to importance and greatness through all the impediments which have been opposed by the neglect of the general government, and the tardy and grudging action of the state, of which she ought to be the pride, and is the chiefsupport, St. Louis has still main tained her onward and upward flight, like unto the noble bird, which by its own power and strength, unsustained and unsupported., floats majestically over the storm-clouds of the sky. The advantages of education, the ligehts of science, the blessings of religion, placed within the reach of all; the establishment of a wise and vigorous municipal govern ment, under the auspices of which her limits have been enlarged and her interior improved and embellished; the erection'of manufac tories, the extension ofthe arts, the regula tion of commerce. All these results, so well known and appreciated by those who hear me, have flown from the natural re sources of St. Louis, and the intelligence and enterprise of her citizens. She has now a name and reputation abroad of which we may all be proud. Let it be our care always to maintain them, so that hereafter, when away from our homes, the title of citizens of St. Louis may be more potent even than that which in ancient times afforded pro tection to the citizens of Rome." 5.-Steam Navigation to St. Lo-uis and on the Missouri. "Up to this time communication with New-Orleans was rare and difficult, and although Spain claimed the exclusive navigation of the Mississippi, yet she was not able to protect her subjects from the rapacity of the amphibious pirates who infested that river. The early efforts of the citizens of Virginia, from 1769, and the hardships and dangers which they encountered in attempting its navigation, bear me out in saying that a trip from St. Louis to NewOrleans, was more arduous than a trip would now be to China Now we have steamboats which waft us with a velocity that seems almost to annihilate distance. Even the short interval of five days from' New-Orleans to St. Louis, is not considered as anything extraordinary in the speed of the mighty crafts which stem the bold current of the Mississippi. ThenG the oar of the hardy voyager alone moved the dull bark against the rapid current, except, occasionally, when the southern breeze would spring up, and filling the sails 151 152 STEAMSHIPS BETWEEN LIVERPOOL AND NEW-ORLEANS. parity betwen the native and the immigrant population than we supposed existed. We can add, from the representation of the St. Louis press and other reliable authorities, that the emigrant population of St. Louis constitutes one of the principal sources of its wealth and prosperity. They have added millions to the value of its real estate, immensely increased the aggregate of the annual returns of its productive industry, and created an important market for the productions of the soil, and the wares of the mechanic and the merchant. We condense the following from its religious statistics: tion, under bond for the payment of duties at St. Louis, the entries being received, the foreign value of which is,$107,902 00 Amount of duties on foreign merchan dise collected in 1851................. 239,318 68 Amount of duties unpaid for merchan dise in store 31st December, 1851..... 8,261 89 Amount of duties unpaid on merchan dise to transmit frome oth er port s, des tined to this port...................... 32,679 20 Amount o f duties paid and accruing on merchandise imported for this port in 1851................................. 280,259 77 Of the above. exclusive of the said mer chandise in transit, there was import ed from England mdse. the foreign value of which was.................... 406,113 00 From France.......................... 38,404 00 Germany and Holland........... 23,239 00 Spain and dependencies.......... 220,7 70 00 Brazil............................ 68,983 00 Total foreign value........... $757,509 00 The general description of merchandise imported, entered for consumption, and warehoused in the year, and foreign value thereof, is as follows, viz.: Sugar and molasses.................$289,753 CO Hardware, &c......................... 133,401 00 Railroad iron.......................... 100,211 00 Earthenware......................... 98,786 00 Tin plates, tin, iron, copper, &c........ 81,482 00 Brandy, wines, gin,, cordials, &c........ 24,712 00 Dry goods and fancy goods............. 24,287 00 Burr stones........................... 2,259' 00 Drugs and medicines................... 2,618 00 Total........................$757,509 00 Hospital money collected at thi s port in 1851................................. $2,941 00 Hospital money expended at this port in 1851, for relief of sick and disabled boatmen............................. $3,441 44 Churhe Number. Seats V.. alue Roman Catholic........ 12...... 10,862...... 534,300 Methodists............ 12...... 8,300...... 171,000 Presbyterian........... 8...... 5,700...... 200,000 Lutheran.............. 5...... 3,300...... 44,500 Episcopal.............. 5...... 2,750...... 136,000 Other Protestant....... 7...... 4,800...... 127,700 Grand total, 49 churches, containing 35,712 seats, and valued at $1,213,500. The last division includes 2 Unitarian churches, with 2,100 seats. valued at $70,000;'2 Evangel ical, wi th 600 seats, valued at $4,700; p2 Baptist, wi th 1,600 seats, valued at $38, 000; and I Boatmen's, with 500 seats, valued at $15.000. In addition to these, there'are 2 Synagogues, with 470 ses,, one of which is rented, and the o ther valued at $7,000. The Roman Cath olic population is muchn mor e numerous than is indicated by the rnumber of seats in the Rom an Catholic ch urches, a s a very large portion of that denomination worship in th e aisles and vestibul es, and an average of three several congregations a ssemble at each church at the different hours of the s ev eral mansses o Sunday morning. The educati onal stati st ics of the c ity comprise 15 public schools, with 2,378 iupils; 44 common schools, with 2,847 pupils; 9 Roman Catholic schools, (including two convenits.) with 1,356 pupils; 1 Roman Catholic College, 9.50 pupils; and 2 Medical Colleges, with l4 professors and 202 students. There are also a number of schools and seminaries in the co unty, beyond the city limits, not included in the above. The statistics in the Republican contain various othakenes of general interest indicating an extraordinary degree of prosperity, and illustrating the steady progress of St. Louis in wealth, population, productive industry, education and religion. STEAMBOAT ARRIVALS. 1847. 1849. 1851. New-Orleans................ 502......313......3 00 Ohio River................ 430......406......457 Illinois River................ 656...... 686......634 Upper Mississippi River.....717......806...... 639 Missouri River..............314...... 355......301 Cairo...................... 146...... 122...... 119 Other points................. 204...... 217......175 STE.AMBOAT, ETC., STATIS'IICS. 1850. 1851. Arrivals, steamboats and barges.....2,339.... 3,003 " Keel and flatboats....,... 115.... 43 Tonnage of' steamboats and barges. 681,25f.. 623,140 Wharfage.....$41,195.-.48,156 Paid City Treasury................38,382..45,266 Harbor master's fees................2735... 2,892 STEAMSHIPS-PROSPECTUS FOR ESTABLISHING A LINE OF PROPELLER STEAMERS BETWVEEN LIVERPOOL AND NEw-ORLEANS.BY WM. MURE.-It is proposed to establish a line of steamers to ply between the ports of New-Orleans and Liverpool, commencing with two vessels to be worked by screw propellers. The required capital, amounting to $400,000 or $450,000, to be raised by subscription, in shares of $1,000 each, payable in equal instalments of 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. The vessels to be of the register burthen of about 1500 to 1600 tons, and to Statement of Foreign Merchandise imported, and duties paid, at St. Louis, during the year ending 31st of December, 1851, made from the Report of W. W. Gre ene, Surve yor of the Port of St. Louis. FOREIGN merchandise imported into St. Louis in the year 1851, and entered here, the foreign value of which amounts to.......................... $757,509 00 Foreign merchandise entered at other ports in 1851, and now in transporta ST. LOUIS-FORE:IGN IMPORTS AT. STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. have extended accommodations for first and second-class passengers, as well as capacity for large cargoes. The principle of propulsion by screws is adopted for its economy and convenience. A vessel built on this plan, by the best workmen on the Clyde, similar to the "City of Glasgow," which has answered the ex pectations of its projectors, will only cost about one-third of the sum invested in the large steamers of the Cunard and Collins lines. The working expenses, coal, &c., are also on a greatly reduced scale, while the capacity for goods and passengers is larger, owing to the great saving in the space occu pied by the engines and coals. The time is opportune, as the British West India steamers have been forced (from lack of time to visit so many points) to give up calling at Mobile Point or Havana, and a considerable number of passengers and goods could be had by touching at the latter point. It is also believed that the English Government will give the Havana mails to the first company putting on a direct line of steamers. Indeed, on the faith of this, it was lately proposed in England to place a steamer on the Havana and Liverpool station; but the trade between the two ports being thought insufficient, of itself the project has been for the present abandoned. Annexed will be found a schedule of the estimated income and expenditure, which, it will be noticed, shows a net annual profit of $92,616 for one steamer costing $220,000, or42 per cent.; a very ample deduction for interest and depreciation, say 25 per cent., having been made from the gross earnings. It is certain, from the character of the cotton trade between this port and Liverpool, that a vessel which could be relied on to arrive within a certain timne, would always command a preference from shippers, at a higher rate than current for sailing vessels. At the present time, a difference of 1-8d to 1-4d would readily be paid, so that 1-2 per lb. might be fairly calculated upon as a very moderate freight. From Intvard Trips. 850 tons measurement goods, at ~3 per ton, (low rate,)................................ ~2,550 500 tons dead weight, at ~1.................. 500 100 cabin passengers, at ~30..................3,000 100 second cabin passengers, at ~15.......... 1,500 ~7,550 Income of four inward trips................ ~30,200 Income of one boat................;~61,000 But deduct one-third from that derived from passengers for reduced numbers....... 12,000 Income of one steamer, independent of ~49,000 mails, small packages, and expenses.. 4 The " City of Glasgow" charges ~4 per ton to New-York, and the importers here would prefer a direct line, instead of pay ing a high freight and then reshipping from New-York. Mate. $50: 2d, $40; Id, $30........120 2 Boys, $16; 2 Apprentices, $10.... 32 " 8 Waiters, $120; 1 Chambermaid, men's wages......................$25,344 $20-S voyages.....................16,000 voyages.2,000 Extra labor in discharging cargo at sw-Orleans...................250 1,000 4 inward loadings......................30,240 freight and passage money..............6,000 Estimate of Receipts, Expenses, and Profits, also depreciation, of a Steamer upon the propeller prin ciple, of about 1500 to 1600 tons, capable of carry ing 3200 bales of Cotton, and on her return voyage 850 tons of MIeasurement Goods and 500 tons of dead wveight, to run between Newv-Orleans and Liverpool, touching at Havana Allow for interest on $220,000, insurance, and depreciation, in value, in one year, say 25 per cent., which is a very large allow ance................................... 55,000 $142 584 3,200 bales of cotton at 1-2d per lb........... ~3,200 100 cabin passengers, at ~30 each............. 3,000 100 second cabin passengers, at ~15 each.....1,500 Small parcels, mails from Havana, not cal culated................................ STEAM - BOILER EXPLOSIONS. Since the melancholy and terrible explosion of the Lou?isana, at the New-Orleans levee, by which from one hundred and fifty to two hundred persons were ushered into ~7,700 Income of four outward trips from New Orleans................................ ~30,800 153 RECEIPTS OR INCOME. STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. eternity, public attention has been again called to this desolating evil. Is there blame, and to whom does it attach? Can no remedy be devised? The late Commissioner of Patents made a report from very defective returns, as he' admits, of these explosions, which presents the following particulars. It extends back for many years. Bolt and boiler forced out..................... 1 Struck by lightning........................... 1 Blew out boiler head..........................4 Breaking cylinder head...................... 1 " flange of steam pipe................. 2 Bridge wall exploded........................ 1 Unknown....................................3 Not stated.................................... 38 Total.................................. 233 Whole number of Boats on which explosions have occurred.... 233 Passengers killed (enumerated in 6 cases)... 140 Officers " " 31 "... 57 Crew " " 25"... 103 Whole number killed in..........164 "... 1,805 " wounded in.......111 "...1,015 Total amount of damages in...... 75 " $997,650 Average number of Passengers killed in the enumerated cases.. *23 Officers "2 Crew " "...... 4 Killed " "...... 11 Wounded " " 9 Average amount of damages...................$13,302 The cause is stated in 98 cases; not stated in 125; unknown 10; together.............. 233 1. Excessive pressure gradually increased was the cause of.............................. 16 2. The presence of unduly heated metals...... 16 3. Defective construction bie..................... 33 4. Carelessness or ignorance.................. T 32 5. Accidental (rolling of the boat)............. i... 1 CLASSIFICATION OF CAUSES. 1. Under pressure within a boiler, the pressure being gradually increased. In this class are the cases marked "excessive pressure." 2. Presence of unduly heated metal within a boiler. In this class are included Deficiency of water..... 14 Deposits................ 2-16 3. Defective construction of the boiler and its appendages. In this class are included 'in this class are included | Cast-iron boiler head.. 5 Improper or defec-) Inferior iron.......... 5 tive material Iron too thin.......... 3 . Cast-iron boiler....... 1 l Defective iron in flue.. 1-15 rWan t of p roper guage cocks. 3 aTURE woFrTHEaCCID DeNective flue................I Badw orkman- Ext end ing wire walls....... p Pipe badly constructed........................ Want of slip joint on pipe... 1-7 Defective boiler (nature of defect not stated)11 - Total in this class............... 33 4. Carelessness or ignorance of those intrusted with the management of the boiler. In this class-Racing........................ 1 Incompetent engineer......... 2 Old boilers.................... 6 Stopping off water............ 1 Carelessness................. 22 Total....................... 32 DATE OF EXPLOSIONS. 1816............3 1825............ 2 1831............ 2 1817............4 1826............ 3 1832............ 1 1819............1 1827............ 2 1833............ 5 1820............1 1828............ 1 1834............ 7 1821............1 1829............ 4 1835............ 10 1822............ 1 1830.......... 12 1836........... 13 Date given in 177 cases, not stated in 56.-Total 233. Tonnage of 480 of the above boats as ascer tained by record...........................68,048 Tonnage, supposed, of the remaining 96 boats. 17,210 Total tonnage......................... 85,258 Original cost of boats lost by sinking as ascertained...........................$6,348,940 Supposed original cost of 102 not account ed for................................. 765,000 Total original cost..................... $7,113,940 Total depreciation of the above boats while in service..................... $3,665,890 Final loss, total........................$3,681,297 GENERAL ESTIMATE. Of the total loss of life and property, calculated from the average of the given cases. Pecuniary loss, 233 cases, at $13,302 each. $3,090,366 Loss of life " 11 each..... 2,563 W ounded " 9 "...... 2,097 Total killed and wounded............ 4,660 The St. Louis Republican, in a late number, gave some very interesting statistics as to the number of boats lost since the commencement of steam navigation on the western waters. The following compilation will be interesting to our readers: These statistics refer to those steamboats only that have been sunk by snags and other obstructions. I The list of boats destroyed by fire, consists of 166. The original cost of these 166 steamers was $1,010,854; their depreciation while in service, $1,041,434, and their final loss $1,817,428. The explosions that have occurred on the western waters up to the present year number 209. The loss of life actually recorded is 1,440. The number of wounded 833. From the year 1810 to the year 1820............. 3 "1 1820 " 1830............. 37 " 1830 " 1840.............184 " 1840 " 1850..............56ls$1 272 Boats whose dates of loss are unknown......... 80 Total number of boats..................... 576 * The average is not a fair one, as it is derived from but six cases, in one of which (the Pulaski) the very unusual number of 120 lives were lost. 154 NATURE OF THE ACCIDENTS. Bursting boiler............................... Collapsing flue................................ Bursting steam pipe.......................... 11 steam chests........................ 101 71 9 1 1837............ 13 1838............ 11 1839............ 3 1840............ 8 1841............ 7 1842............ 7 1 843............ 9 1844............ 4 1845............ 11 1846............ 7 1847............ 12 1848............ 12 STEAMBOAT DISASTERS ON WESTERN WATERS. t Edward Bates, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.. $20,000 , Eudora, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.......... 21,000 Eliza Stewart, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis... 13,000 Emily, May 31st, blew up, Apalachicola..... 10,000 Falcon, (new,) Oct. 12th, burnt, N.-Orleans.. 45,000 Fulton, spring, sunk, Red Bayou............ 15,000 Frolic, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis............ 3,000 General Brooke, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.. 3,000 Germantown, Aug. 25th, burnt, Raleigh, Ky. 18,000 General Jesup, December, sunk, Hat Island. 30,000 General Pike, summer, burnt, Lower Missis sippi.................................... 30,000 Harkaway, Jan. 1st, sunk, Donaldsonville... 25,000 Highlander, May 1st, burnt, St. Louis...... 14,000 Ivanhoe, Nov. 9th, burnt, Cincinnati........ 14,000 Illinois, Nov. 12th, burnt, New-Orleans...... 35,000 Kit Carson, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis...... 14,000 Louisiana, Nov. 15th, blew up, New-Orleans 40,000 Milwaukee, Jan. 1st, sunk by ice, Naples, Illinois river............................. 12,000 Mary Ann, Jan. 17, sunk, collision, Pittsburg 8,000 Mustang, summer, burnt, Duncan's Point.. 12,000 Matilda Jane, fall, sunk, near New-Orleans, 15,000 Montauk, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis....... 36,000 Mamaluke, May 17th, burnt. St. Louis...... 30,000 Mandan, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis......... 12,000 Marshal Ney, Oct. 10th, burnt, New-Orleans, 35,000 Mary, July 29th, burnt, St. Louis............ 30,000 Martha, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis......... 44,000 Northern Light, Jan. 18th, burnt, Pittsburgh, 10,000 Oella, No. 2, Dec. 13th, sunk, Anderson's Ferry................................... 6,000 Prairie State, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.... 26,000 Phoenix, July 29th, burnt, St. Louis.......... 16,000 Ro sco e, summer, sunk, Ohio river.......... 20,000 Richland, January 17th, burnt, Peedee river, 12,000 Red Wing, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis...... 21,000 Revolution, May 16th, burnt, Peru, Illinois river.................................... 12,000 Sarah, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis........... 70,000 St. Peters, May 15th, burnt, St. Louis....... 12,000 Samuel Walker, summer, burnt, Memphis.. 20,000 North America, Nov. 10th, burnt, N.-Orleans, 10,000 San Francisco, July 29th, burnt, St. Louis.. 28,000 Sallie Anderson, Sept. 24th, burnt, Arkansas river.................................... 10,000 Saranak, fall, sunk, near Baton Rouge...... 25,000 S. W. Williams, April 9th, lost in a gale, mouth of Brazos........................ 16,400 Texan, fall, burnt, Red River............... 35,000 Transport, fall, sunk, Lower Mississippi.... 18,000 Taglioni, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis........ 20,000 Timour, May 27th, burnt, St. Louis......... 28,000 Tennessee, Dec. 2d, sunk, near Cincinnati.. 15,000 Thos. Jefferson, December, sunk, near Baton Rouge................................... 30,000 Viol a, D ec. 27th, sunk by collision, near Donaldsonville........................... 9,000 Virginia, fall, blew up, Ohio river.......... 17,000 White Cloud, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.... 3,000 Wm. Armstrong, November, sunk, near Little Rock.................................... 10,000 Western, summer, sunk, Wabash rive;..... 6,000 Wave, summer, sunk, False river........... 5,006 Total number, 83. Total estimated loss.. $1,585,400 The above estimate of losses includes cargoes on board at the time of sinking. The pecuniary loss in the 209 instances, al t he supposed reasonable average of $13,30' for every boat, is $!,780,118. Regarding the subject of the loss of life just mentioned, we wvill add that in iiumerou3 cases where it if known that many human beings weir launched into another world, the records show nothing. The followingt estimate is rea sonable-it may fall short of the reality: Estimate of persons killed, in 209 explosions, averaging eleven persons to each case....... 2,290 Estimate of persons wounded, averaging nine to every explosion.......................... 1,881 Supposed total killed and wounded............ 4,18 The record of the boats destroyed by collisions is somewhat incomplete, we think. It comprises a list of 45 boats, whose original cost was $538,906; depreciation while in service $153,673, and the final loss $379,933. STEAMBOAT DISASTERS.- BOATS SUNK, BURNED, OR OTHERWISE INJURED, ON WESTERN WrATERS, 1849.*-Below we give a list of steamboat accidents which occurred during the past year, as taken from the files of newspapers. This may not include all, but a majority of the cases will be found correctly and duly chronicled. The estimated loss of each is also taken from the same source, and it may be slightly defective as to real value, but in the aggregate the figures will not be found to differ widely from a true statement: Estimated value Anne Elizabeth, Jan. 27, sunk on Falls of Ohio.................................... $35,000 A ndrew Fulton, Feb. 22d, sunk at PlatinB Rock.................................... 28,000 Alph. de Lamartine, April, burnt at B a th, Ill. river.................................. 40,000 Alice, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis............18,000 America n Eagle, May 17th, burnt, St Louis. 11,000 Acadia, M ay 17t h, burnt, St. L ouis.............................. 10,000 Alex Hamilton, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis... 15,000 Albert, spring, sunk by collision, Ohio river.. 10,000 Aaron Hart, Oct. 10th, burnt, New-Orleans..30,000 Algoma, July 29th, burnt, St. Louis.......... 18,000 Amelia, D ec. 8th, sunk Missour i river........ 12,000 Boreas, No. 3, May 17th, burnt, St. Louis.... 152,000 Belle Isle, May!17th, burnt, St. Louis........ 10,000 Boliver, May 14th, sunk, Cumberlan d river... 6,000 Car of Commerce, Jan., sunk, on Falls of DOhio fl........u.......................25,000 Convoy, Feb. 25th, burnt, near Vicksburg....60,000 Champion, summer, blown up, New-Orleans. 5,000 Caroline, summer, sunk by collision, Wellsville................................10,000 Courier, spring, sunk, Lower Mississippi....12,000 Cumberland Valley, summer, sunk, Mis souri river............r.. 10,000 De Kalb, Feb. 12th, sunk, Santee river.......' 8,000 Dahcota, spring, sunk, Missouri river....... 30,000 Diligence, summer, sunk, Fort Coffee....... 4,000 Del Norte, summer, sunk, Rio Grande river. 8,000 Declaration, fall, sunk, Pass Saluda......... 10,000 Dubuque, July 29th, burnt, St. Louis........ 8,000 Empire, Jan. 15th, sunk on Falls of Ohio.... 40,000 Ellen, spring, sunk by collision, Ohio river.. 5,000 * Every year tells a similar and even more saddenilug tale. Accidents to Steamboats, which were after wards raised and repaired. Anthony W. Vanleer, collapsed a flue at Plaquemine, by careening, Feb. 21st. One negro fireman killed and four others badly scalded. Amaranth, came in collision with the Dr. Franklin, No. 2, in the Upper Mississippi. The A. was struck on her starboard bow, and sunk, afterwards raised and repaired. Allen Glover, run into by the Forest A5on s s T v v T 9 A p rn D 155 BOATS TOTALLY DESTROYED. STEAMBOAT DISASTERS ON WESTERN WATERS. arch, near Mobile, Jan. 10. Seriously damaged, but saved fromn sinking. Avalanche, badly injured by coming in contact with the Alvarado in the Illinois river, near Bardstown. Saved from sinking by means of pumps and bulk-headings. Anthony Wayne, sunk while ascending the Lower Rapids in the Mississippi, in Dec., afterwards raised and taken to Rock Island for repairs. Avalanche, sunk on the Chain in December, 12 miles above this city, where she now lies high and dry. Buena Vista, took fire at Kaskaskia landing, cargo greatly damaged by water, boat saved from burning by the exertions of her officers and crew.. Belle Creole, exploded one or more boilers on her trip from Mobile to New-Orleans, Several persons badly scalded. C,t,nfiderice, sunk at New-Albany bar in the Ohio, Sept. 28th, raised and sunk again a few miles below Cincinnati, on the 10thl ofe' Nov. Again raised and taken to Louisville for repairs. Daniel Boonie, sunk in the Wabash river, afterwards raised and repaired. Embassy, exploded boilers at Evansville, Ind., in June,,killing anid badly scalding more than thirty persons; since repaired anid now runnling. Farcon, sunk by ice at the mouth of the Missoutri; since raised. Fawn, badly injured by coming in collision with the steamer Patrick Henry in the Yazoo River. Engineer killed -and several others badly injured. I Gov. Bent, exploded boilers at Island 75, Lower Mississippi, April 26th; one deck hand killed. Gov. Briggs, struck a wreck and stink, in backing out from the wharf at St. Louis, July lath; since raised and repairetd. Highland Mary No. 2, struck a snag in the Lpper Mississippi. near Bayley's landing, and sunk in eighteen feet water; since raised and repaired; cargo valuable, and greatly damaged. J. T. Doswell, sunk by coming in contact with the Geii. Jesup in the Lower Mississippi near Tunica, September 29; since raised and repaired. Lake of the Woods, collapsed a flue onr Grand River, killing the first engineer and five other persons; repaired. Laura, exploded her boilers in Ouachita River, Nov. 8th, several persons badly scalded. Mustang, sunk in Arkansas River, near Fort Smith, in January; since raised and repaired. Mohawk, struck a snag in the Lower Mississip)pi near the mouth of the Arkansas, which knocked a hole ini her hull. causinga fa large amount of freigtht and a considerable number of cattle to be thrown overboard; went on the docks at New-Orleans, afterward run out on a bar near Vicksburgh, since got off and taken to Louisville for repairs. Magnet, collapsed connection pipe band flue at St, Louis, August 8th; since repaired. Pik e No. 9, met with an a ccident nea r Louisville, in Feb ruary, by which the boat was considerably injured and three persons killed. San Francisco, exploded a boiler at St. Louis, May 30th, killing and scalding several persons; afterward burned at the same place on July 29th. St. Paul, sunk at Hat Islan d, Nov. 18th; raised and taken to Vide Poche fo r re pairs, and now running, valuable cargo; badly damaged and partially lost. Santa Fe, collapsed a flue at Fort Coffee, January 14th; one person killed. Talleyran.d, lost a cargo of 1,110 bales of cotton by parting hog chains near Egg Point, in the lower Mississippi. Warrior, collapsed a flue near College Point, on the lower Mississippi, killing one engineer and four or five others. It will be seen that the total loss of boats and cargoes, is estimated at $1,585,400 not including the numerous other accidelnts, such as sinikiLng, collapsing of boilers, flues, damages to boats' cargoes, &c., and we think a fair estimate of every loss connected with western steamboat navigation, if included, would swell the amount to the enormous sum of' $2,000,000 or more; and included in this, accidents of flat, keel and various other species of water craft, and we might safely set the sum total down at $2,500,000. STEAMBOAT DISASTERS ON THE WESTERN WATERS, During the year 1850, as published in the Insurance Reporter: T otal number of boats.......................... 119 " " lives lost...................... 320 On the Western Waters during the year 1851. From sinking, striking snags, and other obstruc tions of the river............................. 52 From collapsing offlues........................ 8 " explosion................................ 16 " collisions................................ 8 " fire...................................... 13 " various causes........................... 12 Total number of boats.......................... 109 Lives lost, as near as ascertained, during the same period. From collisions of boats...................... 86 explosion and sinking..................... 407 " fire...................................... 161 Total number of lives lost...................... 454 Comparative loss of lives during the years 1850 and 1851. 1 850 1851 E.,.!es s Collision of boats..............8...... 86...... 78 Explosions and collapsing of flues...................... 161......407......247 Fire and sinking.............156......161...... 5 Excess of lives lost in 1851..................... 230 156 v STATISTICAL BUREAUS IN THE STATES. the sanitary state. Second, Positive and ap. plied statistics, embracing vegetable and alninial productions, agriculture, industry, commerce, navigation, state of the sciences, general instruction, literature, languages, and the fine arts. Third, Moral and philosophical statistics, including the forms of religious worship, legislative and judicial power, public administration, finance, the inili ary, marirne an(i diplomacy.* The science of statistics may be considered as almost a new one in our country; it has, nevertheless, of late excited much attention, and we see from the reports of Congress and of state, down to the newspaper press, the strongest evidence of its favor and progress. Such a science is worthy of all attention, and deserves to be introduced into our schools and colleges as it is into the merchant's counting house and the legislative halls, as an independent and most important branch of sound practical education. STATISTICS-SCIENCE OF.-The science of statistics is of recent origin. Archenball, who was born at Elbing, in Prussia, in 1719, arid died in 1772, was the first who gave the name and a scientific form to this branch of knowledge. His compend, originally published in 1749, went through seven editions. His most distinguished pupil, Schlossa, carried out his views still further, in the excellent yet incomplete Theory of Statistics," printed at Gottingen in 1804. In 1807 appeared Newmani's "Outlines of Statistics." In the systematic and compendious treatment of this subject, Toze, Remer, Meuse], Sprengel, Mannert, Fischer, and especially Hassell, have distinguished themselves. Tile last named is the emitent geographer. In Italy there are the well-known names of Balbi, Quadri and Gi(,ja. The first European government that paid any attention to the collection of statistics in a systematic matlner, thotughl this was on a limited scale, was Sweden. About the middle of the last century a special commission was employed, who made known at intervals of five years many ijterestitig facts in relation to the population of the country, etc. Schlosser having called attention to the important results of the Swedish commission, several other states soon entered into a similar arrangement. There is now a Statistical Department, or what is termed a " Bureau," in connection with the government of Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, WVurtemburg, Naples and Sardinia. At the head of the Bureau" in Berlin is a gentleman of great intelligence, M. J. G. Hoffman. In 1832, Lord Auckland and Mr. Poulett Thompson, who then presided over the Board of Trade, in England, established a statistical office in that department, to collect, arrange and publish statements relating to the condition and bearing upon the various interests of the Blritish empi, e. The volumes annually printed and laid before Parliamnent by this office, are well known and highly esteemed. In the year 1831, a statistical society was formed in the kingdom of Siaxony, wh ich has prosecuted its objects with great energy and success. The French Society of Universal Statistics was founded on the o2ied November, 1829, and is under the protection ot' the king. It proposes and decrees prizes, grants medals, publishes a monthly collection of its transactions, and maintains a correspondence with learned bodies in all countries. The society numbers at present more than fifteen hundred members, French and foreign, who are classed into titlilary, honorary and corresponding members. The subjects about which the society is employed are arrapnged into three classes: First, Physical and descriptive statistics, embr acing topogr aphy, hydrography, meteorology, geologty, miner alogy, popullation, man considered physically, hygiene, and STATISTICAL BUREAUS IN THE STA'rES.-CIRCULAR OF THE BUREAU Olr STATISTICS TO THE PEOPLE OF LOUiSIANA. I. Time of settlement of your paris h or town: dates of oldest land grants, number and colndbtion of first settlers; wosre,o emigrating; other facts rel a t ing to se ttlemlent and history. I[. Indian names in your vicinit y; what tribes originally; what relics or monuments of them; if Indians still, i n what con dition? pII. Bio g raphy, anecdotes, &c., of' individuals distinguished in you r viocinity in the pa st for ingenuity, ente rpr ise, literature, talents, civi l or m ilitary, &c. IV. Top ogr aphi cal description of your pa - rish, mo untains, rivers, ponds, animals, quadi lrpeds ii, birds, fishes, r eptiles, insects, &c.; vegetablre gsbc ro cths, rocks, minerals, sancl ociays, cihalk, flint, marble, pit coal, piotmerots, Imedicinal and poisonous substainces, elevation above the sea, nat ure of surface, foirests, or iemudergrowths, wha t wells and quality of well water, nature of coasts, does the water make inroads, mineral springs, caves, &c. V. Agrictltu?-al description of parish; formrjer and present state of cultivation; changes taking place; introduction of cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, tobacco, grains, fruits, vines, &c., &c.; present products; lands occupied and unoccupied, and character of' soils; value of lands; state of improvements; value of agricultural products; horses, cattle, mules, hbgs, and whence supplied; profits of agriculture, prices of products; new estates opening; improvemen ii ts suggested in cultivation and new growths; improvements in commtiiiicaition, roads, bridges, canals, &c.; kind and quantity of timbit)er, fuel, &c.; state of the roads, summer and winter; kind of inclosures, and of what timber; matnures; natural and artificial pastures; agricultuiralimplements used; 157 I liazard. STATISTICAL BUREAUS IN THE STATES. marks: "I have been informed that a bill has been introduced and is now pending ill thle legislature of Louisiana, providing for the organization and establishment of a Bureau of Statistics. It is ardently hoped that the measure may be carried, and that the example which will be thus set by Louisiana, resulting from an enlightened view of the im)or ta ntce of her great interests, agricultural and commercial, will be speedily followed by other states of the Uniioni-all have industrial interests of sufficient importance to justify the establishmetnt of such a bureau in their respective governments." In the volume for 1349, language still stronger is used by the commissioner: "In the pursuit of its statistical investigations, this office has keenly felt the want of means for obtaining accurate and reliable information concerning the great industrial interests of the country. No pro vision has been made by the general governmett for obtaining such information, except in relation to our foreign commerce, and but very few of the states have adopted measures tfor obtaining authentic information in relation to these industrial interests. Massachusetts and Louisiana are in advance of most other states in their legislation upon these subjects. In the former state, very full returns are obtaimed in short periods of a few years, if not annually, of her industry and resources; and in the latter a Bureau of Statistics has been established, etc., etc. A most interesting view of the vast resources of this great republic would be annually exhibited, if all the states would follow the example of Louisiana and Massachusetts. The statesman and legis. lator, to whom the people commit the desti nijes of their common country, would then have at their hands ample material to aid them in the intelligent discharge of their momentous and responsible duties, without which they are like blind men feeling their way in the dark." A special committee of the legislature of South Carolina, in the session of 1848, after having ably shown, in a variety of instances, how little information existed in regard to the resources of that state, declare, " There are facts and considerations which, properly exhibited, would prove the necessity of providing some such organization as would lead to a correct understanding of these important matters; and the insufficiency of the matters here presented, only serves to show conclusively that we have been heretofore neglectful of those means of information which are calculated to elicit correct apprehensions of our advantages and duties. We kLow not how strong we are at some points, and how weak we are at others. The appointment of such a committee (i. e., on commerce, agriculture and mechanics) will soon lead to the establishment ol an efficient Bureau of Statistics, which will be the means of collecting and disseminating statistical information f ruit tr ees, vines and orch ards; modes of transportation; extent of in t ernal navigation; levees, &c.; m odes of cultivating and manufaclturing sugar in use. V. Inestances of longevity and fecatdity; observa ti ons on d is ease s in your section; loc alities, healthful or otherwise; statistics of diseases; deaths; summer seats, &c. VII. Population of your parish; increase and p r ogress, distinguishing white and black; Span i sh, French, Ame rican, or G e rman origin; f(reigntieirs, classes of population; lntumber in towns; growth of towns and villages, &c.; condition, employment, ages; comnparative value of free and slave labor; comparative tables of increase; marriages births, &c.; meteorological tables of temperature, weather, rains, &c. VIII. Education and Religion.-Advantaa,es of schools, colleges, libraries enjoyed; proportion educated at home and abroad; expense of education; school returns, churches or chapels in parish, when and by whom ere(cted; how supplied with clergy; how supported and attended; oldest interments, church vaults, &c. IX. Products in Manufactures and the Arts.-Kiinds of manufactures in parisn; persrons employed; kind of power; capital, wages, per centum profit; raw material; sugar and cotton; machinery and improvements; kind and value; manufacturing sites, &c. X. Commercial Statistics.-Value of the imports and exports of Louisiana, with each of the other states of the Union, as far as anv approximations may be made, or data given: growth and condition of towns; increase in towns, &c. XI. General Statistics.-Embracing banking, railroads, insurances, navigation, iltercommuntiicationi; learned and scientific societies; crime, pauperism, charities, public and benevolent institutions; militia, newspapers, &c.; application of parish taxes; expenses of loedis, levees, &c.; number of suits decided in different courts; expenses and perfection of justice; number of parish officers, lawyers, physicians, &c. XII. Date, extent, consequences, and other circumstances of droughts, freshets, whirlwinds, storms, liglhttnings, hurricanes, or other remarkable physical events in your section, from remote periods; other meteorological phenomena; changes in climate, &c. &c. XIII. Literary productions emanating from your neighborhood; your associations, if any; what manuscripts, public or private records, letters. jounas tals, &c., or rare old books, interesting in their relation to the history of Louisiana, are possessed by individuals within your knowledge. State any other matters of Inlterest. Ill Iris report of January, 1848, Hon. Edmund Bulrke, Commissioner of Patents, re 158 STATISTICAL BUREAUS IN THE STATES. letter to the undersigned, compliments, in handsome terms, the action of Louisiatia, and adds that Rhode Island will undoubtedly co operate. a1assachusetts is far beyond every other state in the pains which she takes to preserve even the most minor particulars relating to her population and industry. It is to this that we may attribute in a degree the rapid ad vances of that commonwealth, and her course should serve to guide each of her sisters. She appropriates, annually, large sums to the nu mero)us agricultural associations within her limits, in aid of their premilumns and publica tions. On the table before me are a large num ber of her published reports arid documents, furnished kindly by the Secretary of State at my request. A list of these will aid us in understanding the system she adopts, and perhaps stimulate our own efforts. No. 1.-Statistics of the ConditionandPro ductts of Certain Branches of Industry in Massachusetts. This is a volume of 400 closely-pritited pages, mostly figures, pub lislied in 1845, prepared firom the returns of the assessors, who were provided with blanks by the Secretary of State. This volume is admirably complete, and is expected to be followed up, at short periods, by similar pub lications. No. 2.-Abstract of the Returns of Agricul tural Societies. A volume of 160 pages. made up from the returns of all the agricultural societies in the state, who, as a condition pre cedenit to the receipt of the bountty allowed, must report annually the amount expended by them, premiums allowed, reports of com tnmittees, names of officers, addresses delivered, etc., etc. No. 3.-Abstract of }lassachusetts School Rettlrnzs, containing 336 pages, and published annually by the Secretary of State. This volume was digested by the Hoii. Horace Mlanni firom the reports of the School Com mittees in all the 309 towns of' the state, which amounted in manuscript. as be says, to 5,500 closely-writteni pages, and is very full upon even the merest details of her education system. No. 4.-Insurance Abstracts. These are large pamphlets published annually by the state, giving the operations of every incorporated company fromi returns required by law. No. 5.-Bank Abstracts. Similar annual publications, showing the capital of every bank in the commonwealth, circulation, pro. fits, debts, deposits, resources, dividends, etc. No. 6.-Annual Reports of all Rail-Road Corpor-ations. No. 7.-Annual Reports of Lunatic Asylum. No. 8.-Ann?ual Reports of Births, Marriages, and Deaths. These are vol umes of 125 to 150 pages each, and are prepared with great care fi'om touching all the' interests of the state, of the most valuable kind." Governor Seabrook, ill his message to the legislature of the samie state, says " To as certain with correctness the resources ot' a copul,try which a b e nefi cent Be ing has s o prodigally endowed, is among the paramount duties of t he representatives of the people. Their d evelopme nt and improvement, when ascertained, might properly be entrusted to the people themselves. " As inseparable from the enterprise, should the wisdonm of )he leagislatu re d etermine to rosecurte it, I s eco nmen d t he care ful col ectioll of statis tical info rm ation on all the branches of industry. By the possession of f ac t s and materials, lucidly arran ged and methlodized, we shall be furnished with com plete deta, as to the present state of the pop ulati on, owh ite and colored; concerning agriculture, commerce, inavigationi,l manufac tures, tirade, fingatnce, health, and indeed of whatever may be interesting or instructive to our citizens and their rulers. Unler our poli tical organization, and in the condition of soiety whicle the south ern states exhibit, the value of this knowledge will soon become manites t and duly estimated. It will lend m a terially to facilitate many of the most im portant duties of the public functionary; ena ble the legisla ture to adjust and regulate the various interests of society, and to resduce a chaos of d etails, on m atter s reqp,sioig their action, i nto order and syst em. No r w ill the people themselve s b e less benefited. To know all that concerne, the land of their birth, is a matter of pride and deep interest. The suggoestions of the g overnor are, we understan d, soo n to be c arried out, and a number of distinaguilshed c itizen s of t he s tate have hatd the sur)ject ii consideration, an d are, by correspondence, &c., devisin, the best method to ensure success. Tlje state has already, by a handsome appropriation, secured the publication of the reports of her central agricultural society in one large volume, embracing a vast amount of itformtiatiotn relating to the staples of cotton, rice, and corn, the negro population, negro laws, soils, minerals. manures, etc., etc. In tlm, legislature of Rhode Island, now in session, a memorial was referred to a select committee, but a few days ago, requesting the appointment of a superintendent of staltistics, with a suitable salary, wuhse duty it shall be to collect all the infobrmation possible relative to) thelgricultural and other products of' the state, its resources of every description, the commerce of the state with sister states and foreigni countries, the nature and value thereof, the mechanic arts and mtianuiifactures, public education, religion, public health, and such other information as may, fiom. time to time, be required of him, having as bearing uponl the industrial and progressive history o~f the state. The author of the measure, ill a 159 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. the returns made by the clerk, etc., in each of the towns in the state. Nothing like this is found in any other state of the Union), and the general deductions made from the tables have high influence in the regulation of life and society. Many of our large cities have been equally liberal in the documents prepared and published, showing the progress and pursuits of their population. Prominent among these have been Boston, New-York, and Charleston, which have contributed each large volumes of statistics, so condensed and presented as to show everything that could be desired in every department, and to afford the high-t est and best evidence of the actual condition of the people. Nothing could be more complete and admirable than these volumes. They furnish, as it were, a map of the operations of a city from the earliest period down to the moment that we examine them. Should it not be hoped that our cities, and New-Orleans in particular, the second important, commercially, in the Union, will provide for similar volumes by public appropriations. It affords me great pleasure to say, that a movement has already been made for the purpose by Mr. Jarvis, a member of the General Council. consiste en e nco uragement for the introduction of othe r a nd new branches of industry which may be made to contribute to the supply of their own necessities and luxuries, or produce articles valuable for commerce. It is pre-eminently important that "We, the People of the United States," by the blessing of heaven the most free, the most popular, the most thriving nation of the earth, should live within our me ans. If this is go od p olicy for individTual s and corporations, it is in finitely more so when a pplied to states and nations. Well would it have been for us had we long ago conceived, practically, the importance of this great truth, Land and labor are with us the only legitimate sources of wealth, and our evident interests demand tlhe exercise of such a policy as shall secure the steadiest employmerit, and lead to the development of these, our natural capital. Unpardoinable disgrace should attend indifference or neglect in these respects. Unemployed labor, or labor itnjuticiously or unprofitably employed, should be considered a calamity as carefully to be avoided as famine, pestilence, or war. We cannot conceive of a greater inone sistency thafn that of sending from three to fifteenl thousand miles fbr any article of our consumption wllich ouir own labor and skill, in the appropriate use of means which nature has provided, might create. Anid yet it cannot be denied, this monstrous incongruity has attached itself to our government and people ever since our i ndependence, and that in reference to an article of immensely more value in the aggregate than any other product of human industry. That article is Silk, the beauty and richness of which were not over prized, when, in the reign of Tiberius (A. D. 14), its use was restricted by sumptuary laws to women of rank and fashion, to whom the considerations of cost were trifling; or when (A. D. 222) the famned voluptuary of Syria, Heliog,abalus, ill the extrernity of his extravaganice, as charged upon him by Roman authors, we're a halosericutm, a garment made entirely of- silk; nor when its purchase required the payment of its weight in gold, which was as SI AN SILK AND SILK CULTURE.*-ORIGIN OF THE SILK INDUSTRY; FARLY HISTORY; SKETCHES OF PROGRESS; PECULIAR VIE,VS AND PRACTICES OF THE CHINESE IN THE PRESERVs C UIATION OF EGS; CUL TIcATION OF THE MULBERRY TREE; CONSTRUCTION OF FADING APARTME NTS; MANAGEMENT OF THE SILK WORM; COCOONERIES E, ETC., ETC., ILLUSTRATED BY CUTS; 1,NTRODUCTION OF SILK CULTURE IN OTHER COUNTRIES; HISTORY OF SILK IN THE UNITED STATES; NATURAL FACILITIES OF THE U. S. FOR MAKINSG SILK; ADVANTAGES OF SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES; COM-IUNICATIONS FIROM PRACTICAL MEN; GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON THE SUBJECT.-It is the duty, as it is the interest, of' all nations to guard carefully their resources. They should not only aim at the perfection of' those arts and occupations with which their citizens are already familiar, but offer every been done to establish beyond cavil the fact that the United States, inclimate and soil, and alltheirnatural facilities, are peculiarly adapted to the production of silk-and our people equally adapted to its manufacture into the most beautiful and finished fabrics of which the article is susceptible. I believe there are not ten men in this nation, who, if they have examined the subject with care, will dispute this position. It has been too often and too amply demonstrated, under the most untoward circumstances, to admit of a single doubt. " I herewith transmit the manuscript copy of a brief treatise on the culture of silk, which has been prepared in accordance with your expressed desire. " In the hope that it may be instrumental in awakening favorable public notice; and turning to this enterprise the attention its importance demands, it is respectfully submitted by, "Sir, your most obedient servant, "A. C. VAN EPPS." *"J. D. B. De Boss, Esq. "I received not long since, through my friend the Hon. Ednund Burke, of the Patent Office, your letter of recent date, in which you solicit for publication my views on the subject of Silk Culture. I am ready to improve every medium through which I can contribute to the advancement of this interesting and important pursuit. It gives me great pleasure, sir, to comtply with your wish, and 1 am exceedingly gratified to know that you have considered this a subject of sufficient importance to occupy the colurmns of your Review. In my opinion, sir, they cannot contain matter of more intrinsic value, or that which more intimately concerns your readers and the general public. The business has had its advocates since an early day in our history, and silk of superior quality has been making for more than a century past. Innumerable obstacles have retarded its progress from the beginning, but enough has 160 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. signed by Aurelian (A. D. 273) as a reason for his refusing his empress so great a luxury. This great mistake has cost us hundreds of millions of dollars, and continues every year to extract from us $12,000,000 to $15,000, 000 of our best monley. Now alt this might have been avoided had we adopted the principle here inculcated. But for this political insanity we should at this day have realized the prediction so often made, that we should become " the greatest silk-producing country of the earth," supply ing our own demands not only, but exporting largely of the raw jmaterial to Europe. With our national treasure uiernbarrassed, and our citizens generally engaged in remlunerating pursuits, the addition of new staples seems not so imperative, although sound policy would thee demand it. But the fact is far otherwise. The absorbing question among politicians for the last three years has been, how shall we increase the reveaue of the country? And how has this question been disposed of? Has it been settled to the in terests of the government, the content and prosperity of the people? Has anytlhing been prop)osed likely to effect the object? ALi alteration of the postage laws has been resorted to, and the duties on imports changed; some contending that a high tariff, and others a low tariff, or no tariff at all, would better arnswver the end in view; but still, increasing embarrassment is the cry, and, for aught we can see, must continue to be who knows how long? W'ke must have a system of postage agree able to the people, and duties so arranged as to favor home productions and manufactures to the fullest extent. Blt, after all, we must fall back uponh th e p ockets of the people; for i f there b e not gold th ere, nor in ther hands the m ean s to produc e it, we look in vtaini for it in the treasury, from any and every channel. If, thenr, the pr of itable employmenit of the c itizen o ai(n te pposperity of the rovernemeltt are s o i lea rl y identical, it becomes at once an important inquiry whether the energies of oh r peopie are fully developed, and i f not, what newv object of' itndtstry can be adopted, with a view of increasing their staple products and augmerntilg their income? These questioes lhalue received a good share of a ttention, and, unLler imp rove(d systems of'cultivation which leave been introduced, our lands have yielded all increased abundance, with a corresponding increase in their quality and variety.'Tlie culture of silk, however, by far the mnost important subject claimingi our attentioni at the present time, has been almost totally neglected by both government and people. It is the object of the following essay to present this subject anew to the coilsiderationi of our people and the regard of the govrerlnment; and eve can but believe, that the representations here made, and the alrgumenlts adduced, will leave the desired~ effect. VOL mI. 11 The writer has been so long and so deeply interested in t his subject, that it wo uld n ot be Strange if, in the expres sio n of his views, some extre me opinion s should be advanced; but we believe no s uchi extremes, should they occur, will be found detrimental to the giene - ral go od. It has been our aim t o render every part of our work as correct and pr acti cal as possible. Al l the sources of' informa tion to which we have had recourse are of the most established and reliable character. We would not close our ea here marks her without expressing our gratification that the pages of the Commercial Review have been most generously offered for the discussion of the Silk Question. We rejoice exceedingly that so popular and in-fluenitial an instrumen tality should at this crisis come forward bor the advocacy ofa great and noble enterprise in which the whole nation is interested. Its circulation, too, being principally in those parts of our country where the business can be most readily introduced and carried to the greatest perfection, adds greatly to its value as a channel of public communication. It will afford us much pleasure to answer, as we shall be able, any inquiries which this treatise may elicit, and to aid in every possi ble way the advancement of silk culture at the " South and West," and generally. The discovery that the web of the silkwcorm could be converted into fabrics; and that this uncomely insect could be made to pay tribute to the necessities and luxuries of mankind, was second to none other recorded in the history of the world. When the length of time during which silk has been made and used, is considered, and the great value always attached to it, it is impossible to conceive the immense aggregation of wealth which has been involved directly or indirectly ill its production, manufacture and employment as an article of apparel. If we combine all other substances ever employed for the raiment of the human family, their value can hardly exceed, if indeed it equal, that of the single article of silk. When the empress Si-ling Chi* was watch * All who have ever written on this subject accord to this Empress, the wife of Ho-ang-ti, the credit of having first examined the cocoon of the silkworm with the view of ascertaining its nature, and the possibility of its being rendered valuable. Their own authors, of the several dates noted, w rite as follows: "The lawful wife of the Emperor, (Ho-ang-ti,) named Si-ing-chi, began the culture of silk."-(Book on Silk Worms.) " This great prince (Ho-ang-ti) was desirous that Si-olig-chi, his legitimate wife, should contribute to the happiiness of his people. He charged her to examine the silkworms, and test the practicability of usin g the thread. Si-ling-chi had a large number ofthese worms collected, which she fed herself, in a place prepared solely fbr that purpose, and discover ed not only the means of raising them, but also the manner of reeling the silk and employing it to m ake garments."-Iistory of China, bl y P. Maillawritten, according to Chinese Chronology, 2,602 years before Christ. 161 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. ing the curious operations of this insignifi- Persian monopoly —but his embassy wag cant insect in the forests of Northern China, rejected, in commnon with all other applicaover four thousand years ago; and even tions for foreign intercourse by any except when she succeeded in domesticating the those whose integrity had been thoroughly worm, unwinding the fibre and converting it tested and approved. This movement excit-, into an article of dress, she could have form- ed the spleen of the imonopolists, and its ed little conception ofthe variety of its sub- failure encouraged their avarice. The passequent uses, or the extent to which it was sion for dress which the RPomans carried destined to mingle in the commerce of na- with them to Constantinople, served to intions then unborn, and in portions of the crease the demand for silk beyond all preceearth unknown for many centuries after- dent-and the Persians, in their dreams of wards. It is almost incredible now, with the gain, carried their impositions beyond all statistics of four thousand five hundred years endurance. before us, that, from the eggs of an insect so This was a crisis of the greatest interest minute, that at its hatching, thirty thousand in the history of silk, and calls for particular scarcely weigh one ounce, should originate notice. An eminent author, in reference to an article of such unequaled magnitude as the same period, writes as follows i A war that of silk. Millions of persons are em- with the Persians occurring in the reign of ployed in cultivating the mulberry tree and Justinian, induced that monarch to obtain rearing the silkworm; and other millions in supplies from a more eligible channel. the operation of filatures and manufacto- Through a deficiency of the requisite experies; while thousands of ships, and magni- rience and qualifications necessary for so ficent storehouses, with their numerous at- difficult an uindertakingf, Flasban, King of tendants, are required for its conveyance and Axuma, and Esimiplihaus, Governor of the distribution through innumerable avenues to Hermorites, in Arabia, to whom, for this the hands of its consumers, whose number purpose, Justinian had made application, equals the entire population of the civilized faiied to fulfil their engagements; and silk, world-for wcho does not wear silk? in consequence, rose at Constantinople to a Very appropriately has the empress, in height before unknown. This the partial whose hands this industry had its origin, suppliesafforded by the Pheenician manufacbeen styled and deified as the Goddess of Silk turcrs, would have considerably relieved, had WlTorms; and we can almostjustify the yearly not Justinian, with a blind rapacity, that, in homage paid to this goddess by the Chinese his aim to augment the revenue, effectually peasantry. defeated itself, imlosed heavy duties on If the importance of this discovery was not the importations, which became absolutely at first realized, that they did not long conti- prohibitory. Inconsequence, the merchants nue ignorant on the subject, is apparent in were ruined, the scarcity of silk was equivathe fact that it became at once the favorite lent to al)solute privation, and the failure of pursuit of the most distinguished, and was a revenue, whose increase was contemplated introduced at each recurring season by royal by Justinian, was a practical sarcasni on his example; and before it had time to acquire avarice." a name, it was surrounded by the govern- Thus we have, in the history of silk, ar meiCt with every possible protection which rived at a very important and memorab)le the in,genuity of that jealous nation could de- crisis. Silk was produced, even from the vise. So successfully was this protective po- earliest ages, in regions congenial to its cul licy adopted and adhered to, that, up to the turc, where, in consequence of the blessings middle of the sixth century, it does not ap- it confers, the inhabitants proclaim them pear to have been supposed, beyond the con- selves celestial, but assiduously withhold all fines of China, that silk was the product of a knowledge from what the benefit is derived. wormi. Even the Persians, who had long A isect, as if i some lad of echat controlled the carrying trade between China mnet, laos, sifs, a dies and oithout meiie, labor-s, sp~ins, antid dies; and without and other countries of Asia, do not ap- leaving itselteen a sarcoplhags, bequeaths its pear to have dreamed of the origin of house, more valuable to mean than the proud the precious comlmodities composing their niionurimets of the Egyptiant aichitect, its commerce; and, but for the most ingenious robes, more golden than lJason's fleece, and all stratagem by which it was wrested from its estate, by the bale and cargo, to thie nmen of thenm, it is difficult to determine how long it lesperiian climes, who know not eithler of its must have remained a secret. Towards the existence, or the mystery of its operations. close of the sixth century, this product of the''le elegah nce of the fabrics is admi iedi by all; Chinese had become so universally admired, Europe invites the commerce; a difficulty un and so highly valued, that, notwithstanding manatgeable in the ordinary course of thlings the exorbitant prices exacted for it, it was occurs; a crisis arrives; the old epoch is impossible to obtain a supply. \Mith a view closed, and a new era, most iinpotant in its of opening a new medium of commuiiication, listory, arrives. tHow fiequenitl has relief Marcus Antoninus undertook to supplant the come, Lot only at the moment of extiemity, 162 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. but by the most unexpected means. Justinian thus produced," says Lardner, " were the fiiled in his diplomatic applicatioti to the Ata- [)rogeinitors of all thle generationsof siltlworms bian princes, as well as his predecessor had which have since been reared, ill Elurope and done at the Clhinese Court; ind his very at- the western parts of Asia;"-to which may temp)t to f,rce a trade was the means of its now be added Ametica and Africa- I of the almost total extinction. But how could it countless tmyriads whose constant and succes have been foreseen that what emperors, am- sive labors are engaged in supplying a great bassad,,)s, aid merchants failed to accomplish, and ever-increasitig demand. A canietul of wouild be effected by metans so unlikely as eggs thus became the means of establishing a by two comparatively obscure Nestorian manufiacture which fhashion and luxury had motiks. The preachers of thle doctrine of already renderedimportait, atnd of saviig vast Nestor, exiled by the goverinment of Byzan- sims annually to Europeatn nationts, which in tiunt, hbd fled( to India; and mrnissions, con- this respect hIad been so long dependent on, vents, atid bishoprics, by their patriarch and obliged to submit to, the exactionls of resident in Persia, hald been, according to the their oriental neighbors." testimony of Cosmas, established in every No stooner is this new and interesting cole direction. Two of thle monks penettated to tiy in EuLrop-, than the avarice of Justinian the country of the Seres. With curious eye seizes the cr-adle of the ilifait concern. His they had observed the dress of the Chliniese; own treasurer had the control, the monks the the nmatlufactures of the silken fabrics and I direction, weavers brought irom Tyre and the mnillionls of insects, whose education was Berytus, were the creatures of the new mo the care of qteens, coinverting the leaves of a nopoly, and his became the prerogative to tree itito silk. All the manipulations requi- I fix the price which his subjects should pay site, fromn the embryo state of the little animal tfor the indulgence of their vanity. The price to the f)rotductiott of' the costly material, were of silk, by tl-his ineants, became eight times mirked withi intense interest. nore exorbitant than before the introduction The secret was out! two monkts in posses- of the silkworms; an ounce weight of a sioti of it-the knowledge to benefit tnyriads fabric of common colors could not be pur was entrusted to two-the perils of trav er sing chased for less than six pieces of gold, but the a vast constinent were yet to be encountered royal purple was of quadruple value. Fortu -a risk wtis to be inctirred-ino insurance was nately for the public good, the oppressors of effected, but that of Providence: tlIus all was matnkind live not forevt-r: Justinian died: and sate; and the two monks, our benefactors, be- the monopoly ceased. The people of western queathed a mystery, hid for ages, as a legacy Asia and Europeans discovered that neither to a western hemisphere. Aware of the soli- the mulberry tree, nor silkwormr, wanted citude of the Europeans on this subject, the either Chinese climes, or thle care of a Justi monks retpaired to Constantinople, and first stiant to loster them. Mulberries were plant revealed to the emperor the secret that silk ed in all directions; and the insects fell to was produLced by itisects, whose eggs might work with haste aseager, as if they hladnever be cosnveyed to his d miniions. known that their ancestors had been silk VWere we to indulge in the conjecture what, worms royal to his highness Justinian. After most natur ally ol stch a momentous occasion, the death of this emperor, (A. D. 565,) we was the passion cliefly excited iLt Justinian, find thle culture atnd manufacture of silk trans at this important julncture, when a report, ierred to Greece, especially l'eloponsnesus, and than which tnone co,uld be more inlteresting to to the cities of Atheits, Thebes, and Coritnth. the secular concerns of man, was first an- Soon after, the Venietiatis entered into com tiouticed to his ears, our charity iuight have mercial relations with the Grecian empire, inclined us to point to philanthropy, had we and conducted the carrying trade, for several not ascertained the chatacter of the mana. centuries, to the western parts of Europe. WVith lihim, onl several occasions self was a Such was the estimation in which this mattuutiverse, and all witlhin it his milsions, whose facture was then held, as appears firom the interests were to be co!nsulted precisely to the example of Charlemagne in the year 790, point where they concerned his owvn. By the sending two silken vests to Offa, King of Murproinise of a great reward, the monks were cia, that it was considered worthy of being itiduced t,) return to China, elude the vigilance made a royal gift. Greece, notwithstanding of their jehtl(tisy, obtain the eggCs, and to cot,- all discouragements consequent upon the coI1fine within the tai-rro w precincts of a hollow titinued and rapid decline of the Roman empire, caste, wlIat was sLb,sequently to) create ima- continued to excel all other nations of Europe chittes anld tfactoites, fill warehouses and ships, in the quality of her manufactures. She and becotne itex-Ihatstib)le mines of wealth to alone, for near 600 years, possessed the valunations. Tihey succeeded; and in the year able breed of silkworms; soont produced 551, they wer e in Coistantinople, and thleir wrought silks adequate to her own consumpcatle, like Nioali's ark, contained a family, tion; a recourse to Persia for a supply ceased, whose posterity are now filling regionls wider atid a material change followed in her intertflass those peopled, within the same time, by course with Itidia. Snem, Ham and Japhet.' These insects We deem it unnecessary to dwell at greater 163 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. length here upon this part of our subject, and shall therefore give our attention to that which will be more interesting and profitable: the means by which the Chinese attain so much perfection, and secure such uniform success. Disease among the silkworms there is so uncommon as scarcely to have attracted the attention of their authors; it would hardly be supposed, fromn what they say, that the silkworm is subject to ailments of any kind. It is positively asserted that they do not lose one worm out of a hundred by disease; which seems to have been a matter of much surlprise in France, where the most successful establishmeuts calculate upon a loss of fifty per cent. It is very reasonable to suppose that, in this extended experielnce, we shall find some peculiar processes by which they are secured against the casualties common to other countries. The very circumstances under which the silkworm was abstracted from China, pre clu(les the possibility of any very extensive and accurate knowledge of its management, and every attempt to obtain such information since has been fruitless until within the pre sent century. Wiher the spirit of inquiry and inquisitive ness can no longer be controlled, and vai luable secrets are not saf e throurgh the possession of walled empires,e a acc ess has at length been obtained to Ch inese libraries; and works treatitng ex tensively and minutely of this en ti re subje ct h ave been careo lly reviewed. They form a part of th eir works upon agricul t hre, of which ther e ar e several hundreds, in ecltded il a collection o-f one hundred and sixty thious and volumnes of the most va luable publi cations il the Chinese language; t but amofng all this immense library and the twelv e thou. salnd volumes composite, the royal library, there are but three books devoted exclusively to s ilk culture as a distinct branch of their in,dsistry. These were w rit ten long s ince and have passed, in fact, thsroulgat a new edition wit hin the last two or three hulndre d years. T o th e es sential parts of all these works we htve iacidernital access through recent traio sla tionis into the French language by 5I. Stanis las Jtulier, at the instance of' the Minister of Public Works, of A griculture and C omme rce; t o whic h is prefixed a valuable introductill by M. Camille Beauvais. WV hile in maniu scrip t this translation underwent a most criti catl examination by M. Louis Hebert, whom the French government employed for some time upon the coast of China with the special design of stu,dying the methods of those counii tries. and of bringing back any precious vari. eties of mulberry trees and silkworms which were unknown to French culiturists. This, with other works of great value treating of this subl ject, are iucluded in a collection of one of these,* to which particular reference will * Mtore thtan a hundred volumes of valuable French wvorks recently presented to the American Institute, by MI. Vatternate. be made i n ano ther p art of thi s treatise, a work oli " Filatures," by M. Ferrier, iniculcatin g pre ci sely the views we have e nter -s rained and urge d for the last three years, and which alone can secure the success of s ilk culture in any co untry. From the work first named, together with a book of Chinese p ainting prepared for Dr. Stebbins, otf Northampton, Mlass., which has been f'ully explained to us by Sum-Sing, a Chinese artist of the Chinese Junik recently in this city, who is entirely familiar with the productiota of silk in his native country, we slhall be able to give a very full and correct exposition of the principal methods practised ill Chinia. We slall do so nore in compliance with a genieralcuriosity to kilow their managemenlt, than from faith in the superiority otelheir practices. In their cultivation of the mulberry tree and treatment of the wor-m we can learn much; but their care of the eggs, which we shall notice elsewhere, consists of a routine of unmeaning attentions, which one would suppose miu st prove entirely destriuc tive to the embryo worm. In every branch of the business we may learn muchi f't'om their excesses. If they are extremely careful, it will be found a less dan gerous error than the irregular and careless manniiier in which it has been managed in this c(-unitry as well as inl many parts of Italy and France.* We shall first notice their treat, menit of the mulberry. No expedients have been left untried that were calculated to lead to the general propagation of this tree. In some provinces men were compelled to do it; while others succeeded better by liberal bounties. Hence we read: Tchirn-in, being governor of the province of Kienjte, ordered every man il the nation to plant fifteen feet, on each acre, with mulberries. The emperor gave to each mall twenty acres of land, on'condition of his planting fifty feet with mulberries; (Memtoirs upon P'rovisionis and Commerce.) Whieni the agri cultural labors are terminated, or wheii iain prevents persons from wotrkinig ill!,he fields, every thing must be taught relative to the mulberry tree. (Annals of iNorthernt China.) The Emperor Hien-tsong, who ascended the throne ill 806, ordered all the inhabitants of the country to plant two feet with mulber ries il each acre of their grounds. (Annals of the dynasty of Than;g.) The first emperor of the dynasty of Son_ (960) promulgated a decree to prevent the destruction of the mulberry and jujube trees. (!The leaves of the latter may be used for feed ilug silkworms.) [History of the dynasty of S,)ng.] It, among the p)eople,men- at-e found who grub up the uncultivated ground and plant a great quantity of' mulberry trees, only * And the fact that success has attended the efforts of culturists in this country, in spite of all hindrances, is an evidence of its uncommon congeniality. 164 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. the ancient tax shall be exacted from them. (Same work.) Their works abound with similar passages, showing the care ever exercised to promote the most extensive growth of the mulberry tree, of which several varieties are used, corresponding with the character of the climate and soil ot' the province for which they are designed. The most common and generally approved appears to he a white mulberry bearing atl abundance of thick, glossy leaves about as la,ge as a man's hand. In preserving seed, the largest fruit is selected and both ends cut off, the seeds of the middle onlyv being considered fit tor use. These are washed, dried in the sun, and immediately planted in a bed of rich earth, previously prepared for the purpose. These are kept carefully watered and free from weeds. I lnit the spring the smiall trees are taken up and tr ansplanted inl ground(ls suitably prepared. They alre planted in rows four feet apart each way, arid cultivated with a hoe and spade. li tehe spring of the year, when they are considered sufficiently miatured, they are again removed and planted into permanent orchards, where they are set about thirty feet apart. Another mode is to gather the fruit, which is ripe in June, crush the pulp with the hanids, and wash several times; when the seed is separated it must be dried in the shade. Ten acres of fertile landi, or. better, land for a eorg time unctiltivated, is lprepared, where the mulberry seed. mixed with millet seed, is sown and left to grow up together. The millet ripens and is removed by the reapers, and the mulbet — ries either removed or allowed to remain upong the same ground.r The tops are cut off, and the foliage from the shoots starting the followingi spring is used for feeding. Another writer says in substance as follows:'"hen the time for sowing has come, the seed must be mixed with ashes from the branches of the mulberry tree, and then soaked until they become soft. The next day the seed must be washed with care, and those that float rejected The full seed nmust be exposed to the sun until the water absorbed is entirely evaporated, when they are sown and do not fail to flourish. In another work the subject is treated differently, still conflicting somewhat with the preceding. AVe can give only the ideas. None but new seed should be used. This should be sown in the shade or covered with a sort of tent. The shade of hemp is unfavorab)le, that of millet still more so. Between each plant five to seven inches should be left. and kept carefully watered until they attain the height of three feet; the shade should then be removed. In November the trees should be cut even with the ground, dry grass spread over them and burned; taking care not to have the fire too hot or long-continued. The ground is then covered with' decomposed vegetable manure. In the spring the surface is raked clean and the trees kept well watered. Fine shoots spring up early, miany of which, by fall, attain the height of six or seven feet. A distinction is made between these and a smaller growth, an d ea ch is treated in a differ ent manner: the larger growth being generally preferred to those of a still larger variety, and are termed dwarf mulberry trees. The ground to receive these is prepared as follows: the location must be well cultivated and manured. In one acre about two hundred and fifty holes are dug, each two feet square and two deep, into which is spread about a half bushel of well-rotted manure, mixed with an equal quantity of earth, all made soft by water. Into this compost the tree is firmly placed, the top of the stalk cut off even with the surface of the earth, and the whole filled with well-decayed earth. The next day this is trampled down so as only to leave the hole half full; the remainder filled and slightly packed. A small hill is made over the top of the stalk, which must previously be burned with a hot iron, so that the shoots will all start from buds under ground, thus giving them greater strength and security against winds and storms. Several buds will send out trees, and in order that they may not become too thick, only two branches are cut down close to the ground every year, and earth covered over, so that all the new sprouts of the succeeding year may start from buds under the ground. As the roots become strong, a greater number of branches are allowed to remain, until, in a few years, an immense mass of foliage is produced, and the quantity of roots formed is astonishing. The plantation of Dr. Stettins, of Northampton, Mass., is a good illustration of this mode of culture. He has a small orchard of Canton mulberries, which, from June to November, presents a most beautiful sight; and the amount of foliage produced is incredible. This variety of mulberry was procured directly from (Cina for Dr. S.,- and is doubtless the same variety preferred in the best silk-producing districts of that empire. It was recognized as such by a native Chinese, who recentlv examined it, pronouncing it the same, only presenting an appearance of greater thrift and perfection. It corresponds very nearly to the Moretti-if, indeed, it be not the same, which some of our best judges believe. From these seedlings, cutting,s are taken; and in this way the mulberry tree can be multiplied indefinitely. A general preference is to be given to this mode of propagation, as the variety of the tree can thus be retained in its vigor.. In this something like the followingf practice is observedl. The ground is selected andl prepared for the cut 165 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. tings, as for trees just described; and soon it in a small square hole. These thrive after the buds begin to start in early spring, wvell. branches are cut about one foot in length and We cannot notice further this part of the each end burnt. A part of the buds, if there work, though much more is said, but with are more than three or four, are removed. immaterial variation from what we have al The only danger to be guarded against, as ready given. These observations give a attending this method, is thie effect of the general impression of the plans pursued as suns of midsummer- but if proper care is well as they can be determined from this taken, a single plant is seldom lost. It is a translation, which is in many parts quite pretty general practice to plant a few hemp crude and indefinite. None of the practices seeds on the snn side of the hills to affobrd a described, strike us as possessing peculiar shade. The following spring, the trees, with excellence-but one important principle is the cuttings attached, are taken up and re- carried out by every cultivator-a principle moved to the grounds where they are to re- very imperfectly appreciated amongst us-it main, and there planted with the same care is, that the mulberry tree, to produce good as before, in rows about twenty-five feet and abundant foliage, must have the advanapart, and ten feet apart in the rows. The tage of rich soil and careful cultivation. ground between the rows may be plowed, They not only select the best lands for their but never between the trees. The foliage is plantations but manure plentifully besides. used the second year. In another work, a Liquid manures are highly recommended and more particular account is given nearly as extensively used; also the sweepings of the follows: towards the end of autumn, when cocooneries, ashes of rice straw, various the cultivators have muchleisure, the grounds aquatic plants, and paste made of beans, intended to be planted with mulberries the hemp and cotton seeds, besides the ordinary following spring, must be selected, and all the manures. Great use is also made of the holes dug and supplied with manure, so as to sediments of canals and ponds, which are diminiish the work of the spring when so often drained for this purpose. The plantamnany other things demand attention. The tions are generally surrounded with walls or grounds should be raised on the south in hedges to prevent injury by aninials. The order to retain the snows of winter and the earth around the trees is kept perfectly clean rains of spring. In the last month of the and loose, by frequent weeding and the use year (January) the branches intended for ofthe hoe and spade. No noxious plants or planting in the spring should be cut, and the trees are allowed in the inclosure. Neighwounded part scarred by passing it quickly boring cultivators not unfrequently associate through the fire. They are then bound into together for the purpose of mianag,ing the bundles of about forty-five each, and laid in business to better advantage by a division of a hole, prepared for the purpose, about the labor. Their orchards in such cases are inlength of the trees, and three or four feet celuded in one large inclosure, proportionally deep. Bundles of rice straw are placed be- subdivided by light hedgery, to prevent distween those of the trees. These deposits of putations, to which they are so much inbranches are covered with a thick bed of clined. Grafting and budding are practised to earth, and thus preserved in perfect safety. aconsiderable extent, and are thought greatly After Tchtun-fen (21st of March) the holes to improve the quality of the foliage. The prepared in the autumn, are opened-ma- l leaves thus produced are larger and thicker, nure, earth and water mixed in, and twenty and seem to contain less unwholesome juice. or thirty millet seeds planted at the south This requires a good deal of trouble, but side. The trees are then removed for plant- we are inclined to think the plan a good one, ing. Each branch is bent up in the shape of where it is intended to have permanent ora hoop and tied in that position by a straw chards. It is being extensively introduced rope; and thus planted in the middle of the in the south of France.* hole, and covered with three or four inches The construction of feeding apartments of earth. If the buds are started two or three next claims our attention. These are geni n c h e s they are covered deeper, an d t he earth erally built in secluded locations, and near p a c k ed firmly around thiem with little hillocks or over the water, when it can conveniently of light earth on the top They m ust be be done; that they may have the advantage s h a d e d and kept moist. The t ree s from the of extreme quietness, and freedom from irmb uds grow rapidly, and make it necessary to pure air and injurious insects. They are so r e m o v e some of the lateral branc hes. At constructed as to admit of the most perfect t h r e e years old they become fine trees. Some ventilation, and ye as perfectly to prevent persons who wish dwarf trees, cut off only p e rs wo wh dr tl ct of oly* The first nursery we have ever seen anywhvlere the extremities of the branches and plant was that of Mr. L. P. Finiells in this city. These t h e m upright, so that the top just arises out trees were grafted white mtll)erries imiported roam of the ground. When this is done several the Cevennes Mountains in France. and for some twigs are put togtoether andl thus planttetl +time occuptied a garden in Broadway; anad were re moved a year or two since, we tlink, to so'me part Others place the tboughs in a raddish and plant of Long Island, 166 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. the admission of external air, when unsuited with numerous small frames and shelves, and to the health of the worm, and always so as only light enough admitted to distinguish the to govern the degree of light. moulting from the feeding worms; and this The greatest importance is attached to a is obtained mainly through dormer windows uniform temperature, and means provided for above the frames. Even with the ground, .securing it. In the centre of the building is pipes, or air conducters, communicatiung with constructed an oven, of which the following the outside, must be placed at regular i;nis a description. In the middle of the house tervals, and arranged so as to be opened and a hole must be dug, of which the size mus ut shut at pleasure. The nursery building is be proportioned to the dimensionls of the also provided with an oven similar to the one house. described, only smaller, and also a small stove The ordinary size of this hole is about in each corner, in niches prepared for the four feet square. On the four sides, a square purpose. brick wall, cemented with mortar, must be The internal arrangements for feeding do raised two feet in height. Cowdung, well not vary much in different provinces. We dried, must be taken and reduced to powder, shall refer to only two, which are more and the bottom of the hole covered with a 1 generally used than any others, as they are bed of this powder three or four inches thick. considered the best. One consists of frames On and in the middle of this, a layer of small two feet long and two feet wide, supported pieces of dry wood must be spread, at least at the ends by slats fastened to upright five inches in diameter, which has been cut posts extending from the floor to the beams in the last month of the year. Mulberry, or ceiling. The one at the bottom prevents elms. acacia, or any kind of hard solid wood the dampness of the ground from ascending, may be used. Upon this another bed of and the one on the top screens from the powder must be spread, well beaten down, dust of the apartment. The other arrange.so as to fill all the openings between the ment, which appears to be an excellent one, sticks for if any space be left, the fire would -especially for nurseries-is represented in produce a flame which would be injurious, the cut, which is given in the Commercial besides causing too rapid aconsumption of Review. the fuel. With these alternate layers, the The construction of this frame is very hole must be filled and packed down as tight simple; the hurdles, which are made of split as possible, and then rounded up with the bamboo, very light and easily handled, adsamie. Seven oreight days before the hatch- mitting an unobstructed circulation of air ing of the worms, live coals must be put on through and around the frames. the top and covered over with hot ashes. W'ith this reference to the feeding apartThe mixture readilv takes fire, and emits, ments, we shall notice, very briefly, the for six or seven (lays, a black and yellow methods of hatching, feeding, and the gensmoke. One day before the hatchings of the eral management of the silkworm from the worms, the door must be opened to dissipate egg. the smoke, and then carefully shut. From The time of hatching corresponds very that time the whole contents of the oven are nearly with that of Virginia, and the eggs on fire, emitting no smoke, and can be pre- are retarded or forwarded to correspond with served for a month or two without becoming the character of the season. The care beextinguished or materially diminished. The stowed upon the eggs by thle Chinese is alwarnmth produced is mild and agreeable, and mnost incredible, and differs altogether from it can hardly be perceived that there is a fire the practices of this country, and we can in the apartment. It is well to surround the hardly be induced to attach to them any adtop of the oven, to the heilght of one or two vantage. feet, with a high brick wall, so that the heat Frou about the first of December up to may ascend to the middle of the room, and the time of their hatching, they are subjectthere spread in an equal manner. This will ed to repeated washings in brine and river also prevent those persons who attend the water. silk room at night from falling into the ovenl. To these baths their authors attach great The house being constructed of dry materials, value, as securing uniform hatchings and readily becomes warm and retains the heat. vigor of constitution. The subject deserves When the worms are to be removed from the a passing notice in this place. nursery, the old paper on the windows must In a work entitled, HOANG-SING-TSEFG, the be replaced by that which is perfectly white author observes: The eighth day of the last and clean. The windows are covered with mnoon, the eggs must be dipped in water screens or miats, to prevent the escape of where the ashes of the mulberry branches heat, and regulate the admission of light. have been boiled, or the ashes of grass. Connected with the main building is a nur- They must be taken out at the expiration of sery, carefully constructed, for hatching and one day. The twelfth day of the second feeding thc young worms. It is generally moon, a bath must be given to the eggs, on built fronting the south. These are fitted up the morning of the period called Thlsiag 167 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. miag, (5th of April;) then they must be wrapped up in cotton paper, and deposited in the kitchen. Wait until the mulberry leaves are as large as a teaspoon, then en velop the eggs in cotton; covering them at night with garments that have been worn during the day; and in the morning wrap them in blankets. When the eggs are hatched, the worms must be warmed by artificial heat; but so long as they are not out of the egg, they ought to be well taken care of, and hatched by the heat of the fire. When it is desira ble to soak the leaves of paper, covered with eggs, the ashes of the mulberry must be used; the leaves should be moistened and powdered with the ashes. Afterwards they must be rolled and soaked in water where a certain quantity of salt has been dissolved. If the rolls of paper swim, they must be kept under water by placing them under a China plate. The papers ought to be taken out on the twenty-fourth day. They must then be washed in running water to remove the ashes. Afterwards, they can be hung up in the cool air, and the eggs will hatch in due time. The twelfth day of the second moon, leaves of the plants called thsai and ye thsai, blossoms of the leek, peach tree, and white beans, must be taken and crushed in water, and this used as a wash for the eggs. Many persons preserve the eggs in bamboo boxes, where they are exposed to all the changes of the atmosphere. If they are subjected to sudden transitions from cold to extreme heat, or the contrary, it produces fatal results. The worms thus injured in the egg, have a yellow appearance on hatching, and are never worth the trouble of raising. They may be compared to a child that has contracted disease in the womb. At its birth it is weak and feeble; and such innate ailments generally extend throulgh life. When one wishes to preserve eggs by this method, the papers should be spread on bamboo boards, secure from the sun or wind. They should also be covered with silk cloth, to prevent butterflies or insects from the cotton plant eating them. In the winter, when there is a body of snow, the leaves containing the eggs should be spread upon the snow for twenty-four hours, and then placed on the boards and covered as before. WVhen spring comes, they must be attentively watched, and every change noted, that their hatching be properly provided for. Powdered cinnabar must be taken, diluted in warm water, and the eggs bathed in it. The water should be kept at the temperature of the human body. Before the eggs are hatched, the papers should be weighed, and the exact weight written on the back of the sheets. When they are hatched they should not be separ ated from the paper. Mlany persons, as soon as the worms appe a r, detach them fro m the paper by means of a small broom or quill; but these little beings, as delicate and slen der as a hair, or a bit of silk, cannot support the wounds given them by the broom or quill. The better way is to cut some tender leaves into small shreds, and lay them care fully on the worms, to which they will speedily attach themselves, and can be re moved without hurt. The business of the feeding is entrusted to persons who confine themselves exclusive ly in the silk-rooms. These attendants are required to be scrupulously clean and par ticular, and to study every want of the wormii, and to meet them with a prompt and appropriate supply. The following things are named as being offensive to the worms, and to be avoided: 1st. Silkworms do not like to eat damp leaves; 2d. They do not like to eat warm or wilted leaves; 3d. The newly-hatched worms do not like the smell of fish fried in a pan; 4th. They do not like to be in the neighborhood of persons who pound rice in mortars; 5th. They do not like to hear strokes on sonorous bodies; 6th. They do not like men who smell of wine to give them food, or transfer them them from place to place; 7th. From the time they are hatched until maturity, silkworms dread smoke and odorous exhalations; Sth. They do not like to have skin or hair burnt near them; 9th. They do not like the smell of fish, nmusk, or the odor of certain herbaceous animals, such as'the goat, &c.; 10th. They do not like to have a window, exposed to the wind, to be opened during the day; 11th. They do not like the rays of the setting sun; 12th. They do not like, when the temperature of their habitation is warm, to have a sudden cold or violent wind introduced; 13th. When their habitation is cold, they do not like a sudden change to extreme heat; 14th. They do not like dirty or slovenly persons to attend them, or enter their room; 15th. Care must be taken to keep all noxious affluvia and filth distant fron their apartments. Wlhen the worms are first hatched, they are fed with the most tender leaves, cut into fine shreds, and lightly spread over them vith a sieve. In the space of one hour (two of ours) they must receive four meals, making forty 168 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. eight feedings during the first day and night. Feed must be given, without fail, both day and night. If this course is pursued, it fol lows that they sooner attain their maturity than if they are neglected.',hen they can be made to mature in twenty-five days, the worms of a given space will furnish twenty five ounces of silk. If twenty-eight days, only twenty ounces can be ob)tained. If the time be one month, or forty days, only ten ounces will be made. In feeding, the at tendants are required to visit every frame with the greatest attention, and feed with perfect uniformity, that the worms of each day's hatching may not become irregular in their moultings. The feedings are less frequent as the worms increase in size. It is comnmon, be ginning when the worms are very young, to use rice flour. It is sprinkled lilghtly over the frame immediately after the worms have been fed. When this is done, the leaves re quire to be dampened. Dried mulberry leaves, finely powered, are sometimes used in the same way. It is thought to strengthen the worm, and cause it to make a more perfect cocoon. One of the most accurate works, treating of this sub ject, says The leaves which are given them ought to be neither wet with dew nor dried in the wind or sun, nor impregnated with disagree able smells; for as soon as they have fed upon such leaves, they will contract diseases. If care be taken to preserve, in advance, a sufficiency of leaves for three days, there will be nothing to fear from long rains nor a want of food. The space of one day and night is, to the silkworm, like the four seasons of the year. The morning and evening answer to spring and autumn, and the middle of the day and night to summer and winter. In these four periods of the day, the weather is never the same. When a good fire is preserved in the silk-room, great attention should be paid to keep it of a uniform temperature during all parts of the day and night. The matron should wear only a single garment, and regulate the temperature according to the sensationi of heat or cold she experiences. If she feels chilly, she will judge that the silk worms are cold also; and so when she experiences oppression from heat, will the wormns be affected. An increase of heat immediately after feeding encourages the appetites of the worms, and causes them to eat with great avidity. To efflect this, a lonr stove, placed on a hand-barrow, is used. When the worms have been fed, and had time to ascend the leaves, this stove is carried by two men through the aisles, until a gentle heat has diffused itself among all the hurnles. The fire in this stove should consist of burn in, char coal, s o as to pre vent smoke, and covered with ashes, to preve nt too brilliant a flame. When the worms have finis hed their eating, the stove must be car r ied back. This is repeated at each teeding, if the air of the rooml is in the least chilled. The various moultings are a t te ntively ob served, and e very p reparation made for the neces sities o f the wo rms. They are not suf fered to remain upon thei r moulting beds f or any length of t ime after their awak ening but a re removed* pr omptly to fresh frames, covere d with r ice straw, crushed in a mill. The rapid growth of the worms render s it necessary to remove and separate them, co n - stantly, which is don e with the greatest care and affection. Any neglect or carelessness may be followed by diseases and losses. The weakness and delicacy of the worms should never be lost sight of. Etl rance of the Silk;worms into the Cocoon erics.-When the worms indicate a desire to spin, they are removed to cocoon rooms, which are generally constructed separately from the feeding apartments. These rooms are provided with various descriptions of winding-frames. As this has been, and is yet, a subject of much discussion and differ ence of opinion in this country-it claims at least a passing notice. A country so long engaged in making cocoons-must necessa rily have acquired a pretty accurate knowl edge of the best methods of spinning-this would be our judgment of any other coun try, save China, and is doubtless true of them to some extent, notwithstanding their unreasonable adherence to ancient usages. -"e have just said that the spinning is done by distinct rooms. In the southern countries these are generally placed in the house, as fewer worms are there fed; and besides, the early rains, occurring at the spinning season, forbid their being placed in the open air. At the North, the rooms are larger, and placed outside of the house, that there may be no obstruction in the circulation of the air. A dry and warin place must be selected, in order that neither cold nor dampness can penetrate into the interior of the cocoon rooms. WVhen the worms approach their maturity, a fire must be lighted on the ground where the room is to be located, until it is perfectly dry; afterwards the remains of the fire and ashes must be swept away. One description of cocoon room- is constructed as follows. The floor is made of plank of the fir tree, six feet long and three feet wide. A frame, pierced with large holes, must be made of thin bamboo from which arrows are made. In these holes some rods must be inserted; 169 -1 In the removal of the worms, a frame of network is used, somewhat similar to those used by many persons in this country. SILK AND SILK CULTURE. then long and large bamboo branches, stripped of their leaves, must be cropped above. The room must be covered with a framework of woven reeds. The silkworms will here have a place where they can establish themselves in safety without fears of falling. When the interior is well arranged, where it affords necessary depth and security, the worms may be successfully spread over it. At first, the frame must be a little inclined until the worms have voided their exeremental matter, which always precedes the formation of their cocoons; and afterwards warmed with a small brazier, or pan of live coals. WVhen they have begun to inclose themselves in their cocoons, the heat must be increased. They must never stop in their work. If the temperature be too cold they walk upon their silk and cease to spin. Some persons, particularly at the South, where silkworms are fed more for amusement than profit, remove the worms, when they are ready to spin, to their own houses. They spread short stalks of dry plants upon the frames on which the worms were fed, and ill these beds of branches they deposit their cocoons. Another plan is to construct long sheds of light framework, covered with straw mats, and in these place their cocooneries when the worms are ready to enter them. They are set in rows on each side, with a passage in the centre large enough for a man to pass through. As fast as they are needed the rooms are provided with shelves covered with dry branches, on which the worms are placed. When the necessary number have been installed here, they are covered with double mats. These mats are not so closely formed as to prevent the admission of air. Artificial heat is recommended here also. Touran-Tso, or- Round Cocoon Rooms. The centre is first established and the circum-iferenice divided into five parts by pine boards. Five poles are then planted and tied together at the top and then surrounded with rush mats. Dry branches are laid all around against the sides, against the mats where the silk worms are to ascend. When the worms have been placed in, the lower part is surrounded with rush mats and covered high up with straw in the form of a cove. Chan-Po.-This termg signifies a frame covered with small protuberances or hillocks. The frames are woven of split bamboo reeds, and placed upon a stage or table, supported on each side by wooden pillars about six feet high. The small elevations are made of rice or wheat straw, cut of equal length and twisted together at the top; and then placed upright on the frames. It is necessary to cover the frames with a slight bed of short straw, to prevent the worms falting through betwseel} the reeds. At the bottom f th this frame chafing - dishe s filled with chr a ard oal are plac ed four or five feet apart. When the worms a re put on the frame only a little fire is necessary to induce them to work, and they will not be seen to climb and move a bout wasting their silk. As they enter their cocoo ns the heat must be increased by the additiion of burnei ng charcoal to the chafing-dishes. A s the silk is thrown out by the worms, it dries, and immediately hardens, which is the reason why the silk from the se distric ts so long retain s its strength and receives such brilliant dyes, which is ne ver the case w here the worms spin in a damp and chilly atmosphere, as is generally true of most o the r constructions for spinning. A nother spinning-frame recognizing the same principle is highly spoken of. These frames are of bamnboo net work, with interstices large enough for the formation of the cocoons. They are intended to be placed within inclosed cocooneries similar to those described, and present peculiar advantages, as the worms are not suffocated by miasses of branches; while the heat and air have free circulation. The French provide for the spinning of their cocoons a " cabin" of the following description. Take a round willow basket, which dress with brushwood, putting the wood round two-thirds of the basket, and leaving the other third open for putting in the worms, and to give an opportunity to clear away their litter. Then pull the ends of the wood together at the top, so as not to press too close upon each other, and so tie them with a little twine or pack-thread, to keep them in their place; after which you put a paper cap, pretty large, upon the top of the wood, it having been found that the worms are fond of making their cocoons under a cover of this kind, as it affords an opportunity of attaching some threads of silk to the paper, which enables them to fix their cocoons the more firmly in their place. In putting up the cabins on the stage erected for this purpose, the two rows of brushwood at the extremi ties of the stage are made nlmuch thicker than the others, especially for six or eight inches above the stage or shelf, to prevent the worms from getting out at the ends, and fall ing over the stage. In putting up the other two rows, you lay a piece of wood or reed across the stage for each row; and in putting up the brushwood you make the first turn to the right and the second to the left, and so alternately, keeping the reed in the m-iddle, which binds all fast. In dressing the stave with the brushwood it is advisable to cover the pillars which support it, and to cover also the top of the stage with the same, that the worms may find a convenient hiding place wherever they wander, In constructs 170 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. accustomed to them, as they will refuse eating, commlence crawling, and assume a transparent appearance, resembling a newly laid egg. This is peculiarly the appearance of the head and neck. We must here terminate our views of Chi iiese silk culture. What has been said has been culled from much matter on the various topics introduced. To include the transla tion wholly, would have been impracticable; and to extract the sense of such a mass of confused indefinite scrapings has been intol erably tedious. The management of the mulberry tree by the Chinese; their application of artificial heat; and the use of heat at the time of spinning, are subjects deserving our particu lar consideration. Further than this, we have no remark to offer, either in commendation or otherwise, of Chinese practices in making silk. Our readers must judge of their value. What may be entirely practicable under their sys tem of labor, ilmay be wholly incompatible with ours. There will be found suggestions without doubt, which may be turned to good account by American silk producers. We commend the whole to an attentive read ing. The history of the silk culture in the United States-which is but the continua tioiI of a series of efforts to establish it in England-commenced long before the dis covery of thlis continent by Columbus. It is appropriate, therefore, to preface what we have to say under this head, by an allusion to the introduction of the silk trade into England, and their repeated attempts to make cocoons. No sooner had the elegance of silk, as an article of apparel, begun to attract attention, than the whole energy of the government was bent upon the introduction of its manufacture as a new industry for their own peo ple; and if any one feature of British legislation has been more prominent than others, it has been the incomparable perseverance with which they have fostered and perfected their own manufactures. Their example in this respect is worthy the imitation of all other governments, and, above all, of our own. To this spirit, more than all other causes combined, are they indebted for the present extent and perfection of their manufactures. In nothing has this been more marked than in reference to silk. As ea r l y as 1180, during the reign of Henry I1., the beauty of silk began to be admired and coveted. We are informed that, at the marriage celebration of Margaret, daughter of Henry IlI.. with Alexander III., of Scotland, no less than 1,000 English knights were ap. pareled in cointises of precious silk. Tile first example of the restrictive policy iing the cabins great care must be taken to put up the brushlwood in such a manner as to allow a passage for the worms between the differenit branches, which, however, should not be too wide; and it is weil to make a great number of points or buts touch the shelf, because it affords the greater opportu nity to the worms to mount. MIany people at Mon-tauban put roses or sweet-smielling flowers upon the pillars which support the stage, and in other parts of the room, with a view to sweeten the air. In forming the arches of the cabins, there is always a little opening at the top of each pillar, occasioned by the curve or top of the circle. Care should be taken to make this opening pretty wide, because it has been observe d th t h t he worms make choice of this openiing to fix themselves in forning their cocoons. The cabins may, in this way, also be mad e to accommodate a grea ter number of wormis. Th e most irregular and crooked brushwood wfill mak e the best cabins. (The scrub oaks growing in many parts of this county would make fine cabins.) The tops should be intert wined, thus forming as ma ny interstice s as possible. (The materials for the cabins should be ever ready, that when ever the worms show an sinc lination to mount, you may always h ave a h ou se to p lace them in.) When the worms have commenced their spinnillg, ca re must be taken not to suffer the cabins to be touched; because, when they begini to wo rk, the first ope ration is to fix many t hreads of silk to different branches to support the cocoon, and keep it in a proper poise. If, b y any means, any of these supports are broken, the worm finds his ar rangemients deranged, and, becoming at once discouraged, abandons his cocoon, and throws out his silk at random, wherever he goes. Such accidents sometimes occur, by worms working(, in the same neighborhood crossing each other, thoughlI this is not often the case. It sometimes occurs that worms, apparently as good as any, linger on the shelves and refuse to mount, the reason of which seems not understood. Such worms, however, will generally go to work and spin vigorously, if placed in a good position, and become quite lively when exposed to a moderate increase of heat, which it is always advisable to have the means of producing. The spinning worms should be visited with great care and frequency, that no diseased worm be allowed to remain among the healthy olnes, to become putrid, and vitiate the atmosphere, which should, above all things, be pure antd well supplied with a free circulation of air. M\uch care is required that no worms be placedl ill the cab~ins until they are thoroughly ripe, which is easily determniled by those 171 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. of Great Britain, was an act, in 1363, to encourage the manufacture of silk. This act restricted manufacturers, merchants, &c., to the making and dealing in one particular .kind of goods, with an exception in favor offemales engaged in the manufacture of silk. In 1454, an act was passed, prohibiting for five years the importation of every article of silk which they werecapable of making themselves. In 1463, this statute was extended to several other articles, such as laces, ribbons, fringes, silk twined, silk embroidered, tires, purses, &c. In 1482, the encouragement afforded by this act was withdrawn, and the consequence was, the manufacturers were at once thrown out of employment and reduced to want. So disastrous was the effect ofthis repeal that it was speedily renewed, to continue for four years. The business thus protected, progressed rapidly; and in 1508, under Henry VII., an act was passed prohibiting every article of silk. wrought either alone, or with other stuffs, which their own people could make. The violation of this law was forfeiture. In the reign of James I., silk throwsters and dyers were introduced, and broad weavers imported from the continent. In 1629, the business was so far advanced, a s to be consid ered ofnatio ral value, a nd entitled to an act of incorporation, which was passed und er the name of " The Masters, Wardens, Assistants, and Commonalty of Silk Throwsters!" Continued advances were made, but the machinery employed was very imperfect, and they were mainly dependent upon Italian throwsters for organized and other fine silks, up to the year 1718, when a young and enterprising artisan, Mr. John Lombe, of Derby, undertook an enterprise, at great hazard, hy which he hoped to gain a knowledge of the silk throwsting machinery of Piedmont. Dr. Lardner has the following account of this adventure of young, Lombe. "There were three brothers, Thomas, Henry, and John; the first was on e of the sheriffs of London, at the accession of George II., on which occasion he was knighted. " About this time the Italians had introduced great improvements in the art of throwing silk, and rendered it impossible for the Loombes, who were engaged in the silkthrowing business in London to bring their goods into the market upon anythng like terms of equality with the Italians. The younger brother was a lad at that time. By the laws of the Italians, it was made death for anv one to discover anything connected with the silk manufacture; with this addition, the forfeiture of his goods, andl his person anld name to be paintedl outside the prison walls, hanging to the gallows by one f oot, with an inscription to remain as an indelible mark of infamy. J Young Lombe, however, was not deterred. On his arrival, and befor e he became known, he went, accom panied by a friend, to see the silk works. No person was admitted except when the machinery was in action, an d e ven then he was hurried th rou gh the rooms with the most jea lous caution. The celerity of the machinery rendered it impossible fo r Mr. Lombe to comprehend all the dependenecies and first sprin g s o f so extensive and complicated a work. He went with variou s persons in various habits, as a gentleman, a priest, or a lady, and h e was very generous with his mone y; but he could never find an opportunity of se e in g t he machi nery put in motion, or of giving to it that careful attent ion wh ich wa s his object. Despairin g of obtain ing a de quate i nformation from such cursory inspection, he b)ethought himself of a ssociating w ith some clergymen; and being a man of letters, he succeeded in ingratiating hi mse lf with th e priest who con - fessed the family to which the works belonged. He seems to haveopenedhis plans, partly, a t le ast, t o this person, and it is certain h e found means to obtain his co operation. According to the scheme a dopted, Mr. Lombe disguised him self as a poor you th in want of e m pl oyment. Th e prie st the n introduced him to the director s of the work, and ga ve him a good character for honesty and dilig ence, an d de scr ib ed him as inured to hardships. He accordingly engaged as a filature boy, to superintend a spinning engine. " His mean appearance procured him accommodation in the place which his design made most acceptable to him. ", While others slept, he was awake, and diligently employed in his arduous and dangerous undertaking. He had possessed himself of a dark lantern, tinder-box, wax candles, and a case of mathematical instruments. In the davtime, these were secreted in a hole under the stairs where he used to sleep. He then went on making drawings of every part of this grand and useful machinery. The priest often inquired after his boy, and through his agency, Lombe conveyed his drawings to Messrs. Glover & Unwins, at Leghorn, the correspondents of the Lombes, who made models from them, which were dispatched to England in bales of silk. ,, After Lombe bad completed his design, he remained at the mill until some English ship should be on the point of sailing for England. When this happened, he left the works and hastened on board. " Meanwhile, his absence had occasioned. .suspicion, and an Italian brig was dispatch 172 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. ed in pursuit; but the English vessel hap- Since the above facts were elicited, there pily proved the better sailer of the two, and has been an uninterrupted increase in every he escaped. It Neas said that the priest was department of the business, and it has conput to the torture; but another account tinued to be the subject of constant Parliastates that after Mr. Lombe'sreturn to Eng- mnentary watchfulness and guardianship. land, an Italian priest was much in his Every exigency has been provided for. Statcompany, and it is the opinion that this was utes have been made, modified or repealed, the priest in question. to correspond with its interests; and what " The common account of Mr. Lombe's is the result. Just what it would be here, death is, that the Italians, exasperated at or inany other country where a like policy the injury d.)netheir trade, sent over to Eng- is pursued. The pcrfection and beauty of land an artful woman, who associated with English silks are the admiration and ncavy of Mr. Lombe's Italian servants engaged in his the world. iUnder such a" selfish system," works, and having gained over one, poison manufactures must flourish; without it, was admiinistered, of which, it is said, Mr. neither silk nor anything else can thrive. L ombe died on the premises, on the 16th These things havetheirinfancy, and need November, 1722, in the twenty-ninth year years of constant vigilance before strength of his age." enough can be acquired to withstand the On his return to England, he obtained a competition of older countries, and mainpatent, securing to him the right to use and tain an independent existence. dispose of the same for fourteen years. As early as 1608, the question of produc The first machine constructed from his ing a supply of raw silk from their own soil, drawings was of immense capacity, and appears to have occupied the attention of when completed, was capable of turning out Great Britain. It had then recently been 318,504,960 yards of organzine daily. introduced into France. to the great profit of The building erected for this machinery that nation; and king James I., who was was five stories high, and 660 feet in length. then on the throne, saw no reason why his So much time was consumed in erecting the own people might not prosecute the indusbuilding and completing the machinery, that try with similar success and advantage. Mr. Lomibe applied for an extension of his His recommendations met with the appatent; which, however, was reflused, on proval of the inhabitants; and in 1620, there account of its great public utility, but at the were a large number of mulberry plantasame time Parliament voted him the suni of tions in a flourishing condition; but the ~14,000, in consideration of his eminent humidity of their climate opposed every atservices. tempt to naturalize the worm, and the whole From this time the business moved stead- matter has long since been abandoned. ily forward, continually increasing in inter- These failures at home induced King est as it advanced to perfection. James to turn his attention to his colonies In the year 1783, their manufactures of in America. Accordingly, trees and eggs silk were valued at ~3,350.000. were forwarded, and competent instructors From evidence placed before Parliament sent from Europe to Virginia, where the in 1821, we collect the following statis- first effort was made. tics:- k waiter in 1609 says: "There are silke There had been imported, for several wormes and plenty ofmulberie trees, Vwhereyears, from Bengal, China, Italy, and Tur- by ladies, gentlewomen, and little children, key, an average ofat least 1,800,000 pounds (being set in the way to do it,) may be all of raw silk, under a heavy duty; and sub- imiploied with pleasure, making silke comparsequently to this, for eight years, the able to that of Persia, Turkey, or any other." importation of raw and thrown silk amount- No doubt was then entertained of the praced to nearly three and a half millions of ticability of silk culture in Virginia. So pounds annually. important was it considered, that measures The number of looms employed exceeded were resorted to, to compel the colonists to 40,000, giving employment to avast numnber commence the business. A penalty of ten of operatives, whose aggregate wages, at pounds of tobacco was imposed on every reduced rates, exceeded ~3,000,000. planter who should fail to plant ten mnul It was then calculated that nearly half a berry trees upon every hundred acres of million of people, directly or indirectly, de- land in his possession. The same act gave rived their maintenance from the labor cre- a premium of four thousand pounds as an ated by this manufacture. The amount ac- inducement to commence the business; and tually paid to persons employed in the vari- in the succeeding year, ten thousand pounds ous branches of the business, was set down of tobacco were to be awarded to the perat ~10,000,000. son who should export the raw silk, amount In 1825, there were 226 throwsting mills, ing to ~200 in value. running 1,180,000 spindles At Spitalfield The cultivation of tobacco, however, ohalone, there were 17,000 looms in operation. tained the preference, and little progress 173 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. seems to have been made in silk, thoughl it dress of Georgia silk. Governor Oglethorpe was continued for many years, to some ex- returrne to Alnerica greatly encouragedl, and tent, and it is stated that the coronation robe adopted immed(liate means for a nioe vigorous of Charles II., in 1660, was made of Vir- prosecution of the business. A liirumber of ginia silk. rpersots w"ere sent to the filature foir inistruc By far the most important and successful tions ini reeliug, ancd a large amount of eggs attempt made under the patronage of Great preserved for the ensuingR season. In Alarch, Britain, was in Georgia. The climate was 1736, the governor, through the Rev. Ar. every way congenial and the colonists were Bolzius, presented one mulberry tree toevery anxious for the undertaking. So elated were inhabitant. they with the idea, that they actually dream- The Saltbtrgers, at Ebenezer, entered ,fully into the views of Oglethorpe. and were ed of supplying all Europe from that single folly iiito the views of O',1ethorle. and were colony.i i,alEuoefo-itasil forward in carrying out his suggestions, and colony. -sitS)0 The substantial facts connected with the eslt she s remrlkable success. The Georgia experimenlts are all that we can give. influence of M. Bolzius, though he confessed The most!ull and authentic account wlich limselt disiiterested was decidedly fiavor hims ad el disimc ointeres thed fasilideslavr has been published is found in Harris's Me- ale, and he di m h to ince the families moirs of Oglethorpe. The first inducement of his parish to co-operate with the tiustees. offered to the settlers of Geotrgia to encourage The indifference of tliis excellent mai soon the piodfiction of silk, was the appropriation disappeared, tfor in 1742, we find him one of of goveriimeiit ltrids for the supply ot the the most zealous advocates for silk culture in best nmulbey trees-aind additiomal grants to Georgia. Two reels were erected near his tho ho shoul plant a certai uer o house, anddthe reeling of cocoons commenced trees. This bounty was offered for teii with gratifyiiig success. thos -,h soul plat acertin umbe of w ithi gratifying success. tree.TisouywasoferedfMr. Camuse saw this, and through envy, Sinye nweet auhriis withheld the must essential knowledge from So inten t were the authorities upon havingr - the women sent to him from Ebeniezer tforin the silk industry uppermost in the miuds of struction reelin Thec the peo)le, that the public seal had on oe stlu tio in reeli. The Getmans poceed side of it a representation of silkworms, with e it uabating activity, increasing their the woi ds, Non sibi, sed aliis," lnot for our- stock of trees every year. In 1749, the trus selves but for others." The colonial trustees tees offered a liberal boeuty to every woman introducede silkworm eggs, trees and seeds who should make herself mistress of reeling ieiIl I 13 they iaged a pofessed during the year; and at the same time gave liberally. Iii 1739. they engaged a professed ~l.Blii emsint rc hd o sib irelei fim P'iedrnont, M. Amatis,who. Mr. IBolzius permission to erect sheds for silk,-reelter frm iedmnont, 5l. Areiatis, who.I wvitlh s5veial Italian reefers whomhe brou^ght reeling, which was done, and suitable ma with him, commeneced reeling some veryfile chines provided. Fonrteen youig women coooiis raised at the trustees' garden, whiccl a climed the bounty offered, and engaged in gave silk equaliug ius beauty the best of reeling at the filature the next season. Over relcll or Itlia productioii. They weie one thousand pounds of cocoons were raised, SOFn, how ever, i-uterruptedl by a diaiaculty and the silk reeled( in so superior a manuer as Sonl, i~ieve, iteruptd b a imcltyto command a higher pirice ini Loudon than ainolig their reeleis, who treacherously des- to co ad a er pice i Lodo tha troye(l the machinery, trees and eggs, and that from any othei county. thoeu flted to CAroliiia. The growth ot the mulberry at Ebenezer nmust have been remarkable; tfr we see it Tlie trustees had become too well satisfied staed that trees plartel i rot of the par,staled that trees planted in tront of' the parof their abilities to make silk, to abaudon sonlage, at teii years of age, myeasured nearly thei r work hlere. IMr. Cam(use and his wife, four feet in circumference Judge Nleigs reItal ians, wititheir two children, anl two mnarked not Ion,, since, when conversing on other persons, were engaged for six years to this subject, that, iL passiga through Ebenetake charge of afilalure at a salary of ~520 zer about fotrty years ago, his attention was per aituin, besides a dwelliig-bouse and attracted by the uncommon luxuiiaice of the gaideii. mulberry trees. At the request of' the passen. Tlei first sill, produced in Georgia (eighlt gers the coach was stopped to allow them to pounils) was carried to England by Genetal collect some of thle fruit of these trees, which Ogletthorpe, il 1734. Aother slhipiment was was then ripe. The judge says, "the berries made the tllowving year, and the silk maiu- were as large as my thumb and very fine." fhactiired into ortanzine by Sir Thomas Loml)e, IManlLy of' the trees planted by the Saltli)urgers, who was so delighlted with its quality and more than fifty years before, were then standlbeauty, that he immediately exhilbited it to inlg apparently in theii prime. Ql-ieei Caroline, who was equally pleased, MIr. Pickering R,)bison, andc James Haberand direti that it should be woven into a sham, in August, 1750, were appointed "comdress 1pattern filr her niajesty's wearing. At missioners to promote more effectually the its cotliiletioii it was appropriately presented silk culture." Mrl. Rol)inson arrived at Savatiby \lit. I;(otll, the wveaver, accoipaiiied by tiali in the following December. The first Geaeil O letlope aud Sir Thomas Loinbe. act of the commissioners was the erection of At the iieaxtbii th-lday of' the king, Qoeen Carm- a putblic filatuie which should secve as a norlitie appeared at the levee in a full court ialaschoolfoi the whole proviuce, ftom which 174 SILK AND SIL C(ULTURE. to send ion competent persons to mallage private filatures, which it was supposed would soon follow as necessary to comiplete success. A larg,-e bliilditig tor this purpose was undertaken ill MarchI, 1751, ard on the 8th of the May I llowinj, was ill complete operation. Six thiouisanlid three hutndr-ed pounds of coco)ns were sent to the filature this year, of which two thtiousand came from Ebenezer, and the remainder from Whitfield's orphan house. ,Il. Rolbiin.soti devoted himself arduously to the duLties of his appointmeit, provitng very satistactorily to the trustees that the timie he had splent in the filatures of France, whither they lfad sent himn, had been well improved in lear,iti(, " the mysteries of silk windiing."P Mr. Robiiison's engagement with the trustees was ftr a single year, but he was retained a seconlI year by the local authorities at the earniest sol i,itationi of his associate, Mr. Habershalii, who thus speaks of him: " 1 think him the most prudelijt, as well as the most capable personr, [ ever knew, to undertake such a wot k, and if he could be continued here, t dtoul)t not, that he would turn out a number of wNell-instructed reelers, who woulda be a)le to conduct filatures at Ebenezer, II Augusti,, anudl other parts oft the province." Mr. Robinson was appointed an assistant in thle govetL,imenrt, and st'onlgly urg,ed to remain, wlii( li he refused to do unless permanetlt eicoui,,'(einent were extended to the culttrle of' silk, for at least fourteen years. lie retltii(edl to EIgilatid in 1752, whent his place was s)pplied by Joseph Ortobulghee-a native of Piedmont, and an accomplished ree!er. C, rtificates of the excellent quality of their silk continued to reach them every year'. The filati e at Savannuah was destroyed by fire oti tile 4ilt of July, 1758, with several thlousa.iid pounds of cocoons, anld much of the machineryl. Doii ng the fi)ur years precediti, this, more than 2 1,000 pounds of cocoons h1ad beeti recei ved. A larger anrd better building was immediately e!ectecl, and ready for use early the enstiitig spring. This house, when no longer employed as a filature, was used as an assembly, or ball-oonm, and also for public and religious meetings, and later, as a dwellinghouse, until Malch 05th, 1839, when it was destroyed by fire. WVitlinii eig,ht yea,'s fi'om this time little less that),),e hu,, Ired thousand pounds of cocoons were received at the filatture, a very large proportion of which came from the Saltburgers at Ebeneezer. Uijf'()i,rtiiately, at the very time when public confidelLce was fixing in favor of silk, and when the continutance of the encouragements which had beell given tfor a few years preceding!, bid fitlir to constitute it a staple; eheaeres wvere madle inl thle prices paidl ftr cocoon~s, okld b,},luties w ithdrlavvn ad newv ones ensacte d —until a g,eneral unlcertainlty aud stagt hation ensued. Even at Ebenezer the businless was at a standstill for some time, and re. qtiired uncommon exertions to r evive it; but tunder the adiitiistrations of Mr. W'ertsch, a patriotic magistrate, thle German people were ag-ain induced to give it their attention, which they continued to do for several years. sending M.aiinndally t o Engll and s everal hundre d po unds of the raw material. The next interruption was that of the Revolution; s ince which it has never been revived to any profitable account. The last sill; offeredn for s ale at Savanna h, was a lot of 200 po unds in 1790, The impression lett upon the public mind was allogether tavorable. A public filature for a wh i le e xist e d at Philadelphia, the property of a company oreganize d for the purpose of promotiing silk cultu re. This was established a bout 1770, a nd a large quantity of cocoons was soon r ecei ved tfrom the surrounitdinig count,'y. Dr. Franklin took an active part in this enterprise. This estabiishrmenit was never opened after the war. The only other place where any very decided action -was taken previous to the war, was at Mansfield, Ct., where the business in its several b,anches has been continued until within a few years. The production of cocoons ])as ceased from neglect to keep lup a su)p)ly of good mulberry trees. Mluch sewing silk is still made there. The business at Mansfield has proved very. profitable, for at a time when most of the surrounding towls were iis(,,lveint, it was unembarrass(ed-with motley in its treasury. No man in Connecticut mianifested so much active interest in this cause as President Stiles, of'Yale College. His experimenls began in 1758', by the planting of three white mtulberry trees, which he ve,:y ap)propriately named A. B, C. These trees in the course of f(tur or five years became very fine, anid commenced bearing fruit. Every berry was carefully collected by the Dr.'s own hand.s, and the seeds preserved as a legacy for coming generations. Jin 1765, this alphabetical nursery had extended to K, of fitle growing trees, and( a considerable number of worms had been fed. As soon as a. sufficiency of seeds had been produced, the Dr. took a jouirney through the country, and distr:,buted them to many: exacting great care in their treatment, and the return of a certaini proportion of'trees to him when they had attainied a proper age for transplanting. This nuir sery at Yale College. was emphatically the' A. B, a," of silk culture in NewEng,-land. President Stiles continued his experiments with unabated interest toer nearly folrty years, andl there is nlow in timl lib~rary of Yale Coullege a manluscript co,py of a wrork onl silk wvritten by him, emlbracinlg a vast amounlt of 175 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. practical information, the results of his ex- it as a distliguishing staple of American an perience. dustry. " It is exactly in the state in which the The following communications will show worthy Doctor left it, bound with the very that I am lnot alone in this opinion. string which his own hands had tied, and sur- These letters have been written in reply rounded by all the veneration with which to circutlars issued early the last summer, respect for the honored dead can invest it." calliting tfor practical itnformation on the sub It has seldom been handled by any except ject, whether tfavorable or otherwise. his venerabtle coteniporary and particular A large number of responses have been fri..nd, I)r. Daniel Stebbins, who is still living, made, the most important of which only are at all advanced age, in the village of North- included in this publication. They will be amptoln, Mass. It will be seen, by a commu. accompanied by such remarks as their con nicattion from his pen, in another place, that tenits Inay suggest. Dr. S. still retains his first love of the silk The first we shall give is from Dr. Steb cause, atd is doing much for its advance- bins. The great age of the author, being now mentt. He has prt-obably the best nursery of' in',re than 80 years old, will attach increased mulberry trees in the United States. interest to his communication and credence The writer has enjoyed many personal in- to his suiggestions. The Doctor has been one terviews with the Doctor on this sublject, and of the nimost active men of his day in all the has now in hisletter-case from him more than leading enterprisesof the age, and is perhaps sixty closely-written communications of rnmuch one of the most eminent living illustrations of value. a life of temperance and industry. Since the close of the war, no systematic His imental health and the steadiness of his efflrts have been made to establish the silk nerve tar surpass those of most persons of industry amongst us; yet there has not been the present geiner ationii of half his years. a single year il which good silk, to some ex- A. C. AN EPP, ES. teut, has not been produced, and in some te states in considerabla amonnts. Dear Sir:-Itaving had the privilege of President states in conisiderab~le amounts. Stiles' Silk Journal several years, in November, The most remarkable period in the whole 1843, I preparedl a supplement and returned it to history of silk in this country commenced Yale College, to the care of President Day, in testiabou-it 1830, at the introduction of the Morus mony of my approbation and high estimation of the MLlticaulis. Journal-of its excellency, truthfulness, and ac *.hicanl*us.. ~~curacy, as applicable to the present day-and its An intense excitement pervaded the whole evidence in favor of only one early crop and open counltry, in which all classes were concerned. feeding in New-Ergland, instead of a succession of A few thousand buds of this tree were coi cros in our clinate attended with sickly worms and inferior cocoons. The Silk Journal is a valua-. sidered a fortune, and for awhile almost be- ble document, in favor of the practicability and uticame a substitute for money. lity of silk culture in America. This, with the re Large companies were formed, hooks cenit publication in New-York, by Greeley & McEtwritteln by meni witlhout experienlce, mul- rath, compiled from the most approved and reliable sources, or Treatises on Silk Culture, with the reberry orchards planted, cocoonetries and tac- port of the N\cw-England Silk Convention at Northtories erected, and the newspaletrs of the day ainpton, ant the report of the American Institute, filledl with the prices current, atd the re- Tie Sil Qetion Settled"-these, with other ap ci(] of ttsactis illp mulberry stoiauces, fd e hoped, might elevate the silk cause becoid ot' tirnsactions ini mulberr y stock. yoed the reach ofealumny. Tlis 1period was,f brief duration, and was Everv part ofthe Silk Journal strengthens and confollowed by a teaction whsich carried every- firmns the position note approved by silk-growers. ti before it, aud left the ve me Of i- There has, liow evner, been an improvement in the vathiti,~ befo0re it, and left the very name of muit-ievo -itlere,noeofeigbusofGl' sil te bjctofgescalcotept rieiv of imullberries, mode offeeding by use of Gill's berry and silk the object of general cottetnpt. cradles-tli application ofthe after foliage for niak The particulars of this excitement are too ing paper, IIsing thein nerba rk ofthe annual sprouts fresh in the memory of all to call for a fur- forcloting cordage,&c.,andtheperforatedcocoons ther recital here. btfor spiinling thread, knitting hosiery, gloves, and making durable clothing; and now, in 1847, using Ont the whole, the multicaul7s mania, as it the expressed juicc of the fruit to make l~ulberry is termed, was not without its benefits. It writilig./tlid; all of which havi ng been tested, can was the inoais of ilitroducing mulberry trees ni Was the mlleanls of inltrodlucingJ mulberry trees wev doubt of ultimate success? We need not trench t upon the ordinary pursuits ofthe farmer, mechanic, rapidly througlhout the states, many of wvl(l ~~lhletOInlar)~t~lielcefhilfrltrmchtnte rapidly throughont the stamerchant, or mal of'science. Silk culture, with the fell into good hands, and are returnilng an due protection ofour genera l and state goverlnments, ampllle reward for the labor l)estowved upon a nty bec(ome o f great national importance and reahmplmuerait indiv idual enterprie tlhemn. It is true, prejudices were created cte aeratilg to i ndivid ual enterprise. We annually import of raw and manufactured which still letter the silk cause, but these s ilks, nearl y tet nmillions worth, and two or six must inevitably submit to the irresistible in- i illiolns worth ofrags and junk for paper; which fltietices of successful experiments wh~cli- are {, is i fact, encoulraging the enterprise and support ant of torcirn lpopulation, while we have the facility and meaning throughout the country. An amnounti m.iig thoughoi te. u. A ability to produce both. Such are our national of sbethe reasoniilng is certainly turnlilng public habits ofi?dustry, enterprise, and imechanical tact, attettinti to this sill-ject. whichl, regulated by that we may venture to compete wvithi the cheap the e liic of the past, aud the inorm- labor and cheat living of any portion of the world, tioli w~ee aracquiring flour tile 8il-plodtlci for we arefreemnn, enjoying the fruits of our indusc ltion we aeacquiring frof t he silk-ptodocing t rye counitrics of the Old WVorld, must and will fix Whthsb en done in the culture and mnaunfac 176 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. tore of wool and cotton, we may hope to approxi- i man, having visited the writer, were shown the noate in the culture of silk, by the application of the Canton foliage, which they recognized as the genusame untiring industry and perseverance. " Nil est ine kind used in China. Dr. Parker was pleased desperaiduati," should be the motto of silk growers. to see so large a leaf, and suggested that our climate With regard to the origin and high antiquity of was more congenial than even China, to develop so silk, IPresident Stiles advances all opinion fron the!fine a leaf. But being shown a multicaulus leaf, the Seventy of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, Proverbs, Chinaman, rapidly passing his fiia over the lehf, exEzekiel, &c. It has been said that lexicographers are claimed, "too niuchee big." During the tree specuof opilion that the Hebrew words shesh and tneshi, lation, so called, there was as much fancy about the and perhaps other tIebrew words, might be ren- kind and value of different kinds of'trees, as of any dered silk, cotton, or fine linen, and is sometimes fancy goods of thie stores and shops. rendered silk, Ezekiel, xvi. 10; "clothetheee with There was one multicaulis tree from the south, silk," Genesis, 41, 42. purchased and set out in Northampton, which cost In Egypt silk was known, and Joseph was proba- fourteen dollars, anid lived two or three years. Young bly clottlied with silk. In the time of Solom-on, too, trees here ofone season's growth sold usually from (Proy. xxxi. 22,) " her clothing, silk and purple." twenty-five cents to two dollars, and called cheap. Tlhat the mulberry tree was known in Palestine, During the tree speculation, there was a tree, the appears from 2d Samuel, 1st Chronicles, and the product of white mulberry seed, which developed Psalms. The valley of Baca, too, may have been a larger leaf than usual. Being transplanted from so called from the abundance of mulberries, the only the nursery to a barn-yard near a public road, in tree adapted to make good silk, and is probably in- Belchertown, it attracted the attention of a mulberry digenous to all climates where silk can be made. speculator, who gave the owner twenty-five dollars It is believed that the silkworm hasbeensustained for the tree; removed it into Connecticut, and reand preserved in open weather Irom time iinemo- sold it for fifty dollars, to a man by the name of rial, until domesticated by the officiousness of man- Sharp, and called the Sharp tree, who esteemed it so kind. The silkworm has been exposed to all the valuable that one dollar per bud was the price, and vicissitudes of the seasons, sunmmer and winter, so declined the offer of four hundred and fifty dollars for as to crop its food and wind the cocoons upon its one-fourth ofthe tree, as stock property; but soon favorite tree il the open air, probably from year to tilhe tree lost its value, and was worth no more than year, preserve its species, independent of exposure an ordinary white mulberry. to devouring irsects, vermin, and birds of the forest. During the mulberry excitement, some made, but This is corroborated by the testimony of livirlg wit- more lost money. Those who speculated on bortnesses, also by written testimony Thev have been rowed capital, depending on sales of mulberries, seen on trees in South Carolna, on Mt. Holvoke, in were induced to oflbr them at under prices. Those MAlassachisetts, and in the State of Maine. These in similar situations adopted a similar course, facts show that a r,v,?rrant may be preserved and underselling each other; convinced the public that p)ropagatedl, pass through all the stages of mutation, trees were of little value, and finally ruined the tfrom the egg to the cocoon, in the open air, from business; identifying the mulberry bubble as one year to year, and perhaps for centuries. and the same with the real silk cause. Respecting the most approved kind of mulberries There were a few instances where money was for feeding, and the management, experience has made in the mulberry deal. An individual of my proved that the Canton, Asiatic, Broosa and Alpine, acquaintance, who had indorsed for his friend that should be headed down every spring, to augmnent the failed, having a patch of Canton mulberries, from number of' thile stalks, the size and number of the less than one-fourth of an acre sold enough to lift a leaf, as in China; and if' as many pounds of bark mortgage and note, the principal and interest of silk nay be taken from the stalks of an acre of close- which would have exceeded ten thousand dollars. set titulberries as oftfilax, the culture of the mulberry But unpropitious as the silk business may have for the bark silk, ofitself; might be aprofitable invest- been a few years past, tlhe prospect, in 1847, is now merit. brighteting, and to meet the necessity of the case, Qucre.-W- hether the mulberry tree, its seed, the trees must be multiplied to a great extent, but not in knowledge of silk cuiture, originated in Palestine, hot-houses, as was done in the mulberry speculation; Egypt, or Babylon, and thence found its way to such forced plants, or even those raised in very China, in conseqluence of Sewars, removal of captives, warm climates, produce a sickly plant for Newdispersion, emigration or captivity of the Jews, England. People were ready to take trees as fast Egyptians or Babyloniatis, or whether it originated as they could be raised, and no wonder that some in China, and thence passed into Europe, is an in- were crazed, without considering that silk might quirv, of use only as evidence of its great antiquity. be raised like other crops, and with as much cerThere is, however, a strong probability that silk tainty; that the transportation of a pound of raw was known in Palestine even before China became a silk, worth five dollars, costs no more than a pound natioi, their fabulous history to the contrary not- of flax or hemp; hence the advantage of silk over withistaditng; and the tradition ofthe stealthy in- most other crops. troduction o f silkworns' egs from China into If two-thirds of the exports of Italy consist of raw Italy or Greece, is problenatical. and manufactured silks, and that in France silks are At an etrly period ofsettling the American conti- among the most productive sources of revenue, why ientit by ELtropieaits, the culture ofsilk was fostered, may not the United States profit by the same course? and with,reat expense introduced into Georgia, and Our habits of industry, perseverance, and mechllanithence gradually into the middle and eastern states, cat tact, are in our favor. Our soil and climate are by the united exertions of President Stiles and Dr. propitious, and why should we despair of being able Aspinwvall, permanently established il New-Eng- to compete with any other people or nation in the land, especially in lailsfield, Ct., and ill Northamp- culture of silk? ton, and continued to this time, 1847. We have hundreds ofmiles of inland over which The culture of silk was attended with reasonable the wind passes to divest it of superfluous moisture, success and profit up to the Revolution, and even rendering the air pure and congenial to the health during the w ar progressed slowly, yet surely; so of worms. In Europe, the loss of silkworms is that in theyear1839,it was estimated that Mansfield estimated at about fifty per cent.; but President and vicinity raised five tons of raw silk, worth Stiles estimated the loss in America at only twentyabout $5t),)00., five or thirty, under the then mode of feeding; but The white muilberry has been in use until about with the present itnprovements, need not exceed 1830, when other varieties were introduced, having five or ten per cent., some say less. a larger leaf, and eqtially adapted to the nourishment That pure air and ample ventilation are essential of the silkworm and production of silk. Since the to the delicate silkworm, has been proved by castinitroductio n of these varieties, there has been a ing away sickly worms; and, exposing them to the gradual advance in growing silk, until intercepted open weather and drenching rains, they have so reby the mulberry speculation, so called. covered as to make fine cocoons. Dr. Parker, of Canton, China, with a native China- Our early crops are generally more healthy, and VOL. II. 12 177 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. and preserve them, either for planting in layers the following season, or coniposing for t.ll a ure. It is now probable that, by a recent dis cover y fir separatingi the hfibre of hemp and O flax, the firmer bark of the mll)erry may be a)bta ine(l, wvliicli will render thie after-growth of, l eat valulte. The leaves should be carefully drawn up ono the b o ots of the trees beftore winter sets il. gil-ie spr(-)outs start very early in the spring, tfurnishitii tender leaves fior young worms, atnd, by the time of the fouirth moult mitg, are s,fficienitly matured tor cutting down fotr branch tfeeding, which is the practice now by the nmost successfull feeders. A few inches shouild always be removed f,iom the tops, as the leaves there are too watery for advanced worms. As regards the use of mulberry leaves for paper, we doubt whether for file paper it can be bleached sufficiently white. It makes a very strong paper for wrapping, and is valuti.ble as a place of deposit for silk worms' eggs. "The size of the cradle must depend upon the form and extent of the building. To suit a shed or building fifteen feet wide, the cradle should be twelve feet long, and have three rockers four feet long, made of plank fifteen to eighteen inches wide, and about one and a half thick. A trough, made of boards, joined at the bottom, and spreading one foot at the upper edges, with one end openi, is to be fit ted into notches in the centre of each rocker; this forms the bottom of the cradle. From the end of each rocker, a post two and a half feet long extends upwardls, inclined a little outwardly. A narrow strip of board runs along the ends of these posts, to which, and to the upper edge of the trough sides, laths are fastened half' an inch apart. on which the branches, cut up in pieces about one foot long, are laid. "Feeding in the cradles commences when the wormns are about half grown, or immediately after their last moulting; where they remain until they spin. "Care should be taken not to give at once more leaves than the worms will eat up while fresh, as, otherwise, a surplus is left to dry up, litter the trough, and obstruct ventilation. " The cradle should be gently rocked at each feeding. thereby removing all impure air from about the worms and branches, and shliakig dnown the dry leaves and excrement into the trough, which is washed out by occasionally pouring in water at the open end. The motion of rocking is very agreeable to the worms, being similar to that of the branches, when feeding in a state of nature. "Another advantage is, that no worms can fall through the troug t he the groun d; those that happen to fall in the brush, crawl to the sides and ascend to the top at pleasure. ' The worms readily spin among the branches, making but little floss, and seldom double cocoons. By fenders on the rockers, mnice, rats, &c., can be prevented fronm injuring the wormas. The sheds and cradles are cheap, easily constructed, and meet all the wtan t s of the worms, which are, protection from the storms, birds, &c., pure air, cleanliness, regular feeding with fresh nutritious leaves, and to be undisturb ed by handling, and to spin their cocoons when ready. "They curtail the expenses more than one-half, and double the qiuantity of silk from a given quantity of worms, ove r any other mode heretofore practised." —eill's Circular. make firmer cocoons, than those from a late crop. Gill's cradles are of great advantage to the silk grower. These, with other improvements of the present day, may be a saving of fifty per ceit. to the silk grower. In New-England, we may have early frost to injure the foliage: there is a remnedy. By saving andl drying foliage, pulverizing, moistening and sprinkling with wheat or rice flour, the worms will feed as readily as on green foliage. Silkworms' eggs may be preserved, during winter in any cool, dry place. T he ice- house may be too rnoist, unless the eggs be inclosed in dry boxes. Among all the variet ies o f eggs, the peanut is the best, having less floss and greater length of fibre. It is humiliating a nd J lolly unnecessary for us to contribute so mrtuch annually for the article of silk, which is an indirect way to support the population of other countries. If we Imust support foreigners, whvy n ot do it for those who are flocking to ourl shores to engage in agricultural pursuits in the flar west? Let us interest them in the culture of silk. They mnay be so far from cash markets, that the expenses might render ordinarv crops of little value. The object of the foregoing is to preserve a record of the former and present condition of silk culture in America, and something of what has been done since the days of President Stiles, who, with Dr. Aspinwall and Joseph Clarke, may be considered the pioneers of silk culture in the northern and eastern states, and now revised and corrected for the year 1847. Little did I think, while a member of Yale College, under the presidency of the Rev. Ezra Stiles, D.D., that when approaching him. by the distant manners of that day, withl hat under the arm, and doing obeisance to his person, enveloped in his brown American silk toga, that I should ever follow him so closely in his favorite amusement of silk culture. It is sincerely hoped that some friend should write out and deposit records oftthe state of silk culture with the 1'resideiit of Yale College, for the time being, at least every twenty or twenty-five years, and especially at the end of the present century, to be preserved in the archives of the college, where is the Journal of President Stiles, the nucleus of American sillk culture; the reports of the state of silk culture in America may be kept in perpetuam. The seqlulel of silk culture in the United States may be very important to the country, and to carry out the object of the subscriber in all coming time. DANIEL STEBBINS. NORTHAMPTON, September, 1847. Rcnar-ks.-WVhat is here said of " heading down" nmullberry trees needs notice. The advantages apply equally to other varieties also. For this purpose, the trees are planted in rows, about five feet apart, and about two feet aptirt in the rows, which should always run norlh- and south, to expose equally to the sun. The cultivation should be principally by ineans of a ho)e, or ifa plow is used at all, it shoul(i be a very light one, (a narrow cultivator is good,) and in the mid(dle, between the rows. Preparatory to a plantation, the ground shoutl( be clean ani mellow by deep and repeated plowing, and well supplied with vegetable manure. The plants then take deep root and are easily cultivated. The late foliage generally will keep the soil in good condition, and is protl)ly the best fertilizer that cati be employed for this putpose. AVe h,ive preferred to retmnove the sproutts late ill the fall, after the foliage has fallen, I t t t t c t r b c a 178 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. ?cmarks.-The advantages claimed by Mr. an occupation; and the morus multicaulus has been Gill lolr his cradle at fihst str-ike th e l eadercultivated with a view rather to its sale than with any intention of applying its leaves to their legiti as too great to be fully realized; bu t the i- any itentin purpose. Both the morus alba and thle morus ventor assures us, as do others who have multicaulus succeed perfectly in these latitudes, and them in use, that the picture is not over- with ordinary taias the silkworm might be reared drawn Our ow experece, tooa ind the best silk obtained throughout a very exten drawn,. Or''x e t o,'s sive portion of our country; wherever the trial has of them, confirms the statement as far as tilhe been made on a small scale by careful hands, I principle is concertied. WVe think, however, haote 1(ver kciotvn itftil; whereas, most of the large that a cradle witth higher rockers, say two e s t ablishme nts intended to produce silk for exporta feet, without a tioilli, ati(I the bottom on tio have failed both in England and in our Southern feet, without a trough, atit the bottom onecol I ~~~~~~~coun,try. half wider, would secure all the zedvaltages, Thle reasons for this in both countries are probably and avoid some objections. It is raltherl ill- the sanie; an insufficient number oftrees and want convetient eanig the troh *and e of attention to the temperature of the rooms where lcoveie,,., i. a d e'. the worms are fed. Where the practice of rearing when this is done, it renmains dattip, with the wormns is followed rather as an amusingoccupa litter sticking to it, whichl soon motilds, antd tion, than for purposes ofgain, the rooms may easi causes an offensive effltivia.a Besides, with ly be kept of a proper temiperature, say 641 Fah. for the greatest care, the bottom soniietines be- hatching, and 700 to 75~ while feeding, and at the time of spinning, raising the head a little everyday. comes clogged with litter and excremental It is stated in the fifth volume of the transactions of matter. the society for the encouragement of arts, that a These objections- occurred to us on first person had successfully reared thirty thousand silk the cridle; and t h or worms, when in the beginning of.July, just as they seeing the cradle; ant th oug h our experience were about to spin, there came a chilly northeast in the use of them has been limited, it has wind, and many assumed the chrysalis state with not served to lessen themni much. out making any attempt to form a protecting cover. We must attribute this, ili part, to want of I have myself seen many worms destroyed by Mr.. Gill as'us us bein g kept in buildings constructed of thin boards, care, as Mr. Gill assures us that, when properly and exposed to great alternations of heat and cold. managed, no such ol:jections exist. In an account which I have seen of the silk cul ~~~~~Individuas aexs.I antoie acount which Individuals are authorized to use them tlure in Lornbardy, where nearly the entire popula thro the term of the patetit, as they tion are engaged in it, for a stated period every tbroughout the erm fthpatn h year, and where the husbandmen purchase the eggs please, for $10. and the mulberry leaves from the large proprietor, it The next paper we shall publish is from is said that, "in every house room is made for lay the pien of the Hon. Joel R. Poitisett, whose a- ming out the worms as soon as any symptoms of life wit. silk prod.,t, appear, and that even in the poorest cottages, with miliar-ity with silk production ib Europe, and but a single apartment, it is so contrived that some enlightened and practical views of the indtis- space is allotted for them, and the inhabitants shift try and ecoiomy of our own country, entitle as well as they can during twenty or thirty days. it to canldid coutsideration. Tables of reed are formed about two feet and a half in breadthand ten to eighteen feet in length. These are suspended from the roof, the upper shelf two THE OMESTEAD, GREENILLE, S. feet below it, and others at a foot distance, the low Dear Sir,-I have received your letter of the 4th est of them two feet from the floor. The windows instant, asking me to give you my views and irm- are made of paper to prevent currents of cold air pressions whether favorable or not, in relation to and too great heat; the shutters are of straw, and the culture of silk in the southern portion of the the door consists of a piece ofoldlinen cloth. WithUnited States, and at the same time asking of me in, the place is kept in darkness, except when the such suggestions of a practical nature as my ac- worms are to be fed, or the place cleaned out, when quaintance with other silk-growing countries, and lamps are used. In manyof these places thermomewhat I have noticed here, may enable me to offer. ters made for the express purpose, are kept to as If I did not think favorably of your efforts to re- certain the temperature. They are made of spirits commend the culture to the people of the South I of vine, and show no other change of heat than that should not have ventured to oppose my opinions to between the 18th and 20th degrees of Beau., equivathose of a person, who, like yourself, has been long lent to 68~ and 76~ of Fahrenheit, to which limits it is occupied with this important subject. But thorough deemed necessary to confine their range of temperaly persuaded of its practicability and imtportnce, I ture." With thesesmall producers, whofurnish the cannot refuse my feeble aid to urge on the introduc- greater quantity or silk, the labor bfor the most part lion of a new staple likely to prove so advantageous ceases with the formation of the cocoon; for they to our country. generally sell the cocoons to other persons, who You are aware that this matter has frequently make the winding and throwing the silk a distinct occupied the ser ious attention of Congress, and that traile. There are, however, some few establishthere exists several luminous reports on the subject mets in which the sill-kworinms are reared, and in of raising the silkworms and reeling and throwing which the thread is woundoff and all the operations the silk. I have not access to these reports at this completed to fix the silk for market. time, nor have I here a paper published by Mons. Notwithstanding a great portion of the silk preD. Ilomerque at Philadelphia, under the patronage of pared in that part of Italy is consumed within the our distinguished fellow-citizen, WVm. Duponceau. country, the exp,orts of this article were estimated, They contain the most ample instructions in rela- ten years ago, at upwards offifteen milliotas f doltion to rearing the silkworm and reeling the silk, lars, and it appears from late accounts that this culand if these efforts have hitherto produced so little ture has been steadily increasing ever since that effect, it is to be in some measure imputed to the period. peculiar character of our people. We of the South I have been thus particular in describing the silk are neither patiect nor persevering, and can seldom culture of Lombardy, because it appears to me best be brought to undertake any enterprise which it re- adapted to this country. In the upper districts of quires more than a season to accomplish. As it re- Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, there are quires 15. of mulberry leaves to make one pound many sall farmers w-ho might nurse the silkworm of reeled silk, the trees must be cultivated on an ex- if there existed in their iieighborhood esteblishiticeits tensive scale before any considerable establishment for reeli.g and preparing the silk for market, with can be formed, so that hitherto silkworms have been e mtesive nullberry groves and a regular supply of reared, and silk spun more as an aniusement than sedi, afforditig a ready mtiarket for the produce of 179 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. to the objects desired, a building of the folowing description: Single story buildings, or sheds, are preI ferable to any others. A convenient size for a single home, would be about 100 feet long by 25 feet wide. If the plantation be large, several sheds had better be put up in different parts, than to risk the health of a whole family of worms, by single buildings of large dimensions. A cheap mode of construction would be to place square posts at six or eight feet apart, for the sides, and central posts for supporting the roof, ten to twelve feet apart. The roof may be made of boards or shingles as preferred. The sides and ends should be made in the form of Venitian blinds, of boards six or eight inches wide, and three-fourths of an inch thick. The pivots can be made to play in holes in the posts, and the whole made so as to entirely shut out both li ght and air, or to admit them iml any quan tity desired. Besides this enclosur e it would be de sirable, in the more northern sections of the country, to have straw mats, corresponding to the space be for the facts ino the case, the fol lowing answer was received. BkOOILYN, Sept. 30th, 1847. DEAtIR SIR:-Your letter, dated y esterday, has been re ceived, and in reply I would remar k, that the silkworms on which my experiments were made, were born in the last o f May. During the early part of June, col d wea ther prevented the growth of the mulberry foliage, and they had to feed for fbur days on gardn a let tuce. This important change ca use d the death of many, and impaired the he alth of the living. On the 17th of June a full supply of good leaves were obtained. dThe worms were then placed on clean hurdles and insulated by glass support s, a nd covered with sheets of s trong twilled silk to intercept a tool free circulation of air through the hurdles. They were kept in a dry roo m properly ai r ed, withou t artificial heat, tr usting to the spontane ous i nfluence of the season. About 1,500 healthy worms were distributed on three hurdles. One hurdle, separated from the rest, and insulated, was supplied with fresh leaves. A large electrical jar being connected with the leaves at one end by means of a metallic rod, and gradually charged from a cylindrical electrical machine, the worms were roused from their torpid state, and com me nced eating voraci o usly. Their activit y contin ued about an hour, when they appeared to have eaten enough. The electrical insulation was repeated at each feeding, when not prevented by a very damp state of the atmosphere, until June 28th, when many of the wormis manifested a disposition to mount and spin, when they were furnished with cabins of brush wood which were soon well filled by my industrious family. They finished their cocoons fully a week sooner than those fed on the other hurdles, with a corresponding difference in the quality of' their co coons. An electrical machine, having a ten or twelve inch cylinder, and a Leyden jar of about three gal lons capacity, and about four square feet coated sur face and other accompanying apparatus, in the hands of a judicious manipulator, would be suffi cient to attend upon 50,000 worms, and keep them in a healthy action. I was much pleased Faith the experimnent, and believe it may be of consequence to silk-growers to give it their attention. Respectfully, yours, JESSE EVERETT. Two subjects of vital concern are introduced in this communication. The one having reference to the temperature where silklworms are feeding; an d the other to markets for cocoons and nurseries for the supply of trees, seeds, &c. They are topics which have been repeatedly treated by us during the last five years. In regard to the former, we have given it as our opinion, that all buildings used for this purpose, should be so constructed as to place the control of the temperature entirely in the power of the superintendent. This is particularly important in all latitudes subject to sudden changes, and there are few portions of the United States where it is safe to overlook it, inasmuch as it can be done, and still admit of a construction affording the amplest ventilation. North of the latitude of Washington, it becomes quite indispensable; south of it, it would at least be safe. We think very favorably of the Chinese oven before described or something similar. In saying that means for producing an artificial temperature are indispensable, we wish not to be understood as intimating that silk cannot be made, even in cold climates, without any such arrangement, for we have evidences of remarkable success in all the states of the North where no artificial heat has ever been introduced; and in our own feeding, large crops have been fed, with no protection from cold or light, save a simple tent wlth a roof of boards and sides of canvas. But in all these cases, there have been interruptions and delays, occasioned by c o ld nights and mornings, and chilly days during storms of raini, when facilities for retaining a temperature of 75~ to 8 0~ would h ave been very gratifying t o our dormant families, besides materially lessening the term of labor, and securing in the end, (pro bably,) a fuller and better harvest.* We have recommended, as well adapted 180 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. tween the posts, filled on rollers like window shades, that may be lowered at any time, and would make a comfortable house in cold weather. It will readily be seen that a building, such as we have described, can scarcely be open to an objection of any kind. WNith the blinds slightly opened, anld the ventilators in the roof raised a few inches, we have a draft of fresh air from all directions, without the annoyances of too much light or unequal currents or gusts of wind. WVhen, too, the wind is strongly blowing from any quarter, the blinds on the exposed side may be closed. It would be well to allow the eaves of the roof to project two or three feet to prevent water falling too near the house, and also to shield from the rays of the sun in very warm weather. Nurseries for young worms, similar to those used in China, should always be furnished in one end of the building. The east end is preferable. Of the other subject alluded to, viz.: establishme?rts for purchasing and reeling the cocoons and nurseries for fuirnishing trees, seeds, 4,c., we have much to say, more by far, than our space will here allow: for upon these the success of the silk incdustry, in any country, is solely and entirely dependent. And to the fact that the attention of this country has been directed to any thing and every thing else, rather than these-is alone attributable the other fact, that, we are not at this day producing silk in amounts equal to other countries. Is not this the case?. Where has the existence of a public filature, possessirng any confidence, failed to secure cocoons in considerable quantities in the shortest time allowed. Such a failure is not on record. It was so at Savannah, Philadelphia and Mansfield, and has been so in other places. The great wonder has always been, where the cocions came from! Otherwise, why have silk-producing nations, always sought first, by royal authority, to establish markets in which their people might trust, and filatures to which manufacturers might look for silk well and uniformly reeled? The reason, obviously, is the same that has induced the French nation, and this year more than ever before, to establish in every district of' France, where cocoons may be produced, permanent markets and filatures suppliedl with well-qualified reelers. Most of our states have given bounties, at one time and another, for the production of cocoons, but simple bounties, unless they be large enough to afford a fair compensation for the labor of producing them, will not create cocoons. It is as unreasonable as it would be to offer bounties for raising cotton, without a single gin or mill for its nmanufacture. aVe venture to as sert here, as we have often before, that no state will raise any considerable quantities of co c oons, with or witho ut bounties, until St eate F iatues and Nurseries are esta blishe d accessible to farmers. And we venture another assertion: that when any state, or the states gen erally, sha ll have adopted a system supplying these defects, our people will not be slow in performing the agricultural part of this work; nor our nation long inferior to others in the pro s e cutio n of an y p art o f the silk business. To show in what light othe rs vie w this subject, we include here some translations made for our use, by the Hon. Henry Meigs, Secretary of the New York Farmers' Club, and Recording Secretary of the American Institute of New York. AMERICAN INSTITUTE, Sept. 10, 1847. Extracts from the Antnales de la Socigte Sericicole, founded in 1837, for the propagation and amelioration of the silk industry of France. Of the Reelhnu, ai~d Art of taking off Silk from Cocoons.-This brief treatise is just received from France, by the hands of Alexander Vattemare, for which the Institute, on behalf of the United States, is thankful. Translation.-If the mulberry could be easily cultivated in the centre and north of France-if the education of the silkworm is sure of success, why have the efforts to establish the silk industry in these districts always failed l It is because the growers of cocoons have been unable to surmount the difficulties in the reeling of silk. It is because the silk they have made, being almost always unequal and of bad quality, could not find a market; so that too much presumption, and attempts ill managed, have ended in discouragement. Upon the reeling, then, must be concentrated allperseveranzce, all the energy of men who now-a-days determine to naturalize silk industry in the north; and it is by studying the best methods, by forming good reelers, above all other things, without which they never can have good silk. Under these circumstances, the want of an elementary work, capable of teaching young reelers, is imperiously felt. An old reeler of the south of France, M. Ferrier, who, for more than thirty years, has been occupied nearly sixty times every year, in the department of the Herault, and who has constantly attended to the education of silk worms and to reeling, in the north where he lives, has made this Manual. He attaches himself, above all things, to the positive and useful practical methods. He begins by pointing out the manner in which we ought to judge and manage the cocoons before reeling, the suffocation of the worms, their preservation, their transportation, their selection; nothing important is omitted, and he enters into full letails. After some general considerations, he describes the different operations of reeling-the mode of beating the cocoons andi 181 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. purging them-the formation of thd butt ends -the mode of keeping the butt ends-the encroisure, (crossings.) Drawings are given of the various operations-a new plan, capable of supplying the wants of actual miachines. He points out the quantity of silk which a reeler can furnish daily. He recommends order, neatness, and regularity in the reeling. He recommends reeling estabtishments, central to the growers of cocoons. We believe his work to be one specially conscientious. Manual of Ferrier. -The reeling of cocoons is one of those things which theory cannot teach alone; it requires practice. However, it is impossible to give new reelers some salutary rules; and I am about to try to give them. Scientific researches are not in my plan-they are out of my reach; and we know that experiments made in a cabinet may occasion deceptions, when the same results are expected in a general and positive operation. Far be it from my thought to contest the services which science may render to industry; nevertheless, it is true, that the greater number of operators who have made discoveries, were practical men. Systems and theories may lead to error, but a judicious practice, which observes and refleets, must lead more surely to success. In a word, science should aid practice, but practice alone can decide in a sovereign manner, what is most advantageous to the manufacturer, and what will procure him the greatest benefits. I am going to give the whole experience of my life. I never formed a system, nor do I present any discovery. I have no other object but to point out the elements of reeling. I shall speak of what I have done myself and have seen done. It is in vain to raise cocoons or plant mulberries until the art of taking the silk off the cocoons is extensively known. The silk-growilng establishments in many of our provinces, especially in Touraine, which have been abandoned, would have enriched those provinces if they had possessed regular and well conducted reeling establishmnents! Such, I repeat, are the principal motives which hav o e led oeto this es say. I have tried to be as clear as possible, so that I might be understood by the most inexperienced, and I shall esteem myself happy if I have succeeded. Bef(,re I treat of reeling, I shall first speak of the cocoons. What I say is founded on the experience of myself and the traditional experience of my family. Of Cocoons.-The first attention of the reeler must be to the cocoons, because some are bad and some good, solne superior and some indifferent. It is impossible to point out the way of judging of their value exactly before the reeling, and, the most experienced arc sometimes deceived. However, I may be allowed to give some precepts which may guide the silk gr ower as to the qualities of the products obtaiesed-and the reeler, as to the cocoons he should purchase. One of the first guar antees of good coo ons is thi e success of their education. When the wo rms have be en well manatgedh-when the y have been b theltere d f rom th e injurious variation of temperature-when they have rece i ved frequent feed, in eautl perio ds, no t inte rrupt e d by fasts, when they have consumed n one but leaves free from humidity oand fermentation, and l astly, whe n the ir moulting has been simultaneous a nd rapid, o ne may count onl having excellent cocoons. The essential condi ti on of a go od cocoon consist i is i its b e ing goo an d stff and furnished w i th silk, wh ich are manifes ted by its equal and regular form, by the firmness and resistance to a lithet pressure on all its parts, but orincipally at its two ends, where the resistance to pressure is always greatest. A fine grain, equa l and close, a re goo d signs. When, afte r having thrust thert te hand into a heap of cocoons, one takes up a handful, and when we find in all of them an equal resistance to pressure, when, in drawing out the handful, we find a long string connected with the Blaze or Bouvre, if they weigh heavy in the hand, and when in letting them fall on the floor, they give a sound like that of falling nuts, we may felicitate ourselves; for such are good cocoons! When feeble at their ends, or even at one end, they present a sad condition, because being first exhausted of silk at that point, they are penetrated by the water and can no longer be reeled, so that the balance of the stuff on them is lost. These are the poionted, or glassy, which produce the waste, vulgarly called in the south of France, Bassin-at, that is, sink in the basin. A great inequality in the form and in the degree of strength of a cocoon, indicates bad education of the worms, which have suffered. The silk from such is very indifferent. Where we find them light, stale, giving no sound when shaken, and in which the chrysalis is decomposed, giving a fetid smell, an indifferent silk is expected, as to quantity and lustre. If the cocoons, taken up lightlv in the hand, bend under the pressure of the finger -if they remain crumpled together or produce a sound like dry parchment, if they give no sound except a dull one in falling on the floor, they are weak in silk! When the sound given by the chrysalis is sharp and unequal, and when the cocoon is very light, we must examine whether this does not proceed from the chrysalis having been muscardin~e; (attacked by a sort of moth;) for that circum-istanice would be fatal to the producer, who should sell it, because the chrysalis would have lost all its weight almost, and this too would be very injurious to the reeler, for i~t often happens that the 182 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. worm attacked by the muscardine, spreads throtughl the inside of the cocoon a whitish matter which sticks together the whole tissue; in such case all reeling is inmpossible. A loose grain, uneqeal andi shiniag in cocoons is always suspicious, such are the satiecs, (like satin.) The size of a cocoon is not an inf,illible mark of good quality. Generally, we prefer an atciform a,ed mediumtn size. As in all other things, there are exceptions to this rule. WNeight is a favorable indicationI-the fewer cocoons to the pound, the greater the quantity of silk; but before we weighl them we must be sure that the chrysalis has attained its proper state. When the wormi has finished its cocoon, he remains still a worm, and keeps his weight, which onlv diminishes in proportion to the accomplishment of his metamorphosis, anid we must take care how we destroy them before they attain the state of chrysalis, for they will then communicate to the cocoon a kind of softness and humidity. This is so well understood at the south of France, that when the existence of the worm is demonstrated by opening a certain number of the cocoons they constitute a case redhibitoire. %Ne alwvays require, before we receive such, that they shall have passed at least six days on the Bruy6re (heath) after backward worms have been taken from the hurdles. Cocoons are, as every one knows, yellow or white, and it is good that the respective colors should be pure and uniform. Many reelers pretend that the white ones are more delicate. requiring more caution in reelingand this lpretence is not without foundation. But,a fine color raises the price of silk, and is a bcn,fit. A very serious inconvenience sometimes presents itself with both colors, and that is the difficulty of reelin, them, and the breaking or frequent cessation of the thread. And on a first examination of cocooIns, nothingi can indicate this ruinous condition, because it is never manifest until the cocoon is in the basin, and at the moment of reeling. In such a case, the only way to lessen the injury is to use other cocoons of firmer silk, because a more considerable number of cocoons forming the thread, the reeler has more facility in keeping it even and regular. Double cocoons, which contain more than one chrysalis, produce a great loss. Being formed of a tissue crossed in opposite directioIs they are confused and cannot be regularly reeled. Ime get from such, a silk called Do;tppi,i2ts, the price of which is hardly the thlird of that of good silk. Sudden cold or lieat injures the cocoons while forminig, and a variable temperature also. W~ant of proper ventilation is ano t her evil-waant of good and regular food makes .weak aud irregular COCOmiS. Fresh cocoons are those which contain living chrysales. W~e can reel thein, but the time for doing it is very short, for we kn ow that afte r twenty or twenty-foner days, according to th e warmth of the air, the clhrysales become butterflies, soften the cocoon at one end, and make a hole through the tissue and escape.'"e therefore must hurry the reeling, for when the cocoons are once pierced, we cannot reel them in the basin. It is to be regretted that the circumstances under which this translation was made did not admit of its being more complete. On the same subject, Judge Meigs has furnished us the following, also translated by him, from the 0 Auxiliador Da Iindustria Nacionial of Rio Janeiro, January, 1847. " The production of cocoons is absolutely worth nothinig without the organization of filatures. The raising and collection of them become sources of depression and disgust, where there is no means of sale or filatures. To send them to Europe to be reeled is totally impracticable. " The prod7,ction of cocoons and their reeling must be organized at the same time; and we affirm, without the fear of being mistaken, that the filature is the greatest difficulty for us to conquer. The best method to obviate this evil will be to establish filatures central to the growers of cocoons." Wre shall next call attention to the letter of Mr. John S. Peirce, of Burlington, Vermont. The name of this gentleman has often been before the public in connection with his exhibitions of silk. There has no difficulty arisen which his perseverance has not overcome. WVhat has been considered most remarkable is, that all this has been accomplisheed so far at the north; and yet, he makes no complaints in regard to climatebut, on the contrary, believes silk culture comparable in profit and ease of execution with any other pursuit of the agriculturist. Letters containing the details of experiments made in the coldest parts of Maine, and in terms of equal confidence, have often been sent us; and there are now in that state quite a number of farmers who testify that the silk d(epatments of their farms give better returns for the labor and outlay devoted to them, than any other. A. C. VAN EPPS, Esq. I DEAR SIR,-The press of other engagements has prevented an earlier reply to your favor of the 11th ult., and I cannot now attempt to go into anything like a detailed account of my experiene ii the silk business. I can only give you a few hints, which, if giveii to the world through yoti, may be of some service to my countrymen. I have been engaged in silk culture fbr five years, and with uniformly good success. Tbe only exceptions have been when, in one or two instances, I have come short of foliage. And although, when I commenced I had never seen a silkworm, and not a person in the place had ever seen a silk reel or a skein of reeled silk, I have succeedced beyond my most sanguine expectations, in 183 BURLINGTON, Sept. Sth. SILK AND SILK CULTURE. all I have undertaken. In talking the matter over The influence of this encouragement has to my wi tf, we concluded that, as we were Yankees, been salutary an gratifying in te extreme. not red, w~~~~~~ ~~e odinsom a been salutary and gratifying in theexree nothing need be feared, we could in som-e way ind out all about it; and so we went at it, guided rather The following, from another section of our by common sense, than any knowledge we could country, will be read with interest, as it comes obtain fegfebyu romue booe from the pen of a gentleman of intelligence, The first ounce of eggs fed by us produced more.. silk than is often obtained by the most experienced and one who is familiar with the subject and feeders-(about 100 lbs. cocoons.) My wife then set country of which he speaks. about the reeling of them, and before three pounds were reeled, had conquered the principal difficulties, and now finds it easy to reel 1 i lbs. per day, 10 LOUISVILLE, October 10th. fibres such as you saw at the Fair. A. C. VAN EPPS, EsQ. I have been trying some experiments this season DEAR SIR:-Your letter, requesting some infor with the various kinds of leaves. It has often been mation on the present state of the culture and man said that it would not do, in feeding wormis, to uflacture of silk in this section of the south and change from one kind of mulberry to another, often. southwest, and my views thereon, is received. I To ascertain the effects of such changes, I have reply with pleasure, though circumstances neces purposely changed the food nearly every day from sarily compel me to be brief. their h atching, and have never ha(] wormis do better. In Tennessee and Kentucky, and particularly in I have used the White, Broosa, Asiatic, Canton and the mountain regions, the business is steadily and Multicatlus, and believe it of no consequence what successfutlly progressing, though slow. One indikind they are fed on, so you give them enough of any vidual fturnishes annually to the manufactory of or all kinds. Messrs. Jackson & Gray of this city, (w,here a ready AVith rezasrd to the profit of raising silk, I have I arket for cocoons and raw silk, at liir prices, may seen nothing et to make me doubt that it may be I be found,) several hundred pounds of reeled silk. made better business than ordinary farming; and if Ilis crop for this season will exceed that of any forwe can raise it in the n orth of Vermont, profitably, I mer year. Others in this immediate vicinity have am sure it may be good business in the middle and also produced increased quantities of silk. The southern states. worms of the several crops of this season have been One word about raisingt trees. Hlaving tried al- entirely free from disease. most all the varieties that grow in our climate, I I am informed that great efforts are being made to am filly satisfied that the Halite and Broosa, rightly establish this business in some of the cotton-growcultivatedi, are better for us than ny other. ing regions of the South. They should be raised from the seed, and set in In view of the great acquisition of cotton-growing hedge-rows. I have fed this season from a planta- territory to our Union, it is evident that the price of lion three years old; and it would have done you this staple must forever be reduced to barely a regood to see the quantity ofleaves produced. I have munerating standard. It is then the wvisest policy cut them mostly down to the ground both last year of the South to diversify as iluchli as possible her and this. Where they were cut last year they threw products, and I kiow of no branch that can be inup this year a great inumber of shoots, five and six troduced with a ifairer prospect of success than the feet hill, whichi have been cut again this year. In culture of silk. this way I think we can obtain more foliage It is admitted on all hands, by those who have infrom an acre than could be obtained from large vestigated the subject, that silk must at some future trees, and it is not a fourth part the labor to gather period become one of the great staples of our counit. I remain your obedient servant, try. JOIIN S. PEIRCE. When the emancipation of slavery in Virginia, emrs.-Mr. and rs. Peirce have been Kentucky, and Tennessee, shall take place, and the Rermarks.-iNMr. and MArs. Peirce have been lxhibitr of coc, r and w n, consequent influx of a different class of population, ex trs of cocoons, reeled and ove slk these states will become the great central region for in the Fairs of the American Institute, every the production of this crop. year since they commenced the business, One of the essential requisites to the successful and have always receie te prosecution of this business in the Ssath, is an in an ae alws received the hhest pre- telligent, persevering, and ever-watchful superinmiums for which they have competed. tendetit. If this del)artIent can be properly sup At the last Fair, Mfrs. Peirce exhibited a plied, I can see no reason why the growth of cotton piece of over 60 yards white silk pocket and silk cannot be conducted on the same planta piece l * ~~~tion to the greatest advantage. The worn crop will handkerchiefs, twilled, which, for the beauty comne on in the early part of the season, when the and perfection of their finish, were acknow- females, the young and the aged, who are usually ledgSed by the best judges to exceed any arti- employed in the picking season, are comparatively idle; or at least can be easily spared from other purcle of the kind ever offered in this market. suits, and will serve to gather leaves for large crops This piece of goods received a premium of of worms; and the product of their labor more than $50, the Van Schaick medal, and a ffold medal doubly augmented. from th e Vn stitute Shehals andoa recive ad The labor generally, from the introduction of this from the Institute. She has befo re received brancht of industry upon the cotton farm, wil l not Ibe several gold medals for smaller quantities of materially increased. The land required is comparas i m i l a r goods, as well as for cocoons and tively little, and the cultivation of the trees, whell r e e l e d silk. A considerable amoun t fro m the once established, is much ess tha would be re quired for the same amount of land in corn. Van Schaick fund also, has before been The u,niformtity of the climate of most portions of awarded to her. It is proper here to remark the South is such, that shed or open feeding would that the Hon. Myndert Van Schaick, of this best suit the habits of the worms, insure to them a greater degree of health, and relieve the superincity, who has manifested great interest in telldent from much of the care required in close the introduction of silk culture and manufac- apartmients with artificial heat. ture in the lT~nited States, came forward about Among the numerous emigrants to this country, no doubt, there are many from the silk-growing three years since and very generously placed cou n tries of Europe, whose services are re oired countries of Europe, whose services are reitiired, in the hands of the American Institute the and might be advantageously employed in the South sum of one thousand dollars, to be appro- and WVest, though from the peculiar adaptation riat,d inttnrcddolaof our climate to the nature and habits of the worm, printed3 in hmlrel-dollar premiums upon raw some modification in their treatment will be foueni and manufactured silks. necessary, which ally intelligent attiendat,. xvith 184 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. the aid of such works on the subject as can be pro- I cured, will readily learn to apply. I WVe use the morus ulticaulus in the first ages of the wornms. Af ter the last moulting —the age in which the material comnposing the silk is elaborated, we empo the white Italian and Canton varieties; 1 as they abound more in t he elements of silk. Tahe latter is superior to the Italian only in the increased size of its leaves, the morus multicaulus possessinlg this advantage in a still greater degree, while it is better suited to the condition of the worm in its earliest ages. If my hum b lle efforts will in any way aid you, or advance this silk enterprise, please at any time coimimand them. Very respectfully your obedient servant, H. P. BYRAM. Take, for instance, Mr. Summy, with his thirteen acres, tproducing 200 pounds of reeled silk, worth at $4 50 per lb., (the price lie re coived,) $900. Deducting 8300 for the ex pecises of raising, reeling, cultivation of or chards, and interest on capital invested, which is a very liberal allowance, we have a surplus of,600, or about $50 per acre profit. We are much mistaken if farmers gener ally in our country are not well satisfied with profits of one quarter this amount. I do not hesitate in saying that Mr. Summy, with his thirteen acres of multicatilus, and a few rough shanties, will make more money than the best farmer in Lancaster county will get from fifty acres from ordinary crops. And when we consider the difference in the capital invested, and the cost of production, the comparison stands as almost ten to one in favor of silk. lWe have given the facts in the case, and the comparison is a fair one. Now, what is the secret of this success among these German farmers of "Mr. Stewart's state?" Why should they thus outstrip other and more favorable districts of country, and fill their pockets with pelf, while their next-door neighbors grow poor? Why, first of all, a little filature is opened, and it is understood that the man who produces cocoons, can take his whole crop at once, even a large crop, and, by driving over to Mr. Eberly's, or Mr. Summy's, exchange them for money, or its equivalent, with no further delay or trouble; while others, after getting their crops into a marketable shape, have to cart them, load by load, 10, 20, or 50 miles through the mud, to market. Another consideration, the importance of which has been almost totally overlooked, deserves our attention here. It is the cclimation of t he silkworm and mulberry tree to that particular locality. It N a subject we have carefully studied, and find it universally true that, where any variety of wormn or tree has been continued for a succession of years in the same latitude, there they become most perfect and thrive best. If this be so, it would be well for every grower to obtain eggs of the best species of silkworm, and seeds or trees of the best mulberry, and devote themselves to their acclimation. We will next give the testimony of a distinguished silk grower of Georgia, whose attention has long been enlisted in fav,or of silk; and who, nearly ten years ago, could boast of having an entire suit of silk, the handiwork of his own family. Mr. John M. Summy, of Manheimn, Pa., in a late letter, says: " I am not in the habit of writing, and must therefore say little. This county has been producing silk for some time, and we find no great difficulty in making cocoons. In this neiahborlood several f armers are engaeed in th n Te busin ess. The mulberry principally used is the multicaulus, which all co nsi der the best. I hav e thirtee n acres of trees, and shall this seas on d make over two hundred pounds of reeled silkl. My vode of feeding is not peculiar. A few words will explain it. " I give my worms plenty to eat, ample room, and free access t o fresh pure air. " I feed many in shanties, and prefer 7totdoor feediM g. For e spinning the cocoons, I use b undle s of l on g st raw. " We do not ge t as much for our silk as form erly, but we can feed for much less than halfwhat it used to c ost us. In stead of pickiing our leaves as formerly, we now feed with br anches, aTnd even whole t rees, which reduces this part of the labor, before very cumbersonsoe, t o comparative pleasure. " No one need undertake this business unless hc cultivate his trees, otherwise the quantity and quality must be inferior. "It has been proved again this season by one of ily neighbors, that froin 25 to 30bushels cocoons can be produced from an acre of trees. " Another gentleman, Mr. A. H. Rice, of the same place, shortly after writes: "I have been engaged in the silk business six or seven years, and am much surprised that any man who is willing to labor for a fair remuneration should become discouraged, or hesitate about engaging in silk culture. I have always been successful in feeding when I have had an abundance of foliage, and I consider my silk crop as certain as that of corn. My crop this year amounts to more than seventy pounds of reeled silk. I convert all of my silk into sewing, and have to purchase more as I work up from six to ten pounds per week." Rem,7rks.-These are the results of experiments in what would be supposed the most unfavorable region of Pennsylvania. Their winters are long and severe, and their feeding season short, subject to cold nights and 185 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. tion of our country, particularly the South, for the culture of silk," I have to observe that, since my residence at the South, but one practical fact has been settled in my mind, which is, that foliage can be produced abundantly here; indeed a large proportioie of land in the north ern and w ester n parts o f this state, not sufficiently rich to produce sugar or cotton, is, I have no doubt, admirably adapted to the growth of the mulberry tree, and I am not prepared to say that those sections are not as well adapted to the culture of silk generally as any other region of the globe. But one objection presents itself, which is the humidity of the atmosphere, and this, unless I have been misinformed, is quite different from what it is on river lands, being much less humid. It seems to me that long before labor in the United States is as cheap as in the old countries, silk will rank among our most important productions —what section will produce the largest proportion is to be determined hereafter. I am inclined to think that it will come from the middle and southern states. In my humble judgment a great error was committed in the early culture of silk in this country, which has been continued down to the present time, that is, the idea that it requires little or no skill to raise silk -that old men and children can do it, &c. This is true to a very limited extent, the labor not being so important as it is nice, requiring careful mathematical as well as chemical calculations. In order to cultivate silk successfully we must have a sufficient supply of good foliage, sufficient ventilated space, proper attendance and an appropriate temperature. With these, silk can be produced anywhere; without them, novwhere. With regard to temperature,' believe it has been ascertained by actual experiment, that from 70~ to 80 is best for silkworms, and that the highest point matures them in a shorter time than a lower degree, and that they then make more and better silk. The silkworm is a native of a warm climate, and must have a warm climate, natural or artificial, to make it thrive well. WVith great respect, your obedient servant, P. ti. GREEN. A. C. VAN EPPS, Esq. MACON, BIBB COUNTY, Sept. 2d. A. C. VAN Errs, Esq. DE XR SIR,-XYour letter of the 7tli August reached me in due time, but the pressure of other enlgageneits has prevented an earlier answer. The rea - son I have iot corresponded with you as much as usual of te, on the subject of silk culture, has not been owin- to a decrease of interest, but because I had sati so nm uch, and written so many letters on the stul)ject, and so little apparent good had been effec ted. I had therefore made up my mind to do what I could with silk il my own family, and say nothing more about it; and had I not been called upon by yourself or so ti one else, I should have remained silent; and now I write more to gratifv you titan with the exlectation that much good will be the result. I r iiht say that Georgia is one of the finest countries in the world to produce silk, and speak of the great benefits to be derived from its culture, but this every body here knows as well as I do; no one disputes it. On the contrary, it is believed to be so oeasy at thin tat, were our planters generally to engage in it, the market would be glutted. And this is actually urged as an objection,-I have heard it again and again That such reasoning is unfounded, need not be said -but if such a thing could be possible. this is the country, and we are the people to accomplish it; could wve be induced to give it our active attention. We have amongst us a vast num- n ber cf idle persons, useless to themselves and every one else. o aight be most profitably employed in making silk. I have hoped to see the day when the multitudes of idle youth and men, who now annoy the country and vitiate society, would be engaged in making silk, but I begin to doubt its realization. We are now using silk for both summer and winter clothing, and find it better and cheaper than any thing else. Solei very fine vestings have been shown me lately male in the family of an adjoining planter, which sold readily at $4 a pattern. W heli I reflect upon the evident advantages which might be derived from this pursuit, and see how men are spending their time and money in the pursuit of objects of trifling value, I can scarcely suppress my indignation. Respectfully yours, A. C. ERNEST. Ri'inza?ks.-We are happy to state that the example and inflience of Judge Ernes t have not ueen in vain. WVe might name several personis in Georgia to whom we have forwarded mulberry-tree seeds, silkworm eggs, and silk machinery. during the past year, and it is safe to conclude, from indications we have received that a speedy revival of the silk interest M ill take place at no distant day. Wie can give place to but one other communicati,)n from the South. The writer, Hon. P. H. Green, has made himself practically acquiainted with the culture of silk, having made several successful experiments in Maitie antid other parts of New-England, and, we understand, intends at some futuire day to establish himself in a favorable location at the South. DONALDSONVILLE, LA., July 12th. DEAP, SIrt, —I am just in receipt of your letter, havill g been absent for some time to Mississippi city and -ew-Orleans. [ am glad to know that you hlave sleted as a medium for your commnunications, a journal in the city of Newsv-Orleans, and shall be disal,l)ointited if' they are not the means of calling public attention to a subject of vital importance to the state. In reply to your query, " What you dee m important to say onl the subject, as to the natural adapta PORTLAND, Aug. 29th. DEAR Sia,-Yours of the 16th came duily to hand, and right cordially did I receive the information of the prospective advance in the silk culture in the southern portion of the states. Not only at the " South," but also a "' still small voice " is giving encouragement at the North, if we take the general expression, and extended inquiry and observation, as a messenger. The few who have withstood the cold battling scorn and sarcasm which have been so rife tor a fbw years past, will soon be looked up to as the permanent friends of their country. It is only the Roman firmness that can place the silk cause on a permanent foundation. The motto, " that what we see we know," I think will sooni give Yankee enterprise a jog that nothing can stop until we see on every farm a plantation of mulberry, and a portion of the family directed to the employment of silk-growing. To comply with your request I must refer you in part to my letter to the Anterican Institute for 1845, with this added, that my operations still encourage me, and that every year I can improve in my manner of feeding, and produce cocoons of increased value as to quality-also produce the worm at maturity without finding diseased wormis, which was the case this year. I do not think I had 100 in my whole crop this year. Plenty of room, fresh air, strict cleanli ness, and a g o od supp ly of firm, fresh leaves, as often as every hour, is the secret. WVhat I should say as theory, is just what I should certainly put in practice. What the introduction of cotton has, the silk cause must suffer, and after years of patient toil,'we shall see the silk of America, not only save the millions which we expend and throw into the lap of monarchy saved to pay American operatives, and 186 SILK AND SILK CULTURE. draw forth American skill and ingenuity, until like our cottonII fabrics, we will surprize the "ol d a heorld" by the exposition of our silk fabrics in Europe's great metropolis, after paying charges and duties (not free trade) cheaper than those of their own manuflicture. Vhat! says one to me the other day! WVe make silk cloths ill America! WVhat total igno rance are our people in! Could the people of the states be generally informed through the press of the extent to which the silk culture and manufac ture is carried on, I think there would be greater action both ttionional and individual. It is only bv disseminating knowledge on any departmenit of industry, and the American t)eoltle will give thotu elt to it; fbr it seems instinctively true, that the Yankees are ready fir any thing they can see a dollar in. Could the r e be a statistical form given of the probable amount of raw silk produced annually, also of manufactur ed goods, in connection vith the number of manufac turing e stablishments, and the amount of rawt mtaterial used-what proportions American and what foreign, and the comparative value of American over foreign, in dollars and cents, and the expense of raising cocoons, their value in market, &c., &-c., and those statistics published by our most widely-circulated weekly journals, I think we might soon draw into the field a stroen corl)s of enterprising men, who will push the cause along until it shall be no more the theme of ridicule. With silk as with cotton, it has barriers to surmount; anld those a public opinion; for information can be olbtain.ed from the experience and philosophical treatmlienit of the wsvorms by very many who have given the subject their study. Again I will say, let the cocoonery be open for a free circulation of heaveen's blessilug, I)ure air; next feed often with fresh and wvell-matured leaves; often-once an hour; a strict and thorough cleaning both shelves and room; the shelves cleanied by changing; the worms spread so as not to be crowded on the shelves-plenty of room, and after the last moulting, feed on branches cut. You w ill recollect last year I gave information of a rack-swinig I used for branch feeding this vear I used it as a stationary rack, by nailing board s on the standards for my shelves and laying loose sticks upon them three or four inches apart, then putting the branches upon them. Now then, sir, any one -who will tlllow these directions need not fear but that they can grow the silkwornm successfully. As for the profit, I think it will equal any other agricultural operation. No one need expect that they can become vastly rich in one or two years 7siterely because they are in the silk bitsinress-but perseverance will give good r7eturns. E. S. BARTHOLOMEW. has generally ce ased, except where partial markets have been offered. A few of those who were most larg ely en ip aged in the business, acquainted themselves with reeling, atnd several hundred pounds of r eeled silk are received here yearly. The probable product of raw silk in this state, at the t ime the prison market was dis co ntinrued, must have been several tholsal)d pounds. Much that is now made is workied top into sewing silk and fabrics of various kinds. We sha ll here te rminate our corrles pofr dence. More than one hundred other letters are before us, rec eived with in th e past few months, fiot m vari ous parts o f the United States and the West Indi es. Th ey express but o ne opinion on this s ub jec t, that of universal confidence. We speak adbisedly i n saying tha t our peopl ae are ready for the worik, an d wi ll lapromptly second aly y well-directed actioni of the national or state govef rnments. The ques tion then arises, in whiat way can our authori. ties render the most l:fficient aid? The only course w e wou l d sugge st for Congress, and it has been mos t thoroubhly tested, w ou ld be to imitate the example of Ebeglatnld. Protect, by l iberal duties, all classe s of' silk which we are capable of' mandufactur ing, so liberal, that the advantage shall be un questionably on the part of our own people. Tihe raw material should be admitted at a very nominal duty until our maijufactories are firmly established. and the culture of silk pretty generally adopted. We have already intimated the course to be pursued by the states individually. But more particularly. Every state should have its filature, of sufficient capacity to re ceive and dispose of all the cocoons ofabred, for which cash should be paid. This should be established in a central lo. cation, most accessible to all parts of the state; and connected with this should be a nursery, of at least fifty to one huntded acres of the best varieties of the mulberry trees, from which to supply, freely, all applicants residing within the state, who, upon receiv ing the same, would become obligated to employ them in a manner prescribed by laws regulating the management of the fila ture and nursery. This establishment would not require a large appropriation, and after five years would pay all its expenses, and yield a surplus as a sizking fund, for the reimburse metit of the state. The foliage from the nursery, alone, would be of immense value, if properly e mployed. Even at the moderate calculation of one-half of what has been shown to be a reasonable product from silk culture, we should have a revenue of no mean amount. The filaturte, too, would not be without its profit, and it is believed that the paupers of Restarks.-Thle author of the above is located in one of the coldest parts of NewYork, wvhere his trees are much exposed to the r'ig(,is of winter, and where he is very liable to interruptions by untimely frosts; yet he has been one of the most successful t feeders in this state. His cocoons have been forwarded to our filatares, and are very fine. Quite a number of farmers in the western part of this state have prosl-)eroos silk departments connected with their farms, from which they a re realizinig g,ood profits. The undertaking was induced bv the existence, for a while, of a filatare at tlhe state prison) it Auburn. This enterprise, unfortunately, was sacrificed to party changes, and malty who had been led to plant out orchards of mulberry trees, soon abandoned them, and the business 187 A. C. I'AN E, Pps, EsQ. SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN TIlE S OUTHERN STATES. the state might be made to perform the princil) l part of the labor of both departmnents. With such a pr-e-inducement, bounties for the production oft cocoons might be offered with adlvantage-otherwise, all legislation, in the opinion of the writer, is utterly futile. With these suggestions, we leave the suibject with our fellow-citizens, in the hope that its great importance may be dluly considered, and such measures employed as shall ultimately lead to the establishment of the silk industry as a permanent and profitable pursuit of our people. The curing, transportation and reeling of cocoons, and the preservation of worm eoos, will be made the' subjects of another article. swer our purpose. According to th at census, the quantity of wool raised in the states south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Mississippi, was as follows: No. Sheep Lbs. of Wool Virginia.............. 1,293,772............ 2,538,374 North Carolina....... 538,279............ 625,044 South Carolina....... 232,981............ 299,170 Georgia.............. 267,107........... 371,303 Florida................ 7,198............ 7,235 Alabama............. 163,243............ 220,353 Mississippi.......... 128,367........... 175,196 Louisiana............ 98,072............ 49,283 Tennessee............ 741,593...........1,060,332 Kentucky............1,008,240...........1,7,86,847 Total......... 4,478,852............7,133,187 Since 1840, sheep-raising has made great progress in the South, and there is ali increasing attention given to it. In miany of the states, and particularly in Texas, since its admission in to the Union, th i s is true. Many persons o f capital, and of experience in sheep-raising, have not only devoted much time, in Texas, by rearing the ordinary bree d s of th at state, but they have expended large sums in importing the finest breeds from the North. I'here is now, in NewOrleans, on board of a vess el jus t arrived fr om New-York, twent y-four full-blooded sheep, of the best Merino, on their way to Corpus Christi, to which place they are imported from Vermont, for the improvement of the Texas and Mexican breeds. The lot consists of eighteen bucks and six ewes, covered with magnificent fleeces of silky fineness. I'hey cost about $8 per head in Vermont. Of sheep in Texas, we can speak from personal observation. There is no country in the world where they thrive better, or with so little cost and trouble. The progress of sheep husbandry in the South is not as rapid as it might, and un SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. —The celebrated, but eccentric John Randolph, " of Roanoke," whose eccentricity often got the better of his reason and logic, and led him into vehement and bitter denunciations of even the most grave and important measures, had, for some reason not very satisfactory, contracted a most bitter antipathy to sheep and the raising of wool. He even went so far once, on the floor of Congress, as to declare that he would go any time out of his way 1' to kick a sheep!" John Randolph, however, was but a man; and time has shown that all his prejudices against attempts at sheep husbandry, in the South, and particularly in his own state, Virginia, were groundlessfounded in a want of knowledge of the capabilities of the South for this very important branch of rural economy. Others, though not as renowned, but perhaps more free from prejudices, have also made the most sweeping denunciations of wool-growing in southern latitudes; and, undoubtedly, this opposition has contributed greatly to retard the progress of sheep husandry in the South, by engendering in the minds of agriculturists deep prejudices against it, or, at least, doubts of its practi- cability and profit. These doubts, however, have been gradually disappearing, and for many years past there has not been a single southern state in which wool was not more or less raised. WVe have not the last census (1850) to quote,* but that of 1840 will an Virginia.............. 1,311,004............2,860,795 North Carolina 9,9................... 970,738 South Carolina 81,5................... 487,222 Georgia.............. 560,435........... 990,017 Florida............. 2,3..................... 23,247 Alab ama,1,4............. 371,800..... 657,118 Mississippi........... 304,929............ 559,619 Louisiana............ 110,333........... 109,897 Texas... 99,093............. 99,093............ 131,3,74 Arkansas............ 101,257............ S2,595 Tennessee............ 811,537.............. 1,364,378 Kentucky.............1,070,303............2,224,685 Ohio.................3,937,086........ 10,111,288 Michigan............. 746,435............ 2,043,283 Indiana.............. 1,122,493............ 2,610,287 Illinois............... 894,043............ 2,150,113 Missouri............ 756,309............ 1,615,860 Iowa................. 149,960............ 373,898 Wisconsin........... 124,892............ 253,963 California............ 17,574............ 5,520 Minnesota territory... 80............ 85 Oregon territory...... 15,282............ 29,686 Utah territory........... 3,262............ 9,222 N. Mexican territory. 377,271............ 32,901 Total......... 21,571,306.......... 52,417,282 * March 13, 1852. * Now received. The following are the statistics of sheep: 1850 NTo. Sheep Lbs. of Wool Maine................ 440,943............ 1,362,986 New-Hampshire............84,750... 1 108,476 Vermonit.......... 1... 919,99 2............ 3,410,963 Massachusetts........ 188,651............ 585,136 Rhode Island......... 44,296............ 129,692 Connecticut.......... 174,181............. 497,396 New-York............ 4,453,241........... 10,070,301 New-Jersey.......... 160,488............ 375,854 Pennsvlvania......... 1,822,357............ 4,401,570 19elaware............ 27,503............ 57,768 Maryland............ 177,902............ 480,226 District of Columbia. 150............ 525 I iss SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. doubte(dlyl would be, if more exact informa mal thrives in even the most unhealthy localtion oi its great practicability and advan- ties of the South-along the low, fenny, tages was diffused among our agricultural tide-water region that skirts the Gulf of population. There is much inquiry on the Mexico, on the margins of Great Okefillokee subject. Mnany old prejudices still linger, swamlp, in Georgia and Florida, and ill the and such questions as the following are fre- sw amps of the Mississippi. In the parish of quently asked: Orleans there are some 2,000 sheep in Jef 1. A'liht is the effect of climate on the ferson, about 7,000 St. Mary's, 8,000. In health and w ool-producing qualities of sheep all parts of the Delta they are found in large in the South l numl,ers; and that they are healthy in all 2 Is the soil, herbage, &c., of the south- this region is a matter of notoriety. erm states adapted to sheep husbandry? Let us now consider whether the quantity 3. \Ahlat are the profits on sheep husban- of wool, which a sheep produces, is less in dry in the southern states? the South than in the North. The following 4. Is there a constant market for wool, table will answer this query it is compiled and what are the future prospects of it, as to from the U. S. census for 1840: deimand and supply? 5. \lhat are the most profitable breeds of Av.eigh. sheep for the South? Wool, per sheep, in Virginia..............17 4 ozs. sheep fo r" S N. Carolina..........16 6. How ought sheep tobe managed in the ", s. Carolina..........19 South I " " Georgia..............1914 " " ~~~~Florida.............. 1775'1 These questions we propose to answer as Florida..........172, "Alabama.......17" fully as our space will admit, for the benefit, Mississippi........... 2, of such readers as take an interest in the sub- " " Louisiana............17 " ~~~~ject.:~'i ~ ~" " Tennessee............]18 "e ". Kentucky............23 Y, I. In regard to the effect of a southern New-York........ 21 climate on sheep, we will discuss this under two heads: the effect upon the health of From this it would appear that the quiansheep as mere animals; and the effect on tity of wool, per sheep, in the South, is the quantity and quality of the wool. greater than in the North. It must not be That our southern climate is unfavorable concealed, however, that the U. S. census to the health of sheep, is disproved by the for 1840 is far from being reliable; but as experience of many years. All who will its defects affect the North as well as the take the trouble to look into the history of South, it is as fair for the one as for the sheep, in the old world, will see that it is an other. For all purposes, however, requiring animal that has, from time immemorial, been exactness, it might as well not have been bred on the eastern continent, fronm the taken. We could easily verify this observaequator to the snows of Scandinavia from tion, but it would be a digression from our the burnint,, plains of Asia and Africa to at subject. It is a pity, that men, well paid by least the 65thl parallel of north latitude. The the government for making census returns, power which the sheep possesses of acco e- cannot do their work correctly. modating itself to different climates seems al- In coniparing wool-growing in the South most unlinited. It seems to thrive equallv with that of the North, we are to bear in well on the hot plains of Hindostani, or in mind, that in the South the business thus the frozen regions of Thibet. We hare ob- far has received but comparatively little sysserved it extensively in New-York, Massa- temnatic attention; while in the North woolchusetts, and other states, and ill the high, growing is as old as the republic itself, and undulating regions of Texas and in both has long since been reduced to a system, regiolns it thrives equally well if anything, conducted upon the most scientific and exbetter in the South than in the North. There pensive plans. Every attention there has are inow qot far from 100 000 sheep in Lou- been paid to the breeding of sheep, and imisiana. South ofthe 32d parallel of latitude, it portations of the best stock have, Irom time is estiimated that there are, in the southern to time, been made from Europe; while in states, between two and three hundred the South sheep have received little attenthousand sheep at the present time, and the tion, being suffered to breed promiscuously, number is constantly increasing. By the and to roamn through the forests without bethe table which we have given above, it will img regularly sheared. be seen that there were, in 1839, more than "From all well-known facts," says Mr. 4,400,000 sheep in the southern states. Henry S. Randall, of New-York, a distinThe fact that the animal is rapidly in- guished wnriter onsheep husbandry, "warmth creasing in numbers in the South shoews of temperature, at least to a point equaling that the warmith of the climate is not un- the highest mean temperature in the United favorable. WVe may regard it as a settled States, is not injurious, but absolutely confact, that the climate of the South is highly I ducive to the production of wool. The favorable to the health of sheep. The ani- causes of this are involved in no mystery. 