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JOHNA.SEAVERNS 
 
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 1 
 
A TEEATISE 
 
 HOKSE-SHOEING 
 
 AND LAMENESS 
 
 BY JOSEPH GAMGEE 
 
 VETERINARY SURGEON, 
 
 FORMERLY LECTURER ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF FARRIERV 
 
 IN THE NEW VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH 
 
 COPIOUSL V ILL USTRA TED 
 
 LONDON 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 
 
 1871 
 
Prinlt'd by Yi.- Clark, Edinburgh. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The object of this Treatise is not to make every 
 owner his own horse-shoer, but to instruct Far- 
 riers. Fui1;her, the object is to enable the public 
 to appreciate the art, as a technical l^ranch of 
 industry, and to exhibit its bearings upon the 
 national welfare. Horse-shoers are not, as their 
 maligners aver, less teachable than men com- 
 posing other sections of the community. The 
 difference has consisted in the teaching which 
 they have received, for that teaching has been 
 conducted by those who, never having learned 
 the art, as every art should be learned, by prac- 
 tice, have forgotten that to teach, one must 
 possess knowledge, of that accurate and positive 
 
 kind, which is only attainable by personal obser- 
 
 h 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 vation and study; and that, in the teaching of 
 any art, " example is better than precept." 
 
 The volume now submitted to the public is, 
 in extent, as a drop added to the sea of books 
 which have appeared on the same subject during 
 the last half-century. It is, however, the result of 
 the study and observation of fifty years, constantly 
 spent in the practice of the veterinary art, and 
 the prevention and cure of lameness ; fifty years 
 which comprise periods of apprenticeship — pupil- 
 age — practice ; and, lastly, of practice combined 
 with teaching. 
 
 To the establishment of the New Veterinary 
 College at Edinburgh is primarily due the pro- 
 duction of this work. It was during the nine 
 years — 1857-65 — of the life of that institution, 
 and of his connection with it as one of its staff, 
 that the Author turned his previous experience 
 to the best account in his power. 
 
 After years of oscillation, from one set of 
 errors to another, during which he had found 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 that very miicli of what he had been called upon 
 to believe in, and rely on, as scientific knowledge, 
 was nothing but verbose trash, or the expression 
 of crude hobbies, — after much work and earnest 
 thought, the Author felt that the time had come 
 for presenting the tardy, though, he hopes, the ripe, 
 fruits of his labour to the public; and, in now 
 doing so, he expresses the hope that the work 
 may be judged as an earnest attempt to teach 
 accurately, and to counteract the effects of the 
 injurious teaching of the last three quarters of 
 a century. 
 
 Edinburgh, I2th SepUmber 1871. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 PAET I. 
 
 THE FOOT, AND SHOEING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Historical Observations ...... 5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Foot — Its Form and Function ... 33 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 Preparing the Foot ...... 61 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 On Making Horse-shoes .... .85 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 On Clips, Calkins, and Toe-pieces . . Ill 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 On Fitting Horse-shoes ... . 123 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Nails, Nailing, and Finishing . . . . .140 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Shoeing Horses for the Field and the Tukf . 152 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 On Plating Race-horses 161 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 rROST-SHARPING, OR RoUGHING ShOES . . . . 169 
 
 PAET 11. 
 
 ON LAMENESS. 
 
 I. Preliminary Observations on Lameness , . 179 
 
 IL Observations on the Frequency of Lameness in 
 
 Edinburgh, Birmingham, London, AND Paris . 182 
 
 in. Description op some of the Pathological Con- 
 ditions OF Horses' Feet, commonly present in 
 THE Various Stages of Chronic Lameness . 194 
 
 IV. Special Causes op Lameness . . . . 256 
 
 V. On Hoop-Ointment 285 
 
 VI. Health of Horses, regarded in its Relation to 
 
 Affections op the Feet .... 293 
 
 Index . . .311 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE FOOT, AND SHOEING. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ^ Horse-shoeing is that branch of mdustry which 
 consists in methodically applying iron shoes to 
 the bearing surfaces of horses' hoofs, by means of 
 nails. 
 
 The ends to be compassed by that manual 
 procedure are — firstly, to protect the hoof from 
 wear; secondly, to constitute a guard against 
 injury ; and thirdly, to maintain and restore the 
 due proportion of the foot, with its active func- 
 tions unimpaired. To attain these objects a 
 variety and extent of knowledge is required, 
 beyond that which is usually deemed necessary 
 for the forging of shoes ; and even their safe and 
 secure application exacts an insight into the con- 
 stituent parts of the foot and its mobility. 
 
 Horse-shoeing, regarded from our present 
 standpoint, is well worthy of careful and thorough 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 inquiry, with a view to ascertain its actual state, 
 past history, and urgently required reforms. It 
 is an important subject, demanding mind, appli- 
 cation, and skilled hand- work ; and it is beyond 
 doubt that now, more than ever before, in this 
 country in particular, have those who practise 
 horse-shoeing becoijie a disbanded craft, a body of 
 men the victims of bad instruction, and in want 
 of intelligent leadership. 
 
 The importance of horse-shoeing to the State 
 and the public is exactly proportionate to the 
 services rendered by horses ; since, without the 
 art for the conservation of their feet, all other 
 cares bestowed on the production and perfection 
 of breed must be of little avail. 
 
 The whole question, however, is of a relative 
 character, and comparisons, not always flattering 
 and welcome, are necessary, in order to carry out 
 successfully the investigation which I deem it 
 necessary to undertake. 
 
 I propose addressing myself to the intelligence 
 of a class — a numerous one, and one more deeply 
 interested than any other, in obtaining a free 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 discussion, and fair hearing, of all that may be 
 said on the past and present state of horse-shoe- 
 ing, and its future requirements ; I allude to the 
 working horse-shoers themselves, whom I purpose 
 addressing, as one of their class. 
 
 I shall endeavour to make plain what I 
 believe to be the best method of horse-shoeing; 
 and, convinced that this art cannot be taught and 
 learned as a purely mechanical one, I shall strive 
 to acquaint the intelligent horse-shoer, whom I 
 presume I am addressing, with the reasons on 
 which my teaching is based. The homely and 
 elementary style in which this Work is written, 
 will, it is hoped, not prevent its being useful to 
 readers who may have had a different education to 
 the assumed horse-shoer ; and it is for the purpose 
 of raising the art of horse-shoeing from its present 
 neglected state that one part of this Work is 
 specially designed — To point out the causes of its 
 degradation, and to make suggestions for its im- 
 provement. In treating this part of my subject, 
 I have, been obliged to trace the outlines of the 
 history of the Veterinary Profession in this country. 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ill doing so, as in treating every part of the subject, 
 my first and chief aim has been, to state what I 
 believe to be the truth. 
 
 The practical and historical parts of the Work 
 are kept quite distinct, so as not to embarrass the 
 reader, who, on reference to heads of chapters, will 
 be able to select the one to which he wishes to 
 refer. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The history of horse-shoeing, limited as the 
 knowledge of it is, and often as that amount has 
 been displayed, may be of little interest to people 
 in general ; but some reference to the chief phases 
 of it may not be uninstructive to horse shoers, 
 and in particular to those who take an interest 
 in improving their knowledge of the art. 
 
 The first thing likely to occur to the mind of 
 an intelligent youth wishing to become a horse- 
 shoer, or the question of a parent placing a son 
 in the way to learn the art as a means of livelihood, 
 would probably be — What is its title ? by what 
 names are this calling and its followers known ? 
 Such terms as blacksmith and farrier tend to 
 show that it is a calling without a properly dis 
 tinctive title ; yet " there is much in a name," 
 and the absence of a proper name may generally 
 be taken as evidence of nesiect. 
 
6 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 That the art of horse-shoeing has been, and is 
 still, greatly neglected in this country, must be 
 at once evident to a careful observer, and will 
 become more so as I trace its development from 
 France, Italy, and farther eastward, since the 
 earliest times whence trustworthy records have 
 been handed down to us on the subject. 
 
 Horse-shoers were in Italy called Manescalchi, 
 the singular for which is Manesccdco ; and the 
 art was clisting-uished as Manescalcheria. 
 
 So soon as books were printed, and modern 
 languages became the medium of communication, 
 we find those phrases, only slightly modified, in use 
 in France as well as in Italy — viz., Marechal, Mare- 
 chaux, and Mareclialerie ; and these concise and 
 significant expressions designate the individual 
 member, the body, and the calling. Further, the 
 etymology of the word Marechal, according to 
 authorities, was derived from two ancient words, 
 signifying Horse, and Custodian or minister. The 
 title was therefore an honourable one, implying 
 skilled knowledge of horses; and this is made the 
 more evident by the fact, that at a later period the 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 7 
 
 word Marechal was adopted in France as the title 
 of military distinction, was afterwards used in 
 England in that sense, and in later times has be- 
 come the highest rank conferred on distinguished 
 military commanders. The word marshal has, 
 however, never been used in England to denote 
 horse-shoers, though on the Continent it has lost 
 none of its usage or lyrestige in that relation — a 
 Marechal de France, and un marechal expert, 
 are understood distinctly — the former a marshal 
 of France, the latter an expert horse-shoer. 
 Another word of Italian derivation — Farrier, 
 after Ferro or Ferrum, iron, has been long used 
 in England, but vaguely so. In the original 
 tongue it conveyed a similar meaning to smith, 
 a worker of iron ; but, as is commonly the case 
 with borrowers, we soon misapplied the word, 
 and a man who treated horses and other animals 
 when diseased was called a farrier, hence horse- 
 farriers and cattle-farriers over the country ; 
 while the village-smith shod the horses, farrier, 
 as the title of horse-shoer, received more general 
 application in London, where shoeing-forges were 
 
b HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 kept distinct from forges for different and general 
 purposes. 
 
 The English public has been so unaccustomed 
 to look for anything rational and intelligible about 
 horse-shoeing, that the idea of associating the 
 reasoning faculties with physical power in the 
 process of shoeing horses is scarcely entertained. 
 When one reads farrier, unless the term is 
 qualified by reference to shoeing, nobody can 
 understand what is meant. Even after reading 
 through part of De Gray's " Expert Fer7'ierl' 
 and finding nothing about horse-shoeing in the 
 first thirty pages of the book, I began to wonder 
 what the author meant by ferrier, when, on arriv- 
 ing at the thirty-fifth page, I found the explana- 
 tion as follows : — 
 
 " Of what points consisteth the ofiice of fer- 
 rier ? — Handled dialogue- wise. What is the ferrier's 
 art ? It principally consists of four things — to 
 wit : science, experience, knowledge, and handy- 
 work. 
 
 " Handy work is to heat the iron well, to 
 sodder well, to forge well, to turn a shoe well, to 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 9 
 
 make and point a nail well, to pare the hoof well, 
 to cauterize well, to let blood well, to be light 
 and well-handed, bold and handy in dressing a 
 horse well, of such accidents as may happen unto 
 him." 
 
 This extract is from the Work of one of the 
 three or four chief English writers on Farriery of 
 the I7th century, and De Gray was in the ser- 
 vice of Charles IL We here learn that farrier 
 meant the horse-shoer, who was also practitioner 
 in general for the treatment of diseases. 
 
 The old English writers are commonly men- 
 tioned as not worthy of being consulted now ; but 
 at least references to them are instructing, since 
 they are all we have, besides oral traditions, as a 
 set-off against Solleysel and others in France, of 
 the same period, and to compare with Euini and 
 his fellow-country writers in Italy, a century and 
 more earlier. 
 
 No nation could produce abler men than our 
 own as mechanics for working iron ; but English- 
 men did not to any great extent display their 
 usual talents in the development of farriery. 
 
10 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Our country, with its all-the-year-round mo- 
 derate temperature and well-adapted soil, pro- 
 duces the most powerful horses of any in the old 
 world ; and the want of economy in their man- 
 agement has been equal to the bounteous natural 
 endowments conferred upon us. 
 
 Is horse-shoeinof an art that can be learned 
 and followed as a distinct calling, with credit and 
 remuneration to those depending on it for their 
 livelihood, and to the satisfaction of the horse- 
 owning public ? I believe not; and I have neither 
 arrived at this conclusion inconsiderately, nor with- 
 out ample data for it. Horse-shoeing never has 
 stood alone in Europe, so far as its history shows ; 
 it may sometimes seem to be followed independ- 
 ently ; but on careful inquiry it is always found 
 otherwise. 
 
 I deem it expedient to express myself plainly 
 on this ]3oiut, because on a clear understanding of 
 it very much depends the possibility of carrying 
 out any adequate reformation on farriery. 
 
 At the end of the last century and beginning 
 of the present one, the farrier was in England 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 11 
 
 a general practitioner ; sometimes his field of 
 occupation was among horses and cattle, and not 
 in horse-shoeing ; but we never find a shoer who 
 was not more or less a dealer in drugs, or else a 
 general smith. 
 
 These are the facts, and to make them intelli- 
 gible a few words in explanation may be necessary. 
 I shall adduce one reason to show why shoeing 
 has required to be coupled with something else 
 hitherto, and another to support my own opinion 
 to the effect that it never will be found to be 
 successfully prosecuted alone. 
 
 Shoeing of horses has come down from time 
 immemorial traditionally, and we owe almost all 
 the good it has conferred to experience handed 
 down from masters to apprentices, from fathers 
 to sons, and from expert workmen to learners. 
 Meanwhile, we are in j)rofound ignorance about 
 the early state of shoeing— whether it was in- 
 vented in one part of the world and gradually 
 extended over it, or whether the same contriv- 
 ance, almost identical everywhere, was extem- 
 porised by different men at various epochs and at 
 
12 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 an infinity of places ; the last supposition has 
 nothing probable to support it, and I believe 
 that shoeing had a central beginning, and from 
 such centre radiated wherever men carried in- 
 dustry and used horses, mules, or oxen, since it has 
 been adopted for all ; there are, however, no grounds 
 for the conclusion that it was an ordinary smith 
 who first shod any of these animals, although it 
 required that the operator, or one of those 
 engaged, should have been a smith, to the extent 
 of being capable of hammering the plate of metal 
 into the form of the hoof for which it was in- 
 tended. The most critical part of the proce- 
 dure, that which called for technical knowledge 
 and special skill, had all regard to the foot itself ; 
 and any one who ever did, or who may in future, 
 apply himself seriously to the subject, would 
 soon discover, that much learning of the organisa- 
 tion and movements, which, various degrees of 
 exertion involve, is required, apart altogether 
 from the manual skill. 
 
 Not altogether consistent with the conclusion 
 from the above teaching, is the commonly assumed 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 13 
 
 notion tliat when and wherever animals were first 
 found to require shoes, the smith was the person 
 emploj'ed, and from that accidental circumstance 
 became the anwial doctor or surgeon. But 
 strict criticism refuses to admit such reason- 
 ing as quite conclusive. The animals which 
 were found disabled with worn-down hoofs and 
 sore ulcerated feet (for these conditions were 
 common), required healing. A surgeon's know- 
 ledge, and the fixing of a border of metal to the 
 hoof, were necessary parts of the cure. Medicines 
 alone would be mockery where a protrusion of 
 proud flesh lay between the foot-bone and the 
 ground ; and therefore the early, if not first thing 
 required was the shoe, and in some way, however 
 rudimentary, the surgeon must have shod the 
 animal ; hence probably the blending of these 
 branches of skill in forging, fitting, and applying 
 shoes, with the surgical treatment of the animals, 
 and also the origin of the title " Marechal." 
 
 As the primitive state of horse-shoeing is 
 entirely hidden from us by the unknown number 
 of centuries that have elapsed since it was first 
 
14 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 adopted, we can only take cognisance of its state 
 and progress, at the comparatively modern period 
 of its written history. 
 
 The advancement of civilisation, agriculture, 
 and commerce, multiplied the use of horses ; arti- 
 ficial restraints and conditions were imposed on 
 them, and new resources were required to keep 
 pace with the changes. There is no evidence in 
 the early history of the art of shoeing of its ever 
 lagging behind other arts, to meet an essential 
 want, which could not fail to make itself known 
 wherever the clash of war brought horses with 
 riders or charioteers into conflict. From the 
 north and west of Africa to the Nile, and thence 
 throughout Asia, a distance divided by deserts, 
 and inhabited by people very different from each, 
 other, and between whom no one will believe 
 there could exist much intercourse, horse-shoeing 
 has been found wonderfully alike ; nothing in art 
 is perhaps found so constant and little varied 
 over the same regions of the earth ; not even the 
 making of bread. 
 
 No doubt it was from that old stock of know- 
 
HISTOKICAL OBSERVATIONS. 15 
 
 ledge of horse-shoeing south of the Mediterranean, 
 and eastwards, that tlie western nations received 
 it. 
 
 The inaugiiration of veterinary schools in the 
 eighteenth century, fixed a new epoch to the 
 history of farriery. 
 
 As is generally the case when a new light 
 breaks in upon us, the beginning of the schools 
 does not indicate the beginning of a great move- 
 ment, but an important phase of it. The light 
 which the renovation of learning had already 
 spread, even on this subject, during the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries in Italy, had extended to 
 this country through the agency of skilled riding- 
 masters and farriers; one, at least, was brought 
 over by Henry VIII., " who was looked up to by 
 his English brethren as an oracle, and who, 
 although he did not display mysteries, taught 
 them more than they knew before." — Berenger. 
 
 Whether Hannibale was the only Italian 
 farrier brought over to this country does not 
 appear; writers on farriery of the seventeenth 
 century make mention of their Italian masters, 
 
16 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 and use their phraseology ; but whether the 
 reference applies to writings or to persons is not 
 clear ; most probably it is to the former. 
 
 France, nearer at hand than England, profited 
 by direct intercourse between the Italian Penin- 
 sula and her own extensive border connections, 
 reaching from the Mediterranean to the Northern 
 Kingdoms. SoUeysel was sent by the French 
 government to Italy to study the subject, and 
 proved himself to have been wisely chosen for the 
 work. 
 
 Horse-shoeing was a foremost subject of 
 SoUeysel's solicitude, and to that, and everything 
 on which its successful prosecution depends, he 
 devoted himself during his sojourn in the Penin- 
 sula. The learned men of his time, and the 
 works of those of earlier periods, favoured his 
 opportunities for study ; the work on Anatomy, 
 by Ruini, and the views on the Action of the 
 Horse, worked out by his contemporary Borelli, 
 were well known to the keen observant French- 
 man, who was afterwards appointed chief over 
 the studs of Louis XIV. SoUeysel's great work, 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 17 
 
 Le parfait i/arec/ictZ, appeared in 1664; niean- 
 while, lie used all the means which his position, 
 and then unrivalled acquirements, gave, to 
 establish and diffuse improvements in the whole 
 sphere of the art of farriery. Solleysel's in- 
 fluence during his lifetime, and the works he left, 
 produced good and durable effects throughout 
 France, and over Europe. 
 
 In 1761 a new impetus was given with the 
 founding of the first veterinary school by 
 Bourgelat, a man, whose influence on veterinary 
 science, through all future ages, entitles him to 
 a short biographical notice in this place. 
 
 Claude Bourgelat* was born near Lyons in 
 1712, and died in 1779. He had the advantage 
 of a good preliminary education, and adopted the 
 bar as a profession, which he soon left for the 
 army. Serving in a cavalry corps, he acquired 
 the reputation of an accomplished horseman, and 
 had ample field for learning by experience the 
 necessity of a thorough acquaintance with the 
 
 * QiiAranl, la France Litteraire, and Nouvplle Biographic Univer- 
 selle, Firmin Didot Freres, edicteurs. 
 
 C 
 
18 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 management of horses, and particularly their 
 feet. 
 
 Bourgelat enjoyed the friendship and support 
 of the celebrated surgeon Pouteau. He made 
 the best use of the most able farriers of his time, 
 not despising them, but making store of their 
 experience and enlightening them. He opened 
 and kept up a correspondence with the learned 
 men of Europe, and was elected a member of the 
 Academies of Paris and Berlin. 
 
 Bourgelat's literary labours were wonderfully 
 productive, varied, and able. His treatise on 
 cavalry was translated into English, and it may 
 be said, with strict accuracy, that he neglected 
 no branch of veterinary science ; the anatomy 
 and physiology of the horse and cattle, materia 
 medica, shoeing, the system of education, and 
 many other subjects, were treated by the great 
 Frenchman with an untiring zeal, and a thirst for 
 knowledge which nothing could quench. 
 
 The establishment of the first veterinary school 
 in France met with such complete approval, and 
 the work done was so good, that the founder had 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 19 
 
 the great satisfaction and reward of his sovereign's 
 command to found a second veterinary school, the 
 now world-renowned college at Alfort. Bourgelat 
 was elected to preside over this last institution, 
 while the directorship of both the French schools 
 was conferred on him. 
 
 Bourgelat, like Solleysel, and most of the 
 ablest men who have studied the subject, was 
 deeply imj)ressed mth the importance of the 
 art of shoeing, as essential to the State, agri- 
 culture, and commerce, to the efficiency of an 
 army, and to the general wants of society. 
 
 Bourgelat's plan, which is still in vogue wher- 
 ever his school is held as a model, was not to 
 aim at creating a new profession to supersede the 
 old farrier's art ; but to improve on it to the 
 greatest possible extent, and add new parts to it. 
 His process was one of grafting, not of uprooting. 
 He gave the title of veterinary art to the whole, 
 and of Marechalerie (farriery) to the branch ; and 
 to this branch the first consideration was given, 
 and the greatest care was bestowed on its 
 thorough cultivation at the new schools. 
 
20 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 A complete staff of able professors, each 
 eminent in his sphere, was appointed to give 
 instruction in the various departments of science, 
 and thus all means were afforded for the advance- 
 ment of learning in the wide field of subjects 
 which the plan embraced ; Bourgelat himself 
 undertaking special parts, whilst the art of shoe- 
 ing was presided over by Monsieur Chabert, a 
 man selected by Bourgelat as being reputed the 
 best horse-shoer in Paris. Chabert became known 
 afterwards as the professor who succeeded to the 
 directorship of the schools after Bourgelat's death ; 
 and also as the author of many works. 
 
 In the bye- laws framed by the founder, the 
 importance of horse-shoeing being so well un- 
 derstood, its efficient prosecution was provided 
 for. 
 
 Every student admitted to either of the 
 veterinary schools, was required to go initiated in 
 the first rudiments of the work, and to give an 
 allotted portion of time to shoeing at the college, 
 under the appointed instructors. With all neces- 
 sary means for practice, young men became 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 21 
 
 accomplished veterinary surgeons, while they 
 went forth from the school after the allotted 
 four years' residence, capable of performing the 
 work of shoeing, and of giving directions on 
 details such as none besides men so trained can 
 understand and communicate. 
 
 In 1 792, after two or three years of time had 
 been devoted to the consideration of plans, a ve- 
 terinary school was established in England ; those 
 of France which had stood the test successfully of 
 thirty years' trial being the assumed models ; and 
 a member of the Lyons school, Monsieur Sainbel, 
 was chosen as the principal of the London school, 
 which was inaugurated under his immediate 
 directions. Our school from the first was entitled 
 the London Veterinaiy College, and still occupies 
 the original site. 
 
 The history of the English veterinary school 
 has been so often written, that I do not deem it 
 expedient to trespass on the time of readers by 
 entering into details on it, with the exception of 
 such phases as have a special bearing on horse- 
 shoeing, which I believe have not been placed in 
 
22 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 their true light, either before the members of the 
 college themselves or the public ; and still less 
 before farriers as a body, who, more than any 
 others, have been deeply affected by it. 
 
 In little more than a year after the founda- 
 tion of the college. Monsieur Sainbel died ; and, 
 after a single winter session, during which a 
 small class of ardent students were in attendance, 
 all were left without a guide until February 
 1794, when Mr. Edward Coleman and Mr. W. 
 Moorcroft were elected joint-professors. The 
 latter gentleman, however, retired forty-five days 
 after his appointment took place, leaving Mr. 
 Coleman sole professor and principal of the 
 embryo concern. 
 
 The first programme formed by the committee 
 of managers under Sainbel's advice was at this 
 juncture set aside, or at least so much of it as re- 
 stricted in any way the free action of the new 
 principal. One notable instance was the altera- 
 tion in the length of time to be devoted by the 
 pupils to the acquisition of the knowledge of 
 their art. From three years, which was one year 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 23 
 
 less than the minimum laid down in the bye-laws 
 of the foreign schools, no time in particular was 
 prescribed in the London College. Unlike the 
 way in which they managed these matters in 
 France, where one part of the preliminary exami- 
 nation consisted in the candidate being required 
 to forge a shoe in the presence of the examiners, 
 at our school no question was asked, nor did 
 any of the candidates require to take up a 
 horse's foot, or move a hand in any of the stages 
 which enter into the process of shoeing, during 
 their pupilage. 
 
 The time of attendance to learn this im- 
 mensely important and difficult art, — farriery and 
 veterinary medicine generally, — was in this way 
 limited to a few months instead of years. But 
 the little instruction was the smallest of the evils 
 then being lastingly entailed ; it was the kind of 
 teaching on the foot, and on shoeing, that did the 
 incalculable, and, I fear, almost irreparable dam- 
 age ; which has brought suffering on horses and 
 shortened theii* existence ; which has spoiled far- 
 riers by leading them astray on false pretexts; 
 
24 HISTOKICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 and entailed discredit on the English Veterinary 
 School. 
 
 At about twenty-four years of age, Mr. Cole- 
 man, having recently qualified in the London 
 medical schools to begin in the general practice 
 of medicine and surgery, was induced by influen- 
 tial friends to become a candidate for the pro- 
 fessorship of everything that was to be taught 
 at an English veterinary college. It was never 
 pretended that he had gone out of the way of 
 an ordinary medical student, or that he knew 
 anything in particular about horses, not to say 
 of farriery. 
 
 Young, plausible, and inexperienced, with the 
 manners of a gentleman, and with influential 
 connections, Mr. Coleman rapidly gained a posi- 
 tion of great power and ajffluence. We have it 
 on the authority of Blaine, that as Principal and 
 Professor to the Veterinary College, and as Veter- 
 inary Surgeon-General to the Army, with the 
 additional proceeds of private practice, and an 
 appointment at the Ordnance Department, Mr. 
 Coleman made an income of £3000 per annum, 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 25 
 
 which he continued to enjoy for the period of 
 forty-five years. 
 
 It is not so easy, as it would be desirable, to 
 show what was the state of the art of horse- 
 shoeing in this country towards the close of the 
 last century ; because shoers themselves are no- 
 where a class possessing the kind of ability or the 
 leisure to write treatises on their art. Least of 
 all, among the civilised nations, were English 
 farriers qualified or inclined for such a literary 
 task. 
 
 Whoever has made the matter an earnest 
 subject of labour and thought in the present cen- 
 tury, can scarcely fail to gain a clear insight 
 into its state in the past. 
 
 We have no Solleysel to refer to ; our autho- 
 rities left us mostly indifferent translations from 
 foreign books ; yet we learn from such inde- 
 pendent writers as Earl Pembroke the extent of 
 the ignorance of which he complained, with ex- 
 pression of the hope of seeing in future time 
 better-instructed farriers. In one important sub- 
 ject, which has a direct bearing on all intelligence 
 
26 HISTOEICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Oil the liorse, The Anatomy, England had, in the 
 middle of the last century, the greatest authority 
 since Ruini ; and what is most important, and to 
 our country's credit, George Stubbs appears 
 equally original with the Italian anatomist of a 
 century and a half earlier, whilst the English 
 author produced a work, with all the resources of 
 modern art, so exquisite in design, and exact in 
 detail, that it can hardly be superseded, and pro- 
 bably, taken all in all, has never been equalled. 
 We had, therefore, no need to go abroad to learn 
 anatomy, general or local, of the horse. The 
 century also produced one English monograph on 
 the foot of the horse, of which we may feel 
 proud — Mr. Strickland Freeman's work on the 
 Foot. This is not, perhaps, a fair criterion of 
 English farriery at the time it was written, 
 because the author had travelled much, and was 
 an amateur horseman, liberally educated ; so that 
 his work displays better knowledge than is found 
 in any similar work on the special branch in 
 England before, and I had almost said since, his 
 time. 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 27 
 
 111 the days of Stubbs, Earl Pembroke, and 
 Strickland Freeman, the master farriers of Eng- 
 land numbered many very intelligent and sub- 
 stantial, though not scientifically educated, men ; 
 to wit, the father of Michael Earaday among 
 others ; nor is this illustrious example of men 
 rising by their own talents in their time from 
 the smith and horse-shoer's sphere to very high 
 positions, solitary among men of genius and bril- 
 liant qualities. 
 
 It were needless to multiply examples of 
 men stiU living, and filling the highest places in 
 the veterinary profession and among scientific 
 men of the world, who have raised themselves, 
 and delight to think of it, from the provincial 
 cottage and from theii- father's shoeing-forge. 
 It was from such nurseries as the above that 
 many of those men came, in the beginning 
 of this centuiy, who thronged Mr. Coleman's 
 lecture-room ; and had they had an opportunity 
 of learning from him sound doctrines, and really 
 practical information, we should not have to 
 deplore the destruction of the old race of far- 
 
28 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 riers, on which, like the French and Germans, 
 it would have been possible to engraft im- 
 provements. 
 
 This criticism on the influence which Mr. 
 Coleman exerted on veterinary matters in this 
 country, is not expressed without careful thought. 
 I knew him well, was one of his favourite pupils, 
 and have had very good opportunities of compar- 
 ing his system of teaching with that of other 
 masters in this country and abroad. But a strict 
 sense of justice demands an acknowledgment of 
 some great advantages which Mr. Coleman ob- 
 tained for his pupils. The professional circle in 
 which he had been reared, and the society in which 
 he moved, enabled him to give his students the 
 benefit of attending the lectures of some of the 
 most eminent men in London. Thus it was that 
 I, with others, followed the teaching of Professor 
 Brand and his then assistant, Michael Faraday, 
 at the Eoyal Institution, the lectures of Dr. 
 Pearson at his house in George Street, and the 
 anatomical and physiological demonstrations of 
 Charles Bell at the Windmill Street school. 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 29 
 
 Mr. Coleman's great error was a common one 
 with, naturally clever people, who are deficient of 
 information on particular subjects. The farriers 
 of his time were unlettered, and on a vast number 
 of subjects which, they dealt with, ignorant and 
 unintentionally cruel. But they, none the less, 
 possessed a large stock of useful knowledge, which 
 was worth storing up. It is easy to indicate 
 the want of knowledge, but not so easy to supply 
 it. I have already referred to the judicious 
 liberality which led Bourgelat to give an honour- 
 able position in his new school to Monsieur Cha- 
 bert, as the best horse-shoer in Paris. Had Mr. 
 Coleman picked out for preferment some such 
 man in London, and been content to learn from 
 him what he did know, and helped him to learn 
 what he did not, the veterinary world might 
 have been saved a vast deal of nonsense, miscalled 
 theory, and owners of horses would have been 
 saved, without exaggeration, many millions. 
 
 As a rule. Englishmen are conservative of 
 what is good, while liberal in promoting reforms 
 step by step, as they are proved to be necessary ; 
 
30 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 whereas Frenchmen are notoriously prone to sud- 
 den and radical transitions ; but it has been the 
 reverse in the history of the veterinary profession, 
 on all that concerns the management of horses' 
 feet. The French have never departed from the 
 great lessons of experience while seeking the light 
 of science to improve them;"' while in England, 
 since Professor Coleman ruthlessly destroyed the 
 empirical knowledge of the old master farriers, 
 and substituted for it a tissue of fantastic and 
 often cruel notions, we have been a prey to end- 
 less speculative theories. The result is that, with 
 the best horses in the world, we have a far larger 
 proportion of lame ones than are to be found in 
 any other country ; we have a body of veterinary 
 surgeons who know little or nothing about the 
 proper mode of shoeing; and working farriers 
 who, excelling as many of them do as mechanics, 
 can know nothing of the principles of shoeing, 
 
 * The author is aware that latterly the bye -law has been relaxed 
 which enjoined that candidates for admission to the French veterinary 
 schools should forge a horse-shoe ; but he has heard nothing of the 
 effect of the change. 
 
HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 31 
 
 since they have no opportunity of being taught 
 them. 
 
 These historical observations, founded as they 
 are on facts, represent an evil of incalculable 
 magnitude. Look in our streets ; consult owners 
 of horses; and what is the result? Lameness, the 
 common effect, which damages and destroys more 
 horses thaa all the other diseases put together to 
 which they are liable. The cause is bad shoeing; 
 the remedy must be good shoeing. Veterinary 
 surgeons appear to be growing up in the idea 
 that the forge is not a gentlemanly part of their 
 business. It is certainly a very important one, 
 and if they persist in neglecting it I see no alter- 
 native but to organise means for educating work- 
 ing farriers, who are certainly much in need of, and 
 deserving the opportunities for, technical educa- 
 tion, which is now engaging so much attention 
 throughout the country. Such a consummation 
 would be of the highest conceivable benefit to 
 farriers themselves and the community. 
 
 In honour, the responsibility of devising a 
 remedy rests on the ruling powers in the A^eteri- 
 
32 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 nary profession. The working farriers have no 
 means, intellectual or material, for helping them- 
 selves. The numbers of lame horses toiling in 
 pain day after day, and year after year, in our 
 great cities, are assuredly a reproach to our 
 humanity. Unfortunately, the Act for the Pre- 
 vention of Cruelty to Animals is not sufficient to 
 embrace their case, and punish, as it should do, 
 those who use them ; and it is to be hoped that 
 by and by economical considerations alone will 
 be sufficient to prompt horse-owners and their 
 advisers, to remedy some of the evils glanced 
 at in this historical sketch on horse-shoeing. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 In entering upon this chapter, I experience some 
 difficulty — that of complying with my plan and 
 aim, of being concise and yet clear, so as to make 
 this work of a thoroughly practical character. 
 
 I have no fear that the readers of these 
 pages will, under the specially practical head- 
 ings, not recognise the production of one who 
 has thoroughly devoted himself to carrying out 
 in practice the principles herein laid down. On 
 the score of conciseness also, it is confidently 
 hoped that no fault will he found in the practical 
 chapters. But conciseness in this place is not 
 an easy matter ; all the more so, as I undertake 
 to describe nothing wdiich I have not myself 
 dissected and carefully examined, and I feel a 
 natural disinclination to describe imperfectly 
 what I have fully seen. 
 
 The horse's foot is a " yiudtiuii in parvo," — 
 
34 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 a great deal in a very small compass ; and the 
 mistake usually committed has been to describe 
 the horse's foot by itself, as a small and compact 
 horny box enclosing living structures. 
 
 Practically, as well as scientifically, it is no 
 use looking at the horse's foot by itself. It must 
 be studied and treated as a part of the whole 
 limb. This plan is a longer one than that com- 
 monly followed ; but it is also a broader, a more 
 instructive, and a safer plan — the only one Ijy 
 which a thorough understanding of the foot can 
 be acquired. To carry it out fully, would de- 
 mand a more leno;thened treatment of the com- 
 parative anatomical and physiological aspects of 
 the subject, than is consistent with the scheme of 
 the present volume. Keeping steadily in view 
 the information of horse-shoers, I hope the ana- 
 tomical facts to be described may be found 
 generally instructive, and by and by be recog- 
 nised as the foundation, of a more rational, a more 
 humane, and a more economical system of horse- 
 shoeing and of managing and treating horses' 
 feet, than that now prevailing amongst us. 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 35 
 
 The foot of the horse is comprised compara- 
 tively in small space, as are the feet of all animals 
 endowed with hoofs. Compared to that of man, 
 it comprises a smaller section of the limb ; as 
 only part of the bones, joints, etc., which form 
 the human foot and hand, and which include 
 ankle and wrist, come under the denomination of 
 foot in the horse. 
 
 Yet notwithstanding the accustomed way of 
 speaking of the horse's foot, we can only rightly 
 study and understand it as an inseparable part of 
 the anatomical system of the fore and hind limbs, 
 of which it is the terminal portion or end ; in 
 anatomical language the horse's foot is merely 
 the last phalanx of the digit. 
 
 Anatomists have usually divided the horse's 
 foot into hoof and the organised structures en- 
 closed by it; the latter being commonly called 
 the sensitive foot. A separation of these parts 
 may be effected within a period varying from 
 fifteen to thirty days, according to the season and 
 temperature, by maceration, without changing the 
 water in the vessel in which they are kept. 
 
