:/( 'i^f^fi N ,«»a: f^ ' ■• -^f^} m / ^^§^§^S^M^S^§^S©@S®^ €B5n Agricultural Socictij. @ LIBRARY REGULATIONS. ^^ 1. Each member shall be entitled to take from tht- Library two volumes, on signing a receipt for the same, and agreeing to be accountable tlierefor. 2. No member shall keep any book more than two weeks, after being notified (by the Librarian) that the same is wanted by another member. 3. All books belonging to the Library, shall be returned on or before the 15th of November, in each year: that the same may be examined and the condition f'f the Library reported to the Trustees. 4. Any member who shall neglect or rcinse to eonforni to these Regulations, shall thereby forfeit i!ie privilege of taking books from the Library. Note. — All who have paid the initiatory fee of tin-ee dollars towards the funds of the Society ; all who have received certificates of membership l)y order of the Trus- tees ; and all ordained ministers of the gospel, resident within the countv. are considered as members. ^©^^^@®@€5@^€^-@^2}'>@€>@ TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 9090 013 413 378 Webster Famify Library' of Veterinary Medicine Cummif 3 School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts Ui /f'sity 200We.ljroRoad No:*Gii.on,MA01533 v«% ^ LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. THE HORSE; WITH A TREATISE ON DRAUGHT; A COPIOUS INDEX. PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. LONDON: BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, PATERNOSTER-ROW. MDCCCXXXI, OiA' Y6.7 COMMITTEE. Cka!>mayi~The Right Hon. the LORD CHANCELLOR. Vice Chairman— The Rt.. Hon. LORD JOHN RUSSELL, M.P. Treasurer— WILLIAM TOOKE, Esq., F.R.S. W. Allen, Esq ,F.R.&R.A.S. Rt. Hon. Vise. Althorp, M.P. Rt. Hon. Vise. Ashley, M.P., F. R. A. S. Rt. Hon. Lord Auckland. W.B. Baring, Esq., M.P. Capt. F.Beaufort, R.N., F.R. and R.A.S. C.Bell. Esq. F.R.S.,L.&E. John Conolly, IM.D. William Coulson, Esq. Win Crawford, Esq. J. Kred. Daniell, Esq., F.R.S. Sir T. Denman, M.P. Lieut. Drummond, R. E.,| F.R. A. S. Viscount Ebrington, M.P. Et.Hon. G.A.Ellis,M.A.,MP.| Aahburton — J. F.Kingston, Esq. Birmingham Local Association. Rev. John Currie, F.R.S. Chairtnan, Paul Moon James, Esq., Treasurer Jos. Parkes, Esq. 1 Hon. Wm. Redt'ern, Esq. J Sees. Bristol — J. N. Sanders, Esq., Chairman. J. Reynolds, Esq., Treas. J.B.Estlin,Esq.,F.L.S Sec. Cambridge — Rev. James Bow- stead, M.A. Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A. F.L.S. & G.S. Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S. Rev. John Lodge, M.A. Henry Maiden, Esq., M.A. Rev. Geo. Peacock, M.A., F R.S. & G.S. Marmaduke Ramsay, Esq., ALA., F.L.S. Rev.Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. &G.S. Professor Smyth, M.A . Rev. C. Thirlwall, M.A. Canton— I. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S. J. G. S. Lefevre, Esq., F.R S. Edward Lloyd, Esq , M.A. Jas. Loch, Esq., M.P., F.G S. George Long, Esq., A.M. J.W.Lubbock,Esq.F.R.,R.A., &L.S.S Dr. Lushington, D.C.L, T. F. Ellis, Esq., BI. A. F.R.A.S .John Elliotson, 1\LD., F.R.S How.Elphinstone,Esq.M.A. Thomas Falconer, Esq. I. L. Goldsmid, Esq., F. R and R.A.S ^_^ B.Gompertz,E.sq.,FR.&RAS.! Zachary Macau'lay, Esq G. B.Greenough, Esq., F.R. B. H. Malkin, Esq., M.A. and L.S. 1 A. T. Malkin, Esq., M.A. H.Hallam, Esq., F.R S.,M.A.l Rev. Edward Maltby, D. D, M. D. Hill, Esq I F.R.S. Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.S.' James Manning, Esa. E. Hill, Esq. F. O. Martin, Esq. John(;amHobhouse,Esq.,M.P. John Herman Merivale, Esq Leonard Horner, Esq., F.R S. David Jardine, Esq., A.M. Henry B. Ker, Esq., F.R.S. F.A.S. James i\HlI, Esq. James Morrison, Esq., M.P. Chichester— Tir. Forbes,F.R.S. iaunccioji— Rev. J. Barfitt. Br. Sanden, M. D. ILeajnint^'ton Spa— Dr. Loudon, C. C. Bendy, Esq. M.B. Co»/u— Profes. Thistlethwaite.| J. Marshall, Esq. Dcri.v— Joseph Strutt, Esq. 'ieedi— Benjamin Gott, Esq Wm. Strutt, Esq. i J. Marshall, Jim., Esq. Devo7iport — .M ajor J.Hamilton iewe*- — J. W. ^Voollgar, Esq. pool Local Association. th, F.R. & L.S Du/ilin — Hon. Thos. Vesey. Edinburgh— Ri}:hl Hon. the Lord Chief Baron. R. Greville, LLP. D. Ellis, Esq., F.R.S. Eras. .Jeffrey, Esq. Prof. Napier, F.K.S.E. AV. Thomson, Esq. Etruria — .Tos. Wedgwood, Esq. Exeter— Rev. J. P. Jones. J. Tyrrell, Esq. Glasgow — K. Finlay, Esq. D. Bannatyne, Ksq. Rt. Grahame, Esq. Professor Mylne. Alexander McGrigor, Esq. C. Macintosh, Esq., F.R.S, Mr. T. A tkinson, Hon. Secy Hun—r>\. Sykes, Esq., M.P.' Keighley, Yorkshire~V.ev. T. Dury, M. A. I Br. Traill, Cha J. IMulleneux, Esq., Treas, Rev. \V. Shepherd. J. Ashton Yates, Esq. \ Maidenhead — R.Goolden,Esq., ! F.L.S. Manchester Local Association. G.AV. Wood, Esq, C/iuirm. B. Heywood, Esq., Treas. T. \V. AV'instanley, Esq., Hon. Sec. Sir Geo. Philips, Bt., 1\LP. Monmouth — J. H, jloggridge, Esq. Nemcastle — James Losh, Esq. Rev. W. Turner. Nervport — Ab. Clarke, Esq. T. Cooke, Jun., Esq. R. G. Kirkpatrick, Esq. Newport Pagnell — James Mil- lar, Esq. Sir H. Pamell, Bart., M.P. Professor Patlisoii. T. Spring Rice, Esq., M.P., F.A.S. Dr.RoKel,Sec.R.S. F.R.A.S. J. Smith, Esq., M. P. Wm. Sturch, Esq. Dr. A. T. Thomson, F L.S. N. A. Vigors, Esq., F.R.S. H. Warburton, Esq., M.P,, F R.S. H. Waymouth, Esq. J. 'W'hishaw, Esq., M.A,, F.R.S. Mr. Serjeant A\'ilde. John Wood, Esq. IM.P. John Wroltesley, Esq., M.A. Sec. R.A.S. A'crw/cA— Rt.Hon.Ld.Sufueld. Rich. Bacon, Ksq. Plymo„ih— Geo. Harvey, Esq., F.R.S. Portsmouth— E. Carter, Esq. G. Grant, Esq. D. Howard, Esq. Rev. Dr. Inman, Nav. Col. Shefficld~J. H. Abraham, Esq. Shrewsbury- v.. A. Slaney, Esq., M. P. Soi///i Pctherlon—Jd\\n Nicho- lefts, Esq. Tavistock— Re-^. Wm. Evans. John Rundle, Esq. TrH.0— A\"illiam Peters, Esq. Warwick — The Rev. Wm. Field, iLcam.) Jrater/orrf— Sir John New- port, Bart., I\LP. Wolverhampton— J . Pearson, Esq. Worcester— Tir. Corbet, M.D. Dr. Hastings, M.D. C. H. Hebb, Esq. Yarmoulh—C E. RumboUl, Esq., ftl.P. I'or/c— Rev. J, Kenvitk, A.M. IHOMAS COAXES, Secretary, 5.% Lincoln's Inn Fields. CONTENTS Page Introduction • • • • • .1 Chapter I. GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE . 2 Earliest records of him : appears to have been first domesticated in Egypt, and thence propagated to other countries : the horse not cultivated in Arabia until the seventh century. Chapter II. THE DIFFERENT FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES 5 The wild horses of South America, method of catching and breaking them by the Gauchos : the wild horses of Tartary : the Barb : the Dongola : the Arabian, his varieties, beautiful form, fleetness, docility, affection of the Arab towards him, anecdotes of: the East Indian, his varieties : the Chinese : Persian,' beauty and value of: the Toorkoman: Tartar and Calmuc : Turkish: German: Swedish, Finland, and Norwegian : Iceland : Flemish and Dutch : French : Spanish ; Italian : Ame- rican. Chapter III. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE . 30 Horse of the early Britons: crossed by the Romans: improved by Athelstan and Howell the Good: not used for the plough until the tenth century: improved by William I. and Henry II. : neglected by the Crusaders: materially improved by John who imported many Flanders horses : by Edward II., who purchased thirty Lombardy horses: by Edward III., who introduced the Spanish horse, and had several running horses : more rapidly improved, however, when cumbrous armour was laid aside : the improvement arrested by the tyrannical and illiberal policy of Henry VIII., and under Elizabeth horses were diminished m number and value : under James I. the progress of improvement was hastened : Turkish and Barbary horses were introduced, and the first Arabian horse: races were now esta- blished : Charles I. was fond of horses : even Cromwell encouraged the improve- ment of the breed : at the restoration a new impulse was given under Anne, Ara- bians were again introduced : and about the middle of the eighteenth century the English horse had arrived at its state of highest perfection. Chapter IV. THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES 29 The roadster or hackney : description of him : the horse of all ^vork, the farmer's horse: the coach-horse, derived from the Cleveland bays : principle of draught: power of the horse: the pace killing: the heavy draught- horse ; the old Suffolk : the Clydesdale: the heavy black horse, too heavy: the dray-horse ; the cavalry- horse : the race-horse, question of his real origin, actually superior to the Arabian the Darley, Flying Childers, Eclipse, the Godolphin Arabian, the emulation of the race-horse, consequence of short races : the hunter, description of his proper breed and form, anecdotes of his love of the sport, usage of him, management of, ^vhen distressed, summering of: the Galloway: the Welsh pony: the New- Forester: the Exmoor pony: the Dartmoor: the Highland: the Shetland: the Irish horse. CONTENTS. Chapter V. Page ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE 61 Chapter VI. THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE 63 The head : frontal bones : frontal sinuses, used for the discovery of glanders : the parietal : temporal : arched form of the skull : designed strength of the base of the arch: occipital, attachment of the strong ligament of the neck to it: the sphenoid and eethmoid ; the brain: medullary and cineritious portions: the nerves: spinal cord : spinal nerves, consisting of fibres of sensation and motion, and others devoted to respiration : the sympathetic or organic nerve, at the base of the skull, devoted to nutrition and circulation. The ear, beauty of, indicative of temper, folly of cropping or singeing: the internal ear; beautiful mechanism of, the drum, the little bones, the expansion of the nerve. The eye; the lids, substitution for eye-brows, eye-lashes, tears, situation of lachrymal gland : the haw, beautiful mechanism of it, barbarous practice of destroying it : the conjunctiva: cornea, importance of its per- fect transparency, directions for examining it : the sclerotica : choroid coat, its black colour, the beautiful colour and use of the lucid carpet within the eye : the aqueous humour : iris : wall-eyed horse : the pupil, importance likewise of carefully examining it : the lens : vitreous humour : retina : theory of vision : shying : muscles of the eye : the one peculiar to quadrupeds to retract it from danger. Chapter VII. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND EYE . 100 Fracture of the skull: pressure on the brain: megrims: apoplexy: stomach- staggers, arising usually from mismanagement: mad staggers: locked jaw, or tetanus : epilepsy or fits : palsy : rabies or madness : neurotomy, method of per- forming the operation, diseases of the foot for which beneficial. Diseases of the eye : wounds : warts : enlargement of the haw : inflammation of the eye : opacities of the cornea : cataract : gutta serena, or glass eye. Chapter VIII. THE NOSE AND MOUTH, AND THEIR DISEASES 117 Anatomy of the nose : Roman noses : cartilage of the nose: turbinated bones: wideness of nostril, advantage of: importance of observing the colour of the mem- brane of the nose : discharge from the nose. Glanders, symptoms of, how distin- guished from strangles or cold : primarily a disease of the membrane of the nose: connected with farcy ; they are different forms of the same disease ; causes of con- tagion : hot and foul stables : debilitating disease: highly contagious: prevention: treatment. Farcy, a disease of the absorbents : farcy buds : symptoms : treatment. The lips, the organs of touch : lips, how formed : bearing rein, necessity for : bones of the mouth : the palate, method of bleeding from : lampas : the lower jaw, curious mechanism of the joint of, contrived to grind the food. Teeth, their growth and changes from the birth, as indicative of the age: wolves teeth : diseases of the teeth. Description of the tongue : vesicles under the tongue: the salivary glands: the parotid: the submaxillary and sublingual: strangles: canker in the mouth : wounds in the mouth : description of the pharynx. CONTENTS. Chapter IX. Page THE NECK . . . 152 Description of the neck : poll-evil : proper form of the neck : the splenius muscle : neck should be muscular at the bottom: the complexus major: ewe-necked: the muscles of the neck generally : arteries and veins of the neck : inflammation of the vein after bleeding: the wind-pipe: the larynx: roaring: the oesophagus or gullet. Chapter X. THE CHEST— ITS CONTENTS AND THEIR DISEASES 163 The proper form of the chest: forTia of as much importance as capacity : depth of chest, importance of : ribbed home. Anatomy of the spine : the bones of the spine connected by highly elastic substance : consequent ease in riding : contrivances for strength: broken-backed: comparison between the long and short-backed horse; saddle-backed: weak-backed. The loins: should be broad and muscular. The withers : advantage of high withers. The muscles of the back. Fistulous withers : warbles: sitfasts : saddle-galls. The ribs. The breast: muscles of the breast: being all abroad. Chest-founder : dropsical swellings between the fore-legs. Inside of the chest, diaphragm : the pleura : the mediastinum. The heart and its action : inflammation of the heart. The arteries. The pulse : its standard number : when quick, hard, small, weak, or oppressed : necessity of attending to the pulse. The capillaries. Inflammation, an increased flow of blood to and through the part : local and general : treatment of: cold or warm applications. Fever, or general in- creased arterial action: pure fever: symptomatic fever: treatment. The veins: bog and blood spavin. Bleeding; directions for: the fleam and lancet; bleeding places. The lungs: description of: change of blood in passing through them : capacious chest, advantage of. Inflammation of the lungs : symptoms : causes : treatment : consequences. Pleurisy. Catarrh, or common cold. Bronchilis. Ca- tarrhal fever. The malignant epidemic. Chronic cough. Thick-wind : broken-wind : the piper : wheezer : whistler : highblower : grunter. Chapter XI. THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES— THEIR DISEASES 197 The diaphragm. The stomach : stomach staggers : inflammation • poisons : bots. The intestines: the mesentery, duodenum, jejuiium, ileum, coecum, colon, rectum: spasmodic colic: calculi: intussusception: entanglement: inflammation of the bowels : over-purging : washy horses : worms : physicking : the best purgatives : rupture. The liver : inflammation of the liver : jaundice. The spleen. The pan- creas. The omentum. The kidneys : diuretic medicines, use and abuse of : inflam- mation of the kidney : profuse staling. The bladder : inflammation of the bladder ; stone in the bladder. Chapter XII. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING . 219 Form, constitution, diseases inherited : causes of deterioration of half-bred horses : the mare of as much importance in breeding as the horse : shape of mare and horse : breeding in and in : age at which mare is capable of breeding : time of heat : time of going with foal : management of mare with foal : when she has foaled : weaning foal : treatment of foal : importance of good feeding : process of breaking in begun from the period of weaning: actual breaking in: difi'erent steps of: necessity of implicit obedience, yet not enforced by cruelty : breaking in for the road or chase : bitting the colt : saddling : castration. CONTENTS. Chapter XIII. Page THE FORE-LEGS, AND THEIR DISEASES 227 The shoulder : sprain of the shoulder : slanting direction of the shoulder, import- ance of : how applicable to horses of heavy draught : muscle of the outside of the shoulder : trapesius : levator humeri : serratus : sterno-maxillaris : spinati : pec- torals : the lower bone of the shoulder : the arm : the elbow : principle of the lever applied to it : the extensor muscles : the flexors : disadvantage at which they act : the perforated muscle: the perforating: the arm should be long: the knee: broken knees : the leg : splent : speedy-cut : tied in below the knee : sprain of the back sinews: necessity of attention to any thickening on them : windgalls : the pasterns: the suspensory ligaments : obliquity of the pastern : rupture of the suspensory liga- ment : the fetlock : grogginess : cutting : bones of the pasterns : sprain of the cof- fin-joint : ring-bone : position of the legs. Chapter XIV. THE HINDER LIMBS AND THEIR DISEASES 256 The haunch : being ragged-hipped : width of haunch: the thigh: muscles, of the inside of the thigh : the sartorius : gracilis : muscles of the outside of the thigh : the gluttei : great trochanter of the thigh, importance of : sprain of the round bone : the stifle: the extensor pedis muscle: the peronseus: the flexor pedis: thorough- pin: the hock: enlargement of the hock: curb: bog-spavin; bone-spavin: other lameness of the hock : the point of the hock : capped hock : mallenders and sallen- ders : cow-hocks : stringhalt : swelled legs : grease, cause and treatment of : washing the heels : danger of cutting the hair from the heels. Chapter XV. THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT . 280 The crust or wall of the foot : the inner heel should not be too much cut away: the coronary ligament : the coronary ring : the frog-band : the crust : colour of: the bars: folly of destroying them: the frog : the sole : the coffin-bone : the sensible sole : the sensible frog : the navicular bone : the cartilages of the foot. Chapter XVI. DISEASES OF THE FOOT . . 289 Inflammation of the foot, or acute founder : pumiced feet : chronic founder : con- traction : the navicular -joint disease : sand-crack : tread or over-reach : false-quar- ter : quittor: prick, or wound in the foot: corns: thrush: canker: ossification of the cartilages ; weakness of the foot. Chapter XVII. ON SHOEING • . ,311 The concave seated shoe : preparation of the foot : putting on of the shoe : cal- kins : clips: the hind-shoe: the hunting-shoe : the bar-shoe: tips: the expanding shoe : felt or leather soles; Chapter XVIII. OPERATIONS ... 320 The trevis : the side-line : the hobbles : the twitch : the barnacles : bleeding : blistering: firing: setons : docking: nicking. CONTENTS. vii Chapter XIX. Page VICES AND BAD HABITS . . 350 Restiveness: Jumper the horse-breaker : King Pippin, anecdote of : Sullivan the Irish whisperer : backing or gibbing : biting : getting the check of the bit into the mouth: kicking: unsteadiness while being mounted: rearing: running away: vicious to clean : vicious to shoe : swallowing without grinding : crib-biting: wind- sucking : cutting : not lying down : overreach : pawing : quidding : rolling : shying: shpping the collar : tripping : weaving. Chapter XX. THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 345 Air : litter : light : grooming : exercise : food : manger-feeding : oats : barley : grains : wheat : beans : peas : grass : hay : tares : rye-grass : clover : lucern : saint- foin : Swedish turnip : carrots : potatoes : furze : nutritive matter in the different articles of food : the times of feeding should be equally divided : water : manage- ment of the feet. Chapter XXI. SOUNDNESS . . ,351 The grand principle of : supposed causes of unsoundness : broken knees : capped hocks: contraction: corns: cough: roaring: wheezing: whistling: high-blowing: grunting : broken wind : crib-biting : curb : cutting : enlarged glands . enlarged hock : the eyes : lameness : neurotomy : ossification of the lateral cartilages : pumiced foot: quidding: quittor : ringbone: sandcrack : spavin: blood spajin : splent : stringhalt : thickening of the back sinews : thoroughpin : thrush : windgalls. irorm of warrantry : the horse must be unsound or vicious at the time of sale : no price will imply a warranty : a warranty after the sale invalid : to complete the purchase there must be a transfer, a memorandum, or partial payment : notice of unsound- ness not legally required, yet advisable : prudent to refrain from all medical treat- ment : where no warranty, an action may be brought on the ground of fraud : ex- changes considered on the same ground as simple sales : the allowance of trial : laws of the principal Repositories. Chapter XXI. THE SKIN ... 369 Hide bound : the hair : pores of the skin : moulting : clipping : colour of the horse : surfeit : mange : warts. Chapter XXII. MEDICINES USED IN VETERINARY PRACTICE 381 Aloes: alteratives: alum : hartshorn: sal-ammoniac : anodynes : black antimony: emetic tartar: antimonial powder : butyr of antimony: antispasmodics: arsenic: astringents: balls: blisters : bole -Armenian: burgundy pitch : calamine: calomel: camphor: cantharides : carraways : castor oil: catechu : caustics : chalk: chamo- mile : charcoal : charger : clysters : verdigris : blue vitriol : cordials : corrosive sub- limate: cream of tartar : croton : diaphoretics: digestives: digitalis : diuretics : drinks : elder : epsom-salts : fomentations : gentian : ginger : Goulard s extract : hel- lebore : hemlock: infusions: iodine: green vitriol : oil of juniper: lard: sugar of lead: white lead: chloride of lime: liniments: linseed: lotions: mashes: mercu- rial ointment: .^Ethiop's mineral: mint: myrrh: nitre: spirit of nitrous sether : oil of olives : opium: palm oil : pitch : physic: poultices : powders : raking . resin . rowels: salt: sedatives: lunar caustic : chloride of soda : soap: starch: stoppings: sulphur: tar: tinctures: tobacco: tonics: turpentine: vinegar; wax: white CONTENTS. Page ON DRAUGHT . . 403 The power of the horse, how calculated: difference of opinion as to wheels: draught regarded as to the act of drawing, and the resistance to the power employed : the moving power. Animal power is the application of the strength of an animal • and mechanical power is power employed through the intervention of machinery : horse power and that of the steam-engine compared, as to interest of first cost decrease of value, hazard of loss or accidents, value of food, or coals and water renewals and repairs, harness, shoeing, farriery, stabling, and expense of attendance : the power of draught, or effect produced by each : the obstacles to be overcome in the use of machinery. The manner in which the animal adapts himself to his load : errors with regard to this in some ancient sculptures : real action of the horse in walking, trotting, and galloping. The resistance to draught should be rigid, and void of elasticity, but should not be constant and unremitting : a horse pulls better when close to his work : the disadvantage of long teams. The effect of draught depends on the speed, the power of the animal, and the time employed: calculation and com- parison of these : the hours of labour should not exceed six hours : the rapid reduc- tion of the power of the horse when his speed is increased. A flat piece of road more destructive to the horse, than one with alternate rises and falls. Best direction of the traces : should be nearly horizontal, but varying with the kind of horse, and na- ture of the work and road: inclining the traces downward, the same as throwing a part of the load on the shafts. Ancient mode of harnessing : the collar in the time of Homer : explanation of the power of the South American lasso. The advantage of transporting goods by water, consists in the smallness of power required; this rapidly increasing with the speed : calculation of the draught of a canal boat. The advantages and disadvantages of sledges and rollers : manner in which the rock forming the pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great was moved on rollers : the best construction of the roller. Description of the ancient war chariots : the mechanical advantage of the wheel increased in proportion to its height: the resistance depends on the friction at the axle : comparative advantages of different materials as used for axles : axles working in iron boxes : calculation of the force of draught required for a four-wheeled cart on different roads : comparison between narrow and broad wheels : description of dishing the wheels, and advantage of : comparison between conical and cylindrical wheels : injury received by the roads by different wheels : the cylindrical wheel a little dished, and the edges rounded off, is the best : ruts form a great resistance to draught : the hind wheels should exactly follow the track of the fore ones : description of Jones's patent wheels : the expense and weight must limit the height of the wheels : the fore-wheels usually too small : the comparative ad- vantages of two and four-wheeled carriages : two wheeled carts with two horses, disadvantageous. Springs should never be applied to give any longitudinal elas- ticity to the carriage : disadvantage of C springs on this account : advantage of springs : Mr. D. Giddy's theory of wheels and springs : springs particularly advanta- geous when much velocity is required : loading high, although dangerous, makes the carriage run light : the safety coaches, by having the load low, very disadvantageous. Hardness, the great desideratum in roads : great rounding of the road useless, and injurious : a rise of six or eight inches in a road twenty feet wide, quite sufficient : hardness of surface, how best secured : constant repairs and attention, on the whole, most economical. Great advantage of railways : the power of the horse increased tenfold on a railway. LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, THE FARMERS SERIES. INTRODUCTION. The Farmer's Series will consist of Treatises upon subjects most inter- esting to persons employed in the various branches of agriculture, and to those, generally, who reside in the country. It naturally begins with con- sidering the Animals which constitute the most valuable part of the farmer's property; — their origin; — their different breeds; — their structure; — the most economical, and profitable, and humane method of treating them ; — and the art of rendering their services more extensive and permanent, and their health and comfort more secure. It is hoped that these volumes will contribute to the amusement, the improvement, and the profit of the farmer and the cottager ; and better the condition both of himself and of the animals intrusted to his care. They may afford him a pleasant companion at his winter's fire-side, — a useful counsellor when em- ployed in the labours of his station, — and a help to raise his mind to a serious, but delightful contemplation of the objects which Providence has spread around us for our admiration and our use. Under this first great division will be considered those animals which aid the power of man — the horse, ox, ass, mule, dog — those which supply food and clothing — horned cattle, sheep, swine, goats, poultry, rabbits, bees — those which are hurtful — the fox, w^azel, rat, mole, insects. In treating the subject of domestic animals, their history, various kinds, structure and habits, feeding and treatment when young, management when worked, and diseases, will be successively considered. The General Principles of Agriculture \\\\\ form the other great division of this series ; and under this head will be treated whatever relates to the nature of soils and manures — the rotation of crops — farm -buildings and machinery — sheep-farming and dairy-farming, so far as these may not have been considered under the head of sheep and cattle — potatoes and spade husbandry — wood and timber. There is a class of subjects which, though not exclusively interesting to country people, belong more to them than to others ; brewing, baking, washing and bleaching, land-measuring, road-making, bridge-building, quarrying, lime-burning, &c. These will be discussed in treatises occa- sionally introduced in the progress of this series. At the head of those animals which have been domesticated by, or ren- dered useful to, man, — whether we regard his noble form, his great saga- city, or the manner in which he is connected with our profit and our pleasure, — stands the Horse. B THE HORSE. Chapter I. GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. Hacknei/. Arabian. Hunter. Into this and the various breeds of horses, we shall enter at some length ; and although the more practical division of the Treatise will be thereby necessarily postponed imtil the next monthly part, we shall not, even at present, forget the name of the Library to which it belongs, but endeavour to blend the 2iseful with the entertaining. The native country of the horse cannot with certainty be traced. He has been found, varying materially in size, in form, and in utility, in all the temperate, in most of the sultry, and in many of the northern regions of the Old World. In the Sacred Volume, which, beside its higher claims to stand at the head of the Farmer's Library, contains the oldest authentic record of past transactions, we are told that, so early as 1650 years before the birth of Christ, the horse had been domesticated by the Egyptians. When Joseph carried his father's remains from Egypt to Canaan, *' there went up with him both chariots and horsemen *." One hundred and fifty years afterwards, the horse constituted the principal strength of the Egyptian army. Pharaoh piu'sued the Israelites with " six hundred chosen chariots, and with all the chariots of Egypt t-" If we could believe the accounts of the uninspired historians, Sesostris (the monarch probably whom Joseph served) had twenty-seven thousand chariots of war; and Semiramis, the founder of Babylon, had one hundred thousand chariots, and a million of horsemen ; but this was probably a great exaggeration. Fifty years after the expulsion of the Israelites from Egypt, and 1450 years before the birth of Christ, the horse was so far naturalized in Greece, * Gen.i. 9. f Exod. xvi. 7, ITS HISTORY. 3 that the Olympic games were instituted, ineliidino' chariot and horse races. We have, therefore, sufficient evidence that the horse was, at a very early period, subjected to the dominion of man, and, unfortunately, for the worst of purposes, — the business of war. From the records of the Old Testament, we are likewise enabled to ascertain the precise period of time, when in Egypt and Canaan, and the neighbouring countries, this animal began to be domesticated. 1920 years before the birth of Christ, when Abraham, having left Haran, in obedience to the divine command, was driven into Egypt by the famine which raged in Canaan *, Pharaoh offered him sheep and oxen, and asses and camels. Horses would doubtless have been added, had they then existed, or had they been subdued in Egypt. When, fifty years afterwards, Abraham journeyed to Mount Moriah, to oflPer up his only son, he rode upon an ass, which, with all his wealth and power, he would scarcely have done, had the horse been known f. Thirty years later, when Jacob returned to Isaac with Rachel and Leah, an account is given I of the number of oxen, sheep, camels, goats» and asses, which he sent to appease the anger of Esau, but not one horse is mentioned. It is not until twenty-four years after this, when the famine devas- tated Canaan II, and Jacob sent into Egypt to buy corn, that horses are first heard of " Waggons," probably carriages drawn by horses, were sent by Joseph into Canaan to bring his father to Egypt. It would seem, however, that horses had been but lately introduced, and were not numerous, or not used as beasts of burden ; for the whole of the corn, which was to be conveyed some hundred miles, and was to afford subsistence for Jacob's large household, was carried on asses. It appears, then, that about 1740 years before Christ, horses were first used in Egypt; but they soon afterwards became so numerous as to form a considerable proportion of the Egyptian army : and when the Israelites returned into Canaan, the horse had been introduced and na- turalized there ; for the Canaanites ** went out to fight against Israel with horses and chariots very many§," The sacred volume, therefore, clears up a point upon which ho other record throws any light, — namely, the period when the horse first became the servant of man, at least in one part of the world, and that the most ad- vanced in civilization, and before Greece was peopled. A long time must have elapsed before man was able to ascertain the value and peculiar use of the animals that surrounded him. He would begin with the more subordi- nate — those which were most easily caught, and most readily subdued ; and the benefits which he derived from their labours would induce him to attempt the conquest of superior quadrupeds. In accordance with this, the writings of Moses shew us that, after the ox, the sheep, and the goat, man subdued the ass, and then the camel, and, last of all, the horse became his servant : and no sooner was he subdued, and his strength and docihty and sagacity appreciated, than the others were comparatively disregarded, except in Palestine, where the use of the horse was forbidden by divine authority, and on extensive and barren deserts, where he could not live^. *Gen. xii. 16. f Gen. xxii. 3. | Gen. xxxii. 14. II Gen. xlv. \d. § Joshua xi. 4. «f[ When Sir Gore Ouseley travelled through Persia, and the different countries of the East, he examined, among other relics of antiquity, the sculptures on the ruins of Perse- B 2 4 THE HORSE. From Egypt the use of tlie horse was propagated to other and distant lands ; and, probably, the horse himself was first transmitted from Egypt to several countries. The Greeks affirm, that Neptune struck the earth with his trident, and a horse appeared. The truth is, that the Thessalians, the first and most expert of the Grecian horsemen, and likewise the inha- bitants of Argos and of Athens, were colonists from Egypt. The Bible hkewise decides another point, that Arabia, by whose breed of horses those of other countries have been so much improved, was not the native place of the horse. Six hundred years after the time just referred to, Arabia had no horses. Solomon imported spices, gold, and silver, from Arabia*; but all the horses for his own cavalry and chariots, and those with which he supplied the Phoenician monarchs, he procured from Egypt t- In the seventh century after Christ, when Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had but two horses in his whole army ; and at the close of his murderous campaign, although he drove off twenty-four thousand camels, and forty thousand sheep, and carried away twenty-four thousand ounces of silver, not one horse appears in the list of plunder. There is a curious record of the commerce of ditferent countries at the close of the second century. Among the articles exported from Egypt to Arabia, and particularly as presents to reigning monarchs, were horses. In the fourth century two himdred Cappadocian horses were sent by the Roman emperor, as the most acceptable present he could offer a powerful prince of Arabia. So late as the seventh century, the Arabs had few horses, and those of little value. These circumstances sufficiently prove that, however superior may be the present breed, it is comparatively lately that the horse was naturalized in Arabia. The horses of Arabia itself, and of the south-eastern parts of Europe, are clearly derived from Egypt ; but whether they were there bred, or im- ported from the south-w estern regions of Asia, or, as is more probable, brought from the interior, or northern coasts of Africa, cannot with cer- tainty be determined. polls, and he draws from them a curious and interesting conclusion as to the manner in wliich the horse was gradually subdued. " There are no figures," says he, •' moxuited on horseback, although some travellers have mentioned horsemen among those sculptures. One v/ould think that the simple act of mounting on a horse's back would naturally have preceded the use of wheel-carriages and their complicated harness ; yet no horsemen are found at Persepolis ; and we know Homer's horses are represented in chariots from which the warriors sometimes descended to combat on foot, but the poet has not described them as fighting on horseback. The absence of mounted figures might authorize an opinion that those sculptures had been executed before the time of Cyrus, whose precepts and example first inspired the Persians with a love of equestrian exercises, of which, before his time, they were wholly ignorant." — vol. ii. p. 27G. * 2 Chron.ix. 14. f 2 Chron. i. 17. I The historian gives us the price of the horse and the chariot at that time. A horse brought from Egypt, including, probably, the expense of the joiu-ney, cost one hundred and fifty shekels of silver, which, at two shillings, three pence, and one half farthing each, amounts to about seventeen pounds two shillings. A chariot cost six hundred shekels, or sixty-eight pounds, eight shillings; a most enormous sum at that early period, but little to him who expended more than thirty-five millions of pounds, in gold alone, to ornament the Temple which he had built. ITS HISTORY— BREEDS. Chapter II. THE DIFFERENT FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES, THE WILD HORSE. Troops of wild horses are found in the plains of Great Tartary, and also in several parts of South America. In neither, however, can we recognise an original race. The horses of the Ukraine, and those of South America, are equally the descendants of those who had escaped from the slavery of man. The Tartar horses are fleet and strong, but comparatively of an ordinary breed. Those of South America retain, almost unimpaired, the size and form of their European ancestors. In no part of America, or of the more newly- discovered islands of the Pacific, was the horse known, until he w^as introduced by Europeans ; and the origin of the horses of Tartary has been clearly traced to those who were employed in the siege of Azoph, in 1657, but which were turned loose for want of forage. All travellers, who have crossed the plains extending from the shores of La Plata to Patagonia, have spoken of numerous droves of wild horses. Some affirm that they have seen ten thousand in one troop. They appear to be under the command of a leader, the strongest and boldest of the herd, and whom they implicitly obey. A secret instinct teaches them that their safety consists in their union, and in a principle of subordination. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard*, are their principal enemies. At some signal, intel- ligible to them all, they either close into a dense mass, and trample their enemy to death; or, placing the mares and foals in the centre, they form themselves into a circle and welcome him with their heels. In the attack, their leader is the first to face the danger, and, when prudence demands a retreat, they follow his rapid flight. In the thinly inhabited parts of South America it is dangerous to fall in with any of these troops. The wild horses approach as near as they dare : they call to the loaded horse with the greatest eagerness, and, if the rider be not on the alert, and have not considerable strength of arm, and sharpness of spur, his beast will divest himself of his burden, take to his heels, and be gone for ever. Captain Head gives the following account of a meeting with a troop of wild horses, where the country is more thickly inhabited. Some poor cap- tured animals are supposed to be forced along by their riders at their very utmost speed: — "As they are thus galloping along, urged by the spur, it is interesting to see the groups of wild horses one passes. The mares, which are never ridden in South America, seem not to understand what makes the poor horse carry his head so low, and look so weary t- The little innocent colts come running to meet him, and then start away fright- ened : while the old horses, whose white marks on the flanks and backs * These animals are of a different race from those which go under the same names in the Old World, and are very inferior in strength. f An EngUshman once attempted to ride a mare, but he was hooted and pelted by the natives, and thought himself fortunate to escape without serious injury. Sir John Carr, in his Northern Summer, p. 44, states that it is only a short time since mares began to be ridden in Russia. 6 THE HORSE. betray their acquaintance with the spur and saddle, walk slowly away for some distance, then, breaking into a trot as they seek their safety, snort and look behind them, first with one eye and then with the other, turning their nose from right to left, and carrying their long tail high in the air*." The same pleasing writer describes the system of horse-management among the rude inhabitants of the plains of South America. They have no stables, no fenced pastures. One horse is usually kept tied at the door of the hut, fed scantily at night on maize ;. or at other times several may be enclosed in the corral, which is a circular space surrounded by rough posts, driven firmly into the ground. The mares are never ridden, or attempted to be tamed, but wander with their foals wherever they please. When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of the plains, wants horses for himself or for the supply of the traveller, he either goes with his lasso to the corral, and selects those, possibly, who on the preceding day had for the first time been backed, or he scampers across the plain, and presently returns with an unwilling, struggling, or subdued captive. When the services of the animals have been exacted, he either takes them to the corral, and feeds them with a small quantity of maize, if he thinks he shall presently need them again, or he once more turns them loose on the plains. Travellers give some amusing accounts of the manner in which all this is effected — Miers t thus describes the lasso, simple in its construction, but all-powerful in the hands of the Gaucho. " The Lasso is a missile weapon used by every native of the United Provinces and Chile. It is a very strong plaited thong of equal thickness, half an inch in diameter, and forty feet long ; made of many strips of green hide, plaited like a whipthong, and rendered supple by grease. It has, at one end, an iron ring above an inch and a half in diameter, through which the thong is passed, and this forms a running noose. The Gaucho, or native Peon, is generally mounted on horseback when he uses the lasso. One end of the thong is affixed to his saddle girth : the remainder he coils carefully in his left hand, leaving about twelve feet belonging to the noose- end, in a coil, and a half of which he holds in his right hand. He then swings this long noose horizontally round his head, the weight of the iron ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a continued circular motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of the line." When the Gauchos wish to have a grand breaking-in, they drive a whole herd of wild horses into the corral. — " The corral was quite full of horses, most of which were young ones about two or three years old. The capi- /«r (chief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady horse, rode into the corral and threw his lasso over the neck of a young horse, and dragged him to the gate. For some time he was very unwilling to leave his comrades ; but the moment he was forced out of the corral, his first idea was to gal- lop away : however a timely jerk of the lasso checked him in the most ef- fectual way. The peons now ran after him on foot and threw a lasso over his fore-legs just above the fetlock, and twitching it, they pulled his legs from under him so suddenly, that I really thought the fall he got had killed him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated on his head, and with his long- knife, and in a few seconds, cut off the whole of the horse's mane, while another cut the hair from the end of his tail. This they told me was a mark that the horse had been once mounted. They then put a piece of hide into his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide halter on his head. The Gaucho who was to mount, arranged his spurs, which were unusually * Head's Journey across the Pampas, p. 258. f Miers' Travels in Chile, vol, i. p. 88 WILD BREEDS. lono- and sharp*, and while two men held the horse by his ears, he put on the'saddle, which he girthed extremely tight. He then caught hold of the horse's ear, and in an instant vaulted into the saddle ; upon which the man who held the horse by the halter threw the end to the rider, and from that moment no one seemed to take any further notice of him. "The horse instantly began to jump in a manner which made it very diffi- cult for the rider to keep his seat, and quite different from the kick or pluno-e of an English horse: however, the Gaucho's spurs soon set him o-oiiiS and off he galloped, doing everything in his power to throw his rider ^ "Another horse was immediately brought from the corral, and so quick was the operation, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which I think hardly exceeded an hour. It was wonderful to see the different manner in which different horses behaved. Some would actually scream while the Gauchos were girding the saddle upon their backs ; some would instantly lie down and roll upon it; while some would stand without being: held— their legs stiff, and in unnatural positions, their necks half bent towards their tails, and looking vicious and obstinate ; and I could not help thinkino- that I would not have mounted one of those for any reward that could be offered me, for they were invariably the most difficult to subdue. "It was now curious to look around and see the Gauchos on the horizon in different directions, trying to bring their horses back to the corral, which is the most difficult part of their work; for the poor creatures had been so scared there that they were unwilling to return to the place. It was amusing to see the antics of the horses-they were jumping and dancing in different ways, while the right arm of the Gauchos was seen flogging them. At last they brought the horses back, apparently subdued, and broken in. The saddles and bridles were taken off, and the young horses trotted oflf towards the corral, neighing to one anotherf. When the Gaucho wishes to take a wild horse, he mounts one that has been used to the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon as he comes suffi- ciently near his prey, " the lasso is thrown round the two hind legs, and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled horses feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, without endangering his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his mouth one of the power- ful bridles of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him, removes the poncho ; upon which the astonished horse sprmgs on his legs and endeavours by a thousand vain efforts to disencumber himsef of his new master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete obedience that he s soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the captm-e of his companions. J" * The manufacture of the Gaucho's boots is somewhat singular.-" The boots of the Gauchos anormed of the ham and part of the leg-skin of a colt taken reekmg from the Whole making a neat and elegant half-boot, with an aperture sufficient for the great toe ta project through."— Andrews's Journey in South America, vol. i. p. ib. t SHalirj:Ln^^^^^^^^^^ i. p. 151. The Jesuit Dobrl^hoffer, intifSi'tfrf of tTbUe^ a nation of Pa aguay, and speaking of t, tamed h^^^^^^^ (vol. ii. p. 113,) says, that " stirrups are not m general use. The men leap on mexr 8 THE HORSE. These animals possess much of the form of the Spanish horse, from which they sprung; they are tamed, as has been seen, with far less difficulty than could be thought possible; and, although theirs is the obedience of fear, and enforced at first by the whip and spur, there are no horses whoso soon and so perfectly exert their sagacity and their power in the service of man. They are possessed of no extraordinary speed, but they are capable of enduring immense fatigue. They are frequently ridden 60 or 70 miles without drawing bit, and have been urged on by the cruel spur of the Gaucho, more than a hundred miles, and at the rate of twelve miles in the hour. Like the Arab horses, they know no intermediate pace between the walk and the gallop. Although at the end of a day so hard, their sides are horribly mangled, and they completely exhausted, there is this consolation for them, — they are immediately turned loose on the plains, and it will be their own fault if they are speedily caught again. The mare is occa- sionally killed for food, and especially on occasions of unusual festivity. General San Martin, during the war for independence, gave a feast to the Indian aUies attached to his army ; and mares' flesh, and the blood mixed with gin, formed the whole of the entertainment. On such dry and sultry plains the supply of water is often scanty, and then a species of madness seizes on the horses, and their gene- rous and docile qualities are no longer recognized. They rush violently into every pond and lake, savagely mangling and trampling upon one another ; and the carcases of many thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows, have occasionally been seen in and around a considerable pool. This is one of the means by which the too rapid increase of this quadruped is, by the ordinance of Nature, there prevented. The wild horses of Tartary, although easily domesticated, materially differ in character from those on the plains of South America. They will not suffer a stranger to join them. If a domesticated horse comes in their way, unprotected by his master, they attack him with their teeth and their heels, and speedily destroy him. They readily submit, however, to the do- minion of man, and become perfectly docile and faithful. Among the Tartars, the flesh of the horse is a frequent article of food ; and although they do not, hke the Indians of the Pampas, eat it raw, their mode of cookery would not be very inviting to the European epicure. They cut the muscular parts into slices, and place them under their saddles, and after they have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat becomes tender and sodden, andfit for their table ; and, at all their feasts, the first and last and most favourite dish, is a horse's head. When water was not at hand, the Scythians used to draw blood from their horses, and drink it ; and the dukes of Muscovy, for nearly two hundred and sixty years, presented Tartar ambassadors with the mflk of mares. If any of this milk fell upon the mane of the horse, the duke, by custom, was bound to lick it off. Troops of wild horses are occasionally met with in the central parts of Africa, in the island of St. Domingo, on the deserts of Arabia, and in a few other parts of the world ; but no where do they equal the domesti- cated horse in form, strength, or even speed. horse on the right side. In the right hand they grasp the hridle, and in the left a very long spear, leaning on which, they jump with the impulse of both feet, and then fall right upon the horse's back." THE BARB. Thf. Godolphhi Arabian. It has already been stated, that the earliest records we have of the horse trace him to Egypt, whence he gradually found his way to Arabia and Persia, and the provinces which were colonized from Egypt ; and thence to the other parts of the old world. But Egypt is not now a breeding country, and it does not appear to possess those requisites which could ever have constituted it one. Without, however, entering into the question whether the horse was primarily the inhabitant of some particular region, whence other parts were gradually supplied, or whether it was common to many countries, but differing in each ; we have stated it to be probable that the horses of Egypt, the earliest on record, were derived from the neighbour- ing and interior districts of Africa. Therefore, in giving a very summary account of the most celebrated and useful breeds of different countries, it is natural to begin with those of Africa. At the head of these is the Barb, from Barbary, and particularly from Morocco and Fez, and the interior of Tripoli ; and remarkable for his fine and graceful action. It is rather lower than the Arabian, seldom exceeding fourteen hands and an inch. The shoulders are flat, the chest round, the joints inclined to be long, and the head particularly beautiful. The Barb is de- cidedly superior to the Arab in form, but has not his spirit, or speed, or countenance. The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Spanish horse ; and, when the improvement of the breed of horses began to be systemati- cally pursued in Great Britain, the Barb was very early introduced. The Godolphin Arabian, as he is called, of whom we have presented our readers with a cut, and who was the origin of some of our best racing blood, was a Barb ; and others of our most celebrated turf- horses trace their descent from African mares. More in the centre of Africa, in the kingdom of Bournou, is a breed, which Mr. Tully, in his almost romantic history of TripoU, reckons superior even to those of Arabia or Barbary ; it possesses the best qualities of both 10 THE HORSE. those breeds, being as serviceable as that of Arabia, and as beautiful as that of Barbary. In the more southern and western districts of Africa, and particularly in the neighbourhood of the Guinea Coast, the breed of horses is very in- ferior. They are small, weak, unsafe, and untrac table. But neither horses, nor any other produce of value, can be looked for in those unhappy countries, so long as they are desolated by the infernal slave-trade inflicted upon them by the most civilized, but truly unchristian, nations of E\irope. THE DONGOLA HORSE. The kingdom of Dongola, and the neighbouring districts lying between Egypt and Abyssinia, contain a horse not at all like any other oriental. The " Dongola horses stand full sixteen hands high, but the length of the body, from the shoulders to the quarter, is considerably less. Their form, therefore, is opposite to that of the Arabian, or English thorough-bred, which are longer by some inches than they are high. The neck is long and slender, the crest fine, and the withers sharp and high, giving a beautiful forehand ; but the breast is too narrow, the quarters and flanks too flat, and the back carped. They constitute excellent war-horses, from their speed, durability, and size. Several of them have lately been imported into Eu- rope, but they are little valued. Possibly, with three-part-bred mares, they might improve our cavalry horses." Bosman, whose descriptions prove him to be no bad horseman, thus speaks of them, but in somewhat too flattering a manner. "The Dongola horses are the most perfect in the world, being beautiful, symmetrical in their parts, nervous and elastic in their movements, and docile and affectionate in their manners. One of these horses was sold in 1816, at Grand Cairo, for a sum equivalent to 1000/." Mr. Bruce tells us, that the best African horses are said to be descended from one of the five on which Mahomet and his four immediate succes- sors fled from Mecca to Medina, on the night of the Hegira. He thus accounts for very singular and opposite customs among the Arabs and Africans. " No Arab ever mounts a stallion : on the contrary, in Africa they never ride mares. The reason is plain. — The Arabs are constantly at war with their neighbours, and always endeavour to take their enemies by surprise in the o-rey of the evening, or the dawn of day. A stallion no sooner smells the stale of the mare in the enemy's quarters, than he begins to neigh, and that would give the alarm to the party intended to be surprised. No such thing can ever happen when they ride mares only. On the con- trary, the Funge trust only to superior force. They are in an open, plain country — must be discovered at many miles distance — and all such sur- prises and stratagems are useless to them." THE ARABIAN. Going further eastward we arrive at Arabia, whose horses deservedly occupy the very highest rank. THE ARABIAN. 11 The JFellesley Arabian. A few wild horses are yet seen on some of the deserts of Arabia. They are hunted by the Bedouins for their flesh, which is considered a delicacy, if the animal be young ; and also to increase their stock of inferior horses, which they often palm on the merchant as descended from the sacred breed. They are said to be even swifter than the domesticated horse, and are usually taken by traps hidden in the sand. Mr. Bruce, however, doubts whether any wild horses are now found in Arabia Deserta *. Although in the seventh century the Arabs had no horses of value, yet the Cappadocian and other horses, which they had derived from their neigh- bours, were preserved with so much care, and propagated so uniformly and strictly from the finest of the breed, that in the thirteenth century the Arabian horse began to assume a just and unrivalled celebrity. There are said to be three breeds or varieties of Arabian horses : — the Aitechi, or inferior breed, on which they set little value, and which are found wild on some parts of the deserts ; the Kadischi, literally horses of an unknown race, answering to our half-bred horses — a mixed breed ; and the Kochlani, horses whose genealogy, according to the Arab account, is known for two thousand years. Many of them have written and attested pedigrees extending more than four hundred years, and, with true Eastern exaggeration, traced by oral tradition from the stud of Solo- mon. A more careful account is kept of these genealogies than belongs to the most ancient family of the proudest Arab chief, and very singular precautions are taken to prevent the possibility of fraud, so far as the written pedigree extends. The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Arabs, in the remoter deserts. A stallion may be procured without much difficulty, although at a great price. A mare is rarely to be obtained, except by fraud and excessive bribery. The Arabs have found out that which the English breeder should never forget, that the female is more concerned than the male in the excellence and value of the produce ; and the genealogies of their horses are always reckoned from the mothers. The Arabian horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to pos- * Bruce's Travels, vol. vi. p. 430, 12 THE HORSE. sess a perfect form : his head, however, is inimitable. The broadness and squareness of the forehead, the shortness and fineness of the muzzle, the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the smallness of the ears, and the beautiful course of the veins, will always characterise the head of the Arabian horse. His body may be considered as too light, and his chest as too narrow ; but behind the arms the barrel generally swells out, and leaves sufficient room for the play of the lungs. In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head, the Arab is superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder-blade inclined backward, and so nicely adjusted, that in descending a hill the point or edge of the ham never ruffles the skin. He may not be thought sufficiently high ; he seldom stands more than fourteen hands two inches. The fineness of his legs, and the obhque position of his pasterns, may be supposed to lessen his apparent strength ; but the leg, although small, is flat and wiry; anatomists know that the bone has no common density, and the starting muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is fully capable of accomplishhig many of the feats which are recorded of him. The Barb alone excels him in noble and spirited action ; and if there be defects about him, he is perfect for that for which he was designed. He presents the true combination of speed and bottom— strength enough to carry more than a light weight, and courage that would cause him to die rather than to give up. We may not, perhaps, believe all that is told us of the Arabian. It has been remarked, that there are on the deserts which this horse traverses no mile-stones to mark the distance, or watches to calculate the time; and the Bedouin is naturally given to exaggeration, and, most of all, when relating the prowess of the animal, which he loves as dearly as his chil- dren : yet it cannot be denied that, at the introduction of the Arabian into the European stables, there was no other horse comparable to him. The Arab horse is as celebrated for his docility and good temper as for his speed and courage. In that delightful book, ' Bishop Heber's Nar- rative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India,' the following interesting character is given of him. " My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, that he goes without starting close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile that he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what I have seen in this country. It is not the fiery dashing animal I had supposed, but with more rationality about him, and more apparent confidence in his rider, than the majority of English horses." The kindness with which he is treated from a foal, gives him an affliction for his master, a wish to please, a pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his commands, and, consequently, an apparent sagacity which is seldom seen in other breeds. The mare and her foal inhabit the same tent with the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the pillow of the rider, and, more frequently, of the children, who are rolling about upon her and the foal : yet no accident ever occurs, and the animal ac- quires that friendship and love for man which occasional ill-treatment will not cause him for a moment to forget. When the Arab falls from his mare, and is unable to rise, she will THE ARABIAN. 13 immediately stand still, and neio-h until assistance arrives. If he lies down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him, in the midst of the desert, she stands watchful over him, and neighs and rouses him if either man or beast approaches. An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for fifteen years in many a hard-fought battle, and many a rapid weary march ; at length, eighty years old, and unable longer to ride her, he gave her, and a scimitar that had been his father's, to his eldest son, and told him to appreciate their value, and never lie down to rest until he had rubbed them both as bright as a looking-glass. In the first skir- mish in which the young man was engaged he was killed, and the mare fell into the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man, he exclaimed that " life was no longer worth preserving, for he had lost both his son and his mare, and he grieved for one as much as the other ;" and he immediately sickened and died*. Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus lives with and loves his horses, regarding them as his most valuable treasure, sometimes treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be believed, and not at all to be justified. The severest treatment which the English race- horse endures is gentleness compared with the trial of the young Ara- bian. Probably the filly has never before been mounted ; she is led out ; her owner springs on her back, and goads her over the sand and rocks of the desert at full speed for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's respite. She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep enough for her to swim. If, immediately after this, she will eat as if nothing had occurred, her character is established, and she is acknowledged to be a genuine descendant of the Kochlani breed. The Arab is not conscious of the cruelty which he thus inflicts. It is an invariable custom, and custom will induce us to inflict many a pang on those whom, after all, we love. The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare has often been told, but it comes home to the bosom of every one possessed of common feeling. " The whole stock of an Arab of the desert con- sisted of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the proposal at once with indignation and scorn ; but he was miserably poor. He had no means of supplying his most urgent wants, or procuring the barest necessaries of life. Still he hesitated ; — he had scarcely a rag to cover him — and his wife and his children were starving. The sum offered was great, — it would provide him and his family with food for life. At length, and reluctantly, he consented. He brought the mare to the dwell- ing of the consul, — he dismounted, — he stood leaning upon her ; — he looked now at the gold, and then at his favourite ; he sighed — he wept. * To whom is it,' said he, ' I am going to yield thee up ? To Europeans, who will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — who will render thee miser- able. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and rejoice the hearts of my children.' As he pronounced the last words, he sprung upon her back, and was out of sight in a moment." The next anecdote is scarcely less touching, and not so well known. Ibrahim, a poor but worthy Arab, unable to pay a sum of money which he owed, was compelled to allow a merchant of Rama to become partner with him in a valuable mare. When the time came, he could not redeem his pledge to this man, and the mare was sold. Her pedigree could be traced on the side of sire and dam for full five hundred years. The price * Smith pn Breeding, p. 80, 14 THE HORSE. was three hundred pounds ; an enormous sum in that country. Ibrahim went frequently to Rama to inquire after the mare ; he would embrace her, — wipe her eyes with his handkerchief, — rub her with his shirt sleeves, — and give her a thousand benedictions during whole hours that he remained talking to her. ' My eyes !' would he say to her, ' my soul ! my heart ! must I be so unfortunate as to have thee sold to so many masters and not keep thee myself? I am poor, my antelope ! I brought thee up in my dwelling as my child. I did never beat nor chide thee ; I caressed thee in the proudest manner. God preserve thee, my beloved! thou art beautiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely ! God defend thee from envious eyes !" Sir John Malcolm gives two anecdotes to the same purpose, but of a more amusing nature. " When the envoy, returning from his former mission, was encamped near Bagdad, an Arab rode a bright bay mare of extraordinary shape and beauty before his tent, until he attracted his attention. On being asked if he would sell her; — 'What will you give me?' was the reply: * That depends upon her age ; I suppose she is past five ?' — ' Guess again,' said he. ' Four V ' Look at her mouth,' said the Arab, with a smile. On examination she was found to be rising three. This, from her size and symmetry, greatly enhanced her value. The envoy said, ' I will give you fifty tomans' (a coin nearly of the value of a pound sterling). * A little more if you please,' said the fellow, apparently entertained. * Eighty. A hundred.' He shook his head and smiled. The offer at last came to two hundred tomans ! ' Well,' said the Arab, ' you need not tempt me further ; — it is of no use. — You are a rich elchee (nobleman). You have fine horses, camels, and mules, and, I am told, you have loads of silver and gold. Now,' added he, * you want my mare, but you shall not have her for all you have got*." *' An Arab sheick or chief, who lived within fifty miles of Bussorah, had a favourite breed of horses. He lost one of his best mares, and could not for a long while discover whether she was stolen or had strayed. Some time after, a young man of a different tribe, who had long wished to marry his daughter, but had always been rejected by the sheick, obtained the lady's consent and eloped with her. The sheick and his followers pursued, but the lover and his mistress, mounted on one horse, made a wonderfnl march, and escaped. The old chief swore that the fellow was either mounted upon the devil, or the favourite mare he had lost. After his return, he found the latter was the case ; that the lover was the thief of his mare as well as his daughter ; and that he stole the one to carry off the other. The chief was quite gratified to think he had not been beaten by a mare of another breed ; and was easily reconciled to the young man, in order that he might recover the mare, which appeared an object about which he was more solicitous than about his daughter t-" One of our own countrymen, the enterprising traveller, Major Denham, affords us a pleasing instance of the attachment with which the docility and sagacity of the horse may inspire the owner. — He thus relates the death of his favourite Arabian, in one of the most desert spots of Central Africa. His feelings needed no apology. We naturally honour the man in whom true sensibility and \uidaunted courage, exerted for useful pur- poses, were thus united. " There are a few situations in a man's life in which losses of this nature * Malcolm's Sketches of Persia, vol. i. p. 41. f ^^i^^- P- ^^' THE ARABIAN—THE EAST INDIAN. 15 are felt most keenly ; and this was one of them. It was not grief, but it was something very nearly approaching to it ; and though I felt ashamed of the degree of derangement I suffered from it, yet it was several days before I could get over the loss. Let it, however, be remembered that the poor animal had been my support and comfort, — nay, I may say, com- panion, through many a dreary day and night; — had endured both hunger and thirst in my service ; and was so docile, that he would stand still for hours in the desert while I slept between his legs, his body affording me the only shelter that could be obtained from the powerful influence of a noon-day sun: — h*e was yet the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in the chase." Our horses would fare badly on the scanty nourishment afforded the Arabian. The mare usually has but one or two meals in twenty-four hours. During the day she is tied to the door of the tent, ready for the Bedouin to spring, at a moment's warning, into the saddle; or she is turned out before the tent ready saddled, the bridle merely taken off, and so trained that she gallops up immediately at her master's call. At night she receives a little water ; and with her scanty provender of five or six pounds of barley or beans, and sometimes a Httle straw, she lies down content, in the midst of her master's family. She can, however, endure great fatigue ; she will travel fifty miles without stopping ; she has been pushed, on emergency, one hundred and twenty miles, and, occasionally, neither she nor her rider has tasted food for three whole days. To the Arabian, principally, England is indebted for her improved and now unrivalled breed of horses for the turf, the field, and the road, as will be shewn when we presently treat of the English horse. THE EAST INDIAN HORSE. We will now travel further eastward, and look at the breeds of horses in our Indian possessions. First, we have the Toorky, originally from aToorko- man and a Persian, beautiful in his form, graceful in his action, and do- cile in his temper. It is said that, when skilfully managed, the grandeur and stateliness of his carriage are equal to what the warmest imagination can conceive of the horse: his spirit rising as his exertions are required, he exhibits to his beholders an appearance of fury in the performance of his task, yet preserving to his rider the utmost playfulness and gentleness. Next comes the Iranee, well limbed, and his joints closely knit, and par- ticularly powerful in the quarters, but with scarcely sufficient spirit, and his ears large and loose. The patient and docile Cozakee is deep in the girth, powerful in the fore- arm, but with large head, and sadly cat-hammed ; hardy, and calculated for long journeys and severe service. The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed, and perseverance. The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and, for that reason perhaps, although deficient in strength, and leaving as it were his hind legs behind him, and Hkewise irritable in temper, yet sought after on account of the pecuUar easiness of his pace. A sale of horses near the Company's stud, at Hissar, is thus described by an e?.cellent judge. "Not less than one thousand horses were shewn. They were all above fourteen hands and a half in height, high-crested, and shewy-looking horses. The great defect seemed a want of bone below 18 THE HORSE. the knee, which is indeetl general to all the native horses throughout India ; and also so great a tendency to fvilness in the hocks, that, in England, it would be thought half of them had blood spavins." THE CHINESE HORSE. This breed is small, weak, ill-formed, without spirit, and altogether unde- serving of notice. THE PERSIAN HORSE. Returning westward we find the Persian next in estimation, and deser- vedly so, to the Arabian. The head is almost equally beautiful, the crupper superior ; he is equal in speed, but far inferior in endurance. The whole frame is more developed than in the Arabian. The Persian horses were celebrated for many a century before the Arabians were known, or even existed. They constituted, in ancient times, the best cavalry of the East. The native Persian was so highly prized, that Alexander considered one of them the noblest gift he could bestow; and when the kings of Parthia would propitiate their divinities by the most costly sacrifice, a Persian horse was offered on the altar. An en- tertaining traveller (Sir R. Ker Porter) bears testimony that they have not now degenerated. He gives the following account of this breed. " The Persian horses never exceed fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high, yet certainly, in the whole, are taller than the Arabs. Those of the desert and country about Hillah run very small, but are full of bone and of good speed. General custom feeds and waters them only at sun-rise and sun-set, when they are cleaned. Their usual provender is barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals are piqueted, is put into a nose-bag and hung from their heads ; but if stabled, it is thrown into a small lozenge- shaped hole left in the thickness of the mud-wall for that purpose, but much higher up than the line of our mangers, and there the animal eats at his leisure. Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of the horse consists of his dung. After being exposed to the drying in- fluence of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverized, and, in that state, is nightly spread under him *. Little of it touches his body, that being covered by his clothing, a large nummvd from the ears to the tail, and bound firmly round his body by a very long surcingle. But this apparel is only for cold weather ; in the warmer season the night-clothes are of a lighter substance, and during the heat of the day, the animal is kept entirely under shade. " At night he is tied in the court yard. The horses' heads are attached to the place of security by double ropes from their halters, and the heels of their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron rings, and pegs driven into the earth. The same custom prevailed in the time of Xenophon, and for the same reason, to secure them from being able to attack and maim each other, the whole stud generally consisting of staUions. Their keepers, however, always sleep on their rugs amongst 'f It is the usual flooring of the stable and the tent. The united influence of the sun and air deprive it of all unpleasant odour, and when from use it becomes a second time offensive, it is again exposed to the sun, and all unpleasant smell once more taken away. THE PERSIAN— TOORKOMAN. 17 them to prevent accident ; and sometimes, notwithstanding all this care, they manage to break loose, and then the combat ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting, soon rouses the grooms, and the scene for awhile is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden uproar of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear it, and then all who have, must bear me witness that the noise is tremendous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most determined fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their heads and haunches stream with blood. Even in skirmishes with the natives, their horses take part in the fray, tearing each other with their teeth, while their masters are in similar close quarters on their backs." His description of a Persian race does not altogether remind us of Newmarket or Doncaster. *' My curiosity was fully on the spur to see the racers, which I could not doubt must have been chosen from the best in the nation to exhibit the perfec- tion of its breed before the sovereign. The rival horses were divided into three sets, in order to lengthen the amusement. They had been in training for several weeks, going over the ground very often during that time ; and when I did see them, I found so much pains had been taken to sweat and reduce their weight, that their bones were nearly cutting the skin. The distance marked for the race was a stretch of four-and-twenty miles, and, that his majesty might not have to wait when he had reached the field, the horses had set forward long before, by three divisions, from the starting point, (a short interval of time passing between each set,) so that they might begin to come in, a few minutes after the king had taken his seat. The different divisions arrived in regular order at the goal, but all so fatigued and exhausted, that their former boasted fleetness hardly exceeded a moderate canter when they passed before the royal eyes." In Circassia almost every family of distinction, whether of princes or nobles, boasts of possessing a peculiar race of horses, which, when young, are burned on the buttock with a particular mark. On this occasion, they act with the most scrupulous adherence to custom, so that a person who should attempt to burn a character expressing noble descent, on a filly of a common race, would, for such forgery, forfeit his life. The most cele- brated race of Circassian horses has received the name of Shalokh, and is in the exclusive possession of the Tau Sultan family. This race is valu- able for its strength and swiftness, more than its pecuHar beauty. Its dis- tinguishing mark is a full horse-shoe, without an arrow. THE TOORKOMAN HORSE. Turkistan is that part of South Tartary, north-east of the Caspian sea, and has been celebrated from very early times, for producing a pure and valuable breed of horses. They are called Toorkomans. They are said to be preferable even to the pure Persians, for service. They are large, standing from fifteen to sixteen hands high; swift, and inexhaustible under fatigue. Some of them have travelled nine hundred miles in eleven successive days. They, however, are somewhat too small in the barrel, — too long on the legs, — occasionally ewe-necked, and always have a head out of proportion large : yet, such are the good qualities of the horse, that one of the pure blood is worth two or three hundred pounds, even in that country. Captain Fraser, who is evidently a good judge of the horse, (in his 18 THE HORSE. Journey to Khorasan) thus relates the impression which they made on him: " They are deficient in compactness. Their bodies are long in proportion to their bulk. They are not well-ribbed up. They are long' on the legs, — deficient in muscle, — falling off below the knee ; — narrow chested, — long necked, — head large, uncouth, and seldom well put on. Such was the impression T received fi-om the first sight of them, and it was not for some time that their superior valuable qualities were apparent to me." THE TARTAR AND CALMUCK HORSE. The horses of the other parts of Tartary, comprehending the immense plains of Central Asia, and a considerable part of European Russia, are little removed from a wild state : they are small and badly made ; but capable of supporting the longest and most rapid journey, on the scantiest fare. The foals, from the earliest period, are exposed to the inclemency of the weather, have little to eat, and follow their dams in the longest excursions, and, therefore, soon acquire a very great power of sustaining fatigue. They must be hardy for another reason. The Tartars live much on the flesh of horses, and, consequently, those animals that are unable to support the labour of their frequent rapid emigrations are soon destroyed, and only the more vigorous preserved. The horses, which range at large over the plains, are divided into herds, at the head of which are placed two stallions, who carefully prevent them from intermingling with each other, and it is rarely that a foal is lost. On the approach of a strange herd, the stallions drive their own into a close body, place themselves in front, and, if necessary, attack and drive off the others. As the stallion-foals grow up, they are driven away from the herd, and are seen straggling about at a distance, until they are strong enough to form herds of wild mares for themselves. These horses, or those of a similar breed and habits, were beaten by not the first-rate English blood-horses, in a race which fairly put to the test both their speed and stoutness. On the 4th of August, 1825, a race of the cruel distance of more than forty-seven miles was run between two Cossack and two thorough-bred English horses — Sharper and Mina. The most celebrated Cossack horses from the Don, the Black Sea, and the Ural, were sent ; and, after numerous trials, the best were selected. On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at a moderate pace, the English following at about three or four lengths, but before they had gone half a mile, the stirrup-leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away with his rider, followed by Mina, and they went more than a mile, and up a steep hill, before they could be held in. Half the distance was run in an hour and four minutes. Both the English horses were then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their re- turn, Mina fell lame, and was taken away. The Cossack horse, likewise, began to flag, when the accompanying Russians began to drag him on by the bridle, throwing away the saddle, and putting a mere child on his back. Sharper, likewise, evidently shewed the effects of the pace at which he had gone when running away, and was much distressed. The Cossacks then had recourse to foul play, and actually carried on their horse ; some dragging him on by a rope, and the bridle at his head ; and others pulling him on by the tail, and riding alongside of his quarters to support him, and relieving each other at this fatiguing work. Sharper did the whole distance in two hours and forty-eight minutes, and the Cossack horse was THE TURKISH— GER]\r AN. (19 warped in, eight minutes after him. At starting, the English horses car- ried full three stone more than the Cossacks ; and during the latter half of the race, a mere child had ridden the Cossack. THE TURKISH HORSE. The Turkish horses are descended principally from the Arab, crossed by the Persian and certain other bloods. The body, however, is even longer than the Arabian's, and the crupper more elevated. They have contributed materially to the improvement of the English breed. The Byerley and the Helmsley Turk are names familiar to every one conversant with horses, and connected with our best blood. The learned and benevolent Busbequius, who was ambassador at Con- stantinople in the seventeenth century, gives the following account of the Turkish horses. Our grooms, and their masters too, may learn a lesson of wisdom and humanity from his words. " There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish horse, nor more respectful to his master, or the groom that dresses him. The reason is, because they treat their horses with great lenity. I myself sav/, when I was in Pontus, passing through a part of Bithinia called Axilos, towards Cappadocia, how indulgent the countrymen were to young colts, and how kindly they used them soon after they were foaled. They would stroke them, bring them into their houses, and almost to their tables, and use them even like children. They hung something like a jewel about their necks, and a garter, which was full of amulets against poison, which they are most afraid of The grooms that dress them are as indulgent as their masters ; they frequently sleek them down with their hands, and never use a cudgel to bang their sides, but in cases of necessity. This makes their horses great lovers of mankind ; and they are so far from kicking, wincing, or growing untractable by this gentle usage, that you will hardly find a masterless horse amongst them. " But, alas ! our Christian grooms' horses go on at another rate. They never think them rightly curried till they thunder at them with their voices, and let their clubs or horse-whips, as it were, dwell on their sides. This makes some horses even tremble when their keepers come into their stable ; so that they hate and fear them too. But the Turks love to have their horses so gentle, that at the word of command they may fall on their knees, and in this position receive their riders. " They will take up a staff or club upon the road with their teeth, which their rider has let fall, and hold it up to him again; and when they are perfect in this lesson, then, for credit, they have rings of silver hung on their nostrils as a badge of honour and good discipline. I saw some horses when their master was fallen from the saddle stand stock still without wagging a foot till he got up again. Another time I saw a groom standing at a distance in the midst of a whole ring of horses, and, at the word of command, they would either go round or stand still. Once I saw some horses when their master was at dinner with me in an upper room prick up their ears to hear his voice, and when they did so they neighed for joy." THE GERMAN HORSE. The German horses are generally large, heavy, and slow. The Hunga- rian may be an exception, being lighter, speedier, and giving greater C A 20 THE HORSE. proof of Eastern blood*. Every part of the continent, however, following the example of England, has been diligently engaged in the improvement of its breed, and the German and Prussian horses are now better propor- tioned, and have considerable endm-ance, but are still deficient in speed. The Prussian, German, and the greater part of the French cavalry are procured from Holstein. They are of a dark, glossy, bay-colour, with small heads, large nostrils, and full dark eyes, the fire and clearness of which seem to denote the inward spirit of, the animal. They are beautiful, active, and strong. THE SWEDISH, FINLAND, AND NORWEGIAN HORSE. Of the Swedish horses, Clarke, in his " Scandinavia," says, that they are small but beautiful, and remarkable for their speed and spirit. Those of Finland he describes as yet smaller, not more than twelve hands high, beautifully formed, and very fleet. The peasants take them from the forests when they are wanted for travellers. Although apparently wild, they are under perfect control, and they trot along with ease at the rate of twelve miles an hour.'* The following story is told of one of the Norwegian horses. His master had been dining at a neighbouring town, and, when it was time to return, had exceeded so much, that he could not keep a firm seat in his saddle. The horse regulated himself, as well as he could, according to the un- settled motion of his rider, but, happening to make a false step, the peasant was thrown, and hung with one foot entangled in the stirrup. The horse immediately stopped, and twisting his body in various direc- tions, endeavoured to extricate his master, but in vain. The man was severely hurt, and almost helpless ; but the shock had brought him to his senses. The horse looked at him as he lay on the ground, and, stoop- ing, laid hold of the brim of his hat, and raised his head a little ; but the hat coming off, he fell again. The animal then laid hold of the collar of his coat, and raised him by it so far from the ground, that he was enabled to draw his foot out of the stirrup. After resting awhile he regained the saddle, and reached his home. Grateful to his preserver, the man did, what every good feeling bid him, — he cherished the animal until it died of old age. Many an English farmer owes a considerable debt of gratitude to his intelligent and faithful servant, who has taken care of him when he was unable to take care of himself, and, possibly, has preserved his life. Let him repay the debt by kinder usage. THE ICELAND HORSE. There are numerous troops of horses in this cold and inhospitable country, descended, according to Mr. Anderson, from the Norwegian horse, but, according to Mr. Ilorrebow, being of Scottish origin. They are very small, strong, and swift. There are thousands of them in the mountains which never enter a stable, but instinct or habit has taught them to scrape away the snow, or break the ice, in search of their scanty food. A few are usually kept in the stable, but when the peasant wants more he catches as * M. de BufFon strangely affirms, that the Hussars and Hungarians slit the nostrils of their horses with a view to increase their wind, and to prevent their neighing ; and that Hungarian, Croatian, and Polish horses continue to old age to have the mark in all tlieir fore-teeth. THE FLEMISH— FRENCH— SPANISH, &c. 21 ^nany as he needs, and shoes them himself, and that sometimes with a sheep's horn*. THE FLEMISH AND DUTCH HORSE. The Flemish and Dutch horses are large, and strongly and beautifully formed. We are indebted to them for some of the best blood of our draught-horses, and we still have frequent recourse to them for keeping up and improving the breed. They will be more particularly cfescribed when the cart-horse is spoken of. THE FRENCH HORSE. France contains, Hke England, numerous breeds of horses, and consi- derable attention has lately been paid to their improvement ; but they are far inferior to ours in beauty, fleetness, and strength. The provinces of Auvergne and Poitou produce good ponies and galloways ; but the best French horses are bred in Limousin and Normandy. From the former district come excellent saddle-horses and hunters ; and from the latter a stronger species, for the road, the cavalry, or the carriage. The Norman horses are now much crossed by our hunters, and occasionally by the thorough-bred ; and the English roadster and light draught-horse has not suffered by a mixture with the Norman. THE SPANISH HORSE. Spain was early celebrated for her breed of horses. The Andalusian charger and the Spanish jennet are familiar to all readers of romance. The subjugation of so great a portion of the peninsula to the Moorish sway, by introducing so much of the Barbary blood, mainly contributed to the undisputed excellence of the Spanish horse. One breed, long in the limbs, and graceful in all its motions, was the favourite war-horse of the knight ; while another race, carrying the esquire, although inferior in ele- gance, possessed far more strength and endurance. The Spanish horse of the present day is not much unlike the Yorkshire half-bred ; perhaps with flatter legs and better feet, but far inferior figure. THE ITALIAN HORSE. The Italian horses were once in high repute, particularly the Neapolitans ; but hke every thing else in those mismanaged countries, they have sadly degenerated. One circumstance has mainly contributed to this falling off in reputation and value, viz. that the breed has been kept up by occasional intermixture, not of Eastern, but of European blood. A few of the Nea- politan horses, from their superior size and stateliness, are well adapted for the carriage. THE AMERICAN HORSE. In the extensive territory and varied climate of the United States, several breeds of horses are found. The Canadian is found principally in Canada, and the Northern States. He is supposed to be of French descent, and many of the celebrated Ame- rican trotters are of this breed. We will speak of some of them when we describe the paces of the horse. * Kerguelen's Voyage to the North, 22 THE HORSE. The Conestoga horse is found in Pennsylvania, and the middle States- long in the leg and light in the carcase— sometimes rising seventeen hands, used principaTly for the carriage ; but when not too high, and with suffi- cient substance, useful for hunting and the saddle. The English horse, with a good deal of blood, prevails in Virgmia and Kentucky ; and is found, to a greater or less degree, in all the States. The Americans have, at different "times, imported some of the best English blood; It hag- been most diligently and purely preserved in the Southern States. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day, and equalled by few at any time, was the sire of the best Virginian horses ; and Tally-ho, a son of Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys. In the back- settlements, and in the south-western States, is a horse resembling the wild horse of the Pampas, already described, and evidently of the same origin. Chapter III. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. The earliest record of the horse in Great Britain is contained in the his- tory given by Julius Caesar of his invasion of our island. The British army was accompanied by numerous war-chariots, drawn by horses. Short scythes were fastened to 'the ends of the axletrees, sweeping down every thing before them, and carrying terror and devastation into the ranks of their enemies. The conqueror gives a most animated description of the dexterity with which the horses were managed. What kind of horse the Britons then possessed, it would be useless to inquire ; bat, from the cumbrous structure of the car, and the fury with which it was driven, and from the badness or nonexistence of the roads, they must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree. Csesar deemed them so valuable, that he carried many of them to Rome ; and the British horses were, for a considerable period afterwards, in great request in various parts of the Roman empire. Horses must at that time have been exceedingly numerous in Britain, for we are told that when the British king, Cassibellaunus, dismissed the main body of his army, he retained four thousand of his w^ar-chariots for the purpose of harassing the Romans, when they attempted to forage. The British horse now received its first cross ; but whether the brae was thereby improved cannot be ascertained. The Romans having esta- blished themselves in Britain, found it necessary to send over a numerous body of cavalry to maintain a chain of posts and check the frequent insur- rections of the natives. The Roman horses would breed with those of the country, and, to a greater or less extent, change their character ; and from this time, the English horse would consist of a compound of the native and those from Gaul, Italy, Spain, and every province from which the Roman cavalry was supplied. Manycentiu'ies afterwards passed by, and we have no record of the character or value, improvement or deterioration, of the animal. It would appear probable, however, that Athelstan, the natural son of Alfred the Great, and the second in succession to him, paid some atten- tion to the improvement of the horse ; for having subdued all the rebellious portions of the Heptarchy, he was congratulated on his success by some of THE ENGLISH. 23 the contmental princes, and received from Hugh Capet of France, who solicited his sister in marriage, various presents, doubtless of a nature that would be thoun-ht most acceptable to him ; and among them several Ger- man rinming horses. Hence our breed received another cross, and pro- bably an improvement. , . . ,r . , • • ^ * Athelstan seems to have seriously devoted himself to this important object for he soon afterwards decreed (a. d. 930) that no horses should be sent abroad for sale, or on any account, except as royal presents. This proves his anxiety to preserve the breed, and likewise renders it probable that that breed was beginning to be esteemed by our neighbours In a document bearing date A. D. 1000 we have an interestmg account of the relative value of the horse. If a horse was destroyed, or negligently los , the compensation to be demanded was thirty shillings ; a mare or colt, twenty shillings; a mule or young ass, twelve shiUmgs ; an ox, thirty pence ; a cow, twenty-four pence ; a pig, eightpence ; and, it strangely follows, a man, one pound *. . ^ x^. i j i lu+i^ In the laws of Howell the Good, Prince of Wales, and passed a little before this time, there are some curious particulars respecting the value and sale of horses. The value of a foal not fourteen days old is fixed at fourpence ; at one year and a day it is estimated at forty-eight pence ; and at three years sixty pence. It was then to be tamed with the bridle, and brought up either as a pa/fiey or a serving horse; when its value be- came one hundred and twenty pence; and that of a wild or unbroken "" EventZtho^se'early days, the frauds of dealers were too notorious, and the following singular regulations were established. The buyer was allowed time to ascertain whether the horse were free from three diseases He had three nights to prove him for the staggers ; three months to prove the soundness of his lungs; and one year to ascertain whether he was infectd with glanders. For every blemish discovered after the pu rchase, one-third of the money was to be returned, except it should be a blemish of the ears or tail. , , The practice of letting horses for hire was then known, and then, as now, the services of the poor hack were too brutally exacted The benevo- lent Howell disdains not to legislate for the protection of this abused and valuable servant. " Whoever shall borrow a horse, and rub the hair so as to gall the back, shall pay fourpence ; if the skin is forced into the flesh, eio-htpence ; if the flesh be forced to the bone, sixteen pence. One circumstance deserves to be remarked, that in none of the earliest historical records of the Anglo-Saxons or the We sh, is there any allu- sion to the use of the horse for the plough. Until a comparat vely re- cent period, oxen alone were used in England, as in other countries for thfs purpose'; but about this time (the latter part of the tenth c-tu;^^ some innovation on this point was creeping in, and, therefore, a Wels^^^^^^^ forbids the farmer to plough with horses, mares, or cows, b^t ^^^^ o^^^ alone. On one of the pieces of tapestry woven at Bayonne "^ he time o^^ WiUiam the Conqueror, (a. d. 1066) there is the figure of ^ "^.^" f^^^^^^^ horse attached to a harrow. This is the earhest notice we have of the use of the horse in field-labour. . • +1,0 T^r^^i^^h With WiUiam the Conqueror came a marked improvement in the iiritisn * According to the Anglo-Saxon computation, forty-eight f lli^g^/^^/^^^^. J^Xen equalin silver to about three pounds of our present money, in value to fifteen 01 sixteen pounds, and five pence made one slulling. 