189 SIHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 'Tarm climates afford more green and sue- far greater influence on the fineness of the culent herbage during a greater portion of fleece" than climate. It is admitted, too, the year than cold ones. Sheep, plentifully that a change of climate, from a cold to a supplied with green herbage, keep in higher hot region, does not necessarily produce condition than when confined to that which coarse wool; but that such deterioration is dry. High condition promotes those se- may be counteracted by careful managemnent cretions which form the wool. Every one and selection in breeding. Long experience at all conversant with sheep well knows, that in all climies has established this. " The if kept fleshy the year round, they produce preservation of the Merino race," says M. far iore wool than if kept poor. A half a Lasteyrie, "in its utmost purity, at the Cape pound's difference per head is readily made of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, in this way. Within the maximum and and under the rigorous climate of Sweden, minimum of the product of the sheep or of furnish an additional support to my unaltera flock, the ratio of production always coin- able principle, that fine-wool sheep may be cides with that of condition."* kept wherever intelligent breeders exist." Having thus shown the effect of climate WVe might cite many eminent autho()rities to upon the quantity of wool, we now proceed prove that wool may be grown in all its to consider its effect upon the quality. purity and fineness in warm climates. The There can be little doubt that the hair and wool of Australia, in latitude 339, is profur of animals is finer in cold climates than nounced superior in softness and fineness to in warm. The cause of this is, perhaps, the wool of Germany in latitude 50Q north. not fully determined. Some writers attribute Mr. Mark R. Cockiill, a large sheep-raiser in it to the effect of cold and heat in contract- Madison county, Mississippi, who imported ing or expanding the pores of the skin, sup- Saxon sheep in 1824, says: " I find no fallposing the size of the hair to be proportion- itlg off in quality and quantity of their fleeces; ed to the size of the pores. The pores, in on the contrary, I believe there is a little imcold climates they say, being greatly con- provement. Their fleeces are a little more tracted by the cold, suffer only fine hairs to compact than formerly, hence more weight; pass, the reverse b the rthese ome case in warm and, fromt our mild climate, the stapile has beclimates. This is a theory which needs con- come longer. I assert it to be a fact, that the firmation. Indeed, it would seem to be re- latitude I am now i, Madison couty Misfuted by the fact, that many quadrupeds, cutynrho tt rwwo,a h he futed by the fact, that many qoadrupeds, sissippi, latitude 32~ north, is better than any especially those of cold climates, have two country north of it to grow wool, as the sheep kinds of hair growing together, along, coarse ca keep all the time razing by owing 11 11 ~ ~~small grain. The wool of' the fine Saxon kind, formiing their visible external covering; sheell rain The wiool of the fine Saxon andl a shorter, finer, and more abundlatnt sheep in this climate is softer and moie cotkind lying concealed by the other, and close ton-like than any I have ever seen. The suto the skin, called fur. If the colt has any- periority of my wool I ascribe to our climate, to the skin, called fur. If the cold has any-Pe" thing to do directly with the growth of the and tie proviaion for the sheep of succulent food the year round." hair, why does it cause some to be fine and food the year mood." the r,yesit coarse one thoe animal? The authorities cited above prove the The chief difference between animals of great poinit in question, namely, that siothern The chief difference between animals o latitudes are inot inc()Inpatiblewith the growth hot and cold climates is, in respect to hair. of the est of wools; ad that, in soe rethat the latter have two kinds of natural sliects, they have the advantage of cold laticovering, a coarse and fine; while the ani- tocdes it furishiug flocks coustantly with mals of hot climates have only the coarse, gieet pasities, and ii there bei'g nne of grseen] pastures, and inl there belles n-one of the fine being unnecessary. The sheep of te witer expeses of orther countries to lie wiinter expenses of northern countries to Bengal are coarse and hairy; but these hav defray been found, on being transported to Port 1[. Is the soil, herbage, 4c., of the southern Jackson, in Australia, in the latitude Of statesadaptedt tosheep husbandry? South Carolina, to lose all their hair, in the BuLt little need be said on this qulestion. short time of three years, and to assume a All who are acquainted with the Souitlh know fleece of wool. tlhat even on ourt poorest lands there is am Australia, too, furnishes evidence of the pie food, or there can easily be made to be perfect adaptation of warm climates to the amn)le foiod, fior vast flockls of sheep. Ungrowth of wool. The exportation of wool d(,,ul,ted(ly, the poorest worn-out lands of the from Australia, in 1843, amounted to 16,- South coild(l be made to foiroishl sufficient 226.400 lbs. glass fior sheep, and thus be rendered highly That the quantity and quality of the wool valuable. A m'i,)derate capital would( stock is dependent, in a great measure, on the kind tlhem with the best breeds from the North, and amount of the food received by the an- vwhich, with proper attention, would yield imal, is attested by all of the most able wri- annually a certaiii and unfailing crop of wool ters on the subject. Mr. Youatt, an eminent -a crop that woutld be exempt from the unwriter on sheep, says: that "pasture has a certainties of that of cotton. Laiidls now abandoned, or those of the low tide-water re * Randall's Sheep Htusbandry in the South, p. 22. gion covered with pines,,could be made vastly 190 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. The above rates are put much lower than those given by others. It is estiinated that the entire cost of raising a pound of wool in tlthle South, is not over 5 1-12 cents but the market price of wool is not less tl-han 30 cents. A very safe estimate of the cost of raising one pound is eight cents, as given by fellry S. Randall, Esq., in his very cornl)lete work on sheep htusballdry in the South. It will be readily seen by the above, tlhat the profits of wool-growing are infinitely greater thll;n those of cotton, even at the present prices. Thile expense of keeping sheep in the South is very little. The Hon. Mr. Coles, a mem ber of Congress from Virginlia, states, that his flock of 200 shleep, kept in good condition sumnmer and winter, did not cost himn $10 a year. Their wool, at 3 pounds per head, would be 600 lbs., worth, at 30 cenIts, $180. Int the official documents of the U. S. Patent Office, for 1849, it is stated tlhat tile annual exp)ense fi)r kleeping sheep in Texas does not exceed "5 cents per head. The South is at present the only country in the Union where wool-growing can be made profitable. In the above-mentioned re port of the patent office it is stated, that the keeping of shee p in New -Yorkl costs fioed $1 to $1 25 per head h in Ohio, $1 to $1 37; in New-H1mpshire, $1; Vermont, $1; in PenIn sylvania, $l. The keeping o f 1 200 sheep, then, in Ohio, for instance, would cost $200 per anniu m; but these 200 heeep would only produce 600 lbs. of wool, which, at 30 cents, would b e only $180. In the statement which we have given above, it will be se en, that in the S oulh th er e would be a cleat gi of $112 67 on 100 she e p, o r $m225 34 on 200. Th e great advantage which we derive friom our southern climate will soon make ours the great wool-growing region, as it is now the great cotton anIld suigar-growin~g. The gross cost (,f producing a pound of wool in the soutlhern states, at the highest es timate we have seen, is eight cents; in NX'ew York it is 271 cents. This great difference is owing to the treater cheapness of our lands, and of slave labor, and to the climate, which here enables the flocks to live in the fields the whole year, without any expense for food or shelter. T'lius falr we have considered onily the. dir ect anniiiual profit or loss of sheep husbandry in the Soutii. Let us now look at some of tlhe more remote, collateral, but equally cer. taini advantages whl-ich the South wvould derive from this branch of hiusbanidry. It is well knioi.wn that there are thouisands and tells of':houLsatids of acres of landti in the ti(le-water arid hlilly regions of the southern states that have either become a "wrni oqtt" by l1, ag cultivation, or are naturiallv t(,o sterile for tillage. Canl these " old fiehi1s," these deserted p)lantations, these sterlie wa~stes, be reclaimed or made arable? Thousand^s are productive and profitable in wool. They could be made to yield sufficient grass to fee(] thousan ds o f sheep, that, w ith but l ittle care t o their owners, would yi eld their valuable fleeces. Ne arly all of t h ose lands in the South, now regarded as nearly worthless, could be made to produce wool at very little expee n se. All o f the most sterile land s of the South could be made to y iel d an abundance of the Bermuda grass, thus converting all abandoned fi e lds ihto permanent pastures that would support thouisands of sieep, requiring but little attention, save the shearing of them. There is, therefore, no obstacle to the r aising of sheep, in the South, arising fwrom a want of suitabl e prod. The wh ole tide-water zone of the S,)itil, extendi a rng from t we nty to (tie hundred mile s fr om the sea-coast, could be e asily conve rted into a sheep-growiig re I1I. Wh at are the profits onsheep husbandry in the southern states? In mar iy, ifnot i n mos t situations through out th e So u th, sheep will obtain sufficient food from the pastures during the whole year, so that they are a t n o ex pense to the owner during winter for food or shelter. The items of expense, then, in the raising of sheep, would be interest on the purchase-motley of lands and sheep, to begin with, the expense of shearing and supervision, and the loss of sheep by death. On the other side of the account, we should have the value of the wool and the increase of the flock. Lands fit for sl]eep-raising can be purchased at $1 25 per acre, and ordinary sheep are worth $2 per head. WNool is worth at present 1iom-r 30 to 35 cents per pound. During the last fifteenx years, the price has ranged between 30 and( 50 cents. It is allowed that there may be three sheep to ever-y acre of' land. The increase of a flock is about eighty per cent., and lambs are worth 60 cents eaicIh. In the South, the expense of supervision need not be anything, as old superannuiiiated niegroes could watch slheep. The shearing would cost not over $2 per hundred if done by slaves. From these data we construct the following stateinel,t: Dr. t 100 sheep, interest at 8 per cent. on the pur chase mloney, at $2 a head............... $16 00 Interest on 33l,, acres of land, at $1 25...3.. 3 33 Expense of'shearing....................... 2 00 Loss by death, 2 per cent.................. 4 00 Total.................................. $25 33 Cr. By 300 lbs of wool, at 30 cents............. $90 00 Increase of 80 lambs, at 60 cents............ 48 00 Total................................. $138 00 25 33 Gain.................................. $112 67 191 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. constantly deserting their old homes, their and the question naturally arises: "Would places (i' niativity, the fields upon which their there be a market for all this wooll? If only eyes fi,st rested, and which their hands first oie-eighth part of the lands of the South was tilled, because they say tilat their lands are devoted to shleepl, at the rate of' two to the xvornl out, and they can live ulpon them no acre, and eachi fui-iistl-ied 3 l)s. a year, the lonier. Is there no reniedy foi this? Yes; South wonl(l annuially produtce nil)i,e than the int,-olluctiol. of shieep hisl)landry. These 54,000,000 lbs. of wool, wli( hIi, it 30 cents, worn-out lands yield enough to sustain large wouild be worthl $16700.000. If the preflocks of shieep, at least three to the acre. sent supply of wool, takinig the whole world Upon 1,000 a,res of these old lands 3,000 iito account, is adeqiiate to the d(emand, it is sheep cai fi,d subsistence; aid while they evidenit that an increase of wol-lrowing in do this, they are at the s'nme timie fertilizitng the So(ith, unless it is diminished to the same them. Hlov is this? The manure of the extent iin some other quarter, wtould soon large flocks that mighlt be placed( upon them create ai overstoclked market. We do not gradually eniriches then, anid thus increases at all admit that the present supply of wool their liert)age. Thus, in a few years, poor is equal to the demanad. One tlhig is cerand scanty pastures are converted into rich taim, the entire wool crop of the United States productive ones. The sowing of the fields is nothing like sufficient to supply the dewith the Bermuda grass, too, which will mand in the United States alone. In 1850 flourish on almost perfectly barren soils, we irmported 18,000.000 lbs., worth, at 30 should commelce with the introduction of cents, $5,400,000. WVe exported, (during the the sheep, and one would help the other. same year, wool to the amnount of $22,778. The grass would be returned to the soil in the For several years past, the raising of wool form of manure, and in a few years the old, in the northern slates lhas been diminlishing, worn-out. deserted fields, would be fit for the and at the same time the business has been plow. "The Bermuda grass," says MIr. increasing iii the South. Northern woolAffleck, "grows luxuriantly in every kind of growers ascribe this phenomenon to the soil. It possesses an additional advantage- operation of the tariff of 1846; bult the real that of binding the loosest and mnost barren cause is due to the tfacts which we have alsandy tracts." It spreads rapidly, is hard to ready pointed out, showing that the South is eradicate, and is, besides, a favorite grass better adapted to wool-raisitg thal theNorth, with animiitals. in many parts of which, the expense of keep It may be asked, why are sheep better for gig ordinary sheep is more than the value of ameliorating w,rtl-otit lands than horued cat- their wool. It is onlly the very best breeds, tle? Tihe answer is, because sheep will producing the finest wool, that can pay a thrive on lands where other animals coul(l profit in the Nortll. A late writer on the not —where other ainimals could not get subject states, that wools that do not bring enougli to eat. English agriculturists conI- less than 45 or 50 cents per pound, are the sider that tlle sheep on their lands are the only vones that the North can raise with profit. chief suppl)rt to th-eir fertility-that they In the South, as we have shown, a large profit keep the fitlIds fertile They regarid thefleece can be made onl even ordinary sheep, and as the smallest patl of the good to lbe derived that, too, with no tiouble except the watchfrom them. A writer in a London agricultu- itig and sheariing. ral jollllrnl o-)serves; " The veryfleece shorti As sheep husbandry advances in the Sotuth, annually t' 1)rn their backs is worthy of coii- it will disappear in the Notrth. s,) that we need sideratioil." Here, in Ainerica, the "very not ail)prehend the want o'f a market for southfleece" is everything. erii wool. Thle South is destined to monopo The poitnt to which we wish to call the at- lize the business entirely in North America, tentio'i of all engaged in agriculture in the and we can now raise it here at le s expense South, is, that they should immediately stock than in any country in Euirole. It will not be all their old worn-out fiells, if aiy such they ling befire wool-ialisitig will be abandoned have, witih she ep. They will thus ret(nder in this country, inorth of the 40th parallel of those fiellds, in a fev years, fit for the plow, iiorthl latitude, if we except, periaps, Oregon, and iil tlhe neian time be deriving a handsome where the isothermal line is at least 5i north profit i' omt their fl)cks. of' its course east of the Rocky Mouttains. It being now shown that the South is the Much has been said iii f'itvoi of the prairies best cotittry in the world for raisillng sheep, of the nortlhwest, as aiffo)rdintg -eat faicilities and that the profits of sheep husbandry are for sheep-raisint; but the experiment has great, we shall proceed to consider- been tried, alnd failed. TIhese prairies are IV. lI1~-ihcr there is a co?istant anarket fo-r b)leak, cold barlren wastes i2 win ter, that wool, aitd trhat are the future prospects of it I afford 110no food fo)r aninmals-anud hence, sheep as to demani(l and s7tpply? need as much housi ng a nd feediii there as Should the Sn,oth go as extensively into the ea.st of the Alle,Ihallies; besides, prairie lands busuness of wool-raising as is recommended, devoted to sheep woulti tieed feiti-it, but the qulattity tof wool produced annually ill the they are destitute of timber aud there is also United States would be etiormouslyiticreased; a great scarcity of watet. 199 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHIERN STATES. The wool-producing countries of the globe Spain and Portugal wool-growing has rapidly that are able to come at all in competition declinted since 1810, and is still declining. with us, are embraced chiefly in a belt or Portugal then yielded more than 3,00)0,000 region alotit 15~ in width, in each side of; lbs. annually; now only about 3.50.0u0 lbs. and( at different distances from, the equiator. Spain, i'l 1810, yielded nearly 6.000,000 1)ls.; Thie p),sitio)t of' this zone is goveirned by the tlowv only ah)out 1,000,000 lbs. aiinuallv. Ger temperatitre. The wool zone, if we may ctll manlty and Prussia have reached their climax, it, is bouided by isothermal instead of latitu. as wool-arowinig countries, and for the last 20 dinal liles. In the southern hemnisphelie, years have been declining. South America, Australia, and the Cape of France finds it better econony to cultivate Good Hope, are the only countries that might graini,viues, fruits and silk, than wool, in those conp)ete withus. InSouthAmerica, the woe)l. of her dep)artmerts adapted to sheep husban growin,,g region embraces about two-thirds of (ry; and since 1825, her exports (f' wool to Bueoos Ayres, all of Chili, the little country of EnIgland have declined from 436,0(00 to 48,000 Uruguay, which is about two-thirds the size pounids. of Texas, a iere point of Brazil,and the north Of Italy, we may say, that there is not the part of' Patagonia. The pampas of Bue- remotest prospect of her ever becomling a nos Ayres, like the prairies of North America, wool-gowing and exporting cot:llltry. are covered with tall grass, and are destitute Turkey, though tolerably well adapted to of timber. They present the samne objections sheep husbandry, exports but little wool. to sheep-raising, as our prairies. The cost of The proud, indoleot Turk, spurns all rural la transporting the wool to market is great, for bar, is destitute of enterprise, and, moreover, there is none but a foreign market; and be- his government affords him no encourage sildes, the tariffof 1846 levies a duty of 30 per ment. Destitute of anlly security to person or cent. a(l valorem, without regard to quality; property, which is liable to be seized at any so that the lowest priced foreign wools can- timne, or which he is often compelled to sell not enter this country without paying a duty at forced sales to meet oppressive taxation, of about Ibur cents on a pound, which is half the Turk has little inducement to increase his what it costs to raise a pound in our southern flocks. states. Lands, it is true, are worth, in the Of the Cape of Good Hope. as a wool-grow. Argentine Republic, only about ten cents an ing country, nothing very favorably call be acre; but theinstability of the government is said. Nearly seven-tenths of the colonial a powerful discouragement to all branches of territories are destitute of vegetation during a industry; the agricultural populationis want- greater part of the year, according to Mr. inmg industry and skill; and foreign capitalists Barrow. Itf we may believe the accounts of do not like to venture. The wools of Buenos the Rev. Robert Moffat, who resided at the Avres cost there about 15 cents per pound, Cape 23 years, as agent of the London MIsto which we must add commissions, United sionary Society, the greater partofthecountry States duty, freight and insurance, which make is doomed to perpetual sterility anrid droulth. the very coarse South American article cost Besides, lions, tigers, hyenas, jackals, wild here not far firom 30 cents, at which price we dogs, &c., are so numerous and ravenous that can furnish wools of the same inferior quality, sheep must be incessantly watched. But the at a higlh profit. So that we have nothing to worst of all, the sheep-destroyers are the nafear ftrom South America. Let us now look tives themselves, whose ravages are incessant. at transatlantic competition. At the present time, especially, in the war England, Ireland and Scotland had, in 1839, which they are now carrying onl with the 32,000,00(1 of sheep. England and Wales, English, their ravages of sheep, and cattle of with an area less than that of Virginia, had all kinds, are very extensive. But, even if about 7,000,000 more sheep than the whole the English should succeed in effectually subof the United States. But the whole, or duing the natives, the character of the counnearly the whole of the wool of Great Britain try must ever render it unfit for wool-growing. is cotnsumed at home. It exports only its Extreme drouth, says Mr. Moffat, continues coarsest wools, and this because others are for years together. foolish enough to buy what English manufac Of all the wool-growing countries of the turers think unfit for their use. Englaod does eastern hemisphere, south of the equator, not produce wool einough for its own manti- Australia ranks first. It has an area about factures. In 1840 it imported 46,221,781 equal to that of the United States, but greatly pounds. MIuch of the cheap, coarse, cast-off intferior to it in fertility of soil. " The truth wools of England have been shipped to this is," says Mr. McCulloch, " that the bad land country, and are included in the 18,000,000 bears a much greater proportion to the good, pounds that we imported in 1850. As Eng- in New-Holland, than in almost any other land has to import vast quantities of wool for country with which we are acquainted.' The her own consumption, we need not fear her country is peculiarly subject to drouths, which competition. continue two three, and four years together Spamin and the whole ofthe Peninsula, once destroying all vegetation. The drouth in 1841 so famous for its wools, is now sunk to a fifth destroyed 70.000 sheep. or six rate wool-producing country. Both in It is difficult to find a place in Australia VOL. II. 13 193 t i 0 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. til the character of the people and their political institutions are changed.* 5. "That it will also increase at the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and Van Dieman's Land; but that its economical extension in either of these countries is limited, especially if America becomes a competitor. 6. "That no part of the Eastern continent, or its islands, all things considered, possess equal advantages for wool-growing with some parts of the United States." The climate of our southern states, for sheep, is not excelled by that of any other country; our soil is generally more fertile; we have an abundance of good wat er, a nd no long drouths; we have no lo calities too unhealthy for s h eep: and w e are f our times nearer the European market than Aulstralia. It is certain that ifa we r aised more wool than ne ce ssary to supply o ur own mar ket, we could export it t a fair profit i o t. This is true even of the wool of the northern states. Since the southern states, as we have shown, can produce w ool fo r o ne-thir d the cost of northern w ool, t hey could drive all the European nations from the market, with two or three exceptions, and with these they could successtully compete. So that there is no good reason why the South shou ld not imme - diately embark in th e pro duction of wool. What are the prospects of an increased de mand for wool in Europe? Tables of impor tation show that there has been an increasing demand for wool in Europe ever since the commencement of the present century. In 1771, Englanid imported only 1,829,772 lbs.; in 1810, 10,914,137; in 1825, 43,795,281; in 1840, 52,000,000. The same increased de mand for wool has taken place in this country. There is an increasing demand for wool as well as for cotton throughout the civilized world, and this demand wvill keep pace with the progress of civilization, which incessantly increases our wants. Our own country already affords a market for 18,000,000 lbs. more of wool than we pro duce. If our population continues to increase as heretofore, il ten years from this time there will be a demand in the United States for at least 137,000,0(00 lbs. of wool anseually. From the preceding facts it would appear, that the future prospects of the wool market are sufficient to justify very extensive opera tiolns in sheep husbandry. We now proceed to consider where sheep do well. Disease there, among sheep, too, appears to be peculiarly inveterate, causing tri,ghtful losses. The ast ricngency of the wate r and o ther c auses, produce severe epidem ics. In s ome years they carry off half the fl,ick s, in som e regio ns. The shepherds being co nvi cts, hav e of ten, through spite to their masters, caused whole fl(,cks to be infested with the scab, by driving them into contact with diseased flocks. The chief sour ce of the weal tho of Australia is thus in the hands of these worthless conv,icts. The sheep of Austr ali a ar e subjec t to the depredations of various animals, particularly the wild dog; but the runaway c onvic ts, with whom the country is filled, are a worse enemy than the dogs. Theylive upon tie flocks. Sheep there hav e to be folded every night, and guarded by watchmen and dogs, with fires, to keep off wild be asts. Mr. Sam uel Lawrence says, in one of his letters to M r. Randall:'i I s a w a gentleman from Engl and, a fbw month s since, who has anl admirable flock in New South Wales, of 25,000 she ep; and he assured me that he had not received a penny of income from them since 1838."* With such a picture be fore us of woolgrowia Jg in Aus tralia, and the f act th at it is 13,000 miles from any market for wool, we hav e d aoti much to fear from Australia. From a consideration of all the foregoing f acts, Mr. H.S. Randall, in his work o n Sheep Husbandry, dra ws the following conclusions: I 1. "1 That wool-growing is never likely to permanenrtly and imp ortan tly ibacrease in any of the countries of Europe, unless it be in Hungary, Turkey, and the south of Russia. 2.' That it is more likely to decrease than increase ill Great Britain, France, Portugal, and Italy. 3. " That such a de cr ease i s next to c ertain in Sraits and Germany, ( including Prussia and Austria,) except ing Hung ary a nd Tra tlsylvaniia; that the decrease will be much more considerable in Germany; that its rapidity and extent will be proportioned to the rapidity and extent with which the market is supplied from countries which can grow woo,l cheaper, such as North and South America, Hungary, Southern Russia and Australia. 4.'"That wool-growiing will undoubtedly largely increase in Hungatry and Southern Russia and that it ought to in European and Asiatic Tuirkey, but will not extensively, un * The recent discovery of gold in Australia has been followed by an extensive abandonment of the sheep culture in that country, and vast numbers of sheep have been already exterminated. The London Times has an elaborate article on the subject, calling upon the government to take measures for averting the further destruction of sheep in Austra lia. The prospects offered by the mines cause the shepherds to abandon their business, which is very poorly paid, as an Australian shepherd gets less than $10)0 lper annum for his services. It is proposed to raise their wages to keep them from running to the mines. Another English journals speaking of the abandon ment of the flocks in Australia by the shepherds, says: "Immense flocks, left by the shepherds to be devoured by wild dogs, are being killed by thousands and boiled down for tallow. Many proprietors, it is stated, have been comnipelled to dispose of 20,000 sheep in this way. As wool has hitherto been the great staple of the colony, the main reliance of the majority of settlers, and an article on which merchants have been accustomed to make large advances, there are not wanting writers who draw gloomy pictures of the ruin which will, in their judgment, iollow the infraction ofthe ordinary course o nf afpairs." * That this will not be soon, needs no prophet to tell. 194 4 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. All large planters could, with little additional expense, shear annually 1,000 sheep, and at the same time be improving their old lands. The subject is, at least, worthy of serious consideration. IV. What are the most profitable breeds of sheepfor the South? This question is discussed at great length by Mr. Randall. He decides that the pure-blood ed Merino is, all things considered, the best adapted to the South-it being a hardy breed, requiring no extra skill or experience for its mnanagemrnent. Besides, the Merino makes a better cross than the Saxon with the common sheep of the South. Two or three proper Merino crosses with the common sheep of the South raises them to the rank of a first-rate wool-gr)wing sheep, scarcely inferior to the filll.blooded Merino. The Saxon makes an indifferent cross, shortening the wool without adding much to its thickness, and thus ren dering the fleece lighter. Tile reverse of this is the result of a Merino cross. As a guide in tie selection of Merinos, Mr. R andall says: "The head should be well car ri ed up, and in. the ewe hornless. It would be better to have the ram also horn l e s s. The face should be rather short, broad b e t w e e n the eyes, the nose pointed, and in the ewe fine and free from wrinkles. The eyes should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle ill expression. The neck should be straight, short, round, and stout, not sinkin, below the level of the back. The p oints of thle shoulder should not be raised above the level of the back. The back to the hips should be straight, the portion immediately back of the shoulder-blades being full; the ribs well arched; the body large and capacious; the flank w ell le t down; hindsquarters full and round, the flesh meeting well down between the thighs. The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well apart, and perpendicular when the sheep is standing. The skin should be loose, mellow, and of a delicate pink color. A colorless, tawny skin. indicates bad breeding." Almost every species of sheep is to be found in the United States; but after a careful review of all their different qualities and adaptations to the Soutlth,as given by the most competent judges, we do not hesitate to say, that the Mletrinos are the best for crossing with our commnon sheep. We might add many pages in confirmation of this opinion. The opin,ion has prevailed, that the raising of coarse wools is more profitable than the raising of fise;,but the reverse we believe to be true. The greatest wool market is that of Engl-and, and her chief imnportations consist of fine wools. If we had fine wools to send to England, we could successfully compete with those countries which now send their fine wools there. England does not want coarse wools, for these she exports herself. The more we reflect on the subject of sheep husbandry in tile Sou-th, the more are we coinvin,ced of its immense importance here as aw profitable branchl of rural economy. A little capital invested in this branch of butsin~ess wvould yield a hundred per cenlt. profit, and that too with but little trouble. SUGAR —CULTIVATION AND M>ANUFAC TURE OF.-dI yield to your reque st that I should give you the result of my studies on the cultivation and ma n ufacture of sugar in this state. I do it the more cheer fully a s I indulgde a hope of eliciting communications fromn others on a subject s o v itally interesting to Louis iana, and in t his way tha t any er rors into w hich I may fall from want of ex per ience or defective info r mation, will be poin ted out and corrected The s u bject is vast; volumes have been written upon it, and any survey, however gen e ral, m ust make my communication extend o ver more space than you may be able to accord it in your pages. If so, hesitate no t to re trenc h any portion that you may deem le ss likelym to af - ford i nterest and i nformation. To a person accustomed to regard the bountiful returns which nature yields to man's labor in the culti vation ofotherrops, ,no fact strikes w ith more surprize than the small comparat ive r eturn obtained from the cane. The s e e d seldomn yields more than fourfold, and hardly ever more than fivefold. The very s mallest quantit y of cane required for planting one hundred acres, is twenty acres of the fin est can e; and if, as too frequently is practised, the smallest and poor - est cane is saved for planting, it is neces sary to put up thirty, forty, and sometimes eve n f ifty acres of c ane in order to plant one hundred acres. If, in the cultivation of the cane, like th at of the grains, it were nec e ssar y to plan t the entire field each year, the large portion of each crop re quired for seed would form a very serious drawback, and in some instances might even cause the abandonment of the culture. But fortunately the cane is not an annual plant. Each year fresh shoots spring from the stubble which remains after cutting the crop; the cane ratoons,* as it is termed. In the West Indies, where no frosts interfere with this natural reproduction, it is said that the cane ratoons sometimes for a period of eighteen or twenty years, although I am inclined to believe this an exaggeration, and that it is in general necessary to replant every tell or twelve years. In /ouisiana, as a general rule, the fields are divided as near as may be into three equal parts, one of which is planted each year, so that in a plantation with six hundred acres of cane in cultivation, two handred acres are plant cane, two hundred acres ratoons of the first year, and two hundred acres ratoous of the '* This word is said to be a corruption of the French word " rejeton," a shoot or sprout. t 195 1.'.: -,-. SBUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. second year. After a field of cane has thus a manner that the leaves of each layer overyielded three crops, it is usual to plow up lap and cover the stalks of the preceding the stubble and plant afresh; and if we take layer, and thus form a protection against this as a general rule, and assume as an av- the frost; the mattresses are also laid with erage that one acre of cane will suffice for their leaves toward the south, so that the planting four acres, it results that the yield north wind cannot lift them in its passage, of the seed is twelvef,ld. or in other words, nor penetrate under them. In selecting the that one-twelfth of each crop must be re- plant, a'so, care should he taken to have inr served ifor planting the next. view, as much as possible, proximity to that In giving an account of the cultivation, I part ofthe field which is to be replanted, shall commence by describing the pro- and thus to avoid any unnecessary labor in cess of laying by from each crop the seed carting the plantslong distances when seedfor the next. Just before commencing the time arrives. gathering of the crop, usually about the Cane may be planted in Louisiana at any 1st of October, the planter selects the cane time between the first of October and the intended for seed. And here, if I may be end of Mlarch-but if planted in thefall, care allowed without presumption to say so, a must be taken that the ground be thoroughgeneral and fatal error prevails. Most plant- ly drained, otherwise the plant will freeze ers have not the courage to sacrifice, as they if the winter lbe severe, or rot if it he mild. term it, their best and finest cane for seed. Cane planted in the fall should be planted Selecting the fields of the oldest ratoons, at least four inches deep to protect it from where the plant is sparsest and smallest, the frost. Few planters however, are able they act in direct opposition to those prin- to plant before, or during the grinding seaciples of nature which both theory and ex- son. This work is usually commenced imperience have established for guides in re- mediately after the crop is taken off. The production. In both the animal and veget- ground is prepared by the plow, and the cane able systems all agree in the general maxim, planted in January, February, and March. that like will produce like. In sowing grain, Much diversity prevails in the mode ofplantin producing vegetables, in breeding animals, ig; formerly the cane was planted in rows, in the whole reproductive system of nature, from three to five feet apart; but recently a it has been universally established as a rule, very decided change is perceptible, and the that a healthy and vigorous offspring can be cultivators have become convinced that a expected only from parents of similar con- width of seven or eight feet between the stitution; and in all cases where this prin- rows, is as little space as ought ever to be ciple has been acted on with perseverance, left. When cane is planted in narrow rows, it has not only succeeded in preventing de- the effects of crowding the plant are not terioration, but in superinducing progres- visible in the early part of the season, nor sive development. I cannot but believe that are they as pernicious in very dry seasons; this practice of always selecting the poorest but late in the year the narrow rows are plants for seed, was one of the main reasons found to be shaded the entire day, the access which caused the fine variety of cane called of sun and air is debarred, the cane does not the Creole to degenerate to such an extent ripen as well, nor are the stalks as heavy, that in late years it has been almost entirely and in fact all the evils attendant upon banished from our fields. In some instances crowding too much vegetation in too small the planters have pushed the' penny wise, a space are clearly apparent. pound foolish" system to such an extent as The following mode of planting and culactually to reserve no cane for plant, but the tivating the cane has been pursued for a tops; that is, the green upper joints which number of years by the friend alluded to are cut from the plant when it is gathered above, and has been attended with signal for the mnill, and which are not mature success. As soon as the ground has been enough to afford sugar. I am the more em- prepared in January, the cane is planted in boldened in making these remarks, as an ex- rows at a distance of eight feet. Three canes periment has shown that in this respect cane are laid in a row at a distance of four inches is not an anomaly in the vegetable kingdom from each other; care is taken that the A friend, who is an experienced and intelli- cane be so laid as to place the eyes, from gent planter, with sufficient energy of mind which the plant is propagated, on each side to break through the trammels of routine, ofthe cane:* if the cane is thrown into the when in opposition to good sense and sound row without regard to this point, many of principle, thorougtlly tested this plan of re- them will be so placed that one series of serving tops for planting in a portion of his the eyes will rest on thebottom, and the op fields some years ago, and the result was a posite series will be on top; the bottom marked degeneration in the product. eyes will thus come out later, the cane will The cane when cut for seed is preserved in mo1treases-it is laid in the field in bedls * The eyes ofthe cane grow on the joints, on op posite s ides from top to bottom, and are not distri. of about two feet in height, in layers, in such buted around the cane. 190 I::.,.. !SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. Ie unequal in the rows, and will present to the eye a strikingly different appearance to that which is planted with the precaution of having the eyes on each side, so that no thing may obstruct the first efforts of the tender shoot in its struggles to reach light and air. TI'he canes are laid straight in the row, the crooked stalks being cut when ne cessary, so as to make a straight line. The plants thus arranged in the rows are cover ed with finely pulverized earth to the depth of an inch, but care is taken after the plant is up to supply an additional depth of earth round the roots at a much earlier period than is usually done, because most planters cover'their cane deeper in planting. The advantage of this light covering is to hasten the first vegetation, and force an earlyv start, a matter vitally essential in a cultivation like that of the cane in Louisiana, which must be forced into maturity within a term several months shorter than that which it naturally requires. My limits forbid following minutely the - whole process of cultivation through the year, there being but little difference in the subsequent managemerit from that followed by most planters, except in one particular, which I shallr now point out. When the cane is cut in the fall, a large portion of the produce of the soil remains on the field, as is well known, in the tops and leaves of the cane, the ripe portion of the stalk being alone conveyed to the mtill. This is called the trash,-and is placed on the stubble to assist in protecting from the frost that part of the cane which remains under ground, and from which the ratoonks shoot up in the ensuing season. As soon in the spring as danger of frost is no longer apprehended, the trash is raked off the rows of stubble to allow access to the sun and air, and on nearly all plantations this trash, which is a useful and fertilizing manure, is burnt up, instead of being returned to the earth. One cause of the difficulty of making use of this trash as manure, was the narrowness of the space between the rows under the old system of planting, which left so little room as to make the operation of plowing in the trash difficult and laborious, but where the rows are eight feet apart, the task is easy. Independently of the considerations to which I shall presently advert, and which derive their force from the chemical constitution of the cane, it is difficult for a person who has not witnessed the results, to form an adequate idea of the improvement to a soil that is naturally at all stiff, or clayey, fromnt the mere mechanical subdivision of its particles attendant on the decay of the large quantity of this trash left ann ually in the fields. This system was first put into operation on the plantation of which 1 am part owner, last year. The trash, on the first plowing of the ratoons, was covered wit t e ea h t re or r m the earth turned over from the furrow, which is run alongsid e of the stubble. At the second plowing, when it became n eces sary to turn up the entire space between the rows, the difference in the soil was so perceptible as to create strife among the negroes for the preference of plowing these rows, the subdivision of the soil, caused by the decay of the trash, rendering the work much lighter and easier than in others, where, from causes not worth detailing, we had been compelled to burn the trash. The advantages of this system are such that in lands which have been thus treated for a term of ten years without repose, I have been assured that the soil, far from deteriorating, is perceptibly improved in each successive year. The space between the rows not only reposes for three years, but is enriched by an annual increment ot the best manure, and when it becomes necessary to re-plant, the cane is planted in the spaces thus fertilized, and the former rows then become intervening spaces to receive in their turn the benefits of this rich nutriment for the soil. I referred, in support of the advantage derived from the plan of plowing in the trash, to the chemical constitution wf the cane as established by organic analysis. Althlougth I am satisfied, fr'om reasons which I will give when I come to treat of the manufacture of sugar, that no accurate or satisfactory atnalysig of the sugar-cane has yet been inade, or at least published, stilt the errors are not such as to affect the results in relation to cultivation. Sugar-calne is composed of water, woody fibre, and soluble matter, or sugar. In round numbers, it may be stated that the proportions are 72 per cent. of water, 10 per cent. of woody fibre, and 18 per cent. of sugar. But sugar itself is shown by organic analysis to consist entirely of carbol and water, and woody fibre consists principally of the same elements combined with inorganic bases; so that the oxygen and hydrogen found in the sugar-cane in the state of water, or as constituent elements of the sugar and woody fibre, form about nitne-ten-ths of' its weight, and are entirely derived from the atmosla hete and from water, thus abstracting n,)thiing from the soil. But this is not all. Vegetable physiologists agree that a very la,-ge proportion of the carbon of plants is derived from the air through the action of leaves, which decomposes the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and appropriates to the formation of the tissues of the plant the carbon contained in this acid. For the purposes of the present illustration, it may, therefore, be assumed that not more than about six per cent. of the growth of the cane is derived from the soil, and hence the ftact that this crop can be cultivated on the same soil without exhausting it for a lonlg series of years; 197 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTU'RE OF. but it is certain that a system which is constantly abstracting something from the earth and never making to it any return, must by degrees impair, and eventually destroy the fertility of even the alluvial soil of lower Louisiana. Now, by plowing into the land each year the tops and leaves stripped from the stalks, not only is the soil improved by the mechanical subdivision of its particles above referred to, but it is kept in good tilth by having restored to it not only at least as much carbon as was abstracted from it,* but a large portion of the inorganic bases. And if to this the bagasse were added as a manure, we should never hear of a soil being worn out on a sugar plantation in Louisiana. I am aware that it was formerly doubted whether any of the carbon of plants was derived from the soil, but later researches have put this point at rest, and have shown that a large portion of this element is derived by plants from the carbonic acid evolved from vegetable substances during their decay in the soil, either by its inhalation into the roots, in an aeriform state, or by its first entering into solution into the water found in the soil, and being afterward absorbed in this form by the roots. The experiment of Sir Humphrey Davy on this point appears conclusive, that eminent chemist having shown that different plants and grasses grow much more luxuriantly when watered with solutin of sugar, than with common water, the two liquidsr differing in nothing but the presence of carbon in the former, and its absencu in the latter. Before closing these remarks on the cultivation of the cane, allow me to say something on a point in comparison with which all others sink into insignificance. In the closing lecture of a series delivered in New-Orleans by Professor B. Silliman, Jr., on Agricultural Chemistry, he observed, that if he were asked by what means the planter of Louisiana could, w ith certainty, add lar gel y to the product of the soil, he would say, as Demosthenes said of action in its effects on eloquence: drainage, drainage, drainage. Tile present season has given to nine-tenths of our planters melancholy proof of the truth of this remark, and although the quantity of water which has fallen in this state the present year is altogether unprecedented,+ yet it is well known that every few years we may expect what is called a wet season, the effects of which on each plantation in the state are in} exact inverse proportion to the extent of its drainage. It is in such seasons that the most striking contrasts are shown between the results of skieful and imp erfect cultivation; but it isa great error to suppose that drainage, thorough and perfect draina ge, is without itso inflience in the driest season. In the a l luv ial soil of our pMississippi River, and th e bayous leading out of it, exposed to t he action of the water which filters th ro ugh the banks and which, in the spring of the year is render ed icy cold bk th e melting of the psnows in the northern regions, from which it flows, it is impossible to overrate the importance o f draiining. The effect of th is low te mperature of the wate r which penetrates into our fields is so great, as perceptibly to retard theo sprig vegetation, unless means are taken to obviate its effects. In the recent experiments of p lan ting cane in the parish of Rapides, it has been observed that the cane is earlier an d more vigorous in its first vegetation, although in a more northern latitude, than it is even in our lower rierr parishes, the so il on the Red River being higher, and naturally drier than that on the banks of the Mississippi, and not being exposed to the same deleterious inifluence of' the water perco]ati.ng the banks of that stream. Now, this very serious injury to the crop is at once obviated by the digging of a deep ditch along the enatire front of the field which intercepts the sipage water, and being connected with the drainage canals, carries off this water behind without allowing it to penetrate into the soil, and chill the roots of the plant. But independently of this point, which is peculiar to the plantations in lower Louisiana, the genetal results from a perfect system of' drainage are so eminently useful and profitable, that you nust allovw me to make a brief abstract of some of them, taken from the admirable work quoted below., 1st. It carries off all the stagnant water, and the excess of what falls in rain. 2d. It arrests the ascent of water from beneath by capillary action, freeing the subsoil from rioxious substances, which, in undrained land, frequently impair the growth of deep-rooted plants. 3d. By keeping the soil porous, it allows the rain, instead of merely washing the surface, to penetrate through the particles of earth, thus carrying to the roots not only the elements of growth existing in the water itself, but dissolving those substances which enter into the composition of the ploant, and which the roots are incapable of absorbing, except in a state of solution. 4th. The descenit of the water through the pores of the earth is accompanied by a descent of fresh air to the roots, the water displacing the air which previously occupied the pores, and being followed as it runs through the ground by fresh air, which is so valuable in promoting a healthy growth of the crop. 5th. The soil gradually becomes looser and more friable: hard lumps of stiff clay disappear by * Johnson's Lectures on Agricutltural Chemistryand Geology, p. 306,. * Because the tops and leaves contain fully as much of the carbon derived from the air, as the stalks contained of the carbon derived from the soil t A rain-gauge, kept in New-Orleans, shows a fall of rain amounting to more than ten feet, from the first ot'Decenber, 1 84 5, to the first of September, 1846, a period of nine months. 9 r i 0 i i 0d si 0 1 t t . I I 198 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. degrees, crtmble'more freely, and offer less resistance to the plow. 6th. The coldness of the soil disappears, and this occurs to such an extent, that in the parish of Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, it is stated as an actual result of extensive drainage during the last twenty years, that the crops mature from ten to fourteen days earlier than they formerly did. Who can estimate the value to a suigar-planter of such an addition to the time of the grinding season? 7th. It is equivalent to an actual deepening of the soil, the roots of plants being invariably arrested in their dow1nward growth when they meet with stagnant water in the subsoil, which deleterious effect is at once removed by drainage, and new, wholesome, and abundant nourishment furnished to the roots, which nourishment would have remained forever dormant ill the soil, if not rendered accessible by the drainage. 3th. It is a necessary preparation for the effectual application of manure or other means of improvinig thi te soil, the efficieney of which is but partially felt in undrained land. To these advantages which are common to all crops, whether annual or perennial, must be added two of paramount importance in the cane crop in this state. The first is the security against loss by frost, which, as every platnter knows. wilt frequently congeal and; destroy the cane in damp places, when that part of the crop which is in the highest and driest land, wrill escape injury. The second is the preservation of the ratoons. I am thoroughly convinced that perfect drainage will create all entire change in our present system of planting, and enable us to preserve the ratoons for six or eight years, instead of two or three. The only reason for the greater duration of the ratoons in the West Indies is the higher remperature; the stubble there is never frozelq Now, in Louii. siatna, there rarely occurs a winter in which the ground would be frozen to a depth at all sufficient to injure the stubble, it' the land were freed froom moisture; but when the soil is saturated with water, which is a good conductor of heat, the caloric is radiated into the atmosphere, ice is formed, and the cane is thus imbeided as it were in a mass of frozen soil, whereby the eyes are destroyed and vegetation effectually prevented. Similar results follow even if the winter be mild, as many of the eyes must rot from long exposure to the water in a damp soil in the season during which vegetation is suspended. If by thorough drainage these effects could be avoided even to a partial extent, the gain would be very great, not only in diminishing the quantity of seed reqnired for replanting, Jbut in saving the labor of mattrassing in the fall, and that required ibr preparing the ground and planting the seed in the 2ffnufacture of the Su~gar. —A sugar plantail;ton is incomplete wildOut its workshop; tha t i s, i ts sunar-h ouse. The owner is maiIufacturer as well as agriculturist, and the manufacture is one of great de licacy and difficulty. Until with in a very few years the process has been of the rudes t a nd mos t primitive character. A partial extraction of the juice wa s effcted by the sinye)lest and most i mper fect machin e ry: the;ldice, when extracted, w as tempered with lime, wh ich was ad ded empirically, without me asure or pro portio n, a nd wit scarce any regard to the varying quality of the juice, a d thus tempered was boiled in open kettles over a fire, until evaporation produced a suffici ent concentration of the s accha rine mattei' to adit of crystalization oi chooling. The lfss to the planter exceeds belief: the sugar-cane treated with car e in the labora tory of' the chemist yie l ds e ighteen pe r cent. of its weight in pure sugar, while in the r u de pl ocest above described, its yield is scarce ly five per cent. Such, until a few years ago, was the process universally used ill the plant ations o f the West Indies ande Loui siana, at nd smuch is now the process otn very many estate s, with occasional trifling impro vement s, none of which s uffice to carry the yield beyond onethird of the real quantity of sugar in the cane. It is to the French chemists, who have of late year s de voted all the resources o f science to the im p rovement and perfect ion of this anasiufacture, that we are indebted fo r the vast strides which it ha s recently inade. Their s tudies, however, have been prirnci,ally directed to the extra ction of sugar from the beet, and so successful have been their labors, that although the pro portion of sugar in the iar th beet juice is, generally speaking, only about eleven per cent., a nd alth ough this juice is much more impure in its chemical cotmstitu tion than that of the cane, the beet-sugar manufacturers of France obtain a per cenitage of sugar equivalent to that lusually obtained from the juice of the cane. It is much to be regretted th a t the light she d by science on the composition of the cane is still so defect ive, niay, that the published works on the subject are calculated in some instances to mislead. M. Peligot is one of the most emi nenit of the Fren,ch chemists, and his report on the constitution of the cane is generally cited as the first authority on the sub ject, yet it is impossible that some of his conIclusions can be correct. It results from his analysis that the composition of the cane in its various states,coniditionsand periods of groggth id almost identical. or, in other words, not only do the same elements com,nbine to form the cane, whether the first shoot that issues from the ground, the ripe joint or the immature top, but that these elements are corabined in the same proportions! The folio a- ilg table repre senits his view of the chemical composition of the cane, and its relative proportin)ns of wa*ter, soluble matter, and woody fibr,, at the i se.veral satones,of its growthl; 199 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. Soluble..at. WoodY one-third of his crop, which remains in the 5Vater (sugar) fibro First shoots...... 734....17.2...... 8.9 bagasse. All efforts have hitherto proved Second, from original sprouts 71.7.....17..8.... 10.5 fruitless to diminish this enormous loss. Third, from second " 71.6.....16.4......12. An experiment was made ayear or two ago Fourth, from third 73......16.8......10.2 Inferior part of'the 1cane.10.8 by Col. Maunsel WVhite, on his plantation in Infrio pat o't h cae....73........15.5......I0. Middle ".... 72......16.5......109 the parish of Plaquemine, to extract a farther Superior "....72.....155...... 11.7 quantity of juice by subjecting the bagasse to Knotty.....708.....12.......17.2 Cane of eight months.......73......18.2.....79 a second pressure between two additional Cane often months..5..............8.5 9.2 rollers, but mechanical difficulties presented themselves, which he was unable to over It may be said, without presumption, that come. During the present season another this analysis can by no possibility be correct, experiment will be made by Mr. P. M. Lathe daily experience of every planter beingat pice, on his plantation in St. James, with war with the supposition that the same quan- rollers differently arranged, and sanguine tity of sugar exists in the unripe tops as ill hopes are entertained of success. In order, the lower joints of the cane. If their chemi- however, to obtain any considerable addition cal composition were identical, the same to the yield of juice, it will probably be netreatment of the juice of the tops and of the cessary to overcome the absorbing power of ripe joints would not only produce the same the spongy matter of the bagasse, and force quantity, but the same quality of sugar, and it to yield its contents of juice by some exthis is known not to be the fact. M. Hervy, pedient similar to that recommenided by M. another eminent chemist, declares, that cane- Payen, and mentioned with approbation by sugar is a primary secretioni of the plant, and Mr. Dumas, in his treatise on chemistry. that it does not mature like the sugar of These authors suggest, that a steam-pipe be fruit from pulpy matter, but is contained led from the boilers to the bagasse rollers, alike in the old and new knots. This state- passing along them just below their line of menit of M. Hervy is quoted without dissent contact, and perforated with small holes. A by Professor R. S. McCulloch, in his report cock fitted to this pipe would admnit the steam to Congress in February, 1845; but this able while these rollers work, and this steam escachemist has since been engaged himself in ping through the small holes would moisten analyses of the cane in the island of Cuba, the bagasse sufficiently to aid very much the and in a conversation last spring, assured me extraction of the juice. Experience alone that he felt satisfied this was a mistake. The can determine whether the water thus added result of this gentleman's labors will be laid to the juice would dilute it so much as to before Congress at its ensuing session, and counterbalance the advantages derived from cannot fail to be of vast interest and impor- the increased quantity. tance to our planters. Two-thirds of the juice being thus ex But, however imperfect and erroneous may tracted from the cane, its conversion into be the analyses already published, one fact sugar is attended with farther loss. The appears to be now established by the concur- juice, as it runs from the mill, is impure. rent testilnony of numerous distinguished It is impregnated with feculencies, with the scientific writers, and this is, that the juice dust and earth which have adhlered to the of the sugar-cane properly treated will yield cane when cut, with the coloring matter of nothing but pure crystalized sugar, and that the rind, much of which is pressed out by the molasses, so far from being naturally an the rollers, and with fragments of the fibrous element of the juice, is in reality manufac- matter, both of the inner and outer part of tured by our imperfect process On this the stalks; this latter containing inorganic point the testimony of -A. Boussingault is bases, principally silicon. Before comirnenconclusive, for in citing the experiments of cing the manufacture of the sugar, all carePeligot, Hervy, Dupuy and Casaseca, hlie ful planters take pailis to purify the juice as says, I have myself, oftener than once, far as possible by nmechanical means. The seen the juice of the cane yield nothing but juice runs into a vat divided into separate crystallizable sugar." compartments, by one or more tissues of iron The first and almost insurmountable diffi- or copper wire, by which all the grosser imculty in obtaining from the cane all its sugar, purities are arrested, and the juice thus results from the imperfection of the mills cleansed is ready for the first operation, which used to extract the juice. The cane contains is the defecation or clarification. According ninety per cent. of juice, and ten per cent. of to the old system of manufacture inll kettles, woody fibre, which is of a spongy consistence. this defecation was effected by boiling the The cane is crushed between cylindrica iron juice over an open fire, tempering it with rollers, three in number, placed horizontally lime in variable proportions, and skimming and moved by the steam-engine. The quan- off the scum as it arose to the surface. The tity of juice thus extractedl rarely exceeds loss of juice, in this operation, is four or five two-thirds of that contained in the cane; so per cent. The juice thus defecated was that, froni this cause alone, the planter loses passed from one kettle to another (the num 200 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. ber of kettles being generally four, but some- plantations, with some rema rks, in the note times five, or even six) until it reached the below.* last kettle, called the battery, in which it was In the new process of sugar making, the finally concentrated, till the syrup attained furnace used under the kettles is entirely dis a density of about forty-two degrees of pensed with, and the evaporation and con Beaumei's saccharometer, at which point it ceritration of the juice are effected solely by was la(lled out of the battery into large steam. The new apparatus, therefore, re wooden vats, called coolers. It was retained quires a larger quantity of steam than is used crystallization, gener- merely for working the mill, but the addi ally aLoxc;wenty-four hours, at the end of tional quantity is much smaller than would which tine it was taken out and placed in be supposed, for the reasons which will be hogshead-(l in the draining-room or purgery, presently explained. It will be observed over a cistern. into which the molasses fell as here, as a matter of no small moment, that it drained through holes placed in the bottom but one fire is required during the whole of the hogshead. The sugar thus drained grinding season; that this fire is under the was generally ready for market in two or boilers, which are almost always outside of three weeks. I give but a very meagre and the sugar-house; that the additional fuel rehasty outline of the process hitherto pursued, quired for one or two extra boilers, used in because it is familiar to nearly all your rea- generating steam for the manufacture of the ders; and I shall require several pages in sugar, is much less than that required for giving some of the details of late improve- boiling a set of kettles; and thus we have, ments. I will mIerely remiarkl, that this sys- at the very outset, two great advAantages-the tem produces a sugar highly colored, contain- (diminution of the fuel and absence of risk of img a large quantity of molasses, say about fire, as none need enter into the sugar-house, fifty gallons to each thousand weight of sugar, which is kept thoroughly warmed by the and consuImes a large quantity of fuel, heat of the different steam-pipes, and of the amounti-i' on an average to two cords and a pans in which the sugar is made. half of wood per hogshead. This large quan- We will now take the juice as it flows tity of molasses is produced, as above re- from the mill, after passing through the wire marked, by the imperfection of the manufac- cloth, and examine its treatment in detail,'by turiingprocess, as none exists naturally in the the Derosne and Cail apparatus. It first juice of the cane; and, as molasses rarely flows into defecators, which are iron kettles sells for more than one-third of the price with a double bottom, technically called a of sugar per pound,' the loss suffered bv steam-jacket. The steam from the boilersis the planter in this item is again very se- conducted by a pipe which is connected with rious. this steam-jacket, and which is provided at Such wsas the mode generally nay, uni- the opening into the steam-jacket with a versally adot)ted in the manufacture of sugar, List o plantations in which the manufacture in till within the last twelve or fifteen years, the kettles has been abandoned in whole or in part. when an apparatus was introduced into the l Mr. Johnson, 12 Verloiii Degruys Frenclh colonies, the joint invention of Mr. 2Mr. Osgood, 13 C. Zerinqe, Degrand and Messrs. Derosne and Cail 4 Maur. Wilkins on, 14 L. Mhitellanden, I,egrant 4 Maunsel White, 15 Chauvin and Levois, Thiis apparatus is now generally called by 5 Samuel Packwood, 16 J. B. Armant, the name of the latter gentlemen ~ that is, the 6 A. Lesseps, 17 Valcour Aime, erosie and Cail apparatus. Sub tl 7 A. Gordon, 18 E. J. Forstall, erose and Call apparat* us. Subsequently, 8 Robert and Jas. Ur- 19 P. M. Lapice. different modifications have been suggested, quhart. 20 Judge Butler, and particularly by Mr. N. Rillieux; and it 9 Benjamin and Pack- 21 - Key. is my de,sigen to point out, as succinctly.as is wood, 22 Letorey, ci t wit clan ess*, 10 At. Lesseps' upper 23 Lamiraut, consistent -with clearness, the process of plant. 24 Kittridge, Messrs. Derosne and Cail, the modifications 11 Thos. Morgan, 25 Lucien La Branche. by Mr. 1'illieux, to compare their advantages, All of these changes have been made withlin three and to explain their vast superiority over the years, except Mr. Thomas Morgan and Mr. Valcour old system This sketch however imperfect Aime, who have used forms to refine their sugar for old system. This sketch, however imperfect, many years. On nearly all these plantations boine must necessarily interest all of your readers black is used. Messrs. Johnson, Osgood, Wilkinson, who are engaged in the sugar culture; the Morgan, Armant, Aime, and Lapice use forms; more especially as within the last three Messrs. Aime, Armant and Lapice have complete . e eeLly as wn te l refineries, with all the necessary apparatus. The years a spirit of enterprise has been awakened, only two apparatus on the Derosne and ( ail l)lan are ofwlwhiclt few, perhaps, are aware. There are those of Mr. Aime and Mr. Lapice. ir. Rilicux's now tweiitv-five or thirty plantations on apparatus is now used complete on eiglt planta which twe ~iianufactv-fivy the kettles has tions, viz.: Mr. Samuel Packwood's, two plantawhich the manufacture by the kettles has tions of Mr. Lesseps, Benjamin and Packwood, V. been abandoned, and in nearly all of them Degruy, c. Zerinque, Clisauvin and Levois, and J. B. the syrup is refined by the use of animal Armant. All the other planters above named used charcoal or hone-black, to which I shall pro-vacuum pans for granulatitg their sugar, except Mr. charcoal or bone - b lack, to which I shally prefr.Forstall, whose apparatus epnsisss of b oet by open sently refer. I subjoin a list of these pans, boiled by steam, 0 -201 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. cock, by which steam can be admitted or shut off at will. In these defepators, the first operation of cleansing or defecating the juice takes place, and in them the lime is introduced. Different opinions exist, as to the proper time of introducing the lime, some mixing it with the juice when cold, and others preferring to await its rise to a temperature of about 150 degrees of Fahrenheit. I think the latter plan preferable, and believe it to be also quite essential not to introduce the lime without previous preparationi. This is especially important, when our common oyster-shell lime, manufactured on plantations, is used, as it almost invariably is combined with a notable proportion of potash, which has a powerful effect in causing sugar to deliquesce. Impurities of a similar kind, but less abundant, are found in the Thomaston and Western lime, used by most planters. The nature of the action of lime on canejuice is somewhat involved in obscurity. One effect, is to saturate a small quantity of acid, which is always found in cane-juice, but the quantity which is used with advantage in defecating far exceeds that which is required for destroying this slight acidity. Besides this effect, there is no doubt that the lime has a certain action, whether mechanical or chemical, is not fully known, upon the mucilaginous or gummy matters found in the juice, by virtue of which it causes those matters to unite in a thick scum on the surface of the juice when heated. It has, unfortunately, been impossible hitherto to discover a fixed rule by which to regulate the proportion of lime required for a given quantity of juice, and indeed this proportion is necessarily variable, according to the quality of the juice, and the nature of the soil on which the cane is grown. Ripe juices, and juices the product of calcareous soils, require much less time than those which are extracted from unripe cane, or those prodtced on lands rich in animal or vegetable manures. In order to attain the proper proportion, and at the same time to avoid mixing with the cane-juice any of the impurities that occur in unslacked lime, Mr. Payen advises the following process, which recommends itself by its simplicity, and which I detail, because all agree that the defecation is the most important operation in the whole process of the manufacture. The lime should be slacked with care, and in quantities large enough to last for some weeks. It should be slacked by successive additions of warin water, and slowly stirred, so that the water may penetrate every part of it as equally as possib le, and sh ould be repeatedly washed by allowing it to settle and pouring off the water from the top. The potash, or other impurities, will be dissolved andl earried off by the water, and the lime remain pure. In this state, if covere d with water, it wtill remain for several weeks without being perceptibly injured by atmospheric action, and the whole mass will be of one qua lity. When used, it should be mixe d with water, toan extent sufficien t to make a milk o f l ime, marking 13 or 14 degrees of Beaume's saccharometer. A fixed quality and density being thus obtained, it only remains to ascertain, by experiment, what proportion of this line, thus prepared, is required for a gallon of juice, and Payen advises the following mode: Prepare six separate equal quantities of lime, say one pennyweight each; then heat a gallon of juice, and when it has reached 156~ of Fahrenheit, add one portion ofthe lime, continue the heat till it almost reaches the boiling point, then withdraw from it a table-spoonful of the juice, and filter it through a small filter in a funnel: then add a second portion of lime, replace the juice on the fire, and repeat the same operation. Continue till you have added the six portions of lime, and have withdrawn six samples of the juice. Place the six samples in their regular order in small phials, and the first of them that shows the liquid to be of a clear amber color, contains the proper dose of lime. The subsequent phials, containing a larger quantity of lime, will, probably, show a clear liquid less highly colored, but in these there is an excess of lime which would give a grayish tint to the sugar, and it is an admitted principle, that the least quantity of lime that will serve the purpose of defecating, is the best. By this simple test the quantity of lime required will be readily shown; for instance, as there are twenty pennyweights to the ounce, if it be found that two pennyweights give the proper point to a gallon, we know that we require an ounce of the prepared milk of lime for each ten gallons of the juice -and instead of spoiling entire strikes, or batteries, by deficient or excessive doses of lime, the manufacturer would proceed in perfect confidence, as long as the quality of the cane-juice remained the same, and it would be easy to repeat the essay when a different quality of juice presented itself from a different part of the field. The juice thus tempered, remains in the defecator with the steam under it until it reaches the boiling point, for the purpose of ascertaining which a thermometer is hung with its bulb plunged in the juice. So soon as 211~ of Fahrenheit are marked by the thermometer, the steam is shut off by turning the cock. On no account must the thermometer be allowed to pass 212a, which is the boiling point, because ebullition then commences, the effect of which is to break the scum that has formed on the surface, and, by stirring the juice, to mix the scum with it, and thus destroy the whole operation; at 211~ or 212", it will be 0 202 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. found that the impurities of the juice have arisen to the surface, formiing a thick scum of considerable consistency. After shutting off the steam, a cock is opened under the bottom of the defecator and the juice is drawn off clear, the scum gradually sinking, and as soon as the juice ceases to flow clear, the cock is turned so as to arrest the flow into the juice-pipe, and open another orifice in a different pipe, which carries off the scum. The great superiority of this mode of defecation over that in the open kettles is p alpable. Thie perfect control which the nmanufacturer h as over the heat applied to tihe juice, enables him to arrest it at a given point, and thus prevent ebullition, which, in the op e n kett les, is c onstantly going on; the scums in the latter as they aris e a re only partially removed by the skimming paddles, and by the continual mo tion whicht the ebullition imparts to the fluid, some of the impurities become so m ixed up w i th the juice as to make it impossible to separate them.' Thle juic e thu s de feca ted flows through a pip e p laced under the defecator, and which carries it to the filters. The filters used in the Derosne and Cail apparatus are called the Dumont filters, that b eing the name of the inventor; and their u se f orms p erhaps the greatest improvement in the manufacture of sugar that t he p resent ce ntury has produced, not even excep ting the vacuum pan of Howea rd. These f ilters ae iron cisterns, n e arly cylindrical; are six feet in height, five in dliameter at the top, and four and a hal f at the bottom. They are filled nearly to the top with animal charcoal, or bone-black, ill coarse grains abou t th e s ize of cannon powder. sThis b one-bl ack is the carbonaceous gul)staince into which bones are converted by calcination in close vessels. It possesses the extraordinary property of appropriating to itself the coloring matter of nearly all fluids that are filtered through it, and so powerful is its agency in this respect, that in testing the qualities of some bone-black offered me for sale, a dark-colored claret was so completely discolored in a single filtration, through a depth of twelve inches of the black, as to be undistinguishable by the eye from the purest spring water. Another property possessed by this singular substance, is that of abstracting from syrup any excess of lime that may remain after the defecation, and in addition to these two inappreciable advantages in the manufacture of sugar, it increases the crystallization to an extent that is scarcely credible, amounting, according to some experiments, to eighteen or twenty per cent. The introduction of this powerful auxiliary has created a complete revolution in the process of manufacturing andl refining the beet sugar in France, and thle results in Louisiana must inevitably be the same. The only drawback to its use was its cost, because, formerly, it was thrown away as soon as repeated filtrations had sat urated the black with the coloring mat ter and impurities of the syrup to such an extent as to deprive it of its efficacy; but the dis - covery of a mod e o f renovating, or a s it is technically termed, revivifying the bonre-black, has obviated this difficult y, by enabling the manufacturer to use the same black for an indefinite length of time with but little loss in quantity or quality, The process of re vivification is simple, and not expensive, but the length of this article prevents my de scribing it in detail. The cane-juice, in passing through the filters, is purified, bright ened, and flows from a cock a t the bo ttom, ready to undergo the next process, which is that of evapo rating the water which it con tains. The evaporation is conduc te d by a very ingenious process, the invention of Mr. De grand, and calculated particularly with a view to economize the quantity of cold water re quired to condense t he exhaust steam from the vacuum p a n, us ed to boil the syrup up to the crystallizing point, and which wil l be subsequently described. It is i mpossible to give an intel ligible e xplan ationit of this part of the process without a plan of the conden ser, but my object is to st ate the mo de of mandifacture, notm the mechanism of the a pparatus. With this view. it will suffice to state that the juice is m ade to fa ll over a steam-pipe, through which the exh a ust steam from th e vacuum pan returns to the boilers, and that a double effect is thus produced: the juice, by falling in a shower over the hot steam-pipes, is concentrated to 15 or 16 degrees of the saccharometer, instead of 8 or 9, and at the sanme time, serves to condense the exhaust steam, which is pumped back in the state of hot water into the boilers. The economy of fuel is here very great, as none of the heat of the steam which boils the vacuum pan is lost, all either serving to evaporate the juice or being returned to the boilers. The cane-juice has now become a syrup of a density of 15 degrees, and is immediately conducted through a pipe into the vacuum pan, in which it is concentrated to a density of 28 degrees. From the vacuum pan it again passes over the filters, in order to effect a farther discoloration, and is collected into a reservoir, from which" it is returned into the vacuum pan, where it is finally concentrated to the point of crystallization. This vacuum pan, its theory, its action on the syrup, and its advantages, are matters of very great interest to the planter and require some development. I must be excused, if, in explaining them, I am compelled to state a few familiar general principles of physical science in such a manner as to make the subject intelligible to those whose attention has never been directed to these matters. 203 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. syrup to twenty-eight degrees, are all bor rowed from th te De rosne & Cail appara tus. There may be some difference in mechan i cal det a ils, but the princ iple and manner of working ar e substantially ident ical. But to Mr. Rillieux is justly duee the credit of a very ingenious and admirably efficacious omode of evaporating the juice and supplyinac the c alo - r i c necessary f o r the granulating pan with very great eco nomy of fuel. In cane-juice, at nine degrees of density, there are 83y2 per cent. of water, and at 28 degrees the re are but 48o i per cent. of wate r. In order, there fore, to concentrate the juice from 9 to 28 degrees, i t is necessary to evaporate from the juice 35 pe r cent. of the wat er. Mr. Rillieux conceived the happy idea of making use of the steam that is evaporated from the juice itself in order to boil his pans, and the planter who is accustomed to see the enor mous quantity of vapor that is carried off into the air through his steam chimney when he boils in the open kettles, can form some idea of the very great economy of fuel that must necessarily result from making this quantity of steam subservient to his use dur ing the grinding season. Mr. Rillieux's apparatus effects this object. It consists, when made on a scale sufficiently large to make from twenty to twenty-five ihorsheads of sugar per day, of four pans, all constructed so as to afford a vacuum. But the vacuum in the two first pans is not nearly as perfect as in the two last. The operation is con ductedi thus: The cane-juice, after having been once filtered, is introduced into the first pall, and this pan is boiled by the exhaust steam from the cylinder which works the mill, thus avoiding the necessity of abstract ing any steam directly from the boilers. This first pan is so constructed that the steam which arises from the juice as it boils is conducted into the pipes that heat the second and fourth pans. In the first pan the quantity of steam that arises is quite suffi cient for this purpose; but if, at any time, it be found that the fourth pan, in which the sugar is granulated, is not supplied with a suffi ciency of steam from the first, a communi cation can be opened to the exhaust steam from the engine, which supplies any defi ciency, and enables the sugar-maker to bring his battery to the striking point as rapidly as he may desire. The juice is brought up to fifteen or sixteen degrees in the first two pans, and the steam from the second pan is made to boil the third, in which the syrup is concen trated to twenty-eight degrees, when it is passed through the filters, and then conducted to the last pan, in which it is granulated. I consider the Rillieux plan of evaporation decidedly superior to that of Messrs. DeI rosne & Cail in several important particu lars; 1st, the juice is evaporated in a close pan, and is excluded from atmospheric ae It is known to all that if the heat be applied to water until the thermometer marks 2120, vapor will be formed, and the water will all pass off in steam if the heat be continued for a sufficient length of time. This is the evaporating point of water in the open air. It is equally well known that the atmosphere of our earth presses on all objects with a weight which is calculated to be equivalent to fifteen pounds per square inch of surface. The tendency of water to ev aporate into steam is therefore repressed in the open air by a weight of fifteen pounds on every square inch of its surface, and it has been found that if this pressure be withdrawn, the water will evaporate at a much lower temperature than 212~, and the same principle applies to other liquids. If, therefore, an air-tight iron pan be made, and if a vacuum be formed in this pan by withdrawing the air by means of an air-pump, water introduced into this pan would boil at a temperature diminishing in proportion to the diminutioin of the pressure of the air. It is difficult to say what would be the lowest temperature at which it could be made to boil, because a perfect vacuum is not attainable by any means yet invented, but a vacuum can readily be produced by the tirpump, in which water would boil at a temperature of 120Q. A'vacuum pan for makin, sugar, then, is an iron vessel, noiow enerally made cylindrical, air-tig,ht, connected by a pipe with an air-pumnp worked by the steam-engine, whereby the air is withdrawn from the pan to an extent sufficient to diminish the pressure of the atmosphere so far as to enable us to boil the syrup at a temperature varying from 130 to 160 degrees, instead of 235 or 240 degrees, which is the boiling point of syrup in the open air when concentrated to the. density of 42~ or 43P of the sacclharometef. The vacuum pan is heated by means of a steam-jacket or steam-pipes, or both, and it is the steam which has served for this purpose that in escaping passes into the condenser mentioned above, and serves to evaporate the cane-juice, and is then returned in the form of hot water to the boilers, to be again converted into steam, and renew the samie round of service. Such are the outlines of the system introduced into the manufacture of sugar by Messrs. Degrand and Derosne & Cail, and before treating of the reasons why the concentration to the granulating point, when effected in the vacuum pan, is a vast improvement over the boiling in the open air, it will be convenient in this connection to point out in what respect the apparatus of MIr. Rillieux differs from that of Derosne & Cail, and to compare the advantages of the two systems. In the Rillieux apparatus, the defecators, the filters, and the vacuum paln for granulationg ffhe sugar, after the concentration of the 204 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MIANUFACTURE OF. tion; - liereas, in the Derosne & Cail appa- I ratus it is exposed to the open air in a state of miniute subdivision as it falls ill a cascade over the frame of pipes which form the con denser; 2d, it is much less liable to derange ment than the framne of pipes, which fre quently gives great trouble, and which, un less in perlect order, injures the juice by deepening, its color whlerever it remains on any part of the heated pipe long enougrh to be burnt; 3d, it economizes the steam which is created by evaporating the cane-juice, and which, in Derosne & Cail's apparatus, passes ofl into the open air through a steam chinmney. Against all these advantages the Derosne & Cail offers but one which may be of value in the B'est Indies, on certain estates, but which is of no moment in Louisiana, that is, an economy of cold water. I give here the conclusion to which I have arrived, after as careful and impartial an examination of the two systems as I am capable of; but if I am mistaken, the experiencc of the present winter will afford ample means of coirecting the error. The apparatuts of Mr. Rillieux has been erected in its largest size, and in connection with a refinery-, on the plantation of MIr. J. B. Armant, of St. James Parish; and Mir. P. M. Lapice, of the same parish, has erected a magnificent sugar-house and refinery on the largest scale, with the apparatus of Derosne and Cail in its niost improved form. I have every confi-f i dence that both these enterprising gentlemlen will reap a rich return for their heavy investmnents in these improvements, and their experience will decide the question of superiority in point of efficacy and economy between the two systems. Tlhe only question will be one of degree, for that both will succeed is beyond doubt. The sole remaining subject which it is my intention to examine, is the difference betweenI the system of boiling in the open air and in the vacuum pan, as regards the quaintity and quality of the sugar produced. To place this m atter in i ts clearest light it i s necessary to state certain conclusions which are the result of the researches and experimenits of eminent chemists, who have devoted their time and labor to this subject I have already mentioned that there is naturally no molasses in our sugar-cane, and that all the molasses which is produced in our sugarhouses is the result of imperfect manufacture. It is not hence to be inferred, however, that it would be possible to manufacture the sugar entirely without a residue of syrup or molasses. A syrup at 450 density contains 83 per cent. of sugar, and 17 per cent. of water, but if this syrup be allowed to cool in order to crystalize, it will part with only 50 per cent. of sugarT in crystals, and the remlaining, 3:3 per cenlt. of sugar willibe m-lixed with the 17 per cent. of water, the two to gether formining what is called the motheri liquor, or eonthe r of crvstals. If this mother liquor, which now conta ins ont e-thir(d of wa ter, be aaain lboiled so as to concentrate it to 45~, and a gain allowed to cool, the proportion of c rystals will again be t he s ame, and there will re main a mother liquor which it will be necessary to re-boil, so that the pro cess might be continu e d indefin itely and there would s till remain a swe et liquid contai ning a part of the sugar. However perfect the system of manufacture, therefore, a residue of molasses or syrup w il l al ways be obtained, and the great aiw p in th is man ufacture must therefore be, to reduce this re sidue a s far as possible, or in o ther w o rds, to ex trac t from the juice as much crystalized sugar as possi ble, that being the most valuable product. Now it has been found that a hig,h tempera ture and lone, exposure to heat are the two greatest obstacles to the crystallization of sugar-that in proportion as the temperature is increased the quantity of crystals will dim-iinish; and_ farther, that in proportion to the length of time that heat is applied, will the crystallizing power diminish. Repeated experiments have placed these two principles beyond question. Those who are curious on this s,ubject, will find a very interesting paper in tbe seventh volume of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, translated from Hochstetter, an eminent German chemist, and containing a series of experiments made on sugar with great care. It results from these experiments: 1 st, that access of atmospheric air is not only a condition necessary to produce vinous fermentation, but also to effect the nmucous fermentation in the expressed juice of the sugar-cane, and that when the air is excluded, no change takes place: 2d, that a pure solution of sugar is changed through the influence of atmospheric air at a common temperature, and the more readily the more numerous the surfaces are which bring them into contact, and that this process is considerably heightened when the solution of sugar contains nitrogenous substances, as in the juice of the sugar-cane. "I'his is an important objection to the condenser of the Derosne and Cail apparatus; 3d, that heat is one of the most injurious agents during the process of manufacture. A simple application of these principles will show the vast superiority in the manufacture by the vacuum pan. In the open kettles, the syrup is brought up to a tem-iperature of 235~ at least, before it is at the properpoint fbr crystallizing. In the vacuum pan the temperature is only 150'. In the open kettles the juice, from its first leaving the mill till it is concentrated in the battery, is constantly exposed to the action of the atmosphere. In the Rillieux apparatus it is ahmost constantly excluded from this influenlce. Finlally, when the sugar is made in . 205 SUGAR-CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF. the vacuum pan, the simple turning of the' steam-cock shuts off the heat at the instant the granulating point is obtained, and the whole contents of the pan are then discharged in a homogeneous state. In the open battery it is not possible to stop the fire when the proper point is attained, and during the whole time that the sugar boiler is occupied in discharging the battery, the syrup is becoming more and more heated, that which is on the edges of the surface next to the metal becomes burnt or caramelized, and is not only lost but imparts a deeper color to the rest of the syrup, and also aids largely in forming molasses, by preventing crystallization ill that part of the syrup with which it becomes mixed. The effect of the high temperature required in the open battery is such that it is almost impossible to re-boil the molasses which drains from the sugar, so as to obtain a second crystallized product in the manner above explained. As this molasses, when again put into the battery, would require to be a second time exposed to a temperature of 235~ or 240~, the action of this extreme heat is such as to render the whole mass totally uncrystallizable; but in the vacuum pan the re-boiling of the syrups which drain from the first sugar s is a regular part of the daily work; and this re-boiling has been effected three times, with successful results of crystalized sugar each time. But the advantages of the vacuum pan do not end here, for it i s an easy and simple mat ter, in using these pans, to give to the crystal or grain of th e sugar any size required by the caprice of the con s ume r. Large an d brilliant cr ystals, re - semdblinge suga r-candy rathe r tha n the sugar of commerce, can be obtained at will. The whole process is under the complete control of the manufacturer. The sugar may be made light and porous, or compact and heavy. None of this control is possible with an open fire, of which it is impracticable to regulate the heat at will. It may not be uninteresting, in conclusion, to make some calculation of the pecuniary, results from the introduction of this improved apparatus. I speak now of that of Mr. Rillieux, not being able to give as yet any results from the Derosne and Cail apparatus, which has not hitherto been fully tested in this state. Suppose a plantation to produce an average crop of five hundred hogsheads of sugar, a moderate estimate of the profits of the apparatus would comprise 1st An economy of one and a half cords of wood for each hogshead, 750 cords, at $2 50....................................................................$1,875 00 2d. An increased value of at least 1 M cents per pound, in the quality of sugar pro duced, equal to $15 per hhd.............................................. 7,500 00 3d. At least 25 per cent. additional sugar obtained from the molasses, say 125 hhds., at $60........................................................$7,500 00 From which must be deducted the price that would have been obtained for the molasses-15,625 gallons, at 15 cents..................... 2,343 75-5,156 25 $14,531 25 Making the enormous difference of $14,531 days. The negroes, too, who are employed 25 in the annual revenue of the planter who in the sugar-house, require some instructions makes an average crop of five hundred hogs- in the different processes of defecation, filheads. I am aware that this result is so tration, revivification of the bone-black, &c., startling as to provoke incredulity, yet I but all these matters are of trifling moment have purposely placed the lowest estimate compared with the great results to be atpossible in each item of the calculation. tained. That there are some drawbacks is not to be In concluding, may I not be allowed to denied. I consider it not to be at all practi- congratulate your readers on the prospects cable, or if so, highly imprudent to rely on of permanent prosperity in this the most imslaves to work the apparatus. I think that portant branch in our state industry, and the planter who determines to adopt the im- largest source of state wealth. A fortunate provernents should make up his mindto have concurrence of circumstances rendered harmin his employ at least two white persons to less the reduction in the protective duty take charge of the apparatus during the which had been levied in favor of this very grinding season, so as to have at least one extensive manufacture. The sudden and white person at the pans on each watch. unexpected repeal by Great Britain of that Stugar boilers accustomed to the labor and provision in her laws which discriminated understanding the working of the vacuum between sugar grown by slave labor and by pans, can be obtained without difficulty for free labor, has destroyed the barrier of prohifrom five to seven hundred dollars each du- bition which prevented the import into that ring1 the grinding season, and will soon be country of the Cuba sugars; and the still obtained at a lower rate, as the demand for farther prospective reduction in the English services will increase their number, andcom- duties secures us against a competition petition will reduce the price; for the laboris which must have ruined two-thirds of our not severe, and lasts but seventy or eighty planters. The largely increased consump 206 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. tion which must inevitably result in Great Britain from the reduction of prices conse quent on the diminution of the duty, will suffice to absorb so great a portion of the Cuba crop as to leave to our state almost tihe exclusive supply of the home market. The extent to which the production of sugar can be carried in Louisiana is appreciated but by few; but those who reflect on the subject, and who feel an interest in all that concerns the prosperity of our state, foresee with ex ultation the day not far distant when bound less tracts, now covered by the primeval forest, shall teem with plenteous harvests of the cane; when nearly every plantation shall be a mnanufactory of refined sugar, supplying not only the wants of our own country, but forming a large item in our annual exports; when, in a word, the industry and enterprise of our population shall succeed in developing to their full extent the resources which a bounteous Providence has lavished on this favored land.-J. P. Benjantin. SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC.-The chief ohIject of inquiry abroad for any one interes te d il the agriculture ofthis state, is evidently the manufacture of sugar, rand it was to this subject that my attention was partict tlarly directed. No observer can fail to remark the great disparity which exists in the means for instruction and improvement which prevails betwveen the manufacture of cane-sugar in this country and beet-sugar in France. Paris rmay fairly be considered as the great centre of the civilized world, as regards all subjects of scientific inquiry; and I am not aware that in any other country have the researche,s -of men of science been so ardently and extensively directed to the practical applicatit it of the d iscove ries of the laboratory to the iimprovement of manufacturing industry. Th'li,se engaged in the manufacture of sugar h-aive been peculiarly ftavored in this respect; and ever since the project of Napoleoni lo' rendering France independent of the coloniazl production of sugar was first carried into ons,etationi, all the rewards of a powerful got ert i.ienit, and all the honors to be attaitmed in a community attaching the highest value to liter or scientific distinction, have beens lavished on those whose researches and experimnenits have enabled the manutacturer to apply, on a large scale, those improvements il the, different parts of the process which the chetnist first essays in the careftl experimen'ts of his laboratory. The men who coIduct their manufactories and refineries are, in very rnizity instances, carefully educated with a view to this pursuit, and only enter into the practice of their art after being intimately acquainited with its theory ini all its branches; with those principles of; physics and mechaillcs which wvill enable them thloroughly to u~nderstand the working of the machinery employed, and with these discoveries of mo dern chemistry which can best enlighten them as to the real natur e of the delicate and beautiful process by which a das kly-colored and impure fluid is converted into a crystaline product of snowy whiteness, spa rkling, grain, and perfect purity. The advan tages possessed by such meni, s urrounded by all the means and appliance s of advance d civilizatio n, with ready re ference o n a ll subjects o f doubt or difficulty to men of emianeint scientific c.,ttairi rnents, and with ever y oacility for obtaining, a th re the cheapest rate, the su pply or repair of machinery and material of evely kind, over the indolent o r ignorant coloniifal,later, or even over o uf own mo re intellicet n t agricul tii iist s, ar e inappreciable. The prl actical re suit of the se advantage s has t ever been more apparent t han wi thin thelast etw years. The beel-sas,-oar manufacturers, employing a raw jpice, con taihingt, chemically, only twelve per cent. of its w eigh t in suga r, a nd so imp ure as to render the extraction of this small pro portion a process requiring great care and skill, had obtained so marked a sulperiority over the colonial planter, who operates w ith cane-juice, w hich is comparatively pure, an d contains more by one-half of saccharine'matter, What the loyd complaints )' the latter extorted a legislative enactment a vow edly intended t o destroy t he beet-sugar industry and establishing a scale of d u ties de emed sufficienat fo r e ffe ctuing th at object. The on consequence of this enactment, however, was to stirmulate the ingenuity and e nterpri se of the European competitor to stIclm an e xtent, that, by his superior skill and intelligence, new progress was made in his art, and in the last year the quantity of beet-sugar produced in France was equal to the whole amount of importation of colonial sugars, each being equal to abont 150,000 hogsheads. We can scarcely conceive, accustomed as we are to the routine of our stugar-houses, how ardent is the spirit of inquiry, and how prompt the practical testinig, of any scientific discovery bearing upon this subject. A strilking, proof of this will be found in the foll{owing fact: In the weekly accounts published of the sititngs of the Academy of Scienices, in February, 1846, was a paper submitted )y MAl. Mialte, in which he stated that, in thee colrse of his researches, he had discovered that oxalate of alumina possessed the quality of iietti-alizing any excess of' lime that might be used in defecationj, and that by employing,,, it the yellow color imparted to syrup by the use of lime would be prevented, and the syrvt-p, being colorless, would crystallize into wbhile sugar. In larch, April, May and June, (,f' the same year, there appeared in the " M(,,jiteur Inidustriel," a sermii-weekly publication, devoted almost exclusively to the maznutfcturing and agr-icultural interests, no less thrain ti()ir articles f'rom sugaar manlutqclturers al;Xtl refiners, who hold madle experiments with ihis new agent onl a small scale, and who, while they 207 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. certified to its efficacy, demonstrated by cal- and of which a reprint is nowv in couirse of culation that it was utsliiited for practical [)ul)lication ill this country; allil the Report purp(,ses, bec iise the cost of the oxalite, inii mad(e to Congress at its last sessillon by Prothe quantity requiited during the process, fessor R. S. icCtilloh, contaiiigiii investigawoulld be too great to render its use profit- tious in relation to cane slugar made i Louiable. siat)a and Cuba; and I feel no hesitation in I fear, gentlemen, that thouigh much has sayitg, that no gentleman who will )pertuse lately beetn done aimongst us in the way of attentively these two works wvill fail in atimproveotetit. we are still far in arrear, ant(I taitait all the really valuable knowledge on that we shall still remain so, unless that no- this subject that has been acquired up to tle ble spirit of ett)ulation, which it is the object present day. of your A.,s,ciati(,i to cherish, shall prompt The first great object of the planter who is us to cease regarditg our manufacture as a about to manufacture the crop which forms mere 1trocess olf ioititie, to be acquired with- the whole return for the labors of the year, is, out previous careful study, and, especially, undoubtedly, to extract ftiom the cane all the without endeavoring to obtain an acquaint- juice that it contains. Unfort.untately, no anie with, at least, those general elementary means have yet been devised by which this principles of chemistry, of which our sugar- end can be completely obtaitned, and the bahouses show us the application on a large gasse, as it leaves our best constructed mills, scale but I trust the day is not far distant carries with it from one-third to one-fourth of when our planters shall be able to speak as the juice. However improbable it may apfam iliarlv of acids and of alkalis and their se- pear, it is nevertheless certain, that the fluid cular properties, as they now do of the high contents of a cane forms from 88 to 90 per or low pressure steam-engine, of the fly- cent. in weight of the entire structure of the wheel and the safety-valve; tbfor it is assuredly stem; and I have taken some painiis to aseernot nmore iniportantt to understand the ma- tain, during the present season, the yield of chicery for the extracting of the juice from juice from our mills of ordinary conlstruction. the cane, than fully to comprehend the best I found the yield from the three-roller mill, modes for converting that juice into the of average size, and run at a speed of 3 1-2 marketable product-sugar. revolutions per minute, to be sixty-one per The diffierent stages of the manufacture of cent.; whilst from another, of very large Egar, as practised in France, are, no doubt, size, of which the rollers were 5 1-2 feet in ftlmi'iar to most of you, and do not differ es- length, and 28 inches in diameter, and which seittially from those used on the plantations was run at a speed of two and a half revoluin this state, which have lately been furnished tions per minute, the yield was 66 per cent., with the apparatus of Derosne and Cail, and the bagasse being delivered from the latter that of Rillieux. The whole process of the almost pulverized and apparently dtry. These manuifacture may fairly be divided into, 1st, results are undoubtedly much more satisfacThile extraction of the juice from the beet or tory than would have been afforded some cane; 2d, The defecation or clarification, years ago: still they show that, after all the the object of which is not merely to cleanse care bestowed in raising our crops, from onethe ju;ice of all feculencies which may be fourth to one-third of our prodice is absomixe(i with it mechanically, such as the par- lutely lost; and if we take what I believe a ticl-s of the pith, the ritid, and the wax, fair average of the yield of juice in sugars, which becomne mingled with it in its passage that is, if we assume that one-tenth of the through1 the mill, but also to separate from weight of the juice is the product ill crysit the albumintous and gummy matters which tallized sugar, we find that we obtain only are in solution in it, and the separation of about 6 1-2 per cent. of the weight of the wlhich, whether in the form of a scum or pre- cane in sugar, whereas chemical analysis ciprcate, is a purely chemical process; 3d, shows that it contains 18 per cent. One great Tile filtration; 4thl, The evaporation; and cause of the diminished yield of juice from 5tll, The concentration of the syrup to the the cane, is undoubtedly the practice, too degree of density required for crystallization. prevalent, of running our mills at too high a Inldependetitlyofi'infotmationobtained al-)road, speed. Experiments made in Cuba demonI have recently received much instruction strate that, with the same mill, and its rollers firom two very valuable works, which you set in the same way, the juice obtained conhave not yet had all opportuitty of perusing; stituted 45 per cent. of the weight of the cane and I have no doubt you will feel interested when the rollers made six revolutions per miby a statement, although necessarily buief, of lute, and 70 per cent. when the speed was wlhat I have gleaned onl each of these heads. reduced to two and a half revolutions per I will first state that the two works to which minute, showing the enormous difference of I ref(er are the Sugar Planters' Manual, by twenty-five per cent. Dr. Evans,' published in London in, 1847, The very spongy consistency of the pith of *Thisvaluable work was anatyzed and exa the cane presents an obstacle to the extrac t'~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~eaie tions ofallt uile bywomresio thataye is eap-ne in tic numbers of our Review for October and No tiaa o f a-l i ts juice by compression that is aprentber, 1847. —E. parently insurmountable, and the very inter 20S SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. ,stln, inqniry at once suggests itself, are there no other means by which all the fluid contents of the cane can be obtained? That this can be done, on a small scale, in the la boratory, is well known, but thd difficulty is to effect the object on a large scale, and with the rapidity required on a plantation du ring the grinding season. A patent was taken out itn England, not long since, by a Mr. Michiel for extracting the sugar from the cane by an entirely new process, thus described and commented on in the Sugar Planters' Manual: -"It consists in cutting the canes into ex tremely thin slices, and then submitting them to the action of a mixture of lime and water, which, it is presumed, will coagulate, and render insoluble the whole of their nitroge nized constituents, thus permitting the extrac tion of the whole of the sugar, with the solu ble salts, by means of water. "m Were this process as practicable as its admirers seem to think, it ought, unquestion ably, to be universally adopted; for I believe, were it skilfully carried out, almost the whole of the saccharine matter in the cane would, to a certainty, be extracted. It remains to be seen, however, whether it is really so prac ticable, or whether its application would be sufficiently cheap. I much fear that the cir cular knives by which the canes are to be sliced, if we may judge from what occurs ill the slicing of the beet root, will be subject to continual derangement, and their edges blunted by the silicious coating of the cane. It may be doubted whether the operation will prove a sufficiently speedy one to admit of its adoption on large estates. The amount of evaporation demanded would also be great. This, it is true, may be obviated by placing the canes thus sliced in a succession of boxes hlaviung perforated bottoms, and placed one over the other in such a manner, that boiling water poured into the upper one will gradually percolate through each of the subsequent ones, and thus, by robbing the canes successively of the greater portion of their sugar, the saccharine liquid will gradually become more inspissated as it descends, until, when it comes away from the lowest box, it will have assumed the state of a syrup of considerable density. " I offer the above remarks partly because I think that this system presents much that is admirable; nevertheless, like many others, it requires the touchstone of experience." This process of extracting the juice from the cane is termed maceration, and is also the subject of remark by Professor M'Culloch. He found amongst the constituents of the cane two gummy matters, one of which is called by chemists pectin and the other albumen. Pectine is probably the most viscid substance in nature, and, consequently, the most formidable adversary to crystallization. The Professor teaches us that VOL. Il. maceration in hot water will fix the a lbume n in the ca ne, but atthat th e pecti n will flow out of it with the saccharine juice, and its separ ation fi rom the juice then b ecomes ex tremely difficult if not impossible. Where, however, we macerate in cold water, the pectin remains in the cane, and albume n flows out with the juice, which is then very easily and perfectly defecatedby heat, which coagulates the albumen, and causes it to rise in a scum to the surface of the juice. For these reasons he disapproves of maceration in hot water, and objects to that in cold water by reason of the increased quantity of fuel required for the evaporation. Having thus stated the opinions of the very able writers on this subject, gentlemen, allow me to inform you that I have from re liable authority ascertained that the pro cess of Michiel has actually been put in operation on a large scale in the Island of Martinique, and with great success, and has there caused a yield of from 11 to 12 per cent. of the weight of the cane in sugar, on estates which had previously produced but six and a half per cent. I have not learned whether the maceration is with hot or cold water, nor whether if with the former the sugar is deliquescent by reason of the pres ence of pectin in the juice. My object in stating these facts is to stimulate the inge nuity of those members of the association who have devoted their attention to the me chanical arts. It surely is a matter perfectly attainable by the proverbial ingenuity of the American mechanics, to devise such a slicing apparatus as shall receive from the carriers and cut the cane as fast as it is now received by the rollers that crush it; and as regards the loss of fuel in evaporation, a very simple ar rangement would readily obviate that objection. If the water be raised to a level above that of the cisterns which receive the sliced cane a series of these cisterns maybe placed side by side with pipes running from the top of each to the bottom of the next. The water would enter the first by a pipe running to its bottom from the reservoir, and as the level of the water in the reservoir would be higher than that in the cisterns the water rising through the first would overflow into the second, and from that to the others in the same manner. It would then flow out at a density fully equal to that of cane juice and probably much greater. The effect of such an arrangement would be not to mix water with the juice so as to dilute it, but to displace the juice by water in each successive cistern. The cisterns would of course require to be covered, and a pese sirorm of Beaume might be inserted into the top of each, which would plunge in the fluid and indicate when the saccharine matter hadl become exhausted b~y gradually sinking to zero. It would not be difficult so to arrange 14 209 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. purities. The black when taken from the cylinder is simply sifted, and is louIId then to be fully equal to new black, and one of the refiners stated that he considered it as constantly improving by this process. This m-ode of revivification is cheap, simple, and superior to any with which I am acquainted. The proper degree of heat in the tubes is very simply indicated by dropi ilg on tiem a metallic alloy, which melts at 750(. F. When the alloy begins to melt, the bone-b ack is dischargedl, and a fresh charge introduced into the cylinder. Here is one drawback to the use of animal charcoal, which I never have seen mentioned in any treatise on sugar, but which deserves some attention. Bone-black absorbs out of its own weight of saccharine solutions a considerable quantity of sugar. In experiments in the laboratory, a weight of saccharine solution equal to the weight of the black in the filtering tubes must first be passed through the black and then laid aside, and the subsequently filtered liquid is submitted to chemical tests: for the first liquid that passes through has lost a part of its sugar by the absorption of the black, and contains froin five to ten per cent. less sugar than when poured into the filter. One Dumont filter contains generally from 2,500 to 3,500 pounds of bone-black, and if one be filled afresh every day, as is usual in our sugarhouses, the loss of sugar from this cause becomes worthy of some consideration, and some of the gentlemen of the Association who use the bone-black filters may, perhaps, find leisure to make some accurate estimates on this subject by experiments on a large scale. I have not been able to do so myself, but shall take an early opportunity of satisfying my mind on the subject. I shall now proceed to consider the subject of the concentration and crystallization of the syrup in connection with the mode of liquoring or refining the sugar by means of pneumatic boxes or tigers, as they are called. I am the more eager to address you on this part of the process, because justice to another requires it. In the report of Pro fessor McCulloch will be found the following passage: "'Liquoring may be performed in pneu matic pans or tigers, but there is some difficulty experienced in the operation in conse quence of obstruction, if it be urged very rapidly. If at first the syrup be allowed to act simply by its own gravity, then the filtra tioin be gently accelerated by a feeble, partial vacuum, until it shall have drained lreely; and finally, the air be drawn through the mass to remove syrup adhering to the crys tals, I do not doubt that any difficulty will be experienced with pneumatic pans, especially if' the operation be performed at a temperature of not less than 80~. F. by cocks are d conn ections with p ipes that the water could run from the reservoir directly into any of the cisterns, and so that it should ru n ou t o f that last fill ed with the fresh slices of cane. If a n apparatus on this or simnilar pr inciples could be carri ed into operati o n on a large scale, a scale sufficient to take oit the crop of t he most ex te nsive plantationvs, its r esults would be enormous:. the whole sugar crop of the state would be a t once doubled, and the inventor would r eap the rich est r ewards f or the time, labor and talent expended in p erfe c ting it. On t et ro in the next proess in themanufacture, that of defecation, I have little to offer that is novel. I m ay oee, however, observe that a cons iderab le qu antity of an ingredient, of which the composition is a secret, has been imported into the s tat e by our enterprising fellow-citizen, Alexander G o rdon, Esq., and is now undergoing the test of experience on a large scale on his plantation. It is aflorded at a cheap rate, and if it succeed ill replacing the lime which imparts so obstinate a yellow tint to our syrups as its inventor feels confident that it will, another great step will have been made in our march of improvement towards the perfection of the manufacture. The filtration of the syrup through boneblack, next claims our attention. The use of animal charcoal has exercised an influence on the manufacture of sugar during the present century inferior to that of no other discovery, not excepting even Howard's invention of the vacuum pan. The only objection suggested to its use, viz.: its cost, was obviated when Dumont showed by his filters that it was not necessary to employ it as a powder, which, when once used, ceased to have any value except as manure, and that if employed in grain its filtering and discoloring powers might be indefinitely prolonged by the process of revivification. NMuch talent and labor have been expended in devising the best means of economical and effective revivification, but I have heard of none so satisfactory as that by heated steam, which I saw employed on a very large scale at two refineries near Paris. The black is thrown into a heap after being used and allowed to ferment; it is then thrown into a cylinder, and steam heated to 750Q F., is driven through it. The steam is heated by being conveyed through pipes, placed in a furnace so arranged as to heat them red-hot without the actual contact of the fire, which would otherwise soon destroy them, nor is this pro cess at all attended with the danger which might be supposed to result from the great degree of heat imparted to the steam. The action on the bone-black is at once to de stroy, by combination, all the organic matters absorbed into the pores of the charcoal during its use, and the purgation of all ira t I r t t 210 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETU. 1845, that the vacuum pan has many dee'.ded advantages over all o'lher concentrating ves sels: that the sugar may l)e grained i n t he pan, and tha t the gral,ation is completely under the control of th e op erator, who may accelerate or retard i t at pleasure; who may carry it so far t hat sta r will not run fromu thae pan, an d m ay so conduct it as to inchease almost at will the size and hardness of the crystals. All th i s is true; a nd it is a lso true, as he has s tated, t th at the t ieris anot be u sed for sugar boiled in any other mannert th an in the vacuum pan. Allo w ede, then, to explain to you in what manner the tigers are constructed, how the sugars are to be boiled fo r being workled in them, and th e, mode of conducting the operation afterwards. The pneumatic pan or ti ger is an o b long box divided into t wo parts. A conveni ent size has bee n found to be eight feet in length and four feet in width. The two parts of the tiwer are divided by a frame covered with cloth, made of copper wire, which forms a false bottom; the lower half is of cast-iron and is about twelve inche s in depth, with a slope from a ll side s towards the centre, at which point is a cock for draining off mo la sses from the sugar, which is poured into, the upper par t a nd which is dra ined through the sieve-like false bottom above alluded to. The upper part is about sixteen inches in depth: it is made of sheet iron or wood,, with a ledge of about half an inch in width,. running all r ound the inside at the line or ju nction with t he low er half; this ledge serves as the suppor t for the frame, which is also supported from beneath with a thin plank, set on edge, and running from end to end of the tiger: the lower part of this plank is scooped out in two or three places, so as to leave free passage for the drainage from all parts of the bottom to the cock at the centre. An opening in the false bottom is connected by a valve, with a pipe running to the air-pump that is worked by the engine that drives the mill, and another small opening connects'with a steam-pipe furnished with a cock by which the steam can be admitted, or shut off, at pleasure, and the use of which will be presently noticed. The theory of the working of the tigers is seductive, from its exceeding simplicity. The pressure of the atmosphere beitng calculated at fifteen pounds to. the square inch, if sugar be placed on the upper part ot' the tiger, and a vaci-uulm created benieatlh the talse bottom,. by pumping out the air every square inch of the surface of the sugar is pressed in by a weight of fifteen pou,nds, which is sufficient to drive through the false bottom all that is liquid in the mass, and thus leave the pure crystals above, they being too large and too hard to be fi)rced throwugh the meshes of the wire. In1 practice, very gpeat difficulties occurred: ifthble sugar was boiled htg/,, as the "' W'lhen I was in Louisiana, Messrs. Bentamin and Packwood had tried unsuccessful ly to overcome the above-menitioned diflicul ty of obstruction; they have since succeededp entirely, and their present crop has been manufactured, with Rillieux's apparatus anda pneumatic pants, into liquid sugar of perfect quality. A specimen of this sugar, present ed to me by Mlessrs. Merrick and Toiwne, has been analyzed by me and found c h emically pure. Its crystalline grain and snowy white ness are also equal to those of the best double-refined sugar of our northern refinerics. To Messrs. Benjamin and Packwood must, therefore, be awarded the merit of haviing first made directly, from a vegetable juice, sugar of absolute chemical purity, combined with perfection of crystal and color. This is indeed a proud triumph in the progress of the sugar industry. In the whole range of the chemical arts, I am not aware of another instance in which a perfect result is in like manner obtained immediately." This is high praise, gentlemen, and comes from a high source, and I am, therefore, the more mortified in not being able to take my share of it. I believe it to be true, as stated by the Professor, that although the tigters had been successfully used in liquoring sugar already made, they never had been employed in receiving the liquid sugar as it runs front the battery, an d converting it into crystals, until the experiment was made on the Beluchasse plantation, belonging to MNr. Packwood alid myself: but the success of that experiment is to be attributed alone to my friend and partner, Theodore J. Packwood, and I have no hesitation in saying, that any man not possessed to the full degree of his indomitable perseverance, long experience, and intimate kniowledge of the behavior of saccharine matter under all the influences of temperature and varieties of Inauipulation to which it can be subjected, would ihave abandoned the experiment in despair, as being utterly hopeless. It was only after weeks of severe toil and intense application, that there appeared any prospect of ultimate success, and more than threefourths of the first crop made with the tigers had been taken off before they were worked with that steady precision which proved that they could as surely be relied on in the manufacture of sugar as the ordinary moulds of the refiner. I have stated that I would treat of the concentration of the syrups and crystallization of the sugar in connection with the working of the tigers, because it is only in that connection that I can offer you any remarks not to be found in all the treaties on the subject. it was well remarked by your distinguished Vice-Presidlent, Judge Rest, in his interesting addlress, delivered to the as~sociation in 211 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. Havana sugar, but the crystal is larger and more beautiful. White syrup is then poured on it, and the air-pump is applied, which forces the syrup through: the syrup in its passage displaces the last pellicle of coloring matter that still adheres to the surface of the crystals, and leaves the sugar perfectly white: the action of the air-pump is continued for the purpose of drying the sugar in a measure, and at the end of twenty-four hours from the time when the battery was poured into the tiger, it is shoveled out in perfectly pure white crystals, and thrown on the floor of a room heated by steam-pipes, where the little remaining moisture is evaporated, and the sugar is then ready for market-the entire process, including the putting it into packages, requiring a period of less than fortyeight hours. After the tigers have been used three or four times, the meshes in the false bottom become clogged by the small crystals that are forced into them, and the steam is then let under the failse bottom, through the pipe before described; it melts these crystals, and with a brush, the workman in a few minutes has the bottom so cleaned as to be ready to receive a fresh battery. This pipe is also serviceable when through a mistake of the boiler the crystallization has been improperly conducted, and a crust forms in the bottom; the steam may be used to loosen it, and thus avoid injury to the wire cloth. Notwithstanding the perfection of the results obtained by this mode of liquoring and drying sugar, gentlemen, it is not to be recommended for adoption by any one who is unable to give to it his personal superintendence, or to procure the services of an intelligent and attentive agent. It requires constant care and watchfulness, and any mistake in boiling the sugar, whether arising from ignorance or inattention, causes much trouble and labor. Sugar made from frosted or ferpmented canes, or from the unripe cane which is frequently cut from new ground, or from land freshly manured by a crop of peas, could scarcely be worked in them at all, and in all such cases we have found it more profitable to put the sugar into hogsheads, and allow it to drain in the purgery, in the usual mode. but when the cane-juice is pure and sound, and from ripe cane, I have seen nothing equal to the beauty and economy of the process, when conducted with skill aced care. There are several other subjects, gentlemen, connected with our pursuits, on which I had intended to touch, but I feel myself in danger of exceeding by far the limits usual on such occasions, and shall only advert to one more topic before closing this address. The annual recurrence of early frosts for some time past, has occasioned much solicitude about the preservation of the canle, particularly in the higher latitude of the state, where the result of its cultivation has equaled sugar makers term it, the syrup beca me s o viscid as to adhere to th e crystals, an d th e pressu re of the atmosphere, ins tead of driving it thr ough, had t he effec t of compressing the whole mass into one solid body, as hlard as a loaf of refined sugar, an d wbhich could only be removed from t the tiger by t heaid of pickaxe s and hatchets, requiring immense labor, and tearing to pieces the wire cloth, wh ich is exp ens ive. If the sugar was boiled light, as it is ternl ed, nearly the whole battery would run through the f als e b ottom, when the vacuum pa n w as di scharged, and the operation thus conducted, would clearly be not profitable. It is, therefore, evi dent that the mode of boil ing or crystallizing the sugar in the vacuum pan is the most essentia l poin t for consider ation as regards the liquoring in the tigers, and that this process can only succeed by obtaining from the batt ery a mass, com - posed of firm and large crystals floating as it were in a light and fluid syrup. This object can only be att ain e d by great art in the sugarboiler, and the mode of so doing is an application of the principles of crystallization,which yon will find stated with admirable clearness y Professor McCulloh, in his report. A description of th e proc ess would c arr y me too or, but I may state gener ally that the syrup is to be evaporated in successive portions, so that the crystals of each portion may form nuclei. which are successively enlarged at each fresh charge of syrup introduced into the pan: these successive charges of syrup are always small, and the fluidity of the mother-liquor of the crystals is preserved by the changes of temperature and density being kept moderate; whereas a rapid evaporation in mass of the syrup would be attended by a violent agitation, an absence of nuclei around which large crystals could form, and the result would be a small and confused grain totally unsuited for working in the tigers. The sugar, when boiled to the proper point, flows from the pall into the tiger in a thick mass, composed of crystals floating in a fluid syrup, and being boiled at a low temperature, cools so rapidly that it frequently requires the assistance of the workmen to scrape it along the trough and accelerate its passage towards the tigers, unless the fall from the pan towards them is very precipitous. When received into the tigers it is allowed to cool for a few hours, during which time it has become thoroughly crystallized, the mother-liquor of crystallization has passed through the bottom, and the whole mass is then as well purged as sugars made in the open kettles are, after remaining a fortnight in the surgeries. The surface is then removed, and mixed with water, so as to form a thick paste, such as refiners call a magma, and is again spread on the top of the tiger, which is allowed to drain for three or four hours —at the end of that time it presents a color equal to the inferior grades of white 212 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. the most sanguine anticipations of the enterprisitmg gentlemen who have undertaken it. Experience has notyet demonstrated whether the severity of the cold is such as to destroy the germs remaining in the stubble, and thus create the necessity for renewing the planting every year, which would indeed prove a most serious drawback. But such inquiry having been awakened on thje subject of windrowing the cane, I have thought you would feel interested in a fact which has reference to the subject, and which occurred at nmy own residence. About one-fourth of an acre of plant-cane of the Creole variety was affected by the frost on the 20th November, 1846. The lower joints remained sound, but the upper part of the cane, about twothirds in length of the entire stem, was sufficiently injured for all the eyes to be killed. The cane was in the garden, and was windrowed two days afterwards, and from causes not wortli mentioning, remained in the windrow untouched till the beginning of April. It was then taken up, and to my great surprise, was still sweet and sound. The frozen eyes had dried up into a black dust, which filled the cavity where each eye had been formed(l, but the injury was there arrested, the remainder of the joint had not fermented, and there cau be no question that the cane would have made good sugar. This is an isolated fact, and I give it only for what it is wc, thl; but when we consider that the plant Creole cine is the most tender of all, and that its leaves form a much less perfect coverin)g iii the wiudro w than the broad leafy tops of the riband cante, there is certainly reason to believe, that if cane be always windrowed in th,e state above mentioned, (and the first frosts rarely affect it more,) there would be no danger of loss of crops. and the injury inflicted by the frost would be confined to the extra labor which the winidrowiing requires, and a somewhat diminished yield by means of the partial drying of the calve.-J. P. Benjaintn. Inasmuch as the phen ome non of crys Lafization is intimately associated with the produ cti on of sugar in the mercantile form, it has been considered desirable to offer a sl ight outlin e of that branch of science. As a preliminary to a proper appreciation of the operation of tha t force on which the formati on of a crystal depends, it will be ne cessary to acquire a well-defined idea of the atomic and molecular constitution of matter. Let it b e assumed that matter, th ough im mediately presented to our senses under the form of rnasses, is in re al i ty but an aggre gate of molecules; and that th e lat ter are in their turn composed of particles of matter, which no human agency or law of nature, as nature now exists, can divide, and which, on ac c oun t of this in divisibility, a re called atoms. The above-mentioned assumption is in accordance with all chemical testimony: not one valid experiment can be brought against it; so that the onl y proof necessar y to establish the fact of the existence of these atoms is the direct vis ual pro of of their existence-a pro of whic h neve r can be attain - ed, inasmuch as chemical experiment, of a kind to be universally assented to, has demonstrated that these atoms must be smaller than a certain determined bulk, in the contemplation of which the human intellect is lost. Thus it can be demonstrated bv the naked eye, that an atom of lead must be smaller than the billionth of a cubic line, how much smaller no one can tell, smaller, for aught we know, than there is space on the earth's surface for numerals to record. Yet, despite this inconceivable minuteness of atoms, the science of chemistry has been equal to the task of discovering their relative weights, and in many cases their relative bulks; has been able to demonstrate that the atom of oxygen weighs eight times as much as the atom of hydrogen, yet is only half the size; that an atom of lead weighs 104 times as much as one of hydrogen; of silver, 110; and so on for every elementary body, and the greater number of compound ones, of which the earth and its inhabitants are com posed. The actual weight and the actual size of these atoms, it is evident, must ever remain unknown, inasmuch as the means of measuring and weighing objects so in conceivably minute, involves an impossi bility. Much gratuitous difficulty has opposed itself to the contemplation of the atomic constitution of matter, by confounding two propositions, which are in themselves dis tinct-the proposition of the divisibility or non-dlivisibility of matter, with that of the divisibility or non-divisibility of space. To 4 conceive space not to be infinitely divisible The work which we republish is from the pen of a distinguished English chetnist, and is lately from the press, having not appeared in our country. T he author, Dr. Scoffern, elaborates a new theory and process of sugar manufacture, which will be invaluable to our planters. No work has yet appeared on the subject possessing higher merit. D.r. Scoffern's attention was turned to colonial sugar manufacture in 1847, and he acknowledges the lat)rs of Dr. Evans in the same field. In his own language —" I could not believe that there shouild exist any necessity for the loss of two-thirds of any material in producing, combined with a host of impurities, the remaining third-so opposed did the notion appear to any analogous case —so inconsistenit with chemical harmony. I have since given the subject my almost undivided attention, and to prosecute it with the greatest efficiency, I have spent the -greater portion of the subsequent period in a refinery," etce-EID. 213 SUGAR MAI\UFACTURE.-CIZYSTALLIZ ATION OF St:GAP.-CHE —,IICAL kND OTHEP. DOCTP,IN.ES OP SUGAP.. SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. is irrational; but to conceive that mat4er filling such space is not infinitely indivisible, does violence to no reasoning process whatever. For let it be granted that the matter fining such space is so hard and so coherent that no force now existent can cause its division or dismemberment-then we have an atom according to the definition, viz.: a body which cannot be divided. Thus we learn that the term atom has no reference whatever to the smallness of a particle, but merely to the fact of its indivisibilly; inasmuch, however, as practice demonstrates that the quality of indivisibility is alone confined to particles of incomprehensible smallness, this latter quality is always associated with the term atom. Henceforth, then, the reader will assume the existence of atoms, and of aggregates of atoms, termed molecules; these molecules tending to unite again, and form masses. It will be unnecessary for me here minutely to discuss the nature of those forces on which the foirmation of masses by the union of molecules depends. Suffice it to state, that these molecules are not only impressed with ten(lencies to combine. but to combine according to certain fixed and unvarying laws; as is best evinced by consideration of the fact that, if the result of such combination be a solid, the latter has always a tendency to assume a definite geometrical form-to become, in fact, a crystal. Thus we may regard the crystalline condition the natural one of all solid bodies, and we may consider its absence due to the operation of some extraneous cause. To illustrate the above proposition by immediate reference to sugar:-The smallest possible molecule of sugar is composed of (Ci2 Hio O,o) + Aq. What the fo)rm of such molecules may be, we cannot tell; but experiment demonstrates to us that, when several of them combine to form a mass, their tendency is not to effect a compound of indeterminate or irregular form, but one possessed of xwell-defined, geometric boundaries; constituting a form which, although subject to slight variations, is always referable to the geometric figure called an oblique rhombic prism Hence sugar is said by chemists to belong to the oblique prismatic system. It is highly important to observe, that, although sugar crystallizes in certain well defined geometric shapes, all referable to the oblique prismatic system, and therefore invariable, yet the size of those crystals may be varied almost at the will of the operator; just as a bricklayer, with materials of the same form, may be conceived to build an oblique prism of any stated size. Nay, more, by a very easy modification of the treatment of two sugar solutions, booth precisely equal in all respects, one shall be made to yield crystals, and the other a confused mass, de- r void of all crystalline form, and hence called by chemists amorphous. A slight consideration of the operation of cohesive affiniitv between molecules will explain all that seems difficult here; and, as the subject is somewhat recondite, perhaps an analogy from orlinary matters will not be devoid of'value:Suppose, then, a legion of soldiers starnding in an ample space, and ordered by sudde n word of command to form a square, it is clear that the element of time is necessary to the success of their evolution. Give them time enough, and the evolution will be made-the square will be formed. Give them less time, and the evolution will be incomplete; either no vestige of the square will be recognizable, or its formation will be imperfect. The former is the exact condition of the sugar solutions which have been exposed to slow evaporation; the latter, the condition of' such as have been exposed to a more rapid system of evaporation; and these remarks are applicable to all instances of crystallization whatever. Thus we see, that, theoretically speaking, the process of effecting the crystallization of sugar should be entirely under the operator's control; and practice has rigidly demonstrated the correctness of'the theory. Hence the sugar producer has certain wellknown indications to follow out, provided he desire to obtain his staple in the form of crystals. He should evaporate by the slowest temperature consistent with economy of time and fuel, and thus retain his concentrated syrup in a fluid state, by the application of heat, until the crystals shall have accreted to the size desired. In actual practice, the sugar manufacturer is obliged to rely alone on the latter expedient, the process of slow evaporation being incompatible with the necessities of general commerce. The process would occupy too much time, and the result would necessarily be increased in price, without offering any adequate advantage. It would be in fact, sugar caiddy, a m-iaterial which is made by the process of slow evaporation here indicated, and which only diflers front lump sugar in possessing larger crystals. The p rincipal bodies which come uo?der the definition of sugars, are —Sug,ar of the Cane, of' the Grape, of Milk, and of Manna. They have respectively the following compositions: I 214 C.,b,,. Hyd.g. O.yg. W.t Cane-sugar........... 12...... 10...... 10..+.. I Grape-sugar, or glulcose................ 12...... 12...... 12..+..2. annite........ ..... 15...... 16....... 16 Of milk................ 12...... 12....... I ,,, Of these, the latter may be entirely dismissed from our consideration, and a few remarks will suffice for all but the first. SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. of milk is employed as a sweetening agent. Oit Sugars-Special Remar-ks.-Under the definition of sugar, the distinctive chemical characteristics of the substa nc e have been so fully g iv en, i that nothin g further in that respect need be st ated here. Henceforth I purpose devoting t he term Sugar exclusively ugar els ie y gar o f the cane, appropriating the terms Mannite a nd Glucose to the sugar of ma nna and th e sugar of grapes respectively. Perhaps sugar, more than any other substance, has been mystified by a variety of appellatives. According to some it has been termed a salt: by others an essential salt; whilst the conventional modes of using the terms saccharine mat ter and crystalline matter, as applied to sugar, terms now legalized by act of Parliament, imply that sugars may possess the former matter without the latter, the two being distinctively indicated as capable of existing separately, and as constituting, when united, the substance S,gar. It deems unnecessary to point out how to tally irreconcilable is the commercial and legislative definition of sugar, when compared with the chemical one. Perhaps, however, the following parallel statement will place the discrepancy advcrted to before the readerin its most powerful light: On Sugars-General Remarks. - Canesugar is the only one which involves commercial interests on a large scale; being alone that which is employed in any considerable amount as a sweetening agent. For although manufactories of grape-sugar do exist on the continent, with the object of producing the material for admixture with such wines as are naturally deficient in it, and thus furnishing the means of supplying alcoholic strength, yet the commercial interests involved are, comparatively speaking, small; and the clandestine manufacture of grape-sugar for the purpose of adulterating the West India staple, a manufacture which was extensively carried on in and near London, is without the precincts of any commercial speculation, in its true sense. The sugar called Mannite is a mere chemical curiosity, and need not be farther adverted to il these pages, were it not for the circumstance that a portion of the juice of the cane is liable, under improper treatment, to be converted into this substance. Sugar of milk is obtained, bv a process unnecessary here to describe, from the whey of milk. Hence, in certain cheese-making localities, considerable portions of this substance are prepared. In some parts of Switzerland this is done, and the resulting sugar COMMERCIAL AND LEGISLATIVE DOCTRINE OF SUGAR. Sugar is composed of Crystalline matter. Sugar is a compound of carbon. hydrogen, and oxygen, united in known, exact, and unvarying proportions. Its taste is sweet; and inasmuch as taste depends on rapidity of solution in the mouth, and inasmuch as large crystals dissolve less rapidly than small ones, sugar imparts less sweetness for equal time in proportion as its crystals are large. Size of a crystal is not defined by nature, but shape is defined. Sugars may be obtained in crystals of any size, may be even made to measure. Sugar is not invariably alike, but different according to region, climate, or plant; may have more or less saccharine, more or less crystalline matter. Its sinell, too, may vary; so may its taste, and also its color. Sugars may be weak or strong; beet-root sugar, for instance, is a weak sugar. WXeak sugars possess small grains, (i. e., small crystals.) Some weak sugars have large grains, (i.e., crystals:) these are weak, because they do not sweeten well. where they form a mere mechanical coating. In conformity with this rule of proceeding, pu re specimens of white sugar-candy have been the staple material of analytical researches, prosecuted with the result of demonstrating that the composition of sugar is tCI2 Hso O0l)+Aq.; and here we must interpose a chemical theory relative to this composition and the reasoning on which it is based. It will be observed, that the eleven parts (atoms or equivalents) of hydrogen, and the eleven of oxygen, would, if combined, constitute eleven atoms or equivalents of water; hence the following question arises: Does this amount of hydrogen and oxygen, or any part of the same, exist in sugar as water or not? On this point chemists are agreed to consider that one part (equivalent or atom) of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, really do exist in the sugar-candy as water, The reader will form his own conclusions as to the comparative rationality of the two varying statements concerning sugar. According to the chemical doctrine, all is lucid and precise; according to he the other, sugar is a kind of organic anomaly. If sug,ar be a compound of saccharine and crystalline matter, surely an inquirer would infer that either of these matters had been separately obtained, and would, with great justice, expect the sugar community to be able to state the composition, properties, and general nature of sugar, after having been dep2rived of its saccharinte matter. In selecting, the purest specimen of a crystallizal)le body, chemists invariably seek for the largest and best developed crystal, experience having proved that nature avoids admixture of impurities with the substance of a crystal, but extrudes them to the outside, I 215 CHE,'AICAL DOCTRINE OF SUGAR. SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. without which water, or some equivalent for it, the remaining elements C12 Ho10 010 could not exist in combination. The rationale of this opinion is as follows: If sugar be brought in contact under favora ble circumstances with certain bases-oxide of lead for instance-an equivalent of water is evolved, and the remaining elements of the sugar (C)a Hio0 010o) combine with the oxide of lead. In this way the sugar, less one atom of water, may be shifted from one base to another, and its existence inferred. These bases, however, being separated, the C12 H10 010 immediately resolves itself into other forms of combination; that is to say, provided it have not the means of recombin ing with the necessary amount of water to form crystalline sugar. Thus water serves as a base, and hence is termed by chemists basic water. Instead, therefore, of stating crystallized sugar to be composed of twelve atoms of carbon, eleven of hydrogen, and eleven of oxygen, or in chemical algebra, C12 Hl1 01I, it is more usual for chemists to represent it as composed of twelve of carbon, ten of oxygen, ten of hydrogen, plus one atom of basic water: or, in chemical algebra, thus: C1i2 Ho10 Ol0+Aq. These observations explain the meaning of the term hypothetical, in con tradistinction to practical sugar. The for mer indicates crystallized sugar minus oane atom of water, or (C,2Hli Oll)-H 0-C012 Hio 010, the compound which unites with bases. The latter, this compound plus one atom of water. The non-chemical reader will save himself much trouble and error bv remembering this explanation. Otherwise he might hereafter confound the one atom of combined water, with some indefinite quantity of that fluid, in an uncombined state, as constituting moisture. Sugar has a sweet taste, but no smell. Its color is white. When crystallized, it is semi-transparent. It is brittle, and may be easily reduced to powder. Exposed to the atmosphere, it attracts a little water, but incurs no chemical change. Sugar is very soluble in water, which, at a temperature of 48~, dissolves its own weight of that substance. With increase of temperature, the solvent power of water for sugar increases also; when nearly at the boiling point, it is capable of dissolving any quantity of sugar whatever. On evaporating the water from a solution of sugar, the latter is obtained in the form of crystals, the primitive form of which is a four-sided prism, whose base is a rhomb. The crystals are usually four or six-sided prisms, terminated by two-sided and sometimes by three-sided summits. Sugar, like other organic bodies, is very delicately constituted, and the laws or for ces which hold its elements in combination are overcome by the operation of numerous disturbing causes. The action of heat; that of the alkalies-i. e. of all proper alka lies, (the acti on of alkaloids on s ugar has not been investigated,) of a considerable number of non- alkal ine b ases; and of most acids,-tend to the destruction of s ugar, by causing i ts ultimate elements to fall into a number of new combinations, the major part of which are still but imperfectly known. The following experiment of M. Soubei ran affords a remarkable illustration of the effects produced on sugar solutions by the agency of he at alone. This chemis t, hav ing dissolved a given quantity of sugar in a given quantity of water, applied heat to the solution for thirty-six hours. The appa ratus was so constructed, that the water given off by evaporation was continually returned to the original solution; by which contrivance the latter was always composed of the same quantity of sugar or its deriva tives, and the same quantity of water as when the experiment commenced. Gradu ally the solution acquired darkness of color, and, at the end of thirty-six hours, it had become black. Hence this experiment teaches us that, even by the application of heat alone to sugar solutions, sugar is destroyed and treacle is formed. Chemists have demonstrated that there scarcely exists a foreign body which, if ad mixed with sugar solutions, and the latter boiled, does not increase the rapidity of destruction. The alkalies, lithia, potash, soda, and ammonia, act with such energy, that a very inconsiderable portion of either, added to a boiling sugar solution, produces an immediate and visible destruction of a large amount of the latter substance. This destructive agency is also participated in by the alkaline earths, baryta, strontia, and lime. The latter agent is almost universally employed in the manufacture of sugar from cane-juice, and hence arises great destruction of material. Acids, as a class, are equally injurious with alkalies to the constitution of sugar. Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids convert it rapidly into other compounds, several of which are as yet imperfectly investigated. It would appear, however, that the changes effected by these agents are,-first the conversion of sugar into glucose, then the change of the latter into a series of darkcolored bodies, many of them of an acid nature; amongst which are bodies termed glucic, melasinic, sacchumic, and sacchulmic acids, also sacchulmine, and sacchumine. The action of nitric acid on sugar is peculiar; converting it into oxalic acid. There are certain acids, however, which., under nao 216 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. ascertained that 100 parts of starch, when converted into sugar, became 110-14 parts. Hence he inferred, that glucose was merely a solid compound of starch and water, or, more correctly speaking, of the elements of starch and the elements of water. Glucose was, a few years since, largely prepared in the neighborhood of London for the purpose of adulterating colonial sugar, the amylaceous material used in the process being potato farina, of which the chief part was imported from Ireland. It might have been still more economically made, by sub stituting certain kinds of saw-dust for starch. Glucose, when quite pure, is nearly white, and crystallizes in little needles, radiating from a centre, offering, in the aggregate, the appearance of little tubercular masses. Unlike cane sugar, glucose is soft and clammy to feel; it may also be distinguished from the former by certain chemical tests.' soIaenite.-Various species of the ash yield, w s hen incisions are made into their bark, an exudation of glutinous feel and sweet taste. When its fluid portion has been evaporated by the sun, it finds its way into commerce under the name of manna, The bulk of manna consists of a peculiar sugar, which chemists term mannite; and to obtain which from manna, the latter is digested with hot alcohol, which dissolves the mannite. On evaporating away the alcohol, mannite crystallizes in slender acicular tufts. The consideration of mannite would not belong to this treatise, were it not for the circumstance of its occasional artificial production from solutions containing circumstances that I have been able to re cognize, are injurious to the constitution of sugar. Of these, the carbonic and sulphur ous acids may be cited. The latter has long been known as a powerful anti-fer ment; and, taking advantage of this pro perty, I was enabled to obtain a specimen of cane-juice from the island of Barbadoes, in a state of such a complete conservation, that I extracted from it upwards of 20 per cent. of sugar. Grape Sutgar.-Synonyms, sugar of fruit -uiicrystallizable sugar (improperly so called)-glucose. The last synonym, i. e. glucose, is that by which grape-sugar will in future be de signated throughout these pages. Glucose, so called from yXvKvG, sweet, is that form of sugar, to the presence of which ripe grapes, plums, peaches-and, indeed, the greater number of fruits-owe their sweetness. Glucose, moreover, is the sweet principle of honey, and of malt; hence, it is to its presence that brewers' wort owes its lucious taste, from which liquid it may be procured. The readiest method of obtaining this variety of sugar in large quantities, is by boiling starch or lig nin wit h w ater contain ing a minute portion of sulphuric acid. The best proportions for effecting this are-starch one part, water four parts, and of sulphuric acid 1-100th of the weight of the starch. The ebullition should be continued for thirty-six hours, the water being returned as fast as it evaporates. At the expiration of this time the conversion of the starch into sugar will be complete; lime now is to be added, which separates all the sulphuric acid in the form of sulphate of lime, and the remaining sugar may be obtained by evaporation. In this oper ation none of the sulphuric acid used is appropriated by the starch, or enters into any form of combination, its effect being of the kind known to chemists as catalytzc, or attributable to contact without combination. This method of forming glucose artificially was accidentally discovered by the Russian chemist Kirchoff, during an attempt to convert sugar into gum. He set out with the idea of dissolving the starch merely in dilute sulphuric acid, but on continuing the boiling, he noticed the production of sugar. If, instead of starch, cane sugar be used, a similar result is obtained. Cane sugar is also partially changed into glucose by heat alone; and still more rapidly by the united agency of heat and alkalies or alkaline earths. Vogel demonstrated that no gas was eliminated during this transmutation; and Mr. Moore and De Saussure proved that the quantity of sulphuric used was not diminishedl in the process. Sanssure, moreover, n* It will be seen, by reference to the formula given, that glucose is made up of elements of (practical) cane sugar, plus the elements of three equivalents of water; hence a rationale is obtained of the facility with which the latter is changed into the former. Indeed, this conversion into glucose, which sugar experiences from slightly disturbing causes, is the first of a long series of destructive readjustments of elements to which sugar is subjected. Any approach to the boiling temperature of a solution of sugar instantly converts a portion ot the latter into glucose; a change which is usually expedited by the presence of foreign matters in general, and by none more powerfully than alkalies and alkaline earths. This fact leads to a just appreciation of the great loss incurred by the present mode of colonial sugar manufacture. I know not why glucose should be termed by some authors uncrystallizable. It crystallizes with great facility in slender needles, diverging from a centre, forming in the aggregate little masses of nodular or granular appearance. It certainly does not form hard crystals, and in this respect, is very unlike cane-sugar. The term uncrystallizable sugar, as applied to it, is not only improper, but productive of confusion; that term having been applied by Proust, Ann. de Chim. lvii. 131, to a sugar supposed to be liquid under all circumstances and uncrystallizable by any means, to be associated with both sugar of cane and glucose, and accounting, as he thought, for the existence of molasses and treacle. 217 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. sugar of the cane. Thus Fourcroy and Vauquelin demonstrated the existence of mannite in the fermented juice of onions and melons-vegetables which naturally contain sugar of the cane-and, under certain conditions, hereafter to be detailed, a portion of sugar in juice of the cane is converted into the same substance. Lactic acid is also a result of the fermentation of sugar under certain circumstances; which seem to be these-the presence of nitrogenous bodies, and the due ferminentive temperature. Liebig imagines that the formation of both mannite and lactic acid may be due to the deoxidizing effect of these nitrogenous matters. An examination of the formulwe of the bodies involved in the supposition bespeaks the probability of this view; as also do the circumstances under which saccharine liquids undergo the change; namely, whilst they are still raw, or unpurified from the foreign matters which are derived from their native sources. Thus the juices of the beet and the cane rapidly undergo the change adverted to, but solutions of sugar and water probably never. With the juice of the white beet —(hetula alba)-the rapidity of the transformat i on has often been to me a matter of surprise. History-Chronological and Natural-of the Su gar-Cane, and of Silgaa-Agencies of Heat, Lime and Impurities.-In a practical treatise on the sugar manufactture, such as this is intended to be, any extended history, eithe r chronological or natural, of the sugar-cane, and its crystalline product, would be out of place. On these subjects a few general remarks will suffice. Of all eastern products, sugar appears to have been the latest known, out of the regions wherein it was produced. The chroniclers of ancient Egypt, Ph(enicia, and India, make no nimittioti of it; and it did not find its w ay into Arabia as a commercial article until the eleventh century: soon after which, soetle adventurous Venetian travelers achieved the introduction of sugar as a commiercial article into their metropolis. In Venice the first refineries were established; and hence the name, long prevaletit, pains de Venise, as re ferring to loaves of sugar. Even as regards the sugar-cane, the testi moniy of ancient authors is exceedingly devoid of precision. The most ancient writer by whom we find the sugar-cane recorded is Theophrastus, (B.C., 321,) who, in his chap. ter on honey, states as follows:-"'Ort at' tro PEs'Xro; yevEsIatl rptrrai. "H afro 7'v dpOop Kaf iy O'i; asXot v is n yXVKir77, anXXN as E ru des, poft gray dvavvOgv, vypds rd ro6 rlor h vxriso v eres&,, yi,vrat de rovro?tara v7r' 7rvpalrefrav tegoel Th Ev Tot ra)Aiyot;.* . "The generation of honey is threefold: the first is from flowers or other things in which there is sweetness; the second fromt the air, which, when there are dews, is concocted by t he hea t o f the sun, an d falls, particularly in harvest time; the third sort is frm canes or reeds." TOceophrastus, in another place,* mentions a so rt of r eed, or c ane, growing in marshy localities in Egypt, and possessing sweet roots. The passage in question has been understood by some to refer to the sugar-cane; but there are many objections to the correctness of this assumnption). The sugar-cane is not an aquatic plant, neither are its roots so sweet as its stem. Moreover, if it really had existed in Egypt, there were certainly those who would have chronicled the circuitnstanice wilh more precision than we find in the above vague expression of Theophrastus. If we are to rely upon the testimony of Strat)o, in his history of India, written about the nineteenth year of the Christian era, Near chus, the admiral of Alexander the Great, about 300 years before Christ, not only saw the sugar-cane in India, but was aware that a substance resembling honey (sugar) could be extracted from it. But, if the statement were true, the sugar-cane would seem to have remained very uncommon, and sugar still more so, seeing that Seneca and Lnicani, who lived in the time of Nero, (A. D. t,2,) advert ed to the sugar cane and to sugar in language so amubiguouis and obscure-that some authori ties have even doubted whether anothier plant and another substance inigh,It not have been intended. Seneca, in his 84th Epistle, has the following passage: " Aiunt inveniri apud Indos, mel inl hartindi narum foliis, quod ant ros illins cceli aut ipsius harundittis humor dulcis, et pigiiior gigniat. In nostris quoque herbis, vim eaud(am, sed minus manitestam et notabilem, p)oii quam prosequatur et contrahat animal haic rei getiiturim." Lucan, treating of the Indians near the Ganges, writes: After Seneca and Ltican, Pliny is the next author of repute who adverted to the sugarcane. This was about the year 78, A. D. Subsequently to which period, and until the latter end of the dar k ages, such little testimony, as can be found: relative to the suga rcalne and sugar, is far too vague and unsatisfactory to merit attention. To the crusades we probably are indebted for disserninating in Europe such a knowledge of the sugar-cane, and its crystallized product, as caused the speedy introduction of] lbth into this quarter of the globe. The sturdy warriors of the cross, on their return to the west, began to desire many oriental luxuries for which they had acquired a taste. An oriental * Do Canusis Plant., ed. lIeinsii, 1613. p. 475. * De Causis Plant, lib. vi. c. 16, ed. Heinsii. 218 11 Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine succos." SUGAR MANUFACTUREr ETC. commerce was speedily established, and Ven ice became the great emporium of the riches of the east:-Of these, sugar was one. Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries the sugar-cane was cultivated in Sicily, the south of Spain, and indeed in many other Mediterranean reg,ions. In the south of France, also, the culture of this plant was tried, but without success the climate prov ing too uncertain, or too cold. In the Canary Isles, however, the cane culture was most pro ductive, as was also the manufacture of sugar. These islands, in fact, continued to supply civilized Europe with the greater portion of her sacciharine produce until the discovery of the West fidia Islands by the Spaniards. in 1492; and the maritime discovery of India by the Portuguese, opeted newer and more congenial soils to the production of the i tend er crop. Mluch controversy has existed on the ques tion, whether the sugar-cane were, or were not, indigenous to the new world. At the present epoch it would be impossible to de terininte this point, so much has the subject been involved by lapse of time and incapacity of the earlier historians. Fortunately, the matter, so far as conicerns practice, is of no importance whatsoever. Suffice it to know that the West India Islands, almost immniediately subsequent to their discovery, began to supply civilized Europe with large quantities of sugar, and the less fertile fields of southern Europe soon fell into desuetude. Duringa lo)ng series of years, the West India Islands produced sugar for the greater portion of the ivilized world, and created large stores of wealth to the proprietors of their soil. At present, utifortunately, this condition of things exists io lolnger. The culttire of the sugarcane has now become extended over most tropical, and some temperate regions. To oriental nations, sugar-generally itn its irnpure condition-is an article of daily food. The Chinese use it in proftsion; so do the natives of Siam-a country which, perhaps better than tany other, is adapted to the successfil produce of the sugar-cane. Throughout the whole of India, sugar is not only a common ftond bfor mall, b)ut immense quantities of the impure varieties of produce, called Jaggery, are given to elephants. The a moun, t of sugar capable of being produced Ily scientific processes of manufacture, from the canes and the l)alm-til)e of India, may be so vastly increased, that it would be difficult to assign any limitation. The native processes of sugaar extraction in India are so rude, and so destructive, that it may satfely be asserted that 75 per cent. of the sugar existing in the j,Jice operated upon is entirely destroyed in obtaining the remainder! Withl regard to the niatural history of the sugar-cane, very few remarks will suffice. Bophaneists d ivide the vegetable wodld into phanerog~amous orflowering, and cryptog~amric or flowerless plants. With the latter we have no concern. Flowering plants are again divided into exogenous plants, or such as acquire increase of struc ture during growth by the depos ition of external layers of tissue; and endogenous plants, or those which grow by depositions of tissue within the subslance of their stem. In temperate climes there are no large productions of the vegetable kingdom which belong to the endogenous class, all its representatives being of most humble growth. The grasses, for instance, are endogenous; and some of our larger grasses, as the wheat or barley, may be taken as the typeof the endoge11o01s vegetable pro(duce in temperate regions. It is in vain, however, to examine, in the stem of our humble grasses, for palpable indications of the endogenous mode of growth. For this purpose a section of some tropical endogen, —the bamboo, or sugar-cane, for example,-should be made. This sectione it carefully examined, will clearly indicate the prominent feature in the structure of an endogenous plant. ~~~~~~~ It will be seen there is no appear ance of concentric rin~gs, indicative each o,f a year's growth, but the whole cellular and vascular structure fo)rms one conifised mass. For the tlurpoose of fully ap)reciating the difference between an exogetotis arid an endo,genous stem, the cane section may be compared with another of oak or'hazel. The difference between the two will be now matked; here the indications of peri 219 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. pheral depositions of tissue are so clear, each deposition corresponding with one summer, that, by counting the number of existing rilgs, the age of the exogenous plant may frequently be told. Besides the difference of the mode of growth between endogenous and exogenious grasses, a difference on which are founded the distinctive terms of botanical arrangement, there exist others no less invariable, and well marked. All exogenous plants are provided with reticulated leaves, whilst the leaves of all endogenous plants are merely traversed by straight veins; this distinction will be well appreciated on making a comparision between an oak leaf and a leaf of barley or wheat. Again, all exogenous plants possess a well-defined bark, wood, and pith; whilst in endogenous plants no such defined arrangement exists;-one part merging into the other by insensible gradations. Other distinctions between entdogenous anid exogenous plants there are, but they belong exclusively to the province of the botanist. If the stem of any larger grasses be examined, it will be found incrusted with a hard brilliant coating. This is no less thIan silica or flint, as may easily be demonstrated by various means. If, for example, a straw be dexterously acted upon by the flame of a blow-pipe,-the silica fusing with the potash naturally existing in all land vegetables-there will result a beautifully transparent bead of glass. On a larger scale this production of glass from the same source is occasionally found amongst the debris of burnt hay or corn stacks. I have seen a lump of glass produced in this way, and weighing several pounds. Thie sugar-cane is-botanically considered -a gigantic grass; and the silicious covering so sparingly developed in grasses of the temperato zone, here acquires so palpable a thickness, that small portions of such can easily be chipped off, either from the sugarcane or the bamboo. A horizontal, or transverse section, of the stem of the sugar-cane, if examined under the microscope, is seen to consist of a series of hexagonal cells in close juxtaposition. They are formed of a delicate tissue, which incloses them en all sides, in such a manner that each cell is altogether separated from the others to which it is contiguous. This structure is called the cellular structure, and is intermixed with another structure called the vascular, by which the nourishment for the plant's support is absorbed and circulated. (See cut, p. 219.) Although it has been said that endogenous plants possess no defined bark, and the sugarcane is no exception to the rule, yet this plant has a kind of pellicle, or rind; not separable, it is true, from the trunk, but indicated by its greenish color, which depends on a portion of the general coloring matter of leaves, to which chemists apply the denomination chlorophylle. The arrangement of vessels and cells already described, as observed in a transverse section of the cane, will be still more fully comprehended by reference to a longitudinal section, a diagram of which is annexed. By reference to this diagram, which represents a longitudinal section of the cane at the point where a knot is formed, it will be seen that, in addition to the cellular structure already described, there is another structure - the vascular. The use of the latter is to minister to the circulation of the plant; hence the vessels contain the crude sap of the cane, which may be assumed to resemble very nearly the sap of plants in general, and which is, therefore, a very complex fluid: a circumstance very necessary to be borne in mind, as will hereafter be recognized. — 4~~~\\yij~ With respect to the hexagonal cells-microscopic experiments have demonstrated that they contain a fluid which is little else than pure sugar dissolved in pure water. The problems to be solved, therefore, are either to extract the matter of the cells alone, or to express all succulent matter from the canes, and afterwards to effect a separation between the suga r and its accompanying impurities. The first indication seems most philosophical, and it is one which a chemist in his laboratory would prefer to follow out. Taking advantage of the property which albuminous matters possess of coagulating on the application of heat, and remembering that such matters constitute the larger portion of the crude sap of the sugar-cane, the laboratory chemist would proceed by slicing his cane, drying the slices in a proper stove, and washing out the contained sugar by means of alcohol. Even without alcohol he could succeed in obtaining a good result, hot water being a menstruum scarcely less eligible for effecting the solution; for albumen, when coagulated by heat, is no longer soluble in water. Thus, at a first glance, the problem appears solved, even as regards the large scale; but a slight analysis of facts soon demon 220 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. the planter would do well to answer to him self, before making arrangements for the car rying out of this very philosophical, but impracticable scheme. Discarding the first of the two problems as incapable of a practical solution, the second presents itself to our consideration; but as a preliminary, a few words concerning the mill and its operation will be desirable. The sugar-mill consists of a series of cylindrical rollers, usually three, between which the canes are pressed; the result of this operation is obviously to extrude not only the sugar-containing liquid in the hexagonal cells-but also the complex vegetable juice of the vascular tissue, and also a portion of wax, which is secreted by certain little glands on the periphery of the canie nodules. trates the contrary. The first difficulty is one that would scarcely be imagined apriori. It is difficult, if not impossible, to use any slicing machine that shall not very speedily be come b lunted by the h ar d silicious cov ering of the canes. Once blunted, the first object of the operation is lost; instead of a clean cut we have a bruise, and the saccharine cellular juice mingles with the sap: the grand objection to the usual squeezing of the mill obtains, without any of the mill's advantages. Then, how are sliced canes to be stove-dried in large quantities? Where is the necessary amount of hot water to come from? Where the fuel necessary to evaporate so dilute a solution as must result if the sugar be thorouglsly washed out? All these are practical questions, which certain extent, or the sugar existing in the cane-juice obstinately refuses to crystallize on beirng evaporated; a circumstance not peculiar to sugar alone, but of almost universal occurrence in all parallel cases. Thus, the juice of limes and lemons contains a large amount of citric acid; a body which, though easily crystallizable out of an aqueous solution, obstinately refuses to crystallize until a great part of its associated veg et able impurities is removed. The method of this removal I need not describe, as it does not in the least resemble any of the processes which will effect the purification of cane-juice. Tile object to be gained, however, in either case is identical. Considering that the leading impurity in cane juice is albumen, and considering that albumen coagulates by heat-it might have been theoretically inferred, that a mere heating of the cane-juice to a temperature sufficiently elevated to coagulate the albumen, would have left the sugar in a solution of sufficient puritv to admit o f cr ystallization: experiments, however, have delmonistrated Hence, cane-juice, or the fluid of expression, is a fluid of very complex nature; being made up of a great number of mineral salts, and of so many vegetable principles, that no perfectly trustworthy analysis of it is as yet recorded. In a treatise which aims solely at being a guide to practice, it would savor of pedantry to expatiate on analyses which do not further the object to be kept in view. Without, therefore, entering minutely into the chemistry of cane-juice, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes to consider-first, that it is made of sugar, water, and impurities; and, secondly, that the prevailing or typical impurity is albumen. Such is the fluid on which practical necessities oblige us to operate: and now, the second problem is fairly before us for solution -namely, to extract all succulent matter from the canes, and to effect a separation between the sugar and its accompanying impurities. This separation must be effected beyond a 221 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. until drawn off and subjected to a process of re-evapor ation; when another crop o f crlystals would be formed, and an other quantity of uncrystallized but crystallizable liquor would remain. Upon the latter, the processes of reboiling and crystallizing might be re peated, unti l t he total expenditure of th e liquor o f drainage;a and wi th the result of obtaining literally the whole of the nitre employed-and crystallized, to o-up to eer the peri od wh en the diminished amount of liquid to b e evaporated and drained furnished so small a mass, that the gradual co oling and perfec t drainage, so essential to the p ro duction o f g ood crystals, were conditio ns no longer under control. The reader will have anticipated my coming remark, that this liquor of drainage stands in the same mechanical relation to nitre, that molasses does to sugar. Beyond this mechanical relation, however, the analogy ends - as wil l be pr es ently made known. If, instead of nitre and water, a solution of pure sugar in pure water be take n, a nd treated according to the scheme just indicated, the re - sults are as follow: A portion of sugar crystallizes; but, instead of being white, as it was when dissolved, the crystals will have assumed a yellow tint, and the syrup of drainage will be more or less colored. If this syrup be collected and eva porated, there will result another produce of crystalline sugar still more yellow than the first, and the liquor of drainage from this se cond product will also have acquired a much darker color than its parallel in the first ope ration. Proceeding in this way, there is at length a period arrived at, when the liquor of drainage becomes a dark-colored viscid mass, incapable of crystallizing at all. Thus, according to testimony of this ex periment, it is impossible to extract, by the evaporative process (at least when heat is ap [)lied), the total amount of pure sugar dis solved in a quantity of pure water, a portion of such sugar being destroyed, and converted into a dark product. If this operation had been conducted on a solution of sugar-not in pure water, but ad mixed with impurities of various kinds, such as coexist with the stigar in canie-juiice; had Ihe case been still more involved by the ad ditio)n of a foreign agent, such as limne, the experimentalist might have imagined tlhe de structioni of sugar just indicated to be excluo sively due to the agency of the collateral bodies: an explanation which is obviously inapplicable to the conditions just detailed. Indeed, the experiment of Professor Sou beiran, heretofore mentioned, sets all doubt at rest on this point. The agency of heat alone being proved sufficient to effect a certain destrulctionl up.on a solultion of pure sugar ill water, it is an im portant point to determine the lowest amount that such is not the fact, and have proved the necessity of addirng to the juice some material endowed with a chemical potency of etiectingt a greater separation of impurities than is possible by heat alone. Tlhe usual agent employed for this purpose is lime-the niode U of operation of which will be fuilly detailed hereafter. Bite now arrive at a most important division of our subject; we have to examine closely into the changes which sugar is madel to un.(lergo by the combined agency of heat, impurities, and lime. This will be best accomplished by leaving for a period the consideration of cane-juice, and by substituting for it a solution of pure sugar and pure water. Th is pu re solution will be the starting point of all remarks on thie mo re compl ex case, and will enable the following important agencies to be contemp lat e d in detail; whereas in the actual colonial ope ration on cane-juice they operate s imu ltaneously. We shall, therefore, h ave to study 1. T he changes effected on solutions of sugar in water by heat alone. 2. The chan geds effected on the same by the united agencies of heat and l ime. 3. The chanres effect ed o n solution s of sugar, water, and impurities, by heat and lime, (the c olonial operation.) Th is important investig ation will be approached with the greatest advantage by an examination of the p he nomena attendant on the crystallization, from a forenstruum of some botly which is not capable of decompiosition by the agency of heat. For this purpose no substance is better than com mon nitre. If a portion of this substance. diss olved in water, were given to an operator with th e object of evaporating away all the wat er of s olutio n, and leaving the wldlbe ofthe salt unchant fed, this could easily be effected; The operator would simply have to apply heat to the solution, and the desired result would spe edily be achieved. Whatever the amount of heat applied, no injury would occur to the salt, which would be found gradually incrusting the evaporating dish; and, by carrying oii the process of eva poration to a sufficient extent, the whole of the niitre would be left dry. Under the cir cumstances, however, of rapid evaporation detailed, the salt would assume an imper fectly crystalline state; indeed, the chances are that no crystals would be visible. Were the object to obtain the nitre in per fect crystals. the evaporation should be moodi fie(d t htis: Tihe evaporation should be stopped short at a certain point, and the hot liquid allowed to cool-the result of which cooling would be the formation of w-ell-definedl crys tals. A portion of the liquor of' solution, however, would still remain uncrystallized, 22'-) SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. of heat vwhich is thus injulrious; and whether a process of evaporation can be devised, which shall not overstep that limit of temrn-. perature where the injury first commences. In the lat)oratory, a chemist easily solves the pr),-)Iletn; indeed, it involves a process which tlie very coustaultly applies to effect the evaporalioni or desiccation of many bodies, so deli(.te il their nature, that a slight arti ficial temn;)erature w,,uld subject them to deco m nf )siito)n. The chemist would proceed by taking advailtage ot' the fact, that to produce evapora tioll the removal of atmospheric pressure is equivalent in effect to the application of alrti ficial heat. He, therefore, would put under the receiver of an air-pump a shallow saucer, containing oil of vitriol, over which he would place, on a convenient support, a dish con taining, the sugar solution. A vacuum being now prolduced, the water of the solution would commence to be evolved as vapor; and this vapor would be immediately absorbed by the oil of vitriol. Thus, without any further working of the pump, a tendency to a vacuum would be kept up, until the sugar would have become dry, crystallized, and chemically r un ch anged. I need not say that this process of evapora tio n i s totally unadapted to any commercial cas e of sugar manufacture. A compromi s e, howeve ar, between two condi tions, has been effected by th e vacuum pan (an instrument hereaft er to be described), which enables sugar solutions to be boiled in commercial quantities, undler the joint ci r cumsta nces of a p artial vacuum, a nd a great dimin ution of temperatu re. Th e l ow est practi cal temperature at which I hav e ever seen a vacuum pan worked is 13e5~; a temperature which I would, therefore, consider the practical minimum, but which is sufficient to effect a certain amount otf de struction b h sug ar solutions. H aving reco gnized the fact, that the lowe st p ra cticable degree of heat for effecting th e evaporation of sugar solutions, is sufficient in itself to produce a certain amountof destruction- it now rem ains to be shown how much this amount of deestrtction is increased, by the conomitant agency of lime and impurities. Proceeding in the demonstration systematically, I will assume a portion of white sugar to be dissolved in water, admixed with l ime, a rnd then boilet. If this operation be pertformned, the eye alone wilt recognize the fact, that a destructive process supervenes to a tl' g reater extent than when a mere solutiol ot' sugar and water, without the addition of lime, was employed. Not only does the fluid become dark with increased rapidity, but it exhal es a newly developed smell, indicative of some process of decomposition eff~'ctedl upon the sugar. If, moreover, the crystallization of' the litned liquid be attempted, a further proof of' destructionl will be manifest ill th e increased amount of lonrc ystallizatle material, which leaks aw a y f'romg the c rystallized mass. These are but rough indications of the injury to which sugar is exposed when solutio15s containing it a re heated in cothliaslntiocl with lirme-ioadicatiosas lwhi chi are so visible to all who have seen the operation per forne d, that there exists not a sugar producer, so far a s my experience goes, who does not fully r ecognize the power fu lly destr uctive ageincy of' this alkaline earth. Nay, in t he absence of other te s ti mon y, the multilude of coartrivan ces which have, from time too ime, been introduced to publ ic notice, with the exprless intention of' either diminish ing indefieo itely the amoount of lit ie to be wised, or of reducing t he quantity t o some definite sutandard, w o uld be ample evidence i n suppo rt af the p osition, that lime is common ly re c ognized to be a most destructive agent on sugar. The minute chemistry of the agency of lime on sugar solutions would be somewhat out of place he re. So much of this agenwcy as is necessary for the guidance of a practical sugar manufacturer has already been given in other parts of this treatise. Having successively examined the agency of heat on a pure solution of sugar and water, and on the same with admixture of' lime, we have next to investigate the complex changes which occur during the treatment by heat of sugar solutions mixed with vegetable impurities and lime. That the cases selected may be consecutively demonstrative, I will suppose tile experimentalist to contaminate a portion of pure sugar and water with some raw vegetable juice-that of raw parsnips, for example. Thus contaminated, the solution will be amneniable to a niew series of chemical deco,mpositions of greatly increased complexity, of which the following are the most remarkable, and of greatest practical value, to be well understood and remembered. The first great influence exerted on sugar solutions by the presence of raw vegetable juices generally, is that of causing vatrious fermentations. Thus, although solutions of pure sugar in water may be allowed to remain exposed to temperatures most ond(uticive to fermentation, for days, and even weeks, without any perceptible effect of this kind, yet the addition of' very small quantities of these raw vegetable juices cauises them, under the same circumstances, readily to assimrne fermentations accompanied by the destr-uction of sugar, and the tormation of lactic acid, mannite, glucose, alcolhol, acetic acid, and many other derivative bodies. This factitious juice, made up of sugar, water, and the juice of raw parsniips, pre. sents a very near anialogy to the jaice of' beetroots, ftoml which sugar may be e~xtracted, anld offers no very lremote resemblance to sugar cane juice itself, many chemical pros 223 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. perties of which liquids may be correctly studied on this factitious compound. If a portion of this compound saccharine juice be evaporated with all care, and with the view of effecting its crystallization, the labor will be in vain. Until some of the impurities, at least, are separated, no crystallization will ensue. If this factitious juice be a true practical representation of cane and other suigar-containing juices, it is quite evident, that the experiments cited have demonstrated the positive necessity of separating a considerable portion, at least, of the accompanying vegetable impurities, as a preliminary to obtaining the sugar in a crystalline form. Hence the following proposition is at once brought before us:-Given, a mixed solution of sugar, tater, and impurities-how, practically, to separate all bitt the sugar, wtvith the least expezse, and the least delay. This is the grand problem, upon the perfect solution of which, every advance towards perfection in the manufacture of sugar hinges. As the usual agent employed in sugargrowing countries, for effecting this separation of impurities from raw sugar-containing juices is lime, employed in some nianner or other, it will be proper, in this place, to examine its agency on the factitious juice. If, then, a portion of the juice be admixed with a portion of lime (rubbed with water into the conlition of crearn, for convenience of employment), and then heated, the following changes will be seen to occur. When the heat has been pushed to the extent of 180~ Fahr., a black crust of impurities will be seen to have collected on the surface of the juice, filom which it may be skim-i med off, leaving the subnatant liquid comparatively clear and bright, but much deeper colored than it was originally. If this fluid, thus freed from the scum thrown up by the agency of lime, be now evaporated down to the proper degree, crys.tallization will be effected; and substituting cane-juice for the factitious juice here assumed to have been employed, the reader will have had brought before his notice the exact conditions of sugar-boiling in the colonies. Although in the preceding experiment the scum might have been removed from the juice treated with lime, so soon as the temperature arrived at 180~ Falir.; although the subnatant liquor might then appear to the eye perfectly clear and bright, yet it is not difficult to prove, by many different kinds of evidence, that this brightness or clearness of the liquor is a most fallacious sign of its purity. The first evidence to this effect is the very strong one, that fresh coats of scum continually arise as the evaporative process goes on, a result which never happens in solutions of pure sugar and water. A second testimony to the same effect is afforded by the action of certain chemical tests, which are known to be endowed with the power of throwing down vegetable impurities. The acetates of lead are agents of this kind. Thus far, tlhje agency of lime has been demonstralted to be detective; but the worst has yet to be told. Even conceding, for the sake of argument, that there is a certain theoretical relation between a definite amount of vegetable impurities and the quant ity of lime ne cessary fbr effecting its removal (which is Inot t he ca se), still this r elation would vary for almost every sample of juice; and no amount of care, or talent, or appliances, could accomplish this exact apportionment. The manufacturer would, therefore. even under this assumption —the one most ftavorabl e to the e mpl oyment of lime-be continAoally obliged either to ch oos e between adding too little of that agent, or too much; actual neutralization by apportionment being amongst the most difficult of laboratory operations, and one totally impracticable on a large scale. A few remarks will be necessary here, relative to the assertion, that no theoretical relation does exist between the quantity of lime and the quantity of impurities to be separated. It will be intelligible when we consider that the removal of impurities effected by lime is not one of combination, but one of determination, and hence is influenced by such varying conditions of heat, density, solution, and other circumstances, that to calculate the chemical resultant of so many conflicting forces would be an impossibility. On this point the following may be taken as a practical exemplification. If a pint of calne-juice, under the proper conditions of temperature, be treated with ten grains of lime, a scund will form; which, if separated by filtration, or otherwise, a clear, though high-colored, fluid will result. If'this fluid be now examined for lime, considerable quantities of it will be discovered by the proper chemical tests for that alkaline earth; a fact which might lead to the interence, if not checked by other observatiolns, that more lime had been employ ed than was absolutely necessary for the se paration of the impurities present. Nevertheless, it can be proved most un equivocally, by chemical tests, (the acetates of letd, for example,) that not merely a large amount, but the greatest amount, of the ori ginal impurities still remains. This testing operation demonstrates, that there is not even a theoretical relation between the amount of impurities present, and the amount of lime most proper to effect their separation; be cause the agency of lime is indirect, not direct-because it does not effect any se pear ation by combination, but by determination. To place this matter in the strongest point ot viewr, the following case may be cited: If sixty-three parts by weight, exactly, of 224 StUGAR MANUtFACTURE, ETC. e It will have been clearly indicated, moredover, that any rational attempt to limit the injurious agency of lime, will be in the diire ection, not of primarily apportionling the , amount of lime to be used, but of separat imw, by some agent not iujurious to sugar, all y excess of the agent which may remain in the , cleated or defecated liquor. This, so far as f I ain aware, is an im)ossibilitv.* Moreover, if there be question of separatitng any excess - of defecating agerit, the practical chemist i will turn his attention to an agent of far greater efficacy, as a defecator, than lime an agent which long since would have been I employed in the sugar manufacture, if any means for separating it had been known. d In detailing the prominent effect of the agency of lime on sugar solutions, both pure a nd mixed, I have purposely avoided all che mical remarks as to the rationale of this agency, from the conviction that they would littl e a vail the practical sugar producer. In point of fact, the agencies thus broug,ht into play are so multifarious, so complex, or so ill understood, that even a full recapitulation of all that is known on the subject would be of but little use. The general rationale of the agency of lime on pure solutions of sugar and water may be grasped by remembering-that sugar is a bo dy of acid reaction; hence, that it rea dily combines with bases; that under the agency of lime and heat it readily yields glucose, which substance is also possessed of an acid quality. Finally, that glucose, under the prolonged action of lime and heat, rapidly changes into glucic, melasirtic, sac chullmic and sacclhumic acids, besides many other imperfectly known bodies. The actionti of lime and heat on the impurities existing in sugar-containing juices, is referable to the property which albumen and several other organic bodies assume, of becoming to some degree insoluble, when they are exposed to incipient destruction. Thus, all that can be stated on this point amounts to the simple expression of the fact, that lime determines the separation of a certain amount of the impurities existing in crude sugar solutions. One important remark, however, relating to the use of lime as a defecatory agent, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the sugar gl-ower. It is this-that whatever the rationale of the employment of lime, in tilhe sugar-boiling operation on raw juices may be, it is c ertainly not that, as is frequently ordinary crystallized oxalic acid,* w e re to be dissolved in water, and if it were requiren only to sepiarat e the oxalic acid absolutel] by means of lime, without employing, mnore than the mourit required of the latter as ent the problem woul d be solved with the greatest ease. Every tyro in chemistr knows, tt t f or ef ecting this separation twelnty-ei,,ht parts by weight, exactly, o0 lime, would be the pr oper qy,uantity; whic h being added. a solid and inisoluible comribina tioti i' the ii im e and the oxalic acid would restilt-worwld deposit; and the remaining liquitid would be water absoluteliy pure. If the impur ities which cont a minate cane j uice, and other natural stigar-cotainging j uices, a ssumed the tendency of forminai a direct, invariable, and de terminate pow er of combination with lime, all exact theoretical relatioln betwseen th e relative quantities of th e two, iecessary fbr effectlg co mbina tion and ser, ara ti o n, would exist; but as such thleoreticl rel ation is totallnv oppos ed to t he ac tual conditions, the arguments founded upon the contrary assumpti on fhll to the ground. If we cursorily pass in review the experi menits idetailed in this chapter, with the ob ject of eliciting from them their legitimate deduction, awe sh all be led to the follow ing important facts: Tha t imp ur e or crude sugar-containing jiic,-s reftse to crystallize, until a la rge por tionL of their accompanying impurities has been removed; that, moreover, such juices are very prone to undergo fermentation; hence thle removal of such impurities is of the first importance; that lime will effect the removal of such an amount of the irpurities as wvill admit of subsequent crystallizatioim; that it is impossible to add liine in such a manner that some of this agent shall not remain. Hence, that even under the most favorable supposition-namely, that the use of lime has removed all impurities-(which is not the case)-still, the resulitin, liquor wvill not be sugar and water, but a mixture of sugar, water and lime. But it has been delm1onstr,ated, that if a solutioil of sug.ar, water and linie be boiled togetlher, the sugar is rapidly destroyed. Hence, it 1010!ows, that lime, when used as a purifying or defecating agent for crude sugar-coiitainillO juices, is, under any circumstances, a most destlructive agent, and that some betteI' ag-enit is a desideratumi. * It is necessary to be precise in this expression. There are tw,,o substances known as crystallized oxalic acid, both of which are really combinations of oxalic acid with water. The ordinary crystallized oxalic acid is composed of one equivalent of real or dry oxalic acid, and three of water, and the other of one equivalent of real or dry acid, and one of water. Dry oxalic acid has never been obtained, although it may be caused to unite with certain bases, and thus be demonstrated to exist. Ill the exp~erimenlt above cited, it exchanges its water forA lime, with which it unites. The expression, dry I crystallized oxalic acid, is absurd.{ VrOL. III. 15 * That is to say, in practice-on the small scale, an d by the exercise of great ca re, li me may be separated with such exactitude, even by oxalic acid, that the sugar shall not be perceptibly injured. But a still better plan consists in the use of sulphurous acid, under circumstances which, having noticed in AMay, 1848, I caused to be printed in the summer of that year, and have subsequently taught in the laboratory. I i I I r c 0 r r a b t t c t n 9 ti h 225 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. stated, of neutralizing acidity. The term l In carrying out the first or grand indicaacidity is here to be understood in a general tion, it is evident that we should seek for sense, as relating to such acids as the acetic some defecating or purifying agent whichl is and lactic. In strict chemical la,nguage, the either capable of being totally removed from term acid is extended even to sugar itself the sugar solution; or which, if allowed to Were there no greater necessity fotbr using remaitn, should be productive of no injurious lime than this, it is clear that chalk would be tendency. a most efficient substitute; for whilst it The latter alternative, however, would be would be equally potent with lime ill neu- a mere compromise; as, by admrnittitng it, we tralizing acidity, it could be employed in immediately violate, to some extent, the any quantity without fear of injury. The grand condition of procuring an unmixed soagency of lime on solutions of Muscovado, lution of sugar and water. or other impure sugar and water, has pur- Having thus sketched the theoretical indiposely been omitted here, inasmuch as it cations which science proclaims as necessary will be discussed with the greatest propriety to be carried out, in the manufacture of sugar under the head of refiting. It is well to re- fiom raw juices, I will now offer such a gemark, however, that there is no similarity neral summary of the method followed in between the kind of impurities existing in the sugar-producing colonies, as shalt enable raw juices and those in colored sugars. The the reader to appreciate the extent to whlichl former chiefly consist of albuminous bodies the above theoretical conditions are vionatural to the juices: the latter of glucose, lated. glucie, melasinic, sacchulmic and sacchumic It must here be premised, that, although acids, generated by the action of heat and the plan of colonial sugar manufacture for all lime on sugar. countries is essentially, up to a certain stage, identical, yet, when various colonies are com Theoretic Indications to be followed out pared as to the respective process of sugar a' the Extraction of Sugar fromn Raw extraction followed by each,-a casual ob Sugar-containing Juices; and Violation server might imagine the existence of disof these Indications, in the Present Pro- tinctions as essential, which in reality are cess of Sugar Manitfacture. - The Va- merely collateral; and which involve no cuum Pan.-A consideration of the deduc- difference of principle whatever. As it tions arrived at in the previous chapter would be exceedingly inimical to exposition leaves no doubt existing as to the proper of principles, to break in upon the current of dications to be followed out, in the extrac- bseration, or the purpose of anoucing tion of sugar from raw sugar-containing mere collateral discrepancies between the juices. I mnight have said, indication,-for machinery,ortheprocessesof dfferentcob every subsidiary matter tends to the one esI wi here observe that in describing grYeat end, of reducing- the com-plex sacc- fcueinrfrnetthe a - flerto h great end, of reducing the complex saccha- the general operation of colonial sugar man rine juice, with all possible haste, to the con- ufacture, in reference to the filsment or the ditioni of a solution of sugatheoretic in water. lt tdications, I shall se Although, in practice, the sugar producer lect, as typical of colonial operations in gen will never attain this theoretical summit of eral, the process now usually followed i the perfection, yet he should always regard the West India islands. various stages of his manufacture, from that Much has been written. and with great assumed point of view; which, if never per- justice,on the very imperfect expression of mitted to be varied,-never allowed to be juice from the canes by the process of mill overcast with vague doubts-each succeed- crushing. Although experiments have de eIcrushing. Although experiments have de ing well-directed experimental effort will as- monstrated the sugar-cane to be made up of suredly lead nearer and nearer to the truth 90 per cent. on an average of juice, and 10 If once departed from, however-if once the per cent. of woody fibre, it appears that the sutgar-extracting operation be viewed from average amount of juice expressed by the other directions, though apparently nlearer to mill is not more than 50 per cent. the mark,-then the whole perspective of The proper method of obviating this great the theory is gone;-confusion takes the loss of raw material is altogether a matter for place of order, doubt of precision, fallacy of the consideration of the engineer, and does facts;-the reasoning process breaks down, not come within the sphere of chemical and all attempts to emerge from the mental comment. chaos are in vain. The juice as it comes from the mill is with The great aim to be kept in view during as little delay as possible treated with lime, the process of sugar extraction, being the re- as follows, in order to effect a partial puri moval with all due haste of every thing, ex- fication: cept sugar and water, the subsidiary indica- The overseer* commences his operations tions are, to evaporate the latter at the low est temperature, consistent with practical necessities-and to effect crystallization in * "The. man at the clarifier first raises by heat the cane-juice to a temperature of about 180~, at accordance with the rules laid down before.; which time a dark scum forms at the top; he then 226 SUGAR MAIUFACTURE, ETC. !by putting into a series'of wine-glasses some of the juice to be defecated.-He then adds so each in succession a portion of lime, either previously mixed up with water or with syrup, to the consistence of gruel or thin pap. Immediately the contact is effected between the lim e and the cane-juice, a disco loration of the latter e ns ues; th e amount of ,discolor ation varying (csteris paribus) in di rec t proportion to the quantity of lime em ployed. Having added a different quantity of lime ag ent to each of the glasses, the ope rator judges by the r esulting tint, which result is the best, and he is guided accord ingly by this evi dence as to the quantity of ligre he shall add to the ge neral stock of juice to be defecated. The am oun t of lim e be ing de ter min ed, it is added to th e juice in a copper, or an i r on vessel, hu ng over a fire. Sometimes this vessel is the last of a range hung over one long flue; sometimes, on the contrary, it is heated by a separate fire. In either case its contents are heated to about the temperature of 180~ Fahr., when a thick crust of impuri ties forms upon the surface of the liquid, and begins to crack. The fire is now damped, and the crust removed by skimming; occasionally,* however, the clear liquid is drawn off by a racking-cock from underneath. In order that the full defecating agency of lime shall be exerted, it is necessary to apply a greater heat than 180~ Fahr.; the liquid, in fact, should be brought to the boiling point. Here, however, there is a difficulty:-immediately on the commencement of ebullition, the supernatant crust becomes broken into fragments, and mechanically incorporated with the fluid so intimately, that it can no longer be removed by skimming, but requires a filtration process to be had recourse to. The process of clearing or defecation having been effected, and the crust separated by skimming, racking, or filtration, the process of boiling is commenced. A series of copper or iron pans, diminishing in size as they approach the fire-grate, and usually four or five in number, are hung over one common flue, or rather fire-place, in which the canes, after their juice has been expressed, are burnt as fuel. This fuel generates a very powerful blast of flame, which not only plays under each of the series of pans, but may be even seen to escape from the chimney. This plan of hanging many consecutive boiling pans over one common flue is in it self most improper. It was first introduced with special reference to a peculiar kind and limited amount of fuel at the operator's service, and would appear to be persisted in chiefly in deference to old opinions and cus toms. The pans, too, are usually so deep* that great violence is done to the rule that the amount of evaporation, other things being equal, is in proportion to the extent of sur face of the liquid to be evaporated. The cane-juice having entered the first of these evaporating pans, the process of eva poration begins. At this stage, the juice is merely brought to a slight simmer, the heat applied being usually insufficient to cause it to boil rapidly. On the surface of this and every other pan in the series, a scum arises, which from time to time is removed by the process of skimming, and put aside for the purpose of yielding rum hereafter. After the evaporation in the first pan of the series has proceeded to the desired ex tent, an attendant ladles its contents into the next-in which, and in every subsequent one, until the last two, the process of skim ming is repeated.t Eventually the juice, (now a syrup,) is ladled into the teache, or last boiling pan, wherein it is at length brought to that degree of concentration judged most proper to admit of subsequent crystallization. It would be impossible by mere description to convey an idea of the manifestations of the proper degree of boiling having been achieved. The peculiar sound which the syrup emits when dropped from the ladle into the general contents; the resistance it offers on being stirred; the peculiar appearance of its bubbles; all afford good indications to the practised boiler; but the evidence most generally followed is that which also the refiner avails himself of at home, namely, the proof of touch. A drop of the syrup being placed between the thumb and forefinger, and the two separated, a thread of syrup is formed, of varyinig length, and varying tenacity, according as the syrup has been more or less boiled. In this thread, also, crystals are occasionally seen, the presence of which affords valuable evidence. throws into the he ated juic e a small portion of cream, or milk of lime. After waiting two or three minutes, until the scum again forms over the surface, he dips out a wine-glassful, and if he sees the mucilage form in well-defined flakes, and rise to the t op, l eaving a clear liquor of a pale amber, or Madeira wine color, he is satisfied; if not, he adds more lime; but if he finds that the mucilage will not coagu lat e thoroughly without such an amount of lime as would deepen the color naturally, he stops, and trusts to the skimming." —lloody.(a) (a) This is the name of a gentleman from the West Indies, who examined Dr. Scoffern's sheets, and remarked upon them.-ED. * "Almost always-I never saw the other done except with steam clarifiers in St. Croix, where they first take offthe crust, then add lime afterwards, boil and skim in the clarifier."-Moody. * "The arrangement of the fire and the size of the pans depend on the principle that the juice must simmer to allow of efficient skimming. If it boils, the skimmer cannot catch the scum." —Moody. t "In the last two teaches the scum is brushed back into the preceding one, the liquor being too sweet to lose." —Moody. 27 SUGAR MANUFACTURE,. ETC. air-pump; by the action of which, a partial vacuum can be produced, the tendency of' which is to draw the more liquid portions of' the mass through the false bottom. The effect of such a contrivance as this, when made to act upon a badly crystallized' sugar, need not be indicated. Not only are uncrystallized portions drawn into the reservoir, but also a large amount of the small ill-developed crystals. A pneumatic chest, to be really useful, should be employed upon a wcll-crystallized sugar-a material which, as a general rule, drains perfectly well of itself, without any mechanical aid whatever. The process of sugar manufacture here described is, as was previously remarked, the typical one of the West Indies; it has, however, been modified in various ways. Thus, as regards the boiling range, instead of pouring the juice from one pan to the next in order, by the process of dipping, the pans in some ranges have been furnished with valves, to admit of the passage of the fluid towards the teache. Ranges of this kind have been frequently heated by steam. Several modifications (some, unquestion-, ably, improvements) have been made on the teache, chiefly with the view of reducing the period during which the concentrated syrup is allowed to remain exposed to the agency of the fire. One of these modifications consists in an addition to the teache, of an internal hollow core exactly fitting it, and sup plied at its under part with a valve, opening inwards. This core, technically called( a i' skipper," being dropped from a crane into the teache, the contents of the latter open the valve, and rushing at one gush into the core, may be removed bodily, by raising the core through the medium of the crane. Another good modification of the teache has been introduced by the French into some of their colonies. It consists in altering the form of the teache into the shape of a coal scuttle, the lip of which rests in such a man ner on a pivot, that, at the proper time, the whole teache may be raised by leverage, and its contents poured out. This kind of teache is called a bascule. Amongst the essential modifications which have been attempted from time to time on the colonial manufacture of sugar, with vari able amounts of success, may be enumerated the following: 1. Filtration of the raw juice. 2. Filtration of the defecated juice. a. Mechanical. b. Chemical (through animal charcoal). 3. Improved methods of defecation. 4. The use of the vacuum pan.* If the impurities which are so inimical to * The processes of claying and liquoring, under whatever modification, are here purposely omitted, mass. These shallow coolers have been loudly and justly reprehended, as most inimical to the formation of crystalline sugar; and certain it is, that a chemist, if made to draw an inference from their appearance and necessary effect, without any collateral guide, w ould be constrained to infer, that in the West Indian sugar-t anufacturing op eration perfect crystallization was a result to be avoided! In these sh allow coolers the accreted mass is allowed to remain, until it has acquired suffic i ent consistency to admit of its be ing dug out, and carried away, in buckets, to the cur ing-h ouse, without leaking entirely away. I n t his curing-house it is put into casks with p erfor ated bottoms, each hole being loosely stopped by the stem of a plantain leaf; and through which the u ncrystallized portions of the mass, at least in part, leak into the molasses tank. This is the ordinary plan followed; but it is subjected to many modifications, in different places. As might have been inferred from a consideration of the plan of curing the sugar just described, the badly crystallized mass yields up its non-crystallized portion with great difficulty. The process of curing or drainage occupies, in general, many weeks; and, even at the expiration of that long time, is so incomplete. that it is not unusual for some 20 per cent. of the weight of a hogshead of sugar to leak into the hold of the ship on its way to Europe, and to be pumped into the sea. In a recent case which came under my notice, 25 per cent had thus been lost, and the master of a trading vessel* ilnformed Dr. Evans, as I am told by this gentleman, that his ship was often one and a half feet deeper in the water off Barbadoes than when ar rived in the British Channel. In order to expedite this process of curing, recourse is had on some estates to the ex pensive contrivance termed a pneumatic chest. This instrument consists of a chest of iron, or copper, supplied with a false bot tom, either of finely perforated plate or cane wicker work; on which the sugar to be acted upon, for the purpose of drawing off its molasses, is put. Under this false bottom is a space which communicates with a powerful * Captain Fowlis-who estimated the loss fromn this cause at from 3s. 6d. to 4s. the cwt., or ~3 Os. to ~4 the ton. 2129 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. the crystallization of sugar out of the crude have merely been exposed to the process of juice, were merely of a mechanical nature, a defecation, without subsequent concentration. process of mechanical filtration would be It has been demonstrated, that this agent reasonable enough; but if those impurities produces its maximum effect on sunlar solube really of a chemical nature, then such tions of about the density of 28~ Beaume6; mechanical filtration is entirely out of place. hence, if employed at all, it should be at the Accordingly, the process of preliminary fil- interval between the last boiling-pan and the tration is spoken of with universal discon- teache. Numerous experiments, however, tent by all who have tried it. Not only is it have convinced moe, that animal charcoal totally inefficacious in effecting the end de- should never be employed in the colonies for sired, but it is productive of much positive the purpose of making any but absolutely harm. It has already been remarked, that white sugar. The beautiful straw-colored raw vegetable sugar-containing juices are tinge, so admired by grocers, and which alt most susceptible of fermentation; hence the suigars, by a proper system of defecation, can operation of filtration, even if productive of be made to assume, animal charcoal has a benefit in this stage, should, to be useful, be tendency to destroy-imparting a disagreemost rapidly conducted. Now this is impos- able neutral tint in its place. sible, for chemists very well know that raw The expense of using animial charcoal, too, vegetable juices in general, even although in the West Indies, being somewhat about ~2 thin and limpid to the view, pass through per ton of sugar, is in itselfa most serious obfiltering tissues most tardily. Add to this stacle to its general adoption. the amount of porous surface, moistened with The last essential improvement introduced fermentable liquid, exposed during the ope- into the colonial sugar manufacture is that of ration to atmospheric influences; and it will the vacuum paln, an instrument which merits be readily understood that preliminary filtra- a full description. tion is imost fatal to the interest of the colo- At the ordinary level of the sea the atmosnial sugar-maker. I would, by no means, phere exerts a pressure of 15 lbs. on every exteud this remark to a rough process of squareinch; and, whilst exposed to this pres I ~~~sure, water bolls at a temperature of 212'* straining, at this stage, for the purpose of sure, water boils at a temperature of 22. removing broken pieces of cae, fraifr-pump or ments of leaves, and other mechanical I, however, by means of the ar-pump or impurities, which might somewhat incon- otherwise, a portion of the atmospheric presvenience future operations. Such an opera- sure be removed from the water's surface, tion, hc,ever, is not one of filtration, but then the degree of heat necessary to effect of straining. ebullition is reduced-reduced, too, in a Should the process of mechanical filtration known and definite ratio, so that for every be executed after defecation As a general pounted of atmospheric pressure taken off, a rule, dotijtess this question* should b e proportionate diminution of the boiling ternrule, doubtless this question should be an perature is accompolished. swered affirmatively, as being a step in the perature is accomplished. right direction; but so long as lime is used as Not the most perfect vacuum which we are a defecator, the process of filtration will be capable of forming, is sufficienit to cause water deprived of half its value. Not only is the to boil at ordinary atmospheric temperatures to boil at ordinary atmospheric temperatures without the application of any extraneous filocculent scum developed by lime most un- out the application of any extraneous floculet scm dvelped y lme mst ll-heat, simi-ply because w-ater is not a fluid of favorable to the process of rapid filtration et, iply because ater is not a fluid o but the advanltage gained is more specious sufficientvolatility. If ether,however, which l * * t1... is a far more volatile liquid, be exposed to than real, inasmuch as so many impurities the same treatmt it boils with violece: still remain in juices defecated by limne, that, water, u nde r similar circumstaices, woul d althouIgh the act of filtration may have mer ely be rapidly given off in the form of * *1 o *' r o * 1. C merely be rap~idly given off in the form of yielde(l a liquor of great brightness, it be- vaor vapor. comes turbid, and throws up more scum on eom turbid, and th s up The rationale, and also the laboratory )ractne further application of heat.* * the further application of heat.* tice of increased evaporation under dimi Witli regard to filtration through animal nishled pressure, has already been explained. charcoal, it cani ne-ver be profitably applied charcoal, it cal never be profitablyy applied It now remains to be stated, that the vacuum to the treatment of raw juices, or those that an is merely aii instrument which unites to pan is merely an instrument whichi unites to the principle of evaporating under diminished as not being improvements of the sugar manufac- pressure, the application of a certaiii-but ture-but merely an extension oi'that manufacture comparatively small-amount of artificial beyond the usual colonial limits, into the art of the heat. refiner. refiner. ~~~~~~~To the honorable Mr. Howard we are in * "The sliminess which affects the bag filters isna great disadvantage to charcoal filters. I have debted for the invention of this most useful known the charcoal frequeiintly clogged; and, when washed with care and placed in open casks for collection for -te-burning, ferment to such a degree as * In a metallic vessel. Gay-Lussac has proved to char the.easks, and reduce the value of the char- that water boils at 214~ in one of glass; owing, apcoal by a considerable production of white ash."