36 
 
 THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 The anatomical preparations from wliicli tlic 
 drawings for this work have been taken, were all 
 collected and dissected by the author. Of some of 
 the subjects from which these were obtained, the 
 history was in different measures known, and the 
 remainder were procured at the j)laces where the 
 
 Fig. 1 is the hoof of the near fore foot of a Pony ahout 
 two years old, which had never been shod. 
 
 animals were slaughtered, or to which, after death, 
 they were taken. 
 
 The manner pursued by the author of sepa- 
 rating and preserving the hoof for the purposes 
 of this investigation, and to prepare select speci- 
 mens for illustration, was as follows : — 
 
 The feet, while fresh, soon after the death of 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 37 
 
 tlie animals, were placed in water, until they could 
 be detached easily by the process of maceration 
 already referred to ; dissection of the other struc- 
 tures was then proceeded wdth, according to the 
 object in view ; and plaster of Paris paste was 
 poured into the hoofs, as soon as the water was 
 drained from them. Thus a cast of the organised 
 foot was formed, and the hoof exactly filled, unal- 
 terably. In this way the hoofs, placed in a drying 
 position, remain for months, when, by breaking, 
 the plaster is removed, and the cavity of the hoof 
 preserves the form it had, when separated by dis- 
 integration of the natural bonds of union. 
 
 In that state, provided the hoofs be kept dry, 
 whether of normal or abnormal form, no change 
 occurs. 
 
 For the purposes of experiment, I have pro- 
 longed the maceration to three, six, and even ten 
 months, when, as described, the hoof is resolved 
 into its constituent divisions. The sections made 
 of these hoofs, and separation of the horny frogs, 
 have all been done long after they had been pre- 
 served dry, and in this form the frog was re- 
 
38 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 moved by tapping it with a hammer, the macera- 
 tion having been continued sufficiently before 
 drying. No change of form of the dried hoof 
 occurs through removal of the frog. But the 
 hoof collapses if we destroy the continuity of the 
 sole, by sawing through or even removing a por- 
 tion of it ; or if we press the sole out of its posi- 
 tion at the toe, from above downwards, so as to 
 destroy its abutting property from behind against 
 the cylindrical part of the wall, by which the 
 capacity and form of the whole hoof is main- 
 tained. Any of these breaches of the sole lead to 
 direct curling in of heels, one or both, according 
 as they are deprived of the strength. 
 
 Thus seen, the hoof is a structure of horn, the 
 exact counterpart of its contents. Viewing, when 
 first separated, the inner surface of the hoof and 
 the outside of the compact structures removed 
 from its cavity, these exhibit accurate moulds of 
 each other — convexities on one surface fit the 
 concavities of the other. 
 
 For purposes of description merely, we may 
 divide the hoof into two parts — 1st, the sole ; 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 39 
 
 and 2d, the wall. It must be remembered, how- 
 ever, that this division is merely adopted for pur- 
 poses of description. Looking at the plantar or 
 lower surface of a foot, we observe the sole, which 
 is a surface arched from the sides to the centre. 
 This surface is bounded by the wall, with which 
 it is continuous. 
 
 Occupying a central position in the sole is 
 the frog, a triangular body, with its apex or point 
 in the middle line passing beyond the centre of 
 the foot ; the frog separates at about one-third of 
 its length from its point into two ridges, having 
 a hollow, called the cleft, between them. 
 
 Before discussing this under surface of the 
 hoof, Ave may add that, in practical language, we 
 distinguish on its circumference the toe, the heels, 
 and the quarters. The first term is applied to the 
 very front or point of the foot; the second, or 
 heels, to the posterior part of the hoof, on the 
 inner and outer side ; whilst the third, quarters, 
 indicates the intermediate or central part of the 
 circumference of the sole — i.e., that part which 
 lies between the heels and the toe. 
 
40 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 The sole is bounded by the ivall, with which 
 it is contiDuous. Looking at the hoof from the 
 front, we see that the wall is the curved portion 
 of the hoof which constitutes its anterior and 
 lateral surfaces, and which, with the sole and 
 frog, completes the horny substance which en- 
 velopes the bones and soft structures. The wall 
 meets a horizontal plane, passing through the 
 sole at an angle of about 45°, the exact degree of 
 obliquity varying, however, in different subjects. 
 It is more flattened laterally than in front. 
 
 Internally the hoof presents a cavity formed 
 by two surfaces : — the lower one, which is the 
 counterpart of the sole and frog, and the upper 
 and anterior one, which is formed by the inner 
 side of the wall, and has the same shape. 
 
 The inner surface of the wall has been aptly 
 compared to the under surface of a mushroom. 
 Running parallel with the horn fibres of the 
 hoof are thin plates, to which the name "laminae" 
 has been given, and corresponding to these are 
 others of like kind, which issue from the fibrous 
 structure covering the coffin bone and the carti- 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 41 
 
 lages. Tliis bond of union is of marvellous 
 strengtli, attained by the one set of folds inter- 
 laying the other throughout the interior of the 
 hoof, excepting a border at its circumference and 
 the whole bottom surface, where, none the less, 
 the bond of union is very intimate and complete ; 
 so complete, indeed, as to be inseparable, other- 
 wise than by breach of continuity, in fact hj 
 destruction. 
 
 The hoof is made up of more than one part, 
 but not of so many as authorities have alleged. 
 In speaking of different parts of the hoof, I do 
 not mean, as is the common custom, separate 
 divisions of the hoof, but I refer to parts of the 
 foot in different situations. 
 
 The hoof of the horse, like the toe-nail of 
 a dog, bird, or other animal possessing a toe-nail, 
 is composed of two distinct parts only — the true 
 hoof, and its completing covering or tunic, the 
 epidermis proper. The latter is bountifully sup- 
 plied, and is not only spread as a thin membrane 
 over the outer surface of the hoof, but around its 
 upper margin, constituting that convex border of 
 
42 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 soft horn over wliicli the coronary fringe of hair 
 falls most beautifully. The band of soft horn 
 spreads over tlie cartilages and bulbs, round both 
 sides, merging into the pyramidal structure — the 
 frog. The frog is the horn covering of the large 
 and powerful tendon of the foot, and, like the 
 true hoof, fulfils the office of a shield to the soft 
 parts within. 
 
 The hoof entire includes the wall, sole, and 
 frog ; the first two names referring to integral 
 parts of the same structure, and the last to one 
 distinct one. 
 
 If we attempt to split up the hoof into its 
 constituent parts, we find that the frog is quite 
 easily separated by maceration, and may then be 
 obtained as a triangular body, which, at its base, 
 has two diverging wings ; these wings are con- 
 tinuous with the cuticular band, which in the 
 living subject runs round the coronet. The frog, 
 indeed, preserves essentially the physical charac- 
 ters of cuticle. When wc attempt to separate the 
 sole from the wall, we notice that there is a blend- 
 ing of the one structure into the other, which is 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 43 
 
 quite difFerent from tliat observed in the case of 
 the frog and sole. In front, it is true, the sole is 
 separable from the wall, against which it abuts, 
 and to which it is merely agglutinated, but 
 behind they become quite inseparable. These parts 
 are endowed with various functions in common, 
 
 Fig. 2.— The Frog. 
 
 of defending from external agencies and exer- 
 cising a sustaining faculty. Their strength does 
 not merely serve the purpose of bearing weight, 
 but also of preserving the form of parts and 
 governing their proportions. It is the outer en- 
 casement acting in concert with the bone and 
 
44 THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 joint construction, which together regulate the 
 action of the intervening pliable structures. 
 
 The character of the horn of which hoofs are 
 composed is such that, by given degree of density 
 
 Fig. 3. — Hoof, with Frog removed. 
 
 and toughness, it is endowed with strength to 
 bear weight and resist wear, and is little liable to 
 break. Another most important property is elas- 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 45 
 
 ticity, which the horny hoof possesses in an exqui- 
 site degree. An essential condition of the strength 
 and elasticity of the hoof is, that it be preserved 
 in a state of normal firmness and proportion, and 
 that it be neither mutilated out of shape nor sod- 
 dened by wet, a process fatal to the elasticity and 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 strength of horn, as any one may convince himself 
 by soaking a piece of horn in water. 
 
 Figures 4 and 5 represent two hoofs removed 
 
46 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 from diseased feet of different horses, and which 
 both alike had been excessively mutilated by 
 cutting and other kinds of treatment. These, 
 after being preserved in their original form, as de- 
 scribed, for a not less period than two years, were 
 subjected to removal of portions of the soles ; the 
 frogs having been first removed, and an interval 
 allowed, when no changes in the form of these 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 weakened hoofs occurred ; but a longitudinal sec- 
 tion was made with a saw from the space previ- 
 ously occupied by the frog, and one side of the 
 arch of the sole was removed and the other left 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 47 
 
 intact. From specimen No. 5, the whole anterior 
 part of the sole was removed, by making trans- 
 verse sections from the frog to the wall at each 
 quarter. Thus treated, a change spontaneously 
 and immediately began to take place by degrees 
 in both ; the part with one-half of the sole re- 
 moved and the other entire, curled in at the heel 
 where support was wanting ; the other side main- 
 tained its form, and has done so for seven years, 
 from toe to heel. Wliile the last described of the 
 two, No. 5, deprived of all its abutting medium, 
 admits of a collapsing inwardly at both heels, until, 
 in the space of two or three weeks, the wall at 
 the part from either side presses together. 
 
 I have no doubt whatever that upon the horny 
 sole of the foot being kept in its integrity and 
 firm condition, in the living state, depends the 
 efficiency of the whole hoof, the health and ease 
 of the foot, and usefulness of the horse. 
 
 The construction of the foot may now be, for 
 the sake of convenience and compliance with 
 custom, studied in the commonly understood sense 
 as limited to the parts enclosed within the horny 
 
48 THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 hoof. The centre or foundation of this part con- 
 sists of two bones — firstly, the foot bone proper ; 
 secondly, the smaller, the sesamoid or navicular 
 bone. 
 
 The foot, or pedal bone, is anatomically the 
 last phalanx, but popularly is known as the coffin 
 bone. It gives the form to the front part of the 
 hoof, and to its sides also, by the addition of the 
 lateral cartilao-es which are fitted into it. The 
 pedal bone is remarkable for its strength and 
 lightness, its toughness, and its porosity ; — its 
 lower surface is arched. Placed upon a true 
 plane, it will be seen that the pedal bone rests on 
 it nearly level. The concavity of the bottom 
 surface of the bone and its true bearing are 
 points specially worthy of notice as bearing on 
 the principles and practice of horse-shoeing. 
 
 Figures 6, 7, and 8 represent, first (a), the 
 anterior section of a hind hoof made vertically 
 across the centre. Second figure shows a simi- 
 larly made section of coffin bone of fore foot ; 
 and figure three, the corresponding section of 
 hind foot lione. This last, and section of hoof. 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 49 
 
 figure 6, are parts of the same foot ; and the sec- 
 tion of fore-foot bone is a specimen from a foot of 
 
 Fi^. 6. 
 
 the same horse — a young animal with perfect feet. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 These several illustrations are produced to 
 help to impress on the minds of readers how 
 
50 THE FOOT — ITS FORM .-^D FUNCTION. 
 
 marvellously the arches of hoof and bone of the 
 horse's foot are adapted — the latter placed above 
 the former — to bear pressure, whether of superin- 
 cumbent weight or the result of force and action ; 
 they will also serve to show how destructive it 
 obviously must be to the foot's functions and the 
 energy of the horse, to destroy the sole by paring, 
 or to impair its texture in any way. Weaken 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 the horny sole by any means whatever, and the 
 pedal bone, which is supported upon its arch, is 
 deprived of that support, and injurious conse- 
 quences ensue, in various degrees, according to 
 conditions. In extreme, and by no means unfre- 
 quent cases, the result of weakening the sole is to 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 51 
 
 destroy the natural functions of the foot and the 
 use of the horse for service. 
 
 The small bone of the foot is out of the line 
 of bearing, and does not affect external shape, 
 but serves most important uses. . From a sup- 
 posed resemblance to a boat, the late Professor 
 Coleman called it the navicular hone — a name 
 now in common use amonsfst Enoflishmen. It 
 more closely resembles a weaver's shuttle ; and 
 some writers, after the example of Mr. Bracy Clark, 
 have preferred calling it the sJiuttle-hone ; but 
 the name which anatomically and physiologically 
 is the most accurate, is the sesamoid bone of the 
 foot, employed by Stubbs and by Continental 
 veterinarians. 
 
 This bone is flattened from above downwards, 
 and elongated from side to side. Its upper 
 surface is covered with cartilage, and forms the 
 posterior part of the articulating surface on which 
 the lower end of the small pastern bone moves ; 
 the lower surface also has a cartilaginous cover, 
 and serves as a pulley over which the tendon of 
 the perforans muscle moves. 
 
52 
 
 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 The sesamoid Ijoiie is firmly attached to the 
 foot l)one in front, and laterally, by means of liga- 
 mentous structure. It is also firmly connected 
 to the great pastern bone above, by means of 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 powerful ligaments, which have connections below 
 with the perforans tendon, with the lateral carti- 
 lages, and with the fibrous frog. Taking origin 
 
THE FOOT ITS FOKM AND FUNCTION. 53 
 
 from all these structures, these ligaments wind 
 round and are inserted into the anterior and 
 lateral surfaces of the larger pastern bone. 
 
 The object of the author in reproducing the 
 drawing of specimen No. 9 — for it was pub- 
 lished in another aspect in the Edinhurgli Vete- 
 rinary Review in 1861 — is to draw attention 
 to the two lateral lioaments referred to, and to 
 which it is proposed to give the name " Lateral 
 Phalangeal Ligaments." These ligaments — one 
 on either side — are inextensible. They pass over 
 more joints than one, and are the first of a series 
 of similar structures to be noticed, through whose 
 agency the foot is sustained while being raised 
 upon its point in action. These are not liga- 
 ments which merely bind bones together to form 
 joints, nor must they be looked upon as ordinary 
 ligaments between bone structures. The ofiice of 
 the lateral phalangeal ligaments is to be acted 
 on by a lever, and to be instrumental in moving 
 the bones which they connect. The two pastern 
 bones, extended in their oblique attitude from 
 above downwards, constitute the powerfully ener- 
 
.54 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 getic lever which plies by means of those liga- 
 ments upon the navicular bone, the lateral car- 
 tilages, and the whole of the fibrous structure 
 conspicuous over the plantar region of the foot. 
 
 I shall have to refer agjain to this illustration 
 in another chapter, where notice will be taken of 
 connections with parts above. 
 
 From the time I made out the office of the 
 structures I am endeavouring to describe, — func- 
 tionally in particular, — I have regarded the in- 
 sight into them as the most important I had 
 acquired for the solution of unsolved questions, 
 on the economy of the foot and limbs of the horse. 
 The lateral phalangeal ligaments were seen by 
 others, but only received passing recognition, 
 while their functions were either not alluded to, 
 or the most inconsistent notions propounded — of 
 their being yielding suspensories, allowing the 
 navicular bone to descend, etc. ; whereas they are 
 in no degree or sense elastic. 
 
 The function of the navicular bone is similar 
 to that of all typical sesamoid bones. The per- 
 forans tendon plays over its smooth surface as 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 55 
 
 its pulley and fulcrum, and it does so obviously 
 at great advantage, both during the extension 
 and flexion of the foot. 
 
 In addition to the structures already de- 
 scribed, other parts are comprised within the hoof, 
 which require some description in this place — 
 viz. the lateral cartilages, and the so-called sensi- 
 tive frog, which is to be looked upon essentially 
 as a powerful interosseous ligament. 
 
 The lateral cartilages are two large cartilagi- 
 nous structures, which are firmly connected with 
 the upper and posterior margins of the basilar 
 and retrorsal processes of the foot bone, and which 
 extend upwards and backwards on each side, so 
 as to protect the articulation between the coro- 
 nary bone and the pedal bone. 
 
 These cartilages are continued backwards in 
 the line of the foot bone, and then bend in, in 
 the form of the hoof. They not only are con- 
 nected with the OS pedis, but likewise with the 
 coronary or small pastern bone. Now, those 
 cartilaginous structures cannot be well considered 
 by themselves, seeing that they are so intimately 
 
56 THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 connected with tlie so-called sensitive frog. This, 
 and the ligamentous structure, are connected, 
 Istly, with the large pastern ; 2clly, with the lateral 
 cartilages ; and, ^>idly, very firmly inserted into 
 the lower surface of the foot bone. When we 
 consider that the lateral cartilages are connected 
 not only with the pedal bone but with the coro- 
 nary bone, we understand how important is the 
 function of that powerful structure — the fibrous 
 frog. This is, in truth, a most beautiful inter- 
 osseous ligament, serving to co-ordinate the move- 
 ment of the foot, navicular, coronary, and large 
 pastern bones. 
 
 The frog has externally much the shape of the 
 corresponding surface on the inside of the hoof, 
 which is, as it were, its mould. Above the frog 
 we have the very strong plantar fascia, which is 
 tightly stretched across the half-moon shaped 
 border, on the posterior edge of the inferior sur- 
 face of the foot bone. 
 
 The frog is chiefly composed of white fibrous 
 tissue, and careful investigation of its structure 
 in no way justifies the very ridiculous and mis- 
 
THE FOOT ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. o7 
 
 leading term wiiicli has been applied to the 
 structure in England, i.e. fatty frog. 
 
 These few anatomical details on the structui'e 
 of the foot of the horse are not sufficient of them- 
 selves, but require to be supplemented by other 
 observations, to enable us to reason in a perfectly 
 acciu'ate manner with reoard to its functions ; for 
 
 Fig. lU lepreseuts a vertical section of a fore-ioot — in a line from front 
 backwards — so that the relative position of the bones, joints, and com- 
 ponent textures is delineated. 
 
 the foot is only the terminal part of the limb, by the 
 action of which it is of course affected. The knee 
 of the horse corresponds to the wrist of man, and 
 the hock to the ankle; and just as the wrist or the 
 ankle is affected by any influence exerted on the 
 muscles above these joints, so we find the foot of 
 
58 THE FOOT — ITS FOEM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 the horse afFected by, or affecting, the conditions 
 of structures situated above it. 
 
 Any interference with the life and action of 
 the parts contained within the hoof, and any 
 change from the healthy proportions of the hoof 
 itself, must act prejudicially on the joints imme- 
 diately above it — on the pastern, the knee, and 
 the entire limb ; and these effects are gradually, 
 but steadily, developed to the detriment of free 
 action, even though the ill-shod horse may not 
 actually be said to go lame. 
 
 This part of the subject will be further deve- 
 loped in other parts of this work, under the head- 
 ings of ''The Action of the Horse," and "Lame7iess 
 of Horses." Meanwhile, it will be sufficient to 
 add, that the more the practical shoeing-smith 
 accustoms himself to look upon the foot which he 
 has to shoe, as a part of the anatomical system of 
 the limb, the better will he understand the im- 
 portance of the duty he has to perform. He will 
 at the same time accustom his eye to look upwards 
 from the ground through the limb ; he will under- 
 stand the necessity of preserving the strength of 
 
THE FOOT — ITS FORM AND FUNCTION. 59 
 
 the hoof in all its parts, of giving it a true surface 
 of bearing, and furnishing it with a shoe which 
 shall give good cover, avoid jarring, secure good 
 leverage, and allow the joints of the foot and leg to 
 act with that freedom and suppleness which are 
 indispensable to easy action, and to a full develop- 
 ment of muscular power ; whether in drawing or 
 carrying great weight, in cantering round a park 
 or galloping over a race-course. 
 
 It is perfectly obvious, however, that it would 
 be hopeless to attempt, within the limits of this 
 treatise, to describe the structures of the whole 
 limb of the horse, or to prove in a detailed manner 
 how the condition of the foot necessarily reacts 
 upon all the joints of the limb above it. 
 
 In describing the accompanying anatomical 
 preparations, which are the basis of the opinions 
 herein advocated, I shall, however, of necessity 
 be led to allude to cases where an abnormal con- 
 dition of the feet has been followed by other 
 affections of the limb. I shall then give a descrip- 
 tion of certain preparations which illustrate my 
 views as to the functions of certain structures, as, 
 
60 THE FOOT — ITS FOllM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 for instance, that of the so-called suspensory liga- 
 ment. By this arrangement, it is hoped that 
 while each chapter of the work may be under- 
 stood and referred to singly, the reader who 
 wishes to miderstand the whole subject, may be 
 induced to study the whole work. 
 
 The object I am trying to keep in view, of 
 making this work as intelligible as possible to a 
 large number of readers, precludes the discussion 
 of much that I should deem otherwise essential. 
 Such technical questions as the consideration of 
 the character and effects of the splint bones, of 
 elasticity as a phenomenon, and of the abuse and 
 misuse of the term, are subjects closely allied, 
 and forming links in a common chain ; but they 
 must, for obvious reasons, give place to matters 
 which come more within the province of this 
 work ; some references to these and allied sub- 
 jects will, however, be found in the Chapter on 
 "Action" 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 In commencing a chapter on preparing the foot 
 for shoeing, it may not be inappropriate to attempt 
 to answer the question proposed, as to how one 
 wonld proceed to shoe feet that had never been 
 shod before ? I reply, that no general rules can 
 be laid down for such cases different from those 
 which apply to all. 
 
 Shoeing of colts forms so very small a part 
 of our work, that shoers in towns are rarely called 
 on to shoe one for the first time ; still, the thing- 
 has to be done, and no feet come to hand under a 
 greater variety of conditions than those of unshod 
 young horses, artificially kept and treated as these 
 are in England. 
 
 This view, however, pursued into a thorough 
 discussion of the questions involved, would carry 
 me beyond the province of this work, and, after 
 all, the cultivation of horse stock — the production 
 
62 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 of good horses and formation of sound strong feet 
 — is not a business in which horse-shoers can do 
 much ; though those among them who have mas- 
 tered details and principles to the extent of pre- 
 suming to teach it, may, without unduly intruding, 
 ask to be heard on the matter. Bad management 
 of young horse stock is among the first and 
 greatest evils that have grown out of the false 
 teaching, and consequent bad practice that has 
 sprung from it, during this century among us — 
 the teaching on the structure and economy of the 
 horse's foot. Horses with good feet — or with 
 sound or unsound feet — suggest the same ques- 
 tions for consideration as the adage, the hare 
 must be caught before it can be cooked. More 
 and more horses have been produced after the 
 manner pursued successfully to a great extent 
 with meat-producing stock, regardless of the 
 quite opposite purpose to be served by horses and 
 oxen respectively. This, however, is a great sub- 
 ject — one that is kept in view throughout this 
 work, but which can only be incidentally treated 
 on here. 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 63 
 
 It is otherwise where horses are less artificially 
 bred, and where the breed runs more of average 
 form. If our horses were under the conditions 
 enjoyed by the most favoured of the forest 
 deer regarding freedom of exercise and firmness 
 of soil, the feet of the former, like those of the 
 latter animals, would then be strong proportion- 
 ately, the feet of one animal differing from those 
 of another in hardly any other respect than size. 
 But it is totally different with our horses. The 
 mistakes which have prevailed, and which have 
 so deplorably vitiated English shoeing, have 
 begun to operate in the management of horses. 
 We are required to shoe the thorough-bred year- 
 ling, with its (in many instances) small foot, with 
 uneven bearing surface and twisted limb, or the 
 differently bred and larger type, one or two years 
 older, with feet broader, sometimes with the point 
 of the hoof worn short, and more or less unequally 
 spread laterally, where the margins of the wall 
 are thin, therefore giving the notion of a circular 
 foot. Shortening of the toe, and leaving the 
 spreading edges of the wall, make up the approxi- 
 
64 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 mate round, l3iit nothing like the natural foot. 
 Horses of any age, from one year old, may exhibit 
 deformities and weakness of feet, without having 
 ever been shod, merely as the result of their own 
 imprisoned state, and standing upon wet and soft 
 ground. 
 
 With these remarks, it will be inferred that I 
 attach no importance to the age of the horse, 
 whether he be twenty months or many years. If 
 the truths I have endeavoured to impart be worked 
 out by shoers for themselves, and a sufficient 
 practical experience at the work has been ac- 
 quired, the real guarantees of success will be 
 secured ; and it is to men under such circum- 
 stances, or aiming to achieve them, that detailed 
 directions will be most useful ; practitioners will 
 thereby be enabled to put the directions j)roperly 
 to use, and those who are not jiractitioners, to 
 understand who are and who are not well in- 
 formed on the subject. In j)i"oportion to the 
 knowledge of horse-shoeing thus acquired by dif- 
 ferent classes, they will learn how to appreciate 
 and trust accordingly. 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 65 
 
 Preparing the foot for the shoe is in many 
 respects the most important part in the process of 
 shoeing ; firstly, because it presupposes a thorough 
 knowledge of the whole ; and secondly, because, 
 when a foot is really well prepared, an undeviating 
 outline is presented for the fitting and applying 
 the shoe. Still, this is but one side of the business, 
 and the skilled workman who does the rest, if all 
 be not done by the same man, has enough left to 
 do to test his intelligence, no less than his manual 
 skill. In fact, from beginning to end, a know- 
 ledge of details and expert handwork are required, 
 or bad performance of one part may defeat the 
 good done in another, whether by the same or by 
 different hands. 
 
 I attach much importance to the adoption 
 of proper tools. It is sometimes said, that a 
 good workman will produce good effects with 
 indiff'erent tools ; admitting the statement, it 
 proves nothing after all ; there can be no 
 doubt that effects are often due to tools, and 
 that the success of pioneers in the arts is often 
 
66 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 due to their extemporising, and adoption of im- 
 proved instruments. 
 
 For preparing horses' feet for shoeing we use 
 two instruments — the drawing-knife and the 
 rasp ; for the reduction of the hoof to form and 
 proportion, besides these, the hammer, pincers, 
 and buffer. The last three tools, with only slight 
 and unimportant modifications in form, are used 
 in the process of shoeing everywhere. 
 
 There is scarcely a horse that comes under 
 our hand to shoe that does not require some por- 
 tion of the hoof to be removed, even though it 
 may be so excessively weakened by mismanage- 
 ment, as to require several months' conservation 
 before due cjuantity and proportion can be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Bad management and disproportion of hoof 
 go together, and though the latter may be slight, 
 it requires attention and adjustment ; all the horn 
 we may remove with a file (not a coarse rasp) 
 will, in some cases, amount to no more than would 
 cover the surface of a shilling, yet the bearing 
 surface of the foot is thereby both increased and 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 67 
 
 greatly improved. It is just in these cases, 
 when with equal mastery a shoe is selected and 
 fitted out, so that the surface of the foot and. shoe 
 are the counterparts of each other, and the latter 
 is nailed in its place with all possible care, 
 that the animal which reached the shoeing-forge 
 in tortm^e and unable to walk, leaves it with 
 freedom of action and a cheerful countenance. 
 
 If I be asked. From what part would any hoof 
 require to be removed in various degrees in those 
 cases vulgarly termed stumped-up cases f I reply 
 that it is impossible to state this here, and nothing 
 but an apprenticeship at shoeing, or some such 
 equivalent, can make a man reliable for putting 
 into execution details of the kind, where rule 
 helps so little ; but generally, if not exclusively, 
 the wall is the part requiring adaptation of sur- 
 face ; at the toe it may be projecting, and the 
 edge require the file to be passed transversely 
 across it ; or, the toe being too short, the columns 
 of the heels, on either side, may be lowered 
 slightly, by holding the foot in the left hand, and 
 passing the flat part of the file over the bearing 
 
68 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 surface from behind forward in one, say outside, 
 extremity of near fore, and backwards over the 
 inner heel, taking care that both heels be level ; 
 the off foot, by reversing the action of the hand, is 
 treated in the same way. But many men will say. 
 Why not take the horse's foot between the legs, 
 as is the custom ? Because where so very little 
 has to be done, I want to see how to do it, and I 
 don't require the greater purchase which the firm 
 hold of the foot between my knees gives. I am 
 only stating, however, what I do and how I do 
 it ; in the hind feet we see and can manage best 
 by taking the foot in the ordinary way. 
 
 Passing now to horses with a fair quantity of 
 hoof, those shod at intervals varying from twenty 
 to thirty-five days; we take off one shoe, or if 
 the floor be level and the case that of a sound- 
 footed horse, two or all the shoes may be taken 
 off. I then take each foot forward upon my knee, 
 and having seen exactly how much hoof is re- 
 quired to be removed, and from what parts, I 
 take the rasp, and with either the rough or file 
 surface, according to the quantity of hoof to be 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 69 
 
 removed, I. pass it vertically, so as to take otF the 
 outer edge to the extent required ; then, placing 
 the foot between my legs, remove the exfoliated 
 sole and detaching parts of the frog, the first by 
 means of the bufier, raising the loose flakes of 
 horn from the front backwards, by tapping the 
 tool wdth the hammer ; the superfluous exfolia- 
 tions of the frog are then removed with the 
 drawing knife, not by paring it at all, or much 
 cutting, but more by raising the flakes with the 
 left thumb and finger, and detaching them with 
 the knife. This done, the bearing surface of 
 the wall is to be adapted, and, holding the 
 foot in the ordinary way, fore or hind, the 
 rasp is passed over the point of the wall to 
 reduce it to its proper depth, I myself keep 
 to the habit of taking the foot in my hand, 
 after reducing the hoof to the required form and 
 proportion, and then finish it as directed in the 
 former instance, carrying the flat surface of the 
 file transversely across the bearing surface at the 
 point, and then over the surface of each posterior 
 column from behind forward ; being careful that 
 
70 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 botli heels of the foot are of equal depth, and 
 that an equally appropriate firm surface be given 
 to the point. If the instructions just given be 
 intelligently carried out, the quarters — the sur- 
 face across the bottom of the foot — will be fairly 
 provided for from the extreme ends to the 
 middle, which is commonly left flat or hollow and 
 weak ; the shoer will be assisted in avoiding this 
 defect by acquiring the habit of glancing down 
 the foot, from heel to toe on each side, in parallel 
 lines ; his eye will then be able to judge if he has 
 secured the object on which I am laying stress — 
 a fulness in the surface across the centre of the 
 foot. The centre of the foot is the region of 
 greatest breadth and depth of its arch ; on the 
 preservation of its breadth and depth depend the 
 strength of the arch and of the foot itself, and the 
 firmness, safety, and power of the horse's action. 
 
 The third class of feet are those in wliich, by 
 mismanagement, a morbid accumulation of hoof 
 places them out of form. Some of these are not 
 in this state because they have not been shod at 
 regular intervals, but l^ecause those who shod 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 71 
 
 them have not known their art— how to reduce 
 the abundance of horn to due proportion in dif- 
 ferent parts of the hoof. These feet are the most 
 difficult for a non-competent man to understand, 
 and require the greatest amount of labour from 
 the most intelligent and skilful. 
 
 There is a common saying, that in shoeing 
 " the shoe should be made to fit the foot, and not 
 the foot to fit the shoe." This hackneyed adage, 
 when closely examined, amounts to nonsense. 
 The horse-shoer, if he be an artist worthy of 
 the art, is required to know the foot, so that 
 he can, to the greatest possible exactness and ex- 
 tent, economise its want of substance and energy ; 
 he must, like the sculptor with his clay or marble, 
 bring out the true figure from a mass of deformity. 
 That the over-reduced and weak hoofs are the 
 most numerous, is granted ; but I have seen nume- 
 rous bad cases of deformity and lameness due to 
 excess of horn in the wrong places. 
 
 There is no difference in the mode of preparing 
 hoofs in these last conditions to that dii-ected for 
 feet in a medium state ; full knowledge of the 
 
72 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 subject, with indispensable experience, will teach 
 the removal of the right portion of horn from 
 the right parts. A hoof may be an inch too 
 deep at the heels, or two inches too long at the 
 point — common anomalous conditions — occurring 
 singly or combined; and as the fibres of the 
 hoof take an oblique forward direction, every 
 part will be not only that much deeper, and 
 give that extent of abnormal disproportion to 
 the limb, but the points of the hoof in contact 
 with the ground or the shoe, are, to the same 
 extent, in advance of their relative internal 
 structures ; the result of this state of things is, 
 that parts which in their natural position support 
 each other, are so displaced that co-operation is 
 impossible. To say nothing of extreme cases, it 
 is very common to find the heels of shoes in a 
 position corresponding to a line drawn across the 
 centre of the foot ; on the other hand a shortened 
 point of hoof, with or without wrong interfer- 
 ence with the heels, alters the degree of obli- 
 quity of the whole limb, and diminishes the power 
 and possible rate of speed of an animal, from the 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 73 
 
 instant such a state of things is produced. One 
 of the first signs of this occurrence, in a young 
 horse of high cast, is a swelling of the back 
 sinews below the knee, and it is that enlargement 
 which attracts attention, and not the foot. Here 
 is a condition marking one of the early incidents 
 which, by subsequent stages, condemns some of 
 the most valuable horses in the world to work 
 when lame, and brings them to a premature end. 
 
 In no other country have I found these extreme 
 abnormal conditions in such proportions and to 
 such extent as in our own ; and I think it is 
 impossible to devote too much attention to ascer- 
 taining the cause of a state of things which is 
 not honourable to our calling, and must be de- 
 plored. 
 
 One change in practice, among others, intro- 
 duced by Mr. Coleman, has entailed, I believe, 
 a more lasting damage on the art of farriery than 
 any of his many other crotchets, which have, 
 unfortunately, become thoroughly parts of Eng- 
 lish horse-shoeing. He introduced the drawing- 
 knife, and made it supersede the buttress for 
 
74 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 preparing the feet for slioeing. The buttress is 
 the instrument still in use for paring clown the 
 wall surface of the foot to receive the shoe, 
 everywhere except in England and in parts of 
 the New World to which English hands and 
 language have carried our mode of shoeing, such 
 as it has become only within the present century. 
 Only old men can remember the buttress being 
 in general use throughout Great Britain, but the 
 way it was banished from English practice is 
 known to few ; and its supersedence, and these 
 remarks on the effects of the change, may astonish 
 many. The drawing-knife, or searcher as it was 
 also called, a small, hooked, crooked, little instru- 
 ment, was formerly kept for the purpose of ex- 
 ploring wounds, and extracting foreign bodies 
 from the foot ; and was to that extent in vogue 
 on the Continent as well as in England. But 
 theorising, and a fancy for change, led the pro- 
 fessor to order the general use of the little hooked 
 knife instead of such a broad level tool as the 
 buttress. He had unfortunately conceived such 
 notions as that the sole of the foot did not bear 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 75 
 
 the weight of the animal, that it was necessary to 
 pare it thin every time horses were shod, and that 
 the broad, level buttress was not suited for that ; 
 hence the preference to the little, scooping, crooked 
 searcher. As these incidents have had a disastrous 
 effect on shoeing which we have scarcely in any 
 degree begun to relieve, I will quote from Mr. 
 Coleman's work of 1798 : — "Those who supposed 
 that the weight of the animal was chiefly sup- 
 ported by the horny sole, have attributed a func- 
 tion to that organ which it does not possess ; but 
 although the laminae are capable of sustaining the 
 weight of the animal, yet as they are elastic, and 
 at every step elongate, the horny sole is neces- 
 sarily pressed down in the same degree, and by 
 first descending, and then ascending, as the 
 laminae dilate and contract, the horny sole con- 
 tributes very materially to prevent concussion." 
 (Pages 102-3.) " This union of the crust with 
 the coffin-bone sustains the weight of the animal 
 — the crust supports the weight even when the 
 horny sole and frog are removed ; if the sole and 
 frog in reality supported the weight, then the 
 
76 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 foot would slip through the crust when the frog 
 and sole were taken away. 
 
 " The soles, bars, and frogs, were taken away 
 from both fore feet of a horse ; the feet were then 
 alternately lifted, by placing the hand on the 
 loins of the horse ; he kicked, all his weight was 
 then sustained by the laminse of the fore feet, and 
 yet this made not the smallest degree of change 
 in the situation of the bones. 
 
 "From this experiment, therefore, it appears 
 that the union of the sensitive laminae with the 
 horny laminae is sufficiently strong to support the 
 whole weight of the animal on two feet. 
 
 " The first thing to be attended to is to take 
 away a portion of the sole with the drawing- 
 knife ; to avoid pressure, the sole should be made 
 concave or hollow ; if there be any one part of 
 the practice of shoeing more important than the 
 rest, it is this removal of the sole between the 
 bars and crust. In common practice these parts 
 of the hoof are removed by an instrument called 
 the buttress. 
 