24 THE HORSE. horse. To his superiority m cavalry this prince was chiefly indebted for the victory of Hastings. The favourite charger of WilUam was a Spaniard. His followers, both the barons and the common soldiers, came principally from a country in which agriculture had made more rapid progress than in England, A very considerable portion of the kingdom was divided among these men ; and it cannot be doubted that, however unjust was the usurpation of the Norman, England benefited in its husbandry, and par- ticularly in its horses, by the change of masters. Some of the barons, and particularly Roger de Boulogne, earl of Shrewsbury, introduced the Spanish horse, on Iheir newly-acquired estates. The historians of these times, however, principally monks, knowing nothing about horses, give us very little information on the subject. In the reign of Henry I. (a. d. 1121) the first Arabian horse, or, at least, the first on record, was introduced. Alexander I., king of Scotland, presented to the church of St. Andrew's, an Arabian horse, with costly furniture, Turkish armour, many valuable trinkets, and a considerable estate. Forty years afterwards, in the reign of Henry II., Smithfield was cele- brated as a horse-market. Fitz-Stephen, who lived at that time, gives the following animated account of the manner in which the hackneys and charging -steeds were tried there, by racing against one another. " When a race is to be run by this sort of horses, and perhaps by others, which also in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is immediately raised, and the common horses are ordered to withdraw o\it of the way. Three jockeys, or sometimes only two, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest. The horses on their part are not without emulation ; they tremble and are impatient, and are continually in motion. At last, the signal once given, they start, devour the course, and hurry along with unremitting swiftness. The jockeys inspired with the thought of applause, and the hope of victory, clap spurs to their willing horses, brandish their whips, and cheer them with their cries." This description reminds us of the more lengthened races of the present day, and proves the blood of the English horse, even before the Eastern breed was tried. Close on this followed the Crusades. The champions of the Cross cer- tainly had it in their power to enrich their native country with some of the choicest specimens of Eastern horses, but they were completely under the influence of superstition and fanaticism, and common sense and usefulness were forgotten. An old metrical romance, however, records the excellence of two horses belonging to Richard Coeur de Lion, which he purchased at Cyprus, and were therefore, probably, of Eastern origin. Yn this worlde they hadde no pere*. Dromedary nor destrere f , Stede, Rabytej:, ne Cammele, Goeth none so swifte, without fayle : For a thousand pownd of golde, Ne should the one be solde. The war-steed was defended by mail or plate, much on the plan of the harness of the knight himself. His head was ornamented with a crest. The head, chest, and flanks, were wholly or partially protected ; and sometimes, he was clad in complete steel, with the arms of his master engraved or embossed on his hardings. The bridle of the horse was always as splendid * Peer, equal. f War horse, X Arabian. THE ENGLISH. 25 as the circumstances of the knight allowed, and thus a horse was often called Brigliadore, from briglia d'oro, a bridle of gold. Bells were a very favourite addition to the equipment of the horse. The old Troubadour, Arnold of Marson, says, that " nothing is so proper to inspire confidence in a knight, and terror in an enemy." The price of horses at this period was singularly uncertain. In 1185, fifteen breeding mares sold for two pounds twelve shillings and sixpence. They were purchased by the monarch, and distributed among his tenants, and, in order to get something by the bargain, he charged them the great sum of four shillings each. Twenty years afterwards, ten capital horses brought no less than twenty pounds each ; and, twelve years later, a pair of horses were imported from Lombardy, for which the extravagant price of thirty-eight pounds thirteen shiUings and fourpence was given. The usual price of good handsome horses was ten pounds, and the hire of a car or cart, with two horses, was tenpence a-day. To King John, hateful as he was in all other respects, we are yet much indebted for the attention which he paid to agriculture generally, and par- ticularly to improving the breed of horses. He imported one hundred chosen stallions of the Flanders kind, and thus mainly contributed to pre- pare our noble species of draught-horses, as unrivalled as the horses of the turf. John accumulated a very numerous and valuable stud. He was eager to possess himself of every horse of more than usual power ; and, at all times, gladly received, from the tenants of the crown, horses of a superior quality, instead of money, for the renewal of grants, or the payment of for- feitures belonging to the crown. It was his pride to render his cavalry, and the horses for the tournament and for pleasure, as perfect as possible. It could not be expected that so haughty a tyrant would concern himself much with the inferior kinds ; yet while the superior was becoming rapidly more valuable, the others would, in an indirect manner, partake of the improvement. One hundred years afterwards, Edward II. purchased thirty Lombardy war-horses, and twelve heavy draught-horses. Lombardy, Italy, and Spain were the countries whence the greater part of Europe was then sup- plied with the most valuable cavalry or parade horses. Horses for agri- cultural purposes were chiefly procured from Flanders. Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty Spanish horses ; and of such importance did he conceive this addition to the English, or rather mingled blood, then existing, that formal application was made to the kings of France and Spain to grant safe conduct to the troop. When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was computed that they had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shilhngs and eightpence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds of our present money. This monarch had many running-horses. The precise meaning of the term is not, however, clear. It might be light and speedy horses in oppo- sition to the war-horse, or those that were literally used for the purpose of racing. The average price of these running-horses was twenty marks, or three pounds six shillings and eightpence. Edward was devoted to the sports of the turf or the field, or he began to see the propriety of crossing our stately and heavy breed with those of a lighter structure and greater speed. There was, however, one impediment to this, which was not for a very 26 - THE HORSE. long period removed. The soldier was cased in heavy armour. The knight, with all his accoutrements, often rode more than twenty-five stone. No little bulk and strength were required in the animal destined to carry this back-breaking weight. When the musket was substituted for the cross-bow and battle-axe, and this iron defence, cumbrous to the wearer and destructive to the horse, was useless, and laid aside, the improve- ment of the British horse in reality commenced. While Edward was thus eager to avail himself of foreign blood, with the too frequent selfishness of the sportsman, he would let no neio-h- bour share in the advantage. The exportation of horses was forbidden under very heavy penalties. One case in which he relaxed from his severity is mentioned, when he permitted a German merchant to re-export some Flanders horses which he had brought on speculation ; but he was strictly forbidden to send them to Scotland. Nay, so jealous were these sister-kingdoms of each other's prosperity, that so late as the time of Eliza- beth, it was felony to export horses from England to Scotland. The English horse was advancing, although slowly, to an equality with, or even superiority over those of neighbouring countries. His value began to be more generally and highly estimated, and his price rapidly increased — so much so, that breeders and the dealers, then, as now, skilful in imposing on the inexperienced, obtained from many of our young gran- dees enormous prices for them. This evil magnified to such an extent, that Richard II (1386) interfered to regulate and determine the price. The proclamation which he issued is interesting not only as proving the increased value of the horse, but shewing what were, four hundred and fifty years ago, and what are, still, the chief breeding districts. It was ordered to be published in the counties of Lincoln and Cambridge, and the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire ; and the price of the horse was restricted to that which had been determined by former sovereigns. A more enlightened policy has at length banished all such absurd interfer- ences with agriculture and commerce. We can now collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign of Henry VII., at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to pro- hibit the exportation of stallions, but allowed that of mares when more than two years old, and under the value of six shillings and eightpence. This regulation was, however, easily evaded, for if a mare could be found worth more than six shillings and eightpence, she might be freely exported on the payment of that sum. Henry VIII., a tyrannical and cruel prince, but fond of shew and splen- dour, was very anxious to produce a valuable breed of horses ; and the means Avhich he adopted were both perfectly in unison with his arbitrary disposition, and very little calculated to effect his object. He affixed a cer- tain standard, below which no horse should be kept. The lowest height for the stallion was fifteen hands, and for the mare thirteen hands ; and even before they had arrived at their full growth, no stallion above two years old, and under fourteen hands and a half, was permitted to run on any forest, moor, or common, where there were mares. At " Michaelmas- tide" the neighbouring magistrates were ordered to " drive" all forests and commons, and not only destroy such stallions, but all " unlikely tits," whether mares or geldings, or foals, which they might deem not calculated to produce a valuable breed. He likewise ordained, that in every deer- park a certain number of mares, in proportion to its size, and each at least thirteen hands high, should be kept ; and that all his prelates and nobles, THE ENGLISH. 27 and " all those whose wives wore velvet bonnets," should keep stallions for the saddle at least fifteen hands hio'h. These ordinances perished with the tyrant by whom they were promulgated. The reio-n of Henry VIII. produced the earliest English treatise on agri- culture, and the management of horses and cattle. It was written by Sir A. Fitzherbert, Judge of the Common Pleas, and contains much useful information. It is entitled, " Boke of Husbandry ;" and, being now exceedingly rare, an extract from it may not be unacceptable. It would seem that the mare had been but lately employed in husbandry, for he says, " A husbande may not be without horses and mares, and specially if he goe with a horse-ploughe he must have both, his horses to draive ; his mares to brynge colts to upholde his stocke, and yet at many times they may draive well if they be well handled." The learned judge shared the common fate of those who have to do with the horse. " Thou grasyer, that mayst fortune to be of myne opinion or condytion to love horses, and young coltes and foles to go among thy cattle, take hede that thou be not beguiled as I have been a hundred tymes and more. And first thou shalt knowe that a good horse has 54 properties, that is to say, 2 of a man, 2 of a badger, 4 of a lion, 9 of an oxe, 9 of a hare, 9 of a foxe, 9 of an asse, and 10 of a woman*." The tyrannical edicts of Henry VIII. had the effect which common sense would have anticipated, — the breed of horses was not materially im- proved, and their numbers were sadly diminished. When the bigot, Philip of Spain, threatened England, in the reign of Elizabeth, with his Invincible Armada, that princess could muster in her whole kingdom only three thousand cavalry to oppose him ; and Blundeville, who wrote at this time a very pleasant and excellent book on the art of riding, speaks con- temptuously of the qualities of these horses. The secret of improving the breed had not been then discovered ; it had been attempted by arbi- trary power ; and it had extended only to those crosses from which little good could have been expected : or, rather, it had more reference to the actual situation of the country, and the heavy carriages, and the bad roads, and the tedious travelling which then prevailed, than to the wonderful change in these which a few centuries were destined to effect. Blundeville describes the majority of our horses as consisting of strong, sturdy beasts, fit only for slow draught, and the few of a lighter structure being weak and without bottom. There were, however, some exceptions ; for he relates a case of one of these lighter horses travelling eighty miles in a day— a task which in later times has been too often and cruelly exacted from our half-bred nags. An account has been given of the racing trial of the horses in Smithfield market. Reo:ular races were now established in various parts of England. Meetings of this kind were first held at Chester and Stamford ; but there was no acknowledged system as now ; and no breed of racing horses. Hunters and hackneys mingled together, and no description of horse was excluded. * Later writers have pirated from Sir A., but have not improved upon him. The following description of the horse is well known. '' A good horse should have three qua lities of a woman, — a broad breast, round hips, and a long mane ;— three of a lion, — coun- tenance, courage, and fire ;— three of a iniUock,— the eye, the nostril, and joynts,— three of a sheep,— the nose, gentleness, and patience ;— three of a mule,— strength, constancy, and foot ;— three of a deer,— head, legs, and short hair ;— tlu:ee of a wolf ;— tln-oat, neck, and hearing;— three of a fox,— ear, tail, and trot;— three of a serpent,— memory, sight, and turning ;— and tliree of a hare or cat,— running, walking, and suppleness." -28 THE HORSE. There was at first no course marked out for the race, but the contest generally consisted in the running; of train-scent across the country, and sometimes the most difficult and dangerous part of the country was selected for the exhibition. Occasionally our present steeple chase was adopted with all its dangers, and more than its present barbarity ; for per- sons were appointed cruelly to flog along the jaded and exhausted horses. It should, however, be acknowledged that the races of that period were not disgraced by the system of gambling and fraud which seems to have become almost inseparable from the amusements of the turf The prize was usually a wooden bell adorned with flowers. This was afterwards exchanged for a silver bell, and *' given to him who should run the best and farthest on horseback on Shrove Tuesday." Hence the common phrase of " bearing away the bell." Horse-racing became gradually more cultivated ; but it was not until the last year of the reign of James I., that rules were promulgated and generally subscribed to for their regulation. That prince was fond of field sports. He had encouraged, if he did not establish, horse-racing in Scot- land, and he brought with him to England his predilection for it ; but his races were more often matches against time, or trials of speed and bottom, for absurdly and cruelly long distances. His favourite courses were at Croydon and on Enfield Chase. Although the Turkish and Barbary horses had been freely used to pro- duce with the English mare the breed which was best suited to this exer- cise, little improvement had been effected. James, with great judgment, determined to try the Arab breed. Probably, he had not forgotten the story of the Arabian, which had been presented to one of his Scottish churches, five centuries before. He purchased, from a merchant named Markham, a celebrated Arabian horse, for which he gave the extravagant sum of five hundred pounds. Kings, however, like their subjects, are often thwarted and governed by their servants, and the Duke of Newcastle took a dislike to this foreign animal. He wrote a book, and a very good one, on horse- manship, an^d described this Arabian as a little bony horse, of ordinary shape, setting him down as good for nothing, because, after being regularly trained, he could not race. The opinion of the Duke, probably altogether erroneous, had, for nearly a century, great weight ; and the Arabian horse lost its reputation among the English turf-breeders. A South-Eastern horse was afterwards brought into England, and pur- chased by James, of Mr. Place, who was afterwards stud-master, or groom to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called the White Turk, and his name and that of his keeper will long be remembered. Shortly afterwards appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by Villiers, the first duke of Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco Barb. These horses speedily effected a considerable change in the character of our breed, so that Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, complained that the great horse was fast disappearing, and that horses were now bred light and fine for the sake of speed only. Charles I. ardently pursued this favourite object of English gentlemen, and, a little before his rupture with the parliament, established races in Hyde Park, and at Newmarket. The civil wars somewhat suspended the improvement of the breed ; yet the advantage which was derived by both parties from a light and active cavalry, sufficiently proved the importance of the change which had been effected ; and Cromwell perceiving, with his wonted sagacity, how much these pursuits were connected with the prosperity of the country, had his stud of race-horses. THE ROAD AND FARMER'S ^9 At the Restoration a new impulse was given to the cultivation of the horse by the inclination of the court to patronize gaiety and dissipation. The races at Newmarket were restored, and as an additional spur to emu- lation, royal plates were now given at each of the principal courses. Charles II. sent his master of the horse to the Levant, to purchase brood mares and stallions. These were principally Barbs and Turks. From that period to the middle of the last century, the system of im- provement was zealously pursued : every variety of Eastern blood was occasionally engrafted on ours, and the superiority of the engrafted, above the very best of the original stock, began to be evident. Man is rarely satisfied with any degree of perfection in the object on which he has set his heart. The sportsman had now beauty of form, and speed and stoutness, scarcely an approach to which had been observed in the original breed. Still some imagined that this speed and stoutness might possibly be increased ; and Mr. Darley, in the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne, had recourse to the discarded and despised Arabian. He had much prejudice to contend with, and it was some time before the Darley Arabian attracted notice. At length the value of his produce began to be recognised, and to him we are greatly indebted for a breed of horses of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength. This last improvement now furnishes all that can be desired : nor is this true only of the thorough-bred or turf-horse ; it is, to a very material degree, the case with every description of horse. By a judicious admixture and pro- portion of blood, we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys, our coach, nay even our cart horses, much stronger, more active, and more enduring, than they were before the introduction of the race-horse. Chapter IV. THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. The reader is now prepared for the history and distinguishing character of the various breeds of English horses. If we were composing a treatise on the horse adapted for general readers, we should commence with the racer, or thorough-bred horse, which, if it be not considered as the parent of every other breed, yet enters into, and adds, or often gives, the only value to it. Remembering, however, the title of our work, we will begin with those which are occasionally or chiefly employed for agricultural pur- poses. First stands the Roadster, or Hackney, whether used by the farmer to ride over his grounds, or for the longer journeys of business or plea- sure. , The roadster varies much in different districts, and accordnig to ttie whim or caprice of the rider. We have presented our readers with a por^ trait of the old Enghsh hackney, now, fortunately, little known, yet the origin of our best saddle-horses, whether for the road or the field. The modern horseman will find some fault with him. We give him as he was, and shall proceed to describe a much superior animal. te THE HORSE. THE ROAD HORSE. The Road Horse ! more difficult to meet with in perfection than even the hunter or the courser. There are many reasons for this. The price of the hackney, or the horse of all-work, is so low, that he who has a good one will not part with him ; and it is by mere accident that he can be obtained. There are also several faults that can be overlooked in the hunter, but which the road-horse must not have. The hunter may start, may be awk- ward in his walk, or even his trot ; he may have thrushes or corns ; but if he can go a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom, we can put up with him, or prize him : bat the hackney, if he be worth having, must have good forelegs, and good hinder ones too; he must be sound on his feet; even-tempered; no starter ; quiet in whatever situation he may be placed ; not heavy in hand 3 and never disposed to say his prayers. If there be one thing more than any other, in which the possessor, and, in his own estimation at least, the tolerable judge of the horse, is in error, it is the action of the road-horse : " Let him lift his legs well," it is said, " and he will never come down." In proportion, however, as he lifts his legs well, will be the force with which he puts them down again ; the jar and concussion to the rider ; and the battering and wear and tear of the feet, A horse with too great *' knee action" will not always be speedy ; he will rarely be pleasant to ride, and he will not, in the long run, be safer than others. The careless daisy-cutter, however pleasant on the turf, should indeed be avoided, unless the neck of the rider be previously insured ; yet it is a rule, not often understood, and sometimes disputed, but which experience will fully confirm, — that the safety of the horse depends a great deal more on the manner in which he puts his feet down, than on that in which he lifts them up : — more on the foot being placed at once flat on the ground, or perhaps the heel coming first in contact with it, than on the highest and most splendid action. When the toe first touches the ground, it may be easily supposed that the horse will occasionally topple over. An unexpected obstacle will throw the centre of gravity forward, and down he will come. If the toe dig into the ground before the foot is firmly placed, a little thing will cause a trip and a fall. THE ROAD. ST Let the farmer who has a stumbler look at the shoes of his liorse. Tn what part is the wear and tear? — The toe of the shoe will become round, or even be altogether gone, before the heel is scarcely touched. For pleasant riding, and for safety also, a hackney should not carry his legs too high. His going a little too near to the ground is not always to be considered as an insuperable objection. The question is, does he dig his toe into the ground ? Mount him, and put him to the test. Take up his feet and examine them. If the shoe, after having been on a week, or a fortnight, is not un- necessarily worn at the toe, and you feel him put his foot flat on the ground, do not scruple to buy him, nay, esteem him a " choice-gifted hack- ney," although he may not have the lofty action which some have erro- neously thought so necessary. Every horse, however, is liable to fall, and therefore comes the golden rule of riding, '■'■never trust to your horse,'^ — always feel his mouth lightly. He does wrong who constantly pulls might and main ; he will soon spoil his horse's mouth, and render the arm-aching work always necessary. He does worse who carelessly throws the reins on the neck of the horse. Always feel the mouth lightly ; you will thus be able to give the animal assistance immediately^ before he is too much off his centre, and when a httle check will save him. By this constant gentle feeling you will like- wise induce him to carry his head well, than which few things are more conducive to the beautiful, safe, and easy going of the horse. The road-horse may, and should, like the hunter, possess different de- grees of blood, according to the natuie of the country, and the work required of him. When approaching to thoroughbred, he maybe a splendid animal, but he will be scarcely fitted for his duty. His legs will be too slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long; and he will rarely be able to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all-work, even less than that, will make a good and useful animal. The hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with these exceptions. His height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He will be sufficiently strong and more pleasant for general work below that standard. — He should be of a more compact form than the hunter : — more bulk according to his height, for he has not merely to stand an occasional although severe burst, but a great deal of every-day work. It is of essential consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in. The pastern should be short, and although oblique or slanting, yet far less so than that of the race-horse, and considerably less than that of the hunter. There should be obliquity enough to give pleasant action, but not enough to render the horse incapalile of the wear and tear of constant, and sometimes hard work. The foot is a matter of the greatest consequence in a hackney. It should be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too hollow, nor too flat ; open at the heels ; and free from corns and thrushes. The fore legs should be perfectly straight. There needs not a moment's consideration to be assured that a horse with his knees bent will, from a slight cause, and especially if he be overweighted, come down. The back should be straight and short, yet sufficiently long to leave comfortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the huck with- out pressing on either. Some persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. It is generally an easy one to go. It will canter well with a lady ; but it will not carry a heavy weight, or stand much hard work. ge THE HORSE. The road-horse should be hig-h m the forehand; round in the barrel; and deep in the chest : the saddle will not then press too forward, but the girths will remain, without crupper, firmly fixed in their proper place. A hackney is far more valuable for the pleasantness of his paces, and his safety, good temper, and endurance, than for his speed. We rarely want to go more than eight or ten miles in an hour; and, on a journey, not more than six or seven. The fast horses, and especially the fast trotters, are not often easy in their paces, and although they may perform very extraordinary feats, are disabled and worthless when the slower horse is in his prime. Most of our readers probably are horsemen. Their memories will supply them with many an instance of intelligence and fidelity in the horse, and particularly in the hackney — the every-day companion of man. A friend of ours rode thirty miles from home on a young horse which he had bred, and which had never before been in that part of the country. The road was difficult to find, but by dint of inquiry he at length reached the place he sought. Two years passed over, and he had again occasion to take the same journey. No one rode this horse but himself, and he was perfectly assured that the animal had not since been in that direction. Three or four miles before he reached his journey's end he was benighted. — He had to traverse moor and common, and he could scarcely see his horse's head. — The rain began to pelt. " Well," thought he, " here I am, far from any house, and know not, nor can I see an inch of my road. I have heard much of the memory of the horse, — it is my only hope now, — so my fine fellow," throw- ing the reins on his horse's neck, " go on." In half an hour he was safe at his friend's gate. The following anecdote, given on the authority of Professor Kruger of Halle, proves both the sagacity and fidelity of the horse. — A friend of his, riding home through a v/ood in a dark night, struck his head against the branch of a tree, and fell from his horse stunned. The steed immediately returned to the house which they had lately left, and which was now closed, and the family in bed, and pawed at the door until some one rose and opened it. He turned about, and the man wondering at the affair, fol- lowed him : the faithful and intelligent animal led him to the place where his master lay senseless on the ground. Cunningham, in his valuable account of New South Wales, vol. i. p. 298, says, "A iriend of mine in the habit of riding a good deal, found that when- ever he approached a gully, his sagacious horse invariably opposed his wishes to cross at the particular spot he had been accustomed to, always endeavouring to lead off to another part of the gully, where no passage was known to exist by his rider. Resolving to see whither the cunning rogue would go, he gave him the rein, and soon found himself carried over the gully by a route he had never before followed. Still, however, thinking that the former way was the nearest, he was curious enough to have both measured, when he found the horse's judgment correct ; that way being the nearest by several hundred yards." Of the paces of the hackney, and of horses generally, and the principle of the walk, the trot, the canter, and the gallop, we shall be better able to speak, when the structure of the horse, varying in different breeds, has been explained. THE FARMER* S. 83 The points of shape most essential to be attended to in the choice of a hackney, are — the shoulders and the fore legs and feet : because a horse whose shoulders are properly formed and placed is not liable to fall down ; and because his soundness depends chiefly upon his legs and feet. The shoulders should not be too upright, but should slope backwards from the shoulder point to the withers. It is desirable, if the horse is intended to carry a man of much weight, that the shoulders should be rather thick than thin ; but it is essential that they should not be too large at the points. A horse whose shoulders are good, stands, when in a natural position, with his fore legs in a line perpendicular to the ground ; it is therefore very desirable that the purchaser should see him in the stable, and before he has been moved, for he will then find him in his natural position, in which it may be difficult to place him after he has been once disturbed. Another mode of ascertaining whether the shoulders are properly placed is, by allowing the horse to walk past you, and to observe whether he places his fore foot more forward than the shoulder point when he puts it on the ground. A horse whose shoulders are properly formed will always do so ; one whose shoulders are upright, cannot. The fore quarters of a horse intended to be used as a hackney constitute an essential point : his carcase should be round, and his ribs deep. A horse's fore leg, of the proper form, should be flat, and as large under the knee as it is just above the fetlock. The pastern should be so joined to the leg at the fetlock, that the horse should neither turn his feet out or in; but it is less objectionable that a horse should turn his feet a little outwards, provided it is not so much as to make him hit his fetlocks, than that he should turn them in- wards. THE FARMER'S HORSE. The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all-work; to be ridden occasion- ally to market or for pleasure, but to be principally employed for draught. He should be higher than the road-horse : about fifteen hands and two inches may be taken as the best standard. A horse with a shoulder thicker, lower, and less slanting than would be chosen in a hackney, will better suit the collar; and collar-work will be chiefly required of him. A stout compact horse should be selected, yet not a heavy cloddy one. Some blood will be desirable, but the half-bred horse will generally best suit the farmer's purpose. He should have weight enough to throw into the collar, and sufficient activity to get over the ground. Farmers are now beginning to be aware of the superiority of the moderate-sized, strong, active horse over the bulkier, but slower animal of former days. It is not only in harvest, and when a frosty morning must be seized to cart manure, that this is perceived, but, in the every-day work of the farm, the saving of time, and the saving of provender too, will be very considerable in the course of a year. It has often been said, that a horse used much for draught is neither pleasant nor safe for the saddle. The little farmer does not want a shewy, complete hackney. He will be content if he is tolerably well carried; and (if he has taken a little care in the choice of his horse ; has selected one with sound feet, shoulders not too thick, and legs not too much under him; and, if he keeps him in good condition, and does not scandalously over- weight him,) the five days carting or harrow- work will not, to any material degree, unfit him for the saddle ; especiallv if the rider bear in D 34 THE, mind what we have termed the golden rule of horsemanship, al\\^ys a little to feel the mouth of the animal he is upon. A farmer, and, more particularly, a small farmer, will prefer a mare to a gelding, both for riding and driving. She will not cost him so much at first ; and he will get a great deal more work out of her. There can be no doubt that, taking bulk for bulk, a mare is stronger and more lasting than a gelding; and, in addition to this, the farmer has her to breed from. This and the profit which is attached to it is well known in the breeding counties ; but why the breeding of horses for sale should be almost exclusively confined to a few northern districts it is not easy to explain. Wherever there are good horses, with convenience for rearing the colts, the farmer may start as a breeder with a good chance of success. If he has a ie\w useful cart-mares, and crosses them with a well-knit, half bred horse, he will certainly have colts useful for every purpose of agriculture, and some of them sufficiently light for the van, post-chaise, or coach. If he has a superior mare, one of the old Cleveland breed, and puts her to a bony, three-fourths-bred horse, or, if he can find one stout and compact enough, a seven-eighths, or a thorough-bred one, he will have a fair chance to rear a colt that will amply repay him as a hunter or carriage-horse. The mare needs not be idle while she is breeding. She may be worked moderately almost to the period of her foaling, and with benefit rather than otherwise : nor is there occasion that much of her time should be lost even while she is suckling. If she is put to horse in June, the foal- ing time will fall, and the loss of labour will occur, in the most leisure time of the year. There are two rocks on which the farmer often strikes : he pays little attention to the kind of mare, and less to the proper nourishment of the foal. It may be laid down as a maxim in breeding, however general may be the prejudice against it, that the value of the foal depends a great deal more on the dam than on the sire. The Arabs are convinced of this, for no price will buy from them a likely mare of the highest blood ; and they trace back the pedigree of their horses, not through the sire, but the dam. The Greek sporting-men held the same opinion, long before the Arab horse was known. " What chance of winning have 1 /" inquired a youth whose horse was about to start on the Olympic course. " Ask the daw, of your horse" was the reply, founded on experience *. The farmer, however, too frequently thinks that any mare will do to breed from; and, if he can find a great prancing stallion, with a high- sounding name, and loaded with fat, he reckons on having a valuable colt : and should he fail, he attributes the fault to the horse, and not to his own want of judgment. Far more depends on the mare than is dreamt of in his philosophy. If he has an undersized, or a blemished, or unsound mare, let him continue to use her on his farm : she probably did not cost him much, and she will beat any gelding; but let him not think of breeding * Bishop Hall, who wrote in the time of Ehzal:ieth, intimates that such was the opinion of horsemen at that period. He asks, in one of his satires (Lib . iv.) " dost thou prize Thy brute beasts' worth by their dams' qualities ? Say'st thou this colt shall prove a swift-pac'd steed Onely because a J ennet did him breed ? Or say'st thou this same horse shall win the prize; Because his dam was swiftest Tranchefice .^" THE FARMER'S. 35 from her. A roomy mare, with some blood in her, and with most of the good points, will alone answer his purpose. She may bear about her the marks of honest work (the fewer of these, however, the better), but she must not have any disease. There is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject that is not hereditary. Contracted feet, curb, spavin, roaring, thick wind, blindness, notoriously descend from the sire or dam to the foal. Mr. Roberts, in that useful publication, * The Veterinarian,* says, " Last summer I was asked my opinion of a horse. I approved of his formation with the exception of the hocks, where there happened to be two curbs. I was then told his sister was in the same stable : she also had two curbs. Knowing the sire to be free from these defects, I in- quired about the dam: she also had two confirmed curbs. She was at this time running with a foal of hers, two years old, by another horse, and he also had two curbs." The foal should be well taken care of for the first two years. It is bad policy to stint, or half-starve, the growing colt. The colt, whether intended for a hunter or carriage-horse, may be earlier handled, but should not be broken-in until three years old ; and then the very best breaking-in for the carriage-horse is to make him earn a little of his living. Let him be put to harrow or light plough. Going over the rough ground will teach him to lift his feet well, and give him that high and shewy action, excusable in a carriage-horse, but excusable in no other. In the succeeding winter he will be perfectly ready for the town or country market. THE COACH-HORSE*. This animal has fully shared in the progress of improvement, and is as different from what he was fifty years ago as it is possible to conceive. * Wheel carriages, bearing any resemblance to chariots, first came into use in the reign of Richard 11. about the year 1381 ; they were called ivhirlicotes, and were little better than litters or cotes {cots) placed on wheels. We are told by Master John Stowe, that "Richard II., being threatened by the rebels of Kent, rode from the Tower of London to the Miles End, and with him his mother, because she was sick and weak, in a whirli- cote;" and this is described as an ugly veliicle of four boards put together in a clumsy manner. In the following year he married Anne of Luxembourg, who introduced the riding upon' side-saddles ; aud so " was the riding in those whirlicotes forsaken, except at coronations and suchlike spectacles." Coaches were not used until the time of Elizabeth, when we ai-e told (Stowe's Survey of London and W^estminster, book i.) " divers great ladies made them coaches, and rode in them up and down the countries to the great admiration of all the beholders." The fashion soon spread, and he adds, what is often too true in the present day, " the world nms on wheels with many whose parents were glad to go on foot." These coaches were heavy and imwieldy, and probably bore some rough resemblance to the state coaches now used occasionally in court processions. The rate of travelling was as slow as the clumsiness of the horses and vehicle would natu- rally indicate. King George II. died early on Saturday morning, Oct. 21, 1760 : the Duke of Devonshire, who was lord chamberlain, arrived in town from Chatsworth in three days ; but a fourth and a fifth day passing over, and the lord steward, the Duke of Rutland, not making his appearance, although he had not so far to travel by more than thirty miles, Mr. Speaker Onslov/ made this apology for him, that " the Duke of Devonshire travelled at a prodigious rate, not less ihanjifty miles a cloy ,'" To travel in the stage-coach from London to Epsom^ sixteen miles, then took nearly the whole day, and the passengers dined on the road. The coach from Edinburgh to London started once a month, and occupied sixteen or eighteen days on the journey. A person may now start from Edinburgh on Saturday evening, have two spare days in Lon- don, and be back again at the Scotch metropolis to breakfast on the next Saturday, lU' P 2 36 THE HORSE. The clumsy-barrelled, cloddy-sliouldered, round-leg-ged, black family horse, neither a coach nor a dray-horse, but something; between both, as fat as an ox, and, with all his pride and prancing- at first startinj^, not equal to more than six miles an hour, and knocking- up with one hard day's work, is no more seen ; and we have, instead of him, an animal as tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slantin<^ in the shoulders, flat in the legs, with even more strength, and with treble the speed. There is a great deal of deception, however, even in the best of these improved coach-horses. They prance it nobly through the streets; and they have more work in them than the old clumsy, sluggish breed : but they have not the endurance that could be wished, — and a pair of poor post-horses would, at the end of the second day, beat them hollow. The knee-action, and high lifting of the feet in the carriage-horse is deemed an excellence, because it adds to the grandeur of his appearance ; l3ut, as has already been stated, it is necessarily accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and feet, and this is very soon apparent. Tile principal points in the coach-horse are, substance well placed, a deep and well proportioned body, bone under the knee, and sound, open, tough feet. The origin of the better kind of coach-horse is the Cleveland Bay, con- fined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with, perhaps, Lincolnshire on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to meet with pure in either county. The Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth, or thoroughbred horse of sufficient substance and height, and the produce is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action. From the thoroughbred of sufficient height, but not of so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand, and superior curricle-horse. From less height and more substance we have the hunter and better sort of hackney ; and, from the half-bred, we derive the machineer, the poster, and the common carriage-horse: indeed, Cleveland, and the Vale of Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, may be considered as the most decided breeding country in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hacknies. The coach-horse is nothing more than z. tall, strong, over- sized hunter. The hackney has many of the qualities of the hunter on a small scale. How far we are carrying supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing strength and usefulness to speed, is a question not difficult to resolve. The rage for rapid travelling is the bane of the post-master, the destruction of the horse, and a disgrace to the English character. cliulmtr short stages, one thousand four hundred coaches now set out from London ever}' day ; the expense of each of which, with four liorses, cannot be less than two shilUngs and sixpence per mile. Hackney coaches first appeared in London in 1625, the first year of the reign of Charles I. : sedan-chairs had been introduced by the Duke of Buckingham six years before. Among the numerous benefits arising from the sendees of the horse, and the im- provement of public roads and carriages, is the speedy and regular correspondence by post. The invention of this usefid establishment is ascribed to Cyrus the Great. It was adopted by the Greeks and Romans, It was introduced into France by Louis XI. m 1462, and we first read of it in English history about the year 1')jO, under Ed- ward VI., when post-houses were fstal)lishcd, and horses provided at the rate of one penny per mile. Under Elizabeth a post-master was nominated by government, and under Charles I., in 1G34, the system assumed its present form. Tie charge of postage was then fixed at two pence, if under eighty miles ; four pi;nce between eighty and one hundred and forty ; and six pence if under two hundred and forty miles ; but this charge rapidly increased with the increasing price of horses, and the o'ther expenses of conveyance,, and aftcnvards it was further raised by taxation, like almost everything else. THE COACH-HORSE. 37 There is no truth so easily proved, or so pauifully felt by the post- master, at least in his pocket, as that it is the pace that kills. A horse at a dead pull, or at the beginning of his pull, is enabled, by the force of his muscles, to throw a certain weight into the collar. If he walk four miles in the hour, some part of that muscular energy must be expended in the act of walking; and, consequently, the power of drawing must be propor- tionably diminished. If he trot eight miles in the hour, more animal power is expended in the trot, and less remains for the draught ; but the draught continues the same, and, to enable him to accomplish his work, he must tax his energies to a degree that is cruel in itself, and that must speedily wear him out. Let it be supposed — what every horse cannot accomplish — that he shall be able, by fair exertion and without distress, to throw, at a dead pull, a weight into his collar, or exert a force equal to two hundred and sixteen pounds ; or, in other words, let him be able to draw a load which requires a* force of two hundred and sixteen pounds to move. Let him next walk at the rate of four miles in an hour : what force will he then be able to employ ? We have taken away some to assist him in walking, and we have left him only ninety-six pounds, being not half of that which he could exert when he began his pull. He shall quicken his pace to six miles an hour— more energy must be exerted to carry him over this additional ground. Hovv much has he remaining to apply to the weight behind him ? Fifty-four pounds only. We will make the six miles an hour ten ; for it seems now to be the fashion for the fast coach, and for almost every coach, and every vehicle to attempt this pace. How stands the account with the poor beast ? We have left him a power equal to thirty-two pounds only to be employed for the purpose of draught. The load which a horse can draw is about fifteen times greater than the power exerted, supposing the road to be hard and level, and the carriage to run with little friction ; and the horse which at starting can throw into the collar a weight or force equal to two hundred and sixteen pounds, will draw a load of three thousand two hundred. Let him, however, be urged on at the rate of ten miles in the hour — deduct the power used in swiftness of pace from the sum total of that which he possesses, and what remains? — not a sixth part — not that which is equal to a quarter of a ton— or, if it be a stage-coach, the energy exerted in draught by the four horses will not be equal to a ton. The coach, and its passengers and its luggage, weigh more than this, and the whole is still drawn on, and must be so. Whence comes the power? From the over-strained exertion, the injury, the torture, the destruction of the horse. That which is true of the coach-horse, is equally true of every other. Let each reader apply it to his own animal, and act as humanity and interest dictate. Many a horse used on our public roads is unable to throw all his natural power or weight into tlie collar. He is tender-footed — lame ; but he is bought at little price, and he is worked on the brutal and abominable principle, that he may be " uchiirped sound.^' And so apparently he is. At first he sadly haks ; but, urged by the torture of the lash, he acquires a peculiar habit of going. The faulty Hmb appears to keep pace with the others, but no stress or labour is thrown upon it, and he gradually contrives to make the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the un- sound one ; and thus he is barbarously " whipped sound," and cruelty is undeservedly rewarded. After all, however, what has been done? Three legs are made to do that which was almost too hard a task for four. Then 38 THE HORSE. they must be most injuriously strained, and soon worn out, and the general power of the animal must be rapidly exhausted, and, at no great distance of time, exhaustion and death release him from his merciless persecutors. It is said that between Glasgow and Edinburgh, a carrier in a single horse cart, weighing about seven hundred weight, will take a load of a ton, and at the rate of twenty-two miles in a day. The Normandy carriers travel with a team of four horses, and from fourteen to twenty-two miles in a day, with a load of ninety hundred weight. An unparalleled instance of the power of a horse when assisted by art, was shewn near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, a wager was laid by two gentlemen, that a common horse could draw thirty- six tons for six miles along the road, and that he should draw his weight from a dead pull, as well as turn it round the occasional windings of the road. A numerous party of gentlemen assembled near Merstham to sea this extraordinary triumph of art. Twelve waggons loaded with stones, each waggon weighing above three tons, were chained together, and a horse, taken promiscuously from the timber cart of Mr. Harwood, was yoked to the train. He started from the Fox public-house, near Merstham, and drew the immense chain of waggons, with apparent ease, almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four miles an hour. In the course of the journey he stopped four times, to shew that it was not by any ad- vantage of descent that this power was acquired ; and after each stop- page he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease. Mr. Banks, who had wagered on the power of the horse, then desired that four more loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade, with which the same horse set otf again with undiminished pace. Still further to shew the effect of the railway in facilitating motion, he directed the attending work- men, to the number of fifty, to mount on the waggons, and the horse pro- ceeded without the least distress; and, in truth, there appeared to be scarcely any limitation to the power of his draught. After this trial the waggons were taken to the weighing-machine, and it appeared that the whole weight was as follows : — Ton. Cwt. Qr. 1 2 Waggons first linked together - 38 4 2 4 Ditto, afterwards attached • « 13 2 Supposed weight of fifty labourers - 4 55 6 2 HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. The Cleveland horses have been known to carry more than seven hun- dred pounds sixty miles in twenty-four hours, and to perform this journey four times in a week ; and mill-horses have carried nine hundred and ten pounds two or three miles. Horses for slower draught, and sometimes even for the carriage, are produced from the Suffolk Punch, so called from his round punchy make, and descended from the Norman stallion and the Suffolk cart mare. The true Suffolk, like the Cleveland, is now nearly extinct. It stood from fifteen to sixteen hands high, of a sorrel colour ; was large headed ; low shouldered, and thick on the top ; deep and round chested ; long backed ; high in the croup ; large and strong in the quarters ; full in the flanks ; round in the legs j and short in the pasterns. It was the very horse to throw; HEAVY DRAUGHT. 39 KvrthamptunsJdrc. Clyde sdale. Suffulh. Cleveland. his whole weight into the collar, with sufficient activity to do it effectually, and hardihood to stand a long day's work. The present breed possesses many of the pecuharities and good qualities of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to a sorrel colour ; it is a taller horse ; higher and finer in the shoulders ; and is a cross with the York- shire half or three-fourths bred. The excellence, and a rare one, of the old Suffolk (the new breed has not quite lost it) consisted in nimbleness of action, and the honesty and con- tinuance with which he would exert himself at a dead pull. Many a good draught-horse knows well what he can effect; and, after he has attempted it and failed, no torture of the whip will induce him to strain his powers be- yond their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug at a dead pull until he dropped. It was beautiful to see a team of true Sufiblks, at a signal from the driver, and without the whip, down on their knees in a moment, and drag everything before them. Brutal wagers were frequently laid as to their power in this respect, and many a good team was injured and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk is accounted for by the low position of the shoulder, which enables him to throw so much of his weight into the collar. Ahhough the Punch is not what he was, and the Suffolk and Norfolk farmer can no longer boast of ploughing more land in a day than any one else, this is undoubtedly a valuable breed. The Duke of Richmond obtained many excellent carriage horses, with strength, activity, and figure, by crossing the Suffolk with one of his best hunters. The Suffolk breed is in great request in the neighbouring counties of Norfolk and Essex. Mr. Wakefield, of Barnham in Essex, had a stallion for which he was offered four himdred guineas. The Clydesdale is a good kind of draught-horse, and particularly for farming business and in a hilly country. It derives its name from the 40 THE HORSE. district on the Clyde in Scotland, where it is principally bred. The Clydesdale horse owes its origin to one of the Dukes of Hamilton, who crossed some of the best Lanark mares with stallions which he had brought over from Flanders. The Clydesdale is larger than the Suffolk, and has a better head, a longer neck, a lighter carcase, and deeper legs ; strong, hardy, pulling true, and rarely restive. The southern parts of Scotland are principally supplied from this district ; and many Clydesdales, not only for agricultural purposes, but for the coach and the saddle, find their way to the central, and even southern counties of England. Dealers from almost every part of the United Kingdom attend the markets of Glasgow and Rutherglen. The Heavy Black Horse is the last variety it may be necessary to notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties from Lincolnshire to Staffordshire. Many are bought up by the Surrey and Berkshire farmers at two years old, — and being worked moderately until they are four, earning their keep all the while, they are then sent to the London market, and sold at a profit of ten or twelve per cent. It would not answer the breeders purpose to keep them until they are fit for town-work. He has plenty of fillies and mares on his farm for every purpose that he can require ; he therefore sells them to a person nearer the metropolis, by whom they are gradually trained and prepared. The traveller has probably wondered to see four of these enormous animals in a line before a plough, on no very heavy soil, and where two lighter horses would have been quite sufficient. The farmer is training them for their future destiny ; and he does right in not requiring the exertion of all their strength, for their bones are not yet perfectly formed, nor their joints knit ; and were he to urge them too severely, he would probably injure and deform them. By the gentle and constant exercise of the plough, he is preparing them for that continued and equable pull at the collar, which is afterwards so necessary. These horses are adapted more for parade and shew, and to gratify the ambition which one brewer has to outvie his neigh- bour, than for any peculiar utility. They are certainly noble-looking animals, with their round fat carcases, and their sleek coats, and the evident pride which they take in themselves ; but they eat a great deal of liay and corn, and at hard and long-continued work they would be completely beaten by a team of active muscular horses an inch and a half lower. Tiie only plea which can be urged in their favour, beside their fine appearance, is, that as shaft-horses, over the badly-paved streets of the metropolis, and w ith the immense loads they often have behind them, great bulk and weight are necessary to stand the unavoidable shaking and battering. Weight must be opposed to weight, or the horse would some- times be quite thrown off his legs. A large heavy horse must be in the .shafts, and then little ones before him would not look well. Certainly no one has walked the streets of London without pitying the poor thill-horse, jolted from side to side, and exposed to many a bruise, unless, with admirable cleverness, he accommodates himself to every motion ; but, at the same time, it must be evident, that bulk and fat do not always con- stitute strength, and that a compact muscular horse, approaching to sixteen liands high, would acquit himself far better in such a situation. Tlie dray-horse, in the mere act of ascending from the wharf, may display a powerful effort, but he afterwards makes little exertion, much of his force being expended in transporting his own overgrown mass. These heavy horses are bred in the highest perfection, as to size, in the HEAVY DRAUGHT. 41 fens of Lincolnshire, and few of them are less than seventeen hands high at two and a half years old. Neither the soil, nor the prodnce of the soil, is better than in other counties ; on the contrary, much of the lower part of Lincolnshire is a cold, hungry clay. The true explanation of the matter is, that there are certain situations better suited than others to different kinds of farming, and the breeding of different animals ; and that not altogether depending on richness of soil or pasture. The principal art of the farmer is, to find out what will best suit his soil, and the produce of it. A dray-horse should have a broad breast, and thick and upright shouldei's, (the more upright the collar stands on him the better;) a low forehand, deep and round barrel, loins broad and high, ample quarters, thick fore-arms and thighs, short legs, round hoofs, broad at the heels, and soles not too flat. The great fault of the large dray-horse is, his slowness. This is so much in the breed, that even the discipline of the ploughman, who would be better pleased to get through an additional rood in the day, cannot permanently quicken him. Surely the breeder might obviate this. Let a dray-mare be selected, as perfect as can be obtained. Let her be put to the strongest, largest, most compact, thorough-bred horse. If the produce be a filly, let her be covered by a superior dray- horse, and the result of this cross, if a colt, will be precisely the animal required to breed from. The largest of this heavy breed of black horses are used as dray-horse!^. The next in size are sold as waggon-horses ; and a smaller variety, and with more blood, constitutes a considerable part of our cavalry, and is likewise devoted to undertaker's work. All our heavy draught horses, and some even of the lighter kind, have been lately much crossed by the Flanders breed, and with evident improve- ment. Little has been lost in depth and bulk of carcase ; but the fore-hand has been raised, the legs have been flattened and deepened, and very much has been gained in activity. The slow heavy black, with his two miles and a half an hour, has been changed into a lighter, but yet exceedingly powerful horse, who will step foin* miles in the same time, with perfect ease, and has considerably more endurance. THE DRAY HORSE. 42 THE HORSE. This cut contains the portrait of a favourite dray-horse belonging to Messrs. Meux, and painted by Mr. Ward, R. A., to whose portfolio we hope frequently to have recourse. It is the Suffolk crossed, although not so deeply as some, with the Flanders. This is the very system, as we shall presently describe, which has been adopted with such success in the blood-horse, and has made the English racer and hunter, and the English horse generally, what it is. As the racer is principally or purely of Eastern origin, so has the EngHsh draun-ht horse sprung chiefly from Flemish blood, and to that blood the agri- culturist has recourse for the perfection of the breed. For the dray, the spirit waggon, and not too heavy loads, and for road- work generally, a cross with the" Flanders will be advantageous ; but if, in London, the enormous heavy horse must be used in the coal-waggon, or the heavier load of the wharf, we must leave our midland black, with all his unwieldly bulk, untouched. As an ordinary beast of lighter draught, and particularly in the neigh- bourhood of London, the worn out hackney and the refuse of the coach, and even of the hackney-coach is used. In the hay-markets of St. James's and Whitechapel are continually seen wretched teams, which would disgrace the poorest district of the poorest country. The small farmer in the vici- nity of the metropolis, himself strangely inferior to the small farmer else- where, has too easy access to Smith held, that sink of cruelty. They who are unacquainted with this part of the country, would scarcely think it possible, that on the forests and commons within a few miles of London, as many ragged, wild, mongrel horses are to be found, as in any district of the United Kingdom, and a good horse is scarcely by any chance bred there. CAVALRY HORSE. This is the proper place to speak of the cavalry horse. That noble animal whose varieties we are describing, so admirably adapted to contribute to our pleasure and our use, was at a very early age perverted to the destruc- tive purposes of war ; and, as if he had been destined to the murderous business, seemed to exult and triumph in the work of death. A sacred writer, more than three thousand years ago, gives us a sublime account of the manner in which the horse, at that time, as at present, en- tered into the spirit of the battle (Job xxxix. 19 et seq.) " Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage. He saith among the trumpets Ha I ha ! He smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting." The cavalry horses contain a different proportion of blood, according to the nature of the service required, or the caprice of the commanding officer. Those of the household troops are from half to three-fourths bred. Some of the lighter regiments have more blood in them. Our cavalry horses were formerly large and heavy. To his imposing size was added action as imposing. Tlie horse was trained to a peculiar, and grand and beautiful method of going ; but he was often found deficient in real RACE HORSE. 43 service, for this very action diminished his speed, and added to his labour and fatigue. A considerable change has taken place in the character of our war- horses : Hg-htness and activity have succeeded to bulli and strength ; and for skirmishing and sudden attack the change is an improvement. It is particularly found to be so in long and rapid marches, which the lighter troops scarcely regard, while the heavier horses, with their more than com- parative additional weight to carry, are knocked up. There was, how- ever, some danger of carrying this too far ; for it was found that in the engagements previous to, and at the battle of Waterloo, our heavy house- hold troops alone were able to repulse the formidable charge of the French guard. The following anecdote of the memory and discipline of the troop-horse is related on good authority. The Tyrolese, in one of their insurrections in 1809, took fifteen Bavarian horses, and mounted them with so many of their own men ; but, in a skirmish with a squadron of the same regiment, no sooner did these horses hear the trumpet, and recognize the uniform of their old masters, than they set otF at full gallop, and carried their riders, in spite of all their efforts, into the Bavarian ranks, where they were made prisoners. Pliny relates a curious story about the war-horse, but, although an ex- cellent naturalist and philosopher, he was either very credulous or too fond of the marvellous. The Sybarites trained their horses to dance. The inhabitants of Crotona, with whom they were at war, had their trumpeters taught the tunes to which the horses were accustomed to dance. When the opposing troops were in the act of charging upon each other, the Crotonian trumpeters begun to play these tunes — the Sybarite horses began to dance, and were easily defeated. THE RACE HORSE There is much dispute with regard to the origin of the thorough-bred horse. By some he is traced through both sire and dam to Eastern parent- age ; others believe him to be the native horse, improved and perfected by judicious crossing with the Barb, the Turk, or the Arabian. " The Stud Book," which is an authority acknowledged by every English breeder, traces all the old racers to some Eastern origin ; or it traces- them until 44" THE HORSE. the pedigree is lost in the uncertainty of an early period of breeding;. If the pedigree of a racer of the present day be required, it is traced back to a certain extent, and ends with a well-known racer; — or if an earlier deriva- tion be required, that ends either with an Eastern horse, or in obscurity. It must, on the whole, be allowed, that the present English thorough- bred horse is of foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence of the climate, and by diligent cultivation. There are some exceptions, as in the case of Sampson and Bay-Malton, in each of whom, although the best horses of their day, there was a cross of vulgar blood ; but they are only exceptions to a general rule. In our best racing stables, and, particu- larly in the studs of the Earls of Grosvenor and Egremont, this is an ac- knowledged principle ; and it is not, when properly considered, a principle at all derogatory to the credit of the country. The British climate, and British skill, made the thorough-bred horse what he is. The beautiful tales of Eastern countries, and somewhat remoter days, may lead us to imagine that the Arabian horse possesses marvellous powers; but it cannot admit of a doubt, that the English trained horse is more beautiful, and far swifter and stouter than the justly-famed coursers of the desert. In the burning plains of the East, and the frozen climate of Russia, he has invariably beaten every antagonist on his native ground. A few years ago. Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India. It must not be objected, that the number of Eastern horses imported is far too small to produce so numerous a progeny. It will be recollected, that the thousands of wild horses on the pfains of South America descended from only two stallions and four mares, which the early Spanish adventurers left there. Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-horse, the strictest attention has for the last fifty years been paid to pedigree. In the descent of almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be discovered : or when, with the splendid exception of Sampson and Bay- Malton, one drop of common blood has mingled with the pure stream, it has been immediately detected in the inferiority of form, and deficiency of bottom, and it has required two or three generations to wipe away the stain, and get rid of its consequences. The racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head ;— his fine and finely-set-on neck ; — his oblique, lengthened shoulders ; — well- bent hinder legs ; — his ample, muscular quarters — his flat legs, rather short from the knee downward, although not always so deep as they should be ; — and his long and elastic pastern. These are separately con- sidered where the structure of the horse is treated of. The racer, however, with the most beautiful form, is occasionally a sorry animal. There is sometimes a v/ant of energy in an apparently faultless shape, for which there is no accounting ; but there are two points among those just enumerated, which will rarely or never deceive, a well-placed shoulder, and a well-bent hinder leg. THE DARLEY ARABIAN. The Darley Arabian was the parent of our best racing stock. He v/as purchased by Mr. Darley's brother, at Aleppo, and was bred in the neighbouring desert of Palmyra. The figure here given of him is supposed to be an accurate delineation. It contains every point, without much show, which could be desired in a turf-horse. THE DARLEY ARABIAN". 45 The immediate descendants of this in vaUiable horse, were the Devonshire or Flying Childers ; the Bleeding or Bartlett's Childers, who was never trained ; Almanzor, and others. The two Childers were the means through which the blood and fame of their sire were widely circulated, and from them descended another Chil- ders, Blaze, Snap, Sampson, Eclipse, and a host of excellent horses. FLYING CHILDERS. The Devonshire or Flying Childers, so called from the name of his breeder, Mr. Childers, of Carr-House, and the sale of him to the Duke of Devonshire, was the fleetest horse of his day. He was at first trained as a hunter, but the superior speed and courage which he discovered caused him to be soon transferred to the turf Common report affirms, that he could run a mile in a minute, but there is no authentic record of this. Childers ran over the round course at Newmarket (three miles six furlongs and ninety-three jards) in six minutes and forty seconds; and the Beacon course (four miles one furlong and one hundred and thirty- 46 THE HORSE. eight yards) in seven minutes and thirty seconds. In 1772, a mile was run by Firetail, in one minute and four seconds. In October 1741, at theCurragh meeting in Ireland, Mr, Wilde engaged to ride one hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours. He performed it in six hours and twenty-one minutes. He employed ten horses, and, allowing for mounting and dismounting, and a moment for refreshment, he rode for six hours at the rate of twenty miles an hour. Mr. Thornhill, in 1745, exceeded this, for he rode from Stilton to London and back, and again to Stilton, being two hundred and thirteen miles, in eleven hours and thirty-four minutes, which is, after allowing the least possible time for changing horses, twenty miles an hour for eleven hours, and on the turnpike road and uneven ground. Mr. Shaftoe, in 1762, with ten horses, and five of them ridden twice, accomphshed fifty miles and a quarter, in one hour and forty-nine minutes. In 1763, Mr. Shaftoe won a more extraordinary match. He was to procure a person to ride one hundred miles a day, on any one horse each day, for twenty-nine days together, and to have any number of horses not exceeding twenty-nine. He accomplished it on fourteen horses; and on one day he rode one hundred and sixty miles, on account of the tiring of his first horse. Mr. Hull's Quibbler, however, afforded the most extraordinary instance on record, of the stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse. In December 1786, he ran twenty-three miles round the flat at Newmarket, in fifty-seven minutes and ten seconds. ECLIPSE. Eclipse was got by Marsk, a grandson of Bartlett's Childers *. * The pedigree of Eclipse affords a singular illustration of the descent of our thorough bred horses from pure Eastern blood. Bartlett's Childers. jl^^'-'^y^''^^^"- r r I Betty Leeds < Careless^ Shanker^ Barb Mare. Rquirt. ..^ , Snate ...r Lister Turk. Dam of I J Daughter /„,„,. J" D'Arccv "^niite urk, Caroline and Shock.<^ [ of Hautboy. | "»"tbov .| j^^^.^j ^^^^.^ Daughter f Tjn„.i.ov tof Hautboy. I "^""'"i- r Hutton's Bay Turk. Hutton-s Black Legs | ^^^^^^^^^ ^oneyskins . | Lister Turk. , \ Daughter of | Hautboy. Daughter of^ C '■ f Clumsy •! Hautboy. t Daughter of •! Leeds Arabian. Daughter of^ I ^ •diis i Lister Turk. Daughter of < Daughter of -j Hutton':. Grey Barb. C Godoljihin Arabian. ] ( Bald <■ Daughter of{ _ _ ^ ^^^-^^ ( ■ Old Wilkes, by Hautboy. fRegxilus.., r Bald Gallowav ^^"^"''^'^i Daughter off snake! Lister Turk . Mother AVcslem Smith's Son of Snake, Old Montague] Daughter of Hautboy. The pedigree of Eclipse Avill likewise afford us another curious illustration of the uncertainty which attends thorough-bred horses. Marsk was sold at the sale of tlie Duke of Cumberland's stud for a mere trifle, and was suffered to run almost wild on the New Forest. He was afterwards purchased by the Earl of Abingdon, for one thousand guineas, and before his death, covered for one himdred guineas. Squirt, when the property of Sir Harry Harpur, was ordered to be shot, and while he was actually leading to the dog- kennel, he was spared at the intercession of one of Sir Harry's grooms; and neither Bartlett's Childers, nor Snake, was ever trained. On the side of the dam, Spiletta ECLIPSE. 47 Of the beauty, yet peculiarity of his form, much has been said. The very o;reat size, obliquity, and lowness of his shoulders were the objects of e:eneral remark — with the shortness of his fore-quarters, his ample and finely proportioned quarters, and the swelling muscles of his fore-arm and thi»'h. Of his speed, no correct estimate can be formed, for lie never met with an opponent sufficiently fleet to put it to the test. He was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold at his death to Mr. Wildman, a sheep salesman, for seventy-five guineas. Colonel O'Kelly purchased a share of him from Wildman. In the spring- of the following year, when the reputation of this wonderful animal was at its height, O'Kelly wished to become sole owner of him, and bought the remaining share for one thousand poimds. Eclipse was what is termed a thick-winded horse, and puffed and roared so as to be heard at a considerable distance. For this or some other cause, he was not brought on the turf until he was five years old. O'Kelly, auare of his horse's powers, had backed him freely on his first race, in May 1769. This excited curiosity, or, perhaps, roused sus- picion, and some persons attempted to watch one of his trials. Mr. John Lawrence says, that " they were a httle too late ; but they found an old woman who gave them all the information they wanted. On inquiring whether she had seen a race, she replied that she cotild not tell whether it was a race or not, but that she had just seen a horse with white legs running away at a monstrous rate, and another horse a great way behind, trying to run after him; but she was sure he never would catch the white- legged horse if he ran to the world's end." The first heat was easily won, when O'Kelly, observing that the rider had been pulling at Eclipse during the whole of the race, offered a wager that he placed the horses in the next heat. This seemed a thing so highly improbable, that he immediately had bets to a large amount. Being called on to declare, he replied, "Eclipse first, and the rest no where!" The event justified his prediction : all the others were distanced by Eclipse with the greatest ease ; or, in the language of the turf, they had no place. In the spring of the following year, he beat Mr. Wentworth's Bucephalus, never started but once, and was beaten; and the Godolphin Arabian was purchased from a water-cart in ^scris.— -Smith's Breeding for the Turf, p. 5. •48 THE HORSE. who had never before been conquered. Two days afterwards he distanced Mr. Strode's Pensioner, a very good horse ; and, in the August of the same year, he won the great subscription at York. No horse daring to enter against him, he closed his short career of seventeen months, by walking over the Newmarket course for the king's plate, on October the 18th, 1770. He was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, and won for his owner more tlian twenty-five thousand pounds. Eclipse was afterwards employed as a stallion, and produced the extraordinary number of three livuidred and thirty-four winners, and these netted to their owners more than a hundred and sixty thousand pounds exclusive of plates and cups. This fine animal died in 1789, at the age of twenty-five years *. More than twenty years after the Darley Arabian, and when the value of the Arabian blood was fully established. Lord Godolphin possessed a beautiful, but singularly-shaped horse, which he called an Arabian, but which was really a Barb. His crest, lofty and arched almost to a fault, will distinguish him from every other horse. It will likewise be seen from our plate (vide p. 9), that he had a sinking behind liis shoulders, almost as peculiar, and a corresponding elevation of the spine towards the loins. His muzzle was uncommonly fine, his head beautifully set on, his shoulders capacious, and his quarters well spread out. He was picked up in France, where he was actually employed in drawing a cart ; and when he was afterwards presented to Lord Godolphin, he was in that nobleman's stud a considerable time before his value was discovered. It was not until the birth of Lath, one of the first horses of that period, that his excellence began to be appreciated. He ■svas then styled an Arabian, and became, in even a greater degree than the Darley, the founder of the modern thorough-bred horses. He died in 1753, at the age of twenty-nine. An intimate friendship subsisted between him and a cat, which either sat on his back when he was in the stable, or nestled as closely to him as she could. At his death, the cat refused her food, and pined away, and soon died. — Mr. Holcroft gives a similar relation of the attachment between a race-horse and a cat, which the courser would take in his mouth and place in his manger and upon his back v/ithout hurting her. Chillaby, called from his great ferocity the Mad Arabian, whom one only of the grooms dared to approach, and who savagely tore to pieces the image of a man that was purposely placed in his way, had his peculiar attachment to a lamb, who used to employ himself for many an hour, in butting away the flies from him. Another foreign horse, whose portrait we have given {vide p. 11), was the Welleslev Arabian; the very picture of a beautiful wild horse of the desert. His precise country was never determined. He is evidently neither a perfect Barb, nor a perfect Arabian, but from some neighbouring province, where both the Barb and Arabian would expand to a more per- fect fulness of form. This horse has been erroneously selected as the pat- tern of a superior Arabian, and therefore we have introduced him ; few, how^- ever, of his produce were trained who can add much to his reputation. It has been imagined tliat the breed of racing horses has lately very considerably degenerated. This is not the case. Thorough-bred horses * The produce of Kino; Herod, a descendant of Flying Childers, was even more numerous. He got no less than four hundred and ninety-seven winners, who gained for their proprietors upwards of two hundred thousand pounds. Highflyer was a son of King Herod. THE feACER. 49 were formerly fewer in number, and their performances created greater wonder. The breed has now increased twenty-fold, and superiority is not so easily obtained among- so many competitors. If one circumstance could, more than any other, produce this deg^eneracy, it would be our absurd and cruel habit of bring^in^ out horses too soon, and the frequent failure of their leo-s before they have come to their full power. Childers and Eclipse did not appear until they were five years old; but many of our best horses, and those, perhaps, wlio would have shewn equal excellence with the most •celebrated racers, are foundered and destroyed before that period. Whether the introduction of short races, and so }Oung horses, be advantageous, and whether stoutness and usefulness may not thus be •somewhat too much sacrificed to speed : whether there mav be dani^er that an animal designed for service may, in process of time, be frit- tered away almost to a shadow of what he was, in order that at two ;years old, over the one-mile-course, he may astonish the crowd by his ileetness, — are questions that more concern the sporting^ man than the agriculturist ; and yet they concern the ag-riculturist too, for racing is principally valuable as connected with breeding, and as the test of breeding. The horse enters into the spirit of the race as thoroughly as does his Bsder, and, without whip or spur, will generally exert his energies to the utmost to beat his opponent. It is beautiful to see him advancing to the starting-post, every motion evincing his eagerness. The signal is given, and he springs away — he settles himself in his stride — the jockey becomes a part and portion of him, every motion of the arms and body corre- sponding with, and assisting the action of the horse. On he goes, eager, yet husbanding his powers. At length, when he arrives at that distance from which the rider knows that he will live home at the top of his speed, the hint is given, and on he rushes. Then the race in reality begins, and every nerve is strained to head his competitor. Then, too, comes the ;art of the rider, to keep the horse within his pace, and with admirable give ,und take, add to the length of every stride. Then, perhaps, the spur, ^skilfully applied, may be necessary to rouse every dormant energy. A •sluggish lurching horse may need more punishment than the humane observer would think justifiable. But the natural ardour of the race-horse, roused at the moment of the grand struggle, by the moderate application of the whip and spur, will bring him through if he can win. Forrester will aiford sufficient illustration of the natural emulation of the courser. — He had won many a hardly contested race ; at length, over- weighted and over-matched, the rally had commenced. His opponent, who had been waiting behind, was gaining upon him ; he overtook him, •and they continued quite close to within the distance. It was a point that could scarcely be decided. But Forrester's strength was failing. He made one desperate plunge — seized his antagonist by the jaw to hold him back, and could scarcely be forced to quit his hold. In like manner, a horse belonging to Mr. Quin,in 1753, finding his adversary gradually passing him, seized him by the leg, and both riders were obliged to dismount, in order to separate the animals. Let us here pause and ask, would the butcherly whip- ping and cutting which seems so often to form the expected and necessary conclusion of the race — the supposed display of the skill of the rider — the exultation of the thoughtless or unfeeling spectator — would these have carried such horses over one additional inch of ground? They would have been thrown abroad — they would have shortened their stroke — and perhaps would have become enraged and suspended every exertion. E •so ^THE HORSE. The horse is as susceptible of pleasure and pain as ourselves. He was committed to us for our protection and our use ; he is a willing, devoted servant. Whence did we derive the right to abuse him ? Interest speaks the same language. Many a race has been lost by the infliction of wanton cruelty *. THE HUNTER. There are few agriculturists who have not a little liking for the sports of the field, and who do not fancy rich music in the cry of the hounds. To what extent it may be prudent for them to indulge in these sports circum- stances must decide, and they deserve the most serious consideration. Few can, or, if they could, ought to keep a hunter. There are tempta- tions to expense in the field, and to expense after the chase, which it may be difficult to withstand. The hunter, however, or the hunting horse, * One of the severest plate-races on record, was run at Carslile, in 1761, and in wliich there were no fewer than six heats, and two of them were dead heats, each of which was contested by the winner of the plate. In 1763 at Salisbury, and over a four-mile course, there were four heats between two horses, the Duke of Grafton's Havannah and Mr. Wildmau's Pam. The following table of the abbreviations used in designating the different courses at Newmarket, and the length of these courses, may not be unacceptable. Abbrev. Miles. Furl. Yds. The Beacon course B.C. is 4 1 138 Last three miles of ditto - L. T. M. 3 45 From the Ditch in D.I. 2 97 From the turn of the lands in T. L. I. 5 184 Clermont course C. C. 1 5 217 Across the Flat A. F. 1 1 44 Two-year old course T. Y. C. 5 136 Yearling course Y.C. 2 147 Round course - _ - R C. 3 6 93 Ditch mile D.M. 7 148 Abingdon mile A.M. 0' 7 211 Rowley mile R.M. 1 1 Two middle miles of B. C. T. M. M. 1 7 115 A Distance is the length of two hundred and forty yards from the winning post. In the gallery of the winning post, and in a little gallery at the distance post, are placed two men holding crimson flags. As soon as the first horse has passed the winning post, the man THE HUNTER. 51 i, e. the horse on which a farmer, if he be not a professed sportsman, may occasionally with pleasure, and without disgrace, follow the hounds, is in value and beauty next to the racer. He should seldom be under fifteen or more than sixteen hands high ; below this standard he cannot always sufficiendy measure the object before him, and above this, he is apt to be leg-gy and awkward at his work. In proportion as the agriculture of the country is improved, the speed of the chase is increased. The scent both of the fox and the hare will lie better in inclosed and well- cultivated gromid, than on open, barren heaths ; and there is more running breast-high than when the hound is compelled to pick out the scent, carrying his nose almost close to the ground, and consequently going more slowly. The character of the hunter is consequendy gradually changing. Stoutness is still required, but speed is becoming more necessary, and, therefore, for the fox, and the deer, and even for the hare, blood is an essential quality. In strong, thickly inclosed countries, the half-bred horse may get toler- ably well along ; but for general use the hunter should be at least three- quarters bred, perhaps seven-eighths. If he could be obtained with bone enough, and different action, a thorough-bred horse would form the best of all hunters: but the thorough-bred horse, with the usual action of the racer, would not, even at three-quarters speed, always carry himself sufficiently high to be aware of and to clear his fences. The first property of a good hunter is, that he should be light in hand. For this purpose his head must be small ; his neck thin ; and especially thin beneath ; his crest firm and arched, and his jaws wide. The head will then be well set on. It will form that angle with the neck, which gives a light and pleasant mouth. Somewhat of a ewe-neck, however it may lessen the beauty of the race- horse, does not interfere with his speed, because, as is shewn where the structure of the horse is considered, more weight may be thrown forward, and consequently the whole bulk of the animal more easily impelled ; at the same time, the head is more readily and perfectly extended, the wind- pipe is brought almost to a straight line from the lungs to the muzzle, and the breathing is freer. Should the courser, in consequence of this form af the neck, bear more heavily on the hand, the race is soon over ; but the hunter may be our companion and our servant through a long day, and it is of essential consequence that he shall not too much annoy and tire us by the weight of his head and neck. The forehand should be loftier than that of the racer. A turf horse may be forgiven if his hind quarters rise an inch or two above his fore ones . His principal power is wanted from behind, and the very lowness of the drops his flag ; the other at the distance post drops his at the same moment, and the horse which has not then passed that post is said to be distanced, and cannot start again for the same plate or prize, A Feather-weight is the lightest weight that can he put on the back of a horse . A Give and Take Plate is where horses carry weight according to their height. Four- teen hands are taken as the standard height, and the horse must carry nine stone (the horse- man's stone is fourteen pounds). Seven pounds are taken from the weight for every inch below fourteen hands, and seven pounds added for every inch above fourteen hands. A few pounds additional weight is so serious an evil, that it is said, seven pounds in a mile- race are equivalent to a distance. A Post Match is for horses of a certain age, and the parties possess the privilege of bringing any horse of that age to the post. A Produce Match is that between the produce of certain mares in foal at the time of the match, and to be decided when they arrive at a certain age specified. E2 52 THE HORSE. forehand may throw more weight in front, and cause the whole machine to be more easily and speedily moved. A lofty forehand, however, is indis- pensable in the hunter; the shoulder as extensive as in the racer ; — as oblique and somewhat thicker ; the saddle will then be in its proper place, and will continue so, however lonj^ may be the run. The barrel should be rounder to give greater room for the heart and lungs to play, and send more and purer blood to the larger frame of this horse ; and especially more room to play when the run may continue un- checked for a time that begins to be distressing. A broad chest is an excellence in the hunter. — In the violent and long-continued exertion of the chase, the respiration is exceedingly quickened, and abundantly more blood is hurried through the lungs in a given time than when the animal is at rest. There must be sufficient room for this, or the horse will be blown, and possibly destroyed. The majority of the horses that perish in the field are narrow chested. The arm should be as muscular as that of the courser, or even more so, for both strength and endurance are wanted. The leg should be deeper than that of the race horse (broader as you stand at the side of the horse), and especially beneath the knee. In proportion to the distance of the tendon from the cannon or shank-bone, and more particularly just below the knee, is the mechanical advantage with which it acts. A racer may be tied beneath the knee, without per- fectly destroying his power^ but a hunter with this defect will rarely have stoutness. If any objection be made to our cut of the hunter, it will be that the mare was too fine below the knee. It was the only bad point in an almost perfect form. She was the property of T. Millington, Esq., to whose kindness we are indebted for permission to copy her portrait. She would go over anything, and was never tired. The leg should be shorter. Higher action is required than in the racer, that the legs may be clearly and safely lifted over many an obstacle, and, particularly, that they may be well doubled up in the leap. The pastern should be shorter, and less slanting, yet retaining consider- able obliquity. The long pastern is useful, by the yielding resistance which its elasticity affords, to break the concussion with which the race- horse from his immense stride and speed must come on the ground : and the oblique direction of the different bones beautifully contributes to effect the same purpose. With this elasticity, however, a considerable degree of weakness is necessarily connected, and the race-horse occasionally breaks down in the middle of his course. The hunter, from his different action, takes not this length of stride, and therefore wants not all this elastic me- chani sm ; he more needs strength to support his own heavier carcase, and the greater weight of his rider, and to undergo the fatigue of a long day. Some obliquity, however, he requires, otherwise the concussion even of his shorter gallop, and more particularly of his frequently tremendous leaps, would inevitably lame him. The foot of the hunter is a most material point. It is of consequence in the racer, yet it is a notorious fact, that many of our best thorough-bred liorses have had very indifferent feet. The narrow contracted foot is the curse of much of the racing blood. The work of the racer, however, is all performed on the turf, and his bad feet may scarcely incommode him ; but the foot of the hunter is battered over many a flinty road and stony field, and if not particularly good, will soon be disabled and ruined. The position of the feet requires some attention in the hunter. They THE HUNTER. 53 should if possible stand straight. If they turn a little outward there is no serious objection ; but if they turn inward his action cannot be safe, particularly when he is fatif^ucd or over-weighted. The body should be short and compact, compared with that of the race- horse, that he may not in his gallop take too extended a stride. This would be a serious disadvantage in a long day and with a heavy rider, from the stress on the pasterns ; and more serious when going over clayey poached groimd, during the winter months. The compact short- strided horse will almost skim the surface, while the feet of the longer- reached animal will sink deep, and he will wear himself out by efforts to disengage himself. Every horseman knows how much more enduring is a short-bodied horse in climbing hills, although perhaps not quite so much in descending them. This is the secret of suiting the race-horse to his course; and unfolds the apparent mystery of a decidedly superior horse on a flat and straight course, being often beaten by a little horse, with far shorter stride on uneven ground, and with several turnings. The loins should be broad ; — the quarters long ; — the thighs muscular ; — the hocks well bent, and well under the horse. The reader needs not be told how essential temper and courage are. A hot irritable brute is a perfect nuisance, and the coward that will scarcely face the slightest fence exposes his owner to ridicule. The training of the race-horse has not been touched upon. It contains too much mystery, and too much absurdity for common understandings. The principle however of preparing both the race-horse and the hunter for their work is the same, and can have no mystery about it; viz., by physic and by exercise, to get rid of all superfluous fat and flesh, without too much lowering the animal ; and, particularly to bring him by dint of exercise into good wind, and accustom him to the full trial of his powers, without over-straining or injuring him. Two or three doses of physic as the season approaches, and these not too strong ; plenty of good hard meat ; and a daily gallop of a couple of miles, and at a pace not too quick, will be nearly all that can be required. Physic must not be omitted ; but the three words air, exercise, food, contain the grand secret and art of training. Some think that even the simple process now described is not necessary, and that horses that are taken up and worked in the day, and with a feed or two of corn, and turned out at night, with an open stable or shed to run into if they please, are as active, healthy, and enduring, as those who are most carefully trained, and confined to the stable during the hunting season. Many a farmer has boasted, that he can beat the most numerous and the best-appointed field, and that his horse never wants wind, and rarely tires. It is true that the farmer may enjoy a good day's sport on the horse that carries him to market, or possibly, occasionally performs more menial drudgery ; but the frothy lather with which such a horse is covered in the early part of the day evinces undeniable inferiority. There is, however, one point on which the untrained horse has the advantage. Accustomed to all weathers, he rarely sutlers, when, after a sharp burst, there comes a sudden check, and the pampered and shivering stabled horse is exposed with him for a considerable time to a piercing north-easter. The one cares nothing about it; the other may carry home the seeds of dangerous disease. 54 THE HORSE. The hunter may be fairly ridden twice, or, if not with any very hard days, three times in the week ; but, after a thoroughly hard day, and evident distress, three or four days' rest should be allowed. They who are merciful to their horses, allow about thirty days' work in the course of the season ; with s^entle exercise on each of the intermediate days, and parti- cularly a sweat on the day before hunting. There is an account, however, of one horse who followed the fox-hounds seventy-five times in one season. This feat has never been exceeded. We recollect to have seen the last Duke of Richmond but one, although an old man, and when he had the gout in his hands so severely that he was obliged to be lifted on horseback, and both arms, being passed through the reins, w^re crossed on his breast, galloping down the steepest part of Bow Hill, in the neighbourhood of Goodwood, almost as abrupt as the ridge of an ordinary house, and cheering on the hounds with all the ardour of a youth*. The horse fully shares in the enthusiasm of his rider. It is beautiful to watch the old hunter, who, after many a winters' hard work, is turned into the park to enjoy himself for Hfe. His attitude and his countenance when, perchance, he hears the distant cry of the dogs, are a study. If he can he will break his fence, and, over hedge, and lane, and brook, follow the chase, and come in first at the death. A horse that had, a short time before, been severely fired on three legs, and was placed in a loose box, with the door, four feet high, closed, and an aperture over it little more than three feet square, and standing himself nearly sixteen hands, and master of fifteen stone, hearing the cheering of the huntsman and the cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprung through the aperture without leaving a single mark on the bottom, the top, or the sides. Then, if the horse be thus ready to exert liim self for our pleasure— and pleasure alone is here the object — it is indefensible and brutal to urge him ^ * Sir John Malcolm (in his Sketches of Persia) gives an amusing account of the impres- sion which a fox-hunt in the English style made on an Arab. " I was entertained by listening to an Arab peasant, who, with animated gestures, was narrating to a group of his countrymen all he had seen of this noble hunt. ' There came the fox,' said he, pointing with a crooked stick to a clump of date trees, ' there he came at a great rate. I hallooed, but nobody heard me, and I thought he must get away ; but when he got quite out of sight, up came a large spotted dog, and then another and another. They all had their noses to the ground, and gave tongue — whow.. whow, whow, so loud, I was frightened. Away went these devils, who soon found the poor animal. After them gal- loped the Foringees (a coiTuption of Frank, the name given to an European over all Asia), shouting and trying to make a noise louder than the dogs. No wonder they killed the fox among them.' " The Treasurer, Burleigh, the sage councillor of Queen Elizabeth, could not enter into the pleasures of the chase. Old Andrew Fuller relates a quaint story of him : — " When some noblemen had gotten William Cecill Lord Burleigh to ride with them a hunting, and tlie sport began to be cold, ' What call you this ?' said the treasurer. ' Oh ! now the dogs are at favdt,' was the reply. ' Yea,' quoth the treasurer, ' take me again in such a fault, and I'll give } ou leave to punish me.' " In former times it was the fashion for women to hunt almost as often and as keenly as the men. Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of the chase. Rowland Whyte, in a letter to Sir Robert Sidney, says, '' Her niajesty is well, and excellently disposed to hmiting ; for every second day she is on horseback, and continues the sport long." This custom soon afterwards began to decline, and the jokes and sarcasms oi' the witty court of Charles II. contributed to discountenance it. It is a curious circumstance, that the first work on hunting that proceeded from the press, was from the pea of a female, Juliana Barnes, or Berners, the sister of Lord Berners, and prioress of the nunnery of Sopewell, about the year 1481. THE HUNTER. 