- parently, to its adhering to glass more powerfully Moody. than to a metaL 1229 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. the vacuum-producing part of the apparatus has yet to be described. Attached to the pan at its upper part is a pipe of communication, with a cylindrical vessel called a condenser,' b.nd which is exactly similar to the condens -ing apparatus in a low-pressure steam engine, consisting either of a means of injecting a gush of cold water through a series of minute holes, which plan is called that of direct condensation, or else of a series of small tubes& exposed to the external agency of water-a plan denominated that of indirect or tubular condensation. Beyond this condenser, and communicating with it, is a powerf-h airpump. The accompanying wood-cut, however, represents a condenser (7) of a different and more effective kind. It is the external condensing system of Messrs. Pontilex. instru ment,* wh ic h has already effected such improvements in t he home refinery process, and which is d e stin ed before long to extend its ameliorating influence to the colonies abroad. The vacuuim-pan m ay be described as comn. posed of' two copper segments of spheres joined toge th e r at the edges. he e lower hemisphere is imbedded into a steam-jacket or space, into which steam, of a varying pressure up to 3 lbs. to the inch, can be forced; and in order to increase the area of heating steam s urface be yond the amount furnished by the lower segment of theil pan, there passes internally a coil of copper pipe, through which a current of steam may be made to rush. It is obvious that any liquid put into a vessel of this kind, will be exposed to so large an amount of heating surface that it must soon arrive at its boiling point; but i 1my2l- _I I _.I -=c=== ==== ==== 7,5===_= = j~~i yet to be described. The most important of these isnile a eng w the appendage called the proof-stick -a contrivance, by means of which the operator can, froin time to time, remove and examine a portion of the evaporating syrup without the least destruction of the partial vacuum. Attached to the copper segment of the pan is a thermometer, for the purpose of indicating the temperature of the syrup, and also a vacuum-giiage, as it is technically called,-an instrument on the barometric principle, by referring to which the amount of atmospheric pressure exercised at any The action of this apparatus in the aggregate will be as follows: The pan being filled to the desired extent with sugar solution to be evaporated, steam being let on to the jacket and into the coil, the temperature of the liquor continues to rise. Meantimne, the air-pump being set to work, a partial vacuum is produced, and the atmospheric pressure exerted upon the syrup in the pan, is gradually lowered to such an extent that the liquid begins to boil. The vapor resulting from this ebullition, passing into the condenser, is exposed to the agency of cold water, and immediately assumes the liquid state; finally, this condensed water is drawn off by the air pump, as it is called, although the instrument performs the mixed function of pumping both air and water. Such are the essential portions ofthe vacuum-pani; but certain accessory parts are *His patent was taken out in 1819. * Between the vacuum-pan and condenser is a vessel destined to contain any solution which may bo.il~ over. Th-is vessel, however, theoretically, may be considered as a mere expansion of the vacuumnpan This is indicated in the diagram by the figuire 6. The other portions of the apparatus are as follow. (1) the measure, (2) the man-hole, withl ground cover, (3) vacuum-pan, (4) proof-stick, (5) heater, (7) condenser, (8) steam-engine and airpump, (9) escape valve of the vacuum-pan, tbxrough which its contents pass, into, the heater 230 .1 I SUGAR MANUFACTURE. ETC. periot] on the evaporating liquid can be at let off its contents at the proper time, still once read off. Ot the summit of the upper the result of boiling an impure juice in vacuo segment of the pan is a man-hole,* supplied will in all cases be-an impure stugar. wvith an accurately ground cover, and, by the The fact is at length becoming so well reside of it, an entrance for each successive cognized, that agentleman, of much practical charge of liquor, which passes from an ad- experience as an elngineer in the West Indian joilit,ng vessel, of determinate capacity, called colonies, informs me of a resolve lie had made the meascre. never again to set up a vacuum-pan on any At the lowest part of the under hemisphere West Indian property, (save a few exceptional is situated a valve, through which tihe sugar estates, on which the juice was remarkably solution, when sufficiently boiled, is allowed pure,) except under a guarantee that the to escape into another vessel called the heat- juice should have been submitted to a charer, or, occasionally, thecooler.t coal filtration, this being the only means This heater may be compared to the lower at that period known to him as capable of segmnelt of a vacuumn-pan, mninus its coil, be- effecting the necessary amount of defecation. lug a copper pan imbedded in a steam-jacket, It may very safely be asserted, that the by the agency of which a graduated heat may great utility of the vacuum-panll has yet to be be applied. demonstrated to colonial sugar-g,rowers. Hi The useof this instrument is to allow the therto, even on estates where it has given ,conditions of time and prolonged fluidity for a qualified satisfaction, the true genius of the the mor'e perfect development of those crys- instrument has been altogether misunidertals, the formation of which has been already stood. Instead of aiminitg at the production commenlcedl during the operation ofvacuum- of a well-crystallized result. mixed with a boiling. thin syrup of drainage or molasses, admitting Fuller details of the employment of the of easy removal, and then leaving the sugar -'acuninm-pan and its accessory, the heater, wvill almost dry, the general aim of the colonial be given under the head of "refinery opera- sugar-maker has been to produce, by high or tions"-such a general account of these in- stiff boiling, the maximum amount of semistruimnents merely being here given as might crystalline produce. If this kind of material suffice fbr the purpose of invesligating the ad- were a marketable commiodity in its present vaintages and disadvantages of the colonial state, the endeavor of aiming at its maximum operation of vacuum-boiling. produce would be intelligible; but as it re It is a subject of much surprise to many quires the expensive process of liquoring to persons who have witnessed the results of retider it fit for the market, the process of ,vacutim-pan boiling at home in refineries, stiff boiling is in contravention of all propriethat. whent used in the colonies, it has been ties.* pro(tictive of such ambiguous results. This The method in which the liquoring is surprise will vanish when we consider the commonly practised in the West Indies is con(lit-conis under which a vacuum-pan can be fearfully wasteful, and in other respects open profitably worked, and how difficult of at- to the greatest censure. tainment these conditions have hitherto been Under the definition of liquoring the prinin the colonies. However objectionable. ciple of that operation has been explained. ,ciple of that operation has been explained. most points of view, th-e ordinary colonial most points of view, the orditiary colonial I will now offer, in anticipation of another evaporating process may be, it nevertheless is treatise, a concise explanation of Ipart of this treatise, a concise explanation of well adapted to the end of removal of iffpuwell adapted to the end of removal of impn- the mode of conducting it in refineries, in ities surce-skimming-an operation order to demonstrate most powerfully the which is totally impracticable when the destructive mode followed in the colonies. vacuum-pan is employed. Hence, although this valuable instrument exercises the full Under the proper conditions of temperaamount of its well-known and legitimate in- ture, hereafter to be mentioned, the refiner flaence-althoitgh it may effect evaporation puts his boiled and crystalline syrup into at the practical minimum-although an ex- moulds, supported on their apices, and the perienced boiler may be present to strike or hole of each apex stopped with a pledget of brown paper. Here the mass is allowed to cool; and, when cold, the plug in the apex * The aperture through which a man enters the being withdrawn each mould is supported on vauu- an for the purpose of cleaning it. a Tcuie indiafferent applcation of theterm heater a corresponding earthen pot. A portion of ald cooler, te one for the other, is curious, although syrup, technically known as green syrup, easy to be explained. So long as sugar solutions more or less colored, now drains away, and w,ere boiled in open pans under the ordinary atmospheri. pressure, and at a temperature of 2204 and .upw ards, the vessel in which the boiled liquor was allow,ed to assume a temperature of 176~ might ap- * Dr. Evans informs me, that in the island of Java proriately enough be denominated a cool er. But there are used vacuum-pans having an escape apertnder the process of Xacuurn-pan boiling, at a tempe- ture iii the side, through which the solid concrete is fixture of about 140, this vessel, in which the latter shovelled by a man sent into the pan for that purlegree of temperature becomes chang ed to 176z, as pose, after each boiling operation. A patentee, beibre, is to all intents a heater; still the old name moreover, actually proposes to grind this kind of s in many efineries maintained concrete into grains by a mill! 231 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. the cone of sugar is left comparatively dry. the most erroneous notions have been disThe sugar forming the base or face of each seminated. being now removed by a revoling cutter, The rude process of liquoring by water, termed the fac,e g machine, the sugar so re- already described, is not invariably followed, moved is mixed with water to the consist- it is true, in the colonies; sometimes a porence of a thin magma (technically named tion of juice, defecated and evaporated, to a clay) and reimposed n the base of the cone. certain extent, is substituted. Occasionally, This is the operation termed in refineries too, the refinery process of making pure clayi??,. After some hours the operation of magma liquor has been adopted, but still liquoring commences by pouring on the under circumstances involving the greatest smooth surface, or face left by the subsidence improprieties. of the clay, a concentrated aqueous solution The propriety or impropriety ofthe claying of sugar. The result of this operation is, and liquoring operations, in the colonies, can that the coloring matters of the sugar are only be correctly judged of by reference to totally washed into the pot below, and a loaf the precise end desired to be achieved. Thus of white sugar is formed. it is possible to conceive a manufacture in As conducted in refineries, the operation jured, even to ruin, by instituting false comof liquoring is most philosophical, and most parisons between it and another, and by the efficient-an operation without which, or the introduction of appliances, admirably adapted equivalent one of prolonged claying, a to the former case, but adverse to the latter. thoroughly white sugar cannot be made. Its The colonial application of the process of success depends so entirely on the purity liquoring, even when well managed. is emand saturation of the mazgma liquor, or aque- phatically open to the remarks just made. ous solution of sugar, that the preparation of The refiner's object is to procure a white the latter is a matter to the intelligent refiner sugar, and the process of liquoring is absoof greatest solicitude. If the magma liquor lutely necessary to give him this; therefore, be colored, it is evident the sugar which it is cost what it may, the operation must be folemployed to wash cannot be colorless. Ifthe lowed. The object of the colonial sugnarmagma liquor, also, be not fully saturated, it maker, however, is, and has been, to obtain will become so during percolation, at the ex- a yellow colored sugar; a staple which may pense of the sugar which it is intended to be made in the greatest perfection of tint cleanse-and the loaves will be partially dis- without the employment of any clavinlo- or solved. This is too evident for further com- liquoring process whatever; without chiarmnent. What, then, would be thought of the coal, alumina, or lime; as will be hereafter refiner, who, in violation of the obvious prin- demonstrated. True it is, that if the caneciples just laid down, should attempt to liquor juice be boiled too high, especially if in conby means ofwater 1 And yet this is the kind tact with lime, and other impurities, the proof liquoring very frequently performed in cess of liquoring will be required to remove some ofthe West Indian islands where vacu- such a portion of them, that the resulting um-pans are used. The concentration having sugar shall have a marketable color. But been carried on, as I have already remarked, the contemplation of this fact brings us back to a higher extent than propriety warrants, the again to the conclusion already arrivedi at: mass is cooled, thrown into a pneumatic -That no secondary appliances-iiot even chest, and afFused with water by means of a the vacuum-pan-can accomplish any great gardeni-pot! The air-pump is now put vi- amelioration of the sugar produce, whilst gorously to work; a partial vacuum is pro- made to operate upon an impure juice. duced underneath, and the water of affu- Under the definition Clayisg, has been sion, carrying with it many impurities, and given a condensed account of the colonial much sugar also, is drawn into the cistern process of claying. It is necessary now to below. It is a fortunate circumstance that contemplate it a little more narrowly in dethe crystals or grains of vacuum boiling are tail. The operation is more particularly folusually large, and, therefore. less easilv solu- lowed by the Spanish and Portuguese coloble than they would be if they presented nies; and in a modified form also by the greater surface to the agency of the solvent natives of Hindostan. -otherwise the loss attendant on this most The general manner of conducting the improper operation would be greatly aug- operation is as follows:-Instead of putting nented. The finial result of this rude pro- the sugar to be drained into caskls, it cess of liquoring is, a large-grained dusky is placed in large earthenware or iron cones, yellow sugar, now generally used for the after the method of refineries, and the green purpose of sweetening coffee. (Considered syrup is allowed to percolate away. in the abstract, without reference to the steps At this period, a magma or pap of whiite by which it was obtained, this sugar might clay and water is superimposed; the a,eiency be taken as a proof of the benefits of colonial of which is, manifestly, to wash aswray a vacuum-pan boiling; and hence, from want portion of the chemical coloring impurities of a fuller acquaintance with the subject, existent in yellow sugar. The operation of 232 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. claying is repeated twice or thrice, each coat of clay as it dries being removed, and another substituted in its place. This claying operation is a most extravag,ant one; involving the loss of a third part of the original contents of the cone; and producing, after all, a sugar, which, even at the base of the cones, or nearest to the clay, is far from white. It has already been remarked, that in India a modified process of claying is pursued. An equivalent process would be a more correct expression; but not to discuss one principle under many heads, the term claying may be retained to express the Indian operation. changed, in the downward series of destructive metamorphoses, is glucose or grape sugar; which, if present in any considerable quantity, is most inimical to the formation of large crystals; it moreover imparts to the mass a cond i tion of clammy pa stin ess. Innder these ci rcumstance s, the sense oftouch would be a very safe guide to the purchaser of raw sugar; who would be acting consistently in repudiating all sugar s possessin g small grain, from this cause. But the rule may be e xtended to the furthest l imit s of falsehood; even t o the a bsurdity of prono uncing refined sugar in powder — ea, but the same sugar in th e lump-strong. Having discussed the fallacy of be ing guided implicitly by the s e nse of to uch, it remain s to sho t the fallacies atteo ndant on the sense o f taste. Not h ing is more common tha n t he affirmation, that one certain sugar has more sweetness than another, o r that it po ssesses smore sacchar ine matter; and to place the afufirmamation in its most a bsurd light, the amdount of sweetness or saccharine matter is mad e to decrease in proportion t o the purity of the sugar. Thus, it is a very common affirmnati on, that white sugar does not swe eten so well as yellow sugar; in othe r words, t hat pure sugar does not sweeten so we ll a s that which is impure:-because the fo?jmet has less sacchar ine matter tha n th e latter! Such is the common as sertion-one that may be heard very wi dely diss emi na ted indeedfrom the cook in o ur own ki t che ns to the brokers in Mincing Lane; and, strange to say, i n r efineries too. Once adnit the assertion to be valid, and to wh a t a chaos of absurdity are we led! The whole system of sugar refining, with a ll its costliness, all i ts complexity, all its exp eri ence, is prosecuted -for whatv To render sugar less saccharine-to effect a destruction l Such is the necessary conclusion. To explain these discrepancies between language and facts, is not so difficult as it may at first seem-they originate in the use of lax expressions, based upon evidence of the most fallacious of all our senses-the sense of taste. It is a fact very well known to physiologists, that when certain tastes of different kinds and of different amounts of intensity are combined, so that they affect the gustatory organs at once —the judgment, although unable to discriminate between them, and forming a conception alone of that taste which is most familiar, or most predominant as to kind; nevertheless as to the qualities of strength or pungency-the judgment conveys a mixed idea of both. Or when two bodies are mixed-one alone of which has a taste(practically or absolutely) —the effect of the tasteless body is often confounded with the effiect of the other. Instead of using clay, or a magma of sugar and water termed clay by the English refiners, the Hindoos generally attain the end of washing their raw sugar partially white,'by superimposing on the base of the conical, contents masses of hygrometric weeds or damp cloths; the effect of either beingthe gradual liberation of water, and consequently, the partial removal of chemical coloring impurities. By following the processes of claying or liquoring, under almost any of their modifications, the darkest sugars may be made comparatively light-colored; and thus may be made to yield a product capable of mislea ding the unwary. Thus it ofte n ha ppe ns that s ampl es of l igh t-colored sugar s are displayed, and appealed to, as triumphs of some new method of sugar manufacture-the only beauty of such sugars being such as is derived from the claying or liquoring processes; and which sugars, before the application of these processes, might have been almost black. This mode of displaying sugars is a piece of charlatanry which cannot be too severely reprobated. There is another, scarcely more defensible, namely-the display of large crystals or grains, which every chemist knows any sample of cane sugar can be made to assume, by mere devices of evaporation and cooling It cannot, however, be a matter of wonder, that the latter deceit should be largely practised, when it is considered that the sugar community has elevated the question of grain into a most unsafe position; and has made it a false criterion of qualities with which it has no connection whatever. The sugar broker, or refiner, attaches great importance to the touch which certain sugars impart when pressed, or rubbed between the finger and thumb; and accordlingly as it feels soft or hard, it is pronounced weak or strong -this criterion, like manv others which have been misapplied, is, within proper limits, safe and good —without those limits, productive of serious errors. The first body into which sugar becomes 233 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. The above is not a mere fine-wrought practical purposes it may safely be asserted, philosophical deduction; but one which has that all samples of raw sugar, of equal drybeen applied to practice, and its truth de- ness, form, with equal amounts of water of monstrated in many ways. Thus the disho- equal temperatures, solutions, the specific nest tavern-keeper adulterates his spirit, gravities of which are also equal. Hence the particularly gin, with tincture of capsicum, hydrostatic or saccharometer test cannot, any and his beer with cocculus indicus-in either more than other plans of taking specific gravicase to impart a fictitious alcoholic strength. ties, convey the least idea of the purity or imThe most untutored palate would distinguish purity, the goodness or badness, of raw between the taste of gin, and of Cayenne pep- sugars. per, alone; but when mixed in certain pro- Having successively considered the chief portions, the pungency imparted by the latter methods pursued to effect the drainage of the to the gustatory organs is recognized, but non-crystallized from the crystallized portion not discriminated-both together conveying of concentrated saccharine juices, and in what the vague idea of strength. respects they are adequate or inadequate to the end desired, it now remains for me to As to cocculus indicus, it is devoid of pun- devote some attention to the product of such gency, but is a narcotic; nevertheless, the drainage; which product is denominated by judgnment is equally deceived, as in the for- the vague term " molasse3." ruer case. ~~~~~mer case. ~It may be inferred from former remarks, Again, to take another instance, there are that the investigation of the nature and profew sntluff-takers with nasal organs so obtuse, perties of molasses will best be prosecuted as to be incapable of distinguishing lime, by starting from the assumption that sugar powdered glass, extract of logwood, sand, may be concentrated by evaporation, without sal-ammoniac, or smelling-salts, from the pow- any destruction whatever: in which case the der of tobacco. Yet in the form of snuff the molasses, or liquor of drainage, would, by the nose is continually deceived. All these for- precise analogue of that resulting from cryseign bodies may be and frequently are mixed tallized saltpetre consist of nothing but a with snuff to give it a pungency; each agent solution of sugar in water. I have already cor.veys an impression, but loses its individu- remarked that this condition it is impossible ality-the idea of tobacco preponderates over absolutely to achieve; but by removing from all the rest. the solution to be evaporated all destructive Thus is it with impure or colored sugars, agents, and by properly regulating the appliwhich consist of sugar, plus many foreign cation of heat, the amountofdestruction may bodies, each possessing its own abstract indi- be reduced to such a minimum, that the movidtal taste;-conveyiing when alone a notion lasses, or syrup of drainage, shall virtually, both of kind and degree;-but when in con- though not actually, be an aqueous solution junctioni-only the latter; which goes to aug- of pure sugar. meit the predominant idea of sweetness con- Descending from this extreme summit of veyed by the most familiar, most prevailing excellence to the other extreme of the scale, substance of the mixture-sugar. we at length arrive at the results of Soubei Here is a fruitful source of the fallacy ad- ran's experiment, wherein every particle of verted to; but there is another. The idea of sugar was destroyed. sweetness, as conveyed by sugars equally Within the limits bounded by these two pure, varies in direct ratio to the amount of extremes, the ratio between the amount of commioutiont: hence large-grained sugars sugar destroyed, and the amount crystallized, seem to be less sweet than those the grains may vary indefinitely; each product yielding of which are small. The reason of this will a liquor, or syrup of drainage, to which the be evidentt, when it is considered that all sub- general term molasses will be applied; alstances which are intisoluble in the saliva are though such liquor of drainage may be anytotally devoid of taste,-and that the tasteof thing, from an aqueous solution of sugar, all other substances is in direct ratio to the accompanied by some mere traces of foreign rapidity with which they are dissolved in the bodies, up to a compound of little else than mouth. glucose, mixed with its black acid derivatives. It is very evident, then, that the sense of It is evident, therefore, that the term motaste is far too fallacious in its nature, and lasses is a most indefinite onle, and shoul d tends to inferences far too vague, for the de- never be used in argument unless its meaning cision of such an important matter as the have been specially limited to the conditions amouitlt of actual sugar in any saccharine of the instance under discussion. It appears, mixture; such as raw sugar, under any of its then, that liquor Eof drainage, or syrup, (moconventional denominations, must be regard- lasses,) there ever must be, as the result of ed. Neither is the test'of specific gravity at the crystallization of sugar, even under the all more decisive; for, in the most impure of most favorable circumstances; and the quesraw sugars, the total amount of impurities tion of the best mode of treating it, for the bears but a very trifling ratio to the mass; purpose of obtaining its sugar, must be deterand, moreover, possesses a specific gravity so mined by reference to its richness inl that subs little different from that of sugar, that for all stance. 234 SUGAR MANUFACTURE) ETC. portion of the molasses percolates into the hold, and is pumped overboard. Thus the present West India sugar manu facture is made to assume an appearance of risk and uncertainty which, so far from neces sarily belonging to it, at least in the way in dicated, may, by a system ot improved treat ment, be prevented altogether. It is a question very commonly put by the colonial sugar producer, whether a specimen of sugar resulting from a certain process will stand the voyage? To such a question there is one general answer. Any sugar will stand the voyage provided it be well drained, andcl that it be freed from all impurities which are of a deliquescent nature. Sugar itself is un alterable, in an atmosphere of very consider able dampness; and the mere adherent brown, or yellow, coat of molasses, which im parts the peculiar color and sensation of mois ture, without clamminess, to good muscovado sugar, is not sufficient in itself to cause any loss by drainage. As regards the second reason which influ ences the West India sugar producers in allowing their staple to be largely admixed with molasses, viz.: the low value of molas ses by itself as compared wi th that ofmolasses when it forms part of muscovado sugar-it will be evid ent, o n re flection, that the amo unt of sugar contained in bad molasses may be so small, so much admixed with i mpurities, tha t it either ma nt ay not pay r ree vaporatio n, o r tha t it must be eva porated a lon e. To evaporate it in the teache, m ingle d wi th fres h or uncrys. tallized syrup, would be impracticable, on account of the mass of impuriti es which would be thus imparte d. It will be, mor eover, evident, th at beyond a certain poi nt of richness in sugar, and general purity, molasses may thus be treated with propriety. Hence we are brought again to contemplate the first grand source of all improvements in the colo nial sugar produce-the perfect defecation or purification of the juice. Until some process conducive to this end be generally followed by our colonists —until some means be devised of rendering the molasses or syrup of drainage so pure, that it may be returned without prejudice to the teache, and boiled with the concentrating juice, the chemist will expatiate in vain on the theoretical indicatioIIs of a low boiling and perfect drainage, as necessary to the production of a well crystallized sugar. So long as the general run of molasses is of its present average impurity, so long will it be impossible to be boiled except alone-a process involving the use of more fuel than the West Indian colonist can command; indeed, if he could, the result would be scarcely marketable; and so long will the weight of semi-solid saccharine produce (sugar is a wrong term) obtained, be the result of the first, and only boil. If, however, the sugar producer could be made to follow some plan of defecating his juice, that would ensure a molasses so pure that it might be returned to Ally here the sugar producer is met, on the very threshold of his subject, by the necessity of accom modating h is o peration to ans ill defined opopular taste. We re it a question wi th th e colonial su gar producer of selling t he pure m ateri al-sugar, his course might indeed be very d iff icult, but it wo uld at least be svell defined. At a ny pri ce, cos t w hat it might, lhe w ould be driven to cleanse all his raw crystallized mate rial from every par ticle of coloring, or other n on-crystallized sub stances; in other words, from every particle of its molasses. Such, however, is not the desideratum which the sugar producer has in view; the public expects him to produce a colored sugar; that is, a white sugar, each crystal of which is co ated with a certain amount of molasses; to which latter the quali ties of moi stniess and color are due. Now the qu es tion of howec m uch molasses shall be thus allowed to rema in as a coating involves the considerati on of such indeterminat e m atters a s variet y of pop ul ar tastes; of manufacturing expenses; the comparative value of sugar and rum, &c. A s a ge neral rule, however, the cWest lIndia sugar p rodu cers, (th ose of Jamaica excepted, who obtain a high p rice for their rum,r) conside r it profitable to boil the juice very stiff, atlnd ex po r t the muscovado sugar in a very llindraiied sta te. The glarine impropriety of tl-is procedure has already been pointed out; therefore I need not advert to it again. It is desirable, however, to find adequate causes for a practice which appears so repug nanit to all common intelligence. The causes are chiefly as fbllow: The desire of the overseers to make a display of the quantity of sugar shipped. 2. The low market price of molasses by itself, compared with the market price of molasses as forming a part of muscovado sugar. It is painlful to have to record the fact, that the real owners of a great number of West India estates are not ostensible ones, but merchants or brokers at home; who, by way of mortgage, have a direct lien on the property; and, indirectly, have the privilege of exclusive managemenit, with all the commercial advantages thereby accruing. Under these circumstances, it is too frequently an object with the resident agent to make a display of a large amount of sugar Produced on his estate, whereas the amount is merely one of sugar, plus the molasses absorbed. The material being thus placed on shipboard moist and undrained, may, under the circumstances of a fair wind, and easy passage, arrive here without great loss. If it do so arrive, its sale may be ac. complislhed. The English grocer, by dint of mixing it with dry refinery pieces, and a certain portion of dry East India or Mauritius sugar, at length forms a compound of remunerative selling price, and all parties are satisfied. It; however, the passage should be reough, c ausing, mluch agitation to the cargo, if the temperature should be unusually high, or the hogsheads unusually leakiy, then a lar,;, 235 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. quer, have hitherto assnmed; and this enormnous profit should be at once adequately taxed! To such absurdities are we led, by arg,uing firom loosely-expressed current data.' Having pointed out the injurious agency of lime as a defecating agent, I will now pass in review the chief methods which have been had recourse to from time to time for accomplishing the important end of defecation, without the employment of that destructive,-although not very efficient,alkaline earth. And here I will remark, that there scarcely exists a mineral salt, of whatever kind,that does not, when a solution of it is added to sugar-containing juices, at the proper temperature-usually about 180~,-cause the precipitation of bulky, flocculent masses: be ing combinations of the impurities existing in the juice, with the mineral base of the salt. By witnessing effects of this kind, persons unac quai nted with chemi stry have been l ed to the most unsafe conclusions, and numerous ar e the pseudo- discoveries thus palmed upon the world. To de fecate merely, or effect th e separation of impurities fr om su gar-co ntaining juices, is but one portion of the )roblem to be solved. The defecating process must be effected without destruction to the sugar; and by an agent that is so perfectly under control, that any excess of it, above the quantity necessary to effect defecation, shall be easily removable. For practical purposes, another and a most important condition lutst be achieved:-the whole must be effected within the limits of a remunerative cost. It is painful to con over the numerous * Lest it be thought I unjustly impugn the science of practical men well conversant with sugars, I will here mention two circumstances; one, for the truth of which I vouch; the other communicated to me by one of our largest metropolitan copper manufacturers. Towards the end of the summer of 1848, I showed a London broker a very fine sample of well crystallized colonial sugar. His comment was most peculiar. He told me that —"Now-a-days popular taste required the grain of sugar to be of a different shape to mine; people now liked grains with rounded angles!" The copper worker's aniecdote is as follows: —" I was once sent for in a great hurry," he very naively told me, " to a refinery where a vacuum-pan of mine had been some time in wsork. I lost no time in hastening there, for the message was urgent.' I want you to get a hole bored in the dome of that pan,'-was the sage request of the refiner, on my arrival.' A hole in what?' said I. I In the dome of that pan,, answered the refiner.'But for what?'' Because it is too tight-there is too much vacuum-in short the pan won't do.' In vain I remonstrated, in vain I pointed out the absurdity. The refiner had only one answer,-' ttis boiler said the pan was too tight-and bored a hole must be forthwith.' It was accordingly done." In fairness to the refiner it should be remarked, that his vacuum-pan had formerly a leak in it; which leak having been stopped, the boiler fancied that the pan worked less satisfactorily than before. From these premises a very absurd conclusion was arrived at, , as we have seen. the teache, and the process repeated through several operations, he would then have no plea for the continuance of his present illjudged plan, which may be, without imnpropriety, designated an operation of smuggling,d devised for the purpose of selling molasses u nd er the name of sugar. If' the West India sugar growers were to be furnished at once with a niever-failing means of producing a large-grained. and therefore an easily cured sugar, to the exclusion of all other sorts, their produce would have to encounter a difficulty which the consumer would scarcely have imagined. Such largegrained sugars are very unfavorable to the perpetration of certain mnysterious operations of legerdemain,* which grocers understand too well. They will not mix. A smallgrained sugar may readily be incorporated with glucose, with pieces, or bastards, and other less innocent bodies, without such incorporation being discoverable to the eye. A large-grained sugar, on the other hand, is a most refractory material for these little manipulations; its crystals, no matter how mingled with contaminating agents, never ceasing to mnaniilest their native brilliancy, and thus proclaiming the fraud. It is most easy, then, to understand why the grocer, as a rule, does not encourage these large-grained sugars. He cannot "handle" them, and therefore brands them with a Iault. ie says they are deficient in saccharine matter-that they wvill not sweeten. True it is, that compartatively small portions of these large-grained sugars are sold,-and sold at high prices; but merely as fancy articles, on the proceeds of which the grocer ilets too little, to make their sale an object of primary solicitude. Such' is the source of one prejudice against dry and large-grained sutigars-a prejudice originating amongst the grocers. There is also another, which originates amongst refiners;-who are adverse to t he generalconsu m ption of these beautiful colonial sugars, f or the very obvious reason-tha t t he consumption of their own staple is thereby lessened. The refiner's expressed objection is remarkable, as embodying a philosophic idea not at all known to chemists, and, in fact, adverse to all chemical analogy. He is in the h a b i t of saying that such large-grained sugars produced in the colonies contain a great amount of water, and hence they are-what he terms-weak. Now, for the sake of argument, we will see how it bears upon the refiner himself. If the vacuum-pan accomplishes the incorporation of water with sugar in the colonies, of course a similar effect results at home in refineries. Hence the refinery operation, thus proved to consist in effecting the crystalline incorporation of water with sugar, must be profitable beyond any limnits which the public, and the Chancellor of the Exche * Termed by grocers " handling." 236 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. projects,-specious enough at a first glance, tion of Khaur sugar.* The experiment wVas but in violation of the rules of guidance, or shown nme as a triumph, but I was at a loss indications laid down,-which have been to conceive how the result could have been thiust Bi)on the sugar producer, and the re- worse. filer, so often, and with such unvarying Alumina, as prepared in its purity by failure-that all new plans, however ijitrin- chemaists, would be inapplicable to the pursically good, are regarded always with sus- pose indicated, no matter how successful in picion alnd doubt-often with neglect or its results, merely from considerations of conrteip,t. expense:-many cheap modifications of the T'his, in a patent specification lately pub- material have, therefore, been from timne to lish(e(l, s,LIrar solutions in the colonies, and time devised. One of the most general of in refine(ries, are proposed to be defecated these was discovered by the honorable Mr. by op)erations that would effect the libera- Howard, (the inventor of the vacuumn-pan,) on in the sugar of nitric, sulphuric, prus-in 1812: and consists of a mixture of sulsic, and oxalic acids, without any pro- phate of lime, free lime, and alumina. This vision for removing either of these deadly mnixture, commonly known as Houward's substances! Fortunately there is a chemi- Finings, is prepared by adding to a solution cal safeguard here. The presence of a mi- of altLim and water, a portion of cream of nute trace of oxalic acid prevents the crys- lime, sufficient to combine with all the sultallization of sugar-and the same remark phuric acid of the alumina, to throw down applies, though less forcibly, to the pres- the alumina, and to leave an excess of lime. ence of nitric and sulphuric acids. The The supernatant liquor of this operation, author of this patent being totally ignorant consisting of sulphate of potash, must be of chemnistry, was misled by the falla- absolutely washed away, or it will impart cious appearance of a mere separation of an injurious quality of deliquescence to such coagula. sugar as may be prepared with the finings. Io remost amongst the materials which In a patent of some years' standing, chalk, have been employed at various times, both instead of lime is used to decompose the in the colonies and for refinery use, is the alum; with what advantage, however, is earth alumina, in some of the various states not so obvious. which it may be made to assume. The In France and other countries where sugar idea of employing alumina seems to be is largelymanufactured from beet-rootjuice, derived from a somewhat analogous applica- the sulphate ofalumilaa-(not alum, which is tion of this substance, for the making of the potash sulphate of that base)-is largevegetlable matters, termed lakes. Thus, if ly employed as a dlefecating agent. On soa decoction of logwood be mixed with a lutions of mnuscovado sugar I can affirm, solutioni of the salt alum-which is a com- from experience, that its defecating properpound of sulphuric acid, potash, aed alum- ties bv no means come up to the expectaina-aigid a solution of potash added, the tions I had been induced to form. earth, daiumina, is set free; and immiediate- Very far superior to all other agents, as ly comobinng i,with the coloring nmatter of the precipitants for the vegetable inmpuritiesof logwood, both fall in union. and constitute natural strgar-containing juices, as also for a precipitate which, when dried and pow- the impurities existing in muscovado sugar, dered, is called a lake. Instead of logwood, are the acetates, particularly the basic, or various other vegetable, and some animal, sub-acetates of lead. colorini. bodies may be substituted; and So wide is the sphere of operation which with a similar result. these bodies possess, as precipitants of the Followving out this idea, alumina has been aluminous and colored matter of vegetable employed with the view of separating the juices, that even the juice of beet-root, coloring matters out of solutions of mus- which, after being allowed to remain in concovad(lo sugar, and the general vegetable tact with the air for about half an hour, beimpurities out of cane-juice. comes black, is instantly purified to such On cane-juice I have never had an oppor- an extent that when filtered, it resembles tunity o'f trying it; but on solutions of mus- water. Not only do these salts of lead precoyado sugar I have frequently tested the cipitate the general impurities from raw powers of alumina, without, in any case, vegetatlle juices, but even a number of being much struck with its utility. A certain dark-colored decoctions are rendered, by defecating effect it unquestionably produces; treatment with it, comparatively colorless in but by no means to the extent that would a few instants. Chemists have long been induce one to anticipate any vital or radical aware of this property-have long used the improvement in the sugar manufacture, acetates of lead as precipitating agents for home or colonial, by generally adopting it. certain albuminous and colored matters, in Not long since I was called upon to witness the laboratory, with the most perfect sucthe effect produccd by a mixture of alumina, *. - i sulphate of lime, and bone-black, on a solu- facture in Ilindostan. 237 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. cess; every attempt, however, to employ the effect of hydrosulphuric acid em~ these agents satisfactorily, even on the ployed to separate the lead, but to the lead small scale, for the purpose of throwing itself. down the impurities from muscovado sugar The employment of hydrosulphuric acid in solution, or from cane-juice, was unsatis- thus being out of the question, we have factory; whilst, on the large scale, the at- next to examine the other means commonily tempt, when tried, failed altogether. employed in the laboratory for accomplish The reasons of this failure, in the employ- ing that end. Occasionally sulphuric acid* ment of lead salts for the purpose indicated, is used to separate lead out of solutions are various, as will presently be recog- which end it accomplishes perfectly, even nized. Iout of those of sugar; but if sulphuric acid The first problems to be solved are these: be employed, it is incumbent on the operaeither to use the lead salt in such exact pro- tor to add one exact quantity-no more-no portion to the amount of impurity with less: if too much, the free or uncombined which it is intended to combine, that both overplus of acid, by acting on the sugar, shall fall down in combination, and be ca- would speedily convert it-first into glucose, pable of removal; or to add a known excess and thence downward in the scale of deof lead salt to the sugar solution, to separate struction into glucic, melasinic, sacchulmic, the precipitate caused by filtration; then to sacchumic acids, &c.: if too little, there throw down from the filtered liquor all the would remain an excess of lead; which not remaining lead by means of some precipi- only is injurious to health, but, also, if boiled tating agent not productive of injury to the with sugar, a very destructive agent. sugar; and as a subsidiary problem, to The question of lead, then, as a defecator remove the acetic acid liberated from the for sugar, seemed hopeless. Its remarkable lead, either as an insoluble compound, or action was witnessed, admired, and abanto combine it with some body that shall doned, until in the year 1839, Messrs. neither be injurious to sugar, nor to health. Gwynne and Young took out a patent for and separable, if possible, by the process the separation of the excess of lead by of drainage. means of the diphosphate of lime-an agent Such are the necessities of the case, which, in the laboratory, can be made to even in the laboratory, on a small scale. Let succeed perfectly, but which I believe to be, us examine how they can be met. both on the score of expense and uncer The first problem does not admit of solu- tainty, totally inapplicable on the large tion,-it involves an impossibility: inas- scale. much as, however small, above a certain These gentlemen, however, deserve great microscopic limit, the quantity of lead salt praise for their investigations, which are added, the filtered solution will still con- chemically considered, of a masterly kind. tain lead; although a fresh addition of -ore Although the operation necessarily failed in lead salt to the filtrate will not fail to pro- practice, for reasons which I have indicated, duce a new precipitate. This circumstance its perfect success in laboratory quantities, can be accounted for, by assuming the con- demonstrated the most important fact,current formation of two or more compounds that the acetates of lead, per se, wiere not so of lead and vegetable matters; one com- iajurious to the constitution of sugar. pound being soluble, and the other not. This demonstration having been accom In operating on sugar thus, we are re- plished, thechemistwaswarrantedinresumduced to the necessity of disregarding, as a mng the task of finding out some precipitatmeans of safety, all apportionment whatever ing body that should not only act in the lab-the only way left open to us is, to pre- oratory under chemical superintendence, cipitate the excess of lead. but one that should act anywhere, and in Simple as this may appear as a laboratory any quantity. operation, it cannot be accomplished by the Such an agent I was fortunate enough ordinary laboratory means. The usual agent to discover in July, 1847. This precipitant employed by chemists to separate lead out is sulphurous acid gas: the methods of emof solutions is hydrosulphuric acid gas, ploying which I have recorded in another a body which throws it down effectually publication, and therefore need not repeat from sugar solutions, it is true, but spoils here, seeing that my present object is simthe sugar in consequence of the facility ply to record a chemical fact. with which, by trifling circumstances, it is Since the period of July, 1847, the efdecom.posed, with the liberation of sulphur. ficacv of this gas has been tried on the large Hence, so frequently had the experiment scale in a refinery, and also on cane-juice been tried, and with such uniformly bad in both cases with the most perfect success. success, that not only was the idea of employing these agents in combination relin- * Sulphuric acid has lately been tried by a gentlequished, but the ruin of the sugar was at- man il India, who utterly failed, however, in achievtributed not to the proper cause-viz.: ing the object proposed. 238 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC, vails, or where the price of labor (as in India) falls below t he usual average.* But toreturn to the subject o f suga r refi ning. In commencing the study of this mianufac turing o per ation, it will be useful to con sider e thethe oretical indications to be follow ed out. The s u bstance to be operated upon is raw sugar; and the object to be kept in view is -to extract the maximum of impurities, with the mpinimum of expen se, and of loss. It has been alre ady remarked, that if Muscovado, or yellow sugar, were contami nated by chemical or soluble impurities only, the processes of claying and liquoring would effectually remove tIh eap. This, however, is far from being the c ase. If a portio n of the purest colonial sugar (mad e withou t animal charcoal) be dissol ved i n wate r, the presence of mechanical or floating impurities will be very manifest. Such impurities m ust be got rid of at any cost, before the sugar can be refined. Th e most obviou s w ay o f accom plishing this removal would seem to consist in mechanical filtration through fibrous tex tures, followed by evap o ration; and this succeed e d by the process of claying and li quoring. It happens, however, tha t, e ve n wer e this process the most desirable, as well as th e most obvious, ye t the filtrati on of such sugar in thick solution is no very easy matter, on account of th e glutinous n at ure of the chem ical colored impurities, a s the experimenter may prove by mea ns of a filter of paper; however, by allowing sufgiciexnt tim e, the thing, as an experiment, may be done; and I will suppose it done, for the s ak e of the n ext demonst ration. The liquor, when so filtered, if placed be tween the eye and a ray of li ght, will be found to be entirely free from the ciiechani - cal impurities formerly visible; but it will be as dark from the pres ence of chemical im purities as before filtration. The indication, therefore, is obviously to red uce tho se chem ical impurities, by means of some combina tion, to a mechanical, or filtrable condition. The usual agent employed for this purpose in refinerie s, is an aqueo us solution of lime; that is to say, lime-water. If a portion of the dark filtered solution be mixed with a portion of lime-water, in a test tube, and heated by a spirit-lamp flame, * a manifest change will be observed. A portion of the soluble impurities will be found to be- come insoluble, assuming the condition of brownish flakes, and rendering the solution - turbid. The liquor now will be found to pass much more readily through a paper filter * This remark only refers to the actual use of -clay, not to the operation termed claying in refine-Z Trae Operation of Re.fining-Defects of Present System-General Summary, ec. The term sugar refining, is applied, as is well known, to the operation, or series of opera tions, by means of which the dark impurities are extracted or separated from white sugar, and the latter is isolated. Hence the terms, white sugar and refilled sugar, have grown to be synonymous; and the idea has been created that white sugar must necessarily be the product of a second operation. This notion is most fallacious, and not more fallacious than injurious, by causing the impression, that no such body as white sugar could be primarily extracted from the cane-juice, or other sugar containing juices. V ery frequently do we h ear th e col onial s ugar-gro wers subje cted to many, and adverse remarks, because they havte not, as it has been asserted, developed their art with the rapidity that modern scientific aids would have enabled them to do. Much of this animadversion is unjust; for, not only until the passing of Sir Robert Peel's Sugar Bill, in 1843, was the colonial sugar producer not encouraged to make a product beyond a certain limit of goodness, but he was not permitted to do so; every step he took in this direction being checked by a high protective duty, with the object of favoring the home refineries. Inmediately the sugar duties were re-adjusted, the intelligent colonial sugar-growers availed themselves of the opportunity to improve their staple; but unfortunately, they began with machinery instead of chemistry. They relied on improved means of boiling; not having yet procured the proper liquid to be boiled. Whilst their new experiments were being prosecuted —whilst they were bearing most stoically their present losses, and loolking forward to a brighter future, England became deluged with finer sugars of Cuba and Brazil, made by the claying operation. The West Iindia sugar-grower was undersold, and, too frequently, ruined. Often do we hear the question put-wherefore the MWest India sugar-grower does not practise the claying process? The question manifests little acquaintance with the subject at issue. The process of claying, be it remembered, is not indicative of an improved sugar manufacture, as is commonly supposed; but merely indicative of the fact that, at the expense of time, of labor, and a third of the material operated on, it has been deemed expedient to accomplish the washing out a certain amount of impurities from Muscovado sugar. These facts being well considered as premises, the conclusion may very safely be arrived at-that the claying operation can only be remuneratively practiscd under one of the following conditions: - either in communities where slavery pre 239 SUGARP MANUFACTUIIRE, ETC. than before; and, moreover, it will have This is the best arrangement for a rebeen considerably lightened as to color. finery; although the details of arraiinement If tile filtration process be conducted with may vary considerably. The conditions less care, the liquor, as it passes through, which I have laid down, are adapted to the will be contaminated with a portion of the supposition that the sugar is dissolved on the separated impurities; which, in point of highest floor, and that it is subsequently workfact, are so delicate in their physical nature, cd down to the lowest; where, having been that the slightest force breaks them up and boiled, it is filled into moulds. These conpartially re-dissolves them:-a circumstance ditions are most natural, and the miost rawhich, as may be imagined, would material- tional; but they are sometimes violated; the ly impede thle filtering operation on a large sugar being dissolved on one of the lower scale. However, for the purpose of demon- floors, and, subsequently, lifted again. By stration, it can be, and sometimes is, accoin- this latter method of procedure the height of plished. a floor or story can be saved; but the opera If a little white of egg and lime-water be tion of pumping is usually involved-an mixed with a portion of the solution, while operation which is never to be recomcold, and the mixture be then heated in mended.* another test tube, the same kind of result Another floor or story in the refineries is will be accomplished as in the last experi- frequently saved by a less objectionable plan ment, but with this addition:-the albumen -the liquor prepared for boiling being disof the white of egg, or the blood during coag- charged on the ground-floor, and sucked up ulation, will envelop each floating particle of into the vacuum-pan on the second. the mechanical impurity developed by the Wherever in a refinery the process be comagency of lime, and bring it to the surface of menced, the first operation consists in effectthe liquor in the form of scum; leaving the ing the solution of sugar, in such a mixture subnatant fluid clear and bright. of water, lime-water, and blood-technically If the result of the last experiment be called spice-that the resulting liquor, at the filtered, a fluid will come through-red, if temperature of212~ Fahr., shall have a speblood has been employed; yellowish or am- cific gravity by a preference of about 1.241 ber, if the white of egg. Either of these - equivalent to twenty-eight degrees of solutions, on being evaporated, evolves an Beaume's saccharometer. This operation, animal smell, and eventually yields crystals, which is called blowing up-is thus perfrom which the non-crystalline portion may formed: be drained, and the crystals rendered white. The blow-up pan is a square or rectangular by the process of claying, (real or virtual,) painted iron, or, much better, plain copper, either alone, or succeeded by the process of tank, supplied with a perforated false botliquoring. tom, under which is laid horizontally a three If, instead of evaporating the liquid im- armed tubular perforated pipe of copper, in mediately after passing through the filter, it connection with a steam-main. The use of is made to percolate through granular bone- this arrangement will be presently obvious. black, the result is marvelously improved. The sugar being put into the pan along with Every trace of color is dissipated, and the the predetermined quantity of blood, limeliquor feels less glutinous to the touch; it water and water-the quantities of each has acquired also, (owing to the renmoval of being adjusted by no fixed rule —the blow-up impurities,) an increased facility for crystal- man lets on his current of steam, which, pelization. The smiell of the animal matter, netrating into the arms of the trifid horizonhowever, generally remains. tal pipe, emerges in sharp jets tihrough the Haviing gone through these preliminaries, small apertures of the latter, and heats the we are now in a position to contemplate the contents of the blow-up pan with great rapiprocess of refining, as now prosecuted. dity to the boiling temperature. For this A good refinery should consist of not less blow-up operation, some houses use high than four floors; if more, all the better, Its pressure steam, some low pressure. There walls should be strong, its planks well-sea- is now a prevailing opinion in favor of the soned, and close; and steam-pipes should be latter, in consequence of the belief that high laid on throughout, so that a temperature of pressure steam is destructive of sugar. Mr. 80~ can be easily commanded everywhere, Pontifext now prepares a solution-p)an, simicept onl the ground-floor, or fill-hlouse,,the lar in construction to the heater —i. e. the bastard curing-room, and the stove; the necessary heat is imparted by means of a former of which will require a temperature steam-jacket, thus avoiding the escape of any of 120~, and the latter of 112 to 115~ Fahr. steam into the solution. This gentleman inThlrough the middle of each floor is a large square hole, capable of being shut by means * Liquor can be raised by the pressure of steam of a trap-door; andl thlrougrh wvhich1 the su-! much better than by the more common operation of gar is ptilled, from the lowest floor to the j pumping. highest, by means of a gin or small crane. borne testimony to the same effect. 240 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. forms me that thie advantages attendant upon the use of this form of pan are very great; a perceptibly larger amount of pro duct, and of better quality, being the result. That the injection of high-pressure steamn into sugar solutions is destructive, is rendered hilghly probable by the investigations of M. Violette, who has proved that wood may be carbonized by means of steam of only 6 lbs. pressure to the inch. (See Journ. de Chim. et dc Physique, 1848.) Thi e resul t of bo il ing the contents of the blow-up pan will have been anticipated from a considerati on of the experiment I have sup p ose d t o have been performed to in a test-tube; a thick, bulky, off ensiv e scubm ar ises to the surface of the liquid, which might b e skimmed off with tolerable facility, and the subnatant liquor left in a state approaching to mechani cal purity. This skimming, however, is never practised in the present day, filtration being had recourse to, as a much more efficacious plan. The process of filtration now universally adopted, is the bag filtration system, as it is called; and which offers the advantage of a verv large surface, comprehended within a very small space. Thlle bag-filter consists of a sack of about 5-i feet long, made of twilled cotton, prepared for this specific use. When to be employed it is used as follows:-The bag itself, which is about two feet broad, is squeezed loosely into a smaller bag, (open at the bottom,) made of very coarse material, and technically known as the sheath. By this arrangement the whole filtering area of the bag is effective, although it is made to occupy very small dimensions. Each bag, with its accompanying sheath, is tied by the following device to a brass nozzle, slightly expanding at one end, to which the bag is affixed, and having a screw turned at the other end. The mouth of the bag,, along with its sheath, having been brought well over the bell of the brass nozzle, is tied, sheath and all, moderately tighit, by means of strong cord. As it would be, next to impossible, however, to whip the cord sufficiently tight to prevent the bag slipping, ofF, on a weight of sugar being poured into it, the following plan of tightening it is had recourse to. A small copper bar, of about four inches in length, being pushed under the cord, is twisted round until the necessary degree of tightness has been effected. The bar is now kept in position, and the twist prevented from returning by means of a second turn of the cord. Many of these bags, usually about thirty-six, are hung in one series, as will be presently described, of which series there must be two. A cast-iron tray, perforated with the requisite number of screw-hloles to correspond with the number of bell-nozzles, is made to form the upper part or roof of a wvrought-iron VrOL. III. chest, supplied with door s, remo vable at pleasure, and r e ndered air-tight in their fr a mes, during filtrat ion, by means of torw and red lead made into a pad, (which en gineers call a gaskin.) At th e inferior part of thi s ch e st are two exit cocks; one supplied with a pipe, th at conducts the filtered fluid away, and the other, techni cally called the fo ul-liquor c ock, throu gh wh ich a portion of the filtered liquor m-ay be examined, from time to time. One other orifice has to be mentioned-it is for the purpose of admittin g stea m: i n a n atmosphere of wh ich the filter-bags are caused to remain, during the whole period that filtra tion goes o n. This is for the purpose of enabling the liquor to ma int ain its tempera ture-therefore to remain liquid; and hen ce, to pas s throug h readily, Th e filter-chest and its ac ces sories having been thu s described, the operatio n of bag filtration will be readil y unders tood. The let-off cock at the blow-up pan being turned, the blow-up liquor necessarily runs into the trays forming the roof of th e filter-chest; thence into the bag-filters, and from them into the lower part of the chest. The first few buckets full o f liquor which pass are a l way s turbid. The liquor is, therefore, al - lowed to flow away th r ou gh the foul-liquor cock, until a portion, being examined in a wine-glass or phial by the tran smitted light of a candle or lamp, appear s quite bright. This period having arrived, the wh o le mass of liquor is allowed to run on to the c ha rcoa l filter, or cistern, as it is mor e generally called. These charcoa l-filters, or cisterns, are of various shapes, and made of various ma terials. The usual material is iron, and the usual shape that of a cylinder of about sixteen feet high, or more-by eight feet in diameter. Interiorly, the cylinder is supplied with a false and perforated bott om, on which is laid a piece of woolen. If made of i r on, the cylinder should be internally well-painted with two coatso of whit e lead on one of red. Copper is the preferable metal, but few re finers will encounter the expense of using it for charcoal cisterns. Instead of the deep charcoal cistern just described, some manufacturers employ shal low tanks of iron or lead. The only advan tage which these shallow tanks present over deep cisterns is-that they are better adapted to low buildings, and do not involve any per foration of the floors. Unquestionably, the decolorizing effect of charcoal is best exer cised by the use of deep cisterns. Whatever the form of the charcoal cisterns, they should never be made of, or lined with lead, inasmuch as a crust of carbonate of the metal becomes formed, and no sooner formed than dissolved in the sugar solution, where >it may be generally found, if sought for. In Lthis way I discovered, in the first (lay's liquor '16 241 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. of one of the largest London refineries, a fectly decolorizing three of sugar. But this considerable amount of lead. remark must necessarily be vague, and open I do not advert to this subject with the ob- to modifications, due to the influence of many ject of proving that the amount of lead present collateral circumstances, as the reader will in the solution would have exercised any easily recognize. It must not be imagined, perceptibly noxious effect on the health-or however, that the refiner unpacks his charany perceptible destructive agency on the coal so soon as it ceases to effect the perfect sugar-but to record the fact of its presence, deprivation of all color. He allows it, in and thus to guard future experimenters from point of fact, to remain until the last portions referring the origin of such lead to any specific of filtered liquor, instead of being colorless, process of refining, in which the acetates of are considerably darker than dark sherry. lead have been employed, and from which The refiner, however, manages in this way: they have been totally separated. He commences his refine* by using newly The process of conducting filtrations burned charcoal and good sugars; he then through bone-black, although remarkably goes on using sugars more and more impure, simple in theory, yet requires some amount until the end of the third or fourth day, disof practice to insure the maximum of success. tinguishing his liquor as first day's, second The principal results to be aimed at are-to day's, and third day's liquor, &c.; from accomplish the maximum rapidity of perco- each of which, respectively, are prepared lation, with the minimum of coloring matter sugars of corresponding quality. left in the filtered liquor. In order to judge of the mechanical purity This due rapidity of percolation is some- of liquor from the charcoal cisterns, it is subtimes regulated by the exit-cock, under the mitted to a very vigorous optical test: awinefalse bottom of the charcoal-cistern-in which glass or small phial full being collected, is case the upper part of the cistern, above the held between the flame of a candle and the margin of the charcoal, serves the purpose of eye, when the slightest speck of mechanical a tank of reception for the whole bulk of the impurity is perceptible, and is considered imliquor, which has come away from the bag- proper. If these mechanical impurities exist filters. In other establishments, the charcoal- beyond a certain amount, the result is a cistern is supplied with a cover perforated cloudiness or opalescence; and the sugar prowith two holes —through one of which the duced from such liquors will be generally of liquor is allowed to enter - through the a grayish cast. As regards chemical impuother, a jet of steam; which latter is said to rities, they are very seldom sought after by prevent fermentation, and to impart to the refiners, who entertain the most fallacious charcoal that amount of temperature most notion-that bone-black filtration is compeconducive to the desired decolorizing effect. tent to remove all bodies, of whatever kind, In any case the outside of the cistern should except sugar and water. The opinion is be protected against cooling influences, by a in nothing more unfounded than in respect to coating of felt, and a casing of wood. lime-a body which refiners imagine to be In allowing the liquor, as it comes from most especially removed by the charcoal filthe bag-filter, to run on to the charcoal, care tering operation. The fact, however, is, that should always be taken to prevent the surface lime, both combined and in the caustic form, of the charcoal from being much disturbed. may be generally, if not invariably, detected, This object is usually attained by allowing by means of the appropriate tests; and, if the the steam to impinge on some hard body laid blowing-up pan be of iron, or if the painted upon the charcoal-a piece of broken pot, or internal coating of the iron charcoal-cistern a brick tile, is commonly used. be abraided, distinct traces of this metal will Whether the liquor be allowed to run on also be discoverable. Indeed, refiners often the charcoal gradually, or whether it be suffer from the existence of iron oxide in poured on at once, the surface of the char- their sugars, to which red streaks or spots coal should never be suffered to become dry. are thus imparted.t This neglect would infallibly cause the re sulting filtrate —or tiltratedl liquor —to be sulting, filtrate-or filtrated liquor-to be * A refine is the series of consecutive solutions, turbid, or, as the refiners say, milky. or blows-up, upon which one charcoal-filter system If deep cisterns be used, the liquor need is made to act. not be caused to linger in the charcoal, by t More than one patent has been taken out for the t use of iron salts, as agents to defecate or purify su turning of the exit-cock, or otherwisethe gars; and iron preparations have lately been tried first produce of filtration being usually per- in the house of Messrs. Fairrie-but with invariable fectly decolorized and bright. Wherever want of success. Terry's Pateut, involving the use shallow tanks are employed, however, the of prussiate of potash and sulphuric acid, and thus liberating a cyanogen salt of potassium and iron charcoal must be allowed to soak or digest (the bi-ferro-cyanide of potassium) was tried in the with the liquid for a considerable time, before house of Messrs. M'Fie, of Liverpool; and, I am as the latter is fit to draw off sured by one of the firm, with the result of coloring It is said, in general terms, that one ton of the goods-in this case blue-owing to the re-action bo is said, in gene-bl terms, thack,ne t on of of the undecomposed prussiate on a portion of libe bone-black, well burned, is capable of per- rated iron oxide. 242 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. tards, are generally made of rough clay ware. For every kind of mou ld, co ppe r is the best material; but the great expense of using it is a drawback to its general use, to such an extent, that very few of the more wealthy sugar refiners employ this metal, for any mould above the size necessary to containi a fourteen pound loaf. Previous to the commencement of the filling operation, the moulds standing in triple or quadruple row, the hole in the apex of each accurately plugged with a pledget of brown paper, technically called " a stop," are placed base upwards around the fillhouse, in such a manner that the rearmost row is supported by the wall, and each successive row by one behind. Thus arranged, the greatest portion of the area of the fill-house is clear, enabling the operator, or operators, to fill any mould at pleasure. The art of filling is very simple; one man dips, by means of a copper ladle, a portion of the crystallized mass, which he pours into the fill-basin, an instrument something like a copper coal-scuttle, with two small handles. This fill-basin, when charged with its contents, is carried underhanded, and somewhat between the legs of the fill-house man, to its destination-i. e., the moulds, which are then filled to the brim. I will now assume a sufficient quantity of liquor to have come away from the charcoal, to admit of the occupation of vacuum boiling. The let-off cock of the charcoal-cistern I will assume to communicate with a tank placed above the level of the vacuum-pan-so that the liquor contained in the tank shall fall into the measure, and thence into the vacuumpan, by the force of gravity. The operationi of oacuum boiling.-When treating of the subject of colonial sugar manufacture, so full a description of the vacuumn-pani, and of the general process of vacuum boiling, has been given, that it only remains here to be remarked that, whether in the colonies, or in refineries, the operation and the end to be achieved by it are the same. The reader will therefore assume that the liquor, having come from the charcoal tanks, has been subjected to the process of boiling, and has subsequently been allowed to renlain i n th e he ater f or the necessary period, (say half an hour for good solutions,) to admit of the grain becoming sufficiently developed-the operation of filling the moulds or cones begins. These moulds for loaves or crushed lump, and occasionally pieces, are either made of sheet iron, painted white internally-or of copper. The larger moulds, however, employed for accomplishing the drainage of bas 243 SUGAR MANUPACTRE, ETC. whilst the refiner boils as stiff as is consistewith free drainage, he (the colonist) boil'stiff, whether he can drain or no. If the moulds were now left merely filled, their contents would aggregate irregularly, and a good loaf would not result. Some little time after the operation of filling, therefore, the process of hauling, as it is technicaIly called, is had recourse to. It consists in agitating or incorporating, by means of a wooden spatula, some two or three inches in depth of the filled mass. Care, however, is taken not to push the hauling spatula too deep into the contents. The process of hauling having been gone through, the cones are allowed to remain in the fill-house for a period varying with the size of the loaves-and hence of the mass to be cooled. Supposing 14Ibs. loaves to be the size, a period of twelve hours is amply sufficient. The filled moulds are now put into a basket, let down through the pull-up hole, and elevated to the second floor,* called the liquor loft, where the important operations, first, of natural drainage, then drainage effected by claying and liquoring, are conducted. Formerly, as I have remarked under the Def. Claying, real clay was employed; but now a mixture (not solution) of sugar and water, to which the term clay is applied, has taken its place. As soon as the filled'moulds arrive in the liquor loft, each is placed over a glazed earthen pot, the paper stops having been previously removed, and a bradawl is pushed up into the mass to the extent of two or three inches. Drainage now proceeds with an amount of rapidity dependent upon the amount of concentration to which the mass had been brought by evaporation, and on the absence of glucose and other impurities. It' the evaporative concentration has not been carried very far, the result is said to be low, or free-boiled; if the contrary, the designatio n high, o r stiff-boiled, is applied. As heavy, compact loaves are a great desideratum to refiners, owing to the great cohesion of such loaves enabling them to withstand, without much injury, the agency of damp air, and the various mechanical shocks to which they will hereafter be exposed, it is a main object in the refinery operation to carry the evaporative agency to the maximum extent, consistent with free subsequent drain age. If carried beyond certain limits, how ever, the loaves either will not drain at all, or their syrup runs away with such difficulty that a great monetary loss is incurred. In refineries, the object of boiling stiff is intelli gible enough, and founded on a scientific prin ciple. In the colonies, the object, although intelligible, is most fallacious, and in direct contravention to all scientific indications. The colonial sugar-.,rower, who argues the exist ence of a refinery precedent for stiff boiling, forgets this most important difference, that, When the first or natural syrup of drainage has ceased to flow, each mould is removed, and a few inch e s (equa l to the depth distharbede by the operation of hauling) of the mass reen(ve d by a re volving blade, wit h a central a xis connected to a fly-whee l, an d worked iy a grindstone handle. This instrument is termed a facing-machine, (see next page,) and the chilled and badly-crystallized sugar thus removed falls into a box. The contents of the moulds after natural drainage are said to be in t he green, a nd the portions removed ar e te rmed green cuttiogsf The moulds, with their contents, are no w set again upon pots, (the sa me, o r o the rs, at th e operator's pleasure,) and preparations for the claying operation are made. The green cuttings being put into a pan, are kneaded with water at first into a doughy consistency; and, finally, more water is added, until the whole is reduced to th e c o ndition of a thinnish magma, t e rmed clay. Upon the base of each con e, a gai n placed on the syrup-pots, is now poured so m u ch o f this clay as is sufficient to ab out half replace the amount of material cut away by the operation of facing. In order to understand the precise rationale of the process of claying, it is necessary to r emembe r that the clayisg a gen t is a saturated solution of sugar almost pure in water, mixed with a larger portion of sugar, suspeinded, but not dissolved. No sooner does the clay agent touch the surface of sugar in the mould, than a downward current of sugar solution is established, carrying before it a portion of colored syrup, and causing the base of the sugar-cone, to the extent of some inches, to assume a white appearance. One operation of claying, however, is insufficient to effect a perfect whiteness throughout the loaf, and a repetition of the operation is not so effective as the process of liquoring, which is now in refine ries universally followed. The liquor used for this operation is a saturated solution of pure sugar and water. It is prepa,-red by dissolving in pure water-/. e., not containing lime or spice-a porous kind of ltunip-sugar, such as results from the latter working of the refine, on the fourth day-in a blow-up pan; used exclusively for this purpose, and filter inig the solution through a charcoal cistern, in the ordinary way, but with much care. When filtered, it should be colorless, and should possess a density at least of 32~ Beaui., at a s t' f ss 0 1, 11y i h t e t 244 I The ground floor being considered the first. 'S3JGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. claying. Accordingly the drips are collected, and put into a tank alone, to be hereafter boiled up with a fresh working of sugar. It will easily be observed, whether a loaf requires more liquoring or not, by lifting it from the pot, and noticing the color of the syrup which leaks away. This observation, it is scarcely necessary to remark, should be made when the drainage has almost ceased. If the drops are limpid, the operation has been complete, and the loaves are said to be neat: if they are colored, another liquoring is indicated. The loaves are now allowed to remain for two or three days, when the clay is cut or scraped away from) their surface by a kind of triangular blade This operation is called brushing off. The loaves are slightly loosened in their moulds by striking the edges of the latter smartly against the upper end of a vertical post. This loosening contributes to perfect the drainage. At the stage of loosening, a loaf may be completely remo v ed from its mou ld, for the purpose of effecting an examination; which examination, in point of fact, is frequently made. When the loaves have become sufficiently dry to permit of being handled, they are taken out of the moulds, and their apices or noses are trimmed into regular form by means of the nosing machine, an instrument consisting ofthree cutting blades so arranged on a rotatory shaft that the desired angle for the apices shall result. temperature of 70~ Fahr. Owing to its possessinig this high density, magma liquor is not prone to ferment; it may. therefore, be kept in taryks for a considerable time without danger. These liquo r talaks, how ever, should be si tuated in a cool part of the buildingt heir usual p osition be ing und er th e roof, in a leoft, t o which the ext ernal air has free a ccess. The operation of liquoring is commonly performed by means of a garden water-pot, without the rose, and sim pl consists in pouring upo n th e b ase of eacih c onical lump of sugar, yet i the m ould, as much as the mould will contain, an even surface having been previously made by an instrument termed the bottomin, trowel. The operation ~;~:~J<'~[~'~ of this liquoring is precisely like that of claying, which has been > - ~~described in de ail; and it effects the total separation by drainage of all chemical coloring matter. Fourteen pound loaves, if made of well-purified sugar, should be rendered neat or white by two successive liquorings. It is almost too obvious a matter for comment, or indication, that the last syrups of drainage, technically called drips, resulting from the operation of liquoring, are much purer; or, in other words, contain much more sugar than the natural syrup of drainage, and that resulting from the operation of 245 'FLCING-MACHINE. - -L .-,. --, ti -.,- —,-.- 1,:!, SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. ral drainage of the sugar being sufficient to effect the desired result. I am informed, however, by a Scotch refiner, that for this operation the very best sugar must be used, and that it must be boiled very low or free. Much of the economy of refining depends on the proper employment of the syrups of drainage, and on this point the following axiom should never be lost sight of-That every syrup of drainage is more impure for equal specific gravities of aqueous solution than thhe sugar from which it has drained. This axiom will indicate the following rule to be adopted in the treatment of syrups, namely, to add the purest s yrup to the purest sugar, and vice versa. In propor tion as sugar solutions are more frequently reboiled, so do their impu rities continue to increase, (pp. 36, 57, and seq.,) until at length the impurities, whe n washed out, leave the crystals of sugar s o fa r asunder, that the mass, instead of being hard and com pact, is so porous that pr essure with the e nd of a s tick leaves an indentation: s u ch masses could not be stoved for loaves, neither c ould they be profitably broken down for crushed lump, inasmuch as the crystals a re small and i ll-developed, in co nsequence of being admixed with so many impurities that the operation of crys tallization has been impeded. Chemi c ally speaking, however, they consist, or by adequate liquoring can be made to consist, of sugar as pure as the hardest loaves; they therefore serve for making the magma liquor as a lready des c r ibed. When the impurities have so accumul ated in syrups, that it is no longer profitable to obtain the white sugar out of them by the process of claying and liquoring, a co mp ro mise is effected of the f ollow ing k ind. Thes are no longer liquorenl w ith magma liquor, which would n ot be remunerat ive b ut with syrup; a nd the resu l t i s called p ieces. This is the real Jamaica sugar of man y grocers. When the material to b e b oiled is not sufficiently good to yield a light yellow pro duct, dark clammy semi-crystallized masses are obtained, technically known as bastards. It cannot be too emphatically expressed, however, that the t erms, pi eces an d bastards, a re pu rely c on ventional -th at no intrinsic or ess ential difference wh atever exists be tween them;-that both are a dmixture s of sugar with impurities;-and that such im purities may be separated-although it be not remunerative to do so. Indeed the demonstration of this may be easily effected, by rubbing the pieces, or bastards, with alcohol, and filtering through paper. Cold alcohol does not dissolve sugar, but it readily dissolves the glucose and dark acids with which the latter is associated, andl leaves the sugar nearly pure. The latter} Not only is this operation of nosing desirable, for the purpose of imparting a sharp, well-defined apex to the loaf, but also for removing a small amount of dark-colored sugar, of which the apex is, under the most favorable circumstances, composed. The efficacy of the claying and liquoring operations depends on the preponderance of gravity over capillary attraction. Hence there may be conceived a theoretical limit at which the two forces are balanced: practically, this point of eq ualization between the two forces is at a f ew inches above the apex of the cone, and corresponds with the limit of impure sugar. Occasionally, when liquors have been overboiled, or when the material operated upon has been impure sugar, the point of equalizatio n between the two forces is many inches above th e normal line. To expedite the drainage of such cones they are stuck into a kind of funnel, the neck of which joins a suction-pipe in communication with the air-pump of the vacuum-pan. The result of this treatment is too obvious for comment. The operation of nosing is never performed on the larger kind of loaves, which are known in commerce under the denomination of lumps; but the colored portion of the apex is simply cut off by means of a knife struck by a mallet. The loaves now, if sufficiently dry, are wrapped in paper, and the last traces of moisture driven off by the operation of stoving. The stove is a chamber, or rather a hollow tower, provided with many rows of trellis work, and heated by steam-pipes to a temperature not above 115~ Fahr. If higher. the sugar is discolored. The operation of stoving lasts about three days, when the loaves being taken out are ready for sale. If, instead of loaves, the manufacturer desired to obtain the material known as crushed lump, the contents of the moulds would never be stoved at all: but when sufficiently dry, they would be taken out, and struck with a mallet, until reduced to a mass of disaggregated crystals. At least this is the plan followed in making the better kind of crushed lump. In Scotland, however, where crushed lump is employed more largely than in England, and where tile maximum of whiteness is no object, the processes of ~laying and liqluoring are omitted, the natu 246 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. if dissolved in water, and carefully evaporated, leaves a result not distinguishable from that arising from any other pure sugar solution. Bastards being the most impure kind of refinery-crystallized produce, the reader will have anticipated the remark, that the syrup of drainage from bastards is treacle. The direct refinery operation being now gone through, it remains for me to describe the collateral processes of the scum and charcoal departments. The reader will therefore revert to the filter bags,-which necessarily contain all the mechanical impurities, or scum, as it is called, developed by the operation of boiling the mixture of raw sugar, water, lime water, and blood. This scum, being somewhat bulky, must necessarily contain a large amount of sugar, to lose which would be totally irreconcilable with the close economy of civilized manufacture. The simplest plan in theory, to obtain sugar, would seem to be the comnmon laboratory process of washing,. So glutinous, however, is the impurity, and so bulky, that hot water will not pass through witlh the necessary rapidity: hence other means of extracting the contained sugar must be adopted. These means are as follows:-The bags being turned inside out, the contained scum is transferred to larger bags (scum bags) and exposed first to a pressure effected by the imposition of weights; afterwards, it is boiled with lime water; and finally exposed to the pressure of a screw, or of hydrostatic power; by whilici means the greater portion of the sugar is removed. MWhen removed, the liquor-scum liquor, as it is called —is one of the most impure, offensive liquids that can well be conceived. Its color resembles porter; its smell, that of putrid blood; its taste, according to such evidenle as I can collect, is somewhat sweet.. On this latter point I am free to own that I can bear no direct testimony. If there be any truth in the chemical deductioin previously arrived at, viz.: that the rapidity of decomposition for sugar solutions, Z'teris'aribus, is in direct ratio to the amount of impurities contained-this scum liquor must be a focus of so much mischief that it should never, under any pretext, be incorporated with the raw sugar of a refine. But now the practical question arises:what is to be done with it? To evaporate so weak a solution of sugar and water —even dlevoid of impurities. —would be practically impossible —seeing that the process of evaporation must be prolonged to the extent of destroying the chief part of the sugar. Then how much are the difficulties of the position increased by the presence of animal matters anal lime! Ill fact, scum liquor is surrounded by moost unyielding c:onditions; inot only must it be added to the next blow-up, bu added at o nce, or else fermenta tion s ets illi and it is dec o mposed. It is evidn, tent, then, that the present opera ti on of sugar refniing is on e of gradually increasing deteroa io ration. On a ccount of the necessity the refiner is under of adding impure saccharine solutions to such as are comparati vely pure, he pur s ues a system of working in a nd in, most destruct ive to t he staple of his operations; and were it not th at treacle is a ge n eral re ceptacle for imJpurities, refineries would run themselves out, ort be brought to a close. This system of in and in work is one cau se which preven ts a refine r fro m kn owing the exac t per centage amount of pr oduce yielded by any give n sugar; but the re is another, namely, th at i nvolv ed by the us e o f magma liquor, which necessarily confuses the weighed results. Refiners have be en thought extremely tenacious in guarding agains t the disclosur e of the per centage amount of sugar obtained, and doubtless that tendency exists; but, in strict truth, the y c a nnot t ell, so much is one operation i n volved in tho se which precede and follow. It is not here asserted that a re finer can not, by taking the average of a considerable period, obtain a general result of his produce; but to ascertain the amount of pure sugar obtained fr om any given sa mple, is, by the present refinery operation, iTepose sible. To illustrate the unsatisfactory loosenes s of the deductions which are s o meti mes made from inadequate data furnished by the refining operation, the following nar ra tive will suffice. I was shown a kind of laboratorybook belonging to a Lond on refiner, and in whi ch the assertion was made, that about 82 pounds of white sugar out of 112 of r awe material were obtain ed in his e stablishment: no expreneriments wer e mentioned, but mierely the dictum laid down. I subsequently examined the boiler a s to the me ans by which the deduction was arrived at; when it ap peared that the deduction was not proved but merely assumed, as being in accordance with certain experiments made-not in the refinery, but in the labora tory. The process of liquoring was not ado pte d i n these experi ments, but the sugar in the green state was assumed to have a certain per centage of coloring matter. 14 After all," remarked the boiler very candidly, " I never could see how this result of 82 pounds was ever arrived at; and I consider the result of our best working to be more like 75 or 76." There is a considerableaffectation prevalent among refiners of considering their inaniufac;|ture absolutely perfect. A very largbe Lon~don 1lrefiner would lead the world to believe that he does nlot produce i3 hlis reSfinery any bas 247 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. tards. He does not sell any, it is true, considerling it more profitable to purify this product to the extent of enabling it to be converted into pieces. This samne refiner also entertains the notion that he absolutely extracts all the sugar out of his scum; whereas I know, on authority that is unquestionable, that he sells the scum of one of his refineries alone for ~5 per week to a party who converts it into bastards and treacle. M os t ref iner s hav e an in stinctive horror of ow ning to the employment of bl ood. I once was taken to a London su gar-house, wh i ch has the credit of being considerably in adva nce of othe rs in the general economy of the whole operation. Amongst other matters, I was informed that no blood was used. A personal examination of the blow-up pan, however, during an operation, corrected the error fully to the satisfaction of myself-and friends. Having a v iewed attentively every part of this refinery, I found that the only differenlce between it and many others which I had seen consisted in the remarkable cleanliness of the floors. The Trcat ment of Charcoal.-In London many refiners do not re-b)urni their own boneblaclk; indceed some refiners possess none of their own, but renit the material at a stated price. Others, however, burn their charcoal, even in London: in the provinces the plan is universal. Alhlhouah various processes have been tried for effectilg the purification of animal charcoal wittrout the aid of heat, they have all been discontinued, and the process of dry distillation is universally had recourse to. This process i s now, I believe, universally conducted in cast-iron retorts, either exposed to the direct action of the fire, or set in a kind of oven, according to the most approved plan followed by manufacturers of coal-gas. Not only do retorts, when exposed to the direct agency of fire, become speedily destroyed by oxidation, but occasionally the bone-black is apt to be over-buriied, whereas in the domeset retorts this result cannot occur. Tllat over-burnirig of bolle-black is injur]ous, has been recognized by many persons; but I am not aware that the reason of the injury has been explained. Indeed, to recognize, the full amount of that injury, for the sake of making an extreme case, a special experitnent is required. inasmuch as it is scarcely possible to apply the necessary amount of heat to a large retort, even when acted upon by the open fire. The first evidence of incipieiit over-burning of the bone-black is a peculiar glazed appearance which the grains possess, and which is probably a mere physical effect, and dependent on an increased density of mass, from the close approximation of particles. If the heat be p)uished still further, the agency of the charcoal inl tle bonle-black on the accompanying phlosphates, liberates such all amount of phosphorus, that any sugar-soluition passed through such charcoal is completely spoiled. In the dome-set retorts, not even the first ill effect can well occur. The decolorizing effect of bone-black is much impaired if it be not washed free fMrom sugar before burning: such i s the fact, but the rationale is not understood. During the process of burning, the boneblack gives off a great quantity of ga seous and condensable empyreumatic produIlcts, a mongst which a ammo nia an d Dippel's animal oil predominate; thus pr oving,it any evidence were wanted, how far the legitimate inifluence of the bone-black, as a mere decolorizirng agent on sugar, has been interfered with by the presence of the animalized matters derived from blood. As soon as the evolution of voliatile matter has ceased, the charcoal is raked out, with all due rapidity, into iron chests, and at once covered over, so that all ingress of air may be prevented, otherwise a large portion of the charcoal would be consumed. As regards the theory of the action of boneblack, I contfess myself entirely ignloralnt. Although cognlizant of the various theor ies which have been miooted from time to time to explain this agency, I have met with no explanation yet that seems at all satisfactory, and want of time has prevented me from devoting any great attention to the matter. I am far from convinced that the decolorizing agency is due to the charcoal of the boneblack in the least degree; and, so far as I have seeln, the opinions of Messrs. Gwyone and Young, recorded in the Annals of MIedicine for June, 1837, would appear to be corr lect-namely, that the agency is due to the 90 percent. of phosphates of lime and ferruginous compounds with which the 10 p)er cent. of charcoal, in bone-black, are associated. I may mentioii, also, that this opinion is advocated by Mr. Fairrie, the refiner, of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. The chief defects of the present refinery operation are as follows: 1. The necessity of employing lime-water and blood. 2. The great accumulation of sweet waters arising from the washing of' the charcoal. 3. The process of ini-and-ini workings. 4. Thedeteriorating inflence of scum-liquor on solutions of sugar. Atter the exposition which has already been given of the injurious agency of' limne on sugar, little remains to be stated on that point he re. Ilndeed, the amount of lime. as used in refineries, is but small, the earth never being employed in substance, but alwvays as lime-water; hence the injurious agency of this alkaline earth is in a nmanner reduced to its practical minimunm. Still, even iunder these circumstances, its ultimate destructive aagt ency must be great, when it is coisidered that each successive syrup contains the lime not only of its own operation, but of many 248 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. preceding operations-modified only by the arounttt of limne removed (ifany) by the bone- black filtration process. The employment of blood, although effect ing a considerable mechanical separation of one set of impurities, and thus enabling the liquor to pass rapidly through the filter-bags, nevertheless imparts not only red-coloring, matter, but also the peculiar odorous compounid of the blood. The coloring matter, it is true, can be removed by animal charcoal, but only, as must be evident, by diverting a certain amounrt of the efficacy of that substance from its more legitimate agency of removi,ig the vegetable coloring matter of impure sugars. As to the odorous matter, it is never separated from the liquors to be evaporated however bright they may be to the eye, and is only removed fiom the crystallized sugar by the processes of claying and liquoring, which force it into the syrup, and lastly into the treacle. Hence it is that the colored refinery products-pieces and bastards-although somewhat like Muscovado sugar in appearance, possess a most offensive smell. The colored sugars resulting from a refinery process, where no blood is used, cannot be distinguished from real Muscovado sugars-the best proof of the assertion that the peculiar smell of the two former is due to the odorous matter of blood. Another very strong proof of the presence of this odorotls matter consists in the fact, that the condensed vacuum-pan steam evolves a peculiarly nauseous smell of perspiration. The perspiratory fluid of arimals is well known to be evaporated from their blood; and, taking advantage of this fact, a celebrated writer on fi,)reusic medicine* has proposed to distinguish, inedico legally, between the blood of brutes and the blood of man, by treating the suspected blood with solphuric acid, when the peculiar perspiratory smell of the animal will be evolved. The acc umu lati on ofsweet w aters, arising from the various wshigs to which the char - coal must be subjected, is a very serious inconvenience, which is much felt, now that the effective bulk of bone-black has been so greatly increased beyond the few inches mentioiete by Derosne, the patentee. If these washinigs accumulate faster than the necessities for water in the future operaotens of blowing up, the inconvenience, not to say positive loss, to the sugar refiner will be great indeed. The effect of in-and-in working, as producing a cumulative amount of destruction, has already been so fully enlarged upon that it need not be further adverted to, and a similar remark applies to the injurious agency of scum-liqtuor. It now merely remains for me to add, that tile process of employing sulphulrous acid as SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANIUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE.-VEGE TABLE PRINCIPLES-PROPERTIES OF' CANE SUGAR-RE-AGENTS-MOLASSES, TREACLE -- C ANE-JUIcE - SACCHIARINE MATTERANALYSIS OF SUGAR-CANE, VARIETIES OF SUGAR MILLS-MOTIVE POWERS, ETC. BASED UPON DR. EVANS' WORK.-'IThe extracti on of sugar from its juices is said to be a purely chemical process, and of consequence most perfectly conducted wherever science prevails the most. In the manufactories of the metropolis it will be found in a much higher state of advance than in colonial work-houses and estates, however extensive. In the United States we have been latterly convinced of this, and are taking those steps which are suggested. The extraordinary advance which Louisiana evinces, speaks volumes for this better spirit. Her liberal planters pause at no pains or expense; many of them are ever engaged in prosecuting their experimental researches; the progress is continual, and the efiort unremitting. Were it not invidious, we could call by name many of these planters; some of them have sent agents to Europe to examine machinery and movements. The expense of improvements and apparatus is the last consideration; the great point is perfection. Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon are the chemical constituents of all substances produced by the vital action of plants. Thus the water taken up by the roots and carried * Since the period when the above was printed, my coadjutors have become far too numerous for specia l acknowledgment. I must not, however omit the name of Messrs. Shears, of Bankside, who have fitted up a model house on their premises for demonstrating the new operation, and to whom I am indebted for many valuable suggestions as regards the mechanism of my process. 249 a precipitant for lead-used as a defecatoris equally good for refinery as fo rco] onial operations, as I have proved most rigorously, both on the small scale and the large. in conclusion, I beg here to thank the various gentlemen, far too numerous to i-nentioti, wl-io have aided me in my investigations on sugars for the last eighteen months. To Messrs. Evans, Tliwaites & Co., refiners, of Cork, my acknowledgments are particularly due for the very prompt and liberal manner in which they responded to my application for leave to try the efficacy of my process in their house. The various experiments, conducted on the small scale, in a laboratory built by them for the occasion, having led to a successful trial on the large scale with most satisfactory results, their house has now been especially altered for the purpose of adapting it to the genius of the new process.' I Barruel. 250 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. into the leaves, as sap, to be exhaled, to liberate oxygen, etc., thus changing its character, to return fit for the nutrition of the plant, contains two ofthese elements. "All the proximate principles which enter into the structure of a plant, are formed by a blending together of their elementary bodies in various proportions." If in any of these compounds nitrogen be present, it is said to be azotzzed; if otherwise, non-azotized. Thus dextrine, starch cellulose, lignin, or woody fibre, gums, mucilage, and sugar, are of the latter class. But sugar is also a product of the animal kingdom; thus, the sugar of milk, of diseased urine, etc. Vegetable sugar is that of the cane of fruits, of manna, etc. The glucosc, or fruit sugar, is uncrystallizable, under(roes rapid vinous fermentation, and has a peculiar combination of elements. Mannite, the ingredient of manna, is contained in the juice of plants in New South Wales, and certain sea-weeds-does not ferment. The cane-so,gar consists of carbon, 12 atoms; hydrogen, 10 atoms; oxygen, 10 atoms; and 1 atolmn water. Sugar-cane absorbs readily the chloride of sodium and potassium, and probably the sulphates. Where these salts abound in soils the sugar will possess purgative qualities. The sodium, or common salt, forms a deliquescent compound, and thus the difficulty of crystallizing sugar made from saline soils. Cane-sugar may also be obtained from many grasses, maize, guinea corn, roots of the carrot, beet, &c.; from pumpkins and melons, from the sap of the palm, &c. When pure, it is solid, transparent, and colorless; crystals, rhomboidal prisms; but subject to modification; soluble in half its weight of water at 60~, and 1-5 at boiling point, sparingly in cold alcohol; specific gravity, 1,600, water being 1,000; at 300~ it melts, and forms an uncrystallized mass, which, on a much greater application of heat, becomes uncrystallizable; at 500~ the black substance caramel is formed. The sugar-cane is cultivated chiefly in the WTest Indies, Brazil, Louisiana, and the Mauritius, and is of the following chief varieties 1. Common or Creole cane, so called from being introduced from the new world. 2. Yellow Bourbon. 3. Yellow Otaheite. 4. Otaheite, with purple bands. 5. Purple Otaheite. 6. Ribbon cane. The Miuscocado sugar is all such as contains any foreign matters, as silica, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, organic matter, potash; being the state of all colonial and plantation sugars. MLolasses is the mother liquor after the crystallization of cane-sugar. It contains pure sugar and impurities. Twenty pounds Louisiana molasses gave 15 lbs. of the former, and 5 of the latter, in clud ing water. Treacle is a late product of the refinery; it does not crystallize; is of a dark brown color; specific gravity, 1380-1400. The plant is perennial. The stem, cut horizontally, is shown in figure 1, and when examined by a microscope, shows a series of hexagonal cells, formed of delicate tissue and closed laterally above and below, each being entirely independent. A series of vessels inclosed in woody sheaths is also found, and best shown by a vertical section. Thus, A A, fig. 2, are the vessels; B B, the cells; the former being formed of rings, an{ running from one extremity to the other o the joint, forming a lacework. Here ar situated the knots. The eyes, or germina spots of the plant are found here. The ves sels contain a crude sap or fluid; the cells solution of pure sugar and water. Betwee these there would appear to be a continua communication. The sugar cells suppl nourishment to the rapidly vegetating cane but this supply is discontinued on maturity Fig. 2. A A~~~~~~~~~~~. Fig. 1. A SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. ration crystallization is imperfect, and fermenitation ensues. Sulphurous acid, on a base of zinc or lime, will prevent the latter action, but ought never to be required. The saline matter of cane-juice is 2 to 4 parts in 1000. Dr. Evans, writing of the West Inidies, says: "There are lands on which the canes do not seem to ripen, owing to the saline soil stimulating too large a growth, and preventintg a deposit of sugar in the cells. Drainage is a chief remedy here. A luxuriant vegetation followed by continued drought, checks the growth, and the plant shows a disposition, as it is called, to arrow. This drought occurring when the canes have attained ordiniary growth, is beneficial. The evil effects of drought are thus explained: In consequence of injury that the structure of the stem has suffered, the liquid contents of the different organs have been mingled, the azotized matters have acted as fermentative agents, and the sugar, in whole or in part, has been converted into gum, glucose, and lactic acid, the one or the other of them predominating in different cases.* That of early frost. The frost causes an expansion of the fluids, and a rupture of the organs which contain them. An intermixture of the saccharine and nitrogenized principles consequently ensues. Should the frost contin ue, no evil results are observed, for at such a temperature catalysis is prevented; but should a thaw succeed, the cane-juice becomes viscid and mucilaginous, the syrups resulting from it will not crystallize, and the only use to which they can be applied is that of distillation. Cane-juice is the expressed product of crushed cane, and of consequence consists of other substances besides sugar and water. It is first opaque, frothy, and of a yellowish green or grayish; sweet taste; acid reaction on test-paper, and separable by filtration into a transparent yellow fluid, and a dark green fecula. This fecula or scum, when separ - ated by he at and lime, consists of wax 7.5, green matter, 1.3, albumen and wood 3.4, bi-p hosphate of lime 0.5, silica 2.1, and w ater. The transparent liquid consists o f water, sugar, saline matters, coloring principles, etc. The exp eriments of Peligot and Evans on filtered cane-juice prove 1. That cane-juice, without t h e addition of any foreign matter, when its water is evapo rated atha ueo the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, does not produce crystals of sugar. '. That when it is exposed to a t emperature a little below that of boiling water f or the purpose of concentration, crystallization of a part, but not of the whole, of its sugar takes place. 3. That on the addition of alcohol to the concentrated syrup, nearly the whole of it is converted into a solid crystalline mass on fartIlel' evaporation. Filtered cane-jluice at rest loses its transparehecy, becomes viscid, and ferments. Boiled cane-juice changes with great rapidity its chemical character. The casein which it containis is insoluble in pure water; acidulated, or rendered alkaline, by vegetable acids or po,tasl, soda, or lime, not in excess, the caseini may be separated. Without this sepa TABLE REPRESENTING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTIONS OF SUGAR OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS. Specific Sugar in gravity 100 partt 1057.......14 1062....... 15 106 6........16 1069....... 17 1073....... 18 1077....... 19 1081.......20 1085....... 21 1090.......22 1095........23 1100.......24 1104....... 25 110 9.....1. 26 1113....... 27 TABLE OF THE DENSITY OF SOLUTIONS OF SUGAR, ACCORDING TO THE SCALE OF BEAUMI. Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees cf Sugar in of Sugar in of Sugar in of Sugar in of Sugar in density 100 parts density 100 parts density 1C0 parts density 100 parts density 1I0 part 1........018 8........ 144 15........276 22........406 29........541 ........ 035 9........163 16........294 23.......424 30........560 3........052 10........182 17........315 24........443 31........580 4........070 11........200 18........334 25........462 32.......601 5........087 12........218 19........352 26........481 33........622 6........104 13........237 20........370 27........500 34........644 7........124 14........256 21........388 26........ 521 35........666 * Dr. Evans's Treatise on Sugar, pp. 62, 235. 251 g,-,,,ity 100 P.,t. I()OO.......00 I() )4.......01 1008.......02 I(!2.......03 ,O)II).......o 1020.......05 1024.......06 lo)S.......07 i 032.......08 i 03C.......09 1040.......10 1045.......I I I i)40.......12 1!-)53.......13 P,if"3 S"g", i. ,.,ity 100 P.t. ills.......28 .29 1128.......30 11 33 31 113 32 1142.......33 114 34 1152 ------ -35 115 36 1162.......3, 1167.......38 11' 2......39 ll,'7.......40 1182.......41 sp,),ifl" s.g., i. g,.-,ity 100 P.,t. .42 1193....... 43 1199....... 44 1204....... 45 1209....... 46 1215....... 47 1220....... 48 1225....... 49 1230....... 50 1235....... 51 1241....... 52 1246....... 53 1252....... 54 1257....... 55 sp,),ifi. Sg., i. g,.,ity lto P. 1263....... 56 1268....... 57 1273....... 58 1279....... 59 1284....... 60 12SO....... 61 1295....... 62 1301....... 63 1307....... 64 1312....... 65 1317....... 60 1321....... 666 252 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. time, introduced a vessel containing a quan tity of perfectly caustic lime. On the air being exhausted, the water, in consequence of the affinity which its vapor and the lime have for each other, is evaporated, while the alcohol remains. In the course of ten days or a fortnight, the alcohol becomes too strong to retain the sugar in solution, and this substance is consequently precipitated. The precipitate is then to be washed itn strong alcohol, anrid, having been carefully dried, it may be weighed, and its amount ascertained. The method usually resorted to by chemists for ascertaining the amount or suigar contained in a given solution, is either the following, or one closely resembling it. Presuming that cane-jtiice is the sacclharine ftluid to be examined, a weighed quantity of it is filtered, and a portion of very strong alcohol, equal to half its bulk, is added to it; a flocculent precipitate immediately takes place, which is removed by a renewed filtration. The liquid is then placed under the receiver of an air-pump, into which is, at the same ANALYSIS OF THE ASHES OF THE SUGAR-CANE. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Silica................. 45.97..42.90.. 46.46..41.37..46.48..50.00..45.13.. 17.64..26.38..52.20..48.73..54.59 Phosphoric acid......... 3.76.. 7.99.. 8.23.. 4.59.. 8.16.. 6.56.. 4.88.. 7.37.. 6.20..13 04.. 2.90.. 8.01 Sulphuric acid.......... 6.66..10.94.. 4.65.10.93.. 7.52.. 6.40.. 7.74.. 7.97.. 6.08.. 3.31.. 5.35.. 1.93 Lime................... 9.16..13.20.. 8.91.. 9.11.. 5.78. 5.09.. 4.49.. 2.34.. 5.87. 10.64..11.62.14.36 Magnesia............... 3.66.. 9.88.. 4.50.. 6.92..15.61..13.01..11.90.. 3.93. 5.48. 5.63.. 5.61.. 5.30 Potassa............... 25,50.. 12.01. 10.63.. 15.99.. 11.93.. 13.69.. 16.97..32.93..31.21.. 10.09.. 7.46.. 11.14 Soda................... -.. 1.39.. -.. -.. 0.57.. 1.33.. 1.64.. -.. -.. 0.80.. -.. - Chloride potassium...... 3.27.. -.. 7.41.. 8.96.. -.. —.. -.. -10.70..11.14.. -..16.06.. 0.84 Choride sodium........ 2.02.. 1.69.. 9.21.. 2.13.. 3.95.. 3.92.. 7.25..17.12.. 7.64.. 4.29.. 2.27.. 3.83 the coppers of the boiling-house, to concentrate the syrup, and as the heat required is great, a large amount of the silica and the alkalies present is converted into a hard, insoluble glass, which, in this form being useles s, i s th rown away. We can, therefore, readily understand the reason of the rapid exhaustion of their sug,ar-lands, and the comparatively slow wearing out of those in Louisiana, where, from the abundance of wood, the cane-trash is never thus employed, and where, in addition to the inorganic itngredients of the cane, the soil receives (at least where the plantership is what it ought to be) the almost equally valuable mineral constituetnts of the wood itself. Having examined the physiology and structure, varieties and chemical ingredients of cane, the next step will be to determine the mechanical means used for the extraction of its juices. The fluid contents of a cane, according to Evans, contain ninety per cent. of the entire structure of the stem. The Sugar Mill.-The mode of expression is by rollers. M. Duprez, an agent of the French government, having experimented on the canes in Guadalupe, found the quantity of juice in every 100 pounds crushed The above results were condensed by Professor Shepard, of South Carolina, from the results of Mr. Stenhouse. Professor S. remarks: Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, wvere very fine fullgrown canes from Trinidad, consisting of stalks and leaves, but without the roots. Nos. 5, 6 and 7, were similar canes from Berbice; No. 8 from Demarara; No. 9, of fullgrown canes, but with few leaves, from the island of Grenada: No. 10 from Trelawny, Jamaica, consisting of transparent canes in full blossom, grown about six miles from the sea, and manured with cattle dung; No. 11, of transparent canes, from St. James', Jamaica, growing about two hundred yards firom the sea, being old ratoons, and also manured with cattle-dung; No. 12, young, transparent canes, three and a half miles from the sea, and manured with cattle-dung, guano and marl. From these analyses, it appears that the cane for successful cultivation requires a very large quantity of silicate of potassa, and also a considerable amount of the phosphates. Few cultivated plants, except the cerealia, require so much. Wheat, or any of the cereals, necessarily cause the removal of a portion of the valuable inorganic constituents of the soil, such as the alkalies, phosphates, &c., which can only be returned to it indirectly: but with sugar, the case is quite otherwise. Sugar is a purely organic substance, consisting of carbon and the elements of water, all which can be derived from the atmosphere, and contains neither alkalies nor phosphates; so that if the ashes of the canes were carefully collected and returned to the soil in an available state; there is no reason why cane might not be grown upon the same lands almost indefinitely. In the We st Indies, where wood is scarce, the crushed canes are employed as fuel, under 1. By mills having horizontal rollers; the motive power not stated............... 61.2 lbs. 2. Bv mills; motive power, steam.......... 60.9 3. By mills; motive power, wind and steam 59.3 4. By mills having vertical rollers.......... 59.2 5. By mills; motive power, cattle.......... 58.5 6. By mills; motive power, wind*..........56.4 The average of all these experiments being 56 per cent. only. The result of M. Avequin on Louisiana cane was 50 per cent. Mr. Thompson, of Jamaica, states 50 per cent. as the average throughout the island of Martin. * Dr. Evans's Treatise on Sugar, p. 75. StJGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTtURE, AND COMBIMERCE. Ique. Dr. Evans ventures 47 per cent. as tlhe lowvest, 61 as the highest, in the West Indies. A mill in Madeira gave 47.5, and 70.2 of juice. The mill was a small one, made at Aberdeen about two years previously. on the ordinary Irinciple, with horizontal rollers, and the mnotive power was cattle. During the experiment which furnished the last and largest retsnlt, the rollers were braced more thani usually tight, and the inumber of canes introduced at a time were five or six, being the tut muost that the strength of the cattle would a(dmit of. The canes were squeezed once oily]+; indeed, the megass was too much lacerated to admnit of its being passed between he rollers a second time with advantage. These low results, Dr. Evans supposes, would compare favorably with those taken carefully throughout all the British colonies for the following seasons: 1. Because we can scarcely expect to find superiority, or even equality, where no attempts have been made to obtain it. o. Tlhat when we are ignorant that a deficienicy exists, little pains will be bestowed to correct it. 3. When, from the force of circumstances, more attention is paid to the obtaining of an abutndant supply of mega ss, to serv e a s fuel for the concentration of the cane-juice of' the following year, than I, at least, have ever seen evinced for obtaining a full and adequate si ipply of' juice for the present. * The Hydraulic Press. —This has been proposetl to substitute the mill, and introduced into Jamaica and St. Vincent, but the results are not yet given. It was even suggested that the canes, cut into thin slices and dried, be forwarded to Europe for more perfect manufacture. The trial from Guadalupe failed; the canes undergoing in the passage dec(,mposition. A new patent for extracting juice was lately taken out by M. Michiel. It conasists in ctuttintg the canes into thin slices, and subm.ttiiig them to the action of lime and water, to coagulate and render insoluble their niitrogeiiized constituents. This, it is thought, will extract the whole of the saccharine matter. Doubts are expressed as to its practicability, econiomily and dispatch, for large estates. To rive the greatest efficiency to the sugarmill, I)r. Evans suggests the following rules, by meanis of which he thinks 20 per cent. more of juice may be obtained than is usu ally, without additional cost. 1. The rollers should be made to approxi mate as closely as the work which they have to petrform will admit of. In mills, in which the rollers observe a vertical direction, the space between the first and second should scarcely, if at all, exceed one-fourth of an inch, while a distance of' one-sixth of an inch is the most that should be allowed between the second and third. Whe n they are placed horizont ally, the upper Onlle ough t to observe a space of ofre-filtlh to one-foutthh o f' an inch from the two lo wer. The se distances can never, perhaps, be accurately given in every case, but the requisite degree of bracing should always b e strictly attended t o. 2. The velocity of the rollers should be rendered a s unifotrm as possible, not by di niini,ishiig thtte amount of motive power, but by a carefully reguilated supply of cahp es. 3. The canes, whenl tlrown upon the tfeed ing- board, should be upon the same plane, and never ssuffered to cros s each other, otlh erwise the motion of the rollers will be checked, and th e canes wi ll be submitted to unequal pressure. 4. The megass, should invariably be re passed between the rollers, so a s to extract, a n as much as possible, the juice w hich still re mains iti it. When the canes are rich, and thei r juice of cobrsideralle density, the meoass should be sprinkled with a little upater, or, wher e it is practicable, exposed to the action of steam before it is submitted to the pressure; but when the canes ar e large, green and watery, this may be dispensed with.* The three-r olle r mill has the disadvantage of re-absorbing a par t of the cai e-juice in the spongy megass, and a los s of power. Those with five rollers have been used in Cuba, Bourbon and the Mauritius, which gave 70 per cent., a great increase of' motive power being, however, necessary. Foutr-rol ler mills, two below and two above, requiring little more motive power than the three roller, have given 70 to 75 per cenit. of juice. The motive power applied to mills is ani mal, wind, water and steam. Inl many of the English colonies mules are use(], but are con sidered bad economy. Wiiid is chiefly ap plied in Barbadoes, with its usual adv antages and disadvantages. Water has been little . used, steam being the usual agent. Defecation or Clari ficatton-Action of Lime and Heat-Use of Nlqtngalls, Sulphate of Zinc, Alum, Diacetate of Lead, Elmbark, 4ec. Filters-Evaporation -Animal Charcoal-Concentration of Syrup-Vacuum TProcesses-High and Low TemperatureProof Acids-Alkaline, Albuminous Syrups -Smear-Coolers-Skipping or StrikingPotting-Theory of Chrystallization —Caring Houses - Statistics of Sugar Plantations and Records-Condition of the British and West Lidies-Their -Relief-Abolitionism. -In our last paper we examined into the physical and chemical constituents of sugar-cane and its various products, the means of extracting the juices by machinery, and the merits of different processes. We * Evans on Sugar, pp. 881,2. 253 I Evans on Sugar, p. 77. 254 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. now proceed to other heads of our general subj e ct. We have received a letter from an intelligent Louisiana sugar planter now in Europe, who contributed to the Commercial Review an inestimable article upon the manufacture of sugar. In reply to our inquiries, he remarks, "I have notes in Paris of value, comprising references to what I have read, and statements of what I have seen and heard on a subject so interesting to me as the sugar culture and manufacture, and have collected everything of any value that has ever been published on the subject. I think I shall be able to give you, on my return, another article on sugar, which will interest our planters.", We also received from Mr. Valcour Aime, one of our most liberal and extensive planters, an interesting letter, which, we are sure, in so good a cause, he will excuse us for making public. It will be found in another place in this work. But we resume our labors, making, as in our last paper, the valuable work of Dr. Evans, of London, the basis of observations. It is the latest scientific treatise upon the subject, and important, as giving the results on the English plantations, and in the manufactories of the metropolis. As these papers proceed, we shall examine the results in all other countries, as well as in our own. The defecation, or clarification, of canejuice is the first process after its extraction, though in many of the English colonies it is dispensed with. WThere it is conducted, the juice is received from the mill into cisterns, or cold receivers of copper or wood, lined with sheet lead, to remain there until the clarifiers are ready. These receivers are, however, being abandoned, as Dr. Evans tells us, and the juice passes directly to its destination. The clarifiers are shallow copper pans, of circular form-flat, or arched slightly upward at bottom, and capable of containing 250 to 500 gallons. Each is suspended over a different fire-place, supplied with dampers to regulate the combustion of fuel, &c, When the juice has attained a sufficient temperature, say 140Q, lime is applied. It is usually slaked by water; clarified cane-juice or syrup being sometimes previously admixed, it is thought, with good results. The quantity of lime used is regulated by experiment on the juice, in wine-glasses, in each of which different quantities of it are introduced. After this application, the cane-juice is well stirred, and heated gradually to boiling, or until a scum appears upon the top, which cracks and breaks, exposing the clear liquid. The fire is then extinguished, and the juice left "to remain undisturbed until the remaining feculencies have subsided." It is then allowed to pass out into the grand copper receiver. A doable clarification is sometimes resorted to, one by heat only, and the other with heat and lime. Filtration by mechanical means is frequently practised as a previous step. The action of heat upon cane-juice is to coagulate and render insoluble the vegetable albumen involved with the flocculent particles. That of lime is more difficult of explication. If t ried in a glass, it changes the color to br ight yell ow, sep arating the liquid i nto a precipitate of impurities, and the clear juice. Lime saturates any free acid it may meet with in the cane-juice; it sets free a smalln quantity of potash; it forms an insoluble coinpound with a portion of the casein, which is either precipitated, or which rises to the surface in the scum; it combines with three times its weight of sugar-the substance produced being very sparingly soluble in cold, and still less so in hot water; it deepens the color of the juice. When the cane-juice contains a small quantity of lactic and acetic acids, an event which occurs more frequently now than formerly, owing to the want of a sufficiency of labor to hasten the stages of the manufacture, the lime combines with those acids, and forms uncrystallizable salts, which preserve a portion of the sugar with which they may be in contact in a fluid state. Should a small quantity of glucose be present in the syrup, which is always the case when concentration has been conducted as it now is in the colonies, the lime, probably assisted by a small quantity of potash which has been set free, speedily converts it into a glucic acid; and the glucates, when formed by the prolonged action of the heat, are as quickly converted into melasinates of the same basis, and the whole syrup is thus rendered of a dark brown or black color. Cane-juice, defecated as judiciously as possible by means of lime and the application of heat, throws down a farther precipitate on the addition of a little diacetate of lead. The lime should be as pure as possible -being burnt, and slaked immediately after with boiling water, and strained through a sieve. Before applying lime, the juice is tested with litmus paper, which is changed by it from blue to reddish-purple. At 1300 milk of lime is applied, cautiously at first, and then adding to the quantity until no farther reaction upon the litmus is observed. The heat is then applied till perfect ebullition for two or three minutes. If the clarifier contains 300 gallons, the first proportions of lime will be from four to six ounces. If the quantity of lime be not sufficient, the grains I Evans, pp. 97, 98. SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. will be light and small-if too great com- Filters which are used for mnere mnechaniplexion of the sugar will be darker, but cal impurities, are strong calico bags, eighteen bolder grains. The vessels should alwaysbe inches wide, and three to five feet long. of copper. These bags are introduced into others of There are other chemical modes of sepa- canvas, of the same length, only six inches rating sugar from its impurities, each with wide. Tubes then run from the cistern to different degrees of merit and demerit. the mouths of the bags, around which they That by nut-galls, it is said, may be followed are tightly closed. to advantage when the juice is viscid, without increased acidity. WVhen the sulphate of zinc is used, the defecation is very cornplete; but being a virulent poison, the pro- cess is attended with danger. Twelve ounces; are applied to 300 gallons cane-juice, and l — I milk of lime to render neutral. Bag filters =...- i;... are then used for straining. Alum possesses ____ great advantages, together with the evil that } i it leaves sulphate of potash, or nitre, corn- 1_ I __ bined with the juice, which is deleterious.,, - - - Thes7ilphateofaluminapossessesextraordina- ry advantages over other chemicals. It leaves D $ the liquor colorless, and the sugar beautiful. T -- It is used in the manufacture of beet-root sugar in France. The process is thus ex- _,-.:. plained by Dr. Evans: E _,X = This substance is employed in the way just described for alum. It does not contain h potash, but is composed of alumina and sul- Tus, in the annexed diagram B is the phuric acid only. T'he proportions required clarifier; C s an upper cistern D shows are about one pound to every 100 gallons of the case of filters attached to C; E is a juice; but twice or even thrice that quantity lower cistern, receiving filtered liquor and discharging it into the copper, if possible. may be given with advantage. We must be arging it into the copper, if possile. careful, however, to neutralize the liquor, If the juice has not been previously filtered, thus treated, as quickly as possible with milk a wire sieve should be placed in C.* of lime, otherwise some risk would be in- eThe process of clarification being comnpletcurred of converting a portion of the sugar ed, the next in order is evaporation, or reuc into glucose. Every pound ofthe sulphate tion to the state of syrup. of alumina will require about seven or eight The liquid has passed into the coppersounces of caustic lime to effect its decompo- hollow spheres-arranged in order on the r ~~~~~~~~~surface, and over one fire. This method sition; but a slightly additional quantity may surface, an over one fire. This othllo be given in all cases, beyond what is merely was used in India from all antiquity. In necessary, although the liquor may thereby these coppers the liquid undergoes renewed be rendered slightly alkaline. defecation, evaporation, and concentration, be renered lighty alkline.simultaneously. Dr. Evans shows that to Stlphuric acid is advised, either upon juice sim ultaneously Dr. Ev an s sthat to that is viscid, or, in the technical phrase, do these effectually by this means is poswhlich is burnt. Diacetate oflcadwas proposed sble, and that inury must arise in soe of in Enlad, and a patent taken out for its use the processes. The plan would not have been so long retained in the colonies had some years ago. But a double clarification ee so long retained in the colonies ha is necessary,' with, of course, loss of time and there been a lemanl for finer sugars. To labor. It was tried in the English colonies dy its evils, the following mdifications and the resulting sugar, to some extent from and changes are suggested mismlanagflemlent, produced serious effects 1. Remove the teache; place the fire under mismianagemeint, produced serious effects upon all who used it. Wild elm barkha the s econd copper; let the four coppers conupon all who used it. W~ild elm bark- hasstttexlsvlthevprtnapaa been successfully resorted to in Martinique sttute exclusively the evaporating aparaand Guadaloupe. tus The juice passes first into the one most distant from the fire, and successively into Subsequent filtration of cane-juice after its distant from the fire, and successivel into defecation is commended for several reasons the others, being skimmed and ladled until -that is, if it has been allowed to boil. 1 reaching the density required. Pass it then Less trouble in regulatingf temperature. 2 into charcoal filters, or into a cistern preEbullition, which is essential to the corn- pared to receive it, or into the concentrating plete coagulation of the albumen. 3. Econ- vessel. This procees would not increase the omy of time, the liquid running immediately expense of machinery, but megass fuel must after boiling into the filters. 4. The increase be used to pass the flame far enough, and a in quantity of liquor. 5. Complete separa greater expense offueland labor is required. tion of solids, and more transparent juice. * Evans, p. 111. 255 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. - the density which is best suited for this pur f pose in 27~ or 28Q Beaume6; but if this ope ration is not to be performed, the evaporation may be prolonged until the syrup has acquir ed a density of 300 or 329. e "Evaporation of cane-juice is best performt ed by ebullition at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. That degree of heat, at this stage, . during which the sugar is largely diluted, , when judiciously applied, so that the syrup may not be exposed to it longer than is ab solutely necessary, is always beneficial, and often essentially necessary; for, otherwise, a larger portion of the nitrogenized matters, which have not been entirely remioved, would be retained, and the crystallization of the su gar would be less complete." The syrup being furnished in the state we left it, the producer may elect whether he will have a good, fine article of Muscovado, t or an altogether superior and valuable pro duct. In the latter case he will resort to refining throughl charcoal. This was first discovered in 1805, and in 1811 animal char coal was found to possess the qualities de sired in a much higher degree than vegetable. M. Derosne first applied it in France to su gar. The filters made by M. Dumont are in general use. Animal charcoal discharges the color, renders viscid syrups crystallizable, neutralizes acids, and removes excess of lime. It destroys the bitter and aromatic principles of vegetables, neutralizes poisons, &c. Vegetable charcoal may be made in a consider able degree to possess discoloring properties. Let 30 lbs. of it, reduced to a fine powder, and then washled carefully in water slightly acidulated with muriatic acid, and afterward with pure water, be mixed with 70 lbs. of clay, in the form of a paste, and the whole be set by to dry; then let it be broken into small pieces, and calcinied in a close iron vessel, at a white heat, for two hours. On its with drawal it must be received in covered iron boxes, out of the contact of the air, or instant ly cooled with aspersions of cold water, and reduced into a coarse powder. TI-is forms an excellent substitute for animal charcoal, as it possesses considerable discoloring powers. the defecated juice. B is the upper, and C the lower evaporator. The bottoms of the evaporators should be corrugated, to increase the heating surface. In the manufacture of beet-sugar, steam has been chiefly used for evaporating heat. The only decided advantage which it is said to possess is the entire removal of the heat when required, without the trouble of dampeniing the fire, &c. It is by no means economical, from the loss of caloric and consumption of fuel. Dr. Evans remarks: "Evaporation has for its object the concentration of cane-juice to the consistency of a syrup of that degree of density best suited to the process which it has afterwards to undergo. Thus, if the syrup is to be filtered through animal charcoal previously to its concentration into sugar, I 256 da - - -, 0 0 O.O ~. ,/' ~ 1, D6 0 0~o.b,~ A/ '/ a 0 0 0 -. e, 0. y SUGARY ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. Thle Alter of M. Dumont is shown in the ed moistened charcoal-filling two-thirds of nut. It is a quadrangular, pyramidal vessel, the vessel. Over the charcoal is a perforated of wood, base uppermost. Its bottom is cover. The hot syrup being poured in, the double, the upper one being basket-work or air and water, urged by its pressure, ascend perforated metal. In the space between the the tube and escape. Four filters would be two l)ottoms is placed a cock, and a metal tube required, of the usual size, to make three Tises from the same chamber. Over the false hogsheads a day. The charcoal must be rebottom is spread flannel, and placed powder vivified in three or four days. The Peyron filter is a different machine, and is applicable to other sugars than beetroot. It consists of a series of cylindrical vessels, each double-bottomed, like Dumont's, hermetically sealed at top. They are closely packed with charcoal, and into the upper part of the first vessel a tube is introduced, to admit syrup, descending with the aid of such pressure, as drives it through the charcoal. It then ascends into another vessel, by a pipe, &c., &c.. as inl the plate. The cylinders are six feet high, and three il diameter. They do rather more work than Dumont's, and act five or six days. When the charcoal isworn, boiliig waters is introduced, and by te rmentatio a n eflbctual washing, it regains its power. Tk ordinary puncheon is, however, a very got filter. The fifth chapt er of Dr. Evans' valuable a scientific work is employed upon the CONCE TRATION OF SYPRUP. The density of syrups and the relatix amount of their constituents will be differed as they are filtered through animal charco or not. The temperature of the boiling poi in the first instance will be 219 or -2~0 Fahr in the last case 2~'4~-with greater tempe atui-e, changes in the composition of the sug~ will result. Sugar being soluble in one-half its weigl of cold, and oiie-fit'th its weight of boilin water, boiling syrup, thoroughly saturate must necessarily deposit, on cooling, thre fifths of' its,sugar, the remaining two-firtl being held in solution by the water. T. temperature required for ebullition, whe there is one part of water to five of suga ranges from 238 to 248~, and even highe T hlese temperatures are injurious to sugIar, isshowii by the experiments of M. Soubiera The effects after long application of heat wer 1. l)isappearance of cane sugar. 2. Appea atnce oftruit sugar, or glucose. 3. Producti of'carbonaceous powder and acids. Exami ing the refineries of Paris where a low te: perature was used in vacuo, no such resul were marked. The usual plan of concentration being the first copper, or teache, as it is called, h the advantage of rapidity, but the loss in t quantity and quality of sugar thereby, estimated as high as ten percent. Expe merits have been made in Barbadoes to rem dy the evils of intense beat on the teac] These consist in reducing the size of the va sel, so that the syrup may sooner leave it. a n d t h r e e i n d e A _.,~~~~~. kA more important improvement would be to place the teache over a separate fire, and modify its form, viz., into a circular vessel, 45 inches in diameter, 14 or 15 inches deepbottom convex within-a cock for drawing off concentrated syrup-the bottom alone to be'exposed to the fire. " By these means the heat can be modified without interfering with the evaporation going on in the other vessels, and the bottom alone being exposed to the fire, there is much less danger of charring or burning the sugar than in the method now in use."' In 1819, Mr. Howard, of England, took a patent for concentrating sugar in vacuo, to prevent the evils of high temperature. The principles is, that liquids boil at lower temperatures, as the pressure of the atmosphere is removed. Howard's apparatus was a globular vessel, of copper, inclosed in an iron or copper-jacket, the space between being filled with steam. The syrup was contained in the vessel. A tube admitted the escape of vapor, which was condensed by a jet of water. An air-pump attached produced the vacuum, &c. This apparatus has been improved by inserting a long coil of steam-piping into the vessel, and the condensation of vapor by a metallic worm. The vacuum vessel or pan requires a thermometer, to indicate the temperature of the liquid, and a barometer, to indicate the degree of vacuum or exhaustion. The steam-jacket greatly adds to the quantity of heating surface, as also does the steam-pipe. The diminished atmospheric pressure increases in similar ratio to the evaporating power. A fall of 27 inches in the barometer reduces the boiling point of water to 164.0 Thus is secured low temperature and rapidity. Speaking of the application of this invention to the English colonies, Dr. Evans remarks: Unfortunately its general adoption, that is, *Evans. 257 17 VOL. III. SUGAR, ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMIR(-E. its introduction on every estate, will forever be impossible, in consequence of the great outlay required for the purchase of the apparatus, the skill required lor its management, its liability to get out of order, and the necessity of more efficient workmten for its repairs than are as yet to b e found in the colonies. The first of the se objections is not so app licable to lar ge estates as it is to small ones, as they offer a larger scope for ge tting the return of an adequate intere s t on the money so invested; a nd in such a c as e the others w oul d be ov ercome by the necesaity w hich would arise of obtaining that knowledgte from abroad which is not to be had at homre, were there an urgent demand for its supply. ri There can benodoubt that,on those estates which, f rom th eir extent and the fortunate posi tion of their owners, will admit of the sinking a capital sufficient to obtain the vacuum apparatus, in conjunction with steam defecating and evaporating vessels, and a powerhful and well-constructed mill, the ameliortations whichl would result, both in the quantity and quality of the products, obtained uno B dr rde a prud tent and itelli gent management, would fually comp e nsate the expense incurred; but how few are the estates which at the present time are in such fortu na te circumstances!" A pl an of concentrating syrup at a low temperature over i th e op en f i re, and at the ordinary atmospher ic pressure, was submitted a few months ago by Augustus Gadesden to the West India proprietors. It consists of a copper pan in the form of the half of a hollow cylinder, in which are placed a nutimber of metal rods, arranged for facilitating the evaporating surface. Connected with these is a wheel, continually revolving, and exposing to the atmosphere fresh portions of the heated syrup at each revolution. Dr. Evans remarks: " I used a small concentratina vessel of this description in the Island of Madeira. The time required for taking off a strike containing fourteen moulds of fifty pounds each was two hours. and two hours and a half. The results were highly satisfactory: the temdperature never exceeded 160.~ It has also been in operation during two crops in Berbice, where its success appears to have answered every expectation formed of it. Such, however, has not been the case in the trials made of it in Barbadoes, for accounts trom that island state that it occasioned a considerable amount of froth, and that the time occupied in taking off a skiff was longer than was contemplated. is In Berbice the pan was worked by an intelligent boiler-mani sent out from this couIntry for the purpose; in the latter instance its managemen t was intrusted to the sugar boil ers of the colony. " The frothing, no doubt, was owingff to the incormplete defecation of the cane-juice, and the non-separation of the whole of the albuminous principles; if so, the addition of a drachin or two of washed butter would ill all probability have proved a remedy." When the syrup has arrived at a degree of conicentration sufficient for the deposition of three-fifths of the sugar it contains, it presents an appearance which is called "apoof." When it has reached this point, the syrup "is clear anfd transparent, it does not mount or rise in tfoam or froth, the ebullition is quick and sharp, the bubbles succeeding each other with rapidity, and bursting as they rise. As the inspissation advances, the syrup is seen to run from the edge of the skimmer in a thin, broad sheet, which separates as if it were cut sharply off with a pair of scissors, and never hangs down in long adhesive strings; it communicates to the eye the sensation of being a sharp, short, crispy fluid, possessing.little tenacity or viscidity, and the sound of its ebullitioi on communicates to the e ar a similar idea." A small quantity t ak en at this time be tween the forefinger and thumb and o adallowed to c ool, sho ws, on be ing separ ated, " 1. That it divides in t o to sma ll portions o r drops, the lower one of which, attached to the t e thumb, is larger than that adherin g to t he finger. " 2. That the por tion s be come pretty nearly equal, an d thei r divisio n is effected by a wider separation of the finger a nd t humb. " 3. On a separation to the e xtent of half an i nch, a slight column of syrup is produced which remains for an instant, and then breaks at its inferior extremity. i' 4. A thin thread is producedl on a somewhat wider separation, and on breaking the extremity curls up in the form of a lhook, and gradually retracts to the portion which remains on the finger. "1 5. Otn a still wider separation the thread on breaking is so thin as to bv scarcely perceptible at its lower end, which is drawn upward in the form of a corkscrew." Concentration at low temperatures may be so conducted as to dissipate all water, and produce perfectly dry sugar. This is said not to be desirable, nine per cent. of water being better to remain, when 100 pounds of' the syrup will give 70 of sugar, and 30 pounds of molasses. In concentration at low temperatures, a simultaineousproduction of crystals is secured. Hence it is desirable that the pan at first should have but little syrup, say one-third, and that it be added to as evaporation proceeds, and until incipient granuiilatiorn-which is called ", spark," firom its reflection of ligih.t. At this point fresh syrup is added. There are varieties of syrups besides pure, which are worthy of passing notice. Acid Syrups are the result of diseased or injured canes; of souring of canle-juice; as deficient use of lime. They are not transpa 258 SUGAR, ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. rent; become darker on boiling; boiled at low temperature the color is little heightened; the product of molasses is greater, and tcryst tllizatio,n moe'e difficult. "Alkaline Syrups, from excess of lime; sugar dark; grain nood. Salite and viscid syrups; ebullition ditfficult, irregular and slow; btubbles do inot readily burst; sugars produced, heavy, clammy and deliquescent. These syrups require a low temperature. "Albriminuzs Syrups, from imperfect defecationr; frothy in concentration; but butter or oil beitig added, the froth disappears without injluring tlhe sugar, if carefully used. "1 W,here syrups refuse to granulate, but appear tenacious and adhesive, they are said to be a smear. "']'he real natureof smear is not known. It probabl yd epeuds pouponi some el ectr o-chemical change excited in the molecules of the sugar during the process of concentration; but which, however, is not permanent, for syrups thus affected will, if left to themselves for some time, gradually become more and more crystalline; or, if they be diluted by the addition of a little water, and be again concentrated, granulation will eu-ue, as if nothing had previously happened. Generally their exposure in a heater for a short time lo such a temperature as will preserve their fluidity, is sufficient to destroy this character, and to restore the crystalline powers of the sugar." After the concentration of syrup in the ieacke it is passed in the English colonies directly into the coolers. The process of passing is called skipping, or striking, and is effected either by a ladle or copper skipper, fitted to receive the whole contents of the teache. The coolers are shallow wooden troughs, never exceeding one foot or sixteen inches in depth. The saccharine mass remains in the cooler until granulation has commenced, and is then removed to the hogshead. The system pursued of stir r ing the hot sugar in the coolers is declared by Dr. Evans to be destructive of crystallization, or perfect curing. Indeed, the whole process of potting anrt(I cooling as now practised, is reprobated as in the highest degree injurious. He argues that it tends to bind up with the sugar all the foreign elements which may be contained in the syrup-no little, even in the most skilful manufacture-and thus results the extraordinary melting away or drainage. The three points to be attained from properly-coneentrated syrup are-1, as large an amount of crystallization as possible; 2, as distinct and perfect a crystallization; 3, an easy separation of molasses. To perfect crystallization a perfect freedom of particles to move is necessary. The size and regularity of crystals depend upon the kind of evaporation. A rapid evaporation produces bad crystals. "eIf thes e d ata be applied to the manaageme~nt of the syrup when skipped, such a plan shoul d b e p ursued that the syrup may be be preserved in a sta te a s free as po ssible from viscidity or tenacity, so as to admit of the easy approximation of the saccharine par ticles. For this purpose the contact of cold air, and particularly draughts of wind, should be avoided; and to prevent tihe too sudden or rapid cooling of the syrup, it should be ex posed to a gentle and uniform temperature. That the crystals ofthe sugar may be perfect in form, distinact, a nd sufficiently large, the syrup should be placed in such a condition that the process of crystallization shall not be too hurried. It must, however, at the same time be borne in mind that the results of the operation must be regarded in a commercial rather than chemical point of view; conse quently, that the time allowed for its perform ance should be no more than what is abso lutely necessary; for in this, as in all other branches of manufacture, time is capital, and can be spared only at a certain sacri fice." The concentrated syrup should be skipped into moulds of the hogshead size, and placed in a curing-house, of uniform temperature, free from currents of air. These moulds are of course fitted for passing off the molasses. The crystals, as they begin to form a crust on the top, should be separated by a wooden knife, and diffused gently through the mass, the operation being repeated once or twice. In twenty-four or thirty-six hours the plugs in the bottom of the moulds are to be removed. The temperature of 90Q Fahrenheit is advised for the curing-house. Another kind of vessel is advised for curing. Water-tight wooden chests, cubes, are to be placed side by side on the joists of the curinghouse. The boxes to have false bottoms, two inches above the true, made of metal, minutely perforated, as of fine wire; this to be covered with coarse sacking. Spread on the sugar an inch thick; place a wooden cock between the bottoms. Fill the vessel with concentrated syrup, mixing the different skips, and leave in repose till a film of crystals appears-then occasional slight stirrings. Three or four days will be required for cooling where the vessels are large. When solid turn the cock or remove the plug. Mr. Hague took out a patent for a similar process. A vacuum was formed between the two bottoms, and the air-pump suction introduced. The pressure of the atmosphere drove the molasses. Mr. Cooper improved upon the patent.' Drainage having ceased, art is applied to separate the MOLASSES. The French beetsugar makers applied a thick paste of clay to the surface of the sugar. The water of the clay exuding, passes through the sugar, and carries off the molasses. The dry clay is removded and renewed applications of the ,paste. This, though largely pursued, is de 259 260 SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. precated by the chemist. Dr. Evans advises the following improvement: " Liquoring or syruping the sugar has for its object the replacing of the dark-colored molasses by another liquid of greater purity and of lighter color. The liquid to be selected for this purpose must be of a sufficient density to force the molasses before it as speedily as can be done with benefit; it must be incapable of dissolving any portion of the sugar with which it comes in contact; it must be much lighter in color th an the molasses, to be displaced; it mus t be inn ocuous to h ealth; and of s uch a natur e as no t to diminish the degree of sweetn ess of the ent ire mass. " The only liquid with which we are acqua inted ase that possesses all these qualifications, is a li sht-colored syrup, of such a density as to indic ate its saturation at the temp er ature ofthe atmosphere." The use o f the syrup should be thus: remove the crust on the upper surface of the sugar, crush ing it, and mixing with cold water to a pas te —replace it u pon the sugar. The syrup, howe ver prepared, mu st b e of th e color of the sug ar des ired. It must be poured cold to the d epth of two inches over t he sugar p r epared a s above. "In the colonies," says Dr. Evans, " it will s eldom be necessary to' s yrup' more than once; but if a still better color be required, the operation may be repeated. i te aay, if w e choose, as I have al ready stated, by the use of very colorless syrup, produce a sugar equal t o the best crushed lumps of the Eu rop ean refiner. It may, however, be doub ted whether carrying the process of syruping to the extent pr actised ill Eu rope will be, on the whole, profitable. " S ugars w hich hav e un derg on e this process, even to a l imi ted exte nt, are not improved in color only, but they are also much drier, less adhesive, their grain is mor e distinct, and they suffer n o loss of weight from leakage dur ing th e voyage home." Cane of th e d en s ity 1073, or 10~ Beaump, at 60~ temperature, is es timated to contain about 18 per cent. pure sugar, reaching in some instances as high as 22 per cent. In some of the most successful of the Barbadoes ,estates, three hogsheads of sugar, of the average of 15 cwt., with a proportionate quantity of molasses, are produced from a single acre of cane. The last consideration connected with the manufacture of sugar, is the disposition of its drainage or molasses. In Jamaica nearly the whole of this is converted into rum; and in other of the West Indies the same process is followed. At the present time we believe that the distillation of spirits is almost entirely neglected in Louisiana, though we recollect being informed by a very intelligent planter of that state, that some years ago, when molasses was at a very low price, he converted the whole of his crop into rum, equal in quality to the West India, which sold in the New-Orleans market for one dollar per gallon. West India molasses, from the little attention paid to it, is of very indifferent quality; but on being carried to England it is converted into sugar of excellent quality. The planters of Mauritius reboil, two or three times, their syrups with the same machinery used in other places. The boiling of molasses, it is said, is attended with small comparative expense. WVhere no change is contemplated in it the planters, in the hope of increasing their sugar product, carry the point of concentration too far, to the disadvantage of that product. The following summary, embracing nine leading principles in the cultivation and manufacture of sugar, is deduced from the reasonings of Dr. Evans, in his elaborate work. They should properly be committed to memory. " 1. The canes should be cultivated with a view not merely to their size and abundance, but we should, at the same time, by every means in our power, cause them to yield a juice as rich min saccharine matter and as free from all impurities as possible; and to prevent the evils which would result from decomposition ofthe juice, when cut, the candes should be conveyed to the mill with out loss of time. " 2. We should attempt to get from the canes the largest quantity of juice, either by improved mills, or by close attention to the fitting, bracing, feeding, &c., of those now in use-by sprinkling the megass with water, or by exposing it to steam, and by repassing it between the rollers. " 3. We must employ the best means in our power to defecate the cane juice, that is, to make this liquid approximate as near as we can to a solution of sugar and water only. Its speedy exposure to the action of a high temperature must be effected, and the greatest caution must be practised in the administration of the' tempe-irme.' " 4. The defecated liquor should be evaporated to the density of 32~ Beaum&, or to any other suitable degree, with the greatest expedition, care being taken at the same time that the carbonization of even the smallest particle of the sugar be prevented, by constantly preserving in the pan a depth of liquor sufficient to cover that part of it which is exposed to the fire. "5. The object of filtering the liquor through animal charcoal is the more perfect removal from it of the albuminous principles, excess of lime, coloring matter, acidity, &c. "6. That the concentration of the syrup to sugar proof should be effected with rapidity, and at the lowest temperature possible. SUGAR-ITS CULTIVATION, MANUFACTURE, AND COMMERCE. his remarks took it for granted, that under the present system of labor adopted in these islands, and in the relationship subsisting between the whites and blacks, their ruin was inevitable, if not already achieved. What results may grow out of this commis sion of examination, the facts and statistics collected by them, and the testimony elicited, it is not hard to determine. Sure are we, that in the overwhelming evidence, fanati cism and folly will be unmasked, and stand rebuked before the world! May we not hope, too, that the influences will be be nignantly felt in our own country in crush ing, those nefarious combinations, whose ends, whether perceived or not, are the same embarrassment and ruin! The condition, prospects and happiness-yea, eveni the lives of five millions of our population, white and black, are to be jeoparded in experiments, which philosophy, history, and all example denounce and deprecate. Phaton in the car of the sun is an admirable allegory of licen tious abolitionism! Dr. Evans complains of the loose manner in which the statistics ofthe West Indies are presented. Could a complete register be preserved of each of the islands, and, in fact, of the operations of the chief plantations, &c., much would result to the general benefit. Dissemination of knowledge of this kind would be of much advantage to Louisiana, and we have at all times endeavored to obtain it. A book is recommended on each estate, to record the chemical character of the soil, mode of cultivation pursued, nature and quantity of manure, weight of canes per acre -their description, whether plants, ratoons, age, &c., quantity ofjuice expressed by mill, density of that fluid, and other peculiarities, amount of sugar and molasses obtained, &c. To this may be added, kind of force employed, kind and consumption of fuel, expense ofma chinery and improvements, results in drain age, condition of slaves-aages, sex, health, longevity, diseases, fertility. expense of main tenance- kind and quantity of food, clothing, value of other products, value of slaves, &c., &c., &c. The preservation of these statis tics on all the sugar estates of Louisiana, we commend, in the assurance that it will be at tended with the best results. To which farther add, system ofmanagement of slaves, observations on weather, temperature, at mosphere. &c., &c. Nothing would please us more than to obtain such a paper, rigidly kept for one or more years from one of the nla -rgest estates in Louisiana, and we will endeavor to obtain something of the same kind from the West Indies, by way of contrast. Bearing upon these points are the following remarks of Dr. Evans: " The sugar-cane has never been produced n from seed ib the West Inldiest it is prepad jgated by cuttings or,germs, Plants loo raised, " 7. That to promote an abundant and per fect crystallization, repose, moderate warmth, and an equable temperature are necessary; and to effect the better curing of the sugar, these two operations should be performed in the same vessel. " 8. That to induce the complete separa tion of the molasses, the sugar, when suffi clentlv cured, should be submitted to the pro cess of liquoring. " 9. The molasses must be concentrated before any fermentative change shall have commenced." It is to be observed that the facts and principles of this and our precedingo paper, are obtained from one conversant practically only with the systems of sugar manufacture in the English colonies. Most of them may be said, however, to be of universal application. How far they may, or may not, correspond with results, &c., in Louisiana, remains to be inquired in other numbers of our series. It is for the interest of sugar planters that they be conversant with everything going on in their art in any quarter of the world, and we desire to give this information. In farther aid of our labors, we are in expectation of a work from England, not yet published, and information which has been solicited from the East Indies. Nor can we dismiss the subject without adverting to the condition of the English West India sugar colonies of the present day. On every hand the loudest, deepest, and most bitter complaints are sent up to the crown. It is impossible for these planters not to feel that they have been sacrificed to the blind and misguided efforts of religious enthusiasts and pseudo-philanthropists in England, subserving the purposes of interested politicians.* One of the most significant movements of the times, in this respect, must be considered the late one in parliament, calling for a committee of inivestigation into the state of the sugar colonies, and the grievous complaints of planters.t The mover of this resolution in * 5Ve think that Gov. tIammond, in his letters on slavery, unanswerably shows that the politicians of England, to build up her East India possessions, and break down the United States, lent a willing ear to the sincere but deluded zealots of emancipation. W/e shall take occasion at an early day to present an article showing, upon every point, from the most reliable data, the actual condition of the British West Indies at this time, contrasted with forr,mer prosperity. t "Nothing, the West Indian contends, has happened that might not have been confidently expected. During the period of slavery the want of labor was unknown, for the great majority of the population was compelled by law to work upon the plantations from day to day. But when that great social change, effected by'The Emancipation Act,' took place, vast numbers of the freed people betook themselves to other occupations natural to a free community; many to desultory pursuits, squatting, and vagrancy; while those who continued to work, were, from the fewness of their number, and the urgent necessity for their services, enabled to dictate their own terms to their employers," —Evans. 261 SUGAR-CANE. as is well known, become, in time, liable to deterioration and disease, and often entirely disappear. " There is, indeed, much reason for believing that this change has already commenced in the Bourbon and Otaheite cane. Ouglht we not to inquire whether this disposition might not be checked, or whether a great improvement in the vigor of these plants might nriot be effected by a change of cuttings between colony and colony, or even between plantations in the same colony? " Or would it not be useful to obtain, occasionally, a new stock from the countries which originally produced them? " Tlhese, and other questions of equal importance, cannot be answered, for as yet they have attracted no attention." Among the many schemes lately advanced for the relief of the British sugar-planters ill their deplorable condition, one or two may be noted; but none of them, in our opinion, go to the bottom of the difliculty. In conlsequience of the deficiency of force on the plantations. and difficulties of labor, it is proposed to establish central factories, like toll-mills, in the heart of'different sugar regions, for the manufacture of' the canes for the contiguous estates for miles around, these factories to be supported by British capital, and furnished with Enjglishi laborers. Dr. Evans argues strongly against their practicability, from the nature of the country to be traversed in carrying the canes to mill-from the bulky nature of the, canes —from the important consideration that all the canes from the estates arrive contemporaneously at maturity, and their speedy grtinding, so necessa ry, could not be secured, etc. He finally shows that, all things together, the expense to the planter would very likely be greater than at present. Another measure proposed ha s b een to export to Engl and t he concr eted cane-jbmice, to un derg o man tuf acture there. It is thought that. with due modifi cation, etc., of the Bri tish tariff, this plan would be greatly successful. The following restrictions are chiefly com plained of by the British s ugar estates i. their present embarrassment, and witlh them we close for the present: 1. Upon the importation of labor by " pas senger acts," etc. 2. Upon imnprovem-)ent in the quality of product-noth ing b eing t allowed, ntil lately, to be exported superior to Mtscovado. 3. Upon the exportation of the raw mate rial, juice, etc., by thil nature of the duties levied, and want of discrimitnationr. 4. Upon the use of saccharine matter in England for various manufacturing purposes. 5. Restriction by navigation laws in favor of British ships. 6. Upon the importation into the colonies o! the produce of tbreign countries. 7. Upon the importation of colonial spirits into Englanld. SUGAR-CANF. —EXTRACT FR O', A MEMOIR ON THE STRUCTURE AND COMIPOSITION OF THE SUGAR-CANE, BY M. PAYEN:' TRANSLATED BY PROF. J. B. REYNOLDS, FRO)M THE CoMPTES RENDUS, TOME XXVIII., MAY 21ST, 1849. — In instituting some experimental researches o n the sugar-cane, I have p roposed to determine, by aid of the microscope a nd chemicalt analysis, 1st. The forms and the compositions of th e tissue s of thi s p lant. 2d. The seat of the secretion of the sugar. 3d. The changes which age brings about in the forms and niature o f the different parts of the tissue. 4th. The variations which the proximate principles expe rience a t the same time. Under th is last head, I have be e n especially occupied with the parts of the stalk which are used in the sugar industry. The s o lution of these questions, at which I have arrived, will offer some interest, not - withstanding t he importa nt l abors, o f which the sugarscane has been the obnject, on the part of Proust, Derosne, and MM. Plagne, Avequin, P6eigot, Dunpuy, Hervy, and Casaseca. If we examine, from the surface to the cent tre, a section of the stalk, cut perpendicularly to i ts axis, at the epoch of its mnaturity, when it has becom e yellowish, and th e l eave s have fallen, we re mark First, A superficial stratum adheringu too the epidermis, formed of a kind of ainwax (carosie) observed by MM. Plagne and Avequin, and studied by M. Dumas.* Second, The cuticle, with the angular projections cor res pon ding to the kn ots between the cells. Third, The thick walls of the ipidermic cells;-lines of demdrkation exist between the external walls of these cells; and their cavities are in free communication, either by a thin membrane, or by numerous small canals (canaliculcs) in the thickness of the walls. Fourth, The cellular tissue, with thinner walls under the epidermis. Fifth, A cellular tissue, with thick walls traversed by small canals. Sixtl,, Two circular concentric rows of woody bundles, each surrounding a space filled by various vessels described furlher on. Thefse bundles are almost in contact with each other in the first row, and a little less approximated in the second. Similar bundles are remarked, but gradu ally less abundant iin woody fibres, and more atnd more separated from each other, up to the axis of the stalk.. None of these tissues which we have just described contain sugar, while they contain, * According to M. Avequin, each developed stalk of sugar cane contains, on an average, two grauunes of c6rosie. 262 SUGAR-CANE. in greater or less proportion, other substances ra indicated at the end of this memoir. ad I have determined the seat of the crystal- cl lizable sugar, by observing, under the micro- b scope, thin sections of the different tissues of the dry cane. [ took the pains to separate a previously the detached particles by agita- sl ting the sections in anhydrous alcohol. This i liquid inot dissolving the crystallized sugar. y we facilitate the observation by introducing c it between the porte objet and the plate which I covers the sections. By the aid of these dis- a positions, we may discern crystals of sugar to more or less voluminous, and appearing simi- o lar to those of rock candy, in all the cvyiitidri- s cal cells with thin walls which surround the u numerous bundles of woody fibres and ves- n sels, from the axis to the second row of fibres the most woody.* We remark that all these cells comminuni- cate with each other in the surfaces in con- a tact, by a great number of small openings t traversing the double thickness of their lateral walls, which openings are not found in the s, bottoms representing the two bases of the e hollow cylinder or prism which each cell t forms. In ripe canes, all the tissues which we have d just indicated submitted to a washing with p pure water, and, put in contact with iodine. i become yellow: sulphuric acid maintains and t renders more intense this coloration, disag- gregating the cellulose. c But if we remove, by the aid of absolution c of one part of caustic-soda in ten parts of water, a part of the azotized matter which c impregnates the small vessels with thin walls, as well as a portion of the azotized and woody X substances with which the sacchlariferous t cells are injected. we remark then, under the E, influence of the double reaction, (of iodine i and acid,) several curious phenomena-the small-pointed vessels, commenting to disag- 1 gregate, present a slight indigo-blue co lora-t tion. The internal part of the sugar cells, the last formed, swelling very rapidly, passes to the s state of the particles of cellulose, disaggregated to the extent they are found to be in solution of starch. We comprehend, then, how these parts are tinged an intense indigoblue. The azotized particles which were adhering to this inner layer separate from it, and manifest their presence by the peculiar orange color of the light granular outline which they form parallel to the contour of the inner swollen walls. The external membranes earlier formed, more strongly aggregated, and more injected, resist this peculiar disaggregation; they swell, however, form wavy folds, and sepa * The specimens which were used in this experiment, were prepared in 1843 In the colonies, by M. Derosne, who dried rapidly in the sun canes cut previously into slices, about one centimetre in thickaeSS. and the cellular tissue under the epidermis, one knot to the to Ilowing one, a section an 263 little thickness. An aqueous solution of iodine colored the SUGAR-CANE. the leaves; and that of the little stalk colored a bright orange-yellow, while all the other elements of the tissues pass rapidly to a violet color, disaggregatinig themselves. Finally, in all the stalks and leaves of the shoots recently formed, grains of starch are remarked in great number. The stalks contain it, especially in the tisf sues undler the epidermis, in the sugar cellu, lar tissues, all around the vascular bundles. The leaves also present abundant secretions of starch around the vessels of the nerves, in. s the resisting cellular tissues which envelop these nerves, and extend from one of the faces of the leaf to the other. These remarkable differences in the nai tutre and distribution of the proximate prin ciples, the much less thickness of the walls of the cells, fibres, &c., and the much less f abundant injection of woody matters in the - younger tissues, seem to indicate that the differences of the same order would manifest themselves, when the proximate composil tion of the incompletely developed stalks should be compared with that of the stalks which approach to maturity. r The results of the comparative analyses o have effectually exhibited these differences. - They help to explain the difficulties, already i well proved by the practice of sugar refine ries, which the treatment of canes cut be fore being ripe present. They show, besides, that it would be uses ful to separate the suckers, or developed 1 shoots, which remain adhering to the work able stalks, and perhaps even the younger v extremities of these stalks, near the termii nal part called the arrow (fleche,) which is r always separated. We see likewise, by casting the eye over the comparative analyses, that the cotmpo sition of the sugar-cancs is more complex than was supposed. tissues yellow, with the exception of the small-pointed vessels; the addition ofa drop of sulphuric acid gave rise, on the whole of the tissues, to one of the most beautiful microscopic appearances; the external hairs, yellowed on their external cuticle and their internal granular membrane, became violet throughout the whole thickness of their swollen walls; the cuticle and the epidermis of the stalk had acqu ired a deep orang e tint, the subjacent c ellular tissue was blue throughout all th e cells; the same sha e col ored th e smal!-pointed vessels, thus forming a blue cylindrical bundle, entirely surrounded with an orange-yellow tissue, to wit: first, the large-pointed vessels, and the fourteen to eighteen tubes adhering to each one of them; sec ondly, the superp osed tubes; thirdly, th e fibres slightlyt woody. In the middle of the yellow walls of these last, the inner layer of recently formed cellulose was seen, detaching, itself in an irregular ring, swollen and blue. In the younger tissue, above this knot, all the cells present a kind of round or elliptical nucleus of fine azotized, tissue, having a diameter equal to nearly-a tenth of the diameter of the cell; abundant grains of azotized matter were adhering to all the inner walls; numerous grains of starch, having about 5-1000 of a millimetre of diameter. The successive additions of iodine and sulphuric acid tinged the epidermis a deep persistent yellow; all the tubes, vessels and cells, were swollen, assumed a deep violet tint, and separated from each other. Soon the solution became more complete, the blue walls disappeared, expo sing to view the isolated browiiish-yellow epidermis, and all the orange-yellow azotized particles which were adhering to the interior of the destroyed cellular membranes. The same successive treatments, applied to the thin slices of a lateral shoot, the leaves of which were onlv developed to thirty centimetres in length, exhibit the epidermis ot PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SUGAR-CANES. Ripe Otaheite Cane. Cane at one-third ofits Growth. Water...................................... 71.04 Water...................................... 79.70 Sugar, (1).................................. 18.02 Sugar........................................ 9.06 Cellulose and woody matter, (2)............. 9.56 Cellulose and incrusting woody matter.......7.03 Albumen, and three other azotized matters, Albumen and three other azotized substances, (3)...................................... 0.55 (6)............................... 1.17 C6rosie, green matter, yellow coloring sub- Amidon, cerosie, green matter, yellow color stance, matters colorable brown and car- ing substance, matters colorable brown and mine red, fatty substances, essential oil, are- carmine red...............................109 matic matter, deliquescent matter (4)...... 0.35 Fatty and aromatic matters, hygroscopic subInsoluble salts, 0.12; and soluble, 0.16: phos- stance, essential oil, soluble and insoluble phates of lime and magnesia; (5) alumina, salts, silica, alumina....................... 1.95 sulphate and oxalate of lime, acetates and inalates of limne, potassa and soda; sulphate of potassa, chloride of potassium and so dium..................................... 0.2S Silica...................................... 1.20 100.00 I00.00 1. By admitting that glucose and liquid where the tissues are torn or cut at the mosugar do not pre-exist, we comprehend their ment ofthe gathering of the canes. habitual presence in small proportions, by 2. The relative quantities of tissues vary reason of the alterations at all the points according to the knoets (which contain the 264 SUGAR-CANE. We cannot be astonished with another fact, which appeals singular at first sight: it is, that the knots contain as much water as the whole of the tissues of the entire stalk. The reason is, that the more considerable proportion of cellulose and incrusting woody substances in certain parts, is compensated by a less proportion of sugar in the other parts of these-joints. We cannot, however, give a complete idea of the peculiar composition of the knots of the sugar-cane, with out adding that the solutions which are extracted fro m the m contain, relatively to the sugar, more foreign matter tha n is found in the juice extracted from the cane between the knots. It could not be ot herwise, since the li quids co ntained ib the tissues deprived of the peculiar sacchariferous cells, having little or no sugar, contain the greater part of the foreign substances in the sugar, the presence of which is shown by analysis. In terminating this memoir, I wish to say a word on the economical question of the production of sugar in the colonies. The question which at the present moment occupies the public attention, seems to me to have received, on the part of science and industry, all the elements of a rational solution; nothing more is required than to apply certain theoretical and practical ideas. The following are the principal conditions which, in my opinion, it would be indispensable to fulfill. In the first place, and in order to define them in a general planner, I will say that it would be necessary to obtain a means of working which would not be too expensive, and which would assure the best possible recompense to free labor. This would be arrived at by bringing to the aid of men all the forces which the agricultural, mechanical and chemical sciences of the day offer; especially by the following means: In all that concerns cultivation, to collect with care and scatter over the land all the disposable mineral manures of each plantation, the ashes of the bagasse, the eal of the boilers; and to add to them alkaline or calcareous compounds, of a nature to replace those of which the soil has been deprived. To utilize all the residues from the manufacture: the molasses and scum, for the nourishment of animals, in order to return to the soil, with the animal exrements, the greater part of the substances which vegetation draws from it. To apply the dirterent pulverulent residues, arising from the revivification of boneblack, ashes and dried marl and earth, to the absorption, drying and preservation of the animal manures, in order to spread them under less bulk and weight. To complete the organic nourishment of closest and most resisting tissue) are more or less approached to each other. 3. This quantity agrees with the elementary analysis, which gave for 2297 milligrammes of dry substance, seven cubic centimetres of azote: T=15~, P=75.54 volumes at O0= 6.47 cubic centimetres: weight =-0.02145 of azotized matters in the dried cane, or 0.0055 in cane in the normal state. 4. Substance which (MM. Plagne and Hervey) has the property of' transforming, in the juice, the sugar into a viscous and insipid matter, and to oppose alcoholic fermentation; a cold filtration through boneblack eliminates this organic deliquescent substance. 5. The juice of the cane contains some biphosphate of lime, and phosphate of magnesia, for the addition of a slight excess of ammonia gives a crystalline precipitate of the double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, besides a flocculent precipitate, which collected and treated by sulphuric acid, gives sulphate and biphosphate of lime. Under the double influence of the air and ammonia, the juice is gradually colored brown. 6. The total weight of these four azotized matters is deduced from the ultimate analysis which gave, for 2840 milligrammes of dried substance, 17.25 cubic centimetres, P= 75.25, T plus 13 our 0.009 of azote, by weight=5.85 per cent. of azotized matter in the dry state, equal to 1.17 per cent. for the normal state. We see that the green cane analyzed contains one-half less sugar, about thirty per cent. less of issue, and three times as much organic substances and salts, as the ripe cane. Some analogous differences would explain, without doubt, by reason of the obstacles which various organic matters and salts oppose to the crystallization of the sugar, the impossibility of extracting cane-sugar economically in countries where. for want of a sufficent temperature, this plant cannot acquire a normal maturity. :Fiie knots of the sugar-cane are formed of a close tissue, in which the woody fibres of the thick walls predominate, where all the cells present, relatively to their greater thickness, smaller cavities: where likewise the sacchariferous cells are smaller and less numerous. We comprehend, then, how the quantities of sugar which are found in them are reduced nearly one half, or in the ratio of eighteen to ten hundredths-a result which M. P61eligot has proved by the chemical analysis of ripe canes,-and the exactness of which I have been able to verify.* * The knots become more woody still, whenever they develop laterally at the exterior a shoot or radicle; for we find then, in the corresponding internal part of the knot, a mass of tissue strongly incrusted with woody matter. 265 d SUGAR-CANE CULTURE. the plants by means of manures rich in azotized substances, dried blood and flesh, the residues of fisheries, spoiled codfish, &c. To avoid the employment ofrmanures capable of addihg an excess of different salts beyond the proportions useful for the developinent of the canes. We shall understand the importance of these improvements which ought to sustain or increase the fertility of the soil, by reflecting that the same lands, according to their state of fertility or exhaustion, have produced annually 7,000 kilogrammes of sugar per hectare-a production which has been gradually reduced to 2,000 kilogrammes. If it is thought that the labor has become too expensive, in this latter case, with the exhausted soil, it would be economical at a double price, on the same land at the time of its greatest fertility. Manufacture. —In the first rank, it is necessary to place the means of extracting a greater quantity of juice, to carry this quantity from fifty to sixty per cent., which is obtained, to seventy.five or eighty, which could be obtained. The use of a second mill, with the injection of vapor or streams of boiling water, would give this result, according to practical experiments made in the colonies by M. Derosne, which we concerted together. In all cases, the most necessary condition of success would be to avoid allI delay in the operations, to accelerate even t he extraction of the j uice, and the elevation of the temperature above the point where fermentation can take place. We should obtain a very desirable rapidity also in the evaporations, by using tile evaporating apparatus perfected in France, and applied with success in the manufactories of beet sugar (especially those of MM. Derosne & Cail, Pecqueur, Gaspard, Tamisier, Cla~s, &c.) Perhaps it would be well, in order to render the general introduction into the colonies rapid, to carry there, in the first place, the most simple and least costly apparatus. The rapid extraction of the juice and evaporation are, it is true, subordinate to the resources of fuel in certain localities, which cannot receive importations of coal, and have no other combustible than bagasse, It would be very useful to render general the use of bone-black, and the processes of revivification, in order to obtain purer and more abundant products'of crystallized sugar, and to be able to render profitable a greater mass of the useful residues as manures. The new processes of methodical purification and'rapid drainage by centrifugal colonial industry; they will allow an increase of the real value Iof the products, ancl adiminution of the cost of packing and transportation: they will avoid, finally, the alterations which fermentations in impure and moist sugars occasion while in trans'tu It is evident, likewise, that administrtative measures of a nature to encourage the production of the purest sugar would be useful in reference to the impost, appli c a ble, from that time to a greater and more stable value: they would have the effect of hastening the progress of metropolitan and colonial industry, of soon rendering the product-ion more economical, and of developing the consumption of sugar, as yet behindhand with us. The principles on which all these improvemxents rest, appear to me to be incontestible. Their application wYould demand, without doubt, serious studies in each one of the localities which would present peculiar circumstances; but a similar study, undertaken by competent men, would be neither very long nor difficult at the present day. SUGAR-CANE CULTURE. —CULTU-RP OF THE SUGAR-CANE AS FOLLOWED ON SOME OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL ESTATEs. —The first operation is to clear the main drains and the cross ditches leading to themn, so as to arrive at as complete a draining of the field as the localities will permit. This is a work of the utmost importance; indeed, when judiciously attended, the soil of Lou isiana will be found as favorable to the sugar cane as that of any part of the world. The ground is then cleared of all trash remaining on it at the close of each grinding, and the whole is bedded in a trench opened for that purpose between the rows of such of the stubbles whose soil requires renovation; by so working, the nutriment absorbed by the cane prepared for the mill is returned to the soil, and the bedded leaves and trash serve for the planting of the following crop, whilst in the mean time giving porosity to the soil and facilitating percolation for the grow ing stubbles. Fields thus worked are found to gain in fertility by cultivation, instead of losing, as is always the case when the ground is left without repose, and the trash is burned. The field being in a fit state for the plow, the ground intended for the plant-cane is t opened as deeply as possible, each plow being drawn by a team of four heavy mules; then wide, clean furrows. by a double plow called the fluck, are opened eight feet apart, and according to the quality of the soil, from two to four canes are placed in each furrow t ana d lapped the whole length, and are im mediately covered with fine earth; on a well managed estate, this work should be com pleted at latest by the first of March. Im I I f d r I 266 SUGAR-CANE CULTURE. mediately after which begins the second We have, it is true, the same number of operation, to wit: the barring off the stub- hands, but you rely chiefly upon them for bles or rattoons, and the cultivation of the your field work, whilst besides mine, I emfield including corn and other provisions; ploy mules wherever they can do the same barring off consists in running as near as work; the consequence is, that my working possible each side of the stubble, a plow so power is really greater than yours, as you shaped as to throw off the earth from the perceive as we go on. stubbles, then the stubbles are shaved close My teams forming an essential part of my to the mother plant by a very sharp instru- working power, I take special care of them, ment worked by a horse, and very rapidly and never overwork them. I employ 60 and in such a manner as to leave on the strong, well-fed mules; you have only 30 plant, if possible, only from a half to one mules and horses, that you overwork and feed inch at most of earth. And now begins badly, whereby they are soon made unequal the plowing between the rows of canes, to the task; they should perform it in good plants and stubbles, to put down the grass, order. The consequence is, that your work to loosen the soil and to forward vegetation; is badly done, and that you lose half of your for this purpose, and for a field of six hun- teams every year, whilst I seldom lose any of dred acres of cane and two hundred acres of mine corn, thirteen two-horse plows are amply Drainage is the life of vegetation; my sufficient, provided the teams can be changed field is completely drained, yours is not. and twice a day; three hands follow each plow thus it is that your soil is stiff and clammy, with their hoes to clear thle grass where the whilst mine is the reverse. It is true that plow cannot do it, and to clean the cross you employ your own negroes to open a few ditches; this working is continued until the narrow ditches, without issue when they are canes are sufficiently forward to be earthed, full, whilst I employ Irishmen to open main when the fine soil between the rows is grad- drains so that my lesser drains may always ually brought from their centre to the foot of find a rapid issue. This, however, I do not the plant, thereby turning the row into as consider an expense, but a capital at commany ridges, and the space between them pound interest which I place upon my into as many drains, sloping about one foot estate. from the top of the ridges to the bottom, and My soil being made deep and porous by emptying themselves in the cross drains, drainage, and yours being the reverse for which in their turn run into the main drains want of it, gives me a very great advantage made of sufficient capacity to carry rapidly over you in a rainy season, or during a any quantity of water that may fall during drought. In a rainy season all surplus the most rainy season. So soon as this water is rapidly carried away from the surwork is completed which should not be later face of my field by percolation, so that a few than the 15th of June, a subsoil is run three hours after the heaviest rain, my plows times between each row, and to the depth of are seen at work; in your stiff and clammy one foot; this is done very rapidly where land, on the contrary, your field remains uinthe instrument is sharp and well shaped, and der water, it being deprived of surface draindrawn by two strong mules, and adds con- ing by percolation, and your plows are siderably to the porosity of the soil. seen at a stand for days together when most The canes thus brought to this stage re- wanted to command the grass smothering quire no more cultivation; they soon form a your plants, whereby you lose your crop. beautiful arch, smother the grass below, Again. our summer sun is death to the plant and shoot gradually their saccharine matter under surface water, whilst highly favorable above from cell to cell of a tubular form, un- to that freed from it. til the beginning of October, when comn- During a drought, in my deep and porous mences the cutting, the matressing, the soil, the sun by attraction supplies my grinding, and the boiling of the cane into plants with moisture, to meet which they sugar. send their roots deep in the soil, which is That this mode of cultivation, compared to favorable to the production of saccharine the routine of three-fourths of our planters, matter. In your field, on the contrary, the may be well understood, the following dia- sun having no action beyond its surface, logue is introduced: bakes the land, and starves your plants, Dialog,ue between a Planter of the Old, and whose roots cannot penetrate below. For a PlaOtter of the New axd Progressire School purposes of reproduction the best and most of Hus.bandry.-1st Planter:-How is it, perfect seed are used. This I invariably do; neighbor, that with the same number of you do the reverse, by keeping for plants working hands your crop of sugar is secured your worst canes. when mine is hardly half through, and that My first operation, in beginning the agriyour crops are regular, and generally double cultural year, is to clear my drains, so as to of mine? prepare my ground for the plow, and to 2nd Planter: —The reason is very simple. clear my field of leaves and tops by bedding 267 SUGAR-CANE CULTURE. the trash in furrows between the stubbles, rapidly carried to my cross and main drains, that nutritious power taken from the soil by &c., &c. the cane ground, be returned to it by the By 15th June my canes are sufficiently leaves and tops thus bedded, production and forward to leave them to themselves, when renovation being found thereby to keep in the fine soil prepared by the plow between perfect equilibrium, and rendering unneces- the two rows is rapidly carried to the foot of sary the laying by of a large portion of the the cane.so as to form a ridge of about one field for purposes of renovation, by a change foot, descending gradually to the cenltre of of cultivation or otherwise, as was lately the each row, thereby forming a drain, through general practice. which I run three times a subsoil to the Your first operation, on the contrary, is to depth of about one foot, the whole finding an burn your trash, thereby destroying the best issue for any surplus water in the crossmanure that can be used for renovation of ditches. By the middle of June, my field the soil and production, and then, before requires no more care, and then begins woodcleaning your ditches, you commence plow- chopping by the men, and brick-making, inmg and planting. The consequence is, that road-making, or some other light work, by when the season is wet, your ground, being the women and weak hands. saturated with water, becomes stiff and clam- You, on the contrary, plant your canes my; that your plows move in it with the five to six feet apart, and, be the condition greatest difficulty, and at best only scrapes of your ltand what it may, you only put two it, and that your canes are bedded in mud or canes in each furrow, lapping the same. earth as hard as brickbats, according to the My furrows containing one half' more weather-all things destructive of good veg- canes than yours, and my ground beiDng betetation; whilst my field being completely ter prepared, I obtain a much larger number drained before I begin plowing, my teams of mother plants in each row; and then I of four stout and well-fed mules walk over it do not disturb them whilst forming their rapidly, leaving behind them as deep a fur- roots, my plows having plenty of room to row as needed, and the ground, thus loosened work down the grass, and to prepare soil for at a proper depth, being ever relieved by my them when ready to receive it. drains of all surplus water, retains a porosi- The reverse is the case with you: you ty which affords to my canes a dry bed and cannot work your plow in your narrow a cover of fine soil, whereby life is secured rows without destroying more or less of your to almnost every eye of the plant; and then plants, or disturbing their tender roots, again your land being stiff and clammy for whereby their growth is immediately checkwant of draining, and mine not, my planting ed, the plants turning yellow, as before said, is completed before yours is half done. to their great injury. I plant my canes eight feet apart, and ac- Want of space compels you to use only cording to the quality of the land; I place one horse, whilst I use two mules to each from two to four canes in each furrow, lap- plow; the consequence is, that with exping the same the whole length. actly the same number of plowmen, I There being plenty of room between my perform double the work you do, and that rows of cane, I work two-horse plows with the grass in my field is rooted out and deease, and without disturbing the young stroyed, whilst in yours it is seen growing plants shooting out, or the fibres forming in up nearly as fast as cut. Unable to overthe deep soil prepared, all which is of great come the grass with your plows, the importance, for the moment the young roots whole of your gang of negroes is seen conare disturbed, the plants turn yellow and stantly employed with their hoes hlelping their growth is suddenly checked, and so re- the plows, and it requires unusually fivormain until new fibres restore them again to able weather to enable you to lay by, by close a healthy condition, which seldom takes of July, such canes as you can bring forward, place in less than a fortnight; thereby thereby throwing back their maturity, and thr(hving back the growth and maturity of your wood-chopping, fully one month and the cane a fortnight and more. Thirteen more, and bringing your grinding to the two-horse plows and a double set of mules, most critical period of the year. so as o change them once a day, and three And when the cane is laid by to shoot up hands to each plow to clear the grass its tubular cells and to form its saccharine where the plow cannot act, suffice to keep matter, it requires both air and sun, neither in the very best order my six hundred acres of which yours can have in your narrow of cane and two hundred acres of corn, rows, and hence the want of maturity of (whilst preparing fine soil to earth my plants your canes when mine are fully ready for the when needed,) to clear my cross ditches of boiling-house. Thus it is: grass and earth thrown in them by the That my canes having good drainage, plow, and to open each furrow into the plenty of room for air and sun, and good cross ditches, so that in heavy rains the plowing, neither of which yours have, water not absorbed by percolation may be grow faster and larger, and mature sooner, 268 SUGAR PLANTERS —NOTES FOR. whilst I obtain more mother plants and less comes with tihe study of the few simple shoots in my twenty-two rows per acre than truths, the basis of the laws of Nature, and in your thirty or thirty-six rows. which the observing mind finds beautifully That nmy negroes are chlopping wood in written out in natturtal language, speaking the firest, making bricks, preparing the su- vwli,mes of wis(iom to him who, mnoving gar houise, &c., &c., whilst yours are sweat- through the world, trains his eye to observa ing aniong your canes, and catchingr cold and tion, and his mind to reflection. Very many fever on issuing out of the crowded leavs. of the phenomena of nature, which to the That my canes are laid by a month earlier uninformed ippear prodigies, are only beau than youtrts, and even riiore, whilch gives mie tiful illustrations of fundamental knowledge, an adNraiit,age over you of one mounth in the which is not an oppressive weight, but a matrlrity of my canes, which is ill important, charm that sustains the student in his labors, fou, vwhen the wititer is early, tile ripe caue nid enables him to add to his store every can bear a very heavy tirost, and be cut and new and im)portant fact, giving it place and preserved one month aud mire, whilst a relaion until eachl acqluisition successfully geemnt can doe, whelthe au redown urnot,il e green cuie, whether cut d(Iw)il or not, is de- elevates a structure of correct proportions stroyer by the first heavyfrost. nard increasing strength, which at last be That whilst I carry canes to the mill, ave- comes a fotress of enduring knowledge. It ra,ging five to six feet high, youirs seldom is a common prejudice that persons possess average tinroe than three to four feet. ilg instruction im general laws extending over That my wood-chlorpping is conmpleted the wide field of what is termed ediucation, whent you begin yours, wthertebv my fuel fiO have had their attention too much divided, boiliug is dry beftire used, which is a very ad can know nothing perfectly; but the great ir(lrvatage, both lor the raridity arid very reverse is true, foir general knowledge quality of graoulation, wi-ilst yours is -reel. renders all particular knowledge more clear ',That my hay and provision's are secured and precise, and is a foundation already laid, wheni yaou begin to take in yours, whereby to be built upon at any angle. The ignorant -you ae very often deficient i, your stock of man ay be said to have charged is hn you ~~~~~~ ~ ~~arin man e si to h avchre his bun hay, bv riot b-einig ready for it hen it is dred books of knowledge with single objects, ready fir you, antl your pioor ariruralsl siffer while the inrformed man makes each support for want of dry lood at the very time they a long chain, to which thousands of useful most w,xanit it. - things are attached. The laws which govern That mny teanis, by proper treatment and a nature in all her works are to us keys, which, judicious distribution of their work, so as not properly applied, give free admission to the to throw extra labor upon thenm at any time mysteries of her palaces ard gardens, are retain their healthy conditionr throughout the the wards of her magic power, which unveil seaso i. That yours, on the contrary, l1aitl 9the face of the universe, and disclose eu-dless toothrouhtheheaviestfyurworkwth chlarmns, of which ignorance never dreams. in a very limi-ted period, at-e broken down m inl a very limited period, a' brokfen down A man reading a thousand volumes of ordibefore the comrlieiceirieiit of the grindiig, rnary books, as agreeable pastime, will rewhereby your mill is half the tite idle for ceive only vague impressions, but hlie who want of caries. studies the methodized book of nature, con'Tlat in an early winter you lose a large verts the great universe into a simple and portion of canes, whilst I always secure mine. sublime history, which tells of a Creator, ari That with eq(ual power of erigirie ard boil may worthily occupy his attention to thle end in.i arparatus, my teams keepitg- both stip- of his (lays. In seeking an enlarged view of plied with canes to the extent of their po iti we are too apt to overlook tlre very and ray fuel being dry, which is riot the cuars0ec andl my fulel being dry, w'licli is not tlhe case objects of our search, and too late in lite diswitI you, on a average I I,,il ditdible the cove r that our lhabits of observation are enquantity of sugari that you do, and that my tirelygenerat ad srrperficial, instead ofeing grinding is courpleted when yours is rnot hllt losand particular. through. Thirigs that are seen, felt and heard; that Thus it is, in fine, that by close attetio is which operate on the external senses to the ordinary rules of good husbandry. ard leave on tie memory much stronger, and the iproper balancing of'my working power, re correct iripressiorrs, than where the agricrltutal and maririfricturirig, durim the conception s are produced merely by verbal period within which sugar can be made in rdescription, however vivid; and an author of Louisiana, I have as good and saife a crop as esay or a volume may often hear his any other in the Unitedl States; my crop reers a nd critics say: " he has written irage nearly doulle yours, uid are regular, al wel l, but told us nothing new;" thus, unwil ling to contrss ignorance of v hat their pride thoulgh we work the same number of hands confess ignorance of what tleir pride th-g wewr'h aenme fhns whispers they ought equally to have been and our fields are equally extensive. whispers they ouht equally to have been possessed, or as if novelty and ori,ginality shorld be the indtcements to a writer. But SUGAR PLANTERS-NOTES FOR.- iin the rudiments of knowledge only, very The greatest sum of kirorwledge acqrirerl tew of us are strfficiently familiar: ard with with tire least trouble, is, perhaps, that which | reference to this familiarity, persons who 269 SUGAR PLANTERS-NOTES FOR. take a philanthropic view of the world, will to impoverish the soil, it is said, if continued observe with pleasure that those of their on the same field, and while some of our fellow-travelers in life who are most gene- neighbors are warmn on the subject of rotation rally informed and familiar with the laws of crops, others have almost equal confidence which govern matter, are men most fertile that the powers of the soil may be sustained in resources, more independent of others, and by deep plowing, proper nianlurilig, or retherefore more reliable upon themselves, and turning to it the otherwise useless trash of its the contributions which the world at large productiorn. This necessity of rotation in receives from such hands, deserve a great- crops being now proved by the experience er recompense for their more extended benl of the planter, he is led to discover that naefit. ture herself, unassisted by art, brings about The agriculturalist will esteem vegetable the same ends. The pine forest, destroyed by physiology as the highest branch of nuatural fire, is soon replaced by oaks anid other science, and will observe that it depends ab- trees. The mangrove swamp having existed solutely upon al exact knowledge of parts for a century, even until successive contribuand constituents, and that any attempt to in- tions of its leaves, falling upon the water and vestigate the important laws of vegetable there detained to decay by the floating roots life must necessarily be abortive without a of the same plants, at last accumulate matestrict acquaintance with the not less imrnpor- rial and elevate the soil above the level of the taut details ot' organization. And by this is water, when the maligroves die, and are sucnot meant merely a general idea of external ceeded by the cane-brakes. With them come form, or a vague notionI of internal anatomy, the numerous grasses, the seeds of whtich, but the most precise knowledge that the iia- planted by the wind, soon take root and ture of the subject will admit. This, in the thrive, until their production, together with sense of perfection in one branch, and exclu- that of the cane, again raises the- soil to sive study thereinii; but how much more is to another level, whereoni the stronger trees of be acquired for practical utility, by more the forest succeed. general observation at first, and thus sur- Plants require different organic matter at rounding the subject from the borders, make different times, and are not always prepared regular approaches toward the centre. The for the natural vicissitudes of their existence; farmer confines his labors not solely to the wherefore, we observe that protracted rains, production of wheat, nor the planter exclu- drought, temperature, all sources of nutrisively to the culture of the cane or the cotton ment as agents of nature to the plant, plants, but each must likewise attend to his produce definite results upon its growth, crops of corn, of hay, vegetables, etc., each but different one time with another, and it governed by its peculiar laws of re-prodoc- becomes desirable to know how to make tion, which must be conformed to with little best use of such incidents. For this purpose, deviation. Neither is vegetable life the only the knowledge of vegetable anatomy and branch for their attention, while they have physiology, by which we may in a measutire to provide the animal power to performni the comprehend the structure and causes of inlabors of cultivation, and it takes not long to crease, will lead to a better understanding of discover that the greater part of the phe- the wants and material necessary to each nomena of organic and inorganic life are plant, and how these supplies may be best merely chemical and physical phenomena, obtained and administered, to the attainment modified by an additional principle. of more profitable results. Intuitively, we learnt the rotation of the Since the discovery of the microscope, the seasons, and the planter adapts his labor world has learned not only that plants thereto, with definitive result. The seed is breathe, feed and cdigest, but how the fonlcnot placed in the ground in mid-winter, nor tions of breathing, feeding and digesting are a harvest expected in mid-summer. But carried on. It has been ascertained by what beyontid these things, which are only the means an increase of dimension is brought routine of common existence, the intelligent about; how their want of locomotive power mind finds the field of observation opening has been compensated for, and by what fre with exten ed view, as it progresses in the cise means their reproduction and mutltipliever constant labor of adapting existing cation are placed beyond obstruction It)y any means to desired ends. natural impediments. In short, the exact use The cultivation of cane would not be at- ot' every plant, for its various parts have been tempted on land where water constantly distinctly ascertained, and in the end the stands, for it would be vain, while the same vegetable kingdom is rendered subject to the locality would produce a crop of rice with power not only of man's physical energies, little labor. And beyond this, aside from but of his mental resources. the facility of inundation, we learn that the The two great sources of food to plants are rice will grow in comparatively dry land, and the soil and the air, and consequently we that;flowing" is not absoltitely necessary to observe that they take their nutriment only its prodloction. The cultivation ot the same when resolved to liquid and gaseous forms, plant successively for several years, is fbund whatever be the shape in which it is admin 270 SUGAR PLANTERS-NO-rES FOR. imtered. And these elements of their nutri tion are the great prinsitives of creation, car bon, the gases, earths, and metallic bases. But each plant has not the same demand as others for these respective aliments. To the cereals, to which belong the rice, corn and cane plants, nitrogen is essential, and water, the great source of production, becomes in dispensable t6 their growth. The glossy coat of the reed tribe and the outside mem brane of the cane stalk, etc., are attributable to silex taken up from the soil, and the absence of which in old cane lands is supposed to be the secret of thei r p overty. To remedy this deficiency, the c o ombu stion of the " shuck" is practised, but a second thought will show to an intelligent mind that the silex, liquified by fire, combines with the alkali of the plant ashes, and becoming vitrified by heat, is restored only in an insoluble state not available to vegetation, and operating beneficially only to heavy or moist soils, by its mechanical distension of their components, facilitat ing the action of the air more uniformly throughout. For the same reason we mix heavy bog earth or alluvial soil, with loam and saiid. in the beautiful camelia japonica, we find a peculiar demand for hydrogen, and therefore supply it with water, the principal source of this gas, protect the plant from the sun to provide against too rapid evaporation from its roots, having placed it in a soil consisting chiefly of vegetable fibre, which thus sheltered has an affinity for moisture, while its decay produces the element chiefly in demand. Nitrogen is a not less important food for cereals, and is chiefly supplied by the decomposition of water. It is the principal ingredient in gluten, which, by the vital action of the cane, becomes transformed to saccharine, and though drainage may be the great labor of this southern country, because of the surplus of water on its soil, yet there are other available methods to compensate for this superabundance of water, and productive of effect in a greater or less degree. An excess of moisture without heat, and combined with air, induces decay in seeds, and is injurious even to growing plants, as it destroys the delicate tissue of their roots. Therefore plants cultivated where they have an abundance of heat and moisture, but where the roots are beyond the reach of air, by reason of their depth in tho. soil, have a tendency to produce leaves instead of fruit, and all their secretions are weakened. And on the other hand too little moisture prevents the leaves and fruit from maturing. Hcnce we derive the maxim, " plant deep on dry, and light on moist ground." WVe observe that all woods growing in warin, moist climates, are lighter and more por ous than those growing in colder and dryer situations. There is also a marked dlifference in their durability commensurate with their density. They arrive at an ea r lier maturity, and all vegetation partakes of similar construc tio n, g rown on i sil ar soils. The soft and pithy woods, too, yield on ly weak and watery saps, and is but in few plants belonging to the same climate, that oils or extracts exist in quantity siWfficient to work out. They are not formed, or will no t rise without a certain defree of heat, and it is well known that frost arrests all currents of circulation. The fruit of the walnut and the beech in the south of E urope produces oil, but wil l not in this country. T he mul berry of this country affords a much less quan tity of gum to the si lkwo rm t han in France or Italy; and the gro und-nut oil, so common in the East Indies, as well as cocoa nu t oil, are n ot k nown in the W est Indies as articles of commerce. Tha t all the se cretions of a p lant have a defin i te purpose in the vegetabl e ec onomy, is beyon d a doubt, but tha t these purposes are not yet definitely known, is equ ally t rue. We have no satisfact ory explanation of the ca use of fragrance in flowers, neit her its use to the p lant. The sa ccharine contained in the see d is the primary mot ive powe r n in its vege tation, and from this sourc e is eliminated the other juices which te n d to the future nour ishment of the plant. Germ ination having been effected, fo o the development of the roots unde r ground, a n d th e stalk and leaves above, i s at on ce produced by the addit ional mo is tur e attra cted by vita l action from the air and soil. This moisture is decomposed by the great attraction ofe cn o the carbon of the seed for the oxygen, and carbonic acid is set fre e. The nitrogen contained in the gluten of the see d, b y its union with the acid, is converted into diastase, a substance resembling sugar, from which the young plant now take s all its nourishment, until by more sufficient extension, it becomes able t o feed itself. The formation of the vital knot, or "' collet, * w hich has been c ompared to the hear t in animals, now becom e s more a nd miore dis tinc t, and as it a ppro aches p erfection is pro portionably more essential to the life of the ;plant. At this st age t he wounds received from the implements of cultivation, or the hoof of the animal drawing the plow, are more liable to prove fatal to the shoots of t he cane, or the new plants froIn the cotton seed, than at any other perio d of their growth, an d the prudent pla nter will watch with some care that the mule or horse does not travel on the " ridge row." The cane plant increases from its centre, but has no sensible pith or medullary canal. Its tissue is but a bundle of woody fibres, interposed by an infinity of little cells. The e long succession of these fibres is interrupted 1 at regular distances by joints, sometimes e, * The joint of the cane under ground. 271 SUGAR PLANTERS-NOTES FOR. distinguished as nodes, which perform an important part in the economy of the plant. Sap, as i t rises through th e collet, i s little less than water, with some mucilage, in the y oung shoot, but as soon as thes e nodes a re formed, t hey become receptacles of little particles of. gluten, starch, and sugar immediately formed, an d th ese are thence taken up by the sap, d issolved, and pass into the gener al circulation of the stalk and leaves. The sap of the sugar maple and the cane is not sweet i n thei r roo ts, but in beets, as though t he op erations of n atur e could be rev ersed and produce the same res ults, we f i nd, comparatively, no saccharine in the tops. The cortical inte gument of the ca ne plant is only a ri nd and n ot a bark, as it has no distinct sepa ration from the wood. It is possessed als o of properties of secretion, contains a colo r ing pr oper t y and oleagi nous sub stance, wh ich the body of the cane does n ot, and which are both extracted in the common operati on of rolding by powerful mills. This coloring matter is s trictly tannin, and the o l e aginous is readily separated from the froth of the m ill-strainer, and convserted into wax. In the circulation of the juice, b oth of the maple and theecane, as well as in a ll plant s, w e observ e ch anging qualities in th e v arious p arts a nd times of its circulation. Th e nea rer approach t o maturity in th e tree, enriche ts its juice, and the littl e of return ing sa p found in trees felled du ring winter and exuding from the ir cut ends, is almo st concentrated by a shor t exposure to natural evaporation. We observe, then, that duringl the annual existence of a plant, while the vital cur rent is in motion, a recular and constant change in the juice at every stage of maturity, and the different properti es it p ossesses du r ing this progres sion, deserve constant attention. It is the vital action which converts the sap to sugar, and w hen the motion that belongs to vitalitv is arrested by frost, the conversion to sugar also ceases. Cane-juice once frozen has but an uncrystallizable sugar, and ye t the canes being only'frosted," are taken to the mill and still yield sugar, because congela tion having taken place only on the ends and surfaces, protects the centre from the same change, as the covering of snow pro tects the earth in winter from the deep frosts, which would entirely destroy the roots it contains. But as soon as these frozen portions of cane-juice are free to move, chemical power alone is left to them, and with extraordinary rapidity they then circulate in the sap as the active principle of fermentation, which in a very short time extinguishes all traces of sugar to the great loss of the planter. This stagnation of the Juice in the cane, by which its vitality is affected and its properties changed on the re application of heat, is a phenomenon parallel to the fermentation of juice exposed at a moderate temperature to the free circulation of the air, which all planters know to be injurious in proportion to the length of time and degree of temperature, and therefore expedite the process of sugar-making as much as possible. The nodes of the cane, incorrectly called joints, by microscopic examination are found to be the ovaries of the plant, and from which start one, and, in some varieties of the East India cane, two buds. By a peculiar arrangement of the fibres of the centre, a little cell is formed, in which, as in seeds, a concentrated portion of sugar exists to afford nourishment to the germ until of such age as to obtain its own. And in this protectioton of the vital spark by portions of the mother plant, stronger and more indurated than all the rest, we observe the beautiful work of design. In stubble or ratoon land, where the stems have been cut from the plant, we observe that the collet, or lowest join t, becomes the seat of life a nd the source from which in succeeding seasons reproduction takes place. Injury to this, therefore, is fatal to the plant. As spring advances, the soil becoming warmer, the circu!,tion under the collel commences, and the old stem sealed against the exit of the sap by the dead-wood above ground, prevents its escape and forces it to find new outlets. Here again the microscope develops to the eye numerous little bright spots upon the collet, which soon increasing become at first buds and afterwards shoots. This process of reproduction, we can at once see by analogy with all other vegetation, cannot last many seasons in canes, were we not con vinced. by the result of experience, that canes not only run out in a few crops, but also degenerate and become weakly and small. The shoots starting from a short distance beneath the surface, are sufficiently near to the air to receive warmth and mois ture, from which they then derive their chief nourishment, and at a later day should be covered lightly with earth, when it be comes more essential to protect them from the sun. At this age of the plant, (not more than at others, however,) it is plain that all its nourishment must be taken up from a liquid or gaseous state, and we can scarcely conceive that such inorganic matter as sili con or flint, should be conveyed mechani cally to its every part, but must be organized from its secretions. Everything that can act as manure, would apparently be only soluble substances, and we see minerals, earths, metals, and vegetable fibre, under going decomposition and assuming new combinations of their elements, to aid in the new development of vegetable li fe. As is the lime to the animal kingdom the "2'72 SUGAR PLANTERS-NOTES FOR. planter. In the rotation of crops, the question lies, is it better to turn cane land to grass, to peas, or corn first, and by what succession is the first object best accomplished? And again, with which crop to apply manure, if with any and not to all. It is not for us now to go farther into the practice of planting, but froitm this brief view of a few of the points of common interest, enough of the field has been laid open to show the extent of the land, to what degree the planter becomes his own chemist, and how, dependent upon himselfand his own resources, it is plainly necessary that he should consum mate his own advancement. To effect this, hlie cannot stagger blindly forward, hoping by various chance experiments to stumble upon some great improvement, but must, if for no other than the sake of economy, study first the probability of success. He must know enough of the laws of nature and the ludi ments of science, not to attempt impossibili ties. To employ his agents successfully, he must surely understand their nature, and the mutual influence which they exert on, each other, he must understand more fully the structure and function of plants-the office performed by each of their members, &c. Many of the errors which are committed in agriculture, would be avoided if the planter would consent to unite a larger portion of scientific information with his practical skill. In such case, he would not apply the same manures indiscriminately to all soils; he would not suffer land to lie waste which might easily be rendered productive; nor would he be content with a meager crop from soils which, with moderate outlay, mnight be increased in their fertility fourfold. We are far from supposing that any scienj tific knowledge can supersede a practical acquaintance with cultivation, but it is the help-meet to the husbandman; and the knowl edge which he gathers from personal experi ence, will teach him not to disregard the lt ight which may be afforded by the experi enice of others, and by the researches of science. The crucible, the retort, and the lamp of the alchemist, though they have not yet revealbd the philosopher's stone or the elixir of life, wisdom and wealth have been acquired to the world, and the whole human family benefited by the developments which these vain researches have given. One man - attempts what the laws of nature have forbid den, and by his example benefits his fellows. Another attempts an object pacticable in itself, but by means totally inadequate and inappropriate, opens a mine, and expends a fortune for maclhinery and labor, where the I geologist could have foretold a failure. Anot ther proposes to increase the heat of his furr ace by forcing in steam instead of air, and 1 discovers that the fire, instead of being inr creased is extinguished; a result which a 3 slight knowledge of chemistry would have base and principal material in the construction of its ti'ames, so is silex in the vegetable world. It is what hardens the rind, the bark, the stem, and the limb, and, aside from the fluid contained in cellular substance, is the chief cause of gravity. All parts of the animal are nutriment to the vegetable kingdom, and no constituents o f the fbrr ner ha ve been discovered to b e nox iou s to the latter. Yet vegetables and plants are susceptible to poisons in a comnmon way, by means of their circulation. Ininoculation with arsenic will kill the lilac, and a solution of nux vomica, introduced by the veins to the hop-vine, is fatal in a fesw hours. Prussic acid in minute doses, changes the bright green of the ashleaves to the dismal yellow of autumn. The roots, too, of plants take up solutions which, though not fatal to themselves, may be of deleterious influence to animals feeding upon them, and f6rm distinctly an observable influence upon their own secretions, proved by tests applied to the extracts made from their barks. It is observable, theretore, that the amount of their acid s3ecretionis may be influenced by the application of alkalies, lime, ammonia, &c., to the roots, as is known to be the case on the sorrels, and may be inferred to be upon canes, which fact every planter should prove for himself. In some districts of Louisiana where shell is abundant. this could be well determined, and for how many seasons its beneficial effect should last, as well as the detail of the application of lime as manure to sugar-canie, might be proved and given to the public. It is not to be forgotten that sugar is a solvent of lime, and if any method can be discovered by which its use can be dispensed with in the process of clarification of canejuice, a decided advantage to the operation of sugar-makirng will at once appear. Besides that the alkalies neutralize the acid, they lessen the quantities of sugar in the result, and incline that result to a redish color. However, the use of lime in sugar-making is not fully understood, and many planters now make their crops without it. To the soil, it is the great solvent of all vegetable fibre, and in like mantler is potash; but when their caustic properties are lost or consumed, they are xi better than limestone or coal ashes, both of which mixinig with the more tenacious clay make it friable and porous, more pervious to water and less retentive of moisture; there fore not all cane lands can be equally benefited by these applications. Our own, and the practice of our neighbors, must be the guides to all useful results in the application of manures, mode of tillage of canes, process of sugar-nrakine; to simplify and perfect al of which, should be the ob,ject of constant study, experiment, and observation of ever) planter. W~e ale all ill want of some practica information on these subjects as well as many others connected with the interests of the 273 is VOL. III. SUGAR OF LOUISIANA. chemistry, though but hints, to his studies, and the mathematical and mechanical attain ments he derived from study with such a man, alone enabled him to perfect those great im provements, the beam and the condenser, to his steam-en g ine, which were the patents of his noble fame. Arkwright is quoted as an un instructed mechanic, and he devoted five years to the perfection of his spinning-jenny, now considered a very simple machine. Sir Humphrey Davy discovered the peculiarity belonging to mephitic gas, after a long series of labors, and but then applied it to practical utility in his safety-lamp for winers, and it is stated by Lord Brougham that the new pro cess of sugar-refinitig, through the aid of ani mal carbon, by which more money has been made in a shorter time and with less risk and trouble than was ever, perhaps, gaiued by an invention, was discovered by a most accom B)lished chemist, and was the fruit of a long course of experiments, in the progress of which known philosophical principles were applied, and new principles ascertained. The great chemist, whose improvements in the manufactures of iron were the foundatiolns f a princely fortune, owed it entirely to the re suit of deep research and long-continued study of coal, by which he was at last enabled to substitute the mineral for the vegetable in the smelting of iron. We are to infer from these illustrations and examples, that no eminence can be attained in any profession, nor particular success in any calling, without study and labor, and that to secure the result for which we strive, we cannot plod on in the dull routine of' life, half blind to what is doing in the world around us, allowing ourselves to be surpassed by other laborers, possessed of inferior opportu nities, but a perseverance and observation which secures to them the benefit of all they see, and a comprehension of all they observe. The seeing eye and the working hand, and the mind which conceives all things, are the only guarantees to ultimate success to the planter, the manufacturer, and the merchant. Our independence is hereby secured, that un aided by others, we can produce the cane, make the crop, and sell it at the best time, and highest price, then turn to our plants and ratoons of the succeeding season with a con sciousnes3 of capacity for our labors which shall be the sweetest and most constant re ward of our toil, and surety for our success. L. B. S. p repar ed him t o expect. A third projector prepares a vessel i or sub marine navigation, butnt not esti matin g properly the pr essure of water at different depths, is crushed to death durin a h is first experiment. It is plainly inmportant, th en, to gather from scienc e the l ight necessa ry to protect us from the delusions of an excited imagin ation, and to guide us in the way of safe and profitable enterprise. An ins tructed laborer is enabled to become an improver of t he ar t i n which he works, and even a di scove rer in the s ciences conoaected with it. He is daily handoiug the tools a nd m aterials with which new experiments are to be made, and da i ly witnessing the coInected operations of nature, whether in the changes by motion o r the chemical relation of b o dies, and the opportunities which he eminently possesses, must pass unimproved if the art i st h ave no knowledge of principles. But with this knowledg e, h e, of all men is most likele to fall upon something new, which may be useful i n art, or curi ous and interesting t o s cience. His p ractised eye in the field, and dexterous hand in the machiner y, may enable him to embrace many opportunities afforded, which he would otherwise pass unheeded by. The processes, too, being often onal a large scale, and consequently very expens ive in many cases, it becom es the more important to devise means of saving labor and material, while the very ma gnitude of these operat i ons often br ings out fJcts and principles wh ich w ould otherw is e have remained im perceptible. But the importance of scientific attainments is most apparent when we consider, that in any department of arts, every enterprising operator ought to be informed of the improvements which hav e preceded his labors i n that department, otherwise he may consume time, labor, and money, in merely reproducing what has long existed, and perhaps in a shape preferable to that of his invention. It is obvious that after the first and most important principles have been acquired. there seems to be a light over the whole subject of search; there will be still many difficulties to be met, many obstacles to overcome, and toilsome (lays and nights consumed, in the nice adjustment in our mind of what we acquire, to render it applicable to practical purposes. Half the labors of great mechanics, such as Whittemore, the inventor of the card machine; Per. kins, of the nail-machine; Jaquard, of the carpet-loom; who were originally men of small acquiremIents in early education, might have been saved if at first they had been instructed in the principles of mechanical science. Accident sometimes casts up important improvements in such a way that the artist can hardly fail to seize upon them, but in these cases even, it will be generally found that only the man of science can perfect these improvements. Watt confessed that the knowledge he acquired from the lectures of Dr. Black, on SUGAR OF L OUISIANA. (1846.)