 " The removal of a proper quantity of horny 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 77 
 
 sole has been represented to be a delicate opera- 
 tion, and in the hands of conunon smiths liable to 
 do mischief. But any smith capable of paring a 
 hoof cannot fail to be equal to remove part of the 
 sole with a drawing-knife. That the practice 
 may be faithfully executed in the army, a farrier 
 from each regiment of cavalry has been permitted 
 to attend the College to learn the practical part of 
 shoeing." 
 
 The foregoing passages, abounding as they do 
 in errors, afford evidence of the manner in which 
 some of the greatest changes in the practice of 
 horse-shoeing have occurred since its history has 
 been written, and changes too which have led 
 to the worst possible results. Once, however, 
 the notion got possession of the minds of the 
 men at the wheel, that the bottom of the foot, 
 its arched sole, was not destined to support the 
 weight, but to yield under pressure downwards, 
 everything had to give way to that idea. The 
 sole and frog were torn away, and because, 
 during the barbarous experiment, the connection 
 did not yield and the bone protrude, as a finger 
 
78 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 would through a torn glove, negative evidence 
 was taken in confirmation of the theory framed ; 
 the paring away of horses' soles with the draw- 
 ing-knife was thus established, and the army, by 
 sending farriers to learn the new system, became 
 the means of enforcing the absurd and cruel prac- 
 tice of thinning the sole, throughout this king- 
 dom and the colonies. 
 
 It is interesting to see the differently consti- 
 tuted mind of Mr. Moorcroft on the natural bear- 
 ing of the question in 1800 : ''The sole ties the 
 lower edge of the crust together ; by its upper 
 part, forming a strong arch, it affords a firm basis 
 to the bone of the foot ; and by its strength it 
 defends the sensitive parts within the hoof" 
 This is true. 
 
 We fail to discover a single passage in any 
 work, or any traditional account, to show that any 
 objection was raised to the continuance of the use 
 of the buttress in England, any more than over 
 the rest of the world, where it had been adopted 
 from time immemorial, until, along with his other 
 new theories about shoeing, Mr. Coleman believed 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 79 
 
 it to be the wrong thing to employ, and then a 
 crooked knife and the coarse rasp were adopted 
 as weapons that might do more destructive exe- 
 cution than the one dismissed. 
 
 Ahnost the only thing recorded against the 
 custom of shoeing, where the buttress is promi- 
 nently mentioned, was by Earl Pembroke, where 
 he says : " They completely destroy the inner part 
 of the hoof with their buttress;" and in another 
 place, in his work on horses, shoeing, etc., in 1761, 
 the noble Earl wrote, " Physic and the buttress, in 
 well-informed hands, would not be fatal ; but in 
 the manner we are now provided with farriers, 
 they must be quite prohibited." Here we find 
 complaint against incompetency and bad use of 
 the instrument. 
 
 Since horse-shoeing is not the business of 
 any locality or country, but of all countries and 
 required for all seasons, I will venture to make 
 use of experience derived from comparative obser- 
 vations of the modes of preparing horses' feet for 
 shoeing. The whole subject of shoeing is one of 
 comparison of relative good and bad practice. 
 
80 PEEPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 and it is not enough to take pains to observe 
 the merits of different methods, but it requires 
 courage and will to apply them. To begin near 
 home, I will only ask readers to go from Dover 
 to Calais to see how horses' hoofs are periodically 
 reduced to normal proportion and prepared for 
 shoeing there ; once seen, the example may be 
 taken to represent the practice of all other na- 
 tions, north, south, and east, even including, I 
 am told (for I have never been there), the practice 
 among the native farriers of British India. 
 
 One difference between the English mode of 
 shoeing from that adopted in all other countries of 
 the old world is, that we hold up the horse's foot 
 and work at it. I only incidentally allude to the 
 fact, because the origin of our custom is as much 
 hidden by antiquity as the more extended mode. 
 It is that of holding the horse's foot and working 
 at it to which I allude, while the continental far- 
 rier has the foot held while he shoes it. This last 
 is the chief difference, which first attracts the 
 notice of travellers. In using the buttress the 
 rasp is superseded as well as the drawing-knife, 
 
PREPARING THE EOOT. 81 
 
 the latter altogether, and the former, a small fine 
 rasp, employed only to smooth off the surface of 
 the lower circumference of the wall, as the last 
 act in the process. Together with the buttress, 
 the Continental shoer uses a tool analogous to 
 that which we formerly employed under the name 
 of toeing-knife ; but a modern Continental shoer, 
 if a good workman, uses this, which in wrong 
 hands would be very destructive, with admirable 
 effect. This foot-rounder, the literal translation 
 of the name of the instrument, is a straight steel 
 blade, of about nine inches in length by one and 
 a half in breadth and moderately sharp, by means 
 of which the hard margin of the wall of the hoof 
 is cut off by light taps of the hammer, while the 
 instrument is held so as to regulate the quantity 
 to be detached. The plan I have given, which I 
 adopt with the rasp, of taking the foot forward, 
 was founded upon this method ; but when we 
 come to those hoofs where overgrowth and dis- 
 proportion to an indefinite extent prevail, I find 
 that no amount of skill in the application can 
 
 bring the rasp and drawing-knife, with the rest 
 
 G 
 
82 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 of onr tools, up to the rond-pied and buttress of 
 the Continental shoer. To produce the same 
 effect, we, with equal knowledge of the require- 
 ment, take much longer time and devote more 
 labour to the work; while in ordinary practice 
 with us the work is liable to remain undone or be 
 badly done, as a rule it is fairly accomplished 
 on the Continent. Take a foot grown to one 
 or two inches beyond its normal depth and 
 length, curled over at both heels upon itself, the 
 bottom of the column being in an almost trans- 
 verse line with the centre of the foot, and a mor- 
 bid thickness of sole and frog imprisoned and 
 bound immovably together ; such a foot puzzles 
 a workman ; with such a weapon as the rasp 
 and knife, he does not know how to begin, or 
 proceed, with a view to its proper reduction. 
 In such a case the foreigner lays his foot-rounder 
 transversely, with its edge towards one heel or 
 column, about one-fourth of an inch from its lower 
 surface, and with two or three taps with the 
 hammer, cuts transversely forward from one to 
 two inches ; the same thing is done with the other 
 
PREPARING THE FOOT. 83 
 
 column, and then usually, but not always, a greater 
 depth is rounded off the toe, and a little, if there 
 be abundance, at the sides ; all which can be effected 
 in the space of a minute or two ; the man then 
 takes the buttress, and in the foreign mode of 
 holding the foot, cuts from toe to heel, and when 
 the hard edge of the wall and some of its depth 
 has been removed, that which remains is pared 
 down to give the required surface. One advan- 
 tage, at this point of the operation, I find favour- 
 able in the Continental practice is, that when 
 there are morbid accumulations of sole, Avhich 
 come into the way, and are as much foreign and 
 incompatible with its functions as a snowball at 
 the bottom of the foot, they are met and easily 
 broken up by the direction in which the buttress 
 is pushed ; whereas, by holding the foot our- 
 selves, and working more from heel to toe, our 
 instrument slips over the exfoliations of horn, 
 which have their fixed basis behind, and rise in 
 front as they become ripe for being cast off. 
 
 Having learned these conditions by experience, 
 acquired late, and working according to wliat 
 
84 PREPARING THE FOOT. 
 
 I was taught in the course of apprenticeship, I 
 fairly met the inconvenience by making use of 
 the buffer for breaking up the thick imprisoned 
 sole and the exfoliations of the frog ; these parts 
 would detach spontaneously after the wall was 
 reduced to normal proportion, and the local con- 
 dition would not ensue, but for the general state 
 and want of motion of the foot ; such motion im- 
 plies health and freedom, in the enjoyment of 
 which sole and frog cast off their flakes and 
 maintain their proper substance. It might appear 
 that this disengaged horn, if left unheeded, would 
 fall with time — plausible theory, but incompatible 
 with good practice. Such incumbrance must be 
 got rid of, not only before the shoe is put on, but 
 before the proper surface can be adapted for it. 
 A knowledge of what is required, and of the 
 fact that there are various ways more or less easy 
 of attaining the end, is necessary to a proper 
 execution of the work ; economy, and proper 
 use of means, will l)e the result of the requisite 
 knowledge. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 Shoes should be kept in readiness at every forge 
 in sufficient numbers and varieties, so as neither 
 to keep horses waiting while they are being made, 
 nor yet cause men to hmiy over the work of 
 fitting and applying them. With a knowledge 
 of the horses of any locality, it will only rarely 
 happen that a shoe, or pair of shoes, may require 
 to be made for some special object while the horse 
 is kept waiting. It is a mistake to suppose that 
 shoeing is best done when the shoes are made 
 apparently for the occasion, at the time of apply- 
 ing them. Every farrier w^orks best, and to most 
 economy of time and labour, who can take from 
 the wall several shoes to try to the feet of every 
 horse, so as to be able to select the exact size, 
 substance, and cover, that the foot requires. 
 Another general rule to be attended to, is 
 to make shoes of a good equality of iron ; a fine- 
 
86 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 grained tougli iron is preferable to hard. These 
 remarks apply particularly to the shoeing of all 
 horses used for fast work. The reasons I have 
 for this preference of a fine quality of iron 
 are, firstly, that on paved roads horses go with 
 better foothold than with shoes made of crude 
 hard iron ; secondly, tough iron wears long 
 after the margins of the shoe are worn conform- 
 able to the action of the foot, in which state 
 horses usually go in their best form. Shoes 
 made of such iron, and fitted in the way I shall 
 describe, hardly ever break or bend though they 
 be worn ever so thin. 
 
 I shall confine myself to general advice on 
 making shoes ; localities, classes of horses, and 
 their employment, have to be taken into account 
 in forging shoes. Therefore this section of the 
 work varies more than that in which I have 
 described the preparation of the feet, which is 
 required to be done the same for all horses, and 
 also differs from the next part to be treated, 
 —fitting the shoes. 
 
 Good forgemen have from time immemorial 
 
ON MAKING HOESE-SHOES. 87 
 
 abounded in England, and if shoes have not 
 been well made, it has been for lack of proper 
 instruction as to what is needed, not defect of 
 skill in workmanship. Speaking, as I do, of the 
 part performed by firemen, it is implied that the 
 iron is to be well worked and the shoes sound. 
 The question of preference in the use of new or 
 old iron is an unsettled one, and will bear a few 
 remarks. It is common to make the fore-shoes 
 out of new, and the hind out of old scrap. There 
 is a prejudice in favour of the custom, in the 
 idea that old iron wears best, and a mould 
 formed by doubling up old iron enables the 
 maker to leave the substance in the shoe, as 
 the saying is, where it is wanted. These notions 
 prevail and are acted upon extensively in London, 
 and in provincial town forges in England, while 
 in Scotland toe-tips are added instead of leaving 
 a lump of iron. That well-worked old iron, how- 
 ever, wears longer when made into horse-shoes, 
 than do shoes of equal weight made of new bar, 
 is acknowledged, therefore let us give hard 
 wearers hind-shoes made of scrap iron. 
 
88 
 
 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 Fig. 11. — Near fore Scotch cart-horse shoe. 
 
 Hind-shoes of old iron, up to 1 lb. weight, may 
 be made by two men, and above that, up to 22 oz. 
 
 Fig. 12. — This figure is a drawing of a Loudon dray-horse oft' t'ore-shoe. 
 
 each, they should be made by double hammer — 
 two sledges; and above that weight all shoes, fore 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 89 
 
 as well as hind, should be made out of new bar 
 iron, of thickness sufficient to allow of its being 
 drawn to required substance. It will presently 
 appear why the new iron is preferable in all re- 
 spects for the large shoes, but I will here name 
 two valid reasons ; first and last, there is a saving 
 of coals, and if the shoer is both master and work- 
 man, he will get also the larger and double benefit, 
 the saving of labour. Any man who has had to 
 take his place at making draught-horse shoes 
 of one and a half to three pounds weight each, 
 out of old iron, will understand the importance 
 of the question to which I am directing attention. 
 Cruelty to men, and that is what this practice 
 amounts to if followed up, is a matter worthy of 
 serious attention, and I may incidentally mention 
 that the amount and kind of labour exacted from 
 working farriers is a fit subject for inquiry with 
 a view to amendment. 
 
 The annexed four illustrations will give 
 readers a good notion of the different modes of 
 shoeing cart-horses at London and Edinburgh. 
 The Scotch fore and hind shoe, respectively Nos. 
 
90 
 
 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 11, 13, were made by W. Urquliart, and fitted on 
 my own method ; these Scotch shoes are distin- 
 
 Fig. 13. — A Scotch near hind-foot cart-horse shoe. 
 
 guished by being fullered and furnished with toe- 
 tips, and the heels turned down. 
 
 Fig. 14. — An oil' liiud-ioot London cart-horse .slioe. 
 
 The London cart-horse shoes, Nos. 12, 14, 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 91 
 
 were obligingly supplied to me from one of the 
 largest breweries. Tliey are stamped, and not 
 fullered. The London and Scotch shoes used for 
 these drawings were of the same size, and found, 
 on being put into the scale, to be within a trifle 
 of the same weight, viz. one fore and one hind 
 shoe together, of both specimens, weighed 7 lbs. 
 
 Machine-made shoes need not occupy much 
 space here, since, up to the present time, none 
 have come under my notice that I could adopt, 
 either for their being relatively superior or equal 
 to hand-forged shoes, or on the score of economy — 
 a consideration that should be always subordi- 
 nate to, and never worthy of entertainment apart 
 from, the first and essential requirement — good 
 eff'ect. Yet, from specimens of shoes produced, I 
 am persuaded that much can and will be done by 
 machinery to economise hard labour, and to no 
 class of men should such a consummation he 
 more welcome than to working shoers themselves. 
 But hitherto the manufacturing firms have all mis- 
 taken the requirement. They have been ill-advised 
 in generally starting with some crotchet, and seek- 
 
92 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 ing a market for the products of their machinery 
 by affirming that their shoes were found success- 
 ful in the prevention of some evils complained of. 
 The real object should be, and if machine-made 
 shoes are ever to be successful, must be, to advance 
 the work of shoemaking to some given point 
 beyond that of producing the iron in the bar ; it 
 should be cut into lengths, and turned into an 
 approach to crescent shajDC, and then the forging 
 to begin by hand, and the work be completed up 
 to the point of fitting the shoe to the foot. 
 
 In all the machine-made shoes that I have 
 seen, too much has been done, and I should only 
 consider the specimens as equal to old iron of 
 very inconvenient form for working up by hand. 
 If I could get the iron of given sizes, comprising 
 all those used for making shoes, and the bars cut 
 into lengths of a given number of inches, to be 
 defined, and these turned to the shape of a mould 
 such as we begin with for making the first side of 
 a shoe, and these moulds sold in bags of 1 cwt. or 
 parcels of different quantities, I grant that would 
 be an acquisition ; a saving of labour to the extent 
 
ON makinCt horse-shoes, 93 
 
 probably of one-fourtli or more, and when fairly 
 iDtroduced would be equally beneficial to iron- 
 founders and to both master and journeymen 
 liorse-shoers. Anything that tends to diminish 
 hard labour, and leaves men to exercise their 
 ingenuity where it is most required, in such an 
 essentially head and hand work as horse-shoeing 
 is, cannot fail to confer advantages on owners, and 
 diminish the sufferings of horses. 
 
 Shoes require to be of proper substance, 
 whether they be of the lightest or heaviest weight, 
 beginning with ten ounces for the smaller and 
 lighter horses, up to sixty and even seventy ounces 
 for the more powerful descriptions of cart-horses 
 in use in commercial towns. A good deal is 
 written, and is constantly being repeated, about the 
 advantages of light over heavy shoes, and those 
 who dogmatise unconditionally in favour of the 
 former, couple their argument with the adage — 
 "an ounce attached to the foot tells more than a 
 pound placed on the horse's back." More correct 
 knowledge and experience weaken and almost 
 destroy the above conclusion. The use of shoes 
 
94 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 being to support and defend the feet, just suffi- 
 cient iron properly distributed is required to 
 fulfil these purposes. 
 
 In saying that shoes should be of good sub- 
 stance, I do not mean iron should be left in lumps, 
 or thick round the cu^cumference and hollowed 
 out from a given line to the inner margin, called 
 seating. The web of the fore-shoe should be 
 kept as strong at the inner margin as round the 
 outer circumference, with exceptional slight diver- 
 sions to be noticed. Hind-shoes have properly 
 been made without any bevelling ; but there is 
 another prevalent fault in making these already 
 alluded to, and it is a great fault, that of leaving 
 the iron in a lump at the toe, flattening it do^\m 
 thin at the quarters, and leaving the heels thick 
 when not tm^ned down. This is called leaving 
 the iron where the horse wears, and of course, 
 with hind-shoes so made, placed as he is upon a 
 tripod, the prominent points must be worn down 
 before the hollows can touch the OTOund or be 
 brought into wearing action. The evil results 
 of this custom are, that the horses get no true 
 
ON MAKING HOESE-SHOES. 95 
 
 bearing surface, no staying support for the feet, 
 and the same weight of iron if properly distributed 
 would wear from one-fourth to one-thu'd longer 
 time ; for as soon as the thick toe of the shoe 
 has become worn down (and being of small 
 circumference, and the foot unstable on the 
 ground, it wears fast), the shoe is finished in 
 15 or 20 days, whereas a better form, with 
 better effect, would last the horse a month. 
 
 While horses whose hind-feet are shod on the 
 plan under discussion usually return to the 
 forge with the toe of each shoe nearly or quite 
 worn through, the gross lumps at the heels are 
 found to be but very little diminished. 
 
 Shoes for horses of any given class, having 
 regard to their breed and employment, should 
 be proportioned in cover and substance to these 
 conditions. A horse which has been some time 
 in work, whose coffin-bones have suffered by 
 absorption, and the soles of the hoof accord- 
 ingly become flattened, will require a larger 
 shoe and proportionately more cover than the 
 same animal would have done at some earlier 
 
96 ON MAKING H0R8E-SH0ES. 
 
 time, or than one of his stamp in a normal 
 state does. Therefore the exception applies more, 
 with others I shall have to mention, in the shoe- 
 ing of diseased feet than of those in normal con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Forming the nail-holes is a very important 
 part of shoemaking ; so much depends upon 
 that last stage of the process of forging shoes, 
 that their fitness for the purpose depends on it. 
 
 The perfection of horse-shoe making consists 
 in the iron being well worked and put into 
 form, and in the proper position being given to 
 the nail-holes ; with these qualities the shoes 
 after selection admit of being easily fitted to 
 feet. 
 
 With these general observations regarding the 
 importance of provision for proper application of 
 the nails, I must make some remarks on the differ- 
 ent modes of accomplishing the work. Of these, two 
 quite different plans are known to English farriers, 
 as they are in vogue in the United Kingdom — 
 viz. the fullered and stamped shoe. The first is 
 the old method, and is strictly a national one, 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 97 
 
 for we do not learn of the same process being- 
 adopted anywhere else, only as it has been carried 
 from these shores; but this fullering of shoes 
 
 Fig. 15 is au engraving from an off fore French shoe, made at the veteri- 
 nary school of Lyons. It is a good specimen. The shoe is not yet 
 fitted. 
 
 The different pai-ts of a shoe are distinguished by various terms : 
 — Tlie toe, or point ; the heels, or posterior extremities ; and the 
 inner and outer quarters, midway between the heels and toe of either 
 parallel half. 
 
 This shoe is made quite as thick inside as out, and the observer 
 will be struck by the systematic manner in which the nail-holes are 
 stamped. 
 
 consists in makiiio; a groove around the outer 
 margin of the shoe, into whicli, at given positions 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 ON MAKING HOKSE-SHOES. 
 
 Fig. 16 — A French shoe which has heen worn, and indeed worn out, ob- 
 tained by the author, at a provincial French forge, as it was taken 
 off the foot. 
 
 Notice how evenly with the shoe the countersink nails have worn. 
 
 on both sides, the holes are made with a steel 
 
 Fig. ] 7 exhibits a view of the upper side of the shoe represented by 
 preceding diagram. In this figiu'e may be seen the flat nail-shanks, 
 regular in length and firm in position, after the shoe was taken off. 
 The adjusture and manner of wear of the bottom surface may also be 
 seen. 
 
OiV MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 99 
 
 Fig. 18. — A plaui Scotch shoe, fitted hy the author, aucl worn out. 
 
 Shows all the e.ssential properties of the French .specimen, the 
 difference being that this shoe is fullered instead of stamped. 
 
 stamp, ^Yitll its point drawn to the shape of the 
 shank. 
 
 There are conventional expressions in use 
 by which an important variation in the mode of 
 giving the direction of the nail-holes is under- 
 stood by farriers, which may be made to apply to 
 a system or to a particular part of any shoe — 
 viz., coarse and fine fullering and stamping. 
 Coarse fuUerino- for the outer, aiid finr. for 
 
ioo 
 
 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 the inner half of the shoe, or coarse stamping 
 at the toe and fine at the heel, and vice versa — 
 these qualifications indicating the distance of the 
 nail-hole and fullering from the outer margin of 
 the shoe, and also the facing of the hole. 
 
 Fig. 19. — A hind-shoe (not fitted) of the tVirm adapteil liy the .author for 
 the larger proportion of horses. 
 
 Two turned -up calkins are seen, as the author thinks they are 
 generally advisable in hind-shoes. 
 
 When fitted, the clip would, as a rule, be taken up from the front 
 of the toe, or exceptionally from one or both sides. 
 
 The essential object to be kept in view in the 
 relative degrees of coarse and fine nail-holes is, 
 that they should be so placed as to enable the 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 101 
 
 driver to take sufEcient liold of the hoof with the 
 nails, to combine security of hold with perfect 
 safety and freedom from restraint to the foot. 
 Our practice of fullering encountered disapproba- 
 tion some years past, on account of the propensity 
 of farriers to fuller the shoes fine, which neces- 
 sitated their driving the nails to a needless and 
 objectionable height, in order to make up the 
 security, guaranteed more efiectually, and with 
 better efiect as regards the functions of the foot, 
 by making the fullering and nail-holes moderately 
 coarse, so that more hold is taken upon the wall 
 of the hoof. But from that we were led into an 
 indiscriminate and opposite extreme of coarse 
 stamping, whereas the right method consists in 
 systematically varying these properties of shoes 
 for different classes of horses, and in different 
 positions of the same shoe. 
 
 Mistaken notions have in our time been formed 
 on the relative merits of the old English fullered 
 shoe, and stamped shoes, and these arose by 
 admitting the real merits of stamped shoes, as 
 they were found in use abroad, and then adopting 
 
102 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 a mode essentially different and inferior to that 
 old method. There formerly were two modes of 
 forming nails and nail-holes — one with, and the 
 other without the fullering — viz. the Continental 
 stamped shoe, and the English fullered shoe. It is 
 at the forge where practically the mode of fuller- 
 ing and stamping shoes can be explained and 
 comprehended, and we can here mainly discuss 
 the principles involved which affect results. The 
 shoe is to be fullered, each half in succession, as we 
 forge it ; and, with the web kept of equal thickness 
 from toe to heel, we proceed by holding the side 
 to be fullered on the middle of the anvil, and with 
 the tool firmly fixed in a rod (an iron rod being 
 preferable to a wooden one), we place the edge of 
 the tool on the margin surface of the half, and the 
 striker with the sledge hammer gives in quick 
 succession a number of strokes with regulated 
 force, to sink the fuller to the required depth ; the 
 fireman meanwhile, raising the heel of the fuller 
 as the sledge is lifted, draws it backward at every 
 stroke received by the sledge, and witli his left 
 hand tlie position of the shoe is regulated upon 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 103 
 
 tlie anvil by turning it. That done, the half is to 
 be stamped ; and though fullering, unlike stamp- 
 ing, is necessarily about equally coarse from end to 
 end on either side, we can regulate the position of 
 the nail-holes in a measure by the direction in 
 which the stamp is held by the facing of the hole. 
 Assuminsf that the outside of a near fore-shoe 
 is being made and fullered, the first hole is to be 
 stamped at about an inch from the centre point — 
 more or less, according to the size of shoe, and 
 both first and second nail-holes require the point 
 of the stamp to be held in ; the quarter-nail to be 
 stamped straight, and the heel-hole pitched out- 
 wards — the distances between each nail-hole to be 
 from an inch and one-eighth to an inch and a 
 quarter, according to size of shoe. In fullering 
 and stamping the inner halves of shoes, the differ- 
 ences to be observed between them and the out- 
 sides are, that in the first the fullering must be 
 finer, and the stamp be held upright, so as to give 
 a straight direction to the nails. The reason for 
 this finer stamping on the inner halves is the ne- 
 cessity of keeping the shoes even with the margin 
 
104 ON MAKING HOESE-SHOES. 
 
 of tlic lioof, SO as to avoid cutting, while a degree of 
 fulness on tlie outside is advantageous for support. 
 
 A foot well furnished by the shoe is under- 
 stood, in technical phraseology, as distinguished 
 from narrow, straight, and skimpy shoeing. 
 
 The relative merits of fullered and stamped 
 shoes, and the conditions that affect both, accord- 
 ing to the plans followed, are questions worthy of 
 consideration. The English stamped shoe was 
 brought into vogue at the end of last century by 
 Professor Coleman ; the reputed better success of 
 shoeing on the Continent — as compared with the 
 practice in England, testified to by travellers on 
 the Continent, judging by the relative proportions 
 of lame horses — was attributed to our neighbours 
 stamping their shoes, whilst the English farriers 
 fullered them. Hence the stamped shoe, which 
 was adopted at the London Veterinary CoUege, 
 and at the same time through the British army 
 service. But at no time has there ever been any- 
 thing in common between that old Continental 
 method of stamping shoes and that in vogue in 
 this country, excepting the name. The new 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 105 
 
 English plan is so unlike the old one, that one 
 can only conceive its being an imitation, carried 
 out at hazard, at the suggestion of one who had 
 never seen the method in practice which pre- 
 sumedly was being followed. Shoes were made 
 altogether different to any before seen, quite unlike 
 the old and tried method, and a new kind of work- 
 manship was therefore introduced under the name 
 of stamped shoeing, which retained nothing of 
 the old Continental system, and is also greatly 
 inferior to the old English method. 
 
 The plans of making shoes, fullering and 
 stamping, require to be understood for reciprocal 
 objects, and carried out accordingly. By capri- 
 ciously adopting a particular form of nail, it will 
 be discovered in practice that a modification in 
 the substance, and therefore in the form of shoe, 
 will be required, in which case the shoe and 
 shoeing are subordinate to the form of the nail ; 
 and that is precisely what happened in intro- 
 ducing a stamped shoe, and not the stamped shoe 
 of immemorial tradition. 
 
 The first simple mode of stamping that we 
 
lUG 
 
 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 find is tlie oriental, where the thin shoe of the 
 desert is a mere flattened-out plate, hammered 
 into the shape of the foot ; there being little 
 or no countersink for the nail-hole, owing to 
 thinness of substance of iron, and therefore the 
 head of the nail is made flat. Similar in this 
 
 Fig. 20 is the engraving of an Egyptian slioe — one that had been used, and 
 was brought by an English nobleman from Upper Egypt. 
 
 It is a near hind-shoe. The form, positions, and regularity in 
 which the nail-holes are stamped deserve notice. Further description 
 of the shoe, and the use of the system, will be treated on in another 
 Chapter. 
 
 respect are the shoes and nails applied at present 
 to oxen in southern Europe ; but Continental 
 horse-shoes, in which the substance of the shoes 
 
ON MAKING HOESE-SHOES. 107 
 
 is proportioned to the required conditions of soil 
 and roads, have a different form of stamp and 
 nail. 
 
 Continental shoes are stamped with a tool 
 that forms a die of prismatic shape, and the heads 
 of their nails are struck into a hole of correspond- 
 ing form. This mode of stamping afibrds the 
 greatest possible facility of driving the nails, as 
 from the exact form and opening through the 
 shoe, the nail can be held and driven in any 
 direction. By this, safety in driving is secured, 
 and the nails may be and are driven all of a 
 given height, taking just as much hold upon the 
 hoof as is required. Another merit of the system 
 consists in the exact adaptation of the nail to the 
 shoe, so that both wear together, without any 
 liability of the clinches moving, since the head 
 cannot pass through the shoe however much con- 
 sumed it may be. 
 
 English fullered shoes do not quite fulfil the 
 above conditions, but when well executed all 
 requirements may be accomplished. The open 
 fullering, when the shoe is also well stamped, 
 
108 ON MAKING HOKSE-SHOES. 
 
 admits of latitude for directing the nails, and 
 good English nails — or rather Scotch nails, which 
 I prefer — are in effect the Continental nail with 
 the head flattened. Our nail is not a four-sided 
 prism, but is sufficiently supported by the bottom 
 of the fullering to fulfil the requirement almost 
 equally well. Totally different from the above 
 methods are the English stamped shoe and wedge- 
 formed nail, invented at the same time. The tool 
 with which these nail-holes are stamped in the 
 shoe is no other than that which has been always 
 used to stamp the holes in fullered shoes, with its 
 point corresponding to the shape of the nail-shank, 
 tapered down from a wedge-shaped base. Nail- 
 holes so formed are so narrow that no latitude is 
 afforded for the proper direction of nails in driv- 
 ing ; but this is not all, the form of nails has now 
 to be considered. This new-fangled nail is lite- 
 rally a spike, drawn out of the rod to a wedge- 
 formed shank, without any line of distinction 
 between head, neck, and shank ; and although, 
 under the excellent workmanship of English nail- 
 makers, prompted by suggestions of practical men, 
 
ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 109 
 
 some of the worst features in their shape have 
 been partially overcome, still the principle is bad, 
 and no workmanship can produce good nails made 
 on it. The long tapered head and neck of these 
 wedge or counter nails produce bad effects in 
 two ways : — Want of flatness and breadth of shank, 
 and liability to bind the foot by the carpentry 
 form; and the objectionable thickness of the rim 
 of the shoe to afford depth of hole to receive a 
 nail so formed ; and since this form of nail, from 
 the way in which it was introduced and enforced, 
 has been generally used to the exclusion of the 
 old one, for fullered as well as for stamped shoes, 
 both these have been made with dispropor- 
 tionate thick outer margins. Deep fullering 
 and deep stamping have been found by farriers 
 necessary for the reception of tapered thick- 
 shouldered nails ; and to avoid the great weight 
 to which shoes would run if the web were made 
 level, as it should be, excessive bevelling or seat. 
 ing prevails. North of the Tweed, I am glad to 
 say, better judgment has prevailed on this prac- 
 tical question. Neither stamped shoes nor the 
 
110 ON MAKING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 wedge nails are used in Scotland, other than to 
 the extent to which these are kept up for military 
 service. 
 
 The advice with which I shall conclude this 
 Chapter is — to Scotchmen, to keep to their plan 
 of nail-making and fullering their shoes ; and to 
 the English, to get back to that plan, and abandon 
 the wedge-formed stamp, which has just one re- 
 commendation to horse-shoe makers — a little less 
 labour ; but this, I repeat, is at the expense of 
 ofood effect. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 Closely allied to, nay a part of, tlie process of 
 making horse-shoes, treated in the preceding- 
 Chapter, is that of clips, calkins, and toe-pieces, 
 which I have arranged under a separate heading, 
 for two reasons — firstly, convenience ; secondly, a 
 sense of the necessity of making myself clearly 
 understood on matters which are commonly held 
 to be of secondary importance, but which I regard 
 as of the greatest practical interest. 
 
 Anything which enables a horse to develop 
 his utmost power with the least expenditure of 
 force and the greatest ease and safety, is alike 
 worthy of attention from horse-owners, and all 
 who are engaged in their management, or have 
 an interest in then' services. 
 
 Clips to horse-shoes are often made profusely, 
 and in an objectionable manner. There is an 
 adage among farriers that " one clip is worth two 
 
112 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 nails," and, it should be added, is often more in- 
 jurious than twice that number. One clip at the 
 toe is in all cases advisable ; it steadies the shoe 
 while being driven on, and prevents the shifting 
 back afterwards, which happens to the hind-shoes 
 of harness-horses in particular, in the absence of 
 clips ; but I object, with exceptional instances, to 
 the use of clips at the quarters. We use clips at 
 the sides, instead of at the front of the toe of hind- 
 feet for hunters, and some other classes of riding 
 horses, purposely to allow the wall of the hoof to 
 project in advance of the shoe at the toe ; we 
 thereby prevent the chance of injury by over- 
 reaching, to which hunters are liable, and the 
 clacking noise which some young, weak, and bad- 
 actioned horses are liable to make in trotting. 
 Side clips, in addition to one at the toe, are in 
 vogue among farriers for draught-horses ; and not 
 unfrequently two of them are applied to each 
 hind-foot. Some heavy large cart-horses are apt 
 to twist their feet, and may require a clip at the 
 outside of their hind-shoes ; and even carriage 
 and other light harness horses, when aged, and 
 
ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 113 
 
 their joints become stiff, may, though rarely, be 
 the better for a clip so placed. Whenever clips 
 are applied, there should not be a deep space cut in 
 the hoof, which is commonly done and is one of 
 the prevalent means of destroying horses' feet. 
 The wall should be left with all its substance and 
 strength to stand against the clip, with only the 
 edge of the hoof taken off with the file. \Vhen 
 the shoe is fitted the clip should be left open, and 
 when cooled, be tapped up to its place with the 
 shoeing-hammer before it is nailed on ; no violent 
 hammering up should be used afterwards. Such 
 violent hammering, when practised, jars and is 
 often a source of pain, and of much injury to the 
 foot. 
 
 Security of foot-hold is one of the most im- 
 portant requirements of shoeing ; to be never lost 
 sight of, and always to be secured in the most 
 efficient manner. Firm foot-hold is the first con- 
 dition of any progression whatever, and the nearer 
 we can bring our art to the fulfilment of that 
 object, so proportionately do we economise horse- 
 power and diminish horse-suffering. 
 
 I 
 
114 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 In most countries a rational system has been 
 devised for the pm-pose of enabling horses to use 
 force upon their feet with effect, beginning with 
 those countries where horses go partly upon the 
 shifting sand. 
 
 When we bring our observations to bear on 
 every -day practice in this great commercial 
 country, and in some parts of the Continent, we 
 find much ingenuity exercised to meet an indefi- 
 nite variety of conditions. More is undoubtedly 
 to be learnt on the matter by seeing the practice 
 of difierent countries, and in some instances dif- 
 ferent parts of each country, than could be 
 gathered in any locality, or than could ever be 
 extemporised by one man in a lifetime, however 
 industrious and ingenious he might be. 
 
 England, with her extensive dependencies, 
 could advantageously use all the best known 
 means for affording foot-hold on whatever ground 
 surface, and in any climate where horses are em- 
 ployed. But we have never fully utilised what I 
 would call our indigenous resources. As one 
 instance, may be adduced the different modes of 
 
ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 115 
 
 shoeing draught-horses for common work in the 
 southern and northern divisions of the kingdom, 
 without any pretext whatever for equal difference 
 of conditions of road or climate. 
 
 Without confounding degrees of skill in the 
 execution with the difference of plans, I assert 
 that dray-horses, as they are shod in London, 
 compared with the same stamp of animals used for 
 similar work in Edinburgh and Glasgow, work at 
 an incalculable disadvantage, estimated by an 
 established standard of horse -power exerted for 
 many hours consecutively and daily. 
 
 These remarks apply to most of the draught- 
 horses used in towns with paved streets. Coming 
 to details, the methods of giving security of hold, 
 to which these remarks refer, involve projecting 
 points made to the shoe to penetrate the ground, 
 or catch hold upon the fixed pavement, and 
 thereby prevent the foot from slipping in any 
 direction. 
 