55 beyond his own natural ardour, so severely as we sometimes do, and even until nature is quite exhausted. We do not often hear of a " hard-day," M ithout bein^ likewise informed, that one or more horses either died in the field, or scarcely reached home before they expired. Some have been thoug-htless and cruel enough to kill two horses in one day. One of the severest chases on record was by the King-'s stag-hounds. There was an uninterrupted burst of four hours and twenty minutes. One horse dropped dead in the field; another died before he could reach the stable; and seven more within a week afterwards. It is very conceivable, and does sometimes happen, that, entering as fully as his master into the sports of the day, the horse disdains to yield to fatigue, and voluntarily presses on, until nature is exhausted, and he falls and dies; but, much oftener, the poor animal has, intelligibly enough, hinted his distress; unwilling to give in, yet painfully and faul- teringly holding on. The merciless rider, rather than give up one hour's enjoyment, tortures him with whip and spur, until he drops and expires. Although the hunter may be unwilling to relinquish the chase, he who " is merciful to his beast" will soon recognize the symptoms of excessive and dangerous distress. To the drooping pace and staggering gait, and heaving flank, and heavy bearing on hand, will be added a very peculiar noise. The inexperienced person will fancy it to be the beating of the heart ; but that has almost ceased to beat, and the lungs are becom- ing gorged with blood. It is the convulsive motion of the muscles of the belly, called into violent action to assist in the now laborious office of breathing. The man who proceeds a single mile after this ought to suffer the punishment he is inflicting*. Let the rider instantly dismount. If he has a lancet, and skill to use it, let him take away five or six quarts of blood ; or if he has no lancet, let him cut the burs with his pocket knife as deeply as he can. The lungs may be thus relieved, and the horse may be able to crawl home. Then, or before, if possible, let some powerful cordial be administered. Cordials are, generally speaking, the disgrace and bane of the stable ; but here, and almost here alone, they are truly valuable. They may rouse the exhausted powers of nature ; they may prevent what the medical man would call the reaction of inflammation ; although they are the veriest poison when inflammation has commenced. A favourite hunter fell after a long burst, and lay stretched out, convulsed, and apparently dying. His master procured a bottle of good sherry from the house of a neighbouring friend, and poured it down the animal's * We should almost rejoice if the abused quadruped, cruelly urged beyond his powers, were to inflict on his rider the punishment which a Spanish ruffian received, when mercilessly torturing, in a similar way, a poor Indian slave, who was carrying him on his back over the mountains. It is thus related by Captain Cochrane, (Colombia ii. 357). — " Shortly after passing this stream, we arrived at an abrupt preci- pice, which went perpendicularly down about fifteen hundred feet, to a moixntain torrent below. There Lieutenant Ortegas narrated to me the following anecdote of the cruelty and punishment of a Spanish officer : — This inhuman -wretch, having fastened on an immense pair of mule spvirs, was incessantly darting the rowels into the bare flesh of the tortured sillero, who in vain remonstrated with his persecutor, and assvu^ed him he could not quicken his pace. The officer only plied his spurs the more, in proportion to the mur- murs of the sillero. At last, the man roused to the highest pitch of infuriated excitement and resentment, from the relentless attacks of the officer, on reaching this place jerked him from his chair into the immense depth of the torrent below, where he was killed, and his body could not be recovered. The sillero dashed off at fidl speed, escaped into the moim- tajn, and was never after heard of." 56 THE HORSE. throat. The horse immediately began to revive ; soon after got up ; walked home, and gradually recovered. The sportsman may not always be able to get this, but he may obtain a cordial-ball from the nearest farrier, or he may beg a little ginger from some good house-wife, and mix it with warm ale, or he may give the ale alone, or strength- ened with a little rum or gin. When he gets home, or if he stops at the first stable he finds, let the horse be put into the coolest place, and then well clothed and diligently rubbed about the legs and belly. The practice of putting the animal, thus distressed, into " a comfortable warm stable," and excluding every breath of air, has destroyed many valuable horses. We are now describing the very earliest treatment to be adopted, and before it may be possible to call in an experienced practitioner. This stimulating^ plan would be fatal twelve hours afterwards. It will, however, be the wisest course, to commit the animal, the first moment it is practicable, to the care of the veterinary surgeon, if such there be in the neighbourhood, in whom confidence can be placed. The labours and the pleasures of the hunting season being passed, the farmer makes little or no difference in the management of his untrained horse ; but the wealthier sportsman is somewhat at a loss what to do with his. It used to be thought, that when the animal had so long contributed, sometimes voluntarily, and sometimes with a little compulsion, to the enjoyment of his owner, he ought, for a few months, to be permitted to seek his own amusement, in his own way ; and he was turned out for a summer's run at grass. Fashion, which governs everything, and now and then most cruelly and absurdly, has exercised her tyranny over this poor quadruped. His field, where he could wander and gambol as he liked, is changed to a loose box ; and the liberty in which he so evidently exulted, to an hour's walking exercise daily. He is allowed vetches, or grass occasionally, but from his box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's round, until he is taken into training for the next winter's business. In this, however, as in most other things, there is a medium. There are few horses who have not materially suffered in their legs and feet, before the close of the hunting season. There is nothing so refreshing to their feet as the damp coolness of the grass into which they are turned in May; and nothing so calculated to remove every enlargement and sprain, as the gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily takes while his legs are exposed to the cooling process of evaporation, which is taking place from the herbage he treads. The experience of ages has shewn, that it is superior to all the embrocations and bandages of the most skilful veterinarian. It is the renovating process of nature, where the art of man fails. The spring grass is the best physic that can possibly be administered to the horse. To a degree, which no artificial aperient or diuretic can attain, it carries off every humour which may be lurking about the animal ; it fines down the roundness of the legs ; and, except there be some bony en- largement, restores them almost to their original form and strength. When, however, the summer has thoroughly set in, the grass ceases to be succulent, aperient, or medicinal ; the ground is no longer cool and moist, at least during the day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of flies, are, from sun-rise to sun-set, persecuting the poor animal. Running and stamping to rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered by the hard ground, and he newly, and perhaps more severely, injures his legs. Kept GALLOWAYS AND PONIES. 57 in a constant state of irritation and fever, he rapidly loses his condition, and sometimes comes up in August Httle better than a skeleton. Let the horse be turned out as soon as possible after the hunting season is over. Let him have the whole of May, and the greater part, or possibly the whole of June; but when the grass fails, and the ground gets hard, and the flies torment, let him be taken up. All the benefits of turning out, and that which a loose box and artificial physic can never give, will have been obtained, without the inconvenience and injury which attend an injudi- ciously protracted run at grass, and which, arguing against the use of a thing from the abuse of it, have been improperly urged against turning out at all. The Steeple Hunt is a relic of ancient foolhardiness and cruelty. It was the form under which the horse race, at its first establishment, wasfrequently decided. It is a race across the country, of two, or four, or even a greater number of miles ; and it is generally contrived that there shall be some deep lane, or wide brook, and many a stiff and dangerous fence between. It is ridden at the evident hazard of the life of the sportsman ; and it likewise puts to hazard the life or enjoyment of the horse. It is getting into gradual disuse, and no man whose good opinion is worth having would deem such an exhibition creditable to the head or heart of him who was engaged in it. GALLOWAYS AND PONIES. A horse between thirteen and fourteen hands in height is called a Gal- loway, from a beautiful breed of little horses once found in the south of Scotland, on the shore of the Solway Firth, but now sadly degenerated, and almost lost, from the attempts of the farmers to obtain a larger kind, and better adapted for the purposes of agriculture. There is a tradition in that country, that the breed is of Spanish extraction, some horses having escaped from one of the vessels of the Grand Armada, which was wrecked on the neighbouring coast. This district, however, so early as the time of Edward I., supplied that monarch with a great number of horses. The pure galloway was said to be nearly fourteen hands high, and some- 58 THE HORSE. times more ; of a bright bay, or brown, with black legs, small head and neck, and peculiarly deep and clean legs. Its qualities were speed, stout- ness, and sure-footedness over a very rugged and mountainous country. Dr. Anderson thus describes the galloway: " There was once a breed of small elegant horses in Scotland, similar to those of Iceland and Sweden, and which were known by the name of galloways ; the best of which sometimes reached the height of fourteen hands and a half One of this description I possessed, it having been bought for my use when a boy. In point of elegance of shape it was a perfect picture ; and in dis- position was gentle and compliant. It moved almost with a wish, and never tired. I rode this little creature for twenty-five years, and, twice in that time I rode a hundred and fifty miles at a stretch, without stopping, except to bait, and that not for above an hour at a time. It came in at the last stage with as much ease and alacrity as it travelled the first. I could have undertaken to have performed on this beast, when it was in its prime, sixty miles a-day for a twelvemonth running without any extraordinary exertion." A galloway in point of size, whether of Scotch origin or not we are uncertain, performed, about the year 1814, a greater feat than Dr. Anderson's favourite. It started from London with the Exeter mail, and, notwithstanding the numerous changes of horses, and the rapid driving of that vehicle, it arrived at Exeter (one hundred and seventy-two miles) a quarter of an hour before the mail. We saw him about a twelvemonth afterwards, wind-galled, spavined, ring-boned, and a lamentable picture of the ingratitude of some human brutes towards a willing and faithful servant. In 1754 Mr. Corker's galloway went one hundred miles a-day for three successive days, over the Newmarket course, and without the slightest distress. A galloway belonging to Mr. Sinclair, of Kirby-Lonsdale, performed at Carlisle the extraordinary feat of one thousand miles in a thousand hours. Many of the galloways now in use are procured cither from Wales or the New Forest, but they have materially diminished in number : there are scarcely sufficient to supply even the neighbouring districts, and they are still more materially deteriorated in form and value. Both the Welsh and the Hampshire galloways and ponies claim, however, some noble blood. Old Marsk, before his value was known, contributed to the improve- ment of the Hampshire breed ; and the Welsh ponies are said to be in- debted to the celebrated Merlin for their form and qualities. The Welsh jjoiiy is one of the most beautiful little animals that can be imagined. He has a small head, high withers, deep yet round barrel, short joints, flat legs, and good round feet. He will live on any fare, and can never be tired out. The New-foresters, notwithstanding their Marsk-blood, are generally ill-made, large-headed, short-necked, ragged hipped, but hardy, safe, and useful ; with much of their ancient spirit and speed, and all their old paces. The catching of these ponies is as great a trial of skill, as the hunting of the wild-horse on the Pampas of South America, and a greater one of patience. A great many ponies, of little value, used to be reared in Lincoln- shire, in the neighboiu'hood of Boston, but the breed has been neglected for some years, and the enclosure of the fens will render it extinct. The Exmoor PonieSy although generally \igly enough, are hardy and useful. A well-known sportsman says, that he rode one of them half a GALLOWAYS AND PONIES. 591 dozen miles, and never felt such power and action in so small a compass before. To shew his accomplishments, he was turned over a gate at least eight inches higher than his back; and his owner, who rides fourteen stone, travelled on him from Bristol to South Molton, eighty-six miles, beating the coach which runs the same road. The horses which are still used in Devonshire, and particularly in the western and southern districts under the denomination of Pack-horses, are a larger variety of the Exmoor or Dartmoor breed. The saddle- horses of Devonshire are mostly procured from the more eastern counties. There are many farms in that beautiful part of the kingdom on which there is not a pair of wheels. Hay, corn, straw, fuel, stones, dung, lime, are carried on horseback; and in harvest, sledges drawn by oxen and horses are used. This was probably in early times the mode of con- veyance throughout the kingdom, and is continued in these districts, partly from the hilliness of the country, and more from backwardness in all matters of improvement. Light articles, as corn, straw, faggots, &c., are carried in crooks, formed of willow poles, of the thickness of scythe-handles, bent as ox-bows, and with one end much longer than the other ; these are joined in pairs by cross-bars, eighteen inches or two feet long, and each horse has two pair of them, slung together, so that the shorter ends lie against the pack-saddle, and the longer stand four or five feet from each other, and rise fifteen or eighteen inches above the horse's back. Within and between these crooks the load is piled. Dung, sand, &c. are carried in pots, or strong coarse panniers slung together in the same way, and the dung ridged up over the saddle. At the bottom of the pot is a falling door, and at the end of the journey the trap is unlatched, and the load falls out. There is on Dartmoor a race of ponies much in request in that vicinity, being sure-footed, and hardy, and admirably calculated to scramble over the rough roads and dreaiy wilds of that mountainous district. The Dartmoor pony is larger than the Exmoor, and, if possible, uglier. He exists there almost in a state of nature. The late Captain Colgrave, of the prison, had a great desire to possess one of them of somewhat superior figure to its fellows, and having several men to assist liim, they separated it from the herd. They drove it on some rocks by the side of a tor (an abrupt pointed hill) ; a man followed on horseback, while the Captain stood below watching the chase. The little animal being driven into a corner leaped completely over the man and horse, and escaped. The Highland Pony is far inferior to the galloway. The head is large, he is low before, long in the back, short in the legs, upright in the pasterns, rather slow in his paces, and not pleasant to ride, except in the canter. His habits make him hardy, for he is rarely housed in the summer or the winter. The Rev. Mr. Hall, in his "Travels in Scotland," says, "that when these animals come to any boggy piece of ground, they first put their nose to it, and then pat on it in a peculiar way with one of their fore- feet, and from the sound and feel of the ground, they know whether it will bear them. They do the same with ice, and determine in a minute whether they will proceed." The Shetland Pony, called in Scotland Sheliie^ an inhabitant of the extremest northern Scottish isles, is a very diminutive animal, sometimes not seven hands and a half in height, and rarely exceeding nine and a half. He is often exceedingly beautiful, with a small head, good-tempered counte- nance, a short neck, fine towards the throttle, shoulders low and thick, (in 60 THE SHETLAND PONY. so little a creature far from being a blemish,) back short, quarters expanded and powerful, legs flat and fine, and pretty round feet. They possess . immense strength for their size, Avill fatten upon anything ; and are per- fectly docile. One of them nine hands, or three feet in height, carried a man of twelve stone, forty miles in one day. Our cut is the portrait of a Sheltie, the property of Lord Verulam, painted by Mr. Ward. A friend of ours was, not long ago, presented with one of these elegant little animals. He was several miles from home, and puzzled how to convey his newly-acquired property. The Shetlander was scarcely more than seven hands high, and as docile as he was beautiful. " Can we not carry liim in your chaise?" said his friend. The strange experiment was tried. The Sheltie was placed in the bottom of the gig-, and covered up as well as could be managed with the apron ; a few bits of bread kept him quiet ; and thus he was safely conveyed away, and exhibited the curious spectacle of a horse riding in a gig. In the Southern parts of the kingdom the Shetlanders have a very pleas- ing appearance, harnessed to a light garden chair, or carrying an almost baby rider. There are several of them now running in Windsor Park. It has been disputed whether the pony and large English horse were, or could be, originally from the same stock. The question is difficult to answer. It is not impossible that they might have one common extrac- tion, and, if we reflect on the effect of feeding, it is not so improbable as it may at first appear. Mr. Parkinson * relates a circumstance very much to the point, that fell under his observation His father had a mare that brought him no less than fourteen colts, and all by the same horse, and not one of which at three years old was under seventeen hands. She was in the fifteenth foal by the same horse, when he sold her to a neighbouring farmer, reserving the foal which was to be delivered in a twelvemonth. At her new master's she was comparatively starved, and she came back at the expiration of the year so altered as scarcely to I e recognised. The foal, four months old, was very small. The little animal was put on the most luxuriant keep, but it did not reach more than fifteen hands at the expiration of the third year. * Parkinson on Breeding, and the Management of Live Stock; vol, ii. p. 139. 61 THE IRISH HORSE. In some of the rich grazhig counties, as Meath and Roscomnioii, a larg6 lon^ blood horse is reared of considerable value, but he seldom has the elegance of the English horse ; he is larger headed, more leggy, rago'ed- hipped, angular, yet with great power in the quarters, much depth beneath the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and courage, and the best leaper in the world. The Irish horse is generally smaller than the English. He is stinted in his growth, for the poverty and custom of the country have imposed upon him much hard work, at a time when he is unfit for labour of any kind. For this reason, too, the Irish horse is deficient in speed. There is, however, another explanation of this. The Irish thorough-bred horse is not equal to the English. He is comparatively a weedy, leggy, worth- less animal, and very little of him enters into the composition of the hunter or the hackney. For leaping the Irish horse is unrivalled. It is not, however, the leap- ing of the English horse, striding as it were over a low fence, and stretched at his full length over a higher one ; it is the proper jump of the deer, beautiful to look at, difficult to sit, and, both in height and extent, unequalleji by the English horse. There are very few horses in the agricultural districts of Ireland exclu- sively devoted to draught. The minute division of the farms renders it im- possible for them to be kept. The occupier even of a tolerable sized Irish farm, wants a horse that shall carry him to market, and draw his small car, and perform every kind of drudgery — a horse of all work ; therefore the thorough draught horse, whether Leicestershire or Suffolk, is rarely found. If we look to the commerce of Ireland, there are few stage waggons, or drays witli immense cattle belonging to them, but almost every thing is done by one-horse carts. In the North of Ireland, some stout horses are employed in the carriage of linen, but the majority of the garro?is used in agriculture or commercial pursuits are miserable and half-starved animals. In the north it is somewhat better. There is a native breed in Ulster* hardy, and sure-footed, but with little pretension to beauty or speed. Chapter V, THE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE. There are so many thousand species of living beings, some so much resembling each other, and some so strangely and altogether different, that it would have been impossible to have arranged them in any order, or to have given any description that could be understood, had not naturalists agreed on certain peculiarities of form which should characterize certain classes, and other lesser peculiarities again subdividing these classes. The first division of animals is into vertehrated and inverteb rated. Vertebrated animals are those which have a cranium, or bony cavity containing the brain, and a succession of bones called the spine, and the 62 THE HORSE. divisions of it, vertehrce, proceeding from the cranium, and containing a prolongation of the brain, denominated the spbial marrow. Invertebrated animals are those which have no vertebrae. The horse then belongs to the division vertebrated, because he has a cranium or skull, and a spine or range of vertebrae proceeding from it. The vertebrated animals, however, are very numerous. They include man, quadrupeds of all kinds, birds, fishes, and many reptiles. We look out then for some subdivision, and a very simple line of distinction is soon presented. Some of these vertebrated animals have mamm(B or teats, with which the females suckle their young. The human female has two, the mare has two, the cow four, the bitch ten or twelve, and the sow more than twelve. This class of vertebrated animals, having mammae or teats, is called mammcdia, and the horse belongs to the division vertebratay and the class mammalia. The class mammalia is still exceedingly large, and we must again sub- divide it. It is stated (Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vol. i. p. 13) that " this class of quadrupeds, or mammiferous quadrupeds, admits of a division into two Tribes. " I. Those whose extremities are divided into fingers or toes, scientifi- cally called unguiculata, from the Latin word for nail ; and II. Those whose extremities are hoofed, scientifically called uiigulata, from the Latin word for hoof. " The extremities of the first are armed with claws or nails, which enable them to grasp, to climb, or to burrow. The extremities of the second tribe are employed merely to support and move the body." The extremities of the horse are covered with a hoof, by which the body is supported, and with which he cannot grasp anything, and therefore he belongs to the tribe ungulata, or hoofed. But there is a great variety of hoofed animals. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the swine, the horse, the sheep, the deer, and many others, are ungulated or hoofed ; they admit, however, of an easy division. Some of them masticate, or chew their food, and it is im- mediately received into the stomach and digested ; but in others, the food, previous to digestion, imdergoes a very singular process. It is returned to the mouth to be re-masticated, or chewed again. These are called rumi- nantia, or ruminants, from the food being returned, from one of the stomachs (for they have four) called the rumen or paunch, to be chewed again. The ungxdata that do not ruminate are somewhat improperly called pachydermata, from the thickness of their skins. The horse does not ruminate, and therefore belongs to the order pachydermata. The pachydermata who have only one toe belong to the family solipeda — single footed. Therefore the horse ranks under the division vertebrata ; the class mammalia; — the tribe ungulata; — the order pachydermata; — and the family solipeda. The solipeda consists of several species, as the horse, the ass, the mule, and the qua2:ga. First stands the Equus Caballus, or Common Horse. Animals are likewise distinguished according to the number, description, and situation of their teeth. The horse has 6 incisors or cutting teeth, in the front of each jaw ; and one canine tooth or tusk. On each side, above and below, and at some distance from the incisors, behind the canines and with some intervening space, are six molar teeth, ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 63 or G;rinders ; and these molar teeth have flat crowns with ridges of enamel, and that enamel penetrating into the substance of the tooth. The whole is thus represented by natural historians, and the reader will comprehend our meaning when we are speaking of other animals. Horse. — Incisors - Canines.^, Molar -i—^. Total 40 teeth. 1-1' 6—6 Chapter VI. THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE The Head. The posterior maxillary or under jaw. The superior maxillary or upper jaw. Opposite to the letter is a foramen hrough wliich pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part the face . The orbit, or cavity containing the eye. The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. The suture dividing the parietal bones below, from the occipital bones above. The inferior maxillary bone containing the upper incisor teeth. The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck. The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebrae, or bones of the back. The Six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the loins. The Five Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of the haunch. The Caudal Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen. G The Scapula, or shoulderblade. / 64 THE HORSE. H The Sternum or fore-part of the chest. I The Costae or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and Called the true ribs, and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called thefahe ribs. J The Humerus, or bone of the arm. K The Radius, or bone of the fore-arm. L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon. M The Carjius or knee, consisting of seven bones. N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splent bone behind. g The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os SufFraginis, or the upper and larger pastern bone, with the sessamoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and greater pastern; the Os Coronte, or lesser pastern; the Os Pedis or coffin bone; and the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating with the smaller pastern and coffin bones. h The corresponding bones of the hind-feet. O The Haunch, consisting of three portions, the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis. P The Femur or thigh. Q The stifle joint with the Patella. R The Tibia or proper leg bone— behind is a small bone called the fibula. S The Tarsus or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is the Os Calcis, or point of the hock. T The Metatarsals of the hind leg. Beautiful as is the horse, and identified so much with our pleasure and our profit, he has been the object of almost universal regard ; and there are few persons who do not pretend to be somewhat competent judges of his form, qualities, and worth. From the nobleman with his numerous and valuable stud, to the meanest helper in the stable, and not excluding even the mechanic who scarcely crosses, or sits behind a horse once in a twelvemonth, there is scarcely a man who would not be oflended if he were thought altogether ignorant of horse-flesh. There is no subject on which he is so positive, there is no subject on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient, and there are few horses, on some points of which these pretended and self-sufficient judges would not give a totally opposite opinion, ^ The truth Is, that this supposed knowledge is rarely founded on prin- ciple — or is the result of the slightest acquaintance with the actual structure of this animal, or that form and connexion of parts on which strength, or fleetness, or stoutness, must necessarily depend. If we were constructing or examining a machine composed of levers and pulHes, and by which we purposed to raise a great weight, or to set in motion certain bodies with a given velocity, we should fail in our object, or expose our ignorance of the matter, if we were not aware what kind of lever or con- nexion of levers was necessary, and in what situation the ropes should be placed, and in what direction the force should be applied, and by what means we could obtain mechanical advantage, and by what peculiar con- struction it would inevitably be lost. Now the structure of the horse, like that of the human being*, consists of numerous levers in the shape of bones, with ropes attached to them in * See Treatise on ^' Animal Mechanics/' EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 63 the form of muscles and tendons ; and these levers ai'e differently con- nected, and act in different directions ; and he will be the best judge of horses who, while he has loved, and lived among them, is somewhat ac- quainted with the circumstances in which mechanical power is gained or lost. In speaking then of the structure of this animal, and the jwints which guide the opinion of real judges of him, we shall, as briefly and as simply as we are able, explain those fimdamental principles on which his usefulness and beauty must depend. We require one kind of horse for slow and heavy draught, and another for lighter and quicker work : — one as a plea- sant and safe roadster ; another with more speed and equal continuance as a hunter ; and another still is wanted for the race-course. What is the peculiarity of structure — what are the particular points that will fit each for his proper business, and, to a certain degree, unfit him for everything else? The farmer will require a horse of «// work, that can carry him to market and take him round his farm, on which he can occasionally ride for pleasure, and which he must sometimes degrade to the dung-cart or the harrow. What combination of powers will enable the animal to dis- charge most of these duties well, and all of them to a certain extent profi- tably? Much time spent among horses, an acquired love of them, and a little, sometimes possibly, too dearly-bought experience, may give the agriculturist some insight into these matters. We will try whether we cannot assist liim in this affair ; whether we cannot explain to him the reason why certain points must be good, and why a horse without them must, of necessity, be good for nothing. Perhaps some useful rules may thus be more deeply impressed upon his memory, or some common, but dangerous prejudices may be discarded, and a considerable degree of error, disappointment, and expense avoided. It is first of all necessary to give a sketch of the Anatomy of the Horse, in which we shall endeavour to elucidate those numerous and beautiful instances of wise and benevolent design, exhibited in the structure of this valuable animal, and which will render our study of him more interesting; while many a hint of practical utility will be gained. If we treat of this at considerable length, let it be remembered, that the horse is our noblest servant, and that, in describing the structure and eco- nomy of his frame, we are, in a great measure, describing that of other domestic quadrupeds, and shall hereafter have to speak only of points of difference required by the different services and uses for which they were destined. And further, let it be remembered that it is only by being well acquainted with the structure and anatomy of the horse that we can appre- ciate his shape and uses, or understand the different diseases to which he is liable. We trust the reader who may fancy us rather prolix on this head will, before the work is finished, feel the full value of what we purpose to explain. It is from want of knowledge of the anatomy of the horse, that much of the mass of ignorance and prejudice which exists, as to the diseases, &c. to which the horse is subject, is to be referred ; and we deem it one of the most important objects of this treatise to reform this ignorance, and remove these prejudices. It will be proper here, once for all, to caution the reader, who has hitherto been unaccustomed to reading books of science, against being deterred by the sight of a few of what are termed hard names. The fact is, that science must have, to a certain extent, a new language to express minutely and ac- curately the particular parts or things to be described ; and this is the case 66 THE HORSE. with every trade,and every art. A carpenter could not without this describe with precision and clearness the different tools in use, nor could he describe the different operations to be performed, without inventing a particular language adapted to his purpose, and whereby he is enabled to express in one word what would otherwise only be accomplished by a long sentence. It is the same with anatomy, except that the names and signs have prin- cipally been adopted from the Lati?i and Greek, inasmuch as those lan- guages are usually known to scientific men in all countries. This new language becomes one common to all men pursuing the same science. We shall as we go on explain the meaning of the words so adopted, and a very little attention will enable the reader to master them, and it will require little thought to be convinced of the advantage, in respect of clear- ness and certainty, derived from their use. We begin with the head, containing the brain and the most important organs of sense. The head may be divided into two parts, the skull and the face. The bones which compose the skull or craniumy and which contain and pr'otect the brain are nine in number : two frontal, a «, — two parietal, c c, — two temporal, d d, — the occipital, g, — the ethmoid, and the sphenoid. The two latter lie principally at the base of the skull, and are not seen in this cut, but will be found delineated in figs, k and /, page 68. These nine bones are separate in the foal at an early period of its existence ; but soon after the birth they are firmly united together by what anatomists call sutures, and so firm is the union, that a fracture will occur in any other part more readily than over a suture. a a The frontal iDoneSj or bones of the forehead. b b Tlie supra-orhital foramina or holes above the orbit, through which pass out the nerves and blood-vessels supplying the forehead. The small hole beneath (of which in many horses there are several) receives vessels which dip into and supply the bone. n c The parietal bones, or walls of the skull. d d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples. ^ e e Tlie zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch. // The temporal fossa, or pit above the eye. ff g Tlie occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of \ the head. h h The orbits, containing and defending the eye. i i The lachrjonal bones, or tear bones. jj Tlie nasal bones, or bones of the nose. k k Tlie malar, or cheek bones. / 1 The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw containing the molar teeth or grinders. mm The infra-orbital foramen, a hole below the orbit, through which pass branches of nerves and blood- vessels to supply the lower part of the face. n n Tlie inferior maxillary, the lower part of the upper jaw bone, a separate bone in quadrupeds, containing the incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the point of union between the superior and inferior max- illaries. o The upper incisor or cutting teeth. p The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the roof of the palate. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 67 There is an evident intention in this division of the head into so many bones. When the foetus — the unborn foal — first begins to have Hfe, that which afterwards becomes bone, is a mere jelly- hke substance ; this is gradually changed into a harder material — cartilage ; and, before the birth of the animal, much of the cartilage is taken away by vessels called absorbents, and bone deposited in its stead. In flat bones, like those of the head, this deposit takes place in the centre, and rays or radiations of bone extend thence in every direction. Then, by having so many bones, there are so many centres of radia- tion ; and, consequently, the formation of bone is carried on so much the more rapidly, and per- fected at the time when the necessities of the animal require it. At the period of birth, how- ever, this process is not completed, but the edges of the bones remain somewhat sofl and pliant, and therefore, in parturition, they yield a little and overlap each other, and thus, by rendering the birth more easy, they save the mother much pain, and contribute to the safety of the foal. Without a change in the form of the head, from a compression and yield- ing of the bone of which it is composed, the animal could not be born. The first of these bones, or the first pair of them, occupying the broad expanse of the forehead, are called the frontal hones, a a. They are united together by a most curious and intricate dove-tailing, to defend from in- jury the brain which lies beneath the upper part of them. Lower down, and where the cavity of the nose is to be defended, their union is sufficient, but far less complicated. The mechanism is here, as in every part of the frame, and every part of the universe, wisely adjusted to the necessities and wants of the animal. Few things more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broad an- gular forehead of the blood horse, giving him that beautiful expression of intelligence and fire, and the face gradually tapering from the forehead to the muzzle ; and then compared it with the large face of the cart or dray horse, and the forehead scarcely wider than the face ? At /, between the frontal bones, is the pit or cavity above the eye, and by the depth of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There is placed at the back of the eye, a considerable quantity of fatty substance, on which the eye may revolve easily and without friction. In aged horses, and in diseases attended with general loss of condition, much of this fat disappears ; the eye becomes sunken, and the pit above the eye deepens. It is said that some of the lower class of horse-dealers puncture the skin, and, with a tobacco pipe or small tube, blow into the orifice, until the de- pression is almost filled up. This operation is vulgarly called puffing the glims, and, with the aid of a bishopped tooth, will give a false appearance of youth, that will remain during many hours, and may deceive the unwary, though the puffing may easily be detected by pressing on the part. Tliese bones, however, are not solid, but a considerable portion of them is composed of two plates receding from each other, and leaving numerous and large vacuities or cells. These vacuities are called ihef^ntal sinuses. €8 THE HORSE. Thev communicate with the cavities of the nose, and likewise with those o the spT^^oid, ethmoid, and upper jaw bones, and hke tl- wnidings of a French horn, increase the clearness and loudness of the neighmg. They are sufficiently evident at h in the following cut. SECTION OF THE HEAD. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. Tlie frontal bone. The cavities or cells beneath are called the frontal sinnses. The crest or ridge of the parietal bones. The tentorium, or bony separation between the cerebrum and cerebellum. The occipital bone. The ligament of the neck, or pack-wax, by which the head is chiefly supported. The atlas, sustaining or carrying, or first bone of the neck. The dentata, tooth-like, or second bone of the neck. The cuneiform, or wedge-shaped process, or base of the occipital bone. Between it and the other portion of the occipital bone e, lies the great foramen or aperture through which the prolongation of the brain,— the spinal marrow,_issues from the skull. The sphenoid, wedge-like, bone with its cavities. The ethmoid, sieve-like bone with its cells. The cerebrum, or brain, with the appearance of its cortical and medullary substance. The cerebellum, or little brain, with its beautiful arborescent appearance. A portion of the central medullary, marrow-like, swh^isincQ of the brain, and the prolon- gation of it under the name of the crus cerebri, leg of the brain, and from which many of the nerves take their origin. Tlie medulla oblongata^— the prolongation of the brain after the medullary substance of the cerebrum jwid cerebeUuni have united, aud forming the comoflencement of the EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 69 spinal marrow. Tlie columnar appearance of this portion of the brain is repre- sented; and the origins of the respiratory nerves. q The spinal marrow extending through a canal in the centre of the bones of the neck, back, and loins, to the extremities of the tail, and from which the nerves of feehng and of motion, that supply every part of the frame, except the head, arise. r The septmn narium, or cartilaginous division between the nostrils. A- The same cut off at the lower part, to shew the spongy turbinated, iurban-shaped, bones, filling the cavity of the nostril. t The palate. u Tlie molar teeth, or grinders. V -The inferior maxillary bone, containing the incisor teeth or nippers. The canine tooth, or tush, is concealed by the tongue. w The posterior maxillary, or lower jaw with its incisors. X Tlie lips. y Tlae tongue. z A portion of the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, like a Greek u, v. 1 Tlie thyroid, helmet-shaped, cartilage, enclosing and shielding the neighbouring parts. 2 The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of the wind-pipe. 3 Tlie arytenoid, funnel-shaped, cartilages, having between them the aperture leading into the trachea or wind-pipe. 4 One of the chordae vocales, cords or ligaments concerned in the formation of the voice. 5 The sacculus laryngis, sac or ventricle of the larynx, throat, to modulate the voice. 6 The trachea or wind-pipe, with its different rings. 7 The soft palate at the back of the mouth, so constructed as almost to prevent the pos- sibility of vomiting. 8 The opening from the back part of the mouth into the nostril. 9 Tlie cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachian tube, or communication between the mouth and internal part of the ear. 10 Tlie oesophagus, or gullet. 1 1 The cricoid, ring-like, cartilage, below and behind the thyroid. 12 Muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the back part of the mouth. In the sheep, and occasionally in the ox, rarely in the horse, the larvae of maggots prodnced by certain species of flies, crawl up the nose, lodge them- selves in these sinuses, and produce intolerable pain. Veterinary surgeons have availed themselves of these sinuses, to detect the existence of glanders, that disease so infectious and so fatal. They may sus- pect that a horse respecting m hich they are consulted is glandered. It is of great consequence to be sure about it. The safety of the whole team may depend upon this. It may be a puzzling case. There maybe no ulceration of the nose within sight. The glands under the jaw may not be close to, and seemingly sticking to the bone, which is a common symptom, yet for a considerable time there may have been a discharge from the nostril, and the horse is out of condition. On the other hand, some slight ulceration may be detected in the nostril, but the horse eats well, works well, and is in good plight. From the closest examination of the animal, no horseman, and no veterinary surgeon can give a decided opinion. If, however, the horse be gland ered, there will probably be considerable ulceration in the upper part of the cavity of the nose, and a collection of matter there. To detect this the veterinary surgeon sometimes makes an opening into these sinuses. He may do this with perfect safety. On that part of the frontal bone, which lies between the eye and the pit above it, and above the inner corner of the eye, there is, on either side, a small depres- sion or hole (see fig. h b, cut, page 66)^ which may be easily felt in the living 70 THE HORSE. horse. It is what anatomists call a foramen — the supra'Orbital foramen. It gives passage to the blood-vessels and nerves of the forehead. Suppose a hne to be drawn across the forehead, from one of these depressions to the other ; on that line, and about half an inch from the centre of it, either on the one side or the other, the frontal sinuses will be found an inch in depth (compare fig. 6, pp. 66 and 68). There a perfo- ration may be easily and safely made. A little way above, the brain would be endangered, and a little below this line, the cavity of the nose would be pierced. sSome warm water may then be thrown into this hole, with a common squirt, and it will ran out at the nose. If there be matter in the frontal sinuses, or any part of the cavity of the nose, it will appear mixed with the water, and the owner may be assured that the horse is glandered ; but if the water flow uncoloured, or simply mixed with blood or mucus, the horse may be considered as free from this disease. The thicky creamy consistence of pus, its sinking in water, and its capability of being perfectly, although not readily mixed with water, will distinguish it sufficiently from the natural running of the nose, which is ropy, lighter than water, and when mixed with it still preserves a kind of stringiness. And this is one of the surest modes of distinguishing between the matter and the natural running of the nose. The inner plate of the frontal bone forms a considerable proportion of the roof of the cavity which contains the brain (m in the last cut). The bones immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the poll, are called the parietals, (c c, pp, 66 and 68,) from the Latin word paries^ a wall. They are two, united together by a suture when the animal is young, but that suture soon becoming obliterated. They have the occipital^ g, p. 66, above, the fro7itals, a a, below, and the temporals, d d, on either side. They are of a closer and harder texture than the frontals, because they are more exposed to injury, and more concerned in defending the brain. A very small portion only of the j)arietals \s naked, and that is composed of bone even harder than the other part, and with an additional layer of bone rising in the form of a crest or ridge externally. Every other part of these bones is covered by a thick mass of muscle, the temporal muscle, which is principally concerned in chewing the food, but which likewise by its yielding resistance speedily and effectually breaks the force of the most vio- lent stroke. A blow on the calf of the leg is comparatively disregarded, while one, half as heavy, received on the shin, gives excessive pain. A wool-pack hung over the wall of a fortress, when the enemy is battering to effect a breach, renders the heaviest artillery almost harmless. So the yielding resistance of the temporal muscle affords a sure defence to the brain, however sudden or violent may be the blow which falls on the parietal. These benevolent provisions will not be disregarded by the reflecting mind. On the side of the head, and under the parietals, are placed (d d, p.' 66) the teinporal bones, one on each side. These again are divided into two parts, or consist of two distinct bones ; the petrous portion, so called from its great or stony hardness, and containing the wonderful mechanism of the ear, and the squamous portion from the appearance of its union with the parietal, overlapping it like a great scale. From the latter there projects a portion of bone, e, which unites with the frontal, and forms a strong arch distinctly to be felt at the side of the head immediately above the eye. This arch is designed to protect the upper part of the lower jaw, the motion of which may very plainly be seen beneath it when the horse is eating. It is very strong, and it ought to be, lest the EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 71 motion should by accident be impeded, and the horse should starve. If only one species of violence were considered to which this arch is too frequently exposed, it would require to possess no common strength ; we mean, the brutal manner in which the collar is forced over the head. At the base of the arch is an important cavity not visible in our cut, receiving into it, and forming a joint with the head of the lower jaw — we shall have to speak of it presently. Having reached the base of the temporal bone, we find it united to the parietal, not by a simple suture, as the lower part of the frontals, or the bones of the nose (see fig. a and j, p. ^^^^ nor by a dove-tailed suture, as the upper part of the frontals (see the same cut), but it is spread over the parietal in the form of a large scale, and hence, as before observed, called the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there are two plates of bone instead of one. Was there design in this ? Yes, evidently so. In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygo- matic arch. This extensive union between the temporal and parietal bones answers to the buttress or mass of masonry attached to the base of every arch to counteract its lateral pressure. The concussion likewise which might be communicated by a blow on the top of the arch, is thus spread over a large surface, and consequently weakened and rendered compara- tively harmless ; and that surface is composed of the union of two bones of dissimilar construction. The hard stony structure of the parietal is very different from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus, as a finger acts on a sounding glass, the vibration communicated to the temporal is at once stopped, and the brain receives no injury. But there is yet more admirable design. Where is this squamous por- tion of the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And what is the figure of the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it which contains the cerebrum or brain ? It is an elliptical or oval arch (see fig. m, 7iy 0, p. 68). If pressure be made on the crown of that arch — if a blow be received on the suture between the parietals sufficient to cause the elastic materials of which the skul] is composed to yield — the seat of danger and injury is at the side. If a man receive a violent blow on the crown or back part of the head, the fracture, if there be any, is generally about the temple, and the extravasation of blood is oftenest found there. The fol- lowing figure will explain this : Let the line ABC represent an elliptical arch, composed of elastic ma- terials. Some force shall be applied at B sufficient to cause it to yield. We cannot compress it into smaller compass, but just in proportion as it yields at B, will it spur or bulge out at D. and give way sometimes as re- presented at E. In a dome the weight of the materials constantly acting may be considered as representing the force applied at B ; and so great is the lateral pressure, or tendency to bulge out {vide D and E), that it isjieces- 72 THE HORSE. sary either to rlove-tail the materials into one another, or to pass strong iron chains round them. For want of sufficient attention to this, " the dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople, built in the time of the Emperor Justinian, fell three times during* its erection ; and the dome of the cathedral of Flo- rence stood unfinished an hundred and twenty years for want of an architect." Nature, in the construction of the horse's head, has taken away the pressure, or removed the probability of injury, by giving an additional layer of bone, or a mass of muscle, where alone there was danger, and has dove- tailed all the materials, and, to make assurance doubly sure, has placed this effectual girder at the base, in the overlapping of the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In the ox, where, to give a secure base to the horn, the frontal bone spreads over the whole of the fore-part of the head, and the cranial cavity is suffi- ciently secured by the beautiful mechanism between the two plates of that bone, the temporal bone does not overlap the parietal. Nature gives every thing essential to the protection and welfare of the animal, but nothing superfluous. Above the j)arietalSy and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, pp. 66 and 68, and fig, c, p. 66), is the occipital bone. Superiorly it covers and protects the smaller portion of the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there constitutes the summit or crest of the head^ and is not protected by mus- cles, and particularly exposed to danger, it is interesting to see what thick- ness it assumes. The head of the horse does not, like that of the human being, ride upright on the neck, with all its weight supported by the spinal column, and the only office of the muscles of the neck being to move the head, forward, or backward, or horizontally on its pivot; but it hangs in a slanting position from the extremity of the neck, and the neck itself projects a considerable distance from the chest, and thus the whole weight of the head and neck are suspended from the chest, and require very great power to support them. In addition to the simple weight of the head and neck, the neck projecting from the chest, and the head hanging from the extre- mity of the neck, act with enormous mechanical force, and increase more than a hmidred-fold the power necessary to support them. ■■ It requires a strong man to lift a small table from the ground at arm's length. The farmer's steelyards shew that a weight of a few pounds, at the extremity, will counterbalance or act with a force equal to a hundred weight near the hook or centre. The head and neck of the horse, and particularly of some horses of a coarse breed, are of no little bulk and weight. We shall hereafter have to show in what breeds, and for what purposes a light or heavy head and neck are advantageous; but it may be safely affirmed, that, projecting so far from the chest, and being consequently at so great a distance from the fulcrum or support, the lightest head will act or bear upon the joint be- tween the last bone of the neck and the first rib, with a force equal to many thousand pounds. How is this weight to be supported? Is the power of muscle equal to the task ? The muscles of the animal frame can act for a certain time with extraordinary force ; but as the exertion of this power is attended with the consumj)tion of vital energy, the period soon arrives when their action is remitted or altogether suspended. Muscular power is altogether inadequate to the constant support of the head of the horse. A provision, however, is made for the purpose, simple and complete. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. ^3 From the back of the occipital bone (fig. / p. 68), and immediately below the crest, proceeds a romid cord of considerable bulk, and composed of a lio-amentous substance, and which is carried down and securely attached to the^'spines of the vertebrae, or bones of the back ; and by this ligament (the ligamentum colli, ligament of the neck, commonly called the pack-wax) the head is supported. . , ^i • There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected with this ligament. As it proceeds from the head, it is in the form of a round cord. It passes over the atlas, or first bone of the neck, without touching it, and then attaching itself strongly to the second bone, principally supports the head by its union with this bone. The mechanical disadvantage is increased, but the head is turned more freely on the first and second bones. The prin- cipal stress is on the dentata or second bone, so much so, that, m poll- evil, this ligament may be divided without serious inconvenience to the horse. It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicates with all the other vertebra?. Each of these communications becomes a separate point of sup- port, and as they approach nearer to the prop, or centre of motion, the me- chanical disadvantage, or the force with which the weight of the head and neck presses and acts, is materially lessened. The head then, without any aid from muscular energy, js, while the animal is in a state of rest, supported by this ligament. There is, however, something yet wanting. The head must not be always elevated. The horse has his food to seek. In a state of nature this food lies principally on the ground, and the head must be lowered to enable the animal to get at it. How is this effected ? This ligament, as we call it, because it resembles in appearance the other ligaments of the body, pos- sesses a property which they have not, and which they must not have, or they would be useless. No well-knit joint could exist if it had this pro- perty. The pack- wax is elastic. It will yield to a force impressed upon it, and it will resume its natural dimensions when that force is removed. It sustains perfectly the weight of the head. That portion of tenacity or strength is given to it, which will not yield to the simple weight of the head, but which will yield to a very little additional weight. Its resisting power is so admirably adjusted to that which it has to sustain, that when certain muscles, whose action is to depress or lower the head, begin to act, and add their power to the previous weight it had to bear, the ligament stretches, and when the horse is browsing, it is full two inches longer than when the head is erect. When the animal has satified himself, these depressing muscles cease to act,' and other muscles, which are designed to assist in raising the head, begin to exert themselves ; and, by their aid (but more by the inherent elasti- city of the ligament), the head is once more elevated, and remains so without the slightest exertion of muscular power. This is one of the many appli- cations of the principle of elasticity which we shall have to observe and admire in the construction of the animal frame. The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of the occipTtal bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of that bone ; and, therefore, the bone is so thick at this part (see fig. e, p. 68). Many, and large, and powerful muscles, however, are necessary to turn the head in various directions, and to assist in raising it when depressed. The occipital bone, as will be seen in this cut, presents a spine running down the centre, B, and a large roughened surface for the attach- ment of these muscles C, C. Lower down, and still at the back of the occipital bone, are two rounded 74 protuberances D, D, by which the head is connected with the atlas, or .upper, or first vertebra, or bone of the neck, and these are called the condy- loid, cup-shaped, processes of the occipital bone. All the motions of the head are partly and many of them wholly performed by this joint. Between them is a large hole, called the forameii magnum, or great aperture, E, through which the continuation of the brain, called the spinal cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. As an additional contrivance to support the great weight of the head, are two other projections of the occipital bone, peculiar to animals whose heads are set on in a slanting direction, and into which powerful muscles are inserted ; they are called the coracoid, beak-like, processes or prolon- gations F, F, of the occipital bone. Running forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, and in- wardly a portion of the floor of the skull, is what from its wedge-like shape is called the cuneifor7Ji process of the occipital bone (fig. i, p. 68). It is thick, strong, and solid ; and placed at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a proper foundation for, and to give additional strength to the arch on each side, but speedily to break and stop all vibration and concussion. At the base of the skull, and anterior to, or below the occipital, lies the sphenoid, wedge-like bone (fig. k, p. 68). Its body, likewise called the cunei- form, or wedge-shaped process, is a continuation of the same process of the occipital, and like it is thick and solid, and for the same important purpose. This bone branches out into four irregular bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to the palate, the legs. They could not be represented in the cut, and there is nothing important belonging to them so far as our work is concerned. Internally (fig. k), the sphenoid forms a portion of the cavity of the skull. Of the ethmoid, sieve-like, bone little can be seen outwardly. A small portion is found in the back part of the orbit, and in the cavity of the cra- nium ; but the most important part of it is that which is composed of a great number of thin plates, forming numerous cavities or cells (fig. I, p. 68) lined with the membrane of the nose, and entering into the cavity of the nose. The upper portion is called the cribriform, or sieve-shaped plate, from its being perforated by a multitude of little holes, through which the nerve connected with smelling passes and spreads over the nose. Altogether these bones form a cavity of an irregular oval shape, but the tentorium penetrating into it, gives it the appearance of being divided into two (rf, p. 68). The cavity of the cranium may be said to be arched all round. The builder knows the strength which is connected with the form of the arch. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 75 If properly constructed, it is equal to a solid mass of masonry. The arch of the horse's skull has not much weight to support, but it is exposed to many injuries from the brutahty of those by whom he should be protected, and from accidental causes. The roof of the skull is composed of two plates of bone ; the outer hard and tough, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as not to be easily frac- tured ; the inner plate is elastic, and by the union of these two substances of different construction, the vibration is partly damped or destroyed. By means of the elasticity of the inner plate, the force or influence which might reach it through the outer plate, and, notwithstanding its difference of struc- ture, affect it, is spread over the whole of the roof; and the inner plate is not dove-tailed Hke the outer, because the dove-tailing would impede the spread of the vibration. The brain of the horse corresponds with the cavity in which it is placed (jn, p. 68). It is a flattened oval. It is divided into two parts, one much larger than the other, the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum or little brain (ii, p. 68). In the human being the cerebrum is above the cerebel- lum, in the^quadruped below ; and yet in both they retain the same relative situation. The cerebellum is nearer to the foramen or hole, through which the brain passes out of the skull (/?, p. 68), and the continuation of the cerebrum passes under the cerebellum {p, p. 68) to arrive at this foramen. In the human head this foramen is at the base of the skull ; but in the quadruped, in whom the head is placed slanting, it is necessarily elevated. ' It would occupy too great a portion of our time fully to consider the wonderful and mysterious functions discharged by the brain, but some diseases to which the horse is subject, and a very useful operation, the di- vision of the nerve of the leg, for foot lameness, could not be understood without a slight account of this important organ. When the brain is cut it presents two distinct substances {m, p. 68), one principally on the outside, grey, or ash-coloured, and therefore called the cortical (bark-like, or rind-like) from its situation, or the cineritious (ash-Hke), from its colour ; and one more in the centre, and its fibres running towards the centre, and white and pulpy, and from its consistence called the medullary (marrow-like) part. This latter portion seems to be collected and condensed towards the centre or base of the brain, and all the nerves derive their origin from it. The medullary portion then is evidently connected with the nervous system ; and the nerves are concerned in the discharge of all the offices of life. They give motion to the limbs ; they supply with energy the heart, the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected with life ; and being the medium through which sensation is conveyed, they supply the mind with materials to think and work upon. The cineritious part has a different appearance, and is evidently differ- ently constituted ; and some have supposed it to be the residence of the mind, receiving the impressions which are conveyed to the brain by the nerve of sensation, and directing the operation and action of those which give motion to the limbs. In accordance with this it happens, that where superior intelligence is found, the cineritious prevails, and where Httle beside brutal strength and appetite exist, the medullary portion is enlarged. From the medullary substance proceed certain cords or prolongations, called nerves, by which the animal is enabled to receive impressions from surrounding objects, and to connect himself with them, and to possess many pleasurable or painful sensations. One is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives the sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the 76 THE HORSE. eye, and the faculty of sight is gained ; and a third g'oes to the internal structure of the ear, and the animal hears. Other nerves proceeding to different parts of the head give the faculty of motion to those parts ; and another class bestows the power of feeling. One division of nerves (A, p. 68) springing from a prolongation of the brain, and yet within the skull, wander to different parts of the frame, for important purposes connected with respiration or breathing, and as the act of breathing is essential to life, and were it to cease, the animal would die — these are nerves of involuntary motion ; so that whether he is awake or asleep, conscious of it or not, the lungs heave and life is supported. Lastly, from the spinal cord q, (a further prolongation of the brain, and running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and extending to the very tip of the tail,) other nerves are given off at certain intervals. This cut delineates one pair of them. The spinal cord cr, is combined of six distinct columns or rods, running through its whole length — three on either side. The two upper columns (the portion of spinal marrow repre- sented in our cut, is supposed to be placed with its inner or lower surface toward us) proceed from those tracks of the brain devoted to sensation. From these come out abruptly distinct fibres from the column, and which collect together, and passing through a little ganglion or enlargement, c/, (an enlargement of a nervous cord is called a ganglion), become a nerve of sensation. From the lower or inner side, (a prolongation of the track devoted to motion,) proceed other fibres, which also collect gradually together, and form a nervous cord, c, giving the power of motion. Beyond the ganglion the two unite, and form a perfect spinal nerve, 6, pos- sessing the power both of sensation and motion ; and the fibres of the two columns proceed to their destination, enveloped in the same sheath, and apparently one nerve. Each portion, however, continues to be wrapped in its own membrane. They are united, yet distinct; they constitute one nerve, yet neither their substance nor their ofhce is confounded. Our cut, closely examined, b, will give some idea of the manner in which these distinct fibres are continued ; — each covered in its own membrane, but all enveloped in a common covering. All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there are others whose origin seems to be outside of and below the brain. These are the sy7n])cdheiic, so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified with life itself They proceed from a small ganglion or enlargement in the upper part of the neck, or from a collection of little ganglions in the belly. They go to the heart, and it beats, and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a net-work round each blood-vessel. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 11 and the current flows on. They surround the very minutest vessels, and the frame is nourished and built up. They are destitute of sensation, and they are perfectly beyond the control of the will. The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful, yet simple machinery, and be able, by and by, to refer to it the explanation of several diseases, and particularly of the operation to which we have referred. Two of the senses have their residence in the bones of the cranium, those of hearing and sight. They who know any thing' of the horse pay much attention to the size, set- ting on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large, placed not too far apart, and erect, and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit; and if a horse is frequently in the habit of carrying one ear forward, and the other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he will generally possess both spirit and continuance. The stretching of the ears in contrary directions shews that he is attentive to every thing that is taking place around him, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much fatigued, or likely soon to become so. It has been remarked that few horses sleep without point- ing one ear forward and the other backward, that they may receive notice of the approach of objects in every direction *. The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful parts about him, and by few things is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion. The ear is more intelligible even than the eye, and a person accustomed to the horse, and an observer of the horse, can tell by the expressive motion of the ears almost all that he thinks or means. It is a com- mon saying that when a horse lays his ears flat back upon his neck, and keeps them so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander by should beware of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid back, but not so decidedly, nor so long. A quick change in their position, and more particularly the expression of the eye at the time, will distinguish between playfulness and vice. The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone-like shape, flexible, yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the side, yet somewhat pointing forward, a large opening extending from the top to the bottom. The intention of this is to collect the sound, and convey it to the interior part of the ear. The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations of the air, too slight to make any impression on the human ear, are readily perceived by him. It is well known to every hunting-man, that the cry of the hounds will be recognised by the horse, and his ears will be erect, and he will be all spirit and impatience, a considerable time before the rider is conscious of the least sound. Need anything more be said to expose the absurdity of cmpping ? Fortunately for this too-often-abused animal, crop- ping is not now the fashion. Some thoughtless or unfeeling young men en- deavoured, a little while ago, to introduce it, but the voice of reason and humanity prevailed. This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to the head by ligaments, and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon another cartilage, round without, and irregular within, called the annular^ ring-like, cartilage, and conducting to the interior of the ear ; and it is * " When horses or mules march in company at night, those in front direct their ears forwards ; those in the rear direct them backward ; and those in the centre turn them laterally or across ; the whole troop seeming thus to be actuated by one feeling, which watches the general safety," — Arnott's Elements of Physics, vol. i. p. 478. 7g THE HORSE. likewise supported and moved by a third small cartilage, placed at the fore part of the base of the conch, and into which several muscles are in- serted. The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other parts of the body, and altogether destitute of fat, that it may not be too bulky and heavy, and may be more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside of the cartilage are numerous glands, that secrete, or throw out a scaly white greasy matter, which may be rubbed off with the finger, and which is destined to supple this part of the ear, and to keep it soft and smooth. Below this are other glands which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bitter fluid, the wax, probably displeasing to insects, and therefore deterring them from crawling down the ear, and annoying the animal : or by its stickiness arrest- ing their progress. The internal part of the conch is covered with long hair which stands across the passage in every direction. This likewise is to protect the ear from insects, that would with difficulty penetrate through this thick defence. The cold air is likewise prevented from reaching the interior of the ear, and the sound is moderated, not arrested ; penetrating readily but not violently ; and not striking injuriously on the membrane covering the drum of the ear. Can these purposes be accomplished, when it is the custom of so many carters and grooms to cut out the hair of the ear so closely and in- dustriously as they do ? The groom who singes it to the root with a candle must be either very ignorant or very brutal. It can scarcely be accomplished without singeing the ear as well as the hair. Many a troublesome sore is occasioned by it ; and many a horse that was perfectly quiet before, rendered difficult to handle or to halter ; and even disposed to be otherwise vicious from a recollection of the pain which he suffered during the absurd and barbarous operation. The sound collected by the outer ear, passes through the lower or annular, ring-shaped, cartilage, and through irregularities, which, while they break and modify it, carry it on to another canal, partly cartilaginous, and partly bony, conducting immediately to the internal mechanism of the ear. This canal or passage, is called the external auditory passage, a; and at the base of it is placed, stretching across it, and closing it, a thick and elastic membrane, called the membrane of the drum, h. This membrane is supplied with numerous fibres, from the fifth pair, or sensitive nerve of the head, for it is necessary that it should possess extreme sensibility. The mechanism of the ear is so exquisite that we cannot refrain from entering into a minute description of it, although we feel that we are some- what trenching on the comprehensive subject of animal physiology. Sound is produced by certain vibrations or undulations communicated to the air, by the concussions or tremblings of things around, and which vibrations spread through the air, and fall upon the ear. The striking of a glass, and the sound of a large bell, are sufficient illustrations of the manner in which sound is propagated by distinct vibrations or waves of the air. These vibrations reach the conch of the ear. From its hollow form and peculiar shape, and the faculty of being directed to every quarter whence the vibrations proceed, they are collected, and condensed, and con- veyed down the outer passage, and fall upon the membrane, h. That membrane, tightly stretched, and elastic, receives the impression made upon it, and vibrates in perfect unison. This membrane covers the entrance into a cavity, called the tympanum or drum of the ear, /, from its supposed resemblance to a drum. It is of an irregular shape. Thewalls or sides are composed of bone, lined with a EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 79 delicate membrane, with several apertures or holes, b, /, k, the principal of which we shall describe. EXPLANATION OF THE CUT OF THE EAR. a The meatus externus, or outer passage. b The membi-ana tympani, or membrane stretched over the entrance to the drum of the ear. c The malleus, or hammer, the first of the ossiculi (little bones), and resting upon the membrana tympani. d The mcus, or anvil. e The orbiculare, or round bone. / The stapes or stirrup bone, resting on the membrane which covers the foramen ovale, or oval window, and which conducts to the labyrinth of the ear. g One of the muscles of the tympanum attached to the stapes. h The vestibule, or hall, the first portion of the labyrinth of the ear. i The semicircular canals. k Openings into the canals. I The tympanum, or drum of the ear. m The cochlea, or shell-like portion of the labyrinth. n The meatus auditorius internus, or internal passage, through which both divisions of the seventh pair of nerves enter the ear. At the end of it is the cribriform sieve- like plate, through which the portio mollis, or soft portion of the seventh pair of nerves, an .. which is the auditory nerve, or nerve of hearing, enters to spread over the cochlea and vestibule. The Eustachian tube, or communication between the tympanum and the mouth, so called from its discoverer. The cord, or nerve of the ear, corda tympani, a branch of the portio dura, hard portion, of the seventh pair of nerves, united to a portion of the fifth pair, running across the tympanum, and ramifying on it and on the membrane. q The exit of the portio dura from the temporal bone, to spread over the face. 80 THE HORSE. Between the membrane at which we have arrived, 5, and a smaller one almost opposite, pleading- to the still interior part of the ear, and on which the nerve of hearing is expanded, are four little bones, c, d, e,/, united to these membranes, and to each other. Their office is to convey, more per- fectly than it could be done through the air of the cavity, the vibrations which have reached the membrana tympani. The first of these Httle bones {ossiculi) is called the malleus, c, from its supposed resemblance to a hammer. The longer arm of the hammer is attached to the edge of the membrane, and reaches to its centre, and is so strongly united to it, as to draw it down into a kind of funnel-shape. It is the bracing of the parchment of the soldier's drum ; and it must be sufficiently evident, that every vibration given to the membrane must be communicated to the hammer-bone. From the hammer, the vibration is communicated to the incus, d, so named from its imagined likeness to a blacksmith's anvil, although it is a great deal more like a molar tooth or grinder, with two fangs, and one of them much lengthened and curved. The hammer, however, is so formed and placed, that the impression or vibration is not merely conveyed, but consi- derably increased. Between the extremity of the handle of the hammer, and its head resting on the anvil, is a sharp process, received into a hollow in the bony wall of the drum, and which is evidently the fulcrum, or centre of motion, on which the hammer turns ; and this is much nearer the head of the bone, than the extremity of the handle. It is then a lever, and it acts upon the principle of the lever. The point of the handle is the place where the vibration is received, or the power applied ; the little process is the fulcrum or prop, or turning point ; and the head of the bone is the ex- tremity of the other arm, where the weight is to be hung, or the eiFect pro- duced. Now, in proportion (as we shall have again and again to demon- strate, when we speak of the construction of the limbs) as the distance of the power from the fulcrum exceeds that of the weight, so will be the mechanical advantage gained, or so will the effect be increased. Here the extremity of the hammer is twice as far from the centre as the head ; and, therefore, the effect will be doubled, and the vibration received by the extremity of the handle, will be conveyed with double intensity to the anvil. The bodies of these bones are elastic; and the heads of all bones are covered by a substance, cartilage, elastic in the highest degree : therefore, the impression or vibration communicated from the hammer to the anvil, will not be deadened, but rather increased by the collision of these elastic bodies. The anvil d is another lever, and not only would the vibration be com- municated undiminished through its substance, but, one of the projections or fangs being received into an opening in the wall of the drum, and the distance of the point at which the impression was received, or the power resides, being greater from the centre than that where the impression is to be conveyed or given up to the next bone, or, in other words, where the effect is to be produced, mechanical advantage is here, likewise, gained, and the effect on the next bone, e, may fairly be reckoned at three times the inten- sity of the original vibration. The round bone, e, a very minute one, is the next in order. It is the smallest bone in the body ; and its use seems to be, to form a more complete and moveable joint between the anvil and the stirrup, and to cause the impulse or vibration to be communicated to the stirrup-bone in a per- pendicular direction. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 81 The last of the four little bones, is the stajjes, or stirrup bone. It closely resembles a stirrup in form, and it is placed on the membrane of the fene- stra ovalis, the oval window, or opening- into the most interior part of the ear, and the immediate and actual seat of hearing-. The stirrup beino- re- tained in a perpendicular direction on this membrane, by tlie round bone not only is the full impression which had been communicated to the fir«t membrane conveyed to the other, but it is trebled by the beautiful me- chanism of the bones. Sound, we have said, is produced by vibrations conveyed to the ear, and exciting similar vibrations in certain parts of the ear. These vibra- tions, once excited, do not immediately cease. A g-kss continues to sound, and the prolonged undulations of the deep-toned bell are familiar to every one. The pulses of sound succeed each other with great rapidity. In speaking, the words quickly follow each other, and each syllable pro- duces a separate impulse on the external membrane of the ear. Unless, however, one pulsation or vibration had ceased before the next was commu- nicated, language would be unintelligible, and a confused and endless noise would prevail. The finger placed on the edge of a glass immediately stops the vibration. The damper applied to the piano-forte effects the same purpose, and gives distinctness of sound and tone. There is in the ear an admirable contrivance to accomplish the same object. Muscles are attached to these little bones, and particidarly to the hammer and stirrup, which are in contact with the membranes. One be- longing to the stirrup is given in our cut, g. They are placed there, ac- cording to some physiologists, to tighten or relax the chain of bones, in order to produce greater or less intensity of sound. We would rather say that they were intended as dampers, to prevent the otherwise unavoid- able confusion of sound. No sooner is an impression conveyed to these bones, or a vibration communicated down them, than the muscles contract and by that contraction tighten the chain of bones, and bv that tightenino-' destroy and not increase the vibration. The heads of the bones are pressed one on the other, so that, like the finger on the edge of the glass, the vibration is not only immediately arrested in these bones, but in the membranes above and below to which they are attached. The air in the drum of the ear is not always of the same warmth. In fever, or in consequence of inflammation in a neighbouring part, or during the excitement of exercise, the air in the drum may" attain a degree of heat far above the natural standard; the consequence of which would be that it would expand. All bodies expand with heat ; and this air expanding would press on every part of the cavity. The bony walls of the cavity would not yield, but the membrane might be so vio- lently distended, as to be incapable of vibrating. Under the cold fit of fever, the air would collapse, or would diminish in bulk. All bodies contract by the application of cold. Then the external air, endeavouring to enter the partial vacuum, and pressing the membranes inward, mighl produce precisely the same effect. To prevent all this, and to preserve a proper balance between the heat of the air in the tympanum, and that of the other parts of the body, or the atmosphere, there is a passage communi- cating with the mouth ; and by means of the mouth, with the external air. See 2^ in this cut, and 9 in the cut, page G8, which gives the cartilage that covers the entrance of this passage, the Eustachian tube, into the mouth. The Eustachian tube commences in the drum of the ear, by a mere slit in the bony wall, which, passing through the stony portion of the temporal bone, and part of the sphenoid bone, becomes cartilaginous, and then expands, ?2 THE HORSE. and ends in a large pouch or bai^. The cartilage, p, protects the mouth of this bag, and prevents the food from entering it ; and likewise enables it occasionally to unclose for purposes connected with the faculty of hearing. The impression, then, has been conveyed by the mechanism of the bones, from the membrane of the drum, 6, to the membrane on which the stirrup rests, /; and which closes the fenestra ovalis, or oval window, or opening into the labyrinth of the ear. This mechanism, however, deeply seated as it is in the head, and guarded by the stony hardness of the temporal bone, is liable to injury, and we are next led to admire many provisions, for pre- serving the sense of hearing, even when much mischief has been done to the machine. The membrane may be punctured or ruptured. It is occa- sionally so by accident or violence, and lately purposely done in the human subject, to remedy deafness produced by obstruction of the Eustachian tube. The vibrations of the external air would proceed down the passage «, and be communicated, although imperfectly, to the little bones at the bot- tom, c, c/, e, and carried on to the oval window, /, and hearing would remain. Supposing that the three first of the little bones were diseased or removed, the vibration of the external air would be communicated to the air in the drum, and by that to the stirrup, / and the animal would not be entirely deaf: or even if the whole of the little bones were destroyed, yet the mem- brane of the oval window remaining, some vibration might be communi- cated to it, and some sound perceived. Passing the oval window,/, we arrive at the true seat of hearing. A strangely irregular cavity, h, presents itself, filled with an aqueous fluid, while the substance or pulp of the portio mollis or soft portion of the seventh pair of nerves, the auditory nerve, expands on the membrane which lines the walls of this cavity. Why is this cavity filled with a liq\iid ? First, that the membrane which covers the passage into it, might always be preserved in a proper state to receive and communicate vibrations. If the labyrinth had contained a fluid possessed of much expansibility, in the considerable changes of temperature to which the frame is subject, this membrane might be stretched beyond the power of vibrating, and almost to bursting by the increased bulk of that fluid. Air is highly expansible. That is of no consequence in the drum of the ear, /, because, as it expanded, it would rush out of the Eustachian tube ; but in the labyrinth it would be highly injurious, because that is a closed cavity. These interior chambers then are filled with water instead of air, because it is not one hundredth part so expan- sible as air. If, however, the labyrinth be completely filled with this aqueous fluid, how can any undulation or vibration take place? Undulation sup- poses a change of figure, an enlargement in some direction ; but there can be no enlargement in a bony cavity completely filled. This was not for- gotten in the wonderful construction of the ear, and, therefore, at the base of the shell, m, and between the stirrup and the shell, is an opening, covered likewise with membrane, called the round window, or communication be- tween the drum and the labyrinth. When any force, then, is impressed on the membrane under the stirrup, this membrane yields to the impression, and suffers the vibration to be propagated through the whole of the laby- rinth. When the vibration ceases, and the fluid is at rest, the membrane over this opening returns to its natural situation, and is ready to yield to the niBxt impression. There is another important reason why these cavities are filled with aqueous fluid. The principal object of the mechanism of the little bones, we have seen to be, perfectly to convey, and even to increase the effect of, the vibration first communicated to the membrane of the drum. The vibra- EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 83 tion reaches the oval window, trebled in intensity. The same object is pursued within the labyrinth. A liquid is placed there, because sound is propag-ated throug-h it, with greater rapidity. While sound travels through air at the rate of 1132 feet in a second, it passes through water at the rate of more than 4000 feet in the same time. The impulse communicated to the water by the membrane, is thus more suddenly spread over the whole of the labyrinth. There is, besides, a law regulating the pressure of fluids, by which this impulse must be spread over the whole of the labyrinth, and every por- tion of the expansion of the nerve will be affected by it, which would not be the case in a fluid so rare and so expansible as air. The strongest reason, however, remains to be stated, — the impression or vibration is rendered more intense, by travelling through water. That sound which would scarcely be heard in the air, is almost deafening under water. It is a common practice for boys when they bathe, to dive with a stone in each hand, and the rubbing of them together under water produces a rum- bhng sound of extraordinary loudness. This is contrary to the old opinion ; and even philosophers, of no mean repute, have denied that fishes had ears, because they were placed in a medium, through which sound could scarcely be conveyed, and where their ears would be of little use to them. Later and better observers have proved that sound is propagated far more in- tensely through water, than through air ; and therefore, an aqueous fluid occupies those chambers of the ear, on the walls of which the auditory nerve is expanded. The oval window opens into the labyrinth, which is divided into three compartments. First is the vestibule, h, the hall of entrance, not more than a quarter of an inch wide in the actual subject, but magnified in our cut, for the purpose of illustration. Over the whole of the membrane by which it is lined, there are spread expansions of the soft portion of the seventh pair of nerves. On the upper side are several foramina or holes, k, which conduct to the semi-circular canals, i, containing also water, lined by the same mem- brane, and that membrane likewise covered, although not so thickly, with nervous pulp. The posterior one is a perfectly semi-circular canal, with two openings into the vestibule. The other two run into each other in a part of their course, and ha^e one ct iimon opening, and one peculiar to each ; so that these canals open into the vestibule by five apertures. These canals contain a singular mechanism. In the part of the vesti- bule at the opening of the canals, k, is suspended a little bag filled with a very clear fluid, and from which branches go into, and occupy the canals, not filling them, but floating in the fluid which they contain ; and on these bags the portion of the nerve belonging to the canal is principally distri- buted. The membrane composing these bags is exceedingly thin. Thus floating in the fluid of the canals, and richly supplied with nervous matter, the slightest vibration or motion communicated to the fluid, by the stirrup on the oval window, will be immediately and powerfully felt. On the other side is, if possible, a more complex mechanism. At m is the cochlea, so termed from its likeness to the convolutions of a shell. It, however, more resembles a spiral lamina, or narrow and thin plate, partly bony, and partly membranous, running round a column in the centre. It is a spiral staircase in a round tower. The base of it rests on the internal passage, n, through which both portions of the seventh pair of nerves pass into the ear. Its apex, or top, approaches the Eustachian tube, o. The soft, or auditory portion of the nerve, penetrates through the cribriform or sieve-like termination of the passage, and a part of it runs up the central G 2 84 THE HORSE. column or bone, wliich is hollow and spongy, and, through a thousand apertures in it, ramifies on the lamina of bone, twining spirally around the column, and on the membranous fringe which iloats in the fluid with which the shell is tilled, and the whole is covered by a thick expansion of nervous matter. The cribriform plate extends beyond the base of the shell to the vesti- bule, and those portions of nerve there enter, which spread over the vesti- bule and the semi-circular canals ; but the principal part of it seems to be given to the cochlea. What is the distinct and peculiar office of these parts, so curiously and yet so differently constructed, we know not. They are both admirably adapted to render the sense of hearing fully equal to every possible want of the animal. In the horse the cochlea is much larger, compared with the canals, than it is in the ox or sheep ; but for what especial piu'pose we are unable to determine : nor can we account for the large pouch-shaped opening of the Eustachian tube in the horse, (fig. 9, p. 68), nor for the small deve- lopement of the mastoid cells in the horse, while they are exceedingly large in the ox. There are many parts of the frame, the precise use or function of which we cannot ascertain ; but, as far as we do understand the mechanism of the various animals which pass under our notice, all is fittest and best ; and the study of the animal frame, with a view to discover the evidences of design, is pleasing and improving. The Eye is a most important organ, and comes next under consideration, as inclosed in the bones of the skull. The eye of the horse should be large, and somewhat but not too prominent, and the eyelid fine and thin. If the eye be sunk in the head, and appareritly little (for there is actually a very trifling difference in the size of the eye in animals of the same species and bulk, and the seeming difference arises from the larger or smaller opening between the lids), and the lid be thick, and especially if there be any puckering towards the inner corner of the lids, that eye either is diseased, or has been lately subject to inflammation ; and, particularly, if one eye is smaller than the other, it has been, at no great distance of time, inflamed. The eye of the horse enables us pretty accurately to guess at his temper. If much of the white be seen, the buyer should pause ere he completes his bargain ; because, although it may, yet very rarely, happen that the cornea or transparent part is unnaturally small, and therefore an unusual portion of the white of the eye is seen, and especially when the horse is looking sideways, or backward, yet experience has shown that this display of white is dangerous. The mischievous horse is slyly on the look out for op- portunities to do mischief, and the frequent backward direction of the eye, when the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer effect to the blow which he is about to aim. We will give a cursory description of the eye, and the uses of its diffe- rent parts. The eyes are placed at the side of the head, yet a litUe pointing for- ward, to give the animal a more extended field of vision. He needs this in his wild state to detect the approach of his enemies, and it is useful to him when employed in our service. The eye is supported behind by muscles attached to different parts of the bony orbit, and it is embedded in a vast mass of fat, upon which it may be readily moved, and without friction; and that fat being absorbed in sickness or old age, the eye is retracted and sinks into the orbit. In front, the eye is supported and covered by the lids, which closing EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 85 rapidly, protect it from many an injury that threatens; — supply it with that moisture which is necessary to preserve its transparency; — in the momen- tary act of closing, they give a certain and sufficient respite to a delicate org'an, which would otherwise be fatigued and worn out, by the constant glare of day; — when the eye labours under inflammation, defend it from the stimulus of light, — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to enjoy that repose which nature requires. Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, having neither ori- gin nor insertion, is a muscle called the orbicularis, or circular muscle. Its office is to close the lids in the act of winking or otherwise, but only while the animal is awake. When he sleeps, this is effected by another and very inge- nious mechanism, for no voluntary muscle will continue in action during sleep. The natural state of the eyelids is that of being closed ; and they are kept open by the energy of the muscles, whose office it is to raise the upper lid. As sleep steals upon the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the lids close by the inherent elasticity of the membrane of which they are com- posed. The skin of the Hd is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, to prevent vmnecessary weight and pressure on such a part, and to give more easy and extensive motion. The lids close accurately when drawn over the eye, and this is effected by a little strip of cartilage, at the edge of each of them, which may be easily felt with the finger, and which preserves them in a hoop-like form, and adapts them closely to the eye and to each other. The lower cartilage, however, does not, as a moment's observation will shew, present towards the inner corner of the eye the whole of its flat sur- face to the upper, but it evidently slopes inward, and only the outer edge of the under lid touches the upper, and, by this means, a little gutter is formed, by which the superfluous moisture of the eye flows to the inner corner where there is a canal to convey it away, and therefore it neither accumulates in the eye, nor unpleasantly runs down the cheek. Along the edges of the lids are placed numerous little hollows which can be plainly distinguished even in the living horse by shghtly turning down the lid. These are the openings into numerous small cells containing a thick and unctuous fluid, by means of which the eyes are more accu- rately closed, and the edges of the lids defended from the acrimony of the tears. The horse has no eyebrows, and the eyelashes are very peculiarly ar- ranged. The rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal corner, because the light comes from above ; and, as the animal stands, and particularly when he is grazing, and from the lateral situation of his eyes, the greater portion of the'^light, and the attacks of insects, and the roUing down of moisture, would chiefly be from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner of the eye there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger or nuisance in that direction. Only a small quantity of light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes are thin and short ; but as, in the act of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found on the lower lid. These apparently trilling circumstances will not be over- looked by the careful observer. They who are unacquainted with the absurdities of stable management, or who have not carefully examined the abuses which may exist in their own estabhshments, can scarcely conceive the foolish and cruel practices of some carters and grooms. We know that when the groom is anxious 8(j THE HORSE. that his horse should be as trim and neat all over as art can make him, the very eye-lashes are generally sacrificed. What has the poor animal suffered, when, travelling in the noon of day, the full blaze of the sun has fallen upon his eyes ; and how many accidents have probably happened, from his being dazzled by the light, but which have been attributed to other causes. If the horse has no eyebrow, there are several hairs or brisdes scattered on the upper eyelid, and there is a projecting fold of the lid which dis- charges nearly the same office. It is more conspicuous in old horses than in young ones. Some horsemen do not hke to see it, and associate the idea of it with weakness or disease of the eye. This is perfectly erroneous. It is a provision of nature to accomplish a certain purpose, and has nothing to do either with health or disease. On the lower lid is a useful provision to warn the horse of the near ap- proach of any object that might incommode or injure him, in the form of long projecting hairs or bristles, and which are plenteously embued with nervous influence, so that the slightest touch shall put the animal on his guard. We would request any of our readers, by whom the experiment never has been made, to touch very slightly the extremity of one of these hairs. They will be surprised to observe the sudden convulsive twitching of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect absolutely impossible. Those ignorant grooms, however, who cut away the eye-lashes, do not spare these useful feelers. The eye is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the process of evaporation, destructive of its transparency, is continually going on. The eye of the horse, or the visible part of the eye, is, likewise, more prominent and larger than in the human being, and the animal is often subject to extreme annoyance from dust and insects, while he has no hands or other guard to defend himself from the torture which they occasion. What is the provision of nature against this ? Under the lid, and a little within the outer corner of the upper lid, is a large irregular body, the lacry- mal gland, comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting an aqueous fluid, and which fluid slowly issuing out from the gland, and, more especially, pressed out of it by the act of winking, flows over the eye, supplies it with moisture, and washes off all impurities. Human ingenuity could not have selected a situation from which the fluid could be conveyed over the eye with more advantage for this purpose. When this fluid is secreted in an undue quantity, and flows over the eye, it is called tears. An increased flow of tears is produced by any thing that irritates the eye, and, therefore, a constant accompaniment and symptom of inflammation. A horse with any degree of weeping, or the flowing of the tears down the cheek, should be regarded with much suspicion. In the human being an unusual secretion of tears is often caused by bodily pain, and emotions of the mind ; and so it is occasionally in the horse. We have seen it repeatedly, under acute pain or brutal usage. John Lawrence, speaking of the cruelty exercised (and we know still too often exercised) by some dealers in what they call " firing" a horse before he is led out for sale, in order to arouse every spark of mettle, says, " more than fifty years have passed away, and I have before my eyes a poor mare stone blind, exquisitely shaped, and showing all the marks of high blood, whom I saw unmercifully cut with the whip a quarter of an hour before the sale, to bring her to the use of her stiffened limbs, while the tears were trickling down her cheeks" Having passed over the eye, the fluid is conveyed by the little canal of EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 87 which we have spoken, formed by the sloping of the under Hd, towards the corner of the eye ; and there are two httle orifices, that conduct it to a small reservoir within, and at the upper part of the lacrymal bone, (fig. e, p. 66). A little protuberance of a black or pied colour, called the carujicle, placed in the very corner of the eye, and to be seen without opening the lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid into them. From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal, the lacrymal duct, partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part of the nose. A little within the nostril, and on the division between the nostrils, is seen the lower opening of this canal ; the situation of which our readers should carefully mark, and bear in mind its real use, for not only horsemen, but even some careless veterinary surgeons, have mistaken it for a glanderous ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable animal. It is found just before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more delicate membrane of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is placed thus low because the membrane of the nose is exceedingly delicate, and would be irritated and made sore by the frequent or constant running down of the tears. This canal is sometimes obstructed in the human being, and the reservoir is distended and bursts ; an ulcer is then formed, very difficult to heal, and only healed by a metal style or pin, penetrating into the duct, being worn for a considerable time. Fortunately the lacrymal duct is rarely obstructed in the horse, for, if it were, and ulceration were to follow, no mechanical contrivance could retain the style or pin in its place. The dog is subject to obstructions of this canal, and the ulcer formed by the bursting of the sac is never healed. There is, however, something yet wanting. We have a provision for supplying the eye with requisite moisture, and for washing from off the transparent part of it insects or dust which may annoy the animal. What becomes of these impurities when thus washed off? Are they carried by the tears to the corner of the eye, and so pass down this duct, and irritate and obstruct it ; or do they accumulate at the inner angle of the eye ? There is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as fast as they enter the eye. Concealed within the inner corner of the eye, or only the margin "^of it, black or pied, visible, is a triangular-shaped cartilage, the haw, with its broad part before. It is concave within, exactly to suit the globe of the eye ; and it is convex without, accurately to adapt itself to the membrane lining the lid ; and the base of it is reduced to a thin or almost sharp edge. At the will of the animal this is suddenly pro- truded from its hiding place, passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up every nuisance mixed with the tears, and then, being speedily drawn back, the dust or insect is wiped off as the cartilage again passes under the corner of the eye. How is this managed? This cartilage has no muscle attached to it, and the limbs, and the different parts of the^body, when put into motion by the influence of the will, are moved invariably by muscles. The mechanism is simple and effectual. There is a great mass of fat at the back of the eye, that the eye may be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated about the inner corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this car- tilage. The eye of the horse has likewise very strong muscles attached to it, and one, peculiar to quadrupeds, of extraordinary power, and by whose aid, if the animal has not hands to ward off a danger that threatens, he is at least enabled to draw the eye back almost out of the reach of that danger* 88 THE HORSE. Dust,~"or gravel, or insects, shall have entered the eye, and annoy the horse. This pecuhar muscle suddenly acts. The eye is forcibly drawn back, and presses upon the fatty matter. That may be displaced, but can- not be squeezed into less compass. It is forced violently towards the inner corner of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; and the haw having likewise some fat about the point of it, and being placed between the eye and an exceedingly smooth and polished bone, and, being pressed upon by the eye as it is violently drawn back, shoots out with the rapidity of lightning, and, guided by the eyelids, projects over the eye, and thus car- ries off the offending matter. In what w^ay shall we draw the haw back again without muscular action? Another principle is called into play, of which we have already spoken, and of which we shall have much to say, elasticity. It is that principle by which a body yields to a certain force impressed upon it, and returns to its former state as soon as that force is removed. It is that by which the ligament of the neck (p. 68), while it supports the head, enables the horse to graze, — by which the heart expands after closing on and propelling for- ward the blood in its ventricles, — by which the artery contracts on the blood that has distended it, and by which many of the most important functions of life are influenced or governed. This muscle ceases to act. The eye resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is room for the fatty matter to return to its place, and it immediately returns by the elasticity of the membrane by which it is covered ; and it draws after it this cartilage with which it is connected, and the return is as rapid as the projection. The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and design of the haw, and many of the present day do not seem to be much better informed. When from sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under inflam- mation, and becoming itself inflamed, and increased in bulk, and the neigh- bouring parts likewise thickened, it was either forced out of its place, or voluntarily protruded to defend the eye from the action of light, and could not return, they mistook it for some injurious excrescence or tumour, and proceeded to cut it out. The " haw in the eyes," is a disease well known to the majority of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only cure. It is a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to w alk half a dozen miles in a thick dust, and without being permitted to wipe or to cleanse the eye, they would feel the torture to which they doom this noble animal, when afterwards employed in their service. A little patience having been exercised, and a few cooling applications made to the eye while the inflammation lasted, and, afterwards, some mild astringent ones, and other proper means employed, the tumour would have disappeared, the haw would have returned to its place, and the animal would have discharged the duties reciuired of him, without inconvenience to himself, instead of the agony to which an unguarded and luiprotected eye must frequently expose him. The loss of blood occasioned by the cutting out of the haw may fre- quently relieve the inflammation of the eye ; and the evident amendment which follows, induces these wise men to believe that they have performed an excellent operation ; but the same loss of blood, by scarification of the overloaded vessels of the conjunctiva, would be equally beneficial, and the animal would not be deprived of an instrument of admirable use to him. Tlie eye is of a globular figure, yet not a perfect globe. It is rather composed of parts of two globes. The half of the one, /, smaller and transparent in front, and of the other, p, larger, and the coat of it opaque, behind. We shall most conveniently begin with the coats of the eye. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. ABA supposed object viewed by the animal, and an inverted image of which, «, b, is thrown on the retina at the back of the e3'e. c c The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and the lens^ converge by the refractive power of the lens. de The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye. / The cornea, or horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the conjunctiva, miitinc different parts together. g The crystalline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and in front of the vitreous humour. hh Muscles of the eye. i The optic nerve, or nerve of sight. k The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye except the portion occupied by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic nerve. / The choroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion or paint. m m The iris, or rainbow-colom-ed circular membrane, under the cornea, in front of the eye, and on Avhich the colour of the eye depends. Tlie duphcature behind is thy uvea, from being coloured like a grape. Tlie opening in the centre is the pupil. n n The ciliary (hair-like) processes. The retina, or net-like expansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole of the cho- roides as far as the lens. p The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling the whole of the cavity of the eye behind the lens. q The aqueous (water-like) humour filling the space between the cornea and the lens. The cojijiuictiva, f, is that membrane which lines the Hds, and covers the fore part of the eye. It covers all that we can see or feel of the eye, and even its transparent part. It is itself transparent, and transmits the colour of the parts beneath. It is very susceptible of inflammation, during which the lining of the Hds will become intensely red, and the white of'^the eye will be first streaked with red vessels, and then covered with a complete mesh of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and opaque. It is the seat of various diseases, and particularly in it commences the sad in- flammation of the horse's eye, which bids defiance to the veterinary sur- geon's skill, and, almost invariably, terminates in blindness. The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the lid, will enable us to form an accurate judgment of the degree of inflammation which exists in the eye. Horsemen and farriers, however, seem to think that it likewise indicates the degree of inflammation in almost every other part, or, at least, of the general fever which may accompany local inflammation. There is apart which much more clearly hidicates this, and especially if the general disturbance be accompanied or produced by any affection of the lungs— a 90 THE HORSE. part which will rarely deceive, and is more easily got at, viz. the mem- brane lining the nose. If the edge of the nostril be lifted up, the colour of the nostril will faithfully indicate the degree of chest affection, and of general inflammation or fever. Covering the back part of the eye, and, indeed, four-fifths of the globe of the eye, is the sclerotica, k. It is an exceedingly strong membrane, com- posed of fibres interweaving with each other, and almost defying the pos- sibility of separation. An organ so delicate and so important as the eye, requires secure protection. This is a highly elastic membrane. It is necessary that it should be so, when we consider that the eye is surrounded by several, and very powerful muscles, which must temporarily, and even for the purposes of vision, alter its shape. The elasticity of the sclerotica is usefully exhibited, by its causing the globe of the eye to resume its former and natural shape, as soon as the action of the muscle ceases. The sclerotica has very few blood vessels ; is scarcely sensible ; and its diseases, except when it participates in general disturbance or disorganiza- tion, are rarely brought under our notice. We therefore pass on to the cornea. The cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part of the horse's eye, for we repeat, that the exhibition of much white about it is a symptom of wickedness. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by the sclerotica, in the fore part of the eye, and although closely united to the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will drop out like a watch o-lass. It is not round, but wider from side to side, than from top to bot- tom ; and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the outer corner of the eye, so that the near eye may be known from the off, after it is taken from the head. The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable im- portance. The prominence of the eye certainly adds much to the beauty of the animal, but we shall see presently, when we consider the eye as the organ of sight, that by being too prominent, the rays of light may be ren- dered too convergent, and the vision indistinct ; or if the cornea be small and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and perfect vision de- stroyed ; and in either case, the horse may unpleasantly start, or suddenly and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat will be nearest to perfection. It ought to be perfectly transparent, and any cloudiness or opacity is the consequence of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense mem- brane, and can scarcely be pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea is composed of many different plates, laid over one another, and, between each, at least in a state of health, is a fluid, which is the cause of its trans- parency ; and the evaporation of which, after death, produces the leaden or glazed appearance of the eye. When it appears to be opaque, it is not often, and never at first, that the cornea is changed. It is the conjunctiva, the membrane that spreads over it, that now carries through its numerous vessels white blood instead of that which was perfectly pellucid or clear ; or there is a secretion of a milky fluid, over or througii the conjunctiva, leaving the cornea beneath unaffected. If, however, the inflammation of the conjunctiva continues, a thick fluid is at length thrown out, between the plates of the cornea, and the cloudiness is converted into perfect opacity. There is nothing which deserves so much attention from the purchaser of a horse, as the perfect transparency of the cornea over the whole of its EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 9t surface. The eye should be examined for this purpose, both in front, and with the face of the examiner close to the cheek of the horse, under and behind the eye. The latter method of looking through the cornea is the most satisfactory, so far as the transparency of that part of the eye is con- cerned. During this examination the horse should not be in the open air, but in the stable, standing in the door-way and a little within the door. If any small, faint, whitish lines appear to cross the cornea, or spread over any part of it, they are assuredly the remains of previous inflammation ; or although the centre and bulk of the cornea should be perfectly clear, yet if round the edge of it, where it unites with the sclerotica, there should be a narrow ring or circle of haziness, the conclusion is equally true, but the in- flammation occurred at a more distant period. Whether, however, the inflammation has lately existed, or several weeks or months have elapsed since it was subdued, there is every probability that it will recur. There is one Httle caution to be added. The cornea in its natural state is not only a beautifully transparent body, but it reflects, even in proportion to its transparency, many of the rays which fall upon it, and, if there be a white object immediately before the eye, as a very hght waistcoat, or much display of a white neckcloth, the reflection may puzzle an experienced observer, and has misled the careless one. The coat should be buttoned up, and the white cravat carefully concealed. Within the sclerotica, and connected with it by innumerable minute fibres and vessels, is the choroid coat, I. It is a very delicate membrane, and extends over the whole of the internal part of the eye, from the optic nerve to the cornea. It secretes a dark coloured substance or paint, by which it is co- vered ; the intention of which, like the inside of our telescopes and micro- scopes, has been supposed to be, to absorb any stray rays of light which might dazzle and confuse. The black paint, pigmentum nigrum, seems perfectly to discharge this function in the human eye. It is placed immediately under the retina or expansion of the optic nerve. The rays of light fall on the retina, and, penetrating its delicate substance, are immediately absorbed or destroyed, by the black covering of the choroides underneath. For the per- fection of many of his best pleasures, and, particularly of his intellectual powers, man wants the vivid impression which will be caused by the ad- mission of the rays of light into a perfectly dark chamber ; and when the light of the sun begins to fail, his superior intelligence has enabled him to discover various methods of substituting an artificial day, after the natural one has closed. Other animals, without this power of kindling another although inferior light, have far more to do with the night than we have. Many of them sleep through the glare of day, and awake, and are busy during the period of darkness. Our servant the ox occupies some hours of the night in grazing ; the sheep does so when not folded in his pen ; and the horse, worked during the day for our convenience and profit, has often little more than the period of night allotted to him for nourish- ment and repose. Then it is necessary that, by some peculiar and excel- lent contrivance, these hours of comparative or total darkness to us should be partially yet sufficiently illuminated for them ; and therefore, in the horse, the dark brown or black coat of the choroides does not extend over the whole of the internal part of the eye, or rather, it is not found on any part on which the rays proceeding from the objects could fall. It is not found in any part of what may be called the field of vision ; but, in its place, a bright variegated green is spread, and more over the upper part than the lower, because the animal's food, and the objects which it is of consequence for him to notice, are usually below the -/evel of his head — 92: THE HORSE. thus, by suffering the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by some portion ofhght reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina reposes, or in some other inexplicable but efficient way, enabling the ani- mal, even in comparative darkness, to possess a power of vision equal to his wants. The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding to utter darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflexion from the eye of the horse. It is that lucid variegated carpet of which we are now speaking. Who is unaware that in the fading glimmering of the evejiing, and even in the darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much better than his rider, and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that sagacious and faithful animal, has not been carried in safety to his journey's end, when he would otherwise have been bewildered ? If our reader has not seen this beautiful pigment in the eye of the horse, we would entreat him to take the earliest opportunity of examining it, and he will be convinced what care that Being, who gave all things hfe, has taken that each shall be fitted for his situation. The horse has not the in- telligence of man, and may not want for any purpose of pleasure or im- provement, the vivid picture of surrounding objects, which the retina of the human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite beauties would be lost upon him. He has not the faculty to appreciate, or to profit by them. If, therefore, his sense of vision may not be so strong during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of vision in the dark. Perfectly white and cream coloured horses have a peculiar appearance of the eyes. The pupil is red instead of black. They have no black paint or brilliant carpet. It is the choroid coat itself which we see in them, and not its covering ; and the red appearance is caused by the numerous blood- vessels which are found on every part of that coat. When we come to treat of other domestic animals, we shall tell how this carpet is varied in colour to suit the situation and necessity of each. In the ox it is of a dark green. He has not many enemies to fear, nor much difficulty in searching for nourishment, and the colour of the eye is adapted to his food. In the cat and all his varieties, it is yellow. We have heard of the eyes of the lion appearing like two flaming torches in the night. It is the reflection of the httle light about him, concentred on the yellow carpet. There are few of our readers who have not seen the same singular glare from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and like- wise in the dog, who, in his wild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is grey. In the poor, unjustly persecuted badger, who scarcely dares to crawl forth at night, although sheltered by the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the ferret who is destined to hunt his prey through all its winding retreats, and in what would be to us absolute darkness, has no paint on the choroides. Tracing the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that it is reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, ?/, and has the appear- ance of several plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the mem- brane. It is not diminished in size, but it has less space to cover, and therefore there nmst be these duplicatures or plaits. They are very use- fully employed in the place in which we find them. They prevent the passage of any rays of light on the outside of the lens, and which, proceed- ing forward in various directions, and uncondensed by the power of the lens, would render vision confused or imperfect. These folds of the cho- roides are called the ciliary jnocesses. Of the last and innermost coat of the eye, the retina, for which all the EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. 53 others were constructed, we shall be better able to speak when we have explained the contents of the eye. Within the cornea, and occupying- the fore part of the eye, is the aqueous humour, jh so termed from its resemblance to pure water. It is that by which the cornea is preserved in its protuberant and rounded form. It extends to the crystalline lens q, and therefore a portion of it, although a very small one, is behind the iris (m, p. 89). Floating in this fluid is a mem- brane, with an an oblong aperture, called the iris. It is that which gives colour to the eye. The human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or blue according to the colour of this membrane or curtain ; and it is called the iris, or rainbow, from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour varies but httle in the horse, and always bears some analogy to that of the skin. We rarely see it lighter than a hazel, or darker than a brown. The sparkling black of the human being is never found. Horses perfectly white, or cream-coloured, have the iris white and the pupil red. When horses of other colours, and which are usually pied, have a white iris and a black pupil, they are said to be wall-eyed. Vulgar opinion has decided that a wall-eyed horse is never subject to blindness, but this we believe to be altogether erroneous. There is no difference of structure which can produce this exemption ; but the wall-eyed horse, from this singular and unpleasant appearance, and his frequent want of breeding, may not be exposed to many of the usual causes of inflammation. The aperture in the iris is termed the 7J//7;//, and through it light passes to the inner chamber of the eye. The pupil is oblong, and variable in size. It varies with the intensity or degree of light which falls upon the eye. In a dark stable the pupil is expanded to admit a great proportion of the light which falls upon the cornea, but when the horse is brought towards the door of the stable, and more light is thrown upon the eye, the pupil contracts in order to keep out that extra quantity which would be painful to the animal, and injurious to vision. When opposed directly to the sun, the aperture will almost close. This alteration of form in the pupil is effected by the muscular fibres which enter into the composition of the iris. When these fibres contract, it is plain that the pupil must enlarge. The membrane itself must be drawn into less compass, and therefore the aperture in the centre must be greater. When the fibres are relaxed, the pupil must proportionably di- minish. The motions of the iris are not at all under the control of the will, nor is the animal sensible of them. They are produced by sympathy with the state of the retina. When a quantity of light, sufficient to dazzle or give pain, fafls upon the retina, it is exhausted, the fibres of the iris sym- pathize with it, and relax, and the curtain falls. When a deficient portion of lio-ht reaches the retina, and vision is indistinct, we are conscious of an apparent effort to bring the object clearly into view; the fibres then con- tract, and the aperture enlarges, and more light is admitted. This dilatation or contraction of the pupil gives a useful method of as- certaining the existence of blindness in one eye or in both. There is a description of blindness, which a close examination of the eye, even by a person accustomed to horses, will not always detect. The cornea and crystalline lens remain perfectly transparent, but the retina is palsied, and is not affected by Hght; and good judges have been deceived when blind- ness of this description has been confined to one eye. A horse blind in both eyes will usually have his ears in constant and rapid motion, directing them in quick succession to every quarter ; he wifl likewise hang back in his halter in a peculiar way ; and will lift his feet high as if he were stepping ^4 ^HE HORSE. over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to obstruct his passage ; and there will be an evident uncertainty in the putting down of his feet : these things, however, have been overlooked by the careless and inexpert, and a blind horse has been bought as a sound one. In blindness of one eye little or nothing of this characteristic gait and manner can be perceived ; yet althouo^h a one-eyed horse may not be absolutely condemned for the common business of the carriage or the road, he is generally worthless as a hunter, for he cannot measure his distances, and will run into his leaps*. Many a sportsman, puzzled and angry at the sudden blundering of his horse, or injured by one or more stunning falls, have found a very natural, although unexpected explanation of it in the blindness of one eye, and that perhaps produced through his own fauh, by over-riding his wiUing and valuable beast, and causing a determination of blood to the eye, which proved fatal to the delicate texture of the retina. Even for the carriage or the road, he is, however, sadly deteriorated ; for, his eyes being placed la- terally, his field of observation must be materially lessened. Let the size of both pupils be carefully noticed before the horse is re- moved from the stable, and, as he is led to the door, observe whether they both contract, and equally so, with the increase of light. If the horse should be first seen in the open air, let it be observed whether the pupils are precisely of the same size ; then let the hand be placed over each eye alternately, and held there for a little while, and let it be observed whether the pupil dilates with the abstraction of light, and equally dilates in each eye. Hanging from the upper edge of the pupil of the horse, are found two or three round black bodies, as large as millet seeds. When the horse is suddenly brought into an intense light, and the pupil is closed, these bodies present a singular appearance, being squeezed out from be- tween the edges of the iris. An equal number, but much smaller, are attached to the edge of the lower portion of the iris. Their general use is probably to intercept portions of light which would be troublesome or in- jurious ; but their principal function is accomplished during the act of grazing. They are larger on the upper edge of the iris, and are placed on the outer side of the pupil, evidently to discharge the same function which we have attributed to the eyelashes, to obstruct the light in those direc- tions in which it would come with greatest force, both from above and even from below, while, at the same time, the field of view is perfectly open, so far as it regards the pasture on which the horse is grazing. Our cut, 771, gives a duplicatiu-e of the iris, or the back surface of it. This is called the uvea, and it is covered with a thick coat of black mucus, to arrest the rays of light, and to prevent them from entering the eye in any other way than through the pupil. The colour of the iris is, in some unknown way, connected with this black paint behind. Wall-eyed horses; whose iris is white, have no uvea. We now arrive at a body on which all the important uses of the eye mainly depend, the crystalline lens, g, so called from its resemblance to a piece of crystal, or transparent glass. It is of a thick jelly-like consistence, thicker and firmer towards the centre, and convex on each side, but more * Mr. W. Percivall, however, in his excellent Lectures on Veterinary Art, vol. iii. p. 20 1 , says, " The loss of one eye does not enfeeble sight, because the other acquires greater energy, though it much contracts the field of vision. It is said to render the conception erring, and the case of mis-judgment of distances is the one commonly brought forward to show this. All I can say on this point is, that the best hunter I ever possessed, a horse gifted with extraordinaiy powers for leaping, was a one-eyed horse, and this animal carried me through a hunting season, without, to my recollection; making one single blunder in leaping." EXTERNAL STRUCTURE. "95 convex on the inner than the outer side. It is enclosed in a delicate trans- parent bag or capmle, and is placed between the aqueous and the vitreous humors, and received into a hollow in the vitreous humor with which it exactly corresponds. It has, from its density, and its double convexity, the chief concern in conveying the rays of light which pass into the pupil. The lens is very apt to be affected from long or violent inflammation of the conjunctiva, and either its capsule becomes cloudy, and imperfectly transmits the light, or the substance of the lens becomes opaque. The examination of the horse, with a view to detect this, must either be in the shade, or at a stable door, where the hght shall fall on the horse from above and in front ; and in conducting this examination we would more particularly caution the intended purchaser against a superfluity of white about his neck. Holding the head of the horse a little up, and the light coming in the direction which we have described, the condition of the lens will at once be evident. The confirmed cataract, or the opaque lens of long standing, will exhibit a pearly appearance, which cannot be mistaken, and will frequently be attended with a change of form, a portion of the lens being forced forwards into the pupil. Although the disease may not have proceeded so far as this, yet if there be the slightest cloudiness of the lens, either generally, or in the form of a minute spot in the centre, and with or without lines radiating from that spot, the horse is to be condemned ; for in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the disease will proceed, and cataract, or complete opacity of the lens, and absolute blindness, will be the result. Cataract in the human being may, to a very considerable extent, be remedied. The opaque lens may be extracted, or it may be forced into the vitreous humors, and there existing as a foreign body it will soon be absorbed and disappear. These operations are impossible in the horse, for, in the first place, there is a muscle of which we have already spoken, and to be presently described, peculiar to quadrupeds, and of such power as generally to draw back the eye too far into its socket for the surgeon to be enabled to make his incision ; and, could the incision be made, the action of this muscle would force out the greater part of the contents of the eye, and this organ would almost waste away. If, however, the opaque lens could be withdrawn or depressed, and the mechanism of the eye were not otherwise injured, the operation would be totally useless, for we could not make the horse wear those spectacles, whose converging power might compensate for the loss of the lens. Behind the lens, and occupying four-fifths of the cavity of the eye, is the vitreous humor (glassy, or resembling glass). It seems, when first taken from the eye, to be of the consistence of a jelly, of beautiful transparency ; but if it is punctured, a fluid escapes from it as limpid and as thin as water, and when this has been suffered completely to ooze out, a mass of mem- braneous bags or cells remains. The vitreous humor then consists of a watery fluid contained in these cells, but the fluid and the cells form a body of considerably greater density than the aqueous fluid in the front of the eye. Last of all, between the vitreous humor and the choroid coat, is the retina, o, or net-like membrane. It is an expansion of the substance, g, of the optic nerve. When that nerve has reached the back of the eye, and penetrated through the sclerotic and choroid coats, it first enlarges into a little w hite prominence, and from that proceed radiations or expansions of nervous matter, which spread over the whole of the choroid coat, and form the third investment of the eye. The membrane by which this nervous pulp is supported, is so exceedingly fine and delicate, that it will tear with the slightest touch, and break even with its own weight. The mem- m THE HORSE. brane and the pulp are perfectly transparent in the living animal. The pupil appears to be black, because in the clay time it imperfectly reflects the colour of the choroid coat beneath ; in the dusk it is greenish, because, the glare of day being removed, the actual green of the pahit appears. On this expansion of nervous palp, the rays of light from surround- ing objects, condensed by the lens and the humors, fall, and producing a certain image corresponding with these objects, the animal is conscious of their existence and presence. Light consists of particles, which, proceeding from the sun or other lu- minous bodies, fall on different objects, and being again reflected from them, and enterhig the eye, render these objects visible. If we are in a dark room, which we know to be filled with furniture, we see it not, and were it not for our previous knowledge of it, or did we not touch it, we should not be conscious of its existence ; but if a candle be brought into the room, or if one of the shutters be opened, the light from the candle, or that admitted through the window, falls upon the different articles of furniture, and a portion of it being reflected from them, and reflected in every direction, some of the light enters the pupil of the eye, and we see the objects around us. It proceeds from these objects to us in straight lines, and except it were impeded, or driven, or drawn out of its course by some body, it would continue to travel on for ever in straight Unes. It passes through some bodies with perfect ease, as glass, and crystal, and water, but it is ob- structed in its passage by others, as metals and wood. These substances through which it readily passes are said to be transparent; those by which its course is arrested are cafled opaque. It has an attraction for all bodies, stronger for some than for others. By the opaque body the greater part of it is absorbed, and although it passes through the transparent body, it feels and is affected by the attraction of that body. It is bent out of its way although not detained. This is called the refraction of light ; and it is on the knowledge of this simple fact that all our optical instruments are constructed, and that we are enabled to explain the wonderful construction of the eye. This little figure will make it sufficiently evident. A ray of light, «, shall fall on a'smooth or level piece of glass, in the direction a b, and that course, if it were not acted upon by the glass, it would pursue. But experience teaches us that it does not. It no sooner enters the glass, than it is bent out of its original course, and takes the direction d. It had been acted upon by two forces, the first impulse in the direction a 6, and the attraction ffii: EYEi 97 of the glass, in a perpendicular direction, as it approached it ; and, obey- ing both forces, it took a new path, f, between the two forces, and more towards a line, c, drawn perpendicular to the surface of the glass. This new path it continued to pursue, until it had penetrated through the glass ; and then, being about to quit the glass, it was once more acted upon by two forces ; — this combined impulse in an oblique direction, and the attraction of the lower surface of the glass in a perpendicular one ; — and as before, obeying both, it again traversed a new path, e, between both forces, and in a direc- tion from the perpendicular. The degree and kind of deviation from the original line will depend on the difference in density between the air and the glass or water, or whatever substance may be used, and likewise on the surface of the refracting body. Passing through a transparent substance, with a plain and level surface above and below, the rays will be bent out of their first direction, but will continue parallel to each other. Passing through a concave glass (a glass hollowed on one or both sides), the rays will diverge or separate ; and tra- versing a convex one (rounded on one or both sides), they will converge or approach each other, and tend to a point ; and the degree of convergence or divergence will depend on the degree of convexity or concavity. Let us apply this to the mechanism of the eye of the horse (vide p. 89). We have spoken of the cornea, f, and the aqueous humour, q, and the crys- talline lens, g, and the vitreous humour, h ; but although possessed of dif- ferent refractive powers, according to their form and density, (and the cornea from its convexity, and the crystalline lens from its density, being the principal agents,) they are so fitted to each other, that we may consider them as composing one exceedingly convex lens, and of such power, that the rays entering the pupil, m, are brought to a point within the very sub- stance of the lens. The place of distinct vision, however, will not be at this point, but a little way behind. If the glass of a spectacle, such as those generally worn by old people, be held between a candle and a piece of paper, the rays of light will converge by the convexity of the glass, and be brought to a very small surface or point on the paper ; but on that point, there will be no distinct picture of the candle, and the paper must be gradually removed from the light, until a distance be found at which the image of the candle will be seen most vivid and distinct, although inverted. So (see the cut, p. 89) the retina which is spread over the internal coat of the eye is placed at a little distance behind the point where the rays meet and cross. If the eye be too convex, and its converging power too great, the rays will cross too soon, and the image will be formed, brightest and best, before they reach the retina, and the vision or sight will be imperfect and obscure. If the eye is not sufficiently convex, and consequently does not possess con- verging power enough, the rays will not cross until they are too near the retina, and the picture would be most luminous and distinct behind the retina; and thus, likewise, the sight would be imperfect and ob- scure *. * " In considering vision as achieved by means of an image formed at the bottom of the eye, we can never reflect without wonder on the smalhiess, yet correctness of the picture, the subtilty of the touch, and the fineness of the hnes. A landscape of five or six square leagues is brought into a space of half an inch in diameter ; yet the muUitude of objects which it contains are all preserved, are all discriminated in their magnitudes, positions, figures, colours. A stage coach passing at its ordinary speed, for several minutes, passes in the eye only over one-twelfth of an inch, yet is the change of place in the image distinctly per- ceived throughout its whole progress." — Paleys Natural Theology, p. 32. H 98 THE HORSE. We are of course unable to ascertain when the horse experiences either of these kinds of indistinct vision, nor are we able to offer any remedy for them : but nothing- can be more certain than that his sight is frequently very imperfect, from one of these causes. There is a shying often the result of cowardice or playfulness, or want of work ; but at other times proving", beyond contradiction, a defect of sight. A horrsc will manifestly mistake the nature of the object before him ; he will run against that which he should have seen ; or he will be terrified by a tree or bird, which should not have caused alarm. This defect of sight is more dangerous than blindness. A blind horse will resig-n himself to the g'uidance of his rider, or driver ; but against the misconception and starting' of a shying horse, there is no defence. That horses gTow shy as they grow old, no one accustomed to them will deny ; and no intelligent person will be slow in attributing it to the right cause — a decay in the organ of vision, — a loss of convexity in the eye, lessening the convergency of the rays, and throwing the perfect image beyond, and not on the retina. There is a striking difference in the convexity of the cornea in the colt and the old horse ; and both of them, probably, may shy from opposite causes ; the one from a cornea too prominent, and the other from one too flat. We do not think that, in the usual examination of the horse previous to purchase, sufficient attention is paid to the convexity of the cornea. The remedy for shying will be considered when we speak of the vices of horses. There is a provision yet wanting. The horse has a very extended field of view, but many persons are not perhaps aware how little of it he can command at a time. There is not one of our readers who can make out a single line of our treatise without changing the direction of the eye. It is curious to follow the motion of the eyes of a rapid reader. To move the head and neck in order to adapt the eye to the whole scene before us, would be awkward and fatiguing, and nature has adopted a simpler and better method. She has given no fewer than seven muscles to the horse, to turn this little but important organ ; and, that they might act with sufficient power and quickness, no less than six nerves are directed to the muscles of the eye generally, or to particular muscles ; and the eye rests on a mass of fat, that it may be turned with Httle exertion of power, and without friction. MUSCLES OF THE EYE. There are four straight muscles, three of which are represented in our cut, d, e, and/, rising from the back of the orbit, and inserted into the ball of the eye, opposite to each other, and at equal distances from each other. One, rf, runs to the upper part of the eye, just behind the transparent and visible portion of it, and its office is clearly to raise the eye. When it con- THE MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 99 tracts, the eye must be drawn upward. Another, f^ is inserted exactly opposite, at the bottom of the eye ; and its ofhce is as clearly to depress the eye, or enable the animal to look downwards. A third, e, is inserted at the outer corner, and by means of it the eye is turned outward, and, from the situation of the eye of the horse, considerably backward ; and the fourth is inserted at the inner corner, turning- the eye inward. They can thus rotate or turn the eye in any direction the animal wishes. If the upper and outer muscles are called into action, the horse looks upward and outward, and more upward than outward in proportion as the upper muscle acts, at the will of the animal, more powerfully than the outer ; and thus, by the action of one of them, or the combined action of any two of them, the eye may be immediately and accurately directed to every point. These muscles, however, have another duty to discharge. They support the eye in its place. In the usual position of the head of the horse, they must be to a certain degree employed for this purpose ; but when he is grazing- or feeding, the principal weight of the eye rests upon them ; and then, lest from this slanting and downward position of the head, when the horse is so often and so long employed in feeding, they should be fatigued, another muscle is added, peculiar to quadrupeds, called the retractor {drawer- back), or the s2ispe7isoriiis (sjispensory) muscle, g. It arises from the edge of the foramen or hole through which the optic nerve enters the orbit — sur- rounds the nerve as it proceeds forward, and then, partially dividing into four parts, is attached to the back part of the eye. Its office is evidently to support the eye generally, or, when it is suddenly called into powerful action, and assisted by the straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of the reach of threatening danger, and in the act of drawing it back causes the haw to protrude in the manner which we have already described, as an additional defence. The power of this muscle is very great. It has been proved, in at- tempted operations for cataract, to exert a force equal to more than twenty pounds ; and it renders an operation on the eye almost impossible. It is an admirable substitute for the want of hands, to defend the eye from many things that would injure it; and, being partially separated hito four divisions, it is also enabled to assist the straight muscles in turning the eye. These muscles discharge another and a most important office. If we examine near and distant objects through a telescope, we must alter the focus, i. e. we must increase or diminish the length of the tube. We must shorten it a little when we examine distant objects, because the rays coming to us from them, in a less divergent direction, are sooner brought to a point by the power of the lens ; so the straight and retractor muscles drawing back the eye, and forcing it upon the substance behind, and thus in a slight degree flattening it, bring the lens nearer to the retina, and adapt the eye to the observation of distant objects. Still, however, being employed in supporting the weight of the eye, these muscles might not be able to turn it so rapidly and so extensively as the wishes or wants of the animal might require ; therefore, two other muscles are given, which are used solely in turning the eye. They are called oblique muscles, because their course is obliquely across the eye. The upper one is most curiously constructed, a, h. It comes from the back part of the orbit, and takes a direction upwards and towards the inner side, and there, just under the ridge of the orbit, it passes through a perfect mechanical pulley, and, turning round, proceeds across the eye, and is inserted rather beyond the middle of the eye, towards the outer side. Thus the globe of the eye is evidently directed inward and H 2 100 THE HORSE. upward. Something more, however, is accomplished by this singular me- chanism. The eye is naturally deep in the orbit, that it may be more per- fectly defended ; but it may be necessary, occasionally, to bring the eye forward, and enlarge the field of vision. The eye is actually protruded under the influence of fear: not only are the lids opened more widely, but the eye is brought more forward. How can this possibly be accomplished? There are no muscles anterior to, or before the eye — there is no place for their insertion. The object is readily effected by this singular pulley, 6, c. By the power of this muscle, the trochlearis or pulley-muscle, and the straight muscles at the same time not opposing it, or only regulating the direction of the eye, it is really brought somewhat forward. The lower oblique muscle rises just within the lacrymal bone (i, p. 66), and, proceed- ing across the eye, is fixed into the part of the sclerotica, opposite to the other oblique muscle, and it turns the eye in an opposite direction, assisting, however, the upjper oblique, in bringing the eye forward from its socket. Chapter VII. INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL— THE BRAIN—THE EARS— AND THE EYES. We have now arrived at a convenient resting-place in our somewhat dry, but necessary description of the structure of the horse, and we willingly turn to more practical matter. We will consider the injuries and diseases of the parts we have surveyed. In entering, however, on this division of our work, we would premise, that it is impossible for us to give the farmer such an account of the nature and treatment of the diseases of horses as will enable him with safety to practise for himself, except in the commonest cases. The causes of most diseases are so obscure, their symptoms so variable, and their connexion with other maladies so complicated and mysterious, that a life devoted to professional study will alone qualify a man to become a judicious and successful practitioner on the diseases of the horse, and other domestic animals. Our object will be to communicate sufficient in- struction to the farmer, to enable him to act with promptness and judgment when he cannot obtain professional assistance — to qualify him to form a satisfactory opinion of the skill of the veterinary surgeon whom he may employ, and, more especially, to divest him of those strange and absurd prejudices which, in a variety of cases, not only produce and prolong disease, but bring it to a fatal termination. FRACTURE. We have described the cavity of the skull of the horse as being so de- fended by the hardness of the parietal bones, and those bones as so covered by a mass of muscle, and protected above by an additional layer of bone, and the occipital bone as so exceedingly thick (see cut, p. 68), that a frac- ture of the bones of the skull is almost impossible. It can only occur from brutal violence, except that, when a horse falls in the act of rearing, the occipital bone is sometimes fractured ; when he falls forward, and the head comes in contact with the ground, the muzzle or jaws will receive the principal or whole force of the blow. When, however, fracture of the skull does occur, it is almost invariably fatal. A blow of sufficient violence STOMACH-STAGGERS. 103 and to send yet more blood to that organ which already had a great deal too much. STOMACH-STAGGERS. A disease not much unlike this is known under the name of Staggers. There are two varieties of it— the sleepy or stomach-staggers, and the mad- staggers ; frequently, however, they are only different stages of the same dis- ease, or varying with the cause that produced them. In Stomach-Staggers the horse stands dull, sleepy, staggering ; when roused he looks vacantly around him; perhaps seizes a lock of hay, and dozes again with it in his mouth ; at length he drops, and dies : or the sleepiness passes off, and deli- rium comes on, when he falls, rises again, drops, beats himself about, and dies in convulsions. The cause of this is sufficiently evident ; and the disease never occurs, except by the fault of those who have the management of the horse. It arises from over feeding. The horse has been permitted to get at a too great quantity of food, or food of an improper nature. When he has been kept for some hours without eating, and has been worked hard, and has become thoroughly hungry, he falls ravenously upon every kind of food he can get at; swallowing it faster than his small stomach can digest it ; and no water being given to soften it, and to hasten its pas- sage, the stomach becomes crammed, and having been previously ex- hausted by long fasting, is unable to contract upon its contents. Tlie food soon begins to ferment and to swell, causing great distension ; the brain sympathizes with this overloaded organ, and staggers are produced. We can easily imagine this, when we remember the sad headaches occasionally arising from an overfilled or disordertd stomach. Sometimes the stomach is ruptured. We have little to say of the treatment of the disease so far as medicine is concerned, except that as it is almost or quite impossible for the person most accustomed to horses to distinguish between the early stage of sto- mach and mad staggers (distension of the stomach, and inflammation of the brain), we shoufd be most dihgent and minute in our inquiry into the history of the horse for the preceding twenty-four hours — whether he could have got at an undue quantity of food, or had been worked hard and kept long fasting. Some say that there is a yellowness of the eye, and twitch- ings about the breast in the early stage of sleepy or stomach-staggers. We have seen a great many cases of stom.ach-staggers without this yellowness, or these catchings, and we believe that no one can certainly distinguish between the two, and that we must be guided entirely by the history of the case. Bleed very largely ; — that cannot do harm, and in mad staggers is indis- pensable. Give a good dose of physic— that also cannot do harm, although in stomach-staggers it cannot do much good, for it can scarcely find its way into the over-distended stomach, and it certainly cannot find its way through it. Keeping the horse from all food will be a very proper proceed- ing, whichever be the disease. Some good judges have affirmed that a horse was never cured of stomach- staggers. It was formerly a very difficult thing, but the stomach-jnimp has done wonders in cases of poisoning in the human being, and, by means of a larger and somewhat altered pump, (which every veterinary surgeon, and, we think, every large proprietor of horses, should have on his pre- mises,) this enormous mass of food may, without difficulty, be washed out. If, however, we can say but little of the treatment of stomach-staggers, we have much to say of its prevention. It attacks old horses oftener than 104 THE HORSE. others, and horses that have been hardly worked, or that have been worked for many hours without food. Let no farmer delude himself with the idea that it is contagious. If his horses have occasionally slight fits of the staggers, or if the disease carries off several of them, he may be assured that there is something wrong in his management. One horse may get at the corn-bin, and cram himself to bursting ; but if several are at- tacked, it is time for him to look about him. The cause will geneially be found to be, too voracious feeding ; — too much food given at once, and perhaps without water, after hard work and long fasting. Nothing is lost by the habitual use of the nose-bag, and a more equal division of the hours of labour and the times of feeding. Some careless and thoughtless people suffer their horses to go from morning to night without being fed, and then they wonder if sometimes the horses hang their heads, and droop, and cannot work. No horse should be worked more than four or five hours without being baited. There is one consequence of this improper treatment, of which persons do not appear to be aware, although they suffer severely from it. A horse that has frequent half- attacks of staggers very often goes blind. It is not the common blindness from cataract, but a peculiarly glassy appearance of the eye. If the history of these blind horses could be told, it would be found that they had been subject to fits of drooping and dulness, and these produced by absurd management respecting labour and food. Staggers have been known to occur when the animal is at grass ; but this usually happens in poor, hard-worked, half-starved animals, and soon after they have been turned out, either in rich pasture, or in a salt marsh, and in hot weather. There are, however, few diseases of the horse that are not occasionally epidemic, or produced by some influence of the atmosphere, of the nature of which we are ignorant ; and stomach-staggers sometimes prevails in par- ticular districts^ where there is nothing remarkably wrong in the treatment of the horse. There is at that time something in the atmosphere which weakens the stomach, and disposes it to indigestion, and causes a little error in feeding to be dangerous, or produces considerable disease under the common circumstances of feeding. When this is the case the pro- prietors of horses should be particularly on their guard, for in most of the horses which then die, the distended stomach will be observed, and will be the actual cause of death. It is very possible that, at certain seasons, some poisonous plants may prevail, or that the hay may not be so nutritive or digestible, and thus the stomach may be weakened. The farmer will weigh all these things in his mind, and act accordingly. MAD STAGGERS. Mad Staggers (inflammation of the brain, brain fever) can, as we have said, be at first with difficulty distinguished from the sleepy, or sto- mach-staggers, but, after a while, the horse suddenly begins to heave at the flanks ; — his nostrils expand ; — his eyes unclose ; — he has a wild and vacant stare, and delirium comes rapidly on. He dashes himself furiously about ; there is no disposition to do mischief, but his motions are sudden and violent, and accompanied by perfect unconsciousness ; and he becomes a terrifying and dangerous animal. This continues either until his former stupor returns, or he has literally worn himself out in frightful struggles. There are only two diseases with which it can be confounded, and from both of them it is very readily distinguished, viz. colic and madness. In colic the horse rises and falls, but not with so much violence ; he some- MEGRIMS. 101 to break these bones must likewise irreparably injure the delicate and im- portant organ which they protect. The ridg-e, or outer and upper part of the orbit of the eye, is occa- sionally fractured. It happens from falling", or much oftener from violent blows. The "slightest examination will detect the loosened pieces, but a professional man alone can here render effectual assistance. All, however, that he can do will be gently to replace the parts in their natural situation, and contrive to confine them there by adhesive plasters ; to obviate in- flammation by bleeding, physic, and low diet, and leave the rest to nature. We proceed then to the diseases of the head, and the first of these is PRESSURE ON THE BRAIN. This may be produced by some fluid thrown out between the membranes, or occupying and distending the ventricles of the brain. In the grown horse this rarely occurs, but it is well known to breeders as an occasional disease of the foal, under the name of " water in the head." The head is either very much enlarged, or strangely deformed, or both ; and the animal dies either in the act of foaling, or a few days after the birth. MEGRIMS. There is another kind of pressure on the brain, resulting from an un- usual determination or flow of blood to it. This .organ requires a large supply of blood to enable it to discharge its important functions. It is supposed that ten times more blood flows through the brain than through any other part of the frame of equal bulk. Nature, in the horse more than in many other animals, has made some admirable provisions to cause this great quantity of blood to flow into the brain without much velocity, and thereby to lessen the risk of suddenly overloading it or rupturing its vessels. The arteries pursue their course to the brain in a strangely wind- ing and circuitous manner ; and they enter the skull through bony holes which will admit of the enlargement of the vessels only to a very limited extent : yet, from various causes, of which the most common is violent exercise in a hot day, and the horse being fat and full of blood, more than the usual quantity will be sent to the head :— or from some negligence about the harness, as the collar being too small, or the curb-rein too tight, the blood will be prevented from returning from the head : and thus the larger vessels of the brain will be too long and injuriously distended, and, what is of more consequence, the small vessels which run through the sub- stance of the brain will be enlarged, and the bulk of the brain will be increased, and it will press upon the origins of the nerves, and produce, almost without warning, loss of power and consciousness. The mildest affection of this kind is known by the name of Megrims. It comparatively rarely happens when the horse is ridden ; but should he be driven, and, 'perhaps, rather quickly, he may perform a part of his journey with his usual cheerfulness and ease, when all at once he will stop, shake his head, be evidently giddy, and half unconscious. In a minute or two this will pass over, and he will go on again as if nothing had happened. Frequently, however, the attack will be of a more serious nature. He will fall without the slightest warning, or suddenly run round once or twice, and then fall. He will either lie in a state of complete insensibi- lity, or struggle with the utmost violence. In five or ten minutes he will begin gradually to come to himself; he will get up and proceed on his journey, yet somewhat dull, and evidently affected and exhausted by what had happened, although not seriously or permanently ill. This is a very dangerous disease — dangerous to the horse, which wul 102 THE HORSE. occasionally die on the spot, and peculiarly dangerous to those who drive him, for there will frequently be no warning or opportunity to escape. It likewise happens, that whether the vessels have been weakened by this violent distension, and afterwards offer less resistance to the flow of blood, or, whatever be the cause, a horse that has once been attacked by megrims is very subject to a return of the complaint. No prudent man will drive a horse that has had a second attack, especially if, in the intermediate time, he has taken proper means to prevent a recurrence of the fit. At the moment of attack, a person who is able to bleed should take three- or four quarts of blood from the neck ; or any one can cut the bars of the palate in the manner explained where we describe the palate, and whence a considerable and sufficient quantity of blood may be readily obtained. The driver should pat and soothe the animal, and carefully examine the harness, and pursue his journey as gently as circumstances will permit. When he gets home, a dose of physic * should be administered if the horse can be spared, and the quantity of dry food lessened, and mashes given, or green meat, or the horse should be turned out at night, or turned out altogether for tv/o or three months. APOPLEXY. The attack sometimes assumes a still more violent form. The horse falls and dies at once. It then rather resembles, or is the same with apo- plexy in the human being. To this more serious form of the disease he is subject in the stable, and even at pasture ; but there is generally some warning. He will be seen with the head low, extended almost to the ground, and supported against the manger. He staggers as he stands. If moved, he appears as if he would fall. His sight and hearing are evi- dently atfected. This is not mad staggers, for no inflammation of the brain is found ; nor stomach-staggers, for there is no distension of the sto- mach. The horse will continue in this way from one hour to twelve. He then falls ; — grinds his teeth ; — his eyes are open, protruded, and fixed — the pupil is dilated ; — there are twitchings about the frame ; — the muzzle is cold ; — the vein of the neck is evidently swelled ; — he is unable to swallow ; — the drink is returned by the nostril or the mouth, and the dung often voided involuntarily : — the twitchings increase to strong convulsions, and death speedily closes the scene. If there be time for medical treatment, the course to be pursued is plain enough. Bleed copiouslyt ; — take at once eight or ten quarts. Bleed from a vein in preference to an artery, for an artery which supplies the brain can- not be got at. Bleed from the jugular or common neck vein, for that re- turns the blood from the brain, and a large quantity rapidly drawn from this vein may possibly give relief. Next back-rake, or remove the dung from the lower intestine with the hand, and give a strong dose of physic : but the case is usually hopeless, and the most decisive and skilful treat- ment alone can avail. We decidedly object to two methods of cure adopted by some farriers, and farmers too. The first is to blow pep- per (and Cayenne pepper if they can get it) up the nostrils of the horse. The violent sneezing that will be produced if the animal is not too insen- sible must pnobably, or almost certainly, rupture some of the vessels already over-distended. The other practice is to give spices and bark to rouse the animal. The effect of these would be to quicken the circulation, * By physic, Avhenever the word occurs in this Treatise, we mean purgative medicine. ■)■ Full directions for bleeding will be gwen, when we describe the various operations which it may be necessary to perform on the horse. TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW. 107 either upon the extent of the wound, or the degree of inflammation which may be excited. The time of the attack is uncertain, and may be post- poned until the wound is nearly or quite healed. It occasionally follows nicking, docking, cropping, whether well or ill performed — whether pro- perly attended to afterwards, or neglected. It has been traced to worms, and particularly to bots ; but we do not think that there is any proof of this. Exposure to cold is a frequent cause ; water dropping upon the back through the decayed roof of a stable ; or the storm pelting upon the unco- vered and shivering animal, while the thoughtless owner has sheltered himself. The rational method of cure would seem to be, first to remove the local cause ; — but this will seldom avail much. The irritation is become general, and the spasmodic action constitutional. The habit is formed, and will continue. It is well, however, to endeavour to discover the local cause. If it be a wound in the foot, let it be touched with the hot iron or the caustic, and kept open with digestive ointment. The new irritation thus produced, may lessen or remove the old one. If it follows nicking, let the incision be made deeper, and stimulated by digestive ointment ; — and if it arise from docking, let the operation be repeated higher. In treating the constitu- tional disease, efforts must be made to tranquillise the system, and the most powerful agent is bleeding. We have known twenty pounds of blood taken at once and with manifest advantage. There is not a more pov/erful means of allaying general irritation. Temporary relaxation of the spasm will at least follow, and that will give the opportunity to do another thing in order to reduce and quiet the disturbed system, and that is, to give physic. Here ?gain, that physic is best which is speediest in operation, and will lie in the smallest compass. The croton has no rival in this respect. The first dose should be a half drachm, and the medichie repeated every six hours, in doses often grahis, until it operates. The bowels, in all these nervous affections, are very torpid, and there is little danger of inflammation from an over dose of physic. The operation of the physic may be assisted by frequent injections, each contahiing a drachm of aloes dissolved in warm water — or, by means of the pump, to which we referred in page 103, whole pailfuls of warm water, or very thin gruel, may be thrown up. Then, as it is a diseased action of the nerves proceeding from the spinal marrow, the whole of the spine should be blistered — three or four inches wide. The horse should be placed in a warm stable, yet with pure air, and should be clothed with two or three additional rugs, or, what is much better, sheep- skins warm from the animal, with the raw side inward ; and changed as soon as they become dry or putrid. Having bled largely, and physicked and bhstered, we seek for other means to lull the irritation, and we have one at hand, small in bulk and potent in energy — opium. Give at once a quarter of an ounce, reduced to powder, and made into a drink with gruel, or in a small ball, (in its crude state it would be too long' in dissolving in the stomach :) and give an addi- tional drachm every six hours. If the jaw should be quite fixed, adminis- ter it in injections. The bowels must be attended to during the exhibition of the opium, and aloes given in small doses, to keep them in a lax state. Camphor and assafoetida may be given by those who please ; — we are not aware that they will do injury, but opium is the sheet anchor of the vete- rinary practitioner. Great caution and patience are requisite in administering the drinks, for the elevating of the head seems to be exceedingly painful to the horse. A ball may be divided into small pieces, and with a piece of cane or whale- 108 THE HORSE. bone conveyed to the back part of the mouth, where it will be dissolved, and must be swallowed. As soon as possible the strength should be supported by nutritive food. The appetite seldom fails in this disease ; and it is painful to see the re- peated eager efforts of the poor animal to allay his hunger. When his jaws are most firmly fixed, he will sometimes be able to suck in the liquid from a moist mash ;~if he has the slightest command over them, he will contrive to swallow the greater part of the mash : and should there be room to introduce the mouth of a small horn, he will thankfully take as much gruel as his attendant will give him. Until the jaws are firmly locked, he may be suffered to have hay, although he should only chew it and drop it from the mouth ; for this action of the muscles of the jaws may delay or prevent their total closure. Little medicine will be wanted as he gets better ; nourishing food, not too liberally administered, will constitute the best tonic ; and should the weather be sufficiently warm, few things will do him more good than to turn him out for two or three hours in the middle of the day. It will extend the muscles of his neck, and bring him to the use of his limbs. Against one mode of treatment we enter our protest, from its cruelty and its inutility— the application of cold. Some turn the animal out un- covered in a frosty night. We have no faith in the practice of this : but placing the poor horse under a pump, and letting the water flow upon his spasm'ed limbs for hours together, or dashing it violently upon him, while he crouches and groans all the while, is both cruel and useless. FITS, OR EPILEPSY. The stream of nervous influence is sometimes rapid, but the suspen- sions are considerable, and this is the theory of Fits, or Epilepsy. For- tunately the horse is not often afflicted with this disease, although it is not unknown to the breeder. The attack is sudden. The animal stops ; trembles; — looks vacantly around him, and faUs. Occasionally the convulsions which follow are shght; at other times they are terrible. The head and fore part of the horse are most affected, and the contortions are most singular. In a few minutes the convulsions cease ; he gets up ; looks around hun with a kind of stupid astonishment ; shakes his ears ; urines ; and eats or drinks as if nothing had happened. The only hope of cure consists in discovering the cause of the fits ; and an experienced practitioner must be consulted, if the animal be valuable : generally speaking, however, the cause is so difficult to discover, and the habit of fits is so soon formed, and they will so frequently return, even at a great distance of time, that he who values his own safety, or the lives of his family, will cease to use an epileptic horse. palsy. The stream of nervous influence is sometimes stopped, and thence results Palsy. The power of the muscle is unimpaired, but the nervous energy is deficient. Palsy in the horse is usually confined to the hinder limbs. When purging has been too suddenly stopped, he becomes paralytic. It is sometimes the consequence of violent inflammation of the bowels. It is produced by falls, blows on the loins, injury in casting, and turning in a narrow stall. In these latter cases the spine has been evidently injured. Old carriage horses, and horses of draught of every kind, although not absolutely paralyzed, have often greaf stiffness iii their gait, and difficulty of turning. Possibly they can turn one way and not the other. They are unwilUng to lie down, from TETANUS, OR LOCKEDJAW. 105 times plunges, but he more often rolls himself about; he looks frequently at his flanks with an expression of pain, and he is conscious. In madness there may be more or less violence ; there is sometimes a determination to do mischief; and there is always consciousness. Over-exertion, when the horse is too fat or full of blood, or 'especially during hot weather, is a frequent cause of inflammation of the brain ; but whatever will produce general fever, may be the cause of mad staggers. The treatment adopted by the best practitioners is too often unsuccess- ful. The horse should be bled until he faints or drops ; or if he be down, until he is evidently faint and weak. Both the neck-veins should be opened at once, and the fulness of the stream, or the quickness with which it is taken, is almost as important as the quantity. Physic should then be given. The purge that acts most quickly is the best, and that is the croton nut, powdered cd the time, and given in a drink, in the dose of a half drachm, and followed by smaller doses of ten grains each, every six hours, with plenty of injections of warm soap and water, until the bowels are well opened. If the croton is not at hand, aloes may be given, but dissolved in hot water — an ounce of aloes at the first dose, and, afterwards, a quarter of an ounce every four hours, until purging is produced. This being ef- fected, those medicines should be given which have a tendency to lessen the force of the circulation, and, consequently, the determination of blood to the head. The most powerful of these are the foxglove, and tartar emetic, in doses of a drachm each, three or four times in the day. Hellebore should not be given on account of the previously too great determination of blood to the brain. The head should be blistered, but rowels and setons give useless pain, for the horse is either cured or dead before they perceptibly begin to act. TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW. We have described the nerves as proceeding from the brain and spinal marrow, and conveying the power of feeling and motion to the whole frame. This power may be best conceived by considering it as an influence pro- ceeding from the brain to every part. In a state of health, it is regularly and uniformly distributed ; but it is much affected by disease. It may rush on violently and without interruption, and we have cramp, and tetanus, or locked-jaw : or the stream may be rapid, but with considerable suspensions, and we have fits ; or it may be quite suspended, and we have palsy. Tetanus is one of the most dreadful and fatal diseases to which the horse is subject. It is called Locked-Jaw, because the muscles of the jaw are earliest and most powerfully affected. Tetanus is a constant spasm of all the voluntary muscles, and particularly of the neck, the spine, and the head. It is generally slow and very treacherous in its attack. The horse for a day or two does not appear to be quite well ; he does not feed as usual ; partly chews his food and drops it ; and gulps his water. The owner at length finds out that the motion of the jaws is considerably limited, and some saliva is drivelling from the mouth. If he tries the mouth, he can open it only a very little way, or the jaws are perfectly and rigidly closed ; and thus the only time in which the disease could have been successfully combated is losi. We have, therefore, given a cut of a horse labouring under this disease, which the reader will do well carefully to examine as we proceed with the symptoms, that he may be enabled to recognise it in its very earliest stage ; and the moment he does recognise it, he will do well to apply for the very best advice he can get. Most of the peculiarities delineated in the cut 105 THE HORSE. will be sufficiently apparent before the jaws are locked, and while medicine can be administered with tolerable ease. The jaws are imnaturally fixed, and then he observes that there is a stiffness of the neck; a difficulty in bringing the head round, and a prominence, and hardness, and unyieldingness of all the muscles of the neck ; with an unusual protrusion of the head. It next occurs that the poor animal cannot bend his head. The retractor muscle (fig. gy p. 98) is affected by spasm, and the eye is drawn into the socket — squint- ing outward — and the haw protruding over a portion of it. The nos- tril is expanded, the ear erect, and the countenance anxious ; — the back and loins are stiff, and if he is turned in his stall, the whole body turns at once like an unbending piece of wood. The muscles of the belly are also affected by spasm, and he is tucked vp (his belly contracted and drawn up) to a strange degree. The tail is erect, and constantly qui- vering. The extremities are singularly fixed ; — the hind-legs straddling ; — the fore-legs projecting forward and outward (as some one has aptly described it) like the legs of a stool. The pulse at first not much affected, but soon becoming quick, and small, and irregular , the breathing more laborious as the disease proceeds ; and the countenance wild and haggard, and expressive of extreme agony. The pain which attends the cramp of one limb will enable us to judge of that which must accompany universal spasm. If a person goes near the horse, or touches him in the slightest way, although he may be unable to move, yet the sudden quicken- ing of the pulse will tell what the animal feels and fears. So the disease goes on for nine or ten days, until the animal is exhausted by the expen- diture of nervous energy, and the continuance of torture. If, from strength of constitution or medical treatment, he should recover, the first favourable symptom is a slight and short remission of the spasm ; the time of the remission gradually lengthening, and the jaws a little relaxing ; but the progress of cure is exceedingly slow, and the horse is left very- weak. Tetanus is evidently an affection of the nerves. A small fibre of some nerve has been injured, and the effect of that injury has spread to the origin of the nerve ; the brain has become affected, and universal diseased action speedily follows. Locked-jaw generally arises from a wound, and oftenest a wound of a tendinous or ligamentous part ; but depending not . RABIES. 109 experience of the difficulty they would have in rising' again. These are evident injuries of the spine, and a loss of some of the joints of the loins or back, and are without remedy ; and so often is palsy. Bleeding, physick- ing, antimonial medicines, and stimulating embrocations, are the most likely means of cure. RABIES, OR MADNESS. There is another disease of the nervous system, of which we must speak — Rabies, or Madness — that incurable malady which results from the bite of a rabid or mad animal. The poison of the saliva remains in the wound for an uncertain time, varying from three to eight weeks in the horse, and then begins to produce its dreadful effects on the system. The attack of rabies (or hydrophobia, as it is commonly, but very improperly called in the horse and other quadrupeds, for they have no dread of water) is usually very sudden. The animal will go to work apparently well ; all at once he will stop, tremble, heave, paw, stagger and fall. Almost im- mediately he will rise ; draw his load a little farther ; again stop, look about him, and once more fall. This cannot be confounded with megrims, because the horse is perfectly sensible. The sooner he is led home the better, for the progress of the disease is most rapid ; and, if he is not im- mediately destroyed, he should be slung, for sometimes a state of the highest excitation speedily ensues. The horse kicks and plunges in the most violent manner ; attempts furiously to seize and bite the other horses, or his attendants ; " and will level with the ground every thing before him, himself sweating, and snorting, and foaming, amidst the ruins." In both the ferocious and the harmless variety of the disease, staggering and palsy of the hinder extremities soon follow. We remember to have seen a beauti- ful mare, sitting on her haunches, and unable to rise, yet pawing furiously with her fore-feet, and striking at every thing within her reach. The thirst is excessive, and the act of swallowing is usually performed with a forced gulping effort, and the head is, in a few instances, snatched violently from the pail. The disease rarely extends beyond the third day. After death, there is uniformly found inflammation at the back part of the mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, and likewise in the stomach, and on the membrane covering the lungs, and where the spinal marrow first comes from the brain. When the disease can be clearly connected with a previous bite, the sooner the animal is destroyed the better, for there is no cure. If the symptoms bear considerable resemblance to rabies, although no bite be suspected, the horse should at least be slung, and the medicine, if any be administered, given in the form of a drink, and with the hand well pro- tected ; because, if it should be scratched in balling the horse, or the skin should have been previously broken, the saliva of the animal is capable of communicating the disease. Several farriers have lost their lives from being bitten or scratched in the act of administering medicine to a rabid horse. It is always dangerous to encourage dogs much about the stable, and especially if they become fond of the horses, and are in the habit of jump- ing up and licking them. The corners of horses* mouths are often sore from the pressure of the bit ; and when a coach-dog in a gentleman's stable — and it is likely to happen in every stable, and with every dog — becomes rabid and dies, the horse too frequently follows him at no great distance of time. If a horse should be bitten by a dog under suspicious circumstances, he no THE HORSE. should be carefully examined, and every wound, and even the slightest scratch, well burned with the lunar caustic (nitrate of silver), and the scab should be removed and the operation repeated on the third day. The hot iron does not answer so well, and other caustics are not so manageable. In the spring of 1827, four horses were bitten near Hyde Park, by a mad dog*. To one of them the lunar caustic was severely and twice applied — he lived. The red hot iron was unsparingly used on the others, and they died. The caustic must reach every part of the wound. At the expiration of the fourth month, the horse may be considered to be safe. NEUROTOMY, OR CUTTING THE NERVE. To enable the horse to accomplish many of the tasks we exact from him, we have nailed on his feet an iron defence. Without the shoe, he woidd not only be unable to travel over our hard roads, but he would speedily become useless to us. While, however, the iron protects his feet from being battered and bruised, it is necessarily inflexible. It cramps and confines the hoof, and, without great care, entails on our valuable servant disease and torture. Among the different modes of palliating or removing the extreme pain, veterinary surgeons have lately resorted to the division of the nerve which goes to the foot. We shall now perhaps be able to understand the reason and the effect of the operation. The nerve of the leg, we have said, is de- rived from the union of several of the spinal nerv^es, and consequently it is a nerve of combined feeling and motion. The fibres connected with mo- tion, however, are directed only to those parts which are concerned in the production of motion, and these are the muscles. By the contraction of the muscles, caused by the influence of the nerves, the limbs are moved. The bones, the blood-vessels, and other parts, are merely passive. Now the muscles of the leg of the horse do not extend below the knee. No part concerned in the production of motion is found below the knee, and the fibres of the nerve which are connected with motion are all distributed above this joint ; and when we divide the nerve either on the pastern, or above the fetlock, we do not touch a single fibre connected with motion. Those which are connected with feeling are continued to the very extre- mity of the foot, and these are the fibres which we divide in the operation of neurotomy, or nerve-cutting. We cannot possibly interfere with the motion of the limb, but we take away the sensibility or feeling of the foot, and relieve the animal from torture ; and, doing this, we not only render him a service in return for the many we have received from him, but we often and speedily abate the inflammation of the part, and give time for the use of remedies, which we should otherwise have been unable to apply, and thus possibly retain his services for many a year. It is long before a new operation or practice, however useful or judicious it may be, is generally adopted, and, probably, the majority of our readers are some of the last to shake off the prejudices and errors of their fore- fathers. We have heard it said by many a farmer, and by many a farrier, too — " What ! cut the nerve of the limb ! Is not the nerve the very life of the limb? Does not the limb derive all its support from the nerve? Will not the foot waste away, and even the hoof drop off?" When this operation has been improperly j^erformed, and where common sense would have forbidden it, and the horse, not only freed from pain, but from feeling too, has battered and bruised his foot, which the sensation of pain would not have permitted, and thus the structure of the foot has been injured or NEUROTOMY. Ill destroyed, and the hoof has actually dropped off after the division of the nerve, — every prejudice has been strengthened, and the operation has been censured and neglected. Now, although we have shewn that every part of the animal frame is dependent on nervous energy, we have also shewn that we do not and cannot, by this operation, injure those nerves on which nutrition depends : these are the ganglial nerves, which wind round the arteries and veins, and their minutest branches, and enable them to discharge their functions, and they are not, and cannot be touched in the operation of unnerving; nor can the slightest portion of nutriment be taken away from the limb. We divide only the nerve of sensation ; and if we have used a little common sense, and considered whether it be a case that admits of the operation, and will probably benefit by it, we shall give relief to him who well deserves it, and will amply repay it. A The nerv'e on the inside of the off leg at the edge of the shank bone, and behind the vein and artery. B The continuation of the same nerve on the pastern, and proceeding downward to supply the back part of the foot with feeling, c Tlie division of the nerve on the fetlock joint. D The branch which supplies with feeling the fore part of the foot. E The artery between the vein and nen^e. F The continuation of the artery on the pastern, close io, and before the nerve. The vein before the artery and nerve. Tlie same vein spreading over the pastern. One of the flexor tendons, the perforatus (perforated). The deeper flexor tendon, the perforans (perforating, contained within the other). The tendinous band in which the flexors work. One of the extensors of the foot. The internal or sensible frog. Tlie posterior lateral ligament. The fleshy or sensible lamina covering the coffin bone, the horny crust being removed. Tlie horny crust. The sole. Our cut gives a view of the nerve on the inside, as it approaches the fetlock, and goes over the pastern. It will be seen that branches are given off above the fetlock, which go to the fore part of the foot, and supply it with feeling. The continuation of the nerve below the fetlock is given principally to the quarters and hinder part of the foot. The first consideration, then, with the operator is — Does he wish to deprive the whole of the foot of sensation, oris the cause of lameness principally in the hinder part of the foot, so that he can leave some degree of feeling in the fore part, and prevent that alteration in the tread and going of the horse, which the good horseman immediately detects ? The horse is cast and secured, and the limb to be operated on removed from the hobbles and extended ; the hair having been previously shaved from the part. The operator then feels for the throbbing of the artery, or the round firm body of the nerve itself, on the side of the shank bone, or the larger pastern. The vein, artery, and nerve here run close together, the vein nearest to the front of the leg, then the artery, and the nerve behind. He cautiously cuts through the skin, for an inch and a half in # 112 THE HORSE. length. The vessels will then be brought into view, and the nerve will be distinguished from them, by its being behind, and by its whiteness. A crooked needle with silk is passed under it to raise it a little ; it is dis- sected from the cellular substance beneath, and about three quarters of an inch of it cut out, the first incision being made at the upper part, in which case the second cut will not be felt. The horse must then be turned and the operation performed on the other side, for there is a nervous trunk on both sides. The wounds are now closed with strips of ad- hesive plaster, a bandage placed over them, the head tied up for two days, and the animal kept rather low, and as quiet as possible. The incisions will o-enerally rapidly heal, and in three weeks, or a month, and sometimes earlier, the horse will be fit for work. For rino--bone ; — the side cartilages becoming bony, and partial stiffness of the pastern and coffin joints, the operation of nerving will probably be useful. The sense of pain being taken away, the animal will use these parts more, and partly recover their natural action and motion. For the same reason, in old contraction of the feet, it is highly beneficial. The tor- ture occasioned by the pressure of the horny crust on the sensible parts within being no longer felt, and the foot coming fully and firmly in con- tact with the ground, not only is lameness relieved, but the elasticity and form of the foot partially restored. Where there has long existed lame- ness unattended with heat of the foot, or alteration of shape, and the seat of which could not be ascertained, although probably existing between the shuttle bone and the back tendon which plays over it, neurotomy may be resorted to with decided advantage. Mischief, however, will result from the operation if the pastern or coffin joints are perfectly stiff, because the concussion occasioned by the forcible contact of the foot with the ground, and unbroken by the play of the joints, must necessarily still more injure the bone. When the sole of the foot is con- vex or pumiced, the effect of neurotomy will be most destructive. The sole, scarcely able to bear the pressure of the coffin-bone forced below its natural situation, even when pain induces the animal to put his foot as gently as possible on the ground, would now be speedily worn through and destroyed. So if inflammation existed, although its pain might be removed, yet its pro- gress would be quickened by the bruising to which the parts might be sub- jected, and more especially would this be the case if there were any ulcera- tion of the ligaments or cartilages. How many cases will this include ! To how many poor coach and cart-horses and hackneys might some years of usefulness and enjoyment thus be added! The value of the operation, or the unpleasant consequences which may follow from it, depend upon the judgment of the surgeon; and that judg- ment being duly exercised, we regard this operation as one of the most important discoveries in horse practice in modern times. DISEASES OF THE EYE. The diseases of the eye constitute a very important, but a most unsatis- factory division of our work ; for the maladies of this organ, although few in number, are freq\ient in their appearance ; they are sadly obstinate, and baffle all skill. The eye of the horse appears to be naturally more disposed to disease than that of any other animal with which we are acquainted ; and most assuredly there is no domestic animal, the treatment of whose diseases is so much at variance with common sense. We have spoken of Fracture of the orbit, and its treatment. Occa- sionally a Wound is inflicted by a passionate or careless servant. The eye INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 113 itself is rarely injured. It is placed on a mass of fat, and it turns most readily, and the prong- of the fork glances off; but the substance around the eye may be deeply wounded, and very considerable inflammation may ensue. This should be abated by poultices, and bleeding, and physic ; but no probe should be used, under the foolish idea of ascertaining the depth of the wound, for, from the constant motion of the eye, it is almost impossible to pass the probe into the original wound, and the eflbrt to accomplish it will give a great deal of pain, and increase the inflammation. The horse has occasionally a scaly eruption on the edges of the eyelids, attended with great itching, in the effort to allay which, by rubbing the part', the eye may be blemished. The nitrated ointment of quicksilver, mixed with an equal quantity of lard, may be slightly rubbed on the edges of the lids with considerable good effect. Warts are sometimes attached to the edges of the lids, and are a source of great irritation. When rubbed they bleed, and the common opinion is true that they are propagated by the blood. They may be taken off with a sharp pair of scissors, and their roots touched with the lunar caustic. The Haw may be thickened, and project on the fore part of the eye. The eye is drawn back by the retractor muscle to relieve it from the pain- ful influence of the light; and the haw being thus pushed forward, and thickened, and the neighbouring parts thickened, is unable to retract. Cooling applications, and bleeding and physic, will generally set all right. The farrier who talks of cutting out this important organ must be exceed- ingly ignorant. In a very few instances long continued inflammation of the haw is fol- lowed by ulceration and eating away of the cartilage. If the Goulard lotion, and that succeeded by the white vitriol, fail to abate the inflammation or to retract the part, it may be necessary to extirpate it. The horse must be cast, and the aid of a veterinary surgeon is indispensable, for he alone can determine how much of the neighbouring membranes must likewise be re- moved. COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. The conjunctiva is the seat of the worst disease, and which is too often destructive to the eye. We may consider inflammation of the eye under two forms— the common and manageable, and the specific and fatal. The Common Inflammation is generally sudden in its attack. The lids will be found swelled, the eyes partially closed, with some weeping. The inside of the Ud will be red, some red streaks visible on the white of the eye, and the cornea slightly dim. This is usually connected with some degree of catarrh or cold ; but it is as often unaccompanied by this, and depends on external irritation, as a blow, or the presence of a bit of hay-seed or oat-husk within the lid, and towards the outer corner where the haw cannot reach it : therefore the lids should always be carefully examined as to this possible source of the complaint. The health of the animal is generally not at all affected ; he feeds wefl, and performs his work with his usual spirit. Cooling apphcations to the eye, as the Goulard's extract in the proportion of a drachm, or half an ounce of the tincture of opium, to a pint of water, with mash-diet, and gentle physic, will usually get rid of this : or the inflammation will subside without medical treatment. SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON-BLINDNESS. Should three or four days pass, and the inflammation not be abated, we may begin to suspect that it is the true Ophthalmiuy especially if the eye I 114 THE HORSE. be very impatient of light, and the cornea be considerably clouded : the aqueous humor then often loses its transparency, even the iris changes ^ its colour, and the pupil is exceedingly contracted. We have now an obstinate disease to combat, and one which will generally maintain its ground in spite of all our efforts. For three, or four, or five weeks, the inflammation will remain undiminished, or if it appears to yield on one day, it will return with redoubled violence on the next. At length, and often unconnected with any of the means we have been using, the eye begins to bear the light, the redness on the membrane of the lid and the white of the eye somewhat suddenly disappears, the cornea clears up, and the only vestige of disease which remains is a slight thickening of the lids, and apparent uneasiness when exposed to a very strong light. If we imagine that we have got rid of the disease, we shall be sadly dis- appointed, for in the course of six weeks or two months, either the same eye undergoes a second and similar attack, or the other eye becomes af- fected. All again seems to pass over, except that the eye is not so perfectly restored, and a slight, deeply-seated cloudiness begins to appear ; and after repeated attacks, and alternations of disease from eye to eye, the affair ter- minates in opacity of the lens or its capsule, attended with perfect blindness either of one eye or both. This affection was formerly known by the name o^ moon-hlindness, from its periodical return, and some supposed influence of the moon. Tiiat planet, however, has not, and cannot have any thing to do with it. What is the practitioner doing all this while ? He is an anxious and busy, but almost powerless spectator. He foments the eyes with warm water, or applies cold lotions with the extract of lead or opium, or poultices to which these drugs may be added ; he bleeds, not from the temporal artery, for that does not supply the orbit of the eye, but from the angular vein at the inner corner of the eye, or by scarifying the lining of the lid, or by subtracting a considerable quantity of blood from the jugular. The scarifying of the lids, which may be easily accomplished without a twitch, by exposing the inside of the lids, and drawing a keen lancet slightly over it, is the most effectual of all ways to abate inflammation, for we are then immediately unloading the distended vessels. He places his setons in the cheek, or his rowels under the jaw ; and he keeps the animal low, and physics, or gives fever medicine (digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar) ; or, as some have done, considering it as a constitutional disease, admi- nisters the corrosive sublimate daily in doses of a scruple. The disease, however, ebbs and flows, retreats and attacks, until it reaches its natural termination, blindness of one or both eyes. The horse is more subject to this disease from the age of four to six years than at any other period. He has then completed his growth : he is full of blood, and liable to inflammatory complaints, and the eye is the organ attacked from a peculiar predisposition in it to inflammation, the nature or cause of which cannot be explained. Every affection of the eye ap- pearing about this age must be regarded with much suspicion. It is a common opinion that black horses are more subject to blindness than others. We have considerable doubt about this, or rather we believe that colour has no influence either in producing or aggravating the disease. As this malady so frequently destroys the sight, and there are cer- tain periods when the inflammation has seemingTy subsided, and the in- experienced person would be deceived into the belief that all danger is at an end, the eye should be most carefully examined at the time of purchase, and the examiner should be fully aware of all the minute indications of INFLAMMATION OF THE EYH. 115 previous 01* approaching disease. They are a slight thickening of the lids, or puckerin^r towards the inner corner of the eye ; a difference in the appa- rent size of the eyes; a cloudiness, althoiii^h perhaps scarcely perceptible, of the surface of the corn*ea, or more deeply seated, or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess of the eye generally, and duhiess of the iris ; or a minute, faint, dusky spot in the centre, with or without little fibres or lines diversring from it. The cause of this inflammation is undoubtedly a strong predisposition to it in the eye of the horse, but assisted by the heated and poisoned air of many stables. Some of our readers whose stables are not too air-tight, see frequently a great deal of this disease ; but if they knew its ravages where several horses are crowded together, and scarcely a breath of air admitted, they would deem themselves comparatively fortunate. The heated air has much to do with the production of the disease ; — the poisoned air a great deal more ; for every one must have observed, on entering a close stable early in the morning, strong fumes of hartshorn, which were painful to his eyes and caused them to water. What must be the constant action of this on the eyes of the horse ? The dung of the horse, and the litter of the stables, when becoming putrid, give out fumes of volatile alkali or hartshorn ; but besides this, the urine of the horse, for some purpose un- known to us, possibly to teach us to take better care of this useful servant, begins very soon after it is voided to give out an immense quantity of this pungent gas. If we are scarcely able to bear it when we stand "in the stable for only a few minutes, we need not wonder at the prevalence of inflammation in the eye of the stabled horse, nor at the difficulty of abating inflammation while the eye continues to be exposed to such painful excite- ment. Stables are now much better ventilated than they used to be, and this disease is not so prevalent as it was fifty years ago. The farmer may not be aware of another cause of this disease, to which his horse is more particularly exposed, viz. confinement in a dark stable. Many stables in the country have no glazed windows, but there is a flap whicli is open for a few hours in the day, or while the carter is employed in the stable, and when that is shut down almost total darkness prevails. Let our reader consider what are his sensations when he suddenly emerges from a dark room into the full glare of light ; he is dazzled and bewil- dered, and some time passes before his vision is distinct. Let this be repeated several times in the day, and what will be the consequence? The sight will be disordered, and the eye irreparably injured. Then let him think of his poor horse, who often stumbles and starts through no fault of his own, although he is corrected for so doing, but because his eyes are necessarily weakened by these sudden transitions, and disposed to take on this sad inflammation with all its fatal results. The propagation of various diseases, and this possibly more than any other, from the sire to his progeny, has not been sufficiently considered by breeders. Let a stallion that is blind, or whose sight is defective, possess every other point and quality that can be wished, yet he is worse than useless ; for a very considerable proportion of his offspring will most as- suredly inherit his weak eyes, or become totally blind. There is no fact better established than this. The most frequent consequences of this disease are cloudiness of the eye, and cataract. The cloudiness is singular in its nature. It will change in twenty-four hours from the thinnest film to the thickest opacity ; and as suddenly the eye will nearly regain its perfect transparency, but only to lose it, and as rapidly, a second time. The most barbarous methods have 12 116 THE HORSE. been resorted to for the purpose of removing this cloudiness. Chalk, and salt, and sugar, and even pounded glass, have been introduced into the eye mechanically to rub ofFtbe film. It was forgotten that the cloudiness was the effect of inflammation, and that means so harsh and cruel were very hkely to recall the inflammation; that these rough and sharp substances must of necessity inflict excruciating pain ; and that, after all, it generally is not a film on the surface of the cornea, but a dimness pervading its sub- stance, and even sinking deep within it, and therefore not capable of being rubbed off. Where the cloudiness can be removed, it will be best effected by first abating inflammation ; and then exciting the absorbents to take up the grey deposit, by washing the eye with a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate, containing not more than a grain of the sublimate to an ounce of water. Opacity of the lens is another consequence of inflammation. A white speck appears on the centre of the lens, which gradually spreads over it, and completely covers it. It is generally so white and pearly as not to be mistaken : at other times more hazy, deceiving the inexperienced, and occasioning doubt in the mind of the professional man. We have seen many instances in which the sight has been evidently affected or almost lost, and yet a different opinion has been given by very fair judges. The eye must be exposed to the light, and yet under the kind of shelter to which we have previously referred, in order to discover the defect. The pupil of the horse is seldom black, like that of the human being, and its greyish hue conceals the recent or thin film which may be spreading over the lens. Cataract in the eye of the horse admits of no remedy, for two obvious reasons ; the retractor muscle draws the eye back so powerfully and so deeply into the socket, that it would be almost impossible to perform any operation; and, could an operation be performed, and the opaque lens removed, the sight would be so imperfect, from the rays of light not being sufficiently converged, that the horse would be worse to us than a blind one. The man who has undergone the operation of couching, may put a new lens before his eye, in the form of a convex spectacle, but we could not adapt spectacles to the eye of the horse, or fix them there. GUTTA SERENA. Another species of blindness, and of which we spoke when describing the retina, is Gutta Serena, commonly called the glass eye. The pupil is more than usually dilated ; — it is immoveable and bright, and glassy. This is palsy of the optic nerve, or its expansion, the retina ; and is usually produced by determination of blood to the head. We have de- scribed it as a consequence of stagoers. So much pressure has been oc- casioned on the base of the brain, that the nerve has been injured, and its function destroyed. The treatment of Gutta Serena is quite as difficult as that of cataract. We have heard of successful cases, but we never saw one ; nor should we be disposed to incur much expense in endeavouring to accom- plish impossibilities. Reasoning from the cause of the disease, we should bleed and physic, and rowel. If we succeeded, it must be by constitutional treat- ment ; but in the majority of cases, the pressure would have long ceased, although the mischief which it had effected remained. As to local treat- ment, the seat of disease is out of our reach. ANATOMY OF THE NOSE. 117 Chapter VIII. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. We now proceed to the description of the face of the horse, so called in contradistinction from the upper part of the head, containing the brain. The naaal bo?ies, or bones of the nose (jj, page 66, and a, p. 68), are connected with the frontal bones above, and with the lacrymal, i i, and the bones of the upper jaw, I I, on either side ; they are united together by a plain suture, which is a continuation of the frontal, and they terminate in a point at the nostril (f, p. 63). They are rounded and arched above, because they are exposed to occasional violence and injury, which the arch-form will enable them best to resist ; and at the base of the arch, where the main strength should be, they are overlapped by the upper jawbone, as we have described the temporal bone overlapping the base of the parietal. These bones form a principal part of the face ; and the length, or shortness, and the character of the face, depend upon them. The largeness and length of these bones constitute the striking difference between the head of the cart horse and of the blood horse. In some horses, this arch is more than usually developed, and there is, beside, a prominence or increased archedness about half-way down the nasal bones. These horses are said to have Roman noses, because this arch of the nose distinguishes the profile of some of the most celebrated of the ancient Romans. We cannot say that the breed of horses in which the Roman-nose usually occurs, possesses superior sagacity or courage ; they are generally easy, good-tempered horses, excellent feeders, and hardy constitutioned, but possessing little blood. Many thorough-bred horses have a peculiarity the reverse of the Roman-nose. There is a depression or hollow about the middle of the nasal bones. Although this be a characteristic of breeding, it often accompanies an uncontrollable and vicious temper. These bones form the roof of an important cavity (see «, p. 68). The sides are constituted above by the nasal bones, and, lower down, by the upper jaw-bones (superior maxiUaries), while plates from these latter bones project and compose the palate, which is both the floor of the nose and the roof of the mouth {t, p. 68). Above (near fig. 8), not visible in our cut, is a bone called the palatine, although it contributes very little to the formation of the palate. It is the termination of the palate, or the border of the opening where the cavities of the mouth and nose meet (fig. 8). The frontal sinuses, b, and large vacuities in the upper jaw-bone, and in the sethmoid, /, and sphenoid bones, A*, communicate with and enlarge the cavity of the nose. This cavity is divided into two parts by a thick cartilage (r, p. 68). W^hen we open the nostril, we see the membrane by which the cartilage, and the whole of the cavity of the nose is lined, and by the colour of which, much more than by that of the lining of the eyelids, we judge of the degree of fever, and particularly of inflammation of the lungs, or any of the air pas- sages. By the sore places or ulcerations discovered on this membrane, we likewise determine on the existence of glanders. This cavity is, on either side, occupied by two bones, which, from their being rolled up somewhat in the form of a turban, are called the turhinated or hirban-shaped bones, s s ; part of the cartilage is cut away to display them. They are as thin as gauze, and perforated, like gauze, with a thousand holes. Between them are left sufficient passages for the air. 118 THE HORSE. If they were unrolled they would present a very considerable surface ; and on every part of them is spread the substance or pulp of the olfactory, or first pair of nerves. These bones, lined with dehcate membranes, and co- vered by the olfactory nerves, are the seat of smell : and they are thus ex- panded, because the sense of smell in the horse must, to a very consider- able degree, supply the place of the sense of touch and the lessons of expe- rience in the human being. By this alone is he enabled to select, amongst the nutritive and poisonous herbage of the meadow, that which would sup- port and not destroy him. The troops of wild horses are said to smell the approach of an enemy at a very considerable distance. In his domestic state, the horse does not examine the different food which is placed before him, with his eye, but with his nose ; and if the smell displeases him, no coaxing will induce him to eat it. He examines a stranger by the smell, and, by very intelligible signs, expresses the opinion which he forms of him by this inquisition. The horse will evidently recognise his favourite groom when he has nothing else to indicate his approach but the sense of smell. These cavities are likewise organs of voice. The sound reverberates through them, and increases in loudness, as through the windings of a French horn. The extension of the nostril at the lower part of these cavities is an important part of the face, and intimately connected with breeding, courage, and speed. The horse can breathe only through the nose. All the air which goes to and returns from the lungs must pass through the nostrils. In the common act of breathing, these are sufficiently large ; but when the animal is put on his speed, and the respiration is quickened, these passages must dilate, or he will be much distressed. The expanded nostril is a striking feature in the blood-horse, especially when he has been excited and not over-blown. The sporting man will not forget the sudden effect which is given to the countenance of the hunter, when his ears become erect, and his nostrils dilate as he first hears the cry of the hounds, and snorts, and scents them afar off; and the painful and spasmed stretching of this part, in the poor over-driven post- horse, will shew how necessary it is that the passage to the lungs should be free and open. The nostril should not only be large, but the skin and substance which cover the entrance into the nose should be thin and elastic, that they may more readily yield, when the necessity of the animal requires a greater supply of air, and afterwards return to their natural dimen- sions. Therefore, nature, which adapts the animal to his situation and use, has given to the cart-horse, that is seldom blown, a confined nostril, and surrounded by much cellular substance, and a thick skin ; and to the horse of more breeding, whose use consists in his speed and his continuance, a wider nostril, and much more flexible. The inhabitants of some countries were accustomed to slit the nostrils of their horses, that they might be less distressed in the severe and long-con- tinued exertion of their speed. The Icelanders do so to the present day. There is no necessity for this, for nature has made ample provision for all the ordinary and even extraordinary exertion we can require from the horse*. Some very powerful muscles proceed from different parts of the face, to the neighbourhood of the nostrils, to draw them back, and dilate them. Four of them are given in this cut, which is introduced here to complete our * De Grey, vhose " Complete Horseman" was published in 1657, recommends that a stumbling or crippled horse should have his nose cut open, and the two tendons which go to the lip divided ; and "this," says he, '' will give him the use of his legs so perfectly, as that he will seldom or never trip any more." Farriers adopt many absurd and criiel practices now-a-days, but nothing half so barbarous as this. ANATOMY OF THE NOSE AND LIPS. 119 present subject, and which will be often referred to in the course of our work; /, in, o, andp, are muscles employed for this purpose. THE MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD, AND UPPER PART OF THE NECK. a The upper part of the ligament of the neck. li The levator Inwieri (elevator of the shonlder), arising from the tubercle of the occiput, the mastoid (nipple- shaped) process of the temporal bone, and the transverse pro- cesses (cross projections) of the four first bones of the neck, and the hgament of the neck, and going to the muscles of the shoulders, and the upper bone of the arm: to draw forward the shovdder and arm; or turn the head and neck; and, when the two levators act, to depress the head. c The tendon common to the complexiis major (larger complicated), and sjoleiiius (splint- like) : — to the mastoid process of the temporal, to hold up the head, or, the muscles on one side alone acting, to turn it. d The stefmo-m axillaris, (belonging to the breast-bone) and upper-jaw, from the cartilage in front of the chest to the angle of the lower jaw : to beud the head, or, if one only act, to bend it on one side. e The stylo-yii axillaris, from the styloid (pencil-shaped) or coracoid (beak-shaped) process of the occiput, to the angle of the jaw: to pull the jaw backward and open it. / The subscapulo hyoideiis, from under the shoulder-blade, to the body of the os hyoides (the bone at the root of the tongue formed like a Greek u, v) : to draw back that bone. g- The masseter (chewing); a most powerfvd muscle, constituting the cheek of the horse : — from the upper jaw-bone into the rough surface round the angle of the lower : — in conjunction with the temporal muscle to close the mouth and chew the food. h The orbicularis (circular) surrounding the eye and closing the lids. i The zygomaticus, from the zygomatic arch and auas&eter to the corner of the mouth, to draw back the angle of the mouth. k Tlie buccinator (trumpeter), from the inside of the mouth and cheeks, to the angle of the mouth, to draw it back. / Tlie nasalis labii superioris (belonging to the nose and upper lip), from a depression at the junction of the superior maxillary and malar bones, to the angle of the nostril: — to raise the lip, and dilate the nostrils. m Dilator naris lateralis (side dilator of the nostril), reversedto shew the vessels and nerves which it covers, going from the covering of the nasal and frontal bones, to the angle of the mouth, and side of the nostril : — to retract the upper hp and dilate the nostrils. n Dilator magnus (great dilator), assisting in the same office. 120 THE HORSE. Depressor labii inferior is (puller down of the under lip), to the sides of the under lip : to pull it down. 2) Orbicularis oris (circular muscle of the mouth) , surrounding the mouth : to close the lips, and dilate the nostrils. q The upper portion of the parotid gland (gland near the ear) reversed, to shew the blood- vessels and nerves beneath it. r The parotid duct piercing the cheek, to discharge the saliva into the mouth. s The maxillary gland (gland of the lower jaw) with its duct. t The jugular (neck) vein, after the two branches have vmited. %t At this letter, the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular and the parotid duct pass under and within the angle of the lower jaw ; they come out again at w, and climb up the cheek to be distributed over the face. V The vein and artery, passing under the zygomatic arch. cc A branch of the fifth pair, the sensitive nerve of the face, emerging from \mder the pa- rotid gland. y The main branch of the portio dura (hard portion) of the seventh pair, the motor (moving) nerve of the face coming out from beneath the parotid gland, to spread over the face. 2 Branches of both nerves, with small blood-vessels. There are also four distinct cartilages attached to the nostrils, which, by their elasticity, bring- back the nostrils to their former dimensions, as soon as the muscles cease to aci. The bones of the nose {a a, p. QQ, and/, p. 63), are also sharpened off to a point, to give wider range for the action of the muscles; while the cartilages are so contrived, as not only to discharge the office we have mentioned, but to protect this projection of bone from injury. There are two circumstances, which, more than any others, will enable the veterinary surgeon, and the owner of a horse, accurately to judge of ohe character and degree of many diseases, and to which very few pay sufficient attention ; these are the pulse, of which we shall presently speak, and the colour of the membrane of the nose, at which we have hinted, a few pages back, and of which we would again remind the reader. It is the custom of most veterinary surgeons, and of almost every horseman who takes any pains to ascertain for himself the state of his sick horse, to turn down the under eyelid, and to form his opinion by the colour which its lining presents. If it be very red, there is considerable fever ; — if it be of a pale pinkish hue, there is little danger. The nose is more easily got at ; — the surface presented to the view is more extensive ; — the sympathy with almost all the important organs is greater ; — and the changes produced by disease are more striking and more conclu- sive. Let the reader first make himself well acquainted with the uniform pale pink appearance of that portion of the membrane which covers the lower part of the cartilaginous partition between the nostrils, when the horse is in health, and quiet ; then the increased blush of red, betokening some excitement of the system ; — the streaked appearance of inflammation com- menced, and threatening to increase — the intense florid red, of acute inflam- mation ; — the pale ground with patches of vivid red, shewing the half sub- dued, but still existing fever ; the uniform colour, although somewhat redder than natural, predicting a return to a healthy circulation ; the pale- ness approaching to white, marking the stage of debility, and sometimes intermingled with radiations of crimson, inducing the suspicion of lurking mischief; and tlie dark livid colour of approaching stagnation of the vital current : these, with all their shades of difference, will be guides to his opinion and treatment, which every one, who has studied them, will highly appreciate. V GLANDERS. 121 NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE. The most frequent disease of this cavity is an increased and thicker discharge of fluid from the nose. It may be properly called a Nasal Gleet. There is a constant secretion of fluid to lubricate and moisten the membrane that lines the cavity of the nose, which, under catarrh or cold, is increased in quantity, and altered in appearance and consistence. This will properly belong to our account of catarrh or cold ; but that to which we immediately refer is a continued and oftentimes profuse dis- charge when every symptom of catarrh and fever has passed away ; an almost incredible quantity of thickened mucus, of different colours : — if the horse is at grass, almost as green as the food on which he lives; — or, if he be stabled, white, straw-coloured, brown, or even bloody, and sometimes evidently mingled with matter or pus; and either constantly running, or snorted out in masses many times in the day ; teasing the horse, and a per- fect nuisance in the stable, and to the rider. We have known this con- tinue several months, and eventually destroy the horse. If the discharge be not offensive to the smell, nor mixed with any mat- ter, it is probably merely an increased and somewhat vitiated secretion from the cavities of the nose ; and, all fever having disappeared, will fre- quently yield to small doses of blue vitriol, from one to two drachms, and given twice in the day. If fever or cough remain, the cough medicine which will hereafter be described must be combined with the tonic. If the discharge be mingled with pus, and very offensive, the vegetable tonics, gentian and ginger, may be added to the copper in doses of two drachms of the former, and one of the latter; but there is then reason to apprehend that the discharge will not be controlled, and will terminate in glanders. Turning into a salt marsh will occasionally effect a cure, when both the mineral and the vegetable tonics have failed. GLANDERS. The next and most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is subject, is Glanders. It is described by writers fifteen hundred years ago, and it was then, and is now, not only a loathsome, but an incurable disease; we shall therefore principally confine ourselves to the considera- tion of its symptoms, nature, and causes, and prevention, and degree of contagion, and these will afford too much matter of interest to the farmer. If we could obtain an authentic history of the glandered horse, we should find that, in the majority of instances, if the disease were bred in him, he had been dull, off his feed, losing flesh, and his coat staring ; and that these appearances had for several weeks preceded the characteristic symptoms of glanders. These symptoms, however, may lead to, or be the causes of other diseases, or they may pass away, and the horse may return to perfect health. That which would be considered as the earliest, and an unques- tionable symptom of glanders, would be an increased discharge from one or both nostrils ; different from the discharge of catarrh, because it is usually lighter and clearer in its colour, and more glutinous or sticky. When rubbed between the fingers it has, even in an early stage, a peculiar, clammy, bird-limy feel. It is not discharged occasionally and in large quantities, like the mucus of catarrh, but it is constantly running from the nostril. It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet been given, that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is in a great ma- jority of cases the near or lefl. M. Dupiiy, the director of the veterinar 122 THE HORSE. school at Toulouse, gives a most singular account of this. He says that out of eight hundred cases of glanders that came under his notice, only one was affected in the right nostril. This discharge, in cases of infection, may continue, and in so slight a degree as to be scarcely perceptible, for many weeks or months before the health and capabilities of the horse seem to be injured. It will remain for a long time almost transparent, yet gluey ; and then it will begin to be mingled with pus ; retaining, however, its sticky character, and being rarely offensive in the early stages. The constant flow of this secretion, and its stickiness, with the absence of cough either before or during the discharge, will be the only symptoms. In process of time, however, pus mingles with the discharge, and then another and a characteristic symptom appears. Some of this is absorbed, and the neigh- bouring glands become affected ; and, if there be discharge from both nos- trils, the glands within the under jaw will be on both sides enlarged. If the discharge be from one nostril only, the swelled gland will be found on that side alone. Glanders, however, will frequently exist at an early stage without these swelled glands, and some other diseases, as catarrh, will pro- duce them. Then we must look out for some peculiarity about these glands, and we shall readily find it. The swelling may be at first some- what large and diffused, but the surrounding enlargement soon goes off, and one or two small distinct glands remain ; and they are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere closely to the jaw on the affected side. The membrane of the nose may now be examined, and will materially guide our opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or almost of a leaden colour, or of any shade between the two ; or, if there be some of the redness of inflammation, it will have a purple tinge ; but there will never be the faint pink blush of health, or the intense and vivid red of usual in- flammation. Spots of ulceration will probably appear on the membrane covering the cartilage of the nose — not simple sore places, or streaks of abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers usually approaching to a cir- cular form, deep, with the edges abrupt and prominent. When these ap- pearances are observed, there can be no doubt about the matter. Care should be taken, however, to ascertain that these ulcers do actually exist, for spots of mucus adhering to the membrane have been more than once taken for them. The finger should, if possible, be passed over the sup- posed ulcer, to determine whether it can be wiped away ; and it should be recollected, as we have already hinted when describing the duct that con- veys the tears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct, just within the nos- tril, and on the inner side of it, has been mistaken for a cancerous ulcer. This orifice is on the continuation of the common skin of the muzzle which runs a little way up the nostril, while the ulcer of glanders is on the proper membrane of the nose above ; and the line of separation between the two is evident on the slightest inspection. It is proper to state that this discharge has continued unattended by any other disease, or even by ulceration of the nostril for two or three years, and yet the horse was decidedly glandered from the beginning, and capable of propagating the malady. When ulcers on the membrane of the nose have appeared, the constitu- tion will be evidently affected. The horse will lose flesh ; his belly will be tucked up; his coat will be unthrifty, and readily come off; cough will be heard ; the appetite will be impaired ; the strength will fail ; the dis- charge from the nose will grow more purulent, discoloured, bloody, stink- ing ; the ulcers in the nose will be larger and more numerous ; and, the GLANDERS. 123 air-passages being obstructed, a grating, choking noise will be heard at every act of breathing. The lungs are now diseased ; they are filled with tubercles or ulcerations ; and the horse at length dies, an emaciated and loathsome object. The symptoms frequently vary, and to a most puzzling degree. The discharge will be so slight as scarcely to be perceived, and known only by its stickiness ; and the glands will not be in the least degree enlarged. At other times a very small enlarged gland may be found, adhering to the jaw, and may be stationary month after month, and the surgeon may be told that there has never been discharge from the nose. He will, how- ever, be wrongly informed here ; it has most assuredly existed, although perhaps to no great degree, at some former period, and he will generally without much difficulty discover it then, although perhaps in so small a quantity that the groom or carter will deny its existence ; and he will prin- cipally satisfy himself with respect to it, by its gluey feeling. Glanders have often been confounded with strangles, and by those who ought to have known better. Strangles are peculiar to young horses. The early stage resembles common cold, with some degree of fever and sore throat ; generally with distressing cough, or at least frequent wheezing ; and when the enlargement appears beneath the jaw, it is not a single small gland, but a swelling of the whole of the substance between the jaws ; growing harder towards the middle ; and after a while appearing to contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles the membrane of the nose will be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse, and puru- lent, or mixed with matter almost from the first ; and when the tumour has burst, the fever will abate, and the horse will speedily get well. Should the discharge from the nose continue for a considerable time after the horse has recovered from strangles, as it sometimes does, there is no cause for fear. Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders. Good keep, and small doses of the blue vitriol given internally, will gra- dually make all right. Glanders have been confounded with catarrh or cold, but the distinction between them is plain enough. Fever accompanies cold, and loss of appe- tite, and sore throat (the quidding of the food, and gulping of the water are sufficient indications of the latter of these) ; the discharge from the nose is profuse, and perhaps purulent ; and the glands under the jaw, if swelled, are moveable, and there is a thickening around them, and they are tender and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough disappears ; the swellings under the throat subside, and the discharge from the nose gra- dually ceases, or, if it remain, it is usually very difJerent from that which characterizes glanders. In glanders, there is seldom cough of any con- sequence, and, generally, no cough at all. A running from the nose, small in quantity, and from the sraallness of its quantity drying about the edges of the nostril, and so presenting some appearance of stickiness, will, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh, and especially after the influenza of spring ; and these have gradually as- sumed the character of glanders, and more particularly when they have been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the nose. Here the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable; and he perhaps will experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One circum- stance will principally guide him. No disease will run on to glanders which has not, to a considerable and palpable degree, impaired and broken down the constitution ; and every disease that does this will run on to glanders. He will look then to the general state and condition of the 124 THE HORSE. horse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature of the discharge and character of the ulceration. If, after all, he is in doubt, an experiment may be resorted to, which Avears indeed the appearance of cruelty, and which only the safety of a va- luable animal, or of a whole team, can justify : he wih inoculate an ass or a horse already condemned to the hounds with the matter discharged from the nose. If the horse be glandered, the symptoms of glanders or farcy will appear in the inoculated animal in the course of a few days. The history we have given of the symptoms of glanders will pretty clearly point out its nature. It is an affection of the membrane of the nose. Some say that it is the production of tubercles, or minute tumours in the upper cells of the nose, which may long exist undetected, and hard to be detected except by a scarcely perceptible running from the nostril, caused by the slight irritation which they occasion. Tliese tubercles gra- dually become more numerous ; they cluster together, suppurate, and break ; and small ulcerations are formed. The ulcers discharge a poisonous matter, which is absorbed and taken up by the neighbouring glands, and which, with greater or less rapidity, vitiates the constitution of the animal, and is capa- ble of communicating'the disease to others. Other surgeons content them- selves with saying that it is an inflammation of the membrane of the nose, which may assume an acute or chronic form, or in a very short time, or exceedingly slowly, run on to ulceration. The malady proceeds as we have already described it, but, before its ter- mination, becomes connected with farcy. Few horses die of glanders with- out exhibiting some appearance of farcy ; and farcy, in its latter stages, is almost invariably accompanied by glanders .-—^/le^/ are different forms or stages of the same disease. There can be no doubt that the membrane of the nose is the original seat of glanders ; that the disease is for a time purely local ; that the inflamma- tion of the tubercles must proceed to suppuration before that matter is formed on which the poisoning of the constitution depends; that the whole circulation does at length become empoisoned ; and that the horse is de- stroyed by the general irritation and disease produced. Glanders may be either bred in the horse, or communicated by conta- gion. What we have further to remark on this malady will be arranged under these two heads. Improper stable management we believe to be a far more frequent cause of glanders than contagion. The air which is necessary to respiration is changed and empoisoned in its passage through the lungs, and a fresh supply is necessary for the support of life. That supply may be sufficient, barely to support life, but not to prevent the vitiated air from again and again passing to the lungs, and producing irritation and disease. The membrane of the nose, possessed of extreme sensibility for the purposes of smell, is easily irritated by this poison, and close and ill-ventilated stables oftenest witness the ravages of glanders. Professor Coleman relates a case, which proves to demonstration the rapid and fatal agency of this cause. " In the expedition to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on board the transports, before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways (we believe for a few hours only) ; the consequence of this was, that some of them were suftbcated, and that all the rest were disembarked either glandered or farcied*." In a close stable, the air is not only poisoned by being repeatedly * See Percival's excellent Lectures on the Veterinary Art, vol. iii. p. 455. GLANDERS. 125 breathed, but there are other and more powerful sources of mischief. The dung and the urine are suffered to remain fermentinc^, and giving out in- jurious gases. In many dark and ill-managed stables, a portion of the dung may be swept away, but the urine lies for days at the bottom of the bed, the disgusting and putrifying nature ofwhich isill concealed by a little fresh straw which the lazy horsekeeper scatters over the top. The stables of the gentleman are generally kept hot enough, and far too hot, although, in many of them, a more rational mode of treatment is begin- ning to be adopted ; but they are lofty and roomy, and the horses are not too much crowded together, and a most scrupulous regard is paid to cleanliness. Glanders seldom prevail there. The stables of the farmer are ill-managed and filthy enough, and the ordure and urine sometimes remain from week to week, until the horse lies on a perfect dunghill, while there is no declivity to drain away the moisture, nor any regular pavement to pre- vent it from soaking into the earth, nor any water to clean even the sur- face, but the only instrument of purification is an old stumped broom. Glanders seldom prevail there ; for the same carelessness which permits the filth to accumulate, leaves many a cranny for the wind to enter, and sweep away the deleterious fumes from this badly roofed and unceiled place. The stables of the horse-dealer are hot enough ; but a principle of strict cleanliness is enforced, for there must be nothing to offend the eye or the nose of the customer ; and there glanders are seldom found : but if the stables of many of our post-horses, and of those employed on our canals, be examined, almost too low for a tall horse to stand upright — too dark for the accumulation of filth to be perceived — too far from the eye of the mas- ter, — ill-drained, and ill-paved, — and governed by a false principle of eco- nomy, which begrudges the labour of the man, and the cleanliness and comfort of the animal ; — these will be the very hot-beds of the disease, and in many of these establishments it is an almost constant resident. When speaking of inflammation of the eye, and the effect of ill-ventilated stables in producing it, we remarked that the urine of the horse contained an unusually large quantity of hartshorn ; that the litter wetted by it was disposed most rapidly to ferment, and that the gases extricated must be extremely prejudicial to so delicate an organ. It may, then, be easily imagined that the constant presence of those pungent fumes, and the irrita- tion which they would cause on that membrane which is the very seat of smell, must predispose for, and often generate a disease which is primarily an affection of this membrane. Glanders may be produced by any thing that injures, or for a length of time acts upon, and weakens the vital energy of this membrane. They have been known to follow a fracture of the bones of the nose. They have been the consequence of violent catarrh, and particularly the long continued discharge from the nostrils, of which we have spoken. They have been pro- duced by the injection of stimulating and acrid substances up the nostril ; and every thing that weakens the constitution generally, will lead to glanders. It is not only from bad stable-management, but from the hardships which they endure, and the exhausted state of their constitution, that post and machine-horses are so subject to glanders ; and there is scarcely an inflam- matory disease to which the horse is subject, that is not occasionally wound up and terminated by the appearance of glanders. Glanders, however, are highly contagious. The farmer cannot be too well aware of this ; and, considering the degree to which they often pre- vail, the legislature would be justified in interfering by some severe enact- ments, as they have done in the case of the small-pox in the human subject 126 THE HORSE. The early and marked symptom of glanders is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character ; and if that, even before it becomes purulent, be rubbed on a wound, or on a mucous surface, as the nostrils, it will produce a similar disease. Glanders are not communicated by the air or breath. If the division between two horses were sufficiently high to prevent all smelling and snorting at each other, and contact of every kind, and they drunk not out of the same pail, a sound horse might live for years,^^ unin- fected, by the side of a glandered one. The matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and given to a healthy horse, without effect ; yet in another experiment of the same kind, the poor animal died. The mouth or gullet had probably some small wounds or ulcers in it. Some horses have eaten the hay left by those that were glandered, and no bad con- sequence has followed ; but others have been speedily infected. The glanderous matter must come in contact with'a wound, or fall on some membrane, thin and delicate like that of the nose, and through which it may be absorbed. It is easy, then, accustomed as horses are to smell each other, and to recognize each other by the smell ; eating out of the same manger, and drinking from the same pail, to imagine that the disease may be very readily communicated. One horse has passed another when he was in the act of snorting, and has become glandered. Some fillies have received the infection, from the matter blown by the wind across a lane, when a glandered horse, in the opposite field, has claimed acquaint- ance by neighing or snorting. It is almost impossible for an infected horse to remain long in a stable with others, without irreparable mischief. If some persons underrate the danger, it is because the disease may remain unrecognized in the infected horse for some months, or even years ; and therefore when it appears, it is attributed to other causes, or to after inoculation. We would deeply impress it on the mind of the farmer, that no glandered horse should be employed on his farm in any kind of w^ork, or permitted to remain for a day on his premises : nor^should a glandered horse be permitted to work on any road, or even to pasture on any field. He may be capable of work for years alter the disease has become undoubted, but mischief may so easily and extensively be effected, that the public interest demands that every infected animal should be summarily destroyed, or given over for experiment to a veterinary surgeon, or recog- nized veterinary establishment. Our opinion of the treatment of glanders is implied in what we have just stated. There are a few instances of the spontaneous cure of chronic glanders, or glanders long established and slow in their progress. The discharge has existed for a considerable time ; at length it has gradually diminished, and has ceased without mediCal treatment : but in the majority of these supposed cases, the matter was only pent up for a while, and then, bursting from its confinement, flowed again in double quantity: or if glanders have not reappeared, the horse, in eighteen or twenty-four months, has become farcied, or consumptive, and died. We view these cures with much suspicion : but even allowing that some have occurred, they are so few and far between, that our expressed opinion of the incurable nature of the disease, in the present state of veterinary knowledge, is scarcely affected. As for medicine, there is scarcely a drug to which a fair trial has not been given, and many of them have had a temporary reputation ; but they have passed away, one after the other, and are no longer used. The blue vitriol and the Spanish-fly have held out longest, and in a few cases, either nature, or these medicines, have done wonders j GLANDERS. 127 but, in the majority of instances, they have palpably failed. Where the life of a valuable animal is at stake, and the owner takes every precaution to prevent infection, he may subject the horse to medical treatment ; but we indignantly object to the slitting of the nostril, and scraping of the carti- laa-e, and searing of the gland, and firing the frontal and nasal bones, and to those injections of pepper and mustard, corrosive sublimate and vitriol, by which the horse has been tortured, and the practitioner disgraced. At the veterinary school, and by veterinary surgeons, it will be most desirable that every experiment should be tried to discover a remedy for this pest ; but, inordinary instances, he is not faithful to his own interest or that of his neighbours, who does not remove the possibility of danger in the most summary way. Supposing that glanders have made their appearance in the stables of a farmer, is there any danger after he has removed or destroyed the infected horse ? — certainly there is, but not to the extent that is commonly sup- posed. There is no necessity for pulling down the racks and mangers, or even the stable itself, as some have done. The poison resides not in the breath of the animal, but in the nasal discharge, and that can only reach certain parts of the stable ; and if the mangers, and racks, and bales, and partitions, are first well scraped, and next scoured with soap and water, and then thoroughly washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, (one pint of the chloride to a pailful of water,) and the walls are lime-washed, and the head-gear burned, and the clothing baked and washed, and the pails new painted, and the iron-work exposed to a red heat, all danger will cease. The tricks which some dealers resort to at fairs and markets, in order to conceal the existence of glanders, are most infamous, and should be visited with the severest penalty of the law. Having given the horse a brushing gallop, that he may thoroughly clear the nose, some of them blow powdered alum up the nostrils a little while before he is shewn ; others use white vitriol ; and although the horse may be sadly tortured, about which they care nothing, the discharge is for some hours stayed. Others roll up a pledget of tow, and introduce it into the nostril, sufficiently high to escape common observation. Both these tricks may be discovered by the uneasiness of the animal, and his repeated efforts to sneeze, as well as by his general appearance, and if the disease be far advanced, most assuredly by the red or raw appearance of the nose, and by the stinking breath. Happy should we be, if we could say any thing satisfactory of the j^reven- tion of glanders. The danger from exposure to infection can scarcely be avoided by those who travel much, and whose horses must stand in stables the inmates of which are so promiscuous, and so frequently changed. Although we cannot prevent contagion, we have more power in preventing the disease from occurring without contagion, and that is a point of im- portance, at least if the opinion of Professor Coleman be correct, that not one horse in a thousand receives the disease from contagion. To this, how- ever, we cannot subscribe, for not only the history of cavalry regiments, but the experience of every breeder and proprietor of horses will prove the infectious nature of the complaint. No fact is more certain, than that he who will keep a glandered horse in his stable, or work him in his team, will sooner or later lose the greater part of his stud. However, the generation of the disease may certainly be much prevented, and the first and most effectual mode of prevention will 128 THE HORSE. be to keep the stables cool and well ventilated, for the hot and poisoned air of low and confined stables is one of the most prevalent causes of glanders. . - r Next to ventilation stands cleanliness ; for the foul air from the ter- menting litter, and urine and dung-, must not only be highly injurious to health generally, but irritate and predispose to inflammation that delicate membrane, which is the primary seat of the disease. If to this be added regular exercise, and occasional green meat during the summer, and carrots inlhe winter, we shall have stated all that can be done in the way of preven- tion. The farmer's horse in his cool or cold stable, and during the greater part of the year running loose when not at work, would be exempt from o-landers, if, at the market and the fair, he were not so much exposed to contagion. In truth, glanders may be considered as the conse- quence ol" the stabling of the hovse. In South America and in Arabia they are unknown ; but wherever the European plan of stabling has been introduced, glanders have followed in its train: and therefore if any means are resorted to for the cure of glanders, the first, and per- haps the only effectual one would be to remove every exciting cause of the disease ; to restore the horse almost to a state of nature ; to turn him out for a long time, or at least to throw open his stable as much as the season and the weather will permit. Experience, however, tells us, that, although the symptoms have disappeared when the exciting causes of disease have'been removed, and the horse has returned to his stable after a twelvemonth's run apparently sound, every symptom has gradually shewn itself again when these causes have been once more called into action. FARCY. F\RCY is intimately connected with glanders ; they will run into each other, or their symptoms will mingle together, and before either arrives at its' fatal termination its associate will almost invariably appear. An animal inoculated with the matter of farcy will often be afflicted with glanders, while the matter of glanders will frequently produce farcy. They are different types or stages of the same disease. There is, however, a very material difference in their symptoms and progress, and this most important of all, that while glanders are generally incurable, farcy, m its early stage and mild form, may be successfully treated. Veterinary writers tell us that it is a disease of the absorbents in the skin. The small arteries are employed in building up and nourishing the various parts of the body ; and another set of vessels are busied in taking up and car- ry in"- away that which is worn out and useless. There is no part of the body on which thousands of these little tubes do not open. Those of the skin are not only employed in removing useless materials, but in taking up va- rious substances, and principally fluids which may be in contact with the skin. The little vessels which are thus occupied, collect together and form larger branches, which run in company with the superficial veins, and there- fore farcy was once supposed to be a disease of the veins, and the tumours by which it is characterized accompany the course of the veins. The poi- son which they take up produces inflammation in them, which gradually spreads along the absorbent, and causes it to swefl. These vessels, small as they are, contain valves, like those in the com- mon pump, which permit the fluid to pass one way, but prevent its return. The inflammation, which pursues the natural course of the fluid through these tubes, that is, towards the reservoir into which it is thrown before it ^ FARCY. 129 enters the heart, seems to be arrested by these valves, and they inflame and swell ; and therefore the first indication of this disease, even before any drooping-, or loss of condition, or of appetite, is ge'nerally the appearance of little tumouYS— farcy buds — close to some of the veins, following the course of the veins, and connected together by a kind of cord, which farriers call corded veins. When they are few and small they may possibly exist for several weeks without being- olDserved ; but at length they increase in number and in size, and become painfid and hot, and some of them begin to ulcerate. They appear usually about the face or neck, or inside of the thigh, and in the latter case there is some g'eneral enlargement of the limb, and lameness. In some cases, however, the horse will droop for many a day before the appearance of the buttons oy farcy buds ; — his appetite will be impaired; — his coat will stare ; — he will lose flesh. The poison is evidently at w^ork, but has not gained sufficient power to cause the absorbents to swell. In a few instances these buds do not ulcerate, but become hard and difficult to dis- perse. The progress of the disease is then suspended, and possibly for many months the horse will appear to be restored to health ; but he bears the seeds of the malady about him, and, all at once, the farcy assumes a virulent form, and hurries him off. These buds have sometimes been con- founded with the little tumours or lumps of surfeit. They are generally higher than these tumours; — not so broad; — have a more knotty feel, and are principally found on the inside of the limbs, instead of the out- side. The increase of these buds marks the progress of the disease, and that pro- gress is retarded by the resistance of these valves. The ulcers spread around, and are cured with considerable difficulty. Larger tumours ap- pear in the groin and between the fore-leg, and ulcerate and spread, and the hollows and burrowings run deep in every direction, and the horse be- comes a miserable and loathsome object. Glanders speedily appear, and death ensues. Few things are more unlike, or more perplexing, than the different forms which farcy assumes at different times. One of the legs, and particularly one of the hinder-legs, will suddenly swell to an enormous size. At night the horse will appear to be perfectly well, and, in the morning, one leg will be three times the size of the other, with considerable fever, and scarcely the power of moving the limb. We do not mean that enlargement of the hind leg, with red shining skin, and exudation of fluid on the skin, reaching from the fetlock to the heel, round and smooth, very painful, attended with extreme lameness, and which the groom calls a farcy humour. This will yield to frequent fomen- tation, and a good dose of physic. It is effusion of fluid beneath the skin, from want of exercise and over-feeding. The enlargement of farcy occu- pies more of the limb, and presents an uneven surface, with sudden projec- tions and depressions, and betrays in some part the corded absorbent, and the inflamed and swelled valve. At other times the head will be subject to this enlargement — the muzzle will particularly swell, and a stinking discharge will issue from the nose. Sometimes the horse will gradually lose flesh and strength ; he will be hide-bound —mangy eruptions will appear in different parts ; the legs will swell ; cracks will appear at the heels, and the inexperienced person may conceive it to be a mere want of condition combined with grease. Farcy, Hke glanders, springs from infection, or from bad stable ma- nagement. It is produced by all the causes which give rise to glanders ; but with this difference, that it is more frequently generated, and is some- K. 1^ THE HORSE. times stran2:e1y prevalent in particular districts. It will attack, at the same time, several horses in the same ill-conducted stable, and others in the neig'hbourhood, who have been exposed to the same predisposing causes. The practitioner is always afraid of seeins; too much of this disease when he meets with one case of farcy, where there has been gross inattention to the horses. Some have denied that it is a contagious disease. They must have had little experience. It is true that the matter of farcy must come in contact with a wound, or sore, in order to communicate the disease ; but accustomed as horses are to nibble and play with each other, and sore as the corners of the mouth are frequently rendered by the bit, it is easy to imagine that this may often be effected ; and experience tells us, that a horse having farcy-ulcers cannot be suffered to remain with others with- out extreme risk. We recollect an instance in which virulent and fatal farcy was communicated by a scratch from the currycomb, which had been previously used on a glandered horse. The treatment of farcy varies with the form it assumes. In the button or bud farcy, a mild dose of physic should be first administered. The buds should be then carefully examined, and if any of them have broken, the budding iron, of a dull red heat, should be applied to them ; or if mat- ter should be felt in them, shewing that they are disposed to break, they should be penetrated with the iron. These wounds should be daily in- spected, and if, when the slough of the cautery comes off, they look pale, and foul, and spongy, and discharge a thin matter, they should be fre- quently washed with a lotion, composed of a drachm of corrosive subli- mate dissolved in an ounce of rectified spirit; the other buds should like- wise be examined, and opened with the iron as soon as they evidently con- tain matter. When the wounds begin to look red, and the bottom of them is even and firm, and they discharge a thick white or yellow matter, the friar's balsam will speedily heal them. As, however, tlie constitution is now tainted, local applications will not be sufficient, and the disease must be attacked by internal medicines, as soon as the physic has ceased to operate. The corrosive sublimate will be the best alterative, and may be given in doses often grains, gradually increased to a scruple, with two drachms of gentian and one of ginger, and repeated morning and night until the ulcers disappear, unless the horse is violently purged, or the mouth be- comes sore, when a drachm of blue vitriol may be substituted for the cor- rosive sublimate. During this, the animal should be placed in a large box, with a free circulation of air; and green meat, or carrots, the latter more particularly, should be given him, with a fair allowance of corn. If he could be turned out during the day, it would be advantageous ; but at all events he should be daily exercised. It is related by Mr. Blaine, that a horse so reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a field of tares, and suffered to take his chance : the consequence was, that when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to rise and search for more, and eventually recovered. * In an early stage of the disease, and if glanders have not appeared, this treatment will frequently succeed. If, after the wounds have healed, the absorbents should continue to be corded, a blister, or light firing, will probably be serviceable. It should be remembered, that a horse which has experienced one attack of farcy will be very subject to a relapse, and, therefore, should be regarded with a watchful eye, and occasional alteratives of ^Ethiop's mineral, with turpentine, in the proportions of one drachm of the former and four of the '"' Blaine's Veterinary Outlines, p. 467, THE LIPS. '134 latter, made into a ball with linseed meal, should be given, and g-reen meat or carrots, when circumstances will permit. * In the species of farcy attended with enormous swelling, it will be pru- dent to bleed moderately as well as to physic. The iron will not be neces- sary, but the same alterative medicine will be useful, and the leg should be frequently fomented with warm water. In both cases, although the air should be fresh and cool, the horse should be warmly clothed. The Water Farcy, confounded byname with the common farcy, and by which much confusion has been caused and a great deal of mischief done, is a dropsical affection of the skin, either of the chest or of the limbs gene- rally, and belongs to another part of our subject. A tumour termed a Polypus sometimes occupies one of the nostrils. It will grow to a very large size, obstructing the breathing, and sadly an- noying the horse. As this can only be removed by an operation, which a veterinary surgeon alone is competent to perform, we do not describe it particularly. THE LIPS. The lips of the horse are far more important organs than many suppose. They are, in a manner, the hands of the horse ; and if any one will take the trouble to observe the manner in which he gathers up his corn with them, and collects together the grass before he divides it with his nippers, he will be satisfied tliat the horse would be no more able to convey the food to his mouth without them, than the human being could without his hands. This has even been put to the test of experiment. The nerves which sup- ply the lips were divided in a poor ass, to illustrate some point of physio- logy. The sensibility of the lips w^as lost, and he knew not when he touched his food w ith them ; the motion of the lips was lost, and he could not get the oats betv/een his teeth, although the manger was full of them ; at length, driven by hunger, he contrived to lick up a few of them with his tongue, but when they were on his tongue, the greater part of them w ere rubbed off before he could get them into his mouth. It is on account of this use of the lips, that the faces of all quadrupeds are so lengthened that the lips may be brought into contact with the food, without inconvenience or injury to other parts of the face. Several muscles go to the lips from different parts of the jaw and face. Some of them are shewn in the cut, p. 119. The orbicularis or circular muscle, j9, employed in pushing out the lips, and closing thf m, and enabling the horse to seize and hold his food, is particularly evident ; and in our explanation of the cut, the action of other muscles, z. A:, 777, and 0, was described. The nerves hke- wise, y, taking their course alohg the cheek, and principally supplying the lips with the power of motion, and those, z, proceeding from the foramen or hole in the upper jaw, deserve attention. The lips are composed of muscles for the sake of strength, and of a mul- titude of small glands, which secrete a fluid that covers the inside of the hps and the gums, in order to prevent friction, and hkewise furnishes a por- tion of the moisture so necessary for the proper chewing of the food. The skin covering the lips is very thin, because, if these are the hands of the horse, they should possess considerable feeling ; and for the same purpose * The old farriers had a strange and barbarous way of attempting to cure the farcy They mixed together a variety of stimulating drugs, and sewed them in the horse's ear, a nd set him to hard work on straw and water, K2 132 THE HORSK. likewise, they are scantily covered with hair, and that hair is fine and short ; and lon-2: hairs or feelers, called the beard, are superadded for the same purposed The horse is gaided and o-overned prhicipally by the mouth, and therefore the lips are endowed with extraordinary sensibility, so that the animal feels the slightest motion of the hand of the rider or driver, and, as it were, anticipates his very thoughts. The fineness or goodness of the 7nouth consists in the exquisite feeliniv of the mouth, and depends on the thinness of this membrane. We shall say more of this, when we have de- scribed the lower jaw and palate. The lips of the horse should be thin, if the beauty of the head be re- garded, for if they are loaded with fat they cannot be so sensible as they ought to be : yet, although thin, they should evidently possess power, and be^strongly and regularly closed. A firm, compressed mouth gives a favourable and no deceptive idea of the muscular power of the animal. Lips apart from each other, and hanging down, indicate weakness or old age, or dulness and sluggishness. The depth of tlie month, or the distance from the fore part to the angle of the lips, should be considerable, first, for the sake of beauty. A short protuberant mouth would be a bad finish to the tapering face of the blood horse ;-— more room is likewise given for the opening of the nostril, which we have seen to be an important consideration. The bridle will not be carried well, and the horse will hang heavy on hand, if there be not con- siderable depth of mouth. The angles of the lips are frequently made sore or wounded by the smallness or shortness of the snaffie, and by the unnecessary and cruel tightness of the bearing rein. This rein not only gives the horse a grander appearance in harness, and places the head in that position in which the bit most powerfully presses upon the javv, but there is no possibility of driving without it, unless the arm of the driver were as strong as that of Hercules ; and most certainly there is no safety if it be not used. There are few horses who will not bear, or bore upon something, and it is better to let them bore upon themselves than upon the arm of the driver. With- out this control, many of them would hang their heads low and be dis- posed every moment to stumble, and would defy all pulling, if they tried to run away. There is, and can be no necessity, however, for using a bearing-rein so tight as to cramp the muscles of the head, and which is indicated by the animal's continually tossing up his head : — they may indeed be cramped to such a degree, that the horse is scarcely able to bring his head to the ground, when turned to grass. The tight rein injures and excoriates the angles of the lips, and frequently brings on poll-evil. We saw a poor horse at work, unroughed, during a severe frost. He was continually sliding about, and in clanger of falling. The stupid driver buckled the bearing-rein as tight as he could, to Imp hhn up ; and the consequence was, that by the sudden and forcible pressing upon the iron, in the slips which would still every moment occur, the corners of the mouth were absolutely cut through to a considerable depth. Except it be a restive or determined horse, there should be little more bearing on the mouth than is generally used in riding. This the horse likes to feel, and it is necessary for him in the swift gallop. We must have the bearing-rein, whatever some men of humanity may say against it ; but we need not use it cruelly. THE PALATE. 133 " THE BONES OF THE MOUTH. The bones in and giving form to the mouth, are the superior maxillary* or upper ja^v (6, p. 63, and I, p. &^^, containing the grinders, the ante- rior maxillary, or lower part of the upper jaw (6, p. 63, n, p. 66, r, p. 68), containing the upper-nippers or cutting-teeth ; the palatine bone (below 8, p. 68), and the posterior maxillary or under jaw (f/, p. 63, and w, p. 68), containing all the under teeth. We will speak of them very shortly, in the order in which we have mentioned them. The superior maxillary is, with the exception of the lower jaw, the largest bone in the face. It unites above with the lachrymal bone (/, p. 66) ; and, more on the side, with the malar or cheek bone, k ; and a portion of it, con- tinued upward, and underneath, enters into the orbit. Above, and on the front of the face, it unites with the bones of the nose, j, and below, with the inferior maxillary, n. That which most deserves notice in it, externally, is the ridge or spine, seen at 6, p. 63, but better delineated in the cut of the head,^p. 67, continued from the base of the zygomatic arch, and across the malar bone. It and the surface beneath serve to give attachment to the masseter muscle, concerned almost as much as the temporal one, in the act of chewing. The dark spot {m, p. Q^, and seen likewise at p. 63) marks the foramen or hole, through which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves proceeds to give sensibility to the lower part of the face. As it approaches the teeth, this bone separates into two plates, and these are divided by long partitions, which contain and firmly hold the upper grinders. The lower plate then projects inwards, and forms {t, p. 68) the principal portion of the roof of the mouth, and the floor of the cavity of the nose. The corresponding bone on the other side meets its fellow in the centre of the palate. The upper jaw-bone contains in it large cavities, beside the cavities for the teeth, and these open into and enlarge the cavity of the nose. They are connected with the voice, but not with the smell, for the expansion of the olfactory or smelling nerve has never been traced beyond the bones and membranes of the proper cavity of the nose. The maxillary sinuses are generally filled with matter in bad cases of glanders. Below these are the anterior maxillary bones (/, p. 63, a. p. 68), con taining the upper cutting teeth, with the tushes belonging both to the upper and anterior bones. These are the bones to which (see cut, p. 68) the upper lip is attached. The superior and anterior maxillary bones are sepa- rated in animals with long faces, like the horse, that by overlapping each other strength might be gained. The palatine bone forms but a very small portion of the palate. It surrounds the edge of the communication between the cavity of the nose and the back parts of the mouth. THE PALATE. Adhering to a portion of all three of the bones just described, and being the lining of the roof of the mouth, is the hard palate, {t, p. 68,) composed of a firm dense substance divided into several ridges called bars. The cut gives a view of them. Tiie cut will point out the bleeding place, if the horse should be attacked with the megrims on a journey, and the rider or driver should not have a lancet. Precisely in a line between the middle and second cutting teeth, and a little more than an inch within the mouth, the artery and vein make a curve. They may there be cut down upon with a sharp knife, and a 134 THE HORSE, plentiful stream of blood will be obtained, which will usually stop of itself when two or three quarts of blood have been obtained. The artery being cut across will shrink, and soon cease to bleed, and the application of a sponge filled with cold water will generally stop the i)leeding of the vein. No injury v/ill result from the division of the nerve, for it is a mere nerve of feeling, distrib.ited over those parts. CUT OF THE PALATE. *^,. ." - '' ' M'lil " '^^^^ palate divided into ridges or f" --.yii l^ars. ilfl'l 6 A strip dissected up to show the ves- \ ' sels and nerve beneath. J c The palatine artery. d The palatine vein. e The j)alatine nerve between the ar- "^ '1 ^^^y ^^^ ^^^^ vein. i ^i- / Tlie cheek divided, showing the di- 1 rection of the muscular fibres. j g The grinders. I * rh h The nippers. The tushes. ^'^-^^^mim'^ti'^^ Should the cut be made a little too much on one side, and about the middle of the second incisor tooth, the artery may be wounded lonnritudinally, but not divided, and there may be very great difficulty in stopping the blood. We recollect a horse which almost bled to death from the artery being thus wounded. If, however, a large and firm pledget of lint or tow be rolled round a piece of twine, and that tied firmly round the front teeth, the pres- sure on the part will effect the desired purpose ; or should this in a very few cases fail, a gag may be easily contrived to press upon the pledget, and the bleeding will immediately cease. We are speaking of this as a make-shift sort of bleeding when the horse is on a journey ; but we should decidedly object to the cutting of the bars as the usual mode of taking blood. The blood cannot be measured ; the degree of inflammation cannot be ascertained by the manner in which it coagulates, and there may be difficulty to the operator, and annoyance and pain to the horse in stopping the bleeding. " LAM PAS. Some of the lower bars occasionally swell, and rise to a level with, and even beyond the edge of the teeth, and they are very sore, and the horse feeds badly on account of the pain he suffers from the pressure of the food on the bars. This is called the Lampas; and it may arise from inflamma- tion of the gums, propagated to the bars, when the horse is shedding his teeth ; (and young horses arc more subject to it than others ;) or from some slight'febrilc tendency in the constitution generally, as when a young horse has lately been taken up from grass, and has been over-fed, or not suffi- ciently exercised. In the majority of cases the swelling will soon subside ^yithout medical THE LOWER JAW. 1^5 treatment ; or a few mashes, and gentle alteratives, will relieve the animal. A few slight cuts across the bars with a lancet or penknife, and takini^ care to avoid the principal artery and vein of the palate, the situation of which has been just pointed out, will relieve the inflammation, and cause the swelling* to subside ; indeed, this scarification of the bars will seldom do harm, although it is far from being so necessary as is supposed. To the brutal custom of the farrier, who sears and burns down the bars with a red hot iron, we do most peremptorily object. It is torturing the horse to no purpose ; and it is rendering that part callous, on the delicate sensi- bility of which all the pleasure and safety of riding and driving depend. It may be prudent in case of lampas to examine the grinders, and more par- ticularly the tushes, to see whether either of them is endeavouring to make its way through the gum. If with the gum lancet, or penknife, two incisions across" each other be made on the tooth, the horse will experience im.mediate relief. THE LOWER JAW. The posterior or lower jaw may be considered as forming the floor of the mouth, {a, p. 63, or w, p. 68.) The body or lower part of it contains the under cutting teeth, and the tushes ; the sides are two flat pieces of bone, containing the grinders. On the inside, and opposite to a, p. 63, is a hole through which blood-vessels and nerves enter to supply the teeth, and some of which escape again at another hole on the outside, and near the nippers. The branches are broader and thinner, rounded at the angle of the jaw, and terminating in two processes. One, the coracoid, from its sharpness or supposed resemblance to a beak, passes under the zygomatic arch, (see p. 63,) and the temporal muscle, arising from the whole surface of the parietal bone (see p. 70), is inserted into it, and wrapped round it; and by its action, principally, the jaw is moved, and the food is ground. The other, the condyloid, or rounded process, is received into the glenoid (shallow) cavity of the temporal bone, at the base of the zygomatic arch, and forms the joint on which the lower jaw moves. This joint is easily seen in the cut at page 63 ; and being placed so near to the insertion of the muscle, or the centre of motion, the temporal muscle must act with very considerable mechanical disadvantage, and must possess immense power. This joint is admirably contrived for the purpose which the animal re- quires. It will admit freely and perfectly of the simple motion of a hinge, and that is the motion of the jaw in nipping the herbage and seizing tlie corn. But the grass, and more particularly the corn, must be crushed and bruised before it is fit for digestion. Simple champing, which is the motion of the human lower jaw, and that of most beasts of prey, would very imperfectly break down the corn. It must be put into a mill; it must be actually ground. It is put into a mill, and as perfect a mill as imagination can conceive. The following cuts represent the glenoid cavity in a carnivorous, or flesh- eating, and herbivorous, or grass-eating animal, viz. the tiger and the horse : the one requiring a simple hinge-like motion of the lower jaw to tear and crush the food; the other a lateral or grinding motion to bring it into a pulpy form. First examine this cavity in the tiger, represented at B. At the root of the zygomatic process D, is a hollow with a ridge along the greater part of the upper and inner side of it, standing to a considerable height, and curling over the cavity. At the 136 THE HORSE. lower and opposite edg-e of the cavity, but in the outside, is a similar ridge, E, hkewise rising abruptly and curling over. At C is another and more perfect view of this cavity in a different direction. The head of the lower jaw is received into this hollow, and presses against these ridges, and is partially surrounded by them, and forms with them a very strong joint, where dislocation is scarcely possible, and admitting the hinge-like or cranching motion to its fullest extent ; permitting the animal violently to seize his prey, to hold it firmly, and to crush it to pieces ; but, from the extent and curling form of the ridges, forbidding, except to a very slight degree, all lateral, and grinding motion, and this because the animal does not want it. The food of the horse must be ground — simple bruising and champing would not reduce it sufficiently small for the purposes of digestion. Then observe the different construction to effect this. A gives the glenoid cavity of the horse. First, there is the upper ridge assuming a rounded form, F, and therefore called the mastoid process ; and — a peculiarity in the horse — the mastoid process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone : suffi- ciently strong to support the pressure and action of the lower jaw when cropping the food or seizing an enemy, but not encircling the head of that bone, and reaching only a little way along the side of the cavity, where it terminates, having its edges rounded off, so as to admit, and to be evi- dently destined for a circular motion about it. Then^, at the other and lower edge of the cavity, and on the outside, G, is placed, not a curling ridge as in the tiger, but a mere tubercle: and for what reason? evidently to limit this lateral or circular motion — to permit it as far as the necessities of the animal require it, and then to arrest it — but how? not suddenly or abruptly ; but this tubercle, of which we have already spoken as strengthen- ing this portion of the zygomatic arch, yet, now discharging another oflice, has a smooth and gradual ascent to it, up which the lower jaw may climb to a certain extent, and then, by degrees, be stopped. We speak not now of the moveable cartilage which is placed in this cavity, and between the bones, to render the motion easier and freer. It is found in this joint in every quadruped ; and it is found wherever motions are rapid and of long continuance. So great is the conformity between the structure of the animal and his destination, that a tolerable student in natural history, by the mere inspec- tion of the glenoid cavity, will at once determine Avhether the animal to which it belonged was carnivorous, and wanted no lateral motion of the jaw; or omnivorous, living occasionally on all kinds of food, and requiring some degree of grinding motion; or herbivorous, and needing the con- stant use of this admirably constructed mill. At g-, p^ge 119, is represented ilie massder muscle, an exceedingly THE TEETH. 137 strong one, constituting the cheek of the horse arising from the superior maxillary under the ridge continued from the zygomatic arch, and inserted into the lower jaw, and particularly round the rough border at the angle of the jaw. This acts with the temporal muscle in closing the jaw, and in giving the direct cutting or champing motion of it. Inside the lower jaw, on each side, and occupying the whole of the hollowed portion of them, and opposite to the masseters, are the pterygoid muscles, going from the jaws to bones more in the centre of the channel, likewise shutting the mouth, and also, by their alternate action, giving that grinding motion which we have described. The space between the branches of the lower jaw, called the channel, is of considerable consequence. It may be a little too wide, and then the face may have a clumsy appearance; but if it be too narrow, the horse will never be able to bend his head freely and gracefully ; he will be always pulling and boring upon the hand, nor can he possibly be well reined in. The jaws contain the teeth, which are the millstones employed in this operation. The mouth of the horse at five years old contains forty teeth, viz. six nippers or cutting teeth in front, a tush on each side, and six molars, or grinding teeth, above and below ; they are contained in cavities in the upper and lower jaws, surrounded by bony partitions, to which they are accurately fitted, and by which they are firmly supported. For a Uttle way above these bony cavities, they are surrounded by a hard substance called the gum, so dense, indeed, and adhering so closely to the teeth and the jaws, as not to be separated without very great difficulty ; singularly compact, that it may not be wounded by the hard or sharp particles of the food, and almost devoid of feeling, for the same purpose. Seven or eight months before the foal is born, the germs or beginnings of the teeth are visible in the cavities of the jaws. The tooth grows, and presses to the surface of the gum, and forces its way through it ; and at the time of birth the first and second grinders have ap- peared, large compared with the size of the jaw, and seemingly filling it. In the course of seven or eight days the two centre nippers are seen as here repre- sented. They likewise appear to be large, and to fill the front of the mouth, although they will afterwards be found to be small, compared with the permanent teeth that follow. In the course of the first month the third grinder ap- pears above and below, and not long after, and generally before six weeks have expired, another incisor above and below will be seen on each side of the two first, which have now considerably grown, but not attained their perfect height. This cut will then represent the ap- pearance of the mouth. At two months, the centre nippers will have reached their natural level, and between the second and third month the second pair will have over- taken them. They will then begin to wear a little, and the outer edge, which was at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner edge, and so the mouth continues until some time between the sixth and ninth month, when another nipper begins to appear on each side of the two first, making six above and below, and completing the colCs 13S THE HORSE. 7Jiouth; after which, the only observable difference, until between the second and third year, is in the wear of these teeth. The term nipper is familiar to the horseman and the farrier, and much better expresses the action of these teeth than the word incisor or cutter^ which is adopted by anatomists. Whoever has observed a horse in the act of browsing, and tiie twitch of the head which accompanies the separation of each portion of grass, will perceive that it is nipped or torn rather than cut off'. These teeth are covered with a polished and exceedingly hard substance, called the enamel ; indeed, it is so hard that it almost bids defiance to the action of a file. It spreads over that portion of the teeth which appears above the gum, and not only so, but as they are to be so much employed in nipping the grass, and gathering up the animal's food, and in such em- ployment even this hard substance must be gradually worn away, a portion of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the teeth, is bent inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little pit in them ; and the inside and bottom of this being blackened by the food, constitutes the 7nark of the teeth, by the gradual disappearance of which, in consequence of the wearing down of the teeth, we are enabled for several years to judge of the age of the animal. Dealers often talk of the filling up of the tooth. This is altogether a vulgar error. The mark never fills up. The peculiar cementing substance, which occupies the funnel or pit made by the dipping in of the enamel, never grows up, but the ridge of enamel around it is worn down, and then the blackness at the bottom is rubbed off. The colt's nipping teeth are rounded in front, somewhat hollow towards the mouth, and present at first a cutting surface, with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction above the inner edge. This, however, soon begins to wear down until both surfaces are level, and the mark, which was originally long and narrow, becomes shorter, and wider, and fainter. At ^fWIIIIII ^^^^^^ I'^l ^'^ months the four nippers are beginning to ^, _ . wear to a level. The annexed cut will convey / ^^0 ^i M some idea of the appearance of the teeth at \V\ i:^A^ \ m twelve months. The four middle teeth are evi- dently level — the corner ones becoming so. The mark in the two middle teeth is wide and taint; in the two next teeth it is darker, and longer, and narrower; and in the corner teeth it is darkest, and longest, and narrowest. We may now speak of the back teeth, or grinders. They will not guide us far in ascertaining the age of the animal, for we cannot easily inspect them ; but there are some interesting particulars connected with them. The foal is born with two grinders in each jaw, above and below, or they appear within three or four days after the birth ; and before the expiration of a month they are succeeded by a third, more behind. The grinders are, like the cutting teeth, covered with enamel on the sides, but not on the top, though several portions of enamel enter into their substance. They have a great deal more to do than the nippers, and are employed in grinding down the hardest portion of the food ; nature has, therefore, made an additional provision for their strength and endurance. This cut represents a grinder sawn across. It seems to be a most irre- THE TEETH. 139- fibular and intricate machine ; but the explana- tion of it is not difficult. The tooth is formed and prepared in cavities within the jaw-bones. / 'A A dehcate membranous bag, containing a jelly- V^^^ 7,r^ ,\ like substance, is found, in the unborn animal, in a little cell within the jaw-bone. It assumes, £^.^_^=^_ __ ,, \Jj by degrees, the form of the tooth that is to ^^'fi^ appear, and then the jelly within the membrane begins to change to bony matter ; and a hard and beautiful crystallization is formed on the membrane without, and so we have the cutting tooth covered by its enamel. In the formation, how- ever, of each of the grinders of the horse, there are originally five of these membranous bags in the upper jaw, and four in the lower, filled with jelly. Tliis jelly by degrees, gives place to bony matter, which is thrown out by httle vessels penetrating into it, and is represented by the darker portions of the cut with central black spots. The crystallization of enamel can be traced around each, and so there would be five distinct bones or teeth. A third substance, however, is now secreted, (which is represented by the white spaces,) and is a powerful cement, uniting all these distinct bones into one body, and making one tooth of the five : this being done, another coat of enamel spreads over the sides, but not the top, and tlie tooth is completed. By no other contrivance could we have the griiidifi^ tooth capable, without injury and without wearing, to rub down the hay, and oats, and beans, which constitute the stable food of horses. The teeth of the animal who lives on flesh, and the upper part of whose teeth alone are covered with this enamel, and even the nipping teeth of the horse, with the simple well of enamel running a certain way down their centre, would soon be rubbed down and destroyed. It is necessary to have columns of enamel penetrating through the whole substance of the tooth. There is another advantage ; — the bony matter, and the cement by which the dif- ferent shells are united, and which occupy the spaces between the columns of enamel, soon begin to wear away, while the enamel remains ; and thence results the irregular surface of the grinding teeth, being that khid of surface which it is necessary for them to possess, in order to effect the purpose for which they were intended. The grinders in the lower jaw, having originally but four of these bags or shells, are smaller, and narrower, and more regular, than the upper ones. They are not placed horizontally in either jaw ; but in the lower, the higher side is within, and shelving gradually outward ; in the upper jaw the higher side is without, shelving inward, and thus the grinding motion is most advantageously performed. There is also an evident difference in the appearance and structure of each of the grinders, so that a careful ob- server could tell to which jaw every one belonged, and what situation it occupied — but we should depart from the object of our work if we entered into these minutiae. At the completion of the first year, a fourth grinder usually comes up, and the yearling has then, or soon afterwards, six nippers, and four grinders above and below in each jaw, which, with the alteration in the appearance of the nipi^ers we have just described, will enable us to calculate pretty nearly the age of the foal, subject to some variations arising from the period of weaning, and the nature of the food. At the age of one year and a half, the mark in the central nippers will be much shorter and fainter ; tliat in the two other pairs will have under- gone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat.. 140 THE HORSE. At two years all this will be more manifest. The accompanying cut deserves attention, as giving an accurate representation of the nippers in the lower jaw of a two year-old colt. About this period a fifth grinder will push out, and now, likewise, will commence ano- ther process. The first teeth are adapted to the size and wants of the young animal. They are sufficiently large to occupy and to fill the colt's jaws ; but when the jaws are expanded with the increasing growth of the animal, the teeth are separated too far from each other to be useful, and another and larger set is required. Evident provi- sion is made for these, even before the colt is foaled. In cavities in the jaw, beneath the first and temporary teeth, are to be seen the rudiments of a second and permanent set. These gradually increase, and some with greater rapidity than others, and pressing upon the roots or fangs of the first teeth, the consequence of this pressure is, not that the first teeth are forced out, but the portion pressed upon gradually disappears ; it is absorbed — taken up, and carried away, by numerous little vessels, whose office it is to get rid of the worn out or useless part of the system. This absorption continues to proceed as the second teeth grow and press upon their predecessors, until the whole of the fang is gone, and the crown of the tooth, or that part of it which was above the gum, having no longer firm hold, drops out, and the second teeth appear, larger and stronger, and permanent. In a few instances, however, the second teeth do not rise immediately under the temporary or milk teeth, but somewhat by their side ; and then, instead of this gradual process of absorption and disappearance from the point of the root upwards, the root being compressed sideways, diminishes throughout its whole bulk ; the crown of the tooth dimi- nishes with the root ; and the whole is pushed out of its place, to the fore- part of the first grinder, and remains for a considerable time, under the name of a wolf's tooth, causing swelling and soreness of the gums, and frequently wounding the cheeks. These would be gradually quite absorbed, but the process might be slow and the annoyance would be great ; and therefore it is proper to get rid of these diminutive teeth, either by punch- ing them out, or drawing them as soon as they are perceived. This change of teeth commences in those which earliest appeared, and, therefore, the front or first grinder gives way at the age of two years, and is succeeded by a larger and permanent tooth. Now, likewise, seriously commences, in too many cases, the roguery of horse-dealers and breeders. A colt rapidly increases in value, as his age and growth increase. A three- year-old colt is worth twenty-five per cent, more than a two-year-old one ; and if a dealer has a strong and likely colt, that was dropped early in the year, and whose form and points might deceive the unwary, he is anxious to pass him if he can for a three-year-old. To accomplish this, he nmst give him a three-year-old mouth; and between two years and a half and three years, the two middle nippers are displaced, and succeeded by two per- manent teeth. During the period between the fiilling out of the central milk nippers, and the coming up of the permanent ones, the colt, having a broken mouth, may have some difficulty in grazing. If he should fall away considerably in condition, he should be fed with mashes and corn, or cut meat. THE TEETH. 141 Tliis cut will represent a three year- old mouth. The central teeth are larger than the others, with two grooves in the outer convex surface, and the mark is long, narrow, deep and black ; and not having yet attained their full growth, they are not so high as the others. The mark in the two next nippers is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in the corner nippers. Is it possible to give this mouth to an early two-year- old ? The ages of all horses are reckoned from May, but some are foaled even so early as January, and being actually four months over the two years, if they have been well nursed and fed, and are strong and large, they may, with the inexperienced, have an additional year put upon them. The central nippers are punched or drawn out, and the others appear three or four months earlier than they otherwise would. In the natural process, they could only rise by long pressing upon, and causing the absorption of the first set. The first set mechanically oppose their rising, and that opposition being removed, it is reasonable to imagine that their progress will be more rapid. Three or four months will be gained, and these three or four months may enable the breeder to term him a late colt of a preceding year. To him, however, who is accustomed to horses, (although it is long practice alone which could give this facility of judgment,) the general form of the animal, the little development of the forehand, the continuance of the mark on the next pair of nippers, its more evident existence in the corner ones, some enlargement or irregularity about the gums from the violence used in forcing out the teeth, the small growth of the first and fifth grinders, and the non-appearance of the sixth grinder, which if it is not through the gum at three years old, is swelling under it, and preyjaring to get through, any or all of these circumstances, carefully attended to, will be a sufficient security against deception, It is so unusual to look at the teeth in the upper jaw of a young horse, that the dealer who wishes to give a false appearance of age, frequently confines his operation to the lower jaw, and, in consequence of this, when the teeth of the lower jaw are thus made to push out, they are still below the gum in the upper jaw, although, in the natural process, they are cut a little sooner in the upper than in the lower jaw. It may, therefore, be good policy always to examine both jaws. A horse then at three years old ought to have the central permanent nippers growing — the other two pairs wasting — six grinders in each jaw, above and below — the first and fifth molars level with the others, and the sixth protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors, although it could not be well expressed in our cut, will be very evident when compared with the neighbouring teeth. As the permanent nippers grow, and press upon the teeth at their side, those teeth will begin gradually to diminish. Not only will the mark be wearing out, but the crowns of the teeth will be considerably smaller. At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time cannot be mistaken. The central nippers will have attained nearly their full growth ; a vacuity will be left where the second stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, — and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth — worn down — 142 THE HORSE. and the mark becomin£^ small and faint. At this period, likewise, the second pair of grinders will be shed, and, previous to this, will be the attempt of the dealer to i^ive to his three-year-old an additional year, but the fraud maybe detected by an examination similar to that which we have already described. At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; the sharp edge somewhat worn oft"; the mark shorter, wider and fainter : the next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep, and extending quite across them ; and the corner nippers, larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, flat, and the mark nearly effaced ; the sixth grinder will have risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin '^^ i ^^ appear. ^-"^ — ^-'" ^ Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious to put an additional year upon the animal, for the difference between a four-year-old colt, and a five-year- old horse, in strength, utility, and value, is very great ; but the want of wear in the other nippers — the small size of the corner ones— the little growth of the tush — the smallness of the second grinder — the low fore-hand — the leggi- ness of the colt, and the thickness and little depth of them.outh, will, to the man of common experience among horses, at once detect the cheat. The tushes (see p. 134) are four in number, two in each jaw, situated between the nippers and the grinders, much nearer to the former than the latter, and nearer in the lower jaw than in the upper, but this distance in- creasing in both jaws with the age of the animal. In shape it somewhat resembles a cone ; it protrudes about an inch from the gum, and has its extremity sharp-pointed and curved. At the age of which we are nov/ speaking, the tushes are almost peculiar to the horse, and castration does not appear to prevent or retard their development. All m.ares, however, have the beginnings of them in the chambers of the jaw, and they appear externally in the majority of old mares. Their use is not evident : — perhaps in the wild state of the animal they are weapons of offence; so as that he can more firmly seize, and more deeply wound his enemy. The breeder often attempts to hasten the appearance of the tush, and he cuts deeply through the gum to remove the opposition which that would afford. To a little extent he succeeds. He may possibly gain a few weeks, but he cannot gain more ; for the resistance of the gum is not like that of a solid and firmly fixed tooth, and is much more easily overcome by the regular process of nature. After all, there is much uncertainty as to the api)earance of the tush, and it may vary from the fourth year to four years and six months. It belongs, in the upper jaw, both to the inferior and superior maxillary bones (see /?, p. ^^) ; for, wliile its fang is deeply imbedded in the inferior maxillary, the toolh penetrates the process of the superior maxillary at the union of those bones. At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last import- ant change takes place in the mouth of the horse. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones begin to appear ; tlie central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are beginning to show marks of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is generally a full half inch in height j THE TEETH. 143 externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either side, and within it is evidently hollowed. Our readers need not be told that from the rising- of the corner nipper the animal changes its name — the colt becomes a horse, and the filly a mare. At five years the horse's mouth is almost perfect. The corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep mark irregular on the inside ; and the other nippers bearing evident tokens of in- creasing wearing. The tush is much grown ;-^the grooves have almost, or quite disappeared ; and the outer sur- face is regularly convex : — it is still as concave within, and with the edge nearly as sharp as it was six months before ; the sixth molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. This last circumstance, if the general ap- pearance of the animal, and particularly before, and the wearing of the centre nippers, and the growth and shape of the tushes, be likewise care- fully attended to, will prevent deception, if a late four-year-old be attempted to be substituted for a five. The nippers may be brought up a few months before their time, and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with difficulty displaced. The three last grinders and the tushes are never shed. At six years the mark on the centre nippers is worn out. There will still be a difference of colour in the centre of the tooth. The cement filling the hole made by the dipping in of the enamel will present a browner hue than the other part of the tooth, and it will be evidently surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will even remain a little depression in the centre, and also a depression round this case of enamel; but the deep hole in the centre of the teeth, with the blackened surface which it presents, and the elevated edge of enamel, will have disappeared. Persons not much accustomed to horses have been sadly puzzled here. They expected to find a plain surface of an uniform colour, and knew not what conclusion to draw when there v/as both discolouration and irregularity. In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter ; and in the corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. °The tush has attained its full growth, being nearly or quite an inch in length, convex outward, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the grinders are level. Now, or perhaps at a period of six months before, the horse may be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, fully grown, and have hitherto sustained no material injury. During these important changes of the teeth the animal has sutiered less than could be supposed possible. With children, the period of teething is fraught withdaiiger. 144 THE HORSE. Doo-s are subject to convulsions, and hundreds of them die, from the irri- tation caused by the cutting or shedding of their teeth ; but the horse appears to feel little inconvenience. The gums and palate are occasionally somewhat hot and swollen, but the slightest scarification will remove this. The teeth of the horse are more necessary to him than those of the other animals are to them. The child may be fed, and the dog will bolt his victuals, but the food of the horse must be well ground down, or the nutri- ment cannot be extracted from it. At seven years, the mark, in the way in which we have described it, is worn out in the four central nippers, and fast wearing away in the corner teeth ; and the tush is beginning to be altered. It is rounded at the point ; rounded at the edges ; still round without ; and beginning to get round inside. At eight years old, the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers ; the tush is rounder in every way; and the mark is now said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining in the bottom nippers which can after- wards clearly shew the age of the horse, or justify the most experienced examiner in giving a positive opinion. Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of prolonging the mark in the lower nippers. It is called bishoping, from the name of the scoundrel who invented it. The horse of eight or nine years old is thrown, and with an engraver's tool a hole is dug in the now almost plain surface of the corner teeth, and in shape and depth resembling the mark in a seven-year- old horse. The whole is then burned with a heated iron, and a permanent black stain is left : the next pair of nippers are sometimes lightly touched. An ignorant man would very easily be imposed on by this trick ; but the irregular appearance of the cavity, the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharp- ened edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again, and the marks on the upper nippers, together with the general conforma- tion of the horse, can never deceive the careful examiner. Horsemen, after the horse is eight years old, are accustomed to look to the nippers in the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from the appearances which they present. It cannot be doubted that the mark remains in them some years after it is obliterated from the nippers in the lower jaw ; because the hard substance, or kind of cement, by which the pit or funnel in the centre of the tooth is occupied, does not reach so high, and there is consequently a greater depth of tooth to be worn away in order to reach it ; and because the upper nippers are not so much exposed to friction and wear as the under. The lower jaw alone is moved, and pressed forcibly upon the food : the upper jaw is without motion, and has only to resist that pressure. THE TEETH. 145 There are various opinions as to the intervals between the disappearance of the marks from the different cutting teeth. Some have averaged it at two years, and others at one. We are inclined to adopt the latter opinion, and then the age would be thus determined : at nine years the mark will be worn from the middle nippers — from the next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at eleven. During these periods the tush is likewise undergoing a manifest change : it is blunter, shorter, and rounder. In what degree this takes place in the different periods, long and most favour- able opportunities for observation can alone enable the horseman to decide, or rather we believe that the tush alone will not enable us to form a very accurate judgment. The tushes are exposed to but little tear and wear. The friction against them must be slight, proceeding only from the passage of the food by them, and from the motion of the tongue, or from the bit; and their altera- tion of form, although generally as we have described them, is frequently uncertain. The tush will sometimes be blunt at eight, and remain pointed at eighteen ; and occasionally, according to the direction which they take, or degree in which they rub against each other, the tushes on the different sides will present an apparent variation of one or two years. The upper tush, although the latest in appearing, is soonest worn away. Are there any circumstances to guide our judgment after this ? There are those which will prepare us to guess at the age of the horse, or to approach within a few years of it, until he becomes very old : but there are none which will enable us accurately to determine ; and the indications of age must now be taken from the shape of the upper surface of the nippers. At eight, they are all oval, the length of the oval running across from tooth to tooth : but as the horse gets older, the teeth diminish in size, and they at first diminish in width, and not in thickness. They become a little apart from each other, and their surfaces are rounded. At nine, the centre nippers are evidently so, — at ten, the others begin to have the oval shor- tened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded, and at thirteen, the corner ones have that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles begin to wear off, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direction, viz. from outward, inward ; and at twenty-one, they all wear this form. This is the opinion of some conti- nental veterinary surgeons, and Mr. Percival first presented them to us in an English dress. We believe the statement is correct to a very con- siderable extent, but we leave our readers to form their own judgment. It would be folly indeed to expect accuracy at this advanced age of the horse, when we are bound to confess, that the rules we have laid down for determining this matter at an earlier period, although they are recognised by horsemen generally, and referred to in courts of justice, will not guide us in every case. Stabled horses have the mark sooner worn out than those that are at grass, and a crib-biter may deceive the best judge by one or two years. The age of the horse, likewise, being uniformly calculated from the 1st of May, it is sometimes exceedingly difficult, or almost im- possible, about that time, to determine whether the animal be a late foal of one year, or an early one of the next. At nine or ten, the bars of the mouth become less prominent, and their regular diminution will designate increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change their ori- ginal upright direction, and project forward or horizontally; and they become yellow and covered with tartar. They are yellow, because the teeth must grow to answer to the wear and tear of them j but the enamel li 146 * THE HORSE. which covered'their surface when they were first produced cannot be re- paired, and that which wears this yellow colour in old age is the part which, in youth, was in the socket, and therefore destitute of enamel. The upper nippers become arched, and project over the lower ones, wearing down the outer edge, and gradually making that the lowest, which was at first considerably the highest. The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are deep- ening of the hollows over the eyes,— grey hairs, and particularly over the eyes, and about the muzzle ; thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking of the back ; lengthening of the quar- ters ; and the disappearance of windgalls, spavins, and tumours of every kind. Of the natural age of the horse we should form a very erroneous esti- mate, from the early period at which he is now worn out and destroyed. Mr. Blaine tells us of a gentleman, who had three horses, which died at the ages of thirty-five, thirty-seven and thirty-nine. Mr. Cully mentions one that received a ball in his neck, at the battle of Preston, in 1715, and which was extracted at his death, in 1758 ; and Mr. Percival gives an account of a barge horse that died in his sixty-second year. There cannot be a severer satire on the English nation, than that, from the absurd practice of running our race-horses at two and three years old, and working others in various ways, long before their limbs are knit, or their strength come, and cruelly exacting from them services far beyond their powers, their age does not average a sixth part of that of the last-mentioned horse. The scientific author of the " Animal Kingdom" declares, that *' it may be safely asserted, that more horses are consumed in England, in every ten years, than in any other country in the world, in ten times that period, except those which perish in war." This point has with the English been too long considered as one of mere profit and loss ; and it has been thought to be cheaper to bring the young horse early into work, and in a short time to exhaust his whole strength, than to maintain him for a long period, and at a considerable expense, almost useless. The matter requires much consideration, and we think much reformation too. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Of the diseases of the teeth in the horse, we know little. Carious or hol- low teeth have occasionally, but not often, been seen ; but the edges of the o-rinders from the wearing off of the enamel, or the irregular growth of the teeth, become rough, and wound the inside of the cheek ; it is then neces- sary to adopt a summary but effectual method of cure, namely, to rasp them smooth. Many bad ulcers have been produced in the mouth, by the neglect of this. The teeth sometimes grow irregularly in length, and this is particularly the case with the grinders, from not being in exact opposition to each other, when the mouth is shut. The growth of the teeth still going on, and there being no mechanical opposition to it, one of the back teeth, or a portion of one of them, shoots up half an inch or more above the others. Sometimes it penetrates the bars above, and causes soreness and ulce- ration ; at other times, it interferes partially, or altogether, with the grind- ing motion of the jaws, and the animal pines away without the cause being suspected. Here the saw should be used, and the projecting portion reduced to a level with the other teeth. The horse which has once been THE TONGUE. 147 subjected to this operation should afterwards be frequently examined, and especially if he lose condition ; and, indeed, every horse that gets thin or out of condition, without fever, or any other apparent cause, should have his teeth and mouth carefully examined, and especially if he quids (partly chewing and then dropping) his food, without any indication of sore throat, or if he holds his head somewhat on one side, while he eats, in order to get the food between the outer edges of the teeth. A horse that has once had very irregular teeth is materially lessened in value, for, although they may be sawn down as carefully as possible, they will project again at no great dis- tance of time. THE TONGUE. The tongue is the organ of taste, and employed in disposing the food for grinding between the teeth, and afterwards collecting it together, and con- veying it to the back part of the mouth, in order to be swallowed. It is also the main instrument in drinking, and the canal through which the water passes in the act of drinking. The root of it is firmly fixed at the bottom of the mouth, by a variety of muscles; the fore part is loose in the mouth. It is covered by a continuation of the mem- brane which lines the mouth, and which, doubling beneath, and con- fining the motions of the tongue, is called its frceiunn or bridle. On the back of the tongue, this membrane is thickened and roughened, and is covered with numerous conical papillce, or little eminences, on which the fibres of a branch of the fifth pair of nerves expand, and on which the sense of taste depends. The various motions of the tongue are accomplished by means of the ninth pair of nerves. The substance of the tongue is com- posed of muscular fibres, with a great deal of fatty matter interposed between them, and which gives to this organ its peculiar softness. DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. The tongue is sometimes exposed to injury, from carelessness or violence in the act of drenching, or administering a ball, being pressed against, and cut by the edges of the grinders. A little diluted tincture of myrrh, or alum, dissolved in water, or even nature unassisted, will speedily heal , the wound. The horse will bite his tongue, — most frequently in his sleep. If the injury be trifling, it requires little care ; but in some instances, a por- tion of the tongue will be torn or nearly bitten off, and the assistance of a veterinary practitioner will be needed. Bladders will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue, which will increase to a considerable size, and the tongue itself will be much enlarged, and the animal will be unable to swallow, and a great quantity of ropy saliva will drivel from the mouth. This disease often exists without the nature of it being suspected. It resembles what is called the blahi in the cow, which is a very serious complaint m that animal, frequently connected with much fever, and terminating in suffo- cation. If the mouth of the horse be opened, one large bladder, or a suc- cession of bladders of a purple hue, will be seen to extend along the whole of the under side of the tongue. If they be lanced freely and deeply, from end to end, the swelling will very rapidly abate, and any little fever that remains may be subdued by cooling medicine. The cause of this dis- ease is not clearly known, it usually proceeds, perhaps, from indigestion, connected with a general tendency to inflammation. ^ L 2 148 THE HORSE. THE SALIVARY GLANDS. Ill order that the food may be properly ground down to prepare it for digestion, it is necessary that it should be previously moistened. The food of the stabled horse, however, is dry, and his meal is generally concluded without any fluid being offered to him. Nature has made a provision foe this. It has placed in the neighbourhood of the mouth, various glands, to secrete, and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat salt to the taste : this fluid is conveyed from the glands into the mouth, by various ducts in the act of chewing, and being mixed with the food, renders it more easily ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and better fitted for digestion. The principal of these is the parotid gland (see cut, p. 119). It is placed in the hollow which extends from the root of the ear to the angle of the lower jaw. A portion of it, g, is represented as turned up, to shew the situation of the blood-vessels underneath. In almost every case of cold, connected with sore throat, the parotid gland is enlarged, and is immediately evident to the feeling and even to the eye. It is composed of a great number of small glands connected together, and a little tube proceeding from each, to carry off the secreted fluid. These tubes unite in one common duct. At the letter u, the parotid duct is seen to pass under the angle of the lower jaw, together with the submaxillary artery, and a branch of the jugular vein, and they come out again at w. At r, the duct is seen separated from the other vessels, climbing up the cheek, and piercing it to discharge its contents into the mouth, oppo- site to the second grinder. The quantity of fluid thus poured into the mouth, from each of the parotid glands, amounts to a pint and a half in an hour, during the action of chewing ; and sometimes, when the duct has been accidentally opened, it has spirted out to the distance of several feet. The parotid gland sympathizes with every inflammatory affection of the upper part of the throat, and therefore it is found swelled, hot, and tender, in almost every catarrh or cold. The cold is to be attacked by the usual means ; and a stimulating application, almost amounting to a blister, well rubbed over the gland, will best subdue the inflammation of that body. In bad strangles, and sometimes in violent cold, this gland will swell to a great size and ulcerate, or an obstruction will arise in some part of the duct, and the accumulating fluid will burst the vessel, and a fistulous ulcer^ will be formed, very difficult to heal. A veterinary surgeon alone will be competent to the treatment of either case ; and the principle by which he will be guided, will be to heal the abscess in the gland as speedily as he can ; or, if the ulcer be in the duct, either to restore the passage through the duct, or to form a new one, or to cut off the flow of the saliva by the destruction of the gland. The second source of the saliva is from the mhmaxillary glands, or the glands under the jaw. One of them is represented at s, p. 119. The sub- maxillary glands occupy the space underneath, and between the sides of the lower jaw, and consist of numerous small glands, each with its proper duct, which unite together, and form on each side a common duct or vessel, that pierces through the muscles at the root of the tongue, and opens in little projections or heads, upon the frcBimm or bridle of the tongue, about an inch and a half from the front teeth. When the horse has catarrh or cold, these glands, like the parotid gland, enlarge. This often takes place after strangles, and several distinct kernels are to be felt under the jaw. We have already stated, that they may be distinguished from those STRANGLES. 149 swellings which accompany or indicate glanders, by their being larger, generally not so distinct, more in the centre of the channel or space between the jaws, and never adhering to the jaw-bones. The farriers call them vives, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to disperse them, as burning them with a lighted candle, or hot iron, or even cutting them out. They will, in the majority of instances, gradually disperse, as the disease which produced them subsides ; or they will yield to slightly stimulating embrocations ; or, if they are obstinate in their continuance, they are of no further consequence, than as indicating that the horse has laboured under severe cold or strangles. During catarrh or inflammation of the mouth, the little projections marking the opening of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the tongue are apt to enlarge, and the mouth under the tongue is a little red, and hot and tender. The farriers call these swellings barbs or paps, and as soon * as they discover them, mistaking the effect of disease for the cause of it, set to work to cut them close off. The bleeding which follows this opera- tion somewhat abates the local inflammation, and affords temporary relief: but the wounds will not speedily heal ; the saliva continues to flow from the orifice of the duct, and running into the irregularities of the wound, cause it to spread and deepen ; and even when it heals, the mouth of the duct being frequently closed, and the saliva continuing to be secreted by the submaxillary gland, it accumulates in the duct, until that vessel bursts, and abscesses are formed, which eat deeply under the root of the tongue, and long torment the poor animal, and when closed, after a great deal of trouble, are very apt to break out again for months and years afterwards. All that is necessary with regard to these paps or barbs is to abate the inflammation or cold which caused them to swell, and they will very soon and perfectly subside. He who ever talks of cutting them out is not fit to be trusted with a horse. A third source of saliva is from glands under the tongue (the suhlhigual glojids), which open by many little orifices under the tongue, resembling little folds of the skin of the mouth, hanging from the lower surface of the tongue, or found on the bottom of the mouth. These likewise some- times enlarge, during cold or inflammation of the mouth, and then they are called gigs, and bladders, and faps in the. month. They have the ^ appearance of small pimples, and the farrier is anxious to cut them off, or burn them down. The better way is to let them alone, for in a few days they will generally disappear. Should any ulceration follow them, a little tincture of myrrh, or a solution of alum, will readily heal them. Beside these three principal sources of saliva, there are little glands to be found thickly studded on every part of the mouth, cheeks, and lips, which pour out a considerable quantity of fluid, to assist in moistenmg and preparing the food. Connected with these glands, and particularly with the submaxillary and parotid glands, and being either an inflammation of them, or of the cellu- lar substance around them, is THE STRANGLES. This is a disease principally incident to young horses — usually appearing between the fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the spring than in any other part of the year. It is preceded by cough, and can at first be scarcely distinguished from common cough, except that there is 150 THE HORSE. discharge from the nostril, of a yellowish colour, mixed with matter, but irenerally without smell; and likewise a considerable discharge of ropy fluid'' from the mouth, and greater swelling than usual under the throat. This swelling increases with uncertain rapidity, accompanied by some fever, and disinclination to eat, partly arising from the fever, but more from the pain -the animal feels in the act of chewing. There is considerable thirst ; but after a gulp or two, the horse ceases to drink, yet is evidently desirous of more. In' the attempt to swallow, and sometimes when not drinking, a convulsive cough comes on, which almost threatens to suffocate the animal, and thence probably the name of the disease. The tumour is about the centre of the channel under the jaw, it soon fills the whole of the space, and is evidently one uniform body, and may thus be distinguished from glanders, or the enlarged glands of catarrh. At length the centre of it becomes more pro- minent and softer, and it evidently contains a fluid. This rapidly increases, the tumour bursts, and a great quantity of pus is discharged. As soon as the tumour has broken, the cough subsides, and the horse speedily mends, although some degree of weakness may hang about him for a considerable time. Ofthe cause of the disease we can say but little. Few horses, pos- sibly none, escape its attack ; but, that attack having passed over, the animal is free from it for the remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede, or may predispose to the attack, and undoubtedly the state of the atmosphere has much to do with it, for both its prevalence and its severity are cormected with certain seasons of the year and changes of the weather. There is no preventive for the disease, nor do we believe that there is any thing conta- gious in it. There are strange stories told with regard to this ; but the expla- nation of the matter is, that when several horses in the same farm or in the same neighbourhood have had strangles at the same time, they have been exposed to the same powerful but unknown exciting cause. The treatment of strangles is very simple. As the essence of the disease consists in the formation and suppuration of the tumom* under the jaw, the principal, or almost the sole attention of the practitioner should be directed to the hastening of these processes : therefore, as soon as the tumour of strangles evidently appears, the part should be actively blis- tered. Old practitioners used to recommend poultices ; which, from the thickness of the horse's skin, must have very little etiect, even if they could be confined on the part ; and from the difficulty and almost impossibility of this, and their getting cold and hard, they must weaken the energies of nature, and delay the ripening of the tumour. Fomentations are little more effectual. A blister will not only secure the completion of the process, but hasten it by many days, and save the patient much pain and exhaustion^ and it will produce another good eHect— it will, previous to the opening of the tumour, abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the throat, and thus lessen the cough and wheezing. As soon as the swelling is soft on the top, and evidently contains matter, it should be deeply and freely lanced. It is a bad, although fre- quent practice, to suffer the tumour to burst naturally, by which a ragged ulcer is formed, very slow to heal, and difficult of treatment. If the incision is deep and large enough, no second collection of matter will be formed : and that which is already formed may be suffered to run out slowly, all pressure with the fingers being avoided. The part should be kept clean, and a little friar's balsam daily injected into the wound. The remainder of the treatment will depend on the symptoms. If there is much fever, and evident affection of the chest, and which should care- WOUNDS IN THE MOUTH. 151 fully be distinguished from the oppression and choakintr occasioned by the pressure of the tumour, it will be proper to bleed. In the majority of cases, however, bleeding will riot only be unnecessary, but injurious. It will delay the suppuration of the tumour, and increase the subsequent debility. A few cooUng medicines, as nitre, emetic tartar, and perhaps dig-italis, may be given, as the case requires. The appetite, or rather the ability to eat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes, or fresh cut grass or tares, should be liberally supplied, which will not only afford sufficient nourishment to recruit the strength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. If the weakness be not great, no further medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic, to prevent the swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In cases of debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as camomile, and gentian with ginger, in doses of a couple of drachms, may be administered. As strangles seem to be a disease from which few horses escape, and which, although attended with little danger, is sometimes tedious in its progress, and accompanied by much debility, some foreign veterinary surgeons have endeavoured to produce a milder disorder by inoculating, either with the matter from the tumour, or the discharge from the nose ; and it is said that a disease, with all the characters of strangles, but shorter and milder in its course, has supervened. English practitioners have not, we believe, tried the experiment. CANKER AND WOUNDS IN THE MOUTH. The mouth is injured much oftener than the careless owner suspects, by the pressure of a sharp bit. Not only are the bars wounded and deeply ulcerated, but the lower jaw between the tush and the grinders is some- times torn even to the bone, and the bone itself affected, and portions of it come away. It may be necessary to have a sharp bit for the headstrong and obstinate beast, yet if that be severely and unjustifiably called into exercise, the animal may rear, and endanger himself and his rider ; but there can be no occasion for a thousandth part of the torment which the trappings of the mouth often inflict on a willing and docile servant, and which either render the mouth hard, and destroy all the pleasure of riding, or cause the horse to become fretful or vicious. Small ulcers are sometimes found in various parts of the mouth, said to be produced by rusty bits, but oftener arising from contusions inflicted by the bit, or from inflammation of the mouth. If the curb-bit is in fault, a snaffle or Pelham bit should be used ; if there be inflammation of the mouth, a little cooling medicine may be administered ; and to the ulcers themselves, tincture of myrrh, diluted with an equal quantity of water, or an ounce of alum dissolved in twenty times the weight of water, may be applied with advantage. THE PHARYNX. Proceeding to the back of the mouth, we find the pharynx (^carrying or conveying the food towards the stomach.) It begins at the root of the tongue, (see 7, 8, and 9, p. 68 ;) is separated from the mouth by the soft palate (7) which hangs down from the palatine bone at 8, and extends to the epiglottis or covering to the windpipe. When the food has been suffi- ciently ground by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva, it is gathered together by the tongue, and then by the action of the cheeks and tongue and 152 THE HORSE. back part of the mouth, forced against the soft palate, which giving^, way, and being raised upwards towards the entrance into the nose, prevents the food from going that way. It passes to the pharynx, and the soft palate falling down again, prevents its return to the mouth, and prevents, likewise, ex- cept in extreme cases, the act of vomiting in the horse. Whatever is re- turned from the stomach of the horse, passes through the nose, as the cut will make evident. The sides of the pharynx are lined with muscles which now begin power- fully to contract, and by that contraction the bolus is forced in until it reaches the gullet (10), which is the termination of the pharynx. Before, however, the food reaches the gullet, it has to pass over the entrance into the windpipe (3), and should any portion of it enter into that tube, much nconvenience and danger might result ; therefore, this opening is not only ined by muscles by which it may be closed at the pleasure of the animal, but it is likewise covered by a heart-like elastic cartilage, the epiglottis (2), with its back towards the pharynx, and its hollow towards the apertiu'e. The epiglottis yields to the pressure of the bolus passing over it, and lies flat on the entrance into the windpipe, and prevents the possibility of any thing entering into it ; and no sooner has the food passed over it, than it rises again by its own elasticity, and leaves the upper part of the wind- pipe once more open for the purpose of breathing. The voice of animals is produced by the passage of air through this aperture, communicating certain vibrations to folds of the membrane covering the part, and these vibrations are afterwards modified in their passage through the cavities of the nose. To understand the diseases of these parts, we must consider the anatomy of the neck generally. Chapter IX. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND NEIGHBOURING PARTS. The neck of the horse and of every animal belonging to the class mam- inalia, except one species, is composed of seven bones, called vcrtebrce, moveable or turning upon each other (see cut, p. 63). They are connected together by strong ligaments, and form so many distinct joints, in order to give sufficiently extensive motion to this important part of the body. The bone nearest to the scull is called the atlas, (see cut, p. 63, and g, p. 68,) because, in the human being, it supports the head. In the horse, the head is suspended from it. It is a mere ring-shaped bone, with broad projec- tions sideway ; but without the sharp and irregular processes which are found on all the others. The pack-wctjCj or ligament, by which the head is principally supported (f, p. 68), and which is strongly connected with all the other bones, passes over this without touching it, by which means the head is much more easily and extensively moved. The junction of the atlas with the head is the seat of a very serious and troublesome ulcer, termed POLL-EVIL. From the horse rubbing and sometimes striking his poll against the lower edge of the manger, or hanging back in the stall, and bruising the THE POLL-EVIL. 153 part with the haUer; or from the frequent and painful" stretching of the ligaments and muscles, by unnecessary tight reining, and occasionally, we fear, from a violent blow on the poll, carelessly or wantonly inflicted, inflammation comes on, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and painful. We have just stated, that the ligament of the neck passes over the atlas, or first bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflammation is be- tween the ligament, and the bone beneath ; and being thus deeply situated, it is serious in its nature and difficult of treatment. The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleeding, physic, and the application of cold lotions to the part. By these means the tumour will sometimes be dispersed. This system, however, must not be pursued too far. If the swelling increases, and the heat and tender- ness likewise increase, matter will form in the tumour ; andthen our object still be to hasten its formation by warm fomentations, poultices, or wimulating embrocations. As soon as matter is formed, which may be known by the softness of the tumour, and before it has time to spread around and eat into the neighbouring parts, it should be evacuated : and now comes the whole art of treating poll-evil; the opening into the tumour must he so contrived that all the matter shall run out, and continue after- wards to run out as it is formed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer, irritating and corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone. The needle should enter at the top of the tumour, penetrate through its bottom, and be brought out at the side of the neck, a little below the abscess. Without any thing more than this, except frequent fomentation with warm water, to keep the part clean, and to obviate inflammation, poll-evil, in its early stage, will frequently be cured. If the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens to eat into the ligaments of the joints of the neck, it may be necessary to stimulate its surface, and perhaps painfully so, in order to bring it to a healthy state, and dispose it to fill up ; and, in extreme cases, even the scald- ing mixture of the farrier may be called into requisition. This, however, will be ineffectual, except the pus or matter is enabled, by the use of setons, perfectly to run out of the wound ; and the application of these setons will require the skill and anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. In very desperate cases, the wound may not be fairly exposed to the action of our caustic applications, without the division of the ligament of the neck, by which we have described the head as being almost entirely supported. This, however, may be done with perfect safety, for although the ligament is carried on to the occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this prolongation of it, the main stress is on the second bone ; and the head will continue to be" supported, although the ligament should be divided between the second bone and the head. The divided ligament will soon unite again, and its former usefulness will be restored when the wound is healed. The second bone of the neck is the dentata, having a process like a tooth, by which it forms a joint with the first bone. In the formation of that joint, a portion of the spinal marrow, which runs through a canal in the centre of all these bones, is exposed, or covered only by hgament ; and by the division of the marrow at this spot, an animal is instantly and hu- manely destroyed. The operation is called pi^/izwg-, from the name {the pith} given by butchers to the spinal morrow. The other neck, or rack bones, as they are denominated by the farrier, B, p. 63, are of a strangely irregular shape, yet bearing considerable resem- blance to each other. They consist of a central bone, perforated for the pas- sage of the spinal marrow, with a ridge on the top, for the attachment of the 154 THE HORSE. ligament of the neck, and four irregular plates or processes from the sides, for the attachment of muscles ; at the base of one of which, on either side, are holes for the passage of large arteries and veins. At the upper end of each, is a round head or ball, and at the lower end, a cavity or cup, and the head of the one being received into the cup of the other, they are united together, forming so many joints. They are likewise joined toge- ther by ligaments from these processes, as well as the proper ligaments of the joints, and so securely, that no dislocation can take place between any of them, except the first and second, the consequence of which would be the immediate death of the animal. The last, or seventh bone, has the elevation on the back or top of it con- tinued into a long and sharp prolongation (a spinom process) ; and is the beginning of that ridge of bones denominated the withers (see cut, p. 63) ; and as it is the base of the column of neck-bones, and there must be great pressure on it from the weight of the head and neck, it is curiously con- trived to rest upon and unite with the two first ribs, which also we shall presently describe as being very peculiarly and strongly constructed. THE BIUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK. The bones which we have just mentioned serve as the frame-work to which are attached numerous muscles concerned in all the motions of the head and neck. The power of the ligament of the neck is precisely adapted to the weight of the head and neck. They are supported by it, without mus- cular aid, and without fatigue to the animal ; but to raise the head higher, or to lower it, or to turn it in every direction, a complicated system of muscles was necessary. Those, whose office it is to raise the head, are most numerous and powerful, and are placed on the upper and side part of the neck. Our cut, p. 119, gives a few of them. c marks a tendon common to two of the most important of them, the splenius, or splint-like muscle, and the compleocus major, or larger compli- cated muscle. The splenius constitutes the principal bulk of the neck above, arising from the ligament of the neck all the way down it, and going to the processes of all the bones of the neck, but the first, and flat tendons running from the upper part of it, to the first bone of the neck, and to a pro- cess of the temporal bone of the head. Its action is sufficiently evident, namely, very powerfully ^^^^^;^^''WM'i'llHf to elevate the head and neck. The principal beauty of the neck depends on this muscle. It was admirably developed in the '.^// wjmi horse of whose neck the an- /MvL. yi^mf iiexed cut gives an accurate de- lineation. If the curve were quite regu- lar from the poll to the withers, we should call it a perfect neck. It is rather a long neck, and we do not like it the less for THE FORM OF THE NECK. 155 that. In the carriage horse, a neck that is not half concealed by the collar is indispensable, so far as appearance goes ; and it is only the horse with a neck of tolerable length, that will bear to be reined np, so as to give this part that arched and beautiful appearance which fashion demands. It is no detriment to the riding horse, and there are few horses of extraor- dinary speed, which have not the neck rather long. The race horse at the top of his speed not only extends it as far as he can, that the air-passages may be as straight as he can make them, and that he may therefore be able to breathe more freely, but the weight of the head and neck, and the effect increasing with their distance from the trunk, add materially to the rapidity of the animal's motion, by throwing his weight considerably forward. It has been said, that a horse with a long neck will bear heavy on the hand. We do not believe that either the length of the neck, or even the bulk of the head, has any influence in causing this. They are both counterbalanced by the power of the ligament of the neck. The setting on of the head is most of all connected with heavy bearing on the hand, and a short-necked horse will bear heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part of the neck, consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be rightly placed. The head and neck, however, should be proportioned to each other. A short head on a long neck, or a long head on a short neck, would equally offend the eye. Connected with this splenius muscle, and partly produced by it, we would direct the attention of the reader to the thickness and muscularity of the neck in this cut, as it springs from the shoulders ; the height at which it comes out from them, forming nearly a line with the withers ; and the manner hi which it tapers as it approaches the head, and this muscle diminishing in size. The neck of a well formed horse, however fine at the top, should be muscular at the bottom, or the horse to which it belongs will generally be weak and worthless. Necks devoid of this muscularity are called loose necks by horsemen, and are always considered a very serious objection to the animal. If the neck be thin and lean at the upper part, and be other- wise well-shaped, the horse will usually carry himself well, and the head will be properly curved for beauty of appearance, and ease of riding. When an instance to the contrary occurs, it is to be traced to very im- proper management, or to the space between the jaws being unnaturally small. The splenius muscle, although a main agent in raising the head and neck, may be too large, or covered with too much cellular substance or fat, and give an appearance of heaviness or even clumsiness to the neck. This peculiarity of form constitutes the distinction between the perfect horse and the mare, and also the gelding, unless castrated at a very late period. Horses with thick, heavy crests are usually slow and sluggish. This tendon, c, belongs also to another muscle, which make sup the prin- cipal bulk of the lower part of the neck, and is called the complexus 77iajor, or larger complicated muscle. It arises partly as low as the transverse pro- cesses of the four or five first bones of the back, and from the five lower bones of the neck ; and the fibres from these various sources vmiting together, form a very large and powerful muscle, the largest and strongest in the neck. As it approaches the head, it lessens in bulk, and terminates partly with the splenius in this tendon, but is principally inserted into the back part of the occipital bone, by the side of the ligament of the neck. In our cut, p. 154, almost its whole course can be distinctly traced. Its office is to raise the neck and elevate the head ; and being inserted into such a part of the occiput, it will more particularly protrude the nose. 156 THE HORSE. while it raises the head. Its action, however, may be too powerful ; it may be habitually so, and then it may produce deformity. The back of the head being thus pulled back, and the muzzle protruded, the horse cannot by possibility carry his head well ; he will become what is techni- cally called a star-gazer ; — heavy in hand, boring upon the bit, and unsafe. To remedy this, recourse is had, and in the majority of cases without avail, to the martingale, against which the horse is continually fighting, and which is often a complete annoyance to the rider. Such a horse is almost useless for harness. Inseparable from this is another sad defect, so far as the beauty of the horse is concerned ; — he becomes ewe-necked ; — he has a neck like a ewe — not arched above, and straight below, until near to the head, but hollowed above and projecting below ; and the neck rising low out of the chest, even lower sometimes than the points of the shoulders. There can scarcely be anything more unsightly in a horse. The head of such a horse can never be got down ; and the bearing rein of harness must be to him a source of constant torture. Among the muscles employed in raising the head, are the comphocus minores^ smaller comphcated, and the recti, straight, and the oblique muscles of the upper part of the neck, and belonging principally to the two first bones of the neck, and portions of which may be seen under the tendon of the sple?ii2is c, and between it and the ligament a. Among the muscles employed in lowering the head, some of which are given in the same cut, is the sterno-max'illaris, d, belonging to the breast- bone, and the upper jaw. It can likewise be traced, although not cjuite distinctly, in the cut, page 154. It Hes immediately imder the skin. It arises from the cartilage projecting from, or constituting the front of the breast-bone, (H, p. 63), and proceeds up the neck, of no great bulk 'or strength ; for when the weight of the head is so nicely balanced by the power of the ligament, a little addition to that weight will pull it down ; whereas, the muscles that raise the head must necessarily have very great strength, for they will have all its weight to support. About three- fourths of its length upward, it changes to a flat tendon, which is seen (rf, p. 119) to insinuate itself between the parotid and submaxillary glands, in order |to be inserted into the angle of the lower jaw. It is used in bending the head towards the chest. Another muscle, the termination of which is seen, is the levator humeri, raiser of the shoulder, b. This is a much larger muscle 'than the last, because it has more duty to perform. It rises from the back of the head and four first bones of the neck and the ligament of the neck, and is carried down to the shoulder, mixing itself partly with some of the muscles of the shoulder, and finally continued down to and terminating on the humerus (J, p. 63). Its office is double : if we suppose the horse in action, and the head and neck fixed points, the contraction of this muscle will draw forward the shoulder and arm : if the horse be standing, and the shoulder and arm be fixed points, this muscle will depress the head and neck. Little more of a practical nature could be said of the muscles of the neck, although they would be proper and interesting studies for the ana- tomist ; and therefore we will only observe that they are all in pairs. One of them is found on each side of the neck, and the office which we have attributed to them can only be accomplished when both act together; but supposing that one alone of the elevating muscles should act, the head would be raised, but it would at the same time be turned towards that side. BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. 157 If one only of the depressor muscles were to act, the head would be bent down, but it would likewise be turned towards that side. Then it will be easily seen that by this simple method of having the muscles in pairs, pro- vision is made for every kind of motion, upwards, downwards or on either side, for which the animal can possibly have occasion. This is the proper place to speak of the mane, that long hair which covers the crest of the neck, and adds so much to the beauty of the ani- mal. It sometimes grows to a considerable length. There is a horse in the king's stables, the hair of whose mane is more than a yard in length ; and it is said that a horse was once exhibited with a mane three or four yards long. The mane is apt to become entangled, if it be not regularly combed. The teeth of the comb should be large, and sufficiently far apart. There never can be occasion to pull the mane, as grooms are too much accustomed to do, tugging it out in little parcels. It will then never lie smooth. A strong comb, with only two or three teeth in it, will keep it sufficiently thin and smooth. THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. Running down the inner part of the neck are the principal blood-vessels going to and returning from the head, with the windpipe and^ gullet. Our cut could not give a view of the arteries which carry the blood from the heart to the head, because they are too deeply seated. The external arteries are the carotid, of which there are two. They ascend the neck on either side, close to the windpipe, until they have reached the middle of the neck, where they somewhat diverge, and lie more deeply ; they are covered by the sterno-maxillaris muscle, which we have just described ; and are separated from the jugulars by a small portion of muscular sub- stance. Having reached the larynx, they divide into two branches, the external and the internal ; the first goes to every part of the face, and the second, to the brain. The vertebral arteries run through canals in the bones of the neck, sup- plying the neighbouring parts as they climb, and at length enter the scull at the large hole in the occipital bone, and ramify on and supply the brain. We can conceive few cases in which it would be either necessary or justifiable to bleed from an artery. Even in mad-staggers the bleeding is more practicable, safer, and more effectual, from the jugular vein than from the temporal or any other artery. If an artery be opened in the direction in which it runs, there is sometimes very great difficulty in stopping the bleeding ; it has even been necessary to tie the vessel in order to accomplish this purpose. If the artery be cut across, ,its coats are so elastic that the two ends are immediately drawn apart under the flesh on each side, and are thereby closed ; and after the first gush of blood no more can be ob- tained. THE VEINS OF THE NECK. The external veins which return the blood from the head to the heart are the jugulars. The horse has but one on either side. The human being and the ox have two. It is the principal vessel by which the blood is conveyed from the head. The jugular is said to take its rise from the base of the scull ; it then descends, receiving other branches in its way towards the angle of the jaw, and behind the parotid gland; and emerging from that, as seen at t, p. 120, and being united to a large 158 THE HORSE. branch from the face, it takes its course down the neck. Veterhiary surgeons and horsemen have agreed to adopt the jugular, a little way below the union of these two branches, as the place for bleeding ; and a very convenient one it is ; for it is easily got at, and the vessel is large. Of the manner of bleeding, and the states of constitution and disease in which it is proper, we shall speak hereafter, confining ourselves at present to an occasional consequence of bleeding, namely, INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN. It is usual and proper, after bleeding, to bring the edges of the cut carefully together, and to hold them in contact by inserting a pin through the skin, with a little tow twisted round it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the wound quickly heals, and gives no trouble ; but in a few instances, from using a blunt instrument, or a dirty or rusty one; or striking too hard, and bruising the vein with the thick part of the fleam ; or pulling the skin too far from the neck, and suffering some blood to insinuate itself into the cellular texture ; or neglecting to tie the horse up for a little while, and thereby enabling him to rub the bleeding place against the manger, and tear out the pin ; or from the animal being worked immediately afterward, and the collar pressing the blood against the orifice ; or the reins or the bridle rubbing against it ; or having several blows clumsily given, and a large and ragged wound made ; or from some disposition to inflammation about the horse, for the bleeder is not always in fault, the wound does not heal. The edges of it separate, and are swelled and red ; a discharge of thin bloody fluid proceeds from the cut, followed perhaps in a few days by matter ; the neck swells, and is hot and tender ; the vein , particularly above the' wound, is hard and cordy ; the cordiness of the vein increases more and more upward ; and little abscesses begin to form about the original wound. This is sometimes a very serious case, for the inflammation continues to spread upwards, and destroys the horse. It is easy to imagine why it spreads upward, because the blood has run off below the wound, and nothing remains there to irritate ; but the vein becoming thickened in its coats, and diminished in its capacity, and at length quite closed by the inflammation, the blood descending from the head, and press- ing upon the closed part, will coagulate ; and that clot of blood will gra- dually increase, and the obstruction, and the inflammation produced by that obstruction, will increase, and that necessarily upward. Human surgeons say that inflammation of a vein spreads towards the heart. In the horse, and we will venture to say in every animal, it spreads in the direction in which the coagulation is formed, and that in the jugular must be upward, although /rom the heart. In the veins of the arm and leg it will likewise spread upward, and then towards the heart, because the coagulation takes place in that direction. The application of the hot iron to the orifice of the wound will sometimes stimulate it, and cause its edges to unite. When this fails, and the swelling is large, and abscesses have formed, it is for the veterinary surgeon to decide how far he will introduce setons into them, or inject a caustic liquid, or dissect out the diseased portion of the vein. Should the vein be destroyed, the horse will not be irreparably injured ; and perhaps, at no great distance of time, scarcely injured at all ; for nature is ingenious in making provision to carry on the circulation of the blood. All the vessels conveying the blood from the heart to the different parts of the fra^e, or bringing it back again to the hearty communicate with each THE WIND-PIPE. 159 other by so many channels, and in such various ways, that it is impossible by the closure or loss of any one of them materially to impede the flow of the vital current. If the jugular be destroyed, the blood will circulate through other vessels almost as freely as before. THE WINDPIPE., In the fore part of the throat (6, p. 68) is placed a curiously constructed tube, extending from the back part of the mouth to the lungs, and designed for the conveyance of air to and from these organs. The windpipe of the horse is composed of nearly sixty rings of cartilage, connected together by strong and elastic ligaments. The rings are broad in front, narrowing behind, and there overlapping each other, so as to be capable of consider- able extension and contraction ; and across the posterior part run strong muscular fibres, which give to that portion of the tube a power of action, depending not indeed on the will, but on sympathy with other parts concerned in breathing. This singular and beautiful mechanism deserves serious attention. It is necessary for the comfort, and even the existence of the animal, that this air-tube should be free from compression, and always open ; and it is attached to the neck, long, and capable of the most varied motion. Would any tube composed of an uniform substance, however elastic, maintain its form and size amidst all these complicated motions? When the horse is browsing, the windpipe is an inch or more longer than when the neck is arched ; there is, therefore, the ligamentous substance between the circular rings, which will lengthen the tube when required, and immediately con- tract to its former dimensions when the force that caused the elongation is removed. When the head is bent^ and the neck is arched, and in various positions of the neck, a portion of the windpipe is violently pressed upon ; therefore there are the cartilaginous rings — cartilaginous that they may yield to pressure, and immediately recover their form when the pressure is removed ; and lapping over each other, that the difference of calibre or size in the tube may be as great as the necessities of the animal may occa- sionally require, and muscular at the back, that all these powers of elasti- city may be exerted to the fullest extent. The cartilaginous rings, again, are broad and strong in front where danger may threaten, and softer and more yielding behind, where the bones of the neck afford secure protection. The windpipe is lined by a membrane, likewise curiously contrived. It is smooth and plain in front under the broad cartilaginous rings, and where little change of dimension can take place ; but behind, it is puckered into several folds, running down the windpipe, and not across it, and adapting itself easily to any change in the size of the tube. Then it is easy to imagine that the windpipe of a good horse should be large to admit the passage of a greater quantity of air ; and in horses from which speed is required, as in the blood-horse, the windpipe is compara- tively larger than in other breeds devoted to slower work. The windpipe should project from the neck. It should be as it were detached from the neck, for two important reasons ; first, that it may easily enter between the channels of the jaw, so that the horse may be reined up without suffering inconvenience ; and, next, that being more loosely attached to the neck, it may more readily adapt itself to the changes required, than if it were enveloped by fat or muscle, to a certain degree unyielding : there- fore, in every well-formed neck, and it will be seen in the cut, (p. 154,) it is indispensable that the windpipe should be prominent and loose pn the 160 THE HORSE. neck. We do not require this in the heavy cart-horse, and we do not often find it, because he is not so much exposed to those circumstances which will hurry respiration, and require an enlargement in the size of the principal air-tube. THE LARYNX. At the top of the windpipe is placed ^the larynx, which has been partially described. It is situated where, from the sudden bending or motion of the head, it is liable to more frequent and to greater injury than the windpipe ; and therefore it is composed of stronger cartilages than that tube. First is the thyroid, or helmet-shaped cartilage, forming the front and side parts of the larynx, and protecting the other parts of the larynx (see 1, p. 68.) Its bulk and strength are apparent on the slightest handling. Immediately below the tliyroid, and with its broad part behind, is the cricoid, ring-like cartilage (H, p. 68.) This is likewise for the purpose of strength in a part so exposed to injury, but not so strong as the thyroid because so much danger cannot threaten from behind. Of the epiglottis, or covering of the entrance into the windpipe (2, p. 68,) and of the aryte- noid, or funnel-shaped cartilages forming that opening (3, p. 68), we have already spoken. ROARING. The larynx and upper part of the windpipe are subject to various diseases. The first we shall mention is Roaring ; so called from a peculiar sound uttered by the horse when briskly trotted or galloped, particularly up hill. In moderate exercise it is scarcely, or not at all perceived, but when the animal is in brisk exercise it may be heard at the distance of several yards. It may be easily detected by striking the horse suddenly, or even threatening him with a stick, when he will utter a singular grunt or groan. It usually is explained as the consequence of inflammation of the part. A fluid, rapidly changing into a tough viscid substance, is thrown out, and adheres to the sides of the larynx and upper part of the windpipe, ma- terially obstructing the passage, and sometimes running across it in bands. When the horse is blown, or his breathing much hurried, the air whistles throuo-h these obstructions. We believe this to be the most general cause of the disease, and a roarer is evidently unsound, for he is incapable of the exertion which may not only be occasionally, but ordinarily required of him. Much light, however, has lately been thrown on other causes of this com- plaint. Many roarers have been examined after death, and no vestige of these bands has been found ; but some have had the shape of the larynx and upper part of the windpipe materially deformed, crooked, and com- pressed ; and others have presented no appearance of disease. Then we have been compelled to look out for other causes of roaring, and some very probable ones have been readily found. The parts may have been subject to inflammation, and some parts of the air-tube may have become thickened and inelastic. In this way the inflammation of strangles may have been communicated to the larynx or windpipe, followed by some alteration of structure. Roaring is no unusual consequence of strangles. A more frequent cause, and previously unsuspected, is tight reining. There can be no doubt that many more carriage-horses become roarers, than those that are used for the saddle alone ; and the explanation of this ROARING. 161 at once presents itself in the continued and painful pressure on these parts, caused by reining in the carrlao-e-horse, and teachino^ him to bear himself well. VVe have seen the larynx, and that portion of the windpipe imme- diately beneath it, flattened, and bent, and twisted in the strani^est way, which could not have been produced by disease, but by mechanical in- jury alone. The mischief is usually done with young horses. The arched neck and elevated head of the carriage-horse is an unnatural position, from which the animal, most habituated to it, is eager to be relieved. Horse-breakers, and coachmen, and carters, should be made to understand, that when the horse's head is first confined by the bearing rein, great gen- tleness, and care, and caution, are necessary. Injury must be done if the throat be violently pressed upon, and especially when it is exposed to addi- tional danger, from the impatience of the animal, unused to controul, and suf- fering pain. The head of the riding-horse is gradually brought to its proper place by the hands of the teacher, who skilfully increases, or relaxes the pres- sure, and humours and plays with the mouth ; but the poor carriage-horse is confined by a rein that never slackens, and his nose is bent in at the expense of the larynx and windpipe, and the injury is materially increased, if the head be not naturally well set on, or if the neck be thick, or the jaws narrow. The shape of the larynx and wind-pipe will occasionally be altered, if they be thus squeezed between the jaws, and the bones of the neck ; or the muscles which expand the opening into the windpipe for the purpose of natural breathing, and especially of quick and hurried breathing, will be so compressed, that they will be incapable of full action, and by degrees will lose the power of action, even when not pressed upon, and, in fact, become palsied; and therefore, the opening not being sufficiently enlarged during the rapid breathing of the animal, moving with speed, the air will rush violently through the diminished aperture, and the sound termed roaring will be produced. It is a common opinion that crib-biting frequently terminates in roaring. There is nothing in crib-biting that can possibly lead to roaring.; but there is a method adopted to cure crib-biting, than which nothing can be more likely to produce it : we mean the straps which are so tightly buckled round the upper part of the neck, and which must compress, and some- times distort or paralyse the larynx. The habit of coughing a horse, to ascertain the state of his wind, is an occasional cause of roaring. The larynx or trachea is violently and pain- fully squeezed in this operation ; and the violence being often repeated, in- flammation and injury may ensue. The treatment of roaring is very unsatisfactory. If we have been correct in our account of the nature and cause of the disease, a cure seems to be perfectly out of the question. If it arise from a distorted larynx, there is no mechanical contrivance that can restore the natural and perfect struc- ture ; if from a band or ring of lymph diminishing the size of the passage, we know not by what means that can be removed ; or if the muscles of the larynx be palsied, we know not the stimulus that can rouse them again to action, or the manner in which that stimulus is to be applied. In the early stage of the disease, whether it proceed from violent pressure on the part by improper curbing, or be connected with, or consequent on catarrh or strangles, or the enlargement of some neighbouring part, inflam- mation will be present, and we shall be justified in having recourse to those measures which will abate inflammation. Bleeding will not be improper if roaring is the consequence of previous disease; it will be indispensable, if it be connected with present disease of the chest. The degree to which the bleeding should be carried, will depend on the degree of general or local M 162 THE HORSE. inflammation. To bleeding' should succeed purg-ing, and to this, medicines that v.'ill lessen the force of the circulation, — as nitre, emetic-tartar, and digitalis. These should be followed by blisters, to remove the inflammation, if possible, from an internal and important part to the skin. The blisters may at first be confined to the upper part of the throat, but, if unsuccessful there, they should extend over the whole length of the wind-pipe. In extreme cases, and where the obstruction seems to threaten suffocation, we may be justified in cutting into the wind-pipe, and either introducing a tube into the opening, or cutting out a portion of one of the rings. This operation, however, the agriculturist will scarcely dare to perform, although it is simple enough to him wlio understands the anatomy of the neck. It is called broncliotomy. By means of it, the animal will be enabled to breathe through an aperture below the seat of inflammation, or the distorted and obstructed part : and time v.'ill be given for the adoption of other modes of relief or cure. Some practitioners have talked of cutting into the wind- pipe, to extract the band or ring of coagulated matter that obstructs the passage ; we can only say, that if they happen to hit upon the precise situation of this ring or band, they will be more fortunate than their folly deserves. Another circumstance should be mentioned, and the breeder should not forget it, that the roarer, whether horse or mare, will often entail this dis- ease on its progeny. This entailment of disease by the parent on the off- spring is a subject which has not sufficiently engaged the attention, or entered into the calculation, of the agriculturist. THE (ESOPHAGUS, OR GULLET. The gullet extends from the back part of the mouth to the stomach, and conveys the food from the one to the other. At the top of the neck, it is immediately behind the wind-pipe, but it soon inclines to the left, and runs down the neck close to the wind-pipe, and on its left ; therefore when we give a ball to a horse, we watch the left side of the neck to see whether it passes down the gullet. Having entered the chest between the first two ribs, the guUet passes along the upper part of it, and then piercing the diaphragm, or midriff', enters the stomach. It is composed of three coats — the outer one of slight loose cellular substance : the middle one mus- cular, and divided into two distinct layers, the outermost layer having the fibres lengthways, by which the gullet may be shortened, and in shortening, widened for the reception "of the food ; — the fibres of the inner layer running circularly round the tube, so that the portion imme- diately above a pellet of food, will by its contraction force the food down- ward, and by successive actions drive it into the stomach. The inner coat, which is a continuation of the membrane of the pharynx, lies in folds or plaits, extending lengthways. The muscular coat being highly elastic, readily gives way to the pressure of the food, and these plaits enable the inner or cuticular coat, likewise, sufficiently to dilate. The gullet has in a few cases been strictured, or contracted in some part, so that the food could only be swallowed in small quantities, and with great difficulty. If the stricture be near the entrance into the stomach, there is no remedy, for the part cannot be got at. If it be higher up, a veterinary surgeon alone can determine how far relief is practicable. Sub- stances have sometimes stuck in the gullet. Bran and chaff' swallowed greedily, or too large or hard a ball, have remained in some part of the gullet, and caused very alarming symptoms. The tube used for the hove in cattle, will sometimes dislodge this foreign substance ; but should this be impracticable, the gullet must be opened, which a scientific practitioner alone is competent to perform. THE CHEST. 163 Chapter X. THE CHEST AND ITS CONTENTS-THE HEART AND THE LUNGS. Cut of the Chest. a Tlie first rib. b The cartilages of the eleven hindermost, or false ribs, connected together; and uniting with that of the seventh or last true rib. c The breast-bone. d The top or point of the withers, which are formed hy the lengthened spinous, or upright processes of the ten or eleven first bones of the back. The bones of the back are eighteen in number. e The ribs, usually eighteen on each side ; the seven first united to the breast-bone by car- tilage ; the cartilages of the remaining eleven united to each other, as at b. f That portion of the spine where the loins commence, and composed of five bones. g The bones forming the hip or haunch, and into the hole at the bottom of which the head of the thigh-bone is received. A The portion of the spine belonging to the haunch, and consisting of five pieces. i The bones of the tail, usually thirteen in number. The form of the chest is of the gTeatest importance. It contains the heart and the lungs ; — the one employed in circulating the blood, and the other in restoring to it the power of supporting hfe ; and on the size and the soundness of these organs, the health and the strength of the ani- mal principally depend. The speed and wind of the horse are most intimately connected with the size of the lungs. In proportion to the quantity of air which they contain, and the less frequent necessity of renewing that air by the act of breathing, will the animal be at his ease, or distressed, when violent exertion is demanded of him. There- fore, one of the first things which the judge of the horse examines, is the capacity of the chest ; and if he finds considerable depth in the girth, and roundness behind the point of the elbow; — the horse carrying what is called a good barrel ; — he is satisfied as to the capacity of the chest. The form of the chest has as much to do with the value of the horse as its capacity. An ox may have a chest ix)unded before as well as behind, and then there will be room enough for the heart to circulate, and the lungs to purify sufficient blood to clothe him with all the muscle and fat he was intended to yield: we require from him no speed, and, therefore, his legs will not fail him, should too much weight be thrown on them, nor will he be disposed to stumble and fall. One principal quality of the horse, however, is his speed ; and if undue weight be thrown before, his legs and feet will be battered, and injured, and worn out by the unavoidable concussion to which they will be exposed in the trot or the gallop ; and M 2 164 THE HORSE. likewise the centre or bulk of his weight will be too easily thrown beyond the natural situation of his feet, and he will be exceedingly unsafe. There- fore, for the light carriage and the saddle, although we want capacity of chest, we want it not too much before. A moderate breadth, with depth at the girth, and a swelling out, or barrelling behind the elbow, will be the most desirable form. Horses with narrow chests may have plenty of spirit, and willingness for w^ork ; but they have not the appetite or the en- durance of those whose breast is moderately wide. The heavy cart or dray horse, whose power of draught is equal to the weio-ht which he can throw into the collar, requires the broad chest, not only that his weight may be thrown more before, but that by the increased capacity of his chest he may obtain that bulk and size which will enable him to press with the requisite force upon the collar. Depth of chest has another advantage ; it not only gives increased capa- city to the cavity within it, but increased room for the insertion of those muscles on and between the ribs, by the action of whichj the chest is alternately expanded and contracted in the act of breathing; and the action of which is so necessary when the breathing is quickened by exercise. Again, depth of chest will admit of a great deal more increased expan- sion, than will a chest approaching to a circular form. That which is somewhat straight may be easily bent into a circle ; but that which is already rounded can scarcely be made more so : therefore it is that the heavy horse, with all his capaciousness of chest, is easily blown, and inca- pable of speed, because all this expanse was employed in the accumulation of flesh and fat, and can be very little increased when exertion causes the flow and the change of blood to be considerably more rapid. The flatter chest may be readily expanded as the circumstances of the animal may require. A judge of the horse never likes to see a chest too high from the ground, and legs too long. The animal may be free and speedy, but there is not sufficient capacity of chest to render him a good feeder, or to give him much endurance. The next point of consequence regarding the capacity of the chest, is the length or shortness of the carcase ; or the extent of the ribs from the elbow backward. Some horses are what is called ribbed home; there is but little space (see cuts pp. 63 and 163) between the last rib and the hip-bone. In others the distance is considerably greater, which is evident by the falling in of the flank. The question here is, what service is required from the horse ? If he have to carry a heavy weight, and much work to do, let him be ribbed home, — let the last rib, and the hip-bone be almost close to each other. There is more capacity of chest and of belly ; there is less distance between the points of support; there is more strength and endurance. A hackney (and we would almost say a hunter) can scarcely be too well ribbed home. If speed, however, be required, there must be room for the full action of the hinder limbs ; and this can only exist when there is sufficient space between the last rib and the hip-bone. The owner of the horse must make up his mind as to what he wants from him, and be satisfied if he obtains that; but let him be assured that he cannot have every thing: this would require those differences of conformation which cannot possibly exist in the same animal. The thorax, or chest, is formed by the spine / above ; the ribs e, on either side ; and the sternum, or breast-bone^ c, beneath. THE SPINE AND BACK. The spine or back-bone consists of a chain of bones from the poll to the extremity of the tail. We have described the bones of the neck, and we will THE SPINE. 165 now proceed to that portion of the spine which forms the roof of the chest and belly. It consists of twenty-three bones from the neck to the haunch • . eighteen, called dorsal vertebra, composing the back ; and five lumbar ver- tebrce, occupying the loins. On this part of the animal the wein-ht or burden is laid, and there are two principal things to be considered, easiness of carriage, and strength. If the back were composed of unyieldino- ma- terials, if it resembled a bar of wood or iron, the jar or jolting, in the rapid motion of the animal, could not possibly be endured. To avoid this, as well as to assist in turning, the back is divided into numerous bones ; and between each pair of bones, there is interposed a cartilaginous substance, most highly elastic, which will yield and give way to eveTy jar, not so much as to occasion insecurity between the bones, or to permit considerable motion between any one pair; yet forming altogether an aggregate mass of elasticity, so springy that the rider sits almost undis- turbed, liowever high may be the action, or however rapid the pace. Strength is as important as ease ; therefore these bones are united to- gether with peculiar firmness. The round head of one is exactly fitted to the cup or cavity of that immediately before it ; and between them is placed the elastic ligamentous substance we have just described, so strong, that in endeavouring to separate the bones of the back, the bones will breal sooner than this substance will give way. Beside this there are ligaments running along the broad under surface of these bones ; ligam.ents1)etween each of the transverse processes, or side projections of the bones ; and ligaments between the spinous processes, or upright projections ; and a continuation of the strong ligament of the neck running along the whole course of the back and loins above these, lengthening and contracting, as in the neck, with the motions of the animal, and forming a powerftd bond of union between the bones. By these means the hunter will carry a heavy man without fatigue or strain through a long chase ; and those shocks and jars are avoided which would be annoying to the rider, and injurious and speedily fatal to the horse. These provisions, however, although adequate to common or even severe exertion, will not protect the animal from the consequences of brutal usage; and, therefore, if the horse be much overweighted, or violently exercised, or too suddenly pulled upon his haunches, these ligaments are strained : — inflammation follows ; — and the ligament becomes changed to bone, and the joints of the back lose their springiness and ease of motion ; or rather in point of fact cease to exist. On account of the too hard service required from them, and especially before they have gained their full strength, there are few old horses, who have not some of the bones of the back or loins ancJiT/losed, united together by bony matter, and not by ligament. When this exists to any considerable extent the horse is not pleasant to ride ; he turns with difficulty in his stall ; — he is unwilling to lie down, or when down to rise again ; — and he has a curious straddling action. Such horses are said to be broken-backed, or chinked in the chine. Fracture of the bones of the back rarely occurs, on account of their being so strongly united by ligaments, and defended by muscular substance. If a fracture of these bones does happen, it is during the violent struggles after the horse has been cast for an operation. The length of the back is an important consideration. A long-backed horse Avill be easy in his paces, because the increased distance between the fore and hind legs, which are the supports of the spine, will afford greater room for the play of the joints of the back. A long spring has much more play than a short one, and will better obviate concussion. A long-backed horse is likewise formed for speed, for there is room for him to bring his 165 THE HORSE. hinder legs more under him in the act of gallopping, and thus more power- fully propel or drive forward the body : but, on the other hand, a long- backed horse will be weak in the back, and easily overweighted. A long spring may be easily bent and broken. The weight of the rider, likewise, placed further from the extremities, will act with mechanical disadvantage upon them, and be more likely to strain them. A short-backed horse may be a good hackney, and be able to carry the heaviest weight, and possess great endurance ; but his paces will not be so easy, nor his speed so great, and he may be apt to overreach himself. The comparative advantage of a longer short carcase depends entirely on the use for which the horse is intended. For general purposes the horse with a short carcase is very properly preferred. He will possess health and strength ; for horses of this make aie proverbially hardy. He will have sufficient ease not to fatigue the rider, and speed for every ordinary purpose. Length of back will always be desirable when there is more than usual substance generally, and particularly when the loins are wide, and the muscles of the loins large and swelling. The two requisites, strength and speed, will then probably be united. The back should be depressed a little immediately behind the withers ; and then continue in an almost straight line to the loins. This is the form most consistent with beauty and strength. Some horses have a very con- siderable hollow behind the withers. They are said to be saddle-hacked. It seems as if a depression were purposely made for the saddle. Such horses are evidently easy goers, for this curve inward must necessarily in- crease the play of the joints of the back; but in the same proportion they must be weak and liable to sprain. To the general appearance of the horse, this defect is not in any great degree injurious ; for the hollow of the back is uniformly accompanied by a beautifully arched crest. A ^ew horses have the curve outward. They are said to be roach- hackedy from the supposed resemblance to the arched back of a roach. This is a very serious defect ; — altogether incompatible with beauty, and materially diminishing the usefulness of the animal. It is almost im- possible to prevent the saddle from being thrown on the shoulders, or the back from being galled ; — the elasticity of the spine is destroyed ; — the rump is badly set on; — the hinder legs are too much under the animal ; — he is continually overreaching himself, and his head is carried awkwardly low. THE LOINS. The loins are attentively examined by every good horseman. They can scarcely be too broad and muscular. The strength of the back, and the strength of the hinder extremities, v/ill depend materially on this. The breadth of the loins is regulated by the length of the transverse or side processes of that part. The bodies of the bones of the loins are likewise larger than those of the back; and a more dove-tailed kind of union sub- sists between these bones, than between those of the back. Every provi- sion is made for strength here. The union of the back and loins should be carefully remarked. There is sometimes a depression between them : a kind of line is drawn across which shows imperfection in the construction of the spine, and is regarded as an indication of weakness. THE WITHERS. The spinous or upright processes of the dorsal vertebras, or bones of the back^ above the upper part of the shoulder, are as remarkable for their length THE WITHERS. 167 as are the transverse or side processes of the bones of the loins. They are flattened and terminated by rough, bhmted extremities. Tiie elevated ridge which they form is called the withe.rs. It will be seen in the cuts (pp. 63 and 163), that the spine of the first bone of the back has but little elevation, and is sharp and upright. The second is longer and inclined back- ward ; the third and fourth increase in length, and the fifth is the longest; — they then gradually shorten until the twelfth or thirteenth, which becomes level with the bones of the loins. High withers have been always, in the mind of the judge of the horse, associated with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is plain enough : — they afford larger surface for the attachment of the muscles of the back ; and in proportion to the elevation of the withers, these muscles act with greater advantage. The rising of the fore parts of the horse, even in the trot, and more especially in the gallop, depends not merely on the action of the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on those of the loins, inserted into the spinous processes of these bones of the back, and acting with greater power in proportion as these processes, constituting the withers, are lengthened. The arm of the lever to which the power is applied will be longer; and we well know that in proportion to the length of this arm will be the ease with which a weight is raised. Therefore good and high action will depend much on elevated withers. li is not difficult to understand how speed will likewise be promoted by the same conformation. The power of the horse is in his hinder quarters. In them lies the main spring of the frame, and the fore quarters are only elevated and thrown forward to receive the weight forced on them by the action of the hinder quarters. In proportion, however, as the fore-quarters are elevated, will they be thrown farther forward, or, in other words, will the stride of the horse be lengthened : they are elevated and thrown forward in proportion to the elevation of the withers, and therefore in this point of view the form of the withers is very much connected with speed. Yet many racers have the forehand low. The unrivalled Eclipse (see p. 47) was a remarkable instance of this ; but the ample and finely proportioned quarters, and the muscularity of the thigh and fore-arm, rendered the aid to be derived from the withers perfectly unnecessary. The heavy draught horse does not require elevated withers. His utility depends on the power of depressing his fore- quarters, and throwing their weight fully into the collar ; but for common work in the hackney, in the farmer's horse, and in the hunter, well-formed withers will be an essential advantage, as con- tributing to good and safe action, and likev/ise to speed. MUSCLES OF THE BACK. The most important muscles which belong to this part of the frame can be very imperfectly delineated in any cut; we have endeavoured, how- ever, to give as complete a view of them, and of all the superficial muscles of the frame, as we could. They are principally those which extend from the continuation of the hgament of the neck, along the whole of the back and loins ; and likewise from the last cervical bone ; — the superficialis anU iransversalis costarmn, or superficial and transverse muscles of the ribs, going from this ligament to the upper part of the ribs, to elevate them, and so assist in the expansion of the chest; also the large mass of muscle, the longissimus dorsi, or longest muscle of the back, from the spinous and transverse processes of the vertebrae to the ribs, and by which all the motions of the spine, and back, and loins, of which we have spoken, are principally produced ; by which the fore quarters are raised upon the hind, or the 168 THE HORSE. liind upon the fore, according- as either of them is made a fixed point. This is the principal agent in rearing and kicking. CUT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE. The last we shall mention is the spi?iaUs dorsU the spinal muscle of the back, from the spinous processes of some of the last bones of the back, to those of the fore part ; — thick and strong about the withers, and broadly attached to them ; and more powerfully attached, and more strongly acting in proportion to the elevation of the withers ; and proceeding on to the three lowest bones of the neck, and therefore mainly concerned, as we have described, in elevating the fore- quarters, and producing high and safe action, and contributing to speed. Before we quite leave the roof of the chest, we will speak of some accidents or diseases to which it is exposed. The first is of a very serious nature. FISTULOUS WITHERS. When the saddle has been suffered to press long upon the withers, a tumour will be formed, hot and exceedingly tender. It may sometimes be dispersed by the cooling applications recommended in the treatment of poll-evil (p. 153) ; but if, in despite of these, the swelling should remain stationary, and more especially if it should become larger and more tender, warm fomentations and poultices and stimulating embrocations should be applied diligently to it, as to the tumour of poll-evil, in order to hasten the formation of matter. As soon as tlie matter can be fairly detected, a seton should be passed from the top to the bottom of the tumour, so that the whole of the matter may run out, and continue to run out as it is after- wards Ibrmed. The after treatment must be precisely that which we have recommended for a similar disease in the poll. THE IlIBS. 169 111 neglected fistulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper, and more destructive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the shoulder- blade, and the matter may appear at the point of the shoulder or the elbow; or the bones of the withers may become carious. WAUBLES, SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS. On other parts of the back, tumours and very troublesome ulcers may be produced by the same cause. The little tumours resultinn- from the pressure of the saddle are called icarhks, and when they ulcerate they fre- quently become sitfasts. The ulcer has a portion of callous skin in the centre of it, resembling leather in its appearance, and so closely adhering- as not to be separated without great force or absolute dissection ; and hence the name given to this peculiar ulcer. Warbles are too often but little regarded. They will frequently disappear without medical treatment, but they will, at other times, degenerate into siifasts. If it be practicable, the horse should have rest, or, at all events, the stuffing of the saddle should be so contrived that every degree of pressure be removed from the part: then goulard and vinegar or brine should be frequently applied for the purpose of dispelling the enlargement. Should this prove ineilective, and the sitfast appear, let it by no means be torn out, but apply a mild blister which will cause it speedily to separate ; and then let the wound be dressed with Friar's balsam, or Turner's cerate, or both. For saddle galls there is no better application than strong salt and water, mixed with a fourth-part of tincture of myrrh. Common sense and common humanity would suggest the necessity of chamberino- the saddle and the collar, and not suffering the animal, with sore places as broad as the hand, to be unnecessarily tortured by the rubbing of the rough and hardened stuffing. THE RIBS. The ribs constitute the sides of the chest. They are usually eighteen on either side, and, in a few instances, nineteen or twenty. They are crooked or twisted in their figure, but so united to the spine by a true joint, the head of each rib being received between the bodies of two of the bones of the back, that they form so many arches, differing in roundness in different horses. The first rib (a) is placed at the base of the column of the neck, and is short and strong in order to support the weight and pressure of the head and neck, and to be a fixed point for the other ribs to act upon in expanding and contracting the chest. The second is longer and straight, to assist in the same office, and to sustain the stress which arises from the suspension of the trunk between the shoulders. The other ribs (e) have the arched form which we have described. The lower extremity of the rib is attached to or composed of cartilage, a yielding elastic substance, to enable the ribs to be more easily moved by the muscles of respiration, and to bring them back again to their natural situation and shape when the muscles cease to act. These cartilages are received into, and constitute joints with the sternum or breast-bone, formed almost in the shape of the prow of a ship (c), and with a projection of cartilage at each end. The pro- jection before is evident to the eye in the living horse, and is called the point of the breast. This is occasionally injured by blows, or by the pressure of the collar, and first a tumour, and then an ulcer is formed which is very apt to become fistulous, and must be treated like poll-evil or fistulous withers. The breast-bone is in the colt composed of six bones, which in the full- IjQ THE HORSE. grown horse unite into one. Seven or eight of the ribs, the number occa- sionally varying:, are attached to the sternum by very strong ligaments. These are called the true ribs, and they increase in length from the first to the seventh. The remaining ten or eleven are called false ribs ;— they become gradually shorter, and narrower, and rounder; and their direction is more backward, in order to increase the cavity of the thorax and belly, and to strengthen the roof of the belly. Their cartilages are not attached to the breast'^bone, but to each other, and yet connected with the breast- bone, and sharing in all its motions by means of the cartilage of the last true rib with which they all unite. In consequence of these shorter ribs, with long elastic cartilages, the bulk of the chest and of the belly is ma- terially increased, and the ribs are much more easily moved. Belween the ribs, and mainly contributing to their motion, are two layers of muscles, the intercostals (between the ribs). According as the ribs are brought nearer to, or recede from each other, the cavity of the chest will be increeised or diminished. These two layers are curiously contrived. If the fibres ran straight across from rib to rib, they would be exceedingly short ; a short muscle could have but little contraction, and a very slight change of form or dimension could be produced. They run diagonally from rib to rib, and thus are m^ore than double the length that they could otherwise have been ; and so the degree of contraction is doubled, and ihe ribs are moved through a gTeater space. More perfectly lo produce this etfect, the muscular fibres of the outer layer run one way, and those of the inner layer a contrary, crossing each other in the form of an X. When these muscles contract, as they act from the fore ribs upon the hinder ones, altliough the ribs are brought nearer to each other, they are thrown outward, and the real effect is to expand, and not to contract the cavity of the chest. This is, perhaps, somewhat difficult to imagine, but it is the actual explanation of the matter. The ribs are drawn powerfully forward, and when drawn forward, they must be thrown outward, and the chest is necessarily expanded. MUSCLES OF THE BREAST. Of the proper form of the trunk we have already spoken. There are some important muscles attached to the breast, and therefore, every horse should have a breast tolerably expanded. In the cut, page 154, and in that at pao-e 168, are seen a very important pair of muscles, the jjeciorales trans- versi, or pectoral muscles, forming two prominences in the front of the chest, and extending backward between the legs. They come from the fore and upper part of the breast-bone ; go across the inward part of the arm, and reach from the elbow almost down to the knee. They confine the arm to the side in the rapid motion of the horse, and prevent him from being, what horsemen would call, and what is seen in a horse pushed beyond his natural power, " all abroad." Other muscles, pedorales magni et parvi, the great and little pectorals, rather above but behind these, go from the breast-bone to the arm, to draw back the point of the shoulder, and bring the shoulder upright. Another and smaller muscle goes from the breast-bone to the shoulder, to assist in the same office. A horse, there- fore, thin and narrow in the breast, must be deficient in important muscular power. Between the legs and along the breast-bone is the proper place in which to insert rowels, in cases of inflamed lungs. THE HEART. CHEST-FOUNDER. mi These muscles are occasionally the seat of a singular and somewhat mys- terious disease. The old farriers used to call it antlcor and chest-founder. The horse has considerable stiffness in moving, evidently not referable to the feet. There is tenderness about the muscles of the breast, and occa- sionally swelling, and after a while, the muscles of the chest waste consi- derably. We believe it to be nothing more than rheumatism, produced by suffering the horse to remain too long tied up, and exposed to the cold or riding him against a very bleak wind. Sometimes a considerable degree of fever accompanies this ; but bleeding, physic, a rowel in the chest, warm embrocations over the parts affected, warm stabling, and warm clothino*, with doses of a drachm or two of autimonial powder, will soon subdue the complaint. DROPSY OF THE SKIN OF THE CHEST. Dropsical swellings often appear between the fore-legs, and on the chest. They are effusions of fluid underneath the skin. They accompany various diseases, particularly when the animal is w^eakened by them, and sometimes appear when there is no other disease than the debility, which, in the spring and fall of the year, accompanies the changing of the coat. The treatment will vary with the cause of the affection, or the accompanying disease. Small punctures with the lancet will seldom do harm; — friction of the part, if it can be borne, will be serviceable; — mild exercise should be used ; — diuretics given, mixed with some cordial, with liberal food, as carrots, malt mashes, and occasionally a very mild dose of physic, and that followed by tonics and cordials, with diuretics. The vegetable tonics^ as gentian and columbo with ginger, vi^ill be most effectual. The cavity of the trunk consists of two compartments, divided from each other by the diaphragm or midriff. The first, into which we have traced the gullet and the wind-pipe, contains the heart and the lungs. It is lined by a delicate membrane called the pleura (the side, or membrane of the side), which likewise extends over and affords a covering to the lungs. A portion of it, dipping down from its attachment to the spine, separates the chest into two parts, each of which contains one of the lobes or di- visions of the lungs; and this portion, the mediastinum (standing in the middle), forms a kind of bag enveloping the heart. The use of this mem- brane is to throw out a fluid to moisten the different surfaces, and prevent all dangerous friction or rubbing between these important parts ; and also, to support these organs in their natural situation. THE HEART. The heart is placed between a doubling of the pleura, and is likewise sur- rounded by a membrane or bag of its own, called the joericardium (about the heart). This likewise throws out a fluid, for the purposes above-men* tioned. When the pericardium or the heart itself becomes inflamed, this secretion is much increased; and so much fluid accumulates as to obstruct the beating of the heart. This disease is called dropsy of the heart. It is not easily distinguished from inflammation of the lungs ; but this is a matter of little consequence, for the treatment would be nearly the same in both. The heart is the engine by which the blood is circulated through the frame. It is composed of four cavities, two above called auricles, from their 172' THE HORSE. supposed resemblance to a dog's ear, and two ventricles or little bellies, occupying the substance of the heart. The blood which has circulated through "the frame, and nourished it, returns to the heart through the veins. It enters the auricle on the right side, where it accumulates as in a reservoir, until there is enough to fill the ventricle below. The auricle then contracts, and throws the blood into the ventricle. That contracts in its turn, and drives the blood, not back again into the auricle, for there is as complete a valve as that in the sucker of a pump to prevent this, but through an aperture that leads to the lungs. The blood tra- verses, as we shall presently see, all the little vessels and cells of the lungs, and undergoes an important change there, and is carried to the left auricle ; thence it descends to the left ventricle, and by the powerful closing of the ventricle, is propelled into the arteries. The first artery, the aorta, rises from the left ventricle, and the blood, by the force communicated to it, by the sudden contraction of the ventricle and assisted by the elastic power of the arteries which keeps them open and free from obstruction, and also by the pressure of the muscular and elastic coats, endeavouring to return to their former dimensions, pursues its course through every part of the frame. The heart is subject to disease. It powerfully sympathises with the ma- ladies of every part. An injury of the foot will speedily double the quick- ness of the beatings or pulsations of the heart. It sometimes is inflamed, without previous affection of any other part. This is not a frequent, but a most dangerous disease, and is characterised by a pulse quick and strong, and a bounding action of the heart that may occasionally be seen at the side, and even heard at the distance of several yards. There is also a peculiar alertness and quickness in every motion of the animal ; and an energy of expression in the countenance exceedingly remarkable. Speedy and copious blood-letting will alone avail to save the horse ; for the heart, over excited and called on to perform this double work, must soon be exhausted. THE ARTERIES. The vessels which carry the blood from the heart are called arteries {keep- ing air, the ancients thought that they contained air). They are composed of three coats ; the outer or elastic is that by which they are enabled to yield to the gush of blood, and enlarge their dimensions as it is forced along them, and by which also they contract again as soon as the gush of blood has passed ; the middle coat is the muscular, by which this contrac- tion is more powerfully performed, and the blood urged on in its course ; the inner or membranous coat is the mere hning of the tube. This yielding of the artery to the gush of blood, forced into it by the contraction of the heart, constitutes THE PULSE. The pulse is a very useful assistant to the practitioner of human medicine, and much more so to the veterinary surgeon, whose patients cannot de- scribe either the seat or degree of ailment or pain. The number of pulsa- tions in any artery will give the number of the beatings of the heart, and so express the irritation of that organ, and of the frame generally. In a state of health, the heart beats in the farmer's horse about thirty-six times in a minute. In the smaller, and in the thorough-bred horse, the pulsations are 40 or 42. This is said to be the standard pulse, — the pu^se cf health. It varies singularly little in horses of the same size and breed, and THE PULSE. 