-The cane is now cultivated and worked into sugar in nineteen parishes, to wit: Point Couple, West Baton Rouge, East Baton Rouge, Iberville, Ascension, St. James, St. John the Baptist, St. Charles, Jefferson, St Bernard, Plaquemines, Assumption, Lafourche Interior, Terrebonne, St. Mary, St. Martin, Lafayette, Vermillion, and St. Landry; and large preparations are making for its intro 274 SUGAR OF LO'UISIANA. ,uction and manufacture in the following heretofore exclusively cotton parishes, to wit: Rapides, Avoyelles, Concordia, Cata houla and Calcasieu. The extent of sugar lands embraced in the above parishes, and which could be put into cultivation at the ordinary expense of clear ing and draining, would be sufficient to sup ply the whole consumption of the United States; and by applying to our low, flat lands, for a few years, the artificial draining of Holland, (and more particularly to the tract on our western coast, between the sea and the Mississippi,) lands enough could be re claimed to supply, besides, the consumption of a large portion of Europe. By state documents, in the archives of the French government, it appears that the cul ture of the cane was strongly recommended in the earliest days of the colony. This valuable plant was first introduced from St. Domingo by the Jesuits; and it was cultivated on their plantation, where now stands the most flourishing part of suburb St. Mary, as early as 1725-6. The species first imported was the Mala bar, otherwise called Crystalline, or Creole cane. The next species was the Otaheite, sometime about the close of the last century. The third species was the Ribbon cane, in 1817; it was first introduced from Georgia, by a Mr. Coiron; it came, originally, from the East Indies, and presents a good many varieties; it is now the favorite plant, ow ing to its earlier maturity, and its resisting better an early winter-two very important qualities in this climate. Tile manufacture of cane into sugar does not appear to have commenced before 1764, when samples were sent to the mother coun try from the estate of Chevalier de Mazan, near the city, on the opposite bank. The yield per acre was then stated to have been 3,000 lbs. and the quality was pronounced to be equal to that of St. Domingo muscovado. The cession of Louisiana to Spain, at that epoch appears to have put a stop to that industry, for no farther traces of sugar-making are to be found until 1791, when the first sugar-house, under the Spanish government, was erected by a Mr. Solis, at Terre-auBceufs, in the parish of St. Bernard. The next was established in 1796, on aplantation situated where now stands Carrollton, and belonging to a Mr. Bore6; it produced a crop of $12,000, a sum considered at that epoch as v e ry l arge. This result may be said to have laid the foundation of the sugar industry in Louisiana. Its progress, however, was at first extremely slow; and at the epoch of the cession of Louisiana to the United States, the number of sugar estates was very small, no doubt owing to the want of capital. The crop of 1822-23 amounted to 1823-24 " 1824 25 " 1825-26 " 1826-27 " 1827-28 " 1828-29 1829-30 1830-31 " 1831-32 " 1832-33 " 1833-34 " 1834-35 " 1835-36 " 1836-37 " 1837-38 " 1838-39 " 1839-40 " 1840-41 " 1841-42 " 1842-43 1843-44 " 1844-45 " ............ 30,000 hogsheads. ............ 32,000 ............ 30,000 ......... 45,000 ............ 71,000 ............ 87,965 ............ 48,238 ............ 73,000 ............ 75,000. ............ 75,000 ............ 70,000 ............ 75,000 " ........... 110,000 " ............... 36,000" ............ 75,000 " ............ - no return. ............ - no return. ........... 119,947 hogsheads. ........... 120,000 ........... 125,000 ........... 140,316 ........... 100,346 " ........... 204,913 " Each hogshead averaging 1,000 lbs. net, and yield ing from 45 to 50 fallons of molasses. Number of sugar estates in operation in 1827-8, 308, worked as follows: Manual power, about.............21,000 slaves. Steam........................... 82 engines. Horse.......................... 226 Capital invested, then estimated at about............................ $34,000,000 Number of sugar estates in operation or preparing to wo rk, in 1830, 691: Manual power, about............. 36,000 slaves. Steam........................... 282 engines. Horse.......................... 409 Capital then invested, estimated at about............................ $50,000,000 Number of sugar estates in operation in 1841-2, 668: Man ua l power, as ascertained by the last f ed eral census......... 50,670 slaves. Steam........................... 361 engines. Horse........................... 307 Number of sugar estates i n operation in 1843-4, 762: Manual power, at least........... 50,670 slaves. Steam........................... 408 engines. Horse.......................... 354 Capital invested, estimated at about...$60,000,000 It has been ascertained by Mr. Champomier, in a late excursion throughout the state, that not less than 410 cotton estates are now in full preparation to go into the sugar business. The tariff of 1842 has truly created a new era for the sugar industry. No doubt it will '275 The statistics from 1803 to 1817 are so deficient, that it is extremely'difficult to arrive at any correct data as to the progressive annual increase of the sugar crop during the above period. The crop in 1818 had attained 25,000 hogsheads. Cattle was the only power, used up to that period. In 1822, steam power was introduced; the first engines and mills cost about $12,000, and were chiefly imported by Gordon and Forstall. This power, however, was used but by very few, until our own foundries placed it within the reach of all, by reducing its cost to $5,000 or $6,000. SUGAR OF PLORIIDA. now be seen in the ascendant until we shallt have re a ch ed the full amount required for the con sumption ofthe anited States, wh ich, at present, is not und er 350,000,000 lbs. Until 1831, it was the general belief that Louisiana sugars were too weak fbr refining. Questioned upon this subj e ct on the floor of Congress, the late Messrs. Edward Livingston and Josiah Johnson were compelled to confess that it was so. This supplied Messrs. Lea and other politicians of' the east, with a mos t powe rful argument to demand a reduction of the duty on sugars imported for refining, to wit: that no protection ought to be asked by Louisiana against an article it could not produce. This would have been a fatal blow to this state. At that epoch, however, Gordon and Forstall had just introduced into the state the varuto process of Howard, and the argument of Mr. Lea and supporters was met by shipments of several hundred tons of sugar, refined from pure Louisiana, which obtained the medal in New-York. This, for the time being, put an effectual end to the crusade preparing against Louisiana. Five or six years ago, two of our planters adopted the same process, and they have been eminently successful; not less than six estates are now upon the white system plan; and such are the improvements now going on, and the skill brought into action, that it requires no prophet to predict, that but few years can now elapse before Louisiana shall have it in her power to supply the whole Union with white sugars directly from the cane.-E. J. Forstall. the growing season over any other sulgfgrowing portion of the United States; allii in the southernmost parts of the peninsula there is an entire exemption from frost. The cane is tasseled this season throughout the peninsula, a degree of maturity it does not attain in Louisiana or Texas. The lands are at present cheap, say from $1 25 (the price of public lands) to $10 per acre. There are numerous rivers' affording easy transportation on both sides the peninsula. Public sales of some of the state lands will take place in February next. These lands have been carefully selected by agents in bodies of half a section (320 acres,) and are generally well situated for the sugar culture. A sample of the Florida cane of this year, now to be seen at the capitol, is between ten and eleven feet long, entirely divested of top,. and was cut nearly a month ago, before it had attained its proper growth. Still larger canes than this, however, are grown in Fl orida."' The St. Augustine Herald gives the following interesting statement of the produce of 1 3-4 acres of land at Moccasin Branch, in St. John's county, which had been planted il cane by Mr. Paul Masters. " 10 barrels of sugar, 250 lbs. each, at 6 cents........................ $150 00 100 gallons molasses, at 25 cents... 25 00 37 1-2 bushels of corn, at $1...... 37 50 Cane sold.w.................... b i.... 20 00 $232 50 "This is at the rate of one hundred and thirty-three dollars to the acre, and was produced from high pine barren land, cowpenned. Mr. Masters is a poor man, without any negroes, and had only the assistance of a son of 18' years of age, to obtain the above together with an excellent crop of corn, peas and potatoes. Mr. Masters made his own mill, and boiled the juice down in a common pot in the open air. "Mr. Francis Rogero, from 1 1-4 acres of same quality of land obtained fifteen barrels of syrup and two barrels of sugar. In value: 465 gallons syrup, at 31 cents....$144 1.5 500 lbs. sugar, at 6 cents.......... 30 00 $174 15 "This is at the rate of $139 32 to the acre. When it is considered that this is the produce of the poorest quality of land, and that the sugar was manufactured in the rudest manner, no one can doubt that the sugar cane alone should be cultivated by the planters of Florida. There are hundreds of thousands of acres of the richest land in this state lying in small bodies, of trom 100 to 1000 acres, which might produce far more abundantly than the above." SUGAR OF FLORIDA.-The Jacksonville Flo rida News remarks: c b e Ware h appy to perceive that very general attention is being awakened to the vast profit which results to the cultivation of the sugar-cane in Florida. The climate and th e atmosphere give us advantage s o ver Louisiana, an d there is no doubt that sugar can be made here equal in quality to any in the world. " We extract the following paragraph from the National Intelligencer of the 25th ultimo. The cane to which it alludes, exhibited in the capitol, was some that was taken on by Hon. D. L. Yulee, senator of that state. We saw this cane when he passed through Jacksonville, and, although it is large, it is by no means of the size which it usually attains in good soil. WVe trust it will have the effect to enlightCe those who have hitherto supposed that the sugar-cane was only grown in Louisiali a. "'I The sugar region in Florida extends from the 30th to the 25th degree of latitude. It comprises within its limits a large amount of very fine land. The climate of the most northern portion of it has, we understand, an advantage of six weeks in-the duration of I 276 SUGAR-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. SU'GA~R-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. cane, and one hhd. for ratoons. This.gen -Every day brings new evidences of the tleman deserves the highest honor for his extension of the sugar culture in our country. liberality and public spirit. The total crop In those parishes of Louisiana which have of Rapides, last year, was seventhousand nine hitherto been exclusively cotton, the substi- hundred and twenty-eight hhds., made by the tution of this staple is becoming rapid, and following persons: Calhoun, Compton, Wil can only be checked by a rise in the value of son, Bullard, Bryce, Seip, Archinard, Flint, its rival. Texas, with her abundant sugar Overton and Prescott, Baillio, Williams, lands, has already upward of forty estates in Flower, Moore, Burgess, Mulholland, Carnal, operation, and produced last year over ten Martin, Clarke, Waters, Wells, Scott, thousand hhds. The culture is reviving in Crouch., Pearce, Tanner, Stafford, Cheney, Florida, and being adopted on a small scale Chambers, Gould and Andebert, Carlin, in parts of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama Lambeth and Maddox, Bennett. There and Mississippi. Doubtless, the insecurity are eleven other planters who will make of the lanids upon the Mississippi will exer- sugar next year, viz.: Williams, Texcise an adverse influence. We have seen hada, Gordon, Bonner, Chambers, Linton. intelligent gentlemen, from the vicinity of Chase and Mathews, Pearce, Curiton, Vera Cruz, who state that great improve- Cheney, Wright. Four planters will proments are taking place in the Mexican crops; duce the year after, viz.: Blanchard., Linton and Mr. Poinsett stated, some months ago, and Brothers, Pearce and Stewart, Taylor. in our Review, that, under a better govern- We have before us, the admirable compiment, the competition from this source would lation, made by Mr. Champomier, of the be very considerable. The crop in the Bri- sugar crop of Louisiana in 1849-50. It is a tish West Indies continues to decline, while beautiful pamphlet, printed at the office of in the Spanish colonies the reverse is the our friends of the New-Orleans Price Curcase. Should Cuba become independent, or rent. The price is five dollars, which, when be attached to the United States, it is not one considers the immense pains and labor improbable her present crop would be required, the enormous expense and small doubled. It is now more than twice that of sale, will appear very reasonable. Mr. Louisiana. The consumption of sugar, all Champomier deserves every success, and the world over, is increasing; and is stimu- should be rewarded by the support of the lated by greater cheapness, growing out of whole planting interest. His past labors rapid improvements in the culture and manu- have been appreciated at Washington, facture. In the result, the sugar from cane, Without interfering with the copy-right of from its superiority and economy, will drive this pamphlet, but rather to influence its exout the competition of that from the beet and tension and sale, we will digest a few parother plants. ticulars, showing its character, &c., having The Western Democrat, at Alexandria, already extracted some of its statistics. Louisiana, is publishing a series of papers The sugar-cane is cultivated on both banks upon the extension of sugar culture in the of the Mississippi, from fifty-seven miles parish of Rapides, which are very interesting. below New Orleans to nearly one hundred This is a new epoch in the history of the and ninety miles above; on Red River, instaple. It appears that at a very early period ecluding Rapides and Avoyelles, the last of attempts were made near Natchitoches, but which produced, last year, 3,874 hhds.; on without success. In 1824 Timothy Flint bayous Lafourche and tributaries, bayou suggested the sugar culture in this region. Terrebonne, Little and Great Caillou, bayou In 1829 General Thomas made the experi- Black, Teche6, Sale, Atchafalaya and tributamelit, and continued it four years, producing, ries, Berwick bay, bayou Bueuf, bayou Verat last, three hundred and three hhds. F. A. million; the prairies of St. Martin, VermilBynum, George Gordon, John G. Young and lion, &c.; Saint Landry, Calcasieu, bayou William Dunwoody, also attempted it. An Courtableau, Toulouse, &c., &c. Whole extraordinary frost, the low price of sugar number of sugar parishes, 24; number of and inflation of cotton, the deficiency of ma- sugar-houses, 1,536; number by steam, 865; chinery rendering slow the process ofmanu- the rest by horse. Crop 1849-50, 247,923 facture, tended to discourage. and, at last, hhds., or 269,769,900 lbs., including cistern to put an end to the experiments. Things bottoms, used by the refiners. This, at an so remained un,til 1845, when E. H. Flint average of 321 cents, amounts to $9,441,915;, set the ball again inmotion. He built a splen- the quantity of molasses was 12,000.000 did sugar-house, made one hundred and sixty gallons, at 20, which amounts to $2,400,000; hhds, and seed for two hundred acres in total, $11,841,915,, or an average to each of 1847. Out of this seed, &c, the crop was the 1,455 working sugar-houses of $8,148. five hundred and forty-one hhds.; and in It is impossible to give the number of slaves 1848, seven hundred and sixty-four hhds. employed, though the reader will find, in vol. That of 1849 was lost by the overflow. The vi., page 456, of the Review, some interest:average yield was two hhds. an acre for plant ing calculations in this particular. Sixty 277 SUGAR-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. two new plantations will produce next year, of the Christian era, alludes (Epis. 84) to and nineteen the year after. This latter the sugar-cane in a manner which shows number will, no doubt, be much increased. that he knew next to nothing of sugar, and The overflow on the Mississippi and Red absolutely nothing of the manner in which rivers, last year, shortened the crop near it is prepared and obtained from the cane. 20,000 hhds., and will be greatly felt for se- Of the ancients, Dioscorides and Pliny veral years to come. St. Mary's produced have given the most precise description of the largest number of hhds.,-24,000 and sugar. The former says, it is " a sort of over. concreted honey, found upon canes, in We cordially recommend Mr. Champo- lndia and Arabia Felix; it is in consistence mier's pamphlet to every reader of the Re- like salt, and is, like it, brittle, between the view, and express our high indebtedness to teeth." And Pliny describes it as " honey him for a copy, and for the privilege of collected from canes, like agum, white and making the above general statements upon brittle between the teeth; the largest is of his authority. The planters and merchants the size of a hazel nut; it is used in mediof Louisiana should take pride in support- cine only." (Sacchariem et Arabia fert, seal ing an annual publication so valuable. We lautdatius India; est autem mel in arundinibus extract, in conclusion, his instructive re- collectum, gnmminm mpdo candidotm, dentibus marks, upon the contribution, made by fragile, amplissimum 7nucis avellane magniLouisiana, to the industry of the nation: tudine, ad medicinal tanturn usum.-Lib. "There have been put up, in this state, since xii. ~. 8.) 1846, including the present year, not less than 355 It is evident, from these statements, that sugar mills and engines, furnished by the following the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans foundries, viz.: Cincinnati foundries-J. Nyles & Co. 199, James Goodloe & Co. 45, David Grifye 37; with respect to the mode of obtaining sugar, Pittsburgh foundries-Arthur Armstrong & Co. 3, was singularly imperfect. They appear to Jackson, Whiteman & Co. 32, Knapp & Totton 2- have thought that it was found adhering to besides vacuum apparatus this latter firm has furnished already, and are now under contract, for the the cane, or that it issued from it in the state coming crop, for 8 or 10, perhaps more; Richmond of juice, and then concreted like gum. In(Va.) foundry-J. R. Anderson, proprietor, 7; Balti- deed, Lucan expressly alludes to Indians more (Md.) foundry-Wells & Miller, proprietors, 4; near the G Louisville (Ky.) toundry-James Curry, proprietor, anges 3; Belleville iron works (Algiers, La.) 2; Phenix Quinque bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine foundry, Gretna-Silvester Bennett, proprietor, 6; succos.-Lib. iii. 1., 237. Leeds & Co., New -Orle a ns, th e Novelty Iron 6 But these statements are evidently withWorks, of New-York-5 sugar mills and engines, 6. foundation Sugar cannot be obtained Durone's patent copper condensers, a good number out foundation. Sugar cannot be obtained of vacuum pans, and a considerable quantity of from the cane without the aid of art. It is Stillman's patent clarifiers, evaporating and granu- never found native. Instead of flowing from lating pans. Philadelphia has furnished, and keel" the plant, it must be forcibly expressed, anti furnishing, apparatus which I have lost sight of the plant, it must be forcibly expressed, an making an aggregate of 355 mills and engines, of then subjected to a variety of processes. which, at least, 120 have replaced old ones. A Dr. Mosely conjectures, apparently with great many horse-power mills have been made by t d * r' the abovenamed foundries, more particularly by muc proalty tat te sur escrbe Goodloe, Grifye, and S. Bennett. However, the Iat- by Pliny and Dioscorides, as being made ter, as is the case with our local foundries, made but use of at home, was sugar-candy obtained little new work, comparatively speaking; the re- from China This indeed is the only sort pairs they have to make every season, more particularly during grinding, when breakage so frequently of sugar to which their descriptions will at occurs to the machinery, keeps them at work day all apply. And it would seem that the mode and night." of preparing sugar-candy has been under We append, from an able English writer, the stood and practised in China from a very refollowing historical sketch of sugar, which mote antiquity; and that large quantities the reader will observe was written as long of it have been in all ages exported to India, ago as 1832 or 1833; but it can readily be whence, it is most probable, small quantities completed to date by inspection of the eight found their way to Rome -( Treatise on published volumes of our Review: Stugar, 2d edit., p. 66-71. This, as well as Historical Notice of Sugar.-The history Dr. Mosely's treatise on coffee, is a very of sugar is involved in a great deal of ob- learned and able work.) scurity. It was very imperfectly known by Europe seems to be indebted to the Sara the Greeks and Romans. Theophrastus, cens, not only for the first considerable sup who lived about three hundred and twenty plies of sugar, but for the earliest example years before the Christian era, the first of its manufacture. Having, in the course writer whose works have come down to us, of the ninth century, conquered Rhodes, by whom it is mentioned, calls it a sort of Cyprus, Sicily and Crete, the Saracens in " honey extracted from canes or reeds." troduced into them the sugar-cane, with the Strabo states, on the authority of Nearchus, cultivation and preparation of which they Alexander's admiral, that " reeds in India were familiar. It is mentioned, by the Ye yield honey without bees." And Seneca, netian historians, that their countrymen im who was put to death in the sixty-fifth year ported~ in the twelfth century, sugar ftrol 278 SUGAR-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. by the Spaniards. It was wrested from them by an expedition sent against it by Crom well in 1656; and has since continued in our possession, forming by far the most val uable of our West Indian colonies. At the time when it was conquered, there were only three small sugar plantations upon it. But, in consequence of the influx of English settlers from Barbadoes and the mother country, fre sh plantations were speedily formed, and contin ue d rapidly to increase. The sugar-cane is said to have been first cultivated in St. Domingo, or Hayti, in 1506. It succeeded b etter there tha n in any of the West Indian Islands. Peter Martyr, in a work published in 1530, states, that, in 1518, there were twenty-eight sugar works in St. Domingo established by the Spaniards, " It is marvelous," says he, " to consider how all things increase and prosper in the island. There are now twenty-eight sugar presses, wherewith great plenty of suga r is made. The canes or reeds wherein the sugar groweth are bigger and higher than in any other place; and are as big as a man's wrist, and higher than the stature of a man by the half. This is more wonder ful, that whereas, in Valencia, in Spain, where a great quantity of sugar is made yearly, whensoever they apply themselves to the great increase thereof, yet doth every root bring forth not past five or six, or at most seven, of these reeds; whereas, in St. Domingo, one root beareth twenty, and oftentimes thirty."-Eng. trans. p. 172. Sugar from St. Domingo formed, for a very long period, the principal part of the European supplies. Previously to its devastation, in 1790, no fewer than sixty-five thousand tons of sugar were exported from the French portion of the island. Sourcesfrom whence the Supply of Sugar is derived.-The West Indies, Brazil, Surinam, Java, Mauritius, Bengal, Siam, the Isle de Bourbon, and the Philipines, are the principal sources whence the supplies required for the European and American markets are derived. The average quantities exported from these countries during each of the three years ending with 1833, were nearly as follows: British West Indies, including Demerara and Berbice......................... tons 190,000 Mauritius................................. 30,000 Bengal, Isle de Bourbon, Java, Siam, Philip ines, &c 60,000 in c................................. 6,0 Cuba and Porto Rico........................ 110,000 French, Dutch, and Danish West Indies.... 95,000 Brazil................................... 75,000 560,000 Loaf or lump sugar is unknown in the East-sugar-candy being the only species of refined sugar that is made use of in India, China, &c. The manufacture of sugar-candy is carried on in Hindoostan, b~ut the process is esstremnely rude sad imperfe~ct. 1 Chins Sicily, at a cheap er rate than the y could im po r t it from Egypt. -(Essai de l'Historie du Commerce de P-extise, p. 100.) The Crusades tended to spread a taste fogr sugar through out the we stern world; but there can be no doubt that it was cultivated, as now stated, in modern Europe, antecedently to the era of the Crusades; and that it was also previously imported by the Venetians, Amalphitans, a nd others, who carried on a c omm er cial intercourse, from a very remote epoch, with Alex andria and other citie s in the Levant. It was certainly imported into Venice in 996.-(See the Essai, &c., p. 70.) The ar t of refiningt sugar, and making what is called loaf sugar, is a modern Eu ropean invention, t he discove ry o f a Vene tian about the end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of t eethe sixteenth century.-(Mose ly, p. 66.) The Saracens introduc ed the cul tiva tion of the sugar-cane into Spa in soon after they obtained a footing in th at country. The first plantations were at Valencia; but they were afterward extended to Granada and Murcia. Mr. T h oma s Willoughby, who traveled over a great part or Spanin, in 1664, ha s g ive n an interesting account of the state of the Spanish sugar plantations, and of the mode of m anufacturi ng the sugar. Plants of the sugar-cane wer e carried by the Sp aniards and Portuguese to the Canary Islan an id Mad feira, in the early part of the fiftee nth century; and it has been asserted b y many, that these islands furnished the first plants of the sutar-cane that ever grew in America. But though it is sufficiently established, th e Spaniards early conveyed plants of the sugar-can e to the new world, ther e can be no doubt, notwithstanding Humboldt seems to incline to the opposite opinion, (Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne.-Liv. iv. c. 10,) that this was a work of supererogation, and that the cane was indigenous, both to the American continent and islands. It was not for the plant itself, which flourished spontaneously in many p art s when it was discovered by Columbus, bu t for the s ecret of making sugar from it, that the New World is ind ebted to the S pani ard s and Port ug ue se, and these t ththe nations of the East.-(See Lafitau Moeurs des Sauvages, tome ii, p. 150; Edwards's West Indies, vol. ii, p. 238.) Barbadoes is the oldest settlement of the English in the Wvest Ind ies. Th e y took possession of it in 1627, and so early as 1646 began to export sugar. In 1676, the trade of the Barbadoes is said to have attained its maximum. being then capable of employing four hundred sail of vessels, averaging one hundred fifty tons burdenl. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus, in his second voyage, and was first occupied 279 SUGAR-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. however, it is manufactured in a very superior manner, and large quantities are exported. When of the best description, it is in large, white crystals, and is a very beautiful article. Two sorts of sugar-candy are met with at Canton, viz., Chinchew and Canton -the former being the produce of the province of Fokien, and the latter, as its name implies, of that of Canton. The Chinchew is by far the best, and is about fifty per cent. dearer than the other. Chinese sugar-candy is consumed, to the almost total exclusion of any other species of sugar by the Europeans, at the different settlements throughout the East. There were exported from Canton, in 1831-32, by British ships, 32,279 piculs (38,427 cwt.) of sugar-candy, valued at $243,000, and 60,627 piculs (72,175 cwt.) of clayed sugar, valued at $318,256; and, during the previous year, the exports were about fifty per cent. greater, (see vol. i, page 302-303.) The exports by the American are also considerable. At an average, the exports of sugar from Canton may be taken at from six to ten thousand tons; but of this only a small quantity finds its way to Europe. The exports from Siam and Cochin-China are estimated at about twelve thousand five hundred tous. Consumption of Sugar in Europe, 4-c.Mr. Cook gives the following table of the imports of sugar into France, and the principal continental ports, in 1831, 1832, and 1833, and of the stock on hand on the 31st of December of each of these years: IMPORTS. STOCK 31st DECEMBER. 1831 1832 1&33 1831 1833 1833 Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons To.France.................... 97,450....... 82,000...... 79,500.......25,870......... 9,350........10,450 Trieste.................... 17,950...... 22,400........13,800........ 6,900........11,900........ 6,840 Genoa...................... 9,500...... 10,500........ 6,800.......I1,500........ 2,200........2,180 Antwerp.................. 5,240........ 8,780....... 12,800....... 2,000....... 2,000........ 5,100 Rotterdam.................10,700........11,600........ 8,650........ 1,800........ 3,900........ 3,350 Amsterdam................ 18,370....... 22,380.......20,100........ 2,200........ 3,400........ 5,300 Ilaniburgh.................38,800........ 37,930....... 30,000........ 9,000....... 13,400........ 9,820 Bremen...................12,380.......12,500........ 7,350........3,230........5,800....... 3,550 Copenhagen................ 5,350....... 5,850....... 5,560........ 800........ 2,370....... 1,830 Petersburgh................11,170........33,100........18,500........8,840........ 11,660........15,600 226,910........ 237,040.......203,060........61,740....... 65,980........64,020 This table does not, however, give the ten, Konigsberg, Riga, Stockholm, Gottenimports into many of the ports of the Pen- burgh. It is, besides, very difficult, owing iiisula; but the consumption of Spain, only, to transhipments from one place to another, has been estimated, apparently on good accurately to estimate the real amount of grounds, by Montveran, (Essai de Statistique, the imports. On the whole, however, we sur les Colonies, page 92,) at 45,000,000 believe that we shall be within the mark, if kilog. (41,050 tons.) This may appear large we estimate those for the whole continent for a country in the situation of Spain, but at from 285,000 to 310,000 tons, including the quantity is deduced from comparing the what is sent from England. imports with the exports; and it is explain- The following table, compiled from the ed partly by the moderation of the duties, best authorities, exhibits the total consumpand partly by the large consumption of tion of colonial and foreign sugars in France, cocoa, and other articles that require a cor- at different periods, since 1788, with the responding consumption of sugar. Mr. population, and the average consumption of Cook's table also omits the imports into each individual (see Montveran, Essai de Leghorn, Naples, Palermo, and other Italian Statistique, page 96, and the authorities ports. Neither does it give those into Set- there referred to): Years Consumption Population Individual Consimption 1788......................... 21,300,000 kilog..............23,600,000...............906 kilog. 1801...........................25,200,000..............31,000,000.............. 813 " 1812..........................16,000,000.............. 43,000,000...............272 "* 1816 to 1819, average..........36,000,000 "..............30,000,00..............1.200' 1819-I822.................... 47,000,000 ".............. 30,833,000..............1.566 1822-1824.....................47,250,000.............. 31,103,000............. 1.513 1824-1825..................... 55,750,000...................31,280,000..............1.782 1826-1827......................62,500,000 "..............31,625,000..............1.976 " 1830..........................67,250,000..............31,845,000............ 2.126 " * Continental system and empire. This, however, is independent of the con- France, in 1832-including from 8,000,000 to sumption of indigenous sugar, and of the 9,000,000kilog. ofbeet-root sugar, and allowsugar introduced by the contraband trade, ing for the quantity fraudulently introduced, both of which are very considerable. The may be estimated at about 88,000,000 kilog., entire consumption of all sorts of sugar in or 193,000,000 lbs.; which, taking thle pop 280 SUGAR-ITS PRODUCTION AND HISTORY. ulation at 32,000,000, gives an average con- the houses of the rich and great. It was not sumption of six pounds to each individual- till the latter part of the century, when coffee being about one-fourth part of the consump- and tea began to be introduced, that sugar tion of each individual in Great Britain came into general demand. In 1700, the This extraordinary discrepancy is no doubt quantity consumed was about 10,000 tons, ascribable to various causes: partly to the or 22,000,000 lbs. At this moment, the con greater poverty of the mass of the French sumnption has increased (bastards included,) people; partly to their smaller consump- to above 180,000 tons, ormore than 400,000, tion of tea, coffee, punch, and other articles 000 lbs.; so that sugar forms not only one that occasion a large consumption of sugar; of the principal articles of importation and and partly and principally, perhaps, to the sources of revenue, but an important neces oppressive duties with which foreign sugars sary of life. are loa.ded, on their being taken into France Great, however, as the increase in the for home consumption. use of sugar has certainly been, it may, we The United States consume from 70,000 think, be easily shown, that the demand for to 80,000 tons; but of these from 30,000 to it is still very far below its natural limit 40,000 tons are produced in Louisiana. and that, were the existing duties on this About 170,000 tors of sugar are retained article reduced, and the trade placed on a for home consumption, in Great Britain, and proper footing, its consumption, and the 17,000 tons in Ireland, exclusive of about revenue derived from it, would be greatly 12,000 tons of bastard, or inferior sugar, ob- increased. tained by the boiling of molasses; and ex- During the first half of the last century, elusive, also, of the refuse sugar and treacle the consumption of sugar increased fivefold, remaining after the process of refining. and amounted, as already stated, On the whole, therefore, we believe we may T Pod estimate the aggregate consumption of the Tn ou ,-, 1, ~~~~~~In 1700, to........... 10,000.......... or 22 000,000 continent, and ofthe British islands, at about 170 t4,00 or 1360,000 , 1710, to...........14,000..........or 31',360,000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~170 t...... 1,00...... r 1 500,000 tons a year; to which if we add the 1734, to...........42,000..........or 94,800,000 aggregate consumption of the United States, 1754, to...5,270.....or i,320,000 1770-1775, to......72,500 (average) or 162,500,000 Turkey, &c teageat ilb nearly Trkey, &c., the aggregate will be nearly 17860-1791, to......81,000..........or 181,500,000 equivalent to the supply. The demand is rapidly increasing in most countries; but, as the In the reign of Queen Anne, the duty on power to produce sugar is almost illimitable, sugar amounted to 3s. 5d. per cwt. Small no permanent rise ofprices need be looked for. additions were made to it in the reign of Taking the price of sugar at the low rate George II.; but, in 1780, it was only 6s. 8d. of ~1 4s. a cwt., or ~24 a ton, the prime In 1781, a considerable addition was made cost of the article to the people of Europe to the previous duty, and, in 1787, it was as will be ~12,000,000; to which adding 75 high as 12s. 4d. In 1791, it was raised to per cent. for duty, its total cost will be 15s.; and, while its extensive and increasing ~21,000,000. This is sufficient to prove consumption pointed it out as an article well the paramount importance of the trade in fitted to augment the public revenue, the this article. Exclusive, however, of sugar, pressure on the puble finance, caused by the the other products ofthe cane-as rum, mo- French war, occasioned its being loaded with lasses, treacle, &c.-are of very great value. duties, which, though they yielded a large The revenue derived by the British treasury, return, would, there is good reason to think, from rum only, amounts to nearly ~1,600,- have been more productive, had they been 000 a year. lower. In 1797, the duty was raised to 17s. Prirtssive Consnmption of Sugar in 6d; two years afterward, it was raised to Great Britain.-WVe are not aware that there 20s.; and, by successive augmentations, in are any authentic accounts with respect to 1803, 1804 and 1806, it was raised to 30s.; the precise period when sugar first began but, in the last-mentioned year, it was enactto be used in England. It was, however, im- ed, that, in the event of the market price of ported, in small quantities, by the Venetians sugar in bond, or exclusive of the duty, beand Genoese, in the fourteenth and fifteenth ing, for the four months previous to the 5th centuries,* but honey was then, and long of January, the 5th of May, or the 5th of after, the principal ingredient employed in September, below 49s. a cwt., the lords of sweetening liquors and dishes. Even in the the treasury might remit Is. a cwt. of the early part of the seventeenth century, the duty; that, if the price were below 48s., quantity of sugar imported was very incon- they might remit 2s., and, if below 47s., they siderable, and it was made use of only in I might remit 3s., which was the greatest re - - - _____~~~- duction that could be made. In 1826, the duty * In Martin's Storia del Commercio de Veneziani, was declared to be constant at 27s., without (vol. v., page 3(6.) there is an account of a shipirient regard to price, but it was reduced, in 1830 made at Venice for England, in 1319, of 100,000 lbs. of sugar, and 10,000 lbs. of sug~ar-candy. The sugar to 24s., on West India sugar, and to 2s. on is said to have been brought from the Levant. East India sugar. 281 SUGAR-THE EARLY HISTORY OF. of Dr. Edw. Dartwright," (1843,) that this ingenious man used to fatten sheep on sugar. To birds, this diet proved so nourishing, that the suppliers of the European poultry markets find that sugar, along with hemp-seed and boiled wheat, will greatly fatten ruffs and reeves in the space of a fortnight. SUGAR AND ITS USES.-The French people are great eaters of sugar, always carrying some of it about with them, in their pockets and reticules, and generally putting five or six lumps into each cup of coffee. M. Chessat reports that sugar, when used as the exclusive, or principal article of diet, produces quite opposite effects in persons, according to the difference in their systems; for, while it fattens some, it creates bile, which induces a diarrhea, and a wasting of the solids, in other persons. The celebrated Bolivar had, by fatigue and privations, so injured the tone of his stomach, that he was unable, at times, to take any other food than sugar, which, in his case, was easy of digestion. His personal friends assure us, that, in some of his last campaigns, he lived, for weeks together, upon sugar alone, as a solid, with pure water as a liquid; but, probably, in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand, this diet would soon have brought the person adopting it to his grave; for, on those whose digestion is feeble, a large, or exclusive, allowance of sugar adds to their grievance, because the excess of nutriment, not being generally absorbed by their weakened system, becomes converted to bile, and causes great debility and wasting of the body. In seventeen experiments, made on dogs, M. Chessat observed, that, when the sugar diet fattened them, there was a general tendency to constipation meanwhile; and, on the contrary, when it produced an excess of bile in other dogs, their bowels were relaxed. Why English children suffer, in their digestion, after eating largely of sugar-plums, comfits, &c., is chiefly owing, however, to those delicacies being composed of the refuse of starch works, mixed with plaster of Paris, pipeclay and chalk, and having, indeed, as little sugar as will suffice to give them a palatable sweetness; and they are often colored with gamboge; and, sometimes, with red lead, verdigris, and other mineral poisons. Everywhere, the beasts of the field, the reptiles, the fish and insects, are found to have a great liking for sugar and honey. Mr. Martin says he has tamed the most savage and vicious horses with sugar, and has seen the most ferocious animals domesticated by being partly fed upon it. The tamers of lions and tigers owe their power over them chiefly to a judicious use of sugar, and other sorts of sweets, and, also, of lavender water, and various other perfumes, of which feline animals are remarkably fond. In the sugar season, in the West Indies, the horses, mules and cattle, soon acquire a plumpness and strength by partaking of the leaving of the sugar canes, after the manufacturer has done with them. In Cochin-China, the elephants, buffaloes and horses, are all fattened with sugar. We learn, from the "Memoirs f SUGAR-THE EARLY HISTORY oF. -Th e following communication was sent us by A. G. Summer, Esq., of South Carolina, received by him from his brother, Thomas J, Summer, member of the Literary and Scientific Society of Giesin, and who is pursuing Agricultural Chemistry under Liebig, Rosa and Mulder. Dr. Weill says, that as far as he has observed there is no allusion made to sugar in the Old Testament. The conquests of Alexander seem to have opened its discovery to the Western world. Strabo says that Nearchus, his admiral, found sugar-cane in the East Indies, but does not say that even art was used to reduce the juice of this plant to gum. Strabo also quotes Eratosthenes, as speaking of roots of large reeds in India, which were of sweet taste, both raw and when boiled. Theophrastus, we next find, had -some knowledge of sugar, for in naming the different kinds of honey, he mentions one found in reeds. Varro, in a fragment quoted by Isidorus, alludes to this substance, when he says it was as a fluid, pressed out from reeds of a large size, which was sweeter than honey. Dioscorides, speaking of the different kinds of honey, says there is one sort, in a concrete state, called Saccharon, which is found in the reeds of India and Arabia Felix. This, he adds, has the appearance of salt; and, like that, is bitter when chewed in the mouth. It is beneficial to the bowels and stomach, if taken dissolved in water; and is also useful in diseases of the bladder and kidneys. Being sprinkled on the eye, it removes those filmy substances that obscure the sight. This I regard as the first account extant of the medical properties of' sugar. Galen was well acquainted with the use of sugar, and describes it similarly with the above, as a kind of honey, called Sacchar, that came from India and Arabia Felix, and concreted in reeds. He says it is less sweet than honey, but of similar qualities, as detergent, desiccative, and digerent. He observes the difference, however, that sugar is not like some honey, injurious to the stomach, or productive of thirst, but on the contrary always occasions internal irritation. In the third book of Galen, treating of medicines easily procured, sugar is repeatedly prescribed. Lucan speaks of the sweet juice drawn from reeds, which constituted a drink for the 282 SUGAR-THE EARLY HISTORY OF. people of India. Seneca, speaks also of an oily sweet juice in reeds. Pliny mentions it as saccharon, and says it was brought from Arabia and India; but the best came from the latter country. He describes it as a kind of honey obtained from reeds, of a white color resembling gum, brittle when pressed by the teeth, and found in pieces of the size of a hazlenut. It was used in medicine only. Salmasius, in his Pliniante Exer-citationes, says, Pliny relates upon the authority of Juba the historian, that some reeds grew in the Fortunate Islands, which increased to the size of trees, and yielded a liquor that was sweet and agreeable to the palate. Though he implies that this plant was the sugarcane, I think the plant intended by Pliny was some one of the milk-producing trees of the African tropics. Before this period we had no account of the artificial boiling, or the application of the evaporating process to sugar, but Statius alludes to the boiling of sugar, and the passage is referred to in the celebrated Thesaurus of Stephens. Arrian, in his Periplus of the Red Sea, speaks of the honey of reeds, called sacchar, as one of the articles of trade between Ariac and Barygaza, two places of the hither India, and of some parts of the Red Sea. 2Elian, in his Natural History, speaks of a kind of honey, pressed from reeds that grew among the Prassi, a people who lived near the Ganges. Tertullian also speaks of sugar in his book De Judicio Dei, as a kind of honey procured from canes, Alexander Aphrodisinus states, that sugar was regarded in his time as an Indian production. What the Indians called sugar then, was a concretion of honey, in reeds resembling crystals of salt, of a white color, brittle, and possessing a detergent and purgative power like honey; and which being boiled in t he sam e mann er as honey, is rendered less purgative, without impairinig its nutritive quality. Paulus Egineta, makes the first mention of sugar growing in Europe; and also speaks of its being brought from Arabia Felix; the latter he seemed to think less sweet than the sugar raised in Europe, and neither injurious to the stomach nor causing thirst, as the European sugar was apt to do. I regret that I can't fix the date at which this author wrote. Achmet, an Eastern writer who is said to have lived about the year 830, speaks frequently of sugar as common in his time. Aviccena, the Arab physician, also speaks of sugar as being the produce of reeds, which he calls tabixer or tabar et. It does not appear that down to this time the world was acquainted with the method of preparing sugar, by boiling down the juice of the canes to a consistence. It is also thought that the sugar they had, was not derived from the sugar-cane now cultivated, but from a coarser and larger variety, known to the ancient world, called by Avicenna, tabarzet, which is the arundo arbor of Cas per Bauhen, the sacchar mamba of later authors, and the arundo bambos, of Linneus. This yi e lds, even at the p rese nt day, a sweet, milky juice, w hi c h freely crystall ize s in the sun's rays, and res e mble s sugar both in taste and a ppear an c e. It is similar if not identical with gu m manna, and I th ink we mu st date the commen ce me nt of th e cultivation of sugar as we know it with th e Crusad ers. This period opened to the world the riches of the "far orie nt." Even the " Golden Fleece" ha d stoppe d a t Colchis, but i t was for the Crusaders to transport useful arts, ta stes, refinement, a nd even disease from the Holy Lan d, to all porti ons of Central and Western Europe. In the histor y of those days, romance and chivalry he ld a sway which almos t obscures the details of those usef ul arts which went home with the mda il-clad soldiers of the Holy Sepulchre. But the student, by gropin g i n the massive r ubbi sh o f centuries, if he perseve res, can still, now and then, place his finger on a point in the progress of any art which existed at th a t time, and in searching for the s e point s is often re - warded by discoveries which show the inception of wonderful events which have since transpired. I turned my inquiries from the tome s o f the t imes prec edin g the Crusaders to the historians of th ose infatuated expeditions, and in the Historia Hierosolymitana found that the Crusaders discovered in Syria certain reeds called canno-meles, of which a kind of wild honey was made. Albertus Agnensis, writing about the same period, says that " the Crusaders found sweet honeyed reeds in great quantities in the meadows about Tripoli, in Syria, which reeds were called zucra. These reeds were sucked by them, and they were much pleased with their sweet taste, with which they could be scarcely satisfied. This plant is cultivated with great labor of the husbandman every year. At the time of harvest, they bruise it when ripe in mortars, and set the strained juice in vessels till it is concreted in the form of snow, or white salt. This, when scraped, they mix with bread, or rub it with water, and take it as pottage; and it is to them more wholesome and pleasing than the honey of bees. The people who were engaged in the sieges of Albaria Marra and Archas, suffered dreadful hunger, and were much refreshed thereby " He also mentions, in his account of the reign of Baldwin, that eleven camels, laden with sugar, were captured by the Crusaders, and from this we infer it was then made in considerable quantities. In the works of Jacobus de Vitriacco, is to. be found th:e first account of the employment of heat or fire in the making of sugars for 283 SUGAR CULTURE IN TEXAS. he says, "that in Syria reeds grow that are full of honey, or a sweet juice, which by the pressure of a screw engine, and concreted by fire, becomes sugar. Wilhelmus Tyrensis, about the same period, speaks of "sugar as made in the neighborhood of Tyre, and sent to the farthest ports of the world. " Marinus Sanatus says, that in the countries subject to the Sultan, sugar was produced in large quantities, and that it was likewise made in Cyprus, Rhodes, Amnorea, Malta, Sicily, and other places belonging to Christians. Last of all, Hugo Falcandus, who wrote in the days of Frederic Barbarossa, speaks of sugar being produced in great quantities in Sicily, where it was used in two states one, when the juice was boiled down to the consistence of honey, the other when it was boiled still farther down so as to form a solid body of sugar. Here, when revolution and the turbulent spirit of Frederic shook the whole of Europe, was consummated that skill which has since furnished to our sugar regions a basis for the wonderful chemical discoveries which have engaged their attention up to the present time. How much the art of manufacturing sugar is vet to be improved can only be imagined, when we review the events which have accelerated its production since the twelfth century. I feel much satisfaction in addressing these historical transcripts to one of my fellow-citizens who is largely interested in the culture of sugar. Depend upon it, my dear sir, the only thing the sugar planters should call to their support is the aid of science. With this, and the healthy energy of American enterprise, they will outstrip the world in the production of every staple which enrages their attention and occupies their labor. Me xico vcare peculiarly favo rabl e to its production. Indeed, it was cult ivated formerly much more extensively in the neighborhood of the coast, where t he lands wt ere more productive t han th ose even of the island of Cuba, and the juice of the cane much ric her in saccharine matter; but the works were destroyed o n most o f the e state s duri ng the civil wars of the revolution, and they are t oo costly to be renewed. The consumption of sugar in the country is enormous, and the quantity made barely suffices for home use. If Mexico is to be Americanized. and sugrar raised there to be brought into competition with that of Louisiana, the latter will have to abandon that source of profitable culture. An experiment, recorded by Humboldt, gave double the quantity of sugar raised on the coast cf Mexicoto that raised on the same area in Cuba. " A hectane of the best land in Vera Cruz produces 5,600 pounds of raw sugar, or exactly double the quantity obtained fron the same space of ground in Cuba." The sugar used in Mexico, like that of Peru, is badly refined and has a coarse appearance. The cane is planted closer together than is customary in the English West India islands; but they rest their lands, planting only one-fourth each year-a system that maintains their fertility unimpaired. I am, dear sir, very truly yours. SUGAR CULTURE IN TEXAS. —There are at present twenty-nine sugar p)lanitations in Brazoria county, each having substantial bu ildings and machinery for t he preparation ot' the cane-juice for market. Col. Morgan L. Smith's establishment ranks hi ghest in th e scale of cost, as it does in estic.able peretensions, to produce a refiniefd article of the highest character, havinrg in co mbination thse latest improvements that g enius an d i ntellect have as ye t devised fobr the fabrication n of sugar. Col. Smith's pe rsev eran ce, enterprise and energy vill, I have no doubt, surmount eve ry difficulty that is likely to obstruct the progress of his great and laudable design, if at all practicable. His personal exertions and general character merit the enjoyment of a most brilliant success. As the costs of the establishments are not uniformly the same, they are classed in the following schedule, according to their estimated value-as, one at $.50,000; eight at $20,000; six at $15,000; two at $12.000; one at $10,000; one at $8,000; ten at $5,000 -the number of sugar-houises, and the cost multiplied into each other. In the next column, the estimated value of the hands em. ployed on the plantation; the next, the supposed number of acres cultivated, with the very low average price of' twenty dollars per acre-giving an aggregate of $1,134,000,,the amount of capital invested in the cultivation of sugar-cane, &c., in Brazoria county at this From the Hon. Joel R. Poinsett. JUNE 25, 1847. Sugar is a fruitful subject. Of course, you are aware of the vast advantage possessed over us in the'"rest Indies, where, from the cane maturing, the juice is many times stronger than in our colder region. Within the tropics it takes eighteen months to mature, and I think the comparative strength of the juice with that raised in colder climates, it is as eight to one. Sugar is cultivated successfully in Peru, and constitutes the chief article of export. It is sent to Chili, in exchange for flour. The sugar of Peru is clayed, and not well refined. In Mexico it is raised in the Tierra Templada, and Tierra Caliente; chiefly in the valleys of Cuatla and Cuemavaca, about twenty leagues from the capital; although it might be cultivated to almost any extent, as the soil and climate of many parts of 284 SUGAR OF LOUISIANA. time. These figures are by no means exag- rather below than above the actual amount gerated, for it is confidently believed they are I of a close calculation: SCHErDULE. No. of Aggregate value tSugar Value of each of Sugar Value of No. of Value of Houses Sugar Ao,u l ouoses Negroues ores Land utal 1........ $50,000.......... $50,000.......... $60,000......... 200.......... $4,000.......... 114,000 8.........20, 00 0 160,000............330,000..........1,800........... 36,000..........526,000 6..........15,000............90,000...........103,000.......... 580...........11,000.........204,000 2......... 12,000............24,000........... 35,000.......... 250........... 5,(00........... 64,000 1.........10,000............10,000............ 10,000......... 100............2,000...........22,000 1...........8,000.............8,000............12,000.......... 100.......... 2,000..........22,000 10..........5,000............50,000........... 115,000.......... 850.......... 17,000..........182,000 29......................... $392,000......... $665,000......... 3,880......$77,000........ 1,134,000 The manufacture of sugar in Texas is yet largest flesh-pots of Egypt were arrayed " all in the incipient stage of success, The culture round in a row," as an evaporating battery, of cane, until within a few years past, was under the attentive ministration of the family quite limited; a few small patches were cul- I circle. Although proditcing an article not untivated in the vicinity of Bexar de Sat Auto- like Mississippi alluvion steeped in molasses, nio, itn olden times, for family use, in the form it brought a goodly price into the hard, close of a peloucus. Mr. Stafford, of Fort Bend hand of the honest Eli Mercer. Urged onbly county, was the first to erect permanent successful sales, the incorrigible Eli extended works for its manufacture in Austin's colony, the limits of his cane patch; by experience, in 1834, but the buildings were burned to gained some celebrity int) his new craft, while the ground, and the machinery destroyed by the saccharine qualities of the soil and cli. the AIexican army, during the sanguinary mate were successfully developed to his aderuption of 1336. But it is to an adventitious vantage, and that of his successors, for ages. experiment made by Mr. Eli Mercer, of the He is now enabled to enjoy the fruit of his Egyptian settlement, VWharton county, on the persevering industry, with peace and plenty Rio Colorado, seventy miles in the interior, around hilp, under his own vine and fig-tree. that the first " partial essay is indebted for But more likely, if yet alive, you may find the origin of our sugar doitgs." him rusticating under the shade of some The extreme scarcity of foreign produc- neig,hiboring gnarled post-oak, poring over the tions in the colonies, previous to the revolu- Proverbs of Solomon, or the Psalms of David tion, intiduced this gentleman to make an at- in metre. tempt at sugar making-at least enough for his own family consumption-in 1833,'34. SUGAR OF LOUISIANA.-We have With the assistance of his two sons-yet in made up some statistics from the tables of boyhood-and one negro, he cultivated, in Mr. Champomier, which were published for addition to his usual potato and corn patch, several years. This gentleman collected his not only enough for his own family use, but facts by correspondence and personal attendhe supplied the whole population of Egypt auce; and though he may have been led into with sweetening. His apparatus was wholly many errors, they are altogether too unimdomestic-the live oak rolling-mill was con- portant to affect the general results. Nothing structed by himself, from the stump, and the soreliable can be had from any other source. LOUISIANA SUGAR STATISTICS. Sugar Houses, Products, Average product Planters, Noo. hbds. Sugar House No. Parishes 1844-5 1845-6 1844-5 1845-6 1844-5 1845-6 1845-6 Pointe Coupee................ 5........40.......... 888.........1,206........173........ 300.........51 West Baton Rouge...........19........52........4,247........ 4,961........230........ 95.........78 East Baton Rouge............18........35........ 4,474.........4222........ 240........120.........54 Ibervilie.................... 69....... 1106....... 16,463....... 15,624....... 230....... 134....... 194 Ascenrsioi...................48........63....... 19,223........106,906........400........264........ 96 St. James...................07.......81........21,519........17,515........310216.......216........197 St. Joln. 61 Jo......................55.......1....... 13,575.........9,90 9........230........105........145 St. Chlarles...................37......39........12,532........10,650........ 320........273.........94 Jefferson.................... 24........29........11.218.................. 460........260.........49 St. Bernard and Orleans.....2.......2.........0,41.........5,70... 23........ 26 6,941.... 5,670260. 210.........47 Plaquermines.................. 36...........36........45........14,71........11,214.5 14,761........11,321........400........251........ 77 Assumyption.................. 62.......137.......11,990........12,076........175.........88........206 Latbfourele.................... 49........ 98........ 14,205........11,116........280........113........16 4 Terrebonie.................... 42.78........12,661........12,080........290........164........104 St. Mary................... 147.......179........18, 795........24,722....... 120........132........283 ,St.Martin. 36...................3.......69 4,419.........5,246 761........ 20.........76........115 Lafayette..............................7... 4......... 3 36 5...........5........52.........11 Vermillion....................13...................1,176.........65.........61.........133 285 SUGAR PRODUCTION IN LOUISIANA. LOUISIANA SUGAR STATISTICS-continued. Sugar Houses, Product, Average product Planters, No. hhds. Sugar House No. Parishes 1844-5 1845-6 1844-5 1845-6 1844-5 1845-6 1845-6 St. Landry...............26........26...1,179.........1,352....... 130........ 52........ 37 Red River Parishes of Avoy- ) elles, Rapides Catahoula,. 27........ -......... -...........................29 Concordia................ Calcasieu.......................11 119..............10.........11 West Feliciana.............. -.-........ 2........ —....................................4 Cistern Sugar............................... --.........9,876................. - -........ Total......... 764..... 1,240...... 191,324....... 186,650...... 250....... 150......2,077 200,000 hogsheads. The number of steam sugar-mills that year was 408, the rest being horse. Whole number of planters then, 900. The estimate of 1845-6 includes the cistern bottoms. Mr. Champomier estimated there would be in operation ill 1847, from returns made to him, 1,240 sugar-houses, owned by 2,077 proprietors. They appear in our table of 1846 as in progress; 204expecting to work in'4 6 and'47, and 81 in'47 and'48. From the stimulant given to the sugar culture from the high prices of 1847, and the very low rates of cotton in 1843, the new bayou atnd river lands taken into cultivation, and especially the region on the Red River, the whole number of sugar-mills in Louisiana in 1849-50, will scarcely fall short of 1,500. About one-half of the mills are by horse-power, though steam is being rapidly substituted. If we consider the whole territory of Louisiana, and compare the country south of Rapides Parish, excluding the Florida parishes, we shall find about one-half of the state adapted to the sugar culture. Probably not onie-twentieth is now cultivated in sugar. There are many parishes in which it is not cultivated at all. 120,000 out of 200,000 hogsheads, which the state produces, are made by the parishes on the river above and below the city. The crops of Red River parishes, the present year, we have not learned, but, from 30 houses, may estimate 7,000 hogsheads, perhaps 10,000. PLANTERS PRODUCING OVER 1000 HHDS.* H. McCall.................................... 1 019 D. F. Kenner................................. 1'156 Brengiers....................................'170 Valcour Aime................................1,152 Henry Doyle................................. 1,539 Garcia & Co.................................. 1,015 L. Labranche................................1,016 L. Millandon, (3 estates).....................2,035 Preston, (2 estates).......................2,324 Thus, nine planters produ ced as much as the 81 planters of St. Martin's, Lafayette, St. Landry, Vermillion and West Baton Rouge, and one-sixteeinth of' the whole crop. About 160 planters produced one-half of the whole crop. It is to be observed, however, that many planters have interests in other estates than their own, and others have estates in different parishes. Several have often an interest in the same estate. Adding the cistern bottom sugars, used by the refiners, the crop of 1844-5 exceeded SUGAR PRODUCTI6N IN LOUISIANA, 1851-'52. No. of Sugar No. by Steam No. by Horse No. f lhds. Names of Parishes Houses Power Power Suar 1. Rapides..................................46.......... 34................ 10,127 2. Avoyelles................................... 30......... 15......... 15.. 3,398 3. Wvest Feliciana............................20.......... 8.......... 2........ 5,894 4. Pointe Coupee............................ 65.........58.......... 6.......... 7,187 5. East Feliciana......................................... 14.................... 1,645 6. West Baton Rouge.........................57......... 48............... 10,842 7. East Baton Rouge......................... 53. 43.......................10 7,076 8. Iberville................................ 133.......... 1........22.......... 1,835 9. Ascension.................................... 2.......... 52........ 10 14034 10. St. James................................... 85.......... 70......... 15........ 17,719 11. St. John the Baptist.......................67........47.........20.......... 10,920 12. St. Charles............................... 38.......... 37......... 1.......... 79,629 13. Jefferson................................. 29.......... 29.......... 2........... 7,775 14. Orleans and St. Bernard....................25.........25...........................5,773 15. Plaquemines.............................45.........45................. 12,345 16. Assumption-Bayou Lafourche..............146.........51.......... 95.......... 9 18,001 17. Lafourche Interior.......................... 46......... 30......... 3 11,681 * For every hogshead of sugar one barrel of molasses is produced. 286 PRODUCT SUGAR HOUSES. 1845 1846 Producing 1000 hogsheads and over...... 8...... - 900...... 3...... 2 800...... 8...... I 700..... 20...... 4 600.....20...... 18 500.....48...... 20 400.....45...... 46 300.....99...... 98 200.... 104...... 154 under 200.... 407...... 897 SUGAR PRODUCTION IN LOUISIANA, No. of Sugar No. by Steam No. by Horse No. of hhds Names of Parishes Housel Power Power Sugar 18. Terrebonne, "............91.......... 51........... 40............13,498 19. St. Maryv-Attakapas.........................188.......... 62..........126..........27,379 20. St. Martin "......................... 95.........17......... 78......... 6,052 21. Vermillion-Lafayette....................... 22.......... 2......... 20.......... 730 22. Lafayette................................... 19......2.......... 17......... 783 23. St. Landry-Opelousas...................... 68........ 36.......... 32.......... 4,420 Divers small parcels, made in hogsheads and bar rels, in different sugar-houses, not reckoned.................................... 3,600 Cistern bottoms of 203,922 hogsheads brown sugar, at an estimate, say ol' five per cent...................................................10,204 Total..............................1474....... 914......... 560........ 236,547 Estimated at...............257,138,000 lbs. Brown sugar made by the old process.............................................203,922 hhds. Refined, clarified, &c., including cistern.......................................... 32,625 " Total....................................................................236,547 " Louisiana Steam Refinery, 1,467,905 lbs. Louisiana sugar, 52,872 lbs. cistern sugar, 538 boxes Cuba sugar. Battle-ground Refinery, besides the crop of the plantatiol, (550,000 lbs.,) 3,214,767 lbs. sugar, 537,222 lbs. cisterns, 211 boxe s C uba. Lafayette Refinery, 81,765 lbs. sugar, 2,7.35,114 lbs. cisterns. Valcour Aime's Refinery, besides the crop of 678,000 lbs., 1,85S,487 lbs. sugar, 1,004,098 lbs. cisterns, 800,986 lbs. Cuba. The Louisiana Refinery also worked up 2,809 gallons Louisiana molasses, and 249,629 gallons Cuba; the Battle-ground, 94,554 Louisiana, and 179,260 Cuba; the Lafayette, 7,047 gallons Cuba: and the ~alcour Aline, 88,555 gallons Cuba molasses. The above statistics are from the valuable annual report of Mr. Champomier upon the crop. For ty-thr-ee plantations in the state are worked on the various new processes and vacuum principle. Quality of the crop geiierally indifferent, the season being bad. Deficiency of rains throughout the state. There are 1,474 sugar plantations in Louisiana, 914 being worked by steam, and 560 by horsepower. The molasses crop unusually large, averaging this year 70 gallons to the 1,000 lbs. sugar. The crevasses on the Mississippi, Lafourclie, and Plaqueminies, destroyed 9,0(00 or 10,000 hogsheads. The refineries of Louisiana worked up the following: SUGARS RECEIVED IN THE WEST FROM LOUISIANA. 1850. 1851. St. Louis.......... hhds. sugar............................................5,580........ 28,522 ".......... bbls. and boxes.........................................23,460...... 38,768 Cincinnati.........hhds. sugar............................................26,760....... 29,803 ".........bbls. and boxes.................................. 15,472...... 22,196 Pittsburgh.........hhds. sugar..................supposed................. 6,000........ 7,000 Wheeling, Va.............................hhds........... 1,500...... 2,400 Portsmouth, Ohio......................... " "................. 1,600........ 2,000 Maysville and Augusta, Ky....................... " "................. 1,500........ 2,200 Madison, Ia............................... " "................ 1,000........ 1,300 Louisville, Ky................................... ".................14,000........15,000 Newv-Albany, Ia........................... " "................. -........ 2,000 Evaisville and Wabash, Ia................ " "................. 3,500....... 5,000 Cumberland River.......................................... 5,000........ 5,700 Tennessee River................................... "................ 2,000........ 2,200 Mills's Point............................. " "................. 1,000........ 1,100 Memphis.................................. " "................. 6,000........ 7,000 Steubenville and Wellsville, O.............................. 800........ 1,000 Wellsburg and Parkersburg, Va 400............ " "................. 400........500 Marietta and Galliopolis, Ohio............. " "................. 500........ 600 Pt. Pleasant and Guayandott, O............" "................. 400........ 500 Lawrenceburg, Aurora and Vevay, Ia 500........................ 500........600 Warsaw, Henderson and Owensburg, Ky... " "................. 900........ 1,000 Jeffersonville 400.............................. "................ 400........500 Mount Vernon and Shawneetown, Ia....... " "................. 500....... 700 Many small buildings on the Ohio, at least................. 1500........ 1,700 30 in number, say......................' On the Mississippi, above Memphis, about................. 250........ 300 twelve or more small landings, say.... Sundry parcels purchased by fiatboatmen,.......000 traders, &c., say.............................................. Exclusive of the States of Arkansas, Mis- sissippi, Louisiana, and part of Texas, "........................ - via R. River........................... 287 SUuGAR TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES. SUGAR TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES.. Imports, Exports, Stocks, and Estimated Consumption of Raw, Clayed, 4c.,for the year ending December 31, 1351, exclusive of Calfornia and Oregon. Value, Jax 1, Neew-York lihds Tres Bus B oxes Bags Cas 1852 1851 Received from Cuba.............. 94,070...1,548...5,079...188,387..... 813..-...4 a 6..45 a 617 Porto Rico.........29,373......64...2,020. - a 8. 4 St. Croix...........1,236... -.......38... -..-.. 354 a 51.. 5% a 6Y Brazil........................ 565.. -...43,791.. 303.. 5 1a6a6.. - "Manilla............ -..108,257..-.. 4 a6 Surinam............. 817...... 3.... 133.....-.. 4% a 4.. - Nassau, N. P........ 136..... 23.... 103......-. - Halifax............. -- -. St. John, N. B.....69... -.....-.17'... -.... -- - Other foreign ports....317..... 10.... 302.......24... Total receipts of foreign........126,019... 1,648...8,257... 188,411..154,954... 303'-'3.. Received froni Texas.............1,576... -.... 235...... 102..... Louisiana........15,945.....45.... 326....... 31 a 514.. 5y4' a65 Other coastwise... 3,758......13..35,920.....3,384...13,733..-.. Total supply................... 147,397... 1,706..44,738...191,897.. 168,687.. 303 Exp'd'712lihds.,ship'dtoCa'da217....929....81..... 20.... 3,091 -.. -. 146,369... 1,625.. 44,718... 188,806.. 168,687.. 303 Add stock, January 1, 1851.......1,601... -.. -.....8,835....3,798.. Total supply..................147,970...1,625.44,718...197,641..172,485 303 Deduct stock, January 1, 1852......7,582.. -.. -....18,512...26,105.. 303 Muscovado. - Box. Taken for cons'ption I'm this port.. 140,388... 1,625..44,718... 184,129. 146,380 Or, about 132,832 tons-of which, foreign, imported direct, 120,599. Same time last year, 104,071 tonsof which foreign, imported direct, 65,089 tons. Received at New-York, from foreign and coastwise ports, from 1st January to 31st December. Hhds Tierces Barrela Boses Bags 1851.... 147,298......1,706......44,738......191,897......168,687 1850....116,848......1,311......35,019......132,814.......61,260 1849....128,417......1,404......21,105.......63,057.......93,938 1848.... 108,703......2,258......19,946......120,354.......90,088 1847. 87,SC.........779......17,765......144,898......24,255 1846.. -.67,238........577.......7,242.......85,744.......37,652 1845.....88,268......1,626......17,039.......22,958.......38,771 1844.....62,881........513......11,075......106,918.......35,689 1843.....59,003........331.......9,896.......50,549.......38,417 1842.....54,495.........75......13,048.......58,012......60,553 Most of the barrels received here from coastwise po Receipts of Foreign,from 1st January, 1851, to 31st December, 1851. tlhds & t,es Bbls Boies Bogs Cases At New-York.....................................127,667......8,257......188,411......154,954......303 Boston........................................ 11,571......1.223...... 82,906...... 88,126........ Philadelphia................................... 27,648......5,084...... 34,971...... 53,907........ Baltimore...................................... 17,044......2,542...... 3,597...... 8,310........ New-Orleans.................................. 350................ 28,619..............1,683 Other ports.................................... 6,168...... 321...... 11,071...... 5,320........ Total receipts in the United States...............190,448.....17,427......349,575......310,617.... 1,986 Add stock at all the ports, January 1, 1851.......... 3,525.............. 20,261...... 7,102....... Total supply....................................193,973.... 17,427......369,836......317,719.... 1,986 Deduct export from all the ports, in 1851............ 2,951.... 2,904....... 6,542...... 1,344........ 194,022.... 14,523.......363,294.....316,375.... 1,986 Deduct stock at all the ports, January 1, 1852........9,367.............. 31,446.......27,425..... 303 Total consumption of foreign.....................181,655....14,523'.......331,848......288,950.... 1,683 Or, about.................................................................................. tons 201,405 Add crop of 1850-'51, Louisiana, Texas, &c., the bulk of which came to market in 1851, and assuming the stock 1st January each year to be equal..........................................120,331 'Would make the total consumption in the United States, from January 1, 1851, to December 31, 1851..................................................................................... 321,736 Consumption of foreign in 1850....................................................160,210 Add crop of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, &c., 1849-'50.................................141,592 Would make the total consumption.........................................................301,802 Excess in 1851.............................................................................19,934 288 ,.'r Stock in New- York, 1st January. Hhds B...s Bags 1852.... 7,582...... 13,512.....26,105 1851....1,601....... 8,835....... 3,798 1850.... 3,213....... 1,699...... 24,666 18S49.... 4,549...... 14,127...... -- 1S48... 2,262....... 2,500......1847.... 1,279.......-...... 3,817 1846.... 1,297................ -- SUGAR-IMPORTATIONS OP. STOCK lST JANUARY. - -1852. - 1851. — Ports UIhds Boxes Bags Cases thds B,xes Baus At New-York.......... 6,141......13,512......26,105.. 303......1,213...... 8,835......3,798 Boston............... 774......10,013............ -...... 400...... 7,514..... 3,054 Philadelphia..........1,852..... 7,541...... 1,320...... -...... 1,287...... 2,900...... 250 Baltimore............. 250........................ 600..... -. New-Orleans........ -.................. -...... -..... 700...... - Other ports............ 350...... 400....... - 425...... 312...... - Total stock...........9,67......31,466......27,425...... 303......3,525......20,261...... 7,102 The stock of all kinds at this port, 1st January, 1852, was 8,728 tons, against 2,917 tons last year; and the stock of foreign at all the ports, 1st January, 1852, was 13,659 tons against 6,522 tons, 1st January, 1851. The above statement we believe to be a correct exhibit of the quantity of raw, clayed, &c., sugar, taken from the ports, for consumption in the country. It will be observed, we do not include the receipts of European refined sugar, being unable to obtain any reliable data for them, and we do not embrace in our exports any foreign or domestic refined sugar, having confined ourselves wholly to the descriptions noticed. The quantity of sugar made here from molasses is large, and the production of the maple tree the last season is rated at 17,500 tons. For the following interesting statistics relative to the production of sugar in this country from the cane and from the maple tree, taken from the United States Marshal's returns of the seventh census, for the year ending June 1, 1850, we are indebted to Joseph C. G. Kennedy, Esq., Superintendent of Census, Washington, D. C. Maine............................. 87,541 Missouri........................ 171,943 Maryland................................. 47,740 Al abama........................ 473 New-Hampshire...................... 1,292,429 Vermont............................ 5,159,641 Massachusetts.......................... 768,596 Connecticut........................ 37,781 New-York..............................10,310,764 New-Jersey............................ 5,886 Pennsylvania........................ 3,178,373 Virginia.......................... 1,223,905 North Carol ina..................... 27,448 South Carolina........ 150........... 200 G eorgia............... 1,273............ 50 Florida.............. 1,741Y4............M Mississippi........... 278Y,............ 110 Texas................7017............. Arkansas............................. 8,825 Tennessee........................... 159,888 Ohio................................ 4,521,643 Michigan........................... 2,423,897 Indiana.............................. 2,921,638 Illinois............................ 246,078 Iowa............................... 31,040 Louisiana.......... 262,486.............. Kentucky........................... 386,233 Wisconsin......................... 661,969 Minnesota Ter'ry................... 2,950 Total............... 272,974............33,677,041 SUGAR-IMPORTATIONS OF, TNTO THE UNITED STATES SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT, INCLUSIVE OF THE FISCAL YEAR, ENDING 30TtI OF JUNE, 1850. Years Qu V~~ears Quantity, lbs Value, dtluars Yoars Quan~~~ tity, lbs V.le dollam 1821................. 59,512,835.............. 3,553.583 1822................. 88,305,670............. 5,034,489 1823........... -....60,789,210.............3,258,689 1824..................94,379,764............. 5,165,800 1825................. 71,771,479.............4,237,530 1826................. 84,902,955..............5,311,631 1827................. 76,701,629..............4,577,361 1828................. 56,985,951..............3,546,786 189.................. 63,3(07,294.............3,622,406 1830................. 86,483,046.............4,630,342 1831................ 109,014,654............. 4,910,877 1832................. 66,451,288............. 2,933,688 1833................. 97,688,132............. 4,753,343 1834.................115,389,855............. 5,537,829 1835................ 126,036,230............. 6,806,174 1836................191,426,115.............12,514,504 1837 6.................130,139,839.............7,202,668 1838................153,879,143............. 7,586,360 1839................195,231,273............. 9,919.502 1840................120,939,585............. 5,580,950 1841................184,264,881..............8,807,708 1842................173,863.585............. 6,503,434 1843.................71,335,131..............2,532,279 1844................186,804,578............. 7,195,700 1845.................115,664,840............. 4,780,555 1846................128,028,875..............5,448,257 1847..................2,697,834.............. 275,503 1848................ 257,129,743............. 9,479,217 1849................259,326,584............. 3,049,739 1850................218,425,348............. 7,555,146 19 Years Qu.antity, lbs 1790................. 22,719,457 1,91................. 21,919,066 1792................. 22,499,588 193................. 37,291,988 ,4................. 33,645,772 1795................. 37,582,547 1796................. 25,403,581 1,9/................49,767,745 1.98................. 33,206,395 1799................. 57,079,636 1800................. 30,537,637 18(}1................. 47,88,8,6 1802................. 39,443,814 1803................. 51,066,834 1804................. 55,670,013 1805................. 68,046,865 1806................. 73,318,649 1807.................65,810,816 1808................. 84,853,633 1809................. 12,381,320 1810................. 29,312,307 1811................. 55,332,214 1812................. 60,166,082 1813................31,364,276 1814................. 20,670,168 1815................. 54,37,763 1816................. 35,387,963 1817................. 65,591,302 1818................. 51,284,983 1819................. 71,665,401 1820................. 51,537,888 VOL. III. 289 Cane Sugar Maple Sugar Lbs SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. least possible mechanical force to produce the most juice would be apparent in the ree duced quantity of gum- and extractive matter from the rild, which must alwavs exude when under great pressure. And- still farther, another advantagHe from expressing the largest quantity of juice would be that the bag,asse is the more readily convexted to a state fit for fuel, which becomes proportionably desirable as other fuel is scarce. The value of all combustibles is a subject of increasing importance to every planter, as the supply of wood is diminished by his increased cultivation; and it may be worth a thought, if cutting canes too long and pressing them too closely may not be inexpedient, owing to the increased expense of fuel necessarily incurred to effect the evaporation of such juice thereby produced, surcharged with guim, and boiling with greater difficulty. Without any reliable means, therefore, of estitmating the true value of juice-that is to say, its positive quantity of saccharine, it will be impossible to give rules to be depended upon as to quantities of fuel under any methods of application, which shall produce certain results of evaporation, or residue of sugar, to say nothing of the variable quality of plantation wood. We hear it frequently observed that it takes two or two and a half cords per hogshead; but that this is dry wood, drift, or refuse, gleaned from the clearings, is very rarely taken into account. It is, therefore, exceedingly difficult, where coal is not the only fuel used, to obtain any reliable data for calculation of amount of caloric or steam, furnished by any given quantity of boiler, for purposes either of evaporation or steam production. Besides, this is not to be forgotten in the very many different methods of adapting combustion both to trains of kettles and to boilers. On some estates we find a train consuming three cords of bad wood per hogshead of sugar, and another half that amount of good wood is made to produce an equal result. The wet fuel, to support its own combustion, requires a large proportion of the heat it generates to set free the water it contains, and to prepare tihe repeated supplies to the fire for active combustion. The bad economy of using such wood is at once apparent, beyond the poor fire it produces,, even to the extra cost of all the lost labor incurred in bringing such a collection to the sugar-house; labor which would have been of positive value in the field, and brought an increase of crop. As a branch of the subject, we would notice some of the many ways of setting the "trains" and boilers, of which there seems to be such endless variety, and none universally popular. In the East Indies we have seen a pit eight feet square dug in the ground to the depth of five feet, from this is extended a canal two feet wide andl three feet dleep, to SUGARt MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA.-In Louisiana the sugar-cane is passed through the miill but once, and thetie amount ofjuice obtained is rarely more than 60 per cent. of the weight of the cane. Therefore the bagasse does not come out perfectly dry, and often contains half as much juice as has already been expressed, especially ill horse miills, where the power is moderate and the rollers " set large." Thle greatest difficulty to overcome in a sul)sequent operation for the extraction of the remaining juice, is the absorbing power of the spongy texture of the pith, which enables it with exceeding facility to retake the juice expressed; and it has been proposed to charge it with steam at this point in order to supply the place of the more valuable sap; or )by a second pressure then imposed, to wash out all the remiaining saccharine of the cane. But this method, involving the increased expense of extended evaporation, greatly disproportionate to the result obtained, after repeated experiments performed on both large and small scales, has been abandoned, and attention more directly given to the operation of the first pressing in order to enhance its value atnd result. In taking note, therefore, from the experience of others, we observe that those steaim-mills of greatest power, moving at the least speed, yield the largest quantity of juice and the driest bagasse. The cane held for a greater length of time between the rollers, allows the larger quantity of juice to fall to a distance beyond the danger of reabsorption, and therefore increases the amount yielded by the single compression. If, therefore, we would increase the amount of work from the mill, it would be improper to double the supply of cane, or the motive power, or even the rapidity of the revolution, but to avoid the too-heavy feeding, extend the length of the rollers, and continue the equal and well-spread supply along the canecarrier, if possible even reducing the speed. The average length of rollers might be therefore advantageously increased from four to five; or, perhaps, in extraordinary cases, to five and a half feet, and involving but slight difference of construction with such an improvement. WNVith regard to their diameter, we are of opinion it should be diminished with the increased length rather than en larged on the principle that substances in tervening in the contact of large cylinders, offer resistance in proportion to the surface they cover; and in a mill of three rollers, if the third were of reduced diameter, the nippinig surface would be proportionably in creased in power, and the result of the final compression greater. WVith such construc tion and adaptation, a fourth roller, to produce the third action on the cane, might be found superfluous, and the advantage of using the 290 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. any required length, the walls of which are of evaporation to be performed are such im lined( with clay and the top arched with brick portant points as in sugar-making. Opinions or stone, incloses a succession of earthen are so various in regard to what may be in pots, sometimes numbering as many as deed the best method, and practice so diverse, twenty. The pit is for feeding tile fire; the that ally interested party in quest of illforma canal is the flue under the train, in length ac- tion on the subject, to serve his especial pur cor(ling to the number of evaporators to be pose, will do well to spend some time in used. The process of operation varies examining neilghboring" improvements," and from our own only as the pots are small and he will observe that the plan adapted to one moval)le, anld may be conveyed from place locality will not always succeed in others, to place along the line of fire as is necessary and for lwhich satisfactory reasons cannot al to the perfection oftheir contents. In a long ways be given. train, fuel is often supplied at some of thlese'l'he additional supply of fresh air at the intervening openings when the pots are re- point of culmination of the flamte under a ntmoved. At the exit opening of the flue, boiler, has answered a good purpose, when there being no chiruniey, a valve is arranged the mouth of the draught has been large and actiing as a damper, by which the amount of tending downward, and where the fan has fire-d(raught is controlled, and retaining the been applied to the fire, all other supply of hot air in the chamber of the flue when re- air at the same opening being cut off. A quired. The second fire, when of charred damper on the chimney is indispensable. wood, tends to the combustion of the smoke, Baker's method of lining the flue under the and the same arrangement has been applied boiler with cast-iron plates of such curves as in this country for the same purpose under to produce reflection of the fire current steiam-genierating boilers, when of unusual toward the boiler, has been highly approved length, butwith very unsatisfactory results. by some who have tried it. Thile "Argand The11 "bascule pans" invented by M. Guil- furnace" of Williams, and the patent draught loIn, and considerably used in the French co- of Griffin, as they have been combined in lonies, have the same advantages as the train some late constructions, possess decided of pots; their contents are small, (shallow,) merit, and is probably the best way of setting speedily evaporated, and readily removed a stationary boiler without flues. The grate from the fire. The inconvenience of bailing bars are placed very low, say three feet; the is avoided, a decided advantage to the quality bridge-wall approaches within six inches of of sur~ar they produce, at the same time a the boiler, and at the distance of four feet is considerable amount of work may be accom- another bridge-wall made of iron plate or plished by a small number of hands. They pipe, perforated with many small holes, are constructed with an ear on each side, through which the fresh air is admitted into which a chain connects with a crane, to the fire, as may be necessary. From this the latter so placed as to serve two pans, plate or pipe the flue is continued to the end and readily convey them between the coolers of the boiler, and of a depth not less than and the fire. four feet, forming a large reservoir of hot The common train of four or five kettles, air, smoke, &e. If a cylinder boiler, the end made in Louisiana of cast or wrought iron, wall is now carried -up in the shape of an is tusially permanently set in masonry, having arch, and the opening made at its base comthe fire applied under the smallest or finish- municating with the chimney; but for a boiler ing kettle, and a straight canal of about a with flues the opening is made at the point foot deep under all, extending to the chimney. next it, and of very reduced dimensions, Variouts inprovements on this simple con- often not exceeding an inch in depth, and strtuction have been made from time to time, length one-third of its circumference. such as hanging the kettles entirely by en- Upon the perfect arrangement of this endlarged flanges, leaving the whole under sur- wall and adaptation of the draught there, enface exposed to the fire; building reflecting tirely depends the use ofintermediate air supwalls under each kettle, to force the fire to ply to any furnace, and it seems not too sweep entirely round; curving the bottom of much to expect that this mode of setting the canal to correspond with the curves above, might be well applied to a train of kettles and produce reverberating surfaces towards constructed of iron as in use among us, when the kettles; and, in fine, leaving a very large we have observed that similar principles are space under the whole train, the opening of successful abroad as used with the pots. draught in which is taken from the lower Connected with the subject of fuel two imside, at the chimney, and is supposed to take portant points must not be lost sight of, when off only the lowest stratum of air, which, of comparing the relative advantages of locality course, possesses least heat. All these me- before referred to, the position of cylinderthods are analogous to the various ways in boilers, or construction of flue boilers for which the boilers for steam-engines have plantation use, and these are: fire-surface to been constructed and set, and deserve espe- generate steam, and the size of the reservoir cial study where economy of fuel and amount for steam above the water. In the evapora 291 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC. IN LOUISIANA. failure of some experiments in this country, which have been quoted by writers as eminriently successful elsewhere. The soil of Louisiana seems to furnish a larger quantity of gumn to the cane than any other, where it is cultivated, and the increased difficulty with which clarification is here performed, compared with other places, proves a difference of constitution which involves another mode of treatment. VWe find cane-juice running from the mill charged with many impurities, and a variety of contrivances applied for the purpose of straining it into the reservoirs. Basketing, grass, or wire-cloth cannot be made fine enough to arrest the minute particles of soil washed from the stalk, and if they were detained by such a body as sponge, the surface would soon be covered, the passage of the juice impeded, and the necessity of frequent change of strainer increased; besides that, such substances holding the saccharine, promote fermentation. In the common operation of sugar-making, these particles of earth are not a llowe d sufficient t ime to pre cipita te themselves, and are consequently carried into the "-grand" and onward, finally forming a part of the sugar itself, even the nuclei upon which the crystals make. Ebullition in the grand brings a portion of these impurities to the surface to mix with the froth and small particles of vegetable fibre, held together by the partially coagulated albumen of the juice, and they are then thrown off in such portions by skimnming. But such clarification must necessarily be very imperfect. It has been frequently stated, and reputable authorities quoted to prove, that cane-juice can be entirely resolved into sugar, less its constituent water, but simple observation will prove that sugar cannot be produced by any apparatus without producing molasses at the same time. That cane sugar is not " a primary secretion" of the plant, though the fact be supported by so eminent a chemist as M. Hervey, sustained by the opinion of Professor McCulloch, appears to be proved by the fact that such formation of saccharine is not found in any other instance, if here, in the whole vegetable kingdom, excluding the secretions of roots, and we trust that the farther researches of savans will expose such fallacies.* The quantity of molasses formed in the process of sugar-making,, depends necessarily upon the quality of the cane known to be influenced by soil and season, perhaps quite as much as by the various methods of evaporation. There are certain components of the juice as natural to it as sugar, and which cannot be separated from the latter, without involving such portion as may exist tion of juice we find th at surface offluid fo r the esc ape of stceam, and atmhospheric pressure, po s sess definite influence upon the progress of the work; and by an afnaloly confirm deed also b y experien ce, we observe that boilers kept too full of wauter, do not supply th e s am e quan tity of steam. The m ethod of setting, cylindrical boilers in pairs, malking the file unider the first, andl returning it to to e chimn ey un de r th e o ther, is but a modifica tion o f the arralilgement of flues, the safety of which, so far as maintaining a water level in both, wi ll chief ly d epend on having the steam and wa ter co nemun ic ations sufficiently larg e. In conclusion, we do not think that plan ters livin sc upon di rect water conmmuicat ion wi th the upper country, place a sufficient value upo n the coal wh ich may be land ed at their door cheaper than very many ca n afford t o take hands from the field to provide wtood; and, moreover, th e m uch greater quantity of he at that can be obtained with t he same labor at the furnace. The isolated instances where bagasse has as yet becomeluen the regular fuel, only three or four plantations in our vicinity, a re no guides fromn which to form calculations as to how much dependtence may be placed up on it, as sufficien t fu el to takne off the qsuceeding crop. Risk of fi re and damag e b y water are too gre at. Our clinma te is not like that of the West Indi es, suffi ciently dry to cure the baiasse with littl e or no l abor, even i f the cane itself we re equ ally ca pable, by the same freedom f rom gum, to be converted into a good combustible. We have befnre spo ken of the quantity of juice y ielded by the canes under the mill, and of its value in saccharine according to th e compression the can e u nderg oes. Th e val ue of crystallizable sugar it contains is too generally reckoned by the instrument of Beaum6, miscalled a saccharometer, in the very application of which the principle that has governed its construction, specific gravity, is quite lost sight of. The incompatibility of such application as a test for saccharine, any one will call to mind when using the instrument in brine or in molasses, where it will ever stand higher than in a saturated solution of pure sugar. Canes cut high, or more closely expressed, yield a greater proportion of gurl and mucilage, which giving additional consistence to the juice, tends to support at greater elevation any substance floating thereon. There can be no proof of saccharine equal to that of working by evaporation, and in this test, with any apparatus in use at present, it will be seen that the same difficulties before named as impediments in the use of the saccharometer, obtain, when we would produce evaporation, the escape of steamn being impedled by a viscous fluidl. VBre wsould therefor e observe incidlent ally, that such may often be the cause of the * Professor Liebig has advanced, in a late work, that the nodes or joints of the cane operate to correct the upward current of the sap. 292 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. in intimate combination with it. In this operation, then, as clarification progresses throughout, not by the surface only, certain portions will be precipitated, such as the un neutralized acids and free earths, together with the albuminous part taken off by skim ming, and unites with the uncrystallizable sugar made uncrystallizable by oxygenation or carbonization; in other words, too much boiling and immoderate firing. Molasses consists, then, of feculences, gummy, un crystallizable sugar, and the sugar washed down from the mass set to drain, and will be more or less valuable according to circum stances. But that its formation is indispen sable to the process of sugar-makilg, is be yond an arg,ument. Reg,arding now the causes of its formation, that they may be ob viated in a measure, we observe that the theory of crystallization refers to temperature as the governing principle together with atmospheric pressure, by which the amoutnt of product is influenced. And it is a point still to be proved, whether a high or low temperature in boiling will produce a less wasting result, more perfect crystals, and less drainings. In a digester or steam-tight boiler, a solution of pure sugar has been evaporated at a temperature maintained of 269~, and the result of the re-crystallization was larger than of the converse experiment ofl)oiling in vacuum.* \Ye know by the result of every melting, (of even the purest sugar,) and its re-crystallization, that the product is successively less in quantity, and the formation of miother-water or uncrystallizable sugar in solution, is successively greater. This can be attributed only to the effect of heat, and we may conclude that it is the inevitable result of its application. All sugars, all saccharine products, contain a greater or less amount of Imother-water or molasses; the juices of the beet, the maple, the grape, honey, amidon made from starch, glycine, the product of oils boiled with the oxide of lead and water. It is enough that observation proves it to exist in every solution of sugar, and the results of experience are of more value than fanciful theories to convince that there can be made a sugar front the cane-juice without pro(lucing a certaim and considerable quantity of molasses. Every particular of treatment to which canejuice may be subjected in the process of being manufactured, will produce a definite result upon this residuum, and the power it may possess of re-crystallization upon repeated boiling, is to be influenced chiefly by the materials used in clarification. Juice Ileft to itself exposed to the open air, enters sooner or later, according to temperature, into a state of fermentation which progresses through a regular series of changes, * Pelligot. all of which have birth in the original quan ties of saccharine anpd uns containedp. The first or viscous state, is in dica ted by a r opy appearance, and takes place at a temperature between 860 and 105~, and differs from the viscous change by the evolution of coiibusti ble gases with carbonic acid, and the more distinct separation of the gummy matter. After effervescence has ceased the juice is found to contain lactic acid and m-iannite,which together possess nearly the elements of grape sugar, and are to be regarded as strong im pediments to crystallization. The produc tion of this lactic acid is facilitated by certain exposure to air, as in the apparatus called a condenser, used by Derosne, where the juice is subjected to partial evaporation, by falling in drops over a succession of cop per pipes heated by steam and placed in the open air. But sour juice, such as has once passed this primary change, is not affected by such action only, as it becomes more oxy geinated. The acetic acid it possesses is shown by the bright appearance it gives the copper. Succeeding this viscous fermenita tion comes the vinous, converting all re naining saccharine into alchohol, and for which il the West Indies all sweet waters, waste sugar skimmings and scrapings, are preserved to be converted into rumi, and separated by distillation. It is said that twenty minutes after juice leaves the mill is, in some cases, ample time to produce fermentation to a perceptible degree, and it is therefore apparent that no time should be lost in the process of sugar-malking at this stage. However, it is a common practice to have large juice receivers for the purpose of collecting the sediment before the operation of clarifyin, commences, forgettiiig, that these two processes might be made to progress to better advantage, and with economy of time, by combining them. ' In the use of limne as a clarifier it is no mistake that it acts only to neutralize the acids of the juice, so far as has been yet developed, but beyond this it goes into mechanical suspension, excepting only the very small portion taken up by the water, viz., one part to 77'8 of water at temp. 60~, or 1 to 1270 at temp. of 212~.* And this excess applied, as well as the quantity, in solution initervening between these two given temperatures, is found to precipitate itself on the bottom of all reservoirs and in the kettles, to becomiie, by the aid of fire, a concrete, impeding the transmission of heat, and involving a cessation of the process in order to remove it. And in this removal by burning, the risk of cracking a kettle, and thereby extending the delay of making the crop, by which large losses may be incurred, is very m-iuch depenldent on the result of the process of clari 293 I Dalton. SUGAR MAXUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. fication. Sugar is a solvent of linme, (Ure,) almost universally ruin the molasses, both and the colmbination is uncrystalliza'ole, for the re-boiling and the market.* which therefore tends to form molasses, as After the application of any of these madoes also the adm.inistration of earths, me- terials a state of rest is indispensable, which tallic salts, &c, It is well known, from the is by no means sufficiently appreciated in experience of some among us, that the use the present method of sugar-makilg generof linie is not essential to the process of ally. This one point, in conjunction with sugar-making, for a very beautiful product is the proper degree of temperature at which obtained without it, indeed of a superior qua- juice should be kept prior to evaporation, as lity, as lime always tends, ill however small before spoken of, will have a degree of influthe quantity giv en, to produce a red color on ence upon the quality of the sugar and the the crystals, and there remains not a doubt facility with which all the subsequent evapothat it is generally used in excess. ration can be carried on, especially as The application of chalk to cane-juice to regards a vacuum-pan, far beyond the preneutralize the free acids it contains, at the sent estimate of such persons who may not same time introduces calcareous and un- have observed it. That the juice-boxes crystallizable salts, which also fix a portion should be clarifiers, and not of small dimenof sugar in a liquid state from which it is sions, will therefore appear plainly advantaimpossible to free it. And again, the pre- geous, and that the sum of their contents cipitation of the excess of chalk or salts should be enough to allow each clarifier one forms a crust on the bottom of the kettles or two hours' rest before the juice need to or on steam-pipes, if used, which is no easy be drawn off for evaporation. As to the time matter to remove, to say nothing of the time required for precipitation, it must be depenlost at such occupation. As a chemical dent somewhat upon the quality of the juice, agent for this purpose, both in kettles and but there are certain advantages in not expipes, where a day or two may be allowed, tending it beyond half an hour Cane;juice vinegar will be found active, and readily ob- once b)rought to within a degree of boiling tainable from sour molasses or refuse sugar and then left to rest, has not the same liaset aside for fermentation, dissolving this bility to fermentation, and will remain free crust that it may be either scraped or washed from an increase of acid for an indefinite out. time. The affinity for oxygen is also dimin In the use of alum as a clarifier, a state of ished, and the surface, protected by the scum rest is essential, and its opet'ation on cane- which at once forms upon it, thereby prejuice is the same as on muddy water; the vents the formation of red coloring matter, hydrate of alumina is formed-a gelatinous, so familiar to all, on the cut surface of an semi-transparent substance of greater speci- apple exposed to atmospheric action, and fic gravity than water. and therefore imine- whlich is precisely analogous to the same diately falls, taking with it the earthy parti- chemical affinities existing in cane-juice. cles held in suspension.5 This action, By elevation of temperature above 150~ therefore, is entirely the result of gravity, (Licbig) all fermentation is prevented, and a for alum has but the slightest attraction for clarifier of four hundred gallons, once heated acids, and does not fully neutralize them.- to boiling, will maintain its warmth suffi(Bro,ivler.) Animal albumen, whether that ciently long for comnioii purposes. Morecontained in blood, white of eggs, or milk, over, after the addition of the clarifying is always alike, and operate in a mechanical materials the capacity for change is much manner. Being spread in a cold state diminished. throughout the juice or solution of sugar, In ordinary kettles, when a portion of the when heat is applied it coagulates and comes liquid is converted into steam in contact from all parts to the surface, like a net rising with the bottom, it does not separate from from the bottom, and thus collects and pre- the bottom immediately, but remains until a sents at top a crust of cooked albumen com- steam-bubble of considerable size be formed, bined with all the impurities before free in and in the mean time a part of the bottom the fluid. defended by it from the contact of the liquid, Other substances, more distinctly known becomes overheated, producing as conseas metallic salts, are also powerful purifiers, quences, 1st. the rapid destruction of the as they possess peculiar chemical affinities. metal, and on that account an expense. %Vith vegetable albumen, the red sulphate 2d. Necessity for having originally much of iron, the chloride of zinc, and acetate of thicker and more costly plates of metal, lead, readily combine and precipitate. Many which thickness is an additional impediment other substances have been used to produce to the passage of heat, and therefore a prothe same result by the experimentalist, but the practical man would soon be disappointed * The recipe for Howard's finings is with the economy of such agents, as they 20ts. alum, added to cram f 24 lbs. water, 100 tps t 3 ozs. whiting, i 0 lb. sugar. * Cliaptat. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~S ilimnan's Rseprt to Congress, 1833, 294 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. portionate waste of fuel; and lastly, when applied to vegetable extract, produces a carbonization and blackening of the overheated portions. The primitive methods of sugar-making, all by pots or kettles over the naked fires, are found productive of uncrystallized sugar and caramel. The transmission of heat from fire to a liquid through an intervening solid, whether of metal or of earth. cannot be ierformied in an equable and controllable manner, and this first led to the introduction of liquid media for heat, which after a few experiments were soon abandoned. Caramnel, better known as burnt sugar, is formed on the sides of kettles at a temperature near 356~, (Pelligot,) and as it is well known that a common fire maintains a temperature of nearly 1000~, it will at once appear that to keep the surface of kettles below the point before named, can be no easy duty, and caramel will inevitably be formed to a greater or less extent. The application of the sandbath in some of the operations of the chemist, led to the oil and mercurial baths for the evaporation of syrups. These denser liquids boil at temperatures far higher than water, and would, by a natural law common to fluids in a free state, maintain an equal temperature throughout their volume, to an extent much above the one required for the evaporation ofthe rarer fluid; however, some facts, peculiarities in regard to their respective capacities for heat, were lost sight of, but which came to be developed by experience, and caused the abandonment of the project. Steam was next resorted to, and we see its first application in the train of MM. Fawret and Clark. Three double bottom kettles were placed immediately over a steam-generating boiler, and the flue, continued from this boiler, pas.Ied under two large grands, in which clarification was performed, and the juice taken from them to the three first, in rotation, as in the common t'rain. The steam, consequently, was admitted to the space between the bottoms of the kettles and supplied the place of fire to them. But thes e e m steam surfaces were of limited extent, and the work they performed depended on the tension of the vapor, which for many reasons was kept at a re,duced temperature, compared with what in present use is found expedient.'"le next observe the introduction of a long copper pipe coiled into the kettle, through which steam was made to pass and transmit its heat to the syrup. This application was modified by Davis, of London, by placing the same coil of pipe in a cylindrical copper vessel, whose bottom being flat equally facilitate(3 the discharge andl the cleansing, and it wuas finally perfected. as we see it at the present (lay, by being taken from the train and fire, to be made an indtependent p art ofthe apparat us. The project of sett ing the kettles in the top of a lon, boiler, to expos e thei fr under surfaces in the steam c hamber below, has been proposed and experimented upon by a citizen of Louisiana, but in like mann er as above, the steam surface proved to be two small, and the progress of evapor ation s low. Miller's method is an improveupon this; for the ke ttles o ver th e boil er he substituted large pans with short copper pipes, set at such inclination as to return the steam condensed. by its own gravity, to the bo ile r belowl, to be aain changed in to vapor. It is the loss of this vapor, containing a large am ount of heat, which had made the use of steam-panis unpopular, as they proved then to be but small economy of fuel, if of time, in sugar-making. Taking in view this fa ct ansd another, the probable condensation of steam at a very short distance from its entrance into the pipe covered with a cold liquid, has led to many changes in the construction of steam-pans, some of which have decided merit. The well-known fact that water does not communicate the heat it holds with so great facility as steam, the proportion being one to five and a half, has made it an object to get rid of the water as fast as it forms, and supplv its place with steam; therefore the largest amount of steam surface and the most free exit for hot water becomes at once the best recommendation for an evaporator. It has been advanced that steam condenses at a distance not exceeding ten feet in a pipe immersed even in a boiling liquid, and this has led to the introduction of short pipes, but the proposition wants proof. Several inventions have been applied to detain the vapor where wanted in the evaporators, and release it only when condensed, and the one most common is constructed with a hollow globe of copper, made to float on the surface of water in a closed iron box to which the steaimi-pipe opens. As the water increases in quantity, it lifts the floating globe, which, connected by a lever to a valve at the bottom of the box, opens for the escape of the water. But even with the greatest care in the construction, the copper is found to have holes, if no larger than pores, which from time to time admit the steam to condense within and convert the "1 float " to a " sinker." We have seen lately another contrivance which, from having answered the desired purpose, deserves description, for with all steam apparatus it must be an essential point of construction to economize the vapor and then make use of the boiling water. The steampipe is made to terminate on one side the top of a cast-iron cylinder of about one foot diameter, and three feet long, placed under the pan. ~rithin is a copper bucket loaded at bottom to make it float erect in the conl I f f I t r ss rg I 2'95 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. densed water, and leading through the top of the iron cylinder is a continuation of the waste-water pipe, which descends to within two inches of the bottom of the bucket. By the steam condensed running into the cylinder on the outside of the bucket, it is floated up until its bottom, touching the end of the waste-water pipe, closes the opening, but the quantity of water increasing, overflows the bucket, which, siilking proportionately, opens the pipe as needed, and allows the water to escape to the reservoir. An apparatus so simple and so little liable to derangement, besides that it requires no care, should be better known and more used. Another advantage in the improved pans is, the pipes are so connected that by turning off one coupling, the whole may be raised as a door on a hinge, to facilitate the cleaning. In the use of steam, there are some phenomena worthy of especial notice. It was observed by Dalto)n, that to condense one pound of steam, five and a half pounds of water were required, and this water was raised by the steam, from a temperature of 60~ up to 212~. It was also noticed that the time required to evaporate a given quantity of water by a certain continued supply of heat, was five and a half times as I on, a, is it took to raise the water froln 60Q to 212~. That the latent heat of steam increases with its rarity at low temperatures, and diminishes with its increasing density at high temperatures. From which facts we derive the points, that the economy in the use of steam for purposes of evaporation, lies in maintaining a current of vapor of low temperature, without permitting the part condensed to be lost. For, as it takes but one part of fuel to genlerate vapor from boiling water, it takes five and a half parts to raise the water to boiling. High steam does not contain proportion a te increase of sensible heat. As resistance to formation of steam exists in fluids more strongly from the pressure of the atmosphere than from the attraction of their atoms, oil the removal of this pressure entirely, the fluid will boil. in vacuo, at abo,ut 140~ less than in the open air. This fact exhibits the economy of the vacuum-pan so tfar in the process as to the commencement of ebullition, but beyond that point, the steam produced being more expanded and rare, has a greater latent heat; wherefore, unless the vapor taken off can be used as a fund of heat, there is no economy of fuel in the use of a vacuum, more than in the open pati.-Arolott. It was only when Watt had discovered, by the experiments of Dr. Black, how much heat was lost when steam was lost, that he contrived the separate cotndenser f or his steam-engine, by which was at once saved three-fourths of the fuel formerly us-d.-( Ren-. wick.) This has been partially applied in the " heaters" of thle high-p~ressur e enjginles nlow 80 common throuahout the country, and~ is all apt illustrationi of the economy of using the waste steam from the plantation engine for clarification;; that the juice, being then near the evaporatiwng point, eu re quires b ue t a smal l accessiotn of heat to br i ng it to the boiling point. Fur tther, the escape steam, if not so used, would be an entire loss. One or two pontn(us of detention in the outlet from the clarifiers, will equalize its pressure throughout, and s e cure an e quable application of heat, while it w ilt not mater ia lly imped e tohe ent,ine bo bacpk pressute. The great advantag e that steam possesses a s a medium of heat, is, tha t it is so re adily applied and governed, a nd that it ve ry rare ly attains the power of' carbonization, so much the objectioh e to the nake d fire. The economy of i ts produ ction is doubtful, but of mainlltainring t as a continuous rotary source of heat, there remains not the least doubt, which the foregoing tacts will not entirely remove. The facility with which it parts with its caloric, and tile readiness with which the caloric can be applied, are illustrated by the fact, that it requires ten square feet of boiler fitre-surface to supply four square teet of steam-pipe surface ill an open pan. The estimate of some experienced engineers is even a greater disproportion, such as ten to three, and it is always desirable to have all abundant supply, as the rapidity with which the evaporation can be performed is the great desideratum in the use of such apparatus. The very many methods invented to super-sede the inconveniences resulting from cooking sugar over the naked fire, exposing it to be burnt, and increasing the quantity of molasses formed. to say nothing of the risk of fire to the buildings ill which the operations are carried on, are curious, if not instr-uctive, in the history of itnventions, and a brief review of them may be interesting before we look into the apparatus in use at the present day; for it has been by successive steps that all improvemenits have been made, and from the position the manutacturer now occupies, his retrospective view will disclose to him the obstacles which others have encountered, and their expediences to overcome these will cease to be undervalued by him, as well as in his own matiuftivtur-inig, to teach the true operations of p)hysical laws. From the application of- the oil bath before spoken of, we See the oil applied through a spiral tube, as a medium of heat to syrups, but this also was entirely abandoned for the use of steam. The capacity of oil for heat was proved tat be far greater than that of the syr:jp, and the contrivance wasteful of fuel. .MI. Milles Berry was the first to introduce tlte use of short steam-pipyes, and his ineventioni is well known as the French steam-pan. Inrease of steam surface in double bottom kettles. the upper one being deeply corrugatedl, h]ad not proiled so effectiv e ill result as was anlticipated, anld this parallel structm'e of 296 SUGAR MANUFACTURE, ETC., IN LOUISIANA. pipes similar to a gridiron was introduced as bearing some resemblance, and having double the amount of steam surface. But here. more than in almost any other structure of pipes, the expansion and contraction of the metal being hot or cold, rendered the possibility of keeping the innumerable joints tight, almost out of the question. In this pan, the condensed water escapes by interior tubes, which doubl)ly increased the difficulty. Knight, of' Liverpool, introduced the plan of admitting hot air through a coil of pipe pierced with numerous small holes, into the boiling syrup, to carry off the vapor. while Vidder modified this invention by passing the hot air over the surfatce only, for the same purpose; and at a later day, to facilitate the formation of vapor in syrup, Milles Berry introduced several drums moving within each other, in the pan. But all of these contrivances had the same evil, that of churning the syrups and facilitating their oxygenation, producing color and uncrystallizable sugar. When the superior advantages of the vacuum-pan first became known, not only for the purpose of sugarmakling or refining. but equally for the superior quality of the extracts made by it, numerous asere the plans resorted to for producinga this required vacuum with the greatest economy and facility. The increase in volume of a liquid converted into vapor, being nearly seventeen hundred times, the large air-pumps and rapid strokes required before condensation of the vapor was thought of, led to extended machinery and increased cost of labor. The invention of the condensing cistern is therefore equally valuable as that of the vacuum-paii of Howard. He, too, like Watt, was indebted for the hi nts d erived from the experiments of co-laborers, for his fame and success. Befbre this was applied as it now exists, we find that vapor was taken off through long coils of pipe placed in running cold water, just as stills are now constructed, and the puimp producing the vacuum worked both vapor and water. This application of condensation was the source of another that in sugatr-making is even now considered an improvement, fi'om its economy of heat. MM. Chaponais, d'Aboniille, and Cellier Blumenthal, each substituted cane-juice for water, in their condensers; their apparatus, more recently improved by Dumont, Degrand, and lastly by Derosne, has given us the great condenser of the Derosne and Cail apparatus, which is a succession of parallel pipes of large diameter, placed one above the other, to the number of twenty or thirty, over which the juice is made to fall in drops from one pipe to another, and is thereby considerably evaporated, and propoertio nably increased in value. But these vacuums allinvolved the use of an air-pump, which requires a large amount of motive powver, ally wve findd this led to the inlventionl of Roth, a reservoir fur steam (at a little distance from the vacuum pan), into which was poured, through an e xte nsive strainer, a large a mount ol cold w at er, which had for effect, a fter th e expulsion o f the air, and supply of its place by vapor, t o condense this vapor as rapidly as formed, and tllere l)y maintain a partial vacuum. Davis applied revolving floats, like those of a rotary churn, fbr the more rapid production of steam in the pan; and another appliance was a dr awingpan to take off the vapor. But the perfection of' the conden sini g cistern, as i t stands in connection with the air-puimp of the prese nt day, has superseded all other contrivances. Now, there is required to be near l y w ate r enough to condense all the vap or, and thereby less e n the amount of work fbr the pump, at t he s ame t ime facilitate it, and perfect its o pera - tions. Too often, however, it is complained of as an intricate piece of mac hinery, and liable to disorder; whereas, if properly made and attentively worked, th ere is as little liability to disappointment as fron any other pump. The use of water in large quandtities being therefore indispensably connected with a vacuum-pan, limit s it s applica tion to such localities as offer suffici ent supply. T o overcome this d ifficulty, an d to make enti rel y available th e whole amount of vapo r discharged from a vacuum-pan, and the reby seca'e even all extraordinary economy of fuel, has been left for the invention of M. Rillieux, and he has perfected the combination of the apparatus in a manner not only of admirable adaptation, but good taste in structure, and such as will commend itself to any intelligent person who will devote some little timi(e to become familiar with its operation. The method of operation is as follows: The juice being clarified by the escape steam from the engine, is once filtered through animal coal, and thetn passed into the first vacuum-pan, which is also supplied by escape steam, as far as it will suffice, and if more is wanted, a direct communication is opened with the boilers; here the juice is evaporated ten or twelve degrees more, and then being at about 23~ to 28~ of the saccharometer, is again filtered through the coal, from which it comes, ready to be finished by boiling in the second and third vacutuim-pans, which are supplied with steam from the first by acting as condensers to it, the syrup in them being made to boil in a higher vacuum, and of course at a lower temperature. As the vapor of the first pan is drawn into the tubes of the second, so the vapor made in the second pan is drawn through the pipes of the third, and at last condensed only when there is no farther use for it. As an economical process of evaporation, this method must su. persede all others on large estates; and the eminent advantages it possesses in connection with the process of suigar-making, need no recommendation to the practical man. without the use of the coal-filters, the juice is entirely excluded from the air, and, not being 297 SUGAR MANUFACTURE,: ETC., IN LOUISIANA. exposed at any time to a heat above 210~, cannot produce either caramel or uncrystallizable sugar, therefore the quantity of molasses must necessarily he much less, and the color of the sugar also brighter. The use of animal coal is by no means an essential part of the apparatus of M. Rillieux, but it is so conveniently connected, and at so small a cost makes great improvement in the quality of the sugar, that it is universally adopted. It has not been proved that this entire evaporation of cane-juice in vacuum is detrimental to the quality of the product, but it is the commnon observation that sugar made in this way has no other flavor than "rock candy." When the loaves from the draining moulds are shaved down, they are as readily formed into stamped loaves by the usual process as in a refinery, and then if properly dried in the oven, are as durable in form. The vacuum-pan used as a finisher or batterykettle, makes a grain adapted to the pneumatic-pan or the forms, when it is desired to liqutir the product in order to improve its quality, and for this reason as well as the much less quantity of molasses sugars produce when finished by it, recommends itself. For the production of a common brown quality it affords a superior grain, and among those who have ever used the vacuum-pani we have not heard of one person willing to set it aside. Al. Pelligot asserts that the formation of a large grain depends entirely on the vacuum during the concluding part of the process only, whlichl we fully believe to be the case, and therefore where time is a greater object to the planter than fuel, as it may be where his crop is large and the season short or late, to take it in, we should advise the use of opetn pans as evaporators up to the last poitnt, and then finish in a vacuum-pan. The steam p)assinig through the pipes of the open pans may be brought to the pipes of the vacuum-pan, and the condensed water will partially serve the jacket. The advantages of the open pans are the extreme rapidity with which they effect the evaporation, and consequently the larger amount of work accomplishlied in a given time; the shortest time the juice remains exposed to the influence of heat always injurious; and under present adaptations an economy of fuel superseded by none but the apparatus before named. The medium of heat is conveniently under the control of the operator; it may be shut off and abandoned at any moment, and every boiling, if the pan is used as a finishing kettle, brought up equally to the same point, while the steam may at the same time be held back in reserve for subsequent use. The use of escape steam for clarification is an important economy of heat, and has not been so much introduced as might have been expected of so simple an innovation. Besides the advantage of regulating the temp erature apphied, which it affords,, another equally great is the state of entire rest which can be after wa rds allowed, ald that the operation of skimming can be dis pensed with. The ( lariftiers in the a pparatus broth of M. Rillieux and of Deroste and Cail, are d(tue)le, lhefnispherical kettles, haaving a cyl indrical rintr of sheet iron on top to increase their capacity. The steam i s admitted t o the spac e between the kettles, a nd what is there condenllsed is collected in the common hot-water reservodir ffrom which the b oiler is supo)lied. The conitaection of the bo ne-black filters is similar in both apparatus. From them the juice is also ta ke n to tde first vacuim-pai, but in the pDerosne and Cail arrangement, the vapor from this pan is condensed by the applicat ion of fr e sh juice, as before described, tflo, again filtered through the bonie-black and finished in the second vacuum-pan. The phenomena connected with boiling in vacuo are too well known to demand descriptioni here. lThe operation of all palls, however, differently constructed, is conducted in the same manner to produce san,e results. The pressure of the atmosphere is in al inedicated by the barometer, and the temperature also of the fluid by the thermometer. These two instruments are indispensable to the pan, and op,,rate with beautiful regularity, from the known laws that in proportion as atmospheric pressure is decreased, the syrup 1)(ils at a reduced degree of temperature, ard thelefore both instruments serve equally well to inidicate the state of vacuum. The knowledge of the point at which to make the strike must be acquired by experience, and witlh a little attention,care and practice, maybe learnedin the course of the day, to adept the work for the subsequent operations intended, whether the sugar is to be grained in coolers, moelds, or pnieumatic-pans. Heretofore it has tbeen considered essential to have a " heater" attached to a vacuum-pan, for as the syrup was discharged at a reduced temperature, near 120~, it was customary to heat to near 170~, before placing it in the forms. But this II heater," which was a double-bottom kettle similar to the clarifiers, is now dispensed with, except for certain other purposes. The operation of animal coal formed from bones by confined calcination, has been too often considered to be purely mechanical when used for filtration, as in large cisterns in refineries, and perhaps gIrows out of' the fact, that when first introduced, the filters were filled with the ivory-black mixed with sand, and it is always a long, time when false theories regarding new agents are advanced, before the more correct take full possession of the public mind. The action of coal on juice and syrups, except so far as straining them on the top of the filter goes, is purely chem-iical, and depends for its vivacity upon the purity of the surfaces, and for amount of action on the extension of surface, temp~eraturle, etc. Therefore the method adopted for, and per 298 t SUGAR CULTURE II THE EAST INDIES. fection of the calcinati)n, will determine the of sugars, such as are taken from the cisterns, quality of the coal onilerly it was thrown are diaiiied fi t iii baskets, and afterwards in away' hen olice O( d, but fermentati,'n and nets placed iii the soii, until the loaves become re-burijit dec()loring properties, so haid dud compact that they are transported and how it is suffered to rest fir a time, and "in bull i4ithoot package, and this is what afterward i c 1)111 iied iii a rotary retort of is callc'd Jageery, valued there at not more very ii in plo cousti uction, involving lint small than to cetits per pound, being iii color cost to e oct or to use Thus, then, the great nearly h~ck with iaiuute crystals. The ar t seciot of tli a 0 iii retard to 511 ar-r ]s nut eflit hg, of refinin known iii the ecst, aud the Rum vliti 1)1 e fortunes have heretofore olily imliroveil sugars we find are all clayed. beet maile I tid chiefly in the tiSO of this M()lases i of but little value, and not manusimple material, and has come grad tially to factored. the knowledge of all who have sought the We have now passed in hrief review over secret. the whole process of sogar-makieg as now The use of coolers or forms, for the grano. carried on with atid without innuvatiotis upon latioll f sugar, or eve it of pneumatic-pans, the old system. These changes, perhaps too have,i relative value only as the molasses can often called "improvements," claim a glance he taken fiom the sugar by one or the other at least from all who are interested to keep with greater or less facility. From the first, pace with the advance which art is niaking in it has to 1)0 pot in hogsheads to drain in the the branches of industry to which our respec. second, the molasses draitis into an earthen tive fortunes in life have cast us. Atid in this pot or trittigli leading to a reservoir below; respect we ought not to he dull of oliserva and the molasses runs dowli to fill the vacuum. teries" of the steam engine and the vacuumBut this contrivance has only lately been pan, thrown over but simple physical action, briiight to successful operation, owing to cer- by the limited conception of ordinary minds taiti physical obstructions dependent on tem- who give them no thought, are dispelled by perature, moisture, etc. contemplation. But for this pride of our igno Claying of siugars" is performed by plac- rance we should despise the feeling that there ing a small quantity of thiu clay dough, made is anything either in the simple or refined with water, on the sugar forms. The clay operations of nature too large bfor ourcompregradtually lets fall its water, whit h percolating hension, or too minute to be worthy our dedowtvnward dilutes a portion of uncrystalli- voted attention. If we like not what we see zable residuum, that chiefly holds the color- others do, we have learned thereby to dising matter on the surface of the crystals, and approve, and will afterwards be taught to carries both with it to the reservoir below. avoid their errors, though our own powers of The process of" liqltorin, sugars is equal- originality and invention may not be suffi. ly simtl)le; a saturated solution of white suaar cient to suggest new methods of operation. being substituted for the clay-paste. Tils The converse of this is also true, if their sucoperates to reduce the crystals in a small cess is assured we may follow their example. degree, and assist the escape of the molasses. Thou-h the Spaniards once could not make Molasses itself;, when of good quality, can be the egg stand on its end, there have been none used for the same purpose on goods of lower so iginorant since the days of Columbus. quality. WVleon alcohol was first discovered to be the solvent for caramrnel, which is the SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST IN principal coloring body, it was applied as a DIES.-TliThere are three kinds cultivated in liquor, anI( successfully, if fi'ee from water, India: 1. The purple; 2. The white; and but the difficulty of so obtaliaing it, and its 3. A variety of the white, requiring a large dis:idvaiita,eouiis effect uponl the molasses, to- supply of water. The epitome of the reports gether witlh the peculiar risks in using it, affords this information. have caused it to be neg,lected(l, and now 1. The purple-colored cane yields a sweeter, liqutoriit,g by syrups is the most common. richerjuice, than the yellow or light-colored, Teonperiatore and a state of rest are the but in less quantity, and is harder to press. great ageilts ill the process of crystallization, Grows oil dry lands. Scarce any other sort and coitlil iii a measure the result of previ- in Beerbhoom, much in Radnlagore, some o0s operatiou. Sugai-caiidy, an article of altoot Santipoore, mixed with light-colored m,ore e-tteisive manutfacture in the old coun- cane. Grows also niear Calcutta; in some tries of the east than with Ius, is dependent for fields separate, in others mixed with pooree, its formatiot uponp the fact that the syrup is or light-colored cane. When eaten raw, is left at a steady temperature of 140~, main- more dry and pithy in the mouth, but estaitied by a stove for the space of three days. teemed better sugar than the pooree, and ap. It is the only refined sugar of India, and is pears to be the superior sort of cane. Perused aft,-r being pulverized as we use the loaf. sons who have been West India planters do In the Island of Lucoiiia, of which Maiiilla is not know it as a West India cane. the chief commercial port, all low qualities 2. The liglht-colored cane, yellow, inclining 299 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES. to white; deeper yellow when ripe, and on rich g'otind. West India planters say it is the sarme sort as that which grows in the West India Islands; softer, more juicy than the Cadjoolee, bu t juice less rich, and pro. duces sugar less strong; requires seven mauids of't pooree juice to make as mutch goor or iis[,issated juice as is produced from six of the Cadjoolee. MIlch of this kind is brought to the Calcutta markets, and eaten raw. 3. Thhe hihte variety, which grows in swampy lainds, is light-colored, and grows to a great height. Its juice is more watery, and yields a weaker sugar than the Cadjoolee. However, as much of Bengal consists of low gronitids, and as the upland canes are liable to suffer from drought, it may be advisable to encourage the cultivation of it, should the sugar it pioduices be approved, though in a less degree than other sugars, in order to guard against the effects of dry seasons. Exper ience alone can determine how iar the idea of encouraigilig this sort may answer. Puitsaree, Reonda, Muingoo, Neivar, Kiwahee.- Differenit sorts produced in the Benares district;-probably some of them may be of the sorts already described. The punsaree and reotida appear to be the most productive and the most esteemed. Besides the foregoing, several kinds are now kiiow-i to the Indian Clanter. One of them, tihe China sugar-cane, was considered by Di. Roxbitreh to be a distinct species, and distigitished by him as Saccharium Simenses. It was introduced here, in 1796, by Earl 1 Cornv allis, as being superior to the native lkitil(s. It is characterized by a hardness which effectually resists m,st of the country rude mills; but this hardness is importantly beneficial, inasmuch as that it effectually resists the attacks of the white ants, hogs, and jackals, which destroy annually a large portion of the common cane. Dr. Bllchaiai found that four kinds were known in MIvsore. Two of these are p:robably the purile and white generally known but as this is not distinctly stated, I have retaimed the form in which he no,tices them.tn Restcli, the native sugar of the Mysore, can only be planted in the last two weeks of March and first two of Aprtil. It completes its growth in twelve months. and does not survive for a second crop. Its cultivation has been slup)erseded by the other. P7,ttaputtz.-This was introduced from Arcot during the reign of Hyder Ally. It is the only one from which the natives can extract sugar; it also produces the best Bella or Jagory. It cal be planted at the same season as the other, as well as at the end of July and beginning of Atugust. It is fiourteen months in (omI)Iletin_ its growth; but the stools produlce a se,:oud crop, like the ratoons of the West! Inllies, which ripen in twelve monlths .lla~racalbo, Cuttaycabo. —These two are very small, s e ld om exceeding hal f ai l in ch in diameter; yet il some distri ct s of Mysore, a s a b tlt Colair, th e last name t is the variety usDally cultivated; but th is ar i se s fron it s requiring less water th an the la rger varieti e s. The best varieties are those introduced from the islands of Otaheite and Bourbon. Hindostan is indebted for their introduction to Captaini Sleenian, who brought them hither from the Mauritius in 1827. He committed them to Dr. Wallich, under whose care, at the Botanic Gardeni, they have flourished, and been the source from whence the benefit has been generally diffused. Their superiority over those which have been usua!ly cultivated by the natives has been completely established. The largest of the Hindostani canes, ripe and trimmed. ready for the mnill, has never been found to exceed five pounds; but it is not uncommon for an Otaheite cane,* under similar circumstances, to weigh seven pounds. The extra weight arises proportionately from anl increased secretion of superior sap. The sugar is more abundant, granulates more readily, and has less scum. Other superior qualities are, that the canes ripen earlier, and are less injured bv the occurrence of protracted dry weather. 'Of the history of the sugar-cane, a popular tradition obtains among the natives, that, in very ancient times, a vessel belonging to their country chanced, by accident, to leave one of her crew, under a desperate fit of sickness, at a desert island at a considerable distance in the Eastern seas, and that, returning by the same route, curiosity prompted them to iinquiire after the fate of their companiion, when, to their utter astonishment, the man presented himself to their view, completely recovered from his sickness, and even in a state of more thani common health. With anxiety, they inquired for the physic he bad so successfully applied, and wetre conducted by him to the sugar cane, oin which, he acquainted them, he had solely subsisted from the time of their departure. Attracted by such powerful recomnmendationi, every care and attention was besto)wed, we may suppose, to convey such an inivaluable acqtuisitiorn to their owni lands, where the soil and climate have, mutually, since contributed to its present prosperity. The Ryots consider the sugar-cane, arid also the betel-plant, in a sacr,ed and superior light: they even place it among the number of' their deutohs. The first fifteen days of Koar, (or September,) termed Peetereputitch, are de * Many are of opinion, founded on their experience, that although the juice of this cane is larger in quantity, yet that it contains less sugar. There is some sense in the reason thley ass ign, which is, that in the Mauritius and elsewhere, it has the full time of twelve or fourteen months allowed for its coming to maturity-whereas the agriculture of India, and especially in Bengal, only allows it eight or nine months, which, though ample to mature the saller country canes, is not sufficient for the Otaheite. 300 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES. voted by the Hindoos to religious ceremonies and offerings on account of their deceased parents, relations, antid fiends. Such of them as have been bereft of their parents refrain from every indulgence during the said period, as being the season of mourning and mortifi cation; and as they deem the performance of the higher rites of their religion (such as makitlg offerings of sweetmeats, cloths, jew els, &c., in the temples of their several (lei ties, and also the sacrifices denominated Howm-jtigg, &c.) a pleasure and enjoyment, these are likewise carefully avoided. t The sacred appellation of the caine among the Ryots is Alag' bele, and hence, for the reasons above stated, the immediate owners of the cane plantations setlulously refrain from repairing to, or even beholding them during the continuance of the Peetereputch. Otn the 25th of Cartick, (or October,) termed by the Ryots Denthan, they proceed to the fields, and, havitg sacrificed to l\Tag,' bele, a few canes are afterwards cut and distributed to tthe Brahlimitis. Until these ceremonies are perforined, according to the rules of established usage anrid custom, no persuasion or inducemerit can prevail upon any of them to taste the cane, or to make any use whatever of it. On the 25th of Jeyte, (or May,) termed the Desharah, another usage is strictly adhered to. As it is usual with the Ryots to reserve a certain portion of the canes of the preceding year, to serve as plants for their new cultivation, it very frequently happens that inconsiderable portions of cane remain unexpeuded after the said cultivation has been brought to a conclusion. Wherever this happens to be the case, the proprietor repairs to the spot, aid, having sacrtificed to Nag' bele, as before stated, he immediately sets fire to the whole, and is exceedingly careful to have the operation executed in as complete and efficacious a mananer as possible. The cause of this extraordinary practice proceeds from a superstitious notion of a very singular kind. The act is committed from an apprehension that if the old canes were allowed to remain in the ground beyond the 25th of Jeyte, they would in all probability produce flowers and seed, for the appearance of these flowers they consider as one of the greatest misfo)rtunes that can befall them. They unanimously assert, that if the proprietor of a plantation happens to view even a single cane therein which is in flower, the greatest calamities will befall himself, his parents, his children, and his property; in short, that death will sweep away most of the members, or indeed the whole of his family, within a short period of time after his having seen the cane thus in flower. If the proprietor's servant happens to see the flower, and immediately pulls it fi'om the stalk, buries it ill the earth, and never reveals the circumstanlce to his master, ill this case they believe that it will not be productive of ally evil c onse quences; bu t should the matter reach the proprietr's knowledge, the a ii calamitie s I)efTe stated must, according t to heir ide as, infallibly happen. "A am informed," said a late resident at Beyares, "that ther e i s a s pecies of cane called Ktitharee, cultivated in or neat the dis trict of Cheir' spartin, and upon the banks of the Gagra, which i s not cut do wn bay the cul tivators thereof until the cane s a re in flo,wer. Having mentioned this circumstance to some of the Ryots of' Behiares, to convince them of the absurdity of ascribing the common mis fortunes incident to human existence and ex ertion to the evil influence of a cane-flower, they only replied, that the Kutharee cane might perhaps be an exception to what they had stated as the suim of their faith on this heade; such faith being, however, invariably corroborated by the result of long observa tioin and experience in this Zemi-ndary." Soil.7-The soil best suiting the sugar-cane is aluminous rather than the contrary, tena cious without being heavy, readily allowing excessive moisture to drain away, yet not light. One gentleman, Mr. Ballard, has en deavored to make this point clear by describing the most favorable soils about Gazepore as " light clays," called there Mot&a, ee or doansa, according as there is more or less satld ill their composition. Mr. Piddinigton seems to think, that calcareous matter, and iron in the state of'peroxide, are essential to be present in a soil for the production of a superior sugar-cane. There can be no doubt that the calcareous matter is necessary, but experience is opposed to his opinion relative to the peroxide. Tqhe soil preferred at Radtnagore is there distinguished as the soil of " two qualities," being a mixture of rich clay alld sand, anid which Mr. Touchet believed to be known in En,gla,nd as a light brick-mould. Il olher districts this soil is described as Dobrussah, or two-juiced. About Runiigpore, Diniajpoor, and other places where the ground is low, they raise the beds where the cane is to be planted fiour or five feet above the level of the land adjacen.t. The experience of Dr. Roxburgh agrees with the preceding statements. He says: " The soil that suits the cane best in this climate is a rich vegetable earth, which, on expost-re to the air, readily crumbles down into very fine mould. It is also necessary for it to be of such a level as allows of its being watered from the river by simply drainiing, it up, (which almost the whole of the land adjoillillg to this river, the Godavery, admits of,) and yet so high as to be easily drained during heavy rainis. Such a soil, and in such a situationi, having been well meliorated by various crops of leguminouls p~lants, or thllowving for two or three years, is slightly manulredl, or has had for some time cattle pent uponl it. A 301 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES,. favorite manure for the cane with the HIlindoo mains of decayed aquatic plants and anifarmer is the rotten straw of green and black mals, form an excellent manure for the pessaloo (Phascolus Mango manx)." sugar-cane, and of this the Ryots make use, Many accordant opinions might be added spreading it over the surface before the to the preceding, but it se(,ms only necessa- plowing is commenced; and when that opry to observe farther, that "the sugar-cane eration is completed, the soil is farther ferrequires a soil sufficiently elevated to be tillzed by a dressing of oilcake and ashes. entirely free from inundation, but not so Crushed bones would unquestionably be high as to be deprived of moisture, or as to of the greatest benefit if applied to the encourage the production of white ants sugar-cane crop. Not only their animal (termes)." matter would serve as food for the plants, The sugar-cane is an exhausting crop, but the phosphate of lime of the bones is and it is seldom cultivated by the Rvot more one of the chief saline constituents of the frequently than once in three or four years sugar-cane. on the same land. During the intermediate Salt is another valuable manure for this period, such plants are grown as are found' crop. Dr. Nugent, in a report made to the to improve the soil, of which, says Dr. Ten- Agricultural Society of Antigua, observes nant, the Indian farmer is a perfect judge. that salt has been found a valuable auxiliThey find the leguminous tribe the best for ary in cultivating the sugar-cane. MIany the purpose. Such long intervals of repose trials of it, he says, have been made during from the cane would not be requisite if a successive seasons, applied generally to the better system of manuring was adopted. extent of about nine or ten bushels per acre, Mr. J. Prinsep has recorded the follow- It destroys grubs and other insects, and gives in, analysis of three soils distinguished for the canes an illncreased vigor and ability to producing sugar. They were all a soft, fine- resist drought. It is a singular remark of grained alluvium, without pebbles. No. 1 the intelligent traveler, M. de Humboldt, was from a village called Mothe, on the Sar- while speaking of the practice adopted in the jee, about ten miles north of the Ganges at Missions of the Orinoco, when a cocoa-nut Buxar, and the others from the south bank plantation is made, of throwing a certain of the Ganges, near the same place. There quantity of salt into the hole which receives is a substratum of kunkar throughout the the nut, that of all the plants cultivated by whole of that part of the country, and to man there are only the sugar-cane, the some mixture of this earth with the surface plantain, the mammee, and the Avocada soil. the fertility of the latter is ascribed: pear, which endure equally irrigation with fresh and salt water. Hiygrometic moisture, on drying 1 2 3 In the W est Indies, when the cane is af at 212 degrees..............2.5.. 21I.. te Wt is c her the 3leist Carbona.eous and vegetablemat- fected by what is called there the blast, ter, on calcination.......... 1.8.. 2.1.. 4.0 which is a withering or drying up of the Carbonate of time (No. 3 effervCabonate of l.6ime (No. 1 06. 3 er9 planits, an unfailing remedy is found to be Alaie sal,slbed....................6..06.3.P Alkaline salt, solub lel... 1.0 1.1. 0.3 watering them with an infusion of dung in Silex and alumina.............. 941.. 04.1.. 88.2 salt water. -.1 1000 Preparation of Soil.-In the Rajahmun *00.0 *- - dry district, during the months of April and The earths, unfortunately, were not sep- May, the ground is frequently plowed, until arated. Mr. Prinsep says the first two were brought into a very fine tilth. About the chiefly of sand, and the third somewhat ar- end of May, or beginning of June, the rains gillaceous. The first two required irriga- usually commence, and the canes are then tioii, but the other was sufficiently retentive to be planted. If the rains do not set in so of moisture to renderit unnecessary, early, the land is flooded artificially, and lMaittrcs.-The sugar-cane being one of when converted into a soft mud, whether by the most valued crops of the Ryot, he al- the rain or by flooding, the canes are ways devotes to it aportion ofthe fertilizing planted. matters he has at command, though in every In Mysore the ground is watered for three instance this is too small. days, and then, after drying for the same In the Rajahmundry district, previously period, plowing commences, this operation to planting, the soil is slightly manured, being repeated five times during the fi)lloweither by having cattle folded upon it, or by ing eight days. The clods during this time a light covering of the rotten straw of the are broken small by an instrum nent called col green and black pessaloo, which is here a kedali. The field is then manured and plowfavorite fertilizer. In some parts of Mysore ed a sixth time. After fifteen days it is plowthe mud from the bottom of tanks is em- ed again, twice in the course of one or two ployed, and this practice is more generally days. After a lapse of eight days it is adopted in other places. Thus the fields be- plowed a ninth time. Altogether these opinrg divided by deep ditches in Dinajpoor, erations occupy about forty-foiur days. the mud from which is enriched by the re- For planting, which is done in six days, 302 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES. an implement called yella kudali is em- loads to each cutcha beegah of low land, and ployed. five cart-loads, if high land, are added. The In Dinajpoor, "thefieldfrom about the mid- land is well rolled after the last four plow dle of October until about the 10thl ofJanuary, ings, and again after the cuttings are set. receives tell or twelve double plowings, and About Benares and the neighboring dis after each is smoothed with the moyi. Dur- tricts Mr. Haines says, that owing to the ing the last three months of this time it is hot winds which prevail "from March un manured with cow-dung, and mud from til the setting in of the annual rains in June poidls and ditches. On this account, the or July, the lands remain fallow till that peland fit for sugar-cane is generally divided riod. In the mean time, those fields that are into fields by wide ditches, into which much selected for sugar-cane are partially manured mud is washed by the rain, and is again by throwing upon them all manner of rubthrown on the fields when the country dries, bish they can collect, and by herding their and leaves it enriched by innumerableaquatic buffaloes and cattle upon them at night, vegetables and animals that have died as the though most of the manure from the latter water left them. When the plowing has source is again collected and dried for fuel. been completed, the field is manured with " When the annual rains have fairly set ashes and oilcake." in, and the Assarree crops sown, (in some About Malda, " the land is first plowed in instances I have seen an Assarree crop takthe month of Cartick, length and breadth en from the lands intended for sugar-cane,) ways, and harrowed ill like manner; four they commence plowing the cane lands, and or five days after, it is again plowed and continue to do so four or five times monthly harrowed, as before, twice. In the month of (as they consider the greater niiumber of Aghun, the whole land is covered with fresh times the fields are turned up at this period earth, again twice plowed, and harrowed in of the season, the better the crop of cane different directions, and then manured with will be) till the end of October, continuing to dung. Fifteen or twenty days alterward it throw on the little manure they can collect. is to be twice plowed, as before; eight or " Toward the end of October, and in Noten days after which it is to be slightly ma vember, their plows are much engaged in nured with dung, and the refuse of oil, sowing their winter (or rubbee) crops of mixed together; then twice plowed and har- wheat, barley, grain, &c.; and at this period rowed in different directions, so that the they make arrangements with the shepclods of earth brought be well mixed togeth- herds who have large flocks of sheep, to er with the land. This preparation con- fold them upon the fields at night, for which tinues until the 20th or 25th of the month they pay so much per beegah in grain. Pews." " During the latter part of November, and In the vicinity of Dacca, during" Cartich early in December, the fields are again plowor Augun, (October, November,) the Rlyots ed well, and all grass, weeds, &c., removed begin to prepare their ground. They first with the hoe; then the surface of the field dig a trench round their fields, and raise a is made as smooth as possible by putting the mound of about three feet in height. If the hengah (a piece of wood eight to ten feet in ground to be cultivated be waste, about nine length, and five or six in breadth, and three inches of the surface are taken off, and or four inches in thicklness, drawn by two thrown without the inclosure. The ground pairs of bullocks, and the man standing upon is plowed to the depth of nine inches more. the wood to give it weight) over several The clods are broken, and the earth made times for three or four days in succession. fine. In Miaug or Faugun, (January, Febru- This makes the surface of the field very ary,) the sugar-cane is planted; a mnonth even, and somewhat hard, which prevents afterward earth is raised about the plants; the sun and dry west wind from abstracting after another month this is repeated. The the moisture, which is of great importance crop is cut is Poous and Maug (December, at this period of the season, for, should January.) If the ground be not waste, but there be no rain, there would not be sufcultivated, the surface is not taken off. After ficient moisture at the time of planting the cutting the crop, it is not usual again to cane to cause vegetation. grow sugar-cane on the same ground for " In this state the lands remain till the eighteen months, on account of the inrdif- time of planting the cane cuttings, which is ferent produce afforded by a more early generally the 1st to the 15th February; but planting." should there have been a fall of rain in the In the Zillah, North Mooradabad, the mean time, or excess of moisture appear, the land is broken up at the end of June. After field is again plowed, and the hengab put the rains have ceased it is manured, and has over as before. eight or ten plowings. This clears it of "A day or two previous to planting the weeds. In February it is again manured and cane, the field is plowed and the hengab plowed four or five times, and just before lightly put over." the sets are planted, some dung, four cart- Sets. —When the canes are cut at harvest 303 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES. Planting.-The time and mode of planting vary. In the Rajahmundry Circar, Dr. Roxburgh says, that" during the months of April and May the land is repeatedly plowed with the common Hindoo plow, which soon brings this loose rich soil (speaking of the Delta Godavery) into very excellent order. About the end of May and beginning of June, the rains generally set in, in frequent heavy showers. Now is the time to plant the cane; but should the rains hold back, the prepared field is watered, flooded from the river, and, while perfectly wet, like soft mud, whether from the rain or the river, the cane is planted. " The method is most simple. Laborers with baskets of the cuttings, of one or two joints each, arrange themselves along one side of the field. They walk side by side, in as straight a line as their eye and judgment enable them, dropping the sets at the distance of about eighteen inches asunder in the rows, and about four feet row from row. Other laborers follow, and with the foot press the set about two inches into the soft, mudlike soil, which, with a sweep or two with the sole of the foot, they most easily and readily cover." About Malda, in the month of Maug (January, February) the land is to be twice plowed, and harrowed repeatedly, length and breadth ways; after which it is furrowed, in furrows half a cubit apart, in which the plants are to be set at about four fingers' distance from each other, when the furrows are filled up with the land that lay upon its ridges. The plants being thus set in, the land is then harrowed twice in different directions; fifteen or twenty days afterward the cane begins to grow, when the weeds which appear with it must be taken up; ten or twelve days after this the weeds will again appear. They must again be taken up, and the earth at the roots of the canes be removed, when all the plants which have grown will appear. At Ghazepore the rains set in at the beginning of March, and planting then commences. Near Calcutta the planting takes place in May and June. In Dinajpoor and Rungpore the planting time is February. About Commercolly it is performed in January. The field is divided into beds six cubits broad, separated from each other by small trenches fourteen inches wide and eight inches deep. in every second trench are small wells, about two feet deep. The irrigating water flowing along the trenches fills the wells, and is taken thence and applied to the canes by hand. Each bed has five rows of canes. The sets are planted in holes about six inches indiameter and three deep; two sets, each having three joints, are laid horizontally in every time, twelve or eighteen inches of their tops are usually taken off, and stored, to be employed, for sets. Each top has several joints, from each of which a shoot rises, but seldom more than o ne or two arrive at a proper growth. When first cut from the stem, the tops intended for plants are tied in bundles of forty or f ifty each, and ar e carefully kept moist. In a few days they put forth new leaves: they ar e then cle ared of the old leaves, and separately dipped into a mixture of cow-dung, pressed mustard-seed, and water. A (Iry spot is prepared, and rich loose mould and a small quantity of pressed mustard-seed; the plants are separately placed therein, a small quantity of earth strewed among them, and then covered with leaves and grass, to preserve them from heat. Ten or twelve days afterward they are planted in the fields. In Burdwan, the tops, before they are planted, are cut into pieces from four to six inches long, so that there are not less than two nor more than four knots in each. Two or three of these plants are put together when planted, and a beegah requires from 7,500 to 10,240 plants. In Rungpore and Dinajpoor, about 9,000 plants are required for a beegah, each being about a foot in length. In Beerbhoom, 3,000 plants are said to be requisite for a beegah, each plant being about fifteen inches long. Near Calcutta, from 3,000 to 8, 000 plants are required for a beegah, according to the goodniess of the soil, the worst soil requiring most plants. In Mysore an acre contains 2,420 stools, and yields about 11,000 ripe canes. Near Rajahmundry, about 400 cuttings are planted on a cutcha beegah (one-eighth of an acre.) In Zilla, North Mooradabad, 4,200 sets, each eight inches long. are inserted upon each cutcha beegah of low land, and 5,250 upon high land. In the district of Gollagore the Ryots cut a ripe cane into several pieces, preserving two or three joints to each, and put thein into a small bed of rich mould and dung, and mustard-seed, from which the oil has been expressed. At Radnagore, when the time of cutting the canes arrives, their tops are taken off, and these are placed upright in a bed of mud for thirty or forty day, s, and covered with leaves or straw. The leaves are then stripped from them, and they are cut into pieces, not having less than two, nor more than four joints each. These sets are kept for ten or fifteen days in a bed prepared for them, from whence they are taken and planted in rows two or three together, eighteen inches or two feet intervening between each stool. The number of sets plantedl varies from 7,500 to 10,240 per beegah. 304 SUGAR CULTURE IN THE EAST INDIES. hole covered slightly with earth, and over this is a little dung. When the canes are planted in the spring, the trenches must be filled with water, and some poured into every hole. At the other season of planting the trenches are full, it being rainy weather; but even then the sets must be watered for the first month. Mr. Haines says, that in Mirzapore and the neighboring districts, "in planting the cane they commence a furrow round the field, in in which they drop the cuttings. The second furrow is left empty; cuttings again in the third; so they continue dropping cuttings in every second furrow till the whole field is completed, finishing in the centre of the field. The field remains in this state till the second or third day, when for two or three days in succession it is made even and hard upon the surface with the hengah, as before stated." Mr. Vaupell, in describing the most successful mode of cultivating the Mauritius sugar-cane at Bombay, says, that "after the ground is leveled with the plow, called ' paur,' in the manner of the cultivators, pits of two feet in diameter and two feet in depth should be dug throughout the field at the distance of five feet apart, and filled with manure and soil to about three inches of the surface. Set in these pits your canes, cut in pieces about a foot and a half long, laying them down in a triangular form. Keep as much of the eyes or shoots of the cane uppermost as you can; then cover them with manure and soil. Beds should next be formed to retain water, having four pits in each bed, leaving passages for watering them. The cuttings should be watered every third day during hot weather, and the field should always be kept in a moist state." About Benares, the sets require, after planting, from four to six waterings, until the rains commence, and as many hoeings to loosen the surface, which becomes caked after every watering. The moister nature of the soil renders these operations generally unnecessary in Bengal. 4fter-culture.-In Mysore the surface of the earth in the hollows in which the sets are planted is stirred with a stick as soon as the shoots appear, and a little dung is added. Next month the daily water is continued, and then the whole field dug over with the hoe, a cavity being made round each stool, and a little dung added. In the third month water is given every second day; at its close, if the canes are luxuriant, the ground is again dug; but if weakly, the watering is continued during the fourth month before the digging is given. At this time the earth is drawn up about the canes, so as to leave the hollows between the rows at right angles with the trenches. No more water is given to the plants, but the trenches between the VOL. III. beds are kept full for three days. It is then left off for a week, and if rain occurs no farther water is requisite; but if the weather is dry, water is admi tted once a w e ek du ring the next month. The digging is then repeated, and the ea rth leveled with the hand about the stools. Th e ste ms of each stoo l a re ten to twelve in number, which are reduced to five or six, by the most weakly of the m bein g n ow re - moved. The healthy canes are to be tied with one of their own leaves, two or three together, to check their spreading; and t his binding is repeated as required by the ir in creased growth. In the absence of rain, the trenches are filled with water once a fortnight. When the Puttaputti is to be kept for a second crop, the dry leaves cut off in the crop season are burnt upon the field, and this is dug over, the trenches filled with water, and during six weeks the plants watered once in every six or eight days (unless rain falls,) and the digging repeated three times, dung being added at each digging. The after-culture is the same as for the first crop. In the Upper Provinces, Dr. Tennant says, if moderate showers occur after planting, nothing more is done until the shoots from the sets have attained a height of two or three inches. The soil immediately around them is then loosened with a small weeding-iron, something like a chisel; but if the season should prove dry, the field is occasionally watered; the weeding is also continued, and the soil occasionally loosened about the plants. In August small trenches are cut through the field, with small intervals between them, for the purpose of draining off the water, if the season is too wet. This is very requisite; for if the canes are now supplied with too much moisture, the juices are rendered watery and unprofitable. If the season happens to be dry, the same dikes serve to conduct the irrigating water through the field, and to carry off what does not soak into the earth in a few hours. Stagnant water they consider very injurious to the cane, and that on the drains being well-contrived depends in a great measure the future hopes of profit. Immediately after the field is trenched, the canes are propped. They are now about three feet high, and each set has produced from three to six canes. The lower leaves of each are first carefully wrapt up around it, so as to cover it completely in every part; a small strong bamboo, eight or ten feet long, is then inserted firmly in the middle of each stool, and the canes tied to it. This secures them in an erect position, and facilitates the circulation of the air. Hoeing cannot be repeated too frequentlyr. This is demonstrated by the practice of the 20 305 SUGAR CULTURE IN TIHE EAST INDIES. after which, fifteen or twenty days, the canes are to be tied two or three together with the leaves, the earth about them well cleaned, and the earth that was plowed up laid about the roots of the canes somiething raised. In the month of Saubun, twenty or twenty-five days from the preceding operation, the canes must be again tied as before, and again ten or fifteen days afterward; which done, nine or ten clumps are then to be tied together. This care to be taken until the end of the month Saubun; after which, in the month of Bhaddur, they must be tied with the cane-leaves as before, and again in Assen, when the cultivation is completed." In the Rajahmundry Circar, on the Delta of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh states, " that nothing more is done a fter the c an e is planted, if the weather be moderate ly showery, till the youn g shoots are some two o r three inches high; th e ear th is then loosened for a few inches round them with a small weeding iron, something like a carpenter's chisel. Should the season prove dry, the field is occasionally watered from the river, continuing to weed and keep the ground loose around the stools. In August, two or three months from the time of planting, small trenches are cut through the field at short distances, and so contrived as to serve to drain off the water, should the season prove too wet for the cane, which is often the case, and would render their juices weak and unprofitable. The farmer, therefore, never fails to have his field plentifully and judiciously intersected with drains while the cane is small, and before the usual time for the violent rains. Should the season prove too dry, these trenches serve to conduct the water from the river the more readily through the field, and also to drain off what does not soak into the earth in the course of a few hours; for they say if water is permitted to remain in the field for a greater length of time, the cane would suffer by it, so that they reckon these drains indispensably necessary, and upon their being well contrived depends in a great measure their future hopes of profit. Immediately after the field is trenched, the canes are all propped; this is an operation I do not remember to have seen mentioned by any writer on this subject, and is probably peculiar to these parts. It is done as follows: ",The canes are now about three feet high, and generally from three to six from each set that has taken root from what we may call the stool. The lower leaves of each cane are first carefully wrapt up around it, so as to cover it completely in every part; a small strong bamboo (or two,) eight or ten feet long, is then stuck into the earth in the middle of each stool, and the canes thereof tied to it. This secures them in an erect position, and gives the air free access round most succ essful cultiv ators. I n Zilla, N. Mooradabad, in April, abou t six we eks after planting, the earth on each side of the caner ows is loosene d by a sharp-poin ted hoe, shaped somewhat like a bricklayer's trowel. This isrepeated six times befor e the field is laid out in beds and channels for irrigation. There, likewise, if the season is unusually dry, the fields in the low g round are watered in May and Jun e. T his supp oses ther e are e it her nullahs, or ancient pucka wells, otherwise the canes are all owed t o t ak e their chance, for the cost of m aking a well on th e upland s is from te n to twenty rupees-an expens e too heavy for an individual cultivator, and not many would di g in partnership, for the y would fight for the water. Inof the v ic inity of Benares, as the cane s adv ance in growth, they continue to wrap t he le aves as they beg in to wi ther up round the adv ancing stem, and to tie thi s to the bamboo high er up. If the wea ther continue wet, the trenche s are carefully kept open; an d, on the ot her hand, if dry weather occurs. wa ter i s occasio nally supplied. Hoeina is als o performed every five o r six weeks. Wrapp ing the leav es around the cane is f ound t o p revent them cr ack ing by the heat of e the sun, and hinders t hei r throwing out lateral branches. In J anuary and February the canes are r eady f or c utt ing. T he average height of t he cane is about n in e feet foliage included, and the naked cane one inch to one inch and a quarter in diameter. Near Maduna, the hand-wa tering i s facilitated by cutting a small trench down the centre of each bed. The beds are there a cubit wide, but only four row s of canes are plant ed in each. It is deserving of notice, th a t the eastern and north- ea stern parts of Bengal are more subject to rain at every season of the year, b u t especially in hot months, than the western; which accounts for the lands being prepared and the plants s et so muc h earlier in lRungpor e than in Beerbhoo fsa. This latter country has also a drier soil generally; for this reason, so much is said in the report from thence of the necessity of watering. The Benares country is also drier than Bengal, therefore more waterings are requisite. At Malda, "ten or fifteen days after the earth has been removed from the roots of the canes and the plants have appeared, the land is to be slightly manured, well cleared of weeds, and the earth that was removed again laid about the canes; after which, ten or fifteen days, it must be well weeded, and again twenty or twenty-five days afterward. This mode of cultivation it is necessary to follow until the month of Joystee. The land must be plowed and manured between the rows of canes in the month of Assaar; 306 SUGAR CULTURE IN WEST INDIES. every part. As the canes advance in size, they continue wrapping them round with the lower leaves as they begin to wither, and to tie them to the prop bamboos higher up; during which time, if the weather is wet, they keep the drains open, and if a drought prevails they water them occasionally from the river, cleaning and loosening the ground every five or six weeks. Tying the leaves so carefully round every part of the canes, they say, prevents them from cracking or splitting by the heat of the sun, helps to render the juice richer, and prevents their branching out round the sides. It is certain you never see a branchy cane here." In Dinajpoor, in about a month after planting, "the young plants are two or three inches high; the earth is then raised from the cuttings by means of a spade, and the dry leaves by which they are surrounded are removed. For a day or two they remain exposed to the air, and are then manured with ashes and oilcake, and covered with earth. Weeds must be removed as they spring; and when the plants are about a cubit and a half high, the field must be plowed. When they have grown a cubit higher, which is between the 13th of June and the 14th of July, they are tied together in bundles of three or four, by wrapping them round with their own leaves. This is done partly to prevent them from being laid down by the wind, and partly to prevent them from being eaten by jackals. During the next month three or four of these bunches are tied together; and about the end of September, when the canes grow rank, they are supported by bamboo stakes driven in the ground. They are cut between the middle of December and the end of March." If the canes grow too vigorously, developing a superabundance of leaves, it is a good practice to remove those which are decayed, that the stems may be exposed fully to the sun. In the West Indies, this is called trashing the canes. It requires discretion; for in dry soils or seasons, or if the leaves are removed before sufficiently dead, more injury than benefit will be occasioned. Har?vesting.-The season in which the canes become ripe in various districts has already been noticed when considering their cultivation. In addition I may state, that in the Rajahmundry Circar, about the mouth of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh states, "that in January and Fehruary the canes begin to be ready to cut, which is about nine months from the time of planting. This operation is the same as in other sugar countriesof course I need not describe it. Their height, when standing on the field, will be from eight to ten feet, (foliage included,) and the naked cane from an inch to an inch and a qu arter in diameter.Jn In Malda, the canes are cut in January and Februa ry. In N. Mooradabad, upon the low land, the canes are ripe in October, and upon the high lands a month later. The fitness of the cane for cutting may be ascertained by making an incision across the cane, and observing the internal grain. If it is soft and moist, like a turnip, it is not yet ripe; but if the face of the cut is dry, and white particles appear, it is fit for harvesting. Iijfiries.-1. A wet sea-soni, either during the very early or in the concluding period of the cane's vegetation, is one of the worst causes of injury. In such a season, the absence of the usual intensity of light and heat causes the sap to be very materially deficient in saccharine matter. But on the other hand, 2. A very dry season, immediately after the sets are planted, though the want of rain may in some degree be supplied by artificial means, yet the produce under such circumstances proves but indifferent. These inconveniences are of a general nature, and irremediable. 3. Animals.-Not only the incursions of domesticated animals, but in some districts of the wild elephant, buffalo, and hog, are frequent sources of injury. Almost every plantation is liable, also, to the attack of the jackal. 4. White Ants.-The sets of the sugarcane have to be carefully watched, to preserve them from the white ant, (Termites fatale,) to attacks from which they are liable until they have begun to shoot. To prevent this injury, the following mixture has been recommended: Asafetida, (hing,) 8 chittacks. Mustard-seed cake, (sarsum ki khalli,) 8 seers. Putrid fish, 4 seers. Bruised butch root, 2 seers; or muddur, 2 seers. Mix the above together in a large vessel, with water sufficient to make them into the thickness of curds; then steep each slip of cane in it for half an hour before planting; and, lastly, water the lines three times previous to setting the cane, by irrigating the water-course with water mixed up with bruis - ed butch root, or mudder, if the former be not procurable.* 5. Storms. 6. The Worm. 7. The Flowering. * That the above application would be beneficial, is rendered still more worthy of credit from the following experience:-In the Dhoon, the white ant is the most formidable enemy to the sugar planter, owing to the destruction it causes to the sets when first planted. Mr. G. II. Smith says, that there is a wood very common there, called by the natives Butch, through which, they say, if the irrigating waters are passed in its progress to the beds, tle white ants are driven away. 307 SUGAR CULTURE IN WEST INDIES. -The following essay, received several years ago, the prize of one 1-iundred guitieas, offered SUGAR CULTURE IN WEST INDIES. by Lord Elgin, then governor of Jamaica, for I field-work, should be performed by horses the bes t practical treatise upon the subject. in which case three plowmen, six boys and We have supposed it might interest our plan- eight good plow-horses, with the assistance of ters to know what systems their neighbors steers occasionally to break stiff land, or in have been adopting, though no great practi- sub-soiling it, will be sufficient to plow, subcal good should be derived from the inbforma- soil, roll and harrow, drill, scarify, mould and tion.-ED. hoe, all the various crops on the model sugar Commence by subdividing the old cane- fairm, with the aid of a small gang occasionally fields, or such parts of them as may be suit- to plant, weed, trash, heap and turn out maable to receive the plow, into sections, by nlure, fencing, &c. substantial antd durable fences, and in the While on the subject of plowing, it may be most convenient manner to save fencing and as well to remark, that as the plow is now promote draining. Fences may be growing coming into general use throughout the islanld, fences, or ditch and penguin. As ditches and its beneficial effects freely admitted and may be necessary in many parts, in carrying tolerably well understood, all that remains for out the principle of draining and retainiing me, is to point out some improvement. The water for stock, they will be found beneficial, team of h(orses or steers should be brought as and may be planted on the top of the bank close as possible to the beam of the plow, and with any of the growing fences found on ex- exactly in the centre. They should then walk perience to be the most substantial, durable with a quick step without stopping. and least expensive, and least likely to harbor It is proved beyond a doubt by the British rats. farmers, that the work is better performed The next important duty is to drain the and with greater ease to the stock, when the land by under-drains, which can be dug by horses in the plow go at the rate of three machinery, the tiles necessary for draining miles an hour, than when traveling at the rate being made on the spot, by machinery. These of one mile in the same space of time. Repoints accomplished are the most expensive peated stoppages and going slow, are fagging outlay at the commencement, but will be at- both to man and beast, and detrimental to the tended by a durable benefit. The next duty quantity and quality of the work. Oxen may is to manure the land as high as you possibly be so trainled, as to perform excellent work can, by penning it over with horned stock, or without flogging. sheep, or stable, or cattle-penl dung, given in They ought to be stall-fed during the plow any way by which its virtues are saved to the season, on a mixture of hay, corn and grass, soil, covering the pens immediately after they and kept exclusively for the plow. The same are removed, with a coat of loam, or if stift rule should be extended to the plow-horses, clayey land, with lime or marl. This done, with the addition of being well groomed twice close-plow the land with a common single a day. When the plow does not take ground, Wilkie's" plow, seven inches deep, follow- or is otherwise out of order, the means of reing in the same furrow with the sub-soil, pairing and altering it should be on the going to sixteen inches into the sub-soil, or estate. deeper, if possible. Then roll and harrow Ratoons should be plow-molded every year, the l and, extracting the weeds and grass, and during which operation any of the chemical open it into cane holes with a deep single or lately discovered manures may be applied, plow, cleaning out the holes with a deep such as are found by experience to be congedouble-breasted plow. Your next duty is to nial to the nature of that specific soil which plant them, giving the canes an opportunity is drawn by analysis. By analyzing the soil of growing in their favorite manner in clus- and the cotnpost, or other chemical manure, ters, or stools, and not in single file along the it is soon found which description of manure row. As you plant, cover the bank and cane- will be most beneficial; or well-digested cattle bed with cane-trash, dry grass, or any other pen or stable manure, harrowed into the bank suitable covering, with a view to keep down so broken, and covered over with the trash grass and weeds, and to protect the soil from so taken off, when clearing for the plow. This that exhalation, which, in tropical climates, may be done by a couple of smart boys going is so rapid and so detrimental to land. By before the plow, raking the trash on the bank these means the plant canes will give very last cut by the plow, and so on in rotation to little trouble until they are fit to take the the end of the piece; or a raker drawn by bank, which can be given with the plow. one horse may be invented to remove the Cane land, so managed, will require very little trash. By this simple process, canes may be labor in weeding or hoeing, the principal part kept ratoonintg as long as you like. The of such work being performed with suitable plow-molding, with the application of manure light plows, drills, harrows, scarificators and in the bank, may be done at an early stage, other agricultural implements now in use in that is, when the sprouts make their appearthe United Kingdom. They not only eradi- ance. cate grass and weeds, but turn up the soil and As the canes are covering the ground, or scatter seeds and manures of every kind, soon after, the soil may again be disturbed, thereby saving a world of labor. either by a light single one-horse plow, or by The principal part of the plowing and other a scarificator, harrow-drill or horse-shoe, or 308 SUGAR CULTURE IN WEST INDIES. such of them as the sugar-farmer, on expe rience, finds to be most beneficial. By cutting the rooty fibres of the canes that push out int collateral directions, fresh ones immediately replace them, and take up such nourishment as they canll finld in the newly cut bank; a reinforcement of suckers will be the result, while fresh stability is added to the mother cane. It is to this end I recommend dung and manures annually to the ratoons, which, if properly done, places them pretty nearly on an equality with the plant canes, and planters of experience know that the cheapest sugar is that produced from ratoons under the old sys tem, and it will be doubly so under mine. When you determine on throwing out a piece of ratoons, I recommend a rotation of crops, such as Guinea cornl, Indian corn and green crops, of the most beneficial descriptioni, for benefiting the land and affording food both for man and beast. They may be of plalltains, cocoes, cassadoes, ochres, peas and beatns; yams. sweet potatoes, pumpkins, melonls and turnips, if you can succeed in this hot climate. Next come artificial grasses, to be planted before or after the green crops. At this stage, you have the sample estate dividend il the different crops-canes, corn, fallow and green crops, and a part in artificial grasses, sufficient to make hay for the stable, cutting grass for the pIens, and sufficient feeding for your stock. By this rotati,n of crops, you improve and benefit the land and produce good crops at a very moderate expense, and with one-fourth of the manual labor necessary under the old system. The greatest attention should be paid to making manure in the field and at the works-the draininigs of the stables and cattle-pens should be preserved, and carted out to the field where most required. The compound qualities of this manure are very powerful. A few boys and mule-carts would materially assist in carting out manure-bringning feeding for the pens and stable, and carting loam, lime, marl, or any other ingredient deemed necessary to improve the land. After the first two years necessary to lay the foiludation of this work, a small plant will be sufficient-say, at the utmost, from 20 to 25 acres a year, which, after a routine of crop s anid for years fed on by horned stock, horses,, sheep, poultry and hogs-the land being in the first instance fenced, drained and subsoiled-should, with moderate penning, give splendid returns in plants and ratoonls. Draining and Sutb-soiling, being of the greatest benefit in producing large crops and improving the soil, I may as well give an idea of their merits. The old system of draining by open trenches, was detrimental to the land during heavy rains, as a quantity of loose soil and maiinure were washed away into the gulleys and rivers. The land not being subsoiled, the rain could not penetrate far into the soil; the land became caked with a few ays of hot sung, which proved detrimental to vegetation. Whe n any qua nt ity of moisture was retained on the surface, or in the upper strata, it heated a nd scal ded the canes, while inhe ll the fall of the year or wintry mo nths, i t chilled th em-in either case, ch e cking bvege tation and producing booty and woody joints, and thereby poor returns. The land being under-drained and sub-soiled 16 t o 18 inches deep, the moisture soaks down through the soil into the sub-soil, from whence it escapes by the unlder-drains, leaving its chemical benefits in the soil while passing through it. By this m e an s, in a dry season, th e ca nes o r other crops rece ive sufficient coolness and moisture by evaporation from the sub-soil, which for the most part being stiff and clayey, continues cool and moist. It is a well-known chemical fact, that all the essential airs ineces sary for the preservation and benefit of the animal and vegetable world, are contained in the clouds, and reach the earth in wind and railn. Rain-water being highly charged with them, is deposited in the soil, giving a lively impulse to vegetation, and aiding the manures and natural stability of the soil —that is, when the land is under-drained and sub-soiled. The drains are to be cut 3(} inches deep, then lay a course of tiles on the bottom; after which, lay l2 inches of broken stones, to be covered on the top with sods, flat stones, slate, tiles or boards, to prevent the loose soil from getting amotn,gst the stones and injuring the drain. The tiles prevent the stones from sink inig into the clay, by which means the drains will be of long duration. The sub-soil plow must enter 16 inches deep, leaving two inches on the top of the drains, clear of the plow. The land must be sub-soiled across the drains. Manuring, etc.-A flock of sheep, consist ing of' from o00 to 300 head, and as many working steers, horses and mtiles, as may be necessary to carry on the trial sugar farm, with the assistance of some breeding stock necessary to supply it, and constantly fed on the sections of the cane fields thrown out to rest, and producing artificial grasses and green crops, would be sufficient to make 250 hogs heads. Lanid so dressed, with a due regard to the laws of agricultural chemistry, and receiving an annual supply of manure, either simple or compound, such as are found by analysis or experience to agree best with the descrip tion of the soil, should average 2i hogsheads (West India hogsheads average 18 cwt.) per acre through thie crop, that is, from t1lanIts and ratoons. In this case, a field of one hun dred acres would be sufficient, putting in an annual plant of twenty-five acres, and sup plying the ratoons with manure. In addition to the necessary number of plow and cart men, very few field laborers would be re quired to plant, clean axd trash the canes. Thle sugar farm should raise its ownl stock | thus situated, and breed as many stock and 309 SUGAR ESTATE IN CUBA, ETC. horse-kind as would be sufficient to carry on his farm successfully. European farm laborers, if properly managed, are fully competent to perform a large proportion of the work necessary on this sugar farm. Bourbon and Colored Canes.-The saving of labor being a matter of vital importance, permit me to remark that the Bourbon cane, so much admired for its superior yielding, is a very expensive cane, giving great trouble, and before it comes to maturity, requiring a great deal of labor. It is a delicate cane, and very slow in its growth, requiring many cleanings before it covers the ground, and seldom takes a start until the fall of the year. It furnishes a scanty supply of dry leaves to cover the land and keep it cool. It gives a smaller proportioii of tops to supply the cattle-pens with feeding, and to make manure, and it suffers more from trespass. It gives a smaller proportion of fuel compared to the other canes, and in every sense of the word, it is not, in these bad times, so good a poor manii's cane as the Montblanc and blue canes, and black transparent canes. From the prejudices that formerly existed against the colored canes, they have been planted on light sandy soils, and in galls, in which the Bourbon cane could not long exist. But if these inferior canes were planted in your best lands, well manured, I am convinced they would, on an average of five or seven years, pay better than the Bourbon cane, and would, in this given period, in plants and rat)oons, make as much sugar at nearly one-half of the expense. For example, they grow rapidly, and cover the ground quickly; they throw a great quantity of dry trash on the ground, and have a large bushy top that affords ample shade for the roots. Comparatively speaking, they require very little weeding and trashing; they give ample protection to the land, by a deep cover of' trash; ley suffer less from the trespass of stock, hogs and rats, and the people do not eat them as they do the Bourbon cane. They give a great quantity of feeding for stock, and supply for the cattle-penls, and a larger quantity of trash from the mill than is necessary for fuel to manufacture the sugar. The overplus is a valuable ingredient for making manure, which may be fermented in cattle-pens, or in pits where it may receive dundar. The draininigs of the stable and cattle-pens, the refise of skimmings, the washings of cisterns, and all thie sweepings and cleanings about the works may be added, and ashes, &c. The white or Montblanc cane comes next in quality to the Bourbon, and may be successfully planted in the same piece, say every alternate row or two of Bourbon, and one of white cane. By this mixture, the extra trash from the latter assists in making up the deficiencies of the former. The white and other colored canes sufter less from — drought and poverty of soil, and ratooi better and much longer than the Bourboll calee, as they do n ot im pove rish the land, but tend to improve it with proper culture. A great deal more may be said in carrying out these leading principles into practical detail, but they are too numerous for this paper. WITH ALL ITS APPURTENANCES, MARcIi, 1846. Lands 55sM caballerias,* at $1,000............ $55,500 00 28 of which are in cane, 8 " pastures, 2 " vegetables, 3 " fallow, 14X " woods. Crop 20 caballerias of cane in good condition, at $1,200....$24,000 00 8 ditto in poor condition... 4,000 00 25,000 plantain trees, at 12 e6 cents................. 3,125 00 Orchard trees, &c.......... 100 00 31,225 0 Animals 125 yoke of oxen, at $59,50 $7,467 25 30 inules, at $51 00.......... 1,530 00 5 horses, at $34 00......... 170 00 15 cows, at $25 00.......... 375 00 24 calves, at $5 00.......... 120 00 267 sheep, at $1 00.......... 267 00 9,929 2.5 Negroes — 4 negro overseers, at $600.. $2,400 00 1 " machinist, 650.. 650 00 11 prime men, 1st class, 550. 6,050 00 13 prime men, 2d class, 500.. 6,500 00 31 able men, Ist class, 450.. 13,950 00 57 able negroes, 400.. 22,800 00 28 " 350.. 9,800 00 12 " 300.. 3,600 00 2 " 250.. 500 00 10 200.. 2,000 00 3 " 150.. 450 00 10 negro boys, 100.. 1,000 00 6 " 50.. 300 00 30,000 00 6 negro women (prime) 400.. 2,400 00 49' 350.. 17,150 00 22 " 300.. 6,600 00 9 " 250.. 2,250 00 8 negro girls, 200.. 1,600 00 6 " 150.. 900 00 4 " 120.. 480 00 4 " 100.. 400 00 12 " 50.. 600 00 32,380 0O Building — One large engine and boiling house, 250 feet long, of widths from X0 to 100 feet, witt two steam-engines, four trains sugar pans of iron, on the Jamaica plan, and all necessary appurten ances..................$38,000 0( Two large purging houses, built of stone and wood, with tiled roofs, for claying 11,000 pots of sugar, with railway conveniences, cars for railway, and machinery for raising and mixing clay, &c........................ 25,000 00 *One caballeria is equal to 33% acres. 310 SUGAR ESTATE IN CUBA, SUGAR ESTATE I1 CUBA, ETC. One large stone dwelling house, with yard and gar dell attached............... $4,000 00 One large square block of stone buildings, 52 rooms, and yard in centre, for ne gro dwellings, size 300 by 200 feet................... 6,000 00 One square stone building, with yard in centre, divid ed into several large rooms, for a hospital.............. 2,500 00 One large stone building, in cluding the furnace for dry ing sugar, and the packing room...................... 6,000 00 One large house, 180 by 70 feet, for the purpose ofdry ing cane-trash, with rail ways from the mill, &c..... 2,700,00 One small divided dwelling of stone, for the engineer and mayoral (overseer)........ 1,500 00 One clock steeple, with clock and bell................... 800 00 One stable for fourteen horses 350 00 One coach-house............. 350 00 One small pump-house...... 250 00 Other minor buildings on dif ferent parts of the estate... 725 00 - ~ $88,175 00 In cattle, horses and mules.......... $2,300 00 Annual consumption of meat for 310 negroes, 140 lbs., at $6 per 100 lbs................... 2,604 00 Annual csonsumption of corn, 325 lbs. per day, at $1 20 per e-, 100 lbs.................... 1,423 50 800 mule loads of plantains, at 75 cents.................. 600 00 Clothing, at $3 50 per head.... 1,(85 00 Salary of administrator (agent) $2,000 00 " engineer............. 1,200 O0 mayoral (overseer)... 500 00 " majordonm (clerk)... 480 00 a physician. 510 00 two sugar boilers for six months....... 1,200 00 carpenters........... 1,000 00 plowman.-.......... 300 00 " mule-driver.......... 300 00 men to take care of cattle............. 360 00 Improvements One large stone reservoir for holding 12,000 cubic yards of water................... 5,000 00 One smaller ditto for watering cattle..................... 2,000 00 One large stone water-tank, to contain 70 pipes of water 800 00 One well, 180 feet deep, with tanks, buckets and machin ery fbr drawing water....... 500 0n Three wells on different parts ofthe estate.............. 500 00 One bell-post and bell weigh ing 8S0 pounds............ 500 00 One kiln for burning tiles and bricks....................1 3 00 00 One liioekliln.................2 200 00 One railway from the boiling house to the purging-house 300 90T One railway for discharging the clay at a distance from the buildings.............. 200 00 One railway for conveying fuel from the bagasse house to the furnaces...... 200 00 One railway and cars for con veying sugar to the drying house.................... 300 00 4,848 fathoms of stone fence or wall, on the boundaries of the estate, at $1 00..... 4,848 (,0 1,140 fathoms of hedge fence, at 25 cents................ 285 00 One large stone bridge and embankment over a stream on the estate.............. 1,000 00 Several small stone bridges and stone drains for water on different parts of the estate...................... 2,000 00 Two fire-engines, with hose, buckets, &cn...............o 1,000 00 Tools and utensils of every sort, including 34 ox-carts, those of the carpenters, ma sons, engineer, &c......... 2,221 00 O l o — 14,996 00 Total...............................$43,423 50 PRODUCE OF 4,000 BOXES, THE AVERAGE ANNUAL CROP. 1,333 boxes of white sugar, at $4 50 per 100 lbs., 425 lbs. per box.................... $25,493 62 1,333 boxes of brown sugar, at $3 per 100 lbs................16,995 75 1,334 boxes of cucuruche brown at $2 50 per 100 lbs..........14,173 75 4,000 boxes, &c., paid by mer chants, at $3 25 per box.....13,000 00 800 hogsheads of molasses, at $2 50....................... 2,000 00 - 71,663 12 Deduct expenses..................... 43,423 50 Net profits..................$28,239 62 22,154 00 Sum total......................... $309,3ff3 25 311 RECAPITULATION. Lanids...................... $55,500 00 Crop....................... 31,225 00 Animals................... 9,929 25 Negroes.................... 102,380 00 Buildings................... 88,175 00 Improvements.............. 22,154 00 Total.................... $309,363 25 EXPENSES OF THE SAME ANNUALLY. .: 8,012 50 7,850 00 12,565 00 Tl Los Min h( SUGAR TRADE. Customs Union, the increase has been from 15,000 to 62,000 tons, forming now one-half of the whole consumption of sugar in the Zollverein. In France a great increase in the production of beet sugar took place under the protective policy of the government, which discriminated in its favor against the cane sugar of the colonies, until the growth became large, and then it reversed its policy, discriminating in favor of cane-sugar. Nevertheless, the course of the provisional government, in 1848, towards its colonies diminished the receipt of colonial cane-sugar in France from 120,000 to 60,000 tons. The product of Martinique and Guadaloupe has been as follows: It would seem to be the case, however, that notwithstanding the diminished supply of cane-sugar from the British and French West Indies, that the growth of beet-sugar in Europe has so far supplanted its use as to more than meet the aggregate increased demand for consumption in both England and Europe, and to throw larger supplies of Cuban sugar upon the United States' markets, to compete with the swelling production from the Louisiana cane. The import of brown sugar into the United States down to June 30, I847, according to official returns, was as follows: SUGAR TRADE. —The sugar trade of the world has in the last ten or fifteen years undergone a great change, on account of the changed commercial policies of our own and other governments, the improved prosperity of the people of England and Europe as well as of the United States, leading to larger consumption on the one hand, while the developmient of the culture of the cane in Louisiana, and of beet sugar in Europe, has tended to enhance the general supply, which again has been checked by the course of the British and French governments in respect of their sugar colonies. The great reduction of the sugar duties of Great Britain has had the effect of increasing the consumption of raw sugar in the British islands 50 per cent. The duty on foreign brown sugar in England, which was 66s. per cwt. prior to July, 1846, has been but 14s. since July, 1851, and in 1854 the duties on raw and refined will be equalized. While the British demand for sugar was thus enhanced, the colonies produced less, and the extra demand from Ellgland fell on the markets of the world. In the same period, although the aggregate consumption of sugar on the continent increased, the demand for cane sugar was checked by the extended production of beet-root sugar, which has reached 150,000 tons per annum. Of this, in the German POUNDS OF IMPORTED RAW BROWN SUGAR INTO THE UNITED STATES. Cuba Brazil West Indies East Indies Total 1837................. 40,965,998....... 3,287,401.......49,166,140.......26,996,532.......120,416,071 1838................. 55,624,855........ 7,885,067.......66,093,202....... 9,597,781....... 139,200,705 1839................. 70,286,903........ 9,848,738....... 86,681,537........15,78314........... 182,540,327 1840................. 48,127,706........ 5,413,316....... 45,576,480........8,838,531....... 107,155,033 1841................. 90,384,397........ 9,070,626........60,838,901........ 5,659,259........165,963,083 1842................. 67,586,332........ 6,22,217........8,179,055........12,328,234....... 155,414,946 1843................. 31,628,319........ 1,915,115........31,475,613........ 4,515,284........ 69,434,331 1844.................114,362,368........ 2,709,099........54,763,060........ 7,932,964....... 179,857,491 1845................. 51,699,108........ 6,258,288........46,5, 6........ 6,532720........111,67,404 1846................. 61,624,973........ 4,926,304........ 50,057,329........ 9,656,444........126,731,661 1847.................169,274,024........ 6,896,447........45,366,660........ 3,642,895........226,683,261 1848...............174,979,362........ 6,003,609........ 54,035,761........13,182,395........248,201,117 1849.................179,754,020........9,516,004........56,710,138........ 7,835,323....... 253,815,495 I850...............127,767,543........ 7,033,366........49,530S181........ 13,320,729.......1 97,651,819 1851.................275,327,497........14,557,699........62,83,757........10,768,908........364,537,861 from Cuba. The figures, however, embrace only the brown sugar. If we add the aggregate of white sugar in each year, and also the crops of Louisiana, we arrive at the supply of raw sugar in the United States for each fiscal year: The figures for the year 1843 are for nine months only. It was in that year that the date of the fiscal year was changed. Under the term of Whest Indies is included Porto Rico and some of the South American countries other than Brazil. It will at once be seen that the supply from Cuba, from being one-third only of the whole import in 1837, has gradually risen until it is become two-thirds of the whole importation of raw sugar into the Union. The supplies from Brazil fluctuate more in proportion to the European demand and prices than do those IMPORTS OF RAW SUGAR AND LOUISIANA CROPS. Import Supply White Brown N. Raw Sugar 1837............... 15,723,748............. 120,416,071............... 70,000,000................ 306,139,819 1838............. 14,678,238............. 139,200,905.............. 68,000,000..............'.S 18,879,243 1839............. 12,690,946..............182,640,327..............170,000,000...............265,231,273 1840.............12,934,552............. 107,956,033............. 115,000,000............... 235,890,585 1841.............. 18,233,579.............165963,083.............. 87,900,000-..........v.... 271,1I7 66: 312 SUGAR TRADE. IMPORTS OF RAW SUGAR AND LOUISIANA CROPS-continued. Import Supply White Brown N. O. Raw Sugar 1842............. 16,464,290.............155,414,946.............. 90,000,000................ 261,879,236 1843.............. 1,098,025.............. 69,534,331..............140,000,000.............. 211,632,356 1844.............. 4,731,516............. 179,867,491..............100,000,000.............. 284,589,007 1845.............. 1,162,674..............111,967,404..............100,000,000............... 313,119,978 1846.............. 1,043,836..............126,731,661..............187,000,000............... 314,775,497 1847............. 9,196,106..............226,683,261............. 160,000,000...............386,879,361 1848.............. 6,007,008............. 248,201,117..............240,000,000...............494208125 1849.............. 5,103,741..............263,815,486..............220,000,000............... 473,919,226 1850............. 19,997,312............. 197,651,819............. 247,923,000............... 465,5 2.231 1851............. 4,786,437.............. 363,637,861............. 211,307,000................579,627,298 Such has been the annually increased sup- cents of the refined sugar was giving back a ply of raw sugar. Since 1842, the trade has little more than the duty on the raw sugar. undergone a change in refining. Thus the That is to say, 100 pounds raw sugar $2 60 tariff of 1833 charged a duty of 2~ cents duty, and produced 51i pounds refined, on upon raw sugars, but in order to encourage which the drawback was $2 68w; and furrefining, it allowed a drawback of five cents ther, as under the terms of the compromise per pound on refined sugar exported. It is act, the duty on the raw sugar underwent ascertained that 100 pounds, one-third white biennial reductions, while the drawback beHavana and two-thirds brown, will yield came a direct bounty, and the business was 511 pounds refined. Hence refunding five increased as follows: — IMPORT AND EXPORT OF REFINED SUGAR. Foreign Domestic Total Export Import EEx's exp. 1837............ 72,786.......... 1,844,167.......... 1,916,953.......... 9,899.......... 1,907,055 1838...................... 2,610,649.......... 2,610,649.......... 4,556.......... 2,606,093 1839............ 136,191.......... 4.781,723.......... 4,918,915.......... 57,751......... 4,861,164 1840............ 74,674..........10,741,648........ 10,816,822.......... 1,682.......... 10,814,640 1841.............. 3,033.........13435,084..........13,438,117.......... 68,333......... 13,369,784 1842............ 1,320,181.... 3,430,346......... 4,750,527.......... 1,985,319.......... 2,765,208 1843............ 157,700.......... 598,884.......... 756,584.......... 699,090...........57,594 1844........... 1,679,410.......... 1,671,187.......... 3,350,517.......... 2,215,517..........1,185,000 1745........... 1,840,909......... 1,997,692.......... 3,838,901.......... 2,044,862..........1,794,039 1846............ 910,263.......... 4,128,512.......... 5,038,775.......... 253,379..........4,785,396 1847............ 185,878......... 1,539,415.......... 1,725,293.......... 1,089,477.......... 638,816 1848............ 489,220.......... 3,370,773.......... 3,817,993.......... 2,121,628.......... 1,696,365 1849............ 100......... 1,956,895.......... 1,956,895.......... 400,015.......... 2,356,880 1850............ 286,078.......... 2,786,022......... 3,072,100.......... 796,217.......... 2,275,883 1851............1,107,295.. 2689,541.......... 3,796,836..........12,077,726.......... making a difference of near 27,000,000 lbs. in the quantity of brown sugar re-exported in the shape of refined sugar. This was a very important item, and its effect upon the market was by no means properly estimated. 'We may now take a table of the whole export of sugar from the United States, that is, raw sugar of foreign and domestic origin, and of refined sugar equal to raw, at the rate of two pounds raw for one of refined, as follows: The great increase in the import of refined sugar in 1851 wa s from Belgium and Holland, stimulated by the low prices of raw sug,ars there. Under the operation of the falling duty upon raw sugar and the unchanged rate of drawback, the export of refined sugars rose from 2,000,000 lbs. in 1837, to nearly 14,000,000 lbs in 1841. With the close of that fiscal year, the drawback was reduced from five cents to three cents, and after January, 1842, to two cents. The effect was the instant cessation of the trade, TOTAL EXPORT OF RAW SUGAR, FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC, AND OF REFINED EQUAL TO RAW. Raw A- - Domestic refined equal Foreign Domestic to raw Total export 1837.............. 41,052,073........... 306,602............ 3,688,334............45,047,008 1838.............. 11,624,324........... 408,802............ 5,221,398............17,254,524 1839.............. 13,018,451............387,203............ 9,563,446............23,069,100 1840...............18,872,344............769,903............21,483,396............41,125,648 1841...............11,811,233............312,864............26,970,168...........39,094,265 1842..............11,577,589............166,533............ 6,860,692............ 18,604,814 1843.............. 1,729,276............ 58,563............ 787,768........... 2,575,607 1844............... 2,795,622............187,118............ 3,342,214............ 6,324,954 1845.............. 11,199.089............ 195,985............ 3,995984............15,391,058 1846.............. 19,347,414............109,295............ 8,259,024........... 27,715,733 1847............... 5,756,260............388,457............ 3,078,830............ 9,223,547 1848..............12,677,790............135,006............ 6,757,556........... 19,570,352 1849.............. 17,149,894............399,209........... 3,913,790........... 21,462,893 1 S50...............13,866,98............458,839............ 5,772,044............20,097,870 1851............... 5,279,813............5,379,082........... 11,220,72w 313 SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF. viewing these conflicting accounts dispassionately, we must allow that, as the plant was found growing in its utmost luxuriance throughout the islands of the Pacific Ocean by our earliest navigators, it requires no great stretch of imagination to believe that it was also growing on the great continents of America long before it was brought there by the Portuguese and Spaniards. It would not be difficult to adduce many arguments in support of this belief: but I am well aware that such a discussion here would be deemed tedious and irrelevant. The Chinese assert that sugar has been made from the cane, in China, for upwards of 3,000 years; and, without disputing with "the flowery nation" for a few hundred years, more or less, we will at once concede to them their undeniable claim to very great antiquity as sugar manufacturers. But I cannot divest myself of the belief that INDIA -not China-is in reality the country from which the sugar-cane FIRST emanated. Whether such be indeed the case or not, we have now no possible means of deciding; and, moreover, it is a question which no way interests the plain matter-of-fact planter; suffice it, therefore, to say, that it is now found growing in almost every tropical country under the sun. Varieties known and their qualities.-From what I have already seen, I do not hesitate to say, that an endeavor to describe all the different varieties of cane that are known, would be a wearisome, if not a hopeless, task, from which, it is clear to my mind, that no adequate benefit can be derived. Therefore, I will confine myself to a mention of those which have been more prominently brought before me; and amongst them, I think, almost every variety known to the generality of my readers will be found noticed. In Jamaica, the varieties common arethe Bourbon, the Otaheite, aud Batavian canes. In Bengal, the yellow and purple ribboncanes of Otaheite; the Bourbon, or Mauritius; the Singapore (Tibboo Leeut*); the large purple cane of Java; the red cane of Assam; the common, small, hard cane of China; and some ten different kinds of native cane, varying in thickness from one inch and a half to half an inch in diameter; the very smallest resembling little riding switches. In the Straits Settlements of Penang and Province Wellesley, Malacca, and Singapore, the varieties are-the Salangore cane; or, as the Malays term it, Tibboo Cappeor; the Tibboo Leeut; the Tibboo Teeloor, or egg cane; the Tibboo Etam, or black cane; the Tibboo This table gives the whole annual export demand for raw sugar. If now we take the above table of supply, the difference will give the annual consumption of cane sugar in the Union: Years Stipply Exports U. S. Consum. 1837...... 206,139,819.... 45,047,008...... 161,092,811 1838.... 218,879,243....17,254,524......201,624,719 1839......265,231,273.... 23,969,100......241,262,173 1840......235,890,585....41,125,648......194,764,937 1841... 271,197,662.... 39,094,265......232,103,397 1842...... 261,87-9,236.... 18,604,814...... 243,274,422 1843...... 211,632,356.... 3,576,607...... 209,056,7 49 1844......284,589,007.... 6,324,954...... 278,264,053 1845...... 313,119,928.... 15,391,058...... 298,728,920 1846......314,775,497.... 27,715,733......287,059,,64 1847..... 385,879,361.... 9,223.547...... 