 In the absence of such holding points the 
 foot slips forward on alighting ; and as it is 
 being revolved while the limb changes from the 
 
116 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 oblique to the vertical line, the foot slides back, 
 causing not only loss of ground already got over, 
 but waste of power expended in holding the body 
 steady by the other limbs, and in the efforts made 
 under such disadvantage. If we look at millers' 
 horses drawing singly or in pairs up the incline 
 from Leith to Edinburgh, each animal on an 
 average drawing a ton and a quarter, we can see 
 the freedom with which each foot is lifted, held 
 up, and carried over to its next position, because 
 meanwhile the other three feet are securely hold- 
 ing, and being moved in different attitudes upon 
 the ground ; hence the freedom of the walk 
 acquired. If we contrast the action of these 
 horses with that of the magnificent dray-horses of 
 the Metropolis, we find these struggling for hold 
 upon the pavement, and instinctively and neces- 
 sarily making short steps, while their limbs look 
 as upright and stiff as posts, whereas they natu- 
 rally are, and under proj)er applications of art 
 should appear, supple, with their varying oblique 
 and vertical lines adapted to leverage and action. 
 Passing to other draught-horses, those of the 
 
ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 117 
 
 London omnibuses afford a good example of that 
 great waste of power and cruelty to horses, of 
 which I am pointing out the causes before ven- 
 turing to suggest remedies. Let any one who 
 desires to witness those phenomena take his 
 stand in Oxford Street, London — a street which is 
 remarkable for its open space and level surface, 
 both conditions favourable to draught-horses — 
 and a quarter of an hour will enable an observer 
 to realise to some extent the constant waste 
 of horse-labour, by seeing the feet of every horse 
 on alighting slip forward, say four to six inches, 
 or more, and, like a pendulum but without any 
 of a pendulum's office, move back again for want 
 of stay and support. No one will have to wait 
 long for the opportunity of seeing an omnibus and 
 pair pulling up, and both horses, with their eight 
 feet planted on the ground, slipping over it to 
 the extent of a yard without lifting a foot ; such 
 an incident often happens without any intention 
 on the part of the driver to stop, and is purely an 
 instinctive eflbrt of the horses to l)alance them- 
 selves and avoid falling. Such sights are all-the- 
 
1 1 8 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 year-round exhibitions, greatly aggravated in 
 winter with the occurrence of frost and a fall of 
 snow, when periodical complaints are heard, as 
 if such anomalies had never occurred before, and 
 Avere not of periodical recurrence as productive of 
 constant mischief. 
 
 Englishmen have a dread of calkins to shoes : 
 such appendages are against current notions on 
 the economy of the horse's foot — no amount of 
 old and even surviving experience to the contrary, 
 availing. It has never been denied that in Switzer- 
 land, the Tyrol, and the whole of Germany, from 
 the courses of the Ehine and Elbe to that of the 
 Danube, horses work all the year round with 
 shoes armed with calkins, and in the case of 
 heavy draught-horses, with toe-pieces also ; equally 
 certain is it that free movement of these horses, 
 and proportionally little lameness, is as con- 
 spicuous over that vast part of Europe as the 
 opposite is in England. We have gone on 
 heedlessly, as if nature had decreed different laws 
 in the economy of the feet of horses of different 
 countries. 
 
ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 119 
 
 We have an old plan of shoeing in Scotland 
 adapted for all draught-horses, and which onlv 
 requires to be intelligently worked out to fulfJ 
 effectually most useful and humane requirements 
 throughout the kingdom. Taking shoes of the 
 draught-horses in London and in Scotland as we 
 find them in general use, there is not much dif- 
 ference in the weight of iron used, but difference 
 in its distribution. In the south, the toe of the 
 hind-shoe is left, as has been said, twice as thick 
 as an Edinburgh or Glasgow workman leaves it, 
 and in the fore-shoes the margins are left thicker ; 
 while in the gross squared-off heels there is as 
 much iron as, if dra^yn out, would form the 
 calkins (see Figures 11-14 of previous Chapter). 
 In both hind and fore shoes, therefore, are formed 
 thick heels and thick toes, "svith a depression or 
 hollow across the middle of the foot, with short 
 and limited bearing surface. Scotch cart-horse 
 shoes, well made, are left with both heels turned 
 down, of the full substance of the shoe, slightly 
 narrowed before turning. The toe-pieces, which 
 are from two to four inches long, for different- 
 
120 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 sized shoes, are cut off rods of about seven-eighths 
 of an inch square, and are then welded trans- 
 versely across the toe — placed so as to allow the 
 web to project a little. It is this slightly pro- 
 jecting part of the toe from which the clip is 
 taken up.''* 
 
 Lighter descriptions of draught-horses may 
 be shod in this way, by making every part pro- 
 portionate. But it is found that toe-pieces do 
 not answer for the fore-shoes of horses which go 
 at a pace beyond the walk in their work. I 
 do not use them either for fore or hind shoes for 
 the more active description of draught-horses or 
 carriage -horses, except for sharpening in frosty 
 weather, when I adapt toe-pieces to the hind-shoes 
 only, from which a sharp point can be drawn at 
 each side of the shoe ; these, with the heels 
 turned down and sharpened, make up four holding 
 points for each foot. 
 
 * In the actual operation of making the toe-pieces, tlie rod from 
 which they are made is, after being heated, nearly cut through, so as 
 to leave a piece of the length of the required tip. This is then brought 
 together Avith the shoe to the requned heat, and being still held by the 
 rod to which it has all along remained partially attached, is placed in 
 position on the shoe and welded to it. 
 
ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 121 
 
 A common objection prevails to the use of 
 calkins for shoeing riding -horses, with the ex- 
 ception of one on the outside of each hind- shoe ; 
 and for the fore-feet of such horses calkins are 
 objectionable, except where they are used on 
 yielding ground, where, however, they are little 
 required, but for the variation of ground they may 
 be useful in the hunting-field, where both heels of 
 the hind-shoes turned down are very advantageous, 
 both for giving a level foothold and to afford pur- 
 chase under exertion. It is a mistake to suppose 
 that nicely turned-down heels of hind-shoes, on 
 the inside as well as on the outside, endanger 
 cutting, and that a thick inside of the shoe to cor- 
 respond in depth with the outside calkin is pre- 
 ferable. The clumsy inside of shoes just referred 
 to, offers much more powerful means of offence and 
 injury than the evenly turned-down heels, with the 
 well-balanced foothold they secure. This is no 
 theoretical question, for I have constantly adopted 
 the method for all riding-horses, hunters, and race- 
 horses in training as well as with their plates for 
 running, and have never had an accident by a 
 
122 ON CLIPS, CALKINS, AND TOE-PIECES. 
 
 tread of one foot uj)on another. I know well that 
 such an accident cannot happen to a horse in run- 
 ning, whatever the pace. It is only in the very 
 rare cases where we do properly employ two cal- 
 kins to each shoe, that a tread may and does some- 
 times happen — viz. with cart-horses when made 
 to back under heavy loads ; but even in these 
 cases a thick clumsy iron heel without calkin 
 does quite as much harm, and the occurrence 
 will be tenfold more common, because slipping, 
 which is the cause of misplacement of the foot, 
 occurs mostly in backing without calkins, and is 
 the result of the efforts made by the horse to 
 recover his loss of balance. 
 
 The plan of slioeing the hind-feet of carriage- 
 horses, and those of the artillery, in England — of 
 making the heels of their shoes into a narrow rail 
 of iron for the inside of the foot to stand upon in 
 the former, and on both the outside and inside of 
 the latter, the artillery horse — is a miserable 
 sight to look on, for any one who understands the 
 inconsistency and the pretexts put forth for the 
 adoption of such measures. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 The process of fitting shoes, after they are made, 
 and the feet are si^ecially prepared, demands 
 accurate technical knowledge. The results of 
 horse-shoeing are in great measure determined by 
 the process of fitting ; and it may, on that ac- 
 count, be considered of the highest importance as 
 regards proper execution. 
 
 One who understands how the horse s foot 
 should be prepared for shoeing, cannot be igno- 
 rant of the way a shoe should be fitted to it, 
 although the ability may be wanting to do all 
 that is required with the shoe. On the other 
 hand, the forgeman who makes the shoes accord- 
 ing to the directions furnished in Chapter 11. , 
 cannot lack the manual dexterity to give any 
 form to the shoe in fitting which the mind sug- 
 gests : but the latter may not be furnished with 
 
124 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 sufficient knowledge, or, it may be, charged with 
 wrong ideas on the subject. It is therefore clear 
 that to be able to fit out shoes, to adjust them 
 well, the whole requirement and system of shoeing 
 must be thoroughly understood. 
 
 Parts of the process may come either under 
 the denomination of making or fitting, such as 
 those we adopt to give security of foot-hold on 
 particular surfaces of ground, paved roads, and 
 ice. Some of the necessary appendages are done 
 at the time of forging the shoes, such as the turn- 
 ing of the heels ; while welding on toe-pieces, 
 sharpening, etc., are deferred until the shoes are 
 being prepared for the particular horse. 
 
 The remarks in the present Chapter will be 
 restricted to the process of fitting, strictly so 
 called — the shoe being made and the foot pre- 
 pared according to directions given in other parts 
 of this Work. 
 
 In the ordinary way, we reach down the 
 proper shoes from the wall of the forge, and after 
 trying them to the horse's feet, and choosing 
 them of right size and substance, one pair at a, 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 125 
 
 time is placed in the fire, heels first, and made 
 red hot ; one shoe at a time is then taken to the 
 anvil, and the proper form given to both heels, 
 which we either round off with a tool, or if cal- 
 kins are given, whether for fore or hind shoes, 
 those are required to be made level and put into 
 form with the hammer. That done with both 
 shoes, they are heated all over to a dull red heat, 
 and not to a white heat, so as to blister the surface 
 and make it rough ; the nail-holes are then to be 
 passed through, one by one, with a sharp pritchel, 
 the shoe put into the form of the foot, and a clip 
 taken up at the toe. The shoe then is placed with 
 its bottom surface on the middle of the anvil, and the 
 upper surface is to receive, under the action of the 
 hammer, such form as is found necessary to render 
 it the exact counterpart of the foot just prepared 
 to be shod ; that point attained, the next essential 
 is secured, viz. that of a proper surface for the 
 shoe to come in contact with the ground. The 
 same action with the hammer, and the same turn 
 of the left hand which holds the shoe in the tongs, 
 regulates the form which the surface of the shoe 
 
126 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 takes, the two surfaces being formed by one 
 series of actions. 
 
 Having adjusted the shoe, stick the pritchel 
 into one of the outside nail-holes, and try it to 
 the foot, to ascertain what alterations are required, 
 and if any, return to the an^dl and make them. 
 Confident that the shoe is right as to size and 
 form, I then cool it in the water-trough, and 
 return to the foot with the shoe, and a rasp in 
 hand ; and after very carefully examining both 
 surfaces, that of the foot first and then that of 
 the shoe, if these appear right I place the shoe to 
 the foot, mark the place on the hoof for the clip, 
 and remove the margin of the wall at that point, 
 with the file side of the rasp. I do not sink a 
 notch as is commonly done, but merely enable 
 the shoe to come into its place without impedi- 
 ment. So placed, I look round, and under, the 
 foot, and try the shoe, to find out if the bearing 
 is everywhere accurate; and, if not, determine 
 where the hoof or shoe requires adjustment ; if the 
 former, the file usually accomplishes it, and if the 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 127 
 
 shoe requires the slightest alteration, I go back to 
 the anvil and make it. 
 
 The above is not the common method, but the 
 one I practise. I shall briefly describe other 
 methods, which have the appearance, at least, of 
 being more favourable to despatch. My first and 
 chief aim is good effect ; the second as much speed 
 as is compatible with it. 
 
 The custom in vogue is to take the shoe to 
 the foot while hot, upon the point of the pritchel, 
 and if it be of the size, and, according to the notion 
 of the shoer of the circumference of the foot, it 
 fits, the hoof is singed by the shoe and a piece cut 
 out of the point of the wall with the drawing- 
 knife, to let up the clip ; the shoe is then applied 
 hot to the surface, and pressed to the hoof, to 
 singe it down, to make what is called a close fit. 
 
 On this subject. Earl Pembroke makes the 
 following wise remark : — " The utmost severity 
 ought to he inflicted upon all who clap shoes 07i 
 hot ; this unpardonable laziness of farriers in 
 making feet thus fit shoes, dries up the hoofs." 
 
128 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 Apart from the effects pointed out by the 
 experienced author of the above quotation, false 
 adjustment of surfaces is the result. Close ap- 
 proximation of two surfaces does not prove that 
 either is true, but, on the contrary, it is most 
 frequently found, by the process in question, that 
 both are wrong — the ground surface of the hoof, 
 and the upper surface of the shoe. What the singe- 
 inof does is to imbed the shoe into the hoof whOe 
 it is hot, notwithstanding any defects which may 
 exist ; whereas the art of shoeing consists in giving 
 a true surface of bearing to the hoof, and making 
 a shoe to fit it, so that it can bear weight without 
 doing violence, and allows free movement of the 
 limbs without binding or jarring the foot. 
 
 The shoe may fit in the sense implied, it may 
 be of the proper length and breadth, and so 
 closely burned down upon the lower margin of 
 the hoof, that it will hold water, as expert hands 
 boast; and yet, for anything such fitting guarantees 
 to the contrary, the bearing surfaces of the hoof 
 upon the shoe, and of the shoe upon the ground, 
 may be such as to cause discomfort to the whole 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 129 
 
 limb ; both heels may be too high, the foot much 
 shortened, or the hoof rasped lower on one side 
 than the other, so as to tilt the foot, and prejudi- 
 cially aifect aU the parts above it. I would not 
 be hard upon farriers, knowing that a man has to 
 fit shoes to forty-eight feet for his day's work, 
 but it is my duty to speak the truth plainly, as I 
 believe it to be, and to check faults of which the 
 chief causes are want of knowledge and subser- 
 viency to blind custom. 
 
 I feel the necessity of dwelling a little longer 
 on the application of hot shoes to the feet; I never 
 adopt the practice myself, but tolerate it to some 
 extent in others. It is inconvenient to prohibit the 
 hot-shoe custom of fitting, even in one's own prac- 
 tice ; and yet when the practice is allowed it is diffi- 
 cult to guard against the excess and abuse of it. To 
 explain, I repeat that I carry the shoe while hot to 
 the foot, present it to see what more is to be done, 
 but do not singe the hoof Now it would be in- 
 convenient at that stage to have cooled the shoe, 
 because I can still work the iron while it is hot ; 
 it is the excess, the burning a badly or even well 
 
 K 
 
130 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 adjusted shoe to a badly or well prepared hoof, 
 that is extremely injurious. 
 
 Statistics have been presented by some foreign 
 veterinarians to show that better success attended 
 hot-shoe fitting than the opposite mode ; but, 
 without questioning the accuracy of their figures, 
 I attach no value to the deductions. In the first 
 place, though I disapprove of burning the hoof, as I 
 see it done at home and abroad, and prefer reducing 
 it to its normal state by proper instruments, yet, 
 in the hands of ordinary Continental shoers, all 
 the conditions are favourable to the foot's im- 
 munity from injury by the hot shoe. They pro- 
 ceed systematically to the preparation of the foot, 
 and then, with a good understanding of it, a proper 
 adaptation of the shoe is given, before being tried 
 to the hoof. The shoer then carries his hot shoe 
 to the foot, and presses the surface of one against 
 the other, and in an instant takes away the shoe, 
 and with the buttress pares a thin slice of horn 
 from the singed parts of the hoof where the shoe 
 had pressed ; the work is done, the shoe cooled, 
 and nailed on. 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 131 
 
 Now, this is not only singeing the horn, but 
 apparently very much like what people complain 
 against, i.e. paring the foot to fit the shoe. But 
 the fact, as I have found it, is this : the skilled 
 Frenchmen bring the surfaces of their shoes to 
 great accuracy, and in preparing the foot some- 
 thing is left to be done when the shoe is brought 
 to it ; hence, as a rule, the shoe requires nothing, 
 but the foot requires a little more adjusting when 
 the surfaces of both are brought together. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that those who use 
 the loud-sounding words, " the shoe must be fitted 
 to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe," display 
 ignorance of the fact, that it is the shoer's business 
 to form the surface of one as well as of the other ; 
 and that unless that kind and amount of know- 
 ledge of the matter is possessed, which will insure 
 the right proportion to the hoof, and therefore 
 exactly adapted surface for the shoe, no fitting of 
 the shoe, no bending of the iron to the hoof, will 
 redeem the work from the character of bad. 
 
 Laying the shoe off at the heel, or what in 
 Scotland is called springing the shoe, is one of the 
 
132 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 most common of the injm*ious parts of the British 
 customs of shoeing. The two expressions indicate 
 different modes of carrying a common theoretical 
 idea into practice — the idea that the heels of the 
 hoof are required to be kept free from contact with 
 the shoe, so as not to take their natural share in 
 the exertion of the foot, by sustaining the incum- 
 bent force and weight. The theory is wrong, in 
 so far as strength to bear weight, normally im- 
 posed, is concerned; but the practice makes re- 
 straint complete, and transfers the bearing from 
 the natural positions to parts incapable of sustain- 
 ing it, multiplied with such leverage as by de- 
 grees to entail the greatest torture on the horse 
 that it is possible to conceive. 
 
 One mode of laying the shoe off consists in 
 cutting or rasping down the heels of the hoof 
 when the shoe is fitted, so as to leave space be- 
 tween the foot and shoe for about an inch from 
 its extremity behind forward. 
 
 The other plan, springing of the shoe, to 
 accomplish the same end, is done by deflecting 
 or bending each extremity from the foot, pro- 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 133 
 
 ducing a bend in the web of the shoe, forming a 
 convexity to the foot and a hollow surface towards 
 the ground. In the abstract, turned-down heels 
 are useful, but, combined with springing of the 
 shoe, they constitute a system of leverage which 
 becomes an engine of torture, the most complete 
 that misguided ingenuity and manual dexterity 
 could produce. 
 
 In all instances the shoe is necessarily nailed 
 fast to the anterior region of the foot, while it 
 is at points corresponding with a transverse line 
 drawn across the centre, where the bottom of the 
 foot is broadest, and where bone construction 
 gives place to a less rigid combination — i.e. elastic 
 cartilages — that the deflected heels of the shoe 
 attain their points of resistance, or fulcra, and 
 where the shoe pinches. The heels of the shoe 
 take first bearing on the ground at every step, 
 as the foot alights, and their lever action is in- 
 duced by the action of the limb, and the force 
 and w^eight brought to bear on the foot. 
 
 Such a state of things is utterly inconsistent 
 with firm and easy bearing, and the horse in- 
 
134 
 
 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 stinctively, as much as possible, shrinks from 
 bringing the heels firmly to the ground, and is 
 thereby prevented putting forth his full strength ; 
 but, however careful, he cannot altogether avoid 
 
 Fig. 21 represents a worn-out near-fore cart-horse shoe, which I selected 
 for this drawing, on piu-pose to expose and comment on a prevalent absiu'd 
 practice of turning out the extremities of the heels of the shoe. This 
 liabit of shoeing, though occasionally seen in Scotland, as this specimen 
 testifies, is more prevalent in the midland and north-western towns of 
 England, and is in full vogue at ^Manchester. It is only of htte that I have 
 seen an apology put forth for tliis form of shoe : hut at length a veterinary 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 135 
 
 producing painful injury to the foot. Thus it is 
 that springing of the shoe deserves condemna- 
 tion, as causing pain, a wasting of power, and 
 the destruction of horses. 
 
 Curving, or turning the toe of the shoe up out 
 of the line of ivear. This would seem too great an 
 absurdity to justify my drawing attention to it, 
 but for the appearance of books from time to 
 time, whose writers emulate each other in wordy 
 attempts to persuade every reader interested in 
 horses, that they — the writers — are either origi- 
 nators or pioneers in developing that idea as an 
 improvement in horse-shoeing. 
 
 Theorists, who illustrate the adage that " lazy 
 people take most pains," assert by turn that the 
 quarters of the horse's foot cannot bear pressure, 
 that the heels must be left free, and the toe 
 curved out of the line of bearing, and that the 
 sole of the hoof must be pared away, instead of 
 
 surgeou lias published a book, iu wliicli this identical form is recommended, 
 though no reason is given why. But the author of the book has done one 
 service — he has given the form a name. He tells us that it is called 
 '' Donkeying the Heels." The candour of the author is remarkable. The 
 fact is that these heels become causes of torture, as has been shown of 
 all divergencies of the heels of the shoe froin tlie foot. 
 
136 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 leaving it alone in the integrity of substance as 
 nature formed it. 
 
 All these bewildering propositions may be 
 found in many English works of professional men 
 and amateurs of this century. I deny that any 
 practical good has resulted, or can result, from 
 turning the front of the shoe up, and necessarily 
 demolishing the hoof to the same extent at its 
 deepest and strongest part. To illustrate the 
 reasons of my opposition, I beg to say a word 
 on the origin of the plan, and on the pretexts 
 used for keeping it up and advising its extension. 
 
 The origin was partly due to an anatomical 
 blunder, and partly to an attempt to blend a feature 
 of an old Continental method with a new English 
 theory, in the hope of constructing a new system 
 by such fanciful combination. The French prac- 
 tice was assumed to be understood, not learnt, 
 from such hints as travellers brought from France 
 after the restoration of peace. 
 
 The late Mr. Joseph Goodwin, veterinary 
 surgeon to the Prince Kegent, and thereafter to 
 the King, published a work, in 1820, On the 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 137 
 
 French System of Shoeing Improved. And he alto- 
 gether misunderstood what is called by our neigh- 
 bours the ajusture of the shoe, which, when well 
 done, preserves symmetry, and is conducive to 
 harmony of action. He also committed a mistake 
 in accepting from the author of a prior work his 
 description of the coffin-bone, that author having 
 by accident taken for his model a diseased coffin- 
 bone, one deformed through bad usage : — 
 
 "Bearings of the coffin-hone. The pi7ice or 
 front of the bone will also be found to take hardly 
 any sensible bearing, being slightly turned up, 
 and away from the table (plane), obviously in 
 order that it might more conveniently make the 
 rotation which the foot performs on leaving the 
 ground."'" This was the unfortunate mistake of 
 a conscientious man ; a double mistake of fact 
 and theory — of fact, because a diseased bone taken 
 by chance was represented as a perfect specimen ; 
 of theory, in looking for rotation or smooth bear- 
 ing-surface in a bone in which sharp asperities 
 exist on the margin for giving the strongest pos- 
 
 * Trmlise on the Horse's Foot, hy Bracy Clark, 1809. 2d ed. 1829. 
 
138 ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 
 
 sible attaching bonds to all the structures of which 
 it is the base. Clark, in 1809, first inadvertently 
 fell into this anatomical mistake ; but more serious 
 consequences arose from his followers framing a 
 practice according to notions induced by Clark's 
 theory. Hence the origin of " Curving the toe." 
 
 The practice of curving, or turning the toe out 
 of the line of wear, has had many imitators, as it 
 is always easier to work upon a theory than to in- 
 vestigate facts. The toe of the horse's foot is the 
 point of the lever, which cannot be interfered 
 with by rounding or undue shortening, without 
 limiting the safety, power, and speed of the horse. 
 
 Prevention of Guttiny. 
 
 Gutting, as it is apt to occur with some horses, 
 especially in those employed for fast work, is a 
 practical matter, well deserving attention. 
 
 I must first advise, according to my own ex- 
 perience, what should be done, and what should 
 not be done. Use no thick heel or feather-edged 
 shoes, nor yet rasp away the hoof, which invariably 
 increases the particular evil, and adds others, by 
 
ON FITTING HORSE-SHOES. 139 
 
 distortion of the limb, and weakening the foot. 
 Pay particular attention to the adjustment of foot 
 and shoe to it ; keep the inner half of the shoe 
 within the margin of the hoof; leave out the nails 
 where the foot touches any ascertained part of the 
 opposite limb. It is usually advisable, where it is 
 required, to keep the shoe close the whole length 
 of the inside, and to shorten it a little at the heel to 
 diminish the leverage length behind the nail- 
 holds. For two reasons the nails are required to 
 be left out on the inside, though at least two of 
 those near the toe may be driven. Firstly, because, 
 by keeping the shoe parallel with, or within the 
 margin of the hoof, nails cannot be applied with 
 safety. Secondly, if the foot be strong and the 
 nails can be driven, it can only be by taking short 
 holds when the clenches will rise with work, which 
 done ever so little, they chafe the part against 
 which the foot unavoidably rubs, and unless the 
 hoof is perfectly smooth, wound where they touch. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 
 
 The nails used in horse-shoeing, though constitut- 
 ing a distinct branch of manufacture, deserve 
 special attention here, for on their shape and 
 quality, apart from the manner in which they are 
 pointed and driven, a great deal depends. 
 
 Horse-shoe nails should be made of the finest 
 quality of iron; they are required to be of a 
 peculiar form, so that when driven they are flat 
 to the foot, having their strength in breadth and 
 not in thickness, so as to secure firm hold without 
 producing pressure on the sensitive parts within 
 the hoof, and admit of flat level clenches being 
 made after the nails are driven. 
 
 The shape of the shank, and the softness of 
 the iron used, render the process of pointing the 
 nails essential, with the twofold object of harden- 
 ing the metal, and securing a true point, so that 
 the nail may be driven in the right direction. 
 
NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 141 
 
 without bending. The nail-head is somewhat 
 flattened, in the best Scotch nails, and made of 
 pyramidal form, with its base, when driven, rest- 
 ing against the margin of the nail-hole, while the 
 flattened shank begins abruptly from the head. 
 The statement that this form of head wears off, and 
 lets the shoe loose, has no foundation in fact ; 
 no nails hold better, and none more rarely break 
 or exhibit signs of the clenches rising, than these 
 just described. 
 
 The breadth of the nail-shank should, with 
 very slight diminution of substance, continue to 
 within Jth or ^d of an inch of the point, so that 
 the full substance and strength be equal from the 
 head to the clench. 
 
 Pointing nails is with horse-shoers very much 
 like what quill-pen making and mending used to 
 be to writers ; every man likes to point for him- 
 self, and it is, though a simple matter, one that is 
 rarely acquired efficiently without much practice, 
 when, as men become accustomed to nailina: on 
 shoes, they acquire the habit of pointing their 
 naUs to suit their hand, and tact in driving them. 
 
142 NAILS, NAILING, AND FINLSHING. 
 
 Fio-. 22.— Three kinds of nails, of various sizes in each pattern. 
 
NAILS, NAILTNC4, AND FINISHING. 143 
 
 Good shoeing, feet kept in full substance and 
 proportionate, and shoes well holed and fitted, 
 demand the least nail-pointing. Englishmen 
 point their nails more — hammer the shank from 
 head to point more — than any other shoers, and 
 they are the most expert hands of any at driving 
 them. There is a cause and effect, order and 
 sequence, to account for this. 
 
 Where horses' feet are in general in good con- 
 dition, the hoofs strong, and shoes properly fitted, 
 with each nail-hole of the best possible form, and 
 in its proper position, nothing is easier than to 
 drive the nails, and but very little hammering is 
 required — none, in fact, beyond giving the direct 
 line to the shank, and forming a strong safe point, 
 with its shoulder for a guard. Frenchmen take 
 hold of the head of the nail, and by turning the 
 point a time or two upon the pointing stake, or, as 
 they more frequently adopt, the anvil, a few taps 
 with the shoeing-hammer do the work ; while 
 we have a much more elaborate process to perform, 
 especially with the English countersink nails. 
 
 By our method, each nail to be pointed is 
 
144 NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 
 
 taken in tlie left hand, near the point, and the first 
 tap with the hammer given is upon the neck of 
 the nail, placed flat upon the stake ; the nail is 
 instantly turned sideways upon its head, and one 
 stroke is given, then turning it round between the 
 left thumb and finger, successive strokes with the 
 hammer are given, both flat and edgeways, as the 
 nail is drawn back from head to the point, which 
 is formed by the last tap. This pointing is very 
 expertly done, and is very essential for the purpose 
 of accurate driving, where all the conditions com- 
 bine to make driving both difiicult and dangerous. 
 But although, under difficulties, hammered nails 
 and finely-tapered j)oints facilitate the process of 
 driving, they increase, when done to excess, the 
 nail's liability to break, and impair its holding 
 power. 
 
 Nailing on the shoes is the part of the process 
 of shoeing usually done very well, and therefore 
 requiring the least said about it. The skill dis- 
 played in nailing on shoes seems to have kept 
 pace with the multiplicity of defects that have 
 been introduced in the practice of shoeing, and 
 
NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 145 
 
 which have made the operation proportionately 
 diflScult. Indeed, bad as have been the results, 
 and lame as a large proportion of horses are seen 
 to be, our drivers or door-men have done their 
 best to avoid wounding the feet by nailing, or in- 
 curring the displacement of the shoes. If the 
 feet are not understood, and shoes are badly 
 adapted to them, the best driver cannot make the 
 work good, while workmen instantly appreciate 
 the ease with which they put on well-fitted shoes. 
 
 As a preparatory step to nailing on the shoe, 
 place it to the foot, and see well to the fair bear- 
 ing and freedom from any rocking action ; the 
 latter is a common fault, to avoid which the shoe 
 should be pressed to the foot diagonally from heel 
 to toe, and from toe to heel, before a nail is driven. 
 
 In applying the nails, the best plan is first to 
 drive a toe-nail, and then the one immediately 
 opposite, — not close home, but just far enough to 
 bring the shoe firmly to the foot ; care being then 
 taken to ascertain that the shoe is straight. It is 
 good practice to continue driving the other nails, 
 one alternately on each side, instead of making 
 
146 NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 
 
 one side of the shoe fast before the other. This 
 suggestion is of more practical importance than 
 may at first appear. As farriers all know, the 
 shoe is apt to be forced across the foot when only 
 one nail supports it on one side and all are driven 
 on the other, and then the remedy adopted con- 
 sists in trying to hammer the shoe back to its 
 right place, and keeping it there by driving the 
 other nails — a proceeding which sets up an in- 
 jurious antagonism between the necks of the nails 
 and sensitive foot, so liable to restraint and pres- 
 sure. Each nail, from first to last, should go easily 
 and straight, the well formed and directed point 
 being our surety that, with the natural construction 
 of the hoof, the nails pass obliquely through it. 
 
 The number of nails for each shoe should vary 
 from six to eight. I never use less than the 
 former for a pony, and seldom more than eight 
 for a large horse ; though for these latter, used for 
 heavy di'aught, when their feet come to us defec- 
 tive, a couple of nail-holes may be stamped just 
 before the toe-piece, and an additional nail may 
 be required. 
 
NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 147 
 
 Seven is the number of nails I commonly use, 
 four on the outside, and three for the inner side. 
 Much discussion has taken place of late about the 
 number of nails proper to use, not amongst far- 
 riers, but amongst members of the veterinary pro- 
 fession and amateurs, who look on the nails as the 
 great cause of injury to horses' feet, and answerable 
 for all consequences . Some of these theorists began 
 by trying to use shoes without any nails at all, 
 and finally prescribed the fixing the shoe to the 
 foot on one side only ; and others make a boast 
 that they apply as few as five, and even three, 
 nails to each shoe. These gentlemen do not 
 understand that, all the rest being well done, the 
 nails are altogether free from offence to the foot, and 
 that a first condition of shoeing is, that over the 
 greater part of the circumference, where the nails 
 are placed, there should be no perceptible motion 
 between the shoe and hoof. 
 
 The finishing of the work after the shoe is 
 nailed on consists in drawing down, or, in farrier's 
 phraseology, drawing up the nails, clenching them, 
 and smoothing the surface with the file. We have 
 
148 NAIL8, I^AILING, AND FINISHING. 
 
 two methods of wringing off tlie points of the 
 nails preparatory to clenching them. In Scotland 
 every shoer wrings off the point of each nail as 
 soon as he has driven it, by partially turning it 
 down and then taking it between the claws of his 
 hammer and giving it a twist, which he does very 
 expertly, and the point drops on the floor. 
 
 The English farrier, on the other hand, turns 
 each point down upon the hoof, after the nail is 
 driven home, in succession, and when all are 
 placed, puts the shoulder of the pincers under the 
 bend of the nail, and gives this a stroke with the 
 hammer ; this done to all of them constitutes 
 the drawing u]d ; the foot is then let down, and 
 its fellow is taken and proceeded with likewise. 
 In the next stage the feet are taken forward by 
 turn upon the shoer's knee, or rather placed upon 
 his thigh just above the knee ; he wrings off the 
 points at their bend, passes the edge of the file 
 under each clinch, before turning it with the 
 hammer, which he then does in succession ; the 
 clip is tapped up, and the file passed over the 
 clinches and the hoof below, to make the whole 
 
NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 149 
 
 smooth. It cannot be too often repeated that the 
 less filing is done to the hoof the better, and the 
 remark applies to the clinches, which are not un- 
 freqiiently deprived of their requisite substance 
 and strength by excessive filing. 
 
 The Scotch are the only shoers who take off 
 the point of each nail as it is driven, and the method 
 has mucli to recommend it, in point of safety ; a 
 tear of the hand from a turned-down nail beino- 
 among the accidents that occasionally happen to 
 shoers ; the Scotch also leave the points to be 
 turned down, of more equal lengths and flatter 
 than is done by twisting them ofi" by the pincers. 
 
 Customs of working are not easily changed, 
 and these plans may be equalised by the manner 
 of taking off the nail-points with the pincers ; 
 these should be kept in good order, be stronger 
 and broader in the bow than they usually are ; in 
 taking off the point, the pincers should only grip 
 the nail flatways at the bend, which done firmly, 
 with one turn the point comes off, leaving in suc- 
 cession the ends to be turned down of equal 
 lengths, and flat ; whereas, it commonly happens 
 
150 NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 
 
 that much twisting is done, and the ends are left 
 like the ends of screws, thick, and of unequal 
 lengths ; to remedy this the file is used, but this 
 should scarcely be required, as the flat shanks are 
 in better form for turning and laying even, as they 
 break off, than when filed to an obtuse stump. 
 
 I have mentioned the filing-up of the foot, of 
 which the less done the better, since good work 
 requires but little additional polishing, and no 
 amount of the latter can change bad into good. 
 But, since all who have taken part among good 
 workmen know how they abhor any slovenly or 
 neglectful appearance, it may be said that aU the 
 pride of the workman may be satisfied without 
 robbing the foot, and that a rasp-mark left upon 
 the hoof is a reproach to farriery ; whilst, again, 
 to use first the rough rasp and then remove the 
 marks with the file, is deceptive, and therefore 
 doubly blamable. The foot properly prepared for 
 the shoe, and well furnished by the latter, proves 
 the shoer's merit. 
 
 The following extract, taken from the work of 
 
NAILS, NAILING, AND FINISHING. 151 
 
 Earl Pembroke on horsemanship, published 110 
 years ago, is so much in accordance with my present 
 views, that I deem it proper to reproduce it. 
 It is a good example of old wisdom, unheeded 
 when first spoken, then ill-used, and lastly, buried 
 in neglect ; but, like all true wisdom, it never 
 perishes : — 
 
 "The best way to forge shoes, in respect to 
 the nails, is to make the holes for the nails at 
 twice, with two difi'erent instruments : first, on 
 the outside of the shoe punch a place, not quite 
 through the shoe, big enough to receive the head 
 of the nail when driven : next punch a smaller 
 hole, from the centre of the above-mentioned 
 larger one, for the blade of the nail, quite through 
 the shoe : thus the nails are well driven in, pro- 
 tected, and cannot be pushed by use too much 
 into the foot, but always keep their firm, proper 
 place, full as weU as, nay better than, in a grooved 
 shoe." 
 
CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 SHOEING HORSES FOR THE FIELD AND THE TURF, 
 
 Having, in tlie foregoing pages, dwelt at large on 
 the most important questions relating to the 
 horse's foot, and the rules to serve for guidance 
 in the practice of shoeing, I shall refrain from 
 saying much on exceptional means which are 
 had recourse to by different practitioners. I 
 have become convinced that the better a man 
 understands shoeing in general, the more simple 
 and uniform in all respects will be his practice. 
 
 The necessary deviations are few, and are 
 mostly such as are prompted by the occurrence 
 of lameness, cutting, or other anomalous con- 
 ditions. 
 
 There are forms of shoes in vogue, known by 
 names to which practical objections may be urged. 
 Those who order them, and farriers who have to 
 
SHOEING HORSES FOR THE FIELD AND TURF. 153 
 
 execute tlieir orders, neither understand the effects 
 these shoes exert, nor anything of the why and 
 wherefore of their origin. For instance, a hunting 
 slioe : a groom attentive to his horses thinks he 
 has done his duty in indicating a special mode 
 of shoeing for a special object, when he says that 
 the horse is " to he shod for himting." 
 