173 where it is found there can be little materially wron^. Th6 most con- venient place to feel the pulse, is at the lower jaw, (p. 119) a little behind the spot where the submaxillary artery and vein, and the parotid duct, come from under the jaw. There the number of pulsations will be easily counted, and the character of the pulse, a matter of fully equal im- portance, will be clearly ascertained. Many horsemen put the hand to the side. They can certainly count the pulse there, but they can do no- thing more. We must be able to press the artery ag-ainst some hard body, as the jaw-bone, in order to ascertain the manner in which the blood flows through it, and the quantity that flows. When the pulse reaches fifty or fifty-five, some degree of fever may be apprehended, and proper precaution should be taken. Seventy or seventy- five will indicate a somewhat dangerous state, and put the owner and the surgeon not a little on the alert. Few horses long survive a pulse of one hundred, for by this excessive action the energies of nature are speedily worn out. Some things, however, should be taken into account in forming our conclusion from the frequency of the pulse. Exercise, a warm stable, fear, will wonderfully increase the number of pulsations. When a careless, brutal fellow goes up to a horse, and speaks hastily to him, and handles him roughly, he adds ten beats per minute to the pulse ; and will often be misled in the opinion he may form of the state of the animal. A judicious person will approach the patient gently, and pat and sooth him, and even then the circulation, probably, will be little disturbed ; and he should take the additional precaution of noting the number and quality of the pulse, a second time, before he leaves the animal. If a ^z/ic/i: pulse indicate irritation and fever, a s/oz^; pulse will likewise characterise diseases of an opposite character. It accompanies the sleepy stage of staggers, and every malady connected with deficiency of nervous energy. The heart may not only be excited to more frequent, but also to more violent action. It may contract more powerfully upon the blood, which will be driven with greater force through the arteries, and the expansion of the vessels will be greater and more sudden. Then we have the hard pulse, — the sure indicator of considerable fever, and calling for the imme- diate and free use of the lancet. Sometimes the pulse may be hard and jerking, and yet small. The stream though forcible is not great. The heart is so irritable, that it contracts before the ventricle is properly filled. The practitioner knows that this shews a dangerous state of disease. It is an almost invariable accompani- ment of inflammation of the bowels. A v)eak pulse, when the arterial stream flows slowly, is caused by the feeble action of the heart. It is the reverse of fever, and expressive of debility. The oppressed pulse is when the arteries seem to be fully distended with blood ; there is obstruction somewhere, and the action of the heart can hardly force the stream along, or communicate pulsation to the current. This is the case in sudden inflammation of the lungs. They are overloaded and gorged with blood, which cannot find its way through their minute vessels. This accounts for the well-known fact of a copious bleeding in- creasing a pulse previously oppressed. A portion being removed from the distended and choked vessels, the remainder is able to flow on. There are many other varieties of the pulse, which it would be tedious here to particularise, and we will conclude our remarks on it by observing, that, during the act of bleeding, its state should be carefully observed. 174 THE HORSE. Many veterinary surgeons, and gentlemen too, are apt to order a certain quantity of blood to be taken away, but do not condescend to superintend the operation. This is unpardonable in the surgeon, and censurable in the owner of the horse. The horse is bled for some particular purpose. There is some state of disease, indicated by a peculiar quality of the pulse, which we are endeavouring to alter. The most experienced practitioner cannot tell what quantity of blood must be abstracted to produce the desired effect. The change of the pulse can alone indicate when the object is accom- plished ; therefore, the operator should have his finger on the artery during the act of bleeding, and, comparatively regardless of the quantity, continue to take blood, until, in inflammation of the lungs, the oppressed pulse be- comes fuller and more distinct, or the strong pulse of considerable fever is evidently softer, or the animal exhibits symptoms of faintness. The arteries divide as they proceed through the frame, and branch out into innumerable minute tubes, termed capillaries (hair-like tubes), and they even become so small as to elude the sight. The slightest puncture cannot be inflicted without wounding some of them. In these little tubes, the nourishment of the body, and the separation of all the various secretions is performed, and, in consequence of this, the blood is changed ; and when these capillaries unite together, and begin to enlarge, it is found to be no longer arterial, or of a florid red colour, but venous, or of a blacker hue. Therefore, the principal termination of the arteries is in veins. The point where the one ends, and the other commences, cannot be ascertained ; it is when the red arterial blood, having discharged its function, is changed to venous or black blood ; but this is a process gradually performed, and therefore the vessel is gradually changing its character. Branches from the ganglial or sympathetic nerves wind round these vessels, and endue them with energy to discharge their functions. When the nerves communicate too much energy and these vessels consequently act with too much power, iujlammation is produced. If this -disturbed action be confined to a small space, or a single organ, it is said to be local,, as inflammation of the eye, or of the lungs ; when this inordinate action spreads from its original seat, and embraces the whole of the arterial system, fever is said to be present, and which usually increases in proportion as the local disturbance increases, and subsides with it. INFLAMMATION. Local inflammation is characterised by redness, swelling, heat, and pain. The redness proceeds from the increased quantity of blood flowing through the part, occasioned by the increased action of the vessels. The swelling arises from the same cause, and from the deposit of fluid in the neigh- bouring substance. The natural heat of the body is produced by the gra- dual change which takes place in the blood, in passing from an arterial to a venous state. If more blood be driven through the capillaries of an in- flamed part, and in which this change is effected, more heat will necessarily be produced there; and the pain is easily accounted for, by the distention and pressure which must be produced, and the participation of the nerves in the disturbance of the surrounding parts. We have spoken of some of these local inflammations, and shall speak of others when describing the structure of the parts that are occa- sionally attacked by them. The treatment will in some degree vary with the part attacked, and the degree of the inflammation ; but it will necessa- rily include the following particulars. INFLAMMATION. ^ 175 If inflammation consist of increased flow of blood to and through the part, the ready way to abate the inflammation, is to lessen the quantity of blood. If we takeaway the fuel, the fire will q;o out. All other means are comparatively unimportant, compared with bleeding. Blood may be taken from the jug'ular, and so the general quantity may be lessened ; but if it can be taken from the neighbourhood of the part, it will be productive of tenfold benefit. One quart of blood taken from the font in acute founder, by unloading the vessels of the inflamed part, and enabling them to contract, and, in that contraction, to acquire tone and power to resist future distention, will do more good than iive quarts taken from the general circulation. An ounce of blood obtained by scarifying the swelled vessels of the inflamed eye, will give as much relief as a copious bleeding from the jugular. It is a principle in the animal frame which should never be lost sight of by the veterinary surgeon, or the horseman, that if by bleeding the process of inflammation can once be checked, — if it can be suspended but for a little while, — although it may return, it never returns with the same degree of violence, and in many cases it is got rid of at once. Hence the necessity of bleeding early, and bleeding largely, in inflammation of the lungs, or of the bowels, or of the brain, or of any im- portant organ. Many horses are lost for want of bleeding, or from insuf- ficient bleeding, but we never knew one materially injured by the most copious abstraction of blood in the earli/ stage of acute inflammation. The horse will bear, and with advantage, the loss of an almost incredible quantity of blood. Four quarts taken from liim, will be comparatively little more than one pound taken from the human being. We can scarcely con- ceive a considerable inflammation of any part of the horse, either proceeding from sprains, contusions, or any other cause, in which bleeding, local (if possible) or general, or both, will not be of essential service. Next in importance to bleeding is purging. Something maybe removed from the bowels, the retention of which would increase the general irrita- tion and fever ; — the blood will be materially lessened, for the quantity of serous or watery fluid which is separated from it by a brisk purge, the action of which in the horse continues probably for more than twenty-four hours, is enormous ; and while the blood is thus determined to the bowels, less even of that which remains will flow through the inflamed part. When the circulation is directed to one set of vessels, it is proportionably diminished in other parts. It was first directed to the inflamed parts, and they were overloaded and injured : it is now directed to the bowels, and the inflamed parts are relieved. While the purging continues, there is also some degree of languor and sickness felt, and the force of the circulation is thereby diminished, and the general excitement lessened. The farmer will, therefore, see the importance of physic in every case of considerable external inflammation. If the horse is laid by for a few days from injury of the foot, ov sprain, or poll-evil, or w-ound, or almost any cause of in- flammation, a physic ball should be given. In cases of internal inflammation, much judgment is required to deter- mine when a purgative maybe beneficial or injurious. In inflammation of the lungs or bowels it should never be given. There is so strong a sym- pathy between the various contents of the cavity of the chest, that no one of them can be inflamed to any great extent, without all the others being disposed to become inflamed ; and, therefore, a dose of physic in inflamed lungs would be frequently as fatal as a dose of poison. The excitement produced on the bov/els by the purgative will soon run on to inflammation, which no medical skill can stop. The means of abating external inflammation are various and seemingly 176 THE HORSE. contradictory. The heat of the part very naturally and properly led to the application of cold embrocations and lotions. Heat has a strong tendency to equalize itself, or to leave that substance which has a too great quantity of it, or little capacity to retain it, for another which has less of it, or more capacity to retain it. Hence the advantage of cold applications, by which a great deal of the unnatural heat is speedily taken away from the inflamed part. The foot labouring under inflammation is put into cold water ; or the horse is made to stand in water or wet clay, and various cold applications are used to sprains. The part is wetted with diluted vinegar or goulard, or salt and water. We believe that when benefit is derived from these applications, it is to be attributed to their coldness alone, and that water, and when especially cooled below the natural temperature, is quite as good as anything else. An ounce of nitre dissolved in a pint of water, will lower the temperature of the fluid many degrees ; but the lotion must be applied immediately after the "salt has been dissolved ; and it should be applied in such a way that the inflamed part may be fully ex- posed to the process of evaporation. While the fluid is converted into vapour, by the heat of the skin, a considerable degree of cold is produced. Let the limb or the part have the full benefit of this, by being uncovered. A bandage may be afterwards applied to strengthen the limb, but during the continuance of active inflammation it will only confine the heat of the part, or prevent the part from benefiting by the salutary influence of tlie cold produced by the evaporation of the water. Sometimes, however, we resort to warm fomentations, and if benefit be derived from their use, it is to be traced to the warmth of the fluid, and not to any medicinal property in it; and warm water will do as much good to the horse who has so thick a skin, as a decoction of chamomile, or marsh- mallow, or even of poppy heads, or any nostrum that the farrier may re- commend. Fomentations increase the warmth of the skin, and open the pores of it, and promote perspiration, and so lessen the tension and swelling of the part, assuage pain, and relieve inflammation. Fomentations, to be useful, should be long and frequently employed, and at as great a degree of heat as can be used without giving the animal pain. Poultices are nothing but more permanent, or longer-continued fomentations. The part is exposed to the influence of warmth and moisture for many hours or days v^ithout intermission, and perspiration being so long kept up, the distended vessels will be very materially relieved. The advantage derived from a poultice is attributed to the heat "and moisture, which, by means of it, can be long applied to the skin, and it should be composed of materials which will best afford this heat and moisture. The bran poultice of the farrier will therefore be objectionable. It is never perfectly in con- tact with the surface of the skin, and it becomes nearly dry in a few hours, and then is injurious. Linseed-meal is a much better material for a poultice ; it will remain moist for twenty-four hours. The poultice is easily made, by pouring hot w^ater on the meal, a little at a time, and moulding it well with the hand until the cataplasm attains its proper con- sistence. It is often very difficult to decide when a cold or a hot application is to be used, and no general rule can be laid down, except tliat in cases of super- ficial inflammation, and in the early stage, cold lotions will be preferable ; but when the inflammation is deeper seated, or fully established, warm fomentations may be most serviceable. Stimulating applications are frequently used in local inflammation. We have shewn the action of a blister in hastening the suppuration of the tumour of straiigles. When the inflammation is deeply seated, a stimulat- FEVER. 177 ing" application to the skin will cause some irritation and inflammation there, and lessen or sometimes remove the original one ; hence the use of rowels and blisters in inflammation of the chest. Inflammation to a high dcg'ree cannot exist in parts so near to each other. If we excite it in one, we shall abate it in the other, and also by the discharge which we establish from the one, we shall lessen the determination of blood to the other. With one caution we will dismiss this part of our subject ; stimulating and blistering applications should never be applied to a part already in- flamed. We shall not put out a fire by heaping more fuel upon it. Hence the mischief which the farrier often does by rubbing his abominable oils on a recent sprain, hot and tender. Many a horse has been ruined by this absurd treatment. When the heat and tenderness have disappeared by the use of cold lotions or fomentations, and the leg or sprained part remains en- larged, or even bony matter threatens to be deposited, we may be justified in exciting inflammation of the skin by a blister, in order to rouse the deeper seated absorbents to action, and enable them to take up this de- posit ; but we would again state it as a principle that, except to hasten the natural process and effects of inflammation, a blister, or stimulating appli- cation, should, in the treatment of the horse, never be applied to a part already inflamed. FEVER. Fever is general increased arterial action, either without any local affec- tion, or in consequence of the sympathy of the system with inflammation in some particular part. The first is pure fever. Some have denied that it exists in the horse, but they must have been strangely careless observers of the diseases of that animal. The truth of the matter is, that the usual stable management and general treatment of the horse are so absurd, that various parts of him are rendered so liable to take on inflammation, that pure fever will exist but a very little time without degenerating into inflammation of these parts. The lungs are so weakened by the heated and foul air of the ill-ventilated stable, and by sudden changes from almost insufferable heat to intense cold; and the feet are so injured by hard usage and injudicious shoeing, that, sharing from the beginning in the general vascular excitement which characterises fever, they soon become excited far beyond other poftions of the frame ; and that which commenced as fever becomes inflammation of the lungs or feet. Pure fever, however, is sometimes seen, and runs its course as fever. It begins frequently with a cold or shivering fit, although this is not essential to fever. The horse is dull, unwilling to move, with a staring coat, and cold legs and feet. This is succeeded by warmth of the body; unequal distribution of warmth to the legs ; one hot, and the other three cold, or some unnaturally warm, and others unusually cold, although not the deathy coldness of inflammation of the lungs; the pulse quick, soft, and often indistinct ; breathing somewhat laborious ; but no cough, or pawing, or looking at the flanks. The animal will scarcely eat, and is very costive. While the state of pure fever lasts, the shivering fit returns at nearly the same hour every day, and is succeeded by the warm one, and that often by a very slight sweating one ; and this goes on for several days until local inflammation appears, or the fever gradually subsides. No horse ever died of pure fever ; if he is not destroyed by inflammation of the lungs, or feet, or bowels succeeding to the fever, he gradually recovers. What we have said of the treatment of local inflammation will suffi- N 178 THE HORSE. ciently indicate that which we should recommend in fever. Fever is general increased action of the heart and arteries, and therefore evidently appears the necessity for bleeding;, rejvulatinfr the quantity of blood taken by the degree of fever, and usually continuing to take it (the finger being kept on the artery) until some impression is made upon the system. The bowels should be gently opened ; but the danger of inflammation of the lungs, and the uniformly injurious consequence of purgation in that disease, will pre- vent the administration of an active purgative. One drachm and a half of aloes may be given morning and night with the proper fever medicine, until the bowels are slightly relaxed, after which nothing more of an ape- rient quality should be administered. Digitalis, emetic tartar, and nitre should be given morning and night, in proportions regulated by the circumstances of the case, and these should give way to white hellebore in doses of half a drachm twice in the day if symptoms of inflammation of the luno-s should appear. The horse should be warmly clothed, but be placed in a cool and well-ventilated stable. Symptomatic fever is generally increased arterial action, proceeding from some local cause. ISIo organ of consequence can be long disordered or inflamed without the neighbouring parts being disturbed, and the whole system gradually participating in the disturbance. Inflammation of the feet or of the lungs never existed long as to any material extent, without being accompanied by some degree of fever. The treatment of symptomatic fever should resemble that of simple fever, except that particular attention should be paid to the state of the part ori- ginally diseased. If the inflammation which existed there can be sub- dued, the general disturbance will usually cease. The arteries terminate occasionally in openings on different surfaces of the body. On the skin they pour out the perspiration, and on the different cavities of the frame they yield the moisture which prevents friction. In other parts they terminate in glands, in which a fluid essentially different from the blood is secreted or separated from it : such are the parotid and salivary glands, the kidneys, the spleen, and the various organs or labora- tories which provide so many and such different secretions, for the multi- farious purposes of life; but the usual termination of arteries is in veins. THE VEINS. These vessels carry back to the heart the blood which had been con- veyed to the different parts by the arteries. They have but two coats, a muscular and a membranous ; both of them are thin and comparatively weak. They are more numerous and much larger than the arteries, and consequently the blood, lessened in quantity by the various secretions sepa- rated from it, flow s more slowly through them. It is forced on partly by the first impulse communicated to it by the heart ; partly, in the extremities and external portions of the frame, by the pressure of the nuiscles ; and in the cavity ot the chest, its motion is assisted or principally caused by the sudden opening of the ventricles of the heart, after they have closed upon and driven out their contents, and thereby causing a vacuum which the blood rushes on to fill. There are curious valves in the veins which prevent the blood from flowing backward. BOG AND BLOOD SPAVIN. The veins of the horse, although their coats are thin compared with those of the arteiies, are not subject to the enlargements (varicose veins) BLEEDING. 179 which are so frequent, and often so painful, in the legs of the human being*. The legs of the horse may exhibit many of the injurious consequences of hard work, but the veins will, with one exception, be unaltered in structure. Attached to the extremities of most of the tendons, and between the tendons and other parts, are little bags containing a mucous substance to enable the tendons to slide over each other without friction, and to move easily on the neighbouring parts. From violent exercise these little bags are liable to enlarge. Windgalls and thoroughpins are instances of this. There is one of them on the inside of the hock at its bending: this sometimes becomes considerably increased in size, and the enlargement is called a bog spavin. A vein passes over this bag, which is pressed between the enlarge- ment and the skin, and the passage of the blood through it is impeded ; the vein is consequently distended by the accumulated blood, and the distension reaches from this bag as low down as the next valve. This is called a hlood-spavin. Blood-spavin then is the consequence of bog- spavin. It very rarely occurs, and is, in the majority of instances, con- founded with bog-spavin. Blood-spavin does not always cause lameness, except the horse is very hard worked, and then it is doubtful whether the lameness should not be attributed to the enlarged mucous bag- rather than to the distended vein. Both of these diseases, however, render a horse unsound, and materially lessen his value. Old farriers used to tie the vein, and so cut off altogether the flow of the blood. Some of them, a little more rational, used to dissect out the bag which caused the distension of the vein : but the modern and more pru- dent way is to endeavour to promote the absorption of the contents of the bag. This may be attempted by pressure long applied. A bandage may be contrived to take in the whole of the hock except its point ; and a com- press made of folded linen being placed on the bog-spavin, may confine the principal pressure to that part. It is, however, very difficult to adapt a bandage to a joint which admits of such extensive motion ; therefore most practitioners apply two or three successive blisters over the enlargement, when it usually disappears ; but unfortunately it returns again if any extraordinary exertion is required from the horse. Of the wounds of veins, and their consequent inflammation, we have spoken when describing the veins of the neck. The veins are selected in preference to the arteries for the purpose of bleeding, because they are more superficial and larger, and blood can be more easily and certainly procured from them, and the flow of the blood can be more easily stopped. BLEEDING. This operation is performed with a fleam or a lancet. The first is the common instrument, and the safest, except in skilful hands. The lancet, however, has a more surgical appearance, and will be adopted by the vete- rinary practitioner. A bloodstick, a piece of hard M'ood loaded at one end with lead, is used to strike the fleam into the vein. This is sometimes done with too great violence, and the opposite side of the coat of the vein is wounded. Bad cases of inflammation have resulted from this. If the fist be doubled, and the fleam is sharp and is struck with sufficient force with the lower part of the hand, the bloodstick may be dispensed with. For general bleeding the jngular vein is selected. The horse is blind- folded on the side on which he is to be bled, or his head turned well away; the liair is smoothed along the course of the vein with the moistened finger ; then with the third and Httle fingers of the left hand, which holds N2 180 THE HORSE. the fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient to brinp: it fairly into view, but not to swell it too much, for then, presentins^a rounded surface, it would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The point to be selected is about two inches below- the union of the two portions of the juf^ular at the angle of the jaw (see cut, p. 119). The fleam is to be placed in a direct line with the course of the vein, and over the precise cetitre of the vein, as close to it as possible, but its point not absolutely touchini^ the vein. A sharp rap with the bloodstick or the hand on that part of the back of the fleam immediately over the blade, will cut throug'h the vein, and the blood will flow. A fleam with a large blade should always be preferred, for the operation will be materially shortened, which will be a matter of some con- sequence with a fidgety or restive horse ; and a quantity of blood drawn speedily will have far more effect on the system than double the weight slowly taken; while the wound will heal just as readily as if made by a smaller instrument. There is no occasion to press so hard against the neck with the pail, or can, as some do ; a slight pressure, if the incision has been large enough, and straight, and in the middle of the vein, will cause the blood to flow sufficiently fast ; or the finger being introduced into the mouth between the tushes and the grinders, and gently moved about, will keep the mouth in motion, and hasten the rapidity of the stream by the action and pressure of the neighbouring muscles. U'hen sufficient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound should be brought closely and exactly together, and kept together by a small, sharp pin being passed through them. Round this a little tow, or a few hairs from the mane of the horse, should be wrapped, so as to cover the whole of the incision ; and the head of the horse should be tied up for several hours to prevent his rubbing the part against the manger. In bringing the edges of the wound together, and introducing the pin, care should be taken not to draw the skin too much from the neck, otherwise blood will insinuate itself between the skin and the muscles beneath, and cause an unsightly and sometimes troublesome swelling. The blood should be received into a vessel the dimensions of which are exactly known, so that the operator may be able to calculate at every period of the bleeding the quantity that is subtracted. Care likewise should be taken that the blood flow in a regular stream into the centre of the vessel, for if it be suffered to trickle down the sides, it will not afterwards undergo those changes by which we partially judge of the extent of inflammation. The pulse, however, and the symptoms of the case collectively, w ill form a better criterion than any change in the blood. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the edges of the wound will have united, and the pin should be withdrawn. When the bleeding is to be repeated, if more than three or four hours have elapsed, it will be more prudent to make a fresh incision rather than to open the old wound. Few directions are necessary for the use of the lancet. They who are competent to operate with it, will scarcely require any. If the point be {sufficiently sharp the lancet can scarcely be too broad shouldered ; and an abscess lancet will generally make a freer incision than that in common use. A spring lancet has lately been invented by Mr, Weiss in the Strand, l)y which any one may bleed bom the jugular, or from a smaller vein salely and certainly. Whatever instrument be adopted, too much care cannot be taken to have it perfectly clean, and very sharp. It should always be most carefully wiped and dried innned lately after the oi;eration, otherwise in a very short time the edges will begin to be corroded. For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected as the largest super- ficial vein, and most easily got at. lu every affection of the head^ THE LUNGS. 181 and ill cases of fever or extended inflammatory action, it is decidedly the best place for bleeding-. In local inflammation blood may be taken from any of the superficial veins. In supposed affections of the shoulder, or of the fore-leg- or foot, the plate vein, which comes from the inside of the arm, and runs upwards direcdy in front of it towards the jugular, may be opened. In atFections of the hinder extremity, blood is sometimes abstracted from the saphcena, or thigh vein, which runs across the inside of the thigh. In foot cases it may be taken from the coronet, or, much more safely, from the toe ; not by cutting out, as the farrier does, a piece of the sole at the toe of the frog, which sometimes causes a wound difficult to heal, and followed by festering, and even by canker ; but cutting down with a fine drawing-knife called a searcher, at the union between the crust and the sole at the very toe until the blood flows, and, if neces- sary, encouraging its discharge by dipping the foot in warm water. The mesh-work of both arteries and veins will be here divided, and blood is generally obtained in any quantity that may be needed. The bleeding may be stopped with the greatest ease, by placing a bit of tow in the little groove that has been cut, and tacking the shoe over it. THE LUNGS. The chest, likewise, contains the lungs, most important from the office which they discharge, and the diseases to which they are liable. There are two lungs, the right and the left, separated from each other by the mediasti- num. The right lung is larger than the left, because the heart, inclining to the left, leaves less room on that side of the chest. Each of the lungs is likewise partially divided into lobes ; the right lung contains three, and the left two. When the windpipe enters the chest, it divides into two parts, one going to each lung ; and when these reach the substance of the lungs, they separate into innumerable branches, each terminating in a little bag or cell. These branches, with the cells attached to them, bear no slight re- semblance to bunches of minute grapes. Around these cells spread countless blood-vessels, being the extreme ramifications of those which conveyed the blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, and the commencement of those which carry it back from the lungs to the left side of the heart ; and the cells and the blood-vessels are connected together by an intervening substance of a tibrous and cellular texture. The office of the lungs may be very shortly stated. The blood passing through the capillaries of the body, and contributing to the nourishment of the frame, and furnishing all the secretions, becomes, as we have described, changed. It is no longer able to support life : it is possessed of a poi- sonous principle, and that principle is a superabundance of a substance called carbon, which must be got rid of before the blood can again be usefully employed. There is an ingredient in the atmospheric air called oxycren, which has a strong attraction for this carbon, and which will unite with it wherever it finds it. The chest enlarges by the action of the dia- phragm, and the intercostal and other muscles, as we have narrated ; and the lungs expanding with the chest, in order to fill up the vacuum which would otherwise exist between them and the sides of the chest, these cells enlarge, and a kind of vacuum is formed in each of them, and the air rushes down and fills them, and being divided from the venous and poisoned blood by these membranes alone, it is enabled to act upon the blood, and attracts from it this carbon, and thus purifies it, and renders it arterial blood, and fit for the purposes of life. This being accomplished, the chest contracts, and the lungs are pressed into smaller compass, anu 182 THE HORSE. a portion of the air, impregnated with the carbon, and rendered poisonous in its turn, is squeezed out. Presently the chest expands ai^ain, and the lung-s expand with it, and fresh pure air is admitted, which is shortly pressed out again, empoisoned by the carbon of the blood ; and these alternate expansions and contractions constitute the act of breathing. When the animal powerfully exerts himself, a more ample supply of pure blood is required to sustain the energies of life, and the action of the muscles forces the blood more rapidly through the veins ; hence the quick and deep breathing of a horse at speed ; hence the necessity of a capa- cious chest, in order to yield an adequate supply, and the connexion of this capacity of the chest with the speed and the endurance of the horse ; hence the wonderful relief which the mere loosening of the girths affords to a horse blown and distressed, enabling the chest to expand and to contract to a greater extent, in order to yield more purified blood ; and hence the relief af- forded by even a short period of rest, during which this expenditure is not required, and the almost exhausted energies of these organs have time to recover. ' Hence, likewise, appears the necessity of an ample chest for the accumulation of much flesh and fat; for, if a considerable portion of the blood be employed in the growth of the animal, and it be thus rapidly changed, there must be provision for its rapid purification, and that can only be effected by the increased bulk of the lungs, and the corresponding largeness of the chest to contain them. Tne diseases of these organs are among the most serious to which the horse is exposed, and interfere most with his usefulness. A glandered horse may be, and often is too long employed in our service ; a blind horse, under the guidance of the driver, may employ both his strength and his speed for our benefit; but a horse with diseased lungs is worth nothing at all, and hence some of the difficulties with which the veterinary practi- tioner has to struggle. A surgeon who practises on the human body will obtain the gratitude of his patient, if he so far removes a severe affection as to enable him to live on with a certain degree of comfort, although his activity and his power of exertion may be considerably impaired ; but the veterinary surgeon is thought to have done nothing, unless he renders the animal perfectly sound — unless, in fact, he does that which it is abso- lutely impossible to accomplish. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. There is no animal among all those w^hom we have subdued that, previous to his breaking in, is so free from disease as the horse; there is no animal which, after he has been enlisted in our service, is so liable to disease, and especially of the lungs. How do we account for this ? Few things can be more injurious to the delicate membrane that lines the cells of the lungs, than the sudden change from heat to cold, to which, under the usual stable management, the horse is subject. In the spring and autumn,^ the temperature or heat of most stables is several degrees higher than that of the open air ; in winter it is frequently more than thirty degrees. Tlie ne- cessary effect of this must be to weaken and exhaust the energies of the parts most exposed to the influence of these changes, and they are the lungs. It is, however, not only heated but empoisoned air that the horse respires; — composed of his own contaminated breath, and of vapours from his dung, and particularly from his urine, strongly impreg- nated witfi hartshorn, painful to the eyes and irritating to the chest. There is likewise an intim.ile connexion between the lungs and the func- tions of the skin. When the insensible perspiration is suddenly stopped, INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS, 183 cold and coiiG^h are the first consequences. What must inevitably happen to the horse that stands, twenty hours out of tlie four and twenty, in a heated atmosphere, and stands there warmly clothed, and every pore of his skin opened, and the insensible perspiration, and the sensible too, pro- fusely pourinn- out, and then, with his coat stripped from his back, is turned shivering- into a nipping- winter's air? The discharge from the skin is at once arrested, and the revulsion, or pernicious effect of the sudden stoppage of a natural evacuation, falls on the lungs, too much weakened, and disposed to inflammation by heated air and poisonous fumes. These simple observations are pregnant with interest and instruc- tion to all connected with horses. He who would have his stud free from disease, and especially disease of the hings, must pursue two ob- jects, coolness and cleanliness. In the gentleman's stable, tlie first of these is studiously avoided, from the prejudice or the idleness of the groom, and from these stables proceed most of the cases of inflamed lungs ; especially when this heat is combined with that temporary but mischie- vous nuisance, the repeated breathing of the same air during the night, and that air more vitiated by the fumes of the dung and urine. In the stables of the post-master, where not only closeness and heat, but the filth that would not be endured in a gentleman's establishment, are found, both inflammation of the lungs and glanders prevail ; and in the stables of many agriculturists, cool enough from the poverty or the carelessness of the owner, but choked with filth, inflammation of the lungs is seldom seen, but mange, glanders, and farcy abound. Inflammation of the substance of the lungs is sometimes sudden in its attack, but generally preceded by sym[)toms of fever. The pulse is occa- sionally not much increased in frequency, but oppressed and indistinct ; the artery is plainly to be felt under the finger, and of its usual size, but the pulse no longer indicates the expansion of the vessel, as it yields to the gush of blood, and its contraction vvhen the blood has passed; it is rather a vibration or thrill, communicated to a fluid already over-distending the artery ; in a few cases, even this almost eludes the most delicate touch, and scarcely any pulsation is to be detected. The extremities are cold ; — the nostril is expanded ; — the head thrust out, and the flanks begin to heave. There is a peculiarity in the working of the flank. It is not the deep laborious breathing of fever, nor the irregular beating of broken wind, in which the air appears to be drawn in by one effort, while two seem to be necessary to expel it; but it is a quick hurried motion, evidently expressive of pain, and of inability to complete the action, on ac- count of the pain, or of some mechanical obstruction. The membrane of the nose is of an intensely florid red — more vivid in the inside corners of the nostrils, and remaining concentrated there if at times it should seem to fade away higher up. The countenance is singularly anxious, and indicative of suffering, and many a mournful look is directed at the flanks. The horse stands in a singular manner, stiff, with his foreleg:s abroad, that the chest may be expanded as much as possible, and he is unwilling to move, lest for a moment he should lose the assistance of the muscles of the arms and shoulders, in producing that expansion ; and, for the same reason, he obstinately stands up day after day, and night after night; or if he lies down from absolute fatigue, it is but for a moment. In many instances, however, the approacli of the disease is very treach- erous, and the most careful practitioner may be deceived. The groom may perceive that the horse is somewhat off his feed, and dull, but he pays little attention to it ; or if it arrests his notice, he only finds that the coat stares a little, that the legs are colder than usual, and the breathing in a 184 THE HORSE. slight desree quickened and shorteued. In other cases, the symptoms are those of common fever, catarrh, or distemper; and the characteristics of true inflammation of the lungs appear late and unexpectedly. The cold leg and ear, the quickened, not deepened inspiration, the disinclination to lie down, and the anxious countenance, will always alarm the experi- enced observer. Whatever may be the state of the pulse at first, it soon becomes op- pressed, irregular, indistinct, and at length almost imperceptible. The heart is labouring in vain to push on the column of blood with w hich the vessels are distended, and the flow of which is obstructed by the clogged- up passages of the lungs. The legs and ears, which were cold before, be- come more intensely so— it is a clayey, deathy coldness. The mouth soon participates in it, and the breath too. The bright red of the nostril fades away, or darkens to a livid purple. The animal grinds his teeth. He still persists in standing, although he often staggers and almost falls; at length he drops, and after a few struggles dies. Theduration of the disease is singularly uncertain. It will occasionally destroy in less than twenty-four hours, and then the lungs present one con- fused and disorganised mass of blackness, and would lead the inexperienced person to imagine that long inflammation had gradually so completely broken down the substance of the lungs. Such a horse is said to die rotten, and many attempts have been made to prove that he must have been un- sound for a great while, and probably before he came into his last owner's possession, and some expensive law-suits have been instituted on this ground. Let our readers, how^ever, be assured, that this black, decom- posed appearance of the lungs proves no disease of long standing, but inflammation intense in its nature, and that has very speedily run its course. The horse has died from suffocation, every portion of the lungs being choked up with this black blood, which has even broken into and filled all the air-cells by means of which it should have been purified. More frequently the disease lasts a little longer. The lungs are suffi- ciently pervious for some blood to be transmitted ; but the inflammation is too great to be subdued, or proper means have not been taken to subdue it; and it runs its usual course, and proceeds to actual mortification, and the lungs are found not only black, but putrid. This, too, would prove recent and violent inflammation, and not any old and unsuspected disease. This termination would be indicated, a day or two before the death of the animal, by the stinking breath, and the offensive discharge from the nose. A frequent, and to the practitioner and the owner a most annoying ter- mination of inflammation of the lungs, is dropsy in the chest. The disease seems to be subdued ; the horse is more lively ; his appetite returns ; his legs and ears become warm ; and those about him are deceived into the belief that he is doing well : nay, the most skilful surgeon is sometimes deceived. The anxiety to save his patient makes him hope the best, although the coat continues unhealthy, theie is a yellow discharge from the nostril, the pulse is irregular, and the horse is frightened if sud- denly moved, and especially if his head be considerably raised in the act of drenching, and he rarely or never lies down. Many days or some weeks will pass on, with these contradictory and unsatisfactory aj^pearances ; and a judgment of the insult can only be formed by balancing them against each other. At length the patient shivers, the old symptoms return, and he very soon dies. On opening him, both sides of the chest are found nearly filled \vith fluid, impeding the pulsation of the heart, and the expansion of the lungs, and destroying the horse by suffocation.^ INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 185 Although the life of the horse may be saved, the consequences of inflam- mation of the lungs may often materially lessen, or even destroy the useful- ness of the animalf As in many external inflammations considerable thicken- ing of the part long remains, so a deposit of the coagulable portion of the blood may be left in the substance of the lungs, occupying the |)lace of many of the air-cells, and preventing the contraction and closing of others. This produces the peculiarity of breathing, almost incompatible with speed or continuance, c?i\\ed thick wind ; and frequently precedes 6ro/tT/i ivind, when, from the violent action of the lungs, and that action thus impeded by the obstruction we have described, some of the air-cells become ruptured. Too frequently, considerable irritability remains in the membrane lining the air-cells, and in other portions of the air-passages, and a couglr is established, which, from its continuance, and the difficulty of its removal, is called chronic cough. We have already considered inflammation of the lungs, as one of the causes o^ roaring: The treatment of inflammation of the lungs must evidently be of the most decisive kind. We have to struggle with a disease intense in its cha- racter, and we must attempt radically to cure, and not merely to palliate it. We must look to the future usefulness of the horse, and not to the pos- sibility of his being enabled to drag on an existence almost uncomfortable to himself. Supposing the attack to have just commenced, the horse should be bled, not only until the pulse begins to rise, but until it afterwards begins to flutter or to stop, or the animal is evidently faint. The effect of the bleeding, and not the quantity of the blood taken, should be regarded; for the inflammation being subdued, the lost blood will soon be supplied again. This is one of the cases in which it is absolutely necessary that the surgeon, or the owner, should stand by with his finger on the pulse, and mark the effect that is produced. If, six hours afterwards, the horse continues to stand stiff, and heaves as quickly and as laboriously as before, and the legs are as intensely cold, and the membrane of the nose as red, the bleedino- should be repeated, until the same effect again follows. In the majority of cases the inflammation will be now subdued. A third bleeding may, however, sometimes be necessary, but must not be carried to the same extent, for it is possible, by too great evacuation of blood, to subdue not merely the disease, but the powers of nature. If, after this, the legs become cold, and the heaving returns, and the membrane of the nose reddens, and the horse persists in standing, bleedings to the extent of two or three quarts will be advisable, to prevent the re-establishment of the disease. In all these bleedings, let not the necessity of a broad shoul- dered fleam or lancet, and a full stream of blood be forgotten. These are circumstances of far more importance than is generally imagined. The appearance of the blood will be some guide in our treatment of the case. The thickness of the adhesive buffy, yellow-coloured coat, which in a few hours will appear on it, will mark with some degree of accuracy the extent of the inflammation ; but let it be remembered, that only which existed at the time of the bleeding. Not regardless of the appearance of the blood, but not putting too much faith in it, we must look to the horse to deter- mine how far that inflammation may have been diminished, or a repetition of the bleeding be necessary. When the bleeding has evidently taken effect, we must consider bv what means we may further abate, or prevent the return of th^.. inflammation. We should blister the whole of the brisket, and the sides, as high up as the elbows. Blisters are far preferable to rowels. Tliey act on a more ex- tensive surface ; they produce a great deal more inflammation ; and they are speedier in their action. 186 THE HORSE. To ensure the full operation of the blister, the hair must be closely shaved, and an ointment composed of one part of powdered Spanish flies, and four of lard and one of resin, well rubbed in. The lard and the resin should be meited together, and the powdered flies afterwards added. To form a rowel, the skin is raised between the finger and thumb, and, with a lancet, or with scissars contrived for the purpose, a slit is cut an inch in length. The finger, or the handle of the improved rowelling scis- sors, which are to be procured from Mr. Long, in Holborn, or from any veterinarv instrument m.aker, is introduced, and the skin is forcibly sepa- rated from the muscular or cellular substance beneath, until there is a circu- lar cavity two or three inches wide. Into this a piece of tow is inserted, sufficient to fill it, and previously smeared with blister ointment. This causes considerable inflammation and discharge. If a little of the tow be left sticking out of the incision, the discharge will conveniently dribble down it. Tlie tow should be changed every day, with or without the oint- ment, according to the action of the rowel, or the urgency of the case. The lar-re piece of stiff leather, with a hole in its centre, used by the far- rier, is objectionable, as not being easily changed, and frequently, in the extraction of it, tearing the skin so as to cause a lasting blemish. The blister sometimes will not rise. It will not when the inflammation of the chest is at its greatest intensity : too much action is going on there, for any to be excited elsewhere. The blister occasionally will not act in the later stages of the disease, because the powers of nature are exhausted. It is always a most unfavourable symptom when the blisters or the rowels do not take "effect. The best time for the application of the blister, is when the inflammation is somewhat subdued by the bleeding ; and then by the irrita- tion which it excites, and in a part so near the original seat of disease, the inflammation of the chest is either abated or transferred to the skin ; for, as we have before observed, it is an important law of nature, that no two violent actions of different kinds can take place in the frame at the same time. Next comes the aid of medicine. If the patient was a human being the surgeon would immediately purge him. We must not do this: for from sympathy between the bowels and the lungs in the horse, we should either produce a fatal extension of inflammation, or a transferring of it in a more vi(i^nt form, and the horse would assuredly die. We must back-rake, ^diijinister clysters, or perhaps give eight ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in warm gruel. No castor-oil must be given. It may be a mild and a safe aperient for the human being : it is a very dangerous one for the horse. . Having a little relaxed the bowels, we eagerly turn to cooling or sedative medicines. The farrier gives his cordial to support the animal, and pre- vent rottenness. He adds fuel to the fire, and no wonder that the edifice is frequently destroyed. Nitre, digitalis, and emetic tartar, should be given in the doses already recommended, and persisted in until an inter- mittent state of the pulse is produced. Many practitioners give hellebore in doses of half a drachm, or two scruples, every six or eight hours, and they say with considerable advantage. It is continued until the horse hangs his head, and saliva drivels Irom his mouth, and he becomes half stupid, and half delirious. These symptoms pass over in a few hours, and the inflammation of the chest is found to be abated. If it be so, it is on the principle of the blister : the determination of blood to the head, and the temporary excitement of the brain or its membranes, divert the inflammation or a portion of it, from its original seat, and give time for the parts somewhat to recover their tone. We confess that we prcfier the INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 187 dif^italis, emetic tartar, and nitre : they considerably lower the pulse, and they are safe. It is of importance that we determine the blood, or a portion of it, from the inflamed and over-distended part to some other refrion. On this prin- ciple we warmly clothe the horse labouring under this disease, that we may cause the blood to circulate freely through the vessels of the skin, and that we may keep up the insensible perspiration, and perhaps produce some sweating-. But do we put the horse in a warm place ? No ; for then we should bring- the heated and poisoned air in contact with the inflamed lungs, and increase the excitement, already too great. It is an absurd practice to shut up every door and window, and exclude, if possible, every breath of air ; — rather let every door and window be thrown open, and let pure and cold air find access to these heated parts. It is interesting to see how eagerly the horse avails himself of the relief which this affords him. If no direct draft blows upon him, he can scarcely be placed in too cool a box. Now and then the whole skin of the horse may be rubbed with the brush, if it does not teaze and hurry him ; bat it is indispensable that the legs should be frequently and well hand-rubbed to restore the circulation in them, and they should be covered with thick flannel bandages. As to food, vve do not want him to take any at first, and most certainly the horse should not be coaxed to eat. A very small quantity of hay may be given to amuse him, or a cold mash, or green meat, but not a particle of corn. In eight-and-forty hours the fate of the patient will generally be decided. If there be no remission of symptoms, the inflammation will run on to congestion of the lungs, and consequent suffocation, or to gangrene. We must, in this case, give the medicines more frequently ; repeat the blister ; bleed, if the state of the animal will bear it; and rub the legs or even scald them. If the strength now rapidly declines, the horse may be drenched with gruel, and tonic medicine may be tried, as chamomile at first, and, this not recaUing or increasing the fever, a little ginger and gentian may be added. Should the heaving gradually subside, and the legs get warm, and the horse lie down, and the inflammation be apparently subsiding, let not the owner or the practitioner be in too great haste to get the animal well. Nature will slowly, but surely and safely, restore the appetite and strength ; and it is very easy to bring back the malady in all its violence by attempt- ing to hurry her. The food should be the same, cold mashes, green meat, or a little hay, if green meat cannot be procured, and thin gruel drunk from the pail — not given as a drench. Should the horse be very weak, or scarcely eat, tonics may be tried. The way should be felt very cautiously with the chamomile, and the sedative medicine again be immediately resorted to if there be the slightest return of fever. To the chamomile, the gentian and ginger may be gradually added, but no mineral tonic. After a while, hay may be offered, and a little corn, and the horse be suffered very gradually to return to his former habits. The causes of inflammation of the lungs are changes from cold to heat, or heat to cold ; exposure to cold while the horse is hot ; washing with cold water immediately after exercise; sudden exposure to cold, after coming from a very hot stable; frequent checks while hunting ; travelling in the face of a cold wind ; the transference of general fever to the lungs previously disposed to inflammation from the usual stable management ; and neglected catarrh, or catarrh treated with stimulants instead of cooling medicines. Any change from heat to cold, or from cold to heat, will pro- duce it with almost equal certainty ; the removal from a warm stable to a cold one, or from a cold one to a warmer ; from grass to the stable, and 188 THE HORSE. from the stable to grass will equally give rise to disease of the lungs. It is generally the effect of our erroneous system of management. We shall presently state the symptoms by which inflammation of the lungs maybe distinguished from catarrhal fever. It may be distinguished from inflammation of the bowels by the pulse, which, in the latter disease, is small and wiry; — by the membrane of the nose, which is not then so much reddened ; — by the indications of pain, as kicking at the belly, stamp- ing, and rolling; by his eager scraping of the litter, and by the belly being painful to the touch, and also hot, when the bowels are inflamed. PLEURISY. Hitherto we have spoken of inflammation of the substance of the lungs; but inflammation may attack the membrane covering them and lining the side of the chest {the pleura), and be principally or entirely confined to that mem- brane. This is termed pleurisy. The causes are the sam.e as in inflam- mation of the substance of the lungs, and the symptoms are not very dis- similar. The guiding distinction will be the pulse. As the blood in this disease still traverses the lungs without obstruction, we have not the op- pressed pulse, but rather the hard, full pulse characteristic of inflamma- tion ; the extremities are cold, but not so cold ; the membrane of the nose intensely red in the former disease, because it is a continuation of the in- flamed fining of the air cells of the lungs, is here but little reddened, because there is no connexion between them; if the sides are pressed upon in pleurisy pain will be felt, which the horse will exj^ress by a kind of grunt, and which is easily explained by the pressure being applied so close to the seat of disease. The manner of standing, however, will remain the same, and the obstinacy of standing the same, and the extension of the neck, and the protrusion of the nostril. After death the pleura of the ribs and the lungs will exhibit stripes or patches of inflammation, and the chest will be generally filled with serous fluid. Copious bleeding is indicated here, as in inflammation of the substance of the lungs. Blisters and sedative medicines must likewise be resorted to. The only important difference is, that aperients may be administered with more safety than in the former disease. Puncturing of the chest to give escape to the fluid that is thrown out in it may be attempted. It cannot do harm, but it has very seldom saved or much prolonged the life of the animal. If the operation be attempted, it should be as soon as the piesence of the fluid is suspected, and the means by which this may be ascertained we have already described. The opening should be effected with the com- mon trochar used for tapping in dropsy in the human being, and should be made between the eighth and ninth ribs, and close to the cartilages. Diu- retic medicines combined with tonics should be administered. CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. This is a complaint of frequent occurrence, generally subdued without much difficulty, but often becoming of serious consequence if neglected. It is accompanied by a little increase of pulse; a slighi discharge from the nose and eyes ; a coat somewhat roughened ; a diminution of appetite, and cough sometimes painful and frequent. A little warmth, a few mashes, and some doses of the medicine recommended under inflammation of the lungs, will speedily eflcct a cure. Should the cough be \ery painful and obstinate, it may be necessary to bleed; but then the disease is degenerating into bronchitis or catarrhal lever. CATARRHAL FEVER. 189 The divisions of the windpipe just before it enters the luno's, and the numerous vessels into which it ini mediately afterwards branches out, are called the bronchial tubes, and inflammation of the membrane that lines them is termed BRONCHITIS. It is catarrh extending to the entrance of the lung's. It is characterised by quicker and harder breathing- than catarrh usually presents, and by a peculiar wheezing', which is relieved by the coug'hiiig up of mucus. It is to be treated by bleeding*, far less copious than in inflammation of the lungs, or even in catarrh. The horse will bear to lose only a very small quantity of blood when labouring under inflammation of the bronchial pas- sag'es. The chest should be blistered, and digitalis given, and the other treatment similar to that for inflamed lungs, with the exception of the bleeding'. Tliick wind is a frequent consequence of neglected bronchitis. ' CATARRHAL FEVER. This malady has various names among horsemen, as ejndemic catarrh., influenza, distemper. By the latter name it is generally distinguished in racing stables. It usually commences, like inflammation of the lungs and fever, with a shivering' fit; to which rapidly succeed a hot mouth, greater heat of the skin than is natural, heaving' of the flanks, and coug'h. The eyes are red and heavy, and the membrane of the nose red, but con- siderably paler than that of inflammation of the lungs, and even occa- sionally bordering on a livid hue. From the very commencement of the disease there is some discharge from the nose; at first of a mere watery nature, but soon thickening, and containing flakes, some of which stick to the membrane of the nose, and have been mistaken for ulcers. This discharge, at no great distance of time, becomes mattery and offensive. The glands likewise of the throat and under-jaw become enlarged, and the membranes of the nostril and the throat are inflamed and tender, and there- fore the food is " quidded," and there is difficulty even in swallowing water, particularly if it be cold. The horse sips and slavers in the pail, and repeat- edly coughs as he drinks. The cough is sometimes frequent and painful ; so much so, that the horse repeatedly stamps with his feet, and shows signs of impatience and suffering in the act of coughing. To these symptoms rapidly succeeds very great weakness. The horse staggers, and sometimes almost falls as he moves about his box ; or he supports himself by leaning his sides or his quarters against the box. To the inexperienced observer this early and excessive weakness will be very alarming, and he will give up the horse as lost. The legs generally swell, and enlargements appear on the chest and belly. These, however, are generally favourable. The pulse is quickened. It rises to sixty or seventy, but the number of its beatings, and the cha- racter of the pulse, wliich is seldom very hard, depend much on the degree of fever whicli accompanies the disease. After a few da\s the cough becomes less frequent and painful; the glands of the throat diminished ; the horse begins to eat a little green meat, and is more cheerful. In some cases, however, the membrane of the nose reddens, or streaks of red run through the lividness ; and the legs become cold, and the countenance haggard, and inflammation of the lungs is at hand. At other times the breath is offensive ; the discharge from the nose bloody ; the evacuations loose, and slimy, and bloody ; and the animal is 190 THE HORSE. speedily destroyed. The cause of this disease is obscure. It may he the consequence of common cold; or it will more frequently depend on some unexplained influence of the atmosphere. About the middle of sprin^r and the commencement of autumn it is most frequent. Many horses in the same district, or in almost every part of the country, will be attacked by it. If the spring- or autumn be wet and variable, almost every cold will dege- nerate into it ; and there are too many circumstances which lead us to con- clude that it is infectious. A lot of horses was bought at one of the fairs. They were all but one sent immediately to the residence of the purchaser at a considerable distance. The remaining one was employed for some purpose, and afterwards sent on a journey. He was seized with distemper, and on recovering sufFiciendy to travel, he was taken home. Three months had now elapsed since the purchase, and the other horses had been per- fectly healthy ; but in less than a fortnight after this horse arrived, they all sickened with distemper. The treatment of catarrhal fever requires much judgment. It is clearly febrile in its commencement; but it speedily assumes the character of weakness. We will suppose that the disease is discovered at its very com- mencement. Bleeding will then be indispensable, regulated in quantity by the degree of fever ; rarely exceeding four quarts, never intention- ally pursued until the animal is faint, and immediately stopped when there is the slightest appearance of faintness. The bleeding should be re- peated if the pulse is frequent and strong ; or if the membrane of the nose is getting red, and the legs cold, and even although weakness should be rapidly coming on ; but it should be in small quantity, and the effect of it carefully watched. If the disease has been suffered to run on for two or three days, and the horse begins to stagger, the practitioner or the owner vidll consider all the symptoms well before he ventures to bleed. Redness of the nostril, heat of the mouth, quickness and force of pulse, heaving of the flanks, or cold- ness of the legs, will require the loss of blood, notwithstanding considerable weakness ; but if the animal is quite off his feed, and the inside of the nose is livid, and he is fast losing condition as well as strength, bleeding will be better avoided. It is of importance that the bowels should be evacuated ; and there is not so much danger in the use of a little purgative medicine as in inflam- mation of the lungs. Two drachms of Barbadoes aloes may be given in the form of ball, or in solution ; and in twelve hours another drachm may be given, and even a third dose twelve hours after that, if the faeces have not been loosened ; taking care to back-rake the animal, and to administer injections of tliin gruel. The sedative medicines at first exhibited should be the same as in in- flammation of the lungs, and in the same quantity; but as soon as the fever begins to remit, tw o drachms of the spirit of nitrous ether should be added to each dose ; and, the weakness increasing, and the fever still more subsiding, the chamomile may be ventured on, but with caution. Warm clothing is necessary, and particularly about the head ; and although the box should still be airy, it should not be so cool as in inflammation of the lungs. If the throat be so sore that the animal will not eat, either the parotid or the submaxillary glands, or both, should be blistered. It will be far better to blister them at once, than to lose time by the use of weaker and ineffective applications. The discharge from the nose should be promoted; and the natural progress of the inflammation of the membrane of the nose and throat hastened by hot mashes being frequently put in the manger, CATARRHAL FEVER. l9l or, if the horse is not too much distressed by it, himrr; nndcr his nostril in a common nose-ba^. When this is resorted to, a hood about the head will be particularly necessary. A great deal of weakness soon follows an attack of catarrhal fever, and it will then be necessary, even v/hile we are subduing- the fever, to support the strength of the animal. He should be offered bran-mashes, malt- mashes, damped hay, green meat, or carrots. If he refuses to take them, they should be insinuated between his grinders; when, being com- pelled to bruise them a little in endeavouring to get rid of them, and thus experiencing their taste, he will often be induced to eat several little portions. If he obstinately refuses to feed, he must be drenched with thick gruel ; but this will seldom be necessary if all water be refused him from the earliest period of the disease, and a pail with thinner gruel be suspended in some part of his box. When he finds that he can get no- thing else, he will drink sufficient of this to afford him all the nutriment we require. The preservation of due warmth in the extremities is as necessary here as in inflammation of the lungs, and should be attempted by warm bandages, and frequent hand-rubbing. The- terminations of this disease most to be dreaded are inflammation of the lungs, and putrid fever. We know how best to guard against the former, and we shall presently speak of the latter. When, however, the disease hangs long upon the horse, there is usually much mischief done in the chest, although the animal may recover. Thick wind, broken wind, and chronic cough are its occasional consequences; and likewise, as the disease has affected so great a portion of the air-passages, a peculiar liability to cold and cough, and, not untrequently, an unpleasant and troublesome discharge irom the nose will remain. Of the latter we have spoken under the title of nasal gleet, p. 121 ; the others will presently come under consideration. The farmer will not forget the infectious nature of this disease, and will immediately separate the sick animal from his companions. The disease with which catarrhal fever is most likely to be confounded is inflammation of the lungs; and as the treatment of the two is in some particulars so different, the farmer should be enabled readily to distinguish between them. If a little care be used this will not be difficult. The febrile character of the pulse ; the early discharge from the nose ; the want of intense redness in the lining of the nose; the frequent and painful cough ; the enlargement of the glands, and soreness of the throat ; the rapid loss of strength, the sometimes constant, and at others variable warmth of the legs ;^ the fidgettiness and pawing, will sufficiently distin- guish catarrhal fever from the oppressed pulse, red nostril, heaving flank, little cough, fixedness of limbs, and coldness of the extremities which accompany and characterise inflammation of the lungs. THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. This commences with nearly the same symptoms as catarrhal fever ; it probably at the beginning is catarrhal fever, but more than usually violent, and sooner exhausting the powers of the frame. Its symptoms are rapid loss of strength, stinking breath, f(£tid discharge from the nostrils, all the evacuations becoming highly otiensive, the pulse rapid, small and weak, and the animal obstinately refusing to eat. It soon runs its course. Gangrene soon succeeds to inflammation, and rapidly spreads from the part first inflamed through the whole of the cellular substance, and over every portion of the frame. When veterinary science was in its infancy, this pest used periodxally to appear, and carry 192 THE HORSE. off hundreds of horses ; and that breeder is fortunate, who does not now sometimes suffer from its ravages. The treatment of it is very unsatis- factory. The prevention may be a httle more in our power, by endeavour- ing to get rid of the previous disease by one bleeding, when, in some seasons, catarrhal fever appears under a form more than usually violent ; and by bleeding with extreme caution, or not bleeding at all, when debility begins to appear. A mild purgative may be first administered to carry ott'a portion of the offensive matter contained in the bowels ; after which, chalk, and ginger, and opium, and gentian, and columbo, with port-wine, may be plentifully given, with green meat, or thick gruel ; but except the horse be valuable, the chance of saving him is so slight, and probably the danger of spreading the pest so great, that prudence will prompt his destruction. Most frequent in occurrence among the consequences of catarrhal fever, and inflammation of the lungs, is CHRONIC COUGH. It would occupy more space than we can devote to this part of our subject, to speak of all the causes of obstinate cough. The irritability of so great a portion of the air-passages, occasioned by previous and violent inflam- mation of them, is the most frequent. It is sometimes connected with worms. There is much sympathy between the huigs and the intestines, and the one very readily participates in the irritation produced in the other. That it is caused by glanders, can be easily imagined, because that disease is, in its early stage, seated in or near the principal air- passages, and little time passes before the lungs become affected. It is the necessary attendant of thick wind and broken wind, for these proceed from alterations of the structure of the lungs. Notwithstanding the clearness of the cause, the cure is not so evident. If a harsh hollow cough be accompanied by a staring coat, and the ap- pearance of worms, — a few worm-balls may expel these parasites, and remove the irritation of the intestinal canal. If it proceed from irritability of the air-passages, which will be discovered by the horse coughing after drinking, or when he first goes out of tlie stable in the morning, or by his occasional throwing out tliic' .ucus from the nose, medicines may be given, and sometimes with advantage, to diminish irritation generally. Half-doses of the digitalis, emetic tartar, and nitre, given every night, have had a very beneficial eliect, especially when made up with tar, which seems to have a powerful influence in allaying these irritations. These balls should be regularly given for a considerable time. They are sufficiently powerful to quiet slight excitement of this kind, but not to nauseate tlie horse, or interfere in the slightest degree with his food or his work. A blister, ex- tending from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole of the channel, and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe, has been tried, and not without good effect, on the supposition that the irrita- tion may exist in the fauces or the larynx ; and tlie blister has sometimes been extended through the whole course of the windpipe, until it enters the chest. Feeding has much influence on this complaint. Too much dry meat, and especially chaff, increases it. It is aggravated when the horse is suf- fered to eat his litter; and it is often relieved when spring tares are given. Carrots atford decided relief The scat of the disease, however, is so uncertain, and all our means and appliances so inefficacious, and the cough itself so little interfering, and THICK-WIND. J93 sometimes interfering^ not at all with the health of the animal, that it is scarcely worth while to persevere in any mode of treatment that is not evidently attended with speedy benefit. The principal consideration to induce us to meddle at all with chronic cough is the knowledo-e that horses afflicted with it are more liable than others to be affected by chano-es of temperature, and that inflammation of the lungs, or of the respiratory passages, often assumes in them a very alarming character; to which, perhaps, we may add, that a horse whh chronic cough cannot legally or properly be warranted sound. When chronic cough chiefly occurs after eating, the seat of the disease is evidently in the substance of the lungs. The stomach distended with food presses upon the diaphragm, and the diaphragm upon the lungs ; and the lungs, already labouring under some congestion, are less capable of transmitting the air. In the violent effort to discharge their function, irritation is produced ; and the act of coughing is the consequence of that irritation. This is aUied with, or S9on runs into THICK-WIND. Thick-wind consists in short, frequent, and laborious breathings, and especially when the animal is in exercise; the inspirations and expirations often succeeding each other so rapidly as evidently to express distress, and occasionally almost to threaten suffocation. Some degree of it frequently exists in round-chested and fat horses, that have little or no breeding. The reason of this is sufficiently plain. The circular chest affords sufficient room for the expansion of the lungs when the animal is at rest, and suffi- cient room for the accumulation of a great deal of fat and flesh ; but when the horse is strongly exercised, the circulation of the blood is hurried, and its change from arterial to venous, or from vital to empoisoned blood, is more rapid. The circular chest cannot then enlarge to any great degree : yet the blood must be purified in greater quantity, and therefore what cannot be done by increase of surface, must be accomplished by frequency of action. Heavy draught horses are invariably thick winded, and so are almost all horses violently exercised on a full stomach. A horse labouring under any inflamr -tory affection of the lungs is thick-winded, because the pain which he leels in the act of breathing will not permit him to respire deeply, and therefore, he must breathe quickly. A horse unused to exercise is thick-winded, because the lungs will not soon accommodate themselves to a new and laborious action. The principal cause, however, of thick wind is previous inflammation, and particularly inflammation of the bronchial passages. The throwing out of some fluid, which is capable of coagulation, is the result, or the natural termination of inflammation. This deposit in the substance of the lungs, or in the bronchial tubes, from inflammation of these organs, must close many of the air-cells, and lessen the dimensions of others. Then if the cells, fewer in number and contracted in size, be left for the purposes of breathing, the rapid and laborious action of the lungs must supply the deficiency, and especially when the animal is put in that state in which he requires a rapid change of blood. The examination of thick-winded horses has thrown considerable light on the nature of the disease. In the majority of instances some of the small air-cell? have been found filled up with a dense substance of a blue or darker colour. In others, the minute passages leading to the cells have been diminished, and almost obliterated, the linings of these passages being unnaturally thickened, or covered with hardened mucus ; and where 194 THE HORSE. neither of these appearances could be observed, the lining of the cells has exhibited evident marks of inflammation, so that absolute pain prevented the full expansion or contraction of the lun£^s. Thick-wind is often the forerunner of broken-wind. It is easy to under- stand this : for if so much labour is necessary to contract the air-cells, and to force out the wind, and the lungs work so rapidly and so violently in effecting this, some of the cells, weakened by disease, will probably be ruptured. Of the treatment of thick- wind we have little to say. Attention to diet, and the prevention of the overloading of the stomach, and the avoidance of exercise soon after a meal, may in some degree palliate the disease, and so may constant exercise, carried to the extent of the horse's power, without too much distressing him. The capability of exertion will thus daily im- prove, and the breathing of the horse will become freer and deeper. This is the process of training a horse either for the chase or the course ; and this constitutes all the difference between a horse that has been well and one that has been badly trained. - BROKEN-WIND. This is easily distinguished from thick-wind. In thick-wind the breathing is rapid and laborious, but the inspiration and expiration are equally so, and occupy precisely the same time. In broken-wind the inspiration is performed by one effort ; the expiration by two, which is plainly to be distinguished by observing the flanks, and which occupies double the time. The reason of this may easily be stated. Broken-wind is the rupture or running together of some of the air-cells. When the lungs are expanded, the air will rush in easily enough, and one effort of the muscles of respiration is sufficient for the purpose ; but when these cells have run into each other, the cavity is so irregular, and contains so many corners and blind pouches that it is exceedingly difficult to force it out again, and two efforts are scarcely competent fully to effect it. This disease is also accompanied by a dry and husky cough of a peculiar sound, which cannot easily be described, but is recognised by every one accustomed to horses. It is the consequence of thick-wind, and of those alterations of structure consequent on inflammation. If a portion of the lung be lost to the animal, and the same quantity of pure blood must be supplied, while there is not the same surface to supply it, it is easy to sup- pose that, in the violent efforts which such a horse is compelled to make, some of the cells may be broken. Broken wind may, however, occur without much previous disease. Sup- pose a horse to be a gross feeder, and to have filled his stomach with straw and hay, and provender that occupies a great bulk, and contains little nourishment, the lungs are squeezed into a less than the natural compass. Let the horse be now suddenly and smartly exercised; more blood must be purified, and in the violent effort to accomplish this, some of the cells give way. Therefore we do not find broken-winded horses on the race- course, for although every exertioifW speed is required from them, their food lies in small compass, and the stomach is not distended, and the lungs have room to play, and care is taken that their exertion shall be required when the stomach is nearly empty. Carriage and coach horses are seldom broken-winded, unless they bring the disease to their work, for they too live principally on corn, and their work is regular, and care is taken that they shall not be fed immediately before their work. The majority of horses thus affected come from the stables of those for whose BROKEN-WlKD. 195 use these pages are principally desi(2:ned. The farmer's horse is the broken- winded horse, because that on which he is fed is bulky, and too often selected on account of its cheapness ; because there is little rep;ularity in the management of most of the farmers' stables, or the work of his teams ; and because after many an hour's fasting the horses are often suffered to gorge themselves with this bulky food ; and then, with the stomach press-' ing upon the lungs, and almost impeding ordinary respiration, they are put again to work, and sometimes to that which requires considerable exertion. A profitable lesson may be learned from this statement. The farmer perhaps may contrive to give his horses a little more corn, and a little less hay, and straw, and chaff, without much additional expense ; he may con- trive, too, to shorten the period of fasting, and therefore prevent the ravenous manner in which agricultural horses often feed ; and more regu- larity may take place between the periods of feeding and of work. We have recommended the nose-bag, as a preventive of stomach-staggers ; we can as earnestly recommend it as a preventive of broken-wind. This disease depends as much upon the cramped state of the lungs, from the pressure of an overgorged stomach in the ordinary state of the animal, as on the effects of over-exertion. The agriculturist knows that many a horse becomes broken-winded in the straw-yard. There is little nutri- ment in the provender which he there finds, and to obtain enough for the support of life, he is compelled to keep the stomach constantly full, and pressing upon the lungs. Some have come up from grass broken-winded that went out perfectly sound. The explanation of this case is the same. The stomach was habitually gorged with coarse and innutritive herbage, and its pressure on the lungs cramped and confined their action, and pro- duced those violent efforts which burst some of the air-cells, and especially when in their gambols in the straw-yard or in the field, or sometimes being wantonly driven about, the lungs were suddenly called upon to perform extraordinary work. There are difficulties attending this explanation of the disease, but it cannot be denied that the dissection of horses which had broken-wind has almost invariably presented these enlarged air-cells, one of which would occupy the space of a great many of their natural dimensions. The cure of a broken-winded horse no one ever witnessed ; yet much may be done in the way of palliation. The food of the animal should consist of much nutriment condensed into a small compass ; the quantity of oats should be increased, and that of hay proportionably diminished ; the bowels should be gently relaxed by the frequent use of mashes ; the water should be .given sparingly through the day, although at night the thirst of the animal should be fully satisfied ; and exercise should nevev be taken when the stomach is full. It will scarcely be believed how much relief these simple measures will afford to the broken-winded horse, and of how much exertion he may be gradually rendered capable. Some treated on this plan have even been hunted, and have acquitted themiselves well in the field. Carrots are very useful to the broken -winded horse, not only as containing much nutriment and considerable moisture, so that less water may be required, but from some property which they possess rendering them beneficial in every chest aft'e^ion. A broken-winded horse turned out to grass will never improve, on account of the almost constant disten- sion of the stomach ; but he may be fed on more succulent substances, as turnips and mangel-wurzel, with evident advantage. They are easy of digestion, and they soon pass out of the stomach. 31edical treatment is of little avail, except that organs so violently excited as the lungs of broken-winded horses frequently are, must be subject to inflammation, and the difficulty of breathing in these horses is sometimes O 2 196 THE HORSE. sadly increased. A little blood may then be subtracted; and other means taken which have been recommended for inflammatory affections of the chest. In cases of frequent or periodical returns of difficulty of breathing", to which these horses are very subject, a course of mild aperients, united with mercury, have been given with decided advantage. Two drachms of aloes, and one of calomel, may be given twice in the week. The barbarous practice of some farriers of making holes near the anus, and sometimes in other parts, to let out the broken wind, cannot be too strongly reprobated. Thick-wind and broken-wind exist in various degrees, and many shades of difference. Dealers and horsemen generally have characterized them by names that can boast no elegance, but are considerably expressive of the state of the animal. Our readers should not be ignorant of them. Some horses make a shrill noise when in quick action — they are said to be Pipers. This is a species of Roaring. There is usually a ring of coagu- lated matter round the inside of the windpipe, by which the cavity is materially diminished, and the sound produced in quick breathing must evidently be shriller. Sometimes the piping is produced by a contraction of the small passages of the lungs. The Wheezer utters a sound not unlike that of an asthmatic person when a little hurried. This is a kind of thick-wind, and is caused by the lodgment of some mucous fluid in the small passages of the lungs. It frequently accompanies bronchitis. Wheezing can be heard at all times, even when the horse is at rest in the stable ; roaring is confined to the increased breathing of considerable exertion. The Whistler utters a shriller sound than the wheezer, but only when in exercise, and that of some continuance. A sudden motion will not always produce it. It seems to be referable to some contraction in the windpipe or the larynx. The sound is a great nuisance to the rider, and the whistler very speedily becomes distressed. A sharp gallop up hill will speedily detect the whistler. When the obstruction seems to be principally in the nose, the horse loudly puffs and blows, and the nostrils are dilated to the utmost, while the flanks are comparatively quiet. This animal is said to be a High-blower. With all his apparent distress, he often possesses great speed and endurance. The sound is unpleasant, but the lungs may be perfectly sound. Every horse violently exercised on a full stomach, or when overloaded with fat, will grunt very much like a hog. The pressure of the stomach on the lungs, or that of the fat accumulated about the heart, will so much impede the breathing, that the act of forcible expiration will be accompanied by this kind of sound ; but there are some horses who will at all times utter this sound, if suddenly touched with the whip or spur. They are called Grunters, and should be avoided. There is some altered structure of the lungs, which prevents them from suddenly accommodating them- selves to an unexpected demand for exertion. It is the consequence of pre- vious disease, and is frequently followed by thick, or broken-wind, or roaring. THE DIAPHRAGM. 197 Chapter XL THE BELLY AND ITS CONTENTS. THE DIAPHRAGM. The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly, by the diaphragm or midriff, which extends obliquely from the loins to the breast-bone. In its natural state it is convex, or projecting forward towards the lungs, and concave or hollow backward towards the stomach and intestines. On the side towards the chest it is covered by the membrane which invests the lungs, and towards the belly by that which covers the intestines. It is attached to the spine, the ribs, and the breast-bone by tendinous or fleshy expansions, and in the centre it is composed of strong muscular fibres. It is one of the most important muscles of the frame. It is, as we have described it, the principal agent in breathing. When it acts, its fibres are shortened ; it loses its convexity and becomes plane ; the chest is thereby enlarged, and the lungs enlarge with the expansion of the cavity in which they are placed ; and air rushes in, and inspiration is performed. When the fibres of the diaphragm cease to act, that muscle returns to its natural form ; it becomes again convex ; it presses upon the lungs, and helps to force out the air, and expiration is accomplished. It assists like- wise in the natural constant motion of the bowels, and lends its powerful aid in the expulsion of the dung and urine, and in the birth of the young animal. It is most concerned in coughing, yawning, sighing, &c. The membrane which covers the diaphragm is very subject to inflammation. Whether the original seat of disease be in the lungs or the bowels, the diaphragm soon becomes inflamed and irritable, which accounts for the breathing of the horse being so much affected under every inflammation of the chest or belly. The diaphragm is likewise occasionally ruptured, principally from violent exertion. It has so much to do in the act of breathing, that it is not to be wondered if, when the respiration is exceed- ingly hurried, this muscle should give way. The symptoms of ruptured diaphragm are very obscure. There are none on which we can perfectly depend. This, however, is a matter of litde consequence, for it is uni- formly fatal. If the rupture be small, some portion of the intestines insinuates itself, and becomes entangled, and the passage is incurably obstructed ; and if the aperture be large, so much of the intestine passes through as to press upon the lungs, and render breathing impossible. Three large vessels pass through the diaphragm ; the great artery which conveys the blood from the heart to the hinder part of the frame, and which goes through a kind of division of the diaphragm, so that it cannot be pressed upon ; the great vein carrying the blood from the hinder parts and the liver to the heart, and which penetrates the firm tendinous part of the diaphragm so as likewise to be preserved from pressure ; and the gullet, which passes through the most fleshy portion of the diaphragm, and is liable to be compressed by the constant action of this muscle, which, however, is a matter of httle consequence, for there is sufficient power in the muscles of the gullet to propel the food through the diaphragm into the stomach. The gullet terminates in 19$: THE HORSE. THE STOMACH, Which Is found on the left side of the belly, lying upon the large intestines ; its fore part close to the liver ; and its left side in contact with the diaphragm. This situation of the stomach will at once explain the reason why a horse is so much distressed, and sometimes irreparably injured; if worked hard immediately after a full meal. The stomach must be displaced and driven back in the belly by every contraction of the diaphragm or act of inspira- tion ; then in proportion to the fulness of the stomach will be the weight to be overcome, and the labour of the diaphragm, and the exhaustion of the animal. If the stomach be much distended, it may be too weighty to be forced sufficiently far back to make room for the quantity of air which the animal in a state of exertion requires. Hence the frequency and labour of the breath, and the quickness with which such a horse is blown, or, pos- sibly, destroyed. Hence the folly of giving too full a meal, or too much water before the horse starts on a journey or for the chase ; and hence, likewise, the absurdity and danger of that unpardonable custom of some grooms to gallop the horse after his drink, in order to warm it in his belly, and prevent gripes. The horse was destined to be the servant of man, and to serve him at all hours, and whether fasting or full : it would seem, therefore, that to lessen the inconvenience or danger of the pressure of the stomach on the diaphragm, a smaller stomach, in proportion to his size, is given to the horse than to almost any other animal. The bulk of the horse, and the services required of him, demand much nutriment ; and his nutriment is of such a nature that it must occupy a very considerable space, yet his stomach, com- pared with his bulk, is not half so large as that of the human being ; and therefore, although he, like every other animal, feels inconvenience from great exertion immediately after a full meal, he feels not so much as other animals, for his stomach is small, and a great proportion of what he eats rapidly passes through it, and descends to a part of the intestines distant from the diaphragm, and where the existence and pressure of the food cannot cause him any annoyance. CUT OF THE STOMACH. THE STOMACH. 