376,655,814 1848.. 494,208,125..... 19,57(0,352...... 474,637,773 1849......478,919,226....21,462,893..... 45 3,456,333 1850...... 463,572,231.... 20,097,870...... 445,474,361 1851......579,627,298....11,220,723...... 568,406,575 In these figures we have taken no account of maple sugar, because, although that article is a valuable product in the new states, it does not conflict with the cane sugars where the latter are introduced through the operation of the public works, the returns of which all show an increasing market for the cane sugar, as the districts through which they run become more settled. The prominent fact in the above table is, that while Louisiana and Cuba afforded equal supplies for the consumption of the Union, the former has far outrun Cuba, notwithstanding that the latter has become so much more dependent upon the United States for a market. SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF- DESCRIBING AND COMPARING THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS PURSUED IN THE EAST AND WVEST INDIES, THE UNITED STATES, ETC., AND THE RELATIVE EXPENSES AND ADVANTAGES ATTENDANT UPON EACH: BEING THE RESULT OF' SIXTEEN YEARS' EXPERIENCE AS A SUGAR PLANTER IN THOSE COUNTRIES.-The great English work of Wray has been sold at a price that puts it out of the reach of our planters, though a most invaluable guide it would prove to them. Scarcely a dozen copies have been taken i n Louisiana. We yielded to the frequent solicitations of many frie nds, and re-published it in several numbers or the Review, in short parts and very small type. It will be interesting in Car olina, Georgia, Forrida, Alabam a and Texas, as well a s in Louisiana. ED. History and Varieties of Sugar-Cane.*It is a matter of considerable doubt whether the sugar-cane plant is a native of America or not. Strong opinions have been given as to the improbability of its being so; whilst, on the other hand, many old writers assert with great confidence the fact. And, indeed, * For the other parts see De Bow's Review, vol. xiii., which will be vol. iv. of Industrial Resources, and appear in December, 1852. 314 I Tibboo, or Tubboo, is the Malay name forsugar cane. SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE Or. which has served to convince me that they all came originally from Otaheite. As I consider them to be the same variety, and as one description serves for the whole, I will therefore treat of them accordingly. With the advantages of a good soil and favorable season, plants of the first year's growth often attain the height of twelve or fourteen feet, measuring six inches in circumference, and with joints eight or nine inches apart. I do not mean to imply that the average size of a field, or of fields, is so large, but that canes may be picked out from amongst them fully as large as that. Such plant canes commonly yield (in Jamaica, Bengal, and the Straits) two and a half tons, and not unfrequently three tons, of marketable sugar per acre. Such an amount of produce per acre is a very common and well-known occurrence; but the general calculation among planters is, however, two tons of dry sugar from each acre of "plant canes:" that is, canes of the first year's growth. I can see no difference in the yield of this cane in either Indies; for, in good land, the return is generally as above stated. Planted at proper seasons, as will be treated of hereafter, they often attain maturity in ten months, and very rarely exceed twelve. Under certain circumstances, it may be expedient to allow them even fourteen months, as in excessively rich land, or a wet season; but, of course, these circumstances come more particularly under another head, which will be fully discussed in its proper place. These canes require a generous soil, careful fencing, and attentive management. Many soils which suit other varieties, are unfit for the proper development ofthese; whilst it is generally remarked, that they are more sensible of the injuries committed by the trespassing of cattle, sheep, &c., during their early growth than other descriptions. The foliage of the Otaheite is of a pale green, leaves broad and drooping much; and the plant, on arriving at maturity, frequently arrows, or flowers; which renders it, when in extensive fields, exceedingly graceful and ornamental in appearance. " The purple-striped Otaheite" cane is very much like the ribbon cane of Batavia in appearance: but the former has broad purple stripes, on a greenish yellow ground, whereas the latter is of a blood-red, on a transparent straw-colored ground. It is often called " the Otaheite ribbon cane," in contradistinction to " the ribbon cane of Batavia." Its foliage is of a much darker color than that of the yellow variety, whilst its leaves droop much less. It is a hardv and estimable description of cane, of large size, soft, juicy, and sweet; and yields sugar in equal quantities, though of a rather dark quality. The Batavian canes, with which I am ac Meerah, or red cane; the Tibboo Batavee, or Batavia cane; the Tibboo China, or small Ch ina c ane; and many others not requiring description. To give a distinct account of the foregoing canes, I will take them as I have named them, each in succession. The Bourbon cane.- There doe s not appear to me to exist any very satisfactory account of the origin ofthis variety; the opinion generally received is, that it wa s introduced into the West In dies from the island of Bourboml, bu t came orig inally from th e coast of M alab ar, w her e it was found growing spontakeou sly. W,then firs t discover ed, it is stated to hav e been a small-sized, but soft and juicy cane, which was so much affected by the change of climate, soil, and the cultivation it received in Bo urbon, that it i ncreased w o nderfully in size and richness of juice; so that it was cultivated in preference to the old species, which at lengrth it entirely supe rseded throughout the island. Fromn my own experience in Jamaica, I c a n pronounce it a most valuable cane; bu t I entertain a s tron ssusp icion that it is in reality no othe r tha n the Tibboo Leeut of Singapore, sometimes called the Otaheite cane,) some what altered by c hange of soil and climate. I have bestowed considerable attention upon it, and have carefully marked the Tibboo Leeut, growinu o n en tirely d if ferent soils, in different situations, and under widely different circumstances, and I can come to no other conclu sion th an that they are identical. The Otaheite canes are two-the yellow and straw-colored, and the purple-striped or ribbon cane. The former and the Bourbon are so much alike in all r espects, and hav e become so interniixed on Wtes t India estat es, that it is a matter of great difficulty to distinguish between them; indeed, I have long been of opinion that thev are the same variety of cane. If we remember that the Bourbon was taken to that island, then to Martinique, and afterwards spread in course of time throughout the West India islands, that the Otaheite was taken direct from that island to the West Indies, and direct to Calcutta and the Straits Settlements; that the Tibboo Leeut came from Manilla (evidently from Otaheite originally) to the Straits of Malacca; if we consider these facts, we shall find no cause for astonishment at the very slight difference that exists between them; on the contrary, we must be much struck at the extreme similitude, which even such extraordinary changes have failed to destroy. But let the three be collected, and then planted out, under precisely similar circumstances, and I am quite satisfied no man can distinguish the one from the other: at all events, I have no hesitation in owning that I never couldrathe 315 SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF. quainted, are of four descriptions, viz.: the yellow violet; the purple violet, or Java cane; the "transparent," or ribbon cane; and the Tibboo Batavee, or Batavian cane, of the Straits. "The yellow violet," so denominated in the West Indies, differs from the Bourbon in being smaller, less juicy, considerably harder, of slower growth, and of a foliage much darker and more erect. When ripe, it is usually of a straw color, its skin or rind is thick, and the pith hard; but its juice is rich and abundant. The yellow violet does not require so rich a soil as the Otaheite, but contents itself with that of an inferior description: this renders it of much importance in planting out large tracts of land, some po rtions of which may be too poor for its superiors. In Jamaica, it is usual in such places to plant the violet; thus we often see large patches of it flourishing in the midst of a field of the Bourbon. To an unpractised observer, this sight would cause much speculation; as its dark green foliage presents a striking contrast to the pale green of its immediate neighbors, and might lead to the conclusion that those dark green patches were occasioned by some greater degree of fertility and moisture existing in those parts; whereas the contrary is, in fact, the case. The sugar manufactured from this cane is of a very fine quality; but considerably less in quantity than the Bourbon. A very common custom of the Jamaica planter is, to mix the yellow violet with Bourbon plant canes, according, t o proportion, for the purpose of rectify inge o the juic of the latter, so that burning and other such vexa tious occurr ences might not arise in boiling. " The purple violet," or large black cane of Java, is fully as thick as the Otaheite, with joints varying from three to seven inches apart. In height, it is usually about eight or ten feet, with leaves of a lighter green than the'yellow violet." The very upper joints sometimes exhibit faint streaks, becoming imperceptible in the lower joints, which are of the darkest purple color. Very frequently a white resinous film is seen encrusted on the joints of this cane, which, over the rich purple, presents much the same appearance as that peculiar to the finest bloom raisins. Sometimes this resinous crust lies so thick, that the purple of the cane itself is in some joints scarcely perceptible. When in perfection, it yields a very sweet and rich juice. Being very hard, it is difncult to grind, and affords a comparatively small quantity of juice, which is sometimes rather troublesome, from the resinous (or gummy) and coloring matter which it contains. It is a very hardy cane, thriving well in poor dry soils; and in Jamaica it is often planted ill the outer rows of the cane-fields, to stand the brunt of trespassing cattle, which, browsing along the roads, or breaking throug h fences, tear and trample down th e canes. T o other descriptions of cane, these ravages would be very serious indeed; but for t unate ly, the purple violet i s s o ha rdy, t hat it quickly recovers from such i nju ries, and spri ngs up again with astonishing rapidity. It was introd uce d i nto t he West Indies about the sam e time as the Bourbon, and is still much cultivated. In the Straits, the Malays term it Tibboo Etam, (Etare, black; Tibboo, cane,) or black cane, and cultivate it much around their houses, fo r eat ing. " The transparent," or ribbon cane, is much smalle r in size than the Otaheite ribbon cane; is of a bright tr ansparent yellow, with a number of blood-red streaks or s tri pes running the whole length of the sta lk, and varying in breadth from a quarter to a full inc h; and be ing very clcear withal in its tints, it presents a very pretty appearance. Its le a ves are of a gre en, similar t o th at of the yello w viol et, bu t mo re erect. It grows from sixt to ten feet high, with joints from four t o eight inches apart, and four inche s in circumference. " The transparent " is generally planted in light, sandy soils, where no other cane will t h ri ve; so metimes it is planted pro miscuously with the ye llow violet. Although it s r ind is t hick, and gene ral te xture hard, yet it yields a good quantity of juice of excellent quality, which is easily converted into fine fair sugar. Planters often grind this cane, also, wit h Bourbon plants, for the same re ason as applie s t o the ye llow violet. " The Tibboo Batavee," or Batavian cane, is a cane common in the Strait s of Malacca, where it i s cultivated by the Malays. In appearance it is mu ch like the yell ow violet, except i n the peculiarity of its color, which is rathe r g reeni sh, with a pink shade, in parts; in some of the low joints th is pink color i s very bright and pretty, whilst in the upper, it is more fain t an d delica te; the joints ar e seldom more than three to six inches apart. In height, size, and foliage, it closely resemble s the ye llo w violet; althoug h it differs from it, in being much softer, more juicy, and less hardy in habit. In a rich soil it is prolific, and ratoons well, — its juice is rich, clarifies easily, and gives a fine sugar: but on the whole, it is inferior to the Otaheite variety, yet requires an equally rich soil. A description of cane was sent from the Mauritius to Province Wellesley, Penang, under the general name of "the Mauritius cane," and I had several opportunities of seeing it growing, when but young. It is very different from other descriptions of cane I have seen from the Mauritius, and it struck me as being an East Indian cane improved by cultivation. I have seen only three varieties of large canes on the Continent of India, which are supposed to be peculiar to the country: one 316 SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF. easily detect the cause, and know that it can be avoided. In the first place, the Bengalee cultivator has a plan of tying up the canes of each root closely together, with bands made with twisted cane leaves; so that, as they grow, the resinous substance exuding from the rind, accumulates along the whole length of each cane, turns black, and together with the excrement of numerous insects, (which harbor and breed in these snug retreats,) make the cane-stalk quite filthy: add to this, the exclusion of air and light, which are necessary to the perfect elaboration of the juices, and I think we need not be surprised at the juice being dirty and difficult to clarify. In the Straits of Malacca I have seen them as clean as other canes, tall, erect and vigorous: but the Chinese say that in grinding they give out a considerable quantity of coloring matter,-which, by the way, would be of little consequence, did they clarify their canejuice properly, which they do not. I still, therefore, incline to the opinion, that they are a fine, and under certain circumstances, valuable description of cane. The Malay name is " Tibboo merah "-red cane. The next large canes are the black and the yellow Nepaul canes, which I obtained from the kingdom of Nepaul-four plants of each, growing in boxes. They arrived safely, after a series of adventures, in a fine,bhealthy condition, giving promise of becoming fine canes, but a long and dangerous illness obliged me to go away for change of air, during which time they were destroyed by goats. They were, however, large-sized and fine-looking canes, fully equal in appearance to the Assam cane-and my messengers, together with the Nepaulese (in my employ) gave them the very highest character. I regret to say that I never had another opportunity of seeing those varieties again. As to the small-sized canes cultivated in India, they are so numerous that I cannot attempt a description of them: moreover, they are, in comparison with those which have been, and are to be, noticed, so very wretched, that did I not know them to be cultivated, by the prejudiced native, to an immense extent, I should deem them anworthy of being mentioned in any way; as it is, I shall have to treat at large of them when I come to explain the cultivation of the cane in India. 'c The China cane" was received into the Botanic Garden of Calcutta in 1796, direct from China; having been specially ordered by the Bengal government, at the suggestion of Dr. Roxburgh, who considered it a new species, and named it Saccharum Sinense, or Chinese sugar-cane. Writing in 1799, Dr. Roxburgh says, " It has been cultivated with the utmost possible success; many HUNDRED THOUSANDS have been distributed over the is the large red cane of Assam, specimens of which were kindly sent me by Dr. Keith Scott, the Hon. East India Company's civil surgeon, at Gowhatty i n Assam. This gentlemian had established a sugar estate at Gowhatty, an d m ade sugar; so tha t he had experience of the right s ort, which lend s to his op inion c onsiderable weight. In w riting of these anes, he says:-" This morning I di spatched, by the Assam Company's tea b oa t, a couple of red sugar canes for you, request ing the Honorary Secretary of the Company to forward them to you. They a r e of a description you may not have met with before, very y juicy a nd sweet; the sugar produce d from them i s of an exceedingly fine grain and good color: they are, m oreover, strong in growth, and much less apt to fall ov er than the Otaheite, to which they are fully equal in size, as well as in quantity and quality of juice. I a m also preparing for you some'flowers'a o f this cane, in different stages, which I will dispatch, when quite dried. I have now (January) canes in flower, which were planted last May!!" So that the canes in flower were only eight months old; consequently they could be cut and manufactured in ten months from the day of being planted. I am sorry to say that two months elapsed before I received these fine canes, by which time they were dead and withered up. Some time afterwards, Dr. Scott again sent mile two boxes, with some pieces of the same cane, growing; but unfortunately they did not survive the long and roundabout way by which, through unforeseen occurrences they were sent. I subsequently had a long and interesting conversation with my kind and excellent friend, when he repeated all he had before written, and added much more, in praise of this red cane,-from all which I have been led to form a very high opinion of it. In Lower Bengal, (near Calcutta,) and in the Straits of Malacca, a large red cane abounds, which bears so exact a resemblance to Dr Scott's Assam cane, that I conceive it to be the same identical variety, somewhat improved in the rich and fertile soil of Assam. It must be remembered that I do not speak positively, as'I never had an opportunity of seeing the foliage of the Assam cane. The red cane of Bengal is a large and fine cane, much used about Calcutta for sugar manufacture; and I have had brought to me by natives, sugar made from it by themselves, (in their own rough and primitive way,) which exhibited a grain of immense size, strength and brilliancy. They, however, say that it is not a good cane for sugar-making, as the juice is very dirty, and the sugar always dark colored. These assertions, however, have no weight with me; for I can 317 0 SBUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF. - sider that it is a variety of cane which de serves the attention of the East India sugar planter. Such was my opinion nearly five years ago, and I have had every reason, since that time, to be satisfied of its correctness. A gentleman in Bengal, largely connected with sugar matters, writing to me on this subject, says, "You may remember that I wrote to you some months ago soliciting in formation and advice regarding the " China canne," which you gave so good an account of in the Agr. Hor. Society's Journal; I have much pleasure in now giving you the result of my experiment. "As you advised, I wrote to the Society for five hundred canes, which arrived quite fresh. I then cut them up, allowing ONE JOINT to each piece, and planting them in lines, four feet asunder each way, delivered them up to the same chances as my Otaheite and native canes were exposed to. The result has been beyond my utmost hopes; and, this too, after a season of unusual severity, which has greviously affected my native cane; and as to my OTAHEITE, what with the hot winds, the white ants, the long continued wet weather, and the detestable jackals, I saved but a very few; whilst nothing seemed to injure or affect the China cane. Did you ever know the Otaheite cane-sprouts to be devoured by caterpillars! I forgot to put those depredators in the list of enemies to the Otaheite plant; although they certainly are very formidable ones, as the partial destruction of many of my plants testified. They attacked the plant when only a few inches above the ground, from which many never recovered. " I understand that INDIGO PLANTS are often quite destroyed in the same way, so perhaps it may not happen again for some years. This hope determines me in trying the Otaheite cane once more; when, if it does not succeed, I shall keep entirely to the China cane: which, by the by, I am now extending, as far as my plants will allow me. I am disgusted with the native cane, and shall soon put them aside altogether." I think these account s of the China cane a re sufficient to establish the fact of its being a variety well suited to India; although I need not say that it is immeasurably inferior to the Otaheite, wherever that cane can be cultivated successfully. It was introduced into India in 1796, and in 1799 was spreading rapidly all over the country. It is now very common throughout Bengal, although the natives think it a native cane, from its having been so long amongst them. They have given it a native name, which I quite forget. I met it in several places, and recognized it at once; yet I never met but one native who knew it to be otherwise than a native cane. Certainly, its neglected cultivation during fifty odd years in India, has caused it to de coun try amongst the cultivators of that article."' Dr. Royle* wr ites, ",it possessed the advantage of being so hard and solid as to resist the f orceps of the whit e ants and the teeth of the jackal-two g re a t enemies to the East Intdia s ugar plantations. I t was found, however, too difficult to express the juice with the Bengal sugar mi ll; but Dr. Roxburgh c,vas of op inion that this mimght be obviated by introducing the simple, ye t powerful, mill of the coast of CoromIandel. He further describes the cane as bearing drought much better than the sor ts in g eneral cultivation; p roducing, moreover, a profitable crop, even to the third year; while the common cane of India must be annually renewed. According t o the repor t of Mr. Touchet, the commercial resident at Radnagore, and of Mr. R. C arden, super inte nd ent of the Hon. Conmpany's Sugar Plantation Farm at Mirzapore Culna, " It not only resists the ravages of the white ant and jackal, but yields about d ouble the produc e of the common Bengal cane. " Independently of' this testimony, which I know to be most correct, I can state my own experience of them; and I cannot better do so than by giving the account, as I wrote it at the time, (about four years and a half ago.) The Chinese cane was supplied me from the Society's Garden, Calcutta, and took upwards of two months coming up by boat; yet it was perfectly fresh and green on its arrival, whilst the other descriptions of cane had all died, or withered away. From the three hundred canes sent me, by cutting them up into pieces of two joints each, I obtained sufficient to plant out a small patch of ground -which this season yielded me so many canes, that by cutting them up as before I was enabled to plant out about SIX BEGAIIS (four acres) of land with them, besides supplying my neighbors with a few. In its nature it is extremely hardv and prolific; for during the last hot season, it remained uninjured in every respect, whilst the others were all either burnt up, or eaten out of the ground by the white ants. As the rains came on, the China canes sprang up wonderfully, many roots having no less than THIRTY shoots; which, by September, had become fine canes, about twelve feet in height, three inches in circumference, and with joints from six to eight inches apart. These were cut in October, and planted out; yet although we had a tolerably severe winter, the cold appeared to have little or no effect in checking their growth; whereas N.ATIVE CANES, planted at the samie time, were ENTIRE[LY 7ept back. For their extreme hardiness in withstanding heat and cold, white ants, jackals, &c., &c., I myself can vouch; and, moreover, I con 318 I* I See Royle on the Productive Resources of India, P. 92. SUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF. generate very much; hence my advise to all persons desirous of trying it, "Selnd to the Society's Garden, in Calcutta, for it." It is a very small-sized cane, being rarely more than one inch, or one and a quarter inch in diameter; but it is sweet, and makes fine, fair sugar. The Chinese assert that it is better adapted for sugar-candy making than any other cane. In the Straits Settlements of Pepang and Province Wellesley, Singapore and Malacca, the principal canes are eight in number. Of these, first and foremost, is " the SALANGORE CANE," by the Malays of Province Wellesley termed f tibboo bittoing beraboo" (the powdery bark-cane), but by the Malays of Singapore and Malacca, it is named " tibboo cappot" (the chalk-cane), from its having sometimes a considerable quantity of a white resinous substance on the stalk. This is the swN E ST description of cane in the Straits Setdlemernts, and PERHAPS IN THE WHOLE WORLD. Ill Province Wellesley it is universally cultivated on all the estates, and i s only known to those planters as the China-cane, from the simple circumstance of the Chinese cultivators in the province having been in the habit of cultivating it for years, before any European embarked in such speculations in those parts. I have cut as many as five of the larger canes finom one stool; each cane from ten to fifteen feet long, without leaves, and seven and a half inches in circumference, (round the lower joints): each cane weighed from seventeen to twetnty-five pounds. That of twenty-five pounds weight, I kept some weeks in my house, and numbers of people saw it; it was thirteen and a half feet long, and two and a half inches in diameter, yet it was not by any means so large a cane as I have seen. The place where I found it growing was a newly-cleared piece of jun,gle-lanid, whereon a Malay had "1 squatted," built a house, planted rice, and some three acres of sugar-cane around it. Tlhe cane plants had been stuck in the ground without regard to regularity, and had received no kind of attention, yet I counted tweiity-five canes of immense size, growing from many of the stools. This may be considered a solitary instance, but it is by no means the case, as in any fair jungle land this cane attains an extraordinary size and height; and I dare to affirm, that on any estate in Province Wellesley, canes can be found, in the cane pieces, which will weigh fifteen pounds at least. It is very evident that the average size, on an estate of five hundred acres, is much under that; and indeed too large a cane is both inconvenient and undesirable for sugar manufacture. The Salangore cane is remarkable for the qulantity of a"cane-itch" (so termed in the West Inldies), which is found onl that portion of the leaf attached to the cane-stalk. Some times touching a growing cane inicau tiously, I have had my hand covered with it, which penetrating deep into the flesh, caused great irritation and inflammation. The leaves are very broad, and d ee pl y serrated at the edges, wit h a considerable droop; they are some shades darker in color t ha n th e Ota heit e, and h ave so good a h old on th e stalk, as very seldom to flall off, wh en dry, as s ome canes do, but requiro e t o be taken off by hand. They ratoon better than any canes in the strait s; and I hav e known them to yield fbrty piculs (a picul is 133i poun ds) o f granulated, but undrained sugar, per orlong (an orlog is one acre and a third), as th ird ratoons. Fromn what I have seen, I am dispos ed to think that in the Vest Indies, Mauri tiii s and Indi a, the y would be found to rato befo n o ar better than any o the r c ane. As "plant-canes," I have known them to yield, on an average of some acres, sixty-five picals of granulated sug a r per oriong, or 6,500 pounds per acre; and I h ave fre quent ly bee n informed bv a French gentleman in Province Wellesley, that he has in some cas es o btained as much as 7,200 pounIs of sugar per a cr e (undrained), from which he ha s secured 5,800 pounds of shipping sugar, well dr ied in thesun. For my own part, I h ave always reckoned as an average, 3,600 pounds of dry sugar t o the acre, as the return thi s c ane will give, on anything like good land, in the Straits, ac cording to the present imperfect mode of ex pression and manufac ture, but considering the surpassing richness of lasad in the West India islands, Demerara and Mauritius, I should not be in any way s urprised to find tha t i t wo uld th ere give even th ree t on s an acre. The Salangore cane grows firm and strong; stands upright much better tlhant the Ota lheite; gives juice most abundantly, which is sweet and easy of cla rification, boils well, and I oeduces a very finne, fai r sugar, of a bold a nd sparkling grain. On the whole, I like this cane better than any other, and would l i ke to have it t rie d in the West I ndie s and Mau ritiuis. It appears to me to be peculiar to thc e Ma layaa f peninsula, and is said to have abounded more particularly in the Rajah of Salagorle's territ or y (between Penang and Ma lacca.) At present, being cultivated on some fifteen or twenty large estates in Province Wellesley, Penang, it is of course obtainable in th at se t tlemeoft in l arge quantities. The " Tibboo leeut" (clay-cane), sometimes called the Otaheite, I have already described as belonging to that variety. The" l'ibboo teeloor" (or egg-cane) has long been deemed to be the Otaheite cane by the planters of Province Wellesley, but quite er roneously. It is evidently the cane described !by Cook and other navigators, as peculiar to [the island of Tangle, one of the New Hebr ides. * (Quoting from memory.) he says: "The su t t i t I s i i 319 rSUGAR-CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF, gar-canes of this island, we remarked, were much superior to those of Otaheite, being softer, more juicy, cleaner, of a paler, brighter yellow, and altogether much filer and more luxuriant; but this superiority in the sugarcane is more than counterbalanced by the great inferiority of the bread-fruit, &c., prodoced in this island, compared to that of Otaheite." I have seen many accounts of the same tendency, but I had an opportunity of satisfying myself more completely by meeting in Singapore the master of a ship who had several times visited those islands, and was altogether a very sensible and observant man. He said that himself and his officers had taken particular notice of the extremely clean and bright appearance of the Tanna cane, in comparison with that of Otaheite; and that on his arrival at Singapore, his Dabash (a native who supplies the shipping while in harbor), had come off to the ship with a basket of fruit, amongst which were some pieces of sugar-cane, which they all immediately recognized as the cane of Tannin, but which the Dabash told them was called in Singapore the egg-cane. Ile further identified the f tibboo leeut" as the genuine Otaheite cane, and said that every man on board his ship could go into any Chinaman's garden and point out to me, without hesitation, the two different canes! I also discovered that this va riety was intro duced into Manila many years ago, and from thence found its way to Singapore, where it is extensively cultivated by the Chinese for sale in the markets, as it is in great request for eating. In size, it is fully equal to the Otaheite, whilst it is so exceedingly clean and beautiful, that it surpasses all other canes in appearanice. It has many very singular peculiarities, which no one can overlook or forget. Apart from its extreme cleanness and pretty appearance, it is remarkable for the almost entire absence of cane-itch-smoothness of leaf; the curious manner in which it bulges out between the joints (which has obtained ibr it the name of the egg-cane, from the Malays, who say that it bulges out in the form of an egg); the peculiarity of shedding its leaves as they become dry; its delicate structure, which causes it to Call over, and very frequently to break short off; and the large size of the eyes or buds (along the stalk), which are unusually developed, and more readily burst forth than in any other cane I know. It is very prolific, and with the exception of the China cane, I know no other that can be so quickly propagated, as every eye shoots forth most vigorously, and each stool has generally from five to fifteen canes growing from it. It produces as nmtch (if not more) juice, of rich quality, as any cane growing —which can be converted into fine, fair sugar, of a good, strong, sparkling grain. But with so many points to recom mend i t, still there are, undeniably, some very s erious, and I fear fatal objections to it, as a cane for the sugarplanter. Its tender nature, liability to fall over, break, and thereby be entirely destsoyed, could only be obvi ated by its being planted, p erhaps, on lands secu rely sheltered from win d, a nd wh ich al so are neithe r too damp nor too rich. I have o ften seen such places: for instance what we term in Jamai c a bottoms, or land lying between hills, whic h botto ms a re generally sufficiently rich for t h is description of cane, without being too much so. But many pla ces could. no doubt, b e found admirably suited, where it would be well pro t e cted, and yet have abundance of sun, which it much re quir es; otherwise, its juice is liable to become watery a n d muci lagin ous; where - as, on the contrary, if it has a f air soil and abundance of sunshine, no juice can be c le aner, and none more rich in saccharine matter. Some experiments are now going on with this cane on two testates, one of which has fifty acres growing, which will soon be ready fort the mill. As far as they have yet been tried, they have, notwith s ta nding their falling and breaking, yielded very fair returns; but the Ch inese contracting cultivators do not like them. I have already described the Batav ia, China, red, and one black cane, found in the Straits, a nd have consequently only one more notice. This too is called " Tibboo etam," but also has an affix, d istinctiv e of its particular character. Thus the Malay s t erm it " Tibboo etam, o bat," or " b lack me dicin e cane," from an idea tha t in certain diseases it is a very sovereign panacea. What these highly esteemed properties a re, I have altogeth er forgotten; but these plants a re fre quently found growing in the gardens of Malays, that they may be found in case of need. It is a small, but clean and pretty cane, of a rich purple color, which color it imparts to the hands and lips of those who eat of it; I was surprised to see how it stained our hands and faces, having never seen such a thing before. One other great peculiarity is the beautiful tint of the leaves, which in some (very young) is of a delicate pink, gradually darkecuing (ill those older) to a fine purple, mingling harmoniously with the green ground of the leaves, and altogether forming a most unicommon and highly pleasing foliage. From what has been said, it must be evidenit that the Otaheite and Salangore varieties are the two most valuable canes we know of. It will also be seen that there are, nevertheless, others which, in certain localities, and under peculiar circumstances, become of very great importance, and highly deserving of attention. All this will be rendered more striking as I proceed: I shall therefore only 320 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. ,add, that the judicious selection of a variety of cane for planting is of immense importance, as it is not more expensive or troublesome to cultivate a superior cane, which will give large and remunerating returns. than it is to cultivate an inferior kind. which will lead only to disappointment and loss. Nor do I think that any estate should have only one description of cane. It is advisable always to have two, or even three, one of which might be cultivated generally. verdant prairies, the narrow, wooded bot tomsa e, the beautiful islands of timber, the quick-ruT linig streams, the cool, refreshing s pri ngs, and the hea lth ful cl ime of Texas. There the soil, a little broke n, i s not in ferio r to that of the alluvial country belo w, is more easily worked, the products are greater and more varied, and, though not so convenient to a foreign market, will have a market at home. Here is to b e the mo st densely popu lated part of Texas, if not of America. In this region the planter may raise a ll th e cot ton, rice, and tobac co, he can save, and the corn and grain he requires, and stock to any extent, without labor, and almost without c are. The table-lands are yet the home of the hunter and the range of the buffalo. Little is known of them, but they are represented by travelers to rival the table-lands of Mexi co, to be rich in soil and climate, to be clothed in constant verdure, beautifully variegated in surface, and watered by streams as clear as crystal-to be, in fine, a perfect paradise. Of the northern portion of Texas still less is known than of the table-lands. This re gion is said to be intersected by many streams of water-power, and to be rich in the precious metals. Climate.-All who have visited Texas con. cur in ascribing to it the mostdelightful tem perature in the world. Though possessing a climate varying, according to local situation, from tropical to temperate, it is generally remarkably pleasant and salubrious. The average range of the thermometer during the summer season is about 80~, and refreshing breezes frome the south blow almost without interruption. During winter ice is seldom seen except in the northern parts of the state. From March to November but little rain falls, and the power of the sun is such as to exhale that little promptly. The southerly winds are very invigorating, and one seldom takes cold, however heated, by exposure to their influence. In November the strong northers set it. In the months of December and January, the cold north winds sweep down the plains with nearly as much regularity as the southeast wind in summer, being occasionally interrupted by that wind chiefly on the full and change of the moon. These periodical winds, doubtless, tend greatly to purify the atmosphere, and contribute much to give the climate of Texas a blandness which is rarely enjoyed, and a salubrity which is looked for in vain in the low alluvial country of the southern United States. The climate, indeed, is modified by so many favorable circumstances as to possess all the genial influences of Louisiana, while it escapes its attendant evils. In addition to the invigorating sea-breeze and the freeness from marsh effluvia which this enjoys. there is another advantage which contributes, perhaps, still more effiectually to the preservation of the TEXAS.-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, PRO DUCTIONS, ANIMALS, MINERILS, POPULA TION, GOVERNMENT, EMIGRATION, ETC., ETC. Boundaries.-Few persons abroad are aware of the magnitude and attractions of this beau tifull country. Texas has a territory of nearly 400,000 square miles, equal in extent to the whole of France and Spain together, com prising an area of 300,000,000 acres. It lies between 26 and 36~ north latitude, and 93~ 30' and 1100 west longitude. Its greatest length is about 700 miles north and south, and 400 from east to west. It is bounded by Red River and Arkansas on the north, and the Rio Grande and New-Mexico on the west. It comprises a territory five times as large as New-England, and is nearly equal to the whole of the southern states, all of which contain but 370,000 square miles. Allowing, then, 280 persons to the square mile, the same as in England, it would sustain in round numbers a population of 100,000,000. Face of the Country.-Texas may be divided into three districts or regions of country, each of which, in many respects, is entirely different. There are the level, the undulating, and the mountainous or hilly, or the lower, middle, and upper districts; or, as it is more convenient, divided into Eastern, MIiddle, and Western Texas. The eastern extends from the Sabine to the Trinity, the middle from the Trinity to the Colorado, and the western from the Colorado to the Rio Grande del Norte. The level region occupies the entire coast, extending from 30 to 60 miles into the interior. The undulating succeeds this, and embraces the whole of the interior and the north, and reaches westward to the mountainous tract, which is distant 150 to 200 miles from the boundaries of the level lands. The alluvial lands of the several rivers which make into the Gulf are from 3 to 20 miles in breadth, and are heavily timbered with live oak, red, black, and white, and other species of oak; with ash, cedar, pecan, elm, hickory, mulberry, and all the other varieties of forest trees and growth common in the rich alluvions of the Mississippi. The cane brakes are of immense extent in the low country, and onl the Caney Creek may be seen seventy miles long, and from one to three miles wide. Here may be grown cotton, sugar, rice, &c. In the second division are the high, roiling, VOL. III. 21 321 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. health of the emigrant, that he can locate immediately upon the rich, open prairies, and realize a plenteous crop, without exposure to those "clearings" which pr ov e s o deleterio us t o the western farmer in his acclintation to a " fetver-and-ague bottom." Away from the river bottoms, which are frequently overflowed, and the vicinity of forests, you escap e the f evers to which such regions are sometii is exposed, and enjoy uni nterrupted and v ig o rous health. T h e for ests of Texas are generally free from underwood. and there are few miasmatic marsh e s or stagmallt pool s to giv e rise to epidemics, or occasion anyy fatal disease. River s and L ak es.-No part of the extensive coast of the Gulf of Mexico presents a greater number of commanding harbors, bays and inlets, than t hat of Texas. The int erior, intersected by numerous magnificent and navigable streans, in close vicinity to tihe great wes tern tributaries of the Mississippi, and holding ea sy comm unication with the mighty * f ath er of rivers" himself, furnishes a commercial position very desirable, and seldom surpassed. Red River may be considered in part as be longing to Texas. The vast region west of th e mou ntains i n n which it rises, and through which it rolls its turbid waters, has been yet scarcely explored; but it is known to be of great ferti lity and of surpassing beauty. In this regio n has the Texan emigrant reared his cottage, and planted his cotton, and his corn, and his wheat. which are borne along the currentof Red River to the great mat t of the southwest. The chief rivers, those which are more or less navigable for steamboats, are the Sabine, or Neches, Trinity, Brazes, Colorado, Guadaloupe, San Antonio, and the Rio Grande. Besides these, there are others of less note and magnitude, though navigable to a considerable extent: the Angelitna, San Jacinto, Buffalo Bayou, Oyster and Cliacolate Bayou, San Bernard, Caney, Navidad, La Baca and Nueces. There are no lakes of any importance to be found in this country. A few small ones near the sources of' the Guadaloupe, and on some of the tributaries of' Red River and the Trinity, are all that are worthy of the name, and they are inconsiderable. To a country so well watered, intersected by rivers so niu merous and important, and offering such va luable facilities for canal communication, they would be useless. Indeed, with but very little expense, its vast water-courses might be united in one great navigable chain, which would render the transportation of produce from any section of this wide-spread terri tory to a commercial emporium at any point on the coast, a matter of the utmost ease, and at a trifling cost. Pr airies and Meadows. —Texas, in general, is a prairie country, haeving all the streams skirted by timber. The sublime and beau tiful are both united in her vast prairies — sublime in extent, and beautiful in prospect. One may travel for miles, and even leagues, over a continuous plain, with nothing tco interrup t the utmost stretch of vision upon the " living green," save the beautiful groves and " islands of timber" which are here and there interspersed, and flowers of every variety, hue and fragrance, and herds of cattle and deer-delighting the eye with the view of splendid lawns and magnificent parks tastefully laid out by the hand of' nature, and presenting all the order and taste of civilization. Nothing in nature can surpass the beauty and loveliness of a Texan landscape. Nothing can exceed the beauty of her vast natural meadows in the spring and summer seasons neither is it possible to form an estimate, even in imagination, of the number of usefiul domestic animals that may be reared on them without trouble or expense. Even in the winter season the pasturage is sufficiently verdant to dispense with feeding live stock. Timber Lands.-No country in the world affords a greater variety of timber than Texas. Her forests of live oak and cedar are unrivaled. Her whole coast nearly, including all the bayous and river bottoms from the Sabine to the Nueces, is one entire belt of timber. The eastern section probably embraces more woodland than any other. It is heavily timbered with pine, oak, ash, walnut, hickory, pecan, mulberry, cedar, cypress, and other forest trees, which extend quite to Red River, occasionally variegated with beautiful plairies, containing ftom one hundred to several thousand acres. The soil is admirably ada pted t o gra zin and agriculture, an d th e timbe r t rade will soon become extens ive and lucrative in th is region. Produ ctions of th e S oil.-Among the productions whi ch ma y be regarded as naturally adapted to the soil of Texas, anld which now forms a chief' and import ant article of coma merce, cotton stands pre-eminent. This is the great crop of Texas, and the source of much of its wealth and power. Its staple is uniformly good, and near the Gulf it equals, in length and fineness, the Sea Island cotton. It is an indigenous plant, and in the western region needs to be planted only once in three or four years to yield an abundant crop. The climate is ever favorable, and the soil, whe ther upland or lowland, woodland or prairie, is admirably suited to the culture of the ar ticle, and the crop can scarcely ever fail. The sugar-cane grows luxuriantly throughout the whole level region; but its culture, for va rious reasons, will not be extensive, nor will the production of sugar, unless forced by un expected circumstances, probably compete wilh that of Louisiana for many years to come. Tobacco grows almost spontaneously throughout Texas. It is an important productionl, equal in quality to that or' Cuba, and will soon become an article of commerce and expor t. The indigenous indigo of Texas is greatly 322 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. superior to the plant which is cultivated in the United States. It is manufactured in fa milies for domestic use, and is preferred to the imp)orted indigo. d Tl]e invaluable article of breadstuff, maize or Indian corn, is produced easily and abun dantly in every district of the country. Two crops are annually gathered, yielding in all about seventy-five bushels of shelled corn. Thile first crop is usually planted about the middle of February, and the second the mid dle of JLiune. Wheat, buckwheat, millet, rye, oats, bar ley, and other small grains, yield plentiful crops to the farmer throughout the undula ting, district. The establishmient of mills will be the signal for abundant harvests of grain. Flax arid hemp are well adapted to the soil, and fulrnish ample rewards to the labor of the agriculturist. Rice is already prodluced in considerable qtuanlltity, and can be grown to any extent. The grape and mulberry abound here. They are inldigerous to the soil, and grow luxuriantly, indicating that wine and silk, as well as cotton and tobacco, wvill one day be come staples of the country. The vanilla plant grows wild. It can be successfully cultivated, and will become a commercial commodity of inestimable value. This delicious plant is highly esteemed in medicine, as a perfume to flavor the cigar, and in v arious culinary arts, &c. The neopal, celebrated for the production of the co(chineal insect, grows luxuriantly. Its fruit, with the leaves, furnishes food for vast herds of cattle and wild horses. It is, moreover, 1ihy esteemed, and purcha sed eagerly ill the Mexicaln markets. In the western counties the musquit tree is very comnmon. It is a species of'locust, and, besides furnishing ill its fruit excellent food for cattle and horses, it is superior to cedar even for the purposes of' building and feincing. It forms here also the principal article for fuel. The yaupan, or tea tree, deserves especial notice. Its leaf is very similar in form and fliw,)r to that of the veritable Chinese shrub, and is not at all inferior to the black tea or bolhea so commonly used. It furnishes a very acceptable and cheap beverage in lieu of the Erase Clhinese article, which ill the interior is so often adulterated, and so costly and difficult to be obtained. Cayenne pepper, called by the Mexicans chile, grows exuberantly all over Texas, and vast quantities are annually consumed for domestic use. The Inidians acid C,'eoles are extremely fond of it, and no Mexican would willingly relitnquish his chile lbr any other luxury. Mauly other sources of wealth and enljoymenlt are ftbund here, and will ill all good time be realized by her citizens, who are so inl dustriously exploring the true springs of na tionial greatsess and individual prosperity. Shrubs and Flo?,~ers.-Trhe displays of ve getable nature in Texas are profuse, various and valuable; presenting, on the one hand, the stately and magni-ficent forest, and, on the, del t o ther oeeih the e ye with the rich and splendid scene of the lcxuriant prai r ie, garnished with at endless va r iety ofa beau tifhl and fragrant flowers, and fo rming a landscape of indescribable and surpassing lovelintess. It is an elysium for the flor ist a nd painter. It is impos sible to imagine the beauty of a Texan prairie, when, in the vernal season, i ts rich luxuriant herbage, adorned with the thousafd flo wer s of endless hue and figure, seems to reali ze te vision of a terrestrial par adise. Many of the northern garden flowers and hothous e exotics bloom on the prairies spontaneously, an d in the utmost profusion, and in wonderful variety. All the v arieties of t he genus stellarin — yellow, blue, and purple-display their rich and gaudy thits ine every direction. The splendid t hbl a i, a nd fashionable dahlia, a exotic highly esteemed a nd c arefully rea red in fo reign hot-houses, is indigenous to the south west. The n umerous family of ger aniums serve to adorn and perfume wi th their sweet fragrance the wild m eadows of Texas. Se veral varieties of digitalis and sanguinaria are also f ound. Different species of the nymphle, or water-lily, here " waste their sweetness on the des er t air;" an d the bigno nia, or trumpet flower, and lobella cardinalis, are very com m on. The Mayst apple, bearing a delicate and delicious flower, is abundant, and violets everywhere form a common car peting for the prairies. The beautiful an d much-admired passion-flower is frequent in its season, while the perpetual rose, multi flor a s, and chickaaws, and other varieties of roses, are ind igeno us to the country, and grow wi thout culati vatio n or care. The mornin g and evening primrose displays the mild beau ty of its simple, but chaste and elegant flow ers everywhere; while the jonquil and hya cinith, honeysuckle and sweet seringa, form a fancifully variegated nosegay, or are thrown together in most admired disorder throughout this paradise of flowers. The hoya carhosa, or wax-plant, both white and red, is common. The mimosa, in the prairies of Texas, bears a flower of a delicate pink color, and much larger than those of the North. This plant has ever been, and ever will be, perhaps, a matter of curious interest and admniratiorn to the naturalist and philosopher. It is very elastic to the tread, so that when the traveler has trampled over its drooping and apparently withered leaves, and looks back for the path which his rude footsteps have marked out, .,not a vestig,e of the invasion remains, but all .again is life and verdure. d ti 9 t a 9 t I I( 11 I s 8 s 323 TEXAS-CLIMA'E, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. The deer is still more numerous than the buffalo, being found in e very part of Texa s, Hence venison is very common and very cheap. Deer-skins never fail to find a ready and profitable market. The moose, antelope, and mo untain goat, are also found ranging upon the frontier or far w e st. The fox-hunter wil l find constan t enjoyment in th is country, w here Reynard peeps from every bu sh and brake. Raccoons, opos sums, rabbits and squirrels are i n great abundance, and a g reater variety of smaller animals serve to stock the forests of Texas with game, and s upply the hunter with endle s s adand ani m ated sport. Wild Came. -Wild game is yet a bund ant in Texas. On e accustomed to the us e o f the fowling-piece or rifle may, in almost any part of the co untry, ke e p a table w ell supplied. Besides the de er, w hic h abound in the prairies, wil d tu rkey s are very numerous, generally f at, eie and their meat tender and delicious. Prairie hens, large and fine birds, combining the quali ties of the part ridge, grouse and pheasant, ar e much esteemed, and very common. Learge and ahlmos t innumerable flocks of wild geese a nd turkeys, brants, te al, canvasback and ommon duck, and n o ther waterfowl, frequent the rivers, a nd lakes, and se ashore, and are so plent iful th at one can always furnish himself with as man y of them as he desires. Partridges, quails, pheasants, grouse, pigeons, and turtle-doves, are very plentiful. snipes, plovers, wood-cock, rice-birds, and ortolans, which form so celebrated a dish in Europe, are here very abundant. The bald-headed eagle and Mexican eagle, which is the noblest of the aquiline tribe; the vulture, various species of hawks and owls, are among the birds of pre y, a nd very common. Cranes, whooping, white and blue; bee rouge, a species of crane, with a beautiful red crest; swans, pelicans, king-fishers, and water-turkeys, are all aquatic birds of prey, and very numerous. Crows, red-winged blackbirds, starlings, bluejays, different species of woodpecker, redbirds, martins, swallows and wrens, abound. The beautiful paroquet, the oriole, whippoorwill and cardinal, and the sweettoned mocking-bird, enliven the woods with the beauty of plumage and melody of voice which belong to them. Thus nature has not denied to Texas a less bountiful provision in this department of natural history than in those before mentioned. Fish and Reptiles, dc.-The rivers and bays of Texas abound in fish of an excellent quality, of great variety, and some of them of peculiar character. :Redfish Bar, in Galveston Bay, takes its Frvits, d-c.-Many of the fruits of the tropics and those of the North grow luxuriantly in Texas. The fig, a very delicious and much admired fruit, is very common, and may be raised in the greatest abundance, with very little labor or care. The Texas peach is unrivaled: nowhere is it of larger growth or richer flavor. The northern peach will not compare with it. The nectarine, quince and grape are equally luxuriant, and produce excellent fruit. A great variety of berries, as the mulberry, dewberry, whortleberry and gooseberry, grow wild, and in the greatest profusion. The pecan, walnut, and hickory nuts, are very abundant. Wild plums and crab apples are common, and the pawpaw produces a rich and delicious f ruit. The orange, lemon and lime grow wellt r e an the re;s and the pine-apple and olive m ay be m ad e to ripen with a little care. Garden vegetables of every description, and melons, are easily cultivated, and yield in the greatest abundance. Animals.-The wi ld animals of Tex as a re n ot numero us. F ormer ly they wer e f re vquent and formidable tenants of the forest, bu t a t present they are rarely met with. The black bear freq uent s t he forests and cane-brakes, a nd is a favorite object of the hu nt. Wolv es abou nd, and sometimes prove a great annoyance to the farmer. The pecari, or Mexican hog, though rarely met with, is a ferocious animal. the wild hog is frequently seen, and is sometimes very furious. These hogs are descended from the domestic swine, and have become wild by running at large in the woods. Wild horses, or mustangs, originally introduced by the Spaniards, now roam at large, and are exceedingly numerous ill the northern prairies and western sections of Texas. Many of them are animals of fine figure and spirit, and are highly prized for their beauty and fleetness. They are caught by the lasso, and may be thoroughly broke and rendered quite docile. The young are easily subdued and domesticated. They are hardy and active, and well adapted to the saddle or the stirrup. Mingled with the herds of mustangs are often found jacks, jennies and mules. The rearing of these animals is a lucrative business. The expense of raising them is a trifle —the vast natural prairies affording inexhaustible pasturage for this purpose. The buffalo, or bison, is found in Texas astonishingly gregarious. Thousands and tens of thousands in a drove are yet seen in the interior, roving over the prairies, whose luxuriant herbage furnishes them with the means of subsistence. They are much hunted for their flesh and hides. Their beef is highly prized; and the bufialo robes are in great demand, at good prices, andl can always command a ready sale. 24 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. name from the numbers of redfish which are monly used in medicine, are found here; and caught there. This fish is very delicious, the honey-bee swarms, and has made her and often weighs fifty pounds. Yellow, favorite haunt in Texas. Their luscious white and blue codfish are found in abund- stores are deposited in hollow trees, and the ance inthe rivers and streams-sheepshead, bee-hunter is constantly employed to secure buffalo, perch, mullet, pike, trout, flounders, the honey and wax for exportation and trade. suckers, and other fish common in American It is a common fact in natural history, that waters. The gar is a worthless fish, with a the bee is the pioneer of civilization; and snout of immense length. The alligator gar the Indians, whenever they notice its ap is very large-several yards in length; its proach, exclaim, "there come the white back is covered with scales, and it resembles men!" the alligator, which is very common in the That species of spider called the tarantu rivers and bayous, and of enormous size. la, is very common, and grows enormously Eels are very common in the fresh-water large. It is a most malignant and disgust streams, and are much esteemed. Crabs, ing insect, and its bite is believed by many crayfish, shrimps, &c., are very plentiful; to be without a remedy; but this may be and oysters, clams, muscles, and various always at hand in the form of salt and vine other marine animals, may be had "all along gar, chloride of soda, sweet oil, or ammonia. shore." Beds of oysters line the coast, and Travelers and emigrants should always be nearly all the inlets along it. They are large provided with the antidote. and well-flavored, and are equal to any ob- zllinerals.-Texas abounds with minerals tained in the Atlantic cities. The hard and and interesting geological attractions. The soft-shelled turtle are common to all the silver mine of San Saba is among the richrivers and bayous, especially near their est in the world, and under the dominion of mouths. Lizards, &c., are to be found every- Spain afforded a considerable revenue to the where. Spanish crown. Gold has been found No new country was every less troubled upon the Atoyac, and silver ore upon the with serpents than Texas. Poisonous Bedais. snakes, it is true, are often to be met with, Iron ore is found in many parts of Texas, but their bite is seldom or never fatal, as the some of it yielding upwards of 50 per cent. antidotes are always very plentiful and close Lead, copper, copperas and alum are found at hand. in considerable quantities. Bituminous coal The rattlesnake is common in the river- is found upon the Trinity and Upper Brazos, bottoms, and grows to an enormous size. equal to some of the foreign coal. Salt is Land and water moccasins, coach-whip and found in the greatest abundance. Immense copper-heads, are the only venomous snakes quantities are annually taken from a famous besides the rattle found in Texas. The salt lake near the Rio Grande, and transportchicken-snake-very fond of poultry, as its ed to a foreign market. name denotes-the garter-snake, and several Salt springs and lagoons abound near the others, are entirely harmless. Trinity, and a branch of the Brazos River has The "horned frog," inhabiting the prai- its water highly impregnated with mineral ries, and probably of the lizard species, is salt. Soda and potash are formed near very common here, and regarded as a curi- the salt lagoons, in dry seasons, by the atositv. mosphere. BIeetles, grasshoppers, butterflies, fire- Lime can be plentifully furnished from flies, anits, wasps, mosquitos, spiders, and a limestone existing in the undulating and great variety of others belonging to the same northern portions of Texas. In the level species and orders with these, are found in district, oyster-shell lime can be substituted. Texas. Asphaltum is sometimes found on the coast, Mosquitos are a great annoyance in the thrown aside by the sea from the opposite swamps, woods, and river-bottoms, but on side of the gulf. the uplands are not sonumerous and trouble- Large quantities of silicious minerals. some. The sandfly, ticks and redbugs are agate, chalcedony, jasper, and some singular very annoying to travelers. If not carefully petrifactions, are found near the mountains. guarded against, they will spoil the beauty Tbe remains of whole forests are seen, near of the fairest face in creation, beyond the the Trinity and Brazos rivers, entirely redemption of all cosmetics, for days to petrified. Some ofthetrees are of enormous come. size. The horsefly is a most malicious and Extensive quarries of red and white sandtroublesome insect. The gadfly is a dreadful stone, or freestone, abound throughout the tormentor of the cattle in summer, as the country. Near the Trinity and Colorado horse-fly, gnat, and others of like species of especially they are very common. At Ausequal attachment to suffering humanity, are tin, the capital, these is a valuable quarry of to domestic comfort. white stone, similar to that in Paris, of which The cantharides, or Spanish flies, so cormn the Louvre is built It is soft and easily 325 TEXAS —CLIMATE, RIYERS, LANDS, ETC. worked with the knife, and may be reduced The few Indian tribes which inhabit the to any form; but on exposure to the atmos- forests of Texas, are fast retiring to the phere it becomes a perfect freestone, and is wilds of the West, where they will soon as granite or marble. It is a beautiful build- separate, and their names and language for ing stone, and busts, mantel ornaments, ever perish. pipes, &c., have been made from it and sold Education and Religion.-The social and at a high price. religious institutions of Texas are begin The same kind of stone is found on the ning to develop themselves with rapid Trinity, and in the vicinity of San Antonio strides; and under wholesome laws and de Bexar. the banner of freedom, the cause of liberty, MAlineral Springs.-Texas, as well as the education and religion will prosper. Her United States, is bountifully supplied with free constitution guaranties the right of mineral springs. The Salinilla springs, both self-government, and of worshiping God white and salt sulphur, near the Trinity, in according to the dictates ofconscience-the Walker county, are very remarkable. They end and aim of all true patriots. No perrise near the salines, in a picturesque valley, son shall be molested on account of his reand are highly appreciated for their medicinal ligious or political opinions, provided he virtues. Not far from these, and near the does not disturb the public peace. Bedais, is a valuable white sulphur, super- Primary and common schools are estabsaturated with magnesia, and possessing all lished in the chief towns and counties, and the charms and healing properties of the ce- education is becoming universal, and easily lebrated white sulphur of Virginia. attained. The College of Ruterville has Thirty miles west, in the same county, been liberally endowed by the state, and is and on the road to Washington, is a blue quite flourishing. Galveston University is sulphur spring of great value. Near the under full operation, and is very popular. Cibolo, and about thirty miles from Bexar, is Churches of different denominations are esa mineral spring, the waters of which are in tablished throughout the land. Galveston high repute, and have been visited for ages has five already-one to each 1,000 inhabitpast by the Mexicans and aborigines for ants; and Houston, we believe, has nearly their medicinal virtues. Besides these asmany more. there are others which promise to be valua- With these several affinities and beautiful ble. Near Carolina, in Montgomery county, combinations, we may safely predict a high is a white sulphur spring of great excel- standing for Texas, whose materials of lence, whose waters possess similar virtues greatness are abundant, and only need some to those already noticed, and it may be re- plastic hands to give them form. We see sorted to by many invalids, with the pros- in her a new state, growing up like a young pect of speedy relief. girl by the side of her yet blooming mother Populatioe.-The population of Texas, at -a lovely scion from the parent stock. present, may be estimated at 200,000 souls, Government.-Theadministration ofTexas most of whom are Anglo-Americans and is that of a single state of the United States. Europeans. The Mexicans and aborigines The governor is to be elected by the people are reduced to a cypher, and will soon dis- for four years, and is ineligible for the suc appear. The great majority of the popula- ceeding term. There is a Senate and House tion of Texas, and the most valuable portion of Representatives, which meet annually; of it, consists of emigrants from the United the members of the former serve for four States. The active and enterprising New- years, and the latter two. There is a Sec Englander, the bold and hardy western hunt- retary of State and a Commissioner to the er, the chivalrous and high-spirited southern Land Bureau. The Supreme Court holds planter, meet here upon common ground, an annual term at the capital; and Superior divested of all sectional influence, and lend and District Courts are in session nearly their combined energies to the improvement the whole year, in the several counties. of this infant but delightful and prosperous These courts are open for the prosecution country. of claims and debts, and redress of griev Of transatlantic emigrants, the principal ances to alien friends upon the same terms are English, French, German, Swiss, and as to resident citzens. Property sold under Irish. execution is sold for cash, without appraise There is a large black popu' ation in Texas, ment. and though for ever the property of their The real, personal, and mixed estate of masters, and under the restraints of the any citizen of Texas, dying intestate, de law, they are invested with more liberty, scends in parcenary to his or her kindred, and are less liable to abuse, than the slaves male and female, as follows: of the southern states generally. The laws 1st. To his or her children, and their de in relation to master and slave are generally scendants, if any there be. the same as in Louisiana. Free negroes are 2d. If none, then to his or her father's not allowed to reside in the state, mother, in equal proportions; but if only 326 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. the father or mother of the intestate survives, then the estate is divided into two equal portions, one of which goes to the surviving parent, and the other to the brothers and sisters of the intestate, and to their descendants; but if no brother or sister, or legal descendants of such brothers and sisters survive, then the whole estate goes to the surviving parent. If there be neither father nor mother surviving, the estate then passes to the brothers and sisters, or their descendants. 3d. In case of such kindred as above mentioned surviving, the estate is then divided into two moieties, one of which passes to the paternal and the other to the maternal kindred. 4th. When one joint tenan t dies before severance, the right of survivorship does not attach, but the interest of the deceased joint tenant descends to his or her heirs and legal representatives. 5th. Property of an intestate without issue, acquired by gift, demise, or descent, from the father of such intestate, reverts to the paternal kindred, without regard to the mother, or maternal kindred, of such intestate. So, vice versa, if derived from the mother, then it reverts to the maternal kindred, without reference to the paternal. IIlegitimates can only inherit, and transmit inheritance, on the s ide of th eir mother. 6th. Alien heirs of deceased citizens of Texas are all owed n ine y ears to dispose of the estate. The right of the administration is gu arantied, 1st. To sur viving husband or wife. 2d. To the nearest of kin. 3d. To principal creditor. The taxes of the s tat e are qui te moderate. The common law of England is the preva iling law, unlessri otherwise opposed by statute. Lands and Titles. —The old maps of Texas generally represent the whole country as occupied and disposed of by grants, to empresarios. This is calculated to convey the idea that there is no vacant or unappropriated land in the country. Such an idea is totally erroneous, and the cause of much mischief. Of these contracts or grants, so called, none have been fully complied with except Austin's. Of the others, only a part of the families contracted for were ever settled, arid most of them have expired by the terms of the contracts. There is not sufficient data, as yet, to state positively how much land has been appropriated; but it is believed that the appropriations will not exceed one-tenth part of the public domain. It is not true, as has been often stated, that all the good lands in Texas have been taken. A great portion of the best soil in the country yet remains unlocated, and will in all probability for many years to come; or, if purchased, will be in the h an ds of specu lators, who will re-sell it at a fair advance. Speculator s h ave made, an d will continue to make, fortunes in Texas, as land-jobbers. Sales are rapid, and the price of lan d is con tinually increasing. The emigrant, however, should look well to his title, and not purchase ti ll he ha s made a surve y of the land, or is well ap prized of its situation and value, by some per so nal friend, in whos e w or d and judg ment he can place th e utmost confidence. Fraudulent scrips and titles are ver y n u merous, and the unprincipled are very ready to practise upon the c redulity a nd inexperi ence of the emigrant, and chea t h im o o ut of his goods and m o ney. The new comers can no t be too cautious. A great n umber of spurious land title s are in c ircul ation, purporting to issue from land compan ies, whic h a re quite valueles s. The E1 Dora do Company, Galves t on Bay, and Texas Land Company, the Arka nsa s and T exas Land Association, and the Colo rado and Re d Rive r Compan y, h ave each issued scrips in New-York and other places, which have no legal foundation, and give no ea fo nd n aie n title to lands. There are various des criptions of land titles in Texas. The first are th ose emanat ing from the Spanish governme nt. Ma ny of these are unconditional and indisputable, and are undoubtedly the best that can be found. Those emanating from the Mexican government, many of which are good, and others totally invalid, certain conditions having been attached to the grant which were never fulfilled by the grantee. Most, if not all, the elnpresario contract grants, except Austin's, have been declared forfeit ed and void. Another class of titles are those emanat ing from the government of Texas, or Texas and Coahuila. These are of various kinds; many of them seem to have been granted so incautiously, and to have offered at the same time so many facilities for fraud and decep tion, that it is almost impossible, without a judicial investigation, to pronounce any particular one of these titles to be good or bad. The titles emanating from the State of Texas may be divided into four classes: 1st. Those titles gran,ted to all who ar rived in the country previous to the Decla ration of Independence. 2d. Titles granted to those who were ac tually present in Texas at the Declaration of Independence, or who assisted in the campaign of 1836. 3d. Titles, the head rights of colonists 'who have arrived in the country, and have become citizens at various periods since the Declaration of Independence. t t t t t I I t t i 327 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. latitude, almost spontaneously, with a cli mate of perpetual summer, must, like that of other countries, have a seed-time and harvest. Though the land be literally flow ing with mil k a nd ho ney, yet the cows m ust be milked and t he honey must be gathered. Houses must be built an d inclosures made. The deer must be hunted and the f ish must be caught. From the pr imeva l curse, that in the sweat of his brow man shall eat bread, though its severity be moll ified, the re is no exemption, even here. The emigrant must bear in mind, that in a new communi ty Iabor i s t o be performed; that if he can not labor himseIf, he must take with him those who can. He s e e s a bout him a ll the means of supplying, not only t he nec e ssi ties, but also the co mfort s an d luxuri es of life. It is his part to a pply th em t o hi s own use. He is here abundantly furnished with the r aw material, but hi s hands must mould te in them into the forms of a rt. No hay is required, as the cattle subsist in the fie lds, and roam with out fodder or shelter throughout the yearn Here then, after deducting all expenses, is a farm, which the se con d y ear will yield double the outlay, and the settler will have a p r operty worth twelve or fif teen hu ndred dollars, and about 1,000 dollars in money, after having the origina l purchase money re turned to him with interest, and maintaining himself and famil y for t wo y ears. Go, the n, toth ehe E1 Dorado of the Southwest, whil y te you have somethin g to go with -another season your su bstanc e may be wasted, and i t may be to o late. Hints to Emigrants.-Though Texas were quite the E1 Dorado it h as been represented, yet it w ould be desirable for the emigrant, accustomed to the climate, institutions, manners, habits a nd customs of the northern and middle states, to say nothing of Europe, to ascertain in the first place, as fa r a s possible whether he would like thos e of the South; and if, a fte r due in qu i ry and persona l observation, which, after all, is thest h be s t, he beIieves t hat he would, then he runs but little risk of disappoint m ent in removing to Texas. Foamilies emigrating should take along with them provisions for six months or a year, if possible, as it will save them much c ost a nd trouble. A lso, su ch l ight furn iture a s they can conveniently carry, and s uch as will be useful in a new home, and is generally scarce in a new country. Every individual should be well supplied with substantial clothing for winter, as well as light clothing for summer. Summer clothing is not always a sufficient protection against the northers peculiar to the country. A good blanket capot is indispensable. A good supply of garden-seeds andZ farming untensils shouldl, if practicable~ be takers 4th. Titles created by the issuing ofgovernment scrip. It is notorious that many forged titles to lands in Texas still continue to be sold in the United States. Many of these may be purchased all over the United States and Europe, but they are worthless. Good and valuable titles, however, may be obtained with proper care and caution, though a government patent from Texas, be it known, is only a government quit-claim, and does not confirm an indisputable right. It releases the government, but does not guarantee to the purchaser his land against a bona fide title, or a legal claimant. The res ources of Texas, therefore, are unbounded, and h er lands offer the greatest inducement, to emigrants of e nterpr ise and ch aract er, of any upon th e continent of America, and the utmost dependence may be placed upon the determination of the Texan government to insure all titles to land that have been legally obtained under existing laws. The Mexican yard or yara, is established at three geometrical feet-a straight Iine of 5,000 varas is a league-a square, whose sides shall be a league, is called a sitio-five sitios is a hacienda. A sitio or league of land is 4,428 English acres. A labor is 177 acres. How to Thrive.-Let those who reside in cities, and cannot find profitable employment, go to Texas and raise their food out of the bosom of the earth. Any man with 500 dollars can become all independent farmer, and with industry and economy may continue independent for life, and have a good home for his family at his death. Thus, 100 acres of good land will cost............200 Of this land 20 acres can be fenced, and a good crop put into the ground for................. 50 A good log-house wvill cost about.............. 50 Expenses of voyage or journey................. 50 Add for support of family till the crop is gather ed, and incidental expenses................ 100 For purchase of horse and cowY, and pair of oxen 50 Total................................... $500 The crop, w n hen gather ed, will be sufficient to maintain a family till another and a larger crop can be raised, as more land could be fenced and cultivated the next year b)v the settler himself, say ten acres. The 20 acres will yield two crops of corn, in all about 1,000 bushels, worth one dollar per bushel, or $1,000, besides sweet potatoes to any desired quantity. This would be more than enough to maintain the family the second year. In addition to which they would have the produce of their garden and dairy, and the increase of stock, swine, sheep, poultry, &c., which is of great value. A soil that yelds the fruit of nearly every 328 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. health. 3d. It is the season when provis ions are cheapest and most plenty. 4th. It is the shortest time a person can be in the country and raise a crop the ensuing season. To arrive in October or November, he will have plenty of time to build a cabin, fence in his ground, and prepare for a crop. The spring time is more delightful, and those who emigrate at this season are uni versally charmed with the beauty of the country, and their first impressions are more vivid, and probably more agreeable. Those who go by sea may reach there in March or April, in time to seek a location, and establish themselves in season for a crop. At this period every thing is enchanting. No condition can be more independent and happy than that of the Texan farmer or planter. With a few weeks labor in the year, he can supply himself and family with all the necessaries and luxuries of life. He can make his own sugar and molasses, and, if he pleases, supply his table with most ex cellent wine from the native grape. His table may be loaded at all seasons with the finest poultry, fish and game, and the choicest garden vegetables, and the rarest fruits. His sheep, goats, hogs, cows, horses, mules, cattle, &c., require no more care than just to prevent their running wild, furnishing at all times abundance of beef, pork, butter, milk, wool, hides, &c., for domestic use. He may raise his own cotton, and wool, and silk, and weave his own household garments. The palm and birch furnish the best materi als for hats and beds, and moss for mat tresses, that can be used in this climate. The native chicory furnishes an excellent and healthy substitute for coffee, and the yaupan for tea, while salt is every where cheap and abundant. No country in North America holds out such inducements to emigrants as Texas, both for the salubrity of its climate, the fer tility of its soil, and the variety of its pro ducts. Emigrants with their families would do well to take their beds and bedding, and a moderate supply of culinary utensils, the most essential farming tools, and a good stock of clothing. The more cumbersome household furniture, as chairs, tables, bedsteads, &c., are not essential. Their place can be supplied by the ruder articles of domestic manufacture. Mosquito bars, or netting, are indispensable to comfort at night, and should by no means be forgotten. Emigrants intending to settle in Texass should not rely upon what the inhabitants of one section may say of other portions of it. Self-interest, as in other matters, strongly warps the judgment. The statements are too often contradictory, and little reliance ought to be placed upon them. The best way for emigrants to gain correct iaforma-< they will contribute exceedingly to the he alth, comfort and pleasure, as well as to the support of th e new settler. Each famil y shou ld be supplied with a st rong cloth tent and mosquito netting, to protect th fo them fr om eathe weather, &c., till their cabins ar e erected. These are generally construc te d of logs or hewn timber, in the c o ttage style, one story high, though many a wve.,ltly planter and f armer has hi s franae or brick dwelling, amply furnish ed with articles more s umptuou s than thos e in common use. The living cannot but be ex cellent in a country wh ich is suppli ed with su c h a pro fusion of t he good th ings of life as Texas. Vegetables of e very description, wild fowl and game, beef, pork, ve ni son, poultry, but ter, eggs, milk and honey, &c., with tea, cof f ee, s ugar, and all the foreign luxuries usu ally found up on tables in other states. There is l ittle caus e or opportunity to complain of the qu antit y or quality of fare which is to be found upon a Texas table. Mech anics should take along with them abund anc e of tools, and go resolved to con tinue their in dustrious habits, to liv e t emper ately and economically, and they will be sure to m ak e mone y a nd enjoy excellent health. On embarking for Texas, no passports, certificates, or atte sted papers of any kind are necessary, except on legal documents. If your destination is for the towns near the Gulf on the ea st, or for lands in the west of Texas, go by sea to the nearest point of your destination. It is less expensive, and takes less time. If your destination is near Red River, take the inland route. If you start from New-Orleans, apply to some friend for information; but in all cases it is preferable for an emigrant to place his business in the hands of a merchant acquainted with the trade: as by so doing he may save much trouble and expense. We have already recommended to emigrants to take their furniture, farming tools and servants with them; and to mechanics, their furniture and tools of trade. If you start from the state north of Virginia, it is cheapest to go direct by sea, or down the Ohio and Mississippi; if from the southern states, by Mobile or New-Orleans. From New-Orleans there are several steam-ships making regular trips to and from Texas, and excellent packets, by which emigrants can be transported with their baggage, in two or three days, at a trifling expense. The autumn is the best time to remove to Texas.-1st. It is better traveling; the roads are dry, and the temperature of the weather is more agreeable. 2d. It is more healthy on the road, and to be there at the opening of spring, and become accustomed to the climate and warm weather by degrees, there will be a fairer prospect of continued 329 TEXAS-CLIMATE, RIVERS, LANDS, ETC. The city of Austin is assigned as the seat of government. The Supreme Court has appellative jurisdiction only; the district courts have jurisdiction both in law and equity; and in all cases in equity, either party may claim a trial by jury. The pardoning power is vested in the Executive, except in cases of treason and impeachment. The governor possesses the veto power, qualified, however, as in the United States Constitution. In no case can the legislature authorize the issue of treasury warrants or treasury notes, or paper of any description, to circulate as money. The legislature has power to protect by law, from forced sale, a certain portion of the property of all heads of farnilies. The homestead of a family, not to exceed two hundred acres of land, (not included in town or city,) or any town or city lot or lots, in value not to exceed $2,000, shall not be subject to forced sale for any debts hereafter contracted; nor shall the owner, if a married man, be at liberty to alienate the same, unless by the consent of his wife, in such manner as the legislature mav point out. Taxation is to be uniform throughout the state; the legislature miay pass an income tax, and it may exempt from taxation $250 worth of the household furniture or other property belonging to each family in the state. The legislature cannot contract debts to exceed in the aggregate the sum of $100,000, except in case of war, to repel invasions, or suppress insurrections; and in no case shall any amount be borrowed, except by a vote of two-thirds of both houses of the legislature. "Texas possesses eminent advantages in the extent of her territory. We have no certain data upon which to base an estimate of the superficies in our limits; but we extend from the upper Red River to the Rio Grande, and from the Sabine to New-Mexico, with an area of something over 200,000 square miles, equal to four of the largest of the old states. Supposing the prosperity of the state, and the necessity for the means to fulfil the national faith, may require Texas to surrender to the United States the permanent or temporary possession of the northwestern section, as a separate territory for the Indians, we shall, nevertheless, have more than double the amount of any other state. So far, then, as the influence of being the' Empire State of the South,' in relation to territory, is calculated to gratify the pride, or the ultimate destiny of the capitalist or settler, Texas presents such inducements. We know what New-York gains in all public movements, if not in all enterprises, by claimi ng and receiving the character of the' Empire State.' In1 the same pro tion is to go and examine personally for themselves. Let every farmer at the North, who has to tug and toil on the sterile and rocky soil of New-England, with eight months of winter, to support his family, judge for himself, whether it is better to emigrate or stay where he is-whether it is better to struggle for existence, and feel the cold grasp of poverty, or roll in plenty and live at ease. Miscellany.-The first body of colonists from the United States established within the limits of Texas, was planted on the ballks of the Brazos de Dios, by Gen. Stephen F. Austin, in the year 1821. To the vast and opulent territory of Texas, the Spanish conquerors, more than three centuries ago, gave the names of New-Estremadura and New-Spaiei, from the resemblance of the towns on the sea-board to those of their own country. June 26th, 1832.-Attack and surrender of the fort at Velasco. October 1 st, 1835.-Battle of Gonzales. October 6th. - Successful attack upon Goliad, in which the Mexicans are again defeated. October 28th.-Battle of Conception, in which Bowie and Fannin gain a brilliant victory over 400 Mexicans. December 9th.-Attack and surrender of Bexar, ill which the enemy lost 590 killed and wounded. November 3d.-General Convention at San Felipe. March 4th.-Convention assembled at 'V ashington, on the Brazos, and form an independent government. 2d. Independence is first declared. March 6th.-Storming of the Alamo by the Mexican forces, headed by Santa Anna in person. The brave defenders, amounting to only 150, after a long and obstinate resistance, are overpowered and destroyed. Here, Travis, Bowie and Crockett fell. The loss of the enemy, during the siege, amounted to about 1,500. March 14th.-Colonel Fannin, with a force of only 275 volunteers, capitulates, after a hard-fought battle, to Urrea's division, consisting of 700 cavalry and 1,200 infantry, the flower of the Mexican army. From five to seven hundred Mexicans were destroyed. The prisoners were marched back to Goliad, and on the 27th, with Major Miller's and I,Iard's detachment, amounting in all to about 400, basely betrayed, and, by orders of Santa Anna, shot down in cold blood. April 6th.-Destruction of Harrisburgh. April 21st.-Battle of San Jacinto. Total route of the Mexican army. Santa Anna made prisoner. Congress annexing Texas to the American Union. 330 TEXAS SUGAR LANDS, ETC. portion, if not in greater, Texas may hope other, to having been the'Nectar' of the to be the leading, as she was once the' Lone heathen gods. We regard Texas, then, on Star' of the South. As a member of the account of her favorable climate, as an in national confederacy, she will exercise the viting theatre for the enterprise of the im influence which will secure to her the rights migrant and capitalist." and the patronage that all the large states have heretofore enjoyed; and if the extent of TEXAS SUGAR LANDS, ETC.-The her territory may not inspire a laudable pride, greatly interesting and able discourse of the she wvill still stand out in the history of the Hon. P. A. RosT, delivered before the Agri age, as covering all the ground claimed, cultural and Mechanical Association, in 1845, prior to the Florida Treaty in 1819, as the extracts from which are published in the De south-western limits of Louisiana, and thus cember (1847) number of the Cormmercial be entitled to the glory of having reclaimed, Review, is well calculated for and worthy by her valor and enterprise, what had been the perusal of sugar planters, and of all necessarily yielded of the rich treasure ac- others disposed to cultivate the sugar-cane quired for the great valley, in the treaty of in Texas, as it is full of much valuable infor 1803, by the sagacious statesmanship of Jef- mation and careful observations. Judge ferson and Monroe. Rost has most likely never visited the neigh "In the second place, Texas offers eminent borhood of Galveston city, Galveston Bay, inducements in her climate. No considera- and its tributaries. If he had, he would not tion is, perhaps, more important to those have fallen into the error in his address that seeking a country suitable for residence or sugar-cane would not ratoon here. The in enterprise, than the character of its climate. formation, it appears, came to the Judge Health is the first, and comfort the next great from a Mr. John C. Marsh, who, as is stated object, in selecting a permanent abode. in the article, is said to have planted sugar Tested by these qualities, Texas presents cane in this neighborhood for five successive prominent inducements. Along the coast, years, without ever obtaining ratoons. wherever the position is free from stagnant To prove the incorrectness of such a broad fresh water, the most uninterrupted health assertion, I have only to state that there are prevails; and in the high table lands, com- now growing at New Washington, Col. mencing one hundred miles from the Gulf, Morgan's plantation, sugar-cane which has and extending to the sources of the Trinity, ratooned the fourth year. New Washington Brazos, Colorado, Guadaloupe, San Antoinio, is at the margin of Galveston Bay. Some Leona, Perdinalles, San Saba and Concho, four years ago, a number of stalks, the third the climate is as balmy and delicious as an year of their ratooning, were taken to this altitude of five thousand feet from the sea city and exhibited, and were then and there gives in every district of the tropical region. seen by hundreds of living witnesses. These The latitude, reaching from the 26th to the stalks had matured full seven feet, and were 34th deg., guarantees mild winters, and the of an equal height the preceding year; they altitude from the sea, as well as the cooling were what is called "ribbon cane," and were breezes from the Rocky Mountains, secures pronounced by old and experienced planters comfort, and a moderate temperature during equal if not better than any grown in the the summers. The delightful character of United States, and not inferior to any grown the climate is, indeed, becoming so general- in the West Indies. ly known and appreciated, that already inva- As far back as 1830 to 1832, the sugarlids are hastening hither from all the north- cane was cultivated with success on the ern and middle states, to reinvigorate their Trinity River, by Judge Williams, and the feeble coinstitutions. Northers, it is true, ratoons of the third year were nearly equal sometimes contribute to the marring of this to the growth of the first year, and the sugar beautiful picture, though they continue but therefrom made was equal, if not superior to for a few days, and their uncomforable ef- any ever imported from Louisiana, in sweetfects are easily guarded against by suitable ness, color and grain. The place where this apparel and adequate houses. Some of the sugar was planted is about twenty miles from choicest fruits and grapes are indications of Galveston Bay, on the Trinity. It is conthe climate. In our ancient city, founded as ceded by all impartial men, without any early as Philadelphia, we have as large and hesitation, that the lands on the "Caney" thrifty fig-trees as may be found in the are superior to any of the sugar lands in the tropics, and our peach is unrivaled-our cli- Union, and I could name many who are, and mate for that fruit resembling that of Persia, have been cultivating the cane there on a its native country. The grape, at present, large scale, with great success and profit. if not originally indigenous to the country Amongst the largest planters, I would name around the high plain of El Paso, on the Mr. Duncan and Mr. Sweeney. Both of these Rio Grande, is beginning to attract the hor- gentlemen are well known to the sugar planticulturists from every part of our country, ters, and samples of their crops have reand its wine has as just a claim as any. peatedly been sent to your market. Theso 331 TEXAS SUGAR LANDS, ETC. gentlemen, I have no doubt, would willingly give any information to sugar planters as to whether cane will ratoon in that neighborhood, being only about forty miles from Galveston Island. Mr. Solomon Barrows, near Cedar Point, on the shore of Galveston Bay, has now a fine field planted with cane (ribbon) which has ratooned for several years past, and will vie with any ever planted in Louisiana. Mr. M. Dunman, near Bolivar Point, has now, and has had for several years past, as fine a field of cane as ever was or may be seen, in Louisiana, and which has for several years back ratooned, Mr. Dunman's residence is about twenty-five miles from Galveston. Mr. McMillen, in the neighborhood of Houston, and about twenty-five miles from Galveston Bay, has had last year, and a year before last, cane which matured, being then the fifth year of its ratooning, seven feet high. The facts are here now well established and ascertained, that the sugarcane on the prairies, near the bay, furnishes by far more saccharine matter than the cane on the bottom lands, although not so luxuriant in its growth. The cane of Mr. Sweeney's plantation, on the Bernard River, has ratooned, as I am credibly informed, the sixth year. Mr. Duncan, who also plants on the Bernard, has made sugar which was considered in Galveston by judges, equal to any ever imported from New Orleans, or offered for sale in that market. Col. Jackson has planted sugar for some three or four years on his plantation, which is at about a distance of from five to six miles from Galveston Bay, and as I am informed, with success, and obtained his seeds of planting from Colonels M. T. Rodgers and Amasa Turner, both of whom had their plantations on Cedar Bayou, in the immediate vicinity of the bay. I could and might cite a very large number of other planters in this neighborhood, but believe that the "facts " set forth above will satisfactorily prove the incorrectness of Judge Rost's statement concerning the sugar lands of Texas generally, and those of Galveston Bay, and the lands as far south as New Orleans, and its neighborhood, in particular. As to the individual from whom the Judge received his information, and the credibility of the informant, I can say nothing, except that after a diligent inquiry of those residents of the vicinity of Galveston Bay, who have resided here for twenty years or more, I have not found any one who was acquainted with any individual of the name who resided in th is par t of the country. It would here not be amiss to mention that any Louisianian who has traveled in midwinter through the prairies of Texas, which the judge denominates the "naked lands," would not find that he has changed climate, andl that he has traveled out of the regions where tropical plants love to grow. The writer of this has yet to learn that in the State of Louisiana tropical plants love to grow i ntin o the wi nter season, they being exposed to those unmitigated furi es of northwesters, which the writer has often experie nce d in Louisiana, but the writer does know, that all southern plants, leaving tropical plants out of the question, cannot grow there unless artificial means are resorted to; and a traveler from New Orleans would only be under the nece ssity of a one half hour's ride to visit the gardens up and down the river, from Carollton to the battle-ground, to inquire for what reason you Louisianians have so many hot-houses and hot-beds in your gardens?" The answer will be, " Because the frost destroys the southern plants, and they cannot be exposed to the cold weather which we regularly have here every winter." And as every one knows, New Orleans and its neighborhood " is not built on naked lands, but on the fertile soil of southern swamps," which luckily for New Orleans, encircles it nearly the whole extent, and prevents the northwesters from striking the tropical plants with their unmitigated fury. The year 1837, I think, gave a good example to Louisiana, that southern plants cannot well prosper there in winter, and every inhabitant will recollect that in that year every orange tree was killed. Now, in such weather, a traveler just from the northern States riding out on the Louisiana prairies, would find and certainly say, that he has not come to the Elysian fields of Louisiana, but would believe that he was somewhere near his own home. And I do candidly believe, that the northwesters coming from beyond the Rocky Mountains, do not go south in their travel through such a vast country, for the sole purpose of giving to this portion of our Union, Texas, the monopoly of keeping their unmitigated fury within their own state limits, but I must believe that they cross sometimes the boundary line, the river Sabine, and pay some visits of respect, for old acquaintance' sake, to our neighbors, the sugar planters of Louisiana. In conclusion, then, I am bound to state that the furies of the northwesters are in Texas not looked upon and felt as much as the northeasterly winds, and by a glance at the map it will be seen that they come from " Louisiana," that is to say, a region of our Union " where tropical plants love to grow." H. WY. W. Since receiving the above paper some one has kindly sent us from Texas'-A Statement of the Relative Advantages and Capacities for the Culture of Sugar in Louisiana and Texas. By a Disinterested and Close Observer." We are delighted to receive and publish it for the valuable matter embraced. It is our desire to do full and ample justice to Texas 332 TEXAS SUGAR LANDS, ETC. in every particular, and we invite the co-op- any soil can be richer than the alluvial of the eration of her citizens. Mississippi river, yet that has often either The writer of the following article pro- too much clay or sand, (oftener the former,) poses to state his views of the climate, sea- which renders it tight and unkind, or too sons, fertility and fitness of soil, product per porous. The sand drifts from the overflows, acre, quality of the sugar, facility of getting prevent it from having the substance neces fuel, of navigation and market, of supplying sary to great fertility. In Texas the lands a plantation with teams, provisions and lum- of Caney, San Bernard, Oyster Creek, Bra ber, and the relative prices of the land, etc., zos, Colorado, and of many other regions, etc. are a black soil, mostly a vegetable mould, The Climate.-Not only from the fact of for five or six feet down, and mixed enough there being a full half of a degree of latitude with loam and sand so as to be rightly tem in favor of Texas sugar lands on the average, pered for great fertility. Three thousand to over Louisiana, but from the range of the four thousand pounds of seed cotton are mercury and facts observed, I would say about the average produce in good seasons, that the climate of Texas is milder. The and full four thousand have been raised to mercury in lower Texas never falls below the acre, and sugar in proportion. No lands twelve degrees, whereas in Louisiana it has can be richer than the'bottom lands of Texas. been as low as ten. The orange trees and Cost of Lands.-In Louisiana, the sugar tender plants are killed in both countries land on the Mississippi, Lafourche, Terre about once in ten years. The great bug-bear, bonne county, Attakapas, and other places a norther, so much talked of in Texas, is, on suited for the culture of sugar, will cost on chemical principles, felt more by our nerves the average, when improved, forty dollars than shown by the thermometer, which per acre. In Texas, lands equally as rich shows nothing very cold, whilst animals suf- and better tempered, will only average from fer under it from the general sweep of the three to five dollars an acre, making a differwind. It would be the same in Louisiana if ence of at least seven-eighths in the outlay the useless swamps, which are quite aslarge or investment, which would overbalance a as the prairies of Texas, were as much ex- thousand inconveniences, if they did exist. posed to the winds. The sea air has a Navigation and Getting to Mlarket.-In greater effect in Texas to equalize the tem- one-third of the sugar district of Texas, the perature than in Louisiana, from the extent navigation of the Brazos, Bernard, Oyster of the coast and numerous bays. The Pal- Creek, Colorado, Gaudaloupe, Navidad, Trinma Christi, the egg fruit, the okra and other ity, Jacinto, Neches, Sabine, Caney, Lavactender plants grow with great luxuriance, ca Bay, Matagorda Bay, Nueces, and other and in Texas approach the size of trees. waters, let out the crop as easily as the averThe sweet potatoe and sugar-cane flower in age streams and bayous in Louisiana. In this climate, and the cane ratoons to such the other two-thirds, the cost will be someperfection that fair crops are made from thing more for transportation, say one dollar ratoons of five years old. Of this more will a hogshead more than in Louisiana, which be said in its proper place. on the wide average for all the crop will be The Seasons.-The seasons are a little three-fourths of a dollar more to the hogsmore inclined to be dry in Texas than in head for the whole state, and this cost would ILouisiana, which is an advantage, as crops be ten times made up by other facilities are injured more by excessive wet than dry that can be easily appreciated and clearly weather. In an average of five years in pointed out. Texas, only one was too wet for good cul- Quantity of Sugar Lands in Texas.-In ture, and none too dry for good crops of Louisiana, by Chamnpomier's statistics, there sugar and cotton. The soil of Texas when are now about nine hundred plantations, pulverized, is an open texture which lets large and small, all told, in sugar, which down the roots of plants to the moisture, in- have never produced over two hundred stead of baking into a tight pan or crust, as thousand hogsheads, and on the average only is the case in Louisiana, upon the Mississip- one hundred and forty thousand.* If more pi Rliver and on the Teche. The planters in be put in culture all the inconvenience apTexas, if there be moisture enough from pertaining to the remote districts of Texas, rain, to bring up the plant, feel secure of a will attend it so that the heavy draining and crop. other inconveniences there, will make any new Storms.-The tornado scarcely ever in- lands equal in cost to the old places, before vades Texas, owing to some conformation of a crop can be realized. There are in Texas, the coast, and gales are rarely strong or long in connection with wood, fertility, navigation enough ill duration to blow down either cotton, corn or cane. * Mr. Champonier estimated the number of sugar Fertility.-The soil of Texas is better estates for 1847-8, at twelve hundred and forty. It tempered, and therefore richer than in Louis- will perhaps exceed thirteen hundred. New regions in Louisiana are every day taken into sugar culture. iana. It seems preposterous to assert that — ED. 333 TEXAS SUGAR LANDS, ETC. with most planters in Texas. The quality of the juice is different, and probably requires some difference in the process of boiling, etc. Besides, most of the planters here commenced this business without any previous experience, and many failures have taken place solely from a want of knowledge. A conclusive proof of this is the vast improvement that is manifest when we compare the late samples with those of former years. Ratooning.-Good sugar, and cane thick enough for a stand, has been made from seven year old ratoosis. A small falling off in the stand occurs about the fifth year, and all experience goes to say that for five years the ratoons will do well. In Louisiatia, three years are as long as they succeed well, when it becomes necessary to replant, and some doubt about the policy of leaving thiem that long; I would say that two years will be gained in the ratoon in Texas, which is a great saving. This must be owing to the better climate of Texas, and to the drier soil, which preserves the root better, Cultivation, Coco and Grasses.-There is no coco in Texas yet, and but little crop grass. Half of the cultivation with a plow is all that Texas would require in comparison with Louisiana, both to keep the crop clean, and the land light and fine. Supplies for a Plantation.-In Texas, all plantations will raise their meat, both beef and pork, in abundance. The stocks of cattle require no care, and hogs but little to furnish all that is wanted of meat; and corn grows abundantly and easily for the supply, up to any demand. In Louisiana, all the meat, and, I would say, half of the corn and hiay must be purchased. The difference in provisioning two places of the same size will be, in Texas, only one-fourth of what it is in Louisiana. The rich meadow-like prairies, covered with a luxuriant growth of grass, lie near and contiguous to all the plantations in Texas, and these not only furnish meat fbr nothing but, if bought, will cost I- cent a pound, atnd bullocks of five and six years old, weighing 650 pounds, can be had generally from six to eight dollars a head. Mules can be raised, as well as cows, hogs and sheep, without any feeding, summer or winter. Lumber, Staves and Brick.-There is a great scarcity of cypress in Texas, adjoining the plantations. In two-thirds of the cases, cypress and pine lumber will have to be brought from a distance. In Louisiana, not more than one-third of the plantations have to get staves from any other place. But all will have to get this material fi-om abroad in time, and this may be counted upoi. The cost of getting cypress staves and building timber is not very much, and will form a small item compared with buying provisions, teams and fuel. Brick are easily made on all the places its Texas, the clay being generally good. Should the sugar be made dry enough On Oyster Creek, both sides, for 120 miles following its meanders, land for.............................. 120 Plantations. On Brazos River, counting two or three miles on each side..........200 " On San Bernard, both sides, count ing two miles out from it.........70 " On Caney, for sixty miles, following its meanders, and two miles each side............................. 140 " On Colorado....................... 100 On Triniity, both sides, 3 miles out -120 " On Guadalupe..................... 80 " On Navidad....................... 40 " On Trespalacios.................. 30 " On Garcita and other small streams near............... 40 On Nueces and San Antonio, near their mo uths..................... 40 " On Lavacca and small streams near. 40 " On Jacinto......................... 70 " On Spring Creek................... 50 On Neches.........................40 " On Sabinie.........................30 " On Choc olate & neighboring bayous. 30 On Peaclh Creek...................40 " On Cedar Lake and river and other points near..................... 20 " On Mill and Cumming's Creeks..... 40 " On all intermediate grounds more than three miles back, between all the waters.................... 100 " 1,440 The above does not include the widespread prairie, much of which is fertile, nor ter he lso Gra b ide lands, owing to the want of safety for the slave-owner there at present. This, of' course, is only an approximate estimate, some of the numbers being probably too large, and others too small, yet the error cannot be large enough to be of any importance. The estimate is for the average size of the p,lanitationis in Louisiana; that is to say, about one hIunitdred and fifty hogsheads each, with a sufficiency of timber and wild land for further increase. Health.-Texas is a country infinitely drier, and with fewer swamps and freer circulation of air than Louisiana, and experience says that nlegroes are more healthy, and multiply faster. The loss by sickness and death among negroes has been estimated at ten per cent. less on the rich alluvial bottoms of Texas than on similar lands in Louisiana. This is probably very near the truth. Products per Acre, and Quality of the Sugar.-Two hogsheads, as far as the effo)rt or trial goes, are very common to the acre as a fair average in an average year. The quality of the sugar, drier and whiter, and the grain better and firmer. The samples compare with the best Louisiana, and appear better, and the molasses less in quantity. They think it will be dry enough to box. It is proper to remark that the manufacture of Texas sugars has been generally a matter of experiment I 334 and climate, by my estimate now, (not counting eventual facilities to be made by improved navi ation or railroads,).the following 9 amount oflands suited for sugar on the streams named respectively: TEXAS-ITS RESOURCES, PRODUCTS, ETC. to box (which is very likely to be the case), then any wood could be used, such as cottoin, popflar, sweet gum, sycamore, elm and other kilids, and a circular saw would also cut all such timber into staves, or boards for boxes. F-uel nowv, and eventually.-We have shown that upwards of a thousand plantations can have wood in abundance in Texas. fIn Loui siana, one-fourth of the planters are now with out wood, except drift, or wood rafted from a distance; one-half are rapidly exhaustin g their wood, and have to go from three to six miles, into the very worst of swamps for it. They are also compelled to dig canals, costingh from $2,000 to $20,000, to enable them to get it out. Should we have to depend upoin rafts, the supply is at hand, for all the rivers of Texas are well wooded, up towards their heads, and in the freshets, its rafts can be sent down as cheaply as on the Mississippi. Coal can be got something cheaper in Louisiana, if necessary. Our mineral resources in Texas are lnot yet well ascertained. Prospectwve advantages, such as apprecia tion, etc.-Any good sugar lands purchased in Texas at a price within $5 an acre, will become, in five years, worth $20, and more, if improved. The natural tendency in the states to equalization in prices, with reference to all the facilities of position, is certain, and a balance becomes struck, by the operation of things, crediting the one with the advatntages, and debiting the other with all the inconveniences. Investments, therefore, in Tex - as sugar lands would be better and more certain than in any other species of property, an d the appreciation would be at least one huiidred per cent. in from three to five years. DividCends on Capital.-If a given sum, say $100,000, in Louisiana, gives six or teii per cent. per annum, a fortiori, $30,000 in Texas, accomplishing fully as much, would, under the superior advantages, give 20 or 30 per cent. per acre. This is a moderate estimate. Expenses of a Plantation, preparatory and annutl.-The heavy ditching, levying and draining, in Louisiana, will exceed the same in Texas, five times; cost of provisions and teams, all of five times; fuel, twice as much. The preparatory expenses of a plantation in Louisiana, therefore, will be for the above preparations ot'f draining, canaling, levying, all of three times as much as in Texas. If these improvements are already made, they must be paid for il the advanced price of lands, being about $100 per acre. I would then say, one-half the expense can be saved in the start in Texas, while the annual expenses are not more than one-third as much as in Louisiana. .Georgia, Florida and Alabama, forming half of those states, all the western district of Tennessee, being a fill third of the state, more than half of Mississippi, half of Louisi ania, half of Arkansas, all of' Missouri, and the Red River side of Texas. Now, with an in creased population in all these states, of 8,000,000, and half of all their lands fully exs lhausted, may we not safely calculate that the stream of emigration, urged on by the pre sent eagerness for sugar planitiln,, and the irn portant fact (that will soon be known and appreciated) that Texas contains more than half the sug(,ar lands in the Union, will settle the balance of Texas and Arkansas as fully in two or three years hence, as the other states are now settled. The large slave-holders are very restless in all those states. They have been investing in Louisiana and the Mississippi swamps, until uncultivated lands are worth $40 per acre. They will next make a rush at lower Texas, and a rapid development will soon take place to the astonishment of all. Lands will rise, as we have said, one hundred per cent. in a few years, and all advantages, facilities and inconveniences, will be distinctly understood and acted upon. The enterprise of Anmericans will insure this-prejudice must yield to facts. These remarks have been elicited by an article that lately appeared in De Bow's Review, which asserts that Texas can never be the rival of Louisiana in sugar, for the want of filel, and also, because the cane will not ratoon in Texas. The article cites the authority of Judge Rost, and of Mr. Marsh, of Attakapas. I'he writer of' this is a citizen of MIississippi, who, though he has not yet any interest il Texas, has ha(] ample ol)por-ttiulities of attesting its great advantages as a sugar country, and he is willing to submit the statements above made to the severest test, for a confirmation of their truth. TEXAS-ITs RESOURCES, LANDS, RIVERS, PRODUCTS, ETC. —Resources —Texas embraces so vast a scope of country possessing s o grea t a variety of soil and climate, and is so diversified by hill and dale, high woods and level plains, th at eve ry taste can be suite d and every description of agricultural labor be s uccessfull y pr osecute d. The capacity of Texas, as a sugar and cotton-growin g r egion, has been briefly noticed in our former articles. We now beg leave to call attention to that particular section of the state lying north of the cotton district proper. This section is neither small nor unfruitful, but has as yet been but little disturbed, except by marauding Indians, who gallop over the prairies in search of the buffalo, occasionally scalping a party of hunters or Santa Fe traders, who are too weak for defence, and sometimes nmaking an excursion into the 335 Developrnent hereafter.-IVitbin the last twelve years, a population of five millions, from Vir,,inia, the Carolinas, Geor,ia, Tennessee aild Kentucky, have settled up to fullness the Cherokee and Creek country of TEXAS-ITS RESOURCES, PRODUCTS, ETC. ' settlements" for the purpose of stealing the descendants of the bulls of Bashan ever horses and scalps. luxuriated on. There the broad meadow A few hardy pioneers, fond of adventure, stretches beyond the reach of vision, bounded and impatient of the restraints of civilized only by the blue horizon, broken occasionally society, have sought scenes and events con- by a lazy stream or "' dry bayou," wi.h here genial to their rough natures and rude tastes, and there a water-hole, and a small skirting by penetrating far into the frontiers, where of timber to mark its course. There innuthe wolf's howl and the panther's scream merable herds of cattle, happier and prettier are their favorite music, the elk's haunch than ever were pastured by Virgil in his pastheir delicacies, the buffalo-skin their bed, torals, enliven the otherwise oppressive and the savage red-skin their companion. loneliness of the scene. Other portions of But little has been done toward testing the the state are beautifully diversified with towcapabilities of the country for agricultural ering mountains and laughing valleys, with purposes, above where cotton has been sue- roaring rapids and smooth gliding streams, cessfully grown, but enough is known to presenting to the eye some of the loveliest settle its character as a fine grain-growing scenes that Nature, in her most fanciful country. There is a portion of the cotton moods, has ever marked out. These, too, are region, where small grain has been experi- covered with the richest, sweetest herbage, mented on with the most encouraging sue- and variegated with innumerable wild flowcess. All of what are denominated the Red ers of every hue and form. The hilly portion River counties, all the country from that to of the country is admirably adapted to sheep the upper Trinity, extending two hundred raising, as some experiments have fully demiles on that stream above and below the mnonstrated. Sheep-raising gives fine returns three forks, reaching beyond the Cross Tim- upon invested capital, as has been tested bers, is a scope of country of surpassing fer- upon the rolling lands of Texas, and we hetility, and pronounced by the best judges sitate not to believe that ours will, before a superior to Missouri as a wheat country great whil,, be one of the finest wool-growBetween the Red River and Upper Trinity ing states in the Union; our belief is founded there is a larger body of rich land, without on the fact, that sheep are found to be very any admixture of poor, than can probably be healthy and multiply very rapidly, and like found elsewhere on the continent of Ameri- almost all other descriptions of stock in Texca. This description of country extends to as, can be reared without expense. most of the Trinity, taking in the Navissotto, Many of the river bottoms of this state Brazos, Colorado, and sources of the Guada- afford the finest winter grazing in the world. loupe, with occasional interruptions, to our Not such as is found in many other southern western boundary. Some of the tributaries bottoms, consisting of tall reeds covered with of the Colorado are represented as surpris- an evergreen foliage, on which cattle may ingly beautiful and rich; in the valley of the browse, and sustain life" until the coming San Saba, grow luxuriantly, wheat, rye, spring carpets the highlands with its vernal barley and oats, in nature's form, planted by covering, but affording pasture of a widely the same hand that planted the tree of life in different character. On the Trinity are exthe first garden, watched over by no eye but tensive gammla-grass prairies; the Brazos that which surveys the universe, and harvest- furnishes a species of wild rye, where the ed only by the bison and the wild deer. The bison, the elk and the wild horse feed and spontaneous productions of a soil is consi- fatten through the entire winter. In Texas, dered unmistakable proof of its adaptation it is never thought necessary to feed any to those productions-better intimations description of stock, but such as are kept could not be given; it is the voice of nature in constant service, so bountifully has nauntaught by the husbandman's art, speaking ture provided for their wants the year through her own acts, making indigenous round. that which is peculiarly suited to peculiar lo- There is another description of stock that calities. If we regard this indication, then succeeds admirably. It has for years been Texas, we must conclude, is pre-eminently tacitly conceded, that it was the pecuadapted to the growth of small grain, since liar province of the western country to suprye and other descriptions of grain grow in ply the American market with pork, and the rich luxuriance over a territory as large as metropolis of the West has been a great some of the European kingdoms, or states "swinish" emporium, on which every secof the American Union. tion of the broad Union might draw ad libi Texas Stock and Prairies.-There is no tftrm. But no portion of the entire country portion of Texas but where horned cattle can can successfully rival portions of Texas, in be easier and cheaper raised than in any por- this very important item in the provision tion of the Union or the globe, except on the market, either in the quality of the article or pampas of South America. In many por- in the cheapness of its production. A few tions of the state, the muskeet grass affords grains of corn thrown to the porkers to keep the richest and most enduring pasture that them gentle, being all that is necessary un 3'36 TEXAS-THE BRAZOS COUNTRY. IIl the fattelling process is commenced, which is generally effected by turning them upon the pea field, after the maize is harvested, or to glean in the sweet-potato patch. Texas Sugar Lands.-As a sug,ar-grow ing country, T'exas is unequaled by any por tion of Louisiana. True, in Louisiana they have rich alluvial soils, and the mighty Mississippi bearing upon its bosom the com merce of hall the Union, favoring the occu pants of its shores with hourly intercourse with the metropolis of the South. But that portion of Texas where sugar has been suc cessfully raised, and which will be distin guished as the sugar region, possesses ad vantages and facilities for the production of the article, unknown to any portion of Louis iana. The soil of the lower Brazos, San Bernard and old Caney, will bear a favorable comparison with the parishes of Terrebonne and Lafourche Interior, whether the test is made the yield per acre, or in the chemist's laboratory. In Texas there is no fear of crevasses and inundations. The planter here is never under any apprehension of having his crops wept off with the flood. Here, too, at no expense, and but little trouble, the planter raises his own pork and the oxen for his teams. The land here is unrivaled in the production of corn by any southern soil-from forty to sixty bushels to the acre being an ordinary yield-enabling the planter, with little trouble, to supply himself with this indispensable article at no cost. Another important consideration for the man who intends to embark in the sugar business-while land in Louisiana costs from thirty to sixty dollars the acre, a better quality of land may be had in Texas for five and eight dollars. We have not in stitut ed this comparison, for the pu rpos e of disparaging Louistana. It is well known, its cha r acte r as a superior agricultural region is established and its adva ntag e s appreciated those of Texas but partially known. We know not the precis e am ount of the sugar crop of Texas the present year, nor the amount of land on which it has been raised, nor yet the largest amount produced on a singl e acre, but the result of the past year's crop has been entirely satisfactory to those engaged in it, and so encouraging as t o induc e the p lant ers, generall y, i n the four counties of Brazoria, Fort Bend, Mataorda and Wharton, to engrag-e in its culture, and to draw attention to this section as particularly well suited to the production of this article. We do not pretend to say, that the section above specified is the only portion of the state where the sugar culture will be found profitable; there are lands of great fertility, and admlirably situated for this branch of business, on the lower Trinity, on the San Jacinto, the Lavacca and the Guada VOL. III 22 loupe, that will soon attract public attention, and be converted into profitable sugar plan tations. A vast amount of the richest land in the Union now lies in Texas, untouched by the hand of the husbandman, in lower latitudes th a n any portion of the United States, save Florida, offered a t a mere nominal price. Now is the favored moment for pro curing a good sugar plantation in Texas, for the land must inevitably, in a short time, command ten times its present price. Texas YVavigation.-It is quite fortunate fo r the residents on Trinity and Brazos, that they now enjoy the facilities by the pioneer steamers, which have lately commenced a new era here, in the transportation of merchandise to the i nt erior, and their products to a market. Three small steamboats now ply upon each of these rive rs advan tage ously; be sides, the st aunch steamer Ogden makes weekly trips between Columbia, on the Brazos, to the islet city of the gulf, Galveston. But the unfortunate citizens of the Colorado valley, though favored with the noblest river in the state, are doomed, for years to come, to plod their weary way through the prairie mire, and mud, and boggy bottom, to reach anywhere. They have long addressed their prayers to Hercules; they are like those of the ancient wagoner, of no avail, until he put his shoulder to the wheel, when the application proved successful. It is now twelve years since a charter was granted, by the Texan congress, to remove obstructions to navigation in that river -the principal being the raft, a few miles above Matagorda. The steamboat Kate Ward, some years since, ascended the Colorado as high as Austin, the capital of the state; and by a trifling expenditure upon the river above that place, the navigation, it is asserted, may be extended one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles further by steamboats, such as are at present employed on the Trinity and Brazos. The towns upon these streams already feel the cheering impulse of the first energetic effort, and a determined improvement is evinced by all. Success is ever the result of putting the shoulder to the wheel-it must roll onward. TEXAS.-THE BRAZoS COUNTRY.-I have recently visited that portion of Texas above Huntsville, between the Brazos and the Trinity rivers, as tar up as the Three Forks of the Trinity, which, until since annexation, has been the range of the buffalo and the Indian. It is now being laid off into counties of 900 square miles, and is settling rapidly. In the upper counties none of the settlements are more than three years old, yet most of them already have established churches and schools. Some of the schools are very protnising. The land above Walker county is, for the 337 TEXAS-HER NATURAL ADYANTAGES, ETC. most part, open, gently undulating prairies, they have been caught by the hand. This covered with rich grasses, undisturbed by last fact I have learned from others, not from man or beast since the buffaloes have left, my own observations. The grass killed by which was since the commencement of the this dew I see daily. So the bees fill their settlements. Springfield and Tyworraia, (.no hives almost without effort, at least that is two persons spell this name alike,) in Livings- the case this season. ton county, are good places to select as resi- After crossing the Brazes at Waso Village, deuces. The last presents one of the most and proceeding to the head-waters of Little lovely and extensive prospects I have ever River, a change comes over the face of the seen in this state, or, indeed, in any other. country on your right. On the left, to Aust The soil is of the first quality, and the water tili, is the same beautiful prairie country; abundant, pure, and good. There is also an but near at hand, on the right, the country abundance of excellent building stone and becomes rocky and wooded-on the San cedar timber, near at hand, foir fences. it is Leon, Lampases, and Salado; and between destined to become a place of importance as these beautiful streams, which, by-the-by, are a healthful and delightful place of residence, as clear as crystal, and abound with fine fish, combining, with the extensive cattle range, easily caught. These streams are formed advantages to the emigrant greatly to be de- from large springs, and afford numerous exsired, As I proceeded northward, I found cellent millisites not subject to irregularity the same excellent quality of land, with a and overflows. On the white, soft clay rocks, convenient amount of timber, throughout of which I have spoken above, lie other Navarro county to Porter's Bluff, on the rocks, much of it limestone, but also presentTrinity. In some parts of this country the img many specimens of flint, crystals of variwater was bad and scarce: the health of the o0s kinds, and many minerals. I have seen people suffered in consequence. From about indications of sulphur, iron, lead, copper, sil15 miles north of Porter's Bluff, in Ellis and ver, and some gold. It would be a rich reDallas counties, although the soil appeared gion for a mineralogist to examine. The much the same as in the counties below, county seats of Bell and Williamston counthere is a sub-stratum of a white, soft clayey ties, Nolansville, and Georgetown, are in the rock, which is easily cut with a saw, and midst of this region. At either of these which can hardly be made available for places, a few good mechanics would do well building purposes if exposed to the weather, to locate and grow up with the country. but which may be made to stand by giving it This whole line from Dallas to Austin (2(G a coat of plaster. Wherever this rock was miles) is now fiontier, with few or no settlefound was also found an abundance of spring,s, ments above. Locations are being made daily and water may also be obtained by digging a above, and will soon be occupied. few feet, say from 12 to 20. I traced this rock from Dallas to this place, a distance of TEXAS-HER NATURAL ADV-ANTAGES175 miles. The whole country has much the WOOL AND FAcTORIES.-The resources of same features; a gently undulating open Texas are almlost without end, and in the prairie, soil generally rich, and with but little hands of her present population, we have an land of no account, greatly deficient in tini- abiding hope that the best use will be made her, except along the Trinity and Brazes ri- of those resources, and that Texas, one of the vers; everywhere presenting prospects of latest, is destined to become one of the great beauty and a healthful climate-where, brightest stars of the American Constellation. besides having an abundant range for stock, The following interesting article upon Texas wheat, rye, barley, oats and corn can be raised wool and factories we extract from the Newwith little labor, and the whole of this vast Orleans PicayunLe: region the best of upland cotton. The western section of Texas is admirably The planters in the South and WVest who adapted to the purposes of the wool-grower. are not well situated where they now are, It is destined to be, in this respect, a forminidacannot fail of being suited here, except they ble rival to the northern farmers. Particuwish to grow sugar-cane. Many might come larly will this occur in the region back of the also from the North, especially mechanics, low lands on the Gulf coast. Even on these, and do well, if they can be conservative however, where experiments have been enough to mind only their own business. made on a small scale, and the flocks partly One thin, I had well nigh forgotten to say of the poor Mexican breeds fed almost enis this. that this country literally abounds tirely upon the sea-weed thrown upon the with "milk and honey."d Honey is raised beach, we know that the wool, when sent to without scarce an effort, and of the best the New-York market, was pronounced equal quality. It is no fiction that, during the late to the average quality of the article received dry weather, the honey dew has laid so thick from the northern folds, and brought very upon the grass as to stick upon your clothes high prices. when you walked through it-often killing Western Texas possesses every natural rethe grass, and, in some instances, so smearing quisite to place it, as a wool-growing coornthe wings and feathers of the prairie hens that try, on an equal footing with New-York, 338 TEXAS-GROWTHI OF, ETC. Vermont, and other states. The high-rolling country, the purity of the air, the continual supply of excellent nourishment in the nmus quito grass, the number of small streams, and(l, above all, the absence of deep snows and chilling blastse of northern winters, are her qualifications in this respect. The climate is not too wa:m, either, by which the fineness of the wool might be injured; there is sutffi cienit bracing quality in the atmosphere to preserve thle pristine vigor, even of animals imi)orted fiom colder climates; and little care and less expense are necessary to keep the largest flocks of sheep ill the best condi tioll. Indseed, t hi s is the case with all kinds of stock in Texas, but chiefly in the western part of the state. Horses, cattle, &c., left to run free in the prairies and valleys, grow to the largest and most vigorouis dimensions, and in the depth of winter present the ap pearauce of stable-fed and well-groomed ani mals. We lave' been led into this t rain of re marks by meeting an announcement in a late Saal Antolnio paper, of a new and extensive woolen factory soon to be establis hed wit hi n t w o or three miles of that c ity, on a branch of the San Antonio River. W oolen fabrics, of' a substantial character, are to be manlhtac tured-jeans, kerseys, blankets, satiinets, &c. A substantial stone building has been erected for the purpose. The machinery has arrived, and consists of one Pekin and two carding machines, of ninety spindles each, with three power-looms. The persons at the head of the enterprise are Messrs. Harper & Martin, of San Antonio, one of whom is stated to be an old hand at the business. It is the first estasblisliment of the kind west of the Colora do, and will give a powerful imnipetus to the wool-growing business and the prosperity of Western Texas. The San Antonio River is surpassed by none of its size in its waterpower bfor mills and factories. The wheatraising and wool-growing capabilities of the country surrounding, it, will doubtless soon lead to numerous trials of its velocity and volume of water for factory purposes. Texas begins well, and has taken the right track. Let her avail herself properly of her great natural advanitages-let her cultivate her o fin manufactures, and there will be no necessity for secession. She will acquire power by learning to depend upon herself, and(, with power, her rights will be respected. Let the whole South fbllow upon the same path. Western Virginia, by the way, ought to surpass Vermont as a wool-grow i ng count ry. Iay we not hope that th e time is near w h e n she will avail herself of her great advantages in this respect? prosperity of this flourishing state. Texas is no doubt destin ed, in the popular language o f th e da y, to become the " Emnpire State of the South." When her present debt shall have been extinguished. as it speedily will be, I hope, to the satisfac tio n of all her cred itors, and the balance of the ten millions ap propriated to internal improvements, rail roads, th e clearing out of her rivers and har bors, and the purposes of education,-for which last, by the way, the state has already funded -nearly a million of dollars-her re sources will begin to be rapidly developed. Texas is almost the only state in the Union having a diversity of soil and climate suited to the various products of our wide spread country. Embracing in her territo rial limits an area of several hundred thou sand square miles, with several degrees of latitude and longitude, we find her produc ing, in one district, all the grains and fruits of the North, and in another, all the staples of the South, and the luxuries of the trop ics. Cotton, tobacco, wheat, corn, rye, oats, potatoes, &c., in the northern range, and Red River district, of the 31st degree of lati tude and upwards,-and sugar, cotton, to bacco, rice, and all the tropical fruits far ther south. At the battle of San Jacinto, Texas scarce ly numbered ten thousand souls; she now has nearly three hundred thousand. She has upwards of one hundred organized counties, and is well supplied with newspapers and post-offices throughout the state. An in telligent traveler, who has made a recent tour to the Upper Trinity, "' represents the emigration to that part of the country as far exceeding anything he had imagined. This immense influx of immigrants had produced the natural consequence of giving an unusual demand for provisions, and en hancing the value of land to an extent that is almost unprecedented. Lands which were offered last year for three or four dol lars per acre, can now be sold readily for eight or ten; and such as could be had ten months ago for fifty cents per acre, can now be sold for two dollars in cash." The Brazos plantations have been gathering a bale of cotton per acre, at the first picking, but since the heavy rains, the yield is much less. The sugar crop is, this year, very fine. Cotton and sugar will be much earlier to market than usual. The city of Galveston, the island city, the chief commercial mart of the state, has a population of about 4,000 souls. She commands, at present, two-thirds of the statetrade. Besides regular lines of steam packets to New-Orleans, she has a line of superior sailing packets to New-York and Boston, and it is in contemplation to run a line of steamers to New-York and Mobile. Ten emigrant ships are daily expected here, on 339 TIF,XAS-GROWTH OF, FTC.-Mucb has already been written upon the growth and TEXAS, EASTERN-GALVESTON. their way from Europe, with passengers and freight for Texas. The domestic trade of Galveston, chiefly up the Trinity and Brazos rivers, for the past year, may be safely set down between two and three millions of dollars. In the course of another year or two, she will ship from this port eighty or a hundred thousand bales of cotton, equal to Natchez and Vicksburg in their palmiest days. Galveston is pretty well built for a new town, though it has nothing to boast of in the way of architecture, unless it be the cathedral, which might be regarded as an ornament in any city. "The log cabin era in Texas has nearly passed by, and people in the settlements and villages have fairly entered upon a style of architecture which may well be termned the barn style." who plants in Red River county, informed me that he had measured a few acres and weighed the proceeds by way of experiment, the yield of which was 3,500 lbs. per acre. Capt. M. R. Roberts, in Fannin, tol d me h is crop in 1847 averaged 3,300 lbs. per acre. Major G. M. Butts, in Grayson, informed me his av e rage cr ops of c orn were 50 bushels per ac re, and 70 and 80 bushels were n o t uncommon i n th e county. 20 tc 30 bushe ls of wheat may be re garded as a fair average. I have never seen any part of the Unite d States, where the land w as so uniformly good. Plantations of almost any extent can be had in this coun tr y wi thout a wast e acre; 10,000 acres could be had in o ne f ield in Coffus Bend, Grayson county, withou t a waste ac re, and lying so wel l that a mule could be seen on any part of' the tract, when cleared. Owing t o the raft i n Red River, boats ca n only ascend above the raft for about three months in the year; and the. few which have been in the trade, have so monopolized the business, as to tax theplanter with two or three dollars per bale freight. t' his, a nd o ther causes, have kept down the price of land in this part of Texas. The finest wild lands can be had at this time from fifty cents to one dollar per acre, and improved lands from two to three dollars per acre. The govvernment is under the strongest moral obligation to the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians, to give them navigation to New Orleans; this was promised them by the commissisoners who formed the treaty. Surely, an object so important cannot be much longer overlooked. The country bor dering on Red River, is capable of sending to your market 250,000 to 500,000 bales of cot ton, annually, and would in a few years do so, if the navigation was good. TEXAS-EASTERN.-I have recently visi ted the Red River country of this state, and as a description of it might interest your numero nmr us readers, I submit the following: Red River is navigable for 800 miles above t e R aft, and i s decirdedly a safer and better river than bel ow the Raft. I saw it at fifteen different points, and found it to be from 200 to 400 yards awide, with high banks, the bottom lands of superior quality, and what i s remarkable, has never been known to overflow, except by the freshet of 1843. w hich was fifteen fet higher than the river was ever k nown to be before or since. B owie, Red River, La mar, Fannin and Grayson counties, border on the river and embrace the richest lands in Eastern Texas. The country is greatly undulating, mostly prairie, but sufficiently interspersed with fine timber to make it decidedly convenient for establishing plantations. The country is but sparsely settled, and mostly by western people, who are engaged in raising stock; and it is, doubtless, one of the finest stock countries in the world. It is not uncommon for two and three years old, to weight from 300 to 500 pounds, and sheep from 600 to 1000 pounds, at five years old. Sheep are 50 per cent. larger, and will produce 50 per cent. more wool than in Kentucky or Tennessee. It is at this time literally a "' land of'milk and honey." Nearly all the settlers have bees, and many of them raise from 300 to 500 gallons a year. The few farmers who have turned their attention to cotton have succeeded remarka bly well. There were 15,000 bales shipped this season, although not a half crop made. There is 25 per cent. more cotton planted this season than heretofore, and the ensu ing crop above the Raft may be estimated at 30,000 to 40,000 bales. To give a correct idea of the Red River lands in cotton and corn, I give a few facts: Capt. T. G. Wright, TEXAS-GALVESTON. -" While steamships of 1,200 to 1,500 tons, and sail vessels of 1,000 tons, can enter the port of Galveston, and take our produce to a foreign market, it is hardly probable that it will ever be sent circuitously by rail-roads, one thousand miles to Charleston, or by water still more circuitously and still further, to the same port, and that, too, merely for reshipment. This is manifestly contrary to the natural course of trade. With the exception of a few counties bordering on Red River, the exports of Texas must find their outlet at our own ports; and the day is not far distant when they will be sufficient to establish a direct foreign trade by regular lines of packets. Even with the late dismemberment, we have still a territory as large as Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia together, and the amount of waste or unproductive land, we believe, is , less; while we have a larger amount of rich 340 TOBACCO-CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF. alluvial bottom lands than all the other time, by the fingers. It is a tedious and southern states. Texas is capable of pro- troublesome operation; therefore, planters ducing more sugar than all the balance of should be very careful not to use any ma the Union, including all the recent acquisi- lures on their beds, which have grass seeds tions along the Pacific coast. Wre have many or weeds in them. After the plants are up, millions of acres of land of inexhaustible they should receive a slight top-dressing of fertility within the latitude adapted to the manure, once a week, sown broadcast by growth of cotton while an extensive re- the hand. This manure should be composed gion in the upper part of our state has been of half a bushel of unleached ashes, or one proved to be an excellent wheat country, bushel of burnt turf, one bushel of fresh vir and well adapted to other small grains. For gin woods earth, one gallon of plaster, half a stock raising and wool growing, Texas is, gallon of soot, one quart of salt dissolved in probably, unequaled by any other country. two gallons of liquid from barn-yard, and four While, therefore our state is as large as the pounds of pulverized sulphur, the whole well four southern states above named, it is cer- intermixed. Let a large quantity be got to tainly capable of producing fully as much for gether early in the winter, and put away in exportation, as all those states together. Nor barrels foruse when wanted This, and other will it be many years, with the present rapid such mixtures, have been found efficacious in ingress of immigrants, before our exports arresting the ravages of the flv-both from the frequent dusting of' the pfants, and the will give employment to a very large amount the frequedt dvstigg of the plants, and the of shipping." increased vigor which it lintarts to them, thereby enabling the plant the sooner to get TOBACCO-PRIzE l'SSAY ON THE CUL- out of that tender state in which the fly is TURE AND M\IANAGENIENT OF.'-Tlhe pub- imost destructive to it. The fly is a small lislier of the Amierican Fanrner having black insect, somewhat like the flea, and de lights in cold, dry, harsh weather, but disap offered a piece of silver plate of the value iiig t coldt dry, harsh weather, but dsapu of $30, for the best essay on the above sub- pearilig with the mild showers and hot suns of 30,fort~e bst ssy o th aoves-Lb-of opening summier. If possible, the plants ject, the committee, consisting of Messrs. H. of opeig sumner. If possible, the plants G. S. Key, J. S. Sellman, Geore W. HLs,hould stand in the bed from half an inch to C. S. Key, J. S. Sellman, George W. Hughes,ani ~John D. Bowlin an.CCan o inch apart, and if they are too thick, they John D.'Bowling, and W. C. Calvert, of Ma- ms erkdwe liyhv eeal e mut be raked when they have generally beryland, awarded the prize for the following m e as l arge as a five or ten ent piece. essay: t ~~~~~~~come as large as a five or ten cent piece. essay: A rich loam is the soil for tobacco plants The rake proper for the purpose should be a A rich loam is the soil for tobacco plants. ~alcmo aewt rnteh he The spot selected for a bed should be th small common rake with iron teeth, three Tesout siel aecntled f or as well pb einches long, curved at the points, teeth flat, south side of a gentle elevation, as wllpro - and three-eighths of anl inch wide, and set tected as possible by woods or shrubbeiy-a .... l ~~~~hail'an inch apart. wa rm spot-mellow ground, perfectly pul- verized. After a thorough burning of brush After-cultlitre, etc.-The soil best adapted and tobacco stalks mixed, dig deep, and con- to the growth of tobacco is a light friable tinue to dig, rake and chop, until every clod, soil, or what is commonly called asandy loam, root and stone be removed; then level, and lot too flat, but rolling, undulating land, not pulverize nicelv with the rake. Mix one gill liable to drown in excessive rains. New land of seed for every ten square yards, with a is far better than old. Ashes are decidedly quart or half gallon of plaster, or sifted ashes superior to any other fertilizer for tobacco. to every half pint of seed, and sow it regu- Theory and practice unite in sustaining this larly, in the same manner that garadeiners sow assertionl. The land intended for tobacco small seeds, only with a heavier hand. Roll shl)uld be well plowed in April, taking care wit'ih a haid-roller, or tramp it with the feet. to turn the tutrf completely under, and subIf the bed be sown early, it ought to be cov- soiling any portions that may be very stiff, ered with brush, fi'ee from leaves; but it is and likely to hold water near the surface, not necessary to cover them after the middle and let the land be well harrowed directly of March. Tobacco beds may be sown at after the breaking it lip; it should then be any time during winter, if the ground be not kept clean, light, and well pulverized by octoo wet or frozen. The best time for sowing casional working with cultivators and large is from the 10th to the 20th of March, al- harrows, so as not to disturb the turf beneath thoiugh it is safest to sow at intervals, when- the surface. When the plants are of good ever the land is in fine order for working. size for transplanting, and the groutnd in good Never sow unless the land be in goo(1 order, Order for their reception, the land, or so for the work will be thrown away if thie land much as can be planted in a "season," should be too moist, or be not perfectly prepared. be "scraped," which is done by running parThe beds must be kept free from grass or allel fiurrows with a small seeding plow (the weeds, until they are 110no longer needed, and Davis or Woods plow for instance). two and the grass must be picked out, a sprig at a a half feet apart, and then crossing these again - at right algles, preserving the same distance, * By s. W.r! W. Boawie, Esq., f Price Gerge'swhich leaves the ground divided in checks or Co ryt. Esq., of Prince George's squares of two and a half or three fbet each, 341 TOBACCO-CULTURE AND MANAGEMEXT OF. The hoes are then put to work, and the hill working. Any grass growing near the roots is formed by drawing the two front angles of of the plants should be pulled out by hand. the square into the hollow or middle, and As soon as the tobacco has become too large then smoothed on top, and patted by one to work without injuring the leaves by the blow of the hoe. The furrows should berun swingle-tree, the hoes should pass through shallow, for the hills should be low, and well it, drawing a little earth to the plants when leveled off on the top, and, if possible, a required, and level the furrows causedi by the slight depression near the centre, so ts to col- cultivator and shovel. Let this hoeing be well lect the water near the plant. The first fine done, and the crop wants no more working. rain thereafter, the plants should be removed Care should be taken to leave the land as from the seed-bed(s, and one carefully planted level as possible, for level culture is most in each hill. A brisk man can plant ten tlheoa- generally best. When it blossoms, the best sand plants per day. The smaller or weaker I plants ought to be selected for seed; one hands, with baskets filled with platnts, pre- hundred plants being enough to save for seed cede the platers, and drop the plants on the to sow a crop of forty thousand pounds. All hill. In drawing the plants from the bed, and the rest shoutld be " topt" before they blosin carrying them to the ground, great care sorm; indleed, as soon as the blossonm is fairly shoulld be taken not to bruise or mash them. formed. Itsho)uld be "topt"dowl t,the leaves Thley ought to be put in baskets or in bar- that are six inches long, if early in the searels, if removed in carts, so that not many son, but if late, top still lower. If the season will be in a heap together. The plants be ftavorable, in two weeks after a plant has should never be planted deeper thian they been i topt," it will he fit for " cultting," yet stood in the bed. it will not suffer by standing longer it the Plantiig is done by seizing the plants dropt field. Fromi this stage of the crop, iuntil it is on the hill with the left hand, while with one in the house, it is a source of great solicitude finger of the right hand a hole is made in the and vexation to the planter. He is fearful of cenitre of the hill, and the root of the plant storms, of frost, and worms, his worst enemy put ill with the left, while the dirt is well -they come in crowds-" their name is leclosed about the roots, by pressing the fore- gioni"-aniid the " suckers" are to be pulled finger and thumb of the right hand on each off;', and the " g~roTizd leavres" are to be saved. side of lh plant, taking care to close the The "suckers" ought to be pulled off when earth well about the bottom of the root. If they get three or four inches long; they sticks are used to plant with, they should be spring out abundantly from each leat; where short, and tlhe planter should be particular it joins the stalk. " Ground leaves" are not to make the holes too deep. The plants those leaves at the bottom of the plant, should be very carefuilly plaunted, for if the whiche become dry on the stalk, anrid ought to roots are put in cro)ked, and bent lip, the b)e gatlhered( earlyini the morning, whien they plant may live, but will never flourish, and will not crumble. perhaps, when too late to replantt, it will die, The wornis ought to be pulled off and and thten all the labor will be of ino avail. In klilled as fast as they appear, or they will three or four days it may be weedted out; soon destroy the crop. Turkeys are of great that is, the hoes are passed near the plants, assistance in destroying these insects; they antd the hard crust tformed on the hills pulled eat them, and kill thousands which they do away, and the ecldg,es of the hill pulled down not eat, for it seems to be a cherished amruse~ in the flirrows; this is easily done, it' per- mrient of the turkey to kill worms onl tobacco formed soon after planting; but if delayed, -they grow passionately fond of it-they and the ground gets grassy, it wili then be kill for the love of killing. There are every found a troublesome operation. After " uced- year two "gluts," as they are called by plant ng" out, put a tablespoonftil, or a gill, if it ers; the first attacking the plants about the be preferred, of equal parts of plaster and time that they are one-third or half grown, ashes well mixed, upon each plant. In a few the other comes on when the tobacco is days. say a week, or less time, run a small ready for cutting. The first can easily be plow tlhroiiglh it, going twice in a row. This silbdued withl a good supply of turkeys, and is a delicate operation, and requires a steady if' theti they are effectually destroyed, the horse and a skilful plowmani, for without seconid glat will be very easy to manlage, fbr great care, the plants will be knocked up, or it is the opinioni of many intelligent andl ex be killed by the working. Int a week after, prerieiced planters, that the greater portion the tobacco cultivator or shovel must be used. of the first glist reappear the same year as These implements are well made by R. Sin- hor?-blott,ers, and breed myriads. When the clair, Jr., & Co., of Baltimeore. Either imple- second army of worms make its ippear ment is valuable at this stage of the crop. ance, the tobacco is generally so large that But once ill a row is often enough for either turkeys do but little good. Tile only method, cultivator or shovel to pass. The crop can then, to destroy them, is to begin in time, now be made with their use, by working the start when they are being hatched, and keep tobacco oeice a week or ten days, for four or up a strict watch upon them, going over the five weeks, going each time across the former whole field, plant by plant, and breaking the 342 TOBACCO-CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF. eggs, killing such as may be seen, and by cut down, and carried to the house, it is constant attention during each morning, and straddled across the sticks and hung up. The evening,, to this business alone, with the sticks are generally supported by forks driven whole force of the farm, they may be pre- in the ground near the heap of tobacco, for vented from doing mrnuc.harm. When they greater convenience to the person putting on disappear the second time, there is no more the plants. c.ause of trouble. For a full entomological Tobacco sticks are small round sticks, or description of the tobacco worm, and the are split out like laths, and are about one easiest and most effectual method of render- inch square, or one and a half inches square, itig them comparatively harmless, I beg leave usually larger at one end than the other, to refer the reader to a letter written to J. S. and they should be eight or ten inches Skinner, Esq., by the author of this essay, longer than the joists of the tobacco house and pubilished in the Farmers' Library, in I are wide apart. If the tobacco is of good 1848. When the plant be,gins to yellow, it size, six or seven plants are enough on a is time to put it away. It is cut off close to four-foot stick. When first hung up, the the groiund, by turning up the bottom leaves sticks should be a foot or fifteen inches and striking with a tobacco-klife, formed of apart. As the tobacco cures they may be anl old'scythle-such knives as often are used pushed up closer. After a house is filled, for cutting corn. Let it lay on the ground I some planters put large fires under it, as lor a short time, to "fall" or wilt, and then soon as it has turned yellow, and by hot carry it to the tobacco-house, wheni it may fires it is dried at once, and does not change be put away in three differenit modes, by color, unless to increase its brightness, but pcg,(? " speeai-'7g," a nd " slplititig "fi" ring," gives a smoke, smell, and taste, "Pc,Cgbilg" tobacco is the neatest and best that is therefore not much liked by buyers. mode, yet the slowest. It is done by driving The cost of labor and loss of wood, and the .-t, 5 w.. 7 s~~~~he cost of labor and loss of wood, and the little pegs about six inches long, and half an inch or less square, into the stalk atfrisk o f losing tobacco, and the house too, iches fom the i end of the stalk and are great objections well urged against fi?ing. these fm he bigend o the tall i an The better plan is, to have sufficient housethese pegs are driven in with a mallet,in a room, and hang it thin in houses not too slanti ig direction, so as to hook ott the sticks athe ihouse. It is then put ook a a horse: sk large, which have windows and doors so as to liche h ope.t fisxed pto a horse, I admit light and dry air, and by closing them which, by a rope fixed to one corner, is b pulle(3 I'LL) ill the hoIse, and therve rtr upOIi in bad weather, exclude the rain and damppulled u~p in the houlse, and there hutig upon ns,wihmtral aaetetbco nes s, which materially damage the tobacco, the sticks, which are regulated at proper dis- besides injuring the color of it. After be talle3.A "obaco hrse iB othng orebesides injuring the color of it. After betatices. A "tobacco-horse" is nothing more coming dry and well cured, the stem of the than three small sticks niiailed together, so as cing r e re, the fstm d to formh a triangle, each sidle beirjg thle or leaf being free from sap, the first mild damp to fori-i a triangle, each- side being three or I-esf n four feet long. Spearing is the plan I pursue, spell of weather it will become soft and because it is neat etiough, and decidedly the pliant, and then be stripped off the stalk. quicklest;plan. A routght block, with a hole It is first pulled or taken off the sticks and mortised in it, and a little fork a few inches put in piles, then the leaves are stripped off om the hole, for the tobacco-stick to rest and tied in bundles of about one-fifth orupon, one end being in the hole, with a spear ixth of a pound in each. The bundle is on the other end of the stick, is all the appa- formed by wrapping a leaf around the upper ratus required. The plant is then with botl part of the handful of leaves, for about four hands rnt over the spear. and thus strun[ inches, and tucking the endin the middle upon the stick, which, wvhell full, is taken to of the bundle, by way of confining it. There the house, and hung up at once. There are ought, if the quality of the crop will permit, "dart-spears," like the Indian dart in form, to be four sorts of tobacco, " Yellow," and " ro?nud spears;" either, however, will "Bright," "Dull," and "Second." When answer. the tobacco is taken down, the "cullers" "Splitti??," tobacco is admired by many, take each plant and pull off the defective and who contend that it cures brighter, certainly trashy ground and worm-eaten leaves that I ~~~~~~~trashy ground and worm-eaten leaves that quicker, and less likely to houtse-burn or injure are net to the big end of the stalk, an then from too thick hanging. This mode is pur- throw the plant to the next person, who sued easily, by sim-iply splitting with a knif-e sued easily, by simply splitting with1 a knife strips off all the bright leaves, (and if there made f)r the purpose, the plant from the top be any yellow leaves, he lays them on one to within a few inches of the bottom, before side until he has got enough to make a it is cut down for housing. Care should be bundle,) and throws the plant to the next, taken not to break the leaves while splitting who takes off all the rest, being the "dull;" the stalk. The knife for splitting may be and the respective strippers, as they get ftully described by saying it is a miniature enough leaves in hand, tie up the bundles spade. It catn easily be made out of an old and throw them separate for convenience in scythe blade, inserted iti a cleft white oak bulking. Stripping should never be done in handle, with its edges bevelled off to the drying, or harsh weather, unless the tobacco blade, so that it acts as a wedge to the de- is bulked up almost as fast as it is stripped. scenditig knife. After the tobacco is split, The best plan is not to take down more than 343 TOBACCO-CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF. you can conveniently tie up in a few hours; the higher the better-laid down close, soc but if the planter chooses he may take down that as little of the leaves or shoulders as a large quantity and put it in bulk, stalks possible shall be exposed on the outside of and all, cover it with tobacco sticks, and it bulks. When completed, put sticks and will keep many days, so that, no matterhow logs of wood, &c., &c., on the too, so as to the weather be, he can strip out of the bulk. weigh it down. Here it will keep sweet, However, this is a very bad, wasteful way. and in nice order for packing at any time, Tobacco should not be too moist, or "high," no matter what the weather may be; if it as it is termed, when put in the stalk bulks, was conditioned properly, it will not change or it will get warm, the leaves stick to the a particle while in the condition bulk. Mild, stalk, get a bad smell, and change color; soft, pleasant weather is the best to pack besides, if left too long, it will rot. To tobacco in. The best tobacco prize is one " bulk" tobacco requires judgment and neat- known as "Page's Prize," but was first inness. Two logs should be laid parallel to vented by the Rev. Mr. Aisquith, and imeach other about thirty inches apart, and the proved afterwards by Page, at the suggesspace between them filled with sticks, for tions of practical planters. It is very cheap, the purpose of keeping the tobacco from the expeditious in its working, and being easily dampness of the ground. The bundles are taken down and put up, may with convethen taken, one at a time, spread out and nience be moved from house to house. smoothed down, which is most conveniently As to the size of the hogsheads, the best done by putting it against the breast and size is the ultimatum of the law, forty inches stroking the leaves downward smooth and in the head, and fifty-two in the length. A1straight with the right hand. It is then most any wood will answer to saw into hogspassed, two bundles at a time, to the man head stuff; the best, of course, is that which bulking. He takes them, lays them down, is strong, but weighs light, such as gum or and presses them with his hands; they are beach, or birch or poplar. No hogshead laid, two at a time, in a straight line-the ought to weigh over one hundred pounds, broad part of the bundles slightly projecting and staves drawn out of red oak, or other over the next two, and two rows of bundles oaks, which make the best hogsheads, but are put in a bulk, both rows carried on to- are too costly, ought not to weigh over ninety gether, the heads being on the outside and pounds. the tails just lapping one over the other in Having now got our tobacco in good order, regular succession. The bulk, when carried our prize and hogsheads ready, the first mill up to a convenient height, should have a day that we call spare, we proceed to packing. few sticks laid on the top to keep it in place. Let me here observe, that while putting the It must often be examined, and if getting tobacco in condition bulk, allthe bundles that warm, it ouht to be eimmediately changed were soft, or had an ill smell, ought to have warm, it ought to be immediately changed and laid on in another bulk, of less height been laid aside to be made sweet and dry, by and not pressed as it is laid down * this is a few hours' exposure to the sun. The same and not pressed as it is laid down; this is peato ns eosre hl akn calledl " wiadrowing," being loose and precaution must be observed while packing. called "1windrowing;" being loose and In ptigthe tobacco in the hogshead ftor open, it admits the air between the rows of In putting the tobacco in the hogsead for bundes, hence the term. The next process packing, a man gets inside, shoes off, and lays bundes, enc theterm Th nex proessone bundle at a time, in a circle, beginniug imin this troublesome but beautiful crop, is to one bundle at a time, in a circle, begindnt il "scondition" it for "pecking. The bright the middle, and each circle is extended until .X1 cond n itfor,3 the outer circle touches the staves of the yellow and secortd tobacco will. condition best 1 yellow and secoid tobacco will condition best hogshead; a single row of bundles is then most generally in such bulks as I have just laid all round the edge, on the heads of the laid all round the edge, on the heads of the described, but it is best to hang up the dull last circle, then across the hogsheads, in paras soon almost as stripped. If the bright or allel rows, the middle being always raised a a~llel rows, the middle being always raised a seconds do not dry thoroughly in the bulks, little higher than the outer edge. This is that should also be hung up in the house to called a course, and these courses are continbecome well dried. To properly hang up uned until the hogshead is filled. The man tobacco to condition, small-sized sticks who is packing, presses with his knees, each should be procured, and each one nicely bundle, in each course, as he lays it, and smoothed with the drawing-knife, and kept often stands upon his feet, and tramps heavily, for that purpose. After it has once been but cautiously, all around and across, so as to perfectly dry either hanging up or in bulks get in as much as possible. One receiving -so dry that the heads are easily knocked hogshead, and two false hogsheads, five feet off, and the shoulders of the bundles crack long, making fourteen feet tour inches of toupon pressure like pipe-stems-it should be bacco, will weigh from nine hundred to one taken down, or, if in bulks, removed the first thousand pounds, if well hanld-packed, and in soft-giving spell of weather, as soon as it is fine order. This concludes the almost ceasesoft and yielding enough, as it will become, less round of labor that is necessary to preto handle without crumbling or breaking, pare for market this important staple of our and it must be put in four, six, or eight row country. It will be seen that I have endeavbulks of any convenient length and height, ored to be as explicit and plain as possible, 344 TOBACCO-a CUBA. and have studied the greatest simplicity of style, supposing that to be the most suitable to the subject under consideration. Planters in Maryland should grow less to bacco, and thereby improve its condition and quality. By that means they would require less house-room, fewer hands, less land, and receive more money for what was made. It is no uncommon occurrence for planters to fall short, say 15 or 20,000 pounds in a large crop, yet receive more money for the residue than they got for the additional 20,000 lbs. the year before. The reason is, that not being pressed for room, it cured better, an d they managed it better thr oughout its various stages, and consequently got a greatly increased price for it. That, too, is one reas on wh y small crops invariably out sell large crops, by several dollars per 100 lbs.; the other reason is, that small crops are rarely subject to drafts that must be met, even if it be by force d sales. As a striking instance of the uselessness of pursuing a practice of overcropping, which too many of the largest plant ers are constantly following to their great loss from year to year, and to the detriment of their neighbors by glutting the market with trash, I will mention a cir cumstance which made an impression on me the past year. Two gentlemen had each very fine crop s of t obacco, s o eq ual in appear ance that ther e nignht be sai d to h ave be en Do difference in the product p er acre as it stoodl, j ust when fit to top; but one had 220,000 h ills, a small force in proportion to his crop, and scarc e of room, having to haul some of it two miles to a neiAhbor's house. The other had only 160,000, plenty of room con venient to tihe tobacco ground, and a largce n umber of hands to maiage it. The latter gentleman made se veral thousand pound s m ore than the first, and it will averai le a larg er su per 100 lbs., taking the crop therough. The re ason is obvious: for in this crop every leaf was saved, none lost by worms, nor by " house-burning," (that is, suffer ing, or even rotting rom being t ihung too thick,) nor los t by dist ant transportation; nor by that unavoidable waste which is the sure accompaniment to hurry and overwork in the securing of any crop. To all these disadvantages and losses the other crop was subjected. One word more, by way of advice to the planters, will not, I hope, be considered out of place here. Never draw a draft upon the tobacco whict& you consign to your commission merchant. Fix a value upon it yourselves, and refise to take less for it than you think it worth, unless you are necessitated to sell, and then sell before it be known that you are compelled to sell. The chief rule of the buyers of tobacco is, I believe, in fixing the price, not founded upon the European demandl~, but the demands of the planters upon their merchants through the banks; and by that means the buyers are constantly kept advised of the necessities of the planters as individuals as well as a community, and they reduce the price of the article acc ording to the urgency o f the wants of the planters. I think it would be advisable, at least a safe experiment, for a s ufficient number o f the largest planters to esta b l is h an agency in some European market, and charter a ves se l annually to take out their crops. The agent s hould be a practical planter, and be als o a n American citizen. His agency should cease at the farthest in five years, l est he beco me conta minated, and commence speculation o n his own hook, as is too often the case with our commission merchants, who both buy for the consumer and sell for the producer, yet maintain their integrity, although no doubt it is sometimes inconvenient to the conscientious, who perhaps find a stumbling-block in their religious pathway. I conclude with expressing the hope that this humble essay may be favorably received by the planters of Maryland; and should any of the suggestions it contains be found of value hereafter to any individual, the highest gratification will be experienced by the author; and he will feel himself amply compensated for his labor and trouble, by the delightful reflection that he had contributed a small share to the advancement of the great planting interest, and thereby been of some use to his countrymen. TOBACCO-CUBA. NEAR VICKSBURG, Miss., Dec. 22 1849. DEAR SIR,-I intended to send you a full account of our success in raising Cuba tobacco in this state, but absence from home, until too late for your report, prevented me. Ther e is a considerable quantity raised her e, but it is in small lots of half to one a cre, an d all made into reg alia cigars, a nd sold in this state. They sell fro m $15 to $30 per M., the price de pend ing princ ipally on the c are and attenti on given in th e cur ing, &c. I have realized the latter p ri ce for min e the last two years; I pay five dollars per M. for making, and board the hand. A good hand will make from 200 to 250 per day, and boxes holding 100 cost 5 cents. each. 100 lbs. of tobacco will make about four thousand cigars. An acre will produce about 600 lbs. of this tobacco; it generally nets me in this way about $1 per pound. The crop of this state, I am confident, is not one-half that of last year, owing to the worm being worse than ever was known; and most persons raising it being cotton planters, who were all badly in the grass, the tobacco patch was neglected. Owing to the causes above stated, it is impossible to form an estimate of the actual amount raised in the state, but I think the 345 TOBACCO-GROWTHI AND CONSUMPTION OF. 1840. 1850. States l bs. lbs.. Peinnsylvaniahe.......... 325,018............857,619 Delaware.................. 272.............. - Maryland............ 24,816,012........... 21,199,281 Dist. of Columbia........ 55,550............... 15,000 Virginia............. 75,347,106...........56,516,492 North Carolina......16, X2,359...........12,058,147 South Carolina.......... 51,519...............73,235 Georgia................ 162,894..............420,123 Florida.................. 75,24.............982,584 Alabama 02............3,..3,.....1,605 Mississippi..............83,471............... 48,349 Louisiana.............. 119,824..............23,9)22 Texas....................-.................. 60,770 Arkansas.............. 184,439.............224,164 Tennessee........... 29,550),432...........20,144,380 Kentucky............53,436,909...........55,765,259 Ohio.................. 5,942,2i5...........10,489,967 Michigan................. 1,602................ 2,225 Indiana.............. 1,820,306............1,035,146 Illintois.................564,326..............844,129 Missouri.............9,067 913........17,038,364 Iowa..................... 80' 6................ 2,012 isconsin................. 115.................768 California...................................1,000 Mlinne.esota................................ - Oregon................................... 325 Utah.................................... -- New-Mexico........................... 1,118 Total.........219,163,319..........199,532,494 There is a considerable increase in the product of Connecticut seed leaf, but in most of the other states, particularly Virginia and Louisiana, there was a marked decline, corresponding with the exports of the following years, thus testing in some degree the accuracy of the census reports. With this basis for internal growth, we have the data for estimating the consumption per head in the United States for the year 1850, as com pared with the year 1840, and the figures are thus: next census will cause many to open their eyes with astonishment. If you have on hand any seed of choice kinds of tobacco, (especially Persian, the kind Bengal cheroots are made of, or Brazilian,) and will forward me a small quantity of each, I will esteem it a great favor, and send you an account of my experiment with them, in time for your next report. Most respectfully yours, &c., It. Y. ROGERS. TOBACCO-GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION OF IN THE UNITED STATES.-The census returns of the Federal Government give the number ofpounds of tobacco grown in the United States for the year 1850, and comparing this return with that of the year 1840, there is an apparent falling off in the production of tobacco, while the consumption has gone on to increase not only in proportion to the number of the population, but in a greater ratio per head. These facts are derived frm)o the joint returns of the treasury department and the census. First, in relation to growth, we have the following results: POUN3DS OF TOBACCO RAISED IN TIIE'UNITED STATES, PER CENSUS. 1840. 1850. States lbs. lbs. Maine....................... 30.............. - Nie,w-Ilampslhire........... 113................. 50 Vermont.................. 5S5.............. —. Massachusetts......... 64,955.............. 119,306 Rlhode Island............... 317.............. - Commcl tic at............ 471,657............ 1,383,932 Newv-Yorl................. 744.............. 70,222 New-Jersey.............. 1,922.............. 1841. 1851. Ihport Export Net import Import Export Net import Unmanufactured..........lbs......-...... -......4,029,921..... 275,288.... 2,7,54,633 Sinuff.....................lbs..... 545...... 545.... -......... 1,498........... 8........ 1,490 Cigars.....................73,899......4,82... 69047....... 218792........8,445....... 210,347 if we now take the weight of the cigars at net importation of 1840 a weight of 346,035 five pounds the thousand, which is the offi- pounds, and for 1850, 4,807,858 pounds. cial allowance in France, we have for the WTe then construct the following table: 1840. lbs. LUnited States Growth of Tobacco.......................219,163,319 ExportsLeaf....................................177,393,600 115,134,000 Manufactured.............................7,503,644 7,235,358 Siiuff.......................................685.53 37,422 Total exports......lbs...................- 184,965,797 Leaves................................ 34,197,522 Add net import......................... 346,035 UInited States Consump tion............... 34,543,557 United States Consumption per head..................... 2 lb. S oz. We may compare the consumption in the United States, France and Great Britain, according to the latest returns: 346 1850. 199,532,494 122,406, SO 77,125,-,14 4,107,858 Sl,')33,5-1 3 lb. 8. TOBACCO-GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION OF. CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO. Pounds. Population. Per Head. UInited States...........................81,933,572.......23,080,972.........3 lb. 8 oz. France...........................40,943,088....... 35,400,486........ 1 lb. 2!/, oz. Great Britaill....................... 28,062,978....... 27,435,325....... 1 lb. 01, oz. rn France very little tobacco is used for how rapidly it progresses, but to exhibit in mastication, and in the government returns one paper and at a glance, its beginning, the quantity so sold is included in the smok- growth and perfection, at least so far as it ing. The quantity actually sold in France regards foreign trade. For many of the by the regie was as follows: facts embraced in the early history we are nKior.m.....s. lbs. indebted to a friend, formerly one of the Snuiff.................. 6,,77,4,561........14,914,034 most distinguished merchants of Philadel F'or.nSmoking...........11,112,314........24,447,()91 phia, but who retired early with a tmoderate (i(a,rs Importeda........5(6 1,013..43,532 competency, the reward of his skill and in',Made in France.. 520,196........ 1,144,431 ____ X d ustry, not to trifle away the remainder of T o t al.............. 18,582,084........40,943,088 his life in idleness nor waste it in the pur suit of amassing wealth but to devote him In England larger quantities are used for ofaassig wealth, but to devote him 1 TT t 1 1 ~self to scientific acquirements, and he has mastication, as in the United States, but self to scientific acquirements, and e has attained, as a naturalist, an eminence no less there are no data to determine the propor- enviable than was formerly his position as a tion. Th larre qantiy u~l intheenviable than was formerly his position as a tions. The large quantity used in the 11 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~merchant. United States, as compared with the other merchantw two countries, shows the influence of taxa- In the early accounts of the plant we find tion in preventing consumption, even of an a letter of the governor and council of Vir article on which the highest tax amounts to ginia, dated James' City, January 20, 1622, but a small sum per annum. Thus in Eng- which says, "that there was not above land, the tax is 74 cents per pound, and if 60,000 pounds made in the colony, but in the consumption were raised to the level of 1639, only 17 years afterwards, the Grand that of the United States, it would make a Assembly passed a law which recites that, difference of but $1 60 per annum for the use " Whereas, the excessive quantity ofto ofa luxury. If the English government were bacco of late years planted in the colony, to reduce the tax one-half, say 37 cents, the has debased the quality," and enacts " that consumption would thereby at least be all the tobacco planted this present year, doubled, and which would yield a greater and the two succeeding years, in the colorevenue, while it would diminish the cost ny of Virginia, be absolutely destroyed and of the preventive service, and remove the burned, excepting and reserving so much in vexatious risks and delays to which vessels equal proportion to each planter, as shall are now subjected. The penalty for smug- make in the whole the just quantity of 120,glin,, a few poulnds of tobacco by a seanman 000 lbs. of tobacco, stripped and smoothed," being forfeiture of the ship. In France the &c. In consideration whereof, the creditsale of both native and foreign tobacco, is ors of the planters were compelled to " ac the monopoly of the government an that cept and receive 40 lbs. of tobacco, so stripmonopoly has recn ently been prolonged to ped and smoothed, in full satisfaction of 1863, muchl to the injury of the French to- every 100 lbs. now due them." It is not bacco growers, as well as of the foreignteatteedoththeyer bacco growvers, as well as of the foreign 1 important to ascertain whether this law was trade. If those governments should see fit re-enacte at the end of the three years to modify these restrictions, the above table named in it; for we find in an official report shows at a glance how great would be the to the commissioners, that the yearly exinfluence upon the demand. The difference ports of tobacco for ten years ending in between what the French government pays 1709, were 28,858,666 lbs., of which 11,for all its tobacco, and what it costs thecon- 260,659 lbs. were annually consumed in somers, constitutes the tax, and this is as Great Britain, and 17,598,007 lbs. in other follows: countries of Europe. In 1744-5 and 6, the Cost of Tobacco...... 46,099,850f. or $8,643721 average annual exportation was 40,000,000 Gross Sales......... 132,,060,930f. or $24,762,990 lbs., of which 7,000,000 lbs. were consumed in Great Britain, and 33,000,000 lbs. in Net Profit.......... 85,961,089f. or $16,119,269 other European countries. The annual av This gives about 40 cents per pound, but erage of exportation from 1763 to 1770, a fraction of this constitutes the profits of both inclusive, was 66,780 hhds., of about the retailer appointed by the government. 1,000 lbs. each, or 67,780,000 lbs. As we The actual tax of the monopoly is about 30 have now approached the period when the cents. exportation of tobacco arrived at a point A brief statement of the commencement from which it has vibrated, (sometimes a and progress of the cultivation of, and trade little above or below it,) we subjoin a statein tobacco, will be useful not only to show ment of the exportation for the years 1772 347 TOBACCO-GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION OF. 3-4-5, inclusive, which will furnish the re- our most prosperous periods. For, although markable fact that (compared with any suc- 1790-91-92 were three years of very heavy ceeding four years since that period) the exportation, they fell off in 1793 nearly oneannual exportation of tobacco, just before half, making the annual average exportation the Revolution, was about the same that it not materially different from 1772-3-4-5. has been at any time since, prior to 1840, in STATEMENT SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF TOBACCO EXPORTED FROMi THE UNITED COLONIES FROM 1772 TO 1775, INCLUSIVE. Poonds consumed or romamn Pounds consumed or remain- ing on hand in other counYears Pounds Exported ing on hand in Great Britain tries of Europe 1772........................... 97,799,263.............. 97,791,805.............. 7,458 1773..........................100,472,007.............. 3,695,564.............. 96,776,443 1774........................... 97,397,252.............. 18,698,337.............. 78,676,915 1775........................... 101,828,617.............. 27,623,451.............. 74,205,166 397,497,139..............147,809,157............. 249,665,982 The total exportation for the four years, of the Revolution. The following will ex397,497,139 lbs. oran annual average of 99,- hibit the exportation of the article during 374,785 lbs. This brings up to the period that period: STATEMENT SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF TOBACCO EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED COLONIES FROM 1776 TO 1782, INCLUSIVE. Pounds consumed or on hand Pounds consumed or on hand in Years Pounds exported ia Great Brita i other countriesi in Europe 1776.................14,498,500.................................... 14,498,500 1777................. 2,441,214.................. t.................. 2,441,214 1778................. 11,961 533.................. 7,520,550.................. 4,440,783 1779.................17,155,907.................. 10,982,899.................. 6,173,008 I780.................17,424,967.................. 11,474,791.................. 5,950,176 1781.................13,339,168.................. 7,600,296.................. 5,738,872 1782................. 9,828,244.................. 6,364,813.................. 3,463,431 86,649,533................ 43,943,349..................42,705,984 * This year Great Britain exported to the Continent nearly 26,000,000 lbs. of old stock. t Great Britain exported this year to the Continent 6,000,000 lbs. of folbrmer stock. Total exportation for the seven years, 86,- The following table exhibits the exports 649,533 lbs., or an annual average of 12,- of tobacco from the United States, for the 378,504 lbs. Of the totalsevenyears' expor- years 1787-8-9, immediately preceding the tation, 33,974,944 lbs. were captured by the adoption of the present constitution: British during the war. STATEMENT SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF TOBACCO EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES FROM 1787 TO 1789 INCLUSIVE. Pounds c onsomed or remaining Pounds consumed or reomaing ou on hand in hand is other countries in Years Pounds exported Great Britain Europe 1787.................90,041,000.................. 45,379,795..................44,661,205 1788.................88,595,000.................. 39,600,404..................48,995,186 1789.................88,675,000.................. 48,831,232..................39,843,768 267,311,000................ 133,811,431.................133,500,159 exportation for the twenty-one years, from 1815 to 1835, i nclusive, is -within a fraction of 82,760 hogsheads. Taking our estimate of twelve hundred pounds per hogshead to be the true weight, we shall thus have 99,313,000 as the annual average for the twenty-one years-and we have seen that the annual average exportation for the four years ending in and including 1775, was 99,374,785 pounds, which establishes the remarkable fact, that the exportation of leaf tobacco remained stationary for a period of sixty years. Since 1835 the average is 117,000 hogsheads, but at a lower average of price. Total exportation for the three years, 267, 311,000 lbs. or an annual average of 89,103,666 lbs. It may be proper to remark, that the weight of a hogshead of tobacco is much greater now than formerly. Originally, tobacco being less compactly pressed, the hogsheads averaged only six hundred pounds, but they gradually increased, and in 1770 reached one thousand pounds-average. At this time Kentucky averages about thirteen hundred pounds per hogshead, and the average of all kinds, (Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio,) we have estimated at twelve hundred pounds per hogshead, which we believe to be very nearly right. The annual average 348 TOBACCO-GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION OF. The following statement furnishes at one 1 tobacco and snuff, from 1790 to 1851, inview the exports of leaf and manufactured clusive: Statcement exhibiting the ntnumber of Hogsheads of Tobacco exported from the United Statesfrom 1790 to 1851 inclusive, and the average price per pou7nd, and gross value Jrocn 1802 to 1851 inclusive; also the nutnber of pounds of MIlamctJactured Tobacco and Snuff exported fromn 1791 to 1851 inclusive, and gross valuefrocn 1817 to 1851 inclusive. Teura T,bacee per lb. Total value b. lbs. Tcbacco and Snu ,179. 118460........ -........ 1791....101,272....6.. 1,12................. ,~~0, 1,92.. 112,42872................. 1............... 1793.......5. 59,947..124........................... 1794........ 2,958........ o 9,70........ t.1........ 89 0,18 7, 7........ I81)25........ 61,050................. 2............. 20,.... 1196........ 69............................,2,0. 1897......... 58,17........................ 1,0........,........ 1798........ 618,567......... n................. 142,29............ 1799........ 96,070...'t=..... d.................. 406,076 6'........ I.. 1800......... 78,686........................ 457, 713........ 1807................ 10,................. 52,101................ 1802........ 77.721....... 6%........ $6,220,000....................... 1803......... 86,291.......... 6........ 6,230,000.....152,415............... 18()4......... 83,341.......... 5%........ 6,000,000....2(.8,139.............. 180)5......... 71,251..........7 7M........ 6,341,000.....428,460...............p 1806........ 83,186........ 6M....... 6,572.000.....381,733..............O tl8o7........ 62,236........ 71........ 5,476,000.... 274,952 s:..... m......... f1798....... 9,576......... 76...... 83800.. 274,952............. I,)g.... 53,921.....5..... 3,774,Q000.... 36,332............. gl~iO ------ 84,134.....5.....5,048,000..... 529,285............ 1811.....35,828.....5....2,150,000.....752,553............ 111812.... 26,094.... 3.... 1,514,000.... 588,618............. 813........ 5,314........5........ 31..... 283,512......... 181479,.........315................ 2000........ 90,070. 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 06,06 1815.. 8337....... 4,4................. 1..... 1816........,11................. 9,000............... 1817........1 62,365..... 12... 9,230,000........ 1,115,874........ 5,08 0....... $281,509 188....84,3........ 710....... 1,486,240........ 5,513........ 373,875 1819....... 926,83, 01........13,710........ 237,192 820 8,940........8...8,188,188... 593,358........4,996......... 149,589 18421.... 6i,858 1,2,949........ 44,552.....5...... 149,083 1822........ 21............... 6,31,414,424........ 44,46 0 2.........157,182 I2...18 900... 6i........,6........ 1,987,507........ 36,68 4,7........ 8154,955 i24........ 677,883..... 5%.......... 5,059,355....,477,990....... 4 5,174........ 203,789 18S25,5,984......... 5,287,96........ 1,871,368....... 53,920........ 172,353 180........ 6........ 5,347, 208,17,774........61,801........ 210,134 10o,025.. 53.......4 2,730,255........45,812........ 239,024 828....3,,8... 4... 4......... 5,0655........ 5210,.47 S......182,5131-... 2,619,99....588.... 219,509........ 202,3096 I 1810........ 52 0........ 3.,81,112.....,199,151........ 29,425.........246,747 .183138,. 4........ 4,892.388........ 3,639,856........ 27,967.......292,475 1832........ 1........ 4......... 1,45,071........ 31,175......... 295,,71 18133........ 83,1533........ 8........ 3,790,10........ 13,045 1........ 288,973 1834........ 87,979................, 96,0.......579........57,826........ 328,409 1835....... 435........, 72 8........ 8,250,5........,1 31,854........ 36,471.......135, 611 18136 109,4427........ 10,058,640 36,675........,246,0 5,18........ 435,464 18937.. 0........ 9 4.273........3615,51........40,883........ 427,8361 1838....100,593.... 61........7.,1392,029 5......,008,147 7 5,0 83.577,420 1839........,85................,8,4........,2,949........ 42,467........ 616,212 1840........ 119,484........ 6.......9883,657 6,787,165........37,132........813,671 18 41....... 147,828........ 7........ 12,576,703........ 7,503,644........ 68,553........ 873,877 1842........ 41.........5.... 9,540,7,55........,42,668....... 525,490 1843 4....4... 4 45........ 3,404,252....... 20,455........278,819 184....... 4 4........ 3....... 6,046,878......28,668........536,600 18425 147,168...............,469.819........5,312,97.....44,199.........5398,498 1846. 14...... 9....... 8,478,270........6854,856 52,458......... 6 95,914 184........ 135,62....... 4........ 7,242,086........27,051........ 658,950 184 8 130,665........ 4........,551,122 6,698,507 3.......3 6,192......... 568,435 1849....... 1)1521........ 4........ 5,8407........ 7,159,397........4........ 613,044 1850........,9........ 5...,.,95,0........ 5,951,3,9,59........... 648,832 1851....... 7. 25,5........18........ 9,23,24........7,2,3........ 7,422........ 1,14,547 * French Revolution. t Berlin and Milan Decrees. t Embargo. 0 Regie in France decreed. II War with Great Britain. ~ Duty in England lowered froin 4s. to 3s. per pound. On a careful examination ofthe foregoing proportionably reduced below that standard. statements, it appears that when our exports It is also evident that the Revolutionary war of leaf tobacco, for two or three successive gave a check to the exportation of leaftoyears, much exceed one hundred millions of bacco, from which it has never recoveredpounds, for some succeeding years they are for until that period, as may be seen by a 349 No. hllds. Aver age Leaf price To,bacco per lb. lb,anufat. red Tobaceo d huff TURPENTINE IN THE SOUTH. reference to the preceding statements, the ated. Nor are we prepared to enlighten them annual average exportations increased regu- f'ully upon the subject, because of the neceslarly and steadily. It was 37,780,000 pounds sarily limited information which even dealers greater for the years 1763 to 1770, than for in the articles possess, in reference to it. In the years 1744 to 1746; and for the years our conversation with intelligent gentlemen 1772 to 1785, it was 31,594,785 more than eii,aged in the business we have been ena the annual average for the years 1763 to bled to gather up some particulars, however, 1770. In other words, for the thirty-one whlich may be interesting. years immediately preceding the Revolu- We find the impression to be, that about tion, our exports of leaf tobacco annually 800,000 bartrels of turpentine are now annuincreased very nearly 2,323,000 pounds, and ally madle in this state. Not more than 200,for the sixty years since that period, it has 000 barrels, if' that, were shioped to Newremained stationary, except when interrupt, York and other ports the past year in its crude ed by wars or other commercial embarrass- state, antI the largest portion of the whole ments. The reason is apparent. Before being distilled in this state. The estimated the ltevolution all Europe dependled on us value to the makers is about $1,700,000 anfor supplies of the article, but being cut off liually, aid maybe $2,000,000 Abo it 4,000 from the supplies, (by the war,) Europeans or 5,000 laborers are eiigaged il making it, 11or 5,000 laborers are engaged in mak,inig it, turned their attention to growing it for and perhaps thee times as many mote huo themselves, and have continued to cultivate man heings art supported maitly lay the ptocheckel its consumptieon hly the onerous petine in this state is now carried on very chtaxes ackove its coica o by the oneroud. extensively, which will render the shipment It will be observed that the exportation of of it in its crude state very small in fature. manufactured tobacco and snuff has inceas- It is supposed that there are now in opera largelytbcco9 and snuffmcreation about 150 stills, which at the average ed largely since 1791, and more par ticularly cost of $1,500 with fixtures, shows that there It is remarkable in these facts, that the years. is an expenditure of $225,000 to begin with It is remarkable in these facts, that the in the distilling of spirits of turpentine. This increased consumption in the United S tates number of stills to have steady work, would has been the main dependence of the grower require 900,000 aels anally-more than r 1 t 1 r. 1,, ~~~require 900,000 barrels alallualls-mnore than of tobacco, since the foreign demand has is now made; which to us is an indication progressed in so moderate a degree. It is that the distilling business is overdone. Should undoubtedly the case, that in Englatnd the the makers of the article continue to nmultiremoval of indirect taxes upon other articles ply stills, and thus monopolize the distilling, of consumption has favored the consumption as well as the making, it will be necessary for of tobacco in some degree, even althou,gh on those now engaged in it to invest their cap)ital that article there has been no change since in other ursits The cost of distilling is the duty was lowered in 1825 from fourto very great, and when we reckon the cost of three cents per pound. - Uni ted States transportation, the profits of distillers, of ship Economist. owners, commission merchants, and the veon ders of the article abroad, it will be seen that TURPENTINE BUSINESS OF NORTH the capital and labor employed are not only CAROLINA.-Statistical itl'ormation in re- immense, but the tlumbers who are sup gard to the products and commerce of this ported by the nmanufactture and sale of the state is exceedingly difficult to obtain; coit- article are astonishing. Perhaps there is no seqtueitly all attempts at an estimate must be one article produced inll this country by the defective; but yet attempted estimates of an same number of laborers, which contributes so article which forms so important an item in much to the commerce and prosperity of the the labor and wealth of Eastern Carolina as country, as the article of turpentine. turpentine, cannot fail to be interesting, even shlould they fall below the truth, or in some TURPENTINE IN THE SOUTH.-Pao degree rise above it; atnd they may possibly DUCTION OF TURPENTINE IN SOUTH CAROLiNA lead to good results. It is certainly very de- -ExPORTs IN PAST YEARS-RESOURCES FOR sirable that we should have some acquaint- MANUFACTURINOG-VALUE OF LANDS-PRO ance with the resources of the state and the cRESS OF EXTRACTION-FACILiTIES OF TRANs extent of her products, which our presetnt PORTATION- DISTILLATION- ESTIMIATE OF means of information very partially furish. PROFITS, ETC.-AS the manutfacture of turpen Few persons, perhaps, unconnected with tine in this state has excited someinterest with the commercial transactions now carried on in a year or two past among our agricutlturists, in this state in the single article of turpell- and many ot'fthem are beginning to devote their tine, can form an idea of the quantity atitiu- attention to it, it has occurred to me that a ally made in ourlimits, the amount of labor brief notice of its history and progress employed inl its manufacture, the large capital might nut be uninteresting to those readers invested, the large number supported by it, who contemplate embarking in the busi and the various uses to which it is appropri- ness. 350 TURPENTINE IN THE SOUTH. ation, whether it might not be rendered, with Ius, a valuable acdj(unct to our overstocked gin houses and granaries. A " Compleat-Description of Carolina and the Natural Excellencies Thereof," published in London ill 1632, thus enlightens us as to the amo tunt of exports of tar: " Tarr, made of the resinous Juice of the Pine (which boyl'd to a thicker Consistence is Pitch) they make great quantities yearl y, transporting several Tunis to Barbadoes, Ja maica, and Carillbbe Islands." Governior Al chd(a-ile's account of the Prov ince (1707) mentions the arrival in England of " 17 ships from Charles Town Laden with Rice, Skills, Pitch and Tar." In another ac count " drawn tip at Charles Town in Sep tember, 1731," the trade of Carolina is represented as being " so considerable that of late Years there has sail'd from thence Annually above 200 Ships, with Mercharldizes of the Growth of the Countrv. besides 3 Ships of War. It appears by the Cuistom House Entries from Matclh, 1730, to Alarch, 1731, that there sailed within that time from Charles Town 207 Ships, most of them for England. which carried among other Goods, 10,754 Barrels of Pitch, 2,063 of Tar, and 1,159 of Turpentine." Itn one of these pamphlets I find the following " Account of several species and quantities of Commodities of the Produce of South Carolina, which were exported fiom thence at the Port of Charles Town, in one year from first November, 1747, to 1st November, 1748, together with the rate and amount of the value of each in Sterling, money in South Carolina Currency." Sever al communications on the subject have app)eared ill the papers of this state and Georria, firom the various details of which I have condensed a summary of information colicertinge tile process of mantifacturing and probable profits. A collection of old docIti meits beforle ure relating to the early history of the state, {ilrnislles a few items of v alue, by means of wh ich I am enabled to give you the expotrts of the ar ticle in past years. Personal oblservatioi, andl the results of experiments comt l:lliic(ited by a number of firiends larg,ely eu,age(i in the enterprise, have giveni ample evid,ice of the facilities afforded by many sections of the state for abundant crops, quick trainsl)tlrtation to a good market, and the prospect of a fair reward to the industry aind skill of the manufacturer. Onl this latter point there are some trifling discrepancies in the reports from different sections, which must necessarily be the case, as no exact standarda of pl)rofit can be laid down fobr the whole state, but tmust depend upon various circumstances of locality, quality of lands. capital and labor invested, and the amount of practical knowledge, experience, energy and economy, brought to bear upon the successful executionI of the work. Exports it past years.-From statistics before us, we derive the information, that the attentioni of' our' predecessors was turned to this commodity as an article of expf)ort, nearly two hundred years ago, although even to the present day, so far as our own state is coticeruned, there is obut little practical knowledge aflo at on the subject of its production and mailufacttire. Our North Carolina brethren have long since made it their great staple, antl] it is not unworthy of our own consider Rates of value in r- ~-'<~ ~ —, Amount of Value in Naval Stores Sterlhng S. Car.. Crrncy S. Car. Currency Species Quantities ~ s d ~ s d ~ s d Turpentine..........................2,397 bbls.........07 1........2 10 00 per bbl........5,992 10 00 Rosin.............................. 9........ 7 1........ 2 4 92 14210 00 Pitch............................... 5,521........0 6 5........2 5 00...........12,422 5 00 Tar common........................2,784 "......05 tO.......... 1 15 00............ 4,872 00 00 Do. green......................... 291........0 7 1........2 10 00 "........ 727 10 00 Oil of turpentine..................... 7........ 2 10.......15 00 00......".. 105 00 00 Do. do..................... 9 jars.........1 8 6....... 10 o00 Oo per jar........ 90 o00 00o lent quality, and this section is destined to ]e) the seat of very extensive operations in the business. The route contemplated for the Wilmi,ngton and Manchester rail-road runs through the centre of it; and in anticipation of the success of this enterprise, lands which once brought no more than ten to twenty cents per acre, have risen to $1 and $1 50. In North Carolina, it is estimated that about 800,000 barrels of' turpentine are annually manufactured-value to the makers from $1,700,000 to $2,000,000. Value of Lands.-Good laids can now be had in the lower parts of Barnwell, Colleton and Charleston districts, at 50 cents to $82 per acre. Near the village of Summerville, 02 miles from Charleston, they have been pur Resources for Afanufactztri??g.-Travelers through the middle and lower districts of the state, agree in pronouncing the pine forests of these sections as well adapted as those of North Carolina for the manufacture of turpentine. One writer calls the attention of the owners of large bodies of pine land, heretofore regarded as but of little value, to the fact, that " the day may be near at hand when they will find themselves the owners of mines more suire, if not quite so profitable, as those of Calif-rtiria." Iii the districts of Orangeburg algd Colleton especially, may be found laJds, the value of which for the profitable mnaking of turpentine has been tested for several years.'Thlroughout those of Horry, Darlington and Marion, the trees are of excel 351 TURPENTINE IN THE SOUTH. chased within the past year at 75 cents and life of the tree. Cut the box from 4 to 4i $1, and ir- one or two instances, as low as 50 inches deep, about 8 inches wide. Go down cents. In the vicinity of Orangeburg, the the stump of the tree so as to cut the heart range is from $1 50 to $5. Malny of the as little as possible. Clean out the chips and neighboring planters have embarked in the bark from the boxes that your turpentine business, and at present it is difficult to oh- may be free of them. The next work, after tain suitable locations. the box is cut, is to gauge or corner, by a few Facilities of Transportationt.-The section chops, commencing in the edge of the box, of country embraced within the districts of rtlunnling up the tree widening it at the same Colleton, Charleston, Bartiwell, Orangeburg, time, so as to make a channtel for the turpenStumpter, Georgetown, Horry and Williams- tine to run into the boxes. If the face is burg, is considered the crealtm of the turp,ei- nearly a foot wide, say from ten to eleven tine region of this state. The South Carolina inches, then your boxes, or at least a part of rail-road passes directly through the cetitre, them, will fill quickly, and you should have from one end to the other of each of the first your barrels ready so as to dip as fast as the four names, and opens, through a portion of toxes fill. The next work, after the cornerthe fifth, communication with the western mlg is done, is to be done with a hatchet boundaries of the other districts. Thle Edisto made for the purpose; then comes the round River runs through the same districts within shave, you chip two or three times with a a few miles of the rail-road crossing it near hatchet, keeping the face smooth, then begin Branchville, and extending in the imtmediate with the round shave. Never go into the vicinity on the other side for tlhe distance of tree more than 2~ or 3 grains of the wood, one to eight or ten miles. In the parishes of and that should be repeated every eight or St. Stel)hetl's and St. Johln's, Bet kley, the San- nine days, never going up the tree more than tee River and Canal, and Cooper, Wando and one-eight of an inch at a chipping, that is with Ashley rivers, afford easy access. Further the round shave, the only object is to keep north, the Congaree, Pedee, Wateree, and the old cut fresh, you may go over every Lynche's Creek, furnish steant and poleboat seven days as many persons do. A hand can communication swith the city. atid the cot,ni- chip over his task in five days, some will in pletion of the rail-road from Wilmington will less time. Twenty-five hundred is a task for still further extend these facilities. a good hand, then he has two days to dip; if Process of Extractionz and Preparation.- his trees run well and are thick, he can dip The pitclh-pite yields fivedifferent substances, three barrels a day, if not. from two to two which are included in the gum or resin, and and a haltf. The timber for barrels should be obtained thletice by extraction and subsequent got in the winter, staves 32 inches long, the distillation. Turpentine is the gum in the heading wide, so as to make, when round, liquid state, drawn from the tree while grow- 171 itnches across; a common cooper will ing, by incision and the heat of the sun. Oil make from four to six good barrels a day. of turpentine is extracted from turpenttine by An average to the hand is two hundred distillation, antd the 1)ortionr which remains is barrels per year, which varies in price from resin. Atter the trees hare been cut down, $2 50 to $4 per barrel, as prices current will split up and dri, d, the application of fire- show." heat produtces tar, the solid part of which is Another writer describes the method of separated from the liquid by boiling, and be- preparation still more fully, as follows coines pitch. Tutrpentinie is obtained from "A good crop season, with occasional boxes cut in the standing green trees, about a showers, is about the most favorable season foot from the griound, into which the sap des- for the running of the trees. The trees cends thi ough slight incisions made into the should be boxed at least 18 inches from the tree, immed(iately above, with an instrunment ground, so as not to be overrun by heavy especially constructed for this purpose. Tihe rains, and for greater convenience in dipping process of boxing, chipping and preparing also. The boxes, moreover, should be cut barrels for shi.pment, is thus described by an when the form of the tree will permit, on old hand at the business: the north side of the tree. They are not so A"cethod to be observed in making Turpen- much exposed then to the action of the sun. t,ie.- Box the tree after the sap) is gone down The turpentine when running to the box, and stop before it rises; therefore it will re- protected in this way, will retain more of the quire more hands to box than it will to work spirits. Besides the advantage of saving the trees. A good hand will cut from 50 to more spirits from evaporation, by having the 60 quart-boxes a day; some expert axeirnel boxes on the north side of the tree, you have in practice. may cut 100, but it is very seldom the boxes protected fron the dust and leaves such hands are to be found. Care should be that fly about with the south winds, which taken to cut the box on the straight side of prevail ost constantly during the summer. prevail most constantly during the summer. tth e tree Some trees will contaiof fCrot I to WVhen the boxes are cut they should be well 4 boxes; owing to the size of it. Care shouldclasdothchp anincipnth be tlkl- o eav frm to6 ichs o~sa Icleanscdl of the chips;~ and in chipping the be tak en to leave from 4 to 6 ikiches of sood and bearke and bark between faces, so as to preserve thetoke thchpofwo anbakfo 352 TURPENTINE IN TIIE SOUTItI. Willing into the boxes. It is important in box ing the trees to see that the hands perform their task properly and not allow them to nmis l ead you, as t hey will frequently do, by saying that they p erf orm their t ask, w ithout half doing so. Neglecting this p articular, you may suppose, when the runnine s eason gc omes, that you are makino h a bad crop with out knowingfl the true cause of short yield tha t your tree s are not half boxed. The exuperim e nt, I learn, has been made success f ully in chipping over the same spot twice. The object of doing this is to have the run ning expos ed on less of t o oftfac f the tree, and to make the trees pr odu c e fo r a greater numllber o f ye ar s before the chipping gets so high as to bie very inconveniently manageld. A s the chipping go es o n f r om year to year, you hav e a longer face of the t ree for the turpentine to pass over before it reaches the ,!ox. The value of the turpentine then is very much diminished and you have to gather it from the face of the tree for scrape, which is worth but about one -half as much as what is dipped from the boxes. "To gua rd the t rees f rom t he worm and from fire, rake away the leave s and chips every season. The turpentine should be gathered clean as possible from the boxes, ando put up in neat barrels of uniformn size and about thei standard weight, which at present i s 320 pou nds gross weight. In dipping turpentilne, the virgin or yield of the first year should not be mixe d wi th the dippings from tree s of older running. It should be carefully barreled by itself, and sent to miarket. This quality of turpentine, most valuable just after it is gathered, diminishes in value twhen ke pt, by t he rapid loss of the spirits. It is not unusual in North Carolina to continue to chip trees until you run tlhemiup from 12 to 15 feet high. Any good axeman that can cut twice in one place, can be learned in a week to cut 50 boxes per day, and soon up to 75, and soon learn to chip well. The most important part of the labor is to have the trees properly boxed and chipped, so as to insure you constant gain. Green hands to commence cutting boxes, say the 1st of November, would cut by the middle of February from five to six thousand boxes, which are about as many as they could tend well the first year. From the number of trees that would run wvell and work steadily, the hand will make the inumber of barrels of turpentine herein stated. There are many hands in North Carolina who tend 7,500 to 9,000 boxes for their tasks, mnaking 300 barrels and upward of turpentine'; but they are the brag hands of the country. "Ordinary lhantds will chip from 8 to 10 hunldred booses per (lay, andl when getting out the turpentinhe dlip 3 bbls. per (lay; while tip-top hands will chip fromn 12 to 15 hundlred VOL. mI. 23 per day, and dip from 4 to 6 bbls. of turpen tine, where their trees stand thick and their boxes are well filled. " After tending your trees six or eight years from your first boxing according to ttiul procedure in Carolina, you back box the same trees, leaving some 2 inches of the sap on each side of the tree, between the old and the new box, thereby preserving the life of the tree. Then, after tending these boxes as many years as the first, you can cut the faces out 10 or 12 feet by the axeman having a bench to stand on, which afford an immiiense quantity of the rich kind of wood, such as tar is run from in North Carolina," Distillation. -- The cost of distilling is very great, and it is a business requiring no small capital and energy. In North Caro lina, there are in operation about 150 stills, which, at an average cost of about $1,500, with fixtures, demand an expenditure of $225,000. There are but two that I know of in this state —-one near Orangeburg vil lage, owned by captain V. D. V. Jamison, a worthy and enterprising resident of that place, and another in this city, established several years since by Messrs. B. F. Smith & Co., which I took occasion to notice in a previous article on the public improvelnents of Charleston. These gentlemen are very extensively engaged in the distillation of turpentine, prepared to purchase it in any quantity, and to furnish all the tools necessary for carrying on the manufacture of it, of the best quality, and on liberal terms. They have purchased most of the crop raised in the lower andi middle districts, and have every facility for insuring prompt sales and returns. Estimate of Profits.-From a pamphlet recently published in this city, on the production of turpentine, I extract the followinig calculation, showing the probable profits of making the article, in estimating, the yield per hand at 200 barrels: $250 scrape, $1 25. y Making clear to the hand... $300 00 The average yield here assumed appears very large. We find this estimate, however, amply supported by other published reports and observations, derived from the best authorities. One of these is from an experienced North Carolina manufacturer, who spent several months in an examination of the pine lands of South Carolina and Georgia. He gives, as his o pin ion, that no region of the wvorld offers greater inducements to embark in the business, than the, 353 TURPENTINE IN THE SOUTH. pine lands of these two states. The trees, he etmany sections, a re so p numerous as to be almost inexhaustible, and the yield, both in respect to quantity and quality, equal to any he had ever found in the best regions of North Carolina. The location of these lands, in the immediate vicinity of rail-roads, navigable streams and seaport markets, offers the best facilities of transportation and ready sales. An average crop to the hand he estimates at 200 barrels per annumn, prices varying front $2 50 to,4,' and expresses his conviction, that three to four hundred dollars can be made clear to every hand employed. A gentleman engaged in the business near Ridgeville, thirty-on-e miles from Charleston, informs me that with forty hands, he suc ceeded the last year in making one hundredl andl twenty-five barrels to the hand, or 5,000 barrels, The danger to be apprehended from fire?,; probable injury to the fertility of the land by the extraction of turpentine from the trees, checking of the growth of the timber and exhaustion of soil, are all matters of interest to be taken into the account. VTith these comparative estimates of profit and loss as a basis, the writer proceeds to detail the plan pursued by the manufacturer above alluded to, who has gone into the operation, under the best possible auspices. " The boxing of the trees," he informs us, "was commenced in January, and, though this was a late beginning, he made up for it in the number of hands employed. For having only seven tasks to cut, he had en gaged in the work about twenty-five hands. The chipping required the work of seven hands throughout the whole season, and the dipping three. The coopering required two hands, besides the extra labor of getting the staves and hoop poles. The whole operation required the undivided attention of from twelve to fifteen hands, from the time of furnishing the boxes until the season closed. He had in his employment a genuine North Carolina dlipper, a man raised to that busi i nes s and no other. He was active, industri ous and skilful, and the hands did all the work that could reasonably be expected or desired." He then proceeds to state the crop made: " As the season has scarcely quite closed, it is not practicable to state the precise num ber of barrels made, but it is quite certain that the whole crop will not exceed one thou,sand barrels. A very small portion which has been sold, brought two dollars and three quarters per'barrel. But putting the price at what has been invariably considered a fair average, passing by the circumstances that, after the first year, a large proportion of the crop is scrape, for which only half price is obtained, and twenty-five hundred dollars will be the gross amount received for the year's yield. Take off twenty-five cents for rail-road transportation, and we have $2,250. From this is to be deducted expenses of storage, drayage and commission in Charles ton." The inference from this calculation, is, that as much as two hundred dollars to the hand will not be realized, which may freely bte admitted, without making it out to be a very bad business. There are few cotton planters who can show as clean a balance sheet, for some years past, in the history of their operations. In drawing his compari son between the results above exhibited and the profits of the cotton planter, the value assigned to the crop of the latter can hardly. be admitted as a fair average. "But I am far from admitting that it is as g Rood as cotton at nine cents. Of course, the profits of the cotton planter vary with the aWhich, at a little less than $2 per barrel, as a fair average for the crop, is equal to about................................ $9,000 The expenses deducted, say............. 6,000 Leaves a net profit of.................. $3,000 A writer, in a late number of the Charleston Mercury, gives a statement, showing the results of the experiment, made by one of the most respectable and enterprising citizens of Baruwell district. He does not indorse to the full many of the calculations which have appeared, which he considers as extravagayit an d over-wrought. The ma in object of the commii-iunication would seem to be, to prevent the indulgence of too sanguine expectations, on th e p art of thos e e ntering in to t he business, and not to depre cia te the va lue of a judicious investment of capital and labor, in its prosecution. It is written in a candid spirit, by one who has been an eye-witness, and enjoyed ample opportunities of information. The conclusion at which he arrives, is that the business may be rendered a profitable one to those who hap pein to be favorably located, with regard to facilities of transportation, set but little value on their fine timber, and are tired of making cotton at the low prices, to which planters have been hitherto compelled to submit. W-\ith skilful management, and the assistance of a person brought up to the business regularly, he clearly shows that the turpentine manufacturer may reasonably calculate on a fair remuneration for his out lay and services, This result may not b,e realized where the inconvenience of conivey ing the produce to market by wagons, haul ing from a great distance to the railroad, or floating down a small stream, subjects the manufacturer to heavy expense and delay. * I quote literally, but this is too ctoide a range$3 being the ultimatum. 3 -04 TEA CULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. cquality of his soil, but there is a material circumstance, apt to be overlooked in such calculations, as this: The cotton planter may t not sell two hundred dollars' worth of cotton to the hand, but he invariably makes, be- sides his cotton, a provision crop to support his hands, horses, cattle, hogs and his fami ly. Let him sell his cattle, his hogs, his carriage horses, his saddle horse; let him put away his servants, and board out, and employ his whole force in making cotton, without a grain of provisions of any kind, sowed or planted, to attract his attention and energy from the one object, and who will say that he cannot make as much as $200 to the hand and even more than that, at the present prices of cotton?" Here we have both sides of the; picture fairly presented, from which the candid in quirer can draw his own inferences, weigh ing all circumstances, and making all due al lowances. Thus I have endeavored to collect for the information of such of your readers as may feel interested in the subject, a few crude materials, from which they may extract something that may be of use to them. The results given are not, it is true, derived from practical knowledge, but they may be relied on in the main as substantially correct. I have, however, taken considerable pains in prosecuting the inquiry, for the benefit of friends about to enter upon the experiment, obtaining facts from diligent personal observation and indisputable authority, and arraniging them into a form which may serve for references, and prevent many useful hints which have been given out, either in print or in conversation, from being lost or forgotten. Such as they are, you are welcome to them, anl if they can benefit any one of your subscribers, the time and space consumed will not have been misapplied. TEA CULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.