 By that is now generally meant a shoe made 
 concave on its lower surface ; the seated shoe, of 
 Moorcroft's choice, turned upside-down : this is 
 supposed to grasp tlie ground by the circum- 
 ference of the shoe sinking into it, and, as is said, 
 resembling the unshod foot. Practically, this 
 custom is found to be bad ; and in principle, when 
 the action of the foot becomes understood, it is 
 found to be very absurd. That the foot sinks 
 into the ground when so shod is true, but that is 
 exactly an occurrence which the natural foot does 
 not favour, and which it should be the aim of 
 shoeing to prevent. 
 
 As the horse's foot is required to get hold and 
 be firm upon the surface of the road, so it is 
 required to do on soft or shifting ground, and it 
 
154 SHOEING HORSES FOR 
 
 must find stability before the limb can act on it. 
 In the case of a horse, whose feet are in perfect 
 condition and strength, and unshod, security is 
 perfect on all natural ground that horses can 
 move upon, and hold is secured by the inverted 
 arched form of the foot ; first the slanting columns 
 of the heels and bulbs of the frog, forming together 
 what our neighbours call the arc-boutant — 
 flying buttresses, which arrest the foot on 
 alighting, prevent it from moving forward ; as 
 the foot revolves, while its shaft is being raised 
 from an oblique to a vertical line, the larger front 
 arch embraces the surface of the ground, and the 
 foot can slip back only to the extent that the 
 soil, if soft and loose, recedes. As soon as the 
 bearing surface of the foot is placed upon any 
 artificial medium, the natural provision is so far 
 interfered with, that we are required to contrive 
 artificial compensation for those provisions which 
 we destroy, as much as we are prompted by reason 
 to feed the animal, and take other measures for 
 his preservation, when taken from the free, and 
 to him natural, state. Horses, whether drawing 
 
THE i'lELD AND THE TUliF. 
 
 155 
 
 the plough or other agricultural implements, 
 carrying a weight in the hunting-field, or running- 
 
 Fig. 23. — A worn shoe made accordiug to a plan to some extent in vogue in 
 the early part of the century in England, as a hunting-shoe, with a 
 view to i^revent slipping. A double fullering is seen, and the inner 
 border of the web on the ground surface is cut after the manner of 
 a rasp. 
 
 This surface jilan of roughing is ineffectual. 
 
 a race, should be kept as much as possible on the 
 surface of the ground, and not armed with ex- 
 pedients to facilitate the feet sinking deeply 
 into it. 
 
 I put my plan to test, first, on plates for race- 
 horses, and, finding it effective, adopted the 
 principle for shoes for hunters, and which is not 
 
156 SHOEING HORSES FOE 
 
 only found excellent for the purpose, but of most 
 decided advantage to horses employed in towns 
 and upon ordinary roads, both for riding and 
 harness. I adopt the plan for fore-shoes only, 
 leaving the turned-down heels to do duty for the 
 hind feet ; but for plates, as will be seen, I jag 
 the fore and hind alike. 
 
 The subjoined illustrations and descriptions 
 explain the principle of the shoe ; and the 
 
 Fig. 24 represents a shoe made in the ordinary way, in so far as fullerujg 
 is concerned ; it presents, liowever, on the gi-ound siu-face, in each 
 parallel half of the shoe, foiu- concavities made with a gouge. 
 
 It will be observed that the direction of these concavities differs. 
 The two posterior ones look foi-wards and inwards, the two anterior 
 ones look backwards and inwards. According to this invention 
 certain indentations are formed, and sharp angles arranged on tlie 
 inner margin of the web and on tlie lower or ground surface of the 
 shoe, in directions radiating from the centre of tlie foot. 
 
 mechanism of the plate will be shown in the 
 following chapter. 
 
THE FIELD AND THE TURF. 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 25. — The above is an engraving of a shoe of the same pattern as the 
 preceding one, hut worn excessively, yet the gouged concavities are 
 still perfectly efficient. The shoe was worn by a commercial tra- 
 veller's mare thirteen weeks and five days, during which she is esti- 
 mated to have travelled upwards of 2000 miles on common country 
 roads in the eastern counties of England, in the summer of 1866. 
 
 The contrivance, exhibited on the opposite 
 page, was devised by the Author, and the object 
 of the whole arrangement is to give firm foot-hold. 
 The posterior concavities, four in all (two on each 
 side), prevent slipping forwards ; and the anterior 
 ones, as the foot revolves, prevent it from slip- 
 ping backwards. These shoes have been found 
 most effectual, both in the hunting field and on 
 the pavements of London and Edinburgh. 
 
158 SHOEING HORSES FOR 
 
 Having introduced these shoes, and applied 
 them in general practice in London during the 
 years 1866-7, and afterwards returning to Edin- 
 burgh, where I have no forge, I anticipated 
 danger of the plan, whatever its merits, falling 
 into disuse — or worse still misuse, for want of 
 intelligent application. But I am glad to know 
 that my fears had no grounds. One at least of our 
 former pupils, on establishing himself in a 
 veterinary practice in the neighbourhood of May- 
 fair, Mr. W. Hunting, perceiving the merits of 
 the plan, adopted it, seconded by the desire of 
 some noblemen and gentlemen on whose horses 
 I had applied the shoes. Mr. Hunting also, to 
 insure faithful execution of the system, secured 
 the services of my old trained foreman, William 
 Urquhart, who, for eight years, had given me the 
 greatest possible satisfaction at the New Veterinary 
 College. In such hands I see that this incidental 
 outcome of my labours is secured from oblivion, 
 and will, I think, become extended in practice. 
 
 I am not disposed to praise this or any other 
 specialty of shoe too much, knowing as I do 
 
THE FIELD AND THE TURF. 159 
 
 that it is not so miicli a shoe, as knowledge of 
 shoeing, that is required — a system of shoeing 
 to be established rather than a special shoe, 
 which, in the hands of the practitioner, may be 
 a boon, and in those of another, an instrument of 
 torture. Insisting on aU this, I nevertheless feel 
 it my duty to state that the indented shoe, 
 figiired at p. 156, oflfers practical advantages 
 even greater then I at first anticipated. 
 
 In discussing the special requirements of 
 shoeing for the field and the turf, one cannot 
 ignore the fact that these are matters on which 
 we as a nation stand so prominent above other 
 countries, that it may appear futile to look 
 beyond our shores for comparative standards 
 of perfection. It is true that in recent years 
 France afforded some wholesome lessons by the 
 achievements of the race-horses she has sent over 
 to this country, but then we are told she has 
 only beaten us with our owtl arms ! Meanwhile 
 there is the fact. But hunting is so much an 
 English sport, that I can look nowhere else for 
 example — nowhere else for the horse or rider, or 
 
160 SHOEING HORSES FOR THE FIELD AND TQRF. 
 
 for a hunting saddle, and, I must add, for a farrier, 
 who, all circumstances considered, will do the 
 special work equally well. 
 
 Looking back to my early experiences with 
 the Hertfordshire (Puckeridge) Hunt, more than 
 half- a -century ago, and making allowances for 
 the fondness which men cherish for the fashions 
 of their youth, I find that fanciful novelties have 
 told as unfavourably in the altered manner of 
 shoeing of hunters as of other horses. I am no 
 opponent of novelties as such, for progress of real 
 knowledge involves change ; but what I do main- 
 tain is, that in shoeing, the old school practice 
 has been destroyed, and no school or rational sys- 
 tem of shoeing has been established on its ruins ; 
 hence the countless number of disabled, useless, 
 and crippled horses. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ON PLATING RACE-HOESES. 
 
 There is nothing in shoeing and plating race- 
 horses that calls for more skill than shoeing horses 
 in general ; and judging from effects, such as the 
 condition of the feet of race-horses and the large 
 proportion of lame ones among them, there are 
 no grounds for the pretension to more knowledge 
 or care being available for their better preserva- 
 tion. Galloping upon turf requires, as has been 
 shown already, that exactness in fitting the shoes 
 be observed, and that no undue projections of the 
 shoe beyond the hoof should exist, since they 
 would be liable to injure the opposite leg, or be 
 caught hold of by either the parallel hind or op- 
 posite fore foot. All that has been said about 
 the preparation of feet and the adjustment of the 
 shoes in other cases, is particularly applicable to 
 race-horses ; and it must be borne in mind that 
 
 M 
 
162 ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 
 
 the higher rates of speed bring under severe test 
 all the structures of the limbs. 
 
 As horses hard worked upon the road usually 
 wear their shoes out in about a month, no recourse 
 is had by good managers to removing their shoes. 
 But as horses working on turf only wear their 
 shoes much during intervals, when they are doing 
 strong work, removing them is more common. 
 Eace-horses in full work should go, from one 
 shoeing to another, fully thirty days, and their 
 feet, if properly shod, will maintain normal pro- 
 portion, since, by the wearing away of the shoes 
 at the outer margin, and the rounding off of 
 heels and toe that occurs, those parts will be re- 
 duced as much, in the time, as the depth of the 
 hoof is increased by growth. But such shoes are 
 not good to remove, and new ones should be ap- 
 plied every time of taking the worn shoes off. 
 
 Plates (and these I find generally well made) 
 should be applied upon the surfaces from which 
 the shoes are taken for the purpose, without dis- 
 turbance of the hoofs ; nothing else being re- 
 quired but to drive the nails with care, and 
 
ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 163 
 
 turn the clenches flat, leaving them level and the 
 surface of the wall smooth, without either the hoof 
 or clenches being filed away. 
 
 Almost all the success of plating depends on 
 the relative success of the ordinary shoeing, in 
 keeping the feet in good form and full energy. 
 Upon all turf, except where the grass is very 
 scanty and the soil sandy, the strongest-footed 
 horses can run better, through having a firmer 
 foot-hold, with plates than barefooted; and all 
 horses run better with plates than with ordinary 
 shoes, if the ground be at all of the character of 
 English turf- 
 Plates are made by a tool fixed into the anvil, 
 well known to all shoers employed to shoe race- 
 horses. Rod iron is used ; that for making horse- 
 nails of the largest size is the best, or rods may be 
 drawn out of old scrap iron to any desired size. 
 The swedge which is used makes the crease in 
 the plate correspond to the fullering of a shoe; 
 the crease should be mid-line through the length 
 of the rod, flattened into form. These rods, reduced 
 to proper substance and creased, may be cut into 
 
164 ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 
 
 proper lengths, according to the size of horses' feet; 
 for young blood-horses 10 inches will be about 
 the length required, and for aged horses and those 
 with larger feet, from 11 to 14 inches. The rod- 
 lengths are turned round and put into the form 
 of the feet, the nail-holes are stamped, and then 
 the plates are filed up to be ready for application. 
 The only difference of make, between fore and 
 hind plates, should be a little more breadth of 
 cover for the former ; the hind being narrower 
 are a trifle lighter. There is a custom of making 
 the fore-plates much broader on the foot than the 
 ground surface, and the crease is made in these 
 upon a narrow ridge, the breadth on the upper sur- 
 face being made up with a depressed thin ledge. 
 
 I prefer the first-described mode for several 
 reasons. Istly, The plate is required to have 
 ample substance of inner margin to support the 
 sole of the foot, and by the same means good 
 foot-hold on the ground is afforded. 2dly, The 
 naUs are more secure with the crease in the 
 middle of the plate, both as regards the depth of 
 crease to receive the heads of the nails, and also 
 
ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 165 
 
 for the nails taking the better hold of the hoof. 
 If horses have to run on other courses than turf, 
 their feet should be armed for the purpose accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 Fig. 26 represents two racing plates — an off -fore and off -kind 
 one — made according to the system of the Author. Instead of 
 gouged concavities, as adopted for the shoes already described, we 
 have here jagged projections made by a cold chisel after the plate 
 is put in shape. 
 
 These are found to act precisely in the same manner on the turf 
 as the gouged concavities of the shoes, previously described, do on 
 an ordinary pavement, or in the hunting-field. 
 
 While maintaining that these jagged plates 
 must have advantages on the turf not inferior to 
 those experienced on the road with shoes con- 
 
166 ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 
 
 structed in tlie same manner, I candidly admit 
 that my advocacy of the plan with race-horses is 
 not based so much on tested experience, as on 
 reasoning from analogy and from a knowledge 
 of the structure and functions of the feet and 
 limbs of horses. 
 
 Experience with race-horses is limited to 
 comparatively few, and these in particular dis- 
 tricts from which I have been absent, since I 
 devised, and applied to ordinary shoes and plates, 
 the system for giving foot-hold already described. 
 
 This admission will, it is hoped, not pre- 
 vent the plan being experimentally tried by 
 the owners of race-horses, who, above all men, 
 have the opportunity of learning practically that 
 everything which tends to give increased firm- 
 ness of foot-hold is conducive to speed, economises 
 power, and diminishes the risk of sprains, which 
 in a large number of instances are the result, not 
 so much of the speed at which the horse is going 
 and the weight he is carrying, as of a sudden and 
 violent effort, instinctively made, to compensate a 
 momentary faihire of foot-hold, or of extraordinary 
 
ON PLATING RACE-HOKSES. 167 
 
 exertion, rendered continuously urgent by the de- 
 fective condition of the feet. 
 
 Weight of Plates. — Sets of four plates for 
 the fore and hind feet weigh from ten to sixteen 
 ounces, and the medium between these figures is 
 the average weight of plates. 
 
 The difference in weight between the plates 
 for fore and hind feet is usually as four to three, 
 for fore over the hind. But the question of 
 weight must be determined by the intelligent 
 shoer, and should not be regulated wholly by 
 the size of feet, but by their relative perfec- 
 tion of form and strength. Weak hoofs require 
 the strongest plates, dimensions of surface of 
 foot being equal. Therefore aged and most used 
 horses usually require plates of more substance 
 than young horses that have been well done by, 
 and have feet nearest to perfection of form. 
 
 The above remarks, I hope, will be found to 
 embody as much of principle as will serve for 
 practical guidance in this country — for English 
 turf practice. I make no more pretence, in this 
 
168 ON PLATING RACE-HORSES. 
 
 than ill any other chapter, to exhausting the 
 practical details of the particular subject under 
 consideration. My first aim is to lay down 
 and demonstrate principles, which may be of 
 general application ; and I do not aspire to teach 
 in a book what can only be learned at a forge. 
 
 Connected with the plating of race-horses, 
 there are other matters, the discussion of which 
 may interest many readers, and which I purpose 
 considering in the next section — the chapter on 
 roughing. I refer to the general question of 
 foot-hold for horses upon different surfaces. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 FEOST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 
 
 Sharping is done by drawing out the heels of 
 the shoe after turning them down, by flattening 
 and narrowino; the calkins of both heels to a 
 sharp point ; in the fore-shoes a transverse broad 
 hold is preferable to narrow and high heels. Ad- 
 ditionally the hind-shoes of all draught horses, 
 whether for light or heavy work, should be toe- 
 tipped ; this consists in a piece of rod iron being 
 welded transversely across the toe of the shoe, 
 on the ground surface, behind the clip, and from 
 each end of the toe-line an acute point being 
 drawn out — the toe-tip so armed becomes con- 
 cave in the centre, and the foot finds ample 
 stay upon the hard frozen roads and ice by this 
 contrivance. 
 
 The four sharpened points at the bottom of 
 each foot form two transverse and two lateral 
 
170 FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 
 
 parallel holds, which afford complete security. 
 Heavy draught horses should have toe -tips 
 to their fore-shoes also sharpened; while with 
 riding horses, turning and sharpening both heels 
 of all the shoes is the proper practice, and suf- 
 fices. 
 
 In adopting toe-tips for sharping, though the 
 process of doing the work is the same as has been 
 described for toeing new shoes, the object calls for 
 modifications. Instead of using new square rod 
 for sharping, a lighter rod, flattened, to the pro- 
 portion of five to three of the substance of iron 
 prescribed for new shoes, is used ; the rods for 
 sharping purposes are kept prepared during the 
 season, of sufiicient difference of substance for 
 small and large shoes. Those rods are commonly 
 formed by opening old shoes of convenient sub- 
 stance, drawing them roughly out, and welding 
 them to the convenient lengths of about three 
 feet. 
 
 In Scotland the shoers are very expert hands 
 at the above plan of sharping ; as a rule the 
 shoes are nailed on with unpointed nails, driven 
 
FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 171 
 
 in the old holes, with the exception of occasions 
 in which new shoes have to be used ; better work 
 is done in sharping with the old shoes than with 
 new, until they have been sharpened two or three 
 times, when they become too short, even if not 
 worn out, and must be changed for new. 
 
 Koughing, like everything pertaining to horse- 
 shoeing, is required to be more uniformly well 
 done than it is. It is not so much new knowledge 
 that is required, as the more uniform adoption of 
 the best known modes of doing the work. Effec- 
 tive sharping, with freedom from injurious 
 tendencies to horses' feet, is necessarily dependent 
 upon a rational and well - carried - out plan of 
 shoeing. But custom is more imperative than 
 system on this incidental part of shoeing, which 
 is called for very much on emergencies ; the work 
 is best done, most simply and most effectually, 
 where it is annually required during several 
 months of the year, and accordingly it is to Ger- 
 many and Switzerland that we should look for the 
 best practice, as we find it in this part of shoeing. 
 I shall not enter into details on the different plans, 
 
1 72 FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 
 
 because some are adapted for localities, or the 
 particular services of liorses. A simple and 
 effective method is adopted throughout Ger- 
 many ; at Berhn and Vienna, all the shoes, from 
 the setting in of winter until the end of it, are 
 made with the heels tapped, to receive screw- 
 formed calkins, made obtuse or sharp-pointed, 
 which, by means of a small key kept in readiness, 
 may be changed as required. This plan is admir- 
 able, and, for the military service at least, should 
 undoubtedly be adopted in this country. But for 
 ordinary purposes the conditions of climate render 
 the German plan scarcely practicable here. Our 
 streets are rarely covered for more than a few 
 days at a time with loose frozen snow, and the 
 screws would bend and break under the exertion 
 of horses upon hard roads. But, assuming that 
 this could be overcome, there are other difficulties : 
 firstly, our common practice of shoeing does not 
 encourage one to engraft the incidental part on it. 
 Our workmen are strangers to it ; and lastly, frost 
 comes suddenly, and, as stated, rarely lasts long 
 in England, and therefore owners of horses would 
 
FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 1 73 
 
 not generally keep them shod in a way prepared 
 for the emergency. The school for such change 
 should be in the army service, where the practice 
 would be at once useful, nay would seem most 
 essential for prompt and efficient service, and 
 whence it might become extended to civil pur- 
 poses. But any adoption of new modes of the 
 kind, in order to be effective and not mere shams 
 and deceptions, should be carried out by imported 
 workmen. In this respect a useful lesson may be 
 learned from manufacturers. When a new pro- 
 cess or machine is introduced from the Continent 
 or America, often at great cost, the invester, to 
 make sure of the result, brings over the people 
 accustomed to work the system. Our o\^ti coun- 
 trymen soon learn by practical example, and the 
 result is generally beneficial. Horse-shoeing may 
 not be a directly profitable concern to those engaged 
 in it ; but that is no reason why a Government 
 Department, or a wealthy College, specially inter- 
 ested in the good management of horses, should 
 not procure the country some of the good deriv- 
 able from well-chosen importations of foreign skill. 
 
1 74 FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 
 
 The old adage — " Riding rougli-sliod " — is 
 significant of notions of advantage over riders in 
 the opposite condition — smooth-shod ; and the 
 difference is incalculably in favour of the former 
 where any trial of strength is called for, whether 
 it be of speed, carrying, or drawing. I have 
 found myself under circumstances where means 
 have had to be extemporised instantly to avoid 
 imminent disastrous accidents ; and I have seen 
 the very accidents happen, to prevent which, 
 knowledge of causes, and how they may be con- 
 trolled, was the only requirement. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the horse, in 
 his natural state, is a very sure-footed animal, 
 though for climbing and descending inferior to 
 the sheep and goat ; in practice, then, what we 
 have to do is to overcome difliculties chiefly due 
 to the material with which the horse is shod, 
 and the variable soil on which he has to work in 
 different localities and at particular seasons. 
 When the ground is slippery from any cause, ex- 
 cept a wet surface, the emergency may be met 
 by taking off the horse's hind-shoes ; and since 
 
FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 175 
 
 two feet are always in diagonal positions on the 
 ground, it follows that when any two feet are 
 able to hold the animal is safe. In the case of 
 sudden frost, horses drawing a heavy load may 
 suddenly become unable to stand; under such 
 circumstances, straw, sand, or horse-clothing, 
 placed on the slippery ground, will enable the 
 animals to stand at ease, while a couple of shoes 
 are taken off from each ; it will then be found 
 that draught and progression have ceased to be 
 impossibilities. These hints may be useful in 
 military and civil life, and in time suggest a 
 variety of resources for giving horses foot-hold 
 under circumstances of exceptional occurrence. 
 
 The only other example of methods for giving 
 foot-hold, adapted to conditions of soil and the 
 economy of power, is the so-called Turkish shoe, 
 in use south and east of the Mediterranean, over 
 many thousands of miles. In Figure 20, p. 
 106, we have the representation of an Egyptian 
 shoe, which, as is shown, while hammered into 
 form and made thin and light, covers almost the 
 whole of the circumference it embraces. It is a 
 
176 FROST-SHARPING, OR ROUGHING SHOES. 
 
 shoe admirably adapted to economise the power of 
 the horse going upon dry loose sand ; the shoe, 
 in fact, acts upon that shifting medium like an oar 
 on water, or the wing of a bird against the air. 
 Such is the effect, upon the foot of a horse so 
 armed, over one shod suitably only for an English 
 road or the hunting-field. The use of the shoes last 
 referred to, and the length of time they have been 
 used, — an era beyond knowledge, — is to me one 
 of the most remarkable facts for contemplation in 
 the whole history of horse-shoeing. 
 
PAET 11. 
 
 ON LAMENESS. 
 
 N 
 
PKELIMTNARY OBSERVATIONS ON LAMENESS. 
 
 The ten chapters which I have devoted to the 
 subject of Shoeing are not an exhaustive treatise 
 on the subject ; they are the results of my own 
 observation and experience, and are intended to 
 convey information which, if carefully put to 
 practical use, will help to lay the foundation of a 
 system of shoeing, and lessen the evils which are 
 the inevitable result of want of knowledge. 
 
 Lameness is unquestionably the most apparent, 
 the most frequent, and the most serious result of 
 bad shoeing ; but few persons can form a correct 
 estimate of its great prevalence. 
 
 Upwards jof half-a- century ago, the late Pro- 
 fessor Sewell was sent to the Continent by the 
 Governors of the London Veterinary College, to 
 gather information on the state of the Veterinary 
 Art. On his return he told the Governors — 
 
180 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 " I have seen more lame horses while posting from 
 Harwich to London than I have met with in all 
 my journey, and dming my inspection of Veter- 
 inary Schools and public places in France, Switzer- 
 land, Germany, and Belgium." The lapse of time 
 has not improved our case. 
 
 Lameness of any other animal besides the 
 horse, however slight in degree, is readily recog- 
 nised, — in the horse it generally escapes notice, 
 except in extreme cases. If one deer among a 
 herd, or one hound in a pack, were seen to limp, 
 the exceptional case would attract notice, while a 
 street may be full of horses, and one-fourth of the 
 number lame, without giving rise to remark. It 
 is not for me to attempt to explain the matter, 
 but to prove the truth of what I assert. People 
 see so many lame horses that they have become 
 familiar with them. A large percentage of lame- 
 ness amongst working horses is the rule ; and 
 if they were all restored to soundness, and could 
 display their natural graceful action, that would 
 for the instant be the exceptional state. 
 
 With a view to prove the frequency of lame- 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 181 
 
 ness I have instituted a series of observations, 
 which others may repeat and extend ; and I have 
 spared no pains to investigate, by dissection, the 
 anatomical condition of the limbs of lame horses. 
 The results of these inquiries are a.bout to be sub- 
 mitted. To do the subject full justice would 
 require a treatise ; but I only aim at furnishing 
 materials for the foundation of such a work, while 
 supplying knowledge of facts carefully observed 
 and noted by myself. 
 
11. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FEEQUENCY OF LAMENESS IN 
 EDINBURGH, BIRMINGHAM, LONDON, AND PARIS. 
 
 Edinburgh.— On the 14th May 1869, at 9.40 
 A.M., I began a series of observations (by taking a 
 position in West Princes Street Gardens) on all 
 the horses that passed along the street during the 
 time ; and in making several observations there, 
 at the middle and east end of that street, 607 
 horses were observed to pass in the space of two 
 hours ; the observations were made at three dif- 
 ferent times on the same day. Of that total 
 number l7l were verv lame. 
 
 t/ 
 
 Edinhurgh. — July 23, 1869. I repeated the 
 observations in the same way. In 45 minutes 270 
 horses in all passed me, of which 88 were lame. 
 
 Birmingham. — August 16, 1869. Similar ob- 
 servations to those taken in Edinburgh were made. 
 New Street was selected, between 10 and 11 in 
 
LAMENESS OF HOKSES. 183 
 
 the forenoon, and in 20 minutes all the horses 
 that passed numbered 101, of which 25 were 
 lame. 
 
 London. — August 24,1869. My observations 
 here occupied in each instance about 15 minutes 
 in these several positions : — 
 
 Is^. Tottenham Court Koad, 91 horses passed, 
 of which 30 were lame. 
 
 2(i. New Oxford Street, horses passing on one 
 side, and in the same direction, 102, of which 40 
 were lame. 
 
 3c?. August 25. Horses of all descriptions 
 86, of which 47 were lame. 
 
 4:th. At west end of Piccadilly, took note of 
 cab-horses only, 44, of which 35 were lame. 
 
 5th. All omnibus-horses, 48, of which 20 
 were lame. 
 
 ^th. All other classes, excluding the above, 
 51, of which 21 lame. 
 
 7th. August 25, 1869. Oxford Street, London. 
 Observed all horses going the same way on one side 
 of the street. Total 163, of which 54 were lame. 
 Cab-horses only, 54, of which 28 were lame. 
 
184 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 8 th. Cab-horses in Bayswater Eoad, 25, of 
 whicli 14 were lame. 
 
 9th. In Bayswater Road, omnibus-liorses only, 
 34, of wbicli 9 were lame. 
 
 10 th. All horses, excepting the above, 41, of 
 which 25 were lame. 
 
 llth. Second observation on omnibus-horses 
 only, 35, of which 16 were lame. 
 
 12th. August 28, 1869. New Charter-house 
 Street. Observed all horses descending west- 
 wards, 124, of which 75 were lame. 
 
 13^^. All horses going in the opposite direction, 
 123, of which 61 were lame. 
 
 lUh. New Oxford Street. Observed all horses, 
 total 85, of which 50 were lame. 
 
 15^^. Edge ware Eoad. Omnibus-horses only, 
 50, of which 22 were lame. 
 
 16^^. Cab-horses only, 89, of which 56 lame. 
 
 17th. All others except the above, 67, of 
 which 34 were lame. 
 
 18th. August 27, 5 o'clock p.m. Went to 
 Hyde Park by the Serpentine Road, and observed 
 carriage-horses, 85, of which 27 were lame. 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 185 
 
 EdinhurgL—AugMst 31, 1869, 10.35 a.m. :— 
 
 1st. Observations made on all horses passing 
 through Princes Street. Total 100, of which 72 
 were lame. 
 
 2d. Observed cab-horses only, 50, of which 41 
 were lame. 
 
 3d. September 30. By Eegister Ofi&ce. Ob- 
 served all horses, 139, of which 64 were lame. 
 
 After I had made the above observations I 
 was anxious to extend them to horses in different 
 localities, and especially in the capital cities of 
 different countries ; but such opportunities have 
 not occurred to me since I conceived the plan. 
 But I have been so fortunate as to get some ob- 
 servations taken for me in Paris, by one who 
 assisted me on the occasions when I was engaged 
 in taking my notes in London. These, taken at 
 Paris at my request, are perfectly reliable, as 
 being made by one very able ; and the result 
 agrees with comparative notes I have before often 
 taken there, but in a different way. 
 
 Observations in Paris. — On the 21st April 
 1870, standing on the south side of the Boulevard 
 
186 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 des Capuchines, 86 horses Avere seen trotting past 
 in the course of 10 minutes. Of these 5 were 
 lame on one fore-leg only, 3 on both fore-limbs, 
 and 1 on the off-hind. 
 
 Another ten minutes were devoted on the 
 north side to see the off-side horses. 100 passed, 
 and of these 3 were lame on the near fore-leg, 1 
 on both fore-limbs, 1 on the off-hind, and the 
 other on the near-hind. 
 
 A hilly spot was next chosen above the Boule- 
 vard des Italiens, on the Boulevard Montmartre, 
 and another 100 horses watched in about twelve 
 minutes. The observations were from the south 
 side, and restricted to the horses trotting down 
 the Boulevard des Italiens. Of these 100, 8 were 
 lame on one fore, 1 on both fore, 1 on the off-hind, 
 and another on the near-hind limb. 
 
 The general remarks to make are, that the 
 fore-limb lameness was obviously due to foot in- 
 jury and derangement ; that of the hind-limb to 
 spavins. The omnibus-horses were sound, with a 
 single exception. The lamest horses appeared 
 old stale hackney-coach workers, that had seen 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 187 
 
 better days. The small French horses, while cer- 
 tainly devoid of action, moved with perfect free- 
 dom on all-fours. The horses in private carriages 
 were quite remarkable for free action and sound- 
 ness. The observations were not hurried, and 
 there was ample time to notice satisfactorily the 
 regularity of movement, or otherwise. 
 
 As this is the first attempt made, or that has 
 been published, of establishing some reliable 
 criterion of the actual number of lame horses to 
 be found at work upon all ordinary occasions, and 
 in all places, I shall not try to make an analysis 
 of the facts observed, but merely make such re- 
 marks on them as the present early working of 
 the method will bear; confident as I am, that 
 when and wherever tried, the phenomena dis- 
 covered in the past will repeat themselves. The 
 comparative aspect of the question is perhaps 
 that which will most likely lead to improvements 
 where they are most needed; and I think too 
 much value cannot be given to the comparisons, 
 taking those observations made by myself in 
 London, Edinburgh, and Birmingham, and those 
 
188 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 with which I have been favoured, and which were 
 made under similar circumstances in Paris. But, 
 on the other hand, I believe that for the present 
 it will be best to group the results obtained by my- 
 self in England and Scotland, because all classes 
 of horses working have been included, and all, in 
 a few instances, taken distinctly to test results. 
 
 Notably, the cab-horses at the west end of 
 Piccadilly, among which seven-ninths were very 
 lame, whereas in the Bayswater omnibuses, and 
 all horses at Birmingham, the proportion of lame 
 to sound was not more than a third so great. 
 There are many conditions which regulate these 
 results, quite independently of difiference of shoe- 
 ing, but the experience gained by all these 
 instances being most unsatisfactory regarding the 
 state of that art. 
 
 The London omnibus-horses, among which 
 the fewest were found lame, were of a powerful 
 active stamp, bought in fresh, no doubt, for that 
 kind of work, and probably draughted and sold 
 out as they deteriorate. On the other hand, what 
 is quite positive, the Piccadilly cab-horses were 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 189 
 
 mostly seen iii hansoms driven fast ; they were 
 mostly thorough-bred, such as are cast off from 
 the racing studs when they have become of no 
 value there. These, bought at low prices at the 
 auction marts, end their short lives under torture 
 in the hansoms, and other light vehicles. There- 
 fore, in one case, sound horses adapted for the work 
 are constantly being brought in, and in the other, 
 prematurely worn-down lame horses form the re- 
 cruiting material; but there is no evidence of 
 these poor animals being worse shod in the cab- 
 man's possession than they were when on the 
 turf. And, in fact, we have not a good and a bad 
 system of shoeing ; and if we had, the charge of 
 culpable cruelty might be established for putting 
 the one into practice and excluding the other. 
 But I make no such charge, believing that in all 
 men act according to their intelligence, which on 
 shoeing in this country at the present time is in- 
 adequate to the requirement, and that the horse 
 of twenty pounds value is quite as rationally, and 
 seldom so irrationally, treated as others of ficti- 
 tious value of fifty times that amount. 
 
190 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 But when comparisons are made between the 
 horses of the greatest centres of luxury and com- 
 merce in this country and those of the whole of 
 France, where the influencing conditions are so 
 diverse, the matter is altered, and from compari- 
 sons made we may profitably turn attention to 
 the causes of so much lameness on one side the 
 Channel and so little on the other. 
 
 The two thousand six hundred and sixty-four 
 horses, of which I took careful note, in this coun- 
 try, exhibit an average of lame animals among 
 them of 42 per cent ; while observations made on 
 two hundred and eighty-six horses at Paris, and 
 in the thronged streets of commercial traffic there, 
 only exhibit 9 per cent of lame animals. 
 
 But one cannot form an adequate idea of the 
 amount of lameness on our side of the Channel 
 from the above statistics, which, at first sight, 
 would only lead to the conclusion that here the 
 number of lame horses is only four or five times 
 as great as in France. 
 
 Taking our own case first, we must remember 
 that the lame horses are of no class or age in par- 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 191 
 
 ticular. Within the space of a year after they 
 are first put to work or broken in for sale, and 
 doinaf no useful work whatever, lameness often 
 appears, and remains throughout their existence. 
 A very large number of the choicest horse-stock 
 too never render any service through lameness, 
 nor make any appearance amongst the numbers 
 observed in the street. Again, early termination 
 of service is common — old age, viz. from twelve 
 to twenty years, being very exceptionally attained 
 by our working horses. 
 
 As age advances, so do foot disorders ; and, 
 proportionate to the havoc made among seasoned 
 horses, is the necessity of rapid replenishment 
 from the young stock ; and the effect is, the rapid 
 wearing down of the available horse-power, spar- 
 ing the animals at no period of their working 
 existence. This waste tells most heavily on those 
 forming the largest numbers of between three and 
 eight years of age, the period when, under a more 
 happy system, they would reach maturity, and be 
 of the highest value for all general uses. 
 
 The wear of the component structures of 
 
192 LAMENESS OF HORSES. 
 
 horses' limbs is an inevitable condition of the 
 uses they render. But it is for men to contrive 
 artificial resources to counteract the ills that 
 artificial usage tends to entail on horses, though 
 perfect immunity from lameness cannot be at- 
 tained. 
 
 Turninof now to the result of observations 
 taken last year in Paris, we have 9 per cent of 
 lame horses there, against 40 per cent observed 
 for the most part in London and Edinburgh. 
 But these proportions do not, as I have pre- 
 viously remarked, to my mind anything like 
 represent the worst feature of the case on our 
 side. Four and two-thirds more lame horses 
 were discovered on this than on the other side 
 of the Channel. There the 26 lame horses, 
 that made up the proportion, exhibited in 16 of 
 them lameness of one fore-Hmb ; 5 of both fore ; 
 and 5 others were respectively lame of one hind- 
 limb, while amongst those observed by myself in 
 this country the majority were lame on both fore- 
 limbs, and many of these lacked a sound leg at 
 all, so that the relative amount of lameness on 
 
LAMENESS OF HORSES. 193 
 
 our side is actually much greater than that repre- 
 sented by the figures above quoted. 
 
 But at Paris these were all found in the throng 
 of the city, among the hard-working worn-down 
 class, mostly hackney-carriage horses ; and my cor- 
 respondent states that, among the equipages, not a 
 single lame horse was seen on the day these ob- 
 servations were made, and only one among the 
 omnibus working horses. I regard these statistics 
 of lameness as capable, by extensive prosecution, 
 of bringing out instructive truths, such as must 
 ere long awaken public opinion to the deplorable 
 state of the art of farriery in this country. I be- 
 lieve, and therefore state my belief, that in no age 
 or country can it be shown that lameness has 
 victimised so many horses of all descriptions in 
 the prime of their age, as it has during the present 
 century in our own country. The great propor- 
 tion of the cases occur through preventable 
 causes, which are constantly being renewed and 
 added to. 
 
III. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE PATHOLOGICAL CON- 
 DITIONS OF horses' feet, commonly PRESENT IN 
 THE VARIOUS STAGES OF CHRONIC LAMENESS. 
 
 The morbid specimens selected for the drawings 
 which illustrate this section of my work, comprise 
 some of the most important conditions commonly 
 met with in lame horses, the occurrence of which 
 it is my object to prevent and remedy. 
 
 The chronic anomalous conditions of horses' 
 feet, entailing lameness of more or less acute 
 degree, present two quite opposite appearances to 
 our view ; the one a wasting and the other an 
 engrossment of structures, the textures of the parts 
 affected being in both instances greatly changed. 
 In describing these conditions I shall make use of 
 the appropriate short terms — Atrophy and Hyper- 
 trophy. 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 195 
 
 Fig. 27 represents a transverse section of the 
 hoof of a fore-foot of an aged cart-horse, in which 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 the sole had become flattened, and at some points 
 had even passed the plane, and assumed the 
 convex, in contrast to the normal concave form 
 of surface. 
 
 Fig. 27 I). 
 
 Fig. 27 6 represents the coffin-bone of the same 
 
196 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 foot, as that of the hoof described, and shows how 
 exactly the outline and surfaces of one accord 
 with those of the other ; which characteristics are 
 made more manifest when the parts are handled. 
 It is true that these surfaces are not met with 
 quite regular, but the irregularities are constantly 
 reciprocal. It has been said, and I believe truly, 
 that nature " abhors plane surfaces" in animal 
 formation, and such is found to be true as normal 
 and altered forms are studied. 
 
 The above-described aspect shows the atrophy 
 of the bone, but this coffin-bone affi^rds a typical 
 example of hypertrophy also, and I can submit no 
 better specimen, though I have many others ana 
 logons to it, to show the twofold condition of 
 wasting and enlargement existing together in the 
 same bone at different parts. Atrophy— viz. 
 wasting of the bone, precedes hypertrophy — viz. 
 augmentation of bone ; and yet, both are effects 
 due to prior adverse causes, without which neither 
 of these conditions would have happened. 
 
 Figs. 28 and 28 6 represent the hoof and last 
 three bones of the near fore-foot of a horse, which, 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 197 
 
 in a state of great lameness, was taken to an 
 Edinburgh tan-yard to be destroyed. I obtained 
 
 ;¥*-5^^»5^ 
 
 Fiff. 28. 
 
 and dissected both fore-limbs, which were deformed 
 precisely alike, and were affected by altered con- 
 ditions of structures, as these specimens prove. 
 
 Figure 28 shows the conditions of the hoof, 
 which displays obvious traces of mutilation on the 
 exterior surface of the wall, by means of the rasp, 
 and of the indiscreetly-applied drawing-knife. By 
 
198 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 this twofold action of paring the hoof below, and 
 rasping it exteriorly, a result was attained which 
 has been admirably characterised in the technical 
 phraseology of modern Italian farriers — " The 
 horse's foot so treated is peeled like an orange." 
 
 Fig. 28 b represents the skeleton of the foot 
 to which the above-described hoof belonged. 
 
 Fig. 28 b. 
 
 Similarly placed upon a plane, the hoof and 
 coffin-bone exhibit corresponding anomalous con- 
 ditions, the most obvious being their tilting in- 
 wards, due to the reductions of the hoof, chiefly 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 199 
 
 in its inner part. The tilting was caused by 
 reduction of the hoof, and by absorption of the 
 coffin-bone — nature's common accommodating 
 provision for the mitigation of pain by the re- 
 moval of margins, when these, being deprived of 
 support and defence, become exposed to injury. 
 
 Here, again, that provision is seen, as in the 
 former instance of compensation, by new bone- 
 structure being formed at different points. 
 
 Succeeding to the atrophy of the coffin-bone, 
 its appended cartilages become ossified, and two 
 bone-columns rise up laterally, one on each side 
 of the short pastern bone, which is seen leaning 
 against the inner one, and is held by ligamentous 
 bands extended from the outer column. 
 
 Figures 29 and 29 h also represent a hoof 
 and the skeleton of the near fore-foot of a horse. 
 This case is of great interest, and I adduce it for 
 the purpose of explaining something in a positive 
 and also a negative way about corns. 
 
 In the estimation of all concerned, corns were 
 the great cause of suffering to this horse. Besides 
 the usual paring of the sole, Fig. 29 shows two 
 
200 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 openings due to the scooping away of tlie hoof 
 where "the seat of corn" was said to exist. The 
 more the scooping away of the hoof was persisted 
 in, the greater was the suffering caused by the 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 destruction of the quick. The openings through 
 which the blood-coloured discharge descended are 
 shown in Fig. 29 by two bands of paper passing 
 through each angle of the hoof, at its extremities, 
 by the sides of the frog. 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSEs' FEET. 201 
 
 Fig. 29 h represents prominently a lateral 
 view of the inside aspect of the coffin-bone. A 
 
 Fig. 29 h. 
 
 deep ulcerated cavity is shown at the side of the 
 extremity of the bone, and one similar in kind, 
 but less extensive, exists on the retrorsal margin 
 on the other side. Apart from the lesions of 
 hoof, soft structures, cartilage, and bone, atrophy 
 of the coffin and navicular bones, with deep exca- 
 vation of the latter, existed to the same extent in 
 both fore-feet. 
 
 The termination of this case was extraordinary^ 
 in its occurrence, and more than justifies, it seems, 
 a short digression from my subject; the termina- 
 tion was by sudden death. The incident which I am 
 
202 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 about to narrate happened nine years ago. While 
 in the performance of my duty at the Edinburgh 
 New Veterinary College, I was called in haste by 
 a groom to attend a horse that had accidentally 
 fallen in a street close by. I accompanied the 
 man instantly, and when we reached the stable 
 found the horse lying quite dead ; only a few 
 minutes had elapsed from the time the groom left 
 the horse standing in his stall, and only about 
 twenty minutes from the time the horse fell. 
 The immediate occurrence, as related by the man, 
 happened thus : — The horse, lame on both fore- 
 feet, was being ridden by the groom, who was 
 retm'ning to the stable with a sackful of forage 
 placed before him on the horse's back. The 
 animal, so encumbered, was being trotted on the 
 pavement of a narrow street, and the way he was 
 going was on a decline. The horse stumbled, and 
 after making efforts to recover himself, fell, pitching 
 the man and sack over his head. The man escaped 
 injury, but the horse was with difficulty, and only 
 by help, raised upon his feet, and staggered into 
 the stable, which was only a few yards distant. 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 203 
 
 An examination of the carcass revealed the 
 cause of the almost instant death that succeeded 
 the fall of the horse. The midriff was rent in its 
 centre, making an aperture so large that the 
 stomach and other contents of the abdomen had 
 shot through, in the forward fall, and these filled 
 up the chest and were immovable. Ruptures of 
 the diaphragm of the horse have come under my 
 notice on several occasions, from well-understood 
 causes of spasmodic kind, but the above is the 
 only case I ever knew of similar occurrence. 
 
 The rest of the history of the subject was soon 
 made out. The horse was the property of a grocer, 
 who used to run him in a light cart, and who 
 stated that he had possessed the animal for about 
 two years, that he had been a reputed good hunter, 
 and came to the last owner at a low price through 
 being lame, in which state the animal had con- 
 tinued, and had worked till the termination now 
 detailed ; thereafter I obtained both fore-limbs 
 of the horse for dissection, with the results shown 
 above. 
 
 Figures 30 and 30 6 represent component struc- 
 
204 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 tures of the foot of a horse whose case was inti- 
 mately and long known to me. 
 
 Fig. 30 shows the hoof placed on a plane sur- 
 face ; it is seen to be depressed across the front of 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 the wall, and a light-coloured streak, marking an 
 inveterate sand-crack, extends from top to bottom 
 at the quarter. Corresponding to the hollow de- 
 pression of the foot above referred to, there was 
 necessarily a bulging of the sole downwards — 
 that is, a flattening — and more or less convexity 
 at parts of the sole. Altogether a total abnormal 
 state is observable. The horn fibres are seen 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 205 
 
 in the illustration of the hoof to have attained an 
 undue obliquity, and curve in their course from 
 above downwards. 
 
 Fig. 30 b. 
 
 This engraving of the coffin-bone of the foot, 
 of which the above-described hoof forms part, is 
 remarkable under the twofold aspect of deformity 
 and diminution of substance. The space occupied 
 by the bone within the hoof, and its weight, are 
 reduced probably to two-thirds the proportion of 
 its primitive complete growth, while the hoof, 
 viewed superficially, greatly exceeds the normal 
 size. I have mentioned the superficial aspect of 
 
206 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 form — that is, the deceptive view — the one com- 
 mon to aged horses with defective and diseased 
 feet. Surface and substance do not amount to 
 the same thing ; weakness and disease are com- 
 mon to the first, but strength and perfection are 
 only compatible with depth of cubical capacity, 
 with proportionate substance, and form of struc- 
 ture. 
 
 The animal which supplied material for the 
 above illustrations was sent to the New Veteri- 
 nary College, when very lame, in 1859. With 
 difficulty the horse had been led from his stable. 
 Bar -shoes, with leather soles, hid from view 
 surfaces of soles and frogs painful even to look 
 on when exposed. 
 
 The coachman expressed surprise, and exhibited 
 displeasure, when he saw me taking up the horse's 
 foot, ordering the shoe to be taken off", and a new 
 pair of shoes to be made, while I proceeded to 
 prepare the feet. It subsequently transpired that 
 putting the horse out of his misery was contem- 
 plated, and that our opinion was expected to have 
 been in accordance with advice tendered to that 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 207 
 
 effect. We took pains, and employed the know- 
 ledge and skill at command, with the result that 
 the horse which arrived in pain and difficulty 
 walked from the forge two hours afterwards, 
 almost free from pain, and was put to work 
 either on the next or second day, and went 
 on rendering excellent service for three years 
 afterwards, when, being then nineteen years old, 
 and a casualty having happened to him, he was 
 put away. Meanwhile, the favourite horse of a 
 medical gentleman was restored to a state of 
 freedom of action, and enabled to render service, 
 scarcely excelled in effect or for appearance by that 
 which he accomplished antecedent to the crisis. 
 
 Fig. 31 represents a coffin-bone, selected for 
 the purpose of showing one in a more advanced 
 stage of disease than any of those yet brought 
 under notice. 
 
 The differences in the degree of absorption of 
 this bone which had taken place, and its conse- 
 quent shortened form, will, it is presumed, make 
 impression on the minds of readers. I have to 
 state, moreover, that such phenomena are not very 
 
208 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 uncommon, but often lie hidden from observation 
 within a hoof excessively prolonged and turned up 
 
 
 ^«?^ 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 in front, with depressed sole. By looking at the 
 bottom surface of this bone, it may be seen that 
 at the centre, which normally is the point of the 
 deepest concavity of the arch, columns of bone are 
 formed which give attachment to the fibrous 
 bands, tendons, etc., the natural bony crest and 
 arch being destroyed. 
 
 The three succeeding engravings represent 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 209 
 
 distinct views of tlie same foot — one of the two 
 fore-feet of a cart-liorse, both of which were in 
 precisely the same abnormal state ; the history 
 of the subject only known to the extent of the 
 
 Ficr. 32. 
 
 limbs having been obtained by the author at a 
 tan-yard in Edinburgh, where the horse had l)een 
 
 taken to be slaughtered. 
 
210 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 Figures 32 and 32 h show respectively a front 
 and back view of the same parts — the bones of 
 the near foot — -in a complete state of anchylosis. 
 I shall only attempt to give a brief description 
 
 Fig. 32 b. 
 
 of these anomalous specimens ; to treat fully 
 the causes, the conditions, and the order of 
 sequence of occurrences would require more space 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 211 
 
 than can be assigned here to a single specimen 
 or a series. 
 
 Fig. 32 c. 
 
 The hoof is drawn as if one were looking 
 down into its cavity, showing the bulged form 
 corresponding to the large bone formation on the 
 outer aspect of the foot, occupying the space from 
 the pastern joint downwards, and rigidly fixing 
 the joints involved. 
 
 In this case, so faithfully illustrated by the 
 figures produced, phenomena are exhibited that 
 are rarely seen so well — in the back view, Fig. 
 
212 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 32 h, of the specimen — firstly, tlie wasted and 
 irregularly flattened state of the coffin-bone ; the 
 extent to which cartilages and ligaments have be- 
 come replaced by bone ; and, lastly, how some of 
 the ligamentous bands are developed, and their 
 courses modified by attachment to strong spars 
 of bone-substance, displayed to afibrd hold for 
 these essential bands, without which no movement 
 would be possible, strength would be wanting, and 
 the bones would be crushed by muscular force 
 exerted from above. I find the same order of 
 sequence in this case as I have described in 
 others ; firstly, external anomalous conditions, 
 alterations of the surfaces of the coffin-bone, and 
 these succeeded by other compensating provisions. 
 The case is typically illustrative of the two con- 
 ditions to which I have referred as common to 
 these anomalous changes — destructive and re- 
 parative ; the first of these in this case is obscured 
 by the excess of the latter. I venture to submit 
 that the lesser in appearance was the real diseased 
 state, set up by artificial measures badly applied, 
 and that the additions represent Nature's pro- 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSEs' FEET. 213 
 
 visions of palliation, following as the necessary 
 sequels. 
 
 Figure 33 represents the last six bones of a 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 near fore-foot, and is another typical illustration 
 of the waste and increase of substance, mostly of 
 
214 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 bone. These phenomena, so marvellous in their 
 character, are more common to horses under 
 adverse influences than to any other race of 
 animals. But this figure, and the succeeding one, 
 show still further Nature's provision ; the elonga- 
 tions of bone, transformation of cartilages and 
 ligaments into bone, and the substance of one 
 uniting with that of the other, to give strength, 
 are brought about by the dragging of the peri- 
 osteum. That which modern surgery has accom- 
 plished by transposing the membrane of bone 
 from one position over another, is done in the 
 case of the horse by the dragging leverage of 
 shaft bones upon pliable intermediate structures, 
 having their fixed points upon the surface of 
 bones below, which constitutes their base of 
 action, and that failing, a new order of repara- 
 tive construction ensues. 
 
 Atrophy in most instances escapes notice, or 
 from lack of knowledge is alluded to under the 
 vague phrase of "Contraction of the foot." Then 
 occur swellings, which are tortured with assumed 
 remedies ; that is beginning at the wrong end, and 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 215 
 
 iu the wrono' manner to effect a cure or afford 
 relief. No other animal is subject to the natural 
 compensating order of effects referred to, because 
 no other race of animals is equally exposed to the 
 causes to which these effects are due. The horse 
 never refuses to serve ; so that, while his limbs are 
 placed mechanically under painful disadvantages, 
 his powers are taxed beyond estimate or consider- 
 ation. The Figure 33 was taken from one of the 
 two fore-feet, both of which were affected with 
 corns. The hoofs were reduced so as to be inca- 
 pable of performing their office ; and while the 
 drawing-knife was doing its scooping work, 
 nature's fence of bone was closing the breach. 
 Leather soles and bar-shoes hid the bottom of the 
 mangled feet. 
 
 Fig. 34. — The pathological conditions repre- 
 sented by this engraving, which includes the 
 bones of the foot corresponding to the last referred 
 to — excepting the navicular bone — offer much 
 in common with the last for contemplative in- 
 struction. All that has been said about the 
 urgent causes which induced such extensive sub- 
 
216 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 stitutions of bone for ligaments and cartilages, the 
 augmentations and complete anchylosis of joints, 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 applies to this case. The history of both subjects 
 is alike unknown ; the specimens were obtained at 
 the place of slaughter to which the lame horses 
 were taken at Edinburgh, and the dissections and 
 observations were carefully carried on by me, and 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 217 
 
 much time was devoted to the work. The cause 
 and origin of the disease in this instance differed 
 from those of the former, and so, in the sequence 
 and termination, obvious differences in external 
 appearances and conditions were observable. 
 
 The original and essential seat of disease in 
 the case represented by Fig. 34 was caries of the 
 pyramidal process of the coffin-bone, which the 
 drawing admirably shows; the foot represented is 
 the near one, and an enlargement and deep 
 excavation of the bone is seen in the lateral 
 aspect of that projection. The disease had been 
 of very long standing, as all the changes the foot 
 had undergone testify. The front of the lower 
 surface of the coffin-bone, upon which alone the 
 limb rested, had become absorbed, the object 
 being to constitute a sti'aight column, since the 
 parts were incapable of performing any of the 
 motive functions of the healthy foot, for leverage 
 effect. The hoof necessarily took the vertical line 
 of form with the whole region — the heels were 
 deep. All bearing was conveyed to the point, 
 at which part the shoe was worn, proving that 
 
218 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 the animal had been worked to the last in the 
 state in which the foot was found after death, 
 there being no signs of recent change in the case, 
 nor any means of relief having been resorted to. 
 
 Fig. 35 represents the four last bones of the 
 off hind-foot, and the mutilated fragment of hoof 
 that remained when the animal died. I obtained 
 the limb at the tan-yard for the j)urpose of dis- 
 secting it. 
 
 The engraving, or even the inspection of the 
 dried specimen from which the drawing was 
 taken, can only convey a faint notion of what the 
 deplorable case was, as seen in the dying stage of 
 the victim. The inner quarter of the hoof, wall, 
 sole, and frog, were cut away by the drawing- 
 knife, and the cartilages, ligaments, and all the 
 contiguous soft structures, were in a state of par- 
 tial mortification and extensive ulceration, which 
 state had penetrated to the three lower bones, as 
 may be seen by the rough line on the coffin-bone, 
 the inner transverse extremity of the navicular 
 bone, and thirdly, above that, on the surface of 
 the short pastern bone. Instruments and corro- 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 219 
 
 sive applications were the destructive agents which 
 had produced all the effects observed. The his- 
 tory of the case was made out, in so far as the 
 
 ¥m. 35. 
 
 last twenty days of the horse's agonised existence 
 were known, but nothing as to the first stage of 
 it ; most probably it was a wound, by a nail in 
 
220 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OP THE 
 
 shoeing, or otherwise inflicted — a simple matter 
 in itself, and curable in a painless and ready 
 manner ; but, under the circumstances, death 
 became inevitable, and was merciful. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 This representation, in some of its phases, is 
 a repetition of the last — for the deplorable bar- 
 barity practised, of which it affords the most con- 
 clusive evidence. 
 
 The specimens from which the drawing was 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES* FEET. 221 
 
 taken, the lioof and navicular bone, are those of 
 the fore-foot of a fine mare— apparently thorough- 
 bred, which I was in the habit of seeing with 
 mingled feelings of pity and admiration of her 
 form, as she worked a cab in Edinburgh seven 
 years ago. The navicular bone, as is plainly 
 shown, was extensively wasted and ulcerated. 
 The mare, long before her death, which, like that 
 of the previous case, was caused by the torture 
 she endured, had been the victim of inveterate 
 chronic lameness, which could have been readily 
 relieved, but progressively advanced from bad to 
 worse. Reduction of the hoof by cutting in- 
 duced absorption of the lower surface of the 
 coffin-bone and also that of the navicular bone — 
 until, as in the previous case, the knife repeatedly 
 employed destroyed the hoof first, then the car- 
 tilage, and, lastly, reached to the navicular bone 
 and the joint — the latter injury proving fatal to 
 life. 
 
 The following case of compound fractures of 
 the coronary and navicular bones of both the fore- 
 feet of a mare, which occurred at Edinburgh eight 
 
222 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 years ago, and which came under my observation, 
 is of SO extraordinary a character that some as- 
 surance seems necessary to l)e given in order that 
 readers may peruse this narrative as strictly 
 within the boundary of facts, and not one en- 
 larged upon for sensational objects. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 37 represents the dissected parts of one 
 of the feet, drawn from the dried preparation. The 
 subject was an aged — probably ten years old — 
 mare, the property, at the time of the occurrence of 
 the casualty, of a cab proprietor, who had owned her 
 for nearly a year. The prior history of the animal 
 is unknoAvn, beyond that she was sold to the last 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HOESES' FEET. 223 
 
 owner by a dealer for a small sum, had the 
 appearance of a worn-out huntress, and was l)e- 
 lieved to have l^een brought from Ireland. 
 
 On a winter evenino- the owner sent a cab 
 with a message requesting my attendance on the 
 mare, and on being driven to the north end of 
 Frederick Street, into Queen Street, I found the 
 mare, standing by a lamp-post, released from a 
 cab she had been drawing, and which stood close 
 by. I had been prepared to find some unusual 
 occmTence by the messenger, who stated that a 
 mare had " cast her hoof." But I discovered that 
 the mare was standing not upon her foot, luit 
 the lower end of the pastern bone — the coronary 
 and navicular bones being crushed to innumerable 
 fragments ; the soft structures were lacerated, and 
 the skin was worn away, so that the end of the 
 bone was exposed to contact with the rough road. 
 One of the feet only, the near, presented the above 
 appearance ; with the other a fair standing was 
 maintained. This part of my investigation over, 
 the animal was put out of her painful state, and 
 the carcass carried to a yard to be further inves- 
 
224 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 tigated next morning. Meanwhile inquiry was 
 made into the whole matter and occurrence, and, 
 strange to say, scarcely anything could be learned 
 of a positive kind from the man who had driven 
 the mare all day until the casualty was noticed, 
 when he was hailed and stopped where I found 
 him. It was from the bystanders that I obtained 
 most information. The spot was at the cab-stand. 
 West Queen Street, where many cabmen were 
 waiting ; and their attention was drawn to the 
 incident by the noise made by the mare's foot, with 
 the shoe attached, dangling on the pavement as 
 she was trotted along Queen Street, in the direc- 
 tion from west to east. On being hailed, the 
 driver pulled up, and on descending saw the state 
 of the animal he had driven from Eandolph Place, 
 distant half-a-mile, and I believe that the whole 
 of that distance had been traversed with the 
 mare's foot in the condition in which it was seen 
 when her course was stopped. All the further 
 information that the driver could give was, that 
 he " found the mare move queerly off the stand 
 when the last fare engaged him, and that she 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 225 
 
 had stumbled once or twice in the course of that 
 afternoon, while on service." 
 
 On removal of both fore-limbs, and proceeding 
 to examine the feet, it was found that the corre- 
 sponding bones of both were fractured, identically, 
 and similarly in extent, the only difference being 
 the displacement, which had only occurred in one ; 
 the surrounding soft parts had not so far given 
 way in the off-foot as to lead to the displacement 
 of the fragments. 
 
 The engraving at page 222 shows the position 
 of the foot as the mare was standing ; the hoof, 
 with its contents, and shoe attached, was turned 
 up before the limb-stump, and the pastern bone, in 
 an obHque position from above downwards, was 
 bearing with its front part on the ground ; it is 
 much worn, like the end of a walking-stick, by the 
 distance traversed. I believe that extirpation of 
 the nerves had been practised in that mare's feet, 
 but was unable positively to declare it, owing to 
 the mutilated state of the structures before death. 
 
 The two following figures are engravings of 
 one preparation, taken in different aspects ; it 
 
22G 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 represents one of the fore-feet of a strong but 
 under-sized cart mare. The condition of the feet 
 showed that she had been long lame, and it was 
 stated that the animal had passed the latter months 
 of her existence in a straw-yard, being quite unfit 
 for rendering any service. She was taken to an 
 Edinburgh tan-yard to be destroyed, and I availed 
 myself of the opportunity, and removed both the 
 fore-limbs for dissection. Both feet were in pre- 
 cisely the same state of disease and form. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Figure 38 shows the state of the luwer surface 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 227 
 
 of the coffin-bone ; the convex form of the plantar 
 surface of that bone had, as is always the case, its 
 counterpart in the form of the hoof, the sole of 
 which was paumace — after a French expression — 
 literally apple-shaped, or round instead of concave 
 and arched. But the typical character of those 
 coffin-bones, as represented by the single specimen, 
 is that of both beino- fractured in a transverse 
 
 O 
 
 direction across the bottom of the bone, at an inch 
 from the point. 
 
 Fif(. .38 b. 
 
 Figure 38 6 shows the foot, drawn as it was 
 placed upon a table, and will help in this descrip- 
 tion the comprehension of the state of the case. 
 The point of the bone is turned up. The bone. 
 
228 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 which had become shallow and weak, at length, 
 under the weight and exertion of the animal, gave 
 way at the part indicated, i.e. it fractm-ed, but 
 was held together by the network of fibrous tex- 
 ture which laces and invests the bone. The lesion 
 may be regarded as a partial fracture, associated 
 with a bending upwards of the loosened end 
 of the bone, held in proximity chiefly by the 
 fibrous tissues, but supported also by the hoof, 
 which, though thinned and weak, took the form of 
 the broken bone, and was bent upwards in front. 
 The other foot I prepared, differently from that 
 used for these engravings, by sawing longitudinally 
 through the hoof and the included parts while 
 fresh ; these together are remarkable specimens. 
 
 Figure 39 represents another form of fracture 
 of a cofiin-bone, but though differing in its appear- 
 ance, and place of the occurrence of fracture, from 
 the case previously described, the two help to 
 elucidate each other as to the cause and mode 
 of occurrence. As shown by the engraving, this 
 bone was flattened down by absorption until it 
 became so attenuated as to be unequal in sub- 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 229 
 
 stance and strength to bear the burden imposed, 
 and it therefore gave way under it. It will be 
 observed that the bone broke where, from greatest 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 pressure and absorption, it had become weakest, 
 and, as in the former case, it broke where the greatest 
 strain of lever action was brought to bear upon it. 
 To explain, I must state that the coffin-bone is one 
 of the most energetic levers in the whole system 
 of animal-construction, in the line of its long axis 
 
230 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 from heel to point. The fracture of the bone, re- 
 presented by Figure 38, happened near to the point 
 of the lever, while being raised, under weight from 
 behind, upon the point. In the case under con- 
 sideration the bone had become weakest on its 
 inner half, precisely at the centre line of the foot, 
 so depressed by its thinness that the foot tilted 
 inwardly, and gave way immediately beneath the 
 pivot, the mid-line of the coronary bone ; this was 
 also the fulcrum of the lever, the front of the 
 bone being its point of resistance. As in the 
 former case, the raising of the foot from a plane 
 towards a vertical line fractured the correspond- 
 ing bone in the two cases in different positions, 
 but through the same causes — weakened hoof, and 
 the other adverse conditions which led to atrophy 
 of the bones. 
 
 Figure 40 is a representation of a fractured 
 navicular bone, a casualty of more frequent occur- 
 rence to horses in this country than is commonly 
 known, but which has scarcely been noticed. 
 Fractures of this kind are entirely effects due to 
 long-protracted adverse conditions of the feet, such 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HOESES' FEET. 231 
 
 as have been akeady dwelt upou. I have never 
 met with a case of fracture of either coffin or navi- 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 cular bone where previous long-prevailing diseased 
 action of the foot was not manifest. 
 
 In the instance represented above, the reader 
 may see that the bone was extensively ulcerated 
 and excavated like a decayed tooth, and at last 
 the fracture occurred in two lines diverging from 
 the excavated centre to the anterior margin of 
 the bone, where it is connected to the coffin-bone. 
 But I must request the learner to go back with 
 
232 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 me to see the order and sequence of occurrence : 
 the excavation of the navicular bone is a secondary 
 occurrence, an effect due to preceding and con- 
 tinuous deviations from health. 
 
 The coffin-bone in Fig. 40 is wasted down to 
 about two-thirds of its natural depth and sub- 
 stance. Its semi-lunar crest is gone ; there is no 
 sufficient concavity behind the plantar surface of 
 the coffin-bones ; tendons and other strong bands, 
 requiring strong bony points for attachment, lack 
 such hold, and the space between the navicular 
 bone and the tendon upon which it glides is dimi- 
 nished ; the joint-capsule lacks space, all the func- 
 tions are deranged, and the navicular bone, if in 
 normal condition, would be too big for the lessened 
 space ; it becomes flattened, its substance is 
 diminished, and is so much weakened, that at 
 length it breaks down under less than ordinary 
 exertion. 
 
 Fig. 41 represents another case of fractured 
 navicular bone, in which all the complications are 
 still more manifestly extensive than in the last. 
 The foot that supplied this specimen was obtained 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 233 
 
 after the horse was slaughtered, and nothing was 
 learned of the history of the case. 
 
 The fractures in both cases had occurred long 
 before the horses were destroyed, and there was 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 ample evidence to my mind that the horses had 
 been made to work almost as long as they lived, 
 judging, as I did, by the appearance of the feet and 
 shoes, and by the pathological conditions revealed 
 by dissection. It may seem to some that there is 
 
234 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 not much to be learned from seeing these dried 
 bones ! still less from engravings from them ! All 
 depends upon what kind and extent of research 
 may follow from the promptings of such inci- 
 dents : and I cannot refrain from stating, that all 
 that is presented to the view, though it be as 
 much as could be saved, is insignificant, compared 
 to what the explorer sees in the researches and 
 dissection. Much more is removed than can be 
 left, and each layer of structures unfolds its own 
 tale. 
 
 All the subjects which supplied the speci- 
 mens illustrated were selected on account of 
 indications which led me to investigate them. 
 
 When I first saw this animal after death my 
 whole mind was absorbed in the case, and it 
 would have been of no use if I had only detached 
 the foot, strictly so called, for examination. When 
 trying to make out anything natural or unnatural 
 about the foot, I always take a great part of the 
 limb, so as to include the whole carpal region ; 
 and if a hind limb, then of the tarsal region. 
 In this instance I divided the radius a little above 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSEs' FEET. 235 
 
 the knee. I had perceived, in the condition of the 
 leg, a rigidity induced by thickness and hardness 
 of all the flexing apparatus of the foot, especially 
 from the fetlock -joint to the knee ; the hack- 
 sinews- were as thick as the fore-arm of a man, and 
 to the touch felt hard like a cable. I shall refrain 
 from entering into a detailed description of the 
 condition of these parts, my object being now 
 plainly to show how one may be drawn ofi" the 
 scent, and led to mistake an after-efi'ect for the 
 original state of the case — an effect for a cause. 
 I knew that the massive hard bands were but 
 symptoms of serious conditions below ; that it was 
 a coiling of these bands, with the design of short- 
 ening their track, by which the range of bones 
 could be held firm, and in a vertical line. With 
 such notions I proceeded to dissect the limb, firstly 
 by disarticulation at the pastern joint, and plac- 
 ing the foot in the maceration-tub for six weeks ; 
 meanwhile I dissected the parts above, confirming 
 my views of the conditions, and greatly extend- 
 ing my knowledge. In due time the hoof becom- 
 ing detached, I dissected the foot, with the re- 
 
236 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 suit shown in Figure 41. All practitioners, and 
 horsemen of much experience, will have noticed 
 that when horses begin to get uneasy on their 
 fore-limbs and unsafe in action — in other words, 
 when permanent lameness is threatening — a com- 
 monly prevalent characteristic anomaly is a tight- 
 ness of the sinews just behind and below the 
 knee. Attention is usually fixed on that part, 
 and all the rest overlooked. Very early in my 
 career I noticed these conditions, and doubted in 
 my own mind the conclusion that a sprain had hap- 
 pened locally, to account for what was observed. 
 It was long, however, before I arrived at any 
 exact knowledge on the matter, or succeeded in 
 doing anything beyond following the ordinary 
 injurious and useless practice. But it was a good 
 beginning to get rid of all mischievous interfer- 
 ence. I next made out that the state of the limb 
 was in some way caused by that of the feet — by 
 the shoeing ; for it never appeared in unshod horses 
 if ever so severely exerted. Having determined 
 that I had a foot-derangement to deal with, I 
 then succeeded in curing cases ; my remedy con- 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 237 
 
 sisting in taking off the shoes, and taking measures 
 for strengthening the hoofs. Nor did I find it 
 necessary to keep the horses at rest, though it is 
 not often practicable to find work that horses can 
 do, and a ground surface congenial to their going 
 barefooted. But when the mind is awakened, 
 and intent on the furtherance of an object, op- 
 portunities are made; and so it happened with 
 me. I was in practice at Florence in those 
 years, in a climate favourable for making some 
 such trials as I aimed at prosecuting; I had 
 the advantage of observing customs in other 
 localities. I saw horses trained without shoes 
 able to hold their own with those more system- 
 atically brought out on our plan, and per- 
 ceived that their legs stood sound. So far I had 
 achieved little more than negative results for all 
 practical purposes, because a plan that prescribes 
 that horses must go barefooted does not accom- 
 plish any of the requirements of the art of 
 farriery. The next stage in the inquiry was, to de- 
 termine the relative effects between good and bad 
 shoeing, and in what these respectively consisted. 
 
238 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 That I was able to do, though it was a work of 
 much cost, labour, and years of time. 
 
 Figure 42 is a representation of the cofifin and 
 navicular bones of one of the fore-feet of a horse 
 similarly affected in both ; with the difference 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fis. 42. 
 
 in the one represented that a compound fracture 
 of the navicular bone had occurred, as is plainly 
 exhibited. Firm reunion of the fragments was 
 completed before the horse was destroyed. 
 
 The subject Avas an aged grey, latterly white, 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 239 
 
 gelding, in his time well kno^Yn to horsemen of 
 Edinburgh as an exceptionally good horse — fast- 
 goer in the field and on the road. 
 
 In 1861 the pupils of the New Veterinary 
 College bought the poor horse, in d miserable 
 state of lameness, as a subject to dissect. One of 
 the complications, which was a source of incon- 
 ceivable agony, was a quittor. As it appeared that 
 relief might soon be afforded, and the case made 
 very instructive, the subject was taken up for treat 
 ment, with the most satisfactory result. Eelief from 
 pain was soon attained; and restoration ensued, and 
 progressed as rapidly as such complication admits 
 of. It was subsequently ascertained that the horse 
 had been unnerved two or three years previously, 
 had been for years lame, and for some time had 
 worked in a cab. The recovery of the horse hav- 
 ing been advanced, so that he was capable, under 
 special care, of rendering some service, the ques- 
 tion arose what should be done with him. We 
 had no requirement for such services as might 
 have been rendered on a farm, and it was resolved 
 not to part with him ; the only alternative was 
 
240 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 taken of putting an end to his life, and finally of 
 making the best possible use of the case for future 
 instruction. 
 
 Dissection of the feet revealed more than we 
 had made out during the life of the animal ; the 
 fractured bone was not predicted, nor was it pos- 
 sible, beyond guessing, that it could have been, 
 amidst the mass of chang^e and destruction of 
 parts ; but in the sequel it has been of inesti- 
 mable value as a pathological specimen, unique — 
 as far as I have seen — in character. I have seen 
 no other instance, nor do collections contain one, 
 of a navicular bone, as the sequel to inveterate 
 degeneracy, being broken into so many fragments, 
 and then uniting so completely, the foot reudered 
 painless, and the horse becoming, to a possible 
 degree, useful. 
 
 Fig. 43 represents another complicated case in 
 which extensive disease and wasting of the coffin- 
 bone was followed by fracture of the navicular 
 bone. The subject, a grey cart-horse, was taken 
 to the New Veterinary College in 1864, when ex- 
 cessively lame, and left there for treatment. At 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 241 
 
 the time no opinion was pronounced on the case, 
 — the horse had been under treatment. 
 
 The foot was mangled, and shod with a bar- 
 shoe and intervening leather sole, all combining 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 to augment and perpetuate the painful condi- 
 tion of the animal. The limb of the afflicted 
 foot was kept as much as possible flexed, obvi- 
 ously so at the knee, and the foot reposed upon 
 the front of the hoof— not the natural bearing-sur- 
 face, but the anterior surface of the wall — tilted 
 
 R 
 
242 DESCHIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 over. The knee was swollen to twice its natural 
 size. 
 
 After the lapse of a few days, with persistence 
 of pain and all the urgent symptoms unabated, 
 the parties who left the horse were advised that 
 an unfavourable issue of the case was prognosti- 
 cated. I had formed the opinion that either the 
 coffin or navicular bone was fractured, while 
 nothing could be made out to enable one to 
 determine the fact positively. Difficulty was 
 encountered in discovering the real owner of the 
 horse, and it was not until twenty-nine days had 
 elapsed that consent was obtained to have it 
 destroyed. Time and care being taken for the 
 maceration of the parts, so that dissection could 
 be proceeded with, the ultimate revelations were 
 the state of the two bones represented. The case 
 is remarkable, for the presence of at least one 
 phenomenon I have in no other instance met 
 with, that is, fracture of the navicular bone with- 
 out the appearance of any antecedent excavation 
 of its substance by ulceration. There were other 
 more remarkable appearances, but which could 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 243 
 
 not be kept for exhibition, and could only be ob- 
 served by the eye and touch of the dissector ; the 
 fractured bone was held together by its investing 
 ligamentous textures, and I could feel the bone 
 yield at the broken part, under pressure of the 
 thumb, while the line of fracture was scarcely to be 
 seen. Neither was there any blush of marginal 
 redness to indicate the commencement of repara- 
 tory vascular action. But, although that navicu- 
 lar bone is exceptional among my morbid speci- 
 mens of the kind, in regard to the absence of 
 obvious excavation, I am not prepared to testify 
 to its being in a normal state ; on the contrary, 
 I suspect — for no analysis of the bone, still in my 
 possession, has been performed — that its constitu- 
 tion was defective, and that the bone was destitute 
 of natural strength. The wasted, deformed, and 
 weakened state of the coffin-bone is extraordinary, 
 and quite accords with all my experience, gained 
 by these investigations, that such casualties of the 
 navicular bone are secondary, and due to the par- 
 tial destruction of both substance and functions of 
 the coffin-bone. 
 