-We received recently a visit from Mr. FRANCIS BONYNGE, a gentleman who has spent fourte en years in the East, actively engaged in the cultivation and manufacture of indigo a, sgar, saltpetre, tea and coffee, and whose p resent object is, to introduce in to the southern states the culture of the tea pla nt, th e mangoe tree, dat e tree, coffee plant, &c., and the melons and veg etables o f the East Indies, and to carry ou t the hnan ufacture of the tea leaf, a nd a lso of the indigo plant, and to give a full and f air trial to raboth tea and indigo. IMr. BoS synge inform s us that th e soil an d climate of the southern states are more suit ed to the culti va t io n of tea tha n th ose even of China; and t hat in digo, whi ch was, by-theby, formerly produced here, ca n be grow n to any extent; and that the coff ee plant, in all probability, would f lourish here to great advantage, inasmuch as the s oil an d undulat ing nature of the land would be in its favor, and the cold of the latitude of this city is not so intense by thirteen degrees as that of the east of China. In fact, Mr. Bonynge has seen this plant growing wild in N. latitude 27~ 30', on hills of from three to five hundred feet in height, where, too, there was an abundance of frost, snow and hail. Our space will not allow us at present to give further particulars on this matter; Mr. TURPENTINE BUSINESS IN GEORGIA. —The Savannah Republican says: "We presiume the extent to which the manufacture of turpentin e is being developed in t his state is not known to our readers. If its production goes on increasing, for a few years longer, as rapidly as during the last year or two past, it will not take lon, to transfer the general headquarters of the turpentine trade from North Carolina to Georgia. So far as we are informed, most ofthlose who entered upon the business of producing turpentine in Georgia, have had as good success as could reasonably be expected. Such, however, has not been the case in Barnwell district, in South Carolina. The planters in that district seem to have been wrongly instructed in the outset; which circumstance, together with the advance in cotton, has induced them generally to give over the production for the present. I I 355 TEA, INDIGO, ETC.-ITS CULTIVATION IN THE SOUTH. decline in your rice trade. It cannot be, as you may see, from an over-supply produced in Carolina, for we see: Bonynge, however, who can be found at the boarding-house of Mir. Becase, 225 East Bay., has with him the strongest testimonials in favor of his project, from the Hon. Abbott Lawrence, our Minister at the Court of St. James; Daniel Lee, Esq., of the Patent Office in,Vashington, and Editor of the Souther n Cultivator; and other gentlemen alike distinguished for their position in society, and their literary and scientific attainments; which he will take much pleasure in showing to those who may feel desirous of becoming fully acquainted with the subject. WVe ourselves regard the introduction of these plants into our state as a great desideratumt, and consequently call the attention of our planters, and such of our citizens as may be interested in the matter, to the visit of Mr. Bonynge to our city.-Charleston Courier. Tierces From 1824 to 1835, twelve years' shipments to Europe.............................. 668,669 From 1836 to 1847, twelve years' shipments to Europe............................... 556,264 Decline on shipments in twelve years...... 102,405 Now, with eight millions of people starving for some four or five years o f th at twelve years, general failureofthe po tato and shor tgrain crops, on the continent of Europe, food must have been supplied fr o m somewhere. The merc ha nt must be aware of the gradual displacemennt on the contin ent of Atd i erican rice by East India n (Patna and Arrakan) rice. The Englisha merchant can ship rice, or rough rice, to England, there cle a n it and re-sh i p it to the continent, and undersell the rice of this state. I mean at their comaparative v alues. However, the famine in Ireland, &c., did, in some way, retard the galloping consumption of the trade in this article, for in 1846-1847 ther e was o ne -half a s much shipped to England as there h ad b een in the five preceding years. Lo ok to India, from wh ere you have so much to apprehend. On either side of the Bay of Bengal, viz.: fro m Balezore to Madras, and opposite Arrakan, the price of paddy or rough rice is: For 120 to 260 lbs., I rupee, or 45 cents. Carolina, 1 bushel, 45 to 47 lbs., 90 cents. Value of Carolina r ice, 18 shillings ster ling. Arrakan Carolina rice, 10 shillings ster ling. Taking the bulk, the ul,s'Arr a kan is 530 t o 710 per cent. cheaper, o r a ccordi ng t o quality, nearly 300 per cent. cheaper. The rice-planter of Ind ia, with his wife and children, labor in the field. Th e re an's clothing consists of a strip of cloth passing between his legs-one end t ie d up before and the other behind by a string round h is bordy; that litt le pi ece of clo th serves him for a couple of years' clothing. His rice, fish, salt, tobacco, &c., cost him nearly thirty cents a month. It may be supposed that a poor man in that condition could not contend with the planter of Carolina with his hun dreds of slaves, but that is not the case; the naked Indian has the advantage through the combination of all the planters in a district. A rice field, or rather district, is very exten sive in India. Standing on the margin, the eye might wander over it, the same as if standing on the sea-shore. Goverment makes up the water-dams, &c. The rice lands are so extensive in India, none subject to failure is used, or need be used. Since writing the above, I have obtained the consumption and exports of the city of Charleston in rice: TEA, INDIGO, &C.-CULTIVATION IN THE SOUTH. —,Ar. Bonynge, who is referred to in the last paper, has written a letter for the Ch arleston Mercury, which, as presentin, some new views, we extract: -Iy object is to show you the imperative necessity you are under to bestir yourselves, and to introduce, not one staple only, but many, and save your country from the ilnpendiing depression that hangs over it. I will take the last twenty-four years of the rice trade for comparison, viz.: from 1824 to 18417, both years included: Average Tietees Tierce s From 1824 to 1829 six years....676,816..., 112,802 ' 1l30 to 1835 "....7 7(1,311...... 126,885 " 183 to 18-l ".....648,458......108,076 " 1842 to 1847 "....774,988.... 129,164 You will perceive, in the above comparative review of the rice consumed in, and expor-ted from Charleston, that in reality there is a decline, for twelve years, of one per cent. per annum. Prices from 1835 to 1841, seven years, average yearly.................... $3 30 to $3 88 Prices tfrom 1842 to 1848, seven years, average yearly....................nk 2 94 to 3 57 Slhowving a falling- off in price of 10 per cent. nearlv; but observe what is a most notorious and remarkable instance in this decay. It has taken place with a four years' fanine in Ireland, and i t he univ ersal failure of th e pota to a nd grain crops of t he continent of Europe. "T.here have been extensive failures this year on Cooper River, &c. In a prosperous state such failures would be the concern of the in.dividual only; but now it is a national loss, for the successful planter will obtain no higher price. There is so much less to ex port and to command imports; therefore the planters, the merchant, the mechanic and storekeeper will feel it. It would be well to ascertain the cause of 356 UNION-ITS STABILITY. For 1848-1849,150,330 tierces. Price $2 80 to $3 35 For 1849-1850,134,41 " " 2 87to 3 28 or a decline on the two years, compared with the prices of seven years, from 1835 to 1841, of nearly 15 per cent. Now, take cotton in its yearly decline in value of say 30 per cent. for the last twelve years; rice, in quantity and value, 11 per cent. for the last seven years-fmaking up in the two staples together, a decline of 41 per cent. I have shown in my letter of the 25th instant the fears that the planters of cotton may entertain. In this letter I have shown that the rice trade is still in a far worse state than cotton, and that famine and scarcity do not prop it up. From 1839 to 1850, 12 years, 25,545,000 bales, at 8 1-15 per lb,., $635,162,100. For 11,497,000 bales there was a price of $67,271,700 obtained, or $5 85c. per bale, or per lb. 1 5-6 cents only! Now, the tea and indigo trade together is of as great a magnit ude a s c otton and rice, and will be nfifinite ly more s o, once tea bursts the egg-shell space in wh ich its cultivation i i s confined in China. I will show you, gentlemen, the comparatively litt le labo r te a cul tivation requires at your hands, First year: Place the seeds four inchles apart in drills, keep th e bed weeded and moist. Second year: Transplant into fresh land, clear the brush-wood only; hoe the ground once; leaving the large trees. Third year: Hoe the ground once, weed it once. Fourth year: Labor of tea-m-iaking. A woman can pick 60 lbs. of green leaf. A woman or man can manufacture them into 15 lbs. of dried tea. The average on good tea lands is 320 lbs. of best kinds of black teas. Expense of Manufacturing.-A woman's wages, say, per diem.................. - Charcoal and firewood t cent per lb......-.. 15 lbs...22~ Packages, &c., 1 cent per lb. Wages of a man for a day.............. But if miiachinery, this last item disappears. The above statement is for the making of 15 lbs. of best black tea. Tea trees will last 25 to 30 years. I propose tea, indigo, and date trees, &c. I do not propose that these should displace cotton and rice; by no means. All I propose is, that you should give of 999-1000 parts of your territories, now forest wastes, a little, a very little portion ofthat waste. I have shown that the falling off in these staples is not temporary or accidental, but gradual, and that for years the canker wormni has been eating at their vitals; and so much so, that a loss in crop injures not alone individuals, but diminishes to the extent of failure the wealth of the state. I have shown nations all at earnest work to share in the cotton trade. England, alarmed that in case of any interruption to good understanding she would be cut off of her supply of cotton, and millions of her subjects thrown into the utmost destitution, and the people of Manchester, and spinners through the United Kingdom. and the shippi,ng interest, have resolved upon producing a supply of cotton In East India. We know that these interests are on the proper trail, and if they will persevere, must succeed. Some will reply, danger has been often threatened. But has it not come? Is not its advance-guard in your camp! Has it not exhausted 41 per cent. of your usual resources. You have often heard the cry of "wolf;" you have now his head and neck within your fold; he will soon introduce his body,P andl assuredly will carry off your too sick noislings. I will shortly recapitulate the foregoingn, and show in round dollars the amount of decline. $ ice from 1824 to 1835, 12 years' produce, 1,423,446 tierces, at $3 30c. to $3 88c.$4,745, 878 to $5.461,882. R{ice from 1836 to 1847, 12 years' pro(luce, 1,423,446 tierces, at'2 94c. to 83 58c.$4,191,390 to $5,083,261. This calculation wvill show that the highest range of prices has suftredl less than the lower; however, the loss on this trade for 12 years, $554,428 to $381,621, or yearly, $46,202 to $;31,801. Cotton from 1827 to 1838, twelve years, 14,048,000 bales, at 12,c. per lb., 8567,890,400, UNION-ITS STABILITY.-BrITISH POLICY REGATRDING TROPICAL PRODUCTS AND THE Sl,AvenE TRADE; ABORTIVE MOVEMPNTrS TO CHF:CK THIS TRADE; ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, HOWr REGARDED IN EN(LAND; PRODUCTS OF SLAVE AND FREE LABOR; COMMERCIAL AD)VANTAGES OF THE SOUTHERN STATIE:S, AND HO1W MUCHI THE NORTHI GAINS BY A UNION WITH THIEM; SOUTHERN COMMERCIAL STATISTICS; STATISTICS OF SOUTIII RN POPULATION, ]3LACK AND WIIItlTE; PRO.PIECTS FOR THE FUTURE, ETC. -One of the chiefecauses of the slow growth of republ)lican institutions in Europe is doubtless the proximity of powerful aristocratic landed interests, whose system of internal oppression furnishes themn with the means of external corruption, and which they have never been slow to apply to the internal affairs of any state, where the tendency is to republicanism. Unhap)y Poland was distracted, and ultimnately dismenmbered, through I 357 UNION-ITS STABILITY. the influence of surrounding despots, operat- nations with the material for labor. Those in, upon the interests, passions, prejudices, who can best succeed in commanding these, and -ices of its own leaders. The circumn- in exchange for a small portion of the stances of the first republic of F'rance show wrought fabrics, have the best prospect of with wthat unscrupulous boldness an English outstripping their rivals in the race for ministry supported and paid party leaders, wealth and power. This became manifest whose business it was to lhurry the republi- to the British statesmen immediately on cans into excesses which alienated the sym- the settlemient of Europe by the treaty of pathies of the middle miasses, and compelled Vienna, when the prospect of continuing to monarchical reaction. Thie enormous scale England her manufacturing and commercial on which the forgery of assignats, as proved monopoly, by keeping Europe embroiled, in courts of law, was carried on by the gov- was at an end. A new policy was then ernment of EUngland, under the immediate adopted. Since she could no longer maindirection of WVilliam Pitt, for the double pur- tain a monopoly of sale at high prices, she poses of corrupting party leaders in Paris, prepared to encounter growing competition, and of ruininig the French finances, by de- by laying a foundation for ample supplies of stroyinig (through excess of sup)ply, as well raw materials and produce from her own reas risk of fraud) the credit of that paper sources. and at the same time for cutting which was the only resource of the revolu- off, as far as practicable, the supplies drawn tionary government, is a fearfill instances of i by other nations. The great items of detlhe machinery which corrupt governlents m nand were cotton, hemp, flax, silk, sheep's can put in operation against the stability of' wool, and indigo, as raw materials, with those institutions which they dread, and the coffee and sugar as tropical productions, integrity ef those countries of which they each year becoming more necessary to her covet a portion. The position of parties in Ipeople. Of the raw materials, cotton and the IUnited( States, and the general circuin- wool were the most important. As yet, stances of the continent in relation to Great however, the demand for the latter has not Britain, indicate the workiing of similar greatly exceeded the English home supply, schemes a'aiist the integrity of the Union but was evidently increasing beyond it. The and the continuance of the'"Model Repub- colony of Australia was fixed upon as the lie." Within the last thirty years the most source of future supply; and of all her extraordinary change has been wrought in schemes of aggrandizement, in that alone the position of LEiland in her relations to has England been measurably successful. other countries: and while she has been appa-'The wants of cotton manufacturers were rently descenuding in the scale of nations, and daily becoming more urgent; and with every seenuiglly b)ecominu aLinnually more depen- new spindle put in operation, the dependent for necessaries upon the rest of the world dence of England upon the United States she has been slowly and cautiously weaving was enhanced. The British statesmen fixed a web of diplomacy, designed to replace heri upon the East India possessions as the quarat once and forever at the head of commer- ter whence abundance of cotton could be cial and manufacturing nations, and to con- realized, in full confidence that any quantity firm her- in the dominion of the seas. From could be there raised, of a quality equal to reiiiote points her comibinations have been that of theUnited States. Earnest attention gradually developed. until the crisis is now was therefore directed to the amelioration of at hand, and she hopes to make a final and the condition of the people of that region, to successful grasp at comniercial supremiacy prepare them for an extensive system of over a dismembered union of the states. cotton culture. Simultaneously with this The course of affairs since the peace of confident reliance upon the capabilities of 1815 has been steadily to increase the im- India to produce cotton, she adopted the portasce of the raw materials, of rman- calculation that free African and East India ufactures, aid( of tropical productions, to labor. applied to her WNest India islands, the civilized nations of the temperate lat- would produce sugar and coffee much itudes. The progress of science and the cheaper than those articles could be raised inventions of genius, have exerted a con- in Brazil and Cuba by the expensive and stant influence in increasing the facilitv wasteful system of slave labor, more particuwith which the nations of Europe i-ay sup larly if the cost of slaves and the expense of ply themnselves with industrial products, proculring them should be enhanced by the andi, therefore, to diminish the armount and suppression of theAfricantrade. Itfollowed, importance of their international trade. if her reasoning was sound, that by raising This tendency has, however, only served to at)ple supplies of wool and cotton in her enhance their competition for the produc- own possessions, and increasing the sugar tions of tropical climates, and of newly set- and coffee productions of her West India tied regions of which the exports are always islands, by substituting free labor, supplied that rude produce necessary to supply the from her own tropical and densely peopled dense populations of the older and wealthier possessions of India, the suppression of the 358 UNION-ITS STABILITY. slave-trade would deprive her rivals, Cuba ly in consequence of four leading erroneous and Brazil, of labor, and that, as blacks do assumptions: First. The growing of cotnot increase naturally in those regions, she ton in India-notwithstanding that Ameriwould soon extinguish or at least check can seed, American planters, American cottheir competition. The conspiracy of Turn- ton-gins, and American machinists, were at bull, the British consul at Havana, to in cite great expense transferred to that countrya slave insurrection in Cuba, followed close was found to be utterly impossible. The upon the emancipation of British West India staple deteriorated in that climate so mnch slaves; but it was discovered and crushed as to render competition with the United under circumstances that left no doubt of States from that quarter hopeless. Secoold. the participation of the British government The assumption that blacks would work in in the attempted crimes. a state of freedom as well or better than as By the example of emancipating her own slaves, was proved to be utterly groundless: slaves, and by the exercise of collateral in- they would not work at all, and her colonies fluence, she hoped to bring about emancipa- were ruined. Third. The assumption that tion in the United States-an event which emigrants from the sugar and coffee counwould not fail to destroy the cotton culture, tries of India could produce as well in the and thereby protect India fromi opposition, W'est Indies, was, upon trial, found equally as well as deprive her'European rivals in the fallacious, and the remnant of the miserable manufacture of a source of supply. The beings whom she caused to be transported emancipation of her own slaves in the West from India to Jamaica are to be sent back at India islands was affected by the payment great expense. Fourth. Her assumption of $100,000,000 as indemnity to planters; that the African slave-trade could be suphaving at hand the means of crushing any pressed has proved as great a blunder as the attempt at insurrection, to which sudden other elements of her grand scheme; and freedom might prompt the blacks, and bring the leadino authorities upon that question on a barbarous and bloody war of races, such have acknowledged in sorrow the fact, that as that of which St. Domingo afforded an the horrors of the trade are at this moment example, she remunerated the whites, and not only greater than ever, but that the numgradually and smoothly fleed the blacks. ber of blacks tbat leave Africa is larger, Emancipation in the United States would and annually increasing. Indeed it might necessarily be a different matter. Three readily have been deduced, from the state of millions of slaves, clothed and fed by their affairs, that inasmuch as that the demand owners, could not be paid for. In common for coffee and sugar, the products of slave with their masters, they are supported by labor, is annually on the increase throughthe products of their own labor, in the capac- out Europe, if the supply should be dinminity of slaves. Their release from that con- ished through the failure of the English dition would involve at once a cessation of scheme to enhance it in her own colonies production; the planters' credit with factors by free labor, then the demand for slaves would cease, their nominal wealth disappear, would by so much be increased, and conse and destitution overtake the whole in com- quently the profits of the trade; and this mon. Putting aside all consideration of theI has indeed been the case. All the attempts natural enmity of races, this destitution of England to suppress the slave-trade by would necessarily involve scenes of robbery, the employment of her cruisers, and by her outrage and murder. If these things occur wordy contentions in relation to the right of in Ireland from mere destitution, what would search, have been more than countervailed result from the distress of blacks and whites, through the demand which she herself has fired with mutual einmity, and equally strong( created for the products of slave-purchasing in inumbiers? At the most moderate calcu- countries. Her blockading squadron has lation, there would be no very extensive done literally nothing toward its professed production of cotton; the factories of New object. So far from its having suppressed England, as well as of Europe, would lose the traffic, or promised to suppress it, it was their supplies; American shipping losetwo- concluded by the Parliamentary Commnittee thirds of its freights; while Great Britain of Inquiry, that, although the squadron was would have ample supplies of cotton in her in the very highest state of efficiency and own colonies to employ her own ships; and discipline, the trade was "now conducted her manufactories, having amonopoly of the with an amount of organization and with a raw material, would command the markets degree of confidence in the success of its of the world. Such was the reward which adventures, such as has never before been England promised herself for the exercise of opposed to the efforts of the nations engaged philanthropy toward the poor blacks. Un- in suppressing it." The mean number of fortunately, although virtue always has its captives matters very little in such a state of reward, it does not always come in the shape things as this; and the London Times re hoped for by those who practise it on spec- marks as follows: ulation, and tie scheme fell through-most- ~' As a mere question of fact, it has been 359 3UNION —ITS STABILITY. placed beyond doubt,that our cruisers do not "Judging from such information as we prevent, nor even materially impede, the ex- can obtain, we think the number of slaves exportation of slaves from Africa, nor their iln- ported from the coast in 1848 cannot have portation into Brazil. On the contrary, it has fallen short of 100,000, of which, between been concurrently stated by the commodore 6,000 and 7,000 must have been captured, as and one of the most intelligrent captains of we collect, by Sir Charles Hotham's squadron. the squadron, that its presence did actually His own evidence gave nearly thirty per cent. tend to the consolidation and settlement of as the proportion of captures, speaking of the traffic, by coajfiing it to houses of large captured vsssels only; but, ifthis is the case, capital and extraordinary r'esoserces. WVe the captures must have been confined to very subjoin the following statement, taken from small, or very lightly laden vessels; for the the Foreign Office reports and Mr. Bandinel's proportion has seldom, it will be seen, abstract: reached even as high as ten per cent. No of slaves No. captured If any conclusive confirmation were exported by cruisers wanted of the truth, that the fluctuations of 1840................64,114................3,616 1841................45,097................5,966 the slave-trade depended solely on the de 1842s.............28,400................,50 mand for slave produce in the markets of 1843................ 55,062................ 2,9 1813.55......2,,.,5.66.Europe, it would be found in a table whichi 1844................54,02................ 4,57 1845...............37.... 5s.....3,51 exhibits a comparative view of the extent of 1846................76,107................2,88 the trade at different periods, and ofthle prices 184............. 84,356... 3,967 at such periods of ordinary Havana sugar. Average price of Sugar per ewt Slave Trade Rise or Fall Ilerease Decrease 1825 to 1830..........34s. 6d....... 9 per cent.......- per cent..........21 per cent........- per cent. 1830 to 1835..........24s. 8d-...29......... -........37 1835 to 1840.......... 29s. 3d.......19 -- --- "..........73 "........- 1840.......... 25s. 4d......25s. 4........13..........- 1...... "53 " 1841 to 1844..........21s. d17 ".......-......I1 ".........-........29 " 1845 to 1847.......... 26s. 7d.......18....... - "............44 "........ " Very little doubt can exist as to the com- hanced prices of sugar, and $50,000,000, to mercial character of the whole proceeding. support the slave squadron-and, after an 'I'The numnbers would, doubtless, have dliffered attempt to exclude slave-grown sugar from had our squadron not been there; but the English consumption, compelled to admit it, proportions would have remained the same, and, therefore, directly to encourage the and may as well set at rest any inquiry as to slave-trade by purchasing its products at the causes producing the increase of the high prices. While the West India blacks slave-trade at one time, and the diminution at were in a state of servitude, they raised sugar another." and coffee enough for English consumption, When England, through the enormous rise and their numbers were not kept up by the of sugar, caused by the ruin of her colonies, slave-trade. By emancipating them, England was compelled to throw her ports open to was compelled to buy sugar of those who foreign sugar, she gave a direct premium for supplied labor from Africa, and who were the importation of slaves. That she pre- thus compelled to import more slaves to suptended to exclude slave sugar did not vary ply the English demand for sugar and coffee. the result; thus, the free-grown sugar of While professing to stop the slave-trade, India found sale in Europe. The moment England thus induced the importation of more England bid higher for the sugar it went to blacks into Br?azil and Cuba, than she had herher instead of Europe, and by so much was self emancipated in her own islands. Such the European demand for slave sugar en- are the losses which speculators in philanhanced by the acts of England. Not only thropy sometimes sustain. did this result from the failure of her plan, The following table from official sources, but the price of sugar was greatly enhanced shows the annual consumption of six articles to the people of England, and they were, in Great Britain, with the progressive decline finally, after paying $100,000,000 to free in the duty the slaves, $75,000,000 more in the en Cotton Wool Coffbo r''-"'... " - - -',," - - - --,.- r - - -- _.. Lbs. Dutyper lb. Lbs. Duty per cwt. Lbs. Duty per lb, 1801...... 33,630,390................. 8,615,284........ee............750,861...... Is. 6d. 1811...... 89,008.874........ -........ 4,739,972........6s. 8d......... 6,390,122...... Os. 7d. 1821......113,896,651........3 3d..... 16,680,043........Os. 6d......... 7,327,283...... Is. Od 1831......257,9.041,045........3d..........31,679,612........Os. ld......... 21,842.264......Os. 6d. 1641......442,270,413........3d..........44,611,465........Os. 1d.........27,298,322......Os. 6d. 1848....... 641,384,283........free........ 64,021,957.......free......... 37,106,292......Os. 4d. 360 UNION-ITS STABILITY. Sugar Tobacco Tea C-t Duty per cwt Lbs Duty per lb Lbs Dulty 1801..... 3,341,496....... 20s. Od...... 16,904,798..... Is. 7d....... 20,237,753..... 20 per cent 1811......3,398,367...... 27s. Od........ 21,376,367...... 7s.2d.......20,702,809...... 96 1821......3,149,454...... 27s. 0d........ 15,598,152...... 4s. )d...... 22,892,913......96 1831......4,364,148......24s. 0d.......19,533,814...... 3s. 0.......29,197,1(1.....96 1841..... 4,208,324..... 24s. 5d....... 22,309,360...... 3s. Od.......36.675,667.... 25 c. per lb. 1848...... 616,621......13s. Od...... 27,061,480......3s. Od...... 48,735,971..... 25 " The duty on cotton wool has been reduced, of that supply is the slave labor of the United gradually, from 25s. 6d. per 100 pounds in States. That country which, shrouded in 1814, when imported in foreign ships, and her navigation and restriction acts, had fan 16s. lid. in British ships, until it was made cicd herself independenlt of the world, had free in 1845. The coffee duty here given, is become entirely dependent upon the slave that on British plantation. This was 9d.,- labor of America. At such a moment the that is to say, on West India it was 96s. per occupation of Texas, a country of limitless cwt and 84s. per cwt. on British India, until cotton abilities, by an Anglo-Saxon popula the West India productions so declined as to tion in arms against the authority of Mexico, advance the price to a rate that would permit was a spectacle which England regardled with the import, in 1835, of India coffee at this intense satisfaction. The Texan country rate of duty; the reduction of duty to 6d. on was the sole remaining cotton land upon the all British then became necessary, while North American continelt, not embraced foreign paid is. 3d. per lb., giving 37s. 4d. within the limits of the Union; and its ca per cwt. protection to the British planter. pacity, under the influence ofEnglish capital, In 1842 it became necessary to admit British to produce sufficient for the wants of Eug coffee at 4d. and foreign at 8d. The sugar land, is undoubted; and, under the impres duties are those on brown British plantation, sion that cotton could there be raised by free, the rate on foreign being now 20s., or 4s. per or at least by Asiatic labor, England strenu cwt., and 5 per cent. less than the duties ously exerted herself to acquire a preponde under the act of 1840 on British. The old rating influence in the young state, whtich duties on foreign sugar were 63s. per cwt. she was not slow in recognizing as indepen The decline in the quantities drawn from the dent, proffering the nmost liberal treaties. MWest Indies to supply the great demand is Texas, on her declaration of independence, manifest in the following sunmmary aggregate had, however, applied for admission into the of exports from those islands. Union in 1837, but was promptly rejected by EXPORTS FROM BRITISH WEST INDIES. Mr. Van Buren, who was at that moment en Su.gar, rw.t. R..um,.gals. Coffe, lbs. gaged with England in suppressing Canadian 1831....4,103,696....7,843,920....20,0307802 rebellion, and who did not wish to disoblige 1841....2,154,217....2,770,139.... 9,927,689 her by entertaining the Texan proposition. Immediately on this rejection, England began Decrease, 1,949,479.... 5,049,77 1-.. 10,103,113 Decre, 1 9 4 13 to press its "good offices" upon Texas, and These islands, having first been ruined by in 1839 she formed a convention, by which the erroneous legislation of England, and the Texas was to pay $5,000,000 as her part of supplies offree labor restricted, were then, by the Mexican debt to England, if that power the reduction of duty, exposed to the compe- would procure the acknowledgment of Texan tition of slave-imiporting neighbors in the independence, and the new republic was to European markets. This state of things has be taken as completely under "British proproduced a strong disgust of the mother tection," as is the Mosquito king now. At country, and promoted a scheme of aitnexa- that time, however, England, owing to the tion to the Uiited States, by which it is hoped state of parties in Mexico, could not procure that supplies of labor from the southern the recognition of Texas. In 1840 the states miay be opened to their fields. world's convention met in London, and the The whole scheme of monopoly of raw Texan envoy, General Hamilton, was deproducts, and consequently of manufacturing feated in his negotiation by their influence, and conmmercial superiority, based upon a co- which also aided Santa Anna in procuring lonial system, having thus failed, it resulted the means for invading Texas in 1842, for that England had become dependent, more the vowed purpose of emancipating slaves. thian ever, upon the United States, for that This invasion of Texas by Mexico was then cotton on which her existence, as a commer- adopted as a collateral lnoveimetit to the grand cial nation, depends. One-half of her whole slave-trade coalition treaty got up by Lord external commerce had come to consist in Palmerston. Austria, Russia, Prussia, Engimporting raw cotton, and re-exporting it in land and France, were to be parties to a the shape of fabrics. Over 2,000,000 of her treatv of mutual right of search, and this was people, and a vast capital, are dependent for to be made the instrument of awing the employment in manufacturing, upon the sup- United States into submission. The minister ply of the raw material; and the sole source declared in parliament, July 17, 1844, that UNION-ITS STABILITY. such had been their intention. It was at that plied the place of imported labor, and rendered momient, that the vigilance, skill, and address the slave trade of other countries nugatory. of General Cass, as minister to Paris, saved If the ministers of England had taken into his country, by persuading France not to consideration the fact that the negro is a lazy sign that treaty. The news of that diploma- anzimal-indeed, the sloth of the human racetic defeat of England reached New-York on and that the ignorantfield slave had lo perccpthe same day as that of the invasion of Texas tion of liberty but that of exempting himn from under Arista. The news of the combination labor, the hasty legislation of 1833-'34 would was also the announcement of its failure. not have been resorted to. But the British 'Without France the quintuple treaty was cabinet has, for a long series of years, suffered powerless, and without that treaty England itself to be controlled by a set of fanatical could not support the Mexican invasion, and gentlemen, whose knowledge of the comthe troops retired from Texas. Again Eng- plicated question of slavery was very imperland changed her tactics, and she sought to fect, and whose zeal totally outran their strengthen her alliance with independent judgment. It is this set of persons-the BuxTexas, sending Captain Elliot thither as tons, the Sturgeses, the Stephenses, and envoy. This person manceuvered so well, others-whose influence in Downing-street that he ingratiated himself with the Texan has been so pernicious, and whose fatal adchiefs; and, with their advice, taking advan- vice has caused England to throw away, on tage of a change of government in Mexico the coast of Africa, so many valuable lives went thither to negotiate a treaty of ine- st whom the Quarterly Review — against whom the Quarterly Review pendence. This het eected. The terms Oid launches its severities and its sarcasms. It is, were,ne theiornesth e Thebounaryof Texas indeed, time that the insane delusion was and her independence asithout inldemnity, on dispelled, and that common sense again re and herii-idepi-ideiie ivithum ldmiy nued its sway." the sole condition of remaining independent, sumed its sway" the latter beingf the sine qua non of the Eng- This became the tone of that press which lishlman. This treaty was sined by the for so long a time had clamored for the right lisiiiiaii. histratywassiged y teo f search as the only miean's of suppressing Mexican executive, with the assent of the of search as the only ans of suppressing the slave-trade. Congress, and would undoubtedly have been Having learned by experience the best accepted by the Texan authorities, had not,Hvn ere yexeinetebs accepted by the Texan authorities, had not, mode of emancipation, it is requisite, in order meanwhile, the people of the two countries become aroused to the crisis by the letter of wto practise it, that she should have an opporbecome aroused to the crisis by the letter oftlnt tunity. and this may be found in the acquisithe venerable Jackson, making annexation and this may be ou ndi n the acquii * T) s At X * I 1. q.tion of new slave countries. imperative. Earl Aberdeen admitted, in his note to the American government, that the The contest that had so long been susutm-ost inifluence of the English government tained in parliament against admitting slavewas to be used to procure the abolition of grown produce was relaxed, and Lord John slavery in Texas, and this purpose was fur- Russell, now the first minister of the crown, moved to admit slave-grown sugar on the ther indicated in the correspondence of Mr. moved to admit slave-grown sugar nn the Pakenham, with the ultimate view of a simi- same terms as colonial. Te necessity of ar result in the United Stateis. Failure furnishing the West Indies with laborers agatin attented British schemes. The whole from the coast of Africa is freely admitted, again atten-ded British schemes. The whol, n icpenstparbentaetopri Texan plot was defeated, and the Union re- and incipient steps are being takei to permit Texaplaed, and sthe. such emigration. Why free black emigrants Foltc eived a new state. f will work better than emancipated slaves is From-i the moment that the last vestige of,lot easily conceived. Freedom, at least Bricotton land passed under the wing of the tish black f reedom, ay exist in changing the eagle, the views oEnlninrsetto ca,, th viws of England in respct tname, without altering the mode of coercion. slavery underwent a change, and a more com- Flogging a black emigrant is a very benevo prehliensive pro-slavery scheme of aggrandize- lent operation compared with chastising a ment is now in progress. As soon as the Iblack slave. Every modern philanthropist annexation of Texas became certain, the go- can give the reason for that. Meantime, the verumeni t press began to prepare the public world's convention, which met at London in mind of England for a toleration of slavery, 1840, although foiled in its Texan schemes, as the best means of ameliorating the condi- persevered in that system of attack upon the tioni of the blacks. The leading daily press, institutions of the IUnited States, which was and the reviews, freely denounced the whole to be instrumental in developing the new de slave-trade suppression scheme. AnEnglish signs of the British government. The aholi paper remarked: tion party of the United States had, under the " If the ministers of England, when carry- promptings of G. Thompson. now govern ing their measures of enmancipation, had lis- menit member of parliament for London, as tened to the jutdicious advice which we know serted the necessity of the abolition of slavery, was offered to them to make the process a even at the expense of the Union. How a gradiial one, and thus prepare the negroes for separation of the free states from the slave liberty, there would have been a greater pro- states was to diminish slavery in the latter it bability that their industry would have sup- is not easy to see, unless the latter were to 362 pl'cd theplace of imported labor, and rendered the slave trade of other countries nugatory. If tl-ie ministers of England had taken into consideration the fact that the negi-o is a la:zy ait'inal-iitdced, the sloth of the human )'aceand that the ignoi-antficld slave hadtio' perccpt'on of l'bei-ty but that of exempting 7tilni from labor, the hasty legislation of 1833-'34 would not have been resorted to. But the British cabinet has, for a long rie of years, suffered itself' to be controlled by a,,,t of fiatical gentlemen, whose knowledge of the complicated question of slavery was very imper 1'ect, and whose zeal totally ontrii their Judgment. It is this set of persons-tlie Buxtons, the Sturgeses, the Steplietises, and others-whose influence in DowniDg-street has been so pernicious, and whose fatal advice has caused England to throw away, on the coast of. Africa, so many valuable lives -against whom the Quarterly Review launches its severities and its sarcasms. it is, indeed, time that the insane delusion was dispelled, and that common sense again resumed its sway." This became tl-ie tone of that press which for so long a time had clamored for the right of search as the only means of suppressing the slave-trade. Having learned by experience the best mode of emancipation, it is requisite, in order to practise'it, that she should have an oppor tlinityoi and this may be found in the acqui,,i tion new slave countries. UNION-ITS STABILITY. be exposed to some new influence. The political adventurers, dissolute negroes, and itinerant atheists, male and female, who, pet ted by the English, and stimulated by those who had aided the English government in its emancipation errors, perambulated the Uiiited States, haranguing, singing, spouting, and writing, in favor of a dissolution of the Union, were for the most part, met with the contempt they deserved; and it is a -glorious example of the high-toned and comprehensive philosophy which pervades our people and the institutions they sustain, that these vagabond disseminators of treason, disunion, and civil war, were disregarded and uniiioticed. On the other hand, witness the chains and exile ofJohn Mitchel and Smith O'Brien, with their noble compeers, punished with worse than death, not because they caeme from abroad to stir up insurrection and civil war in a land of strangers, but because, on their own native soil, they asked for those rights of freemen which have ever been withheld from their uLnf)rtunate countrymen, and in the absence of which they have cause to envy the rrmaterial well-being of Amnerican slaves. Almost every country in Europe affords examples of executions during the past two years, for political offences, for less than that of an attempt to excite a servile war. The American institutions are, however, based uponi truth and justice, and perpetuated in the understanding of the people; they cannot, therefore, be shaken by the wicked sophistries of such monarchical tools. Gradually the Britis h commercial p olicy has a ccommod at ed itself to the fact, that the great stapl es which keep in operation the workshops of ECglanad ar e s lave products, and that th at condition of t heir production cannot be changed. She repeals, therefore, her duties on them, removes her discriminationis, and throws open her navigation laws to the vessels of the woln ior their transprovtation to h er warehouses, and her whole colonial policy becomes changed. When England was emancipating her slaves in the West Illdies-when her consul was exciting insurrection in Cuba-when her exertions were greatest to suppress the slave tradewhen her intrigues fbr Texas were ripening -the people ot Canada rose in rebellion, striving to shake off her yoke, and the people of' the United States'; sympathized" with them. England poured her troops into the province, putting forth all her disposable force to suppress the defection. Mr. Van Btiren, then President, and a warm proslavery advocate of southern interests, under a mnost remarkable but unseen influence, repulsed Texas into the arms of England, and, suddenly changing his policy in relation to the Canadian sympathizers, abandoned the people of Navry Island to their own resources, while denouncing the whole proceeding, and, for this, was himself a bandoned i n 1840 by the northern electors. The loyal people of Canada turned out to the su ppor t of th e irn per-ial government, and were taxed cheerfully to pay the e the Wxpe nses: the movement was crushed, and the patriots exiled. The inidependence of Canada a t that time wolet have speedily brought nt ther into the Ueisvn, and given such a preponderance to the North, as Mr. Van Bure n, wi th his southern feelings, could not view with satisfaction, more per ticularly that the policy o f the Entglish government was thehen to a bolish slavery in the South, rather than to di vide the Un ion. With t he co mplete failure of the whole British scheme in relation to colonial prodrc( ts, came Mr. Van Buren's defeat as a candidate for the presidency in 1840. The opponent t of Canadian independence then became committed against the Texanl annexation, and this newr interest gr a dually ripened into opposition to southerln interests, and the formation of a sectional par ty unde r the pretext of i feesoil." This party embraced the scattered disciple s of the English world's convention emissarnies, abolitionlists, disuaiorists, and political adventurers of all sorts. England could not but regard with satisfaction the formation of a combination which should array the two sections of the Union against each o ther in hostility, and prepare the way prto a rupture which might throw the whole South, with its blacks and rich staples, indispensable to her manutacturing greatness, into her hands. Cuba is fast drawing toward union with the South; and to cut off the southern states Atom the northern rivals of Enigland ill commerce and manufactures, unite them to Cuba, restore therebv the West India Islands to their original valtue, and annex the whole to the British empire, by treaties offensive and dlefensive, was a prize worth conteldclinig for. The extraordinary pertinacity with which the control of the Nicaraguan Isthmus is adhered to, indicates a sense of its value in such a coinnectioni. To facilitate this, Canada was repulsed. A long course of legislation, designed to alienate her, was crowned by all act taxing the loyal subjects to pay indemnities to the so-called " traitors" of' former years, and their expostulations were met with leave " to annex to the United States, if they please." Stich a weight added to the northern, while events pointed to the accession of' Cuba on the South, would go a long ways toward breaking the Union in the centre. Mr. Van Buren, who had stood by Engla nd agaitst the Canadian rebels, appeared as the leader of the party of disunion, and the multitude of turbulent adventurers, who seek notoriety and advancement for themselves, pressed vigorously in his rear. Disappointed political advanturers, English emissaries, and fanatical parasites of all hues and descriptions, were ready to aid ill the work. The promulgator of family separation and female dishonors 363 UNION-ITS STABILITY. under the guise of " social reform," was the fitting advocate for federal disunion and national disgrace. Deistical libertinism and Ethiopian debauchery were well-assorted collaborators in the work of treason, under whatever pretence of philanthropy their designs might be cloaked. Thie formation of the cotton states, with Cuba, into a great cotton, tobacco, sugar and coffee-produciiig union, calling forth the boundless fertility ofCuba, and renovating the West India Islands with the labor of the blacks of the southern states, itn those hands in which their labor and numbers have thriven so well, and this empire annexed to Britain by treaties of perfect reciprocity, givitng the latter command of the eastern commerce by way of Nicaragua, and all the betnefits of possession without the responsibility of slave-ownership, would be a magnificent exchange for the useless province of Canada. The separation of the North from the South, under the embittered feelings which must necessarily exist before its possible consummatioii, would cut off the former from its supply of raw materials, deprive its ships of two. thirds its business, close the whole southern market to the sale of its wares, shut up its factories, depopulate its wharves, and reduce it speedily to the present condition of Canada. The possession of the mouths of the Mississippi would give the South absolute control of the WVest. There are those, now living, in the valley, who can remember that the p)ossessiont of the Delta of the Mississippi by Spain was fast separating the East and West. A delay of five years in the purchase of Louisiana would have dismembered the Union, and created a separate government in the valley. If the influence of that avenu)te of trade was so great then, when the setklet-nents of the West were few, and their surplus products iulnimportant, what would it now be, when $50,0f0',000 worth of western produce, become indispensable to England, is annually borne by it to market? With such a connectioni-, it cannot be doubted that England would return to her exclusive system, and te crsed idustry of the re itp otheNew-Etngland and mnidl(le states would struggle in vain for reward. Nevertheless, this is what desperate sectional politicians are striving, in connection with British emissaries. to bring about, seeking their reward in political advancement among a ruined people. If we endeavor to form some estimate of the interest which the North has in southern prosperity, we may begin with the most obvious item, viz., the shipping. This is, according to official tables, owned in the following proportions: Registered Enlrolled Owned tonnage tonnage Total South............... 159,956.. 334,845.. 494,797 North............... 1,201,930.. 1,456,314.. 2,658,244 Total.............. 1,361,886.. 1,791,159..3,153,041 Fishing and whaling 192,180.. 133,838.. 326,018 184S-49 Bales Pounds Tons required Per lb Am't offreight Exported abroad..........2,227,844...... 891,137,600......667,425......1 f ct...... $13,367,064 Exported coastwise....... 785,324...... 314,129,600......209,417........ ct'........ 1,570,048 207,200...... 876,842.................. $14,947,712 sources, nearly all the shipping is owned at the North, and the rates of freight, in usual years, are grad(luated by that of cotton, an estimate may be made of the whole freights. From itortherti ports these are much less than from the South; thus, while the average is about $22 from the South, with primage abroad, it is about $7 per toii to the northern ports. It is also the case that vessels are built to carry nearly 50 per cent. more than oth ieir registered taonnage, and also that many of the voyages are to the provinces and the West Indies. Hence, the average outward freights are not over $15 per ton. The n American tonlnage cleared from the United States in 1848, was 2,461,280, which, at $15 per ton, allowing two-thirds for southern origin, gives the following stums: Northern origin Southbern origin Total ..... $12,306,400..... $24,612,800......$36,919,200 .... 9,573,928...... 9,573,928...... 19,147,856 .....$21,880,328......$34,186,728...... $56,,167,056 ......2,000,000...... 6,000,000...... 8,000,000 .....$23,880,328......$40,186,728......$64,167,056 To tal................... 3,013,168...... 1,205s,2 This coastwise export is merely the first movement south lo north, and does i,ot embrace its Lultimate navigation in small vessels. As an indication of the freights on other articles, it may be stated, that the quantities of the eleven articles of sugar, molasses, flour, pork, bacon, lard, beef, lead, whiskey, corn and tobacco, which left New-Orleans for the year 1849, both foreign and coastwise, required 101,900 tons, and the freights were worth $2,467,749. Of the quantities sent coastwise of these articles, a considerable portion was subsequently exported abroad from northern ports, giving a new freight to shipping. Inasmuch as that, of all the exports of the country, 75 per cent. is based upon southern produce, and, as we have seen in the above table, which is fiom official Tons 364 Deducting the whaling and fishing Tonnage from that owned at the North, leaves 1,009,. 750 registered, and 1,322,475 coasting tonnage al)plic-,il-)Ie to the transportation of mercbandise. More than three-f'ourths of'tbis entire tonnage are employed in the transportation of produce exported from southern ports. The leading article bein,-, cotton, its movement is as foll,iws: UNION-ITS STABILITY. The inward freights are of merchandise, on wllich the ntorthern shipp)ing nlmakes a freight, the northe rn importet and jobber their profits, a,.d on which, probably, one-lhalf is sold and paid for at the South. Iii this are included fieights ftiom Europe, South America and the East Ilndies, langingt, fromt $10 to $25 per ton, anl( form[itg a large part of the whole; so that the aveiage will not form less thatn $6 per ton of carrying capacity, or $8 per ton re5,,ist(,r. The freigthts of vessels in the fotreigu carryitig trade, firom Cuba to Europe, &c., are llot iltcluded. Tlhe imports and exports of the Union were, for 1848, as follows: TImports Exp, orts Free states.......... $137,367,826......$75,985,050 Slave states.......... 17,631,102...... 7S,051,386 Total............ $154,998,928...... $154,036,436 This embraces the large exports of farm produce from the North for the famine year, andl is theretfore above an average bfor that section. Under the estimate that one-halfof thie inir)orits are consumed at the South, then $60,131,638 nmust pass through northern hands, leaving at least fifteen per cent. profit -say $9,000,000, including insurance, &c. In rettitit for this, atn amount of bills, drawn against southern exports, must be sold in New-Yotk, equal to the difference between southern imports and the amount of their exp,) ts-say $60,000,000. The negotiation of these gives, at least, $1,000,000 more to the N)orth, On data furnished by the census of' 1840, it was ascertained that the value of the manufactures of the New-Englaind and Mid(Ile States was $182,945,317, includitng 500,000 bales of' cotton worked up at the Northl. Of this, one-half-say $90,000,000fitills sale in thle southlern states, and those of the West, which, deliveritng their produce on thile great water-courses, necessarily form part ot that region, at a profit to manufacturers, jobbers, forwarders, expresses, insurance, &c., of twenity-five per cent., or $22,250,000. There arrived at New-Orleans last year, by the Mississippi River, of produce from all the western states, a value of $36,119,098, and probhably $14,000,000 more fountd sale in the slave states through smaller avenues and at shorter distance, makitig-say $50,000,000; for all which was received in return, sugar, coff:e, t,bacco, materials of' maniufacture, and domestic bills drawn oil the North against proviice and bills of exchange. These sales of Itr-(luce I) )hobably realized twenty per cent. profit, and it is fiomn the proceeds of their sales of prodluce to the South, that the \West pays f)r its purchases of goods at the East. Ther'e is also, probably, $20,000,000 of northerit captital drawing large profits in southern emtployments. Stocks, shares of companies, anid interests in firms, which, with the amounts expended by southerners comingw h tortlh in the summer season, must yield $6,000,000. These rough estimates of the Bules con- Hands Capital in snmed, 1849 employed vested Gr eat Britain....... 1,819,422..40 5. 0,000. pr, t, Europe............. 983,943..233,000.. 183,000,000 United States...... 520,000..160,634.. 122,000,000 Total............ 38323,365. 873,634.. $671,000,000 Of thi s large consumption, 2o,800,000 wa s furnished by the southern states, and i t supports, throuigh the profits of its fabrication, not less than 4,000,000 whites; and the cloth so produced furnishes cornfortable clothing to millions more, who otherwise would suffer from want of it. If, by any convulsion, the supply of raw materials should be cut off, how wide-spread would be the resulting destitution and ruini to all nations! The northern states have rapidly increased of late years in their ability to work up the cotton. Thus, in 1841-'42, the growth was 1,633,574 bales, and the United States manufacturers took 267,850, or fifteen per cent. The average growth of the past two years has been 2,500,000 bales, and 502,400 bales, or twenty per cent., has been wrought up in the United States. Thus the national industry of the North is developing itself with a rapidity that, in a few years, will cause it to require tihe whole of the southern production to the exclusiot) of European rivals. The progress in this direction is precisely in the ratio of the 365 Tl,ie, inward freights are of merchandise, on wliieh the, northern shipping inil,-es a fi-eight, the northern it-nportet, and jobber their profits, ai,,d on which, probably, Olll-'- half is sold and paid for at the South. ll this are included i-oin Europe, South America and the Eist Iiidies,,at,gin,- 1rotD $10 to $25 per tOD, a,(i for,Ditj,, a large part of' the whole; so that ttl e avei-a,-e will not form less than $6 per ton of carry' 9 capacity, or $8 per ton The freights of vessels in the foreigii carrying trade, from Cuba to Europe, &c., are ii,)t included. The imports and exports of the Union were, for 1348, as follows: UINION-ITS STABILITY. its ships, goods, produce and traffic-would at once be excluded. The rigor of that Engilish exclusive system which before drove the independent northern states into a union with the South, would apply with ten-fold tforce; and while the South has now become necessary to every country of Europle, the North has nothitng to offer-beitg, in fact, a rival to each and all in marnufactures. The areas of the free and slave states, are as follows: increase of capital. Superior wealth is all the adv-antage which Eogland has over the Ulnioli, aund s he is f ast leosing that advantage. Tile onily aay in wdhich she can check this tenidncy, is by promotinlg sectional jealousies, in the view to cause a political dissolution of the Union. A sep)artation of the Uii,)n would involve the imri edicate connection ot thle whole South, witlt AMe xico and the West Indies. with Englani(d; aml,( unider the exasperation that would inevitably attend such an event, the North AREA OF THIRTY STATES, WITH LANDS, SOLD AND UNSOLD. Area sold in Money re- Unsold area Population Area, acres new states ceivedl by U.S. ne.r states 1840 Free.............. 290777600......59,007,332......$91,687,565......199,935,398......9,918,864 Slave............... 599,275,502......41,202,324...... 45,085,512......145,977,945......7,513,008 tha e manlufacturing and commercial interests of the world depends. It is the source whence the only means of employing and feeding at least 5,000,000 whites can be drawss. and withoutitjwhich, nearly $1,(000,000,000 of active capital in ships and tfactory would be valueless. A country and institutions so iniportant to the welfare of humanity at large, are nlot to be trifled with. This country fbrms onehalf of our glorious Union, on terms agreed upon 1y those immortal men who separated from England, because they would no longer sutffer the continuance of the African slavetrade; but, in its independent position, the Soo,uth holds the welfare of other nations almost entirely within its keeping. The capital and laboring abilities of England are such as to afford the South an outlet for its staiple, should it exclude all other customers. The result of such a movement, would be to force other countries to draw their goods from England only. On the other hand, the manuifacturing progress of the North is such, that in a tfew years she may absorb the whole of the southern staple, and place herself at the head of the manufacturing interest for the supply of the world. To tl-he South, it is comparatively of small importance, whethler England or the North obtains this mastery. Between the North and Englancl, it is a mortal duel; and yet, in the crisis of this streiggle, there are to be found persons at the North so destitute of all mnoral and political acuteness as to attack, in violation of the sacred pledge of the Constitution, those institutions which it guliranities, and which are so necessary to the interests of humanity. The continued harmony of the United States, permnitting the industry of each section to ftrn'ish materials for the enterprise of the others, the reciprocity of benefits and ulillterrupted interchange of mutual productions, facilitated by conitinually increasing means of intercourse and a ccut m ulation of capital, are laying the foundation for an empire, of which the world's history not only affords no examiiple, but the magnitude of wbich the wildest dream of the most imaginative of the The area of western lands unsold, with a l ar ge portion of that already sold, is entirely comimanided by t he M isisssippi a nd its tributasies, ands the possessors of i ts delta a re the conitr-olling power. The introduction of mannif actures s mos11 t rapily pr ogressing in the nortlheii ni slasve states, ard i as these become less able t o compe te withl the more sou t hern lani(-s in angricul tural productio ns, the imNpulse will be enhanc ed, with gwreater success, that the niimiroviig r oospect s t' th e sraw material pr-omnises to enhance the capital applicable fbr that pturpose. Every year the p rogress o f affair s makes the North less necessa ry to the South, and lfmakes the lat ter more necessary to Enopgland ail wes,ter Europe. The fae e of affairs is entirely changed since General Pinckney, in convention, assented to the proposition, giving Cotaress t he r i,ht to pass laws rer,tlatintg commerc e li)y a simple majority, on the ground that it was a booni granted to the North, in consideration of the necessity which the weak South hlad for their strong northern neighlbor-s. The cotton trade thenl scarcely existed, but the material has now been spun into a web which bind(Is the commniercial w,orld to soutlhtern interests. The North now has far more need of the South to cherislh her cornmer,,cial and maniufcicturing interests, than wlhen, the merchants of Boston, headed by Joha Haticock, petitioned Congress to the followvinig effect: "ImrD)essed with these ideas, youir petitioners beg leave to request of the very auguist body which they now have the honor to adidress, tlhat the numerous impositions of the British on the trade and exports of these states may be forthwith contravened by similar expedients on our part; else, may it please youri excellency and honors, the commerce of this country, and, of consequence, its wealth, power, andI pe-rhaps the Uiii, itself', may become victims to the artifice of a nation, whose arms have been in vaini exerted to accomplish the ruin of America." The South is now, with its institutions and capabilities, possessed of that on which half 36(3 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. world's statesmen has failed to conceive. In slave migration is a great mistake. It was this undisturbed progress, the conditioni of the opposition of the white settlers to the the black race is being elevated on the swel- presence of negroes that alone prevented it, lihg, tide of white progress. Inasmnuch as that Had any number of slaves been settled in the first slaves imported were, under their I Ohio, they would, ultimately, as in Newnew iiasters, vastly superior in conditioni to York, have been emancipated, and would, by the inude cannibals by whom they were sold, so muich, have reduced the existing number only because avarice triumphed over aippe- of slaves. Thus, niotwithstandiiig all the false tite, so is the condition of the slave of the sympathies of the North, the progress of present day far above that of his progenitor a emancipation at the South is quite as rapid few generaitious back. The black race, in its as it should be, to avoid convulsions. It is servitude to the whites, has undergone an im- more than probable, that, when the body of prove,menit, which the same race, in its state free blacks shall have become more considerof African freedom, has failed to manifest. By able, they will supplant slaves as domestic whatever degree, physically and morally, the servants, until slavery becomes, in those states, blacks of tihe United States are superior to almost entirely predial. There is no comthe inude cannibals of Africa, are they indebt- parison between the well-trained free black, ed to the white race for its active, though not sublject to dismissal for misconduct as a dodisinterested, agency. That process of im- mestic servant, and the slothful slave who provement has not ceased, but is ever pro- has no fear of loss of place before his eyes. gressive il the train of white advancement. The firee blacks must, necessarily, crowd out The huge lumber-car has no vitality of itself, the slaves by a gradual and regular process, but, attnclied to the resistless locomotive, as the latter become more fitted for freedom. moves forward with a vigor not its own. To It is an inevitable law of political economy, cast off that race, in dependence on its own that slavery nmust cease where trade is free resources, is a singular manifestation of desire and the population of freemen becomes more for its progress. As an indication of the pro- dense. This process is gradually and surely gress in respect of freedom, which that race elevating the black race; and, to disturb it by makes as it is trained to endure it, we mtnay any means, is at once to plunge this iucapable take the numbers classified upon the colti- race into hopeless barbarism, as complete as nent, for three periods, according to the Unli- that which pervades Africa. Al eariiestdeted States census: sire for progress, political and social, for both races, as well oli tius continent as upon that SLAV.EATE. FREE STATS iof Europe, will find, in a firm adherence to S — e B- re,t — ~ the compromises of the Constitution, the only n..8,0..614. o suhre mode of accomplis,-hing that double end. 1800............ 857,095...... 61,441...... 73,100, 1830............ 2,005,475..... 182,0.... 3,525 To preserve the harnioniy of the several sec1850...........2,005,475......18'2,070..... 137,525 1840.......... 2,486,226.... 215,568.... 172,509 tioens, by refraining from ai attack upon that state of things which we may wish did not In 1800 there were 36,946 slaves in what exist, but which we cannot remedy, is the are iO()w free states. Thie emaocipiation of only mode of ameliorating them.'IThose these increased the free blacks in the free political schemers eiho seek for their own states; but the multiplication of the f d iceet am id the ritisof an empire, the blacks in the slave states is much -nmoe rapid desolation of a contiient and the barbarizing and is increasing, on the proportion of slaves of a race of men, will find, it the awakening Thus, tile fr'ee blacks in those states, in forty Tls, thle free blacks ill those states, in forty [ intelligence of the people, the fiat of their own '. destruction.-Kettcll. years, reached 25 per cent. of the original nuinliel of slaves-the emancipation bell), Tis, UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF always 10 per cnt. of the iiicrase.THE J{EPUBLIC.-EARLY SETTLEMENT OF beei ngreatly retarded by the abolition excite ITHE COPULOIC.ESX ITRICLY NOTTLE. OFTIF ment. It is observable that the free blacks ITHE COLONIEs; HISTORISCAL NOTES OF THE do not emigrate firom the southern states. GROWTH OF TERRITORIES AND STATES DisTheir social position there is less onlerous CUSSION OF GREAT BOUNDARY QUESTIONS than the nomiial freedom of the North. TFhel ACCESSIONS OF NEW TERRITORY AND TItE increase of free blacks at the South, ill forty PRINCIPLE INVOLVED; PRESENT EXTENT OF years, was 250 per cent., and, at the North, THE AMERICAN UINION AND ITS DANGERS, 140 per cent. It is undoobtedly true, that I ETU.-The definite treaty of peace settled the iicoriquerable replgnance of the No,rthl between the United States and Great Britain, to I)eDrmit the presence of blacks, if they canl in 17S3, determined the boundaries of the possitfly be excluded, has, to a very great e- two powers in North America. The Missistent, checke(d emancipation. Thus, the conl- sippi, from a point west of the Lake of the stittiti,mi passed by Ohio on its orgaiiization as d1 Aoods and southwardl to the 31 of latitude a state, with the black laws, passed by its — that parallel of latitude and lines drawn legislature, by preventing the ingress of upon the rivers Apalachicola, Flint, St. slaves, greatly retarded em-ncipation. To Mary's, etc., constituted the boundaries of suppose that the ordinance of 1707 stopped the French and Spanish possessions on 367 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. the 5lest and South;* and the North the St. first house was erected there by some adCroix, the St. Lawrence, etc. rivers, and the venturers from Plymiouth, in defiance of the lakes, separated from the Canadas. menaces of a Dutch fort upon the Connecti The territory embraced within these lines cut River.* was all that the original thirteen states oc- John Clark and others, eighteen in numincupied or claimed, and it was secured to ber, disgusted with religious differences in them forever in the same treaty which se- Massachusetts, purchased a small island from cured their independence. the natives, which afterward came to be It will be not without interest to mark ill known as Rhodc Island. The fertility of the a hurried manner the progress and extension soil and the pleasantness of the climate soon of settlements and government in these attracted many people to their settlement. original states, since from theml as a starting In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, point the most interesting contrasts nmay in the service of the Dutch, following the afterward be made. These states were the track of the Cabots a century before, landed great pioneers of the Union, and out of them on Manhattan Island. Fifty-five years after, and such additional acquisitions of territory the Dutch colony which had made a settleas they have been enabled to make from ment here forimally surrendered to an Engforeign powers, have been created a great lish fleet under Nicolls, and the name of body politic which has amazed the world by New Amsterdam, in honor of the brother of its extenut and power. the king, yielded to that of New-York. Vi rinia.-The year 1607 witnessed the The Duke of York conveyed, in 1664, a first permanent settlement of any English part of the patent granted him by Charles colony throughout all this vast and then II. to Lord Berkely and Sir George Carteret, howling region. Under a patent from King under the title of New-Jersey-the famllily of James, one hundred emigirants, in April of the latter being from the Isle of Jersey. In this year, landed in the vicinities of James ignoranec of this, Gov. Nicolls, of NewRiver and set about the construction of the York, granted, in the same year, a patent town which adopts the name. In 1612, the for the same tract-and under it the territoVirginia company received an additional ry became a resort for reputable farmers and grant of territory, which included the Ber- families from New-England and Long Island. inudas and all the islands within three hun- In 1640 a purchase was made on behalf of dred leagues of the coast. New-Haven, from the Indians, of certain llassachusetts.-In 1620, the Mayflower, territory on both sides of the river and bay so celebrated in history for the daring band of Dclaw,reo, for the purpose of trade and of spirits who were assembled in her cabin, " extension of the Gospel." Fifty families landed in the proximity of Cape Cod, and, were immediately settled. The Dutch, of New after solemin prayer and thanksgiving," Netherlands, at first opposed this measure as forty-onle in number, excluding women and an encroachment, burnt the trading house children, signed an instrument of govern- that had been erected and seized upon the mnent. The contract with the names of its goods. subscribers is now preserved in Morton's Lord Baltimore, received from King "New-England Memorial." Charles, 1632, a title to the province of llary A )patent was siglned the same year, which land, named in honor of Henrietta Maria was the basis of all subsequent ones in this his queen. TAwo years after, Calvert, with a region, granting to the Duke of Lennox and colony of two hundred Roman Catholics, arhis associates, the right of planting, ruling, rived in the territory and fixed a settlement. ordering and governing New-England in In 1662, the Earl of Clarendon and others, America. The grant included all territories received a grant of the immense territory between the latitudes 40O and 48~ north lying to the southward of Virginia, between from ocean to ocean. the 310 and 36Q latitude, which in honor of In 1620 was granted to John Mason the the queen was called Carolina. The first territory about the river Pascatagua and now colony under the charter came over in 1667 comprised within the state of New-Hamnp- or 1668. shire. This territory was included within Mas- William Penn, the celebrated "Quaker sachusetts until 1680, when it was formed King," was constituted by the charter of into a separate government, much, it is said, Charles II, absolute proprietor of the provagainst the will of the inhabitants.t The ince of Pcn,~sylvania. He immediately pronext question of boundary between the two ceeded to dispose of shares, and a colony at governments was setted in 1740 by the once came over and settled above the confluLords Of Council in England. ence of the Schuylkill and the Delaware.t The original patent for Coiinectictit was The parliament of England having pursigned in 1631, and two years afterward the chased the proprietory of government of Car * See Treaty in 2 Itolmes's An., 529. * Trumbull's Connecticut, 13. Belknap's New-Hampshire. t Proud, 170-196. 368 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. allna, divided, in 1729, the territory into two distinct and separate governments, known afterward as N~orth and South Caro lina.* To the southward of these colonies a large territory remained still unsettled, which caused some uneasiness in England, lest the Spanish, from the neighboring province of Florida, or the French from the Mississippi, in the desire of more easy communication with their WVest India possessions, shouldt seize upon and appropriate it. A great movement of philanthropy was also at work at the same time in England. A double purpose of patriotism and philanthropy it was thought would be subserved by settling this region, viz.: "to obtain possession of an extensive tract of country, to strengthen the province of Carolina, to rescue numer ous people in Great Britain and Ireland from the mniseries of poverty, to open an asylum for persecuted and oppressed Protestants in different parts of Europe, and to attempt the conversion and civilization of the natives." The government was vested in trustees. In 1733, Oglethorpe reached the limits of Georgia, so called in compliment to the king, with one hundred and sixteen persons intended for a settlement. Thus in a period of one hundred and twenty-four years from the landing on James RIiver to the enterprise of Oglethorpe, was effected the planting and colonization of those thirteen original commonwealths, which were destined in so short a period to shake off the foreign dominion which was asserted and maintained over them, by a series of unparalleled victories over the troops of one of the proudest and most potent empires in the world, establish for ever their right of independence and place amnong the nations of the earth. The territory held within the jurisdiction of these thirteen states, after the Revolution; embraced vast, uninhabited and almost unexplored regions, stretching far beyond the mountains and lakes and the outermost limits of civilization and government. Each of the states holding such territory succeeded of course to all the rights of empire and sovereignty over it as fully and effectually as these rights had existed in the hands of the English king himself. There was nothing in the union of the colonies for whatever purpose to impair that right. Pending the adoption of the articles of confederation however, when it was of the last importance that the states should present an undivided front against the common enemy, Maryland refused her adhesion to the " articles," unless an amendment were made appropriating the uncultivated and unpatented lands in the western part of the Union as a common fund to defray the expenses of the war.* We then discover at how early a period it was perceived, that if any one government, consolidated or federal, succeeded that of Great Britain throughout hmer American pos sessions, this government was the only pro per repository of all rights to unoccupied territories, either the n existing in the hands of its members or to be a c quired by future treaty regulations with the Indians or with foreign powers. It is certain thlat New-York, s o on after the pro pos ition of Maryland, a dmitted the im portance of the principle, and led the wavy in ceding her territories to the Un ion by th e acts of her legislature in 1779 Vrot and 1780 and. the final transfer of 1781. She was follow ed i n 1784 by Virginia, in 1785 by od assa chusetts, 1786 by Connecticut, and in 1787 by South Ca rolina. North Carolina and Georgia made similar concessions. On the adoption of the federal constitu tion in 1789, the r igh t of Co ngr ess over all this territory wa s d istin ctly specified in the third section of the fourth article: " Con gress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulation re specting, the territory and other property be longing to the United States."t Two years before the institution of the present constitutional government, 1887, Congress passed an " ordinance for the gov ernment of the territory north-west of the river Ohio," which had been relinquished by the states of Virginia, Massachusetts, Con necticut and New-York. As early as 1769, Daniel Boone had plunged into the wilderness west of Virginia and begun the settlement of what was afterward known as the district of Kentucky. In 1790, having fulfilled the requisite conditions, this district applied for admission into the Union, and was received as an independent state the following year, constituting the first of the new class of states in which the Union is divided, subsequent in origin to the Revolution, and the constitution. A few days afterward, Vermont, embracing the territory which had been included in the New-Hampshire grant, but which had declared itself independent, by the name of New-Connecticut, alias Vermont, and settled its disputes with New-York claiming once a jurisdiction within its borders, petitioned for admission into the Union and was received as another independent state. The jurisdiction of North Carolina having been extended over the district of Tennessee during the Revolution, emigration flocked in * Kent, i., 210. Journals of Congress, vii. Congress, by acts of 1780, called for these cessions by the States.-Kent, i., 259. t As to the new states' power over their lands.Kent, i., 259. I* English Statutes, v. 708 —714. H~olines's A] rican Annals, i. 553; ii. 1. VOL. III. 369 24 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF TilE REPUBLIC. that direction, and by 1796 the materiel existed for a state, which was formally admitted into the Union. Ohio, included within the North-West Territory, which had been penetrated by Col. Clarke and the Virginians in 1779 and which begun to be settled in 1788, became one of the American states in 1802, and settled its constitution. These states were all carved out of the original territories to which our country succeeded by the treaty of peace in 1784, and the possession of which was guaranteed and defined by that treaty. About this period began a new era in the progress of America, the importance and influences of which cannot be held in too serious a light. From the opening of the Revolution, or for about twenty-six years, the states had been content to grow and extend within the limits assigned by the mother country. These limits were vast enough for the proudest empire. It was impossible, however, that a people who had possessed themselves of this much could remain satis fied whilst fertile and still more extensive regions surrounded them upon every hand, claimed and sparsely populated by nations. entertaining little if any sympathies with them. The restless enterprise too and ac quisitiveness which are inherent in all re publics, were not likely to operate with a diminished force here. It is, perhaps, too early to determine whether this desire of exten sive territory, which, dating from the early part of the present century, has been grow iiig every year more intense with our coun:trymen, will be, in the event, for the advan tage or detriment of the republic. Guided and restrained by high moral considerations and political wisdom, it has hitherto, as we believe, so far as the results have been mani fested, been subservient to the true interest of the country. There is a mean, however, which can easily be transcended, and per haps that mean has been already reached. Territory may be purchased at too dear a cost, when it is unnecessary, or when, even if necessary, the rights of others must be invaded and protracted wars undertaken. Will past moderation content our govern ment in the futu re; or will it, emboldened and stimulated by success, aim for new ac cretions of sovereignty each year, from new ly acquired soil, in the mere wantonness of dominion? We confess that, from the spirit extensively manifested, and the doctrines promulgated in high quarters, in regard to the wonderful elasticity and expansiveness of our Union, and its capacity for indefinite extension, some apprehensions may arise in this particular. It is not difficult to predict where such a state of things would end. Peace is the mission of republicanism, andl this is inconsistent with such a spirit. Ter ritorial aggrandizement cannot 1ong be con-. ducted by any one nation without provoking uneasiness and animosities upon the part of others. War is almost a natural concomitaut; and w ith continue d wars come the, danger s of military de spot ism, growin g out of the extra o r dinary adula tio n and deference everywhere accorded to a successful general. But supposing peace we re rigor o usly preserved, and neighboring states, impressed with the beauties of our system, were to become solicitous of merging a portion of their sovereignty, and of sharing a part of our greatness; ought it not to be our principle, mn the liberal spirit, as it is said of freedom, like that cf Christianity, to receive them into the fold, like younger brothers in manhood and republicanism. I know that there is something attractive in this manner of presenting the case, and that ardent and enthusiastic natures are prone to be hurried away with it. But there are higher consider ations than those of mere feeling. Have we not duties toward ourselves higher than those which relate to the world at large? Our own salvation should be the first and the last consideration. Mere territory and mere nu mericaI force is nothing to a nation. We may degrade, by continued annexations, the anglo-Saxon element, which has been the moving influence of the republic in all its history, by introducing to the full and unre stricted rights andi privileges of republicanism and liberty, races and people who not only have not been tutored in these institutions for several hundred years as we have, but in realitv have been plunged in the lowest depths of ignorance, bigotry and political slavery. Such repeated accessions can only pave the way for the ruin of the repub lic. Though our federated system be beautiful and an improvement upon any of the previous forms of free goverments, yet we cannot but think the limits of safe extension, though ever so well guarded, are not as wide as many imagine. The remote states will cease to have their proper influence, and such will come to be the diversity of interests almost irreconcilable, that almost any uniform legislation will become unequal. The boundaries of state and federal powers cannot be so well observed where the number of states becomes very great. The doctrines of states' rights too, which have been reserved to them by the constitution, are much more in danger of perishing when there are many than a few states. These doctrines are much more strictly held by the original thirteen states than by any of the new ones; and the reason is, that the one class consider themselves the creators and the others the offspring of the constitution, The extension of federation naturally leads to consolidation, after a certain point is passed. 370 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. A strong government, as it is called, will sea. The French, too, in the policy of Bo become absolutely necessary, to keep within naparte, were solicitous of regaining the their orbits fifty or a hundred commonwealths extensive empire of Louisiana, which, in an scattered over the continent, for example, unhappy mnoment, they had ceded to Spain. from Hudson's Bay to the South Seas. He succeeded in obtaining a re-cession, What is true for the extreme case will be which excited even more lively apprehen true for some intermediate one. A vast sions in our country. The whole West was consolidated government can only become a in one flame: "If Congress refuses us effec despotism-since it must legislate for inter- tual protection," was the strong language, ests too remote to be understood or to excite "we shall adopt the measures which our any regard. safety requires. No protection, no alle If the choice of the two conditions, aninde- giance!" Mr. Monroe was dispatched to finite territorial extension of the republic, or Paris, with a view of immediate negotiations the limits with which it was received from in the matter, and Mr. Rost, of Pennsylva Great Britain in 17/83, were given, though nia, went so far as to move in the Senate, up to the present moment no little of our na- that five millions of dollars and fifty thousand tional glory and progress has been derived men be appropriated for the conquest of from these extensions, we would uncondi- Louisiana. The negotiations of Mr. Monroe tionally and without hesitation choose the were successful, and the purchase of Louisi least of the two evils and elect that our ana eflfected for sixty millions of francs and country should for ever be restricted within the assumption of certain claims due on the its limits at the period of thle constitution. part of France to American citizens. Within these bounds, even then, she could Thus was acquired, peaceably, the right maintain rank as one of the first powers on to an almost boundless territory, whose value earth. Napoleon considered, according to Marbois, The population of the United States had incalculable. Out of this territory, we shall no sooner spread beyond the mountains and directly see, some of the most important into the northwestern territory, than it was states in the Union have been carved. perceived, some natural and convenient outlet The purchase does not appear to have to the ocean was demanded for their produc- been premeditated, or even desired. The tions. The Mississippi receiving in tributaries instructions of Mr. Madison, Secretary of many important American rivers, might be State, to the American Commissioners, re considered as commanding their commerce; lated entirely to the island of New-Orleans and this "inland sea,"being held in common and the Floridas; the first of which was with a foreign power, claiming an exclusive estimated at four times the value of the sejurisdiction over portions of it contiguous to cond, and West Florida as double that of the city of New-Orleans, naturally excited the East Florida. The commissioners announced greatest uneasiness. The danger of the their inability to treat beyond these, but disconcession we were about to make during covered very soon that such a limitation the Revolution, when solicitous of a Spanish would prevent the possibility of a negotiaalliance, of the exclusive navigation of the tion. The policy of Napoleon was to secure Mississippi to Spain,* became most clearly the whole of Louisiana from falling into the perceived and acknowledged. The Span- hands of Great Britain; and this he now iards, after the treaty of peace, resisted with effected in defiance of the remonstrances of the Americans the free navigation of the Spain, who had reserved a right of pre-empriver; but, on the trading expedition of Gen- tion in the territory.* eral Wilkinson reaching New-Orleans in In regard to the boundaries of this exten1787, they were disposed, in the hope of sive region, everything remained in doubt effecting a disunion, to offer this boon to the and the greatest uncertainty. The Spaniards states westward of the mountains, on the had even denied, in 1780, the extension of condition of their instituting a separate em- any American territory as far westward as pire.t In 1795, the treaty of St. Lorenzo, the Mississippi; though the treaty of 1763, conceded the freedom of the river to the between Spain and Great Britain,. was United States, and of the city of New-Or- quoted with great effect against the pretenleans, for ten years, as a depot for its pro- tion. They now sought, by every means, duce. In the difficulties which immediately to restrain the limits of Louisiana. The ensued upon the treaty, and the manifest United States claimed the river Perdido, on hostility of Spain toward the United States, the east, and the Rio del Norte, on the west, the Americans perceived the imminent danger as the boundaries of the province when in of their position, and the almost essential the hands of France, and previous to the necessity of possessing an entire control of cession to Spain. The parties came to an the river, throughout all its course to the immediate issue in the matter; and Spain in * Marbois. * In Story's Commentaries are given the grounds ~ Com. Review, i., 400, vol. vii., No. 3., of opposition ia Congress against the treaty. 371 UNITED STArES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. stituted the government of Baton Rouge over the territory (about 156 miles in length and 50 ill breadth) embraced between the Mississippi and Pearl rivers, which was retained by her until the inhabitants, ill 1810, renounced the dominion of that power, and claimed the protection of the United States. We shall see hereafter that a final settlement of all these disputes was not made until the year 1819.1 'I'lhe province of Louisiana was now divided into two sections. The most southern, or that which constitutes the present state of the name, was organized under the title of the Territoiry of (urleans ill 1805; and havinig adopted a constitution, was formally adreitted into the Union in 1812. Alter the division of the North-West Territory, in 1800, that portion of it extending westward to the Mississippi, and northward to the lakes, was denominate d the Indiana Territory. It embraced all the white settlements upon the Illinois and Upper Mississippi, as well as those in the vicinity of Detroit. During the late war, the different expeditions which traversed this and the other neighboring territories, says Dr. Monette, were virtual explorations of the fertile and beautiful country, by thousands of hardy, young and enterprising pioneers. In 1816, a sufficient population having been attracted by the alluring prospects, Indiana was admitted into the Union. The extensive region embraced between the Mississippi and Chatahoochee rivers, to the northward of the 31~ parallel of latitude, was established in 1798, as the Mississippi Territory. In 1816, the white settlers were mg.dote a constitution.... wa fornially.. ad- the....... Misisspp and...hatahoochee..rivers,to mitted into the Union in 1812. the northward of the 31~ parallel of latitude, After the division ofthe North-W~est Terri- was established in 1798, as the Mississippi tory, in 1800, that portion of it extending Territory. In 1816, the white settlers were * In the treaty of peace of 1783, Spain was per- sippi, from a line along the Colorado to its sources, mitted to accede. The British, in making this treaty, and continued to the northern limits of Louisiana, for some time insisted upon the Ohio River as the west of all rivers emptying into the Mississippi, on western boundary of the United States, but finally condition of having ceded to them the territory east yielded the Mississippi. The accession of Spain of the Mlississippi. This was in 1805. The Spanwas promised on the condition only, that the Ame- iards refused to receive it, and denied the right of ricans relinquish all claims west of the Alleghany the United States even to the eastward of that mountains, and to the navigation of the river. Mr. river. Jay, dispatched to Spain, was unable to effect a Bonaparte, now emperor, entered into the contest, treaty on account of these pretensions. They were and though he had promised his aid to the Amnerisustained bv France, as the letter of Rayneval, Se- cals in the purchase of the Floridas, when signing cretary of Vergennes, and the intercepted letter of the treaty of cession, he now declared that any proMAarbois, evince. These facts induced the American tensions east of the Mississippi, except New-Ornegotiators to settle a treaty with Great Britain leans, was an aggression upon the right of Spain. wit hout consulting the French Court, notwithstand- Although pending the treaty Marbois had continually ing their instructions to the contrary. A secret ar- adverted to the fact that Louisiana extended to the ticle in this treaty, provided that a line due east Perdido and included Mobile, it was afterward confrom the mouth of the Yazous, on the Mississippi, venient in diplomacy to remember none of this. A and not the 31q of latitude, should constitute the difficulty on account of boundaries was foreseen, southern boundary of the United States, in case and was pleasing to Napoleon. Great Britain should recover possession of the Soon after, ar tote, in the hand-writing of the poliFloridas. On this account, perhaps, the Spaniards tic Tallyraud, to our minister, Mr. Armistrong, exrefused to del iver the territory between these lines, hibited a change in the views of Napoleon, and his claiming it as Florida until 1798. About this period favorable wishes for the acquisition of Florida by France became solicitous of regaining her old pos- the United States. A hostile attitude was recomsessions, and succeeded, by the treaty of Ildefonso, mended toward Spain. The President of the United in her purpose. This was at a period when the States called upon Congress for advice, and receivtreaty of Amniens having been broken, war was daily ed an appropriationof two millions, for the purchase expected by the United States with that republic. as far as the Perdido. It was said at the time, that It was seen how dangerous to us it was that such the two Floridas could be obtained for $5,000,000. an enemy should command the approaches of the The mission of Mr. Bowdoin immediately after failwhole western country. Spain had already, invio- ed. Pending the negotiation, the Americans took lation of her stipulations, refused all right of de- possession to the Sabine, and left all the east subject posit for our commerce at New-Orleans, or any to negotiation. Gen. Wilkinson was ordered in no other point within the territory. Great Britain, too, case to occupy further than the Pearl River, and was opposed to the recovery of Louisiana by France. only then should New-Orleans be endangered. The purchase of Louisiana was effected, and this Things remained in this condition until 1810, led to embarrassing disputes about boundaries. when, on the revolution of the people of West FloSpain, who was to have receded to France precisely rida, arid their declaration of independence being what she g ot from her, maintained that nothing east sent to Washington, Mr Madison ordered the occuof the Mississippi, except the island of New-Orleans pation of the territory, despite of the protests of the was received. Nothing beyond this could pass to British charge. the United States. This construction, it appeared The Spanish Governor of Florida having expressafterw ard, was fully admitted by France, and with I ed a desire ol delivering it up to the United States, much force. An American port of entry which was to prevent its falling into the hands of a foreign established within the region, on the remonstrance power, Gen. Matthews was commissioned by Conof Spain, was immediately given up. Mr. Monroe gross to takle possession peaceably, with the proand Charles Pinckney at the court of Madrid, were mise of re-delivery; or, if this could not be effected instructed to negotiate a treaty, deniandinag to the and a foreign power was about to interfere, to seize Rio Perdido, on the east of the Mississippi, and to upon both the Floridas by a resort to arms. The the Rio del Norte on the west, and fronm the sources act of Gen. Miattlews taking possession of East of th e last river, west of all the rivers emptying Florida was disavowed by the President. We have into the Mississippi. Spain considered the proton- already seen the termination of this controversy, sion as altogether unfounded. The American min- which gave us Florida-a territory regarded so inisters submitted a final proposition, which was not portant, that the State of Georgia proposed, in 1778, accepted-viz., that they would relinquish all claim as an amendment to the Articles of Co nfederation, for spoliations in Spanish ports, and damages at that it should have the privilege, at any time, of acNew-Orleans, and all territory west of the Missis- ceding to the federationi.-See Pitkin, 21, &c. i 372 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THEREPUBLIC. embraced within three separate and remote districts. The first district extended from the Mississippi to the Pearl River. The second was situated on the Tombigbee and Mobile rivers. The third, in the county of Madison, 400 miles from Natchez. The inhabitants were almost entire strangers to each other, separated as they were by vast wildernesses. The inconveniences were greatly felt, and it was even proposed in 1815 to extend the boundaries of Louisiana to the Pearl River, thus embracing within it almost the entire present state of Mississippi. Two years after this, the Mississippi Terri - tory was divided, and the western portion authorized to form a state government, preparatory to its admission into the Union. This last was effected on the 10th day of December, 1817. The North-Western Territory, besides the States of Ohio and Indiana, which were carTied out of it, contained the germs of two other great states-viz.: Michigan out of the county of 5Vayne, and Illinois out of the county of St. Clair. The Illinois Territory increased rapidly with the spread of W,estern population, and in 1817 w as found of sufficienit extent to constitute another independent member of the Federal Union.' The eastern portion of the Mississippi Territory, after the division in 1817, received the name of the Alabama Territory; the population of which, increasing rapidly by emigration from the different southern states, demlanded admission into the Union in 1819, and were received by a joint resolution of Congress. Maine was granted as a province to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, in 1639. In 1649, the inhabitants, deserted by the commissioners appointed to govern them, combined for their own safety. In 1652, at their request, they were taken within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts; but by comnmand of the king, two years after, the province was restored to Gorges, Massachusetts, immediately afterward, resumed her jurisdiction, and purchased the right of the proprietor of the territory. This measure displeased the king, who demanded that the province should be delivered up to him. In 1820, it was separated from Massachusetts, and admitted into the Union, agitating question which then arose, and which has, on s o many subsequent occasions, under difierent bnames, disturbe d th e c ouncils of the nation, known as the " Missouri Question," is but too familiar tho us all. The people of Missouri, as well as of a ll the southern states, main tained th at the rights of persons and property of the inhabitants of Louisiana having been guarantied to theps s in the treaty of purchase, any attempt to disturb them in the enjoyment of these rights would be a manifest violation of hono r and justice. That Congress had not, u nde r the constitution, a particle of right to interfere in regard to th e domestic relation of any state, or to prescribe any other conditions of their admission into th e Union tha n those contained in th at i nst rume nt. That to pres cribe th e condition of an abolition of s lavery, was a gross out rage agains t the constitution- against the inhabitants of the state-and an in sult to the whole southern portion of the Union. Its enforcement would lead inevitably to a dissolution of t he Une he isc ion itself. These discussion s were continued, in the bitterest spirit, for nearly two years, upon the floors of Congre ss, until the Hon. Henry Clay, o f Ken tucky, introduced that celebrated measure w hich i s known as the, Missouri Compromise," and which alone could have compose d t he disturbe d elements of the country. By this " Compromise" it was agre ed, tha t the institution of slavery, on the west side of the Mlississippi, should be recognized in the pre s ent state of Missouri, a nd no further westward than that, o r no rth of the lati tude 36y 30'. The state was then formally introduce d i nto the family of the Union in 1821, after a delay of almost four years. In locokilng back to this stormy period. which a l most, for the firs t time, tlhreatened the stability of our institutions a n d governiment, we cannot but be impress ed wit th the solemn lessons which it inculcates. Almost every possible mode of reconcilinig the b)itter animosities, sectional interests and prejudices, had been attempted in vain. John Randolph, of Roanoke, had even proposed that the southern members retire horne, in a body, as having no longer any interest in an assembly which did not recognize their rights and privileges. The sentiment began generally to prevail. In this dark hour for the Union, there was, perhaps, no other hope than in the measure which was adopted. Whether it has been well lbr the South, however, or whether she did not, in yielding to the exigentlies of the timnes, yield up a most impor. tarit and sacred principle, which has been the occasion of' all the subsequent injuries and aggressions that have been heaped upon tier in the halls of' Congress, miglht be worthy of consideration.'* The territory of Louisiana, northwar d of the 33~ of latitude. was designated, in 1812, by act of Congress, the Missouri Territory. Up to 1815, St. Louis, within this territory, was a French town, in which no signs of improvement had been made. A revolution was, however, at hand, and population, as in other portions of the west, flocked to this quarter. In 1817, application was made for admission into the Union, and the great and * See Statutes S. Car., vol. 1. DI)r. Cooper's Remarks on Northwest Territory. I 37-10, * Alonette, Vol. II. UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. dollars, in payments to be made to American citizens, for claims on account of Spanish spoliations, was the equivalent for which Florida was to be annexed to our territory. Without any apparent reason, however, and most unquestionably without authority, Mr. Adams consented to cede away, forever, to Spain, all that territory westward of the Sabine, to the Rio del Norte, included within the present state of Texas, and so much insisted upon as a part of Louisiana, previous to its cession to Spain, and as it was to be received by us, by the terms of the treaty of purchase. This clause of the treaty produced great opposition in Congress, but was sustained by the North, ever hostile to the growing influenice of southern territories, on account of slavery, and only to be propitiated for the annexation of Florida by this sacrifice. Mr. Monroe reluctantly consented to the treaty. In 1822, Florida passed under the first grade of territorial government. In 1838, a memorial was sent to Congress for admission into the Union. The constitution which had been prepared for the state, proving offensive to the anti-slavery interests, several years were suLffered to elapse before any justice could be received at the hands of that body. Finally, in 1845, the measure of a dmission was effected, as it were, by an artifice. To such miserable extremes is the South pushed whenever the question of slavery is touched. The Htron District, as it was o riginally called, west of Lake Michigan, was elected into the territory of Wisconsin. It extended to Lake Superior, to the Missouri River, and included the sources of the upper Mississippi. The country etnt)raced in it, westward of the Mississppi, was called the District of Iowa, erected, in 1838, into an independent territo rial government. A convention, in 1844, framed a constitution for the proposed State of Iowa. It was approved by Congress, and an act of adnmissivn passed, provided that the state limit and restrict, by a new constitution, the boundary which it bad claimed. This the people refused, until 1846, whets a new constitutioni was ordered to be fi'amed, and Iowa was formally admitted into the Union, on the 26th of October, of the same year, being the fourth important state growing out of the Louisiana purchase. This state being north ward of 36~ 30', is, under the Missouri Compromise, of necessity, a free one. The territory of Wisconsin, from its unrivalled and extraordinary advantatges-comnercial, agricultural and manuthfactural-began, about 1849, to increase in population, at a ratio which is perfectly amazing. In the single year 1843, sixty thousand persons are supposed to have entered the territory. The people appeared satisfied with the territorial government for several years after they were entitled to assumne that of the stente, by virtue of numerical strength. A convention was, however, called in 1846, for the adoption of Steam navigation having been opened on th e nor thern lake s, po pula tion began strongly to set in the direction of the Michigan territory. Its fine, leve l and rolling plains, its deep and end uring soil, and its immense advantages for trade and comme rce, says Dr. Monette., had become known and duly appreciat ed. The hundr ed s of canoes pirogue s and b arges, wi th thos e h alf-c ivilized couriers du bois, w hich had annually v isit ed Detroit, had give n way t o larg e and splendid steambo at s, whic h d aily t rav e rsed the lakes. Nearly a hundred sail of sloops and schooners wer e n ow traversing every part of these inland s eas. ofhe New-Engl an d state s began to s end forth their numerous colonies and the wilderness began to smile. In 1836 a c onst itutio n was adopted, and in the following year Michigan admitted as another state into the Union.* The pr'ogress of Arkansas, constituting a pa r t of the original Louisiana purchase, for the f irst ten years after its ter ritorial government had been established, was not marked b y any considerable improvement. It 1824, the we stern port ion of it w as m ark ed off, and set aside for the futur e re side nce of th e Indian tribes we st of the Mississippi. I 1834, the American people, says Moietnte, became enithusiastic for w ester n lands, and push ed their enterprises even beyond the Rocky MIountaitis. The planters from Mississippi. Louisiaina, Georgia and Tennessee, were attracted by the prolific regions on the Red River, and the fitme which th ey phad excited. They, too, even pushe d their explorations, following the course of this river into rexas and spreading throughout that territory, fixed, at its very origin, the American character, and sym)athies of that republic. In 1836, the State of Arkansas took its stand among the other proud co mrmonwealths in the American Union. Floridaz'd, whos e early history embodies so much of the poetry and romance of our country, and whose possession was so much an object, at all times, with Spain, France and Englanid, came, after the Louisiana p)urchase, to be no less an object of interest and anxiety with the American people. Its possession by a I'reigin power was regarded dangerous, and more especially by a p)ower, like Spails, who, from her impotency, was incapable of prieserving its neutrality, evinced during our contest with Great Britain, and immediately afterward. General Jackson, in prosecuting war against the Seminoles, assumedi authority for taking possession of the country in 1818. It was soon after restored, but negotiations were pressed, having for their end its put-chase by the United States. John Quincy Adams and Donl Onis concluded a treaty of cession, which was confirmed by the Senate in 1821. By the terms ot' this treaty, five millions oftl *MonIte;t ii:, 534. 374 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. the complete sovereignty of Texas for so long a period, without a hostile foot within her borders, concluded a treaty of annexation, which was submitted to Congress at the same time that Mr. Shannon was dispatched to MeKico to prevent any possible difficulties with that republic. The treaty was rejected by the Senate, as exceptionable in its terms, and Mr. Shannon, being treated with indignity by the Mexicans. demanded his passports, and returned. The annexation, however, was effected by other means. A joint resolution of both Houses was signed by the President, in 1846, defining the terms upon which the annexation should take place; which were, that Texas retain her own lands, pay her debts, that her western boundary should remain undefined, and, what was of more importance, that the principles of the Missouri Compromise be forever applied to any states which might be carved out of her, north of 364 30'. On the passage of this law, the Mexican minister at Washington at once protested, and returned home. The Mexican nation at large exhibited the bitterest hostilities and defiance.. All the foreign interests in Texas were aroused to prevent the possibility of the contemplated union. Captain Elliott and the Baron Cyprey took the lead in a system of intrigues which required the most sleepless vigilance and activity. At their instance, and to prevent annexation, Mexico was willing to forego her darling scheme of conquest, and decree the independence of Texas. Vaiin labors, whetn opposed to national sympathy and destiny. A convention of delegates unanimously assented to the proposition of Congress, and framed a state constitution. By a law passed soon after, Texas was formally admitted into the Union. The treaty which has been lately concluded with Mexico, is another great epoch in the history of our Union. We have been secured in the possession of a territory which belonged to us by the terms of purchase from France, in 1803, but which, w ithout sufficient cause, we suffered to escape; and we have also come into possession, beyond this, of an empire, e/itending to the shores of the Pacific as large, if not larger, than that of all the previous southern states combined. It is enough to form a dozen states, should all circumstances combine. But we have omitted other great territorial adjustments. No sooner hall the Province of Louisiana been ceded to the United States. which ces sion gave us the unlimited possession and control of the whole valley of the Mississippi, than the importance of this middle empire was recognized, commanding the approaches to both oceans. To the Atlantic, it was al ready open; but to the Pacific, extended unexplored regions beyond the highlands, which supplied the sources of all the river, emptyingt into the Mississippi, claimed, it is true, as far north as 49~, as a part of Loaisi a constitution, and the sta t e of Wisconsin ent ered the Union, constitutin g t he twentyninth of the confedera tion. T he S panish treaty, in 1819, concluded b e tween Don Onis and Mr. Adams, we have seen, relinquished to Spain all claim entertain ed by us t o the terr itory west of the Sabine. Texag was, at that period, in the possession of the Indians, and a few Spanish settlemn e nts wer e scattered, at distant intervals, over it. Amon,- these were San Augu sti n e, Nacogdoches, and others upon the Trinity, Brazo es, C olorado, Gtuadalupe and Sant Antonio de Bexar. T hes e s ettlements were eac h a under the government of a military commandant. On the Mexican revolution of 18-21, and the establishmeent of the United Mexican States, ill 1824, Texas and Coahuila wer e admitted a s one member. The Mexican Congress were now disposed to grant ex tra ordinary facilities for the colonization of this exten sive regio n, a nd Mr. Aust i n received a grant, for the considera tion of introducing three hunre ed families from the United States. Influenced by the most liberal grants, population b ega n to flock from every quarter, into the territory. As early as 1835, six-sevenths of this population were Anglo-American. The union of Texas and Coahuila, howev er, was an unnatural one, and te nded to rep re s s the energies of the Texans. They prayed for a dissolution of this union, and that they might be permittedl to introduce, for three years, duty free, articles necessary to the prosperity of Texas. These prayers were unheeded, and Santa Anna, hav ing. in y835, overthrown the constitution of 1824, soug,ht. throughout all the states of the confederation, to carry out his usurpations. In this, he was resisted by Texas, at the threshold; and that patriotic state established a provisional government, declared its inidepenidence, and framed a constitution for the Republic of Texas. We are all familiar with the bloody wars which ensued, and the glorious results which attended the arms of the young republic. The Anglo-American spirit was everywhere triumphant, as it needs must be, where the prize is liberty. But let us follow the subsequetit career of Texas, which is, indeed, so familiar, as to detain us but a few moments. Scarcely had the battle of San Jacinto been fought, which, in effect, secured the independence of Texas, than that state, with almost an unanimous vote, petitioned to be admitted into the Union, of which its populationi had been almost entirely made. Bo,tth Gen. Jackson and Mr. Van Buren, the year afterward, considered the proposition as premature, and likely to affect our friendly relations with Mexico. The independence of the state was, however, immediately recog nized by our government, as well as by Britain, Franlce and Holland. In 1842, Mr. Tyler~ regarding all d~fliiculti~ remaoved by. 375 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS O' THE REPUBLIC. ana, but resisted and opposed by Spain, and with much apparent reason. Mr. Jefferson immediately dispatched Lewis and Clarke to explore this whole region, tracing the sources of the Missouri, and following to the ocean the course of any stream which might afford practical water communication across the continent. It was not until 1819, as we have seen, that Spain was willing to submit to n e gociation the disputed questions of boundary and territory, which arose under the Loui si ana purchase, or to moderate her opposition to tha,t purchase. In that year, Don Onis, conceiving that a suffi'cienit equivalent had been; offered, by the American Secretary, agreed to quiet the title of the Americans, so far as Spain was concerned, to all territories westward of the Mississippi, and northward inde.fnitely of the 42~ of latitude, to the shores of the Pacific. This treaty, narrowed down the contro versy in regard to these remote northwest ern regions, to one between Rassia, France and Great Britain, all claiming undefined rights in the territory. An imperial ukase asserted the right of Russia to the whole coast north of the 511; but in 1824 and 1825, that power was willing to relinquish all pre tensions to the southward ef 540 40'. The question came up row between Great Britain and the United States, with little probability of an immediate settlement, and often with scarcely any possibility of an amaicable one, of the important controversy involving a region twice as large as the whole of France. The Americans claimed to the Russiani boundary, by virtue of their Louisiana purchase, of the treaty of 1819 with Spain, of the explorations by Lewis and Clarke, the discoveries of Captain Gray, on the northwest coast, and the settlements on the Columbia River. The British claim of discovery and exploration had also many strong points. Nothing short of a compronmise could have settled the angry dispute, and to this, very strong parties in both countries were opposed. The whole matter coming before Mr. Webster and Mr. Packingham, the British Minister, in 1842, was, by what is called the Treaty of Washington, happily adjusted, and the line of 491, which had constituted the previous boundary between the powers, continued to the Pacific Ocean. In consequence of defective explorations. difficulties arose, under the treaty of 1783, with Great Britain in regard to the northern boundary of the states., An attempt was made in 1802 to correct the- error made in regard to the position of the Lake of the Woods, but government, in the fear of a conflict with the boundary north of Louisiana, when purchased, did not ratify it. In 1818, the difficulties were still unsettled, and, by a convention of that year, the line was to r un west f r om tai ano the UnitdVoods to the R.ocky Mountains~ on the parallel 49~. Bu t in regard to the line passing thrcogh the great lakes, the vario us islands situated in them, the noth hwes t angle of Nova Scotia and the hi g hlands men tioned in the treaty, and also the isl ands situat e d in Pas samaquoddy Bay, these were left by the w relt b Treaty of Ghe nt to be determin ed by three several boards of commissioners to be appointed by the two power s. Two of these boards of commissioners; after long-protracte d and exhausting investi gati on, came to amicable arrang emen ts in re gar d to the mat te rs entrusted t o their c harge. The other board, or that having charge of the Nova Scotia and northeast boundary, failed in coming to any accord upon the sub ject. Their difference regarded a territory extending one hundred miles to the north ward of Maine and southward of New Bruns wick. The dispute, according to the terms of the arbitration, was left to the king of the Nether la nds, an d his d ecis ion w as m ade in January, 183 I. This a ward was not confi rm ed by the United States, on the ground that the arbitrator had transcended his powers. Thus the Maine boundary controver sy, as it is called, continued to be waged for a number of years, threatening hostilities upon both sides, until otherelements of discord having been introduced between tlie two nations, by the events growing out of the Canadian revolution and the burning of the Caroline, ithe British government accredited Lord Ashburton, as minister extraordinary, to settle, by treaty, all the questions at issue. Maine, Massachusetts and New-Hampshire, sent or instructed commissioners to represent their rights at Washington during the discussion. The territory in dispute amounted 12,027 square miles. or 7,697,280 acres. For Great Britain it had no practical value, as stated by Lord Ashburton, other than as connective of the different North American possessions of that power. Within this region was comprised the valley of the Aroostook, represented as one of the most beautiful and fertile tracts in that part of the continent. After protracted discussions it was agreed between the negotiators to divide the disputed region according to a line agreed upon, which gave to England 3,207,680, and the United States 4,489,600 acres. The latter part is represented by Mr. Webster, as four-fifths of the value of the whole territory. To this compromise the commissioners of Maine, Massachusetts, etc., reluctantly, but for the sake of the Union and a consideration of $250,,000, promised by Mr. Webster, agreed, and the final boundary was settled., * The letter of Capt. Talcott, accompanying tha treaty of 1842, gives the length of boundary betweez Great Britain and the United States. 376 UNITED STATES-PROGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC. Thus have successively arisen and been general power ilnplied in all sovereigns to amicably settled, all ofthose land and border make conquests and govern the conquered controversies, which during a greater por- territory. The ordinance of 1787 asserted tion of our history have occupied the atten- this power and regulated its exercise. In tion of congress and the people. Throughout the late territorial organizations the right of all of them our progress in territory has been electing their councils or legislature is given gradual and sure, so that at the present mo- to the people, though the governor and all ment we have an empire westward of the executive officers are appointed by the Pres Mississippi alone, vastly greater than the ident. Their laws must annually be sub whole possessions of the Union on the adop- mitted to congress for approval, and they tion of the federal constitution. Have these may send a delegate there with power to de controversies forever closed, or will there be bate but not vote. Thus have we in our others to arise, discussed, and result again in midst an anomalous government, wherein different accretions ofterritory? With Texas legislation and representation have no sort we shall have discussions in regard to her of connection. It is a system of colonizawestern limits; with Mexico, under the late tion as complete as that of England over treaty, it is not improbable, when complete her American possessions. " Such a state surveys have been made, many difficulties of absolute sovereignty," says Chancellor will exhibit themselves, and if, which is not Kent, " on the one hand, and absolute deunlikely, therebe not moral force enough in pendence on the other, is not- congenial that republic to sustain the treaty, we may with the free and independent spirit of our expect to have the whole question again native institutions, and the establishment of opened, and then, so far as she is concerned, distant territorial governments ruled accordfarewell forever to the peninsula of Califor- ing to will and pleasure, would have a very nia and the regions of the Sierra Madre. On atural tendency, as all proconsular governthe northern borders lies Canada, an easy ments have had, to abuse and oppres-sion."* conquest in time of war. On the Atlantic, The District of Columbia is the first in orand laved by our waters, are the West Indies der of present territorial governments, and and especially Cuba. On the Pacific it may from its embracing the capital of the United be discovered the Sandwich Islands would States, is the most important.'I'he necesfurnish most excellent ports for our western sity of fixing some permanent place came marine. A'l of these questions are in the early to be perceived. During the Revoluwomb of time, and we can only trust that a tion, and after congress held its sessions at good and wise Providence will direct and Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-York, Lancontrol us through them all-that we may caster, York, Princeton, Annapolis and not, like Rome of old, totter and fall by Trenton. In 1783 congress, having been virtue of our so great stature and unwieldy insulted at Philadelphia by a mob, reproportions. mo)ved its session to Princeton to the halls Already does our empire extend over a do- of the college. In 1784, commissioners were main wider than that of the Romans in their appointed to procure a site between two or proudest days of conquest. From the island three miles square, upon the Delaware river, of Brazos, in the Gulf of Mexico, to the and erect suitable buildings. Under this Straits of Fuca, on the northern Pacific; commission nothing was effected. In 1789, fromi the Aroostook valley to the Bay of St. a bill passed one house in favor of a location Diego, the Union extends its leviathan pro- upon the banks of the Susquehanna. Subportions. The inhabitants of these extreme sequently the present site was adopted, by points, more distant than the shores of virtue of acts passed in 1788, 1789, by Virthe old and new world apart on the usual ginia and Maryland ceding ten miles square, routes of travel, are brothers and fellow- upon the Potomac, to the.United States, citizens, under common laws and with a under the name Connogocheague. Within common destiny. It is as though the Shet- this district congress held its first session in land Islands and the Bosphoros, Siberia and November, 1800. During the past year the the gates of Hercules, were made the out- Georgetown and Alexandria portion of the posts of an empire which embraced the whole district was receded back. of Europe. For such an empire Alexander The Indian Territory, west of Arkansas, and Caesar sighed in vain, and Napoleon was separated by act of congress in 1824, deluged Europe in blood. and reserved to the use ofthe lndians. The In addition to the thirty States forming jurisdiction of the United States courts for component parts of the Union, there are the district of Arkansas, was afterward exfour organized territories to which a few mo- tended over it, except in cases of offences ments' attention will be given. The territo- by Indians against Indians. ries of the United States are the nucleus out In 1840, population began to set in tho of which states are formed. Jurisdiction direction of the valley of the Columbia River. over them is given by the constitution to. Congress, were it not inferable from the * Vol. 1, 386. 377 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. In the spring of 1845 the settlers in that against man and nature we all are familiar. A quarter were so numerous, that they organ- season of long probation had of necessity to ized a provisional government, claiming the be endured, and it served to form that hardy protection of the United States. In 1842, and resolute character which even yet adthe emigration from the United States was heres to their descendants. The New-Engone hundred and thirty-seven: in 1843, land pilgrims were the first, from their barren eight hundred and seventy-five; in 1844, shores and rock-bound coasts, to go down to one thousand four hundred and seventy-five; the sea and essay its perils. To this hardy, in 1845, three thousand. Mr. Polk, in his daring, and inimitable people, the boons of message of 1846, called the attention of Con- nature were to be found in the apparent degress to this territory and advocated the im- nial of them all. Upon the pathless deep mediate extension of the laws and ju- they are described, in eastern gorgeousness, risdiction of the United States over it. in the oratory of Burke, struggling at either The Nebraska Territory and the Territory pole, amid tumbling mountains of ice, in the of Minnesota, are the remaining two under frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay and Davis' our system, and advance in population at a Straits, beneath the arctic circle, and engaged rate which evinces they will soon solicit under the frozen serpent of the sooth. higher rank in the nation. Our paper is al- Few particulars can be offered of the comready too much extended to admit any fur- merce of the seventeenth century. We know ther references to them. that, in 1647, a trade had been opened from the northern ports to Barbadoes and others UNITED STATES-ETRaLY AND GRow- of the West Indies; that a collector of cusING COM.MERCE OF.-Itu the following paper toms was appointed at Charleston in 1685, we shall hurriedly discuss the commerce of and that the hardy enterprises of the Nantucthe United States, from the earliest authentic ket whalemen received their first impulse in 1690. dates to the year 1833, and include a large 1690numnber of interesting particulars which have At the opening of the eighteenth century, been overlooked by us, or been but slightly the gross value of the exports and imports of touched po in previous article The pe all the American colonies in their trade with touched upon in previous articles. The pe-altewol,ddntece 7400str riod of 1833 is assumed as a very convenient all the world, did not exceed.~740,000 sterode for several reasosumed as moa vthery cnvenientf of lin, or about three and one-half millions of one for several reasons, among the chief of dolr- u hc de' o uhece which is, that the elaborate statistics of Mr. dollars-a sum which does not mch exceed Pitkin terminate there. Whenltime admits oMrthe average annual trade of the single states Pitkn trmiatethee. Wen imeadmts,of Maine and Vermont, which are never rewe shall, by examination of the year books ae an orore nste t ocf Congress, be able to bring down the garded our oreo trading tatesat subject, with the same minuteness, to the all. It is less than our export alone of fish, present day, and furnish many important ol, and candles. valuable contrasts, &c. A wider field began soon to appear. In Te discovery of America, and its subse 173 1, parliament was petitioned to open the quent colonization, gave an impetus to th African trade to the Americans. The Penncommercial operations of Europe, which has sylvanians were already conducting profitable been eulargionso ever since. It is impossible traffic in Surinam, Hispaniola, the West Inbe en enlarging ever since. it is impossibleand', Newto describe in language sufficiently strong the des, Canaries, and Newfoundland Newimportant bearings of this event upon the England," said a chronicle ofthe times, "emhistory and prospects of mankind. ploys six hundred ships, sloops, &c., about The colonies of Great Britain in particular one-half of which sail to England." as we may gather from the terms of the char- The eyes of the mothercountry came soon to be open to the dangers which threatened ters accorded them, were intended at the to be open to the dangers which threatened earliest period as the poles of an extensive her from these aspiring, daring, and refractocommnerce which was to be added to the rychildren across the ocean. Like Phaeton, empire; and, considering the character of the they were stealing the horses of the sun, and earliest emigrants-hardy, bold, enterprising, unless arrested in their mad course it was impossible to foresee the consequences. They conversant with the general principles and advantages of trade by their education in so had learned, too, to guide the reins of con I ~~~~~~~~their horses. One may fancy the conisterniaconsiderable a trading nation as Britain, and theirhrses One may fancy the colusternathe character of the country they were peo- ton n parliament. "The only use ofolo hiies," said Lord Sheffield, "stemnpl pling-extensive seaports, great and innumer- ie," sad Lord Sheffield, is the monopoly able rivers, admirable bays and harbors of their consumption and the carriage of fertile soil, and favorable climate, this inten- their produce." The same noble lord re tio could by no meas have appeared un- marked, even after our independence-" It lion could by no means have appeared un- would hardly be the interest of the Amerireasonable.* Time has shown that the most would hardly be the interest of the Amerienthusiastic expectations fell infinitely short cans to go to Canton, because they have no ~of the reality. ~articles to send thither, nor any money."* With the struggles of the early colonists " Nothing, nothing," declared their statesmen i t h t h estruggles othearloloniin parliament, "can be more prejudicial, and * Seybert, 54. * Seybert, and see his note. 378 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. in prospect more dangerous to any mother kingdom, than the increase of shipping in her colonies." One of the earliest acts of British jealousy and restriction was in 1730, and was aimed against the American trade with the Dutch and Frenich colonies. This was followed up, in 1760, by the navigation act, which declared that certain specified articles of the produce of the colonies, and since known in commerce by the name of the "enumerated articles," should not be exported directly froni the colonies to any foreign cotuntry, but that they shotld be first sent to Britain, and there unlladen, before forwarded to their final destination. What could be more preposterous and suicidal than such a propositioi n? The act of 1764 provided further, that no commodity of the growth, production, and manufacture of Europe, shall be imported into the British plantations but such as are laden and put on board in En,land, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in English.built shipping, whereof the master and two-thirds of the crew are English. In 1770, Mr. Burke announced, with high gratulation, in the House of Commons, that "our trade with America is scarcely less now than we carried on at the beginning of the century with all the world." At the same period, Malachi Postlethwait, in an address to the parliament, remarked" for if once a commercial union should take place between the British continental colonies and the islands, to a certain degree they might think it worth their while probably to hazard the loss of the British markets, for the sake of the gain arising from the general fireedom of trade to all other parts of the world. What, then, may become of our British navigation to and from America? When that is lost, will not all our revenues arising from our present American imports be, annihilated?-and what will be the state of the public credit of this nation when such a catastrophe should ever happen?" The statistics of American commerce from the opening of the century until the period of the Revolution, show a continued augmentation. During the troubles of that period, and of those which immediately preceded, some decline was of course inevitable. In 1771 the whole exports and imports of New-England, New-York, Peinnsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, Carolina, and Georgia, fell but little short of $30,000,000, having increased tenfold since the beginning of the century. The war being closed, and an immense national debt of $42,000,000 accumulated, exclusive of state indebtedness, Congress found it absolutely necessary to provide a system of revenue adequate to the exigencies of the country. Experience had shown that impost duties could alone be relied upon, and were ill other respects the least objectionable mode of taxation. Under the articles. of federation, such duties could only be levied by the states, who thus reserved to themselves the exclusive control over their comrimerce. This state of things was attended with the most a wkward an d e mb arrassing results, an sed seemed likely at once to des troy all the benefits of the independence which ha d just been realized. Congress was left without a revenue, and was paralyzed. Foreigners began to exhibit their jealousies of the growing republic, and hostility to its commerce. Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, rejected all overtures to enter into treaties of commerce wi th us.* So me of the states opened their trade free with all nations, thus holding out superior encouragements to theirneighbors. New-Yorkin thismannerlaid the foundation of the empire she now maintaiiis. From the free ports goods might be smuggled into other states. Tonnage duties in different states varied from one to three shillings sterling the ton. As early as 1781, Congress prayed for the power to levy a duty of five per cent. ad valorem upon imports, to be continued until the payment of" the debt. A further power of regulating the commerce of the states was moved for in the same body, and negatived there. The states refused even to grant the duty.t In 1783 the proposition was again urgently renewed, limited to the term of twenty-five years, but was not carried into effect.: The darkest period was now at hand. The country, it is maintained, was drained of specie by the extraordinary preponderance of the imports over the exports for several years, being often as three to one in regard to Great Britain. The interest of the debt was unpaid, public credit gone, the debt itself considered of little value, and sold to many of its original holders for about one-tenth of its nominal value. Private credit was also much impaired. During the war the collection of debts was in a great measure suspended, and on the return of peace goods were imported by many individuals far beyond their means of' payment, and the courts were filled with suits against delinquent debtors. The importinig states took advantage of their situation, and levied duties on imports for their own benefit at the expense of the other states. " Thus burthened with public and private debts, and pressed with taxes, and with a scarcity of money, some of the states, in order to remedy the evil, had recourse to paper money and tender laws; and in one state there was an open insurrection, which threatened not merely the peace and existence of that state, but the peace and existence of the Union itself."~ * Marshall's Washington, p. 5, 182. t What states refused, Seybert, p. 57. t Pitkin, p. 30. ~ Pitkin's Statistics, p. 31, 379 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. Happily for the country and for the inter- To exhibit in the most striking terms the ests of mankind, the wisdom of our fathers state of things, we remark from the tables, was adequate to the great emergency. A that the total imports into the United States, common danger suggested a convention of from 1800 to 1808, eight years, exceeded the states, which, after able, protracted, and eight hundred millions of dollars; whereas patriotic deliberations, presented to the world in the eight years ending with 1845 these the constitution under which, for nearly imports did not reach niilie hiidred millions, three-fourths of a century, we have prospered though the population had augmented nearly beyond all example. The hand of God should three-fold. The export of domestic produce be marked in the result. Under this consti- in the first period is fully one-half that of the tution, one of the first grants of power to second. The total exports were as seven hunCongress was that of regulating commerce dred millions then to nine hundred millions with foreign nations, among the several now; and what is the most remarkable of states, and with the Indians. all, the United States, in the first eight years Soon after the establishment of the present of the present century, conducted an export government, Mr. Jefferson, then secretary of trade in foreign goods three and a half times state, in an answer to a call of the House of greater than they do at this moment. In the Representatives, made a report, in which he single year of 1805 the trade was as large as proposed a liberal system of commercial in the six years ending with 1847 taken policy. "Instead of embarrassing commerce together. under piles of laws, duties, and prohibitions," The prosperity in the infant Hercules of he says, " it should be relieved from all its America awoke the keenest jealousy of Eullroshackles in all parts of the world. Would pean powers, and open hostilities. They even a sitngle nation begin with the Uniited began to impose annoying restrictions and inStates this system of free intercourse, it terdictions, and other arbitrary acts, against would be advisable to begin with that na- which all protestation proved in vain. It tionI." seemed, in despite of our most determined We have already marked the origin and efforts, we must be involved in the conflicts progress of the various commodities which of Europe. The spirit of thie nation was have in the past, and still make up the sum of aroused, and in despite of the opposition of our export trade, whether the product of the merchant classes an embargo was imposed agriculture or manufactures. in 1807, which was continued for two years. WVe propose now a review of the results of This had the effect of prostrating our conmthe American foreign commerce with all na- merce, and was adopted as the sole remaintions since the formation of the government. ing alternative of peace. The embargo, said Scarcely had we entered into the family our government, by teaching foreign nations of nations, than there opened in Europe the the value of American commerce and profearful drama of the French Revolution, ductions, willinspire them with a disposition which in its results seemed once again to to practise justice. They depend upon this have involved the world in chaos. The country for articles of first necessity, and for United States, preserving her neutrality, be- raw materials to supply their manufactories.* came the common carrier for all nations, con- To show the extent to which we were ducted the commerce of their colonies, and preyed upon bytheEuropean powers, itisonly supplied them from her own resources with necessary to consider the captures made ofour the results of her industry. Never, in the his- merchantmen between 1803 and 1812, when tory of the world, was there a more rapid we were said to be at peace with all nations. and extraordinary prosperity. Every other The captures were for alleged violations of art and pursuit seemed eager to merge itself various illegal orders and decrees. The list into commerce. Capital poured into this was made out by the Secretary of State, and channel. The principles of trade and all ex- is far from being complete, nor does it exhibit perience were set at defiance. No adventure in any degree our losses, which occurred from could be too rash for success. However, delays, &c., as well as from actual capture.t gold crowned the efforts of the most ignorant operators. What wonder that we became a Captures by British....... 917 vessels. nation of merchants, or that in population " French.....- 558 the United States rose at once to the charac- Neapolitans... 47 ter of the first commercial nation in the Danes........ 70 world.t "Fixed aud permanent improvements were established throughout the United Total...............1,592 vessels. States," says Mr. Seybert; "the accumulated captals say our. merhan ts 1 t-en them utoed These spoliations were the subjects of after capital or' our merchants enab~led them to ex negotiations, viz. withEngland,France,1803 plore new sources of weath; our cities were Florida Treaty, 819. augmented and embellished; our agriculture In 1809 non-intercourse with Great Britain was Improved our population was increased, 1 1.'....., X ~~and France was substituted for the embargo, and our debt diminished." * We extract from Seybert. t Seybert. * Seybert. t Seybert, 76. sso UNITED STATES —-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. which gave such offence to the latter that she imn mediately condemned millions of American property as lawful prize. The next year it was determined to remove this restrictioil if these powers would repeal their hostile decrees. Napoleon, after playing a game of deceptioii, acceded in 1811. The course of Britain was unchanged, and the patience and patriotism of the American people, enduring outrage no longer, cried to arms. In the fierce and bloody conflict which followed, the natioiial honor was forever vindicated.' During this year, or, for example, in the years 1813 and 18 14 together, our imports were less in amount thant in any two years since 1790, and thile export was only one-third as great ill 1814 as in 1790. The country engaged, however, extensively in domestic maniufactures. From that period to this, the world has been ill profound peace and engaged in the extension of arts, industry, enterprise and civilization. The great and benignant influetices of such a state of things have been utiiversally felt, atnd we may indeed cherisht the hope that between great Christian commnunities the battle-axe has been ground down into the plow-share, and that nothing will soon be allowed to disturb the sacred amity and brotherhoodSoif nations. "Peace has her victories as high," indeed infinitely higher than those of" war." Soon after the treaty of peace, the British navigation laws were relaxed in our favor, and the orders ili council of 1791 were u po n this liberal basis. These gave way to the treaty of 1794, which provided fior reciprocal privileges of trade. In 1815, by treaty the toinage duties between the United States and the European possession of Britain were equalized. For the seven years ending in 1790, the declared value of British imports from America, which is much less thatn the real value, averaged about four and a half millions of dollars, and the exports about eleven millions. Il the seven years ending 1801, the Americall exports had on an average increased nearly four-fold, and American imports two and otie-half fold. The American exports in 1801 were seven-fold that of 1784, and the imports only about five-fold that of 1788.t Ill 1821, our imports fi'om Britain and Irelatid were twenty-five millions; in 1831, forty-four mnillions, and in the year ending June 30, 18417, sixty-seven millions five hundred and ninety-seven thousand six hundred and eight dollars. Our exports have in the same period increased from twenty mill ions to thirty-two millions, and in 1847, eighty-six millions one hundred and sixty-six thousand seven hundred and thirty-five dollars. It is true that in tile last year there were peculiar causes to influence the extent of our trade with these countries, viz., the famin e there, and the low tariffof 1846. By a comparison ofthe table of our trade with Britai n at the beginning of the c entury and at the present time, we will find that in the first period it amounted to one-third of the whole American trade, and in the la st period one-half. Nothing can show more c onclusively than this the importance of preserving peace and amity between the two nations. As they increase in wealth and power, the value of their mutual intercourse must go on continually augmenting. Another striking view presents itself here. In 1790 the average value ofthe United States commerce to Great Britain, was one-twelfth of' the aggregate value of the whole of the commerce of that empire; in 1786, one-ninith; ill 1822, one-eighth; and in the year 1349, one-tourth. With the British East Indies we opened intercourse about the year 1783, and by order of Lord Cornwallis, the governor, our vessels were admitted on favorable terms in 1788. In 1806 thirteen American vessels arrived from Canitonl, and as early as 1789 (Seybert) it was stated in the House of Representatives, that forty-seven vessels were on voyages to countries beyond the Cape of Good Hope. Mr. Seybert, in speaking of this commerce il 1819, says, we have made much greater prog,ress il this trade than the several nations of Europe had before us. In 1747 the British had only eight ships, and the Dutch but six, employed in the China trade. In 1797 there were at Canton, in China, three Portuguese, five Dutch, one French, one Danish, fifteen United States, twenty-one East India Company ships, and f orty belonging to British subjects residing in India. In 1785 the first importations were into the United States from Chiina. Our intercourse with the British East Indies was regulated by the treaty of 1794 and that of 1815. It was much greater in the beginning of the century than it has been siince-the imports in 1807 were five millions, the average from 1821 to 1833 did not exceed two millions; in 1846-'47 they were one and a half millions. These imports, prior to the tariff of 1846 were, for the most part, lowpriced cotton goods. They are now, some embroidered woolens, cotton bag,gin'gs, cork, flaxseed, fruits, spices, camphor, saltpetre, segars, indigo, cordage, twinie, hemp, silk. Our exports have been largest in specie. In other articles they have seldom exceeded the one-third or one-tourth of imports. Il 1846, '47 they did inot reach one hundred thousand dollars. The Briti-h East Indies include Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, etc. With the British West Indies, the American trade has undergone great fluctuations. It has long been a subject of dispute. Mr. Pitt threw openl this trade in 1783, upon the most liberal basis, for the Americans, by a bill which he introduced into Parliament, and I The British orders were actually revoked five days before the declaration of war. t Pitkin. 381 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. unwilling to grant such favor, and the ports were immediately closed against us, and our acts of exclusion were revived. In 1830, an act was passed by Congress in regard to the West India and British colonial trade, which on the interpretation given to it by the American Minister and the President, was highly favorable to British navigation, By this agreement, American vessels could carry our prod u ce to the islands on the same terms with the British and bring back return cargoes. They were not, however, allowed to carry tforeign merchandise. The English, by an act of policy, admitted in their North American colonies American produce at merely niominal duties, and suffered them to be exported thence to the West Indies by British vessels at a much lower duty than they could be received there direct from the United States. The practical effect of this was to throw the whole trade into this channel, and vastly augment the British tonnage in comparison with our own. The act, however, gave us the island trade upon perhaps the ve ry best terms we could have ex pected. The English, also, had the advantage of what is called the circuitous trade, viz.: to bring a cargo to the United States; to carry one to their own colonies, and to take in at the colonies a return cargo home. This was a clear advantage over us. Between 1795 and 1804, our exports to British West Inidies varied from two to nearly ten millions, being an average of five and a half millions; the imports varied from three to seven millions, being an average of five millions. From 1821 to 1833, the tables give no very reliable data, as the ports were sometimes opened and sometimes closed, and our trade necessarily took other channels. In none of these years did the import or export much exceed two millions of dollars. At the adoption of the Constitution, our trade with France did not exceed seven million five hundred thousand dollars annually, including her colonies. Our imports were, coffee, sugar, rice, oils, fruits, brandies, liquors, cotton, laces, silk, linen, drugs, glass, hardware, etc.; our exports, fish, breadstuff, products of forests, tobacco, negroes, etc. In 1795, this trade went up to ten million dol lars, but declined again very rapidly to the close of the century. In 1807 and 1808 our exports were very large, reaching from eleven to thirteen millions, which points up to 1833, they did not again pass and only once or twice equaled. Our imports from an average of one million dollars at the opening of the century averaged in 1831 to 1833 thirteen million dollars. With regard to the French islands, Mr. Pitkin thus compares their policy with that of Britain at the close of the last century. The policy of Britain was to monopolize the carriage of the articles, that of France to monopolize the articles themselves. Britain was willing the United which was l aid on the table. The orders in council soon after almost effectually suppres sed thi s growing trade. The cardi nal motive was the monopoly to Bri tis h vessels of th e c arrying trade between the Uw ited Sta tes and the islands; and Lord Liverpool, in his celebrated report, in 1791, regarded it not even a subjec t for negotiation, that American sh eip s in thl e British colonies should be treated as British ships, and congratulated his country tha t the orders in council had operated to the incr ease of British navigation compared with th at of the United States, in a d ouble ratio; but it has taken from the U nited S tates more than it has added to th at of Gre at Britain. I n 1794, Mr. Jay negotia ted a treaty with a clause favorable to our West India commerce, but it was rejected by our govern. messt on the ground that it contained another clause excluding the carriage of cotton, sugar, &c., in our ships to any part ot' the world. In 1802, t he British pr opo sed a mutual aboli tion of the discriminatd tring and cuntervailing duties of the two countries, and a committee of Congr ess rept d forted favorably, but from the remonlstrances of the me rchant cla s s es e Iothing was do ne. In 1815, the Commercial Colnvention bet ween the two po wers e qualized the tonnage duties with the British Euro. p ean p owers, but left those with the American colonies in the ha nds of the British gov ernbment. That govern m ent soon excluded the Americans entirely from the West India trade, much embarrassing our navigation interest, and r end er ed greatly more posrosperous that of Great Britain. T he P resident of the Uni ted States referred to the subject in his annual messael. By paying a light duty or removing all duty ftrom certain articles of United States prodiuce when importe d from British colonies and a verv he avy du ty w hen i mported direct, and by remo ving duties upon importations i n the colonies, t he Br itish gov ernm ent secur ed every possible advantage, since foreign ships were not admitted to bring or carry produce to the colonies. The Americans, in retaliation, first laid a duty on British vessels from the W est Indies, and then excluded them in 1818. The complaint of the West Indies, which followed, produced an act of parliament in 1822, opening certain ot' the ports to the vessels of such: countries as allowed reciprocal advantages. Congress immediately opened a direct trade but refused to remove the discrimiiiatil)g tonnage duty without proof that American and British vessels were received there on equal footing. To this the British refused, imposing countervailing duties at once on our vessels. In 18~25, the British opened the trade of their colonies to all foreign nations, on the condition that the British commerce and navigationl should be pult on a footing with the most tavored nations, by those nations that had no colonies. The United States were I 382 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. States should have sugar and coffee if British ships carried them; France was willing the Americans might supply her plantations with what she could not supply them herself, but would not allow them to receive in return the valuable products of the islands which she monopolized to herself. Our trade in- creased notwithstanding. During the wars of Europe the ports were left entirely open, and France offered to secure their trade forever to the United States, on the condition their possession might be guaranteed to her. This was declined. Our trade became enornlous, and we supplied the mother country through the islands. From 1795 to 1801, this trade averaged eighteen millions dollars, whilst from 1821 to 1833, it never exceeded two millions. In the first period, the imports were several times the exports, in the last the exports have generally been larger. The American trade with Hayti from 1821 to 1833. was larger than with all the French Islands. The wars of the French Revolution, as we have remarked before, were most favorable to our neutral commerce. We supplied the Spanish Islands during most of the time, and our trade with them at the beginning of the century averaged twenty millions of dollars. The average from that period to 1820 was about five and a half millions exports. Froim 1820 we began to keep our accounts with Cuba and the South Amierican States separately. From 1820 to 1833 our trade with Cuba averaged twelve millions annually, the imports invariably exceeding the exports largely, and was next in importance to that of England and France. The chief exports have been provisions, domestic manufacture, furniture, etc., etc. WVith the other Spanish Islands our trade from 1821 to 1833, varied from one to two millions. With Mexico, from 1825 to 1833, the average trade was about ten millions- imports generally the most; with Central America average about one-half million; with Colombia, two million dollars; Buenos Ayres, two million dollars; Chili, two million dollars; Peru, less than one million. To old Spain, herself, we have exported domestic produce, etc., etc., and our trade at the opening of the century averaged six millions dollars, whereas, it has since varied from one to two millions. It was largest w hen the peninsular wars raged. With Portugal and dependencies, we have traded in wines, fruits, wheat, oil, staves, bedding, etc. From 1795 to 1801, our ex ports averaged five hundred thousand dollars, and imports near one million. From that period until 1820, except the years of war in Spain and Portugal, the average export was about one million. The imports and exports together have never since exceeded half a million. With the island of Madeira we have c onductedout a bout an equal trade; and wi th Brazil, since the government was rem ove d there, and the other co lonies the trade from 1809 to 1820 averaged about one million dollars, since which it has gone up to from five to eight millions dollars. From Ru ssia wae have chiefly imported hemp and duck. The average imports at the b eginning of the century wa s one million, three hundred thousand dollars, but from 1821 to 1833, the average was near two million five hundred thousand dollars; our exports have seldom been one-half million, a very small part of which has been domestic produce. In 1810 and 1811, the export was between four an d five millions dollars, a large part being destine d fo r Eng land. We sen d generally cotton, tobacco, rice, oak bark, coffee, sugar, dyewoods and spices. We also import iron, cordage, drillings, diapers, tickings, etc. Since 1823, our accounts with Norway and Sweden have been kept together. With Sweden our trade is chiefly in iron. From 1821 to 1833 the imports averaged about one million, whilst the exports have seldom ex ceeded one-third of that amount. From 1795 to 1801, we traded with Swedish West In dies to the amount of one million dollars annually. The trade became much more considerable afterwards, when the trade with other islands was carried on through these. Since 1821, this trade has declined at last to about one hundred thousand dollars per annum. The account with Denmark and Norway was conjoined until 1823. This trade from one million of dollars in 1800, rose to one and a half millions in 1805-7. During our non-intercourse with Britain and France in 1809-10, and whilst Hamburgh was occu pied with the French, quantities of cotton, tobacco, sugar and coffee went to these quar ters, destined for other countries. From 1812 to 1833, this trade averaged only three or four hundred thousand, the imports being scarcely anything. With the Danish as with the Swedish West Indies, our trade did once reach three to five millions of dollars. From 1821 to 1833, the average has been not far from four millions of dollars. The trade with the British Islands was conducted through them. With Hamburgh, Bremen, and the north ern ports of Germany, we traded largely before their occupation by French troops. Hamburgh has been the great depot for Ger many and the North of Europe. By the Elbe and W5eser, and the canals, German manufactures are brought to Hamburgh. They are the cities of imports for Germany. In 1795 our trade with these cities was one andl a half millions, 1797-8 and'99 it aver aged eighteen millions dollars: thle exports generally doubling, and often many times 383 UNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. business, finding a market now at home. The amount of furs carried into China by the Americans, from 1800 to 1803, was one million six hundred thousand dollars. From 1815 to 1817 the average was three hundred thousand dollars a year. In 1819 the Amnericans began to carry English goods from England to China, to the amount of near one million dollars a year. The whole value of trade with Cauton, on American account, fro m 1804 to 1833, was, in periods of ten years:-1st period, average imports, three million dollars-exports, three million dollars; od period, imports, six and a half million dollars-exports, six million dollars; 3d pe r iod, imports, f ive milli on eight hundred thousand dollars-exports. six million dollars. In 1833 the exports and imports were eight million dollars each. Our exports to Canton are specie, bills on England, and merchandise-the latter being in general one-third or oine-quarter, but sometimes one-half of the whole export. exceeding th e imports, and being for the most in foreign goods. Since 1821 the trade h as averag ed abou t fou r a nd a half million s dollars. For the same ca uses that the Hamburg trade advanced, tha t w ith the Nether lands did also. The continental system was never thoroughly enforced tlhere, even under Louis Bonaparte. The average trade from 1795 to 1801 was, exports, five millions; imports, on e and a half millions. From 1804 to 1807 the exports averaged near fifteen mi ll ions dollars a year, chiefly foreign produce. From 1821 to 1833 t he whole trade has va r ie d from thre e t o four millions a y ear, the exports bei,ng double the imports. In 1833 the trade with Belg,ium was kept separate, and was one million dollars. Our exports are t obacco, rice, cotton, &c., sugar and coffee; imports, woolen, lin, ine, spi rits, and various manuf actures. With the Dutch We st Indies wee ha ve prosecuted considerable trade; to t he extent, one tine, of' riv e to eight m illions; from 1821 to 1833 it has seldom exceed ed one to one and a half millions. With the Dutch East Ir die s wecondu cted the car - ryinc trade from 1795 to 1801. In the last year the export s reac hed four m illions dollars being coffee pi s, spices, &c. The trade has seld om exceeded one and a half millions since. We have exported to Italy, fish, sugar, coffee, pepper, &c., and imported wines, silks, brandies, fruits, bonnets, oil, paper, ratgs.o T he trade has iiever exceeded three million s d ollars a year, and has most generally been from one to two mill ions; the imports being in large excess. Our trade with Chin a o pened in 1784. In 17,85 Captain Dean, in a little s loop of e ighty tons and seven men, made a successful voyag e to Canton. In 1789 we had mo re vessels at Canton than any o ther nation, except Britain. The imp orts are t eas, silks, nankeens, China-warer; with the former we supplied E urope dur ing the wars. We have consumed, 1789 to 1800, two and a half millios. pound s of tea, annually; from 1801 to 1812, three millions three hundred and fifty thous and pounds; from 1821 to 1833, seven millions. The Americans also prosecute trade between China and other parts of the world. Our direct trade with Canton from 1821 to 1833, has varied from one to five million exports, and three to seven million imports. The exports are tfrs, ginseng, cottons, raw Cotton, &c; specie, quicksilver, opium, cloths. The specie export has sometimes reached five million, the average from 18'28 to 1833 was fbur m.llioni dollars. We formerly conducted a largae ftir trade from the north-west to China in addition. Our hardy mariners andI traders were found in the most perilous seas. The inlhablitaalts of Stonlington, Conlnecticut, says Mr. I'itkinl, in their little bar ks of fifty to eighty tons, pursued the sealing In regard to naviga t ion, w hi ch is so importanit in its connection with commerce, we may remark, that e the two are not necessarily coexistent in th e sa me degre e in every country. The one applies to all the various transfers of commodities from hand to hand, and the other to the ir transpo rtation f rom p lace to place by water. This transportation may be between different portions of the same country, or between one country and another, and receives accordingly the designations of coastwise and foreign. The former will, in most countries, be the greater in amount, though not always. Both may be in the hands of foreigners, to a very considerable extent, and usually are. The shipping of one nation may conduct the trade of another. Some nations are more especially maritime than others, and from peculiar advantages are enabled to build and man shipping at a much lower expense; and as ship-room, or freight, is governed by the rules of all other commodities, it can, of course, be afforded less where it costs less. There is no patriotism in any country which will employ its own shipping in preference to foreign at a higher cost. The cheapest vessel will get the freight. As the possession of shipping is a great source of national pride, independent of the substantial advantages in supporting the naval or war power, and an immense source of profit and wealth, in the same manner with commerce or manufactures, it is not surprising that most countries have endeavored, in every way, to build up this interest among themselves, and, as far as possible, limit it among others. The utmost jealousies have been, and are still evinced. Legislation has exhausted its thousand expedients in navigation systems, countervailings, retaliations, bounties, et omne genus. Treaties 384 UtNITED STATES-EARLY AND GROWING COMMERCE OF. upon treaties have been made and broken. Every other trade in the world has flourished but free trade. The weaker nations regard this as fatal to them, and the stronger are timid in its adoption. As early as 1670 the increase of shipping in New-England was complained of by Sir Josiah Child, an English writer. The whole amount of tonnage employed in the colonial trade in 1770 is estimated at three hundred thousand tons. A report of the lords' privy council shows that the proportion owned by British merchants to that owned by the colonial, was as thirty-four to fifteen, in all the colonies. Seven-eighths of the southern shipping was British. At that period we were in the habit of selling colony-built ships in Great Britain, as a source of profit. In 1772 the colonies built one hundred and eighty-two vessels-twenty-six thousand five hundred and forty-four tons. Ofthese, NewEngland built one hundred and twenty-three, Maryland, Virginia and the Carolinas and Georgia, twenty-five. After the peace, and before the adoption of the constitution, our shipping regulations were conflicting, and without regular system. Most of the states imposed duties upon foreign vessels, but New-York, being most liberal, laid the foundation of her immense foreign commerce. No better proof can be alleged of the illiberality of all restrictions, and their positive injury. Congress, however, in 1789, took the matter in hand, imposed heavy discriminating duties against foreign tonnage, prohibited the coasting trade to foreigners, and by such duties on tea, secured the China trade to our own citizens. The act of 1790 imposed a duty of from thirty to fifty cents a ton on foreign vessels, that on American being but six cents, and also ten pe r cent. highe r duty upon merchandise imported in such vessels. On a vessel of six hundred tons, including the light-house duty of fifty cents the ton, the duties would be five hundred to six hundred dollars, and about as much more, on t he lowest estimate, on h er fr eight. H ere the n we have a protection to the American vessel of twelve hundred dollars, equivalent to thirty to fifty per cent. on the value of cargo freight. In 1789, the tonnage of New-York, Macsachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina and Georgia, was estimated at four hundred and thirty-seven thousand dollars, of which two hundred and eighty thousand was American, being threefifths. For all the colonies in 1791, the foreign vessels employed in the foreign trade, was 41.4 to the 100, compared with the American vessels-The French was but one-thirtieth, Spanish one-forty-eighth, Netherlands one-fifty-seventh. Under this navigation law, foreign ship VOL. II. 25 ping began gradually to decline in our ports, whilst the American rapidly advanced. By 1811 the fore i gn was but th ree-quarters to the hundred, owing, however, in a consi derable degree, to Euro pean wars, &c. Indeed, our tonnae was already but a th rd le third less th an that of all Europe in 1676, according to Sir William Petty. " In tw e nty year s," s ays Mr. Seybert, "w e r aised our tonn ag e so as to be equal to that of Great Britain one hundred years after they had pas sed th e naviga - tion act." The lords' privy council, in Engiand, referred to th is rapid decline in their navigation with the United States, which they exhibited by statistical results. They proposed reciprocity treaties, b ut not to ext end to their colonies. To th is t rade they could not th i n k of admitting foreigners on equal terms. By t he acts of 1797 and 1802, they imposed heavy countervailing and tonnage duties upon our vessels. The king, however, was soon after authorized to remit the duties if it could be done reciprocally. A committee of Congress admitted the British had secured by their duties the carrying of our tobacco, cotton, rice, indigo, &c.; but their proposed compromise was met by the protests of the merchants, and lai d on the table. In 1812, an additional duty of one dollar and fifty cents per ton on foreign ships was laid on, it was said, for revenue, though it produced but eight thousand dollars more than the lower duties. A convention between the two countries,',in 1815, equalized the duties where the vessels were freighted with the produce of their own countries. We have seen how this resulted, and the other restriction acts of our own government, in 1817. In 1818, it was stated in Congress, that the Americans transported but two millions one hundred and seventy-seven thousand nine hundred and twenty-four dollars of the trade with the West Indies and British North American colonies, whilst the English carried eleven million three hundred and twenty-two thousand and seventy-six dollars of the most bulky articles, one-half being of our own production. Mr. Seybert, whilst he maintains we have gained so much by our navigation laws, admits that our position, as a neutral nation, during the wars of Europe, did very much. But he says, independent of these wars, viz.: before the breaking out of the English and French war, in 1793, our tonnage had greatly increased. It would be easy to account for this from natural causes. It appears that at the close of the last century, little over one-quarter of the tonnage engaged in the trade of France was French'; and during the wars British ship-building greatly declined, which was the case with ours on the return of peace. In 1810, the shipping of the United States was one ton to every 5.8 inhabitants, and its 385 UNITED STATES COMMERCE, ETC. whole value, at fifty dollars a ton, seventyone millions two hundred and thirty-nine thousand one hundred and fifty dollars. In England, in 1813, the registered tonnage was one to 6.69 inhabitants.* Vessels of five hundred tons have been built in the West. Before the Revolution, we annually built about twenty thousand tons; the average from 1803 to 1816, was over one hundred and two thousand tons. During the greater part of the same period, the average in Britain was but one hundred thousand, but this was during the European wars. In regard to the number of seamen, it appears that the English varied, at the end of the last century, from one man to thirteen to one man to twenty tons; the average being one to fifteen. The Americans employ one man to seventeen tons, except the fisheries, which is one to twelve and a-half tons. Mr. Pitkin states the whole British tonnage, in 1829, on authentic returns, nineteen thousand one hundred and ten vessels, tonnage two million one hundred and ninetynine thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine. These were registered, and included all but the smaller vessels. Mr. Marshall, a British writer, i n 1 83 3, state s the whole number of British vessels in foreign commerce about six thousand seven hundred and fifty, or on e million one hundred thousand tons. The whole British r gtregistered tonnage, in 1829, only excee ded t hat of the United States, in 1832, three hundred and twenty-eight thousand six hundred and fifteen tons. On the authority of Mr. Marshall's statement, in regard to the number of trips made by each vessel. Mr. Pitkin estimates, British coasting trade, in 1832, including Ireland, eight hundred and twenty-eight thousand tons. In 1830, it was stated in Congress, that British shipping had increased, from 1814 to 1828, fifty per cent., whilst other nations trading with her, but three per cent. Mr. Marshall, however, asserts a diminution in British shipping in the same time. A committee of Congress, in 1830, doubted that the foreign wars gave a first impulse to our navigation. This impulse, say they, was from the rich and increasing agricultu ral resources, the removal of all the counter vailing laws of the states, our commercial enterprise, and a foreign commerce without restrictions.t UNITED STATES COMMERCE. STATEMENT OF COMMERCE, REVENUE, AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, FROM 1790 TO 1821. I mports* Exports c _ _ e-'- Years Tota1 imports Consumption in U.S. Domestic Produce Foreign Merch. Total Exports 1790......... $23,000,000........ $22,460,844....... $19,666,000.......... $539,156........ $20,205,156 1791.......... 29,200,000......... 28,687,958......... 18,500,000.............512,041..........19,012,041 1792..........31,500,000......... 29,745,902......... 19,000,000.......... 1,753,099.........20,735,098 1793...........31,100,000......... 28,990,428......... 24,000,000........ 2,109,572......... 26,109,572 1794..........34,600,000......... 28,07,3,767..........26,500,000...........6,526,233......... 33,026,233 1795..........69,756,000......... 61,266,7,96......... 39,500,000.......... 8,489,472......... 47,989,472 1796.......... 81,436,164.......... 55,136.164......... 40,764,097......... 26,300,000......... 67,064,097 1797.......... 75,379,406......... 48,379,406......... 29,850,206......... 27,000,000......... 56,850,206 1798.......... 68,551,700......... 35,551,700......... 28,527,097......... 33,000,000......... 61,527,097 1799.......... 79,069,184.........33,546,148......... 33,142,522.......45,523,000.........78,665,522 1800.......... 91 252,768..........52,121,891..........31,840,903..........39,130,877..........70,971,780 1801..........111,363,511..........64,720,790......... 47,473,204......... 46,642,721.......... 94,115,925 1802...........76,333,333......... 40,558,362......... 36,708,189......... 35,774,971......... 72,483,160 1803..........64,666,666......... 51,07,2,594......... 42,205,961......... 13,594,072......... 55,800,033 1804.......... 85,000,000......... 48,768,403......... 41,467,477........ 36,231,597..........77,699,074 1805......... 120,600,000......... 67,420,981..........42,387,002.........53,179,019......... 95,566,021 1806......... 129,410, 000......... 69,126,764......... 41,253,72 7.........60,283,236........ 101,536,963 1807.........138,500,000......... 78,856,442..........48,699,592..........59,643,558.........108,343,150 817......... 99,250,000......... 79,891,931......... 68,313,500......... 19,358,069.........87,671,563 1818......... 121,750,000........ 102.323.304......... 73,854,437......... 19,426,696..........93,281,139 1,819.......... 87,125,000.........67,959,317.........50,976,838.........19,165,683.........70,142,521 1820.......... 74,450,000..........56,441,971..........51,683,640..........18,008,029.........69,691,669 * Exclusive of specie. UNITED STATES COMMERCE, 1821-1849. Year Domestic exports Foreign exports Total exports Total imports 1821............... $43,671,894.......... $21,302,488.......... $64,974,382.......... $62,585,724 1822................49,784,079............22,286,202............72,160,281........... 82,241,541 1823................ 47,155,408............27,543,722........... 74,699,030........... 77,579,267 1824.................50,649,500............25,337,157............75,986,657............ 80,549,007 191,350,881........... 96,469,469.......... 287,820,350........... 303,955,539 * By calculation made in 1808, it appears one ton is required for the carriage of every forty-one or fiftyone dollars exports American products.-SEYBERT. t The reader has perceived the present article is only brought down to 1833; we intend its completion to date in future volumes. 386 SITED STATES COMMEROT. UNITED STATES COMMERCE, 1821-1849-continued. Domestic exports Foreign exports Total export Total imports i...............$66,944,745...........$32,590,643...........$99,535,388...........$96,340,075 '182'.................53,055,710.......... 24,539,612........... 77,595,322........... 84,974,477 1827.................58,921,691.......... 23,403,136............82,324,827............79,481,068 ]828...................50,669,669............ 21,595,017............72,264,686............88,509,824 229,591,815............102,128,408........... 31,720,223........... 349,305,444 1829................. 55,700,139............16,658,478............-2,358,671.............74,492,527 1830.................59,462,029............14,387,479.......... 73,849,508........... 70,876,920 1831.................61,277,057.......... 20,033,526............. 81,310,583........... 103,191,124 1832................63,137,470............24,039,473............87,176,943...........101,029,266 239,576,749.......... 75,118,956......... 314,695,705...........349,589,837 1833................ 70,317,698............ 19,822,735............90,140,433...........108,118,311 1834................ 81,024,162........... 23,312 81' 1........... 104,336, 97 3...........126,521,332 1835................101,183,082........... 20,504,495........... 121,693,577...........149,895,742 1836..............106,916,680........... 21,746,36 0...........128,663,04 0...........189,980,305 1837................95,564.414........... 21,845,962.........117,419,376..........140,980,177 1838.................96,033,821............ 12,452,79 5...........108,486,616.............113,717,404 1839............. 103,533,891.......... 17,494,525......... 121,028,416........102,092,132 654,579,748......... 137,188,683..........791,768,431..........991,305,133 1840.................113,895,634............18,190,312..........132,085,946...........107,141,519 1841...............106,383,722............15,469,081...........121,851,803...........127,946,177 1842................ 92,969,996............11,721,538...........104,691,534............ 100,162,087 313,248,352.............45,380,931..... 358,629,283............335,249,723 1843.......... 6,552,607...77,793,783............6,552,697 84346,480............64,753,799 1844...............100,183,497............10,944,781...........111128,278...........108,434,702 1845................99,299,776............15,346,830...........114,464,606........... 117,254,564 1846...............10 2,141,89 3............11,346,623...........1 13,488,51 6...........121,691,797 379,418,949............44,190,93 1...........423,427,88 0...........412,134,862 18 47............... 150,637,464............8,051,561...........158,689,025...........146,545,638 1848............... 132,904,121............21,128.010........... 154,032,31...........1.54,998,928 1849............... 132,666,955............13,088,865........... 145,755,820...........147,857,439 416,208,540............42,268,436........... 458,476,976........... 449,402,005 RECAPITULAT[ON BY PERIOD,. 1821-24........... 191,350,881............96,469,469.......... 287,820,350.........303,955,539 1825-28........... 229,591,815.......... 102,128,408...........331,720,223...........349,305,444 1829-32............ 239,576,749............75,118,956...........314,695,705...........349,589,837 1833-39............ 654,579,748...........137,188,683...........791,768,431...........991,305,133 1840-42............ 313,248,352............45,380,931........... 358,629,283...........335,249,783 1843-46.............379,418,949.......... 44,190,931...........423,427,880...........412,134,862 1847-49...........416,208,540........... 42,268,436..........458,476,976......449,402,005 Total domestic exports in 29 years............................................$2,423,974,034 " foreign ".............................................. 542,745,814 Total exports, domestic and foreign...........................................$2,966,720,848 " imports "........................................... 3,190,942,603 Excess of imports in 29 years................................................... $224,221,755 Which is about eight per cent. on the total value of exports during the same period. And this excess All occurred prior to the year 1840, as appears from what follows: Excess of imports Exmes of exports 1st period-tariffof 1816.................................6,135,189............$ 2d 1824...................................... 17,585,221............ - 3d " 1828...................................... 34,894,132......-...... 4th " " 1832......................................199,536,702............5th " compromise reduction of tariff of 1832............ $23,397,500 6th " tariff of 1842...................................................11,475,018 7th " " 1846......................................-............ 9,074,971 Totals................................................ $268,151,244............. $43,929,489 387 UNIT:E] STATES COMMERCE UNITED STATES COMMERCE-1850. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE STATES, YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1850., Total Amer. In Amer. In Foreign: Total Domestic Total For. and Foreign vessels. vessels. Total Exports Exports. Prod. Expor'd Imports Imports Inports Maine......... $1,536,818.... 29,094......,556,912...... 609,155....... 247,256...... 856,41I New-Hampshire.. 8,722.... 205 8,927...... ]19,962...... 29,117. 49,07f Vermont.......... 404,749..... 26,157...... 430,906...... 463,092...... 463,092 Massachusetts... 8,253,473.... 2,428,290..... 10,681,763......22,106,011......8,268,673...... 30,374,684 Rhode Island..... 206,299.... 9,966...... 216,265...... 251,708...... 6,595...... 258,303 Connecticut..... 241,262.... 668...... 241,930...... 311,927...... 60,463..372,390 New-York......41;502,800.... 11,209,989..... 52,712,789...... 88S,147,721...... 22,975,803......111,123,524 New-Jersey...... 1,655.................... 1,655...... I 4 1,4......144 1,494 Pennsylvania.....4,049,464.... 452,1I42....... 4,501,606....... 10,795,462...... 1,270,692...... 12,066,154 Delaware........................................... Maryland.........6,589,481.... 377,872...... 0,967,353...... 5,529,682...... 594,519......6,124201 Dist. of Columbia. 80,388.... 200...... 80,588...... 59,219..... 600...... 59,819 Virginia.......... 3413,158... 2,488...... 3,415,646...... 172,878...... 253,721....... 426,599 North Carolina... 416,501..................416,501..... 179,249...... I144,443...... 323,692 South Carolina.. 11,446,892.... 908..... 11,447,800...... 1,313,658...... 620,127....... 1,933,785 Georgia..........7,551,943.............. 7,551,943..... 306,883...... 330,081...... 636,964 Florida...........2,607,968.... 15,656...... 2,623,624...... 30,241....... 65,468...... 95,70{Y Alabama......... 10,544,858.................10,544,858...... 108,134...... 757,228...... 865,362 Louisiana.......37,698,277.... 407,073......38,105,350...... 8,107,929...... 2,652,570...... 10,760,499' Mississippi....................................... Tennessee............................................' 27,960' Missouri......... 359,643........................ 359.,643 Ohio............. 217,532.... 100......... 27,632...... 398,999...... 183,505...... 582,504 Kentucky............................................. 190,987................ 190,98? Michigan............. 132,045........'..... 144,102................ 144,102 Illinois............ 17,669...................17,669....... 7,783...... 7,922...... 15,705 Texas............ 24,958............. 24,958........ 14,652........10,998...... 25,650 California........................................................ Oregon....................................................... Total........$136,946,912.. $14,951,808... $151,898,720... $139,657,043.... $38,481,275.... $178,138,318: EXPORTS AND IMPORTS U. S., YEAR ENDING JUNE 30TII, 1850. Countries Exports, domestic Exports, foreign Total exports Imports Russia..................... $666,435............. $198,506........... $864,941.......... $1,511,572 Prussia..................... 70,645............ 27,991............ 98,636............ 27,469 Sweden and Norway.......... 668,580............ 51,610............ 720,190............ 1,032,117 Swedish West Indies........... 98,176............ 11,166.............. 99,342............ 2,193 Denmark..................... 165,874............ 20,706............ 186,580............ 557 Danish West Indies............ 867,140............ 114,818.......... 961,958............ 267,459 Hanse Towns................ 4,320,780............ 885,742........... 5,206,522............ 8,787,874 Hanover........................................................................ Holland...................... 2,188,101............ 410,564............ 2,604,665............ 1,686,967 Dutch East Indies............ 180,533............ 262,952............ 443,485............ 444,404 Dutch West Indies........... 364,335............ 56,683............ 421,018............ 530,146 Dutch Guiana................ 97,014............. 5,425............ 102,439............. 71,043 Belgium...................... 2,168,357............375,403............ 2,543,760............ 2,404,954 England.....................64,686,95...........4,210,271.......... 68,897,230............ 72, 18,97f Scotland..................... 3,021,740............ 183,679............ 3,205,419............ 2,746,670 Ireland....................... 1,025,031............ 42,603............ 1,067,724............ 293,783 Gibralter..................... 186,307........... 60,482............ 246,789........... 44,269 Malta......................... 75,329............. 39,051............ 114,380............ 11,354 British East Indies............. 502,613........... 156,846............ 659,459........... 2,865,016 Cape of Good Hope........... 143,219............................. 143,219............ 72,206 Mauritius......................................................................... Honduras.................... 171,984............ 16,551............ 188,535............ 178,690 British Guiana............... 502,776............ 22,663............ 525,439............ 14,591 British West Indies.......... 3,612,802............ 178,644............ 3,791,446............ 1,126,968 Canada...................... 4,641,451............1,289,370........... 5,930,821........... 4,285,470 Newfoundland................................................................... Falkland Islands.............................................................. British American Colonies.... 3,116,840............ 501,374........... 3,618,214........... 1,358,992 Other British Possessions...9 Other British Possessions..................................................497 France, on the Atlantic....... 16,934,791............ 1,724,915............18,659,706............25,835,170 France, on the Mediterranean. 1,015,486............ 158,155........... 1,173,641............ 1,702,855 French WVest Indies.......... 269,377............ 18,291............ 287,668............ 75,684 Miquelon and French Fish- 2,517............................ 2,517........... eries...................... French Guiana............... 43,405............ 1,382.............44,787............ 12,551 Bourbon..................... 12,575............ 2,200............ 14,775............ 10,005' French possessions in Africa................................................... Spain, on the Atlantic........ 605,659............ 28,558............ 634,217............ 380,181 Spain on the Mediterranean.. 3,256,362............ 96,855............. 3,353,217...........1,702,214 Teneriffe and other Canaries.. 20,524............ 5,065............ 25,589......... 85,223 Manilla and Philippine Islands 16,817............ 1,450..............18,267............ 1,336,866 Cuba......................... 4,530,256............460041............ 4,990,297...........10,292,398 388 UNI'l.ED STATES COMMERCE —EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS U.S., YEAR ENDING JUNE 30TH, 1850-continued. Countrie s FNxports, domestic Exports, foreign Total expo'ts Imports ,Ot3r Spanish West Indies...........$93,591............ $909,653...........$2,067,866 Portugal..................... 172,978............ 5,............ 178,214............ 339,763 Madeira....................... 136,874............ 6,527............ 143,401............ 114,729 Fayal and other Azores....... 14,421............ 2,152............ 16,573............ 16,328 Cape de Verds................ 47,043............ 2,167............ 49,210................ Italy....................... 1,567,166............ 239,904........... 1,807,070........... 2,105,077 Sicily........................ 50,577............ 13,024............ 63,601............ 822,629 Sardinia..................... 170,764............ 86,136............ 256,900..............205 Tuscany..................... 45,664............ 23,468............ 69,132................ Ionian Islands..... Trieste, and other Austrian?l 1,179,893.. 312,111.1,492,004.467,601 Ports..................... 3......................... 4 6 7.601 'Turkey...................... 204,397............ 53,344............ 257,741............ 801,023 IHayti......................... 1,211,007............. 139,181............ 1,350,188............ 1,544,771 Mexico........................ 1,498,791............ 514,036............ 2,012,827............ 2,135,366 Central America.............. 57,225............. 12,967............ 70,192............ 261,459 New-Granada................ 970,619............ 285,600............ 1,256,219............ 591,992 'Venezuela.................... 678,462........... 340,008............ 1,018,470............ 1,920,247 Bolivia.......................................... :Brazil..................... 2,723,767............. 473,347........... 3,197,114........... 0,324,425 Argentine Republic........... 718,331............ 346,311............ 17064,642............ 2,653,877 Cisplatine lRepublic........... 60,024............ 1,518............ 61,542................ Chili......................... 1,297,133............ 125,588............ 1,422,721............... 1,796,677 Peru......................... 258,929............ 16,789............ 275,728............ 170,753 China........................ 1,485,961............. 119,256............ 1,605,217............ 6,593,462 Liberia............................ West Indies, generally..........67,934.... South America, generally.... 22,256............ 50,442............ 72,698............ 86,659 Europe, generally................................................................ Asia, generally................ 315,463............ 13,321.............328,784............ 402,599 Africa, generally........... 730,932............. 28,334............. 759,266....... 524,722 South Sea Islands............. 169,025............ 20.837............ 189,862................. Equador......................24,414 10,511............ 34,925............ 4,618 Pacific Ocean............................................................... Atlantic Ocean................................................................. 26 Indian Ocean.................................................................. Sandwich Islands.............................................................. 64,474 Australia......................................................................... Patagonia....................................................................... Uncertain places.................................................................. North-,West Coast................................................................. Total.................. $136,246,912..........$14,951,808.........$151,898,720..........$178,138,318 UNITED STATES COMMERCE-EXPloRTs AND IMPORTs, 1850-51. From the tables of the Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, we take the following ai of immediate iaterest: SYNOPSIS OF IMPORT., AND EXPORTS 3OR THE FISCAL YEAR, ENDItNG SOTH JUNE, 1851L Foreign merchandise imported in American vessels...................$160,115,714 In foreign vessels.................................................. 50,642,380 $210,7587094 Specie imported in American vessels................................ 3,320,585 In foreign vessels.............................................. 1,647,316 4,967,901 Total...............................7.................. 215,725,995 Foreign merchandift imported as above....................................... 210,758,094 Less exported, viz.In American vessels............................................ 7,708,801 In foreign................................................ 2,029,894 - 9,738,695 Foreign merchandise consumed............................................... 201,019,399 ,Specie imported from foreign ports............................................ 4,967,301 " exported to " in American coina.................. 18,069,56 In foreign coin.................................................... 11,162,300 29,281,880 EXPORTS, VIZ.: American produce in American vessels............................ 127,054,544 In foreign vessels.................................................... 51,492,011 - - 178,546,555 Foreign goods re-exported................................................... 9,738,695 Total export ofmerchiandise........................... 188,285,250 389 'UNITED STATES COMMERCE-SPECIE, BULLI_ON, TC, RECAPITULATION. Total import of mechandise....................................................$210,758,094t " exports "................................................. 188,285,250 Excess of imports.................................................................$22,472,844 Total exports of specie to foreign ports.................................... 29,231,780 imports " from "........................................ 4,967,901 Excess of exports.....................................................24,263,979 The above does not include the gold from California. From the statement of the quantity and quality of certain articles imported in 1845 and 1851, we take the. following: ~-1845. - — 1851.. Iron CWt lue Cwt V.Iu. Bar manufactured by rolling... 1,023,772........$1,691,748.......5.108,555 $7,267,350 otherwise... 363,580........ 872,157........ 403,973........ 900,026' Pig......................... 550,20 9........ 506,291.......1,308,732........ 587,599 Old and scrap.................. 116,950......... 119,740........ 166,838........ 111,755 Total exports of cotton for 1851-927,237,089 lbs. Value, $112,315,317. Estimating 450 lbs. to the bale,. gives 2,060,527 bales. VALUE. OF BREADSTUFFS AND- PROVLSIONS EXPORTED. In 1850...................................................................$26,051,373 1851.................................................................................. 21,421,216 Decrease in 1851............................................................$4,630,157 IMPORTS, EXPORTS AND TONNAGE, FOR TEN- YEARS. Imports Exports Tonnago 1842.........................100,162,087..............104,691,534..............2,092,391 1843 nine months, ending June 30.64,753,799.............. 34,346,480...............2,158,603 1884.............................108,435,035..............111,200,046...............2,280,095, 1845............................ 117,254,564..............114,646,606..............2,417,042 1846.............................121,691,797..............113,388,516..............2,562,085 1847.............................146,545,638..............158',643,622.....2,839,046 1848.............................154,998,928................154,032,181...........'.3,154,042 1849.............................147,857,439..............145,755,820..............3,334,015 1850...............................178,136,318...............151,898,720..............3,585,454' 1851.................................223,405,272..............217,523,201..............3,772,4'/3l UNITED STATES COMMERCE-SPECIE, BULLION, ETC. Statement exhibiting the amount of Coin and Bullion imported and exported annually from 1821 to 18507. inclusive; and also the amount of importation over exportation, and of exportation over importation,, during the same years. tation ever ex- tation ever m Imported Exported portation portation Year ending September 30, 1821........ $8,064,890...... $10,478,059.................$2,413,169 1822........ 3,369,846........10,810,180................ 7,440,334 1823........ 5,097,896........ 6,372,987........1.275,091 1824........ 8,379,835........ 7,014,552........ 1,365,283......... 1825........ 6,150,765........ 8,797,75 5................. 2,646,2909 1826........ 6,880,966........ 4,704,533........ 2,176,433....... - 1827........ 8,151,130........ 8,014,880........ 136,250......... " " 1828........ 7,489,741........ 8,243,476........ 753,735. 1829........ 7,403,612........ 4,924,020........ 2,479.,509........ - " 1830........ 8,155,964........ 2,178,773........ 5,977,191........ 1831........ 7,305,945........ 9,014,931........... 1,708 986: 1832........ 5,907,504........ 5,656,340........ 254,164........ - 1833........ 7,070,368........,,611,7')1........ 4,458,667......... - 1834........ 17,911,632........ 2,076,758........1'5,831,874........ 1835........ 13,131,447........ 6,477,775........ 0,553,672. 1836........ 13,400,881........ 4,324,336 9,076,545........906 1837........ 10,516,414........ 5,976,249........ 4,540,165........ " " 1838........ 17,746,116........ 3,508,046........14,239,070........ 1839........ 5,595,176........ 8,776,743................. 3;181,567 1840...... 8,882,813........ 8,417014........ 465,799........ - 1841....... 4,988,633........ 10,034,332................699 1842........ 4,087,016........ 4,813,539.................. 726,523. Nine months to June 30, 1843........ 22,380,335........ 1,520,791........20,799,544.........Year ending 30th June, 1844........ 5,830,429........ 5,454,214........ 376,215..... - 1845........ 4,070,242......... 8,606,495........... 4,536,253 " " 1846........ 3,777,732........ 3,905,268................. 127,536 1847........ 21,121,289........ 1,907,739........22,213,550........ - " " 1848........ 6,360,224........15,841,620................. 9,481,396; 1849........ 6,651,240........ 5,404,648........ 1,246,592......... " " 1850........ 4,628,792........ 7,522,994............. 2,894,202: Total.........................$263,449,873......$193,390,048~.....$112,290,600.......$42,230,782 Tazisu~uy DZPARTRElgirT.. ITOWNSEND HAINES, Register.. 390 UNITED STATES POPULATION, DEBT, LOANS, ETC. Statement exhibiting the quantity and value of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice, exported annually, from 1840 to 1850, inclusive. Cotton Tobacco Rice Sea Iland, lbs. Other, lbs. Value Hhds. Value Tierces Vale 1840........ 8,779,660.... 785,161,392... $63,870,307....119,484... $ 9,883,957.... 101,660.... $1,942,076 1841........ 6,237,424.... 523,966,676.... 54,330,341....147,828.... 12,576,703....101,617.... 2,010,107 1842........ 7,254,090.... 577,462,918.... 47,590,464....158,710.... 9,540,755....114,617.... 1,907,387 1843........ 7,515,079.... 784,782,027.... 40,119,806.... 94,154.... 4,650,979....106,766.... 1,625,726 1844........ 6,099,076.... 657,534,379.... 54,063,501....163,042.... 8,397,255....134,715.... 2,182,468 1845........ 9,389,625.... 863,516,371.... 51,730,643....147,168.... 7,460,849....118,621.... 2,160,456 1846........ 9,388,533.... 538,160,522.... 42,797,344.... 147,998.... 8,478,270....121,007.... 2,564,991 1847........ 6,293,973.... 520,925,985.... 53,445,848....135,762.... 7,242,086....144,427.... 3,605,896 1848........ 7,724,148.... 806,550,283.... 61,998,294.... 130,665.... 7,551,122....100,403.... 2,331,824 1849........11,969,259....1,014,633,010.... 66,396,967....101,521.... 5,804,207....128,861.... 2,569,362 1850........ 8,236,463.... 627,145,141.... 71,984,616....145,729.... 9,954,023.... 127,069.... 2,631,557 UNITED STATES POPULATION, DEBT, LOANS, ETC. From a circular for the European Correspondence of CAMMANN & WHITEHOUSE, we are permitted to copy the annexed interesting tables, compiled at their request by the Treasury Department, in order that official information might be given to foreigners desirous of investing in American Stocks-of the extent of our population, resources and debt. There is not another country under the sun that can exhibit such resources and so small a debt: Statement, exhibiting the population of the United States, the Public Debt, the receiptsfrom Loans and Trea sury Notes, the receipts, exclusive of, Treasury Notes and Loans, and the payments on account of the debt each year,from 1791, to Junce, 1848, inclusive. Rereipto trom Revenne exelnaive Principal and Loansand of Loans and interest of Year Population Debt Treas. Notes Treas. Notes debt paid Census of 1791...... 4,067,371......$75,463,476 52.... $5,791,112 56......'$4,418,913 19.....$5,287,949 50 2...... 4,205,404...... 77,227,924 66......5,070,806 46...... 3,669,960 21......7,263,665 99' 3...... 4,343,457...... 80,352,684 04......1,067,701 14...... 4,652,923 14......5,819,505 29 4...... 5,481,500...... 78,427,404 77......4,609,196 78...... 5,431,904 87......5,801,578 09 5...... 4,619,543...... 80,747,587 39......3,305,268 20...... 6,114,834 59......6,084,411 61 6...... 4,757,586...... 83,762,172 07...... 362,800 00...... 8,377,549 65......5,835,846 44 7...... 4,895,629...... 82,064,479 33...... 70,135 41...... 8,688,780 98......5,792,421 82 8...... 5,033,6,2...... 79,228,529 12...... 308,574 27...... 7,900,495 80......3,990,294 14 9...... 5,171,715...... 78,408.669 77...... 5,074,646 53...... 7,546,813 31......4,596,876 78 Census of 1800...... 5,309,758...... 82,976,294 35......1,602,435 04......10,848,749 10......4,578,369 95 1...... 5,502,772...... 83,038,050 80...... 10,125 00......12,935,330 95......7,291,707 04 2...... 5,695,787...... 80,712,632 25......... 5,597 36......14,994,793 95...... 539,004 76 3...... 5,888,801...... 77,054,686 30............11,064,097 63......7,256,159 43 4...... 6,081,816...... 86,42,,120 88......... 9,532 64......11,826,307 38......8.171,787 45 5...... 6,274,830...... 82,312,150 50..... 128,814 94.....13,560,693 20...... 7,369,88979 6......6,467,845...... 75,723,270 66........ 48,897 71......15,559,931 07......8,989,884 61 7...... 6,660,859...... 69,218,398 64....................16,398,019 26......6,307,720 10 8...... 6,853,874...... 65,196,317 97...... 1 882 16......17,060,661 93.....10,260,245 35 9...... 7,046,888...... 57,023,192 09........' -...... 7,773,473 12..... 6,452,554 16 Census of 1810...... 7,239,908...... 53,173,217 52......2,759,992 25...... 9,384,214 28......8,008,904 46 11...... 7,479,,29...... 48,005,587 76...... 8,309 05......14,423,529 00......8,009,20405 12...... 7,719,555...... 45,209,737 90.....12,837,900 00...... 9,801,133 76......4,449,622 45 13...... 7,959,381...... 55,962,827 57.....26,184,435 00......14,340,409 95.....11,108,123 44 14...... 8,199,208...... 81,487,846 24.....23,377,911 79......11,181,625 16......7,900,543 94 15...... 8,439,034...... 99,833,660 15.....35,261,320 78......15,696,916 82.....12,628,924 35 16...... 8,678,860......127,334,933 74......9,494,436 16... 4..4,676,985 66....24,871,082 93 17...... 8,918,687......123,491,965 16...... 734,542 59......33,099,049 74.....25,423,036 12 18...... 9,158,513...... 103,466,633 83...... 8,765 62......21,585,171 04.....21,296,201 f2 19...... 9,398,339...... 95,529,648 28...... 2,291 00......24,603,374 37......7,703,92629 Census of 1820...... 9,638,166...... 91,015,566 15......3,040,824 13......17,840.669 55......8,628,494 28 l........ 9,959,9......... 89,987,437 66......5,000,324 00......14,573,379 72.....8,367,09362 2......10,281,765...... 93,546,67698..............20,232,427 94..... 7,848,949 12 3......10,603,565..... 90,875,877 28............20,540,666 26......5,530,016 41 4......10,925,365...... 90,239,777 77...... 5,000,000 00......19,381,212 79.....16,538,303 76 5......11,247,165...... 83,788,432 71......5,000,000 00.....21,840,858 02.... 12,095,344 78 6......11,568,965...... 81,054,059 99..............25,260,434 31.....11,041,032 19 7......1 1,89 0,765...... 73,987,35 7 20........... 22,966,363 96..... 10,003,668 35 8.....12,212,565...... 67,475,043 87..............24,763,629 23.....12,163,438 07 9..... 12,534,365...... 58,421,413 67........... 24,827,627 38.....12,383,867 78 Census of 1830.....12,856,165...... 48,565,406 50..............24,844,116 51.....11,355,748 22 1......13,277,415...... 39,123,191 66........... 28,526,820 82.....16,174,378 22 2......13,698,665...... 24,322,235 18..............31,665,561 16.....17,840,309 29 3......14,119,915...... 7,001,032 88.............33,948,426 25...... 1,543,543 38 4......14,541,165...... 4,760,082 08..............21,791,935 55...... 6,176,565 19 5......14,962,415...... 351,289 05..............85,430,187 10...... 58,191 28 6......15,383,665...... 291.08905............50,826,79608....... 7......15,804,915...... 1,878,223 55......2,992,989 15......24,890,864 69...... 21,822 91 8......16,226,165...... 4,857,660 46.....12,716,820 86......26,303,561 74......5,605,720 27 9......16,647,415...... 11,983,737 53......3.857,276 21......30,023,966 68.....11,117,987 42 Census of 1840......17,068,665...... 5,125,077 63......5,589,547 51......19,442,646 08...... 4,086,613 70 1......17,560,082...... 6,737,398 00.....13,659,317 39......16,850,160 27...... 5,600,689 74, 2.......18,051,499...... 15,028,486 37.....14,808,735 64......19,965,009 25...... 8,575,539 94 391 UNITED STATES COMMERCE-PUBLIC DEBT. UNITED STATES POPULATION, DEBT, LOANS, ETC.-continued. Receipts from Revenues excl,- Princpal andI Loans and rive of Loans & interest of Year Popuilation Debt Tress. Notes Tress. Notes debt paid June 30, 1843......18,542,915..... $27,748,188 23....$12,551,409 19......$8,231,000 26......$861,596 55 4......19,034,332...... 24,748,188 23......1,877,847 95......29,320,707 78.....12,991,902 84 5......19,525,749...... 17,093,794 80..............29,941,853 90......8,595,049 10 6......20,017,165...... 16,750,926 33............29,699,967 74...... 1,213,823 31 7.....20,508,582...... 38,956,623 38.....28,900,765 36......26,437,403 16......6,719,282 37 8......21,006,000...... 58,526,349 37.....21,256,700 00.....35,425,750 59*....15,249,197 21 * Estimated returns not completed. Present debt, including the amount to be realized on the 1st of May, 1848, of the loans of 1846, 1847 and 1848, $65,787,008 92. UNITED STATES COMMERCE.-ExPORTS OF BRRADSTUFFS.-Table exhibiting the aggregate value of breadstuffs and provisions, exported annually, from 1821 to 1851, inclusive: 1850. 1851. Kentucky............... 14,820 19...... 12,937 60 Tennessee.............. 37,76 05...... 3,587 67 Ohio.................... 27,146 54...... 58,352 24 Michigan................ 38,144 49...... 41,774 86 Texas................... 3,897 42......4,913 16 Califbrnia............... 17,591 77...... 58,476 02 Wisconsin.............. -...... 2,94( 10 District of Columbia..... 17,010 61...... 22,903 45 Oregon.................. 1,063 48...... 1,068 43 Total...............3,535,454 23....3,771,439 43 Value Year ending September 30, 1821......... $12,341,901 " 1822......... 13,886,856 " " 1823......... 13,767,817 1824......... 15,059,484 ~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1,63444 1825......... 11,634,449 1826......... 11,302,496 " 1827......... 11,685,556 " mnh edn n 1828......... 11,461,144 Ya" edn Jn 1829........ 1 3,134,858 1830......... 12,075,430 " " 1831......... 17,538,227 " " 1832......... 12,424,703 " " 1833......... 14,209,128 1S34......... 11,524,024 1835......... 12,099,399 " " 1836......... 10,614,130 " " 1837......... 9,588,359 " " 1838......... 9,636,650 " " 1839......... 14,147,779 1840......... 19,067,535 " " 1841......... 17,196,102 1842......... 16,902,876 3 months, ending June 30, 1843......... 11,204,123 Year ending June 30, 1844......... 17,970,135 " " 1845......... 16,743,420 1646......... 37,701,121 " " 1847......... 68,701,921 " " 1848......... 37,472,751 1849......... 38,155,507 1850......... 26,051,373 " " 1851......... 24,119,293 Steam Tonnage of the United States in 1850 and 1851: Steam registered ton- 1850. 1851. nage........ ngtons 44,942 25...... 62,390 13 Steam enrolled and li censed................481,004 65.....521,216 87 525,946 90......583,607 05 Increase.........1........57,760 10__ 185.....1209,39 Increase...................57,760 10 Comparison of Tonnagefor 1850 and 1851: 1850. 1851. Registered tonnage.....1,585,711 22....1,726,307 23 Enrolled and licensed.. 1,949,743 01....2,046,132 20 Total tonnage........3,535,454 23.... 3,772,439 43 184........ 16,743,420 UNITED STATES PUBLIC DEBT. 1846.....37,701,121 1847.........8,701921 The public debt of the United States and of " 1848... 37,472,751 the several states, is thus given by a late com " 1849.. 38,155,507 mercial writer, being taken from the returns s 02,5,7of 1850 26,051,373 f 1851.........24,119,293 -- United States......................... $61,228,2 38 Total...............................$559,326,578 Maine.................................. 970,000 Massachusetts......................... 2,091,047 Statement shoing the amount of Tonnage owned by New-York............................. 23,937,240 each state, engaged in foreign and domestic comr- New-Jersey.......................... 62,596 merce, for thefiscaI years 18504 and 1851 Pennsylvania.......................... 40,424,737 Maryland............................ 15,900,000 1850. 1851. Virginia............................... 14,400,507 Maine...................501,424 78......536,114 44 North Carolina.........................977,000 N. Hampshire........... 23,096 38...... 25,427 44 South Carolina......................... 3,622,039 Vermont................ 4,530 35...... 3,932 31 Georgia............................... 1,903,472 Massachusetts......... 685,442 76......694,402 93 Alabama............................ 10,385,938 Rhode Island............ 40,499 81...... 38,050 42 Mississippi............................. 7,271,707 Connecticut.............113,086 78......116,179 85 Louisiana.............................16,238,131 New-York...............944,349 20....1,841,013 62 Texas............................... 11,050,201 New-Jersey............ 80,300 46...... 88,895 90 Arkansas.............................. 3,862,172 Pennsylvania........... 258,939 48......284,373 64 Tennessee............................. 3,337,856 Delaware.............. 16,719 57...... 11,880 83 Kentucky.............................. 4.531,913 Maryland...............193,087 40......204,444 54 Ohio................................. 19,173,223 Virginia.................74,266 05......69,769 42 Michigan............................. 2,849,939 North Carolina.......... 74,218 49...... 40,722 17 Indiana................................ 6,556,437 South Carolina......... 36,072 13...... 44,187 46 Illinois..................... 16,612,795 Georgia................. 21,690 14...... 24,185 24 Missouri............................... 956,261 Florida.................. 11,272 76...... 7,042 08 Iowa.................................. 55,000 Alabama............... 24,157 60...... 21,327 08 - - Mississippi.............. 1,827 62...... 1,404 09 Total 1850.........................$275,480,676 Louisiana...............250,089 80......253,284 93' Total 1843.......................... 198,818,736 Missouri................ 28,907 67...... 34,065 46 Illinois.................. 21,242 17..... 23,103 45 Increase in 7 years....................$76,661,940 392 UNITED STATES-STATES AND TERRITORIES. pulation was in Baltimore county, Md., fortysix miles north, and twenty-two miles east, from Washington. In 1800, it was in Adams county, Pennsylvania, sixty-four miles north, and thirty west, from Washington. In 1820 it was in Morgan county, Virginia, forty-seven miles north, and seventy-one west, from Washington. Itn 1830. it was in Hampshire county, Virginia, forty-three miles north, and one hundred a n d e ight west, from Washington. In 1840, it was in Marion county. Virginia, thirty-six miles north, and one hundred and sixty west, from Washington. Thus, it would appear, that the centre of representative population has kept nearly on the same parallel of latitude for fifty years; the latitude of 1840 being within ten miles of that of 1790. It has in the same fifty years moved westward one hundred and eighty-two miles. Thus we perceive, that the mass of representative population is moving westward with accelerated velocity. The following statement exhibits the movement West: From 1790 to 1800, it was........ 13 miles. 1800 to 1810, "........ 39 1810 to 1820, "........ 41 1820 to 1830,........ 37 " 1830 to 1840, "........ 52 " UNION-ITS CENTRE MOVING WEST.We have seen the calculation somewhere, that the population of the Union has been sweeping westward, wave-like, at the rate of about 13 miles per annum. At this rate it i s a simple problem to tell when we shall reach the Pacific, though as to all afterward there may be some doubt. Already it has ceased to be an adventure of romance, as when Irving wrote his " Astoria," to visit the spot where "' Rolls the Oregon, And hears no sound save his own dashings;" " Together let us rise; Seek brighter plains and more indulgent skies, Wh ere fair Ohio rolls his amber tide, And Nature blossoms in her virgin pride." Dr. Patterson, of Philadelphia, thus calculates the centre of representative population. In 1790, the centre of representative po The centre of representative population is now just about the Ohio River. UNITED STATES-STATES AND TERRITORIES. Table showing tke Estimated Surface of the Territories of the United States, North and West of the regularly organized States of the Union, and the portions of Territory thereof, situated North and South of the parallel of 30~ 30' north latitude. Squae mles ort Sqare miles south rre miles south he parallel of 36t 30. Orego of 49o latitude cific Oc Territ on the n Mississ river, al Wisc e and nor maining IndiaT and Ark apportic Terri west of thence United .............. 341,463 723,248...................... 723,248 ............ o t e y 22,336 190,505......... 58,346.......... 238,851 States by the treaty with Mexico of 1848............. 321,695........ 204,383......... 526,078 Total............................................. 1,599,247.......... 262,729........ 1,861,976 That part of Texas which lies east of the Rio Grande and west of the Nueces river, from the mouth of the former river, up to a line drawn from a point a short distance north of Paso to the source of the Ensenada river, is estimated at..................... 52,018.......... 52,018 And the part which lies north of Paso and the Ensenada river, up to latitude of 420 north............................43537.......... 81,396.......... 124,933 Making, togethert................................. 43,537..........133,414.......... 176,951 * This estimate excludes all that part of Texas which lies outside of its limits, as designated by the yellow shaded lines on Disturnal's map of Mexico. t This estimate, as will be seen, limits our acquisitions of territory from Mexico by the late treaty, exclusively to those portions of country lying west of the Rio Grande. 393 This shows an increase of about 30 per cent. in seven years, and returns for 1851 will show an addition to the public indebtedness of 1850 of more than forty millions of dollars. and the invitation of Humphreys is divested of all its poetry: T.tal .q-.,. U.s UNITED STATES-STATES AND TERRITORIES. TEXAS IN THREE DIVISIONS. 1st. Between the Sabine and Nueces rivers, south of Ensenada river (T. proper).......Sq. miles.. 148,469 2d. Between the Nueces and Rio Grande, south of Ensenada river................................52,018 3d. North of Paso and the Ensenada river (Santa Fe country)....................................124,933 Total........................................................................325,520 1st. Number of miles of coast acquired by the annexation of Texas, from the mouth of the Sabine to the Rio Grande.............................................................................. 400 2d. Number of miles of coast on the Pacific, including Oregon and California. In California, 970; Oregon, 500; Straits of Juan de Fuca, 150...................................................... 1,620 Total, including Texas....................................................... 2,020 TABLE EXHIBITING THE AREAS OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN SQUARE MILES AND ACRES. Free States Sqsare miles Acres Slave States Square miles Acres Maine...............35,000..........22,400,000 Delaware............... 2,120.............1,356,800 Vermont.............. 8,000........... 5,120,000 Maryland.............. 11,000........... 7,040,000 New-Hampshire........ 8,030.............5,139,200 Virginia.............61,352..........39,265,280 Massachusetts.........7,250.............4,640,000 North Carolina........45,500............29,120,000 Rhode Island...........1,200............768,000 South Carolina.........28,000............17,920,000 Connecticut............. 4,750.............3,040,000 Georgia...............58,000............37,120,000 New-York!........... 46,000.......... 29,440,000 Kentucky............ 37,680.......... 24,115,200 New-Jersey............. 6,851.............4,384,640 Tennessee........... 44,000.......... 28,160,000 Pennsylvania........47,000............30,080,000 Louisiana...........46,431............29,715,840 Ohio...................39,964............25,576,960 Mississippi........... 47,147.......... 30,174,080 Indiana...................33,806............21,637,760 Alabama...............50,722............32,462,080 Illinois.............. 55,405.......... 35,459,200 Missouri............. 67,389.......... 43,123,200 Michigan..............56,243.......... 35,995,520 Arkansas..............52,198............33,406,720 Iowa................ 50,914.......... 32,584,960 Floridas............. 59,268.......... 37,931,520 Wisconsin........... 53,924............34,511,360.. - s sTotafeeatote slave I b 610,798......... 390,910,720 Total of the free a 454,340..... 290, 77 77,600 states........ States,........290,777,600 Texas..............................................................325,520.......... 208,332,800 District of Columbia................................................. c 50................ 32,000 TERRITORY NORTH AND WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Bounded north by 49~ north latitude, east by Mississippi river, south by State of Iowa and Platte river, and west by Rocky Mountains..............723,248......... 462,878,720 Indian territory, situated west of the States of Arkansas and Missouri, and south of the Platte river.............................................2...... 48,851........... 159,264,640 Old northwest territory, balance remaining east of the Mississippi river and north of Wisconsin.........................................................22,336............ 14,295,040 Total of old territory and organized into States................... d 994,435......... 636,438,400 TERRITORY EXCLUSIVE OF OLD TERRITORY EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Sq. miles Acres Sq. miles Acres Oregon............... 341,463............. 218,536,320............ a 454,340..............290,777,600 California............-448,691..............287,1682,240............8. b 610,798..............390,910,720 New-Mexico*............77,387...............49,527,680.............. c 50.............. 32,000 Texas*.............. 325,520............ 208,332,800............d 994,435..............636,438,400 Total........ 1,193,061............ 763,559,040...............2059623............1,318,158,720 Length of the Atlantic coast to the mouth of St. Mary's river................................. 1,450 miles. Length of the Atlantic coast from St. Mary's to Cape of Florida................................450 " Length of the Gulf coast to the mouth of Sabine.............................................1,200 " Total................................................................... 3,100 " The new States are larger than some of the old ones. Missouri is the largest State at present, except Texas, which is to be divided into four States. The ar~ of the State of California, according to an estimate made on Preuss's map of 1848, is 158,50 0 square mixs. ESTIMATED SURFACES OF OTHER STATES. California is about 334 times larger than Louisiana.................................... Sq. miles.46,431 'i " 2,2 "" Missouri.................................................67,380 " " 41 " " Kentucky................................................37,680 " " 211 " " Virginia..................................................61,352 " " 3 X "" New-York............................................. 46,000 " " 3 X " " Pennsylvania.............................................47,000 * Taking the Rio Grande as the boundary. 394 Sq. l. A,... UNITED STATES-IMMIGRATION INTO. The average distance of the sea-coast from the eastern boundary of the new state of Califor nia, is.....................................................................................212 miles. Total length from north to south...............................................................764 " Length of sea-coast........................................................................970 " The surface of Deseret, estimated on Preuss's map, is as follows: Part situated in Oregon................................................................Sq. miles 20,000 1" " California territory..............................................................340,009 " within proposed limits of State of California............................................ 70,000 Total...................................................................................... 430,000 Total surface of Old Territory east of the Rocky Mountains, in square miles....................... 994,435 Total in acres............................................................................... 636,428,400 Total of new territories west of the Rocky Mountains, in square miles............................ 867,741 Total in acres...............................................................................555,226,240 Texas in square miles..........................................................................325,520 Texas in acres.............................................................. 208,332,800 Grand total of territories and Texas, in square miles...........................................2,187,490 Grand total in acres......................................................................1,399,997,440 Total north of 36~ 30', in square miles.........................................................1,642,784 In acres..................................................................................1,051,381,710 Total south of36~ 30', in square miles............................................... 545,702 In acres.................................................................................... 348,515,680 LENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES SEA-COAST. Miles Atlantic coast.....................................................................1,000 Gulf "..................................................................... 1,600 Pacific "..................................................................... 1,620-4,220 Total length of" shore line.............................................................33,063 Grande to the Pacific ocean, by treaty lines, 1,456 miles. Question 4. "Extent of shore line of the northern lakes, including bays, sounds, and islands;" Answer. American coast, or shore line........ 3,620 miles. British coast, or shore line.............. 2,620 Total miles.. —. -. 6,240 " UNITED STATES SEA AND RIVER SHORE LINE.-Col. Abert, of the Topo. graphical Engineers, thus answers to the questions of government: Question 1. "The extent of shore line of each of the rivers of the United States, as far as navigable for steamboats of the lightest draft now used, designating the extent of shore line of each principal river and its tributaries." Answer. Shore line of rivers, to head of tide water, from Maine to Texas. The head of tide water is assumed as the limit of steamboat navigation, as impeding falls or rapids are usually encountered at that point, above which many of our rivers are adapted to steam navigation, but to what extent is not sufficiently known............ 10,501 miles. Shore line of rivers of Texas.. 1,210 Mississippi (lower) islands and bayous.................... 8,372 " Mississippi (upper) and tributa ries.......-.. —-—. —-. — 2,736 " Big Black, Yazoo, and bayous.. 1,190 Red River and tributaries,...- 4,924 " Arkansas River and tributaries. 3,250 " Missouri River and its tributaries 7,830 " Ohio River and tributaries..-.. 7,342 " Total miles, including both - banks and rivers...... 47,355 " Question 2. - The extent of frontier of the United States, bordering on the British pos. sessions." Answer. From the mouth of St. Croix to the Pacific ocean, by treaty lines, 3,303 miles. Question 3. " The extent of frontier of the United States, bordering on Mexico." Answer, From the mouth of the Rio UNITED STATES.