244 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 Figure 44 illustrates a typical case of ad- 
 vanced navicular disease, apart from the com- 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 plications which commonly ensue as additional 
 consequences. 
 
 The never absent accompanying phenomenon, 
 atrophy of the coflSn-bone, is, however, well 
 marked in this case. In the navicular bone it- 
 self, two openings into chambered cavities of the 
 bone are seen about the middle of the hindmost and 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 245 
 
 lower surface, and an oblong excavation is ob- 
 servable on the lower inner margin of the bone. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 The above figure represents a case of navi- 
 cular disease, not essentially different in character 
 from that last described ; only that this was a 
 worse case, with more complications and exten- 
 sive ulceration. I adduce it, not to show the 
 little difference, or to produce a duplicate, but 
 because the case has a history worth relating. 
 
246 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 The subject was a grey mare of higli courage 
 and breeding, belonging to Mr, James Stewart, cab- 
 proprietor at Edinburgh. The mare had been, for 
 an unascertained length of time, lame of both fore- 
 feet, when she was bought for a trifle by Mr. 
 Stewart, who thereupon took her to the New 
 Veterinary College shoeing-forge, to get her shod. 
 This happened in the autumn 1858. I had 
 charge of the shoeing ; that is, did the chief part 
 of the work in this as in similar cases — prepared 
 the feet and fitted the shoes. Mr. Stewart, being 
 then a beginner in business, and driving the 
 mare himself, procured abundance of w^ork, so 
 that in the space of seventeen days she wore out 
 a strong set of shoes, and was brought back to 
 the forge to be re-shod, which was done as before. 
 At the expiration of about the same number of 
 days as before, the mare was brought to be shod 
 again for the third time ; and this time the intel- 
 ligent owner was elated at the way his mare 
 was going, and at the manifest improvement that 
 had taken place, notwithstanding the inordinate 
 amount of work the animal was doing, in drawing 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 247 
 
 a four-wheeled carriage over the hilly streets of 
 Edinburgh. I may state that the progressive 
 improvement in the action of the mare went on 
 up to recovery to the extent of complete free- 
 dom from lameness. There was no delay in the 
 effect following the cause, or rather, inversely, of 
 effects ceasing when the causes that produced and 
 kept them up were removed. The result was so 
 much the more gratifying to the owner of the 
 mare and all concerned, from the fact that she 
 proved to be one of the best animals of her 
 class in Edinburgh, and continued to work unin- 
 terruptedly for three years, thereby helping in 
 no small degree to give the worthy owner a start 
 in business. 
 
 I shall not dwell on the termination of the 
 mare's career, beyond stating, that during the 
 severe frost in 1862 she encountered an accident 
 by falling on the frozen snow which encumbered 
 the streets of Edinburgh that winter. One of the 
 bones of the knee, the os magnum, was frac- 
 tured transversely through its narrow axis, and 
 the animal was consequently destroyed. 
 
248 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 On dissecting both the fore-feet, it was found 
 that their condition was nearly the same ; the 
 degree of ulceration of the navicular bone, and 
 diminution, with subsequent incrustation of the 
 coffin-bone, was a little in excess in the specimen 
 from which the illustration was drawn. But most 
 remarkable and instructive of all was the ob- 
 viously improved state of those ulcerated bones 
 that had taken place. As was seen by the mare's 
 action, her feet revolved, if not fully, at least 
 fairly upon the ground — and that was quite 
 manifest by the appearance of the joints. The 
 cartilage lining the navicular bone, less the 
 breaches on the surface, was smooth and white, 
 and the synovial capsule healthy, and in full 
 secreting function. In fact, the joint was amply 
 lubricated and free. 
 
 In anticipation of reasonable inquiries as to 
 how the good result was brought about in this 
 case, I answer. By shoeing. What principle or 
 mode of shoeing ? Rational method, elaborated 
 after long individual experience, founded on ob- 
 servation, and on the experience of able men of 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HOESES' FEET. 249 
 
 all times and countries— in otlier words, by means 
 which are only acquired by application of mind 
 and hands for years to the art. I used no differ- 
 ently made shoe for that mare from those I use for 
 other horses of her class doing the same work — 
 viz. shoes with calkins adapted to the pavement 
 and hills of Edinburgh ; nor was there anything 
 special in the way I fitted her shoes ; they were 
 adapted to the motion and requirement of the 
 feet in the mare's particular case, according to 
 the principles inculcated in this work. No other 
 agencies were used beyond the ordinary measures 
 I recommend for the feet of all horses, to be here- 
 after noticed. 
 
 The two following and the last figures of the 
 series are representations of the different struc- 
 tures of the same foot ; a section of the hoof, and 
 the coffin and navicular bones of the off fore-foot 
 of a horse, whose case I am about to describe by 
 the help of these illustrations. 
 
 The subject was a five-year-old Clydesdale 
 stallion, for which a nobleman in the west of Scot- 
 land paid £300, and at whose instance, not many 
 
250 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 months after the purchase, I Avas called to attend 
 the animal, not, however, until too late for my ser- 
 vices to be of any avail. The horse died a few hours 
 before I reached the place where he was, in Ayr- 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 shire. With the splendid carcass lying extended 
 before me, I made inquiries into the history of the 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET, 251 
 
 case, and after receiving the necessary replies for 
 my purpose, and obtaining permission to bring 
 away the feet of the animal, I removed them and 
 returned with them to Edinburgh. The disease 
 from which the horse had suffered was inflamma- 
 tion of the feet, and death ensued through long- 
 continued irritant fever, ending in a blood-con- 
 taminated system. 
 
 Figure 46 is that of the inner half of the hoof 
 of the off fore-foot ; the section, made longitudi- 
 nally, passes through the middle of the frog, sole, 
 and wall. The bulging down of the sole and its 
 thin state are apparent ; the white spot represents 
 an opening through which an excrescence of the 
 inflamed texture protruded. 
 
 Figure 46 6 represents the coffin and navicular 
 bones, upon the latter of which no further remarks 
 are necessary than to state that that bone was 
 found in perfect health. But to the coffin-bone 
 and hoof together I must devote myself, with the 
 view to make intelligible what I have to state. 
 
 I must premise my description of the case by 
 stating that all four of this horse's feet were alike 
 
252 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 affected, and almost in the same degree — the 
 ravages sustained by the two fore-feet somewhat 
 preponderating. My information obtained on the 
 
 A \\\ 
 
 Fig. 46 b. 
 
 origin of the disease recompensed the journey to 
 Ayrshire ; I learned that one hind-foot was first 
 affected ; a fissure appeared in the front of the 
 hoof, always a painful affection until the cause is 
 removed, and a cure effected. Lame of one hind- 
 foot, and all the hoofs in a weak state, inflamma- 
 tion set up in the other hind and over-burdened 
 one ; then reaction, with inflammation of the other 
 hind-foot, and first one fore-foot and then the other 
 became affected : the result was that the ani- 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HORSES' FEET. 253 
 
 mal was doomed to lie suffering, because he had 
 uot a foot that he coukl stand upon. All this 
 was endured for several weeks before the horse 
 succumbed. 
 
 Keference again to Figure 46 6 shows the flat- 
 tened lower portion of the coffin-bone, and in some 
 measure the extent to which it became reduced ; 
 not, as in chronic cases, slowly, but rapidly — all in 
 the space of a few weeks ; the drawing taken of the 
 one must be regarded as representing the state of 
 the coffin-bones and the hoofs of all four feet. 
 
 I devoted several months, at intervals, to the 
 dissection and study of three out of the four feet, 
 the two fore and the hind one first afiected ; and I 
 never investigated such a case before. The ravages 
 that disease had made were entirely confined to 
 the lower surface of the coffin-bone. I wish parti- 
 cularly to place this fact on record, for reasons 
 that will hereafter appear. Beneath the bottom 
 of the coffin-bones and the thin mutilated soles of 
 the hoofs was deposited a dense layer of lymph, 
 about one-eighth of an inch thick, and in which 
 were innumerable particles of bony deposit, im- 
 
254 DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 parting a feeling as if sand had been sprinkled 
 over the inner surface of the hoof. Such had 
 been the rapid destruction, partly by absorption 
 and partly by casting off of useless matter. 
 
 As to the treatment to which the horse had 
 been subjected I have little to say. I saw that 
 the current orthodox teaching had been complied 
 with, in the form of cutting away of hoof, and 
 soaking the feet with moisture ; every one in 
 attendance had doubtless done his best accord- 
 ing to his intelligence, and was to be pitied rather 
 than blamed for want of the right kind of know- 
 ledge of the pathological conditions. 
 
 The specimens of disease, illustrated and 
 briefly described in this section, offer material for 
 much more lengthy comment. My purpose in pub- 
 lishing these is to prove the fundamental fact that 
 lameness is a consequence of destructive causes, is 
 associated with changes of structure in the foot, 
 and that it is only by a patient and thorough in- 
 quiry into these anatomical changes, that what I 
 may be allowed to call the natural history of 
 lameness can be understood, its causes prevented, 
 
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF HOESES' FEET. 255 
 
 and the proper remedial measures based on well- 
 defined knowledge applied. Tliis is a line of 
 inquiry which I particularly commend to mem- 
 bers of the veterinary profession, many, if not 
 the majority, of whom, have grown up in the 
 habit of looking upon the hoof merely as the 
 investing termination of the limb, and not taking 
 cognisance of the whole digit as a complex or- 
 ganic structure, to understand which, in health 
 and disease, dissection of a large number of speci- 
 mens is indispensable. 
 
IV. 
 
 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 The matters referred to in this section, while 
 related to each other as injuries or diseases of the 
 horse's foot, and as special causes of lameness, are 
 otherwise dissimilar, and are only grouped together 
 for practical convenience, without attempt at 
 scientific arrangement. The prick of a nail, a 
 sand-crack, a quittor, and a so-called thrush, are 
 different conditions, of very variable degrees of 
 importance, but equally deserving careful atten- 
 tion. I do not pretend that this section embraces 
 all the special causes of lameness, but those which 
 are of most frequent occurrence ; neither do I 
 aim at discussing the merits of the many .plans of 
 treatment advocated by contradictory authorities; 
 the remedial measures advised are such only as I 
 have found beneficial after long experience. 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 257 
 
 : Wounds of the Feet by Nails and other 
 Penetrating Bodies. 
 
 Occasional casualties of the above description 
 happen in the act of nailing on shoes. These 
 accidents are of three kinds— ^7'stly, pricking, with 
 knowledge on the part of the driver of what has 
 happened; seco^ic^Z?/, rucking of the nail — i.e. when 
 the point has reached the outer hard layer of horn, 
 the shank of the nail bends under the next stroke 
 of the hammer, and presses, in its doubled form, 
 inward ; the third mode of occurrence is by bind- 
 ing — i.e. when the nail is driven so close to the 
 quick as to do injury, more or less immediately, 
 though the quick be not actually wounded by the 
 passage of the nail ; and therefore the risk is run 
 of a horse leaving the forge without any one 
 being conscious of the state. The liability to 
 occurrence of the last of these casualties is almost 
 entirely -excluded by a proper system of shoeing 
 — strong hoofs well done by, and shoes rightly 
 fitted. The first two belong to the class of acci- 
 dents that cannot be altogether provided against. 
 
258 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 The first rarely leads to any bad result, and calls 
 for no notice. The nail is drawn back instantly, 
 and no other nail put in the same hole of the 
 shoe. The second — rucking — sometimes causes 
 trouble to the shoer, by the shank of the nail 
 breaking while the attempt is made to draw it 
 back, in which case the shoe must be taken off, 
 and a little hoof must be cut away, by the hook 
 point of the drawing-knife held obliquely or 
 vertically, sufficient to expose the fragment of nail 
 so as to be able to get hold of it with a pair of 
 pliers and to extract it, when nothing more follows. 
 Nothing happens from a nail being driven too 
 near the quick, provided it be noticed as an acci- 
 dent, and not be a part of a series of faults in the 
 shoeing, when it often happens that not one only, 
 but several of the nails do injury; the accidental 
 one is detected, and withdrawn by pincers in 
 good time. I cannot too strongly caution all to 
 whom working farriers are made subordinate, 
 against using strong words of censm^e to men 
 in whose hands any of these accidents happen ; 
 the intolerant manner in which the accidents are 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 259 
 
 regarded, as faults almost equal to crimes, tends 
 to produce secrecy and neglect, instead of open 
 acknowledgment and timely adoption of means of 
 precaution. No men know so well as farriers 
 whether a nail has taken its right course, or if not, 
 the extent of deviation from it ; and no one can 
 know so well as the particular farrier who is 
 engaged in driving the nails. Little or nothing 
 is to be done in those cases, when no complication 
 calls for special measures. A common practice 
 among farriers of cutting the hoof down along the 
 line of the nail or nails, should be peremptorily 
 prohibited. The cutting does incalculable harm, 
 though the nails may not have done much. The 
 custom is old, supported partly by ignorance, 
 partly through the eagerness of the shoer to show 
 that his nails have not passed into the quick; and 
 lastly, encouraged through a spirit of rivalry, 
 when the horse has been shod at another place, to 
 prove that the foot had been damaged. When 
 the foreign body - — the affecting nail — has been 
 withdrawn, the less the place is disturbed the 
 better. Exclusion of moisture and air are the 
 
260 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 requisites, and these are best fulfilled by using a 
 piece of the hoof-ointment described in a subse- 
 quent section of this work. The ointment is to be 
 laid upon the nail-holes at the bottom of the hoof, 
 while the foot is held up, and warmed by means 
 of an iron ; after which apply the shoe with care. 
 
 Overreaches, Treads, and Womids of the Coronet, 
 otherwise occurring. 
 
 An overreach is an injury to the bulbs of the 
 heel of one of the fore-feet, through being 
 violently struck by the toe of one of the hind-feet 
 in action. This happens to hunters galloping in 
 the field, almost exclusively. In other words, the 
 accident can only happen to horses in general 
 when they are doing what hunters do — galloping 
 and leaping, especially when the feet sink deep 
 into the ground, and the horses are unaccustomed 
 to the work, and weak ; or, in the opposite state, 
 when young or fractious, by placing their feet in 
 false positions. These injuries are never serious, 
 though with a large piece of the cuticle peeled off 
 from above downwards, the injury appears great. 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 261 
 
 Treads on the coronet happen mostly to draught 
 horses in towTis, owing to the hind-feet slip- 
 ping while being backed ; difficulties of weight, 
 etc., give rise to false positions of the feet, 
 and attempts at recovery lead to the infliction 
 of wounds more disastrous than the former, 
 because they occur upon the solid parts of the 
 foot, where, from the resistance, the wounds are 
 deeper and the structures implicated not so 
 susceptible of prompt reparation. 
 
 In all these cases the proper treatment to 
 pursue is the same ; firstly, not to do too much — 
 that is, not to cut the torn parts away. First 
 bathe the foot in a pail of warm water for a suffi- 
 cient length of time, to remove all dirt and foreign 
 matter, so as to be able to see exactly the extent of 
 injury. And then, as I have directed for another 
 case, bandage the coronet by using two flannel 
 bandages, first laying a pledget of tow, soft lint, 
 or chloralum wool over the part wounded. 
 Change the application every twelve hours for two 
 days, when the skin and horn detaches, and dead 
 will be distinguishable. A good disinfectant 
 
262 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 lotion may be used, and as the dead detachments 
 shrivel up, they may be clipped off. The hoof- 
 ointment becomes the best restorative in the 
 sequence. In cases of deep injuries by treads, 
 sloughing may take place, when the issue must 
 be waited for patiently. In such cases from 
 fifteen to twenty days may be requisite to restore 
 horses to a fit state for work. 
 
 Sand-crack and Fissure in the Front of the Hoof. 
 
 These conditions are both characterised by 
 the appearance of a fissure in the wall of the hoof, 
 running in the direction of its fibres ; yet they are 
 altogether different in their character ; causes, 
 position, and amenability to treatment consti- 
 tute the essential differences. Sand-cracks occur 
 in the fore-feet only, at the quarter, most com- 
 monly the inner ; but a sand-crack may happen 
 in either quarter, and appear in both at the same 
 time. Their situation is at an oblique line behind 
 the connection of the lateral cartilages with the 
 coffin-bone ; and it occasionally happens that two 
 fissures appear in the same quarter and heel of the 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 263 
 
 same foot. Many attempts have been made to 
 explain the cause of these affections ; the 
 name implies connection with the presence 
 of sand, either as the cause, with dryness ; 
 or because sand, dirt, or gravel, is apt to get 
 into old standing cracks of the hoof. But there 
 are two facts that may be relied on, that will serve 
 for starting-points in the inquiry — viz., unshod 
 horses never have sand-crack ; nor do they hap- 
 pen to well-formed strong feet — at least I have 
 never seen such occurrences; and what is still 
 more remarkable, though feet, which are natur- 
 ally perfect, may attain to extreme deformity and 
 complications of disease, sand-cracks are among 
 the most rare of the successive anomalies that hap- 
 pen to such feet. The fact is, it is the horses bred 
 on low flat ground, characterised by want of depth 
 in their feet and flatness of their bottoms — the 
 soles— which are liable to sand-crack. Horses 
 bred on marshy ground, or reared chiefly in stables, 
 pounded in small spaces, or staked by tents as some 
 of those we see come from the northern part of 
 Africa are, having thin hoofs and shallow coffin- 
 
264 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 bones, defects always found together, and which, 
 besides lacking substance, w^ant the arch form, with 
 the capacity and adaptation for the circulation of 
 the blood, — a most important functional require- 
 ment for which nature has been bountiful in her 
 provisions. But natural provisions did not con- 
 template all the artificial restraints to which horses 
 are subjected. The blood-pressure within, when 
 the horses are exerted, with the defective feet just 
 described, further deteriorated and held under 
 constraint by shoes, causes the wall to spht. 
 Sand-cracks always occur at the uppermost thin 
 margin of the wall ; at first the fissure appears 
 from one-half to an inch in length ; it never 
 closes, but always descends ; though under favour- 
 able conditions and care it may be stopped from 
 extending at any time. Much difference is found, 
 of course, in the degree of imperfection of feet 
 thus afiected, but it will be found in degree on]y. 
 Proper shoeing is everything, both for preven- 
 tion and cure of sand-crack ; but however mas- 
 terly the shoeing be done, the first step to be 
 taken for the cure should be to take the horse's 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 265 
 
 shoes off, and put liim into a loose space, with a 
 dry clean hard bottom, if paved the better ; and 
 let the feet be rubbed with the hoof-ointment 
 twice a week ; at the expiration of six weeks 
 the crack will be of its former length, more con- 
 spicuously gaping open, but descended with a firm 
 growth of continuous wall above it, and the feet 
 will have become greatly strengthened. No trans- 
 verse firing should be practised ; if it were, the 
 fired line would descend with the hoof by growth, 
 and people deceive themselves by seeing the livid 
 line at the bottom of the sound horn and at the 
 top of the crack, and the hot iron is credited with 
 cementing the breach. 
 
 Fissures in front of the hoof happen mostly to 
 draught horses and to hind-feet, but are occasion- 
 ally met with in fore-feet, and no class of horse is 
 exempt from the occurrence. The origin, cause, 
 and really bad features of these cases is disease of 
 the coflSn-bone. Often, most commonly I believe, 
 it is the upper anterior part of that bone that 
 is first affected. It was only by numerous dis- 
 sections of feet thus affected that any right con- 
 
266 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 elusion could have been arrived at, on these veiy 
 troublesome and partially incurable forms of foot- 
 disease. During thirty years of practice I attained 
 no knowledge worth consideration about these 
 feet with fissm^es in front ; all that was evident 
 was, that horses so affected were worked on in 
 miserable plight, with a foot bound up, and sub- 
 jected to innumerable operations, until they were at 
 length sent to the slaughter-house. I accordingly 
 betook myself to the tan-yards, and bespoke all 
 the horses' feet with fissures in front that arrived 
 there ; the result was complete solution of the 
 matter — condition and character. During eight 
 years, from 1857, I dissected all the feet so 
 affected that came to hand. The front of the 
 coffin-bone was uniformly the seat of mischief; 
 caries of the pyramidal process was a common 
 phenomenon ; deep depression clown the front 
 w^as also frequent. 
 
 What have I gained by the time and labour 
 devoted to that investigation ? In the first place, 
 the material for this chapter ; I determined that 
 some of these cases are from the first appearance 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 267 
 
 of a kind to admit of hardly any relief, and that 
 it would be humane and consistent with economy 
 to destroy the subjects. Then I made out that the 
 majority of such cases do admit of palliation, and 
 of being restored, so as to render service at slow 
 work, without suffering. Lastly, that all experi- 
 mental operations are contra-indicated, and that 
 a conservative and restorative line of practice 
 should be pursued. 
 
 Shoeing, firstly. — As the fronts of these feet 
 are weak and deficient both in hoof and bone, care 
 must be taken of the former ; the bottom of the 
 foot must have nothing removed beyond loose 
 fragments of the frog. The hind part of the 
 foot must almost alone bear the weight ; there- 
 fore the posterior columns of the wall may be 
 rasped to a given line, and the front of the 
 hoof should be left rather long and deep ; the 
 shoe to have each parallel half of uniform power 
 and substance, and the heels turned down. Clips 
 to be taken up, one at- each side of the toe ; but 
 when the shoe is applied, the clips are neither to 
 be let into the wall nor rudely hammered up to 
 
268 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 it; the toe of the shoe affording sufficient rest, 
 the clips may be close, without giving constraint. 
 For the treatment of the fissure, take tar and 
 resin one ounce, and tallow a quarter of an ounce, 
 and melt together ; apply this while warm to the 
 fissure of the hoof and coronet, then place a layer 
 of tow over this dressing, and bind the wall of the 
 foot with a broad coarse tape, not too tightly, but 
 so as to support its position, and keep the parts 
 firm. Usefulness and ease of the horse is all that 
 can be looked for under the best management; 
 perfect cure should not be expected, as it can 
 but rarely be accomplished. 
 
 Tlirushes and Corns. 
 
 By thrush is understood a special morbid condi- 
 tion of the frog ; in the incipient stages the cleft 
 is affected only, and moisture issues from a 
 breach in the soft horn covering. The moist- 
 ure secreted has a peculiar pungent odour. 
 In more advanced stages the frog appears dis- 
 eased over most of its surface, is diminished in 
 bulk, and is incapable of forming sound horn ; 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 269 
 
 the fragments of detaching horn being in such 
 a state as to be pronounced rotten. 
 
 Treatment. — This must be regulated by consi- 
 derations of causes and their removal ; the com- 
 mon causes are long exposure to wet, decom- 
 posing dung, and defective shoeing. As cases 
 occur, these causes and conditions should be taken 
 note of, and after ascertaining which of them 
 predominates, attention must be given to their 
 removal. After attending to the shoeing, and 
 removal of detaching parts of horn, wash the feet 
 with an astringent disinfectant, of which T find 
 the best now to be chloralum,* in the proportion 
 of about eight ounces to a gallon and a half of 
 warm water in a stable pail ; let the feet be 
 thoroughly washed with a sponge, and, if neces- 
 sary, a water-brush used to cleanse them. After 
 
 * Chloralum, in the various forms and preparations in 
 which it is sold, may be obtained directly, or through any 
 chemist or druggist, from the Chloralum Company, 1 Great 
 Winchester Street, Buildings, City, London. Chloralum, which 
 is a perfect antiseptic, and healthy astringent, is odourless and 
 non-poisonous, the latter a veiy great recommendation in houses 
 and stables. 
 
270 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 the feet and legs are made dry, rub the frogs 
 and the feet thoroughly with the hoof-ointment ; 
 the offensive smell will disappear at once, and 
 by repeating the dressing in the space of four 
 to six days, the improvement will be established. 
 Horses bred on wet soil, or kept in confinement, 
 are liable to thrushes, and are sometimes not 
 easily kept quite free from them. 
 
 Corns in horses are bruises, chafings, or 
 injuries caused by shoes, and never happen to 
 horses that are not shod, however hard they may 
 be worked; and instances could be cited of horses 
 working hard unshod. 
 
 Being injuries, the corns disappear like other 
 bruises when the cause that produces and keeps 
 them up is removed, less the consequences of pro- 
 tracted injury that may remain. (See illustrations 
 referred to in index.) The name has clearly 
 been adopted through mistaken analogy, after 
 that in use to designate an affection of the human 
 foot, where a hard portion of dense cuticle assumes 
 the form of a grain of corn ; but nothing like that 
 occurs in horses. On the contrary, the effect 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 271 
 
 of a bruise in the hoof is the formation of a soft 
 horn, blood-stained in colour; and the cutting 
 out of this is what, in conventional phraseology, 
 is called " cutting out the corn," or when the 
 cutting is done and there is no corn, "paring 
 out the seat of the corn." As I have stated 
 in another part, I never pare these seats ; and 
 when the injury has been done, and more or less 
 extensive blood-stained marks appear, I no more 
 think of cutting and exploring than a surgeon 
 would cut into a black bruise seen upon the 
 skin of his patient. Just as the educated eye 
 and touch suffice for the diagnosis in the one case, 
 so they suffice in the other. 
 
 I simply shoe feet with corns just as I have 
 directed shoeing to be done, and relieve the horse 
 at once. Of course I have to encounter the in- 
 convenience of diversities of opinion, and it was 
 only in my advanced years, after I had mastered 
 the subject with attendant success, that I could 
 pursue my course without being questioned. 
 Cutting out the blood marks is as irrational as 
 the procedure is unsurgical. The case may be 
 
272 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 illustrated in the words of the Child's Riddle : — 
 " What's that that's as round as a hoop and deep 
 as a cup, and all the king's horses can't draw it 
 up ? " "A well." Well, and that represents the 
 corn : the one well gives water and the other 
 blood ; the one can no more be drawn up than 
 the other, but the deeper we dig the more abun- 
 dant the flow. 
 
 In inveterate cases we find horn depressions 
 internally, as I discovered and formerly exhibited • 
 but these, as further investigations have proved, 
 are due to the external injury and cutting com- 
 bined. As the cutting is carried on, Nature 
 fences up the wound, and horn is formed, which in 
 turn intrudes into the living soft tissues, cartilage, 
 and bone, as is shown in specimens in this work. 
 
 I shall not pursue all the terminations of in- 
 veterate corns, but I must make reference to one, 
 of not uncommon occurrence, i.e. suppuration. 
 No one can be long engaged in farriery in any of 
 the large towns of this country without encounter- 
 ing many cases of suppurating corns, and in dealing 
 with these nothing will be found so embarrassing 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 273 
 
 as the treatment previously pursued in these 
 cases. Here, indeed, where suppuration is supposed 
 to have ensued or become imminent, my plan of 
 non-exploring from beneath would be thought 
 preposterous, only that I have, in the course of 
 the last ten years, shown the rationale of my 
 practice by results attained, and made it known 
 both by my practice and oral teaching. 
 
 Such cases come to us, whether from without 
 or accidentally from among the horses within our 
 own practice, with evidence of pain more or less 
 acute in one of the fore-feet. Heat, and sensitive- 
 ness to pressure of the hand, are the ordinary 
 accompanying signs ; there is, in fact, a swelling 
 and tension of the parts within the hoof. At 
 once such patient should be assigned several 
 days' rest, and the treatment proceeded with by 
 taking off the shoe — ^better all the shoes. See to 
 giving the hoof its proper and ample bearing sur- 
 face ; then place the foot in a pail, with ample 
 quantity of warm water, and foment the limb 
 from above the knee for an hour ; after which, 
 and as a continuation of the warm emollient 
 
274 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 course, I apply a flannel bandage, wrung out 
 of tlie warm water, round the coronet ; this is 
 best done by taking two bandages, about five or 
 six inches wide by two yards in length, and 
 applying one first round the pastern to fill up the 
 hollow between the joint above and foot ; then 
 lightly, and without constraint, pass the second 
 bandage, likewise wetted, over the lower part of the 
 first, so as to fall on just below the upper circum- 
 ference of the hoof; after this put the horse into 
 the stable (a loose place if attainable) with clean 
 and dry floor, and clean straw to lie down upon. 
 No change in the bandages will be required for 
 twelve or fifteen hours, and I seldom keep them 
 on longer than twenty-four, thirty-six, or at most 
 forty-eight hours, when I discontinue the water 
 and have recourse to the antiseptic chloralum 
 wash, followed by assiduous application of the 
 hoof-ointment. 
 
 In the majority of cases the suppuration prog- 
 nosticated never occurs; and if it does, it happens 
 about the second or third day from the beginning 
 of the treatment, in an insignificantly small 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 275 
 
 quantity, often passing unperceived by a raising 
 of the cuticle under the coronary hair, when the 
 swelling and pain subside. It is erroneously 
 held by the orthodox teaching that pus formed 
 within the hoof gravitates, and must be met by a 
 hole made at the bottom for its exit. Nothing is 
 more contrary to fact, and inconsistent with 
 physiological and pathological teaching. Natm^e 
 does not burrow channels to impassable walls, but 
 takes the easiest and truest way for throwing off 
 effete material. 
 
 Cases of the above kind usually take about a 
 week to cure, and for the horse to be shod up 
 and fit for regular work. 
 
 Qmttor. 
 
 Quittor, like some of the other diseased states 
 of horses' feet already noticed, is a condition, the 
 nature of which is, in an intelhgible manner, 
 conveyed by the name in common use. A quit- 
 tor is frequently the culminating crisis of inde- 
 finite chronic diseased states of the horse's foot. 
 
276 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 But we may properly, and with advantage, limit 
 the application of the word, by excluding many 
 conditions arising from wounds, which, when they 
 become perplexingly complicated, are called quit- 
 tors. Treads upon the coronet of cart-horses, 
 already treated on, present among the worst of 
 them deep lacerations, destructive to thick hard 
 skin, and to the textures blending with and underly- 
 ing it. Considerable sloughing does, and naturally 
 must, occur in such cases ; and unless men know 
 that, and instead of doing what is right and neces- 
 sary to assist and soothe, on the contrary apply 
 irritants, the healing process is interfered with ; 
 under such disadvantages the wound assumes an 
 aspect often designated a quitter, whereas it is 
 nothing of the kind. Again, it is alleged that 
 every festering corn that discharges itself at the 
 coronet — the line to which matter always rises — is 
 a quitter, whereas the difference is as marked as 
 that between a black eye and a broken head. 
 That quitters follow upon corns is true, and so do 
 an indefinite series of disastrous terminations, since 
 corns, in the widest sense, denote crushing up of 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 277 
 
 the foot, the first stage in the process being re- 
 cognised by a red mark in the hoof at a given 
 place. A quittor I define to mean a fistula, with 
 an open orifice in the skin above the coronet, 
 always appearing at one quarter of the foot. 
 Fore and hind feet are equally liable to quittors ; 
 the opening of the sinus appears at a prominent 
 point of a hard tumour, usually of an oblong 
 form like the section of an egg, diverse respec- 
 tively in size, and convex without. The tumour 
 is always diff'used, and afi'ects in particular one 
 side of the foot, extending upwards and down- 
 wards, bulging out the wall of the hoof. From the 
 mouth of the sinus or pipe issues a limpid dis- 
 charge, bearing a medium appearance between 
 water and the white of an egg, and emitting a 
 peculiar offensive smell. These are the signs by 
 which we understand more or less of the condi- 
 tions within the foot — the seat of the whole mis- 
 chief We have always either diseased cartilage 
 or bone to contend with ; commonly disease of 
 both, caries, and sometimes fractm^e of bone. We 
 have therefore, pent up and painfully bound 
 
278 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 within the hoof, a nucleus of effete and diseased 
 structure which cannot be cast off; and unless 
 such a case be radically treated, it inevitably goes 
 on from bad to worse. Spontaneous cure never 
 in my experience occurs. I have enumerated 
 fracture of bone as a common complication in 
 quittor, and the bony substance to which I here 
 refer is ossified lateral cartilages in cart-horses, 
 projecting high and far backward, as has been 
 shown in a previous chapter by illustration ; 
 these compensative but spurious growths of bone 
 are liable to fracture under exertion ; and it is 
 detached portions of such broken spurious bone 
 that we have to contend with in the cure of 
 particular cases ; when a piece of dead bone 
 comes through the upper aperture in the course 
 of treatment, it is what the old farriers called 
 the quittor bone. 
 
 Treatment. — Desperately intractable, and 
 painful to the poor animal affected, as these cases 
 are, they are none the less curable, in a large pro- 
 portion ; and as many valuable horses, of the 
 heavy class especially, become affected with quit- 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 279 
 
 tor, a right understanding of the affection, and 
 of the required treatment, is very important. I 
 have been very successful in treating these cases, 
 and also in making out the pathological condi- 
 tions, in proportion to the investigations under- 
 taken. As I have at different times made my 
 method of treating quittor known, besides afford- 
 ing practical proof in the treatment of cases, pro- 
 gress in the same line of practice is no doubt 
 being made, though slowly ; in many instances 
 the treatment is partially carried out with 
 relative results. Cases of quittor, above all 
 others, require to be dealt with thoroughly ; and 
 if the good effects I have obtained are to be 
 achieved, the directions must be carried out faith- 
 fully as a whole. I proceed as follows : — After 
 taking off the shoe, and doing all that is neces- 
 sary to the hoof, I prepare to inject a mixture, 
 for the pharmaceutical combination of which I say 
 nothing, though I can say a very great deal for 
 its practical efficiency. To prepare the mixture, 
 take bichloride of mercury one drachm, rectified 
 spirit one ounce ; after rubbing and dissolving 
 
280 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS, 
 
 the sublimate in the spirit, add half-a-drachm 
 of liquor plumbi acetatis. By means of a 
 small syringe, elastic gum, or pewter, with 
 small tube two inches in length, and bulbous 
 end, I inject the mixture down the sinus. 
 This requires to be carefully, but very effect- 
 ually done. The direction of the syringe must 
 therefore be changed from the vertical to the 
 oblique, in both a forward and backward direc- 
 tion, the object being to infiltrate the mass as far 
 as it can be penetrated by the innumerable small 
 sinuses converging to the outer channel. To 
 do this part well one strong man is better than 
 several hands, if the horse's head be held steady, 
 and an assistant hand the instruments, etc. I 
 take the horse's foot forward upon my knee, and, 
 as a rule, succeed in performing the operation 
 without giving much pain to cause the horse 
 to resist, though difficulty, requiring a little ex- 
 ceptional care, may occasionally occur when pre- 
 vious treatment and torture have been resorted to. 
 Now for the effect that follows : — The foot is re- 
 leased and placed on the ground, and once or 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 281 
 
 twice the animal stamps, indicating that a 
 smarting is produced by the caustic agent ; but 
 in a brief space of time that passes, and signs of 
 ease are manifest. On examining the foot in as 
 short a time as four hours after the operation, I 
 have found the tumour sensibly subsided, and aU 
 the symptoms favourable. We have been in the 
 habit (members of my family used this excellent 
 remedy before me) of repeating the injection of 
 the preparation a second time after the lapse of 
 twelve to twenty-four hours, and again, after a 
 similar interval, a third time. And this general 
 rule seems to me to recommend itself, and admit 
 of explanation in this way : — At first all the struc- 
 tures are so engorged that the agent cannot be 
 forced through the morbid deposit ; but, in propor- 
 tion as the diseased structures are reached, they 
 are destroyed, and shrink, and in each suc- 
 ceeding application the fluid caustic is pressed 
 round the withered, wasted substance, until the 
 whole comes away in the space of a week or little 
 more, when the cure is far advanced, and thereafter 
 rapidly eff'ected. This represents the progress of 
 
282 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 a good cure. Sometimes tlie application has to 
 be repeated several times, at intervals of two or 
 three days ; but where delay is essential, I dimi- 
 nish the activity of the preparation by adding a 
 double portion of spirit. 
 
 Three different modes of treating quittor have 
 been in vogue during the memory of living 
 practitioners, besides that which I adopt; those 
 are, firstly, the traditional custom of the farriers 
 of this country, which consists in the free use of 
 active caustics, such as corrosive sublimate and 
 nitrate of silver, which are most commonly used 
 in substance, powdered, and passed by probing 
 into the sinus ; secondly, a mild course has been 
 pursued, in which solution of sulphate of zinc is 
 the favourite remedy ; and, thirdly, there has been 
 the continental mode of extirpating the lateral 
 cartilage ; implying the destruction of one quar- 
 ter of the foot, beginning with the hoof. The 
 objections to these three modes of procedure are 
 — firstly, the old English one, though in some in- 
 stances a slough (core) was brought away, in a 
 greater number of cases violence was done to 
 
SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 283 
 
 structure, and even joints were laid open, by 
 the corrosive substances being pressed in contact 
 with these, in considerable quantities in their pure 
 state. I have found the red precipitate (red 
 oxide of mercury) lying unchanged, and scarcely 
 moist, deep in a cavity of the foot, after the death 
 of the horse had been caused by it. 
 
 Then, secondly, the attempts at cure and pre- 
 tensions to such results having been effected by 
 solution of sulphate of zinc, copper, or any agent 
 of this class, are mistakes. I witnessed that 
 practice extensively tried during my studentship, 
 but never saw a case of quittor cured by such 
 treatment ; those that did recover were compara- 
 tively superficial injuries, and not quittors. 
 
 The last mode — extirpation of the lateral car- 
 tilages — long a rule of practice in old French far- 
 riery, and subsequently adopted by French veter- 
 inary surgeons, is on all accounts objectionable, 
 and is now, I learn, considered so by themselves. 
 The destruction of hoof, and much that was in no 
 way involved, was excessive ; the removal of the 
 diseased part, by making such a breach, even 
 
284 SPECIAL CAUSES OF LAMENESS. 
 
 when a cure was effected, was at a cost of time 
 and animal suffering out of proportion to the 
 gain. It was after being fully acquainted with 
 the above that I secured the great success by 
 following the system above described. 
 
V. 
 
 ON HOOF- OINTMENT. 
 
 Shoeing, though the most influential of all the 
 means that art can supply for the prevention and 
 cure of lameness, is not the only resource — others 
 are brought to aid ; and the neglect or misuse of 
 other means may defeat the farrier in the other- 
 wise too limited application of his skill. 
 
 The most conflicting notions have been pro- 
 pounded as to whether humidity is favourable or 
 detrimental to the condition of the hoof, that is to 
 the feet of horses. Even the mild atmosphere 
 and gleam of the sun in these isles, is supposed 
 by some theorists to be too drying for horses' feet, 
 and therefore wet cow-dung, etc., is employed for 
 stopping the soles to soften them. If people could 
 be once induced to see this matter as it lies open 
 to us in the field of nature and daily practice, 
 
286 ON HOOF-OINTMENT. 
 
 they could not stop from investigating, nor long 
 fail to see extensively into the matter. Nothing- 
 impairs hoofs more than, or deprives them of their 
 strength and elasticity so much as, wet, except 
 that which I trust has been already sufficiently 
 exposed — destruction by cutting. 
 
 As a preventative of the injurious effects re- 
 sulting from changes from humidity to dryness, 
 and vice versa, I have used a hoof-ointment, 
 which I have found an admirable adjunct to all 
 other good management of feet, including good 
 shoeing. 
 
 Hoof-ointment is no novelty, but a very old 
 means fallen into disuse, partly through neglect, 
 and partly among ourselves, in recent times, 
 through the domination of new-fangled theories 
 regarding horses' feet, and what is proper to be 
 done. When I began to see that humidity im- 
 paired the texture of the hoof, I had recourse to 
 oil, lard, or tallow, with the view to exclude 
 moisture ; but my experiments were attended 
 with questionable effect, except in the case of 
 mutton-tallow, which, during wet weather, I 
 
VI. 
 
 HEALTH OF HORSES, REGARDED IN ITS RELATION 
 TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 
 
 In bringing this work to a close, I am deeply im- 
 pressed with the extent and importance of the 
 great subject, of which it only treats in part — the 
 local conditions of the feet — which I may say, in 
 conventional phraseology, is the most important 
 part of the veterinary art, as it bears on the well- 
 being and economy of horse-life. 
 
 I have in great measure, I hope, adhered to 
 my programme in expounding views, the fruits of 
 an extended experience, on the art of shoeing, as 
 the chief means of conservation of the feet, the 
 prevention of lameness, and its cure, by so apply- 
 ing the art that it may fulfil its purpose — defence 
 and preservation, without becoming a source of 
 offence and destruction. 
 
 I should have liked to have enlarged on the 
 
294 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 structure and formation of the limbs, and to have 
 included those important regions the knee and 
 hock joints, on which depends every movement of 
 the feet, and even their passive use, if I may 
 be permitted the expression, as the bases of the 
 animal's support ; but that plan of inquiry would 
 have necessitated an examination into the parts 
 above the hock and knee inseparably related to 
 them, anatomically and physiologically, and the 
 result would have been a treatise on the anatomy 
 and physiology of the horse. Necessity has con- 
 strained adherence to the limited programme with 
 which I started, but I am anxious that those of 
 my readers who are able to consider the subject 
 in a scientific aspect, may do justice to the com- 
 prehensive spirit in which my inquiries have been 
 conducted. 
 
 Foot-injuries and foot-disease occur in various 
 ways, and not only affect the general health of 
 horses in such degree as is but little appreciated, 
 but death ensues from aff'ections that are regarded 
 as local; however much of the causes and the effects 
 may be in the early stage localised, they not un- 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 295 
 
 frequently result in constitutional disturbance. 
 I liave endeavoured to show liow I proceed in 
 removing local causes, and by soothing measures 
 accomplish the re -establishment of functions. 
 Several cases, however, appear among the small 
 number of those I selected for the illustrations 
 of this work, in which death resulted from the 
 local conditions of the feet, and certainly such 
 cases will repeat themselves ; and no man can be 
 long engaged in the prevention and cure of lame- 
 ness without encountering similar instances. 
 
 We cannot rest on our oars by devoting at- 
 tention exclusively to the original seat of injury 
 and its cause ; constitutional effects supervene, 
 which become new causes of mischief, and require 
 to be met by suitable constitutional measures. 
 The bowels become constipated, the vascular 
 system disturbed, and the appetite becomes im- 
 paired. We have in fact a case which shows 
 that prompt measures must be used to re-establish 
 health, or no amount of skill devoted to the relief 
 of local parts can avail. 
 
 I usually meet these emergencies success- 
 
296 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 fully, by means simple in their application and 
 safe in their result. The horse's bowels must be 
 got into action, not by violent disturbance, but by 
 safe, reliable, and prompt measures. The comfort 
 of the body must be secured by proper locality, 
 ventilation, and cleanliness, and the diet in kind 
 and quantity regulated. As regards the alimentary 
 system, the horse is peculiar. Since he cannot 
 vomit, everything that has been eaten must pass 
 through the canal, and in the absence of proper 
 measures, danger is to be apprehended when 
 obstruction from torpidity of the bowels ensues. 
 We have only one medicine to be depended upon 
 as a purgative for horses, and that can be exactly 
 relied on for producing a given effect — that is 
 Aloes. I give this valuable medicine to horses in 
 cases of sickness, and abstain from it when they 
 are well, more than it is the custom to do ; but 
 I administer it with discreet care, both as to 
 quantity and the kind. The medium dose of 
 aloes to stimulate the bowels of a horse into 
 action is six drachms, of the kind known as Cape 
 aloes ; I do not use the more drastic Barbadoes 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 297 
 
 aloe, but the purest samples of the Cape variety, 
 as these are found in the British drug -market. 
 I j6nd this the same extract of the aloe that is 
 sold over the Continent by all respectable drug- 
 gists, and officinally employed under the name of 
 Socotrine aloes. 
 
 I am particular in expressing myself on this 
 matter about the essential value of aloes, and the 
 necessity of discriminating between the sorts ; it 
 is a matter to which I have given much attention, 
 with corresponding good results. It is supposed 
 by most respectable practitioners that the differ- 
 ence between these kinds of aloe is one of strength 
 only, and that five drachms of Barbadoes aloes 
 will produce the same effect on a horse as six 
 drachms of the Cape. My own experience does 
 not support that conclusion, and therefore, when I 
 prescribe a given quantity of aloes I mean the 
 best of the Cape kind found in the British drug- 
 market. It is the drug about the results of 
 which I am most jealous, because it is the most 
 effectual for saving the lives of horses when pro- 
 perly employed. 
 
298 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 The best way to administer aloes is in the 
 fonn of a bolus, made up with glycerine, syrup, etc. 
 The action of aloes on the horse is very prompt, 
 as regards the good effects observable in cases 
 where the use is indicated. AVe have not to wait 
 for the relief afforded to the system, as is com- 
 monly supposed, until purgation follows, nor a 
 twentieth part of the time. To appreciate the 
 promptness with which the effect of aloes produces 
 alteration on the horse, the opportunity should 
 be taken of observing the operation, in a parti- 
 cular case of indigestion, accompanied with spas- 
 modic colic, which, if not relieved, is apt to run 
 its fatal course rapidly. 
 
 Notions are prevalent that whatever is given 
 to a horse in a soft or fluid state, whether it 
 be food or medicine, affects the system more 
 quickly than when taken into the stomach in a 
 solid form. That notion has been very erroneously 
 held in regard to the action of aloes — to the 
 extent that when horses are forced to swallow 
 physic, and have nothing the matter with them, 
 it is given in the form of a ball ; but when really 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 299 
 
 required to be given as a medicine, to promote an 
 object, it is prescribed in a fluid form. Having 
 proved, by observations made during many years' 
 practice, that there was no foundation for such 
 induction, I had recourse to an experiment, pur- 
 posely, to show a class of pupils, and be able to 
 tell the world, the true state. I took the occa- 
 sion of a horse in good health, that had to be 
 destroyed, to make the following experiment. I 
 gave a ball composed of seven drachms of Cape 
 aloes, and one drachm of glycerine, and then had 
 the horse walked to the place of slaughtering — 
 distance one-third of a mile — and ordered the man 
 to use his most expeditious method of putting 
 an end to the animal's life. Thirty-three minutes 
 elapsed from the time the ball was given to that 
 when death happened. On opening the stomach, 
 as soon after death as could be done, no part of 
 the aloetic ball was found. There was the white 
 paper in which the ball was wrapped, floating 
 amongst the contents of the stomach, but without 
 a vestige of aloes upon it. The paper, in fact, 
 when dry, after removal, was as clean and free 
 
300 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 from taint or smell of aloes as a bank-note taken 
 from the bank-till. Though not a particle of aloes 
 was to be seen, the smell of the drug was unmis- 
 takably present, both in the contents of the 
 stomach and small intestines. The results of 
 my practical observations — ranging over more 
 than thirty years at that time — were confirmed 
 as sound ; the prompt effects obtained bore tes- 
 timony to the rapid solution of the medicine, v .'j 
 
 That dose of aloes, in the course of thirty 
 minutes, had not only become difiused through 
 the alimentary system, but was doubtless in pro- 
 cess of active absorption into the circulation ; 
 and that explains how, at the expiration of fifteen 
 to twenty minutes, the efi'ects upon the vital cen- 
 tres are made apparent, under the conditions 
 alluded to, of colic, etc. 
 
 The experiment just referred to was reported 
 in the Edinburgh Veterinary Review for 1862, 
 and any physiologist desirous of prosecuting this 
 research farther, may find the stage to which I 
 conducted it an advantageous new starting-point. 
 
 When a dose of aloes is given to a horse, with 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 301 
 
 tlie view to restore impaired health — and I never 
 prescribe medicine unless for such purpose — the 
 dose should never be such a one as to be liable to 
 harass and weaken the animal, but quite sufficient 
 to clear the passage of the bowels, when renova- 
 tion of the tone of the whole system usually and 
 soon follows spontaneously. 
 
 We have other agencies at our command for 
 effecting the above purpose — evacuating the 
 bowels — quite as indispensable as any kind of 
 medicine — viz. clysters. Clysters have been 
 greatly neglected in veterinary practice among 
 ourselves, while, if their simple and important 
 function were sufficiently understood, their em- 
 ployment would be extended beyond prescribed 
 instances, when danger to life was apprehended. 
 
 Much ado is made about what should be 
 administered, and the preparation of the decoction, 
 etc., while it should be understood that simple 
 warm water is the proper and only requirement. 
 I never even use the supposed indispensable por- 
 tion of oil, except to the extent of dipping my 
 finger in a drop for the purpose of lubricating the 
 
302 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 bulb point of the tube, and for that an atom of 
 grease or soap suffices. On the principle that one 
 thing alone should not be relied on for the accom- 
 plishment of a great object, when two are known 
 which in combination will accomplish it more cer- 
 tainly and quickly, clysters should be at once 
 used when a purgative becomes urgent. And if 
 only one of these agents be at hand at the in- 
 stant required, let that one be availed of; in 
 not a few instances I have had to depend on 
 them by turns, singly, with full effect. 
 
 Before describing how clysters should be 
 applied, and the extent of their application, a 
 few words may be well said on the means to be 
 adopted for the purpose — the proper instrument. 
 
 On the presence and facility of means very 
 much depends whether clysters will ever be 
 generally used for horses just when they are most 
 required. Up to within the last fifteen years, 
 enema instruments, used for horses and cattle, were 
 huge machines, either barrel-shaped syringes, 
 made of pewter, and some of these after the 
 manner of garden-engine pumps, to be placed in 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 303 
 
 a vessel of water, and by employment of force the 
 fluid was injected into the rectum. About twenty 
 years ago I was fortunate in obtaining a totally 
 different instrument, a funnel, which only requires 
 to be used once to convince any practical man of 
 its superiority over every other form for adminis- 
 tration of clysters to horses and cattle, and to 
 quadrupeds in general. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 The instrument consists, as this figure shows, 
 of a funnel, vertically connected to a tube, which, 
 meeting another at right angles taking a horizon- 
 tal direction, is joined by soldering, as shown 
 above. The proportions are — funnel with soldered 
 rim, bent inwards, 5 J inches deep, and 6 wide at 
 
304 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 the bottom of the rim; the vertical tube is Ij 
 inch diameter; and the horizontal part 1 inch, 
 tapering to J inch at the opening, which is guarded 
 by a substance of solder of the shape of an acorn, 
 to secure safe and easy passage. Tinned iron is 
 the cheap and well-adapted metal used in the 
 manufacture. 
 
 The advantage of this over all other enema 
 instruments, for horses, becomes apparent on 
 trial, no pressure being required to introduce fluid 
 into the rectum of these or other quadrupeds, 
 the position of the body favouring its entry 
 by gravitation. Moreover, the fluid descends 
 through the funnel without exciting resistance, 
 instead of encountering it, as was always the 
 case when propelled through the syringe. As 
 pent-up gas is commonly present, and induces 
 counteracting effects, the fluid, when injected 
 with the ordinary instruments, becomes par- 
 tially or wholly expelled before time is allowed 
 for any effect from the operation ; whereas, with 
 the use of the funnel, by the absence of force and 
 with the free opening above, the pent-up flatus 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 305 
 
 gets vent through the tube, and the fluid falls to 
 supply its place. This is an obviously good effect, 
 at once seen in the application of the instrument 
 to horses and cattle. 
 
 After I had published an account of the 
 enema funnel, and a description of it, fifteen years 
 ago, I handed it to the instrument-makers at 
 London and Edinburgh, who thereupon made 
 some which were sold under the name of " Gam- 
 gee's enema funnels," and in the meantime some 
 practitioners had got them made from my model, 
 and these were approved and the use extended. 
 I found, however, that the specimens exposed in 
 the instrument-makers' shops were widely differ- 
 ent from my model, and such as 1 could not use 
 for the purpose intended. On questioning the 
 makers, and remonstrating with them for abusing 
 the privilege of copying by spoiling, I was told 
 that different practitioners had suggested im- 
 provements upon the original. I thenceforward 
 took means, besides getting the proper form for 
 myself and friends, of making sure that the pub- 
 lic could obtain it. I had come to ascertain that 
 
 X 
 
306 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 tlie same form of enema funnel was applicable to 
 other quadrupeds, and accordingly I reduced it to 
 a scale, and had several sizes made less than 
 that given above, adapted for foals, calves, and 
 other quadrupeds, including the various sized dogs. 
 Mr. Latchford, bit-maker, St. Martin's Lane, Lon- 
 don, was good enough to go out of his way to make 
 the instruments so classified, and keep them for sale 
 on his own account. It almost seems that the de- 
 viation from instructions was not altogether a 
 mistake on the part of the instrument-makers, for 
 this enema funnel, which is made of the different 
 sizes, and sold at from two to four shillings each, 
 was calculated to supersede in the market the large 
 machines that were kept for sale at higher prices, 
 and which, owing to cost and cumbrous dimensions, 
 are never where they should be when wanted — i.e. 
 where horses are kept. In justification of these 
 remarks, which would have been otherwise un- 
 charitable, I may mention that I have seen in 
 the catalogue of a London surgical and veteri- 
 nary instrument maker, after the enumeration 
 of injecting syringes of great dimensions, these 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 307 
 
 words added — " Gamgee's enema funnels, made 
 of glass." The price marked is in pence, some 
 portion of a shilling, and apparently these low- 
 priced glass articles are advertised with a view to 
 secure monopoly of sale, and bring the instrument 
 that is most effectual, cheap, and easy of applica- 
 tion, into disrepute ; for of all the uses to which 
 glass has been put, that of adopting it for clyster 
 apparatus to be used for horses is probably the 
 most absurd. Horses turning, and pressing against 
 stall-posts, walls, etc., render such a contrivance 
 dangerous, apart from the fact that these are 
 things to be used for many consecutive hours, or at 
 intervals for days, and have to be thrown down 
 and placed in pails, so that, to say nothing of the 
 danger from breakage, a supply of several would 
 be required to replace the broken ones. The 
 enema funnel is now properly made and kept on 
 sale by J. Gardner, surgeons' instrument-maker, 
 Edinburgh. In using it, as with all others, 
 two persons are required — the operator placing 
 himself on the near side, while an assistant on 
 the opposite side draws the horse's tail aside 
 
308 HEALTH OF HORSES IN RELATION 
 
 and towards him, having in readiness a vessel con 
 taining about a quart of warm water. The bulb 
 of the funnel tube being lubricated, and placed in 
 the water to make it warm, is then introduced, 
 the water poured into the funnel, whence it 
 passes on, when an equal quantity may be re- 
 peated, which is as much as will usually be re- 
 quired. The instrument is withdrawn when no 
 more fluid flows on. 
 
 The clysters may be repeated in acute affec- 
 tions three or four times in the course of the first 
 hour ; and in chronic conditions their use may be 
 indicated twice or thrice daily, for several days 
 continuously. 
 
 Clysters have the advantage, in their adminis- 
 tration to horses under due prescription, of never 
 doing harm, a praise that cannot be given to any 
 medicine ; while they are the best adjuncts to 
 other measures, in an indefinite variety of cases. 
 
 I shall not extend my remarks farther, on 
 general medical treatment. Nothing can be laid 
 down by anticipation for all emergencies of cases 
 when foot-diseases form the chief part of the 
 
TO AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. 309 
 
 complication. 1 will only add, that proper atten- 
 tion to diet is important, and as we have more 
 complete control over the horse than most other 
 animals, in regulating both the kind and quantity 
 of the food he eats, it is of practical importance 
 to avoid overloading the stomach and bowels on 
 the one hand, and of falling into the opposite 
 extreme of lowering the condition, and impairing 
 the fitness of horses to return to work when their 
 state admits of it. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Absorption of coflBn-bone, illus- 
 tration of, 252. See also 
 Atrophy. 
 
 Aloes, and its varieties, 296 ; the 
 best purgative for the horse, 
 296, 297 ; experiment to show 
 the rapidity with which a bo- 
 lus of aloes is dissolved, 299. 
 
 Anchylosis, 209 ; of bones of 
 near fore-foot, 210, 213. 
 
 Atrophy of horses' feet, 194 ; 
 often included under the term 
 contraction of the foot, 214 ; 
 of bone often precedes hyper- 
 trophj^, 196 ; of coffin-bone, 
 instances of, 205, 208. 
 
 Bearing surface of foot, 66, 95 ; 
 how adjusted, 67. 
 
 Binding, 257. 
 
 Bone, pedal, foot or coffin, 48- 
 50 ; sesamoid or navicular, 
 51-54, See also Navicular 
 bone and Coffin-bone. 
 
 Bourgelat, 17 ; founder of first 
 veterinary school, 1 7 ; literary 
 labours of, 18 ; foundation of 
 School of Alfort by, 19. 
 
 Buffer, the, 66. 
 
 Buttress, the, 73. 
 
 Calkins, 111 ; objections to 
 
 their use for riding-horses dis- 
 cussed, 121. 
 
 Caries of coffin-bone, illustrated, 
 216. 
 
 Cartilages, lateral, 55,56 ; their 
 extirpation in quitter, 283. 
 Ossification of, see Hyper- 
 trophy. 
 
 Chabert, colleague and successor 
 of Bourgelat, 20. 
 
 Chloralum, its use in thrushes 
 and corns, 269. 
 
 Clark, Mr. Bracy, 137. 
 
 Clenching nails, 147. 
 
 Clips, 111; their use in fissures 
 of the front of the hoof, 267. 
 
 Clysters, 301 ; how best admi- 
 nistered, 303. 
 
 Coffin-bone, 48, 137, 195, 198, 
 201, 205, 215, 218, 227, 
 229, 250. 
 
 Coleman, the second Princij)al of 
 the London Veterinary Col- 
 lege, 24, 27-31, 73. 
 
 Contraction of the foot, 214. 
 
 Corns, 199, 270 ; quite imlike 
 the corns which form on the 
 cuticle of the human foot, 270; 
 shoeing in cases of, 271 ; sup- 
 puration occasionally a result 
 of, 272 ; not to be treated by 
 incision, 273. 
 
312 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Coronary bone, case of fracture 
 
 of, 221. 
 Coronet, treads and wounds of, 
 
 261. 
 Curving the toe, 135, 138. 
 Cutting, 138. 
 Cutting the hoof down along the 
 
 line of nails, 259. 
 
 Description of some of the pa- 
 thological conditions of horses' 
 feet, 194-255. 
 
 Donkeying the heels, 135. 
 
 Drawing-knife, the, 66 ; its in- 
 troduction by Coleman, 73 ; 
 unfortunately superseded the 
 buttress, 73. 
 
 Enema-funnel, 303. 
 
 Farrier, derivation of the term, 
 7 ; function of, 7, 8. 
 
 Field and the turf, shoeing horses 
 for the, 151-160 ; the author's 
 special plan for affording secu- 
 rity of foothold, 155. 
 
 Filing up of the foot, 150. 
 
 Fissures in front of hoof, 265 ; 
 their uniform connection with 
 diseased coffin-bones, 265 ; 
 treatment of, 267. 
 
 Fitting horse-shoes, 123-129 ; 
 disadvantages of fitting horse- 
 shoes whilst hot, 127 ; Earl 
 of Pembroke upon, 127. 
 
 Foot, its form and functions, 
 34 ; bones of, in health, 47 ; 
 preparing the, 61 ; bearing 
 surface of, 66 ; how bearing 
 surface is adjusted, 67 ; im- 
 portance of correct adjustment, 
 
 94, 95 ; pathological condi- 
 tions of, 194-255. 
 
 Foothold, examples of methods 
 for affording a firm, under ex- 
 ceptional circumstances, 175. 
 
 Fractures of coronary and navi- 
 cular bones, 221 ; of coffin- 
 bone, 229 ; of navicular bone, 
 are generally secondary to de- 
 struction of substance of the 
 coffin-bone, 230, 232, 238, 
 240. 
 
 Freeman, Mr. Strickland, author 
 of a work on the foot, 26. 
 
 Frost-sharping, 169-176 ; how 
 practised, 169 ; screw calkins 
 used in Berlin and Vienna, 
 172. 
 
 Fullering, coarse and fine, 99 ; 
 how eft'ected, 102 ; deep, 109. 
 
 Funnel. See Enema. 
 
 Goodwin, Mr. Joseph, author of 
 a work entitled, " On the 
 French System of Shoeing im- 
 proved," 137. 
 
 Hammer, the, 66. 
 
 Health of horses, regarded in its 
 relation to affections of the 
 feet, 293 ; constitutional treat- 
 ment of, 295. 
 
 Heels. See Hoof. 
 
 Hock of horse compared to the 
 ankle of man, 57. 
 
 Hoof, 35 ; mode of preparing 
 and preserving specimens of, 
 36, 37 ; description of its 
 component parts, 38-47. 
 
 Hoof-ointment, 256, 285 ; for- 
 mula for, 287 ; directions for 
 use of, 289 ; used by the 
 
INDEX. 
 
 313 
 
 Italian farriers of the sixteenth 
 
 century, 291. 
 Horn, morbid accumulations of, 
 
 71. 
 Hypertrophy, illustrations of, 
 
 195, 198, 209, 210, 213. 
 
 Indented shoe, 156. 
 
 Iron, quality to he used in 
 
 making horse-shoes, 86, 87 ; 
 
 new, 89. 
 
 Knee of horse compared to the 
 wrist of man, 57. 
 
 Labour saved by using new 
 bar-iron for making heavy 
 horse-shoes, 87. 
 
 Lameness, preliminaiy observa- 
 tions on, 179-181 ; the late 
 Ptofessor Sewell on the fre- 
 quency of, in this country, 
 180 ; observations on the re- 
 lative frequency of, in Edin- 
 burgh, Birmingham, London, 
 and Paris, 182-193 ; descrip- 
 tion of pathological conditions 
 commonly occurring in the 
 feet of horses suffering from 
 chronic lameness, 194-255. 
 
 Lateral cartilages, 55, 56 ; for- 
 merly extirpated for the cure 
 of quittor, 283. 
 
 Laying the shoe off at the heels, 
 131. 
 
 Levers, essentially the bones of 
 the foot, 33. 
 
 Ligaments, lateral phalangeal, 
 53, 54. 
 
 Ligaments and cartilages, anchy- 
 losis, 214. 
 
 London Veterinary College, 21 ; 
 
 Sainbel its first Principal, 2 ] ; 
 his death, 22 ; was succeeded 
 by Coleman, 22. See also 
 Coleman. 
 
 Manescalcheria, 6. 
 Manescalco, 6. 
 Marechal, 6. 
 Marechalerie, 6, 19. 
 Moorcroft, Mr., 22, 78. 
 Muscles, theu' influence on the 
 joints below them, 57. 
 
 Nail-holes, 96, 100, 103. 
 
 Nailing on the shoe, 144. 
 
 NaiLs, 108 ; peculiarities of those 
 used in Scotland, 109, 110 ; 
 quality of iron used for 
 making, 140 ; peculiarities in 
 shape and pointing, 140-145 ; 
 number of nails, 146, 147 ; 
 pricks by nails, 256, 257 ; 
 rucking of, 257 ; binding of, 
 257 ; how to be remedied, 258. 
 
 Navicular bone, leverage func- 
 tion of, 51-55 ; cases of frac- 
 tui-e of, 221, 230, 232, 238 ; 
 cases of disease of, 220, 244, 
 245 ; case illustrating ad- 
 vancing cure of ulcerated 
 navicular bones, 248. 
 
 Os MAGNUM, case of fracture of, 
 
 246. 
 Overreaches, 260. 
 
 Paring the foot, 50. 
 
 Pastern bone, large, 52 ; small, 
 
 51. 
 Pedal bone. See Coffin-bone. 
 Pembroke, the Earl of, 25, 79, 
 
 127, 151. 
 
314 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Perforans muscle, tendon of, 
 51. 
 
 Phalangeal ligaments, 52-54. 
 
 Phalanx, the last, 48. 
 
 Pincers, 66. 
 
 Plating race-horses, 161-176 ; 
 how plates are made, 163 ; 
 suggestions for using jagged 
 plates, 165 ; Aveight of, 167. 
 
 Preparing the foot, 61 ; Cole- 
 man's views on, 75 ; differ- 
 ence between Continental and 
 English methods, 80. 
 
 Prick of nails, 256, 257. 
 
 Pritchel, the, 125. 
 
 Quarters, 39. 
 
 Quittor, case of, 239 ; pathology 
 and treatment of, 256 ; sj'ste- 
 matically considered, 277 ; dis- 
 eased conditions complicating, 
 277 ; fracture of bone com- 
 plicating, 277 ; spontaneous 
 cure of, never occurs, 278 ; 
 treatment of, 278 ; other 
 methods of treatment than 
 those recommended by the 
 author, 282. 
 
 Rasp, 66. 
 
 Roughing shoes, 169-176. See 
 
 also Frost-sharping. 
 Rucking of the nail, 257. 
 Ruini, a great Italian anatomist 
 
 of the sixteenth century, 66. 
 
 Sainbel, the first Principal of the 
 London Veterinary College, 
 21 ; his death, 22. 
 
 Sand-crack, illustration of, 204, 
 262 ; never occiu-s in unshod 
 horses, 263 ; never noticed 
 
 in well-formed feet, 263 ; how 
 treated, 264. 
 Sesamoid bone. See Navicular 
 
 bone. 
 Sewell, the late Professor, 179 
 Shoes, on making, 85 ; their 
 weight should determine 
 greatly the quality of iron 
 used to make them, 89 ; 
 machine-made, 91 ; substance 
 of, 93 ; weight of, 93 ; ful- 
 lered and stamped, 96 ; rela- 
 tive merits of fullered and 
 stamped shoes, 104 ; clips, 
 calkins, and toe-jjieces of, 110- 
 122 ; fitting of, 123-139; in- 
 dented, 156 ; roughing, 169- 
 176 ; Turkish, 175 ; stamped, 
 96 ; springing the, 131. 
 
 Shuttle-bone. See Navicular 
 bone. 
 
 SoUeysel, 16 ; his work entitled 
 " Le Parfait Marechal," 17. 
 
 Springing the shoe, 131. 
 
 Stamped shoe, 96 ; its merits 
 discussed, 105. 
 
 Stamping, coarse and fine, 99 ; 
 how jiractised on the Conti- 
 nent, 107 ; deep, 109. 
 
 Stubbs, Mr. George, an able ana- 
 tomist and artist of the last 
 century, 26. 
 
 Tar and resin, use of, in fissure 
 
 of hoof, 268. 
 Thrush, a morbid condition of 
 
 frog, 268 ; treatment of, 269. 
 Toe, the, 39 ; shortening of, 63 ; 
 
 toe of the shoe, 135. 
 Toe-j)ieces, 111 et seq. ; how 
 
 made in Scotland, 119. 
 Toeing-knife, the, 81. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 315 
 
 Tools, importance of adoption of 
 
 good, 65. 
 Treads and wounds of tlie coronet, 
 
 261. 
 Tiirkisli shoe, 175. 
 
 Veterinary Schools, influence 
 on the history of farriery, 1 5 ; 
 their foundation at Lyons and 
 Alfort by Bourgelat, 17, 19 ; 
 foundation of one in London, 
 21 ; Monsieur Sainbel its first 
 
 Princijjal, 21; subsequent his- 
 tory, 22. 
 
 Wall, the, 40. See also Hoof. 
 
 Wasting of coffin-bone, illustra- 
 tions of, 195, 199, 201, 205, 
 208, 213, 226, 229, 231, 
 233, 238, 241, 244-5, 252. 
 See also Atrophy. 
 
 Web, the, 94. 
 
 Wounds of the feet by nails, 
 257. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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18 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Actok's Modern Cookery 19 j 
 
 Alcock's Residence in Japan 16 I 
 
 Allies on Formation of Christendom 11 
 
 Allen's Discourses of Clirysostom H 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) ; . • 16 
 
 Journal 20 
 
 Althaus on Medical Electricity 10 
 
 Arnold's Manual of English Literature . . 5 
 
 AEyoiT's Elements of Physics 8 
 
 Arundiiies Cami 18 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson — 6 
 
 Atee's Treasury of Bible Knowledge 14 
 
 Bacon's Essays by "Whatelt 5 
 
 Life and Letters, by Spedding . . 4 
 
 "Works 5 
 
 Baix's Mental and Moral Science 7 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 7 
 
 Ball's Guide to the Central Alps 16 
 
 Guide to the "^^estern Alps 10 
 
 — Guide to the Eastern Alps 16 
 
 Batldon's Rents and Tillages 13 
 
 Beaten Tracks 16 
 
 Becker's Charicles and Gallus 17 
 
 Benpet's Sanskrit-English Dictionary .... 6 
 
 Beexard on British Neiitrality 1 
 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing 19 
 
 Blacklet's German -English Dictionary .. 6 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 18 
 
 Veterinary Art 18 
 
 Booth's Saint-Simon ."5 
 
 BouLTBEE on 39 Articles 13 
 
 BOTTRITE on Screw Propeller 12 
 
 's Catechism of the Steam Engine . . 12 
 
 Examples of Modern Engines . . 12 
 
 Handbook of Steam Engine — 12 
 
 Treatise on the Steam Engine 12 
 
 Improvements in the same 12 
 
 BowD lee's Family Shakspeaee 18 
 
 Botd's Reminiscences 3 
 
 Beamlet-Mooee's Six Sisters of the Valley 17 
 Beande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 9 
 
 Beat's (C.) Education of the Feelings 7 
 
 Philosophy of Necessity 7 
 
 On Force 7 
 
 Beowne's Exposition of the 39 Articles .... 13 
 
 Beunel'3 Life of Beun el 3 
 
 Buckle's History of Civilisation 1 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers 19 
 
 Maternal Management of Children . . 19 
 
 Bunsen's God in History 3 
 
 Prayers 13 
 
 Bueke's Vicissitudes of Families 4 
 
 Bubton'3 Christian Church 3 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 19 
 
 Campbell's Norway 15 
 
 Caenota's Memoirs of Pombal 3 
 
 Cates's Biographical Dictionary 4 
 
 Cats and Faelie's Moral Emblems 11 
 
 Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths 6 
 
 Chesnet's Indian Polity 2 
 
 ^Vaterloo Campaign 2 
 
 Chesnet's and Reeve's Military Essays . . 2 
 
 Chorale Book for England 11 
 
 Clough's Lives from Plutarch 2 
 
 CoLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book 
 
 of Joshua 14 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country 6 
 
 Conington's Translation of Virgil's ^neid 18 
 
 CoNTANSEAu's Two French Dictionaries . . 6 
 CoNTBE ARE and Howson's Life and Epistles 
 
 of St. Paul 14 
 
 Coopee's Surgical Dictionary 10 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine 11 
 
 Coulthaet's Decimal Interest Tables 19 
 
 Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit . . 6 
 
 Cox's (G. W.) Aryan Mythology S 
 
 Tale of the Great Persian War 2 
 
 Tales of Ancient Greece .... 17 
 
 Ceest's i-.ii<-ic'opa?dia of Civil Engineering 12 
 
 Critical Essays of a Country Parson 6 
 
 Ceookes on Beet-Root Sugar 13 
 
 's Chemical Analysis 9 
 
 Cullet's Handbook of Telegraphy 12 
 
 Cusack's Student's History of Ireland 2 
 
 D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation in 
 
 the time of Calvin 2 
 
 Davidson's Introduction to New Testament 14 
 
 Dend Shot (The), liy Marksman 18 
 
 De la Rite's Treatise on Electricity 8 
 
 Denison's Vice-Regal Life i 
 
 De Tocqueville's Democracy in America. 2 
 
 Disraeli's Lothair is 
 
 Novels and Tales 16 
 
 DoBSON on the Ox ig 
 
 Dove's Law of Storms s 
 
 Dotle's Fairyland n 
 
 Dyer's City of Rome 2 
 
 Eastlake's Gothic Revival 12 
 
 Hints on Household Taste .... 12 
 
 History of Oil Painting 11 
 
 Life of Gibson u 
 
 Edinburgh Review 20 
 
 Elements of Botany 9 
 
22 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Ellicott on the Revision of the English 
 
 New Testament 13 
 
 's Commentary on Ephesians .... 14 
 
 Lectures on Life of Christ .... 14 
 
 Commentary on Galatians .... 14 
 
 — Pastoral Epist. 14 
 
 ■ — ^ PhiUppians.&c. 14 
 
 Thessaloiiians 14 
 
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