-IMMIGRATION INTO. -That the world is watching the progress of these United States, has been so often rerepeated, that national vanity may be pardoned even when displayed on the puny attempts of some miserable tourist to disparage the vastness he cannot grasp, and the institutions he cannot comprehend. But while this great and preponderating influence, looming up in futurity like a mountain, and growing and expanding with every year, that tests the worth and proves the stability of our noble and free government, may well excite feelings of the proudest patriotism, let us be wiling to analyze, most carefully, every force that swells the aggregate of our national strength, and ferret out every element of weakness and decay. It is for the republican institutions of America we hope and fear moost, It is not because the soil of America offers an asylum, and her corn fields bread to the oppressed, that she is to be considered the great problem with the solution of which is connected the happiness of our very race. Intimately connected with this question of the stability of our republican institutions, is to be viewed 395 UNITED STATES-IMMIGRATION INTO. tions among themselves, thus socially, if not politically, dividing themselves from our native population. Another, but less important consideration comparatively, is, that many of these immigrants being left in a state of destitution at the point of debarkation, or overtaken by poverty or disease, become a very serious tax to the community. At this we would not repine, although it appears hard that the land which has reaped the fruit of the strength and prime of the laborer's years should send him forth to be fed from the bread of another people. It is then a question, acknowledged by all to be of the utmost importance, to ascertain clearly the amount of the foreign element in the United States. If the clamor on this subject is ill founded let us dismiss it from our minds; and if, on the other hand, poverty, ruin and anarchy, are like a pest to follow in the track of these increasing myriads, it is time to establish a cordon sanitlaire. We do not know of any estimate, previous to those of Mr. Chickering's, found on reliable data, and we hasten to present to our readers some of that gentleman's results. The foundation is the custom-house returns of the number of foreign passengers from 1820: the influence of the vas t acc essions of i nhabitants to our shores from distant lands. It has been the p olicy of America, from minhgled motives, hitherto to encourage this d aily-i ncreasing tide of foreign ers. And the liberality of our gover nment, a nd th e course of legislation, joined to the cheapness and excel lenc e of the s oil, h ave attrac ted from the e arliest period of the R epubl ic, th e poor, the oppressed, and the adventurous, of all lands. The only cheeks in the transport ation of the hosts have been extreme poverty, timidity, and th e lack of ships adequ ate to the mighty task. It was early felt that wild luxuriance of nature needed hands to gather it, and that the ancient and bou ndless forests required s omething more th an the natural increase of the first colonists to fill them during the first century, in order that they might become arable l and. Foreign aid, too, had been received with deep gratitude during the war of the Revolution, and the first bands of immi - grants we re hailed by our father s as brothers and friends. The first ge nerat ion of those who succeeded the me n of the Revolution has passed a way. The three millio n s of the Re volu tion, and the six millions of the y ear 1810, have become now twenty millions, and th e s am e necessit y does not appear to exist in res pect t o a furth er incr eas e of population. The terrible evils of a thickly-populated country, as shown in the misery and famine of some portions of the Old World, have exci te d sentiments of doubt, that with a ll the unbound ed frontie r and the g reat valley of the Mississippi before us, we may yet complain of narrow limits. Party spirit has run high, and our fellow-citizens of foreign birth have, it has been thought, taken too prominent a part in political affairs, and by espousing in force one of the great parties have rendered themselves obnoxious to many of opposite sentiments. Besides, many neutral men have been fearful that responding to a distinction unknown to others, and called on and marshaled by their own leaders, they might possibly hold the most dangerous position in a free state, that of a minority ready to turn the beam of political victory as fraud and ambition among their leaders might happen to sway. Even the friend of the foreigner must admit that many ignorant immigrants come yearly among us, and that the education proper for a freeman is not easily acquired after the years of youth. Many, especially among those who do not speak our language, are disposed to form associa Years... Total 1820-21............ 5,993 1821-22............ 7,329 1822-23............ 6,749 1823-24............ 7,088 1824-25............ 8,532 1825-26............ 10,151 1826-27............ 12,418 1827-28............ 26,114 1828-29............ 24-459 1829-30............ 27,153 1830-31............ 23,074 1831-32............ 45,287 1832-33............ 56,547 1833-34............ 65335 RECAPITULATION. Y.ars Total Years Total 1820-25.... 35,691 1820-30.......... 135,986 1825-30........... 100,295 18 30-40..........570,370 1830-35...........243,142 1840-46..........638,949 1835-40.. eo.......336,228 1840-45........... 436,792 1820-46........ 1,354,305 1845-46...........202,157 Proportion..........100 396 Y..,. T.t.1 1834-35........... 52,899 1835-36........... 62,473 1836-37........... 78,083 1837-38........... 59,363 1838-39........... 52,163 1839-40........... 84,146 1840-41........... 83,504 1841-42.......... 101,107 1842-43........... 75,759 1843-44........... 74,604 1844-45.......... 102,415 1845-46...... t.. 147,051 1846 (I qr.)....... 55,106 These returns ought to be increased by the numbers who land in the British pro, vinces and find their way to the United States. The estimate of Mr. Chickering, of an increase in this way of 50 per cent. to be added to the custom-house returns, would furnish a table in which the annual foreign increment is compared with the whole increase, UNITED STATES-IMMIGRATION INTO. rItOP0trTION OF FOREIGN IMMIGRANTS TO THE INCREASE OF THE POPULATION OF THE JNITED STATES. Foreign Passengers A,verage Annual Custom Years Population Increase House Elsewhere Total Per cent. Proportion 1820-21...... 9,638,191......282,465...... 5,993...... 2,9961........ 8,989..... 3.18..... to31-43 1821-22...... 9,920,656......290,743...... 7,329...... 3,6641...... 10,993..... 7.78.... 26-45 1822-23..... 10,211,399......299,264...... 6,749...... 3,374%..... 10,123%..... 3.38.... 29-57 1823-24......10-510,663......308,035...... 7.088...... 3,544...... 10,632..... 3.45.... 28-98 1824-25...... 10.818,698.....317,062...... 8,532...... 4,266...... 12,798..... 4-03.... 24-78 1825-26......11,135,760......326,354...... 10,151...... 5,075%...... 15,226%..... 4-66.... 21-46 1826-27......11,462,114......335,919...... 12,418...... 6,209........ 18,627..... 5-54.... 18-04 1827-28......11,798,033......345,763...... 26,114...... 13,057...... 39,171.....11-32.... 8.83 1828-29......12,143,796......355,897...... 24,459...... 12,2291....... 36,6881....10-30.... 9-71 1829-30......12,499,693......566,32 27153..... 13,5761 1...... 40,729.... 11-11.... 900 1830-31......12,866,020......368,914...... 23.......2304..... 11,537...... 34,611..... 938.... 10-66 1831-32......13,234,934......379,491...... 45,287...... 22,6431...... 67,830.....17-90.... 5-59 1832-33......13,614,425......390,373...... 56,547...... 28,2731...... 84,820....21-72.... 4-61 1833-34......14,004,798......401,565...... 65,335...... 32,6671...... 98,002.....24-40.... 4-10 1834-35......14,406,363......413,082..... 52,899...... 26,489...... 79,388.....19-21.... 5-21 1835-36..... 14,819,445......424,925...... 62,473...... 31,236...... 93,709.....22-05.... 4-54 1836-37.....;15,244,370.....437,109...... 78,083...... 9,0418......117,1241.....26-79.... 3-74 1837-38......15,681,479......449,642...... 59,363...... 29,6811...... 89,044.....1980... 505 1838-39......16,131,121......462,535...... 52,163...... 26,0811...... 78,2441.....16-91.... 5'92 1839-40......16,593,656......475,798...... 84,146...... 42,073...... 126,219.....26-52.... 3-77 1840-41......17,069,454......489,441...... 83,504...... 41,752...... 125,256.....2559... 3.91 1841-42...... 17,558,895......503,474......101,107...... 50,553......151 6601.....30-12.... 3- 32 1842-43......18,062,369......517,911...... 75,159...... 37,5791......112'7381..... 21-76.... 4-60 1843-24.....18,580,280.....532,761...... 74,607...... 37,303......111,910%..... 21-05.... 4-77 1844-45......19,113,041......548,037......102,415.......51,2071......153,622Y....28-03.... 3-57 1845-46......19,661,078......563,752......147,051...... 73,525......220,576%.....39-12.... 2-56 1846 3d qr........ -...... 55,106...... 27,553...... 82,659.......... Total 26 years. -..-.... 1,354,305.....677,1521.... 2,031,457%..... -.... RECAPITULATION. Foreign Passengers Average Annual Custom Years Population Increase House Elsewhere Total Per cent. Proportion 1820-25....... 51,099,607......1,497,569......35,691......17,8451......53,536%...... 357......1 to 27-98 1825-30....... 59,039,396......1,730,260.... 100,295..... 50,1471.....150,4421......8-69...... 11-51 1830-35....... 68,126,540......1,953,425.....243,142.....121,571......364,753...... 18-67...... 5-36 1835-40.......78,470,071......2,250,009.....336,228....168,114.....504,342....22-41...... 4-47 1840-45....... 90,384,039..... 2,591,624..... 436,792.....218,396.258.....655,188.25-28.. 3-96 1845-46... 19,661,078...... 563,572.....147,051..... 73,525%.....220,576~.....39-12...... 2-56 1820-30...... 110,139,003...... 3,227,829.....135,986..... 67,993.....203,979..... 6-31......11 to 15-83 1830-40.......146,596,611...... 4,203,434.....579,370.....289,685.....869,055..... 20-67...... 4-84 1840-46...... 110,045,117..... 3,155,376.....583,843.....291,221 -.....875,764%.....27*75...... 3-63 Total,23 57 I 366,780,731..... 10,586,639....1,299,199.....649,5993....1,948,7981.....18-40...... 5-44 years.... 1 Assuming the rate of increase of the whole 28-80 per cent. in the free, and 21-54 in the white population of the United States to be slave states, we have 26-28 per cent. in each decade from 1790, 1~90 1500 1810 1820 1830 1840 Free States.................. 1,901,046....2,448,667....3,154,0.38....4,062,600....5,232,825...... 6,740,209 Slave States................. 1,271,488....1,545,470....1,878,490.... 2,283,269....2,775,270......3,373,288 Aggregate............... 3,172,534....3,994,137...5, 032,528....6345,86 9....8,008,095.....10,113,497 Differences.............................2,290.... 26,978.... 43,515.... 60,722.... 76,188 Orig. States and Territories....3,172,534. -....3,996,427....5,059,506...6,389,384....8,068,817.....10,189,685 Add Louisiana............................... 34,311.... 41,704.... 50,691.. 61,622 Add Florida......................................... ----— 18,385.. 22,347 Total................... 3,172,534.... 3,996,427....5,093,817....6,431,088.... 8,137,893.....10,273,654 Foreign immigration................ 307,678.... 768,187...1,430,906....2,399,485..... 3,922,152 Tot. White Population, U.S.. 3,172,534....4,304,105....5,862,004....7,861,994...10,537,378.....14,195,806 Assuming 267,567 a~ the foreign popula- I to be at the average rate of 26-28, we tion in 1790, and conkdering their increase I have 397 UNITED STATES —IMMIGRATION INTO. 1800 181o 1820 1830 1840 For'n immigration from 1790 to 1800.. 267,567........337,996........426,838........ 539,031........680,714 1800 to 1810............363,001........458,415........ 578,908........731,073 1810 to 1820....................... 494,392........ 624,342. —---- 788,449 1820 to 1830................................... 665,647......8 640,611 1830 to 1840.......................................... 888,705 267,567..-...... 700,997...... 1,379,645...... 2,407,928...... 3,929,552 Differences........................ —0,111....... —67,190....... -51,261..... plus 8,443...... plus 7,400 Total Foreign Population in U. S....307,678........ 768,187....... 1,430,906..... 2,399,485..... 3,922,152 By comparing these tables, we find that a words, had immigration been stopped, our probable amount of four millions of our po- population would be at this time, other things pulation is due to the immigration of fo- being equal, about sixteen millions of souls. reigners, for the last fifty years. In other A nearer approximation is considered to be: Proportion per cent of the Foreigners to the -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Increase of Total white the whites population Foreign immigration from 1790 to 1800, including the immigrants and their children, from their arrival to the next census................. 307,687..... 27-18........ 7-14 Their natural increase at the rate of 26-28, &c., per cent. in ten years.. 80,872............... - Foreign immigration as above, from 1800 to 1810...................... 379,637.......24-36........ - Foreign population in 1810..............................768,187...............13-10 Their natural increase at the above rate, in 10 years.................. 201,916............... - Foreign immigration as above, from 1810 to 1820...................... 460,803.......23-04........ Foreign population in 1820..................................... 1,430,906....... -........18-20 Their natural increase at the above rate, in 10 years................... 376,110............... - Foreign immigration as above, from 1820 to 1830...................592,469.....22-04....... Foreign population in 1830..................................... 2,399,485....... -........ 2277 Their natural increase at the above rate, in ten years 63069.................. 630,699......... - Foreign immigration as above, from 1830 to 1840...................... 891,968......24-32........ - Foreign population in 1840..................................... 3,922,152..... -.......27 62 But surEstimated No. Surviving in Surviving of emigrants. 1840 in 1846 1790 to 1800....... 267,567....... 82,154....... 50,570 1800 to 1810....... 363,001...... 177,853...... 137,801 1810 to 1820....... 494.392...... 317,408...... 274,299 1820 to 1830....... 665,647...... 530,018...... 468,388 1830 to 1840....... 888,705...... 831,129...... 757,754 1840 to 1846....... 875,764...... -...... 842,660 1,938,562....2,431,472 If we are correct in our opinion, and we believe that the most enthusiastic partisan will not consider the children of foreigners, born on this soil, as any other in feeling and sentiment than the progeny of native citizens, we have presented a result approximating nearly to the number of persons born in other lands and living in the United States during the year 1846, and comprising all who, in any proper sense, can be regarded as the true foreign element in our population. Considering the ravages of disease among the large class of poor and improvident immi grants, and the fatigues of the voyage hither and subsequent travel, together with the mortality incident to settlers in a new country, and one differing much in climatic character from that of their birth, the deduc tions made from the gross number of estimated arrivals are probably below the truth; and the number of persons now residing in But surely, although our numbers would not have swelled to their present by four millions, had it not been for foreign immigration, we cannot consider this as representing at all the number of true foreigners, allowing that all born without our territorial limits are foreign in heart to our commonwealth. Many of these foreigners, and these sons of foreigners, have married the daughters of America, and shall the children of an American mother be thus considered as foreigners? this, in our opinion, is an entirely erroneous system of calculation. The increase of the foreign population, even that portion which embraces the children of foreigners on both father and mother's side, is in every sense American; and the proper course to determine the foreign element is, casting out of view the progeny, to inquire how large a population of foreign birth is now living in the United States. Assuming the average age of this population to be 25 years, and the ratio of mortality to be the mean of these tables, in England, from which country the largest proportion of the new-comers emigrate, and striking out of view the increase by birth, we have as the surviving number of the foreign immigration in 1840-a result as follows: 398 UNITED STATES-IMMIGRATION INTO. the United States may possibly not much exceed two millions. Of this number, ac cording to Dr. Chickering, two thirds may be regarded as males, and a very large por tion, even at the time of immigration, is adult. Of course, the survivors of all the years of immigration. prior to 1830, must be set down as adults. So that the proportion of adults to children may be, say three to one. One half of the whole population surviving in the year 1846, may be seen to consist of those who emigrated to this country prior to the year 1835. This is a portion that, from their mature age and acquaintance with the institutions of our country, besides the possession of comparative wealth, must exert a great influence in forming the social character of more recent comers. They are, so to speak, a vast teaching class, dispersed over the whole country, advising the inexperienced and checking the rash among their countrymen. But it is not our purpose to look at any arguments that concern the political aspects of the question. If we have alluded to any, it was merely to call attention in this way to the acknowledged importance of the inquiry, and then treat it in a purely economical and statistical manner. The value of this population, as workers, is worth a moment's consideration. The estimated number of the inhabitants of the United States i n 1846, was 20,557,823, as will be seen by reference to the a rticle on the "Progress of the American Union," derived from the investigations of Wm. Darby, Esq. The Secretary of the Treasury gives us the sum total of the productions of the country, for the year included in the r eport of 22d July, 1846, reckoned in dollars, an aggregate of 3,000,000,000. The amount of individual average production is as near as may be, $150 in one year. It must be remembered that of the foreigners a larger proportion than the average are adult males; and of these more than the usual number comparatively belong to that class most actively employed in physical production. If we assumlie but two millions as the number of the foreign population, their aggregate annual production is the vast amount of $300,000,000, for 1846. In dwelling on the necessity and value to a country of the working class, we would not depreciate the importance of the managing and directing class-but we say that, as the former are measured in importance by number, the latter are estimated in reference to enterprise, skill and science. A skilful foreman or overseer may wield as easily, and direct the physical forces of one hundred as easily as ten laborers; and though cultivation and intelligence are to be desired in the one who labors with his hands, they are not so indispensable as in the labors of contrivance and management. In conclusion, we must express the obli Maine........................................ 5,360 New-Hampshire............................. 108 Massachusetts..............................25,579 Rhode-Island................................ 175 New-York................................294,445 Pennsylvania............................... 18,556 Maryland................................... 8,589 Vi rgin ia..................................... 29 South Carolina.............................. 1,811 Georgia.................................... 510 Alabama.................................... 344 Florida................................... 81 Louisiana................................... 52,011 Texas...................................... 1,208 Total.................................... 408,828 Males...................................... 245,017 Females...................................163,745 Sex not stated............................. 66 Of these there belonged to the United States..29,367 To foreign countries.................... 379,461 Embarked from Great Britain and Ireland... 208,248 Embarked from Ireland alone................55,874 Embarked from Germany....................72,283 Embarked from France......................20,107 The report covers the fifteen months, from September 30th, 1850, to the close of the last calendar year; but the above figures embrace only the twelve months of 1851. Hereafter I shall probably give the exact number for the omitted quarter. Very erroneous impressions exist in the United States and elsewhere, as to the extent of immigration into the country, and the number of ithabitants of foreign birth now residing in it. In a recent debate in the British Parliament, a prominent member in the House of Lords, the Archbishop of Cashel, stated that there were 7,500,000 Irishmen in the United States; and I have seen ill many newspapers, what purports to be an elaborate and detailed statement of the number ot'f Germans among us, from which it would appear that there were 5,000,000 of that nation in this country. These accounts are all ridiculous exaggerations. The report of the Superintendent of the Census furnishes the followitig very useful table, which enables us to correct these errors, and presents a very clear view of the subject. The following statement will show the accessions to our population, from immigration, from 1790 to 1850: 399 gations due to the author of the pamphlet alluded to in this article, Dr. Chickering, who has furnished us a copy, and gives many nteresting notes in a private letter to our address. UNITED STATES-IXMIGITATION INTO.I'he annual report from the State Departrnent, on the subject of immigration shows the following facts. The statements apply to the calendar year ending 31st December, 1851. The arrivals of passengers from foreign ports, into the several districts of the United States, for. that year, were, as given below: This number was classified thus: UNITED STATES POPULATION. Number of foreigners arriving from 1790 to 1810.................................. 120,000 Natural increase, reckoned in periods of ten years............................... 47,560 Number of foreigners arriving from 1810 to 1820................................... 114,000 Increase of the above to 1820.............. 19,000 Increase from 1810 to 1820, of those arriving previous to 1810......................... 58,450 Total number of immigrants, and deseend ants of immigrants, in 1820.............. 359,010 Number of immigrants arriving from 1820 to 1830.................................. 203,979 Increase of the above..................... 35,728 Increase from 1820 to 1830, of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, in the country in 1820........................ 134,130 Total number of immigrants, and descend ants of imnnigrants, in the United States in 1830................................. 732,847 Number of immigrants arriving from 1830 to 1840................................... 778,500 Increase of the above...................... 135,150 Increase from 1830 to 1840, of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, in the United States in 1840.................... 254,445 Total number of immigrants, and descend ants of immigrants, in the United States in 1840................................. 1,900,9d2 Number of immigrants arriving from 1840 to,'1850.................................. 1,542,850 Increase of the above at twelve per cent.... 185,142 Increase from 1840 to 1850 of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, in the United States in 1840................... 722,000 Total number of immigrants in the United States since 1790, and their descendants in 1850................................. 4,350,934 conquests over him; in the other, the elasticity, vigor and energy of democracy, overcoming all the obstacles of nature, and pressing forward into the depths of the wilderness, to subdue it into activity and life. The comparison and the contrast are striking. Whilst all the original states of Christendom, where the battles of the reformation, of regeneration, of civilization, have been fought and won, and all the principles of progress been most early sown, exhibit a gradual decline, a stationary grade, or, at furthest, a slow advance; in the savage wilds of the remote North, whence emerged the barbarians, who, in early times, spread dismay throughout Europe, among the eternal forests which sweep from ocean to ocean, in a newly-discovered continent, far across the seas, have sprung up, as if by enchantment, and actuated by the most opposite principles, two great and overshadowing powers, differing from every other in the world, and yet identical, the one with the other, in this, that their great progress has been unchecked and uncontrolled by a single counter influence, and promises developments to which, per. haps, history does not present the parallel. There can be no more instructive lesson than the reflection teaches. In the just pride and exultation of the American heart, it is not unfrequent that our hosts, swarming over the mountains, and across the continent, are poainted to, as evincing the glorious career of our country. But let it be remembered, that, if in this alone, or in any degree, consisted the glory, or were indicated the destinies of this American republic, despotic Russia, of all the nations in Europe, the lowest in the scale of civilization, is our on ly rival!c We have said before, and now repeat the expression, that, although an extension of territory and a rapid augmentation of populatioii be important elements of national prosperity and power, they are not necessarily so, and are only so whilst public virtue shall subsist, and, so far as our country is concerned, whilst it is administered and governed upon those sound political principles which, born in the throes of the Revolution, received their earliest manifestation in the wise constitution adopted by the fathers of our liberty. Abandon these principles, and all the swarming millions of India, and the interminable regions of Asia, would afford only one gloomy picture of oppression and wrong; and the degeneracy and impotency that would result, must render us weaker than when, seventy years ago, spread over a narrow belt along the shores of the Atlantic, a handful, we met and resisted the encroachments of the most warlike nation on earth. The complete report on the census will supply an exact classification of our population by nativity, as well as by age and race. In the mean time, it may be said that the census tables show the actual number of foreigners arrived in the United States from 1790 to 1350-sixty years-to have been 2,758,000, of whom it is not at all likely that more than 2,000,000 survived in June of the latter year. In the two years that have since elapsed, about 700,000 have arrived, so that of the whole population, now amounting to 25,500,000, not more than 2,700,000 are really of foreign birth. About one-half the entire immigration into the United States, ffr the l ast twenty years, h as been of the Irish people; about one-fourth Germna ns, and the remaining quarter consists of persons belonging to nearly every nation on the face of the earth. It may be assume d, therefore, that we have 1,350, 000 I rish, and 67 5,000 Germnans, anong our population. UNITED STATES POPULATION-OPERATION OF TtIE LAws OF POPULATION IN EUROPE AND'THE UNITrED STATES.-Russia, and the United States, according to Mr. Alison, in his lately published work on " Population," are the two powers of the earth, which, though latest upon the stage of action, and last to be recognized, are advancing in population with the most rapid and amazing strides. In the one, he recognizes the element of despotistm struggling in its contests with man, and marching steadily onward by * Ho w extraordinary, then, that so profound a statistical writer as Prof. Tucker could say: "The numbers of a people are at once the source and index of its wealth," &c. See his work on Progress of Population in the IUnited States. 400 UNITED STATES POPULATION. losophy which despised deduction, mankind be none te better t in formed. It is in this view that our censuses re fiflly appreciated; tha t precision and euracy beco me most impo rt ant considerations, and that the exte nt and variety of the information c olle cted, are among the highest objects of considerati o n. In casting our eyes over the wor ld, we sheall be surpris edin t o find th at, under the influence of de spotic, irre spo nsible, irregular and alto gether arbitrary governments, the fairest and most productive regions, where population in the earliest ages swarmed, have been almost depopulated. This is principally the case in the East. Throughout the Turkish dominions in Candia, Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes, Moldavia are the most melancholy features exhibited the whole population being scarcely twenty eight to the square mile, about onie-fifth part of' what it was in the days of the Roman em pire, and one-tenlth part of countries more un favorably situated in different parts of'Europe.* "1 Egypt, which was so celebrated in antiqui ty," says Mr. Alison,",, languishes under the tyranny of Oriental despotism, and the de scendan-ts of those multitudes who erected the stupendous monuments of Egyptian power, are thinly scattered over the plains which are yet loaded with the richness of an undecay in,g soil."+ In the wars of the Emperor Justinian and Belisarius, Africa was depopulated; and, it is certain that, under the present tyrannical government of the Barbary states, no improve ment can take place. Mr. Poiret describes the country as a desert, where it is a rare thing to see two or three villages in a day.$ In regard to Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor, the traveler, Volney, remarked: " So feeble a population, in a country so fertile, may well excite our astonishment, which will be still increased, if we consider its population in ancient times, of which the innumerable ruins and traces of population afford ample proof." In India, the most prolific region in the world, where, almost spontaneously, the soil yields two or three crops in the year, and the wants of the inhabitants are the fewest pos. sible, the highest proportion of population to the square mile is not more than one-third of what it is in England-and yet the history of civilization in that country carries us almost to the infancy of man. Universal poverty prevails under a system of economy and governmental policy which has effectually destroyed all energy, industry or hope. "1 When we contemplate," says Alisoni,~ " the moral and political evils to which the Indian population are subjected; when we behold them neglected by the sovereigns, debased by the priesthood and plundered by the army; when we reflect on the insecure tenure by which 11 A diseased action of the principles of population; the production of an augmenta tion of human beintigs at a time when the circumstances of society require that their numbers should be stationary; the multipli cation of misery and suffering throughout the community, by the removal of the lim itations which nature has provided for the regulation of the principles of increase; the excesses of tyranny, which dry up the sources of subsistence, and close, for a season, the fountains of human increase-produce effects of a wide-spread and durable kind, and which cannot be repaired, except in the lapse of ages."' These considerations give importance to all questions relating to population, and have stimulated the investigations being made in most modern nations, having for their object the permanent interest and welfare of man, considered in his physical adaptations. At no period, until within the last fifty years, have the laws which regulate popula tion, stimtlating or retarding it in a legiti mate or vicious action, received any portion of attention fiom the philosophers of the age. Scarcely have any other than the most gene ral records been kept, even of the aggregate numbers included within the community. We must be indebted to conjecture and infe rence for our facts, even in the case of the ancient states of Greece and Rome, where such would have been least expected, and the most contradictory and variant state ments are received from the first historians. Thile physical character, relations, adaptations, necessities, were altogether lost sight of, as insignificant, in the comparison and study of those moral, religious and scholastic systems with which genius occupied itself in every age and country. Political economy having entered upon its high mission, man began to be elevated to his true position. What he is? why he is so? what he might be under sound laws? what his connections with other men, and how dependent? why lie is social? when he marries, and under what circumstances? how he increases least or nmost? the just limitations and stimulants to such increase? how affected by government, by education, by different stages of prosperity? when most prosperous and happy? and the thousand other nice points, whose enumeration is unnecessary, but which are elaborated in the science of population, uponi the data furnished in most civilized communities, by the repor ts of statistical associations and public census returns; the se b ecome subjec ts of constant iunvestigationi. It is evident that, without authentic data, which government alone can adequately fulrnish, all reasoning and theories must be altogether vain. Hypothesis and theory will clash together, arnd, as in the ancient systems of' phi * Alison's Principles of Population, vtol. i., p. 3. VOL. I. 26 * See Alison, i., 324, Malte Brun, IHumboldt, etc. t Alison, i., 326. t Letters on Barbary, p. 336. ~ Alison, i., 370. 401 UNITED STATES POPULATION. perity. The proportion of population to territory, is more than double that of either Great Britain or France. Though population be very thin throughout Sweden and Norway, yet the physical condition and intelligence of the people are highly commended by travelers, and the mild and equitable government, which in no respect represses industry. In Russia, we find a widely different state of things; though the population be vast, and augmenting at a ratio of one hundred per cent. in ibrty-nine years, yet is the condition of the masses degraded, and they are scarcely possessed of more than the mere absolute necessities of life. The whole peasantry, or agricultural population, are slaves; and, as such, can have none other than the most limited desires and aspirations. The nobles abound in wealth. "1 No situation," says Mr. Alison, " more favorable to the mere multiplication of mankind can be imagined, th an t hat of a coun try in which the government is suffic - elntly regular and powerful to secure, to a certain extent, the fruits of industry, and afford to the laboring classes an ample supply of the necessaries of life, while it is not so just and free as to afford the means of individual elevation, or develop the love of property or the influence of artificial wants among the people." Poland, Italy, Spain, Portugal and Den mark, present the most melancholy pictures of the influence of bad governments and op pressions, upon regions, favored in every stay by nature, and once the most prosperous and happy in the world. The oppressions of the Polish nobility keep down population to the lowest state, and render it lower, almost, than anywhere else in Europe. "' In Italy, popu lation advances with rapidity, in consequence o! the ignorance, the absence of foresight, and the total lack of artificial wants among the people. From the ecclesiastical tyrannies and taxations of Spain, its present limited popula tioni results. In the immense ruins that ex hibit themselves, all the evidences of a vast population are exhibited. Industry is in the lowest possible condition-the nobles and clergy possessing nearly the whole coun try." " On a survey of the German empire, in cluding the / ustrian states, Prussia," etc., Mir. Alison remarks, with the authority of Russel, Reisbeck, etc., " the vast and varied picture of Germany, presents the most inter esting subject for reflection. In some districts, it exhibits poverty and suffering in the midst of the greatest abundance of natural riches; in others, plenty and prosperity under natural disadvantages: indigence is seen pervading a scanty, comfortless and numerous population. How little is public happiness dependent up on the gifts of nature?" Ireland, which has so long received the commiseration of humanity, and stood out as a problem in history and political economy, the ryot holds his property, the enormous abuses to which he is subjected, and the utter want of all capital to facilitate his undertakings; when we recollect that this unfortunate people are kept in the deepest ignorance of every useful art by the priesthood, and that the ravages of intestine war, or the extortions of mercenary troops,have long spread through every corner of the realm-the subject of astonishment comes to be, how the population is so great as it actually is?" That the population of China should be vast, as indeed it is, various powerful c auses, both natura l and the resul t of the society which obtains there, might be assigned; but, that such a population should be reduced to the lowest possible s ta ge of comfort, confined to the merest limits of subsistence, is a fact only to be explained in the arb itrar y and despotic character of the overnment. The great emp i r e of Japan is, owever, an anom aly in all the East, and, according to tra velers, exhibits very general industry, enterpris e and comfor t, throughout all classes of thet an peo ple, without any principles of freedom. The sovereign has taken'industry un der his imperial patronage. After enumerati rg the abuses of government in Persia M r. Alisn ins o ion finds occasion for a beautiful con trast " between Persia (shrunk now to less than a t enth p art of i ts ancient greatness, population and power, and crouching before the encroachments of Muscovite dominion) and Great ltritaini, the abode of naked savages in the time of Xerxes and Darius, but now planting its colonies in every quarter of the globe, and sending its victorious arms from the shores of the Ganges into the heart of Asia and the cradle of Mohammedan power!" l Let us' pass now to Europe, and glance htur riedly at each of its states. Its population to the square mile, under a far better regulated condition of affairs, is double that of Asia. In France, before the revolution, the oppressions of the nobles and government depressed all industry and energy; labor averaged, it is said, 76 per cenit. cheaper than in England, agri cultural profits were small, and general igno rance prevailed. That France has greatly improved under the late government, will not be questioned, though population is much more sparse than in Enlgland. Switzerland presents the example of extra ordinary prosperity and industry, enjoyed by a whole population, in a country naturally magnificent, but in no other respects less favor ed than its neighbors. Under the best politi cal institutions, the Swiss are the object of all admiration; and, in some of their cantons, adversity of population exists, exceeding that of Ireland, and yet comfortable and happy. Flanders and Holland, by virtue of the fer tility of their soil, the free and hardy spirit of their government and the untiring patience, industry and enterprise of the people, vie with Switzerland in domestic comforts and pros * Alison, i.. 408. 402 UNITED STATES POPULATION., with a genial climate, and a soil so prolific as to require scarcelyan effort from the husband man, and under a government, which. even in its worst manifestation, is vastly superior to that of many other nations, presents still its dark and gloomy picture of hopeless suffer ing: a whole nation beggared and famishing for food, extending its arms to all the world for relief! How shall her destiny be deter mined? For almost a third of a century, one half of the time of Parliament has been occu pied in measures for her relief, yet has she sunk lower and still lower. The returns of' the commissioners in 1840, show two millions of persons dependent upon parochial relief, or about one-third of the whole population! So extraordinary a state of things was, per haps, never heard of in history before. In all their squalid misery, thls people have gone on increasing, with the sole occupation of multiplying their species. In ninety years, up to 1840, according to WVakefield, the popu lation had increased four-fold! this, too, in a country without any manufactures, with the most contracted commerce and the most de graded agriculture. In the same period, she had sent a million and a half of emigrants to England, and probably as many to other por tions of the world. Without any very considerable towns, the proportion of population to surfice may be regarded the densest in Europe. Content with the lowest possible state of subsistence, which, in favorable sea sons, is yielded without an effort, and a low standard of comfort, the Irish have all the stirmulants, and are without any of the restrairits of population. In Great Britain, though every element of unlimited prosperity has been at work for so long a period, a diseased action of population is pointed out and commented upon by Mr. Alison. The indigence in the highland districts and great towns of Scotland, the consumption of spirits in the mercantile communities and increase of crime, the disorders and miseries of the manufacturing regions, the increase of crime in the country, femnale profligacy and intoxication, are stated by himt as causes of evil of peculiar power and malignity, to which, if not restrained in their operation, the empire itself will, in the course of time, fall a victim. The increase of population has been from 10,942,000 souls in 1801, to 16,539,000 in 1831, 20,000,000 in 1840having doubled in forty years, and this, too, by a natural process, all increase by immig,ration, except from Ireland (and this is not estimated higher than one and a half millions), in the same time being precluded. The wealth, power and influence of Great Britain are acnowledged throughout the world. Having thus made a hurried survey of the various nations of the earth, and delayed the attention of our readers too long, we return to the United States, the peculiar subject of this paper, and proceed to trace the progress of i ts population fro m th e ear liest period of histto the ory pres ent day. It is computed by Tocqueville, that since the first important emigration of British set tlers to America, in 1640, to the present time, the population has gone on, constantly doub ling in everytwenty-three and a half years. Its average westward progress now, has been estimated at seventeen miles per annum! In the basin of the Mississippi, population has, in forty years, multiplied thirtl-one fold, and up to this period, perhaps fifty bold! " There is something solemn, and almost awful," says Alison, " in the incessant advance of the great stream of civilization, whiclh, in Ameri ca, is continually rolling down from the sum mit of the Alleghanv mountains, and over spreading the boundless forests of the farWest. Nothing similar was witnessed in the world before. Vast as were the savage multitudes, which ambition or the lust of plunder, under Ghengis Khan or Timour, brought down from the plains of Tartary to overwhelm the opu lent regions of the earth, they are nothing compared to the ceaseless flood of human eings which is now, in its turn, sent forth from the abodes of civilized man into the de sert parts of the world. Not less than 300, 000 persons, almost in the prime of life, now yearly cross the Alleghany mountains, and settle on the banks of the Ohio and its tribu tary streams. They do not pass through like a devastating fire or a raging torrent-they settle where they take up their abode, never to return. Then, war is with the forest and the marsh: spreading themselves over an ex tent nearly 12,000 miles in length, these ad vance posts of civilization commence the in cessant war with the plow and the hatchet and, at the sound of their stroke, resounding through the solitudes of the forest, the wild animals and the Indians retire to m-ore undis turbed retreats." Various methods have at different times been adopted for ascertaining the population of a country. The number of houses were multiplied by 4, 5, 5.6 and 6; the number of births by 42, 35, 28, etc., according to different opinions. The ratio of deaths to population was also adopted as a method; but it is evident, as Dr. Franklin held, that these rules are not applicable alike to town and country, or different parts of the same country, were they even otherwise unobjectionable. An actual enumeration is the only reliable method, and the United States, by its decennial censuses, provided for in the constitution, was the first nation to adopt it as a fixed rule. It is said, indeed, that Henry VIII. bad a census taken of the inhabitants of his kingdom, their ages, professions, wealth, etc., and that a similar census, sometime in the eighteenth century, was taken in Spain, classifying the inhabitants according to occupations, etc. The American plan has been adopted in England.+ 403 I Seybert's Statistical Annals, p. 17. UNITED STATES POPULATIO,. first rank, being entitled to the highest na - ber; Massachusetts and Virginia were on common footing; Pennsylvania in the third rank. In 1775, when Congress was desirous of apportioning the continental money among the states to be redeemed by them, the number of population ascertained was 2,243,000 -an increase of over one hundred per cent. in twenty-five years, despite of the troubles of the times, which could not but have checked immigration and promoted emigration. POPULATION, 1775. New-Hampshire........................1 102,000 Massachusetts............................. 352,000 Rhode Island................................ 58,000 Connecticut..............................262,000 Georg a aa....................................27,000 New-5aork................................. 238,000 New-Jersey................................138,000 Pennsylvania...............................341,000 Delaware.....................................37,000 Maryland............................... 174,000 Virginia....................................300,000 North Carolina........................... 181,000 South Carolina.............................. 93,000 At the close of the first hundred years after the earliest permanent English settlement in America, and when all the original states, except Georgia, had been founded, the whole population in the country was estimated only at 260,000. It is impossible to say what proportion of these were the natural increase, wha t suppli ed by emigr at i on," and how nearly correct is the whole estimate. The population was thus distributed: POPULATION UNITED STATES, 1700. Massachusetts...........................i r.... 70,000o Connecticut....................................30,000 Rhode Island ---—..............-.-.10,000 New-Hampshire........................... 10,000 New-York.................................. 30,000 New-Jersey................................. 15,000 Pennsylvania............................. 20,000 Maryland...................................2,000 Virginia....................................40,000 North Carolina.............................. 5,000 South Carolina........................... m 7,000 T h uis is Massachusetts at the head of the c olon ies in population, Virginia sup er ior to New-Yok, Ne-Yorg Nit k and Connecticut of equal p ower, and Caro lina occupying the tenth position in regard to mere numbers. Int the mi d dle of this century we have another conjectura l e stimate from various data, which show s a population of about one million in the th irteen colonies-a four-fold in. crease in filty years. POPULATION, 1750. New-IHaimpshire............................ 30,000 Massachusetts.............................. 200,000 Rhode Island................................35,000 Connecticut................................. 80,000 New-York.................................. 90,000 Ne,w-Jersev................................. 50,000 Peninsylvaniiat............................150,000 Maryland................................... 85,000 Virginia..................................... 90,000 North Carolina.............................. 35,000 South Carolina.............................. 30,000 Georgia:.................................... 6,000 Thus again, after fifty years, we find Massachusetts at the head; but Pennsylvania, from the sixth, now occupies the second rank; New-York vies with Virginia, and Georgia is in its infancy. The relative importance of these colonies, however, was far otherwise, if we judge from the proportion of members to the grand council proposed by the convention of colonies at Albany in 1754, by which the Carolinas were placed in the The estimated slave population of the South was then about 500,000, swelling the whole to 2,750,000. In the two previous estimates the slave population were not included, though it is doubtful about the first. Pennsylvania thus treads closely upon Massachusetts; Virginia has passed New-York; North Carolina and Georgia have made the most rapid strides, increasing about five-fold. In the previous period, the former state had incre ased seven-f old, and South Carolina near five-fold. The first enumeration under the Constitution of the United States was made in 1790. It entered into but few particulars, separating the whole population into three classes: " free whites," " slaves," "1 other persons," meaning free colored persons. In regard only to the whites were there any subordin iate heads, and these were only "male," "1femiale," and the " males under or above sixteen years." This last distinction was intended to show the proportion of productive and unproductive population. The census disappointed public expectation, and, if correct, which is most likely, evinces a lower population at the Revolution than was supposed.~ POPULATION UNITED STATES, 1ST AUGUST, I790. Free white males of 16 years and up- Free whtite males Free white females ward, including under sixteen including heads All other free States heads of families years of families persons Slaves Maine.............. 24,384........ 924,748........ 46,870........ 538.................. New-Hampshire.... 36,089........ 34,851........ 70,171........ 630........ 158....... Massachusetts...... 95,383........ 87,289........ 190,582........ 5,463................. Rhode Island....... 16,033........ 15,811........ 32,855........ 3,469........ 952........ Connecticut....... 60,527....... 54,492........ 117,562........ 2,801........ 2,759........ Vermont............ 22,419......... 22,327........ 40,398........ 255........ 17....... New-York.......... 83,700........ 78,122........ 152,320........ 4,654........ 21,324.......4 * Ilolmes' Annals, VI., p. 54; Pitkin's Statistics, 582. t Including Delaware. t Virginia, in this and the last case, is certainly put too low; and Connecticut, by actual returns, five years after showed 126,975 whites. ~ Tucker's Progress of Population in the United States. I 404 T.t.1 N.. . 96,540 . 141,899 . 378,717 . 69,110 . 238,141 . 85,416 . 340,120 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION UNITED STATES-ontilnued. Free white males ofuixteen years and Free white maleg Free white females upward, including under sixteen including heads All other States heads of families years of families free persons Slaves Total No. New-Jersey........ 45,251....... 41,416.......... 83,287........ 2,762........ 11,423........ 184,139 Pennsylvania...... 110,788........106,948........ 206,363........ 6,537........ 3,737........ 434,373 Delaware.......... 11,783........ 12,143........ 22,384........3,899........ 8,887.......... 59,096 Maryland.......... 55,915........51,339......... 101,395........ 8,043....... 103,036....... 319,728 Virginia......... 110,934......116,135........ 215,046....... 12,766....... 293,427........ 748,308 North Carolina..... 69,988....... 77,506........ 140,710........ 4,975....... 100,572........ 393,751 South Carolina......5,5............. 37,722........ 66,880........ 1,801........107,094........ 249,073 Georgia............ 13,103........ 14,044.......... 25,739........ 398........ 29,264........ 82,548 Kerrntucky........... 15,154........ 17,057..........28,922........ 114........11,830........ 73,077 Tennessee.......... 6,271........ 10,37,-7........ 15,365....... 361........ 3,417........ 35,791 Total.........813,298...... 802,327....... 1,556,839........59,466.......697,897........3,929,827 Twas 103 to 100; of males over sixteen to those under as 50.3 to 49.7, or very nearly as I1 to 1-a result corresponding to that of England, where twenty years was assumed instead of sixteen.* We shall, hereafter, make some remarks upon these facts. We now take another point, the census of 1800. This, following the previous division of white, colored and slave, distinguishes more particulars in regard to the first class, who are divided, both male and female, into numerous classes: Thus, eighty per cent. of the whole popuilation were white, one and a halt per cent. free colored, and nearly eighteen per cent. slaves-an increase in fifteen years of nearly forty per cent. in the slave population, and seventy-five in the white. Virginia has now very nearly double the population of any other state-Pennsylvania occupies the second rank-inlassachusetts, from the first, has become the fourth. Three new states, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee, have, combined, a population equal to New-Jersey. The proportion of white males to females POPULATION, 1ST AUGUST, I800. Free White Males Of sixteen and Of twenty-six and Of forty-five under twenty- nuder forty-five, and upward, Under ten years Often yerra, ix, including heads including heads including heads of States of age and under sixteen of families of families families Maine..27,670.......... 12,305.......... 12,900.......... 15,318.......... 8,339 New-Hampshire..... 30,594.......... 14,881.......... 16,379.......... 17,589.......... 11,715 Massachusetts....... 63,646.......... 32,498......... 38,305.... —-------- 39,729..........31,316 Rhode Island........ 9,945.......... 5,352.......... 5,889.......... 5,785.......... 4,887 Connecticut.......... 37,946.......... 19,408.......... 21,683..........23,180.......... 18,976 Vermont.............29,420.... 12,046.......... 13,242.......... 16,544.......... 8,076 New-York.......... 100,367.......... 54,273.......... 49,275......... 61,594.......... 31,943 New-Jersey.........,4,780.......... 85,859.......... 16,301..........19,956.......... 12,629 Pennsylvania....... 03,226.......... 46,161.......... 54,262.......... 59,33.......... 38,485 Delaware............ 8,250.......... 4,437.......... 5,121........... 5,012.......... 2,213 Maryland............ 35,852.......... 17,392.......... 21,234.......... 22,778......... 13,394 District of Columbia.. 1,588.......... 671.......... 1,178.......... 1,332.......... 539 Virginia............. 92,438.......... 40,500.......... 48,708.......... 50,262.......... 30,221 North Carolina....... 63,118.......... 27,073.......... 31,560.......... 31,209.......... 18,688 South Carolina...... 37,411.......... 16,156........... 17,761........... 19,344..........10,244 Georgia............. 19,841......... 8,470.......... 9,787.......... 10,325.......... 4,957 Kentucky............ 37,274.......... 14,045.......... 15,705..........17,699.......... 9,233 Tennessee........... 19,227.......... 7,194.......... 8,282.......... 8,352.......... 4,125 Ohio................ 9,362.......... 3,647.......... 4,636.......... 4,833.......... 1,955 Indiana.............. 854............ 347.......... 466.......... 645.......... 262 Mississippi.......... 1,009.......... 356.......... 482.......... 780.......... 290 Total........... 764,118.........353,071.........393,156.........431,589.........262,487 Free White Females r, Maine.......... 26,89...... 6,899......... 11,338.......... 13,295..........14,496.......... 8,041 New-Harompshire..... 29,871.......... 14,193.......... 17,153..........18,381.......... 12,142 Massachusetts....... 60,920.......... 30,674.......... 40,491..........43,833.......... 35,381 Rhode IsJand........ 9,524.......... 5,026.......... 6,463.......... 6,91 9.. 5,647 Connecticut......... 35,736.......... 18,218........... 23,561..........25,186.......... 20,827 Vermont..2........... 28,272.36........ 12,606..........15,287.......... 7,049 New-York........... 85,473.......... 39,876.......... 48,176..........56,411.......... 28,651 New-Jersey......... 32,622......... 14,827......... 17,018.......... 19,533.......... 11,600 Pennsylvania........ 99,624.......... 43,789.......... 53,974..........53,846.......... 33,394 Delaware............ 7,6.......... 4,277.......... 5,543.......... 4,981.......... 2,390 Maryland........... 33,796.......... 16,437.......... 22,367.......... 21,170.......... 11,906 District of Columbia. 1,577.......... 663.......... 1,027.......... 1,028.......... 463 * Tucker. 405 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION UNITED STATES-continued. Free White Females Of sixteen andunder Oftwenty-six and twenty-si, inelude. under forty-five, Of forty-five and Under ten years Of ten years and ing head of includingheads nupward, including States of age under sixteen families of fami es heads of faamiI Virginia............. 87,323............38,835......... 50,730.......... 47,810........... 27,453 North Carolina...... 59,074.......... 25,874.......... 32,989..........30,665.......... 17,514 South Carolina...... 34,664.......... 15,857.......... 18,145.......... 17,236.......... 9,437 Georgia............. 18,407.......... 7,914.......... 9,248.......... 8,835.......... 3,894 Kentucky........... 34,949.......... 13,433.......... 15,524........... 14,934.......... 7,075 Tennessee.......... 18,450.......... 7,042.......... 8,554......... 6,992......... 3,491 Ohio................ 8,644.......... 3,353.......... 3,861.......... 3,342........... 1,395 Indiana............. 791.......... 280.......... 424.......... 393.......... 115 Mississippi.......... 953.......... 37,6.......... 352.......... 416.......... 165 Total............715,197..........323,648......... 401,499....... 411,69.......... 248,030 All other free persons, except Total States Indians, not taxed Slaves ]Populatio Maine............................... 818......................................... 151,719' New-Itampshire..................... 856..................8.................. 183,762 Massachusetts....................... 6,452...................................... 423,245 Rhode Island........................ 3,304.................. 381.................... 69,122 Connecticut........................ 5,330.................. 951................. 251,002 Vermont........................57...................................................... 154,465 New-York.......................... 10,374.................. 20,343.................. 586,756 New-Jersey......................... 4,402.................. 12,422.................. 211,949 Pennsylvania....................... I4,561.................. 1,706.................. 602,365 Delaw are........................... 8,268................... 6,153.................. 64,273 Maryland...........................19,587................. 105,635.................. 341,548 District of Coluinbia................ 783.................. 3,244.................. 14,093 Virginia.............................. 20,124................. 345,796.................. 880,200 North Carolina..................... 7,043................. 133,296.................. 478,103 South Carolina...................... 3,185.................. 146,151.................. 345,591 Georgia............................. 1,019.................. 59,404................. 162,101 Kentucky.......................... 741.................. 40,343.................. 220,955 Tennessee.......................... 309.................. 13,584.................. 105,602 Ohio............................... 337...................................... 45,365 Indiana............................. 163.................... 135.................... 4,875 Mississippi......................... 182................. 3,489................... 8,850 Total............................. 108,395................. 893,041..................5,305,941 Thus, in a period of ten years, having some- Thus, at the opening of the nineteenth centhing definite to go upon, we find an increase tury, New-York has taken a rapid stride of thirty-five per cent. in the total population toward Virginia, which still remains first, -the whites having gained thirty-five and though followed close by Pennsylvania; sixty-eight hundredths per cent.; colored Georgia and Vermont have doubled; Teneighty-two, slaves twenty-eight, whole color- nessee and Kentucky trebled; Ohio, Indiana, ed thirty-two per cent. As compared with and Mississippi, are in the family of states, 1790, the whites and free colored have oro- and have a population nearly equal to that of portionably increased and slaves diminished; Delaware. Emigration has been from the but all of this we shall see fully in another old to the new states.' place. The proportion of white males to fe- We come now to the third period. The males was 100 to 95.3, though the females census of 1810 adopted the same formula as between sixteen and twenty-six exceed that of 1800. Since the previous enumerathe males, and in New-England are very tion, 80,0(00 foreigners have become citizens numerous at every age, owing to emigration. by the annexation of Louisiana. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1810. Free White Males Of sixteen and Of twenty-.i. Of forty-fivo under otwety- and under forty. sad upward. i nt six, including five, including eluding Under ten years Of ten years and heads of fasmi- heads of fami- heads of fata States of age under sixteen lies lies Maine................... 41,27,3......... 18,463......... 20,403...... 22,079......... 13,291 Nesw-Hlampsshire.........4,084.......... 17,840.... 18,865..........20,531..........14,462 Massachusetts........... 68,930......... 34,964........ 45,018......... 45,854.........34,976 Rhode Island............ 10,735.......... 5,554..........7,250..........6,65. 5,53 Connecticut............. 37,812..........20,498......... 23,880........ 23,699........... 20,484 Vermont................. 38,062......... 18,347.........19,68........ 20,441......... 13,053 ew-York............... 85,9 94882 ~~~~~~~0,w933.......... 73,7 02.........5,7~79........94,882.........53,9$5, * Tu53k9r5 * Tucker. 406 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, l180-continuea. Free White Males Ofsixteen and u.nder Of twenty-six Of forty-five and tweantysix inolad- and andor forty- apward, Under ten years Oten years & ing heado of five, inotuding titotdiag heads Eates of age under sixtesa fasmijos hed of fonailie es of faoilies New-Jersey............. 37,814..........18,914..........21,232..........21,394..........16,004 Pennsylvania............138,464..........62,506..........74,203..........74,193..........52.100 ,Delaware................. 9,632......... 4,480.......... 5,150.......... 5,866......... 2,878 Maryland............... 38,613..........18,489..........22,688..........25,255..........15,165 District of Columbia..... 2,479.......... 1,158.......... 1,520.......... 2,107.......... 866 'Virginia................. 97,777..........42,919..........51,473..........52,567..........35,302 North Carolina.......... 68,036..........30,321..........34,630..........34,456 21,189 South Carolina.......... 39,669..........17,193..........20,933..........20,488..........11,304 Georgia................. 28.002..........11,951..........14,085..........14,372.......... 7,435 Kentucky................ 65,134..........26,804..........29,772..........29,553..........17,542 Tennessee............... 44,494..........17,170..........19,486..........19,957.......... 10,65Ci ,Ohio.................... 46,623..........18,119..........20,180..........22,761..........11,963 Indiana................. 4,923.......... 1,922.......... 2,284.......... 2,316.......... 1,125 Mississippi.............. 4,217.......... 1,637.......... 2,692......... 3,160......... 1,144 Illinois.................. 2,266.......... 945.......... 1,274.......... 1,339.......... 556 Louisiana................ 5,848.......... 2,491.......... 2,963.......... 5,130.......... 2,508 Missouri................. 3,438.......... 1,345.......... 1,568.......... 2,069.......... 967 Alabama................................................... Michigan............... 800.......... 351.......... 583.......... 763............ 340 Arkansas................................................................. Total...............1,035,058........468,083........547,597 571,997........364,836 Free White Females Maine................... 39,131..........17,827..........21,290..........21,464..........12,515 New-IHampshire......... 12,313..........17,259..........20,792..........22,040..........15,204 Massachusetts........... 66,881..........33,191..........46,366..........49,229..........39,894 Rhode Island............ 10,555.......... 5,389.......... 7,520......... 7,635.......... 6,372 Connecticut............. 35.913..........18,931..........26,073..........26,293..........22,696 'Vermont................. 36,613..........17,339..........21,181..........20,792..........11,457 New-York...............157,945...........68,811..........85,139.........85,805..........46,718 New-Jersey............. 36,065..........17,787..........21,184..........21,359..........15,109 Pennsylvania............131,769..........60,943..........75,960..........70,826..........45,840 Delaware................ 9,041.......... 4,370.......... 5,541.......... 5,527.......... 2,876 Maryland..............17,833..........23,875..........22,908..........14,154 District of Columbia..... 2,538.......... 1,192.......... 1,653.......... 1,734.......... 832 Virginia................. 90,715..........42,207..........54,899..........51,163..........32,512 North Carolina.......... 65,421..........30,053..........37,933..........33,944..........20,427 South Carolina.......... 37,497..........16,629..........20,583..........18,974..........10,926 Georgia....I... 26,283..........11,237..........13,461..........12,350.......... 6,238 Kentucky............... 60, 76..........25,743..........29,511..........25,920..........13,482 Tennessee............... 41...........16,329..........19,864..........17,624......... 8,485 Ohio.................... 44,192........... 16,869..........19,990..........19,436.......... 8,717 Indiana................. 4,555.......... 1,863.......... 2,228.......... 1,880.......... 794 Mississippi.............. 4,015.......... 1,544......... 2,187......... 1,753.......... 675 Illinois.................. 2,019. 91.......... 1,053.......... 894.......... 364 Louisiana............... 5,384.......... 2,588.......... 2,874.......... 3,026.......... 1,499 Missouri................. 3,213.......... 1,265.......... 1,431.......... 1,369.......... 562 Alabamsa................................................................ Michigan................ 640.......... 332.......... 368.......... 311.......... 130 Arkansas................................................... Total.................981,421.........448,322........561,956......... 544,256.........338,478 All other person, exoept Indians, sot taxed Slaves Total Number Maine.............................. 969...................................... 228,705 New-Ilampshire.................... 970...................................... 214,360 Massachusetts...................... 6,737..................................... 472,040 Rhode Island....................... 3,609.................. 108.................. 77,031 Connecticut......................... 6,453.................. 310.................. 262,042 Yermont............................. 750........................................ 217,713 New-York.......................... 025,333.................. 15,017.................. 959,049 New-Jersey......................... 7;843................. 10,851.................. 245,555 Pennsylvanit....................... 22,492.................. 795.................. 810,091 Delaware........................... 13,136.................. 4,177.................. 72,674 Maryland........................... 33,927..................111,502.................. 380,546 District of Columbia................. 2,549.................. 5,395................... 24,023 Virginia........................... 30,570..................392,518................. 974,622 North Carolina..................... 10,266..................168,824.................. 555,500 Soutla Carolina..................... 4,554..................196,365.................. 415,115 Georgia............................ 1,801..................105,218.................. 252,433 Kentucky........................... 1,713.................. 80,561.................. 406 511 Tennessee.......................... 1,317.................. 44,535................... 261,727 Ohio............................. 1,899...................................... 230,760 Indiana.............................. 393.................. 237.................. 24,520 Mississippi......................... 240.................. 17,088.................. 40,352 Illinois............................. 613................. 168.................. 12,282 407 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1810-continuecd. All otlier free persas, exeept Indians not taxed Slaves Totni number Louisiana...........................77585........ 34,660.................. 76,556 Missouri............................ 607.................. 3,011.................. 20,845 Alabama....................................................................... Michigan.......................... 120.................. 24.................. 4,762 Arkansas....................................... Total.............................186,446................ 1,191,364..................7,239,814 match for Virginia. South Carolina is now the sixth in rank. Mississippi, Ohio and Indiana, have increased, respectively, four, five and sixfold; Kentucky and Tennessee about fourfold. Illinois, Louisiana, Missouri and plMichigan, taken together, have about half the population of New-Ha mpshi re. In 1820, a more particular enumeration of slaves and colored persons was made, as to both a,ges and sex. A new columni, for white males between sixteen and eighteen, was added. As before, we mark the increase, which is, for the whole population, 36-45 per cent.; for the whites, 36-18; colored, free, 7-2; slaves, 33-40;'.whole colored, 37-58. The whole free have gained again upon the slave population. Tile whole colored, in like manner, ilave gained upon the whites. The male population to female population, is as 100 to 96, though, as before, the number of feimale s between sixteen and twenty-six is the largest. We shall refer to all these points hereafter. New-York, since the census of 1800, has swept ahead of Pennsylvania and become a POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, AUGUST 1, 1820. Free White,alea Of eixteen and under twenty- Of twealty-ia and Of forty-five Ofton years Between six nix, nlediag under forty-five, and opward, Under tea y... a nd u ndra teen and heado of inolodiog hoads including hoods State s of age ix n eighteen families of families offomilies Maine................ 49,217...... 24,528...... 7,146...... 28,530...... 27,742...... 19,178 New -tampshire........ 35,466...... 19,672...... 5,529...... 22,703...... 22,956...... 18,413 Massachusetts.......... 70,993...... 38,573...... 10,912...... 49,506......54,414...... 38,668 Rhode Island......... 11,530...... 5,60 7........7,596...... 6,618...... 5,888 Connecticut............. 36,848...... 20,6S2...... 6,284...... 25,731...... 25,632...... 21,814 Vermont................ 35,708...... 19,241...... 5,860...... 24,137...... 22,035...... 16,189 New-York..............222,608......104,297...... 29,598......132,733......138,634...... 81,259 New-Jersey............. 42,055...... 19,970...... 5,956...... 24,639...... 24,418...... 18,537 Pennsylvania...........175,381...... 77,050...... 25,901......102,550...... 97,144...... 64,493 Delaware............... 9,071...... 4,448...... 1,719...... 5,516...... 5.607...... 3,263 Maryland............... 41,511...... 18,952...... 6,261...... 26,404...... 27,916...... 16,960 District of Columbia..... 3,276...... 1,540...... 550...... 2,171...... 2,893...... 1,291 Virginia................103,963...... 45,762...... 13,148...... 58,863...... 57,898...... 38,245 North Carolina......... 75,488...... 32,912...... 9,748...... 39,527...... 38,264...... 25,453 South Carolina.......... 442,658..... 18,258...... 5,877...... 23,984...... 22115...... 13,919 Georgia................. 35,444 4... 874.......10,860 Kentucky............... 83,050...... 3004...... 10,383...... 41,328...... 38,178...... 25,136 Tennessee.............. 67,746...... 28,497...... 7,472...... 31,028...... 27,549...... 18,780 Ohio....................111,683...... 45,858...... 12,607.......7,008..... 54,432...... 31,626 Indiana................. 29,629...... 11,454..... 3,270...... 14,428...... 14,072...... 7,066 Mlississippi............. 8,104...... 3,216...... 1,052...... 4,560...... 5,110...... 2,296 Illinois................. 10,554...... 4,227...... 1,313..... 6,224...... 5,755...... 2,641 Louisiana............... 11,817..... 4,710...... 2,105 236.......4,822 Missouri territory....... 10,677...... 4,.256...... 1,301...... 6,537...... 6,622...... 2,909 Alabama territory....... 17,103...... 6,281...... 1,750...... 9,336...... 9,055...... 4,064 Michigan territory....... 1,220 559.........152...... 1,334...... 1,661...... 609 Arkansas territory...... 2,420...... 985...... 329......42..... 1,453...... 686 Total...............1,345,220......612,535......182,205......776,030......766,283...... 495,065 Free White Females Maine.................. 46,565...... 23,982...... New-Ifampshire........ 34,599...... 18,899...... Massachusetts.......... 69,260...... 38,308...... Rhode Island........... 10,917...... 5,769...... Connecticut............ 35,28 90...... 19,8339..... Vermont..........3..... 35,3727...... 18,577 New-York..............7216,513.......101,904...... New-Jersey............ 39,921...... 19,504... Pennsylvania........... 166,710...... 78,4.25... Delaware............... 8,657...... 4,311... Maryland............... 39,454...... 19,578...... District of Columbia..... 3,319.......2,510......I6 Virginia................ 98,485 ------ 45,7 66... North Carolina......... 70,998...... 33,101...... South Carolina.......... 39,891...... 18,741...... ....34,823...... 28,248...... 18,527 ....24,806...... 25,797... 19,9.25 ....52,805...... 57,721...... 46,171 ....8,407...... 8,671...... 7,157 ...... 327,205...... 29,069...... 25,078 ...... 324,713...... 23,683...... 15,236 ....132,492...... 129,899...... 72,385 ....25,637...... 24,693...... 18,035 ....101,404...... 94,345...... 59 592 ...... 85,573...... 5,537...... 31299 27.2 934...... 26537,3...... 1 6,411......515,807 ....2,518...... 2.615...... 1,351 ....62,411...... 55,995...... 35,686, ...42,253...... 38,069...... 25,135 ....23,662...... 20,939...... 13,273 408 UNITED STATES POPULATION. I POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, AUGUST 1, 1820-continued. Free White Females Of sixteen a under twenty- Of twenty-six and Of frty-fi.ve Of ten years Between aix- j,! including ueder orty-flie, and npwerd, Undar ten years and under teen and heods f in c dmldic heads States ef age sintren eighteen families ef families Georgia................ 33,177...... 14,937............ 18,642...... 15,365...... 9,041 Kentucky.............. 77,641...... 35,120............ 41,905...... O 5,483... 20,799 Tennessee.............. 63,419...... 27,770................ 31.569..... 27,031...... 15,638 Ohio.................106,036...... 44,106............ 53,337...... 48,797 —. —- 23,689 Indiana................. 27.684...... 10,707................ 13,635...... 12,009...... 5,074 Mississippi............ 7,220 3,176.................. 3,791...... 3,107...... 1,596 Illinois................. 9,558 4,018.................. 4,842...... 4,166...... 1,803 Louisiana.............11,062...... 5,484................ 6,708...... 5,695...... 3,102 Missouri territory.".... 9,766...... 3,978... 5,076....... 4,265...... 1,902 Alabama territory....... 15,810...... 6,289................ 7,993...... 6,625...... 2,895 Michigan territory...... 1,130...... 525................ 692...... 595...... 266 Arkansas territory...... 2,142...... 927............ 1,179...... 934...... 426 Total...............1,280,570......605,375................781,371......736,600......462,888 l~lale, Slaves Of fourteen and Of iweuty.six and Of forty-five aud Under fourteen under twenty.six under forty-feve upward Maine....................................................................... New-Hampshire........................................................ Massachusetts............................................................... Rhode Island....................... 2........... I............ I............ 14 Connecticut....................................................13............. 24 Vermont..................................................................... New-York.......................... 1,861............ 1,624........... 932.............67! New-Jersey........................ 860............ 1,583............ 917............ 628 Pennsylvania...................... I..............1......................... 65 Delaware........................ 1,244............ 839............ 337............ 135 Maryland...........................24,736............14,846...........10,718............ 6,073 District of Columbia................ 1,245............ 7...................... 316 Virginia............................96,881...........52,791............45,438............23,164 North Carolina.....................48,914............27,511............19,395............10,731 South Carolina.....................51,738............32,324............31,641............14,769 Georgia............................33,204............19,541............16,249............ 6,922 Kentucky..........................31,469............I7,132............10,944............ 4,369 Tennessee..........................20,314...........10,068............ 6,529............ 2,826 Ohio.......................................................................... Indiana............................. 43... 37..................... 7 Mississippi......................... 7,016............ 4,600............ 4,061............ 1,173 Illinois............................. 170............ 179............ 133............ 66 Louisiana..........................11,675............10,876............10,520............ 3,495 Missouri territory................... 2,491............ 1,511........... 852............ 487 Alabama territory................... 9,665........... 6,563............ 4,200............ 1,352 Michigan....................................................................Arkansas territory.................. 323............ 276............ 143...........78 Total............................343,852...........203,088...........163,723............77,365 Female Slaves Free Colored Mule. Of ourteen Of twenty-six Ol forly- Of f onrteen Of twenty-six Of forty Under and nuder and mnder five and Under and inder and un.der five and fourteen twenlty-ix forty-five upward fonuote twenlty-ix forty-five upward Maine..............................................170 86..... 90 New-Hampshire.........................................9..............7 89 Massachusetts......................................... 1,085.... 680..... 896......647 Rhode Island......... 2.... 3..... 3..... 22..... 577..... 388..... 343..... 279 Connecticut........................ 13... 47..... 1,432......... 865..... 629 Vermont..................................... 113.... 152......113 93 80 New-York........... 1,544......17979-".'. 1,065'..... 812..... 5,197..... 3,011..... 3,347..... 1,903 New-Jersey.......... 592.... 1,285..... 1,036..... 656..... 3,328..... 1,116..... 1,090..... 882 Pennsylvania......... 3..... 2...... 36... 85..... 5,666..... 3,348..... 3,890. 1,900 Delaware........... 979.....233.... 131...... 2,812-..... 1,317..... 1,207. 1,143 Maryland............22,740.....13,403.... 9,362...... 5,520.... 7,829... 3,593..... 3,756..... 3,568 District of Columbia.. 1,311..... 990..... 696..... 37. 3..... 756..... 338..... 349..... 288 Virginia..............92,468.....51,972.....40,691.....21,748..... 8,145........3,135..... 2,685 North Carolina.......45,055....25,663....18,326..... 9,422..... 3,415..... 1,728.. 1,109..... 1,143 South Carolina.......49,694.....33,991.....30,461.....13,857.... 1,376..... 732..... 647..... 541 Georgia..............32,141......1,8. 9,....... 30.... 195..... 180..... 146 Kentucky.............29,231.....17,407. 11,801.....439 585..... 281..... 284..... 343 Tennessee...........19,251.....11,153..... 7,192..... 2,764. 700.... 323..... 240..... 238 Ohio................................................ 1,057..... 544..... 538-..... 315 Indiana.............. 40 21....- 21..... 10.... 275.... 146..... 141..... 92 Mississippi........... 6,677..... 4,807..... 3,506.... 974.... 87..... 62. 52..... 38 Illinois............... 139..... 128..... 71 31 86..... 71..... 55..... 25 409 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, AUGUST 1, 1820-continued. Female Slaves Free Colored Males { \, ~~~~~p- - - _ Of fourteen Of twenty-six Of forty- Offourteen Oftwenty-six Of forty Under and under and under five and Uider and under and under five and States fourteen twenty-six forty-five upward fourteen twenty-sit forty-five upward Louisiana............10,763 -—.11,672..... 7,758..... 2,305..... 2,248..... 870..... 915..... 470 Alissouri............. 2,281..... 1,461..... 855..... 284..... 93 -..... 40..... 36... 17 Alabam a............. 9,140..... 6,141.... 3,779..... 1,039..... 118.... 83..... 68..... 49 Michigan.............................. 35..... 32 2.... 27. 11 Arkansas.............. 293..... 268..... 157..... 79..... 183..... 11.... 2 Total...........324,344....202,336....152,693 -.....70,637..... 47,659.....24,012.....23,450.....17,613 Free Colored Females All other free persons, Of fourteen and Of tw —enty-six and Ol forty-five except Indians, not States Under fourteen under twenty-six under forty-five and upward taxed Total Maine....................... 168........ 115........ 126........ 83........ 66. ——.......- 298,335 New-Hampshire........... 109........ 99........ 106........ 100........ 139........ 244,161 Massachusetts............. 969....... 778........ 904........ 781........ 128........ 523,287 Rhode Island.............. 550........ 523........ 465........ 429........ 44........ 83,059 Contiecticut............... 1,421........ 961........ 950........ 675....... 100......275,202 Vermont.................. 170........ 125........ 97........ 73........ 15 ------.235,764 New-York................. 5,342........ 4,195........ 4,126........ 2,158........ 701...... 1,372,812 New -Jersey................ 3,093........ 1,198........ 987... 7..... 66..... 149........277,575 Pennsylvania.............. 5,465........ 41063........ 4,073........ 1,797........ 1,951...... 1,049,458 Delaware.................. 2,742........ 1,379........ 1,307........ 1,051.................. 72,749 Mar'laid.................-4,461-.......4,752........ 3,914............407,350 District of Columbia....... 828........ 549........ 548........ 392.................. 33,039 Virginia................... 7,640........ 4,545........ 3,772....... 3,083........ 250......1,065,379 North Carolin a............. 3,129........ 1,737........ 1,345........ 1,006..................638,829 South Carolina............. 1,223........ S836........ 800........ 671..................502,741 Georgia.................... 349........ 209........ 195........ 159........ 4........ 340,987 Kentucky.................. 4S8........ 254........ 244........ 280........ 18........ 564,317 Tennessee................. 532........ 297........ 224........ 173........ 52........422,813 O h i o...................... 994........ 549........ 46 6........ 260........ 139........581,434 Indiana.................... 251........ 137........ 120........ 68.................. 147,178 M ississippi................ 84........ 52........ 44........ 39.................. 75,448 Illinois.................... 104........ 50........ 44........ 22........ 49........ 55,211 Lo ui siana.................. 2,209........ 1,557........ 1,37........ 824........ 484....... 153,407 Missouri................... 62........ 39........ 34........ 26........ 29........ 66,56 Alabama................... 91........ 69.58....... 35.................. 127,901 Michigan.................. 20....... 20........ 16........ 13........ 131........ 8,896 Arkansas.................. 8........ 3........ 1 3........ 3S... 18..... 14,273 Total..................45,898........ 28,850........ 27,181........18,861........ 4,632....... 9,638,191 The increase in the whole population has number of whites under ten is one-third. been 33-35 per cent.; for the whites, 34-3; Those under 16 years, as compared with for the wtlole colored, 29,33; free colored, those over that age, have diminished. 27-75; slaves, 29-57. The perceptible de- In the same period, New-York has taken cline in the r-atio of increase is attributed, in the lead by far, and is greater, by one-third, part, to the decrease of immigration during than either Virginia or Pennsylvania. Ohio the war. and the escape of slaves to the has become the fifth state, and shoots ahead enemy. Stich a decline in the r-atio of natu- of Massachusetts, as also does Kentucky. ral increase may also be expected inl the pro- I Alabama and Arkansas are introduced. gress of every country. It is more striking The census of 1830 was far more minute in this case, from the fact, that the previous than any of the preceding. It changed the ratio was swelled by the Louisiana purchase. time of enumeration to thle first of June, thus In ten years, the whites have gained upon cutting off two months from the deceinnial the colored and slaves. The proportion of period. The number of divisions, of every males and females, among the whites, does class of population, is also greatly enlarged. ngt greatly vary. The colored females are Blanks for idiots, deaf, dumb and blind, are to the colored males, as 107 to 100. The added. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 1, 1830. Free White aes. Five and Ten and Fifteen and Twenty and Thlirty and State Under five under ten nder fifteen under twenty under thirty nder forty Maine............ 34,053..... 28,742.......... 25,522.......... 22,400.......... 34,895.......... 21,701 New-Ilampshire.. 19,428.......... 17,521.......... 16,737..........14,847..........21,191..........14,696 Massachusetts....40,644.......... 35,988.......... 34,679-..........32,801.......... 58,621...........35,433 Rhode Island...... 6,733........... 5,7 86........... 5,400...........5,354........... 8,425...........5,379 Connecticut....... 19,033.......... 17,891.......... 17,788..........16,509.......... 26,166..........16,608 Vermont.......... 21,700.......... 19,406.......... 17,597..........15,782.......... 24,207..........15,773 New-York...... 158,077......... 137,071....... 118,523....... 101,712.........176,754.........113,136 410 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 1, 1830-continued. Free Whit. Males Five and Ten aed Fifteen and Twenty and Thirty and Sates Und er f i ve under tea under fifteen under tw,enty under thiirty under forty New-Jersey.......25,071..........21,204..........19,745..........17,123..........27,001..........17,231 Pennsylvania....117,853..........96,199..........82,375..........73,113.........121,359..........75,172 Delaware..........4,744...........4,099..........3,919...........4,184...........5,508...........3,206 Maryland.........23,737..........19,438..........17,886..........15...........29,397..........18,215 Virginia..........63,793..........51,805..........43,287..........3,947..........60,911..........36,539 North Carolina... 46,749..........35,950..........30,527 39,428.......... 23,042 South Carolina....25,132..........20,259..........16,497..........13,961..........22,164..........13,969 Georgia 33,027.......... 23,709..........18,584..........15,186.........26,844..........16,156 Alabama -7........22,764..........15,482..........12,129...........9,509..........17,440.........11,399 Mississippi........7,918...........45,57...........4,591...........3,623...........7,237...........4,632 Louisiana...........7,968...........6,402...........5,134..........4,325.........10,458...........7,777 Tennessee........59,576..........45,366..........36,044..........29,247........44,982..........25,111 Kentucky.........54,116......... 41,07 3..........34,222..........29,017..........45,913..........26,289 Ohio.............6..........74,6 9 0..........621 1...........8 1,2........4 9, 3 4 6 Indiana...........39,780..........28,692..........22,872..........17,653..........28,153..........17,904 Illinois........... 18,834.......... 12,7,53..........10,024..........7,770.........14,706..........8,825 Missouri..........13,531...........9,617...........7,469...........5,639..........11,147...........7,084 Michigan territory.. 3,023 2,326.........1,905...........1,543...........4,389.........2,739 Arkansas territory. 3,020.1......... 2,0f........... 1,626...........1,272...........2,835...........1,820 Florida territory....,932...........1,333...........11015.............789...........2,171..........1,536 Dist. of Columbia...2,333...........1,680...........1,486...........1,522.........2,805.1,817 Total......972,980.........782,075.........669,734.........573,196.........956,487.........592,535 Free White Females. Alaine............32,471..........27.676..........24,067..........22,348..........35,596..........22,259 New-Hampshire. 18,538..........16,790..........15,525..........14,823..........24,564..........16,690 stassachusetts....39,533..........34,537........... 33,326..........34,439..........60,495..........38,163 Rhode Island.....6,623.......... 5,642.......... 5,213.......... 5,584.......... 9,203.......... 5,756 Connecticut...... 18,270..........16,943..........16,575..........15,978..........26,540..........17,937 Vermont.........21,334..........18,632..........16,870..........15,753..........25,180..........16,264 New-York.......151,868.........133,084.........115,166........105,196.........168,897.........104,522 New-Jersey.......23,937..........220,479..........18,267..........16,784..........25,817..........16,623 Pennsylvania....111,94..........92,719..........80,087..........75,976.........115,898.........69,604 Delaware......... 4,647.......... 4,011.......... 3,654.......... 3,381.......... 5,484.......... 3,179 Maryland.........22,356.........18,693..........17,327..........18,020..........27,248..........16,617 Virginia..........62,411...........49,964..........41,936..........40,479..........62,044..........36,456 North Carolina....43,775..........34,264')7398........... 41,636.........24,534 South Carolina....23,691.........19,043..........15,632..........15,122..........21,866.........13,438 Georgia...........3098...........22,590..........17,988..........16,452..........24,036..........13,974 Alabama..........21,340......:... 14,801..........11,092.......... 9,951..........14,457.......... 8,559 Mississippi.,319..........1.1165......... 4,169.......... 3,653.......... 5,231.......... 3,090 Louisiana......... 7,800.......... 6,193.......... 5,140.......... 4,709.......... 6,930.......... 4,204 Tennessee........55,399..........42,975..........33,556..........30,616..........42,970..........23.545 Kentucky.........50,835..........39,439.........32,197........29,623..........41,936..........23,463 Ohio..............89,873..........71,851.........59,306..........52,635..........75,574..........43,894 Idiana...........37505........ 27313......... 21,072......... 18,087..........26,702..........15,703 Illinois............17,429..........12,000.......... 9,2.46.......... 8,053..........12,461.......... 6,850 Missouri..........12,561 9077.......... 6,794.......... 5,765.......... 8,791.......... 5,121 Mtchidgan territory. 2,743.......... 2,066.......... 1,686.......... 1,438.......... 2,540.......... 1,399 Arkailsas territory. 2,782.......... 1,897.......... 1,494.......... 1,225.......... 2,012.......... 1,087 Florida territory. 1,807........... 1,251.......... 981.......... 923.......... 1,447.......... 848 Dist. ofColumbia 2,182.......... 1,646.......... 1,648.......... 1,843.......... 2,856.......... 1,752 Total......921,934.........750,741.........638,856.........596,254......... 018,411.........555,531 Free White Males Ferty and Fifty and Siaty and Seventy and Eighty and Niniety and One hin nader nader under under under unader dred and Slates fifty niaty nevelty eighty ninety ene hendred apward Maine.....................14,547...... 9,228...... 5,956...-. 2,637...... 823...... 93...... 2 New-Ilampshire...........10,772...... 7,218...... 5,059..... 2,786...... 840...... 85...... 4 Massachusetts.............23,683......15,008......10,319... 5,575......1,760......173...... I Rhode Island.............. 3,512...... 2,157......1,444..... 854...... 261...... 28......Connecticut...............11,595...... 7,851...... 5,495..... 3,154...... 871...... 81...... 5 Vermont...................10,405...... 8,051...... 5,203..... 2,203...... 618...... 48...... 3 New-York................68,871......40,503......23,909.....10,034......2,561......255......35 New-Jersey...............11,043...... 7,053...... 4,458..... 2,021...... 534...... 44...... I Peninsylvania..............46,600......28,032......16,085......6,979......1,775......228.....42 Delaware................. 2,036...... 1,286...... 609...... 202...... 43...... 9......,A,Iarvland..................11,072...... 6,565...... 3,462......1,375....... 355...... 53..... 7 Virginia...................23,381......15,261...... 8,971......3,674......1,108......184......26 North Carolina............14,998......10,536...... 5,968......2,489...... 649......138......28 South Carolina............ 8,334...... 5,644...... 3,042......1,210...... 298...... 66......14 Georgia................... 9,542...... 5,674...... 3,083......1,120...... 290...... 63......10 Alabama.................. 6,029...... 3,593...... 1,741...... 591...... 147...... 19...... 3 Mississippi................ 2,419...... 1,595...... 632...... 189...... 47...... 11......Louisiana.................. 4,304...... 2,023...... 896...... 317 78...... 24...... 9 Tennessee.................15,108......11,188...... 5,543......2,107...... 657...... 105......32 411 JUNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 1, 1830-continued. 'Free White Males Forty and Fifty and Sixty and Seventy and Eiglhty and Ninety and One bhn under under under under under.nder dred and States fifty asity seventy eigbty ninety one lundred npward Kentucky..................15,966.....10,843...... 6,253......2,585...... 699..... 119......28 Ohio......................31,112......18,058......10,783....3,632...... 935......138......29 Indiana...................10,306...... 6,004...... 3,160......1,059...... 240...... 49......13 Illinois.................... 4,627...... 2,853...... 1,172...... 384 90...... 6...... 4 Missouri.................. 3,642...... 1,939...... 927...... 334...... 60...... 14...... 2 Michigan territory......... 1,232...... 658...... 264...... 64...... 20...... 4...... 1 Arkansas territory......... 876...... 434...... 209...... 69...... 12...... 1......Florida territory.......... 760...... 436...... 194...... 57...... 10...... 2...... 1 District of Columbia....... 1,068...... 593...... 245...... 71...... 25...... 1...... 1 Total..............367,840.....229,284.....135,082.....57,772.....15,806.....2,041.....301 Free White Females. lfaine.....................14,183...... 9,330...... 5,904......2,688...... 911......138...... 3 New-Jlampshire...........11,896...... 8,448...... 5,889......3,110......1,085......174...... 6 Massachusetts............26,684......18,456......12,989......7,173..... 2,528......347...... 4 Rhode Island.............. 4,024...... 2,826...... 1,939......1,058...... 376...... 44......Connecticut...............13,214...... 9,245...... 6,707......3,760.....1,228.....156...... 3 Vermont...................11,034...... 7,152...... 4,727......2,086...... 652...... 87...... 4 New-York.................64,315......38,344......22,589......9,645......2,673......304......17 New-Jersey...............11,007...... 7,307...... 4,705......2,160...... 586...... 63...... 2 Pennsylvania..............44,485......27,882......16,221.....7,084......1,929......235......21 Delaware.................. 2,047......1,397...... 630...... 263...... 56...... 6...... 1 Maryland.................10,840...... 6,983...... 3,633......1,541...... 432...... 64......14 V irginia...................23,750......15,447...... 8,765......3,847......1,098......188......28 North Carolina...........16,428......10,601...... 5,980......2,496...... 747......158......30 South Carolina............ 8,468...... 5,455.......2,929......1,181...... 351...... 80......17 Georgia................... 8,427...... 5,089 2664 987.......268...... 65......20 Alabama................... 4,695...... 2,731....... 1,319...... 432...... 144...... 29......10 Mississippi................ 1,739...... 983...... 436...... 149...... 34...... 7...... 2 Louisiana................. 2,319...... 1,257 660.......222...... 73...... 17...... 1 Ten-inessee.................15,264...... 9,279...... 4,541......1,855...... 542......110......28 Kenitucky..................15,476...... 9,499...... 5,315......2,195...... 575...... 97......14 Ohio......................27,546......15,898...... 8,293......2,915 736...... 89...... 6 lInidiana.................... 9,028...... 4,808...... 2,275...... 780...... 212...... 25...... 4 Illinois................... 3,750...... 2,047...... 812...... 273...... 77...... 14...... 1 Missouri................... 2,718...... 1,499...... 766...... 227...... 60...... 9...... 2 Michigan territory......... 726...... 390 140...... 35...... 10............ - Arkansas territory........ 528...... 301...... 107...... 31...... 9....... 3.....Florida territory........... 484...... 247...... 101...... 45 10....... 0..... - District of Columbia....... 980...... 603...... 272...... 98...... 32...... 4...... Total...............356,046.... 223,504.... 131,307.... 58,336.... 17,434... 2,523.....238 Free Colored MIales Twenty-fosr Thibty-six Fifty-f.v Ten and nader and nader and onder and u~de one One Isondred States Under ten years twenty-foor thbty-six fifty-fiy. hundred and npwnrd Maine..................163........ 172........ 111.........108....... 54........ 2 New- lampshire......... 67........ 78........ 53........ 44........ 32........ 1 Massachusetts........... 806........ 887........ 718........ 629........ 314........ 4 Rnhode Island............ 337........ 501........ 317........ 238........ 152........ 3 Connecticut..............1,019........1,121........ 771........ 624........ 313........ 2 Vermont................ 121........ 116....... 78........ 60........ 48........ 3 New-York.............5,643........6,094........3,860........4,492........1,358........19 New-Jersey..............3,033........3,234........1,458........1,196........ 573........ 7 Pennsylvania.......... 5,095........5,250....... 4,069........2,796....... 1,132........35 Delaware................2,627........2,259........1,303.......1,180........ 503........10 Maryland................8,309........6,099... 4,020........4,142........2,287........49 Virginia.................8,236........6,126........3,546........2,721........1,731........27 North Carolina...........3,438........2,955........1,400........1,062....... 685 ------— 21 South Carolina..........1,314........ 958........ 622........ 424........ 335........19 Georgia................. 368........ 353........ 224........ 186........ 118........12 Alabama................ 275........ 202........ 187........ 124........ 56........Mississippi............... 81........ 82...... 59........ 43...... 22........ 1 Louisiana................2,503.......2,296........1,208........ 828........ 384........11 Tennessee.............. 842........ 583........ 361........ 321........ 216........ 7 Kentucky................ 764........ 584........ 410........ 484........ 402........ 8 Ohio.....................1,562........1,440........ 808........ 646........ 325........ 8 Indiana.................. 617........ 544........ 307........ 240........ 138........11 Illinois.................. 277........ 251........ 136........ 119........ 40........ 1 Missouri................ 87........ 76........ 43........ 57........ 18........ 3 Michigan territory....... 31........ 43........ 48........ 29........ 8.........Arkansas territory....... 27....... 17........ 23........ 17........ 33........ 1 Florida territory......... 138........ 109....... 46........ 56........ 33........ 1 District of Columbia.... 895........ 649........ 464........ 405........ 229....... 3 Toal.................48,675...... 43,079...... 27,650......22,271..... 11,509...... 269 412 UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 1, 1830-continued. Free Colored Females Twonty-four Thirty-six Fifty-five Ten and under and..der and.nder and andor one One hundred Staten Under ten years twenty-four thirty-.ix fifty.five hindred and npwnrd Maine................... 143........ 175........ 117........ 93........ 52........New-Ifampsbire......... 68........ 97........ 54........ 63........ 45........ 2 Massachusetts.......... 812........ 967........ 815........ 661........ 396........39 Rhode Island............ 355........ 597........ 443........ 350........ 265........ 3 Connecticut.............1,051........1,233........ 819........ 667........ 417........10 Vermont................. 121........ 131........ 73........ 71........ 57........ 2 New-York...............5,509........6,843........5,504........3,780........1,714........54 New-Jersey..............2,811........2,890........1,428.......1,113........ 554........ 6 Pennsylvania............5,054........6,142........4,476........2,742.......1,105.........34 Delaware................2,524........2,359........1,446........1,102........ 526........16 Maryland................7,912........7,313........5,389.......4,535........2,796........87 Virginia.................8,002........7,031........4,501........3,379........2,024........24 North Carolina..........3,287........3,118........1,649........1,179........ 720........29 South Carolina..........1,378........1,175........ 746........ 545........ 399........ 6 Georgia.................. 347........ 330........ 231........ 185........ 126........ 6 Alabama...... 245........ 209....... 131 84........ 56........ 3 Mississippi....................51........ 45........ 49........ 14........ Louisiana...............2,640........2,727........1,927........1,402........ 755........29 Tennessee............... 772........ 616........ 359........ 285........ 187........ 6 Kentucky................ 633........ 505........ 351........ 398........ 369........ 9 Ohio....................1,573........1,551........ 799........ 611........ 241........ 4 Indiana.................. 594........ 573........ 279........ 215........ 107....... 4 Illinois................... 305........ 225........ 125........ 106........ 50........ 2 Missouri.................. 7........ 62........ 46........ 63........ 34........ 3 Michigan territory....... 20........ 36........ 26........ 16....... 4........ Arkansas territory....... 17........ 13........ 10........ 7........ 6.......Florida territory......... 144........ 136........ 70........ 62........ 48........ I District of Columbia..... 863 1,033 682.........564........ 358........ 7 Total................ 47,329...... 48,138...... 32,541...... 24,327...... 13,425...... 380 Mlate Slaves Maine.~~~~~~~~~~~A.' s.e Mlaine......................................................... New-lIampshire............................................... Massacliusetts............................................................ Rhode Island...................2...2.......................... 1...... Connecticut............ I...... 2............... I...... 4 Vermont.......................................... New-York...............5................. 1.............. New-Jersey.......... 5 12...... 395......'383...... 261...... Pennsylvania........ 23...... 102...... 25...... 11...... 10.. Delaware............. 580...... 853...... 245 83........ Maryland............. 17,880...... 17,759...... 8,846...... 6,135...... 2,772...... Virginia............... 84,000...... 68,917...... 43,189...... 30,683...... 12,155...... North Carolina..:.... 45,991...... 38,099...... 20,212...... 14,030...... 5,848... South Carolina....... 51,820...... 44,600...... 29,710...... 21,674...... 7,567...... Georgia............... 38,367...... 34,253...... 19,440...... 12,818...... 3,847 92 Alabama.............. 21,837...... 19,553...... 11,100...... 5,158...... 1,495...... Mississippi............ 11,037...... 10,793...... 6,947...... 3,445...... 845...... Louisiana............. 13,627.....17,926...... 15,784...... 8,443...... 2,089...... Tennessee.......... 27,713...... 23,431...... 11,260...... 6,020...... 1,729...... Kentucky............. 31,500...... 27,449...... 13,520...... 7,499...... 2,280...... Ohio.......................... I.............................. Indiana................................................. Illinois................ 98...... ilil1 l 7...... 476...... 47...... Missouri.............. 4,872....... 4,364...... 2,058...... 923...... 208 Michigan territory..... 2 7...... 11...... I...... I Arkansas territory..... 845...... 814...... 395...... 192...... 47. Florida territory....... 2,501...... 2,482...... 1,830...... 948...... 224. District of Columbia.. 794...... 1,024...... 542...... 375...... 114...... Total..............353,498......312,567......185,585......118,880...... 41,545..... 748 U nnder.nd under and nader nader one and Total irty-six fifty-five lihndred npward Population MI......................................... 399,455 2N....... I................................. 269,328 ................................ I........610,408 1........ I........ 8.................... 97,199 ........... 4........... 9..................2 97,675 .......................................... 280,652 17...e ok..- 3..... 2........!6........1........ 1,913,006 424........ 451....... 48..........2320,823 2 2........ 25........ 42........ 4........- 1,348,233 2D0........ 80......... 49........ 2........ 76,748 8,331....... 5,329........ 2,601........ 53.'..... 447,040 413 .o 3 1 3 50 133 133 98 92 27 22 42 63 61 .. 14 3 Under ten und er n years twenty-four thi States Maine............................ New-Ilampshire................... Massachusetts.................... Rhode Island.............. 4... Connecticut....... 1...... 3... Vermont.......................... New-York......... 23,...... 12... New-Jersey....... 8...... 20... Pennsy,lvania..... 32...... 106... Delaware......... 508...... 617... Maryland.......... 17,002...... 16,236... UNITED STATES POPULATION. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 1, 1830-conttinued. Female Slave, Ten and Twenty-fonr Thirty-six Fifty-five and One hundred Under ten under and uinder andi anlder under ens and Total Staten year s tweoty-fos tlhirty-six fifty-fi.ve hundred npward P.poIutio, Virginia..........83,207......66,921......40,927........27,206........12,275........144........1,211,405 North Carolina...44,847......37,508......20,095........13,088........ 5,636........114........ 737,987 South Carolina..51,524.....45,517.....32,689........22,006........ 8,112........ 84........ 581,185 Georgia...........38,102.....33,917......20,527........12,325........ 3,765........ 78........ 516,823 Alabama..........21,386......19,669......11,088........ 4,898........ 1,312........ 6........ 309,527 Mississippi........10,860......110,840...... 6,983........ 3,173........ 682........ 21........ 136,621 Louisiana..........13,687......16,613......13,534........ 6,249........ 1,552........ 42........2 15,529 Tennessee........26,568......24,145......12,223........ 6,519........ 1,891........ 41........ 681,904 Kentucky.........30,975......27,346.....13,854........ 8,107........ 2,572........ 50........ 687,917 Ohio...................... 2...... 3...................................... 937,903 Indiana...................................... 343,031 Illinois............ 144...... 128...... 61........ 52........ 12........ 3....... 157,445 Missouri.......... 4,611...... 4,605...... 2,199........ 1,014........ 219........ 4........ 140,455 Michigan territory. 1...... 3...... 3........ 3............................ 31,639 A',rk, ans-,as " 803...... 836...... 399........ 193 51........ 1.........30,388 Florida 2,560...... 2,449...... 1,561........ 768........ 177........ I........ 34,730 Dist. of Columbia.. 816...... 1,270...... 612........ 391........ 176........ 2........ 39,834 Total...... 347,665.... 308,770.....185,786.......111,887.......]41,436........676.......12,854,890 Add for number of seamen in the United States service, aliens, &c., as per notes to fifth census................................................................................ 11,130 Grand total of the United States..................................12,866,020 White Pertans Slavea and Colored (ineluded in the foregoing.) (included 1i the foregoing.) Maine................ 64........ 60...... 56...... 159...... 3,526...... 4.............. I......1 New-Ilainpslhire....... 32........ 55...... 48...... 105...... 410...... 5...... I...... 3........ pMassachusetts........ 56........ 62...... 138...... 218...... 8,787...... 2...... 3...... 4...... 5 Illlode Island.......... 6........ 22...... 28...... 56......1,100o...... 3...... 2.............. 8 Connecticut........... 43........ 152...... 99...... 188...... 1.481...... 4...... 2.............. 7 Vermiont.............. 39........ 59...... 55...... 51...... 3,364...... 3.............. 2........ N'ew-)-ork............ 277........ 310...... 255...... 642..... 52,488...... 17...... 14...... 12...... 82 New-Jersey............ 64........ 71...... 7,2...... 205.....3,365...... 5...... 2...... 8...... 22 Peninsylvania.......... 224........ 279...... 255...... 475..... 15,37,6...... 12...... 12...... 15...... 28 Del~aware.............. 6........ 15...... 14...... IS...... 313.............. 5...... 4...... 11 Maryland.............. 50........ 31...... 54...... 147...... 4,786...... 40...... 30...... 26...... 124 Virginia............... 13'2........ 118...... 169...... 355...... 789...... 51...... 41...... 38...... 438 Northi Carolina.........70........ 81...... 79...... 223...... 202...... 31...... 27...... 25...... 161 SouthiCa-roliina.'...... 60........ 52...... 62...... 102...... 486...... 9...... 27...... 33...... 136 Georg,ia............... 50........ 51...... 44...... 150...... 101...... 26...... 21...... 12...... 123 Alabaina.............. 45........ 25...... 19...... 68...... 65...... 9...... 7...... 7...... 48 Mlississippi............ 12........ 10...... 7...... 25...... 72...... 2...... 8...... 2...... 31 Louisiana............. 15........ 15...... 19 --- C...... 1736......1,1.......' 5...... 9..... 77 Tennessee........... 59........ 59...... 54...... 176...... 119...... 13...... 9...... 6...... 37 KenituLcky..............100........ 113...... 90...... 169...... 173...... 16...... 25...... 5...... 83 Ohlio.................. 148........ 160...... 118...... 232...... 5,77,8...... 5.............. 4...... 6 Indiana............... 49........ 59...... 33..... 85...... 27,9...... I...... 2.............. 2 Illinois............... 23........ 27...... 1 6...... 35......."451............................ 4 Missouri.............. 12........ 5...... 10...... 27...... 155...... 2...... I...... 5...... 10 M~ichig~an territory..... 4........ 7...... 4...... 5...... 1,497................................ Arkansas territory.... 6........ 2...... 2...... 8...... 11...... 4...................... Florida territory...... 2................ 3...... 3.... 221...... I...... 2..... 3...... 16 District of Colu 6bia........60......53..... 1..... 7I2...... 2 4.......................... Total.......32.......... 3 -4........27............ C 43.......~~~1,9 —52....1,-99.....,988.....107,832......23.4......46..2....224.......,470 slaves show an increase of three per cent. The white children under teni years, and the bearing women, have diminished in proportion, showing, as it is argued, a decline in the ratio of natural increase. New-York has now assumed her empire position, and equals, in population, Massachusetts and Pentusylva Tnia combined. Virginia has fallen considerably behind Pennsylvania. Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee, continue their extraordinary advances. The increase in teni years, adding a correctioni for the two months (~L per cent.,) is. whole population, 339'92' per cent.; whites, 34-52; free colored, 34'05; slaves. 30'75; whole colored, 31-31. [Without this correction, the figures would have been 33.26,33.85, 34.17. 30.15, 30.7.] The ratio of increase has therefore. in ten years, shown a slight enlargement. The whites have also gained over the colored. The proportion of th e sexes continues nearly the same, though the female 414 TABLE I. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.-ANA Ini the preceding pages we have given a minute analysis of the census of 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820 and 1830. aiid 1850. and 1850. FREE WIIITE MIALES IN IJ. S. 1840. I I I 12551 8690 19270 2799 9121 7982 54975 8526 37933 1270 7258 166,70 10432 5615 7623 6024 3289 33(9 12755 11809 30298 13789 8755 5620 1194 4442 530 544 698 724 NAME OF STATE, &c. Maine............... 40532 New-IIampshire...... 18435 Massachiusetts........ 47313 Rhode Island.......... 7121 Connecticut...........112 19021 Vermont.............. 21786 New-York............ 187730 New-Jersey........... 28287 Pennsylvania......... 149480 Delaware................ 4939 Maryland................ 2 6921 Virginia................. 69308 North C arolina........ 46413 South Carolina........ 24828 Georgia............... 43759 Alabama.............. 36611 Mississippi.............. 19542 Louisiana............. 13835 Tennessee............. 67182 Kentucky..............0 4 3 1 59290 Ohio................... 1 44582 Indiana................ 70468 Illinois................ 48363 Missouri.............. 34597 Arkansas............. 8607 Michligan.............. 19484 Florida territory...... 2455 Wisconsin "...... 2627 Iowa "...... 4380 Dist. of Columbia...... 2354 _, Total......... 1270 790 42266 29864 19948 22170 16781 12 3l 15 7 6 285 5 2283 30161 9878 6798 4452 26097 19056 13355 23006 17596 12817 230981 158194 97542 31052 21553 13949 152624 99421 64366 5722 3540 2117 3 0028 20732 12626 6 346 5 41141 27465 38756 24254 16799 22489 13774 9132 34696 22196 131886 31455 19340 11783 20084 11995 6001 20795 16304 7940 51112 31323 19369 53265 32206 19958 138755 85944 54992 60002 37565 21678 52580 31428 15809 33772 20568 11384 8532 5129 2751 22759 16025 8276 4388 2801 1193 6328 3348 1191 6i2o7 3310 151'2 2891 1953 1201 756022 1322440 866431 I536568,174226 8 756022 1322440.866431 1536568 314505 174226 81 4 35671 17300 40296 5947 17420 19069 158107 23809 117351 3957 20573 53485 37011 19360 33899 28215 14164 10736 53821 46242 115832 57457 37278 26054 6331 16054 1947 1793 3138 1755 4 a I 31691 16929 37971 5969 17270 17551 139752 21951 101522 3581 18351 45822 31473 ]6621 27136 22819 11475 7848 44489 39190 96697 46129 31 062 21222 5077 12839 1520 1303 2475 1764 27740 15663 37069 5659 16718 16999 130094 19308 89825 3104 16218 38263 24819 13719 20897 16222 8662 7218 34218 32611 81431 36599 24876 16784 3863 10887 1305 1344 2179 1728 8 r 5485 11432 1570 57-27 5454 30869 4887 20268 682 3899 9673 6365 3059 4240 2886 1430 1206 7140 6639 18182 6195 3660 2439 523 1903 220 201 272 312 2 6054 21222 6331 50s77 16054 12S39 1047 1520) 1793 1303 3138 2475 1755 1,764 1047 1879-199 TABLE II. FREE WhIIITE FEMALES IN U. S. 1840. '5. 6' d. NAME OF STATE, &c 147 195 50 66 899 1058 318 489 967 1.238 76 106 6032 6951 2834 3106 6264 7426 2618 2457 9134 8626 7899 7616 3704 3475 1392 1272 375 381 271 313 181 151 4163 3679 881 742 936 800 2630 2784 1112 1100 536 570 152 159 67 60 80 98 108 123 21 27 14 39 1208 1455 55069, 56562. I' Iz - 2 Maine.............. New-Ilampshire.... Massachusetts....... Rhode Island....... Connecticut......... Vermont........... New-York.......... New-Jersey........ Pennsylvania....... Delaware........... Maryland............ Virginia........... North Carolina...... South Carolina...... Georgia............ Alabama........... Mississippi......... Louisiana.......... Tennessee.......... Kentucky........... Ohio............... Indiana............. Illinois.............. Missouri............. Arkansas........... Michigan............ Florida.............. Wisconsin.......... Iowa............... District of Columbia t-l t:;t 3 t4 Itl o To 16 Total......... 1203349. 986921 836588 792168 1253395 779097 t I C4 FREE COLORED FEMALES, 1840. 1,I I I 27940 15457 40360 6030 164'8 1.574 137414 191-01 96692 3337 18349 42475 26965 14691 22395 17911 8911 7947 35965 33207 84872 36904 24078 16952 3911 10819 1322 1200 2064 2077 I 2 II 128 .54 868 425 860 65 6809 2079 6071 1415 6686 4871 2043 858 229 188 133 2971 445 536 1640 592 311 152 35 76 78 20 8 1027 41673. 54 7 I 45167 360 232 715 433 76 43 4454 1928 1485 748 3806 1505 1127 662 5423 2902 3556 2046 1454 801 545 338 192 178 124 104 122 59 2164 086 367 285 680 593 1053 487 413 215 201 102 133 89 32 21 46 13 75 35 12 4 16 2 813 390 30385 15728 I I 2 2 2 1 1 44 12 30 14 76 36 28 7 24 9 5 13 8 11 8 2 2 6 2 1 "II I 30044 15689 36832 5710 15964 16677 134977 20362 97972 3404 17560 43996 29646 15822 25993 21786 10919 7760 42327 37298 91294 42890 28496 19679 4869 11798 1448 1289 2188 1899 6 1 I II 4122 4000 8387 1196 42' 4 2875 14281 2769 9783 320 1801 4468 2943 1443 1485 847 381 323 2617 2525 5592 1780 866 634 113 451 49 37 51 149 I I I 1274 138S 2955 444 1436 951 .4152 803 2725 92 534 1256 962 430 443 205 96 81 732 735 1345 436 184 131 30 so 10 7 6 41 2 I 0 I 174 181 375 59 153 100 522 82 316 9 95 202 150 74 79 45 22 19 126 137 173 59 39 21 3 11 2 2 I I i 10 8 2 2 i4 25 3 24 3 8 40 19 21 25 14 6 1 27 23 22 9 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 6 11 I I 6 I 9 I 1.I I 0 I I 4 II I 34458 16693 40115 5812 16889 188" 7 154525 23161 115570 3859 19978 52264 35221 18741 32080 26804 13328 10395 51013 44022 110949 53805 34913 24321 5853 15089 1761 1692 2962 1771 T 4 0 1 I 1 38185 17959 45313 6504 18253 203,'O 180769 27505 148786 4751 25680 65286 43637 23639 40579 33917 18235 13718 62684 55419 37725 66397 44775 32600 8108 18401 2241 2528 4082 2294 42105 24679 74250 10833 27120 24225 227137 31514 153803 5707 31021 65797 43121 22392 31701 25574 14464 13602 51907 47970 127730 55176 38823 26330 5881 18706 2220 2713 3789 3030 29046 18269 49323 7138 20110 18163 143882 20530 92864 3469 19343 40082 25906 13471 19603 15152 7847 7907 30597 28608 75799 32708 22676 14889 3317 11864 1219 1423 1865 2026 20024 14183 33109 4891 14863 12807 901 (i3 14009 60838 21 3 1 12417 26t)28 18114 9145 12300 9184 4284 4099 19198 18050 48588 19967 12-i 12 8580 1715 6109 704 612 979 1338 12304 9824 22684 3430 10792 8612 53496 8841 37965 1341 7859 16865 11374 5551 6795 4647 2250 1967 11535 10907 28037 10759 6514 4259 805 3394 354 360 494 793 7703 6702 14645 2176 7220 5423 30190 5253 21007 837 4376 9986 6754 3168 3679 2407 1075 891 6465 6029 14636 5035 2941 2019 357 1441 156 128 187 413 15 361 502143 304810 173299 80562.32964 3231 315 TABLE III. ~0~~ ~MALE SL NAME OF STATE, &c. New-Hampshire...... Massaclusetts......... Rhode Island............ Connecticut........... Vermo nt..............1 4 New-York............ New-Jersey........... 1 1 Pennsylvania......... 12 20 Delawrare............. 442 6 7 6 Marylanid.............. 14996 15440 V'irginia.............. 76847 68751 North Carolina........ 44854 38419 South Carolina........ 52642 46137 Georgia............... 48933 43630 Alabama............ 4 3..67 43767 1293 Mississippi........... 31,36 31564 Louisiana............. 22, 03 23572 Tennessee............. 34115 30883 Kentucky.............. 32531 31627 Ohio..................... Indiana.................. Illinois................ 53 63 Missouri.............. 10873 10718 Arkansas.............. 3450 3514 Michigani................ Florida territory...... 4044 4070 Wisconsin "...... 1 3 Iowa "...... 1 3 Dist. of Columbia...... 598 747 Total.............. 422_599 /391131 1 FEMALE SLAVES IN U. S. 1840. 4 7 1 1 6; 8 1 9C ... 1.. 1. .......' 1 *-~. .... 1 ....... 1 4 ........ 1 2 ~e ] r' 7 168 1 9C 375 551 194 76 37 14551 14383 753; 4732 2297 75703 G5814 383,72 27781 12636 44190 37910 20)292 13374 6421 54527 48251 34589 22403 8506 48445 443148 27557 16265 4922 43663 40818 26491 12023 3130 31972 32358 21670 9019 2162 23158 24804 22373 9441 2114 33705 30356 15635 9021 28'32 , 32713 30818 15058 9645 2998 .. 1.... .. 2...... 53 59 20 24 7 10479 10926 4887 2558 644 3302 3338 1930 849 174 3992 4120 2673 1446 440 2 1 1 2 1 1 5 3 1 630 977 498 370 158 421 -140 390075 1239787 i139001 49692 3 ..,,... ... 1 . 5 ~~~~3 New Jersey 1 1 " 7'i37'j57. 6 o i70 53 30 772 5 5218 2522 40194 30380 12398 19636 14053 6512 30373 20751 8650 2453 163 19 574 15068 8665 27172 Kentoeky 32531 31627 15095 9054 2657 321 301 155 965 20 10 1 3 74209 2329 536 420619 890 18239 29076 14053 6512 338 275 896 235373 145264 512388 * For those over 100 see note to table 4. I AVES IN IT. S. 1840. TABLE IV. Number of persns ill U. S. eopl.yed in 18400, in , 0 10091 539 452 1 9 8 27,153 37,2 1717- 22S 2700 431 41 146 5511 10167 1143 1625 1815 3951 401 235 721 1519 5S2 2952 327 3719 381 34S 262 352 256 75S 33 100 1322 662 55 302 44 968s 212 3323 so 627 63 310 39 1885 3 39 24 166 435 118 14 209 1262 s 5605 33067 I)eaf, dui Deaf m 2921 21879 1379 17826 8063 8517,6 1 3 48 21 297 1 2743 27932 1303 13174 28468 173193 2283 27004 15338 105883 467- 4(,60 3249 21325 6361 54147 1734 14322 1958 10325 2428 79S4 2212 7195 1303 4151 8549 7565 2217 17S15 3448 23217 9201 66265 3076 20590 2506 13185 2522 11100 215 1173 728 6890 481 1177 479 1814 351629 24 227 1155714 o I889 1640 3804 457 1697 1563 14111 1627 67'06 199 1647 3866 1086 1481 1250 1514 1506 1018 2042 2487 5663 2257 2021 1469 301 904 204 259 365 203 Maine............................ New-Hampshire.................. Massachusetts..................... Rhode Island..................... Connecticut....................... Vermont......................... New-York........................ New-Jersey...................... Pennsylvania..................... Delaware........................ Maryland.......................... Virginia......................... North Carolina................... South Carolina................... Georgia......................... Alabama........................ Mississippi....................... Louisiana............................. Tennessee........................ Kentucky........................ Ohio............................. Indiana........................... Illinois............................ Mlissouri.......................... Arkansas......................... Michigan.......................... Florida............................. Wisconsin........................ Iowa............................. JDistrict of Columbia.............. Ohio................................. 7 2 9 1 6 1 2 6 5 7Illinois....8;.. 2 105337 2506 13185 63 310 2(21 195 54 Nlissouri........................... 742 924(8 2522 11100 39 1885 1469 122 48 Ar kansas.......................... 41 26355 215 1173 3 39 301 24 18 Mich igan..........................40 56521 728 6890 24 166 904 90 7 lorida.1 12117 481 1177 435 118 204 16 6 Wisconsin........................ 794 7047 479 1814 14 209 259 9 1 I o wa............................. 217 I 10469 355 1629 13 78 365 2 3 District of Columbia....................... - 384 240 2278 126 80 203 15 1 Total....................... 15203 3717756 117575 791545 56025 33067 65236 20797 1919 Total free white males, 7,249,266; free wvhite females, 6,939,842. Total wvhites, 14,189,108 Total tal free colored, 386,245. Total male slaves, 1.246,408; female slaves, 1,240,805; total slaves, 2,487,213. Total number of slaves of 100 years and upwards, males 753, females 580. The residence of the male 125, Georgia 126, Alabama 60; other southern states the remainder. Females: New-York 2, New-Jers North Caroli na 84, South Carolina 72, Georgia 47; other southern states the remainder. I I _ ~ 1409 1408 2462 601 1666 1320 4089 472 1251 4 94 993 609 318 325 192 63 12 89)5 886 8,5 380 195 122 24 90 16 9 2 15 STATES, &c. 101630 77949 87837 16617 56I955 73150 455954 56701 207533 16015 69851 318771 217095 198363 209383 177439 139724 79289 227,39 197738 272579 148806 105337 924()8 26355 56521 12117 7047 10469 384 d' 47 43 56 15 60 27 269 33 225 18 43 133 82 40 78 72 - 25 14 102 120 167 112 54 48 18 7 6 1 3 1 .2 36 13 499 35 151 77 1898 266 4603 5 313 1995 589 51 5,4 96 14 103 331 704 233 782 42 41 40 1 794 217 UMITED STATES POPULATION. TABLE V. SEVENTH CENSUS, 1850. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES-APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES. Federal White Free colored representotive No. of States Population Populltion Total free Slaves Population Rep. Fr,'etiara Alabama................426,515...... 2,250......428,765......342,894......634,501...... 6......*72,289 Arkansas.............. 126,071...... 587......162,658...... 46,983...... 190,848...... 2...... 3,444 Califoria...............200,000....... (......200,000...... -.......200,000......2..... 12,596 Connecticut..............363180.... 370,604...... 3......*89,498 Delaware................ 71,282......17,937...... 89,239...... 2,289...... 90,612......*.......'90,612 Florida.................. 47,120...... 926...... 48,046...... 39,341...... 71,650......-.......'71,650 Georgia..................513,083...... 2;586 ----— 505,669......362,066...... 733,448...... 7......*77,534 Indiana..................983,634 088........... -..... 988,7 34.....10.......51,714 Illinois..................S83,050 5,239 858,298.............. 858,298...... 9...... 20,980 Iowa....................191,830...... 292......4192,122.............192,122...... 2...... 4,718 Kentucky................770,061 09,667.79,728 221,768.. 912,788......75,470 Louisiana...............254,271......15,685......269,955......230,807......408,440...... 4..... 33,632 Maine...................658,920...... 1,312...... 53,232............. 583,232...... 6...... 21,020 Massachusetts........... 985,498..........994,271.............994,271......10......'57,251 Maryland...............418,763......73,943......492,706...... 89,800......*546,586...... 5......*78,076 Mississippi..............291,536...... 898......292,434......300,419......472,685...... 4...... 4,172 Michigan................393,156...... 2,547......395,703.............395,703...... 5...... 20,895 Missouri.................592,176...... 2,667......594, 843...... 89,289.......648,416...... 6......*86,204 Ne%v,t{ampshire.........317,354...... 477...... 317,831....... 3...... 36,725 New-York.............3,042,57......47,448....3,090,022...........2,090,022......32.....91,558 New-Jersey 48862..........460,113.... Ne,%-Jercv.... 466, 8 3.....22,269...... 488,552...... 119...... 488,623...... 5...... 20,113 North Carlina......... 27,271 t580,458......288,412......753,505......8.... 3,889 Ohio...................1,951,101.....25,930....1,977,031...... - 1,977,031......21..... 9,289 Pennsylvania...........2,258,480......53,201..2,311...... - 2,311,681......24.....*62,533 Rhode Island............ 144,012 ------ 3......147,555.............147,555...... 1......*53,853 South Carolina.69 283544...... 384,925......514.499...... 5...... 45,989 Tennessee...............767,319...... 6,280......73,50.......249.519......923,300...... 0......*89,992 Texas..................133,131...... 926......134,057...... 53,346......160,064...... 1......*72,362 'Vermont.................312,756...... 710......313,466.............313,466......3..... 32,360 Virginia................894,149......53,906......9-18,055......473,026.... 1,231,870......13...... 13,744 Wisconsin...............303,600...... 626......304,226.............304,226...... 3...... 23,120 19,178,885.....409,200... 10,927,085.... 3,173,902............. District of Columbia..... 38,027...... 9,973...... 48,000...... 3,687...... -......-....... TERRITORIES. Minnesota.............. 6,192...... -....... 6,192.....6.0............-....... New-Mexico............ 61,632.............. 61,632............. --....... Oregon................. 20,000............. 20,000.............. -- Utah................... 25,000...... -....... 25,000........................... 19,668,736......419,173... 20,087,909.... 3,175,589... 21,832,621.....218...... Representatives allowed for fractional numbers, as marked............................. 15...... Whole number of Representatives under the next apportionment.......................233...... * These states have a representative added to the number of apportionment. t Including 710 civilized Indians. RECAPITULATION. Total free Representative Population Slaves Population Free states.............................13,533,328............ 119............13,533,399 Slave state............................. 6,393,757............3,175,783............ 8,299,226 District and territories................. 160,824............ 3,687.............. 20,087,909............3,179,589............21,832,625 Total free population.........................................................20,087,909 Slaves...................................................................... 3,179,589 23,267,490 Ratio of representation...................................................... 93,702 Free Whites Other Free Slaves Total 1790.................... 3,172,464............ 59,466............ 697,897........... 3,929,127 1800..................... 4,304,505............108,935............ 893,041............ 5,305,041 1810..................... 5,862,004............186,446............1,191,364............ 7,239,814 1820..................... 7,861,907............238,156............1,538,128............ 9,638,191 1830.....................10,537,378............319,599.............2,019,043............12,866,020 1840....................14,195,809............386,293........... 2,487,355............17,069,453 1850.....................19,668,736............419,173............3,179,580............23,267,498 419 UNITED STATES CENSUS OF 1850. The annexed table shows the increase of population for each period of ten years, since the census of 1790: Ten years ending Free Whites Other Freo Slaves Total 1800.........................1,132,041............48,229............195,144............ 1,376,114 1810.........................1,557,499............78,051.......... 298,323............1,933,873 1820......................... 1,999,913............51,710............ 346,764............3.98.,77 1830.........................,65,4............81,443............470,915............3,227,829 1840.........................3,658,427............. 66,694........ 4478,312............4,203,433 1850........................ 5,472,931............ 32,880........... 692,234............6,198,045 Total................... 16,496,27~ to 1850. A single comparison, I trust, is sufficient to show, by the rule of proportion, that if we suppose that, in the decennial period, 1790-1800, 5,000 emigrants had lent their influence on the increase from 3.929,827 to 5,881,462, that upwards of 21,000 must have entered as element to produce the same per centage, when from 1840 to 1850 the gross numbers rise front 17,063,353 to 2'3,138,084. There can be no doubt but that foreign element has continually entered into the increase of United States population; but the very remarkably regular increase, by a ratio of three per cert. per annlium, in all the decennial perio(ds, orming the cycle of sixty years, from 1790 to 1850, decides the fact that regular proglessive resu lts prove as regular element, I)rope)rtionally, in decennial periods, and of course on the whole cycle. The spread of the Anglo-Saxon population over the great central zone of North America, if taken alone, would rank as one, if not the most important one, of the perma nent changes in the condition of our race; but when combined, on a continent presenting two oceanic fronts, with the rail-road means of locomotion and telegraphic rapidi ty of thought, and one people, with a com mon and energetic language, imbued with similar views on political and civil govern ment, and also of the principles of moral conduct, an advance and permnanency of hu man prosperity and happiness mnay be ration ally hoped for, on an extent of surface never before realized. The actual area represented by Summary Table, No. 7, does not embrace one-third of th ie ground, or perhaps not a greater propor tion of the productive soil, over which, be fore the close of the current century, the Anglo-Saxons of North America must spread with a greater or less density locally. The general law of increase is showni in the ac companying tables; but the relative spread and location of the masses depend on other principles, two only of which are relevant to the purpose of our present view. These are landed property and climate, the tenden cy of both of which have operated, adtI must so continue, to prevent any great particular density of population locally, until after the whole surface is more or less peopled. and the land-owinership changed from public to private property. IJNITED STATES CENSUS OF 1850. -ANALYeSIS OF GROWt TH AND EXTENT OF POPULATION EVERY TEN YEARSs-POPUL ATION AND DENSITY OF NEW-ENGLAND STATES, OF FIVE'I,I)DLE STATES, OF FOUR SOUTHEASTERN STATES, OF THE SIXTEEN ATLANTIC STATES; POPULATION, SQUARE MII.ES, AN-)D DENSITY NORTHWESTERN ANID WVESTERN STATES; GE NERAL SYNOPSIS, ETC. —_In the preceding pages of this work we have published some invaluable statistical deductions upon the population of the United States, &c., from that veteran geographer and distinguished statist, William Darby, of Washington. We now extract from the National lnt,elligentcer further valuable reflections from the same source: By reference to your files, you will see that on the 2d January, 1845, No. 9944, your paper of that day contained Tabular Views, prepared by me on the same subject. I may now simply observe, that, with some labor, I had found that an annual increment ofthree per cent. per annum, operating as a base on 3,929,827, the anmou,nt of the census of 1790, and without reference to the intermediate decennial enumerations, gave the following comparative results: By ealelfiation By actual census. 3 per cent. at a.ean 1790......... 3,929,927......... - 1800......... 5,305,92 5......... 5,281,468 1810.......... 7,238,903......... 7,(,95,964 1820.......... 9,605,547......... 9,535,181830......... 12,856,407.........12,811,1 18 1840.........17,063,353.........17,217-,706 1850.......... 23,138,004.........23,261,454 As recorded on your files, and a s all uded to above, the aggregate population of the United States, from 1790 to 1850, inclusive, in six decennial enumerations, came out, comparatively, with the census of 1850, on an annual increment of three per cent. in a period of 60 years, differing only 23,450, or about one to one hundred, in favor of three per cent. We may, therefore, regard three per cent. per annum the mean incremnent of the population of the United States as an established principle. No other part of this essay can be more suitable than in the introductory remarks we are now recording to obviate a very general error as to the changeable effects on the population of the United States by foreign emigration, and more particularly from 1840 420 350,707 2,481,692 19337,671 UNITED STATES CENSUS OF 18S50. history of the United States is unique. Old and stupendous principles, hitherto widely spread and unconnected, are here united. She great difference of mean and extreme aerial temperature prevailing on the opposing shores of the Atlantic ocean, prevail, also, and from the same natural causes, on those parts of the Atlantic and Pacific shores of North America, embraced by the limits of the United States. The difference here alluded to, which must, whilst the present order of things prevail on earth, modify the history of the United States as it has the like climates round the whole globe, demands a separate article, which, with another most influential element, the iron rail-road and car, I may prepare, health and circumstances admitting. We now proceed to the tabular views of pofpulation. In this essay, I have endeavored to place before the public the difference between the general and local spread of the people, and to show, from data already in our possession, the probable aspect of so much of futurity as is comprised in the current of the commencing half' century. If we allow Table 7 to represent the onethird of the habitable surface which must, in all human probability, be peopled by the inhabitants of the Anglo-Saxon United States, the entire surface will embrace three mnzllionis three hutnired thousand square miles. On the principles of an increment of three per centt. per annum, the aggregate population of the United States in 1901 will be about one hundred and two mzllions; and yet, with a distributive population of only thirtyone to the square mile. In the intermediate period, the central, western, and northwestern sections will receive population in the same imanner as have the parts already organized. States will be formed after states, but cannot, from known causes, have any considerable local density until after the beginning of the next century. Then, however, from 1901, the various parts, as particular circumistances may operate, and especially western emigration decline, the population must become gradually more and more equally distributed. A remark intrudes itself, and demands to be introduced. The TABLE 1.-,Synoptic Table of the extent and population of the seven Northeastern States of the United States, as per census, of 1850. Extent in Ag. popu 8quae' Populttion Population to lation to Political Sectioan miles 1850 square mle aquare mile Maine.................... 35,000.................. 582,626............ 17 Nesw-lampshire...........8,030..................318,063...................133 Vermont................... 8,000.................314,32.................. 39 Massachusetts.............. 7,250..................994,724................. 137 } 41h nearly. Rhode Island.............. 1,200..................147,549................. 126 Connecticut...............4,750...................,13.......... 80 New —York................ 46,000............. I. 3,098,818..................67 Aggregates..............110,230.... 5,827,015..............41 3-10 TABLE 2.-Synoptic Table of extent and population of thefive Central Atlanutic States, as per census of 1850. Extent in Ag. popu square Population Population to lation to Political Seetio mniles m1850 square mile square mae New-.Tersev................ 6,850..................489,868..................71 'Pennsy lvaIia............. 47,000................2,341,20 4.................50 1 DIelaware........ 2,120................ 92,609.................41 I 41 nearly. Muaryland.............11,000............... 5831,016................ 53 virginia.................... 61, 45000............... 1,450 j Aggregates.............. 127,970................4,956,697..................41 T.AtBLE 3.-Synoptic Table of extent and population of the four Southeastern Atlantic States, as per censuts of 1850. Extent in scuare Population as per Population Ag. Population Political Section miles census 1850 to sq. mile to square mile North Carolina................45,500..................863,000.................19 Soihli Carolina.................28,000.................. 630,000................22 Georgia........................ 58,000..................920,000............ 6...... 13 Florida.................57,000.................. 67,000.................. ii Aggregates.................. 188,500................ 2,480,000.................. 13 NOTE. —Table 3 gives an aggregate population which demands some special remarks. The three southernii states, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, with a joint area of 131,500 square miles, hava 2a a,,ggregate population of 2,413,000, or a fraction over eighteen to the square mile. 421 UNITED STATES CENSUS OF 1850. TABLE 4.-Collective Table of the aggregate extent and population of the sixteen Atlantic States of the United States as given in detail per Tables 1, 2 and 3. Extent in square Aggregate popula. Aggregate popula Political Section mils tion 1850 tion to square mile No. 1. NE. section................. 110,2 30.................. 5,827,015..................41-3 No. 2. Central section..............127,970.................. 4,956,697.................. 41 No. 3. SE. section................. 188,500..................2,480,000................. 13 Amount................... 426,700................13263712..................31 NOTE. An aggregate population of 50 to the square mile on the Atlantic States would give 21,325,000; but the capability would more than exceed 100 to the square mile, or give upwards of forty-two millions. TABLE 5.-Synoptic Table of the six States of the United States tvest of Pennsylvania and Virginia, ncorth of Tennessee, and east of the LUpper lIississippi River, as per census of 1850. Extent in sqoare Aggregate Popula- Population to Political Section miles tion 1850 the square mile lKent ucky...............................40,580..................782,000..................19 Ohio...............................44,000............ 1,981,940..................45 Indiana................................36,0......I.... -990,258 O.................20 Illinois................................53,480................850,000................ 15 Wisconsin.............................80,0(10...............305,596.................. 4 Michigan................ —----- 56,610.................. 397,576............... 7 Amount..........................311,340............... 5,407,370................ 17 NOTE. This table, from the aggregate results of its general elements, demands some special remarks. The fotir first-named states, with an aggregate surface of 174,730 square miles, presents an aggregate population of 4,604,198, and an aggregate o'f 26 to the square mile. TABLE 6.-Syitoptic Table of the followving nameti seven States, included in th7e census of 1850. Extent in square Aggregate popula- Population to the Political Section miles tiori 1850 square mile Teniessee............................44,000..................1,050,000...............24 Alabama...............58,000.......770,000...................13 Mlississippi............................48,000.................. 620,000..................13 Louisiata.............................48,000.................. 450,000.................. 9 Arkansas..............................50,000o................. 195,000................. 4 Missouri..............................65,000................. 681,000................10 Iowva..................................60,000.................. 192,000.................. 3 Amount............................373,000.................. 3,968,000............10 very nearly. TABLE 7.-Presenti7g a special and general v iev ofthose parts ofthe United States comprised in the Cenosts of 1850, eastward of, but comprising also Louisiana, Arkansas, 3lIissoutri, and Iowa. Population as Popula- Mean den per cens us tion to sity of po States Squ8are mHes 18O0 sq. mile pulation Maine.................................. 35,00................ 582,626................ 17 New-IIampshire....................... 8,030............... 31,063................ 33 i Vermont............................... 8,000................ 314,322................ 39 MAItssctllusetts.......................... 7,520............... 994,724...............137 >41 3-10 Rho,le Island........................... 1,200............... 147,549............... 126 Cottiecticut........................... 4,750................ 3,913............80 New-York...........................46,000...............3,098,818............... 67 New-Jersev............................,850................ 489,88............... 71l PeI'n.slvania........................... 47,................ 2,341,204................ 50 Delaware............................. 2,120............... 92,609................41 41 Mar-lantd..................................11,00............... 583,016................53 irgtinia...............................61,000............... 1,450,000...............24J ~N'ortli Carolina......................... 4s500............... 8fi3,000................ 1294 South Carolina........................ 00............... 30,000................. 22 013 GeSouth Carolinaa................................ 580............. 920,000. 13 Florida...................... 570,01f,00................ 1 J erltuck.............................5............... 782,000................19 lOhio.................................. 445,000..............1,9,040................45 Indiana...........,60............... 990,25............... 20 Illinois............ 53,480... 85(),000...... 15 ho o................... 80,000...3(0............. 4 .li.hi an............................. 56,610...397.4)00... 7J Teiiiiessee......................... 44,0(10.1050600.24, .klan iaa...........................58,00................ 0................13 ,Nlississil)pI............................ 48,900................ 62(),000................ 13 Loulsiisia.......................... 48,00450,000................9 10 Arkinsa s.......................... 50,000...............195,000............... 4 M,Aissouri...............................65,000............... 681,000................ TnIowa.............................0 00 0............... 192,000............... 3 Tctals.......................1,111,040............. 22,639,00...............21 422 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1850. UNITED STATES CENSUS STATIS- in completing the work, which no action on TICS, 1850-PROGREss OF POPULATION AND the part of this office could obviate, some of INDIUSTRY, ETC.-COMPARATIVE TABLES.- the returns from California have not yet been [For- more complete tables see Appendix.] received. Assuming the population of Cali From the able Census Report of MIr. Ken- fornia to be 165,000, (which we do partly by nedly, we extract the followinrg: estimate,) and omitting that of UJtah,* esti The seventh enumeration of the inhabit- mated at 12,000, the total number of in ants of the United States, exhibits results habitants in the Ijnited States was, on the which every citizen of the country may con- 1st of June, 1850, 23,246,301. The absolute template with gratification and pride. Since increase from the 1st June, 1840, has been the census of 1840, there have been added to 6,176,848, and the actual increase per cent. the territory of the republic, by annexation, is 36.18. But it has been shown that the conquest and purchase, 824,969 square probable amount of population acquired by miles; and our title to a region covering addlitions of territory should be deducted in 341,463 square miles, which before properly making a comparison between the results belonged to us, but was claimed and partial- of the present and the last census. These ly occup)ied by a foreign power, has been reductions diminish the total population of established by negotiation, and it has been the country, as a basis of comparison, to brought within our acknowledged bounda- 23,074.301, and the increase to 6,004,848. ries. By such means the area of the United The relative increase, after this allowance, States has been extended, during the past is found to be 35.17 per cent. The aggregate ten years, from 2,055,163 to 3,221,595 numberofwhites in 1850 was 19,619,336, ex square miles, without including the great hibiting a gain upon the number of the same lakes which lie upon our northern border, class in 1840 of 5,423,371, and a relative or the bays which indent our Atlantic and increase of 38.20 per cent. But, excluding Pacific shores; all which has come within the 153,000 free population supposed to the scope of the seventh census. have been acquired by the addition of terri In the endeavor to ascertain the progress tory since 1840, the gain is 5,270,371, and of our population since 1840, it will be prop- the increase per cent. is 37.14. er to deduct from the aggregate number of The number of slaves, by the present inhabitants shown by the present census, census, is 3,198,298, which shows an inthe population of Texas in 1840, and the crease of 711,085, equal to 28.58 per cent. number embraced within the limits of Cali- If we deduct 19,000 for the probable slave fornia and the new territories, at the time of population of Texas in 1840, the result of their acquisition. From the best informa- the comparison will be slightly difierent. tion which has come to hand, it is believed The absolute increase will be 692,085, and that Texas contained, in 1840, 75,000 inhab- the rate per cent. 27.83. itants; and that when California, New- The number of free colored in 1850, was Mexico, and Oregon, came into our posses- 428,637 in 1840, 386,245. The increase of sion, in 1846, they had a population of 97,- this class has been 43,392, or 10.95 per cent. 000. It thus appears that we have received From 1830 to 1840, the increase of the by accessions of territory, since 1840, an whole population was at the rate of 32.67 accession of 172,000 to the number of our per cent. At the same rate of advancement, people. the absolute gain for the ten years last past The increase which has taken place in would have been 5,578,333, or 426,515 less those extended regions, since they came un- than it has been, without including the inder the authority of our government, should crease consequent upon additions of terobviously be reckoned as a part of the devel- ritory. opinent and progress of our population; The aggregate increase of population, nor is it necessary to complicate the com- from all sources, shows a relative advance parison by taking into account the probable greater than that of any other decennial natural increase of this acquired population, term, except that from the second to the because we have not the means of determin- third census, during which time the country ing the rate of its advancement, nor the law received an accession of inhabitants, by the which governed its progress, while yet be- purchase of Louisiana, considerably greater yond the influence of our political system. than 1 per cent. of the whole number. The year 1840, rather than the date of the Rejecting, from the census of 1810,1.45 per annexation of Texas, has been taken for cent. for the population of Louisiana, and estimating her population, in connection from the census of 1850 one per cent. for with that of the Union, because it may safely that of Texas, California, &c., the result is be assumed that, whatever the increase in favor of the last ten years by about oneduring the five intervening years nmay have fourteenth of one per cent. the gain fromn been, it was mainly, if not altogether, deriv- 1800 to 1810 being 35.05 per cent. and ed from the United States. Oiving to delays and difficulties mentioned * Since ascertained to be 11,381. S 423 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS —-t850. from 1840 to 1850, 35.12 per cent. But, is at the rate of 3a per cent. According to without going behind the sum of the returns, our past progress, viewed in connection with it appears that the increase from the second that of European nations, the population of to the third census was thirty-two hun- the United States in forty years will exceed dredthls of one per cent. greater than the that of England, France, Spain, Portugal increase from the sixth to the seventh. Sweden, and Switzerland, combined. The decennial increase ofthe most favored The relative progress of the several races portions of Europe is less than 1~ per cent. and classes of the population is shown in the per annum, while with the United States it following tabular statement Increase per cent. of each class of Inhabitants in the United States for sixty ears. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 to to to to to to Classes 1800..I 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 Whites...................335.7.........362..........3419..........3305.........347..........3828 Free colored...............822........ 72-2.......... 2525......... 3685.........20-9..........10-9 Slaves................ 2-9........ 33-4........39-.. 21..........39 6...-......238.........28'58 Total colored............ 322..........37'6...........28-58......... 31'44..........23-4..........26-22 Total population...........3501.... 365........ 33'12..........3348...........326.........36-25 The census had been taken previously toI would bring the total increase up to the rate 1830, on the 1st of August; the enumeration of 34.36 per cent. began that year on the 1st of June, two The table given below shows the increase months earlier, so that the interval between from 1790 to 1850, without reference to inthe fourth and fifth censuses was two months tervening periods: less than ten years, which time allowed for, Absolute increase in Increas. e per cnt. No. of 1790 1850 sixty years i sixty years W'hites.....................3,172,464......... 11,638,019...........16,457,555............527'-97 Free colored................ 59,466.......... 428,6 37.............369,171............617-44 Slaves...................... 697,897........3,184,262............2,486,365...........350'13 Total free colored and slaves, 757,363.......... 3,612,899............2,855,536............377'00 Total population........... 3,92 9,82 7..........2 3,246,301...........19,316,444...........491 52 Sixty years since, the proportion between upon statistics, the number of foreign pasthe whites and blacks, bond and free, was sengers, from 1790 to 1810, was, as nearly 4.2 to 1. In 1850 it was 5.26 to 1, and the as could be ascertained, 120,000; and from ratio in favor of the former race is increas- the estimates of Dr. Seylbert, and other eviing. Had the blacks increased as fast as dence, Hon. George Tucker, author of a valthe whites during these sixty years, their uable work on the census of 1840, supposes number on the first June would have been the number from 1810 to 1820, to have 4,657,239; so that, in comparison with the been 114,000. These estimates make, for whites, they have lost, in this period, 1,035,- the thirty years next preceding 1820, 234,340. 000. This disparity is much more thanaccounted If we reckon the increase of these emifor by European emigration to the United grants at the average rate ofthe whole bIody States. Dr. Chickering, in an essay upon ofthe white population during these three emigration, published at Boston in 1848- decades, they and their descendants, in 1820, distinguished for great elaborateness of re- would amount to about 360,0(00. From 1820 search-estimates the gain of the white to1830, therearrived, according to thereturns population, from this source, at 3,922,152. ofthe custom-houses, 135,986 foreignpassenNo reliable record was kept of the number gers, and firom 1830 to 1840, 579,370, making of emigrants into the United States until tor the twenty-years 715,356. During this 1820, when, bj the law of March, 1819, the period, a large number of emigrants from collectors were required to make quarterly England, Scotland and Ireland, came into returns of foreign passengers arriving in the United States through Canada. Dr. their districts. For the first ten years, the Chickering estimates the number of such, r'eturns under the law afford materials for from 1820 to 1830, at 67,993; anrid from 1830 only an approximation to a true state of the to 1840, at 199,130-for the twenty years facts involved in this inquiry. together, 267,128. During the same time Dr. Chickering assumes, as a result of a considerable number are supposed to have his investigations, that of the 6,431,088 in- landed at New-York with the purpose of habitants of the United States in 1820, pursuing their route to Canada; but it is 1,430,906 were foreigners, arriving subse- probable that the number of these was bal quent to 1790, or the descendants of such. anced by the omissions in the official re According to Dr. Seybert, an earlier writer turns. 424 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-18S50. From 1840 to 1850, the arrivals offoreign passengers, in the ports of the United States, have been as follows: Total number of immigrants and descend ants of immiigrants in the United States in 1830................................. 732,847 Number of immigrants arriving from 1830 to 1840..................................... 778,53 00 Increase ofthe above........................... 135,150 Increase from 1830 to 1840 of iimmigrants and descendants of immigrants in the United States in 1830.................. 254,445 Total number of' immigrants and descend ants of irne migrants in the United States in 1840.......................... 1,900,942 Number of immigrants arriving from I840 to 1850................................. 1,542,850 Increase of the above at twelve per cent.... 185,142 Increase from 1840 to 1850 of immigrants and descendants of immigrants in the United States in 1840.................... 722,000 Total number of immigrants into the United States since 1790, and their de scendants ill 1850....................... 4,350,934 1840-'41.................................. 83,50( 1842....................................... 101,1071 1843.................................... 75,159 1844..................................... 74,607 1845................................ 102,415 1846~..................................... 202,15. 1847...................................... 234, 756i 1848...................................... 226,524 1849...................................... 269,610 1850t..................................... 183,011 Total............................... 1,542,850 Wlithin the last ten years there has prob ably been comparatively little imnmig,ration of loreigners into the United States over the Canada frontier; the disposition to take the route by Quebec having yielded to the increased facilities for direct passenger transportation to the cities of the Union; what there has been, may, perhap)s, be considered as equaled by the number of foreigners passing into Canada. after landing at New-York, many having been drawn thither by the opportunities of employment affor ded by the public works of the province. As the heaviest portion of this great influx ofemigration took place in the latter half of the decade, it will probably be fair to estimate the natural increase during the term, at twelve per cent., being about one-third of that of the white population of the country at its commencement. Taking for granted the substantial correctness of the above estimates, and the accuracy of the returns during the last ten years, the following statement will show the accessions to our population from emigration from 1790 to 1850: The density p p lions aran h of population is a branch of the subject which naturally attracts the attentioin of the inquirer. The Following table, showing the number of inhabitants to the square nmile in 1850, and the number of square miles, has been prepared from the most authentic data accessible to this office: Ta b le of the Area ande the number of Inhabitants to the square m?ile in each State and Territory in the Union. Area in Popula No.of in square tidl in bhabitants State nil.e 1850 tosq, m. Maine............. 30,000...... 583,188...... 19'44 New-Itampshire... 9,280...... 317,964...... 34'26 Vermont.......... 10,212...... 313,611.... 30 07 Massachusetts..... 7,800...... 994,499.....126-11 Rhode Island...... 1,306...... 147,544.....108-05 Connecticut........ 4,674...... 370,7,91...... 79'83 New-York........ 46,000...... 3,097,394...... 67 66 New-Jersey........ 8,320...... 489,555......60 04 Pennsylvania...... 46,000...... 2,311,786...... 50-25 Delaware......... 2,120...... 91,535...... 43-64 Maryland.......... 9,356...... 583,035...... 62-31 Virginia........... 61,352......1,421.661.... 23-17 North Carolina.... 45,000...... 868,903...... 1'330 South Carolina.... 24,500...... 668,507...... 27-28 Georgia........... 58,000...... 9(5,999......15-68 Alabama.......... 50,722...... 77,1,671.... 15'21 Mississippi........ 47,156...... 606,555.... 12 86 Louisiana......... 46,431...... 511,974....... 112,-02 Texas............. 237,321...... 212,592...... 89 Florida.............. 59,268...... 87,401......... 1 47 Kentucky......... 37,680...... 982,405...... 26 07 Tennessee........ 45,6......1,002,625......1,0(6 25'21-98 Missouri.......... 67380..... 682,043......1. 10'12 Arkansas..........6 521.)8...... 2(,9,639...... 4-01 Ohio.............. 39,964......1,980,408......49'55 Indiana........... 33,8(09...... 988,416.... 29 23 Illinois.............. 55,40......15 37 bMichigan.......... 56,243......i 39,654...... 7-07 Iowa.............. 50,914...... 192,214...... 3 77 Wisconsin........ 53,924...... 305,191...... 5'65 Calitbrnia.......... 188,982................. Minnesota......... 83,000...... 6,0770 7 907 Oregon............341,463...... 13,293...... *03 New-iMexico.......219,774...... 61,505...... 28 Utah..............187 923...... 11,381........ Nebraska....... 136, 700................ Indian............187,171................ Nort h West.......587,564...... Dist. of Columbia.. 60....7. 5i687'...861-4~ prom the location, climate, and productions, and the habits and pursuits of their inhabitants, the states of the Union may be properly arranged into the following groups: N'umber of foreigners arriving from 1790 to 1810.................................... Natural increase, reckoned in periods often ytears................................... NumbIler of foreigners arriving from 1810 to 1820................................... Increase oftthe above to 1820.............. Increase from 1810 to 1820 ofthose arriving previous to 1810......................... Total nitimber of immigrants and descend ants of irmmigranits in 1820.............. N umber of imniriigrants arriving from 1820 to 1830.................................... Increase of the alcove...................... Increase from 1820 to 1830 of immigrants and descendants of immigrants in the country in 1820......................... * This return includes fifteen months, from July 1, 1845, to 30thl September, 1846. t The report from the State Department for this year, gives 315,333, as the total number of passengers arriving in the United States; but of these, 30,023 wvere citizens of the Atlantic States proceeding to California by sea, and 5,320 natives of the country returning from visits abroad. A deduction of 106.- 879 is made from the balance, for that portion of the year from June 1 to September 30. I 425 120,000 4,-,560 114,000 19,000 58,450 359,010 203,979 35,728 134,130 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1850. Acres in square No. isnhabiltants miles Popuslation to sq. nille New-England States (6)................... -............ 63,226............ 2,727,597............ 43o07 Middle States, including Maryland, Delaware and Ohio (6)151,700............ 8,653,713............ 57-02 Coast Planting States, including South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisi ana (6)..-................... —--------- 286,077............3,537,089............ 12-36 Central Slave States: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennes see, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas (6)...............308,210............5,168S,000............16-75 Northwestern States: Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, WVisconsin, and Iowa (5)............................250,000............2,735,000........ -.10'92 Texas...........................................237,000............ 212,000............ -89 California........................................189,000............ 105,000............ -87 Thlere are points of agreement in the ascertaining the extent of surface in those general characteristics of the states corn- states; and as the figures adopted are found bined in the following groups, which war- to agree with, or differ but slightly from rant the mode of arrangement adopted. those assumned to lbe correct at the general Maryland is classed, as heretofore, with the land office, it is probable they do not vary middle states, because its leading interests essentially from the exact truth. appear to connect it rather with the corn- The area of some of the states, as Marymercial and manufacturing section to which land and Virginia, are stated considerably it is here assigned, than with the purely below the commonly-assumed extent of agricultural states Ohio is placed in the their territory, which may be accounted for same connection for nearly similar reasons. from the supposition that the portions of There seems to be a marked propriety for the surface within their exterior limits, covsetting off the new agricultural states of the eredl by large bodies of water, have been northwest by themselves, as a preliminary subtracted from the aggregate amount. This to, the comnparison of their progress with is known to be the case in regard to Maryother portions of the Union. The occupa- land, the superficial extent of which, within tions which give employment to the people the outlines of its boundaries, is 13,959 of the central range of states south of the square miles * and is deemed probable with line of the Potomac, distinguish them to reference to Virginia, from the fact that some extent from that division to which we many geographers have given its total area have given the appellation of the coast as high as 66,000 square miles. planting states. In the latter, cotton, sugair, It appears from the returns, that during the and rice are the great stapiles, the cultiva- year ending on the first of June, 1850, there tion of which is so absorbing as to stamp its escaped from their owners one thousand and impress on the character of the people. The eleven slaves, and that during the same peindustry of the central states is more diver- riod fourteen hundred and sixty-seven(thousified, thie surface of the country is more sand)were manumitted. The number of both broken, the modes of cultivation are differ- classes will appear in the following table: ent, and the minuter divisions of labor til d Fgitie Slae-18. create more numerous and less accordant Manumitte Slas. t interests. So far as Texas is settled, its Delaware.-....... —-..277............ 26 population closely assimilates with that of Maryland................403............279 the other coast planting states but it Virginia................218............ 83 would obviously convey no well-founded Kentucky..............152............ 90 - -nse....... 45-...........70 idea of the density of population in that sec- Nortih Carolina.......... 2. —--------- 64 tion to distribute their people over the vast South Carolina.......... 2....... 2..... 16 uninhabited region of Texas. For the same Geor gia......... —---------- 89 Florida................. 22............ 18 reason, and the additional one of the isola- Alabama................ 16............ 29 tion of her position, California is considered Mississippi......6........ 6 — 41 distinct from oi her states. Loutisiana............... 159............ 90 Taking the tirty-one states together, their Texas. —---------------............29 11 ~ ~~~~ Arkatisas......... I -. —----- -21 area is 1,485,870 square miles, and the av- Missouri. —------------- 50............ 60 erage number of their inhabitants i,' 15.48 to - - the square mile. The total area of the Totals..1,467.. 1,011 United States is 3,220,000 squaremiles, and In connection with this statement, as the average density of population is 7.219 affecting the natural increase of the free to the square mile. colored population of the United States, it The areas assigned to those states and may be proper to remark, that during the territories in which public lands are situated, year to which the census applies, the C(oloare doubtless correct, being taken from the nization Society sent 562 colored emigrants records of the land office but, iS to those to Liberia. In our calculations respecting attributed to the older states, the same the increase of the free colored population, means of verifying their accuracy, or the we have considered that class of persons want of it, do not exist. But care has been independent of these two causes which retaken to consult the best local authorities for spectively swell and diminish their number. 426 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS- 1850. or which give promise of still greater benefits of in the advancement of civilization I Without intending to dicuss several atg tempts heretofore made for the construction of ?- life tables in this country, let it be observed, - as is universally admitted, that the ratio of s the annual deaths to the contemlporary numit ber living at each age, constitutes the impli-cit element of computation. An enumeration of the living, or of the h deaths only, is insufficient for the purpose, - unless the population is stationary, or due h allowance is made for the changes inwrought e by births and migration during the whole e century previous. - The assumption of a stationary population, o however, can scarcely be entertained of even - the oldest settled parts of the UInion. The e value and prospects of life, and the influence 1 of climate on longevity, are lost or obscured, o both by recent and remote changes. It is - within the memory of persons now living, when most of our large cities were in their e infancy; when forests were standing on grounds since occupied by the busiest ioarts , of trade, and the corn was waving in the wind where now are the most populous streets. Periods of unusual emigration or exodus have been followed by a temporary decrease, I only to recor-mmence with augmentced hum bers. But the chief inequality with refer; ence to the present inquiry arises from the , fact, that the great mass of emigrants are almnost exclusively in the prime of life. Traced upon the texture of society, as these changes must be, in relative excesses and deficiencies at the several ages, the joint statistics of the living and of the annual deaths afford the only feasible mode of arriv ing at the law of mortality, independent of those former changes. A life table for the State of Maryland has been prepared from a joint comparison of the abstracts of the returns of 1850. It com prises a very full interpretation of the laws of vitality indicated by the data for the year of enumeration, which may be regarded as one of average mortality. In the present case, the investigation relates exclusively to the white population of Maryland, irrespective of city or country residents, or of the sexes, or of foreign or indigenous extraction. The results and derived tables are specifiedl at length in the Report on Maryland. From the preliminary table of population there given, it would appear that the line of equal division of the living falls upon the age o f twenty; one-half of the white population being under, and the other half above, twenty years of age; or distribu ting with reference to three equal parts, one-third of the population is und~er thirteen andl a half years of age; one, third is included between this andl the age of twenty-nine, andl the remainling 3ffortal?ty.-The statistics of mortality fo the census year, represent the number c death s o ccurr ing within th e y ear as 320,199 the rat io being as one to 72.6 of the livin population, or as ten to each 726 of the po ulation. The r ate of mortality in this stat ment, tak en as a whol e, seems so much les than that of any port ion of Eu rope, that i must, at p rese nt, be received with some de gree of' allowance. Sh ould a m o r e critical examination, whicr tilme swi en abl e us to exercise, prove the re turn s of the number of deaths too small, suel a result will not affect their value, for the purposes of comparison of one portion of th, country with another, or cause with effect the table will possess an interest second t none other in the work, and the many valu able truths which it will suggest, will be found of great practical advantage. Medica meii will accord to the Census Board nc small Imleed of credit, for the wisdom mani fested in an arrangement which will throw more light on the history of disease in the -United States, and present in connection more interesting facts connected therewith than the uniited efforts of all scientific men have heretofore accomplished. The registration of the annual deaths, as well as of the living, marks an epoch in the history of " life contingencies " in the United States. To trace the effect of the wide range of physical features and natural productions upon the human consitution and faculties, presents to every reflecting mind an interestiijg field of research. Likewise, to investigate the inifluelnce of mental occupations and industrial pursuits, and of the wide diversity of climatesfrom the highlands of Maine to the everglades of Florida-upon the persistence and duration of life, is all object of pernmanienit importance, not only in a scientific, but ill a commercial and national point of view. For all such inquiries, the returns of 1850 furnish facilities, less satisfactory indeed than would have been given by a permaieut system of registration, but far superior to those hitherto available. Alm1ong)D the more immediate advantages to be derived from data of this kind. through the medium of life tables, they will form a basis for the equitable distribution of life-interests in estates, pensions, and legacies; they would assign the true valuation of life annuities, assurances, and reversions of heritable property, and tend to protect the public from many ill adjusted financial *chemes, tounded on ignorance of the true probabilities of life. They would correct a multitude of prejudices and misconceptions respecting the healthbess of the different localities, and besides this, form a common standard of reference in all those moral, sanitary, and mlercanltile statistics which hav~e brought to lighth mlost Xvaluable truths and generalizations, and 427 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1850. third is above twenty-nine years of age. WVith respect to the deaths, the points of equal division fall upon ages several years younger than in the corresponding distributions ofthe living. For exhibiting the law of mortality for individual lives, the data of the census were equated, and reduced to the simple case of 10,268 infants born on the same day, and commencing life simultaneously. Assuming that like circumstances will continue to prevail during the years to come in this state, which may be regarded as certain, the population will continually be affected by the same rate of mortality. And hence we may safely estimate and predict, that, of the specified number of infants at the outset of life, 1,243 will perish prematurely in the first year of existence, and 9,025, or numbers in that proportion, will survive to enter upon their second year. A very considerable, but decreasing mortality likewise prevails in the second and third years, leaving only 8,183, or about fourfifths ot'f the original number, to commence upon their fourth year; but after this age, the juvenile system acquires more firmness, and a greater degree of the vigor and experience to guard against disease. At the age of twenty-one, 7,134 survive to enter upon a more active and responsible career of life; of whom 6,302 attain to "1 thirty-five" -the meridian of manhood. Proceeding onward for twenty years, to the age of "fiftyfive," only 4,727, or less than one-half the original number, then survive. From this age the numbers are decimated more frequently, and the vacated places of the fallen are occupied by advancing generations; till, having passed the mental and physical changes in the round and mystery of life, so graphically portrayed in the " Seven Ages " of the dramatist, a few become centenarians, and linger on the verge of life, till virtually, at the age of one hundred and six years, all have closed their earthly existence. The table for Maryland also comprises the "Expectations of Life," or the average number of years in which the great mass of the white population live after a given present age. This arrangement of the data is justly described as that which is of the most interest to'society; for it points out the average number of years in which one member of the community with another participates in the pleasures and cares of life. An individual, for instance, on attaining his thirtieth birth-day, has an expectancy of nearly thirty-five years. At fifty years of age, the lease of time's estate (so to express the idea) is limited to a little more than nineteen years longer. The maximum ex pectation-52.86 years-is at the age of four in this table; in the. well-known Carlisle table, it is represented to occur at the age of five; and at six in the Swedish table. The join t expectation for tw o lives, as in the mar riage r elation, or the average period during which both shall be living, may now be determined in like man ner, and also for three or more lives of given ages. It h a s been remarked, that tables properly constr ucte d from sufficient da ta, never differ wid ely from e ach other. F,,r this reason, and on account of th e ir high value, insertion is likewise given in that report to three standard European tables; from no one of which does the Maryland table differ in the comparison so much as they differ among themselves. Indeed, the duration of life by the Maryland table is found to be almost an exact medium between the British female annuitants and the Carlisle values; which affords strong proof of accuracy. From these tabular forms for Maryland, the probabilities of life can readily be ascertained in a given case, with the value of annuities, assurances, and other reversions dependent upon lives; and, when extended' to other localities, the results will eventually promote a most important national purpose, one which has long been desired-that of attaining a correct estimate of the standard of human life among different classes of population in this country. Table of Deaths during the year ending lst June, 1850. NI. of Ratio to the Deaths number livig Maine............... 7,545............ 77-29 New-Hampshire.....4,268............ 74 49 Vermont............ 3,132........... 100'13 Massachusetts...... 19,414............ 51-23 Rhode Island........ 2,241............65-83 Connecticut.......... 5,781............64]13 New-York.......... 44,339.......... 69&85 New-Jersey.......... 6,467........... 75- 70 Pennsylvania....... 28,318............ 81 63 Delaware........... 1,209............ 75 71 Maryland......... 9,594I... 60-77 Virginia............ 19,053............ 74'61 North Carolina.....10,207............ 85-12 South Carolina....... 7,997............ 8359 Georgia............. 9,920............ 91-93 Alabama............. 9,084............ 84-94 Mississippi'.......... 8,711.. —------- 69'63 Louisiana.......... 11,948............ 4285 Texas............... 3,046............69'79 Florida.............. 933............ 93-67 Kentucky........... 15,206............ 64'60 Tennessee.......... 11,759............ 8534 Missouri........... 12,211............ 55-81 Arkansas............2,987............ 7018 Ohio............... 28,949............ 6841 Indiana............. 12,728............ 77-65 Illinois.............. 11,619............ 73'28 Michigan............ 4520............ 88 19 Iowa................ 2,044............ 94(03 Wisconsin........... 2,884........... 105 82 California.................. Minnesota.......... 30........... 202'56 Oregon............. 47........... 282-82 New-Mexico......... 1,157............ 5315 Utah................ 239............ 4761 District of Columnbia. 846.................l.61-09 ,4gricltu1qre. —The great amount of labor ,requisite to the extraction of the returns ofl 428 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1850. agriculture will admit, at this time, of pre senting but limited accounts, though to some extent, of the most important separate interests.-(See Agriculture for full returns.) The returns of the wheat crop, for many of the western states, will not at all indicate the average crop of those states. This is especially the case with Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, from which, especially the former, the assistant marshals return a "short crop," to the extent of fifty per cent. throughout the whole state. The shortness of the whole crop in Ohio, in 1849, is verified byv returns made during the subsequent season, by authority of the legislature. The causes which affected the wheat crop in those states were not without their influence in reducing that of Western Virginia and Western Pennsylvania to some considerable ex ent. Mfanitfactures.-The period which has elapsed since the receipt of the returns, has been so short, as to enable the office to make but a general report of the facts relating to a few of the most important manufactures. If, in some instances, the amount of "capital invested " in any branch of manrufacture should seem too small, it must be borne in mind, that where the product is of several kinds, the capital invested, not being divisible, is connected with the product of greatest consequence. This, to some extent, reduces the capital invested in the manufacture of bar iron, in such establishments where some other article of wrought iron predominates-sheet iron, for example. The aggregate, however, of the capital invested, in the various branches of wrought iron, will, it is confidently believed, be found correct. The entire capital invested in the various manufactures in the United States, on the 1st of June, 1850-not to include any establishmenf producing less than the annual value of $500-adnounted, in round numbers, to........................ $530,000,000 Value of raw material...... 550,000,000 Amount paid for labor...... 240,000,000 Value of manufactured articles 1,020,300,000 Number of persons employed 1,050,000 More minute particulars respecting these separate interests will be found incorporated in the tables. The Press.-The statistics of the newspaper press form an interesting feature in the returns of the seventh census. It appears that the whole number of newspapers and periodicals in the United States on the first day of June, 1850, amounted to 2,800. Of these, 2,494 were fully returned, 234 had all the facts excepting circulation given, and 72 are estimated for California, the Territories, and for those that may have been omitted by the assistant marshals. From calculations made on the statistics returned, and estimated circulations where they have been omitted, it appears that the aggregate circulation of these 2,800 papers and periodicals is about 5,000,000, and that the entire number of copies printed annually in the United States, amounts to 422,600.000. The following table will show the number of daily, weekly, monthly, and other issues, with the aggregate circulation of each class: No. copies printed loo. Circulation annually Dailies............................ 350................ 750,000................ 235,000.000 Tri-weeklies...................... 150................ 75,0 00................ 11,700,000 Semi-weeklies....................125................ 80,000................ 8,320,000 Weeklies..........................2,000................ 2,875,000................149,500,000 Semi-monthlies................... 50................ 300,000................ 7,200,000 Monthlies......................... 100................ 900,000................ - 10,800,000 Quarterlies....................... 25................ 29,000................ 80,000 2,800 5,000,000 422,600,000 by those governments in their statistical investigations, in order that our own census might, when published, prove of the greatest value to ourselves, and not seem inferior to those of countries which have the credit of having paid more attention to statistical science, although they may not have made greater advances in what we esteem rational forms of government. It seems more desirable to possess every ray of light on this subject, when considering that the present census is one of unexampled importance to ourselves and our posterity, as exhibiting our condition to the middle of a century, and illustrative of the progress of a people, flourishing beyond all F our hundred and t wenty- fou r papers are issued in the New-England states, 876 in the Middle s tates, 716 in t he Southern states an d 784 in the Western states. The average circulation of papers in the United Sta te s, is 1,785. There is one publication for every 7,161 free inhabitants in the United States and Territories. In accordance with the views expressed in the commission with which the department honored me in May last, I visited, during the three summer months, the capitals of many of the important governments of Europe, for the purpose of examining into the me ho(ds adopted for the procuring and classification of such facts as are enumerated I 429 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1850. bor, and the practical management of the farming interests; in no case, however, relying upon information not either obtained from personal observation, or derived offially, and in a manner which can leave no doubt of its correctness. My opportunities abroad will not only enable me to effect valuable improvements in compiling our census, but it will be my aim to make the statistical facts useful to the country by forming them into a report to be supplemental hereto, the completion of which has been retarded by my other official duties. Another object had in view, was the procuring information with reference to the manner in which the various offices in Europe, especially those connected with agriculture and statistics, are organized, and the manner in which the information obtained is made available to the government and people. To the attainment of these purposes, the few weeks to whi ch my t ime limited me, and the diversity of languages among those with whom my investigations were pursued, interposed difficulties only surmo unt ed by a zealous determination to effect the duty undertaken one in which failure must have ensued, were it not for the official character sustained in connection with the office here, and that with which the department honored me, as its representative abroad: the one enabling me to impart as much valuable information to others as was solicited in return; the other giving facilities of intercourse, and a claim to consideration, which was never slighted by any officer of a foreign government. In England, in addition to the free intercourse enjoyed with the officers of government connected with statistical matters, several opportunities were offered for bringing the object of my mission before public audiences; and invitations were tendered me to address the members of the London Statistical Society at its annual meeting in that city, the Society of Actuaries at Richmond, and the British Association at Ipswich, during its annual meeting, which was attended by Prince Albert, one of its members, and many of the most distinguished literary and scientific gentlemen of Great Britain and the Continent. The Statistical Council of Belgium, M. Quetelet, President, gave me a place in their Board at one of its regular meetings. On each opportunity it gave me pleasure to present a full account of the character and extent of our investigations, under the act of Congress, for taking the seventh census, to make a fair and impartial exhibit of our progress in wealth and numbers during the past ten years, and at the same time urge the propriety of mutual efforts towards the attainment of more uniform and useful statistical publications by different governments. The propriety of preceden t, under a new form of government; on e whose his tory and example must, as it becomes known, exert an important influence throughout th e civi lized w orld. This census, wh i le it exhibits our progress for sixty years, wit h a prec is ion and a certainty which no other cou ntry h as b e en able to enjoy, and gives a realit y t o the past, u nattain a ble with respect to any other people. discloses the pres ent statistical history, and tha t for the fi r st time, of a country embracing more than a mill ion squ ar e m iles of territory, the futur e de stiny of wh ich is inseparably con n e cted with that of the original thirteen states. Not only, ho wev er, in connection with these statistical investigations, did it seem desirable to avail ourselves of any improvements introduced into the last censuses of Eu rope, to enable us to prepare our own great national work on the best sy stem; but for many of the practical purposes to which statistics are applied and deemed v aluabl e, it seems desirable to effect some arrangement by whic h the publicat ion of the results of the gr eat elementary facts among nations sh oul d be m ad e as nearlv simultaneous as possi ble, and classif ied on the same general principles, as far as the -facts taken would justify; in order that, while we use every exertion to analyze society at ho m e, we may, from their statistic s, enjoy the advantage of be ing able to arrive at a similar analysis with respect to other nati ons, and th at, while c ontemplating our own progress from time to time, we may b e able to institute comparisons with the adva ncemen t of o ther peo ple. H e retofore, at least, in every step of investigation, the s tatist in wis hing to p rosecute inquiries respectin g different nations, touching the great elemen,ts of society, has met with the insurmountable difficulty arising from the d ifferent eleme nts elucidated, and t he dive rs e methods of combination adopted, which lessen the value of their lab o rs, r ec i procally, and in the absence of more reliable data, lead to the frequent use of one set of elements to ascertain the condition of some different set, producing results equally un satisfactory to the man of science, as they are often dangerous, if made the basis of tb e p oliti c al econ omy and legisl ation of a government. In addition to the effort to effect a general sympathy or concert of action among nations, with reference to their periodical statistics, it has been my aim, in which I have succeeded, often in the absence of published records, to procure a knowledge of the exact condition of the people of all classes in each country visited, and learn their true state with reference to numbers, and the products of their agriculture and manufactures, their social and moral condi tion, the state of education, the price of la 430 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1790-1850. this measure was felt by individuals who had'most beneficial results are anticipated. Mr. made statistics a study, and the necesity Porter, of the Board of Trade, has been apfor some action was universally conceded; pointed a delegate to this Statistical Conand it affords me infinite gratification to gress from England. He is a gentleman state, that an arrangement has been made distinguished no less by his laborious refor a general statistical Congress, to be held searches and valuable contributions to the at Brussels, (Belgium,) during the ensuing science of political economy and statistical fall-a measure which has received the ap- knowledge of the British empire, than for probation of several of the most distinguish- the elevated position he holds as a public ed statists of Europe, and from which the officer and man of letters. CENSUS STATISTICS'U. S., 1790-1850. Ratio of Ratio of Ratio of 1790 0 J nceose 1810 Iocrease 1820 Incroase frMaine.................... 96,540.... 151,719.... 57'1.... 228,705.... 50'7.... 298,335.. 30'4 New-Ifampshire........... 141,899.... 183,762.... 29'5.... 214,360.... 16'6.... 244,161.... 13'9 85,416.... 154,465.... 8068.... 217,713.... 41'... 235,764.... 8'2 ] Massachusetts............. 378,717.... 423,245.... 11'7.... 472,040.... 11'5.... 523,287.... 10'9 Rihode Island................69,110.... 69,122.......... 77,031.... 114.... 83,059.... 7.8 Connecticut...............238,141.... 251,002.... 5'4.... 262,042.... 4'3.... 275,202.... 5' 1,009,823....1,233,315.... 22'1....1,471,891.... 19'3....1,659,808... 12'8 6 New-York................340,120.... 586,756.... 72'5.... 959,049.... 63'4.... 1,372,812.... 43'1 New-Jersey............... 184,139.... 211,949.... 15'1.... 245,555.... 15'9.... 277,575.... 13' PIennsylvania............. 434,373.... 602,365.... 38'6.... 810,091.... 34'4....1,049,458.... 29'5 958,632....1,401,070....46'15...2,014,695....43.79....2,699,845.... 34' rDelaware 59,096.... 64,273.... 8'7.... 72,674.... 13'..o. 72,749...... District of Columbia.............. 14,093............ 24,023.... 36'8.... 33,039.... 37'5 . Maryland................. 319,7286.. 341,548.... 66 8.... 380,546... 11'4.... 407,350.... 7' ~ Virginia....... 748,308.... 880,200.... 17-6.... 974,622.... 10'7....1,065,379.... 9'3 North Carolina............ 393,751... 478,103... 21'3.... 555,500.... 16'2.... 638,829.... 15' South Carolina............ 249,073.... 345,591.... 3S'7.... 415,115.... 20'1.... 502,741.... 18'1 Georgia................... 82,548.... 162,101.... 96'4.... 252,433.... 55'1.... 340,987.... 35'1 t Florida........................................... 1,852,504....2,285,909....23,39....2,674,913.. 17'01.... 3,061,074....14'43 (Ohlo............................. 45,365............ 230,760.... 408'7.... 581,434....152. Indiana....4................. 4,875...........24,520....403..... 147,178....500'2 Illinois..................................... 12,282.......... 55,211....349'5 Iowa........................................... ~ Wisconsin.................................................... Michigan............................. 4,762...........'..,696.... 86'8 I ~Minnesota, (Territory)...................................... .... 50,240......... 272,324....442-04... 792,719...191.09 ( Kentucky................. 73,077.... 220,955....200..... 406,511.... 83-1.... 564,317.... 38-8 Missouri.............................................- 20,845............ 66,586....219-5 Alabama............................... 127,901...... Louisiana................. 76,556............ 153,407,....100-4 ( Tennessee................ 35,791.... 105,602....200'..'. 261,727....147-8.... 422,813.... 61-5 c Mississippi8...850..................6,650........... 40,352....356- 75,448... 87 Arkansas................................................14,273...... Texas.................................... . ~New-Mexico, (Territory).................... 108,868.... 335,407.... 208606... 805,991.... 140-3....1,424,745..76.76 'California...................................................... Orgo ~Teriores.'....................................... i-ta I Territories.... t'Utah ~...................................... Seanien in U.S. service.............................. Total.................. 3,929,827.... 5,305,941.... 35-01.... 7,239,814.... 36-45.... 9,638,191....33-12 * The population of California is set down at 165,000 as an approximation to the real population, which may be essentially varied by complete returns. Should the returns vary from our estimate so far as to reduce the population of California 30,000, South Carolina will be entitled to a member additional, as being next above on the list of fractions. The official returns of California will slightly affect the calculation respecting the aggregate increase of the free population for the year 1850. Ratio of representation, 93,716. t The returns of Utah have been received since the preparation of this report. 431 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS-1790-1850. Statement of Population by Classes decennially,from 1790 to 1850, inclusive. Ratio of Ratio of Ratio of 1790 1800 Increase 1810 lncrease 1810 Iacreas Whites.........................3,172,464.... 4,304,489.... 35-7....5,862,004.... 36-2.... 7,866,569....34-19 Free colored................... 59,466.... 108,395.... 82-2.... 186,446.... 72-2.... 233,524....25-25 Slaves........................ 697,897.... 893,057... 27-9.... 1,191,364.... 33.4.... 1,538,098....29-10 Seamen in U. S service..................................... 3,929,827.... 5,305,941..........7,239,814..........9,638,191...... Total Free................. 3,231,930....4,412,884.... 36-4....6,048,450.... 37.....8,100,093....33-92 Total colored population, I - free and slaves........ 757,363....1,001,452.... 32-2....1,377,810.... 37-6....1,771,622....28-58 Represeotatives Ratio Ratio Ratio of each Sta.,. of of of _.. 35 1930 lncrease 1840 t ncrease 1850 Increase No. Fractiona ra 399,455.. 33'9.. 501,793.. 26-2... 583,188.. 16-22.. 6.. 20,892.. 7 .New-.ampshie........... 269,328.. 10 3.. 284,574.. 5-6... 317,964.. 11-63.. 3.. 36,816.. 4 a, Vermont.................280,652.. 19... 291,948.. 4' 314,120.. 7.59.. 3.. 32,972.. 4 Vaserms................. 610,408.. 16-6.. 737,699.. 20-8... 994,499.. 34-81.. 11..57,339. 10 Iasacuodettsln............ PRhode sland............. 97,199.. 17- -' 108,830. 11-9... 147,544.. 35.57.. 2..*53,828.. 2 L Connecticut..............297,675.. 8-1.. 309,978.. 4-1... 370,791.. 19-61. 4*.,89,643.. 4 1,954,717.. 17-7.. 2,234,822.. 14-3... 2,728,106.. 22-07.. INew-York.......... 1,918 608.. 39.7.. 2,428,921. 26-6.. 3,097,394.. 27-52.. 33.. 4,766.. 34 New-Jersey.............. 320,823.. 15-5.. 373,306.. 16-3 489,555.. 31-14.. 5.. 20,886.. 5 Pennsylvania............. 1,348,233 28-5.. 1,724,033.. 27-9 2,311,786.. 34-09.. 25..*62,602.. 24 3,587,664..32-88.. 4,526,260.. 26-16... 5,898,735.. 30-32.. fDelaware................ 76,748. 5-5.. 78,085.. 1-7... 91,535.. 1722.. 1...... 1 District of Columbia...... 39,834. 29'2.. 43,712.. 233... 51,687.. 18'24....... Maryland............... 447,040. 9'7.. 470,019.. 5-1 5 05 4.. 6. *78,307.. 6 a Virginia...................1,211,405. 13'7. 1,239,797.. 2-3 1,421,661. 14'66.. 13.. 14,341.. 15 Northi Carolina........... 737,987. 15'5.. 753,419.. 2-1. 68,903.. 15'32.. 8.. 3,810.. 9 ~ South Carolina5............ 581 94,398.. 2-3.. 668,507.. 1246.. 5.. 45,933.. 7 Georgia.................. 516,823. 51'2.. 691,392. 33-8.. 905,999. 3103.. 8.. 3,598.. 8 [Florida................... 34,730.. 54,477.. 56-8... 87,401.. 60'43 I..:.... 1 3,645,752.. 19'1.. 3,925,299.. 7-66... 4,678,728.. 19'19.. r rohion.....................937.993.. 613.. 1,519.467.. 62-... 1,980,40,8.. 30-33.. 21.. 12,372.. 21 Indiana.................. 343,1031..133-.. 685,866.. 99-9.. 4'1. 11..*51,256.. 10 l Illinois................... 157,445..185-2.. 476,183..202-4 851,470.. 78 981. O.. 8,026.. 7 Iowa.............................. 43,112... 192.214..345'84.. 2.. 4,782.. 2 Wisconsin............... 30 945.... 305,191..890'48.. 3.. 24,043.. 3 ~ Michigan................. 31,639..255-6.. 212,267..570-9 397,654.. 87'33.. 4.. 22,790.. 3 l IMinuesota (territory)............................. 1,470,018..85-43.. 2,967,840..101-89... 4,721,430.. 59'08...... 'Kentucky................ 687,917.. 21-9. 779,828.. 13-3... 982,405.. 25'98.. 10..*54,568.. 10 AMissouri................. 140,455..110-9.. 383,702..173-2... 682,043.. 77'75.. 7..*84,778.. 5 Alabama.................. 309,527..142'. 590,756.. 90'80... 771,671.. 30'62.. 7..*72,218.. 7 LouIisiana................ 215,739.. 40-6. 352,411.. 63-3.. 511,9 74.. - 4.. 41,501.. 4 Tennessee............... 681,904.. 61-3.- 829,210.. 21-6...1,(02,625.. 20'91.. 10..*63,396.. 11 aMississippi............... 136,6-21.. 81'. 375,651..175... 6(6,555.. 6146.. 5.. 14,015.. 4 Ariansas................ 30,388..1129.. 97,574..221-1 209,639..114.85.. 2.. 3,414.. 1 Texas.................................... 212,52. 2.. 1,895.. 2 I New-Mexico (territory)..................... 61,547.. 2,20'2,551..54-59.. 3,409,132.. 54-78... 5,041,051.. 47'86.. t California............... 165,o00.. 2 iTerritories. 19........................... 13,293..-*'' !Uiahl 11,380 -.......... Seamen in U.S. service. 5,318:-...... 6,100.........................t.. ~ of the-. Total..............2,866,020.. 33-48.. 17,069,453.. 32-67...23,257,723.. 36-25..233.. fractions...233 t For population of California, see preceding page. t The returns of Utah have been received since the preparation of this report. 432 UNITED STATES-FINANCES OF GENERAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS. 433 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS —contitued. Statement of Population by Classes decennially,from 1790 to 1850, inclusive. Representas Ratio Ratio Ratio of each S of of of, -- 1830 Increase 1840 Increase 1850 Increase No. Fra Whites............... 10,537,378..33.95..14,189,895.. 34-7. 19,630,738.. 382;8.. Free colored............ 319,599..36-85.. 386,245.. 20-9... 428,661.. 10-9. Slaves................ 2,009,043. 30-61.. 2,487,213.. 23-8... 3,198,324.. 28-58...... Seamen in U. S service.......... * 6,100................. 12,886,020......17,069,453......23,257,723.. 36-25 Total free............. 10,856,977..34-03..14,576,140.. 341...20,059,399.. 37-61...... Total colored popula- I - tion, free and slaves 2,328,642..31-44.. 2,873,458.. 23-4... 3,626,985.. 26-22 * Added to white population. UNITED STATES- FINANCES OF THE GENERAL AND STATE GO VERNMENTS-PUBLIC DEBTS. United States...........................$64,228,238 Maine................................. 979,000 Massachusetts......................... 6,091,047 New-York.............................. 23,937,249 New-Jersey............................. 62,596 Pennsylvania......................... 40,424,737 Maryland.............................. 15,900,000 Virginia............................... 14,400,507 North Carolina......................... 977,000 South Carolina......................... 3,622,039 Georgia................................ 1,903,472 Alabama............................... 10,385,938 Mississippi.......................... 7,271,707 Louisiana.............................. 16.238,131 Texas................................. 11,050,201 Arkansas............................. 3,862,172 Tennessee.............................. 3,337,856 Kentucky.............................. 4,531,913 Ohio.............................. 19,173,223 Michigan............................... 2,849,939 Indiana................................. 6,556,437 Illinois................................ 16,612,795 Missouri................................ 956,261 Iowa................................... 55,000 present time of the banks cannot be less than four hundred and fifty millions of dollars. The reports published by the Secretary of the Treasury make the aggregate $412,733,004, and many of the returns included in that aggregate, were dated four and six months previous to January, 1851. The aggregate amount of bonds of incorporated companies-of the general and state governments of cities and counties-and of paper promises to pay held by the banks, cannot be much below one thousand millions of dollars, as shown by the annexed table: PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INDEBTEDNESS-1851. General and State Governments, 1850............................. $275,480,076 15 General and State Government in crease since 1850................. 40,000,000 00 Bonded debts of Cities and Counties, 1851............................. 75,000,000 00 Bonded debts of Railroad and Canal Companies, 1851.................. 80,000,000 00 Loans and discounts of Banks in the U. S., 1851........................ 450,000,000 00 Total, 1851.................. $920,480,676 15 Total, 1850............................$275,480,676 Total, 1843............................ 198,818,736 Increase in seven years................ $76,661,940 This is independent of the immense amount of paper floating about the country, in the hands of individuals. The amount included in the above table comprises the bonded debts of the various governments and incorporat ed companies, and th e a moun t of paper discounted in all the banks. We have made no attempt to estimate the total extent of credits in existence. It is probably double, at least, the above aggregate. The great speculative years, 1835, 1836 and 1837, could not compare with the present. We are a t th is moment in a mo re expanded condition than ever befor e, an d there are more than sixty millions of bonded securities for the construction of rail-roads, canals, plank roads, and other works of internal improvements, ready to be negotiated at some rate. Individuals have by no means been beI hind corporations or incorporations. Every one that had any credit has been running into debt. All sorts of extravagance is the order of the day. Five, ten and fifteen dollars are paid for a ticket to a concert, without a second thought. Three thousand dollars for a car. 28 This shows an increase of about thirty per cent. in seven years; and returns for 1851 will show an addition to the public indebtedness of 1850 of more than forty millions of dollars. New-York, Massachusetts, Virginia and North Carolina, have granted, or are about granting their credit to works of internal improvement, by which the debt of each will be largely increased. We must add to this enormous amount at least seventy-five millions of dollars for the debts of cities and counties in all sections of the country, for which bonds are issued. This makes the indebtedness of governments, great and small, in the United States, at this moment, nearly four hundred millions of dollars. The debts of rail-road and canal companies in the United States, for which bonds have been issued, and are floating about the money markets, amount to full eighty millions of dollars. The banks have been expanding rapidly, and every month adds millions to their loans and discounts. The loans at the VOL. III. I 91 . P4 4 UNITED STATES-NAVIGATION OF, AND GREAT BRITAN. possession of oaks, iron and mechanical gellius, enabled her to build, without competi,tionl, those vesseTs which her enterprise and necessities sent into all seas. With these advantages, it was inevitable that England should become the mistress of the seas; and to ascribe the results of those combined circumstances to the operation of law, was more worthy of a dark age than of the enlightened present. Soon after the government of Cromwell invented those laws, Col bert, in 1664, constructed the first general tariff for France, and the principles of that tariff were more strictly enforced by succeeding ministers, especially in relation to navigation, down to the present day. As long as all the countries out of Europe were dependencies of European governments, and exposed to the operation of their laws, but little progress was made in that healthful riv alry which operates to the benefit of general industry. The separation of the United States from Great Britain freed them fiom the operation of her laws, and compelled their relaxsation. Even statesmen were not too stupid to see the necessity of modifying a state of things which compelled a British vessel to make a voyage across the Atlantic in ballast, one passage, passing a United States vessel loaded, thus charging two freights upon every cargo carried, without benefiting the vessel; consequently, the laws were for the first time modified, and United States and British vessels placed upon an equal footing. In 1818, the United States passed a law virtually abolishing navigation laws in favor of any nation which should adopt a similar policy. The inevitable progress of commerce, deepening its own channels, at length compelled England, in time of famine, to suspend her navigation laws, in order that vessels of all nations might bring her food. Holland and Belgium were compelled, by the same necessity, to do likewise, and that experi ment led to the final abrogation of the Englisth navigation laws, in 1849, consequently, bringing into force the United States law of 1818. France alone remains in her former position. The results of the exclusive policy of France, and of the liberal policy of the United States and Great Britain, are seen in the following table, which shows the ton nage which entered each country in 1849 and 1851, distinguishing the foreign from the national: riage and pair is considered nothing. One hundred thousand dollars for a house up town, and furniture, is not considered unreasonable, and everything else at the same rate, is paid by those who have more credit than capital, more pride than brains. The people of the South have, in consequence of the high prices paid for their staple product, been enormously extravagant, and have, notwithstanding the great increase in the value of their crops, exceeded their incomes, in expenditures, full as much as in any previous year. The success of Jenny Lind's concerts shows this. In the face of this artificial, inflated state of things, what would be the effect of a great fall in the price of cotton, or the falling off in the receipts of gold from California l That both of these events will be realized, we have not the slightest doubt. The enormous prices which have been paid for cotton during the past year will stimulate cultivation, and the probablfity is, that before a twelvemonth elapses, the raw material will be nearly as low as ever it was. We have taken the cream off the gold mines of California, and, while the supply of dust will be largely reduced, the expansion of credits here, which has been carried on upon the basis furnished by California, must go on until it is arrested by a wide-spread revulsion. UNITED STATES.-COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION OF, AND GREAT BR[. TAIN.-W ae are i ndebted for the following extract to Mr. Kettell's invaluable " United States Economist'. The navigation laws of Great Britain, which we re originated in the mi ddle of the seventeenth century, and continued in force down to the peace of 1815, have novv, since three years, been abolished in respect to the foreign trade. It was generally contended, and by many believed, that the commercial greatness of England was due, to a considerable extent, to the operation of those laws, rather than to the enterprising and commercial character of her people. The singular position of their island home, which made navigation the only means of communication with their neighbors, and eminently favored its development, inasmuch as that no wind can blow from any quarter of the compass, but that it is fair for the arrival and departure of some of England's mercantile marine; her TABLE SHOWING THE TONNAGE WHICH ENTERED EACH COUNTRY, DISTINGUISHING THE NATIONAL FROM FOREIGN FLAGS. -1849. -, 1851. — National Foreign National Foreign Great Britain........... 4,390,375........... 1,680,894........... 4,388,245........... 2,599,988 France.................. 837,345........... 1,049,946............ 866,145........... 1,312,411 United States........... 2,658,325.....1,710,515.....3,054,3...............3054349 1,939,091 The exclusive policy of France has not only forty per cent. is the property of French promoted her interests. Of the whole ton- citizens. In both England and the United nage which enters France in any one year, States, the reverse is the case. It is doubt 434 UNITED STATES-NAVIGATION OF, AND GREAT BRITAIN. less the case that the genius of France is far less maritime than either that of England or of the United States; but the figure shows that laws can do but little towards changing the character of a people. As between the United States and England, both possessed of maritime aptness, it was fiercely contended that the superior capital and general resources of the latter would enable her, on a footing of equality, to drive the United States vessels out of the trade, at least the interrnational trade. It was supposed that in what was called the triangular voyage between the United States, British West Indies a nd England, the vessels of the latter would h ave s uch advantage as would ruin American tonnage. We may now, from official documents, compile a table of the British and American tonnage which entered the United States from each country of the world at two periods. In this table, it will be seen that the operation has been altogether in favor of the United States, the tonnage of the latter showing an increase from almost every country. BRITISH AND UNITED STATES TONNAGE ENTERED UNITED STATES. r —--- 1849. —---- r —— 1851.~ —- -_ From- British U. S. British U.S. Great Britain................ 551,162.......... 600,769.......... 501,894.......... 643,299 Canada....................... 537,697.......... 906,813.......... 514,383......... 1,013,275 North American Colonies...... 314,805.......... 120,867.......... 361,564.......... 62,418 British XVest Indies............ 46,686.......... 63,523.......... 39,894.......... 58,353 British East Indies................................ 20,529.......... 2,508.......... 29,907 Total G. B. dependencies......1,450,350..........1,712,501..........1,420,243.........1,807,252 All other countries............. 32,357......... 945,820.......... 140,022.........1,247,057 Total tons....................1,482,70. 2,658,321......... 1,560,269..........3,054,309 Thus we observe that the entries of United other than British, the trade has been virtuStates tonnage from Great Britain increased ally monopolized by United States vessels. 42,530 tons, but British tonnage decreased If we compare the progress of tonnage in the 49,268 tons. The same in respect to Canada foreign trade of the United States and Great and the British East Indies. From countries Britain we shall have results, as follows: TONNAGE OF THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN, ENTERED IN EACH YEAR. United States Great Britain Ameriran Fo relgn British Foreign 1834.................1,074,670............ 568,052............1,996,930............ 648,911 1835................ 1,352,653............ f41,310............2108,492............ 732,886 1836................ 1,255,384............ 680,213............2,250,173............ 882,194 1837.................1,299,720......... 765,703........................ 1838.................1,408,761............ 604.166......................... 1839............... 1,491,279............ 624,814............2,756,533.......... 1,201,935 1840................1,576,946............ 712,363...........2,807,367........... 1,298,840 1841................1,631,909............ 736, 444...........2,900,749........... 1,081,380 1842................1,510,111............ 732,775............2,680,838............ 974,768 1843, 9 mos......... 1,143,523............ 534,752............2,919,528............1,005,894 1844................1,977,438............ 916,992........... 3,087,437.......... 1,143,896 1845................ 2,035,486............ 910.563......... 3,699,853........... 1,353,735 1846................2,221,028............ 968,178........... 3,622,808........... 1,407,963 1847................ 2,101.359........... 1,120,346........... 4,238,056........... 1,852,096 1848................ 2,393,482........... 1,405,191............4,020,415............1,559,046 1849................2,658,321............1,710515............4390,375............1,680,894 1850................2,573,016........... 1,775,623............ 4,078,544............2,035.152 1851................3,054,349............1,939,091............4,388,245...........2,599,988 The year 1839-40, and in 1847, the in- have tripled, while British tonnage in Engcrease of foreign tonnage entering Great Bri- land has little more than doubled. The ratio tain was large, in consequence of the great of foreign tonnage entering England has inimportation of corn, and these have, since creased faster than foreign tonnage in the the last famine, continued at an enormous United States, because American vessels are figure, favoriiig the employment of the ton- included in the former. The tonnage of the nage of the corn countries. In the above United States, in its several employments, period of fifteen years. however, the entries has progressed as follows: of American tonnage in the United States 435 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. UNITED STATES TONNAGE. 1840 1850 1851 752,838............1,386,754............1,482,273 t............. 44,942............ 62,390 136,926............ 146,016............ 181,644 946,480............ 1,273,994........1273994.... 1,333,108 32,030............ 42,027............ 45,654 198,184............ 481,804............ 521,216 67,926............ 85,646............ 87,475 8,109............. 8,160............ 8,140 28,269............ 58,112............ 50,539 Total................................2, 170,762............3,527,455........... 3,772,439 In the eleven years here embraced, the which alone has received bounties from the sailing tonnage in the foreign trade has dou- government, is the only one that has not inbled, and over sixty-two thousand steam tons creased. This large increase in tonnage has have been added. The coasting sailing ton- not been without its influence upon freights, nage, in the same time, has increased forty but these have not been sufficiently depressed per cent., and the steam two hundred per to prevent the construction of vessels. cent. The home fisheries have shown no The following table shows the progress of great increase; in fact, precisely that interest building for the foreign trade: REGISTERED TONS BUILT AND DISPOSED OF. Sold to Built Foreigners Condemned Lost Inereaso 1846..................... 58,274..........10,931..........4,242..........22,118.......... 20,981 1847..................... 78,849..........13,907..........5,096..........22,078.......... 37,766 1848.....................135,885..........11,079..........3,602..........26,872.......... 94,332 1849..................... 99,130..........12,506..........7,109..........23,606.......... 55,908 1850.................... 157,612..........13,468..........4,666..........23,724..........115,753 1851................... 165,849..........15,246..........3,806..........23,149..........123,647 in the terms of the federal compact-a conmpact which brings home to us and guaranties in all times liberty, independence, power, and all that, as citizens and as men, it is our glory to perpetuate. In its internal relations, however-its relations to the integral and constituent parts, the states-the fderal government presents a new and different aspect. Here, in nice equilibrio, are adjusted its limitations, its checks and its compromises. Here, if you please, its weakness; but here, beyond all question, its strength. Here interests, in miany respects dissimilar and discordant; hab its of thought, feelings, prejudices and passions, as numerous and distinct as the great subdivisions of a country, embracing every variety of soil and climate, can make them, are to be conciliated, harmonized, and blended firmly together for purposes of an exalted public good. Here is to be found the great arena where the battle of America must be fought-America for or against herself-federation against consolidation-chartered rights against cruel, heartless and inexorable majorities-liberty against power-a constitution against the omnipotence of parliament.* On the outermost wall of the republic its banners may be The increase in the effective tonnage has been very large. The high freights of 1347 stimulated a great activity in the ship-yards, which subsided in the following yea,, to be renewed with greater vigor in the past two years. The coasting tonnage has shown the same bfeatures, notw ithstan ding the conStinual increase of competition from the rail-roads, a competition which, in England, has seriously reduced the coasting tonnage. Iftthe coasting trade of England had been thrown open, like the foreign trade, the diminution ill its movement would have been ascribed to that; but it had only the rivalry of rail-roads, and these have been effective, In the United States, great as has been the activity of the rail-road traffic, it has not, up to this time, encroached upon coasting tonnage. UNITED STATES-TARIFFS-INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS-COPY-RIGHT, AND PATENT RIGHT.-If the American government be, as it undeniably is, one of limited and circumscribed powers, it is yet in full possession of all the high and essential attributes of sovereignty. It is a nation, in every sense that the term is understood to imply equality and independence —the power of demanding rights-of punishing wrongs-of maintaining rank, influence and position among contemporary governments. Such, in all its external relations, is the government which it was the intention of our fathers to establ ish, and such i t wa s thei r h appy fortune as well as their consummate wisdom to secure * De Lolme, in his remarkable work upon the English Constitution, asserts boldly, that it is a fundamental principle with the English lawyers, that Parliament can do everything but make a woman a man, and a man a woman. P. 134. 436 E.pl.y.d iForeign trade............................ Foreign steam........................... Foreign whale............................ Coasting vessels......................... Do. under 20 tons.................. Do. steam......................... Cod fishing.............................. Do. under 20 tons.................. Mackerel fishing......................... Whale do.......................... .............. I.......... UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROYEMENTS, ETC. on having achieved a miracle of perfection in law-making, when he presented to Lord Shaftsbury an unchangeable and immortal constitution for his Carolina colony-a con stitution which, in twenty-two years, had perished from its utter impracticability, leav i-ng scarce a wreck behind! The bed of Pro crustes may be applied to the physical, never to the moral and to the intellectual man. The great law of social existence is progress. The constitution of the United States pro vides for stability, but then in meek humilia tion and conscious infirmity, the framers of that instrument prepared and provided for change. Times and circumstances may alter the position and relation of the states to each other-may develop new principles of political order-may engender new and unexpected combinations, and defeat the aim of previous ones; a dangerous weakness or a dangerous power may be detected in some novel contingency, and demand a remedy; might may press too much upon right; barriers prove unavailing to prevent or arrest encroachment, and national disorganization be threatened- the el em e nt of safety is happily placed within the constitution itself; the constitutional power of amendment-the vis medicatrix of the sacred instrument, ren dering it capable of any extension which the necessities of times may demand, and of an adaptation to any state of events within the power of human wisdom to conceive. This amending feature, under all its limitations, is one which recognizes in the people the sacred and inalienable right of changing, peaceably and without revolution, their government and their laws; for of that higher right of revolution we make no mention. If, however, there be a anode of change known to the constitution, and but one, experience has certainly developed another and a far easier one-easier, because dependent upon the wills and caprices of a comparatively small body of men, but as perilous as it is easy-the method of cq?ostruction. The terms of every compact must be understood before the compact can be applied; and this understanding of the constitutional compact leaves abundant scope for doubts and difficulties that are real, as well as creates those that are not. An expression may have been clearly intended in one sense, and yet admit of a different one. Another may be general enough and indefinite enough to admit of several senses, and the one intended by no means obvious. A power granted for one purpose may be wrested for another. A power delegated,or the sake of a higher one and subsidiary to it, may come to be regarded as independent and substantive, or the reverse may be the case. All of these difficulties have already been raised, discussed, and acted upon, over and hung in triumph the pressure will never be thence. W ith wh at ext reme caution did the saves who presided ov er th e infancy of our liberties proceed, when engage d in th e del icate trust, if we ma y be allow ed the expr ession, of consolida ting powers taken from the indivi dual st ates in the hands of representative s frome the s tat es at large. Wthat searching scrutiny, wh at acu t e se nsitiveness, what jealousy, what p re science, and ye t what se lf-sacrificing and noble patriotism. They were not men to shrink from the high re sponsibilities of their ti mes. No hand of theirs cou ld f org e a c hain of iron to be cl ank ed over their grav es, with maledictions, by their children. In the stormy times of t he Rev olution, th e l ove of liberty had be - come wi th them a liv ing n and an active principle; and t h e same heroic devoti on which ledomi t them up to the cannon's m outh in i t s cause, led them, when th at cause was won, into the council-chamber, where alone it could be perpetuated. They a dopted a constitution as perfect, perinaps, as a ny mere hu man instru ment could ever be-a constit u tion i n which they neither maintained nor lost their identity-in which a government was formed, a nd in w hich states were not ann ihila ted-states under all the restrictions which the general welfare and happiness demanded; but yet individual, equal, free, w ith rights guarantied, and powers in every respec t adequ at e to admi nister the ir laws and preserve their liberties. A central a nd consolidated government was not within the contemplation of the se men. A mere association of states was equally distant from their thoughts. But a combination of the two principles was the happy medium-the principle of consolidation to the extent that p ower demanded, and the principle of association to restrict its abuses. It was proclaiming a truth in political science-discovered, illustrated, and taught for the first time in the New World. Does not that truth rebuke alike the domination of centralism and the licentious extension of state power. As our fathers fixed the compact, so in God's name let it stand. Experience, as well as reason, laughs to scorn all idea of human infallibility, all nations of perfection existing in the results of the skill or wisdom of man. Time exhibits the commentary most mortifying of all upon individual or national pride; and Xerxes scourging the rebellious waves of Hellespont, forging for them fetters, or binding, Athos' towering mountain down at bidding, for the passage of his army, was every whit as reasonable, as modest, and as wise a man as the author of the immutable laws of the Medes and Persians; or even as good old John Locke, who, in the inexperience of great theoretical knowledge, congratulated himself 437 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. over, until the doctrine came at last to be laid down bv the highest judicial authority in the Union-the Supreme Court-in the memorable case of McCulloch v. the State of Maryland, that the sense of a majority of Congress, long acquiesced ill, fixes the construction of a doubtful or ambiguous clause of the constitution.* What is this, in fact, but opening a wide door to innovation, and prostrating the government, bound hand and foot, before Congress, to be dealt with hereafter according to its tender mercies. In vain shall we rally around the constitution when its heart has already been eaten out by the abuses of construction. Our best wisdom will far rather be to abrogate altogether the whole instrument, so that men shall no longer be deceived by names. Were we to trace the history of parties in our country, it would be discovered that they have been formed and sustained less in relation to the expediency than the constitutionality of political measures. The contest has not been in executing the "behests" of government, to use an expression of Mr. Webster's, but in determiniug what those behests are. Here the lines of demarcation are boldly drawn, and the champions of the letter and the spirit of the constitution assume their respective stands. The severe doctrines of what may be termed the states' rights school, or, more properly, the strict construction, have led them to contest every inch of power-to analyze the constitution clause by clause with microscopic visionto deny every power not explicitly granted or absolutely necessary for executing specific grants-to interpret according to the most simple, easy and natural rules, without force or artifice, and to throw into the balance of the states the advantages of every doubt. Their opponents, on the other hand, contend for what they call a more liberal principle. In their apprehension, the constitution possesses a degree of flexibility which admits of its being appliedto cases not perhaps within its original contemplation, or within its letter; but yet bearing some kind of analogy more or less remote to cases of an unquestioned nature. The letter they hold (with the inspired one of other times) kills, but the spirit maketh alive. Impressed fully with the magnitude and importance of the general welfare, they have taught themselves to regard all other welfare as of minor importance. They have their own idea, too, of that general welfare, and certain vague notions of nationality, induced by a study of contemporary governmients, without having marked sufficiently the idiosyncracy of their own. The eyes of this class are forever fixed upon the federal head, with only an occa sional furtive glance at the st ates; and they regard the strongest concentration of powers in the one case as of far less m i schievous tendency than the imbecility, distraction,and disorganization which may result from a too great extension of powers in the other. In a word, the one party would restrain the states for the sake of the government, and the other the goverment for the sake of the states. In effecting this, all the ingenuity and skill of construction is resorted to, of which a written compact, imperfect as every such instrument must be, is susceptible. We say imperfect, though we cannot concur to the full extent with the late attorney-general, Mr. Legare, who, in one of his earlier articles in the old Southern Review, made this unavoidable imperfection, and the attendant evils of construction, a ground of objection to all constitutions, and particularly to ours, where his own nice and discriminating mind, aided by the light of study and experience, detected much imperfection. The effect of a written constitution, said he, interpreted by lawyers in a technical manner is to enlarge power and to sanctify abuses, rather than to abridge and restrain them.* Lord Eldon is said to have defied any man in England to frame an act of parliament through which he could not drive a coach and six! Now, we have no inclination to take sides with either of these great divisions of party, and buckle on our armor for a conflict which belongs to another arena, and would be clearly out of place in this. In the first place, we are not, and never have been, a partisan, as that term has now come to be generally understood; and, in the next place, were we to rush into the field ready armed, as God judges us, we should be at a loss to determine under the banners of which of the two great parties which now distract the country to take our stand. It would be a trial of virtue, which of the two evils to choose, if either of them must come to us with all its odious concomitants of denunciation, vituperation, proscription, demagoguism and ignorance We have yet to learn the art of brow-beating an opponent, of flattering and fawning upon the powerful, of trampling under foot the weak, and grievously deceiving and disappointing the people. We have been too much accustomed to establish our " orthodoxy" by reason and by argument, ever to desire the other method of "blows and knocks," ultraism, domination and fero * Legare's Writings, Vol. II., p. 124. Mr. Legare adds: "We have been so much accustomed to talk in a high-flown strain of the perfection, the faultless and unalterable perfection of our institutions, that we were beginning to think that everything had been done for us by our predecessors; and that it were impossible to mar their work by any errors of doctrine, or any defect in discipline among ours selves, * 4 WVheaton, 316; we may. perhaps, state the position too strongly, but it is clearly deducible from the course of argument adopted by the court. 438 UNITED STATESTARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. lowance." But ignorance, he continued, ought to be docile and surrender on conviction-though, unhappily, we know too well that in its very nature it is confident, reckless, and overbearing. Give us no government at all rather than deceive and mock us with the name of government, if such men are its administrators. We might far rather be resolved into a state of nature again, where there would be better prospect of preserving our liberty and our rights. In that L-tate, at least, we can discover the approaches of danger, and prepare to resist it with the power which God has given us. It does not form a part of our plan to consider in detail the various and complicated questions which have arisen under the con stitution, and given occasion, at different periods, to angry and protracted discussions in the country. We might speak of the bank, the embargo, the alien and sedition laws, the control of militia, and the acquisition of foreign territory-questions which may be conceived as now at rest, or, at all events, as of minor importance to others which we are to discuss-viz.: those of internal ilprovrement a nd protection to h ome indusiry. The se last overshado w all the res t, appertaining as they do to those high attributes-of sovereignty which touch us at an infinite number of points, and rouse into sleepless activity a thousand interests-the revenue raising and the revenue expending attributes of government. There has ever been in our country a very strong party disposed to extend the powers of the federal government, so as to include the cognizance of matters of mere internal improvement where these have seemed of more than l)cal interiest. They have grounded their faith upon different clauses of the constitution, but principally upon that which gives to Congress the right of providing for the common defense and general welfare. O several occasions this party have succeeded in persuading Congress, and obtaiart,g appropriations, though in others their purposes have been thwarted by the exercise of the Presidenit's veto. Chancellor Kent somewhere remarks, that the weight of Executive power has been thrown, duringi a greater part of our history, into the opposite scale, but that, from later indications, he regards the pressure in that direction as giving way. If this be true, the last barrier will be removed, and the struggle here between power and its limitations end; for we are clear that for some time back, and now more particularly, a majority could be commanded in either branch of Congress to sancetioni almost any scheme of internal imp)rovement which might be presented. The temptations to this are too powerful to be resisted, and would be so, we Ibar, were the constitutionality of the measure muchl more even with these, for Coriolanus with a hostile army at the gates of his native Rome, will find his strong heart fail him despite of the bad counsels he has followed. Not that we fear the states' right hand man, who watches like Cerberus over the constitution, or him who would restrict the states to the least amount of power consistent with their separate existence. Where both of these unite in a fearless devotion to the Union, and in an intelligent appreciation of its nature and advantages, the peril will continue afar off. But there are those that we do fear. We fear the restless disorganizerthe man without ability to comprehend the admirable and exquisite machinery of our system, or without principle to regulate his aspirations. Wre fear the ignorant and arrogant innovators, whose sole prospect of influence must arise out of the disorders of society which they ereate, even as dead and putrid bodies seek the surface when the waters are disturbed. We fear the selfish and the mercenary, who would traffic with government as a matter of merchandise, and carry it in their pockets upon'change were it possible to ensure the best bargain for it there. The idea of government with these men is connected more with their purse- strings than with their hearts-a "mess of pottage" would be an ample equivalent for it, and "thirty pieces of silver" an enormous recompense. Instigated by their interests they would deem deserving of a civic wreath the achievement of driving Lord Eldon's coach and six through the most precious clause of the constitution. The last class we fear are the innocent and well-meaning ignorant, and their number is perhaps the largest of all; those for whom Mr. Benton declared but lately in the Senate., "he made great al- 439 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. questionable than it is. Scarcely a single state in the Union that has not some pet scheme of improvement at home which would gladly be prosecuted by drafts upon the government coffers. Some of these schemes are too vast for the unaided or exhausted resources of the states, and they look wishfully to the broad shoulders of Hercules, at Washington, and implore earnestly his aid. They become more and more clamorous as their necessities are pressing, and nothing, we believe, can now satisfy them short of a full and hearty response to their demands. We pass no opinion ourselves-the conclusion having been irresistibly forced upon us by the progress which things have taken, that if the power to conduct improvements be not in the constitution, it is one of the most dangerous limitations of that instrument, as the limitation will result in its speedy and inevitable infraction. We had an opportunity last winter, while in attendance upon the Memphis Convention, to mark the strong hold which a conviction of the duty and power of government, in relation to internal improvements, had taken upon the minds of delegates from all the valley country to the Gulf, and from a portion of the seaboard. While the meeting of this impor tant body was in agitation, one of the most important ever convened in the Union, the press was busied with suggestions in relation to its objects, and with discussions of the various matters likely to be introduced. We examined with much interest these comments, from whatever source they emanated, as one of the best possible tests of popular sentiment. We discovered a surprising unanimity among them all when the point was whether Congress should act in the matter; but how far Congress should go-for, indeed, how far Congress had the right to go was very little agitated-was quite a different thing. The point of divergence existed here, and a detail of all the particular schemes urged upon the convention, from the magnificent ones of the aspiring city journals, down to the humble suggestions of the remote village gazette, would furnish one of the most curious and striking pictures that could be well conceived. The wisdom or the honesty of these views we did not then consider, nor do we now. The fact itself is sufficient for our purpose in showing the extensive prevalence obtained, and the hearty sympathy excited, by the doctrines of internal improvement. The first, and perhaps the greatest difficulty which the convention had to encounter, was the proper disposition of this mass of crude material urgent tfor a place upon its tables. To have admitted without rule, and acted upon every proposition, would have been giving way to a wanton spirit whose excesses must entirely have defeated the purposes of the meeting. The position ofm the body, too, was peculiar. The fear of political influences had been strongly felt, and some reluctance manifested toward it upon that account. A pledge was, howev er, given that party question s shou ld not be touched, and, upon the faith of this, m en of all politi cal creeds waived their scruples, and came together to deliberate upon m easures up on which they were a gre ed. A memorial to Congress being in conte mplation, an effort wa s made in t he f ace of s ome opposi tion to concentrate the energies of the conventio n upon certain purposes vhose constitutionality admitted of the leas t pos si ble doubt. HGwo far the effort was successful, we have else where endeavored to show. We shall now see the fate of the memor ial itself, and con sider the doctrines of the report by a conmmitte e o f the Senate, to which it gave occasion. Mr. Calhoun, the a u thor of the report, ha s long been known to the people of the United States as a statesman of the strictest and se verest school of construction. For at least a quarter of a century he has been at the head of that school. His opposition to the bank, to the tariff, and to internal improve ments, has been bold and uncompromising. The presence of such a man in the chair of a convention like that at Memphis excited no little interest. It was considered that his own peculiar views must either be compromised or come into direct collision with all around him. We well remember the anxiety and the solicitude of his fiiends upon the occasion. We shall never forget the deep burst of ap probation and applause which rung through the hall when he made from his seat the re markable and unexpected declaration, that the Mississippi and its great tributaries were to be regarded as an,internal sea," and as much entitled to the protection and care of the federal government as the Atlantic coasts. The effect was electrical. In many places it was stated confidently that Mr. Calhoun had struck his flag, and gone over to the side of internal improvement-though he disclaimed anything of the kind. In South Carolina, so intense was the feeling, and so evident the fear of defection, that, though reelected by the Legislature, then in session, to the Senate, Mr. Calhoun's course was much and strongly animadverted upon. A strong disposition was even evinced to pass resolutiorns which, under the circumstances, would have been equivalent to instruetion —a course of conduct contrary to the general policy andl doctrines of that state, evinced in its refusal to instruct a senator several years ago when he was clearly misrepresenting her. The report upon the memorial preserves the consistency of Mr. Calhoun's views with those he has hitherto advanced, but at the same time furnishes him an opportunity fbr a more full declaration of them and their legitimate deductions. Age and experience have modified little his earlier opinions. The: only novelty discovered in the report is the mas 440 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. that city to be the mean average of losses upon c the river generally, the total annual average loss would be about 11I per cent. upon the whole number of western steamers, 8 per - cent. of which being occasioned by snags, rocks, and logs, susceptible of removal. The t money value on boats and cargoes annually - lost is $2,601,200, whereof $1,820,200 is from s snags, etc. Taking the rates of insurance , (from 12 to 18 per cent.) into calculation, the t lowest would indicate a loss annually of l $3,600,000 on the estimated amount of the commerce of the river, to make no account of the frightful loss of life. Whence arises, then, the sacrifice of the property and lives of the population of this t vast region? Is there a remedy to be ap plied, and who shall apply it? This is the I great question. Dismissing entirely from con> sideration the losses incident to sheer neglect, or criminal ignorance and rashness, which legislation might in some degree obviate, there are other perils susceptible, perhaps in a much larger degree, of removal, and these result from the peculiar character of the rivers, and the impediments by which their navigation is at all times impaired and endangered. Can these impediments be re moved, and by whom? Have the states in terested the power, and is it their duty under thee constitutional compact to carry it into ex ecution, or is it one of the legitimate functions of the general government? If the latter, do the ability and the duty extend to all rivers indiscriminately, and under what clause or grant of power in the constitution can they be found? These are the interesting points to which Mr. Calhoun's mind at once directed itself, and we shall follow some of the steps in the reasoning of his luminous exposition. Appropriations have been made, from time to time, for the improvement of the Missis sippi and its great tributaries. Under what grant of power is not so evident. The most usually understood grant is that of laying and collecting taxes, duties, imposts, and excises -to pay the debts and provide for the com mon defence and general welfare of the Uni ted States. Does this grant of power admit of a legitimate extension to the case before us? Does it delegate to Congress an independent power, to be exercised at discretion, or is it not subordinate to other powers specially dele gated, and expressive of the mode of carrying them into efiect? Is there any other "com mon defence and general welfare" except that which the constitution expressly defines, and is not the instrument explicit in stating what shall be deemed so far common and general as to attach the jurisdiction of the federal government rather than of the states? Shall we go beyond this plain limitation, and assert broadly that Congress has uncontrolled power in every case where matters of a common and general character are concerned, and this without any other authority than the terly manner in which he has vindicated the rights of the great arteries of our domestic commerce to be considered as standing upon o ther gr ound than that of epedependence upon to as he s tates. The effo r t here strikes us as be ing equal to the very highest intellectua l achievements i of his life, and the whole report presents one of the mos t profound and ingenious discussions of t he const itution, in it most complicated and perplexing features, that it has ever been our fortu n e to meet with. Wro ng or right, it must be regarded as anl admirable document; and whatever men may think of the author and of hi s doct ri nes and however we may differ with him upon certain points ourselves, we can all unite upon common ground here, and yield the highest possible applause for the high stand that he has taken in relation to the Mississippi and its tributaries, already the arteries of the trade of so many powerful and growing states. The report opens with some reflections upon the trade of the valley, and the danger to which that trade is subjected in its transit to a market. From a population of 200,000 in 1790, the West had grown up to a population of nearly 10,000,000 in 1846. From a tonnage of 6,500 in 1817, it has reached at last to 161,000 tons. The whole commerce of the Mississippi and its tributaries amounts annually now to the enormous sum of $300,000,000, equaling the whole exports and imports of the United States taken together; and this, though great, is but the beginning. "1 Looking beyond to a not very distant future, when this immense valley, containing within its limits 1,200,000 square miles, lying in its whole extent in the temperate zone, and oc upying a position midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, unequaled in fertility and the diversity of its productions, intersected in every direction by the mighty stream, including its tributaries, by which it is drained, and which supply a continnlous navigation of upward of 10,000 miles, with a coast, including both banks, of twice that length, shall be crowded with population, and its resources fully developed, imagination itself is taxed i'n the attempt to realize the magnitude of its commerce." And how has the safety of this great commerce been provided for, and what prospective arrangements can be made to keep pace with its advance? Is this trade at the mercy of the states, or can Congress, under the constitution, one of the objects of which, at its origin, was the protection of commerce, legislate for it to the extent that it now legislates for our foreign trade? Has anything been done for this commerce at all, and in what condition is it now? The report declares the means of accurate information to be meagre in the extreme. Taking as a basis of calculation a St. Louis memorial, and supposing the losses of steamboats in the trade of t i I t s c t a s a 441. UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. clause of the constitution we are considering? f Could a government be conceived of more p unlimited and omnipotent than ours would I be. if it may thus sweep into its bosom every p object of legislation at its sovereign will and a pleasure? Is there no other limitation upon the power of Congress to "lay and collect t taxes," etc., but its own understanding of lI what the "common defence and general wel- t fare" of this government demands? Could t any man in his senses suppose, in this state of 1 things, that we were governed by a written constitution, or that the Congress of the Uni- A ted States was a single degree removed from ] the Parliament of Englaind? Mr. Calhoun rejects with indignation the' course of reasoning which would lead to such conclusions. He adheres to the old doctrine of strict construction, and deems it imposible to justify the appropriation of a single dollar i of the public money for any other purposes than those expressly stated in the constitution, or clearly deducible from them; in neither of which classes can the stupendous power of conducting internal improvements systematically be found. By what right, then, have moneys been expended upon the Mississippi and its great tributaries, short of an absolute assumption of power and an infraction of the constitution, and by what right can they ever be appropriated again? The answer is plain, and is given in a simple sentence in the report-by the chartered right of Congress to "regulate commerce among the states;" a right without which our government, like that under the old articles of federation, must languish and fall into speedy and hopeless imbecility. What is this right to regulate commerce among the states, and how far, in carrying out these regulations, may the rivers of our country be brought under the control of Congress, to the exclusion of the states through which they pass? The point is again a delicate one. The constitution grew out of the defects of the articles of confederation, in force during the Revolution, and for some time after. One of the most conspicuous of these defects was the power reserved by the states of regulating their commerce with each other. It was discovered that the evil had become a crying one, and was sapping the very life-blood of the Union. The states were but too happy to surrender this power, and lodge it effectually in Congress, to be exercised in the same manner and to the s ame extent that they had exercised it themselves. What was their understanding of the power to regulate commerce among themselves? Their acts of legislation prior to the adoption of the constitution, evince that this regulation was extended to navigation as well as to trade-to the establishment of lighthouses, buoys, and public piers. The same construction was put upon the power by Congress at its very rst session, and that con str uctio n has been pr eserved to this d ay. The power to regua te com merce am ong the stat es is no t the power to regulate the inter nal commerce of state, but the commerce of states, as states, with each other. It was particularly intended to apply to the exposed condition of the Atlantic coast, and to protect the commerce of the country, mainly, if not entirely, a t ris k there. The Ame rican states were at th at period wholly eas t wa rd of the Alleghany Mountains, and more or less open to the sea. Affairs have changed since then, and our population have swept in great masses to the westward, and founded powerful states there. These interior states have a commerce and a navigation, too, and at peril. Different as may be the character of this commerce and navigation, and different the perils to which it is incident, it is yet commerce and navigation among the states, and of course within the purview of the constitution. Are we to suppose any practical difference between the condition of states upon the seaboard and in the interior? Can it affect the question that the particular character of the protection required in the two cases is dissimilar? Is Congress restricted in its power to regulate commerce, including navigation, to the particular class of measures hitherto employed by it-the construction of light-houses, buoys, beacons, etc.? Admit other and better means discovered, may not these be resorted to? Admit these means entirely inappropriate, and unsuited to particular kinds of commerce and navigation-for example, the commerce and navigation of western waters-does the regulating power of Congress cease its itifluence from that fact? Would not this be precious trifling? Could such partial and unjust legislation have been within the contemplation of the framers of the constitution? The conclusion is irresistible. Wherever the commerce and navigation of the states, as states, with each other is at peril, there the fostering and protective hand of the general government is extended; and whether the means of relief be buoys, light-houses, beacons, and public piers, or machinery for the removal of snags, logs, sand-banks, rocks, etc., the case is essentially the same. We have thus analyzed and imperfbectly presented the argument of Mr. Calhoiini, in illustration of the intention of the clause which gives to Congress the power to regulate commerce among the states. We shall now consider the application of the power to particular cases, and determine how far tederal legislation may be legitimately extended. We recur again to the report. Let us take the case of a river wholly confined to the territory of a single state. Does the power of Congress extend to this? Certainly not. Such a river is subject exclusively to state jurisdiction, with only such slight exceptions as have no kind of application to s t f s r e rg h f seg t8 9 y e d 0 i x t 442 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. the subject before us. Its commerce cannot' be "commerce among the states." A differ ent construction would entirely destroy the individuality of the states, and sweep into the hands of government, in the result, all the powers that were so carefully reserved. As well might Congress "regulate" the canals, railroads, turnpikes, etc., of the state, as the waters wholly within its limits. As well might Congress set about digging ditches and cleaning out streets, as keeping in order and navigable each local and insignificant stream. Such powers are essentially the states'. Enlarging the question to that of a river embraced within the jurisdiction of two states, what becomes of the power to regulate its commerce and its navigation? The power cannot be lodged in either one of the states exclusively, tor then we should have a state legislation beyond its domain. Has it been delegated to Congress? The clause "regu!ate commerce among the states" would seem in point and conclusive, were it not met and controlled by another clause. The parts of every instrument or compact are to be so construed as to give effect to the whole, foi the parties contracting cannot be supposed to have intended an inconsistency. The ends intended to be accomplished by the compact are also to be taken into account. Now, what were these ends, or, in other words, what is the great and cardinal principle of our system of government? It is, first, that individuals, or combinations of individuals, shall be entrusted with the control and management of all enterprises within their power to conduct. Second, that the state shall have the management of those enterprises which are proper, and which cannot be accomplished by the unaided efforts of their citizens. Third, that the power of the general government extends to those cases only in which the action of individuals, combinations of individuals, or of states, would be altogether inefficie nt, or would lead to consequences prejudicial to the general weal. Under this rule the powelrs of the federal government are limited to cases of necessity, and include all of those cases. The constitution is explicit in prohibiting interference here, and so jealous is it, that all combinations of the states, or treaties formedl between them for any such purpose, are absolutely forbidden. There is one exception, however, and it is too remarkable to hav e been uni ntentionlal, or wi thout important meaning. This exception could only have. been intended to provide for cases like that of' the river we are considering. It is delared that "1 no state shall, without the consent of Congress, enter into any compact or compacts with any other state." The inference is clear that, with such consent, a state may enter into compact with another state; but the inference cannot be extended iarthser, and a compact between a treater number than two states would be unconstitutional and void. Why, the n, the remarkable exception? The answer is, that in the pa nticular case the' a dvantages o f a com bination of states greatly preponderate over the dangers. The constitution was, however, unwilling to go farther. And this brings us back to the river. Either the power of combining yielded to two states. under certain restrictions, means something or nothing. If nothing, then we impute a school-boy blunder to sages in legislation-if something, what else can it refer to than to cases interesting to these states, and in regard to which the legislation of neither, singly, would be sufficient? What else is there but for these states to combine together, form a compact, and legislate jointly in the matter? What else can there be, if the theory of our government has been stated correctly to include only those cases which cannot otherwise be provided for? The opinion of Mr. Calhoun is, that the general power given to Congress to regulate commerce among the states, is restricted in the particular case of commerce or navigation, interesting to two states only, by another power recognized in these states to combine and regulate that commerce or navigation themselves.* The last proposition we shall discuss is that of a river passing through the territories of three or more states. Here the power of Congress fully and undeniably comes in. The states can effect nothing. Their individual action would be inconsistent and inadequate, and their combination is out of the question. The casus federis, in the language of the lawyers, arises at this point, and the power to regulate commerce among the states, is left to apply in all its strictness. The states bordering upon the banks of every such river. have the right to demand from Congress all that protection which is granted to the commerce and navigation of the Atlantic coasts. Regarding this construction of the constitution, we must at least be struck with its simplicity and its correspondence in the * Candor compels us to suggest an apparent flaw in the reasoning here, which we should gladly have Mr. Calhoun or some one else remove. Suppose the "consent" of Congress be systematically denied to every combination whatever, between one state and another state. Is not this a matter within the dis cretion of Congress; and have we any idea how that discretion will be exercised? If Congress have the power to "consent," every man will see at a glance that Congress must have the power not to consent; and what then becomes of the river, we would ask. It is wholly without remedy, for the states can do nothing-and if Mr. Calhoun be right, Congress have not the power. But when the Constitution gives to Congress the power of withholding consent, does it not at the same time, by strong implication, give the power of legislating for those cases, from which the consent, if given, would have excluded it. Is it not within the discretion of Congress on this construction, either to act itself or to allow the action of the state? The difficulty is worthy of note. 443 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. main with those principles of federation which were laid down and argued with such consummate ability by the statesmen who framed and adopted the compact. It neither enlarges to a dangerous extent the powers of Congress, nor yet does it limit and control them in such a manner as to reduce that body to imbecility and absolute dependence upon the states. Each member of the Union is to regulate its own internal and local affairs. The principle is upon the side of liberty-is a great conservative of republicanism-a barrier against the tyranny and oppression which experience has demonstrated as the inevitable tendency of centralism when legislating in detail on the interests of remote provinces. Every matter of common and equal interest to two states, and to no more, belongs to the jurisdiction of tiese- tats leagued together, with the consent of Congress, for the particular purpose. All matters of general interest, or those in which three or more states are concerned, belong to the exclusive cognizance and control of Congress. These principles appear safe, and, if properly applied, can be liable to little abuse. We have followed Mr. Calhoun's argument throughout, and presented it with as much fairness as we are capable. Whatever be its merits, its influence has been small. The lower branch of Congress rejected by an overwhelming majority even a reference of the bill presented before them, and framed upon the principles of the report. This course of action, in connection with the passage of the Harbor Bill in Senate, by a vo te of two to one, may be regarded as a prompt and signal defeat of the principles of Mr. Calhoun on the subject of internal improvements, and a declaration by Congress of the course intended to be pursued in all the future. The question is before the country, and time will determine where the wisdom is, with the report or with those who have denouuced and defeated it. We turn our attention now to the remaining branch of the leading subject of the present article, i. e., the protective system. This subject has divided parties in America for a third of a century, and proved a perfect apple of discord thrown in among us. It threatened upon one occasion an entire rupture of the Union, or at least what cannot but be regarded as equally bad, a resort to coercion vi et armis by the general government over a state. The ashes of this old and bitter controversy we have no desire again to rake up, nor would we upon any account enter the arena where the fierce champions or opponents of the system contend together. These are matters we cordially resign to works of a political character, which ours does not, and shall not in any degree resemble-and to political men, of which class we certainly are not, and as we rema rked before, have little dispositio n to b e. It is a very common and just notion that govern m e nt sh ould protect all the great in - teres ts of a countr y. Were any one of these interests neglected, there would be a valid ground of remonstrance; and, perhaps, in the end of some t hing still mo re serious. Even parti a l an d unequal protection would be a source of clamor. The great interests of a country may be protected in various ways. They may be protected by wise and salutary laws of general application. They may be protected by laws regulating particular branches of enterprise. They may be protected by bonuses, or by imposts skilfully contrived for the purpose. Does the duty of the general government, to protect all the great interests of the country, authorize it to adopt at pleasure either or all the modes of legislation we have enumerated l The grounds of the great controversy upon which we at once touch, are too familiar to require at this day any exposition. In relation to the skilful adjustment of imposts upon principles of protection, Congress have long since claimed the right, and exercised it. The tariff of 1790 was a revenue tariff, with slight discriminations. The tariff of 1816 was imposed with an eye to the perilous position of the manufacturing classes grown up during the war and threatened with annihilation at its close. It was a high but not a strictly protective tariff. The principle of protection was, however, deemed to be conceded. The tariff of 1824 was a protective tariff. The tariff of 1828 carried the system to perfection, and received the cognomen, in the bitter language of the times, " the bill of abominations." The tariff of 1832 modified but persisted in the system. The compromise of 1833 was an olive branch to heal the dissensions in the country, and it provided for a gradual reduction of duties down to the revenue standard. For ten years the compromise was preserved. During this period the condition of the country had greatly changed. The manufacturing interests of the East complained that they were rapidly falling into decay. The sugar interests of the South complained that they were overlooked. At the close of the period an administration found itself completely broken down in popularity, and tremendous efforts were being made in the country to put an end to its power. The country was becoming involved deeper and deeper in debt, and the revenue had fallen far below its wants. The lines of party were strongly drawn in reference to the crisis. The elections went triumphantly everywhere in favor of a new administration upon new principles. Congress met, and the tariff bf 1842 was adopted —a tariff upon the same principles as that of 1828, although 444 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. with a less average duty. The manufactures of the East have received new life and vigor. New-England is covering her barren hills with workshops. Pennsylvania is develop ing the inexhaustible resources of her iron and her coal, and the rich cane fields of Loui siana are crowning with wealth the labors of her enterprising planters; and causing to start up, as if by magic, along the banks of the Mississippi, the costly mansion and the magnificent sugar mill. Is the question settled, then, in favor of the constitutionality and expediency of protecting home industry? It is not a little remarkable that with this picture of great and, we believe, general prosperity extended before us, the opponents of the system of protective duties, or, what is the same thing, of restricted, as opposed to free trade, have been increasing steadily in numbers, and growing in power. They deny that appearances of prosperity should be held at all conclusive. The inherent vitality of a young and vigorous republic is such that a high degree of prosperity may be consistent with the most grievous errors of legislationsa protective tariff among the rest. You may impede, though it would be next to impossible to arrest, the progress of such a country; old age and uninterrupted health even in the human constitution, are not unfrequently associated with habits which have been long continued, but which may be demonstrated as of injurious tendency. The exceptions, cannot affect the rule. It would be impossible to say how much greater health and age might have attended opposite habits. The truth is, we talk so much of freedom that we come at last to venerate free anything and everything, and free trade not the least. At first sight, too, there is something seductive in the idea of free trade, and it has never been without its fond votaries. If we take the most celebrated writers upon political economy from the earliest times, and in all countries, we shall be surprised at least, though we may not be satisfied and convinced, by their unanimous commendation of unrestricted trade. From Sismondi, Adam Smith, and Jean Baptiste Say, down to the present time, there is not an important exception that we know of. We adduce this, not as an argument, but as a fact. We know too well that theoretic philosophy proves itself often visionary and impracticable, and that experience corrects every day the faults of hypothesis. But let the fact go for what it is worth. The Italian states of the middle ages, we are told, prospered beyond all example under the influence of their free commerce inculcated by their writers and applied by their statesmen. England is pointed to, and strange as it may seem by the advocates of either system, triumphantly. Her immense power and influence have been felt all over the world, an d for this s he is conceived by some indebted to her severe, restrictive and prohibitory systems, which destroy all hope of competition from other quarte rs. Others advert to the inter nal mi series of the empire- to the pauperism and d re ad fu l social and plfysical suffering of mil lions of the lower classes who have no hope of relief but in the grave. The v ast exten sion of the British cotton manufacture has been frequently referred to, though s ome h ave s ho wn from Mr. Bai ne s' grea t w ork upon the subject, that that branch of industry in England at least, has been a spontaneous growth, in dependent o f a l l pr otectiv e legisla tion, and even in the f a ce o f legislat ive ob stacles.* The late direction whic h ha s be en given to the affairs of England by the policy of Sir Robert Peel, ha s a ls o been largely commen ted upon; and t he reduction, at o ne stroke, of the duty upon over four hundred articles of merchandise, and the whole course in relation to the corn laws, s eem to evince a disposition, on the part of th at co untry, t o stand out against the wor ld as opposed t o al l restrictions, and to elevate very soon the banners of free trade. We he ar, too, this cours e adverted to in evidence of the astute policy of England, and of that stubb orn spirit to protect and p reserve her ind ustr y and her enterprise by the o nly po ssible means which circumstances have now left h er. By leading the way thus for free trade, and inducing it from others, i n reciprocity, she takes the surest means of se cur ing the supremacy she has already attained, for under such a course of policy no nation in the world can pretend to anything like a competition with her. The mechanism of th at i ron heart of Engl and is im pe l led forever by the love of gain; and there is no sacrifice however great but her honor and her liberty, that she will not cheerfully make to consummate her purpose. Stern, crafty, politic and overbearing, she knows but one policy-the commercial empire of the world. Thus has it been with the vexed question of protection in almost all the whole progress of our history. We have agitated, but where have we decided? Indeed, in heaven's name it might be asked, who shall decide where venerated authorities, established principles, * Mr. Baines remarks that " statutes framed for the regulation of commerce, have done little or nothing either for or against British manufacture. This trade was not the nursling of government protection. The advocates of commercial restrictions find no support for their principles from the history of the cotton trade, however they may seem to be favored by that of the woolen trade." After referring in detail to the various statutes relating to the general subject of cotton and cotton goods, Mlr. Baines finally concludes with the reflection - " An examination of the laws above cited, and of the history of the manufacture, will make it evident that its extension was in no degree owing to the interposition of par liament." —Baines' Hist. Cotton ~Ianuf acture~ chap xiv. p. 320, &c. 445 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. and powerful and illustrious examples are introduced and supported by advocates on either side, and to ordinary apprehensions seemingly balance each other. Is it not a sad evidence of the infirmity of human reason, and of the insuperable difficulties in the way of forming a correct conclusion upon matters of government policy? Adam Smith wisely remarked that in political science two and two often make one instead of four. Free trade and the protective system, as we call it, are antipodes to each other, and yet no experience or investigations, however able they have been, have enabled us, as a nation, to decide permanently between them. If either of these be the true system, the other cannot but be regarded as grievously wrong, and inimical to the best interests of the country. Yet we find our citizens undecided. We find statesmen of the highest and most unblemished reputation, advocating with all their power the one side as well as the other. We find our legislation partaking of the same character as our statesmen, and fluctuating a s it is adm inistere d by them. The question appears as open as it did thi rty years ago. Wme mark the struggles which are now taking plac e in Congress. In the face o f p owerful opposition, a party in the House of Representatives have carried a tariff based upon revenue principles in repeal of that of 1842, and this new tariff is endeavored to be enforced at a time when we are involved in an expensive war with a neighboring government; and when the old tariff, high as are its duties, would scarcely be adequate to meet the enormous requisitions of the government. The Senate are equally divided upon the question, and it remains even now very doubtful which way they will determine. This fact is evidence of the strength of feeling which is enlisted upon both sides, and the stubborn and unyielding resolution of either. Let us gather from the circumstance the great and practical principle of moderation. Let us at least respect the opinions of others where experience teaches there has existed so much room for doubt. The wise will deliberate and not denounce. Experience must eventually determine between the two systems. Protection has certainly been admitted a trial. If an experiment is to be made upon anything approximating to free trade, there will be an opportunity afforded in the results, perhaps, of deducing more correct conclusions than we have hitherto been able. Either policy, however, is better than perpetual change. Any fixed law is better than a mutable one. The certainty and perma nence of laws are of primary consideration.* In: the midst of this region of doubt and incertitude, however, it cannot but afford us some delight to arrive at certain principles * See note at the close of this article. of general, we ough t perha ps to have said universal admission. The r e are b r an ches of home industry with reference to which the right and duty of government to prote c t and support, have never be en questioned. The y attract, of necessity, the sympathies a nd reg ar d o f mankin d; an d when societvy come s forward to encoura ge an d advance the m, i t performs a solemn act of duty to public ben e - factors, whose reward has too fre que ntly been a col d and systemat ic neglect. We mean authors and invento rs. The constitution of the United States, amo ng all it s high provisions, has not neglected a n impor tant on e in relation to this inte r esti ng class; and in declaring that Co ngre ss sh all have power to promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limite d time s to authors and inventors the exclus i ve right to t he ir respective writings and discoveries, it has born e testimony to the exalted truth that knowledge is p ower; and that science, letters, and arts, are, u nd er God, the great instruments for extending civilization and perpetuating liberty. There is an egis extended here which is worth y of a noble government. No systems of free trade o r o f piracy can claim to be he ard in op posit ion. The empire of genius, knowle dge, a nd s kill, must and will be perpetuated. It is the glory of our age that we are removing all obstructions. The emp ire has no limits. The attainment of to-day, high as it may be, c r e ate s the wa nt of to -morrow, a nd that wan t opens the way for still higher at tainment s. Bulwer re marks s o mewhere truly, that i n every age the mass of the peope will appro x imat e to something like the level of t hose who were elevated above the mass of the preceding age. When we were much younger than now, our soul was fired with the enthu siasm of Couthon, who declared in the intoxication of the'French Revolution that man was about to reach his acme of perfection; and that as science progressed, and one by one were removed by its influences, the causes which tend to produce death, death itself would become at last an impossible event.* Let us, then, as a people, foster and protect the arts and sciences. Our first duty shall be to consider the system of copyright, which, for- a definite period, creates a species of monopoly in favor of those who have, whether in theory or in fact, added to the stock of human know ledge by the production of a book. Our ideas are to all intents and purposes our pro perty, as much so as our wares. The one are the creation of mental, the other of phy sical action-but both of action, and of course to a greater or less extent of labor. Our ideas may be of very little value, and so, * This remark is quoted in a note somewhere in that extraordinary work of Bulwer, Zanoni. 446 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROYEMENTS, ETC. indeed, may be anything else. The right of property in them cannot be affected by their degree of merit. A man may never reach higher than to tell a score, or botch a sole of leather; but another will trace the laws of gravitation, or invent a steam engine. In tellectual property requires the strictest of all safeguards, inasmuch as its unlawful ap propriation is attended with least difficulty. A larceny committed upon it the law may not regard as felony, but mankind have agreed in stamping it plagiary, an offence equally ignominious. If our ideas bo not committed, as Cicero expresses it, to the custody of letters, or are not worked up into some tangible shape, we have no kind of legal remedy against those who convert them to their own uses-copyright or patent-right cannot extend to them. Some of the old po litical economists were wont to go so far as to deny that a man could have any property in a book save in the paper and the manual-, workmanship of it. The idea of intellectual property was too refined for their age. The labors of intellect were regarded as unprofitable and as contributing nothing to the sum total of national we al th. The se notions are happily exploded, and the world has discovered that the man who writes a poem-as for example, Milton; invents a theorem-as for example, Newton; or teaches a new mode of investigation-as for example, Bacon, are quite as good, a nd altogether as useful, as those waho raise crop s of cotton, corn, and sugar, make wagons, or build bridges. T he l aws of Congress provide a uniform mode of protec tio n to all auth ors and inventors, bv holding out to them the benefit of copy or pa tent r ight. Th e former applies " to all books as, maps, charts, and musical compositions, prints, cuts and engravings, when the authors are citizen s o f the Uni ted States;" and they are endowed with the exclusive right of printing, re-printing, and vending them for twenty-eight years, and for the farther term of fourteen years beyond, should they or their families be alive at the expiration of the first term. The author must have deposited a copy of his work with the clerk of the District Court, to be sent to Washington for the benefit of the state library. The privilege of copyright is given by statute, and it would seem to be the better opinion that prior to the reign of Anne there was no remedy of the kind, for the common law admitted none. It will be discovered that the act of Congress extends its privileges only to citizens of the United States. This has been long a source of loud and just complaint. Intended for the protection of native authors over those of foreign countries, the effect has been the reverse. Our own writers have not been able to withstand the overwhelming competition of works introduced from abroad, re-published and sold among us at little m ore t han the mere cost of printing an d publication. Foreign authors ha ve co mmand ed the market without realizing themselves a cent of profit from the circumstance. The only persons who have gained are the extensive publication houses of the North, and th ese, in th e ha rvest which is thus afforded, excuse themselves from paying other than the merest pittance in remuneration to American writers for their productions, on t he ground that sufficiency of reading matter for all the wants of the trade may be introduced from abroad free of copyright costs. Such a state of thing s has tend ed to stifle native gen ius. It is nott thus that we h ope to build up a body of home literature which shall be worthy of the high mission of America. Men of genius, those public benefactors in the world of thought, are seldom men of wealth. For a Byron, with lands and titles, we shall find a score like Savage dying at Newgate. " Laurel crowned" genius is clad in " rusty black," will we suffer it to languish in privation and want?. In vain does Lord Camden declaim against other consideration than glory for the achievements of Mind! " Glory," says he on a memorable occasion, " is the reward of science, and those who deserve it scorn all meaner views. It was not for gain that Bacon, Milton, Newton and Locke instructed and delighted mankind." In vain will Byron contemn the literary traffic of Scott: Though Murray with his Miller may combine, To yield thy muse just half-a-crown a line; No! when the sons of song descend to trade, Their bays are sear, their formerlaurels fade; Let such forego the poet's sacred name, Who rack their brains for lucre, not for fame. Still for stern Mammon may they toil in vain, And sadly gaze on gold they cannot gain; Such be their meed, such still the just reward Ofprostituted muse and hireling bard; For this we spurn Apollo's venal son, And bid a long good night to Marmion. Shall the same letters which are to confer immortality confer death, like the shaft winged by the eagle's plumage to the eagle's heart?* We cannot measure the world of thought by that of wares and merchandise, but the one should not less command tribute from the other. Efforts have been made to amend our copyright laws, but they have proved fruitless. We have failed to imitate Britain, the favored land of almost everything revered in letters. The policy of that government does not admit of discrimination between home and foreign writers. She prizes science for itself. If the publication be made in England, it matters not where the author may reside. His interest in copyright at once attaches. The same liberal 447 Byron. UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. if one had the right to cut the ears of my corn, provided he left the stalks untouched." Science is the mother of art, and the noble offspring emulates the proud parent. The fostering care of society is due to them alike. The fine arts are an anomalous pro geny. They have advanced to highest per fection where science has been little better than alchemy, astrology, or metempsychosis. When Pythagoras talked of the divine music of the spheres, and predicted other worlds to complete the diapason, Zeuxis and Pharrha sius, Praxiteles and Apelles astonished mankind with miracles of skill upon canvas and in stone. When Copernicus and Ga lileo were recanting their "odious heresies" of a solar system before the Inquisition, Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Correggio were shedding glory upon the age of Leo X. The progress of the fine arts admits of lit tle explication. The history which makes them dependent certainly upon science, yet vastly more upon correct taste, shows that they are influenced by neither so much as by times, and events, and peculiar combi nations of circumstances. They are at low ebb now where there is no want of taste and assuredly none of science in the world. A correct theory upon the point remains a de sideratum. The case of the useful arts, on the other h and, is clear enough. No room can re main for doubt. Primitive and unlettered ages scarcely attain to the complexness of a plow. The progress of art among them is slow. The Hindoos of the present day have in daily use almost the identical rude machinery for manufacturing purposes which their ancestors applied thousands of years ago. Their perfection in weaving is a matter of physical action arising from acuteness of touch and agility of motion. Mr. Mill attributes to this their muslins, so fine as to be invisible " when laid upon the grass and saturated with dew." The Ori entals term these muslins "webs of woven wind," and the great lords, a traveler gravely remarks, take much pleasure in seeing their wives and women dance before them with no other garments than these, which are as no garments at all. The useful arts were at a low ebb among the polished nations of an tiquity. Many of the most important of these have been lost, but others have come down to us from that period. The Egyp tians could not construct an arch, but they erected obelisks, and elevated by machinery enormous masses of rock to almost incredi ble heights. The ingenuity of the ancients developed itself chiefly in their engines of war. Archimedes threw vast rocks from Syracuse upon besiegers, and set fire to their fleet by an ingenious combination of lenses. The seven wonders of the world were works of art. The steam engine of modern days rule has been adop te d in France, and the author's right c ontinued during his own life, and t he lif e of his wife, and twenty years af tercea t o the decease of both for the benefit of his c hildren. It iros a curious fact in the hist ory of man, remarks Kent, that the French n ational convention in July, 1793, should ha ve bu si ed themselves with a law of this kind, whe n the whole republic was at that t im e inth e s vil en l uon the most violent convulsions, and the combined armies were invading France and besieging Valenciennes; when Paris was one scene of proscrip tion, terror, sedition, i mprisonment, and judicial massacre, under the forms of the revolution ary t ribunal; w hen the conven tion had ju st b e en mutilated by its own denun ciat ion and imprisonment of th e depu ties of th e Gironde p arty, and the whole nation wa s j ust preparing to ri se en masse to expel the invaders. If the produ ction of such a law at such tim e be not resol vabl e into mere v anity and affectation, the n i ndeed we may well say with Mr. Hume, so inconsistent i s human nature with itself, and s o easily do gentle, pacific, and generous senti ments a lly bot h w i th the most heroic co u ra ge and fiercest barbarity. In Prussia the French system is very nearly followed. In Germany copyright is perpetual, though without adequate legal remedies for its infraction. A perpetual copyright, is, however, carrying protec tion too far, and will be found impracticable. The Prussian law admits to copyright works publ is hed in other countries, provided these extend the same favor to Prussian writers. The English law is the same. Even in Russia authorship is protected for life and for twenty-five years after, and copyright cannot be attached for debt. The cognizance of cases under the laws of copyright belongs, of course, to the federal courts, and the administration of this branch of jurisprudence is perplexed with difficulties growing out of the peculiar nature of questions which continually arise. What amounts to an invasion of copyright is frequently a point of the utmost nicety to determine. Whether acting upon the stage a composition will amount to such invasion, is still a matter of doubt. There is a special action on the case with us to prevent the publication of manuscripts without the author's consent, and the United States courts will grant injunctions for the same purpose. Private letters are privileged from publication unless under peculiar circum stances, the writers not being conceived as having parted with their property by the mere act of directing them to another. A translation is a book entitled to copyright. Notes and commentaries upon another's book have an equal privilege. The same is true of an abridgment, which provoked from Dr. Lieher the severe remark, " It is as 448 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS INTERNAL IMrPROVEMENTS, ETC. is, however, an infinitely greater wonder than them all; and the magnetic telegraph is an amazing miracle which casts into the shade and renders ridiculous the pretensions of the combined sciences and arts of all an tiquity. About the era of the fifteenth century, an inquisitive and intelligent spirit of investiga tion began to be felt in Europe. We fix here the compass, the printing-press, and the invention of gunpowder. The world was escaping from feudalism, and from the bar baric dominion of power over intellect. The last of the barons struggled in Warwick, the king-maker, against the principles of hardy independence, which were taking growth with the people. We often recur in memory, with renewed pleasure, to the masterly picture furnished by Bulwer, of this struggle-enterpr i s e against ignorant aristocracy-money inter est against ranks-shopmen, artisans, citi zens, or burgesses, against the tyranny of orders. The city of London was taking rapid strides, and its mayor and aldermen began to use language of conscious power even to the king. That was a fine picture of old Adam Warner,* who represented a class at the period when faint lights were beginning to gleam in upon the night of science and art. An ill-defined notion of the steam en gine haunted the fancy of the old philoso pher. He had, in the seclusion of his chamber, almost devoted a life-time to its development, and reduced himself to want and beggary by the costly material bestowed upon the child of his fancy. The machine is before him all wonderful to behold, but it refuses motion. No skill, no influence, no toil of old Adam Warner can remove the mysterious inertia. He turns over his musty manuscripts, through sleepless nights, in vain. He flies to alchemy and mysticism. A German doctor affords the clue-" a certain axle should be made of diamond, bathed in moonshine, and washed in elixir." But where shall the beggared'sage obtain a DIAMOND. He steals at midnight to the bedside of his own Sybil, to rob her of the scanty purse which alone preserved them from starvation. "In his sublime devotion and loyalty to his abstract idea there was a devouring cruelty, of which his meek and gentle scholar was wholly unconscious." Adam Warner triumphs-the Eureka is before him and blesses his sight, as motion flies like thought from wheel to wheel of the wondrous and complicated machine-but at the next instant Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the boy philosopher, directs the blow which breaks at once the heart of the sage, and fractures in a thousand pieces what is conceived an infernal invention! Thus have we portrayed the struggles, the triumphs, and the defeats of genius in the faint and dawning light of science an d art. Lord Bacon came, however, like one in the wilderness, making straight the way of th os e that should follow. This wonderful man, though bowed down t o t he ea rth by his moral in fi rmitie s, yet soared aloft like an a rchangel i n intellig en ce. He tra ced out th e grea t laws of science and philoso phy, a nd marked minutely the ca u ses which had led the world astray, in vain and ri diculous gen eralities and sophisms. His powe rful inte l lect sc orn ed the dialectics of Europe, the disputatious lear n ing of th e philosophers which, w i t hout one practical result, be gan and ended in a bstractions, i deas, notions, spirits infinities, and the whole farago of scholastic le arning. The secret of men's ignorance was their pride. They sought rather to pre s cribe la ws for nature than to sit patient ly down like Saul at the fee t of Gamaliel, and learn the established ones. They had rather demons trate from reason a p hysical law, than discover a hundred from experiment. Indeed a single experiment, had they deigned to make it, would have made sad work with their finest hypotheses. Bacon reversed the process. He laid down the system of analysis and induction-of interrogating nature, of penetrating her inmost arcana, and divulging her most precious lore. His immortal work was given to a world scarce prepared to ap preciate it; but although Coke wrote upon the envelope: "It deserveth not to be read in schools, But to be freighted in the ship of fools," Newton looked into it, and discovered the laws of gravitation: Locke looked into it, and wrote the Essay on the Human Under standing: Liebnitz, Descartes, and La Place mastered it, and mastered at the same time the great truths of metaphysics and astronomy. But not the philosophers only-mankind were set aright by the doctrines of Bacon, wherever they have been applied, and now the world at large have made them their own, science and art have been rapidly ex tending their domain. An age of inventions was at once heralded in. It is now two hundred years since Bacon detailed the true philosophy, but the world in that short time has made more extensive conquests over nature; has achieved more for human progress, for the welfare of man, and the perfection of society and government, than was achieved in the previous five thousand six hundred years of its history. But our purpose is with the arts. We have seen invention following in the train of invention, each still more glittering and extraordinary than its predecessor. Even the chief of these we may not enumerate. It sufficeth that the men of this age regard the impossibilities of the previous one as mere child's 29 - Bulwer's Last of the Barons. VOL. III. 449 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. than the mere animal. It might be demonstrated, such has been our success already that the average period of human labor is as nothing compared with what it would have been had the arts remained stationary as in primitive ages, and we been called upon, admitting it possible, by our own labor exclusively, to produce the same outward comforts for man which he now enjoys. How happens it then, since the average of labor is so inconsiderable, that the serfs and slaves in some countries, and indeed in all, toil incessantly day and night, without repose, or hope, to feed at last upon scanty husks They toil on, it is said, in cruel competition with machinery, whose relentless speed strains their faculties to the utmost, admits no intermission, makes no allowance for human feebleness, but unnaturally taxes flesh and sinews to keep pace with wheels and arms of iron. It is plain that these people have little benefited by the progress of art. It is a melancholy Ihact which we cannot rebut, but which we must conceive to result from nothing else than the monstrous abuses of society or government somewhere; and if these cannot be remedied, it must be believed that God intended deformity in the moral world as we find it in the physical, to show by contrast the beauties of symmetry and order. Machinery'may do much, but it can never cause the iniquities of oppression to cease, and preach with controlling influence to a man from the text: Thou shalt not grind the faces of the poor, nor trample a weaker brother in the dust. But this very liberation of labor we com mend, has been complained of. A newly discovered process will enable ten men to do the work of a hundred. The other ninety pass at once out of employment, and raise the cry of injury and oppression. The stock ing weavers in England collected en masse, and with fierce indignation broke in pieces every stocking frame they could find. When calico printing sought introduction into France, ten thousand calico painters remon strated in public meetings and in petitions to the throne, against a fearful innovation which must inevitably throw them out of employ menrt and involve them in ruin. It is true that for a season the result of a new inven tion often is, that operatives in large numbers beg in vain " For neither it in art nor nature is." We are half inclined to think so ourself, but then Sir Humphrey Davy would not say positively that the philosopher's stone was unat tainable. Maupertius declared that we could not prove its impossibility. We even hesitate to put upon science and art the limit ati on which De Lolme put upon the powers of Parliament, th e ina bilit y to convert a man into a w oman, or the contrary-o or to make a man altogether. There is more of modesty than of skepticism in the remark. The province of the arts is to reduce the e lements to our will and substitute machinetry for human labor. By their aid a portion of mankind can be liber ate d from physical toil, who otherwise would have been necessitated to earn meagre subsistence by it alone. These become pioneers, and direct the movements of man and society to hig,her and still higher good. In this class are our sages and philosophers, our statesmen and legislators, our artists and inventors; in this class our public instructors in letters, morality and religion-those that cure our bodily infirmities, redress our wrongs and protect our rights. In the progress of the arts, the number of these constantly augments, or what is equally susceptible of proof, the whole community become placed in positions which require less exhausting physical exer tion, and admit of increased development in other and higher faculties of our nature, "A brother of the earth To give them leave to toil." But this is for a moment only, as it were. The evil is brief, and the good perpetual. Each of these changes are successive steps in human progress. The stocking weavers will find that what in miserable madness they destroyed, was calculated shortly to give employment to a larger number than ever of their class. And when Colbert firmly resisted the suicidal policy of the calico .450 work. We achieve now, very much as a matter of course, what scarce a generation ago would have entitled us to the honors of an inquisition of sorcery, or perhaps to the custody of the prince and author of all wicked and internal arts. We even cease to say much of impossibilities. Our ancestors demonstrated that all nature was wrought up out of four elementary substances, but now it is modestly said that there are at least fiftv-four such substances. The telescope anA microscope are giving new worlds every day. Even the lightning is wrested from heaven to oomniunicate the thoughts of man -a purpose little dreamed of by the great philosopher, upon whose epitaph it is written, eiipult fulnic?t ctlo. We must be foolish in an age of progress like this, to be wise. We must not even cast aside the seeming absurdity, lest within it there be contained the gern-is of a great truth. The arts and sciences are 1, twain one." This is impossible, therefore it is true, argued Tertuilian, in the first century, as a rule of faith. It would be as good argument in the eighteenth century as the contrarv, thereyore it is.7iot trite. It is well enough t'mak-c sport of the follies of science, and of those who would quadrate the circle, multiply the cube, invent perpetu al motion, or the philosopher's stone, and say to each as Cowley did: UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. suits and the inventions when they proceed upon profound knowledge. Indolent men, sometimes invent to save labor, and as it were by accident. A lazy boy becoming wearied with opening and closing the valve of an engine on the old principle, fastened it to a part of the machinery, and thus achiev ed, by accident, what had baffled the skill of inventors, Necessity, also, has much to do with invention. The great rule is, notwith standing, otherwise, and patient investigation in science will precede worthy achievement in art. What a magnificent conception would the steam engine have been, but we know it to be the result of years of study, of vigils by day and by night, of discomfitures, of doubts, of struggles, of sickening apprehen siois, of partial despair and tardy triumph. Shall not a man be versed in the laws and principles of light, of heat, of electricity, of motion, gravitation and mathematics, before he ventures upon new combinations of mat ter, and en ters the field of invention? Art, then, i s dese rving equally with s ci. ence of government protection-legitimate protection, we mean, an d not that of per pe t u a l monopolies, rest ri ctions a nd corporate trades companies, such as were of common use in the middl e ages. The protection of paten t righ t is the mos t natural and j ast, and indeed it is the only natural and just one. A man, and his descendants after him, shall claim in perperuo a right to the lands and tenements acquired by his mere physical la bor; but when mind incorporates itself as it were with matter, and becomes in a subor dinate sense a creator, shall there be a less privilege of property admitted in its results? Governments have followed reason here, and if they have distinguished at all between the two cases, it is only in granting a term of years and not a fee-simple right in intellec tual property. The distinction upon other principles is proper, provided the term be sufficiently extended. The Constitution says, "1 Congress shall have the power of securing for limited times, to inventors," &c. We have legislated frequent]y upon the subject. The great act of 1836 elaborated a system of patent right, and carried it to high perfection. Previously patents had been granted by the department as a matter of course, and without reference to originality. It was conceived that the courts would settle all conflicting claims. Great abuses and much litigation was the nattural result. But the act of 1836 efected a radical revolution. - The patent office is attached to the office of state, and a commissioner of patents is appointed. Applications are to be made in writing to the commissioner, by any person having invented or discovered any new and useful improvement in any art, machine, manlufacture, or composition of matter, not known or used by others before his inven painters th th t hank ed h im af terward, for there was m ore calic o mad e a hundred times over. By simple and less expensive modes of production we cheapen commodities and put th em withi n reach of the poorest, and indefinitel y i ncrease production itself with vastly less of labor. The ma n who may be pr inti ng ou r a rticl e congratulates himself, if h e is like o thers of his craft with whom we have conversed, no d oubt, that types at least cannot be a djust ed i n composition by ma chinery, and s o his art is forever safe. But suppose that to be realized of which rumor has more than once spoken, and a bona fide type-setter be introduced into a printing o ffice,a capable of doing as much work with one man, a s a dozen could effect i ht without it, we should hail the invention with gratula t ion, and so would the printers themselves, could the y see the whole case at once. The printing art wou ld receive an immediate ex t ens ion which no man can conceive, an d i n a very brief spa ce this iron-headed and iron fingered compositor would call for the ser vices, with less labo r to themselves, of many times the n umber which it first may have thrown out of employ. These things regu late themselves very so on. D r. Franklin, we t hink, takes som ewh ere the ex treme case of machrinery, arrive d at su ch perfection as to disc h ar ge the whole mass of labor. An im possible hypothesis, however, un less we can make thinking matter, or, in short, a man. Bu amt admit the supposition, what the n? Shoul d w e p eris h in this perfection? Should w e b e inev itab ly rui ned b eca use God has al lowed us, by intellect, to work o t out our great salvation from his bitter curse, "' by the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat bread." Who will complain of such an approaching crisis in the affairs of men, when sustenance, and raiment, and all our wants shall be supplied us in highest perfection by art and nature, without the degradation of physical toil. The era may be well entitled millennial! But a truce to such speculations, which he'~e led us much ifarther than we had any in tention. Science we entitled the parent of art. It occurs to us that the reaction which exists between the two should be brought under particular mention. _Eneas bore away from burning Troy Anchises, his aged father, and thus gave back the life he had received. The arts reflect upon science, and the parent receives now vigor from the child. Science teaches the laws of optics-the optician constructs the telescope and enlarges the domain of science. A principle discovered in nature may result in a machine, and a machine in,ented without particular knowledge of its principle, will yet divulge that principle to philosophy. Examples of this sort could be multiplied without end. The artist may produce a result with little knowledge of the causes. An inventor may have no fhmiliarity science. But how much higher the re 451 452 UNITED STATES-TARIFFS, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. tion or discovery thereof, and not at the time of his application in public use, or on sale, with his consent and allowance, as the inventor or discoverer. The applicant must deliver a written description of his invention or discovery, and of the manner and process of making, constructing, using and compounding the same, in full, clear and exact terms, avoiding unnecessary prolixity, so as to enable any person skilled in the art or science to which it appertains, or is most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound, and use the same; and he must, in the case of a machine, fully explain the principle and the application of it, by which it may be distinguished from other inventions, and he must particularly specify the part, improvement, or combination, which he claims as his own invention or discovery. He must accompany the same with drawings and written references, where the nature of the case admits of drawings. or specimens of ingredients, and of the composition of matter, sufficient in quantity for the purpose of experiment, where the invention or discovery is of a composition of matter. He must likewise furnish a model of his invention, in cases which admit of representation by model. The applicant is also to make oath or affirmation that he believes he is the original and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, composition or improvement for which he solicits a patent, and that he does not know or believe that the same was ever before known, or used, and he must farther state of what country he is a citizen.* We have exhibited the substance of the law. The commissioner decides upon the merits of each particular case, and grants or refuses, as it may be, the application. An appeal lies from him to a board, appointed for the purpose by the Secretary of State. Where the patent is granted, it confers upon the inventor and his heirs, executors, admin istrators, assigns, &c., after him, the exclu sive right to make and vend the same for fourteen years, and under certain circum stances allows a farther extension of seven years. The patentee, if a citizen or an alien resident, pays into the hands of the commis sioner, for his privilege, thirty dollars. If a foreigner resident abroad, the tax is $300, but a British subject must pay the sum of $500. The great distinction in the last case, shows clearly from what quarter the severest competition with our own arts was expected. A bona fide inventor may secure patent, though the subject has been discovered and used abroad, provided he had no knowledge of it, and no description had been given in any publication. This is a liberal extension of the privilege. The first use of the invention attracts the patent, not withstanding a prior discovery can be proved, but without use. A surreptitious one by * Kent' s Co mmentarie s, vol., II. an other, will not affect the rights of the real inventor on his application for p at ent. The American law upon this subject is, upon the whole, less restrictive than that of any other nation, and appears, at the same time, to ho ld out ample enc ourag ement to genius and enterprise. The English law has the advantage of not discriminating for country; for the statute of James gives title to all, if the ", true and first inventors of any manner of new manufactures within the realm, which others, at the time of granting the patent, did not use." If the discovery or invention be new in England, this is sufficient, though long kpown and in use abroad. They hold that one may discover by travel as well as by thought. English inventions are taxed much higher than ours in the fees of patent right. The French, Spanish and Austrian laws follow, in the main, those of Britain. The whole subject of patents is one of great subtilty, and it is said on high authority not to be inaptly termed the metaphysics of the law. Men have exhausted,whole fortunes in the protection of these rights by ceaseless litigation, of whom Whitney, the cotton-gin inventor, is'a conspicuous example. Others, rather than encounter such difficulties, or rather than make known in petition the secret of their discovery or art, have preferred to risk it without patent at all. Few patents protect for their full term, New and better inventions or processes displace them, or what is worse, the fraudulent acts of others deprive them of ali value. The hope of gain and difficulty of detection are powerful incentives to encroachment, and they will not be resisted when the invention is very important and valuable. Other inventions will be protected in a degree by their own insignificance, on the same principle that a robber will not seek a garret, nor will the blood of a "hoarse lawyer" be shed by con spirators, as Juvenal felicitously expresses it: "Nec unquam Sanguine causidici, maduerunt rostra, pusilli." The law of Congress, of 1336, established the patent office, intended as a repository for models of all the inventions patented from time to time. It is said to have given great facilities, in the classification and arrange ment in rooms and galleries, for a beneficial and favorable display of these models and specimens of composition, and of fabrics and other manufactures and works of art and machines, and implements of agriculture, &c., &c. The building soon after was de stroyed by fire, but the contents have been largely restored by appropriations for the purpose, so that at this day it presents one of the most extraordinary museums in the country, exhibiting in the highest develop ments the ingenuity of our countrymen, which no circumstances can control, and which seems beyond all comparison or limit. Previous to 1836 wse had issued double the "Old Dominion,"* previous to the conve:n tion which determined the boundaries' the states; nor will we discuss her titltg to all that she claimed. We think that her present boundaries are amply sufficient. She is the largest state in the Union, and has contributed her full quota of great men in illustrating the glory of the republic in arms and eloquence. The fame of Washington and Henry have reached the farthest limits of the civilized world, and are safe for immortality. Seven out of fourteen presidents have been natives of her soil, and her whole political career has been a practical illustration of her motto; Eternal Hatred to Tyranny." Her northern boundary extends to the Ohio River and Pennsylvania-her eastern to the Potomac and the Chesapeake Bay-her southeriis to North Carolina and Tennessee; and her western boundary to the Ohio River and Kentucky. The surface of the state presents several parallel chains of mountains, commencing about 180 miles from the sea, and running in a southwest direction. The Alleghanies have their widest base in this state, occupying the central region from 80 to 100 miles in breadth. Between these ridges are valleys of the greatest fertility. The eastern section is generally level-the soil sandy and not very productive, except along the rivers, which is exceedingly fertile. Above the falls of the river, the land is better, and admits of profitable cultivation. The section west of the Alleghanies is mountainous and broken, interspersed with rich valleys, and limestone country. In the low alluvial parts, it is hot and unhealthy. The summers are long and oppressive, and the winters mild and agreeable. In the mountainousdistricts, the weather is considerably colder, and the air more salubrious. Virginia is 370 miles long and 200 broad, at its greatest width, containing 64,000 square miles, or 40.960,000 acres. She numbers at present no less than ten regular colleges and universities, and there is great room for improvement in every department of education. It may not be uninteresting to give a brief sketch of some of these colleges. William and Mary College is, with the ex number of patents issued by England or Franc e in th e sa me t ime, and the dispropor tion since the n mu east be v astly g reater. The building in which this display is made has already become of too contracted dimensions for its purpose. The purposes of such a col lection are the highest imaginable. Next to the publication and distribution of adequate descriptions, from year to year, of the progress of invention, is the preservation of plans and models in one common building. We shall furnish, in this manner, a meet field for the studies of future times. Genius may repair thither, even as it repairs to Rome, to catch the inspiration of Grecian statuary, or the rare perfection of Italian art. In every sphere the masters must be studied. We learn to invent from a familiarity with inventions. Before aspiring to add to the results of human skill, we must be acquainted with those results. How frequently are years of toil and labor expended upon inventions, which are afterward discovered to have been made long before I An ingenious friend once exhibited to us a skilful contrivance in art which was valuable and new to him, which had caused much thought and labor, and of which he was clearly the inventor, but upon careful reference to encyclopedias of art, the machine was there discovered minutely described. If our reason must be stimulated by the trainings of logic, so our inventive faculties must be stimulated by a training in the study of inventions. VIRGINIA.* —EARLY HISTORY - EDUCATION - SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES - GovERNMENT-RESOURCES -INTERNAL IMPRO oiEMENTS-SLAvER'Y, ETC.-It is well known that the stat e which bears the name of Virginia, was so called in h onor of Elizabe th, the virgin Queen of England, under whose auspices an expedition was set on fbot by Sir Walter Raleigh and other adventurous spirits in search of gold. Whether the sacra fames auri, or the s p iri t- stirring influences of religiousD fanaticism, have been most conducive to great enterprises, is a subject on which much specul ation might be indulged. For our own part, we ar e in clin ed to t he opinion that, as long as man is the s ame commodity- lovn ing ani mal that w e h ave a lways found him, there is no hope that he will place virtue before money in the catalogue of his aspirations. But we digress. Raleigh claimed, in the name of his sovereign, all that tract of land extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, a considerable portion of which is now divided into flourishing states in the northwestern portion of the Union. It is not our purpose to enter into a discussion of the history of the * If it be not beneath the dignity of history, it may be interesting to our readers to state how Virginia came to acquir e th e soubriquet of the " Old Dominion." After the death of C harles I., and the usurpation of Cromwell, the Britis h colonies in America were required to swear allegiance to the Protector. But Virginia persisted in retaiin i ng he r loyalty to the Old Dominion-that is, to the dynasty of the Stuart s, which was re pres ented i n the person of Charles II., who had taken refuge in Holland. Aft er the death of Cromwell, Char les wa s recalled, and proclaimed King of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Virginia, and ordered her arms to be quartered with those of Great Britain as an independent member of the Empire. This was done in compliment to Virginia, who had invited him to reign over her, but the death of Cromwell restored him to the throne of his ancestors. We think that Virginia was fortunate; for surely a more worthless tyrant never held the reins, , of empire. * 1. A History of Virginia, from its discovery and settlement by Europeans, to the present time. By Robert R. Howison. Two volumes. New-York & London: Wiley & Putnam, 1848. 2. Historical Collections of Virginia, by Howe, 1847, &c., &c. 453,el' VIRGINIA. VIRGINIA. The first president was the Rev. S. S. Smith, and the last Lewis S. Green, D. D., a gentle man of distingtlished literary attainments. The Union Theological Seminary is located in the immediate vicinity of Hampden Sidney College. " The institution had its origin in efforts made by the Presbytery of Hanover and the Synod of Virginia, as early as 1812, to give their candidates for the ministry a more complete theological education. It did n oot, however, go into operation in a regular form, until the year 1824. In 1842, it had three professors, twenty students, one hun dred and seventy-five graduates, and a care fully selected library of about 4,000 volumes." The Universityof Virginia is about one mile frdm Charlottesville. It was erected and en dowed by the state in 1825, and owes its origin and peculiar organization to Mr. Jeffer son. "It has a fine collection of buildings, consisting of four parallel ranges about six hundred feet in length, and two hundred feet apart, suited to the accommodation of nine professorships and upwards of two hundred students, which, together with the real estate, cost over $300,000. It possesses valuable libraries, amounting to 16,000 volumes,and is amply provided with philosophical and chemi cal apparatus, together with a fine cabinet of minerals and fossils, and an anatomical and miscellaneous museum. The Observatory, a short distance from the University, is furnished with the requisite astronomical instruments. The plan of the University differs materially from that of any other institution in the Union. The students are not divided into four classes, with a course of studies embracing four years, but the different branches are styled schools, and the student is at liberty to attend which he pleases, and graduate in each when prepared. In order to attain the degree of "Master of Arts in the University of Virginia," the student must graduate in the several schools of mathe matics, ancient languages, moral philosophy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and in some two of the modern languages. The chairman of the faculty is annually chosen from the faculty by the board of visitors. This board is appointed by the governor and council every four years, and chooses its own rector. This institution is, in every respect, organized and justly regarded as a lUniversity of the first class." The number of students for the year 1850 is two hundred and twelve. Gessner Harrison, Chairman of the Faculty. Washington College, at Lexington, was founded in 1812. Its present number of stu dents is about eighty. It contains a library of 5,000 volumes. Randolph Macon College was founded at Boydton, in 1832. Students about 145. Its library contains about 6,000 volumes. Emory and Henry College is ten miles from Abingdon, in a beautiful and se cluded situation. It was founded in 1838, un der the patronage of the Holston Annual Con ference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. ceyion of Harvard University, the oldest literary'hstitution in the country. It is distinguishe3.for its large proportion of graduates who have risen to eminence, some of whom have held -the highest stations in the nation. It was founded in 1692, in the reign of William and Mary, who granted it a donation of 20,000 acres of land. In.1793, the Assembly ordered that it should be built at Williamsburg. "The college received a penny a pound on certain tobaccos exported from Virginia and Maryland, which had been levied by the statute of the 25th of Charles II. The Assembly also gave it, by temporary laws, a duty on liquors imported, and skins and furs exported. From these resources, it received upwards of ~3,000. The buildings are of blick, and sufficiently large for the accommodation of 100 students. By its charter, dated the 8th of February, 1692, it was placed under the direction of not less than twenty visitors, and to have a president and six professors, who were incorporated. It was formerly allowed a representative in the General Assembly under this charter-a professorship of the Greek and Latin languages-a professorship of mathematics and one of moral philosophy, and two of divinity, were established. To these were annexed a considerable donation by the Hon. Robert Boyle, of England, a sixth professorship for the instruction of the Indians, and their conversion to Christianity." Its first president was the Rev. James Blair, D. D.; Thomas R. Dew, whose able essay on the Institution of Slavery entitles him to -the lasting gratitude of the whole South, has also presided in the chair. Thomas Jefferson was a graduate of this college. There were in 1840, 98 students in the collegiate department, and 32 in the law school. Hampden Sidney College, the next in order, was established in the year 1774, and named after those martyrs who perished in the good old cause-John Hampden and Algernon Sidney. It was chartered in 1783, and has ever been supported by the private munificence of public-spirited individuals.1 It hasan elevated, healthy and pleasant situation, one mile from the Court-house, and 80 from Richmond. Although the institution has had to encounter many difficulties on account offunds, yet it has generally been in successful operation, and has educated upwards of 2,000 young men, many of whom have been of eminent usefulness, and some of great abilities. More instructors have emanated from this institution than any o)ther in the southern country. Connected with the college are a literary and philosophical society, and an institute of education. There are also several societies among the students, which are of great assistance to them in the prosecution of their studies. The legislative government of the college is vested il 27 trustees, to fill up vacancies in their own body. By the census of 1840, it contained 65 studeats, and 8,000 volumnes in its library. I ,454 1 VIRGINIA. Wm. H. Dennis, of Charlotte Co., Speaker of Senate. Henry L. Hopkins, of Powhatan, " " House, George W. Mumford, of Richmond.. Clerk'of Hous.i. Joel Pennybacker, of Shenandoah Co." "Sen,te. The governor, treasurer, auditor, 2 -auditor and register of the land office are; 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'- ~';' ~ N:~' ~ " ~ ~ O~ 0 0~0 0~~A' ~ 0 -~ - - NO ~ 0 - ~ ~ N~0'N~N ~ 0 ~ ~o C,- 0- I ~;,..~. - - N;NO ~. c~~ ~= ~: 0 ~~~~~~~~ ~~I I 0 ~ ~~~~~~~I ~ N - 0 - w 0000000 00. 000 -- ----- - 0 - 0 I 0 .0 0 -0, * 0 *.**... -.. 0 0 * - - *:-;- o A N * N * A. ON 0 N bL N - 0 N: NO00N000O00 0 - 0 - 0 0 - 0 0 - 0 'Ti 71 ,4.111 El r, P — I I I" ;4 APPENDIX.-NEW-ORLEANS. quantity taken for consumption by about 30,000 bags. The following table shows the imports, stock, etc.: of an inferior qualitv Un v cry lew sales ha e taken pidre here duritig the past take the le reigti.mpoits Est imated st ock out of grocers' hallds on 1st Sept., 1851, of all kinids............bags, 4,000 Irhmports dire(t Sio rt — lio de Jaueiro............353,616 Ctbz, Lagltlira, &c.............. 12.525-366,141 pRe(aeived'oastrise lor stle (estimated)..... 55,00 c alakting a supply of.........................425,141 Total stpplyv last ear......................... 353,557 Illcrease........................... 71,384 tirs, NNtl111 ex ibit the ra id increatse ilt!ilis'i. i is Cl In thei,~ dirfect ini~ports fromi R-io de Janeiro there is of our foreign trade, and will also ettatlih t T oa inr l Rio de Janeiro there is toresting fact, tlhat this is now the larest uate i tilhe worlh (out of Brazil) for Rio coie. a i tle inp!orts fromll Cuba;, &c., and or i8,(!,,';ttgs in thle 1842-Import at New-Orleais......bags.... l s; s!.'I',e ir:e e stocl of 18I43 " "............. c.u t of gro i r,n ds, iS es,tmated at 18't4 b', flIich.vot, i d leave 300,14! lm as as the '1845 ".............,;i. { at elt ofr thie colisuii:ptioit of' tle \,Vest and 1846 "........... 2..215.31 0oil3. otlaJ;:st 379.75 bags lastyear: or an increase 1847 " "..........(...2,5,11i iof;i'':-ic S he q ilhantity of Rio C(flee taken lor 1848 " -....... 3o,3'1 consumt~tio}n ]l' thewhole Untied States I. uring the ~~18:~9. " "..............9,129 pst is sitt at,(( s. of whi(h 1805 "' "..................225.(] erl oall as fl sc trotgh this mi3arket, 1851 " ".............. 274.(- xer teareate tsalsrthe rasbeover 1852' "....... 353,61 s.;os r. Ia stale l ublihe in The market durin' the past season has been chliar- ti.:e A.eria, said to bie fron reliable auacterized by more steadiness than we have had oc- tl-:! —. th l t l liroduce of all countries lbr 1852 casion to notice for somne years previous, but the in- is t o at 548,((),(D0 poumds, while the concreased supply has reduced the average of pries, stI,inptioi ofc Europe and the United States, at the which have Iluctuated betw-een 7 cents in lecember )res(e t rtio. is estirnat(l at 640,000,000 pounds, and January, antd 9?3' cetr,s itn April, as the highest wthith wo.h l be e(ua4l to 4,0:,({00 bags Brazil. The and lowest points. The followilg table, which we stock on the 1st July was estimated at 125,00,C00 take from the annual circular of MIr. 11. T. Lonsdale lbs for Eurolpe, ad 25,0(,000 lbs. or the United Coffee Brokler, shows the mtonthly sales and average States prices for the year ended July 1st, 1852. By this it Our advices from Rio are to the 3d July. The cirwill be seen that the average price of the season for culars of 3( th June (the close of the crop year) state Rio coffee has been 8 60-1()0 cents per lb., while the the total exports to be 1,881,559 bags, against 1,869,967 year previous it was 10 18-100 cents. bags the,ear previous. Of this quantity our own Bi pN P*ric coulltry has taken 95:49)8 1ag l, tistributted as fol 1 J 0 lows' ew-rleas 34l,d6h, Nae5-ork 260,179, 1851-July --—................lo-2,613 B:a N -1'is Charlesto Baltimore 207,792, Philadelp)hia 81.125, Charleston August.................. 6,931... 8:94. 2 2 B,58, Mobile 11 261, Spvaioali 4,369 September...............10,97,3... 8:29. alitornia 4.(~0 bags. The few samples of new October.................. 25,992....7:9 crop wshich had been received proved of very fine November............... 47,904....8:24 quality. and the opinion is expressed that the crop December............... 20,473.... 8:20 w ill be fiilly an averae otie in quantity. 1852-January................. 53,014... 7:87 Exc:A;(;E. —-The Ex(hange iarliet has main February..................52,169....8:60 taied a oo egree of steadiness during the past March.................. 48,37... 9:12 season, s ilbe see by relerence to the annexed April................... 34,31....9:31 table. hi-h exhibits the highest and lowest (luota May.................... 39,198... 9:22 tions in each m,onth. for sterling, and] fbr bills at sixty June..................... 42,278...8:73 days' sight on New,-York. These figures are iraended 860100to re present the prevailing range of the market, 402,191 h8:60-100. thoulg there have probably been, at most periods, The above sales include the transactions from im- sore transactiois at rates both above and below porters' and speculators' hands, and exceed the them. Stertling. lighest Loest IM est I,owcst Months. per ceut. psi o per cit prm, per eet. dis. per c. t. dis. September..................10 a ll...........10 a.............I 2......14 et 2. October....................10 all............ 6' a 8"............ a2..........3 a3,.4 November................. 9 a 10.............. 6 a 81......... I...... 2 a 334 December..................9 a 10............ 8 a 9:4...........1: 2 a 2P January.................... 8a 9I........... 8 a 9........... 2 a............ 22 a 3 February................... 8% a 951............ 8 a 9............ 2 a...........2 3w a 3 March...................... 8 a 9............ 832 a 9....14 a............2 a22 April........................ 8 4 a 94................. 8,. 1.......,a.......4..... 1.4, a May................... a 94............ 8 a 8.......... I.............i a2 June 94 a 10............ 1.........9 10...........9 a l............ 1 a 1..........4I July........................ 934 a 10. a101........... 9 a 01............ a 1 1 a 1 August.....................10 a 103,4........... 9 a 10a............?d a I............ a4 a 1 5'IC" 3 I ,I APPENDIX.-NEW-ORLEANS. FREIGHTS. -The freight market has presented considerable fluctuations during the past season, though it has generally been characterized by rather more steadiness than we have had occasion to notice for several years past, the extreme range for Cotton to Liverpool being Yid. to s/d. per lb. The following table, which shows the highest and lowest rates in each month, for cotton to Liverpool, will sufficiently indicate the course of the market: Highest. Lowest. September............................ -82. d. October.................................. 7-16 November.............................. 7-16 December...............................15-32 January................................ 7-16 February.......................5-16.........13-32 March.....................5.- 16........ 9-16 April.................... 9-16 1........ May............................ 9-16........... 9-16 June.......................... 3/. July........................... 3/....4..... August........................5-16......... The total number of arrivals from sea since 1st September, 1851, is 2,351, viz.: 807 ships, 213 steamships, 371 barks, 287 brigs, and 673 schooners; and the entries at the custom-house for the year ended 30th June. 1851, were as follows: whole number of vessels 2,2f6; tonnage, 910,855. The increase, compared with last year, is 212 vessels and 142,827 tons. Included in the arrivals are 412 foreign vessels, from foreign ports, with a total measurement of 185,386 tons. This is an increase on last year of 80 vessels and 48,388 tons. 4th quarter, October to December, 185I. American for foreign ports........ 184.... 96,133 90 Foreign.......................... 58.... 21,414 00 Coastwise........................ 269.. 94,987 65 514....212,534 85 1st quarter, January to March, 1852. American for foreign ports........189.... 101,406 49 Foreign.......................... 173... 82,114 83 Coastwise....................... 316... 130,282 29 678....213,803 66 Recapitulation. Total 3d quarter, 1851............ 340.... 123,524 64 4th " "............ 514.... 212,534 85 1st " 1852............ 678.... 313,803 66 2d " "............ 670.... 279,179 41 Total to June, 30th, 1852..........2 202.... 929,042 66 Total the year previous.......... 2197.... 775,081 69 Increase this year............ 105....154,960 92 COMMERCE OF NEW-ORLEANS.-TONNAGE ENTERED. 3d quarter, July to September, 1851. No. of Ves sels. Tonnage. American from foreign ports..... 74.... 26,187 07 Foreign.......................30.... 6,564 47 Coastwise.......................223.... 74,347 00 __..-... 327....107,098 54 4th quarter, October to December, 1851. American from foreign ports......170.... 61,776 86 Foreign. ——................... 148.... 70,916 01 Coastwise........................ 386... 173,909 15 704....306,602 07 1st quarter, January to March, 1852. American from foreign ports...... 175.... 82,209 27 Foreign........................ 140.... 67,039 94 Coastwise........................305.... 110,395 36 620....259,644 62 2d quarter, April to June, 1852. American from foreign ports......155.... 71,946 77 Foreign.......................... 95.... 40,867 08 Coastwise....................... 365....124,695 85 615.... 237,509 75 Recapitulation. Total 3d quarter, 1851............327.... 107,998 54 4th 1" "............ 704....306,602 07 1st " 1852............ 620.... 259,644 62 2d " "............615..237,509 75 Total to June, 30th, 1852......... 2266....910,855 08 Total the year previous.......... 2054. 768,028 04 Increase this year............. 212.... 142,827,04 TONNAGE CLEARED. 3d quarter, July to September, 1851. American for foreign ports....... 105... 43,939 13 Foreign.......................... 48.... 16,001 44 Coastwise....................... 18T.... 63,584 07 340... 123,524 64 AMERICAN PRODUCE. American Vessels to Foreign Countries. 3d quarter, 1851....................... $4,058,085 4th............................ 8,936,430 1st " 1 8 52.......................... 8,542,789 2d "............................11,931,884 33,469,188 Foreign Vessels to Foreign Countries. 3d quarter, 1851.......................... $1,302,995 4th ",.......................... 969,215 1st " 1852......................... 7,478,048 2d."......................... 4,856,751 14,607,009 Coastwise. 3d quarter, 1851.......................... $4.538,830 4th " ".......................... 6,162,449 1st " 1852..........................11,498,214 2d "......................... 7,068,879 28,268,372 Total foreign..........................$48,076,197 Coastwise........................ 28,268,372 Grand total............... 76,344,569 FOREIGN PRODUCE. Amnterican Vessels to Foreign Countries. 3d quarter, 1851........................... $47,332 4th "............................. 31,805 1st " 1852............................ 60,279 2d "............................ 66,520 $205,936 Foreign Vessels to Foreign Countries. 3d quarter, 1851............................$ 3,875 4th.............................. 8,798 1st " 1852............................ 20,950 2d ".............................. 11,157 44,780 Grand total...........................$250,716 564 2d quarter, April to June, 1852. American for forei,-m ports........ 240.... 128,424 54 Foreign.......................... 122.... 56,031 93 Coastwise....................... 308.... 94,722 84 670.... 279,179 41 EXPORTS-NEW-ORLEANS, 1851-2. APPENDIX.-NEW-ORLEA NS. RECEIPTS BY THE NEW CLANAL, NEW-ORLEANS. Statement of produce received in the New Basin, for the year ending 31st August, 1852. Furnished by Capt. James Stockton. Cotton-bales............................... 40,650 Lumber-yellow pine and cypress-feet..30,570,000 Wood-oak, ash and pine-cords......... 28,206 Bricks..................................19,329,000 Sand-bbls.............................. 194,850 Shells-bbls............................. 27,000 Charcoal-bbls......................... 114,360 Tar-bbls.............................. 1,872, -kegs................................ 12,066 Shingles................................ 1,844,000 Laths...............................5,090,000 Staves................................. 150,000 Sash and doors-pairs.................. 13,900 Spirits turpentine-bbls.................. 2,408 Rosin-bbls............................. 11,715 Salt, sacks.............................. 33,763 Cotton Gins............................. 319 Hides................................. 3,024 Corn Mills............................... 19 Domesticsbales....................... 1,478 Sneep skins-bales...................... 4 Hay-bales.............................. Buckets-dozen......................... Tobacco-leaf-boxes.................... Merchandise-boxes..................... Moss-bales............................. Cotton seed-bags....................... Wool-bags.............................. Sugar-bbls...:......................... Molasses-bbls......................... Fish-bbls............................... Camphene —bbls......................... Knees, white and live oak................ Pickets.................................. Clap boards.............................. Gunny b'ags-bales....................... Horned Cattle........................... Paper-bundles.......................... Barrels-empty.......................... Rags —bales............................. Mahogany-logs......................... Deer Skins-bales....................... Almonds-sacks........................ Bottles, empty-casks................... White oak bark-cords................... Cedar l1gs............................... Turpentine, raw-bbls................... EXPORTS OF COTTON AND TOBACCO, FROM NEW-ORLEANS, FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST AUGUST, 1852. Whither exported. Spain and Gibraltar........... Havana, Mexico, &c........... Genoa, Trieste, &c.............. China.......................* Other foreign ports............ New-York................... Boston...................... Providence, R. I............... Philadelphia.................. B altimore.................... Portsmouth.................. Other coastwise ports......... Western States.............. W hither exported. Liverpool.......*x.... London...................... Glasgow and Greenock........ Cowes, Falmouth, &c.......... Cork, Belfast, &c............. Havre....................... Bordeaux.................... Ma~rseilles................... Nantz, Cette and Rouen.. Amn6terdam.................. Rotterdam and Ghent......... Bremen.... -........... —--- ,ntwerp, &c................. ramburg.-.-..... —...... — Gottenburg.................. RECAPITULATION. 772,242..14,023 Coastwise.................... 256,712.17,199 196,254 13,948 - 75,950. -26,814 Total...........................1,435,815 93,715 134,657.. 21,731 Great Brita in................ F rance..................... North of Europe.....-. —--- South of Europe & China. — EXPORTS OF FLOUR, PORK, BACON, LARD, BEEF, LEAD, WHISKY, AND CORN, FROM 1ST SEPT., '1/~. ~~~1851, TO 31ST AUGUST, 1852. Flour, Pork Baon, Lard, B Beef Lead, Whiskey Corn Ports Barrels Barrels Hhds Kegs Barrels Pigs Barels Sacks New-York................ 94,638.. 57,356.. 12,685..256,738.. 9,295. 149,781.. 6,553..133,488 Boston.................... 61,124. 62,702.. 5,431..208,613..12,285.. 73,895.. 1,845..148,524 Philadelphia.............. 24.. 4,849.. 2,772.. 20,686. 200.. 31,118.. 1,888.. 13,905 Baltimore.................-.. 14,164.. 2,334.. 32,318.. -.. -- 2,538.. - Other coastwise.......... 179,911.. 25,846. 26,173- 51,664.- 752.. 1,645..68,311. 336,719 Great Britain..............138,569.. 1,263.. -.. 61,923. 15,109.. -. -..192,288 Cuba.................... 6,681.. 946.. 812..158,447.. 15.. - -. 37,466 Other for. ports........... 63,764.. 5,622.. 96.. 2,154.. 551.. 500.. 21. 12,384 Total................. 544,711. 172,748-.. 50,303.. 792,543..3S,207..256,939.. 8',156. 874,774 UIPORTS INTO NEW-ORLEANS FROM THE INTERIOR, FROM THE 1ST SEPTEMBER TO THE 31ST AUGUST, 1851-52. Apples..........bb]s. 20356 Bale Rope........coils 90272 Beef, dried.........lbs. 26100 Bacon, asst. casks, &c._ 46734 Beans,............bbls 6598 Buffalo Robes.....packs 1300 Bacon,..bbls &boxes 3626 Butter,..........kegs 44786 Corn Meal,....... bbls 2514 Bacon, Hamins,....ihds 38488 Butter,........- bbls 1778 Corn in ears,.....bbls 163008 Bacon in bulk,......lbs 281280 Beeswax,.........bbls 171 Corn, shelled,....sacks 1397132 Bagging,........pieces 60044 Beef,....bbls. & tierces 52850 Cheese,........... boxes 72441 565 20 1,006 844 53 30 14 6 870 893 130 10 1,165 13,000 165,000 285 123 110 1,150 4 20 16 35 17 35 240 73 C.tt'. T.b.. B.I,,.. Hhd.. 751,172.. 7,844 - 5,197 11,700- - - 7,211-. 982 2,159.. - 163,054- - 9,056 1,554.. 1,916 4,308-. 2,976 7,338 — - 259 - - 1,157 1,507 — 222 10,248..15,515 24,562 —'7,618 17,1694- - 475 6,,634 — 1,229 C.tt.. Tb.". B.I... Hhd.. 47,645.. 7,662 11,919.. - 75,093 -11,134 15,046.. 3,533 101,938..13,347 128,629 -. 1,941 4,561-. - 15,594.. 1,296 4,745- - 385 45.. 230 1,oo-. ,435,815- -93,715 I 2re | ciji Amount age noArticles. 6~1c068i Lead, bat kegs & boxes............ 3e50 050 Lead, white -.-kegs 126910 Molasses (estimated | crop..... glls. [1 2694160 Oats..bbls. & sacks 22502 Onions........ bbls. 780572 Oil, linseed.....bbls. 677040 Oil, castor.... bbls. 65980 Oil, lard...... bbls. Potatoes...... bbls. 358288 Pork....tcs. & bbls. 53340 Pork.........boxes 7C95 Pork.. —-..hlhds. 494724 Pork, in bulk...pds. 172.15 Porter & ale — bbls. 2088 Piacking varn..reels 97,,0 0 Skins, d er..packs 48,59222 Sj lkis, bear — packs 7C54 ho..........1 Shtkegs 1141 05 Soap -....- boxes 1C si5.58 k 13St9.?es........... M. 7 253543 Sotgar(estinated ep.) 3s23 616 l lds............ b900 Spanisli irosss. bales 425000 Tallow....... bbls. Tobacco, leaf.. bhlids. 4020, Tob3acco,strips,lhhds. 7 2275 Tobacco,stems,hlds. 5190 1 t obacco,chew'g kgs. 3708848 atid boxes....... Twiie, buns.& boxes 1000000 Vinegar....... bbls. 2572351 \Vhisky........ bbls. 247374 Window glass...bxs. 160302 Whleat.bbls. &scks. 1860 Other various ar'cles 3137400 788445 Total value-dollars 189300 Total in 1850-51, 52881 Total in 1849-50, 856204 Total in 1848-49, Articles. Apples.... bk'.~ Bacon, ass'd,lhdds. & casks........... Bacon, assorte(, bxs Bacon, lhams, lhhds. and tcs -.-..-.I Baeon, in bull..3s. B aggin g pie,-es Bale rope.......coils Beans........ bbls. Butter....kegs and firkins........... Butter........bbls. i Beeswax.....bbls. Beef.......... bbls. Beef........ tierces Beef, dried.- pournds Buffalo robes. packs Cottoin....... bales Corni meal....bbls. Corn, iin ear__.bbls. Corn, slhelled. sacks i Clbeese....... boxes Cnn,dles.... boxes Cid-er...... I.bls. Co,'l, w,:stern. bbls. DrieL ap)ples and pe;a,h:~s........ Featl.)Ci's......bags, '_F; a seed...-tierces l iour... bbls. Furs-, hi'd., buidles Hid, s.....,......... H;11.......bales Iron, pi......is Lard — l1)b:s. & tc,,s Lard. —— egsi Leatler -—.bundles Lime,western..bbls. Lead........... pigs I,l il lt, 46734 l 7'C " O?, 3'i~. o Amount age, llr 1138 20 00 22760 1368 3 00 4104 8300000 22 4026000 463273 75 347454 17184 ~2 00 34368 758 26 00 19708 4291 28 00 120148 14114 28 00 395192 228095 2 00 456190 276606 16 00 4425696 303 35 00 10605 2478 80 00 198240 8800000 7 616000 406 10 00 4060 2093 7 00 14651 998 25 00 24950 16 15 001 240 2704 25 00i 67600 5308 3 00 15924 7319 38 00 278122 236547 50 00 11827350 4372 8 00 34976 1307 20 00 26140 75816 75 00 5686'200 11741 125 1467625 2118 20 00 42360 4779 20 CO 95580 2341 8 00 18728 92 6 00 552 146352 7 50 1097640 19251 2 50 48127 64918 2 001 129836 estimated at. 5500000 108051708 106924083 96897873 81989692 60 054 13 O0 90("1'2 7 50 6598 10 00 44786 8 00 1778 30 00 171 45 00 41227 12 00 11523 15 Co 26100 8 1300 75 00 142918,3 34 00 2514 3 00 163008 7 O0G 1397132 1 2O 72441 3 5C 53936 6 O 0 300 3 00 850000 50 0o 804 5 00 2065'5 oo 519 10 00 92721-2 4 00 2136' 17149 15 00 123167,Q 2 n0 ,53434 3 00 62 30 00 125496 25 00 157689 5 00 7572 25 00 42305 1 25 267564 3 2O Months. ~. - Sept.. 31..21._ 12. 43..14.. Oct...... 74..32..26.. 5.1.-. Nov...... 107__126..19.. 44..14.. Dec......105..66..41.. 77..14.. Jan....... 69..39..29.. 55..13.. Feb...... 95_.33..30_. 70..18.. Mch...... 74..29..30_. 64..203 _ April...... 59..57-..24_. 76.. 24.. Mlay...... 92..32..26. _ 60..17.. Juine ------ 59.. 30..121.. 55.. 24.. July...... 20..21..17.. 41..19_. Auig...... 22..!5..12.. 37..18.. : 1, IE O fIr three years past —sixty da5: ~ il11ls Nov.. 107..26..19.. 44..14.. 210.. 194i~ II 1 1849-50. Ja —— 6.3.2.. 5.3.. 20.. 29 4 April —--— 59..27..24.. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p pe 761..4. 210..pe 29 di1 lf s Iipm {perS$ die Sept. 10.: 5 12 2 818 5 25 1'4 Oct-.. 1018 5 15 21 9 28 1 5 29 1' Nov 5 25 3 7 322 2, 9185 281 11 uec... 9 54 5 20 1 8 5 32! 1 Y Jan. 9/ 5 20 218 7 5 28 2'l 7U 5 35! 154 Feb. 87 5 25 2z~- 7, 30/ 2, 7185 30 1 y Totar 9..87728.1. 7 Ma 2 23 21 734 5 32 11 April. 9!5'22 l k ~ii)'1 loI 5 3~53..l My... 81 5 25 1?1 1102 0 5 27 June.. 9OF 5 20 I I Joni11 0 10 I 91 R5 27I 3uly..1018 5220 1 l0 18 0o 1I 9 5 27 118 Aug.. 110 5 i 9 ~5101 I~; 9 g5 29'~ Stock oni hand 1st Sept., 1851.........]Bales 15390 Arrived since the 27th ultimo....... 2740 Arrived previously.................1426443 Total receipts for 12 months......1429183 Add. miade from- w%aste aiid damag ed cotton and samples,..estiimated, 1000 -1430183 1445373 2MONTIHLY ARRIVALS OF FLATBOATS —-NEW-ORLEANS Sep. 3 5 Oct. 1.. I.. 4 2.......5.. 13 Nov. 1....................1 Dece 34.. 12.. 2 3....... 1 2 54 Jan.. 58 11 43 6..3....3.. 124 Feb. 39 1 1 20 4 5..... 4.. 83 Mar 88 7 77 10 3.......30.. 215 Apr. 31 9 109 14 20.. 1 31 11 226 ,)ay 9026 74..30 16... 3 11 2 252 Jaine 7 13 11..31 4....85..150 July 3 8 5..87.. 50..153 Aug. 2 3 1...... I. 29..37r kt.................... 57 8 35 ~ 18 2 31 Tot. 357 88 35g 10 183 51-1 —2-3 250 15 1318 Exported since 27th ultimo......... 2716 Exported prev;iously...........-..- 1431899 Shipped to western states.......... 1200 Total exports for 12 months............e.. 1435815 Stock on hand 1st Sept., 1852......... Bales- 9758 Stock on hand 1st Sept., 1831.........flhds 238711 Arrived since the 27th ultiqo....... 1252 Arrived previously................. 88423 Additional hhds. made from samples, roepacking, &c.................... 200 Total receipts for 12 months............. 8987i5 113746 Also about 150 from various states with cattle, sheep. hogs, lumber, &c., making a total of 1,468. 140 186 194 293 297 1285 365 290 242 238 1'2 7 121 121..201.-. 210.. 303.-. 205..246.. 217..210.. 227.. 189.. 118.. 104.. Oil i;L.C Tot......807.371.287..673.213_..-2,351..2,778 STATEMQENT OF COTTO-N, NEWV-ORLEANS. .k i STATEMENT OF TOBACCO, NEW-ORLEANS. i i t 4 II APPENDIX.-NEW-ORLEANS. Comparative Prices middling to fair Cottons, Sugar on the Levee, Molasses o n the Levee, and Flour at New-Orleans, on the.first of each month, from 1st September, 1851, to 31st August, 1852. COMPARATIVE RATES OF FREIGHT, NEW-ORLEANS. On Cotton and Tobacco to Liverpool, Havre and New- York, on the first of each month,for the past two years. Cotton Sugar Molasses Flour M olasses cents 25 a 30 23 a 30 18 a 27 23} a 24 17 a 20, 15 a 20Y2 20 a 25 15 a 26 20 a 28 23 o 28 20 a 28 18 a 28 COTTON-P]ER POUND 1851-52 1850-51 Livpl Havre N. Y. Livpl. Havre N. Y. Sept.. 34d F/ct ct 7-16d 4ct 11ct Oct... 7-16 15-16 3 7-16 34 Y4 Nov.. I 1 M4 3 Dec.. 7-16 4 M 7-168 Jan.. 7-16 7 13-32 7 Feb.. 7-16 15-16 9-16 9-16 15-16 March 11 7 8 13-16 1 d 1 April.. 9-16 1. 1/ 3Y. May. 1-16 1 3 X?X June.. 3 34 1. July... 5-16 34 3.. Aug.. Y. Y. Y./ i7-16 -.. September October.. November December. January... February. March... April..... May...... June...... July...... August... Statement of the Deposits and Coinage at the Branch. Mint, New-Orleans,from the 1st of August, 1851, to the 31st July, 1852, inclusive. GOLD DEPOSITS. California gold bullion.... $5,821,695 22 Other gold bullion......... 139,608 79 Total gold deposits........ - $5,961,304 01 TOBACCO —PER H!OGSH!EAD Sept. 35s0 Od $.. $4 50 32s 6d $7 00 $2 50 Oct...35 0 8 00 4 00 32 6 7 00 2 00 Nov. 37 6 10 00.. 30 0.. 2 00 Dec....... 5 00 Jan... 8 00.. 35 0 5 00 Feb... 40... 7 00 March... 6 0... 9 00 April.. 45 0.. 7 00.... 5 50 May.... 7 75.... 6 00 June.. 35 0 7 00 4 00 35 0.. 6 00 July.. 30 0 6 75 3 50 35 0.. 4 50 Aug.. 30 0 6 75 3 00, 35 0.. 4 50 IMPORTS OF SPECIE —-NEW-ORLEANS. For five years, from 1st Sep. to 31st Aug. 1851-52.................................$6.278.523 1850-51.................................. 7.937.119 1849-50.................................. 3.792.662 1848-9.................................. 2.501.250 1847-8.................................. 1. 845808 GOLD COINAGE. Pieces Value Double eagles........ 228,000.. 4,560,000 Eagles.............. 131,500.. 1,315,000 Half eagles......... 8,000.. 40,000 Quarter eagles...... 98,000.. 245,000 Gold dollars........210,000.. 210.000 675,500.. -- 6,370,000 FOREIGN MERCHANDISE, NEW-ORLEANS, DIRECT IMPORTS OF COFFEE, SUGAR AND SALT. For three years, from September 1 to August 31. 1851-2 1850-1 49-50 Coffee, Havana...........bags 12525 10367 10627 Coffee, Rio............... bags 353616 274690 225013 Sugar, Havana..........boxes 25673 29293 18843 Salt, Liverpool.........sacks 580106 420838 468932 Salt, Turks Island, &c.. bush. 235952 419685 583183 SILVER COINAGE. Pieces Valu1e Half dollars.......... 264,0(0....132,000 Quarter dollars...... 144,000.... 36,C,00 Dimes.............320,000. -.. 32,000 Half dimes.........640,000.... 32,000 Three-cent pieces.... 120,000.... 3,600 1,48,000... - 235,600 Total coinage....2,163,000.............$6,605,600 Last year.......... 5,625,000............. 10,044,500 NEW-ORLEANS MORTALITY, 1851-52. From September 1st, 1851, to August28, inclusive, 1852.-From Dr. Axson's New-Orleans liedical Journal. Moutna On 11 I 5 cn1 63 33 44 33 39 38 46 51 68 101 61 68 645 1851 ~~~~~~~O o 0 O OO 50 1 N -3 E v N 54 181 56 162 90 223 94 143 111 97 91 106 72 138 99 146 118 209 144 757 108 339 141 360 1178 2861 c 30 32 17 15 42 22 27 40 30 26 67 48 396 September.......... October............. November.......... December........... January, 1852...... February.......... March............. April............... May............... June.............. July................ August............ Total deaths...... I I I 5.68 c.tt.. t. 9 a I 0 8 a O'Y4 7 a 8 Y4 71/4 a 8 % 7 3/, a 8 7 % a 8 % 7 . a 9 7?/. a 9 7 Y, a 9 Y, 9 Y a.. 0 Y4 a. - 9% a.. s.g." '.t!, 3% a 6 Y, 3',I a 6 , 3 a6h 2 -, a 6 2 a 5Y2 2 a 5 % 21/, a 5Y 21,/, a 5 % 2 Y, a 5 Y, 3 3i a 6 3 Y, a 6 3 Y, a 6114 Fl..,, d.ll.,. 3% a 5 3 a 4Y, 3 a 434 3% a 4Y, 3% a 53(.z a 53i 1/4 a 43i 3% a4% 3 Y, a 3 3,/ 3 % a 3'/. 3 Y, a 4 Y4 3 a 3'/, SILVER DEPOSITS. Silver extracted froin Cali fornia gold................ $36,568 23 Other silver bullion.......... 105,777 97 Total silver deposits...... - 142,346 20 Total value of gold and silver deposits. $6,103,650 21 Last year.............................. 9,107,722 39 I I. I 201 162 205 200 179 155 190 227 290 506 301 5 P -- I19 102 106 78 so 85 67 00 112 104 126 143 1212 I. 19 72 69 84 104 123 128 95 99 100 74 C8 125 1141 . 5 1 - I 1.. r) 6 10 11 14 6 14 6 8 6 8 2 6 97 I I;s5 v -1 5 0 3 4 5 4 5 2 2 4 9 0 52 . 5 .r 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 1 11 I . E. 1 7. I I 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 1 7 i7, E I I1. I 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 6 F 43 50 56 64 51 49 45 32 51 41 56 63 601 I 48 48 43 46 30 23 27 35 38 . 36 33 39 446 I 3 6 4 7 11 8 5 7 7 6 2 15 81 .4 9 572 514 591 509 486 477 462 502 627 1163 769 883 7555 M..th. 1851 APPENDIX.-NORTII CAROLINA. SPECIAL FORMS OF DISEASE TABULATICD. aleoths Trismse still" 1851 Fever Cholera Dyseitery Nasceatium Convulsloni Tetanus Conumption born September...........114........ 5........ 29........ 23........ 42........ 7........ 50........ 14 October............. 71........ 8....... 49 18........ 28........ 8........ 49........ 15 November............ 73........ 78........ 37........ 29........ 27.......4........60.........24 December............ 50........ 28........ 29....... 9........ 19........ 7....... 56........29 January, 1852......... 48........ 2....... 17........ 13........ 20....... 7........ 72........27 February............6...3......0........20........10........27........4........67........ 24 March............... 63........I........ 26........ 9........ 17........ 6........ 63........ 24 April................ 47....... 6........ 21........ 12 34........ 2........ 60........ 14 May.................. 29........63........42......... 6........49........4........67........ 26 June................. 69........ 559........ 24........ 10........ 55........ 4........ 58........ 12 July.................. 78........ 173........ 21 7........ 38........ 38.......48........ 24 August..............160....... 101........ 44........ 22........ 51........ 3........103..... 30 Totals........ 865........1024.......359.......168....... 407.......65....... 733........ 269 ANNUAL STATEMENT OF CHARITY HOSPITAL. Admissions Discharges Deaths Months --'- --— " 1851 Males Females Males Females Malos Females September................. 1701.......... 616.......... 1652.......... 516.......... 109.......... 2{ October.................... 1505.......... 470......... 1359.......... 438.......... 118..........25 November.................. 1092......... 290.......... 1006.......... 322.......... 139.......... 32 December................ 1150......... 319.......... 955......... 272......... 117.......... 18 January, 1852.............. 1175.......... 343.......... 858.......... 364.......... 115.......... 28 February.................. 1168.......... 404.......... 1052.......... 371.......... 132...........33 March.....................939.......... 323.......... 915.......... 362.......... 29 April...................... 699.......... 287.......... 693.......... 282.......... 84.......... 28 May....................... 829.......... 384.......... 703.......... 302.......... 143..........60 June...................... 988.......... 422.......... 791.......... 349.......... 142.......... 71 July....................... 1141.......... 387.......... 982.......... 349.......... 100.......... 33 August.................. 1288......... 50 7 1163.......... 444.......... 101.......... 26 Total............... 13675..........4752..........12129.........4431..........1413..........412 Admissions Dischearges Deaths Total number, 18,427............. Total, 19,560...............Total, 1825. Of this number admitted there were natives of the United States................................ 1,754 "1 " 1 natives of foreign countries..................................16,468 "1 " 1 places of nativity............................................ 195 cost of about $1,600,000. The state indorsed the bonds of this road i n 1838, to the amount of $500,000; and in 1840, $300,000; for which she is liable, and has already in part paidn; the road bein g mortgaged to sav e the state harmless, has been sold under the mortgage, and has bee n purchased by t he state. George W. Mordecai, President. 2. The Raleigh and Wilmington Rail-road, from the Roanoke River to Wilmington, was incorporated in 1833. The company was organized in March, 1836. Thi s work wa s commenc ed in October, 1836, and finished in March, 1840, at a cost of $1,500,000. Six hundred thousand were subscribed in the stock by the state; and by act of 1840, the state indorsed the bonds of this company for $300,000, a part of which she has paid. The repairs of the road in 1850 increased the cost to another million. Gent. McRae, President. 3. The North Carolin a Rail-road, from the Wilmington and Raleigh Rail-road, in Wayne county, to Charlotte, was incorporated in 1848, in which, on $1,000,000 being subscribed by individual subscribers, $2,000,000 is to be subscribed by the state. This road is now in progress. Hon. J. M. Moorehead, President. 1. Buncombe Turnpike. from the Saluda Gap by way of Asheville to the Tennessee line, was incorporated in 1824; capital stock to be $30,000, in shares of fifty dollars each; the state owns one hundred shares. The company was organized in 1826; the first toll-gate was erected in October, 1827. 2. The Fayetteville and Western Plank-road, from Fayetteville to Salisbury, was incorporated in 1848. Stock, $200,000, in shares of fifty dollars each. State subscribes one-fifth. 3. The Turnpike Road from Salisbury west to the Georgia line, was incorporated in 1848, and the lands in the state, in Cherokee, Macon and Haywood, as NORTH CAROLINA.-INTERNAL IMPIRO'VEMENTS, REVENUES, ETC. —From the valuable work of Mr. Williams, upon North Carolina, lately issued from the press of Lippencott & Co., we extract the following: In 1825, a Board of Internal Improvements was established, and the funds arising from the sales of Cherokee lands and dividends from stock owned by the State in the Bank of Cape Fear, set apart as the fund. (See Revised Statutes, p. 347.) Present Internal Improvement Board -- CALVIN GRAVES, of Caswell; THOMAS BRAGG, of Northampton. 1. The Dismal Swamp Canal, uniting the waters of Pasquotank and Elizabeth rivers in Virginia, was incorporated in 1790. 2. Cape Fear Navigation Company, incorporated in 1796, to improve the navigation of the Cape Fear River, from Averysborough to the confluence of the Deep and Haw Rivers, the sum of $100,000, to be subscribed in shares of one hundred dollars each; the state subscribed six hundred and fifty shares of stock. 3. Roanoke Navigation Company, incorporated in 1812, improving the navigation from Halifax to the Virginia line. The state owns $50,000 in the stock of this company. 4. The Clubfoot and Harlow Creek Canal was incorporated in 1826; in which the state holds thirty shares. 5. The Cape Fear and Deep Navigation Company was incorporated in 1849, in which the state subscribed $40,00 0. 6. Neuse River Navigation Company, incorporated in 1850. State subscribes $40,000. 1. The Raleigh and Gaston Rail-road, from Raleigh to Gaston, on Roanoke River, was incorporated in 1835. This road was finished July 4th, 1839, at a t $ 569 t t 0 4 I I APPENDIX-RAIL-ROAD AND CANAL STATISTICS. well as the Cherokee bonds, are pledged to make the same. The Public Treasury of North Carolina is divided into I. Public Fund. II. Literary Fund. The public fund is supplied I. From taxes collected by the sheriffs annually from the people, and paid into the treasury, which is levied on land and town property, poll, (white and black), money at interest, dividends and profits, stores, carriages, watches. and other property, bank tax, attorneys' licenses, dividends of Buncombe Turnpike Company, and some other sources, which amounted last year to $179,768. The literary fund is supplied — 11. The sales of vacant and swampy lands in the state, taxes on taverns, dividends on stock held by the state in the Bank of the State and Bank of Cape Fear, dividends on the stock held by the state in the Roanoke Navigation Company, and in the Cape Fear Navigation Company, tax on auctioneers, int e - rest on bonds held by the board, which amounted last year to $112,316. THE ANNUAL EXPENSES OF THE STATE. From the public fund for judiciary, about $30,000 00 Legislature............................. 4 0,000 00 Executive............................. 10,000 00 Principal and interest on bonds of Ra leigh and Gaston Rail-road indorsed by the state.......................... 70,000 00 And other demands, which amounted last year (1850) to.................... 228,173 00 The expenses paid from literary fund are, for common schools............. 107,339 0~ be chargeable with postage at one cent an ounce for all distances under three thousand miles. and two cents an ounce for all distances over three thousand miles. to which fifty per cent. shall be added in all cases where the same may be sent without being pre-paid, and all printed matter chargeable by weight shall be weighed when dry. QuT teraly rates of posta.ge whe n p aid in advance, on Newspapergs and PeGi odicals sent- fo72 the of fce of publication to actual subscribe.s, from and after the 30th of September, 1852. Weekly newspapers (one copy only) sent to actual > subscribers within the > county where printed and published........... - free Newspapers and periodi cals not exceeding 1P oz. in weight. when cir culated in the state where published........ 221... 9 Newspapers and periodi cals of the weight of 3 oz. and under. sent to any part of the United States 451..191. 6t....1 Over 3and not over4 oz... 91..]39...13....3 Over 4 and not over 5 oz. $1-36a... 5..4,1 Over 5 and not over 6 oz...1'82...78,....26....6 Over 6 and not over7 oz...2'271...97~....32,....7i Over 7 and not over 8 oz..2'73..1-17....39....9 And other deman ds, which aroonied aOnDIRECTIONS. last year (1850) to.................. 228,173 ~0 1st. When the weight of any publication exceeds The expenses paid from literary fund 0 eight ounces the same p rogressive rate of postage, arefo cmmn chols.......................107,339 o00egtone.tesm rorsiertfpsae are, for common schools.............107,339 laid down in the above table, must be charged. LIABILITIES OF THE STATE. 2d. Publishers of newvspapers and periodicals For Raleigh and Gaston Railroad....... $500,000 may send to each other from their respective offices For do do do....... 10600 {n of publication, free of postage, one copy of each For d d o. ado. also06,000 CO State bonds............................200,000 0 publication; and may also send to each actual State bonds for Fayetteville and WVestern subscriber, inclosed in their publications, bills and Turnpike Company.120,0..........009 receipts for the same free of postage. Turnpikate bo mpand y fr r.eus....a... 120 000 3d. Postmasters are not entitled to receive newsState bonds for Cape aFear raivesd Deep 600papers free of postage under their franking pri rivers..............................80,000 0 vilege. State bonds for North Carolina Rail- 4th. If the publisher of any newspaper or peri road.2,000,000 0 odical, after being three months previously notified ........_ that his publication is not taken out of the office to $3071000 0( which it is sent for delivery, continues to forward , such publication in the mail, the postmaster to whose office such publication is sent, will dispose of POSTAGE LAW OF 1852.-This law is a liberal the same for the postage, unless the publisher shall advance upon the previous one. pay it; and whenever any printed matter of any Small newvspa:pers -and periodicals, published description, received during one quarter of tihe monthly or oftener. and pamphlets not containing fiscal year, shall have remained in the office withmore than sixteen octavo pagces eaels. wh(en sent in I out being calle d for during the whole of any sucsingle packages. weighing at least eight ounces. to ceeding quarter. the postmaster of such office will one address. and pre-paid by affixing postage stamps sell the same, and credit the proceeds of such sale thereto, shall be charged only half of a cent. for in his quarterly accounts in the usual manner. each ounce, or fraction of an ounce. notwithstand- 5th. Quarterly payments in advance may be ing the postage calculated on each separate article made either at the mailing office or the office of of such package would exceed that amount. That delivery. When made at the mailing office, satisbooks. bound or unbound. not weighing over four factory evidence of such payment must be exhipounds, shall be deemed mailable matter, and shall bited to the postmaster at the office of delivery. RAIL-ROAD AND CANAL STATISTICS. Table of the Comparative Cost of Construction of Twenty-eight Rail-roads in the United States. Lengthl of Lensth of L ength L e ngt h Length of Cost per Aggregate cost main track brcshes osf single of double main track mile in of the whole Names of the Rail-roads i miles m miles track track and branches'dollars line Western...................... 117,804.........64,50....53,75....117,804...$78,103.... $8,032,813 Boston and Worcester............ 44,625................44,62.... " " branches............24...24............ 68,625... 71,149.... 4,882,648 Fitchburgh......................... 50,930................50,93.... " branches.......................15,50.... 15,50.......... 66,430... 53,473.... 3,552,282 Boston and Maine.................. 74,260.......... 46,47....27,79.... 1" " branches................. 8,79.... 8,78............ 83,050....48,423.... 4,021,606 Boston and Providence............ 41,000......... 25,25... 15,75.... " " branches..........12....12............. 53....64,457.... 3,416,232 B.tf'c' and Lowell.................. 25,750............... 25,75.... " " branches.............. 1,75.... 1,75.......... 27,500....70,750.... 1,945,646 570 APPENDIX.-RAIL-ROAD AND CANAL STATISTICS. RAIL-ROAD AID CANAL STATISTICS-continued. Length of Length of Length Length Length of Cost per Aggregnto cost mntn track brancheo of niogle of dsblh naint teock mile in of the whole Names of the Rail-.rods in mtles it miles track track and brooches deltoro lite Eastern.....................38106 22.01.... 16.... I branches..........................19,91....19,91........... 58,016...53,776.... 3,120,391 Old Colony.......................37,250...........25,75.-..11,50... branches..........................7 7,75... 7,75............ 45....50,967.... 2,293,534 Norwich and Worcester............ 59........... 57,20.... 1,80.... "1 " 1 branches............. 7.......... 66....39,371.... 2,598,514 Providence and Worcester......... 43,410.........38,24.... 5,17.... 43,410....42,036.... 1,824,796 Cheshire........................... 53,646...........53,64........... 53,646.... 51,062.... 2,739,318 Total............................585,781.... 96,70... 429,85...253,06....682,481...623,567.... 38,427,780 Albany.and Schenectady............ 16,900........ 7,90.... 9,00... 16,9000... 101,266.... 1,711,412 Hudson River...................143,720....................... 143,720....76,537.... 14,000,000 New-York and Erie.............464.....................464.... 64,655.... 30,000,000 New-York and New-Haven........ 61............49,50...11,50.... 61....56,028.... 3,417,737 Syracuse and Utica................ 53....................53.... 59....46,982.... 2,490,083 Utica and Schenectady............ 78.....................78.... 78....53,127.... 4,143,918 Rochester and Syracuse............104................ 104.... "1 " 1 branches......... 9,50.9,50.... 113,500....37,000.... 4,200,000 Albany and West Stockbridge...... 38,250..........35,75.... 2,50.... 38,250....50,480.... 1,930,895 New-York and Harlem............. 80........................... 80.... 58,327.... 4,666,208 Total...........................1,038,870.... 9,50.... 93,15... 267,50.. 1,048,370... 544,402.... 66,560,253 Baltimore and Ohio..............186....................... 186.......54.28.... 10,096,638 Baltimore and Washington branch.. 30,500.......................... 30,500....54,000.... 1,647,000 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Bait.. 97.......................... 97....66,000.... 6,402,000 Baltimore and Susquehanna........ 69,500...................... 69,500....47,450.... 3,297,775 Columbia.......................... 82...................... 82....51,280.... 4,204,960 Pennsylvania Portage............. 36,666...................... 36,666....50,920.... 1,867,032 Reading.................................................. 94... 128,803.... 12,107,482 Richmond and Petersburgh........22...................... 22....39,886.... 877,492 Total............................617,666....................... 617,666...492,622.... 40,500,379 RECAPITULATION. Length ia Average cent miles Cost per mile Aggregate of the Massachusetts rail-roads, main track.......585.78 11 11 1" branches........ 96.70 682.48......38,427,780........56,303 Aggregate of the New-York rail-roads and branches.......1,048.37.......66,560,253........63,489 n miscellaneous rail-roads........................ 617.66.......40,500,379........65,570 General aggregate...................................2,348.51.....$145,488,412........61,949 The aggregate length of the main stems of these The estimate for the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-road, roads is 2,242,317 miles; of their branches is 106.20, from Baltimore to Cumberland, was $4,528,693; the making a total of 2,348,517 miles. The aggregate cost $9,662,374. The estimated cost of the Hudson cost, divided by this last distance, which includes River Rail-road was $6,000,000; the cost will be both main tracks and branches, makes the average $14,000,000. The ratio between the estimates and cost per mile $61,949. But as the branches cost the cost of most of the other rail-roads named in the much less than the mai n lines, the average cost of above table, is nearly as great. In no one instance, the main li nes wi ll exceed $63,000 per mile. according to my recollection, have any of them been The first estimate of the cost of the Erie Rail-road constructed at a cost less than double the estimate. was $4,762,260: it is now ascertained that its cost, Some of these roads are of recent construction, estiwith double track and equipments, will exceed mated by practical engineers. $30,000,000. As my desire is to run out a fair parallel between WThe Boston and Providence and Worcester roads canals and rail-roads, I will here subjoin a table of were estimated to cost about $1,000,000 each. The the cost of some of the leading canals in the country. aggregate cost has reached to more than $8,000,000."1 Table of the Cost per mile of the principal lines of Canals in the United States. i Cnt per mile of Aggregate cest Average each conal in dellars cent per mile New-York and........... 714,477........... $7,143,477.. Oswe18............ 540............ 565,402. Caynga and............ 13,985............ 236,983. Citemu968............ 294............ 682,594. ............ 19,597............ 156,775............ ............ 24,948............ 2,419,956............. ............ 31,158............ 3,738,960............. ............ 20,688............ 2,234,304............. Oltia 1nd............ 436950............ 4,695,084.. Muskin188.............7,262............1,91.17,882.1,627,262. Waihol24 20............ 607,250.............. New-York and Erie..................... 363 Oswe go.................................. 38 Cayuga and Seneca....................... 21 Chiemuii.................................. 23 Crooked Lake............................ 8 Chenango................................91 Genesee Valley........................... 3120 Schuylkill................................ 108 Ohio and branches......................337 Muskingum........................... 91 Walholdin,g............................ 25 b7l I APPENDIX-ST. LOUIS COMMERCE. Table of the Cost per mile of Canals in the United States-continued. Length Cost per mile Aggregate Cost Average HIocking............................56............ 17,419............ 975,464.............. Miami and Warren.....85............ 85............14,559............1,237,515............. Miami extension.....................139.................22,798............3,168,922............ Wabash and Erie.................... 90............ 33,968............3,057,120............ Lehigh.............................87...............51,2 07............4,455,009............ Susquehanna, Northwest branches........184............21,83 7............. 4,018, 008............ Pennsylvania main line..................277............ 26,681............7,403,977.............. Delaware division.........................................53..1,232,821.............. James River and Kanawha............ 34..147............4,150 5,020,050............ Twenty canals....................2,356..........471,268......... 54,676,936.......... $23,207 SOUTH CAROLINA-RAILROADS OF, 1852. Cor mpleted In progress rojd Names of Rail-roads Miles Miles Miles 1. South Carolina-from Charleston to Hamburgh..................136............................ 2. Columbia Branch-from Branchville to Columbia................. 67............................ 3. Camden Branch-from Junction (43 miles fromn Branchville) to Camden...................................................... 37............................ 4. Wilmington to Manchester-from Camden Junction to Wilming ton, N. C. (total 168 miles)...................................... 34............ 92.............. 5. Charlotte and South Carolina-from Columbia to Charlotte, N. C. (total 112 miles)................................................ 78............ 8.............. 6. Greenville and Columbia-from Columbia to Greenville.......... 80............ 61.............. 7. Union and Spartanburg-from Alston on Greenville and Colum bia (No. 6) to Union and Spartanburg....................................................66..... 8. Laurens-from Newbury Court-house (on No. 6) to Laurens)... 75............ 8............ 9. Abbeville Branch-from Cokesbury (on No. 6) to Abbevill e..................... 12.............. 10. Anderson Branch-from (on No. 6) to Anderson Court-HIlouse.............. 11.............. 11 Raburn Gap-from Anderson Court-house through South Carolina, Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, to a junction with Hiwas see Rail road (about 170 miles)........................................................... 38 Total........................................................44 7............203............98 RECAPITULATION. Length of rail-road completed................................................... 447 miles. i' " in progress....................................................203 " 1 " " projected...................................................98 " Total length of rail-roads.........................................................748 " STEAMBOAT ACCIDENTS, 1852. No. of Livyes Persons Steamers. lost injured. January............6......... 116.......... 21 February............2.......... 10......... 2 March............ 2.......... 15.........13 April...............5......... 147......... 35 May.......................... 1......... 9 June................1..........3..........July................3......... 140........ 20 Total...... 20..........428........100 Articles. 1851. Buffalo robes.............. 95,844.. Butter, bbls................ 2,181.. kegs.............. 4,545} " firkins............ 3,636.. Candles, sperm, boxes...... 139.. " tallow, "...... 2,092. Cattle...................... 1,819.. Cheese, boxes.............. 31,340.. " casks.............. 422.. Cider, barrels............ 540 Cigars, foreign, boxes, 1000 I 8,9 each.................. Cigars, domestic, boxes, 9 3 1000 each............... Coffee, sacks............... 103,123. Corn, bushels..........19.... 1,834,689. Cotton yarns, packages.....422.. Dry goods, boxes..............69 108,5835 packages............... 480,589. " bales.......... 41,224.. 42 Fish, kegs.................. 1,8105. " boxes.............27.. 4,783.. " barrels............... 6,864.. " half barrels........... 2,105.. Feathers, sacks............ 1,143.. Flaxseed, barrels.-........ 4,400 M Flour, barrels.............. 1 94,857.. " half do............. 6,324.. Furs, packages............. 3,051.. Gin, barrels............... 939.. Ginseng, sacks and barrels. 42.. Glass, boxes................. HIay, bales................. 23,280 Hemp, bales................. 64,607.. Hemp seed, barrels......... 355.. ST. LOUIS —COMMERCE OF.-Imports into St. Louis by the river for two years commencing January 1st, 1850, and ending December 31st, 1851. 572 1852. 64,654 1,926 5,349 3,234 496 2,806 1,376 26,381% 801 26,381 1,633 73,281 1,016,077 94,162 362,936 26,298 1,198 5,843 6,758 2,192 1,593 2,348 326,072 7,321 2,180 796 877 23,271 62,698 750 Articles. Apples, green, bbls......... 11 dried, bbls. & sacks, Axes, boxes................ Bacon,casks............... boxes............... bulk lbs............. Bagging, pieces............ Barley, bushels............. Beans, barrels............. sacks.... .......... Beef, barrels............... 34 do................. tierces.............. Beeswax, sacks, bbls., bxs., Boots, boxes.............. .1 trunks.............. Brandy, bbls............... 1851. 1850. 13,094.. 20,291 20,642% 14,766 692.. 1,875 76,183% 27,106 962.. 6,195 310,495.. 558,703 2,765.- 1,262 149,859.. 72,591 1,862.. 1,378 8,156.. 3,017 19,119.. 11,423 1,854.. 775 650 19,733.. 2;,160 1 680.. 2,800 2,855.. 5,723 APPENDIX.-UNITED STATES CENSUS; UNITED STATES NAVY. CENSUS OF SAVANNAH —SEPT. 1852. WVhite mates, 6 to 16 years of age........ 1,102 "s. "a.under 6 years of agTe....................888 s1 1743 over 17 5 "........ 4,561 Total white fmales.................. White females, 5 to 15 years of age...... 1.162 '- " under 6 *;...... 1.040 " " over 15 3 "....... 3451 Total white females................ Articles. 1851. 1850. Hides...................... 99,362.. 86,815 Hogs...................... 17,885.. 12,226 Horses..................... 833.. 2,098 Iron bars, tons............. 9,387w 14,322 "pigs................... 6,68334. 4,468 castings...............1,214.. 2,485 Lard, barrels............... 60,646 6Y 100,001 " kegs................. 16,227.. 17,433 Lead, pigs................. 521,734.. 601,786 bars, lbs............. 38,250.. 113,150 " white, kegs.............. 797.. 8,975 " red, "........... 91.. Malt liquors, barrels....... 8,200) 7,725 Molasses, 40,530 3........... 40,530 32,463 Nails, kegs................. 63,736.. 88,813 Oakum, bales.............. 1,506.. 2,612 Oats, bushels.............. 776,141.. 712,617 Onions, sacks and barrels.. 21,897.. 14,629 Oil, sperm, barrels......... 1,677.. 2,038 " castor, "......... 459.. 1,678 " linseed, "......... 1,201) 2,587 " train, " 3 94.. 348 " lard,..."........... 212.. Paper, wrapping, reams. 47,914.. 50,506 writing, " 6,579.. 10,990 Peaches, green, barrels.. 1,207.....743 dried,..... 1,187.. 2,260 " " sa cks...... 4,27....... 3.. 5,831 Peltries, packages.......... 1,066.......... 1,362 Pork, barrels.................. 114,899.. 135,662 half do x...............,52... J 7,321 " bulk..........8,6... 11,474,041 Potatoes, bbls. and sacks... 58,650.. 13,401 Powder, kegs.............. 14,887.. 18,505 Queensware, casks......... 2,720.. 3,197 ' crates........ 2,453.. 2,508 Rice, tierces................ 2,579% 3,389 Rope, hemp, coils.......... 33,935.. 33 442 " Manilla, "........ 1,643.. 5'649 Rum, bbls.................. 198.. 706 Rye, bushels............... 7,656.. 3,468 Salt, domestic, fine, barrels, 444.. 805 " coarse, " 37,200.. 24,219 Liverpool B, sacks.... 17,302.. 23,252 G. alum, ".... 119,867.. 159,699 " Turks I. ".... 46,594. 94,038 Sheep...................... 6,061.. 2,924 Shoes, boxes............... 12,057.. 17,022 " trunks.............. 509.. 2,618 Skins...................... 5,152. 6,718 Soap, boxes................ 2,521..-.. Sugar, hhds................ 29,722.. 24,159 barrels.............. 22,270.. 12,273 " boxes............... 16,098.. 13,926 Tallow, casks.............. 376.. 439 " barrels............. 1,175,}6 809 Tar, 1"............. 10,090.. 1,126 " kegs............... 5,800.. 5,219 Tin plate, boxes............ 6,677.. 9,993 Tea, chests................. 1,058.. 2,873 " half chests............. 2,694.. 5,906 Tobacco, hhds.............. 10,286.. 9,272 ' boxes, manufact'd. 10,235.. 10,309 Vinegar, barrels............ 755.. 1,134 Wheat, bushels............ 1,644.861.. 1,863,750 Whisky, barrels............ 48,5413. 38,813 Wine "............ 5,364. 8,972 Wool, sacks................ 1,684.. 1,509 Total whites....................... 12,204 Free colored males...................... 248 "~ females................... 376 Total free colored.................. 624 Slave —males.......................... 2,205 ' females........................ 3,268 TRADE OF SAVANrNAHl IN COTTON. Years Receipts Exports Stocks 1846...... 236.029..........234,151......... 7.787 1847..... 245.496........ 243,233........ 10,050 1848.......406,906........ 4 05.461..........11,500 1849........340,025.......... 341.700.......... 9,599 1850........312.294..........317434......... 4,500 1851-52.....351,518..........353,068.......... 2,950 Rice Lumber Casks Feet 1852..Exports foreign.. 9.937............15.804,500 ;..''. coastwise 29.992............ 9,704.000 39,9 29 25,508,500 TEHIIUANTEPEC RAILROAD, ETc. —-Since the preparation of our articles upon this subject, a company, formed under the Garay Grant and the transfers to Mackintosh & Hargous, have made surveys, &c., and partially organized. They have, however, been interrupted by the Mexican government, and the matter is now in the hands of the Executive and Congress ofthe United States. (For interesting papers on the subject, see De Bow's Review, vol. xiii. July to December, 1852.) UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS, 1850. -Up to the present moment (November, 1852), no complete official report of this census has been published, except as to the aggregates of population and agriculture. We have nothing yet reliable upon manufactures, commerce, mortality, property, &c., except what has been given in our tables. This is much to be regretted, and is a great delinquency upon the part of government. Of what use is a census if we cannot get its results until they are stale and fiat? It is otherwise in Europe. Our readers will therefore admit our apology for not presenting more of the returns, when we say that it has been impossible to obtain them in any satisfactory manner up to the last moment of our application at the census office, notwithstanding the attentions of Mr. Kennedy. Many rough estimates have been put forth, which we have thought not proper to insert in the volumes. In the course of a year or two we hope to publish a fourth volume, which shall be full upon the census of 1850, and with numerous tabular comparisons with former ones. The tables will also appear in our Review next year. We furnish, annexed, the latest official reports of commerce and navigation, wnich have been published at the time of going to press. UNITED STATES NAVY, 1ST JANUARY, 1852. —There are in the United States Navy 68 captains, 97 commanders, 327 lieutenants, passed midshipmen 233, midshipmen 171. SAVANNAH, GEORGIA.-We regret not to have been able to procure later and more important information upon this city than appears under its appropriate head, or under that of Georgia Rail-Roads, United States Cotton Crop, &c., but we were disappointed from an unexpected quarter. The returns of population by the last census, (below) and for which we are indebted to a friend, are supposed to fall short of the reality by at least 2;000. e s 573 6,551 5 654 Total slaves........................ 5,474 Total population of the city......... 18,302 NOTE.-Several important articles in the trade of St. Louis are omitted in the list of imports to this city. 574 APPENDIX.-UNITED STATES POPULATION AND REPRESENTATION. Vixen, Waterwitch, Massachusetts, General Taylor, Engineer, John Hancock. Total, 10. Store Ships and Brigs. —-Relief, Lexington, Supply, Fredonia. Total, 5 vessels. U. STATES RELIGIOUS STATISTICS (EsT! MA,TED.) —Ronlan Catholics, 1,073 churches, 1,233,350 communicants. Episcopalians, 1,232 churches 67,550 members. Presbyterians (Old School), 2,675 churches, 140,060 members. Lutheran, 1604 churches, 163,000 members. MIethotlist Church North and South, 1,000,000 communicants. Congregationalists, 1971 churches, 197,196 members. Baptists, 8,872 churches, 719,290 members. Camplellite Bapti sts, 1848 churches, 118,618 members. There are 95,000 other Presbyterians, 1,000,000 Dutch and Germaan Reformned, 6000 Mloravians, 3,000 Reformfed Mlethodrists, 20,000 IVesleyan Illethodists, 15,000 United Brethren, 15,000 A llbr ight Mlethiodists, 58. 000 MIennoni;tes, 30,000 Unitariao,us, 60,000 Universalists 5000, Siwedenborapians, 3,586 Six Principle Baptists, 6,243 Seventh Day Baptists, 56,000 FreeWill Baptists, 10,000 Church of God Bap~tists, 3000 Christian Baptists, 64,000: Antti-mission Baptists. Ships of the line. —-Pennsylvania, 120 guns; Franklin, 74; Columbus, 74; Ohio, 74; North Carolina, 74; Delaware, Alabama, Vermont, Virginia, New-York, New-Orleans, 74 guns each. Total I1. Razee. Illdependence, 54 guns. Total 1. Frigattes. —Un~ited States, Constitution, Potomac, Brandywine, Columbia, Congress, Cumberland, Savannah, Raritan, Santee, Sabine, St. Lawrence, 44 gun s each; Constellation and Macedonia, 36 guns each. Total, 14 vessels. Slo)ops of W~ar. —-Saratoga, John Adams, Vincennes, Warren, Falmouth, Fairfield, Vandalia, St. Louis, Cayenne, Levant, Portsmouth, Plymouth, St. Mary's, Jamestown, Germantown, Albany, 20 guns each; Ontario, Decatur, Preble, Marion, Dale, 16 guns each. Total, 21 vessels. Brizs,. —-Dolphini, Porpoise, Bainbridge, Perry, 10 guns ei is. Total, 4 vessels. S~co~l. rs —-V ae,I gun; Phoenix, 2; Petrel, 1. Total, 3 vessels,. Stea ~' Friya,tes. -—.Nississippi, Susquehanna, Powliatai, Saranac, San Jacinto. Total, 5. S t av rs. —-Fulton, Michigan, Alleghany, Union, UNITED STATES POPULATION AND REPRESENTATION. The tab')es which are furnished on page 419 of this volume and 459 of vol. ii., were prepared before the r,,turis were carefully revised and digested. A later table of population shows some diftbrences, and as it i, oni the highest authority, we insert it. T i: S:~zretary of the Interior, its compliance with the provisions of the act of Congress, approved 23d May, 10, providing for the takin g of the seventh and subsequent censuses, has transmitted to the Ilouse of Rei —tltatives his official certificate of the number ofrepresentatives apportioned to each state, tnder the last or seventh enumeration of the inhabitants, of the IUnited States, and states that certificates are beingr lrtp bced to b the executive of each state of the number to which such state is entitled. Thesa c,.rLicates are iu accordance with, and founded upon the following table, showing the federal and repr e sentative population of the United States on the 1st day of June, 1850 Population of the Uited States, Seventh Census, 1850, seith the Apportionment of Representation and the Fractions for each state. Whiti. colered Tot a Staves 1ticn Na. Fracliois Maine.............. 581,813...... 1,356...... 583,169.............. 533,163...... 6...... 22,649 New-t I-tpshire.... 317,456...... 520...... 317,976.............. 317,976..... 3..... 37,716 Vcrnmn;............ 315,402.......718...... 314,120................ 314,120...... 3..... 33,860 Massachunsetts...... 985,704...... 8,795...... 991,499................ 994,4)9......11......*60,299 Rhod.' I-tand....... 143,875...... 3,669...... 147,544............... 147,544...... 2......'54,124 Coniiieci.tiut........ 363,305...... 7,486...... 370,791............... 370,791...... 4......'90,531 New-york..........3,049.43. 4,937......3,097,394........... 3,097,294......33..... 14,534 Penlvania 786...............52,3..... 169,706 Olio......... 1,906,18...... 24,300......1,980,408........... 1,980,408...21...... 18,588 [di............. 977,628......10,7q$...... 988,416...11....... 54,216 tlli~loi............. 8!6,104...... 5,366...... 851,470.......... 851,470...... 9...... 10,690 Michigan........... 395,()9.. —-- 2,557.... 397,654... 4...... 23,974 Wiscon:~il.......... 301.565..... 62....... 305,191.............. 305,191...... 3...... 24,931 ow............. 1, 9...... 335...... 192,214.... 2...... 2...... 5,374 Calif.. 597......96...... 3 91,657.......2...... 22,365 N-J....... 45,5523......23,8 0 4S9,330...... 225..... 489,465........ Delaware..... 71,1I9......18,073...... 89,242...... 2,290...... 90,616...... I...... Mtir.....,- ---- 417,913......74,723. 92,666...... 90,368...... 6......*79,786 ~irgin',a........... S9,3(14......53,829...... 949,13S......472,328......,1,232,6 49......13...... 1S,189 Nort a a. 553,118 2.....28,473....... 6,178 Southi Carolinta.i. 27 4,6'2a3..... 8,900...... 283,523.....384,984...... 514, 313...... 6...... 47,413 Georgia............ 524,3,,18......,381,61...... 733,326...... 8 5,966 Ala!)a1nq........... 4'26,486...... 2,1293...... 428,779......342,892...... 634,514...... 7......*73,994 Mississip,,)i....... 2955,75...... 899...... 296,65..... 5...... 15,495 Lyeui:;h~n:~.......... 255.41 IC,.17,53 272,953.......244,786...... 419,824...... 4...... 46,144 Tenu~..;.;vc......... 755.893...... 6,271...... 763,164...... 239,4 61...... 906,840......10.......66,060 -Ke - -u'kv...... 6!,...... 9,736...... 771,424......210,981...... 898,012......10.......57,232 Missouri............ 592,077...... 2,544...... 394,621..... 87,422...... 647,074...... 7......*86,554 Ar'...2,"6S ------ 589...... 162,657..... 46,982...... 190,846...... 2...... 4,006 FlorTb a............. 47,167...... 925...... 48,092...... 39,309...... 71,677...... I...... Texis............ 13,100....... 331...... 154,431.....3.58,161...... 189,327...... 2.......2,4S7 District of Columbia 38,027 9,973 - 48,000. 3,687.. Minnieota......... 6.038...... 39...... 6,077............. New-Mexico....... 61,53...... 17..... 61,547....................... Oregon............. 13,087. 206...... 13,2........................ Utah............... 11...... 24...... 11,354........................... APPENDIX-UNITED STATES CURRENCY, COINAGE, ETC. Total Population in the Thirty-one States. Whites............................................................................19,427,259 Free colored....................................................................... 419,451 - 19,846,710 Slaves................................................................I................... 3,200,380 Federal Representative Population........................................................... 21.766,931 Federal Representative ratio............................................................. 93,420 Total Popolatio?, inclditdlng the Tcrritorics. Whites....................................................................................19,557,271 Free colored..........................................................................,'29,710 Slaves................................................................... —---- -—..........3,2104,093 Total......................................................... I...........I..... 04 All states marked thus (*) have an additional meniber for the fraction. One representative added for Califbrnia under the act of Congrcess, approved 30th July, 1t52. U. STATES CURRENCY, COINAGE, ETC.-The the small circulating coin was then, a. now, Span - large increase which the specie currency has under- isti fractions, and owing to thie false location of' the gone the last four years, has, up to this time, been mint, nearly all the gold imported, and wt ich came without any very perceptible influence upon values, to New-York, remained in the banks' vlts in the or the rent of capital generally, and that it is so, foreign shape. In those days the difficulty, rsk arid may, without doubt, be ascribed to the fact that all expense of sending gold from New-York to Plitadelother products of industry have increased in an phia for coinioge, was too great for any individual or equal or even greater ratio, and the channels ofeir- bank to un dertake. There had also been some culation which were before nearly bare of coin, specie, but not much in the country at the formation particularly gold, have become, at least on the sea- of the government. Under all these board, f ir better stocked with gold. We may take viz: the actual coinage, the retention of foreign otficial data in order to approximate the quantity of coins in the banks, the circulating Spanish coin, gold and silver coins actually now in the country, &c., 51r. Gallatin and Mr. Crawibrd both esOtimated and the rate of its increase. Prior to the year 1821 the stcie in tile country at about $39,000ti,t. Since there were no official records of the imports and ex- that time ttIe amount of specie has been more acports of the precious metals; up to that year there curatcly ascertained. The import and ex,port of had been coined in the United States, however, foreign coins and bull/on h ave been, since 1820, as $7,541,542 of gold, and $10,900,490 of silver, which follows would make, together, $18,442,032; but nearly all Statement of the Imiport and Export qf Gold and Silver Coin an,i,lullion annnally,frotn October 1, 1820, being the period at which they werefirst recorded, to June 30, 1851. Silver BuIlion Silver Coin r~~~~ —'...-h r' ~ -- -'' — % Import Fxport Import E xpori Export I mpori Exrt Yan Dolls it Dolls Dolls Doll s Deoll Dolls Idell 1821.............................. 8,890. 90.. -. 7,980,009....10,477,969 1822......................411,444.... 28,248... 2,958,402....10,781,932 1823....................... 230,771.... 1,800.... 4,867,125... 6,371,187 1824...... 11,941........ 34,934....319,451........ 8,013,489.... 7,014,552 1825...... 151,020.......... 378,257.... 315,672....368,827. 10,849 --— 5,252,661.... 8,470,534 18'26...... 116,194... 15,648.... 562,546.... 434,555....462,087.... 25,090.... 5,740,131.... 3,622,385 1827...... 91,049.... 8,610....1,019,399... 820,304....422,60 5.... 3,23.. 6,618,077.... 6,139,155 1828...... 69,650. 13,663.... 738,570... 928,384..465,064.... 42,588. 6,216,458.... 6,565,804 1829...... 110,638. 25,270.... 706,028.... 935,102, 213,821.... 5,749,839.... 3,136,941 1830....... 115,267. 10,637.... 705,879.... 474,876.. 1,047,343... 24,154.... 6,285,475,... 731,955 1831...... 166,191.... 21,690.... 765,838... 899,365...686.283....203,572... 5,687,633.... 5,831,30 1832...... 102,021.... 7,615.... 614,665.... 630,850...736,711....255,717.... 4,454, 1t7.... 3551,417 1833...... 48,276.... 26,773.... 563,585... 495,890...297,849........ 6,160,676... 1,22,196 1834...... 293,665... 12,681....3,472,507.... 276,999..514,417....,591....13,631,043....13397 1835...... 655,457....... 1,669,739.... 625.679.....765,283..........-10,040,96..-. 5,122,495 1836.....1,913,137.... 25,777....5,318,725.... 275,940...318,350.... 52,695.... 5,850,669.... 3,624,186 1837...... 536,549.... 101,563....1,895,265....1,828,653.... 594,291.... 5,600.... 7,490,309.... 2,756,914 1838...... 230,694........11,444,189.... 740,263..392,843... 2,500.... 5,679,390... 2,292,342 1839)...... 86,540.... 77,660....1,065,652...2,814,650....154,680... 8,040.... 4,267,391.... 3,968,035 1840.....273,127.......2,812,030....t,468,300....469,434... 47,689.... 5,328,222.... 4,865,952 1841...... 134,181....166,086....1,098,346.... 676,757....274,225.... 63,011.... 3,401,730.... 6,271,452 Total to Sept.'41..5,105,588....513,673...34,866,174...14,642,239.. 9,835,945...991,291...131,673,803....104,304,'220 1842...... 56,365........... 700,929.... 1,134,002.... 39,458.......... 3,291,464.... 2,5.t8,713 1843-o9 nios. 100,835.... 450...16,965,602.... 299,808....142,199........... 5,111,699.... 1,113.104 1844...... 83,150.............1,530,154....1,183,116....208,694.......... 4,008,031.... 4,(;87,693 1845....... 66,103.......... 752,747....2,210,979... - 41,275............ 3,210,117.... 5,551,t170 1846...... 14,150........... 896,263... 1,629,348.... 33.579............. 2,833,740.... 1,852,069 1847...... 151,749........... 21,423,182....2,975,105.... 71,923.......... 2,474,485.... 869,103 1848...... 56,882........3,351,873....8,379,785....392,939....174,971... 2,558,5()0.... 4,595,488 1849...... 297,570.... 6,500....3,771,077....1,008,859....154,688.......... 2,427,905.... 3,432,415 1850...... 175,984.... 2,160....1,600,722....2,511,788.... 26,316.......... 2,825,770.... 2,t362,367 1851...... 196,466.... 1,528....3,372,644,....4,758,805.... 48,471.... 4,534.... 1,835,942.... 6,631,305 Total to June 30.. 1,199,234.....10,638...54,365,193...24,082,591...1,159,542.... 179,505.... 30,677,743.... 33,703,397 575 G.Id B.Ill.. I.a.,t Fgp,, 11. l. G.Id C.i. APPENDIX-UNITED STATES COINAGE, CURRENCY, ETC. The aggregates sum up thus: ~- ~ Gold- I, — s Silver — -Excess of Excess of Imports Exports Import. mports Exports Imports Coin....... $89,231,367.....$38,704,830.. $59,506,537.....$162,351,546.....$138,007,617.....$24,343,929 Bullion........ 6,304,822...... 524,311...... 5,780,511..... 11,015,478...... 1,170,796...... 9,846,691 Total... $95,536,189.....$30,249,141...: $56,287.048.....$173,367,024.....$139,178,413.....$34,188,620 clined. The total supply of American gold deposited at all the mints up to July 31, 1852, was as follows: SUPPLY OF UNITED STATES GOLD. California Other Mints Total 1824 to 1846...... $10,713.211...$10,713,211 1846.............. 1,139,357.... 1,139,357 1847.............. 889,085.... 889,085 1848.......... $45,301.... 851,374.... 896,675 1849.......... 6,151,361.... 927,784.... 7,079,144 1850..........36,273,097.... 665,217.... 36,938,314 1851..........55,938,232.... 602,380.... 56,540,612 1852 7 months 31,298,823.... 481,930... 31,779,853 $129,706,813.. $16,219,438.. $145,976,251 Thus we have the domestic production, and if we add this to the net import, the supply amounts to $202,263,299 of geld since 1820. Now the actual United States coinage at the mint and branches, has been as follows; The supply of silver has been very small, and it will be observed from the imports and exports, that in the last ten years the export is actually $3,000,000, say 10 per cent. more than the apparent imports. These are the facts according to the official figures, but really the stock of silver has undergone no diminution. The exports are nearly all foreign coins, which come here unreported in the pockets of immigrants, and return upon the manifests. Thus, in the months of July and August last, there were exported from New-York $7,000,000, ot five francs, German and English silver, nearly all of which came in the pockets of immigrants, unknown t o official returns; much gold comes also in the same private manner, and the re-exports of those pieces are equal to $500,000, because they are the most desirable means of remittance; as there is no available mint in the United States, their national character is not changed. The Atlantic gold mines first began to furnish gold to the mint in 1824, and since the discovery of California they have somewhat de UNITED STATES COINAGE. Gold Silver Total Coinage Coinage to 1821........................$7,541,542........... $10,900,490............$18,442,033 1821 to 1852................. 172,747,755............ 67,081,918..........239,829,673 " Jan. 1, to Aug. 1, 1852........ 31,951,751............ 455,545............ 32,407,296 Total............................$212,241,048.......... $78,437,953......... $290,679,002 The exports of United States coin from 1821 to June, 1851, reached $39,874,357; and for the year ending July 1, 1852, they have been about $35,000,000. The official returns do not distinguish between silver and gold in the export of the United States coin, but during the past year they have been nearly all gold. It results then as follows: EXPORTS OF COIN FROM NEW-YORK, JULY AND AUGUST. 1851. 1852. United States gold coin....$6,546,580.... $4,763,485 " silver coin... 1,037,955....- 110,000 British silver coin.......... 48,600.... 15,630 Mexican dollars........... 131,268.... 237,000 Other foreign silver........ 357,329.... 698,607 English gold............... 313,894.... 85,057 Doubloons, gold........... 127,004.... 33,156 Other foreign gold.......... 80,481.... 23,000 Gold dust.................. 15,627.... 6,000 Total..................... $8,658,738.... $6,271,934 Thus, notwithstanding the apparent small supply of foreign money by the official returns of importation, the export returns show that the markets are well supplied. Under these circumstances, if the estimate by Mr. Crawford was correct at $30,000,000 in 1820, and the United States coinage has increased $200,000,000, with an apparent large supply of foreign coin still in the market, the stock of specie in the country is now not short of $230,000,000 we allow, but little for the use of the precious metals in the arts, because a great quantity of that raw material is refabricated, and of late years, since the process of galvanizing has been introduced, the quantity of the metals used in ornaments is far less than formerly. The Hon. Daniel Webster estimated the amount of coin in the country, in 1835, in his speech upon the Sub-Treasury, at $80,000,000; since then it has increased $150,000,000, without taking into consideration the quantities of bullion which circulate as money in California; the actual money there is that which has passed through the United States mint. Now, notwithstanding this great supply of money, the uses for it have multiplied immensely; California al one has taken off a very considerable quantity, and the west and south and east are com This gives an increase of near 200 millions dollars of United States coin since 1821. It will be observed that the gold coinage since 1821, is much larger than the domestic supply of the metal. It has been as follows: Thus, the co inage has been greater than the whole apparent supply, but it arises 1rom re-coinage from jewelry and ornaments melted up at the mint, and from the emigrant supplies of gold which do not enter into the official returns. Now, notwithstanding this apparent coinage of all the importation, the quantity of foreign coins in the market is large, and always in good supply. In order to show the nature of the supply, we take a table of the exports of coin from New-York for the months of July and August for two years: 576 E.plt.d C.i. United States coinage 1821 to 1851......... $176,341,149...... $21,804,777 1851................ 63,488,524 ------ 18,069,580 1832................. 32,407,296...... 35,000,000 Total............. $272,236,969...... $74,874,337 Domestic supply of gold, 1821 to 1852... $145,976,251 Excess imports of gold................. 56,287.048 Total supply, 1821 to 1852........... $202,263,299 11 coinage 11........... 204,699,516 APPENDIX.- U. S. STATISTICS. paratively well supplied with coin, where but a few years since there was none. Since 1840 over 8,000,000 souls have been added to the population of the United States, and according to the census the whole white population doubled between the years 1830 and 1850; that is to say, it rose from 10,537,378 at the former period to 19,619,366 in 1850. As in the last two years the increase has been more rapid, the probability is, that from - 1832 to 1852 the number of whites have quite doubled; a fact, which in itself, if the relative wealth and trade per year remained the same, would have required a doubling of the specie-that is to say, an addition of $80,000,000. But the productive wealth of the country, its industry and traffic, are very much more per head than they were in 1830. Thus, the exports of domestic produce from the country, were $6 per head in 1830, and 910 per head in 1851; the imports were $7 per head at the former period, and are now $11 per head. The property which came via the New-York canals to tidewater was under $10,000,000 in 1830, and was $55,000,000 in 1851. The production of coal and iron rose from nothing to $20,000,000; about the same with sugar in Louisiana. The production of cotton has increased from 1,000,000 bales to over 3,000,000 bales, say from $40,000,000 to $120,000,000 in value. The rail-road and canal traffic has increased $30,000,000 per annum, requiring a large currency. Manufactures and small trades have more than quadrupled. Under all these circumstances, if, at $8 per head, money was far from abundant in 1830, its relative abundance would not now be increased at $12 per head, which would give the amount now estimated in the country. viz: $240,000,000. But the increase in population, the extension of rail-roads, and the development of natural wealth, are growing with a more rapid pace than ever, and a proportional increased demand for currency must attend those circumstances for a long time to come. The shower of coin which has sprinkled over the face of the country, in the last two years, has but partially refreshed the thirsty soil. There was a want of money which is far from being satisfied, and the distribution of the money over the country has been most iniquitously retarded by the want of a mint in New-York, and once more Congress has adjourned, having dodged the most important measure to the material interests of the whole people which could have oecupied their attention.-Kettell. DFistic expo3t 3 Dom74 R es 53ti epo Oil, Sperm.galls. 17,087 Candles, tallow lb 715,674 Whale...... 184,094 Soap........... 3- 0,748 "Linseed..... 3,581 Tobacco manuf'd 191,211 Candis., sprm.clb. 56,925 Leather.......... 16,864 Fish, driede. - q 37,509 Shoes.......lapair 1,552 "pickled.bbls. 1,799 Cables...... cwt 737 M s kegs 85 Gunpowder..-lb 63,714 Staves &aheads.M 3,713 Salt........ bush 5,770 Shingles........ 616 Lead......... lb. 6,248 Boards....-.M ft. 44,491 Nails........... 2,694,886 Naval stores bbls. 2,764 Castings....... 13,806 Beef............ 1,652 Other Iron.-...$ 518,603 Tallow,....... lb. 546,767 Copper Goods..$ 15,287 Butter.......... 412,902 Drugs........... 56,008 Cheese......... 256,162) Cotton goods. —-$ $25,741 Pork....... bbls. 3,364 Flax............ 30 Hams..~......1b.1,237,919 A pparel --------- 1,432 Lard........... 7,83 6,1t53 Earthenware -... 1,128 Horses.......... 108 Combs & brushes$ 2f,976 Flour...... bbls. 5,511 Morocco........ 6,987 Corn....... bush 229,105 Fire engines.... 4,284 Corn meal..bbls. 3,398 Printing types.. 1,744 Bread.......... 1,369 Books and music 10.630 "1 ----....egs. 3.678 Paper......31,119 Potatoes..-..bush 66,058 Paints.......... 11,830 Apples......-bbls. 6,964 Glas........... 21,123 Rice........ tcs. 2!7,618 Tin............ 2,731' Cotton -----—.lb. 113,572 Pewter......... 488 Tobacco... hhds. IS8 Specie.......... 20,535 Hops......... lb. 1,119 Trunks......... 3,720 Spirits.....galls. 1,47!2 Bricks.......... 2,6i93 Beer........... 85,391 Coal........ tons 13,S32 Turpentine ------ 15,071 lee............ $ 18,320 Furniture...... $ 589,783 Coaches........ 17,717 Total value.....$5,239,276 Hats............ 873 In Amer. ves.... 5,039,768 Saddlery........ 5,1~22 Ex ports —-Foreign goods I. mport Specie......... $1,013,529 Gold......... $317,768 Worsted goods.. 10,982 Coffee....... lb 3,099,084 Silk goods...88,532 Copper ore -.- $ 8,740 Liniens......... 7,406 Copper.... pigs 2,331 Apparel........ 2,780 Cotton goods..$ 5,029 Nails -----—.lb. 4,000 Silk........... 5,435 Bran~dy..al.2,123 Plyg cards.pcks 15,588 Oil, linseed.... 3,311 Cabinet wood.. 97,580 Cocoa......lb. 98,343 Dye wood...11,505 Figs........... 33.374 Raw hides.... 5,379 Pepper........ 603,189 Cocoa -----—.lb. 32,898 Candles, tallow 1,600 Molasses..ga',ls.31,518,462 Stearine....... 10,200 Sugar, brn...Ib.275,327,497 Cordage....... ~29,326 " white... 2,274,194 S,alt..: -....bush. 71,721 Almonds....... 27.125 Fish, dried. cwt. 3,253 Indig~o......... 13,144 Fish...... bbll. 490 Tobacco...leaf 3.396,796 Cigars ------ M. 162,904 Tot. val. $1,284,487 Other tobac..lb. 22,460 Tn Am. yes. 1,279,244 Tot. val. $17,046,837 In. Am. yes. 15,615,951 Atlantic coast, east of Florida Cape 465 - 154,270 Gulf of Mexico, from Cape Florida to Rio Grande................... 109..23,241 Pacific Coast...................... 51.. 34,966 Mississippi River, exclusive of the Ohio Basin...................... 253.. 67,957 Ohio River and Basin.............. 348..67,601 Basin of the Northern Lakes...... 164.. 69,168 Total................... 1,300..416,526 This was the aggregate Steam Marine of the United States on the 1st of July, 1851, subdivided in the following classes: UNITED STATES -MANUFACTURES OF 1850.The following rough calculations have been published from the Census Office. The complete figures have not yet appeared: The entire capital invested in the various manu factures in the United States on the 1st of June, 1850, not to include any establishments produ cing less than the annual value of $500, amounted, in round numbers. to............... $530,000.000 Value of raw material................. 550.000.000 Amount paid for labor................. 240,000;000 Value of manufactured articles.......1,020,300,000 Number of persons employed,........... 1050.000 The capital invested in the manufac ture of cotton goods amounted to.... 74,501,031 Value of raw material,.................. 34.835,056 Amount paid for labor................. 16,286,304 Value of manufactured articles~........ 61,869,184 Number of hands employed,............ 92,28(} 37 N o.,Tonnge, Ocean Steamers................... 95 - 91,475 Ordinary steamers................ 1,145..275,000 Propellers........................ 119 - 27,974 Ferryboats........................ 130..22,744 The average tonnage of steamers of different classes is as follows: Ocean Steamers................. 953 tons average. Ordinary Steamers on the Coast.. 235 do. do. Ordinary Steamers on the Lakes. 503 do. do. Ordinary Steamers on the Rivers 235 do. do. Propellers on the Coast.......... 180 do. do. Propellers on the Lakes.......... 302 do. do. VOL. III. I i 577 UNITED STATES EXPORTS AND IMPORTS FROM CUBA-.1851. k UNITED STATES STEAM NIARINE. APPENDIX.-U. S. STATISTICS. The steamers of the Collins' line are some six feet deeper than the custom-house rule for calculating tonnage embraced in the calculation, which makes their actual tonnage about twenty-five per cent. more than their registered tonnage, demanded in the table. —Mr. Collints' Report. The Pacific Mail Steamship Companyhas, besides, in the Pacific, seven steamers of different tonnage, but aggregating near five thousand tons. They transport the mail only when exigencies make its transportation by them necessary or expedient.Sir. Aspinwall's Report. The capital invested in the manufacture of woolen goods amounted to........ Value of raw material,................ Amount paid for labor................. Value of product....................... Number of hands employed,........... The capital invested in the manufac ture of pig iron amounted to........ Value of raw material................. Amount paid for labor................ Value of product,..................... Number of hands employed,........... In making these estimates, the assistant marshals did not include any return of works which had not produced metal within the year, or those which had not commenced operations. The same is applicable to all manufactures enumera ted. Summary Statement of the value of the ExLorts of thke growth, produce, and manufacture of the United States, during the year commencing on the 1st day of July, 1850, and ending on the 30th of June, 1851: The capital invested inthemanufacture of castings amounted to.............$17.416.361 Value of raw material................... 10o,346.355 Amount paid for labor................. 7.078.920 Value of product,...................... 25,108.155 Number of hands employed............. 231589 The capital invested in the manufacture of wrought iron amounted to........ 13.995.220 Value of raw material................. 9.518,109 Amount paid for labor,................ 4.196.628 Value of product...................... 16,387.074 Number of hands employed.............. 13,057 Product of wood Staves, shingles, boards, scantling, hewn timber.. $2,348,621 Other lumber............. ~05,19C Masts and spars........... 70,09! Oak bark and other dye.... 355,477 All manufactures of wood. 2,076,39~ Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin, turpentine........ 1,063,84' Ashes, pot and pearl....... 649,09] Ginseng............................. Skins and furs........................ UNITED STATES MAIL STEAMERS. —-" From the Report of Senator Rusk, of Texas." The United States mail steamship lines in operation on the 1st of March, 1852; the names of the several steamers, where employed, their tonnage respec tively, and the date of their being first placed in service. Register Date of tom Name. tonnage. mencement. Tons. 95ths. *Washington.......- 1,641 00 June, 1847. *Hermann......... 1,734 00 March, 1848. ]Franklin..........2,184 00 October, 1850. tHumboldt -...... 2.181 00 May, 1851. tAtlantic...........3,845 66 April, 1850. tPacific............ 2,707 10 May, 1850. tArctic............ 2,856 75 October, 1850. tBaltic.............2,723 08 November, 1850. ~Falcon............ 891 18 December, 1848. SOhio..............2,432 23 September, 1849. ~Georgia...........2,727 42 January, 1850. 4Crescent City...... 1,291 00 April, 1851. ~E1 Dorado.........1,049 88 April, 1851. ~Empire City.......1,751 21 May, 1851. -Cherokee......... 1,244 89 May, 1851. 4Illinois............2,123 65 August, 1851. ~Philadelphia....... 1,238 10 October, 1851. I[California......... 1,058 00 October, 1848. [[Oregon............1,099 00 October, 1848. IlPanama........... 1,087 00 November, 1848. ITennessee........ 1,275 00,1849. IlGolden Gate,....... 2,068 00 —,1851. l Columbia,.......... 778 00 -., 1850. **Isabel............1,115 00 October, 1848. * Bewee NewYor 90 October, 1848 South —--------------—,0 * Between New-York and Bremen, via Southampton. t Between New-York and Havre, via Southampton or Cowes. Between New-York and Liverpool. Between New-York, Havana, New-Orleans and Chagres; New-York and Chagres, direct; NewYork and Chagrtes, touching at Kingston; and between New-Orleans and Chagres direct. [I Between Panama and Astoria, via San Diego, Monterey, San Francisco and Umpqua city. ** Between Charleston and Havana, via Savannah and Key West. 578 28.118.650 25.755,988 8.399.280 43.207.555 39.252 17,346.425 7.005.289 6.066.628 12,748.777 20.448 UNITED STATES.-Expor.TS, 1851. THE SEA. Fisheries Whale and other fish oil............. Spermaceti oil...................... Whalebone......................... Spermaceti candles..... Dried Fish or cod fisheries........... Pickled fish, or river fisheries, (her ring, shad, salmon, mackerel........ $882,485 1,044,967 689,662 195,916 367,729 113,932 3,294,692 THE FOREST. 6,768,711 100,549 977,762 7847,021 AGRICULTURB. Product of animals Beef, tallow, hides, horned cattle.................. $1,689,958 Butter and cheese........ 1 124,652 Pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard, live hogs............... 4,36,8,015 Horses and mules......... 198,155 Sheep..................... 18,875 7,399,655 Vegetable food Wheat.................. Flour................... Indian corn.............. IDdian meal............. .P ye meal................ Rye, oats, and other smal grain and pulse........ Biscuit or ship bread.... Potatoes...... .......... A pples.................. Rice................... 16,877,844 2,803 112,315,317. 9,21.91 51 29,114 Indigo........ Cotton.......... Tobacco........ Hemp........... All other agricul Flaxseed..... Brown sugar.. Hops........ 59,794 145,903,778 122-835 219,588 3,255 Wax............................... Reflned sugar......................... , Chocolate............................ APPENDIX.- U. S. STATISTICS. Earthen and stoneware............... 23,096 Combs and buttons................... 27,334 Brushes.............................. 8,257 Billiard tables and apparatus.......... 1,798 Umbrellas, parasols, sunshades........ 22,260 Leather and morocco skins (not sold per pound)........................... 13,309 Fire engines and apparatus............ 9,488 Printing presses and type............... 71,401 Musical instrumen ts.................. 55,700 Books and maps......................153,912 Paper and stationery...................155,664 Paints and varnish.................... 109,834 Manufactures of glass................. 185,436 T in..............................27,823 Pewter and lead.............. 16,426 Marble and stone.................. 41,449 Gold and silver and gold leaf....... 68,639 Gold and silver coin................... 18,069,580 Artificial flowers and jewelry......... 121,013 Trunks............................... 12,207 Brick and lime........................ 22,tl45 $34,413,206 U l d.55,Coal................................ 163,977 ThIc e..................................106,805 Articles not enumerated Manufactured....................... 3,793,341 Raw produce...................... 1,166,898 4,960,239 Total.....................,..$196,689,718 Spirits from grain..................... Spirits from molasses................. Molasses.............................. Yinegar.............................. Beer, ale, porter, cider................. Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine.... Household furniture.................. Coa ch e s and other carriages........... Hat s................................. Saddlery............................. Tallow candles and soap.............. Snuff and tobacco.................... Leather, boots and shoes.............. Cordage.............................. Gunpowder........................... Salt.................................. Lead.... Iron-pig, bar, and nails.............. Castings....................... All manufactures of............ Copper and brass..................... Medicinal drugs....................... Cotton piece goods Printed or colored........;. $1,006,561 Uncolored,............... 5,571,576 Twist, yarn, and thread.... 37,260 Other manufactures of.... 625,808 ______ UNITED STATES.-TONNAGE OF, 1850-51. Comparative view of the registered and enrolled tonnage of the United States; showing the tonnage em ployed in the whale fishery; also, the proportion of the enrolled and licensed tonnage employed in the coast ing trade, cod fishery, mackerel fishery, and whale fishery, from 1815 to 1851, inclusive. I Proportion of thle enrolled and licensed tonnage Registered employed in the..Total tage onnage in Coan erel Whale E Y~~~~rARS- | ~~~~~~whlalefisheryl trd [ Cod fishery| iey fisi hery: I______ Mackierel YEA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rS d fis,hery Tons and 95tlhs 1815. 7.............i................ 1,-}8,1'778 -- 435,066 87 26(,570 33 -- 1,229 92 1816............................. 1,37-2|21853 479,979 14 37,879 30 1,168 00 1817,.............. 4,871 41 481457 92 53990 26 349 92 1818..............,..'........... 1,225,184 16,134 77 503,140 37 58,551 72 - 614 63 181~~~~~~~~~~~59 2...........3.... -,9~1 1819..........1,260,75161 31,700 40.523,556 20 65,044 92 - 686 35 18-............................. 1,680,16624 35,39144 539,08046 60,84255 - 1,053 66 1821..............................1,.98958 71 66,070 559.434 57 51,351 49 1,924 40 1822...............................]1,3 2 4.69917 45,449 42i 573.080 02 58,405 35 3,133 50 1823.............................. 1,336,1565 6 8 39,91 8 13 566,408 88 67,621 14 585 37 1824.............................. 1,399,163 0 33,165 70 589,2230 1 68,41900 - 180 0 8 1825...........................1,46,17 35,379 24 587,273 07 70,626 0 2 1826............................... 1,534,189 83 41. 757 32 666,42044 63, 161 4 — 226 83 1 827....................... 1, 620,6 07 7 45 6 5321 6 7 4,2, 0 48 81 2 338 94 1837.............................1 9665650 241 8 5,8 08,5 94,1 0 1848 1838.............1,741.391 87 6981.54,621 08 758,922 1 2 74,947 74 180 34 1829..............................260797 81 57,8 4 38 508,858 10 101,796 7 8 180....................21676 i 1696 411;76,6-446760506 8,569 19- -- 1830..............................,191,776 4 3 911 82 516,978 18 C1,55 4 57 35,973 38 79 87 1831............................... 11267,846 29 82 315 7 539,723 74 60.977 8 1 46,210 80 481 82 1832............................1,429,450 211 72,868 84 649,627 40 54027 70 47,427 77, 21 7 377 47 1833..............................1,606,14 9 941 101, 158 17 744,19 8 60 62,720 70 48,725 431 478 39 1834.............................. 1,758,907 14 108,060 14 783, 618 65 56,403 70 61,082 111 364 16 18 3 5...........................8...,84,940 141 97,640 00 792,201 20 72,37 4 18 64,443 111 - 1836.............................. 1,8-/),10)2 651 144.680 50 873,023 21 63,307 37 64,425 251 1,573 26 1837.............................. 1,896,685 69 127,241 81 956,980 60 80,551 89 46,810 901 1,894 86 1838.............................. 1,995.639 80 119 629 891,041,105 18 70,064 00 56,649 16 5,229 55 1839...............................2,096,478 81 131,845 51,153,551 80 72,58 68 3,983 87 439 69 18 4... 2,180.764 16 136,926 6411,176,694 46 76,035 65 28,?69 19 _ 1841........................... 2,130,744 37 157,40 1401711,107,1J67 88 66.551 84 11,321 13 - 1 8 42................................. 2,092.390 69 151,612 74 1,045,753 39 54804 02 16.096 83 377 31 1843.......2...............601 93 152,374 8611,076,155 59 61,2-24 25 11,775 70 143 33 1844.......................,280,(195 07 168,Q93 63 1,109,614 44 85,224 77 16,170 66 321 14 184......................5 2,417,002 06 190,695 65 1,190,898 27 69,825 66 21,413 16 206 92 ! E, 4 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~2.56-21084 81 186,980 1611.289,870 89 72,516 17 36,463 16 439 58 .2,839.045 77 193,958 7211,452,623 35 70,177 52 31,451 13 - 18 48 3,154.941 85 192,179 9011,620,988 16 82,651 8'2 43,558 78 432 75 1 8 4 9 3,334,015 29 180,186 2911,730.410 84 42,970 19 73,853 78 18 5 0 3.535,454 23 146,016 7111,755,796 42 85,646 30 58 111 94 1 8 51..... 3,772,439 43 181,644 5211,854,317 90 87,475 89 50,539 02 579 36,084 239,622 16.830 16,915 57,975 145,410 362,830 199.421 103,768 30,100 609,732 1,143,547 458,838 52,054 154,257 61,424 1 i,774 215,652 164,4'25 1,875,621 91,871 351,585 I a 7,241,205 1,647 - 6,376 1,211 894 Hemp and flax Cl,th and thread.................... Bags and all manufactures of........ Wearing apparel..................... lI APPENDIX.-U. S. STATISTICS. UNITED STATES COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.-From the latest accounts prepared at the Treasury of the United States, and published by order of Congress, we collect and arrange the following: The number of American vessels which cleared for foreign countries during the year ending June 30, 1851, was 9,274, of 3,200,519 tonnage, with a crew of 113,640 nlen, and 3,427 boys. The number of foreign vessels 10,712,1,929,535 tons, 89,659 men, and 1,920 boys. Total clearances, American and foreign, 19,986 vessels, 5,130,054 tons, 303,299 men, and 5,356 boys. The number of American vessels which entered in the same time was 8,951, 3,054,349 tons, 113,471 men, 3,116 boys. Number of foreign vessels 10,759, 1,939 091 tons, 90,796 men, 1,831 boys. Total American and foreign entered, 19,710 vessels, 4,993,440 tons, 204,267 men, 4,937 boys. STATEMENT OF FOREIGN IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES, YEAIR ENDING 1ST JULY, 1851. Free of duty paty;gdatiec; Total. eaa alw Russia....................... |36,344 $1,356,438 $1,392,782 $1,007,981 Prussia.............................,.- 20,542' 20,542 15:,392 Sweden and Norway......... 581 956 656 967,837 161,1169 Swedish West Indies.......... 19,587 9,414 29,001 28,654 IDanish West Indies.................16,096 219,798 235,894 203,055 De nmark..........................- 38,887 38,887 Hance Towns...................... 297,949 9,710,4151 10,008,364 5,098,915 Ho l l a n d...........................183-917 1,668 7891 2,052,71:6 771,761 Dutch East Indies............. 208,356 201,792 2 45i20,14 8 410,148 Dutch West Indies........... 38.970 533,500( 572,470 539,501 Dutch Guiana................ 89,673 89,673 89,673 Belgium............................! 5,84l12,371,790 2,377,631) 1,840,031 England........................... 2,283,4)2 88,328,786 90,612,238 65,984,122 Scotland........................... 3,097 2.996,613 2,999,710 1,745,368 Ireland............................ 1,]04 1234,834 235,938, 26.589 Gibraltar........................... 465 73,139 73,(-,041 13,292 Malta.............................. 248 25,919 26,167 12,81'5 Bri'ish East Indies................. 54,677 3,281,658 3,336,335 3,309,967 Cape of Good Hope..................... 1,3001 121,923 123,223 121,663 British Hon duras................... 18, 2581, 156,26 8 174,26 143,751 3 British Guiana.................... 25,904 18.309 44,213 40,517 British WestC Indies................ 302,280 701,591 1,003,871 533,043 British American Colonies...........161,367 1,576,284 1, 736 65 1 210,270 Other British Colonies................- 132 132 132 Canada............................ 1,529,685 3,426 786 4,956,471 2,360,174 France on the Atlantic.............. 397,164 29,391,960 29 789,124 28,153.261 France on the Mediterranean....... 3,538 1,922,891 11926,429 775,308 French Guiana...................... 11,100 17,948 28,948 28,948 French West Indies............ 18,914 8,995 2",909 14,146 Spain on the Atlantic.........., 4,807p1 446,990 451,797' 229,269 Spain on the Mediterranean........... 10,383- 1,700.393 1,710,776l 1,071,076 Teneriffe and other Canaries...........- 27,718l 27,7181 11.301 Manilla and other Philippine Islands. 20,582 1,234,106 1,254-6881 1,181,2' 5 Cuba............................. 661,]72 16,385,7591 17,046,931 15,615,957, Other Spanish West Indies........... 175,087 2,305,242i 2,480,329 2,220,132 Portugal............................ 150 367,398 367,548 26,480 Madeira............................ 29 102.419 102,448 88,846 Fayal and other Azores............. 22,793 10,059; 32,852 32,122 Cape de Verds................... 6811 1,169 1,8501 1,850 -85 Italy............................. 23,0321 2,028,865i 2,051.897, 1,148,298 Sici y............................. 3,866, 822,0581 825,92,4, 423,907 Sardinia...........I 2501 2,552 2,8021 121 Trieste and other Austrian ports..... 9,862 721,9261 730,788, 47,210 Turkey............................ 10,195 891.041 l 901,2261 718,39 2 Hayti............................. 1,315,689 574,279; 1,889,968' 1,664,591 Mexico.........................l 59 693,120 1,804,779! 1,446,095 Central Republic of Americ a...... 26,521 123 l33 149 8561 137,4'4 New Grenada....................... 518,523 177,083 695 6061 667,284 Venezuela......................... 1,481,946 898,349 2,380,2951 2,037,576 Brazil............................ 8,889,131 2,636,173 11,52i,304: 8,891,58 2 Cisplatine Republic............. 1,56(0 17, 5541 19,114 1 Argentine Republic................. 101 3,265.281 3,265,3821 1,915,289 Chili.............................. 76,821 2,657.925 2,734,7461 2,734,746 Peru.............................. 48,085 46,648 c)4,7331.63,574 Equador............................ 806 75,886i 76,692' 76.692 South America generally.............39,700 129 39,829 10,200 China............................ l 4,638,170 2,426,9741 7,065,1441 6,413,206 Africa generally....................184,384 978,7921 1,163,1761 1,091,661 West Iudies generally... 25,751 25,7511 25,751 South Seas and Pacific Ocean........... 1,172 1,126, 2,2981 2,298 Sandwich Islands....................10,337 6,515 16,8121 16,852 Tt25,106,587 191,118,345-216,224,932 163,650,543525489 Tot al.......................... 25,106,587191,118,345,216,224,932 163,650,54~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. In fore,gn b'rm. dominions vessels of each power, $384,801 $1,392!,782 5,150 20,542 806,168 996,238 347I 31,131 t 274,78 l 38,887i 4,909.449 10,008,364 1,280,945' 32,969 k 3,124,997 537,599 2,377,630 24,628,116 1,254,342 209,349 60,312 13,362 26,368 1,560 105,323,079 30,775 3,696 470.828 1,526,381 2,596,297 ) 1,635,863 ] 1,151,121 f 31,767,410 8,763 222,528! 639,700 73,463 ~ 22,97'2,239 1,430X974 260,197 J 341,068 13,6021 730! 504,698 9(18,599 2,051.897 402,017 825,924 2,6)81 2,802 683,578. 730,788 182,844! 901, (36 225,3771 1,889,968 358,6841 1,804.779 12,43:2 149,856 2~8.322 695,606 342,719 2,380).295 2,633,722 11,525,304 19,114 19,114 1,350,093, 3,~65,382 2,734,746 31,159' 94,733 - 76,692 ~29,629! 39,829 651,938; 7,06.5,144 71,515 1,163,176 25,751 a_2,298 16.852 I I I I 580 AD VALOREM. WHENCE IMPORTED. )l52,574,3891 216,224,932 APPENDIX.-UNITED STATES.-EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, 1851. Statistical view of tke Commerce of tke United States, exhzkibiting tke value of Ezports to and Imports from eack foreign country, and the tonnage of merican and foreign vessels arriving from and departing, dur ing tke yuar ending June 30, I851. COMBIERCE. NAVIGATION. Value ot' Exsposts. Amcer~cas Tosnnae. For*-ien Toonnage. COUNTRIES. Total Talon Ieces tleareoa ronesod Cleared tram Foreign dof imports the United the United the United, the United !p dmstic" andt. _ ~~~~prnodce loreigo States States Sttn Sae Russia - ____ - - PRussia...................$145,9871'$1,611,691 $1,392,782 9,8171 9,24 1 3,266 3,239 Prussia................... 5,444! 85,913 20,5121 262' 184 704 1,635 Sweden and Norway....... 21,566i 782,366 967,2371 2,669i 1,545 25,225 9,098 Swedish West-Indies...... 785t 61,902 29,001, 278) 1,319 -- Denmark................. 19,540' 111,797 38,887 - 199 544 2,086 Danish West Indies........560 1028289 235,894 1,3860 18,233 5.052 4,175 Hanse Towns.............. 641,491t 6,047,447 10,008,364? 21,734 16,696 90,539 69,724 Holland................... 284.054~ 2,195,169 2,052,706 11,417 9,239 18,262 26,014 Dutch East Indies......... 43,140! 247,570 410,148 3,3291 3,016 150 5,651 Dutch West Indies........ 138,089! 504,987 572,470i 15,923: 7,687 7,663 806 Dutch Guiana............. 5,5821 91,073 89,673 4,2221 4,927 763 524 Belgium.................. 142,619 2,852,012 2.377,630! 16,578[ 17,654 7,524 3,8'29 England.................. 8,151,266] 113,273,1871 90,612,2381 619,5921 6zl,56~ 411,6119 274,283 Scotland.................. 261,937 4,072,940 2,999,710 18,219: 18,508 46,215 22,987 Ireland................... 1,200: 599,888 235,938 5,488J 3,142 74,021 12,618 Gibraltar.................. 52,529 230,433 73,604) 509; 39900 1,114 1,962 Malta......................12,238! 76,299 26,167 300 1,097 694 746 British East Indies........ 175,484 688,390 3,326,335' 29,9 71 49,216 2,813 2,964 Cape of Good Hope.......... 161.891 123,223 1,2231 2,501 238 827 Mauntius................. 2,9761 19.858 - -. British Honduras.......... 23,362i 237,168? 174,526' 3,055 3,933 2,524 5,125 British Guiana............ 3,734 544,288, 44,213 2,781 12,001 1,567 4,220 British West Indies........ 159,949 4,103,5091 1,003,871 58,353 88,534 43,315 42,437 Canada.................... 2,093,306 7,929,140) 4,956 471 1,013,275 927,013, 514,383 516,883 British American Colonies. 861,230 41081,783, 1,736,651 62,458 108,215: 36,11,218 592,507 Other British Colonies..... 132 - France on the Atlantic.....2,814668 2731735 29,789,124 135,696 147,093: 26,498 12,533 France on the Mediterran.. 135,393 870,411? 1,926,429 7,146 16,614! 14,656 10,027 French West Indies........ 20,702 81 22,909 3,983 10'888} 2,353 871 Miquelon and French fisher. - 3,715i - - 6721 - 2,072 French Guiana.............651 46,344i 28,948 681 1,0(16 -- - Bourbon..................: 1.,87 5 1 i - - French possessions inAfrica' - - - 194 Spain oni the Atlantic...... 0959,788 451,797 9,940 14,688 5,547 12,424 Spain on the Mediterranean 1 4,594,803! 1.710,776 15,101 9,576! 19,590 44,014 Teneriffe and other Canaries 5639? 19,179 27,718 309 753: 746 157 Manilla&Philippine Islands 13'2.544' 1,254,688 9,933 15,134 2,549 4,805 Cuba..................... 1,284,847 6.524,123 17,046. 931 355,53,162 29,942 6.5413i] 7!51317 Porto Rico& othr Span.W. 1. 57,209, 1,018,619! 2,480,320 48,336 36,320 7,874 6,013 Portugal 4,906 179,338 367,548 961 2,4701 5,175 5,176 Madeira................... 7 1761 101,765; 1(.2,448 1,0681 3,379! 137, 1314 Fayal and other Azores.... 1.0451 el')85' 32,852 1,864' 1,53'2t 678 723 Cape de Verd Islands.. 2;437 59,913 1,850 111? 1,505, - 730 Italy generally............ 107,406 1,8947040 0,051,89 -- Tuscany.................. - - 5,210: 1 513t 4,710 485 Sicily.......................8,193 49-936 825.924 27,178 20,8481 16,473 1,916 Sardinia.................. 19,401 330,289' 2,802 168 6,741 6,204 8,479 Pontifical States..... - 310 - Trieste & othrAustri~annports' 230 894 2,496.467; 30,788 10,179 6,281 13,371 Turkey, Levant, & c. 65)529 227,733 901,236! 6,7041 4,2681 2,109 Greece..............- 2071 -- Hayti..................... 167,918 1,847,2900 1,889,968 39,940! 33,1531 7,820 7.586 Mexico..... 567,098 1,581.783; 1,804,779 29,407, 31,0191 12,701 20,145 Central America..' 9,089 062,391i 149,85 6 8,550 27,565 209 4,406 New Grenada.......... 533.121 3 040 8'2: 695,606 166,375 205,3901 9.960 12,585 Venezuela............... i89,746 1 044,525! 0,380,295 17,103 11,761 2,738 2,891 B-olivia.................... 383 189 9541 129 Brazil.3,752,916 11,525,304 63,663? 63,629 22,420 7,648 Argentine Republic....... 414,9160 1.074,76S 3,265,380 13,382! 11,661 11,005 5,185 Cisplatine Republic........ 13,078' 45,789 16,114 1541 1,320 1,997 947 Chili................... 286,4286 1.895,305 2,734,746 30,068? 48,140, 23,396 41,657 Peru........................2,338'272,095 94,733 20,10z 18,920 5,751 13,519 China..................... 329,342,485,287 7,065,144 27,587) 46,3171 11,327 10.,198 West Indies generally.... 76,936 25.751 - i Equador..... - -- 76,692 586! i19 410 568 South America generally... 40,715 76,911i 39,809 2451 1,768 1,185 - Liberia....... -........57 --- Africa generally........... 65,283 1,340,644' 1,163,176! 2,675 12,978 1,035 595 Asia generally............I 1,375 71,9611 - - - - - South Seas & Pacific Ocean{ 95,832 666,978! 2,298 48,501 54,678 1,040 4.013 Sandwich Islands......? 381 381 16,852! 18,992 36,390 3,215 12,008 Australia.....................- -- - 6,3811 7,832 27,168 25,228 Northwest Coast...........- - - - 137! 1,960 - - Greenland................ - 6 - Atlantic Ocean................- i — i - 3,077/ 6,960 -- -- Ionian Islands I 8,9, 4,506 - - Uncertain placeil............ — - - -102 - - 46 Total..................21,698,931 210,388,011!-216,224,932j 3,054,349, 3,200,519 1,939,091 1,929,585 581 1 I APP'ENDIX.otr.- S. STATISTICS. UNITED STATES.-NATIONAL CHARACTER OF FOREIGN VESSELS ENTERED OR SAILED FROM U. S. YEAR ENDING JULY, 185]. RECAPITULATION. Statistics of the Militia Force of the United States compiled from the latest returns, together with the number of permanent or fixed Military Posts or Forts, and the number of Arsenals in each state. 1852. SAI. N Teasr eTd 1 Tons N.o T".ns Total N.. af Non.C. dmissianed Commissinond Officers, Officers Masiciana and Agre. States and Territories Privatea gats Maine.............. 183.... 62,850.... 62.588 New-Hampshire.... 1.348.... 30.803.... 32,151 Massachusetts...... 549.... 119,141.- -. 119.690 Vermont..........1,088.... 22.827.... 23.915 Rhode Island.-......: 78.... 14.365.... 14,443 Connecticut........ 456.... 51,193.... 51.649 New-York.........- 7.662.... 257.631.... 265.293 New-Jersey........ 1.988.... 37.183.... 391171 Pennsylvania....... 7.518.... 268.552.... 276,070 Delaware........... 447. 8,782.... 9.229 Maryland......... 2.397.... 44.467.... 46,864 Virginia........... 6.494.... 118.634.-.. 125.128 North Carolina..... 4.267.... 75.181.... 79.448 South Carolina..... 2.591 52,618.... 55,209 Georgia............ 3,092... 54.220.... 57.312 Florida............ 620.. 11,502.... 12.,122 Alabama............ 2.832.. 73,830.... 76.662 Louisiana.........1,392. 42.431..-. 43.823 Mississippi 825... 35,259.... 36.084 Tennessee.......... 3,607 ---- 67,645.... 71,252 Kentucky...........4.805... 77.035.... 81.840 Ohio................ 2,051.... 174.404.... 176.455 Michigan.......... 2.,793... 61.145.... 63.938 TIdiana............ 2,861 51,052.... 53.918 Illinois............. 4.618. 165,741.... 170.359 Wisconsin......... 1.804.... 30,399.... 32,203 Iowa................ - - --.. Missouri...........3.919:::- 57,081[... 61.000 Arkansas........... 1.109... 16,028.... 17.137 Texas............ — 1,248... 18.518.... 19.766 California. —------- Minnesota............ 7 1,996.:.. 2.003 Oregon............. —.......Utah........ 217.... 2.358.... 2,575 New-Mexico....... —... Dist. of Columbia.. 96.... 1,158.... 1,248 Total.......74.962.... 2.105.524....2.180,486 12,66 7 18,313 65,689 8,427 .110,570 19,965 5,,560 2,934 2.011 11596 1,552,170 26,608 41,266 4.424 8,125 15,075 7,307 4,053 1,862 2,21!2 1,574 884 5,811 1,728 5,578 139 7O4 539 838 916 1,929,535 UNITED STATES.-NuR NON oJ VESS8LS BUILT IN, YEAR E~NDING JULY, 1851. Maine...... 1001 45 94 9 4 254 N. H.... 71 - 1 5 0 T 7, s d 5 b Ve rmont... -esse s- em Mass...... - 4 78 1 1334 1! 4 3 11 R. Island. 3 1 4' ~3 5 0 t ad n t e 3 l u e Conn 25,1...... I- 17227 35 N. York..' 215 2! 61 88 54 2-9 N. Jersey.. 1I 47, 20 2 7 0 Penn. 4 3i 14 103 76- 200 Delaware - 1 7 4 31 15 Maryland.. 15 10 101 4! 130 D. ofCol. _ i 1 71 8.. 174 V irginia.... 13 714 4 p in N. Carolina 12 1u — ] 33 -1 S. Carolina. 4- i — 4,5 Georgia.... 2 -2 1n 36 Florida.. 41 2 3 4 Alabama. — 2 3 - 5 3 Mississippi' - -- Louisianar..l- ve em —24 Te n inesse. -- Kentucky..3 -4 on t J 38 Illinois.6..3 1 3 -546 3T Missouri. 26 6! 15 25 Michigan 1.. Wisconsin..;,T r v l California.. 1 1 Total.... -11 65! 2 - 6 2.q3[1,3'57 UNITED STATES.-TONNAGE ON 30TH JUNE, 1851. T t I 211 65 522 326 2331,357298,233 60 - 592 UNITED STATES MILITIA. ENTERED AND SAILED. N. Russian 42 Prussian 47 Swedish. 199 Danish....... 43 Hanseatic.... 286 Dutch......... 69 Belgian........ 24 Nlecklenburg... 12 Oldenburg...... 12 Hanoverian.... 7 British......... 9,489 French......... 95 Spanish.......'176 Portuguese...... 18 Austrian. 15 Sardinian...... 57 Sicilian........ 21 Mexican. "' 36 Tenezuelan.... 9 Brazilian....... 9 New-Grenadiaii-i 9 Argentine...... 7 Cisplatine...... 3 Chilian......... -6 Hawaiian...... 16 Peruvian, 17 Tahitien...... Equadorian..:. 5 Cent. American I Lubec..........I 5 Italian.........1 3 Pontifical....... Total 10,7 59 17,579 15'622 62,686 8,662 109,108 21,7t,S 7,7.54 3,.96.5 2,898 1,312 1,559,869 25,252 44,592 3,328 (i :.13 141,46 5,391 4,042 1,445 2,681 '2,006 1,427 646 6,044 2,00,2 4,163 1,533 66 1,445 486 310 1,939,091 30 60 207 41 298 66 18 10 10 5 9,423 100 168 23 20 54 29 38 10 8 7 5 27 14 23 2 i 4 4 3 5 10,712 77,398 49 8,158 06 561 29 41,323 93 3,056 60 3,414 20 76,805 02 5,869 40 28,68 12 2,058 47 18 1027 04 41439 17 1,778 31 1,7,24 8 .' 625 1 2 2,P,69 1 5 275 5 3 3,54 62 5!,327 05 225 1 0 8,861 49 313 56 2,066 04 6'035.51 1,365 92 76 39 69 69 298,203 60 T.....d 95th. The registered vessels em ployed in the foreign I trade on the 30th June, 1851................... J,726,307 28 The enrolled vessels em ployed in the coasting trade on the 30th June, 1851.................. The licensed vessels em I)Ioyed in the coasting trade, under twenty tons, on the 30th June, 1851................... 45,658 36 -- 1,899,976 31 The enrolled vessels em ployed in the cod fishery on the 30th June, 1851. The enrolled vessels em ployed in the mackerel fishery on the 30th June, The enrolled vessels em ployed in the whale fishery, on the 30th June 1851................... 87,475 89 50,539 02 APPENDIX.-U. 8. STATISTICS The licensed vessels, under twenty tons, employed in the cod fishery on the 30th June, 1851......,. 8,140 88 -- - 146,155 84 ~ Total............... 3,772,439 43 Licensed tonnage, under twenty tons, employed in the coasting trade. 45,658 36 Licensed tonnage, under twenty tons, employed in the cod fishery... 8,140 88 Total licensed tonnage, under twenty tons... - 53,799 29 Total............... 3,772,439 43 The registered tonnage em:-'yed in the whale fishery on the 30th June, 1851................... 181,644 52 The registered tonnage employed other than in the whale fishery on the 30th June, 1851........ 1,544,662 66 1 o 3 - 1,726,307 23 Of the enrolled and li censed tonnage, there were employed in the Coasting trade......... 1,854,317 90 Cod fishery............ 87.475 89 Mackerel fishery......... 50,539 02 Whale fishery........... e - - o1,992,332 86 The aggregate amount of the tonnage of the U. S. on the 30th June, 1851. Of the registered tonnage, amounting, as stated above, to 1,726,307 23 tons, there were em ployed ill steam naviga tion................... 62,390 13 Of the'enrolled licensed tonnage, amounting, as stated above, to 1,992, 332 86 tons, there were employed in steam navi gation................. 521,216 87 Total tonnage in steam navigation........... 583,607 05 Whereof Permanent registered tonnage............. 1,351,193 14 Temporary registered tonnage............. 375,114 09 Total registered tonnage 1,726,307 23 Permanent enrolled and licensed tonnage 68epoe 1,979,540 68i m Temporary enrolled and licensed tonnage..... 12,792 18 Total enrolled and li censed tonnage.......... 1,992,332 86 UNITED STATES. —STATEMENT EXIIBITING A CONDENSED VIEW OF THE TONNAGE OF THE SEVERAL DISTRICTS OF THE UNITED STATES ON THE 30TH JUNE, 1851. Total tonnage District of each di strict Buffalo Creek.... N.Y. 43,603 13 Sag Harbor...... " 12,808 00 Greenport........ " 7,391 11 New-York....... "931,193 74 Cape Vincent.... " 2,496 19 Cold Spring......" 2,608 12 Perth Amboy.... N.J. 22,765 89 Bridgetown......" 14,835 07 Burlington......." 6,797 05 Camden.........9. " 15,663 41 Newark............ " 5,773 33 Little Egg Harbor. " 6,639 26 Great Egg Harbor. " 16,421 79 Philad,lphia...... Pa. 222,428 90 Presque Isle. " 8,210 35 Pittsburg........ " 53,734 34 Wilmington...... Del. 6,816 67 New-Castle....... i; 5,064 19 Baltimore........... Md.160,511 94 Oxford.......... " 12,636 45 Vaienna...........'ina" 14,469 87 Snow Hill........ " 9,851 59 1 St. Mary's....... " 2,290 48 Town Creek.47 v....' 2,1224 73 Annapolis....... 2,659 58 Georgetown...... D.C. 22,903 46 Alexandria...... Va. 10,111 87 Norfolk.......,.. 23,661 25 Peter.sbtirg...... " 2,927 41 Richmond....... " 6,835 14 Yorktown........" 5,241 52 Tappahannock... " 5,659 69 Accomack C. I.. 4,3,il 78 East River........" 1,650 84 Yeocomico....... " 3,388 57 Cherrystne...... " 1,037 16 Wheeling........" 3,923 89 Wilmington.... N. C. 12,387 45 Newbern...49...... 5 4,89l 65 Washington......" 6,615 58 Edenton......... " 1,128 08 Camden........ " 12,310 52 Passamaquoddy... Me. 25,349 38 Machias......... "2,876 88 Frenchman's Bay. " 34,899 86 Penobscot........ " 40,809 25 Belfast........... " 44,835 22 Bangor........... 7,571 64 Waldoborough... "103,593 51 Wiscasset........ " 19,718'2'6 Bath............ i103,795 91 Portland......... " 97,571 70 Saco............ " 2,825 88 Kenuebunk...... i' 11,204 44 York............ " 1,263 (i6 Portsmouth...... N. ff. 25,427 54 Burlington....... Vt. 3,932 31 Newburyport.... Mass. 26,706 80 Ipswich.......... " 492 55 Gloucester........ " 23,436 11 Salem............ " 30,498 78 Beverly.......... " 3,948 36 Marblehead...... " 4,351 51 Boston............342,936 09 Plymouth........ " 10,723 10 Fall River....... " 12,070 50 New-Bedford..... "131,409 46 Barnstable.......... 72,997 44 Edgartown...... " 8,079 19 Nantucket....... s 26,752 71 Providence....... R. I. 15,552 55 Bristol........... " 12,177 63 Newport......... " 10,320 19 Middletown...... Conn. 12,757 53 New-London..... " 40,407 67 Stonington....... " 20,302 5L New-Haven....... " 18,308 44 Fairfield......... " 24,403 60 Champlain....... N. Y. 4,207 70 Sackett's Harbor. " 7,105 93 Oswego.......... ". 26,323 91 Niagara.......... 605 94 Genesee......... " 686 01 Oxwegatchie........ 1,985,34 I i i I i 583, 3,772,439 43 T' t.1 t... z,- f .f di.t,.Ilt T.Ll t.... g,, Beaufort......... N 0. 2,414 24 Plymouth........ 2,bO7 00 Ocracoke........ 1,428 15 Charleston....... S.C.31,910 27 Georgetown...... 11 3,77 19 Beaufort......... 14 - Savannah. -.. -.. - Ga. 22,265 69 Sunbury......... 11 - Brunswick....... 11 489 67 Hardwick........ 14 - St. Mary's........ " 1,429 87 Pensacola.. la. 9,;322 79 St. Augustine.... St.Mark's........ 281 60 St. John's..... -.. 309 92 Appalachicola.... 2,050 36 Key West... - - - - - 4,400 10 Mobile........... Ala. 27,327 01 Pearl River...... Miss. I,Q36 21 Vicksbur 168 48 New-Orl ans La. 251,9()O 14 Teche...:.:: 11 1,384 79 Nashviiie..... Tenn. 3,587 67 Louisville........ Ky. 12,937 90 St. Louis......... Mo. 34,(16i 46 Chicago. - - - - - - - - - 111. 23,103 45 Cuyahoga........ Ohio 36,0', 050 Sandusky........ 4,858 38 Cincinnati........ 14,187 18 Miami........... 3,236 13 Detroit.......... Mich. 40,319 46 Michilimackinac,.., 1,455 40 Galvestoit........Texas 3,667 16 Point Isabel...... 657 49 Saluria...... 588 52 Astoria.... -.:::: O'g. 1,063 43 SanFrancisco.... Cal. 58,063 54 Sonora........... 44 372 43 Milwaukle........ Wis. 2,946 10 3,772,439 43 Di,,t,,irt APPENDIX.-U. S. STATISTICS. STATEMENT OF DOMESTIC EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES, YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1851. L VALUE OF DOMESTIC EXPORTS. Russia......................$1,187,116 $7,8 $14574 $,6,4 Prussia...........................................5,152 537 8,6 Sweden and Norway............................1869 5351 7Q0 8195 Swedish West Indies..............:................ 58,924 223 615 Denmark........................2,913 934 9,5 9,4 D~anis,h West indies.............................804,909 9,7 9068 Hanse Towns....................................550.542,5,1,0,5 0,1 Ifolland......................711,724,9.9,1,1 D~uich East Indies................................ 168' 226 624 2440 25 D~utch West Indies............................... 341,39i 551 3689,3 D~utch Guiana....................................85,491 54J Belgiu................................2,335,0i 7436 2799: 2,039 England........................................72,200,571 3,2.5 0,2,2 Scotland......................................2,004,306 38667 38ioo Ireland........................................203,335 9,5 9,8 Gibraltar........................................ 91,616 8,8 7,0 Malta...........................................60o 261 380 6,6 British East Indies................................ 4.'1l670 5,3 1,0 Cape of Good Hope.............................158,666,2 6,9 2,2,6 Mauritius...........................................1,8 168 Honduras........................... 19050 British Guiana.......................384,266 1628 4,5 British West 2nis...............2292,923 16Q67,4,6 Canada.......................................3,585,571 22526 58383 'British American Colonies.......................492.627 27196 32455 France on the Atlantic..........................23,864,292 0,7 45716 France on the Mediterranean.....................588,l2 1484' 7308 French West Indies............................... i 217,319 7;6i 8,7 56 Miqu,-lon and other French Fisheries................3,715,1,2 French Gan..................45,693 - 469 Bourbon......................................... 16,607 3241 1'53 Spain on the Atlantic... 759 3 9860 5,13 Spain on the Mediterranean.......................87 638 4,6,63 4,533 Teneriffe and other Canaries.......................8,76a 475 150I 1,5,1 IV4anilla and Philippine Islands....................12)544.,15144 Cuba......................................... 5,039,718 19,5, 5,3,7 Other Spanish West Indies.....................861.......024; 1861,11 Portugal........................................83,945 8,9 ~ 4 Madeira................................6,15 9,89 33,474 Fayn1 and other Azores.............................15,411 4,2 204 Cape de Verd Islands..............................57,46 -l 5476J Italy generally..................................906,79l 8003! 17384 1,3,3 Sicily............................................3 o 38,430 4,43 4,4 Sardinia.......................136,361 14P7 1,8 1,8 Trieste and other Austrian Adriatic po)rts.........1,465,822 9,~,6,7,6,7 Turkey, Levant, &c..............................300 162.0 12,04 Ilayt.................................1,380.447 2992 6737 16737 91617 2 1 4 3 Ceniral Republic of Amrc............217691 561 2,0 2 0 New Grenada...........................413 2,507701 2,50,70 Venezuela........................................... 7 57 Brazil....................... -..... -... —.......2,841,983 8,7,2,5,2,5 Cisplaline Rpbi................25,804 690 3271 3,1 Argentine Republic...............................463,535' 9,1 5,5 5 5 Chili..........................................1,581,798 Peru.............................................186,,3211 6 4 4,6 4,6 i ~~~~~~~~~~~China...... 52,111.0291 496 2,5595 2194 West Indies Nray..............................761 South America generally...... 36,196 3,9 Asia generally............................ - 70,586 Africa generally............................... 1,175049 7 South Seas and Pacific Ocean... 601,146,1 01 Total..... $137,934,539 Dutc Eas Inies........................l 16,27 Dutch est Inies......................... i 31,9 Du t c h Guiana. [ 85,49J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f Belgum................................I2,3 5,7 England........................................ 72,200,571~~ Sc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~otln....................,0,0 Irelnd................................ 20,36 Gibrltar............................... 9161 Malta.................................... 6,263 British Eat Indies............................ 41,7 Cape f Goo Hop......................... 18,67 Mauriius................................2 Hondras.............................. 19,52 Britsh uian........................... 38,26 Britsh estIndis.......................,29,95 Canada....................................3,5,7 Britsh Aericn Clonis................... 42,67 Franc on he Alantc...................... 3,6,9 Franc on he Mditeranen.................. 8~,7 Frenh Wet Inies........................ 21,35 Miqueon ad oter FenchFishries............3,74 ]FrenchGuiana.............................. 45,61 Bourbn.................................. 6,0 Spain on the Atlantic............................. 759,851 Spai on he Mditeranen.................... 8,65 Tonerifle and other Canar~~~~~~~~~~~~ie............876 Manilia and Philipine Islands.................. 21.4 Cuba....................................5,03,74 OtherSpanih Wes Indis..................... 81.27 Portgal................................. 3,4 Madeira......................................... 68,474~ Fayaland therAzors...................... 5,43 Capede Vrd slans...................... 5,43 Ital genraly........................... 90,79 Siciy....................................38 Sardinia........................................ ~~~~~~~13636 Triete nd oherAustianAdraticpors........,46,82 Turkey, Levnt~ &c..........................16,0 Bria zil 2,81,987,1 CiuspaineRpbi...............,E.............. 25,80~ Swedentine NRwayli...............,................ 46393 SweishBetlnie..................................... 1581,924 DanishWs nai............................. 2,, 804,90 Hat ndisgenerally...................... 6,755654 llouhAeiagnrllan............. wl................. *3711,79 Duthiat Iendesal............. l...................... 70,8~22 lfutch getIndesal............. I...................... 1417,04~ Sot easlaad Pacifi,c......................... 6 2201,141 Tcotala............................................... ),043f Irelalld....................$237,934,35 in l reign To each. coutvessels try $278,588 $1,465,704 75,317 80,46. 562,531 760,800 2,233 61,157 89,344 92,257~ 97,7i78 902.68q 4,855,414 5,405,956 1,199.391 1,911,11.5 36,204 204,430 "5,501 366,89E 85,491 374,316 2,709,39.: 32,921.350 105,191,921 1,806,697 3,81 1,00': 395,353 598,68S 86,288 177,904 3,800 64,061 58,236 512,90( 3,'225 161,891 16,882 16,88 23,~99 213,80( 156,288 540,559 1,650,637 3,943,56 ( 2,250,263 5,835,83< 2,731.926 3,2 4,5,5 , 02,775 24,567,06, 146,846 735,01l 72,2601 289,57. ---- 3,71f 45,69 3,246 19,8.53 198,860j 958,71~ 4,369,6931 4,457,33] 4,775'13,54C 19-~558 125,544 199,558i 5,239,27( 100.1241 961,41 ( 83,397 167,34, 126,115 94,585 4,829 20,24 57,47( 830' 0431 1,736,83-4 38,4381 41,74 174,5271 310,88~ 799,7511 2,265,57 162.'00 298,925 1,679,37~ 98.517 1,014,69( 5,611 293,30' 94,133 2,507,70 J 97,776 854,77 o286,973 3,128,95( 6,907 32,71] 196,317 659,852 27,079 1,608.877 63,440'249,76C 44,916! 2,155,94f 8,175i *6,93( — ~ I 36 19( 1 70,58( 70,312 1,245,36 — 601,14( $58,755,179l $196,689,71E 6 2 9 4 3 9 4 3 3 7 3 62 3 3 7 6 3 3 3 6 I 5 3 3 i .5 4 0 4 3 4 ~ 5 3 31 3i 6 0 4 3 3 4 0 6 1 3 7 3 ,5 584 $1,465,704 821,957 994,944 5 405,956 2,567,934 2,709,393 124,223,563 25,660,925 11,755,814 339,647 1,736,834 41,743 310,888 2,265,573 ] 62,1104 1,679,372 1,014 690 223 302 2,507,701 854,779 3,128,956 3",711 659 852 1,608,877 249,760 2,155 945 76&936 36,196 70,586 1.245,361 601,146 $196,689,718