199 a The oesophagus oy gullet, extending to the stomach. b The entrance of the gullet into the stomach. The circular layers of the mucsles are very thick and strong, and which, hy their contractions, help to render it difficul for the food to be returned of vomited. c The portion of the stomach which is covered by cuticle or insensible skin. d d The margin wliich separates the cuticular from the villous portion. e e The mucous or villous (velvet) portion of the stomach, in which the food is principally digested. f The communication between the stomach and the first intestine. g The common orifice through which the bile and the secretion from the pancreas pass into the first intestine. Tlie two pins mark the two tubes here united. k A smaller orifice, through which a portion of the secretion of the pancreas enters the intestines. The orifice by which the gullet enters the stomach is called the cardiac^ 5, from its nearness to the heart, or sympathy with it. It is constantly closed by strong muscular fibres, except when food is passing into the stomach. It is the construction of the soft palate, however, as has been already described, and not this closing of the cardiac orifice of the stomach, that chiefly prevents the act of vomiting in the horse. The stomach has four coats. The outermost is the lining of the cavity of the belly, and the common covering of all the intestines ; by which they fire all confined in their respective situations, and from which a fluid is given out, which prevents all friction between them. This is called the peri- ioneu7n, or that which stretches round. The second is the muscular coat, consisting of two layers of fibres, one running lengthways, and the other circularly, and by means of which a constant gentle motion is communicated to the stomach, by which the food is more thoroughly mixed together, and prepared for digestion, and by the pressure of which also the food when properly prepared is pushed on into the intestines. The third, or cuticular, {skin-like coaQ c, covers but a portion of the inside of the stomach. It is a continuation of the lining of the gullet. There are numerous glands on it, which pour out a mucous fluid ; and it is, probably, intended to be a reservoir in which a portion of the food is retained for a while, and softened and better prepared for the action of the other or true digestive portion of the stomach. The cuticular coat occupies nearly one half of the inside of the stomach. The fourth coat is the mucous or villous (velvet) coat, e, where the work of digestion properly commences. The mouths of numerous little vessels open upon it, pouring out a peculiar fluid, the gastric (stomach) juice, which mixes with the food already softened, and converts it into a fluid called chyme. As this is formed, it passes out of the other orifice of the stomach, the pyloric, (a door to guard,) /, and enters the first small intes- tine ; the harder and undissolved parts being turned back to undergo further action. The stomach of the horse being small, this wonderful change which is effected in the food, and the nature of which has never been thoroughly undei-stood, proceeds very rapidly. The horse, in a short time, will eat a great deal more than the stomach will hold, and room can only be made for the reception of the fresh food by that which had been previously re- ceived being discharged through the pyloric orifice. Of one disease of the stomach, arising from over distension, stomach- staggers, we have already spoken. In a few instances the stomach has 200 THE HORSE. been known to be distended with air, but there are no characteristic symp- toms by which this may be distinguished from distension by food, and the treatment would be the same. Of inflammation of the stomach in the horse, except from poisonous herbs or drugs, we know little. It very rarely occurs, and then can with difficulty be distinguished from inflammation of the bowels, and in both diseases the assistance of a skilful veterinary surgeon is required. Few horses are destroyed by the poisonous plants in our meadows. Natural instinct teaches them to avoid those which would be injurious. More are destroyed by the leaves of the yew than by &ny other vegetable poison. A sleepiness, from which the animal can scarcely be roused, steals over him, and he dies without any symptom of pain.— Ten grains of the farina of the croton nut should be given, as soon as the poisoning is sus- pected ; he should be drenched largely with equal parts of vinegar and thin gruel, and the croton repeated in six hours, if it has not previously operated. The IVater Dropwort, common in ditches and marshy places, is gene- rally refused by horses ; but brood-mares, with appetite somewhat vitiated from their being in foal, have been destroyed by it. The antidote would be vinegar and gruel, and bleeding if there be inflammation. The ^Water Parsley deserves not all the bad reputation it has acquired, although, when eaten in too great quantities, it has produced palsy in the horse, *and which has been strangely attributed to a harmless beetle that inhabits the stem. Of the Common Hemlock and the PTater Hemlock we know no harm, so far as the horse is concerned. We have repeatedly seen him eat the latter without bad effects, but cows have been poisoned by it. Of the mineral poisons we will mention only two. Arsenic was formerly celebrated as a tonic and a destroyer of worms in the horse ; and doses sufficient to kill three or four men used to be daily administered, and generally with impunity ; the dose has, however, in some cases been too strong, and the animal has died. There are better tonics and vermifuges, and the drug will probably soon be discarded from veterinary practice. Corrosive sublimate is given internally, and often with advantage in farcy. It is used externally to destroy vermin, to cure mange, and to dispose deep and fistulous ulcers to heal. The symptoms of an over-dose of either are loss of appetite, discharge of saliva from the mouth, pawing, looking eagerly at the flanks, rolling, profuse perspiration, thready pulse, rapid weakness, violent purging and straining, convulsions, and death. The stomach will be found intensely inflamed, with patches of yet greater inflammation. The whole course of the intestine will be inflamed, with particular parts black and gangrenous. The antidote, if it be not too late to administer it, would be, for arsenic, lime water, or chalk and water, or soap and water, given in great quan- tities with the stomach-pump ; and for corrosive sublimate, the white of eggs mixed with water, or thick starch, or arrow-root. If the poisoning be malicious, arsenic may be most readily detected by mixing a little of the fluid taken from the intestines witli a weak solution of blue vitriol, to which a little hartshorn has been added — the mixture will gradually become green ; or, if a little of the more solid contents of the stomach or small intestines be thrown on a red-hot iron, a smell of garlic will be perceived. For corrosive sublimate there is a simpler test. Place a drop of the sus- pected fluid on a sovereign, let the stem of a small key touch the sovereign while the handle is brought into contact with the drop, and the gold BOTS. 201 will immediately be stained ; or mix a little of the suspected fluid with lime water, and the corrosive sublimate, if there be any, will be thrown to the bottom, of an orange colour ; or if hartshorn be used, the precipitate will be white. BOTS. In the spring and early part of the summer, horses are much troubled by a grub or caterpillar, which crawls out of the anus, fastens itself under the tail, and seems to cause a great deal of itching or uneasiness. Grooms are sometimes alarmed at the appearance of these insects. Their history- is curious, and will dispel every fear with regard to them. We are indebted to Mr. Bracy Clark for almost all we know of the bot. CUT OF THE BOT. a and b The eggs of the gad-fly, adhering to the hair of the horse. c The appearance of the bots on the stomach, firmly adhering by their hooked mouths. The marks or depressions are seen which are left on the coat of the stomach when the bots are detached from their hold. d The bot detached. e The female of the gad-fly, of the horse, prepared to deposit her eggs. / The gad-fly by which the red bots are produced. (/ The smaller or red bot. A species of gad-fly, e, the oestrus equi, is in the latter part of the summer exceedingly busy about the horse. They are observed to be dart- ing with great rapidity towards the knees and sides of the animal. The females are depositing their eggs on the hair, and which adhere to it by means of a glutinous fluid with which they are surrounded, (a and b.) In a few days the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the slightest application of warmth and moisture will liberate the little animals which they contain. The horse in licking himself touches the egg, it bursts, and a small worm escapes, which adheres to the tongue, and is conveyed with the food into the stomach ; there it clings, by means of a hook on either side of its mouth, to the cuticular portion of the stomach, c ; and its hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it will be broken before it will be detached. It re- mains feeding there on the mucus of the stomach during the whole of the winter, and to the end of the ensuing spring ; when, having attained a con- 202 THE HORSE. siderable size, d, and being destined to undergo a certain transformation, it disengages itself from the cuticular coat, is carried into the villous por- tion of the stomach with the food, passes out of it with the chyme, and is at length evacuated with the dung. The larva or maggot being thus thrown out seeks shelter in the ground, contracts in size, and becomes a chrysalis or grub ; in which state it lies inactive for a few weeks, and then, bursting from its confinement, assumes the form of a fly. The female, becoming impregnated, quickly deposits her eggs on those parts of the horse which he is most likely to lick, and so the species is perpetuated. There are several plain conclusions from this history. The bots cannot, while they inhabit the stomach of the horse, give the animal any pain, for they are fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot stimu- late the stomach and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the digestive portion of the stomach. They cannot, by their roughness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for no such office is performed in that part of the stomach — the food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and their pre- sence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach to which medicine is usually conveyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can safely be administered, to affect them ; and, last of all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself with picking them off when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal. The smaller bot, /and g-, is not so frequently found. INTESTINES. The food having been partially digested in the stomach, and converted into chyme, passes through the pyloric orifice into the intestines. CUT OF THE INTESTINES. THE INTESTINES. 203 rt The commencement of the small intestines. The ducts which convey the hile and thy secretion from the pancreas are seen entering a little below. h b Tlie convolutions or windings of the small intestmes. c A portion of the mesentery. d The small intestines terminating in the coecum. e The ccecum or blind gut, with the bands running along it, puckering and dividing it into numerous cells. / The beginning of the colon. fj The continuation and expansion of the colon, divided like the coecum into cells, h The termination of the colon in the rectum. i Tlie termination of the rectum at the anus. The intestines of a full grown horse are not less than ninety feet in length. The length of the intestines in different animals depends on the nature of the food. The nutritive matter is with much more difficulty ex- tracted from vegetable than animal substances, therefore the alimentary canal is large, long, and complicated, in those which, like the horse, are fed on herbs alone. They are divided into the small and large intestines ; the former of which occupy about sixty-six feet, and the latter twenty-four. The intestines, like the stomach, are composed of three coats. The outer one consists of the peritoneum, that membrane which we have already described as covering the contents of the belly. By means of this coat the bowels are confined in their proper situations ; and, this membrane being smooth and moist, all friction and concussion are a.voided. Did the bowels float loosely in the belly they would be subject to constant entanglement and injury amid the rapid and violent motions of the horse. The middle coat, like that of the stomach, is muscular, and composed of two layers of fibres, one running longitudinally, and the other circularly ; and by means of these muscles, which are continually contracting and re- laxing from the upper part downward, the food is forced along the bowels. The inner coat is the mucous or villous ; — mucous, because it abounds with small glands which pour out a mucous fluid to lubricate the passage and defend it from irritating or acrimonious substances ; and villous from its soft velvet feel. This coat is crowded with innumerable little mouths, which are the commencement of minute vessels, by which the nutritive part of the food is taken up ; and these vessels, uniting and passing over the mesentery, carry this nutritive matter to a receptacle for it, whence it is conveyed into the circulation and distributed to every part. The intestines are more particularly retained in their places by the ?7ze- seniery, c, (middle of the intestines,) which is a doubling of the peritoneum, including the intestine in its bottom, and likewise inclosing between its folds the' arteries and veins, and nerves, and the vessels which convey the nutriment from the intestines to the circulation. The mesentery has some- what the appearance of an expanded fan, and all these things ramifying between its transparent folds, give it a beautiful appearance. The first of the small intestines is the Duodenum, a, so called be- cause, in the human subject, it is about twelve inches long. In the horse it is nearly two feet in length. It is the largest in circumference of all the small intestines. It receives the food converted into chyme by the digestive power of the stomach, which in it undergoes another and very important change ; a portion of it is converted into chyle. It is mixed with the bile and the secretion from the pancreas, which enter about five inches down the intes- tine. The bile seems to be the principal ag^nt in this change ; no sooner does it mingle with the chyme, than the fluid begins lobe separated into two distinct ingredients ; a white thick liquid, termed chyle, and containing the 204 THE HORSE. iiiitritive part of the food, and a yellow, pulpy substance, which becomes the excrement. As these matters pass on by the motion of the intestines, the separation becomes more complete ; the chyle is gradually taken up by the mouths of these numerous little vessels, which are called the lacteals, and at length the excrement alone remains. The next portion of the small intestine is the Jejunum, so called, be- cause it is generally empty. The passage of the food seems to be very rapid through it. It is smaller in bulk, and paler in colour, than the duodenum. To this succeeds the Ileum ; but there is no point at which it can be said that the jejunum terminates, and the ileum begins, exc^^ that the latter is said to be about one-fifth longer than the former. JlSpP^whole of these small intestines will contain about eleven gallons of wat^ At the termination of the ileum, d, commence the large intestines. The first of them is the Coecum (blind), c, it has but one opening into it, and consequently every thing that passes through it, having reached the blind or closed end, must return, in order to escape. It is not a continuation of the ileum, but the ileum pierces the head of it, as it were, at right angles, (c/,) and projects some way into it, and has a valve at its extremity, so that what has traversed the ileum, and entered the head of the colon whence the ccecum arises, cannot re- turn into the ileum. Along the outside of the coecum run three strong bands,' each of them shorter than that intes- tine, and therefore puckering it up, and forming it into three sets of cells, as shewn in the accompanying side cut. That portion of the food, then, which has not been taken up by the lacteals or absorbent vessels of the small intestines, passes through this valvular opening of the ileum, and a part of it enters the colon, while the remainder flows into the coecum. Then, from this being a blind pouch, and from the cellular structure of this pouch, the food must be detained in it a very long time; and in order that, during this detention, all the nutriment may be extracted, the coecum and its cells are largely supplied with blood-vessels and absorbents. It is principally the fluid part of the food that seems to enter the ccecum. A horse will drink at once a great deal more than his stomach will contain, or even if he drinks a less quantity, it remains not in the stomach or small intestines, but passes on to the coecum, and there is retained, as in a reservoir, to supply the wants of the system. In his state of servitude the horse does not often drink more than twice or thrice in a day, and the food of the stabled horse being cliiefly dry, this water stomach is most useful to him. The coecum will hold four gallons. The greater portion of the food, and the more solid part of it, goes on to the colon {g g). This is an intestine of exceedingly large dimensions; it is capable of containing no less than twelve gallons of liquid or pulpy food. At its union with the coecum and the ileum, although larger than the latter intestine (/), it is of comparatively small bulk, but it soon swells out to an enormous extent. It has likewise, in the greater part of its course, three bands like the coecum, which also divide it, internally, into the COLIC. t>05 same description of cells. The intention of this is evident, — to retard the progress of the food, and to give a more extensive surface on which the vessels of the lacteals may open : and therefore, in the colon, all the chyle is finally separated and taken up. When this is nearly accomplished, the construction of the colon is somewhat changed : we find but two bands towards the rectum, and these not puckering the intestine so much, or forn^- ing such numerous or deep cells. The food does not require to be much lono*er detained, and the mechanism for detaining it is gradually disap- pearing. The blood-vessels and absorbents are likewise rapidly diminish- ing. The colon, also, once more contracts in size, and the chyle having been all absorbed, the remaining mass, being of a harder consistence, is moulded into pellets or balls in its passage through these shallower cells. ^ • At the termination of the colon, the Rectum (straight gut) commences. It is smaller in circumference and capacity than the colon, and serves as a reservoir for the dung until it is evacuated. It has none of these bands, be- cause, all the nutriment being extracted, the passage of the excrement that remains should be hastened and not retarded. ' This descends to the lower part of the rectum, which somewhat enlarges to receive it ; and w^hen it has accumulated to a certain extent, the animal, by the aid of the diaphragm and the muscles of the belly, presses it out, and it is evacuated. A cu- rious circular muscle, and always in action, called the sphincter (binder together), is placed at the anus, to prevent the constant and unpleasant dropping of the fseces, and to retain them mitil the animal is disposed vo- luntarily to expel them. , DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES* These form a very important pari of horse surgery, and many erroneous notions are prevalent respecting them. The first disease we will consider is SPASMODIC COLIC. We have said, that the passage of the food through the intestinal canal is effected by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscular coat of the intestines. When that action is simply increased through the whole of the canal, the food passes more rapidly, and purging is produced; but the muscles of every part of the frame are liable to irregular and spasmodic action, and the muscular coat of some portion of the intestines may be thus affected. A species of cramp may attack a portion of the in- testines. The spasm may be confined to a very small part of the canal. The gut has been found, after death, strangely contracted in various places, contraction not extending above five or six inches in any of them. In the horse, the ileum is the usual seat of this disease. It is of much import- ance to distinguish between spasmodic colic and inflammation of the bowels, for the symptoms have considerable resemblance, although the mode of treatment should be very different. The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, strike his belly with his teet, lie down, roll, and that fre- 206 THE HORSE. quently on his back. In a few minutes the pain seems to cease, the horse shakes himself, and begins to feed ; but, on a sudden, the spasm returns more violently, every indication of pain is increased, he heaves at the flanks, breaks out into a profuse perspiration, and throws himself more violently about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm, the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflamma- tion and death supervene. Of the symptoms by which it may best be distinguished from inflamma- tion of the bowels, we shall speak when we treat of that disease. Among the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated. There is not a surer cause of violent spasm than this. Colic will some- times follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air, or a cold wind after violent exercise. Green meat, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, yet given in too large a quantity, or when the horse is hot, will frequently produce gripes. In some horses there seems to be a con- stitutional predisposition to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or ex- posed to unusual cold, w^ithout a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have died, stones have been found in some part of the alimentary canal. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms ; and the disease often ceases almost as suddenly as it ap-^ peared. Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially if given in union with opium. Three ounces of spirit or oil of turpentine, with an ounce of laudanum, given in a pint of warm ale, will frequently have an almost instantaneous effect. The account which we have just o-iven of the coecum wifl not be forgotten. Even a small quantity of fluid will seldom be detained in the stomach, but will pass through the ileum to the coecum or water-stomach, and in this passage will come in immediate contact with the spasmed part. If relief be not obtained in half an hour it will be prudent to bleed, be- cause the continuance of violent spasm will produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, and it is far from bad practice ; for although the majority of cases will yield to turpenthie, opium, and aloes, an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the occurrence of inflammation, or at least mitigate it. If it be clearly a case of cohc, half of the first dose may be repeated, with a full ounce of Barbadoes aloes dissolved in warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative may counteract the irritation which caused the spasm. The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warmed cloth, but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over the belly by two great fellows with all their strength. The horse should be walked about, or trotted moderately. The motion thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop may speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic. Clysters of warm water, or con- taining a solution of aloes, will be injected. The patent syringe will here be most useful. When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated with perspiration, should be removed, and fresh, dry clothing substituted. He should be well littered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran mashes for the two or three next days, and drink only lukewarm water. Some persons give gin, and even gin and pepper, in cases of gripes. This, however, is a practice to which we strongly object ; it may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of colic, but if there be any inflamma- tion or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 207 CALCULI, OR STONES IN THE INTESTINES. We have mentioned these as a cause of colic in horses that are subject to frequent attacks of it. Some indigestible substance lodges in the coecum or colon : earthy, or half-digested vegetable matter gradually accumu- lates around this, and a ball, weighing many pounds, is sometimes formed. This will produce colic, or obstruct the passage of the gut, or, by its pressure, produce inflammation ; but as there are few or no symptoms by which the presence of these stones is clearly indicated, and few, or rather, no certain means, by which they may be removed, we will pass on to an occasional consequence of colic. INTUSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES. The spasmodic action of the ileum long continued, may be succeeded by an inverted action from the coecum towards the stomach, more powerful than the natural action ; and the contracted portion of the intestine is thus forced into a portion above it that retains its natural calibre ; and the irritation caused by this increases the action, until more is forced in, and an obstruc- tion is formed which no power can overcome. Even the natural motion of the bowels will be sufficient to produce intususception, when the contrac- tion of a portion of the ileum is very great. There are no symptoms to indicate the presence of this, except continued and increasing pain ; or if there were, all our means of reUef would here fail. ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. This is another and more singular consequence of colic. Although the ileum is enveloped in the mesentery, and its motion to a considerable degree confined, yet under the spasm of colic, and during the violence with which the animal rolls and throws himself about, portions of the ileum become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses and knots, drawn toge- ther with a degree of tightness scarcely credible. Nothing but the extreme and lengthened torture of the animal can lead us to suspect that this has taken place, and, could we ascertain its existence, there would be no cure. • INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever and cos- tiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, usually the consequence of an over-dose of physic, and accompanied by violent purg- ing. We will here speak of the first of these affections. It has been divided into inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and that of the muscular: but the causes, symptoms, and treatment of both are so much alike, that it would be raising unnecessary difficulties to endeavour to distinguish between them. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach, whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very frequent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known. If the horse has been carefully observed, restlessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack ; in many cases a direct shivering fit will be observed ; the mouth will be hot, and the nose red. The horse will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, looking wildly at his flanks, groaning and rolling. 203 THE HORSE. The pulse will be quickened and small ; the ears and legs cold ; the belly tender and sometimes hot ; the breathiiif^ quickened ; the bowels costive ; and the horse becoming- rapidly and fearfully weak. It may be useful to give a short table of the distinguishing symptoms of colic and inflammation of the bowels, because the treatment recommended for the former would often be fatal in the latter. COI.IC. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. Sudden in its attack. Gradual in its approach, with previous indications of fever. "Pulse rarely much quickened in the early Pulse very much quickened, but small, and period of the disease, and during the intervals often scarcely to be felt, of ease : but evidently fuller. Legs and ears of the natural temperature. Legs and ears cold. Relief obtained from rubbing the belly. Belly exceedingly tender and painful to the touch. Relief obtained from motion. Motion evidently increasing the pain. Intervals of rest. Constant pain. Strength scarcely affected. Rapid and great weakness. The causes of this disease are, first of all, and most frequently, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, be heated with exercise, and have been for some hours without food ; and in this state of exhaustion be suffered to drink freely of cold water, or be drenched with rain, or have his legs and belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse subjected to severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, will probably be attacked by inflammation of them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected, or wrongly treated, will terminate in it. The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The first and most powerful means of cure will be bleeding. From six to eight or ten quarts of blood should be taken as soon as possible, and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more if the pain be not relieved, and the pulse have not become rounder and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease should not deter from bleeding largely. It is the weakness that is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts, and if that inflamma- tion be subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear. The bleeding should be eflected on the first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that so quickly runs its course. Next to bleeding will follow clysters. Although the bowels are usually confined, we cannot administer a strong purgative * ; the intestines are already in far too irritable a state. The clyster may consist of warm water, or very thin gruel, in which half a pound of Epsom salts, or half an ounce oC aloes has been dissolved, and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up. If the common ox-bladder and pipe be used, it should be frequently replenished : but with Ueed's patent pump, already referred to, sufficient may be injected to penetrate beyond the rectum, and reach to the colon and coecum, and * The hiunan practitioner gives, under this disease, and with advantage, very powerful doses of purgative medicine j and he may be disposed to demur to the cautious mode of proceeding we recommend with regard to the horse. Although we may not be able to give him a satisfactory theorttical reason in defence of our treatment, we can appeal to the experience of every veterinary surgeon, that a strong dose of physic given in intlaramation pf the bowels would be certain poison. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 209 dispose them to evacuate their contents. The horse may likewise be encourag;ed to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel ; and draughts, each containing a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, may be o-iven every six hours, until the bowels are freely opened. Next, it will be prudent to endeavour to excite considerable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and there- fore the whole of the belly should be blistered. In a well-marked case of this inflammation, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the blister be at once resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirit of wine or turpentine, should be well rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged, to restore the circulation to them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part, and for the same reason the horse should be warmly clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be cool. No corn or hay should be given during the disease, but bran-mashes, and green meat if it can be procured. The latter will be the best of all food, and may be given without the slightest apprehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, he may get a handful of corn two or three times in the day, and, if the weather be warm, may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation is begin- ning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs. The second variety of inflammation of the bowels affects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of physic given in too great quantity, or of an improper kind. The purging is more violent, and con- tinues longer than was intended ; the animal shews that he is sufferino- great pain; he frequently looks round at his flanks; his breathing is laborious, and the pulse is quick and small ; not so small, however, as in inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and, contrary to some of the most frequent and characteristic symptoms of that disease, the mouth is hot, and the legs and ears are warm. Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain and distress great, we should hesitate at administering any astringent medicine at first. We should plentifully administer gruel, or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyster, removing all hay and corn, and particularly green meat. We should endeavour thus to sheath the irritated surface of the bowels, while we permitted any remains of the medicine to be carried off*. If, however, twelve hours should pass, and the purging and the pain remain undiminished, we should continue the gruel, but add to it chalk, catechu, and opium, in doses of an ounce of the first, a quarter of an ounce of the second, and two scruples of the last, repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually dis- continued. Bleeding will rarely be necessary unless the inflammation be very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever. The horse should be warmly clothed, and be placed in a warm stable, and his legs should be hand rubbed and bandaged. Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will sometimes occur from other causes. Green meat will sometimes purge. A horse worked hard upon green meat will scour. The remedy is change of diet, or less labour. Young horses will scour, and sometimes without any apparent cause. Astringents should be used with much caution here. It is probably an ettbrt of nature to get rid of something that offends. A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and the purging will cease without astringent medicine. Some horses that are not well ribbed home, (having too great space between the last rib and the hip-bone,) are subject to purging if more than P ^10 THE HORSE. usual exertion is required from them. They are recognised by the term of washy horses. They are often tree and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should have rather more than the usual allowance of corn, with beans, when at work ; and a cordial ball, with one drachm of catechu, and ten grains of opium will often be serviceable either before or after a journey WORMS. Worms of different kinds inhabit the intestines ; but except when they exist in very great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally supposed, although the groom or carter may trace to them hidebound, and cough, and loss of appetite, and gripes, and megrims, and a variety of other ailments. Of the origin or mode of propagation of these parasitical animals we will say nothing ; neither writers on medicine, nor even on natural history, have given us any satisfactory account of the matter. The long white worm {lumhricus teres) much resembling the common earth-worm, and, being from six to ten inches long, inhabits the small in- testines. It is a formidable looking animal, and if there are many of them they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food or the mucus of the bowels ; and we think that we have seen a tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked up belly, connected with their presence. They have then, however, been voided in large quantities, and when they are not thus voided we should be disposed to trace these appearances to other causes. A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quan- tities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is administered to the horse the better. It is the principal ingredient in some quack medicines for the expulsion of worms in the human subject, and thence, perhaps, it came to be used for the horse, but in him we believe it to be inert as a vermifuge, or only useful as quickening the operation of the aloes. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is con- cerned ; but perhaps a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is two drachms of emetic tartar, with a scruple of ginger, made into a ball, with linseed meal and treacle, and given every morning half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker coloured worm, called the needle worm, or ascaris, inhabits the large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the coecum. These are a more serious nuisance that the former, for they cause a very trouble- some irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered, by a small portion of mucus, which hardening, is converted into a powder, and is found about the anus. Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms, but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus indicating that they have descended into the rectum, an injection of a quart of linseed oil, or of an ounce of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape worm is seldom found in the horse. PHYSICKING. This would seem to be the most convenient place to speak of physicking horses, a mode of treatment necessary under various diseases, but which has injured the constitution of more horses, and in fact absolutely destroyed more of them, than any other thing that can be mentioned. When a horse •teYSICKINO. 211 -comes from grass to hard meat, or from the cool open air to a heated stable, a dose of physic or even two doses may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflammation which must be the necessary consequence of so sudden and i^reat a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or ha,s surfeit, or grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most serviceable ; but we do enter our protest against the periodical physicking of all horse's in the spring and the autumn, and more particularly against that severe system which is thought to be necessary to train them for work, and the absuid method of treating the horse when under the operation of physic. A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran-mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from suffi- cient, when a horse is about to be physicked, whether to promote his condi- tion or in obedience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened; a less quantity of physic will then suffice, and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more equally diffused over them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened, will act much more effectually, and much more safely than seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened faeces. On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise then would produce gripes, irritation, and possibly dangerous inflammation. The common and absurd practice is to give the horse most exercise after the physic has begun to operate. A little hay may be put into the rack ; as much mash may be given as the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid ; but he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour between each portion. When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between wliich and the setting of the first there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languor and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose, although the groom or the carter may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purgation will be, that a lowness and weakness will hang about the horse for many days or weeks, and inflammation will often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. Long continued custom has made aloes the almost invariable purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure and safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from five to seven drachms. The preposterous doses of nine, ten, or even twelve drachms are, happily for the horse, generally abandoned. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and safely. The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the CROTON. The farina or meal of the nut is used ; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, P 2 212 THE HORSE. without the nausea which they produce ; but it causes more watery stools, and consequently more debility. Ltnseed oil is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a pound and a half Olive oil is more uncertain but safe ; and castor OIL, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. Epsom salts are inefficacious, except in immense doses of a pound and a half, and then not always safe. The horse, and particularly the perfect horse, is occasionally subject to HERNIA OR RUPTURE. A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of the belly either throuo-h some natural or artificial opening. In some cases it may be returned, but from the impossibility of applying a truss or bandage it soon returns again. At other times the opening is so narrow, that the gut, gradually distended by faeces, or thickened by inflammation, cannot be returned, and strangulated hernia is then said to exist. The seat of hernia is either in the scrotum of the perfect horse, or the groin of the gelding. The causes are violent struggling when under operations, over-exertion, kicks, or accidents. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indis- pensable. THE LIVER. Between the stomach and the diaphragm, its right lobe or division in con- tact with the diaphragm, the duodenum and the right kidney, and the middle and left divisions with the stomach, is the liver. It is an irregu- larly shaped, reddish-brown substance of considerable bulk, and performs a very sins^ular and important office. We have already stated (p. 176) that the blood, which has been conveyed to the different parts of the body by the arteries, is carried back to the heart by the veins ; but that which is returned from the stomach and intestines, and spleen, and pancreas, and mesentery, instead of flowing directly to the heart, passes first through the liver. It enters by two large vessels which spread by means of innumerable minute branches through every part of the liver. As the blood traverses this organ, a fluid is sepa- rated from it, called the hile. This is probably a kind of excrement, the continuance of which in the blood would be injurious ; but while this is thrown off, another important purpose is answered ; the process of digestion is promoted, and particularly by the bile changing the nutritive part of the food from chyme into chyle, and separating it from that which,, containing little or no nutriment, is voided as excrement. The bile, thus formed, is in most animals received into a reservoir, the gall-bladder^ whence it is conveyed into the duodenum (g-, p. 202) at the times, and in the quantities, which the purposes of digestion require ; but the horse has no gall-bladder, and, consequently, the bile flows into the intestine as fast as it is separated from the blood. The reason of this is plain ; a small stomach was given to the horse, that the food might quickly pass out of it, and the diaphragm and the lungs might not be injuriously pressed upon, when we require his utmost speed ; and that we might use him with little danger compared with that which would attach to other animals, even when his stomach is distended with food. Then the stomach, so small, and so speedily emptied, must be oftener replenished ; the horse must be oftener eating, and food must be oftener passing out of his stomach ; and, consequently, there is no necessity for this JAUNDICE. 213 reservoir. The ox occupies a loncc time in filling his paunch, and it is only during rumination that the food passes into the true stomach to be digested. The meal of the dog is speedily swallowed. They need a gall-bladder to contain the bile, which continues to be secreted when it cannot be used: but to the horse, so frequently eating, it would be useless. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER Is a disease of rare occurrence in the horse. He is not exposed to the causes which produce that complaint in other animals. Although his food is some- times highly nutritive, the work which is exacted from him prevents it from unduly stimulating this important organ; and when inflammation of the liver does occur, it is with so much difficulty distinguished from that of the bowels, that if yellowness of the eyes and skin are not present, even the professional man is liable to be deceived. Bleeding from, or rupture of the liver, is another disease of old horses^ and especially of those that have been highly fed. It is generally fatal, but of unfrequent occurrence ; it is recognised by the frequent and feeble pulse, the pawing and sighing of the animal, the coldness of the extremities, whiteness of the eye and mouth, fulness of the belly, and speedy debility. A veterinary surgeon is alone competent to give assistance here. jaundice. Commonly called the yellows, is a more tractable disease, and a little more frequent. It is the introduction of bile into the general circula- tion, and which is usually caused by some obstruction in the ducts or tubes which convey the bile from the liver to the intestines. The horse, however, has but one duct, through which the bile usually flows as quickly as it is formed, and there is no gall-bladder in which it can become thickened, and even hardened into masses so hard as to be very appro- priately called gall-stones. Jaundice does, however, occasionally appear either from an increased flow or altered quality of the bile, or obstruction even in this simple tube. The yellowness of the eyes and mouth, and of the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently plainly. The dung is small and hard ; the urine high coloured ; the horse languid, and the appetite impaired. It is first necessary to inquire whether this affection of the liver be not the consequence of the sympathy of this organ with some other part ; for, to a very considerable degree, it frequently accompanies inflammation of the bowels and the lungs. These diseases being subdued, jaundice will disappear. If there be no other disease to any great extent, we must endeavour to restore the natural passage of the bile by purgatives, not consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected inflamma- tion of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative would be dangerous ; but given in small quantities, repeated at short intervals, and until the bowels are freely opened. Two drachms of aloes, and one of calomel, given twice every day, will be as much as can at all times be administered with safety. Bleeding should always be resorted to, regu- lated according to the apparent degree of inflammation, and the occasional stupor of the animal. Plenty of water slightly warmed, or thin gruel, should be given ; the horse should be warmly clothed, and the stable well ventilated, but not cold. Carrots or green meat will be very beneficial. Should the purging, when once excited, prove violent, we should be in no haste to stop it, unless inflammation is beginning to be connected with it, or the horse is very weak. The medicine recommended under diarrhoea 214 THE H0RS:E. may then be exhibited. A few slight tonics should be given when the horse is recovering from an attack of stranj^les. Two drachms each of gentian and chamomile, with one of ginger, will form a useful ball. THE SPLEEN. This organ, known commonly by the name of the melt^ is a long, bluish- brown substance, broad and thick at one end and tapering at the other, lying along the left side of the stomach, and between it and the short ribs. It is of a spongy nature, divided into numerous little cells not unlike a honey comb, and over which thousands of minute vessels thickly spread. The particular use of this body has never been clearly ascertained ; for in some cruel experiments it has been removed without apparent injury to digestion, or any other function. It is, however, useful, at least occa- sionally, or it would not have been given. It is perhaps a reservoir or receptacle for any fluid that may be conveyed into the stomach more than is sufficient for the purposes of digestion. The spleen is sometimes very extraordinarily enlarged, and has been ruptured ; but we are not aware of any symptoms by which this can be discovered. THE PANCREAS. \\\ the domestic animals which are used for food, this organ is called the sweetbread. It lies between the stomach and left kidney. It much resembles in structure the saUvary glands in the neighbourhood of the mouth, and the fluid which it secretes is very like common saliva. The pancreatic fluid is carried into the intestines by a duct which enters at the same aperture with that from the liver. Its use, whether to dilute the bile, or the chyme, or to assist in the separation of chyme from the feculent matter, has never been ascertained, but it is clearly employed in aiding the process of digestion. We know not of any disease to which the pancreas of the horse is hable. As soon as the belly of most of our domestic animals is opened, a mem- brane is perceived spreading over all the contents of this cavity ; it is denominated THE OMENTUM, Or cawl. It is a doubling of the peritoneum, or rather consists of four layers of it. It has been supposed to be placed between the intestines and the walls of the belly, to prevent concussion and injury during the rapid movement of the animal. That, however, cannot be its principal use in the horse, from whom the most rapid movements are required ; for in him it is unusually short, extending only to the pancreas, and a small portion of the colon. Being, however, thus short, the horse is exempt from a very troublesome and, occasionally, fatal species of rupture, when a portion of the omentum penetrates through some accidental opening in the covering of the belly. The blood contains a great quantity of watery fluid unnecessary for the nutriment or repair of the frame. There Ukewise mingle with it matters which would be noxious if suffered to accumulate too much. THE KIDNEYS are actively employed in separating this water, and likewise carrying off" a substance which constitutes the peculiar ingredient in urine, called the tireUf and consists principally of that which would be poisonous to the DIURETICS. 215 animal. The kidneys are two large glandular bodies, placed under the loins, very much of the shape of a kidney bean. The rig'ht kidney is most forward, lying' under the liver ; the left is pushed more backward by the stomach and spleen. A large artery runs to each, carrying not less than a sixth part of the whole of the blood that circulates through the frame. The artery divides into innumerable little branches most curiously compli- cated and coiled upon each other ; and the blood, traversing these convo- lutions, has its watery parts and others the retaining of which would be injurious, separated from it. The fluid thus separated varies materially both in quantity and composi- tion, even during health. There is no animal in which it varies so much as in the horse. There is no organ in that animal so much under our command as the kidney ; and no medicines are so useful, or may be so injurious, as diuretics. In speaking of fever and inflammation of the lungs, and indeed inflammation generally, we have recommended the use of nitre and digitalis, not only on account of their febrifuge or sedative effects, but because they act as diuretics. They stimulate the kidneys to separate more aqueous fluid than they otherwise would do, and thus lessen the quantity of blood ; the quantity which the heart is labouring to circulate through the frame, and the quantity which is determined or driven to a part already overloaded. The main objects we have to accomplish in these diseases is to reduce the force of the circulation, and to calm the violence of excite- ment ; and diuretics, by lessening the quantity of blood, are useful assist- ants in accomplishing these purposes. It is, however, in the varieties of dropsy that their benefit is most evident. The horse is more subject to eifusions of fluid in particular parts than any other domestic animal. Swelled legs is a disease peculiar to him. The ox, the sheep, the dog, the ass, and even the mule, have it very seldom ; and for the removal of this deposit of fluid in the cellular substance of the legs we have recourse to diuretics. The kidneys are stimulated to separate more than the usual quantity of water from the blood. In order to make up this deficiency in quantity, the absorbents set to work, and they take up and pour into the circulation the fluid which had been effused in the legs. The legs of many horses cannot be rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of diuretics ; nor can grease, often connected with these swellings, producing them or caused by them, be otherwise subdued. We therefore rank diuretics among the most useful of the veterinary medicines. In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused. Among the absurdities of stable management there is nothing so injurious as the frequent use of diuretics. Not only are the kidneys, so often over- excited, weakened, disposed to disease, but the whole frame becomes debilitated, for the absorbents have carried away a great part of that which was necessary to the health and condition of the horse, in order to supply the deficiency of blood occasioned by the inordinate discharge of urine. There is likewise one important fact of which the groom or the horseman seldom thinks ; that when he is removing these humours by the imprudent use of diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a consequence of disease, and not the disease itself. The legs will fill again, and the grease will return. While the cause remains, the effect will be produced. We shall say more of this when we treat particularly of these diseases of the extremities. In the administration of diuretics there are two things to be chiefly attended to. The first is that which seems to be contradictory, but the good effect of which the testimony of every intelligent man will confirm— /e^ the horse have plenty to drink. Not only will inflammation be prevented, but the operation of the medicine will be much promoted. If more water, thaa 216 THE HORSE. usual be drunk, a great deal more will be evacuated. The next caution is, that during; the administration of a diuretic neither the clothing nor the stable should be too warm, otherwise that which was intended to stimulate the kidney will pass off by perspiration ; for it seems to be a law of the frame, that what increases the discharge from the skin proportionably lessens the action of the kidneys. The best diuretic, and which given simply to promote an increased secre- tion from the kidneys, supersedes every other, is turpentine ; either the common liquid turpentine in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball with linseed meal, and half a drachm of ginger ; or, what is better, the same quantity of powdered resin, with two drachms of linseed meal, and half a drachm of ginger, formed into a mass with palm-oil. In cases of inflammation or fever, nitre or digitalis should be used. The spirit of nitrous ether, cream of tartar, and balsam of capivi have some diuretic effect. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEY Is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more unskilfully and fatally treated than almost any other. The early symptoms are those of fever generally, but the seat of the disease soon becomes evident. The horse looks anxiously round at his flanks ; stands with his hinder legs wide apart; straddles as he walks ; expresses pain in turning ; shrinks when the loins are pressed, and some degree of heat is felt there. The urine is voided in small quantities, and frequently it is high-coloured, and sometimes bloody. The attempt to urinate becomes more frequent, and the quantity voided smaller ; until the animal strains painfully and violently, l3ut the discharge is nearly or quite suppressed. The pulse is quick and hard; full in the early stage of the disease, but rapidly becoming small, yet not losing its character of hardness. These symptoms clearly indicate an affection of the urinary organs ; but they do not distinguish inflammation of the kidney from that of the bladder. The hand must be introduced into the rectum. If the bladder be felt full and hard under the rectum, there is inflammation of the neck of the bladder: if the bladder be empty, yet on the portion of the intestines immediately over it there is more than natural heat and ten- derness, there is inflammation of the body of the bladder; but if the bladder be empty, and there is no increased heat or tenderness, there is inflammation of the kidney. Among the causes are improper food. There is no more frequent cause than hay that has been mow-burnt, or oats that are musty. The farmer should look well to this. Oats that have been dried on the kiln acquire a diuretic property, and if horses are long fed on them, the continual excite- ment of this organ which they produce will degenerate into inflammation. Too powerful, or too-often-repeated diuretics produce inflammation of the kidney; or a degree of irritation and weakness of that organ, that disposes to inflammation from causes that would otherwise have no injurious eflect. If a horse is sprained in the loins, by being urged on, far or fast, by a heavy rider, or by being suddenly pulled up on his haunches, the inflam- mation of the muscles of the loins is often speedily transferred to the kidneys, with which they lie in contact. Exposure to cold is another fre- quent origin of this malady, especially if the horse be drenched with rain, or the wet drips upon his loins ; and more particularly, if he were previ- ously disposed to inflammation, or these organs had been previously weakened. For this reason, hackney-coach horses and others, exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, and often fed on unwholesome provender, have, or should have, their loins protected by a leather or a cloth. THE BLADDER. 21/ The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts, by the consideration of the peculiarity of the orphan affected. Bleeding must be promptly resorted to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge should next be administered ; and a counter-inflammation excited as near as possible to the seat of disease. For this purpose, the loins should be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard poultice ; but no cantharides or turpentine must he used, and, most of all, must no diuretic be given internally. When the groom finds this difficulty or sup- pression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a diuretic ball, to force oil the urine ; and by thus farther irritating a part already too much ex- cited, he adds fuel to fire, and frequently destroys the horse. When the action of the purgative begins a little to cease, white hellebore may be administered, in doses of a scruple three times a day, with or without emetic tartar. The horse should be warmly clothed ; his legs well band- aged, and plenty of water offered to him. The food should be carefully examined, and anything that could have excited, or that may prolong the irritation, carefully removed. DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING, Is a comparatively rare disease. It is the consequence, generally, of undue irritation of the kidney, by bad food or strong diuretics ; and sometimes follows inflammation of the kidney. It can seldom be traced in the horse to any disease of the digestive organs. The treatment is ob- scure, and the result often uncertain. It is, evidently, increased action of the kidney, and therefore the most rational plan of treatment is to en- deavour to abate that action ; and nearly the same course should be pur- sued in the early stage of diabetes, as in actual inflammation; but the lowering system should not be carried to so great an extent. To bleeding, purging, and counter-irritation, medicines of an astringent quality should succeed, as catechu, the powdered leaf of the wortle-berry (uva ursi), and opium, in doses of two drachms each of the two first, and half a drachm of the last. Very careful attention should be paid to the food. The hay and oats should be of the best quality ; and green meat, and especially carrots, will be very serviceable. ^ THE BLADDER. The urine separated by the blood is discharged by the minute vessels, of which we have spoken, into some larger canals, which terminate in a cavity or reservoir hi the body of the kidney, called its pelvis; and thence is conveyed by a duct, called the ureter, to a larger reservoir, the bladder. It is constantly flowing from the kidney through the ureter; and were there not this provision for its detention, it would be incessantly and annoy- ingly dribbling from the animal. The bladder lies in, and, when distended by urine, nearly fills, the cavity of the great bones of the haunch, termed the pelvis. It has three coats— the outer one covering the greater part of it, and being a portion of the peritoneum ; the muscular, consisting of two layers of fibres, as in the stomach ; the external, running longitudi- nally, and the inner circularly, so that it may yield to the pressure of the urine as it enters, and contract again into an exceedingly small space as it runs out, and by that contraction assist in the expulsion of the urine. The inner or mucous coat contains numerous little glands which pour out a mucous fluid to defend the bladder from the acrimony of the urine. The bladder terminates in a small neck, round which is a strong muscle, keeping 2ia , THE HORSE. the passage closed, and retaining the urine until, at the will of the aninial, or when the bladder contains a certain quantity of fluid, the muscular coat begins to contract, and, the lungs being filled with air, the diaphragm is rendered convex towards the intestines, and presses then on the bladder, and by these united powers, the fluid is forced through the sphincter muscle at the neck of the bladder, and escapes. INFLAMMATION OP THE BLADDER. There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the body of the bladder, and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly the same with those of inflammation of the kidney, except that there is rarely a total suppression of urine, and there is heat felt in the rectum over the situation of the bladder. The causes are the presence of some acrid or irritant matter in the urine, or of calculus or stone in the bladder. With reference to inflam- mation of the body of the bladder, mischief has occasionally been done by the introduction of cantharides or some other irritating matter to hasten the period of horsing in the mare. The treatment will be the same as in inflammation of the kidney, except that it is of more consequence that the horse should drink freely of water or thin gruel, and that gruel or mucilage of any kind may, by one who understands the anatomy of the animal, be easily introduced into the bladder of the mare. In inflammation of the neck of the bladder there is the same frequent voiding of urine in small quantities, generally appearing in an advanced stage of the disease, and often ending in almost total suppression. There is also this circumstance, which can never be mistaken by him who will pay diligent attention to the case, that the bladder is distended with urine, and may be distinctly felt under the rectum. It is spasm of the part, closing the neck of the bladder so powerfully, that the contraction of the bladder, and the pressure of the muscles, are unable to force out the urine. Here the object to be attempted is sufficiently plain. This spasm must be relaxed. The most Hkely means to effect this is to bleed largely, and even to fainting. This will sometimes succeed, and there will be at once an end to the disease. To the exhaustion and loss of muscular power occa- sioned by copious bleeding, should be added the nausea consequent on physic. Should not this speedily have effect, another mode of abating spasm must be tried. A drachm of the powdered opium, made into a ball or drink, may be given every two or three hours ; while an active blister is applied externally. In the mare the bladder may be easily evacuated by means of a catheter in skilful hands ; but owing to the curved direction of the penis, a catheter cannot be introduced into the bladder of a horse, without an operation to which a veterinary surgeon alone is competent. STONE IN THE BLADDER. The urine is a very compound fluid; in a state of health it contains a great many acids and alkalies variously combined, which under disease are increased both in number and quantity. It is very easy to conceive that some of these shall be occasionally separated from the rest, and assume a solid form both in the pelvis of the kidney, and in the bladder. This is known to be the case both in the human being and the brute. These calculi or stones are in the horse found oftener in the kidney than in the bladder, contrary to the experience of the human surgeon. The explana- tion of this, however, is not difficult. In the human being the kidney is situated above the bladder, and these concretions descend from the kidney BREEDING. 219 tothe bladder by their weight. The belly of the horse is horizontal, and the force of gravity can in no way affect the passage of the calculus ; there- fore it remains in the pelvis of the kidney, until it increases so much in size as often to fill it. We know not of any symptoms which would satis- factorily indicate the presence of a stone in the kidney ; and if the disease could be ascertained, we are unable to say what remedial measures could be adopted. The symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those of spasmodic colic, except that on careful inquiry it will be found that there has been much irregularity in the discharge of urine, and occasional suppression of it. When fits of apparent colic frequently return, and are accompanied by any peculiarity in the discharge of urine, the horse should be carefully examined. He should be thrown. If there be stone in the bladder, it will, while the horse lies on its back, press on the rectum, and may be distinctly felt if the hand be introduced into the rectum. Several cases have lately occurred of successful extraction of the calculus ; but here it will be necessary to have recourse to the aid of a veterinary practitioner. Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, some- times without inconvenience, at others with evident spasm or pain. A diuretic might here be useful, as increasing the flow of urine, and possibly washing out the concretions before they become too numerous or bulky. The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra, and is discharged. The sheath of the penis is sometimes considerably enlarged. When at the close of acute diseases, there are swellings and effusions of fluid, under the chest and belly, this part seldom escapes. Diuretics, mixed with a small portion of cordial medicine, will be beneficial, although in some extreme cases slight scarifications may be necessary. The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease ; the mucous matter naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of the urine, accumulates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces swell- ing, tenderness, and even excoriation, and sometimes considerable dis- charge. A little fomentation with warm water, and the cleansing of the part with soap and water, aided perhaps by a diuretic ball, will speedily remove every inconvenience. Carters are much too apt to neglect cleanliness in this respect. Chapter XII. BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. This may be a proper period to recur to the important subject of breeding, particularly important when there cannot be a doubt that our breed of useful horses has, within the last twenty years, most materially degenerated. Our running-horses still maintain their supremacy; our carriage-horses are not much lessened in excellence and value ; but our hunters and hackneys are not what they used to be. We shall endeavour to point out the cause of this. Our observations must be of a general nature, and will be very simple ; and the first axiom we would lay down is, that " like will produce like," that the progeny will inheritrthe qualities, or the mingled qualities, of the parents. We would refer to the subject of diseases, and again state our perfect conviction, that there is scarcely one by which either of the parents 220 THE HORSE. is affected, that the foal will not inherit, or, at least, the predisposition to it: even the conseqnences of ill usance or hard work will descend to the progeny. We have already enlarged on this, but its importance will be a sufficient apology for the repetition. We have had proof upon proof, that blindness, roaring, thick wind, broken wind, spavins, curbs, ringbones, and founder, have been bequeathed, both by the sire and the dam, to the offspring. It should likewise be recollected, that although these blemishes may not appear in the immediate progeny, they frequently will in the next generation. Hence the necessity of some knowledge of the parentage both of the sire and dam. Peculiarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a most important, but neglected consideration ; for however desirable, or even perfect, may have been the conformation of the sire, every good point may be neutralized or lost by the defective form, or want of blood, of the mare. There are niceties in this, of which some breeders used to be aware, and they employed their knowledge to great advantage. When they were careful that the essential points should be good in both parents, and that some minor defect in either should be met, and got rid of, by excellence in that particular point in the other, the result was creditable to their judg- ment, and highly profitable. The unskilful or careless breeder will often so badly pair the animals, that the good points of each will be, in a manner, lost : the defects of both will be increased, and the produce will be far inferior to both sire and dam. Of late years, these principles have been much lost sight of in the breed- ing of horses for general use ; and the following is the explanation of it. There are nearly as good stallions as there used to be. Few but well- formed and valuable horses will be selected and retained as stallions. They are always the very prime of the breed ; but the mares are not what they used to be. Poverty has induced many of the breeders to part with the mares from which they used to raise their stock, and which were worth their weight in gold ; and the jade on which the farmer now rides to market, or which he uses in his farm, costs him but little money, and is only retained because he could not get much money for her. It has like- wise become the fashion for gentlemen to ride mares, almost as frequently as geldings ; and thus the better kind are taken from the breeding service, until old age or injury renders them worth little for it. An intelligent veterinary surgeon, Mr. Castley, has placed this in a very strong hght, in the third volume of the " Veterinarian," p. 371. We would wish, then, to impress it on the minds of breeders, that pecu- liarity of form and constitution are inherited from both parents ; that the excellence of the mare is a point of quite as much importance as that of the horse ; and that out of a sorry mare, let the horse be as perfect as he may, a good foal will rarely be produced. All this is recognised upon the turf, altho\igh poverty or carelessness have made the general breeder neglect or forget it. It is recognised in the midland counties in the breed of cart-horses ; and the strict attention which has been paid to it, has brought our heavy horses to almost the same perfection in their way as the blood-horse. It is strange that in our saddle-horses, our hunters, and, to a great degree, our carriage-horses, this should be left to chance. The breeder begins to c^re little about the quality of the mare, and the progeny is becoming com- paratively of little worth. Experience, it is said, will make fools wise, but experience will here be bought at a very dear rate, both as it regards the breeder and the community. That the constitution and endurance of the horse are inherited, no BREEDING. 221 sportlnn: man ever doubted. The qualities of the sire or the dam descend from generation to generation, and the excellences or defects of certain horses are traced, and justly so, to some peculiarity in a far distant ancestor. It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in se- lectino' a good mare to breed from, than a good horse, because she should possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, to give room for the growth of the foetus, and yet with this there should be com- pactness of form and shortness of leg. What can they expect who go to Smithfield Market to purchase a number of worn-out, spavined, foundered mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and send them far into the country to breed from, and, with all their variety of shape, to be covered by the same horse ? In a lottery like this, there may be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. " If horse- breeders, possessed of good judgment, would pay the same attention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell did with sheep, they would probably attain their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly to their advantage, whether for the collar or the road, for racing or for hunting*." As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but if there be one point which we should say is absolutely essential, it is this, *' compactness" — as much goodness and strength as possible con- densed in a little space. If we are describing the reverse of the common race of stallions for hunters and coach-horses, the fault lies with the bad taste and judgment of the majority of breeders. Next to compactness, the inclination of the shoulder will be regarded. A huge stalHon, with upright shoulders, never got a capital hunter or hackney. From him the breeder can obtain nothing but a cart or dray- horse, and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite form of the mare. On the other hand, an upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely necessary, when a mere draught horse is required. It is of no little importance, that the parents should be in full posses- sion of their natural strength and powers. It is a common error, that because a mare has once been good, she is fit for breeding when she is no longer capable of ordinary work. Her blood and perfect frame may en- sure a foal of some value, but he will inherit a portion of the worn-oat constitution of her from whom he sprung. On the subject of breeding in and in^ that is, persevering in the same breed, and selecting the best on either side, much has been said. The system of crossing requires much judgment and experience; a great deal more, indeed, than breeders usually possess. The bad qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted on the original stock, and once engrafted there, are not, for many generations, eradicated. The good ones of both are occa- sionally neutralized to a most mortifying degree. On the other hand, it is the fact, however some may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed, however valuable or perfect, produces gradual deterioration. The truth here, as in many other cases, lies in the middle ; crossing should be attempted with great caution, and the most perfect of the same breed should be selected, but varied, by being frequently taken from different stocks. This is the secret of the course. The pure south-eastern blood is never left, but the stock is often changed with manifest advantage. A mare is capable of breeding at three or four years old ; some have injudiciously commenced at two years, before her form or her strength is * Parkinson on the Breeding and Management of Live Stock, vol. ii., p. 59, 52^ .THE HORi^E. sufficiently developed, and with the developement of which this early breeding will materially interfere. If she does Httle more than farm-work, she may continue to be bred from until she is nearly twenty ; but if she has been hardly worked, and bears the marks of it, let her have been what she will in her youth, she will deceive the expectations of the breeder in her old age. The mare comes into heat in the early part of the spring*. She is said to g;o with foal eleven months, but there is sometimes a strange irregu- larity about this. Some have been known to foal five weeks earlier, while the time of others has been extended six weeks beyond the eleven months. We may, however, take eleven months as the average time. In running- horses, that are brought so early to the starting-post, and whether they are foaled early in January or late in April, rank as of the same age, it is of importance that the mare should go to cover as early as possible : m a two or three-year-old, four months would make considerable difference in the growth and strength ; yet many of these early foals are almost worth- less, because they have been deprived of that additional nutriment which nature designed for them. For other breeds, the beginning of May is the most convenient period. The mare would then foal in the early part of April, when there would begin to be sufficient food for her and her colt, without confining them to the stable. From the time of covering to that of foaling, the mare may be kept at moderate work, and that not only without injury, but with decided advan- tage. The work may be continued up to the very time when she is ex- pected to foal ; and of which she will give at least a day's notice, by the adhesive matter that will appear about the teats. When this is seen, it will be prudent to release her from work, and keep her near home, and under the frequent inspection of some careful person. When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should have a little better food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of corn in the day. This is about the period when they are accustomed to slink their foals, or when abortion occurs : at this time, therefore, the eye of the owner should be frequently upon them. Good feeding and moderate ex- ercise will be the best preventives against this. The mare that has once slinked her foal is ever liable to the same accident, and therefore should never be suffered to be with other mares about the time that this usually occurs, which is between the fourth and fifth months ; for such is the power of imagination or of sympathy in the mare, that if one of them suffers abortion, the greater number of those in the same pasture will share the same fate. Farmers wash, and paint, and tar their stables to prevent some supposed infection : — the infection lies in the imagination. If a mare has been regularly exercised, and apparently in health while she was in foal, little danger will attend the act of parturition. If there be false presentation of the foetus, or difficulty in producing it, it will be better to have recourse to a well-informed practitioner, rather than injure the mother by the violent, and injurious attempts which are often made to relieve the animal. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should be turned into some well- sheltered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases : and as, supposing she has foaled in April, the grass is scanty, she should have a couple of feeds of corn daily. The breeder may depend upon it, that nothiftg is gained by starving the mother and stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important time in the life of the horse ; and if, from false economy, his growth be arrested now, his puny form and want of endur- ance will ever afterwards testify the error that has been committed. The BREAKING-IN. 223 com should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may partake of it with the mother. When the new grass is flush and plenty, the corn may be gradually discontinued. Our work is intended, principally, for farmers : they well know that the mare may be put to moderate work again a month after the foaling. The foal is at first shut in the stable during the hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the mare, and especially when she is at slow work, it will be better for the foal and the dam that they should be together. The work will contribute to the health of the mother ; the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better ; and will be hardy and tractable, and gradually familiarized with the objects among which it is afterwards to live. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and the foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should be added to the green food which they get when turned out after their work, and at night. The mare will usually be found at heat at or before the expiration of a month from the time of foaling, when, if she be kept principally for breeding purposes, she may be put again to the horse. In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may be weaned. It should then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned into some distant rick-yard. There can be no better place for the foal than the latter, as affording, and that without trouble, both food and shelter. The mother should be put to harder work, and have drier meat. One^ or two urine balls, or a physic ball, will be useful if the milk should be trou- blesome, or she should pine after her foal. There is no principle of greater importance than the hberal feeding of the foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. Bruised oats and bran should form a considerable part of his daily pro- vender. The farmer may be assured that money is well laid out which is expended on the liberal nourishment of the growing colt : while, how- ever, he is well fed, he should not be rendered delicate by excess of care. A racing colt is sometimes stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should merely have a square rick, under the leeward side of which he may shelter himself, or a hovel, into which he may run at night, or out of the rain. The process of breaking-in should commence from the very period of weaning. The foal should be daily handled, partially dressed, accustomed to the halter, led about, and even tied up. The tractability, and good temper, and value of the horse, depend a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware : this should be done as much as possible by the man by whom they are fed, and whose manage- ment of them should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their after usefulness is founded, is early attachment to, and confidence in man, and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting principally from these. After the second winter, the work of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. He may first be bitted, and a bit carefully selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in common use ; with this he may be suffered to amuse himself, and to play, and to champ for an hour, on a few successive days. Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him, and, last of all, the bhnd winkers; and a few days afterwards he may go into the team. It would be better if there could be one before, and one behind him, beside the shaft horse. Let there be first the mere empty waggon. Let nothing be done to him, except that he may have an occa- 224 THE HORSE. sional pat or kind word. The other horses will keep him moving, and in his place ; and no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he will begin to pull with the rest : then the load may be gradually increased. The agricultural horse is wanted to ride as well as to draw. Let his first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible, be first put upon him : he will be too much hampered by his harness, and by the other horses, to make much resistance ; and, in the majority of cases, will quietly and at once submit. We need not repeat, that no whip or spur should be used in giving the first lessons in riding. When he begins a little to understand his business, backing, the most difficult part of^his work, maybe taught him ; first to back well without anything behind him, then with a light cart, and afterwards with some serious load ; and taking the greatest care not seriously to hurt the mouth. If the first lessoii causes much soreness of the gums, the colt will not readily submit to a second. If he has been rendered tractable before by kind usage, time and patience will do all that can be wished here. Some carters are in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to back : it may be necessary with the restive and obstinate one, and should be used only as a last resort. The colt having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience may be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness and steadiness ; the voice will go a great way, but the whip or the spur is sometimes indispensable — not so cruelly applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to convince him that we have the power to enforce submission. Few, we would almost say, no horses, are naturally vicious. It is cruel usage which has first provoked resistance; that resistance has been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has increased ; open warfare has ensued, in which the man seldom gained an advantage, and the horse was frequently rendered unserviceable. Correc- tion may, or must be used, to enforce implicit obedience after the education has proceeded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated with kindness alone. Young colts are sometimes very perverse; many days will occasionally pass before they will permit the bridle to be put on, or the saddle to be worn ; one act of harshness will double or treble this time. Patience and kindness will, after a while, prevail. On some morn- ing, of better humour than usual, the bridle will be, put on, and the saddle will be worn ; and this compliance being followed by kindness and soothing on the part of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being suffered by the animal, all resistance will be at an end. The same principles will apply to the breaking-in of the horse for the road or the chase. The handling, and some portion of instruction, should commence from the time of weaning. The future tractability of the horse will much depend on this. At two years and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should come on. If it be delayed until the animal is four years okl, his strength and obstinacy will be more difficult to overcome. We cannot much improve on the plan usually pursued by the breaker, except that there should be much more kindness and pa- tience, and far less harshness and cruelty, than these persons are accus- tomed to exhibit, and a great deal more attention to the form and natural action of the horse. A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the nose) affixed to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led round a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next to preserving the temper and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so much importance BREAKING-IN". 225 as to teach lilin every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and thoroiig-hly. Each must constitute a separate and sometimes Iono--continued lesson, and that taui^ht by a man who will never suffer his passion to get the better of his discretion. After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the lono- rein put on, the first lesson is, to be quietly led about by the breaker ; a steady boy folio wiiifr behind, by occasional threatening- vvith the whip, but never by an actual blow, to keep the colt up. Wlien the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the ring-, and walked round, right and left, in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace tho- roug-hly, never suffering- him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall. Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restraining him. These lessons should be short. The pace should be kept perfect and distinct in each ; and docility and improvement rewarded with frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. Tiie length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened, and the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in this his first lessons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or something similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The an- noyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two; for when the animal finds that no harm comes to him on account of these straps, he will cease to regard them. Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins should be buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. The reins should at first be slack, and very gradually tightened. This will prepare for the more perfect manner in which the head will be afterwards got into its proper position, when the colt is accustomed to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of the colt, and take hold of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and thus begin to teach him to stop and to back at the pressure of the rein, rewarding every act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional carelessness or waywardness. The colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually accus- tomed to the objects among which his services will be required. Here, from fear or playfulness, a considerable degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. As little notice as possible should be taken of it. The same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater dis- tance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be farther increased, until he takes no notice of the object ; then he maybe gradually brought nearer to it, and this will be usually effected without the slightest difficulty : whereas, had there been an attempt to force the animal close to it in the first instance, the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with the object, and tlie habit of shying would have been established. Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt must now, however, be accustomed to this necessary instrtiment of authority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left; and occasionally quicken his pace, and, at the moment of doing this, tap the horse with the whip in his right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of the v/hip and the quickening of the pace will soon become associated together in the mind of the animal. If neces- 226 THE HORSE. sary, the taps may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling* of pain be the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in and stopping", and backing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to be practised at the same time. He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little caution will be necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the head of the colt, patting him, and engaging his attention, while one assist- ant, on the off-side, gently places the saddle on the back of the animal ; and another, on the near side, slowly tightens the girths. If he submits quietly to this, as he generally will, when the previous process of breaking in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mounting may be attempted on the following or on the third day. The breaker will need two assistants to accomplish this operation. He will remain at the head of the colt, patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stirrup, ^nd bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses equally on the other stirrup-leather; and, according to the docility of the animal, he will gradually increase the weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt be uneasy or fearful, he should be spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthful of corn be given to him : but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that day ; he may pro- bably be in better humour on the morrow. When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw his leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes he will take the reins, and handle them as gently as possible, and guide the horse by the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting, — and after having dismounted, offering him a little corn or green meat. The use of the rein in checking him, and of the pressure of the \e^ and the touch of the heel in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and the education will be nearly completed. The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pat- tings and rewards must be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary ; in the great majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for : but should the animal, in a moment of waywardness, dispute the command of the breaker, he must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have the power, by other means than those of kindness, to bend him to our will. The education of the horse is that of the child. Pleasure is, as much as possible, associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, coercion, must confirni the habit of obedience. Tyranny and cruelty will, more speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to disobey ; and, on every practicable occasion, the resistance to command. The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. None but those who will take the trouble to try the experiment are aware how absolute a com- mand the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give us over any horse. CASTRATION. The period at which this important operation will be best performed depends much on the breed and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is destined. For the common agricultural horse, the age of four or five months will be the most advisable, or, at least, before he is weaned. Very few horses are lost when cut at that age. The weather. CASTRATION. 227 however, slioiildnot be too hot, nor the flies too numerous. We enter our decided protest ag-ainst the recommendation of some valuable, but incau- tious agricultural writers, that ' colts should be cut in the months of June or July, when flies pester the horses, and cause them to be conti- nually moving- about, and thereby prevent swelling-.' One moment's re- flection will convince the reader that nothing- can be more likely to produce inflammation, and consequent swelling and danger, than the torture of the flies hovering round and stinging the sore part. If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy draught, the farmer should not think of castrating him until he be at least a twelve- month old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in the withers, he will materially improve by remaining uncut another six months ; but if his fore-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a twelvemonth, the operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before, and perhaps have begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. No specihc age, then, can be fixed ; but the castration should be performed rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate, and particularly when the weather is dry. No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it may be prudent to bleed and to physic one of more advanced age. In the majority of cases, no after treatment will be ne- cessary, except that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, and more particularly from wet. In temperate weather he will do much better running in the field than nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate exercise which he will take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large and well-ventilated box, however, may be permitted. The manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to the veterinary surgeon ; although we must confess that we are disposed to adhere to the old way of opening the bag on either side, cutting off the tes- ticle, and preventing bleeding by searing the vessels with a hot iron. There is at least an appearance of brutality, and, we believe, much unnecessary pain inflicted, when the spermatic cord (the vessels and the nerve) is tightly compressed between two pieces of wood, as in a powerful vice, and left there either until the testicle drops off, or is removed on the following day by the operator. To the practice of some farmers, of twitching their colts at an early period, sometimes even so early as a month, we have stronger objection. When the operation of twitching is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly as possible round the bag, between the testicle and the belly ; the circulation is thus stopped, and, in a few days, the tes- ticles and the bag drop off: but the animal suffers sadly, — it is occasion- ally necessary to tighten the cord on the second or third day, and inflam- mation and death have frequently ensued. Chapter XIII. THE FORE LEGS. We arrive now at those parts of the frame most essentially connected ■with the action and value of the horse, and oftenest, and most annoyingly, the subjects of disease. The extremities contain the whole apparatus of motion, and it is with the action, and speed, and strength of the horse that we are most concerned. Q 2 228. THE HORSE. We beg-in with the fore extremity, and with its upper part the shoulder It is seen at G, page 63. THE SHOULDER. Tiie scapula, or shoulder-blade, situated forward on the side of the chest, is a bone of a somewhat triangular shape, with its apex or point downward, and its base or broad part upward. The point lies between the first and second ribs ; the hinder part of the base reaches as far back as the seventh rib; it therefore extends obliquely along the chest. It is divided, externally, into two unequal portions by a ridge or spine running through almost the whole of its extent, and designed, as we shall pre- sently show, for the attachment of important muscles. The broad or upper part having- no muscles of any consequence attached to it, is terminated by cartilage. We have stated that the muscles of the hinder legs are principally con- cerned in the motion of the horse. They impel the machine forward, and the main uses of the fore extremities are to lift the fore part of the horse from the ground, that it may be thus impelled to throw forward the legs as far as possible that they receive this weight at due distance, and to sup- port the ibrce and shock of that weight when it reaches the ground. We will inquire as we proceed how far one or all of these objects are accom- plished. The shoulder-blade is united to the chest by muscle alone. There is a large muscle, with very remarkable tendinous fibres, and of immense strength (the serratus major ^ greater saw-shaped muscle), attached to the chest, and to the extensive smooth internal surface of the shoulder-blade, and by which, assisted, or rather strengthened, by the muscles of the breast, the weight of the body is supported, and the shock of the widest leap, or the most rapid motion, sustained. Had there been a bony union between the shoulder and the body, the vital parts contained in the chest could not have endured the dreadful shock which they would occasionally have experienced; nor could any bone have long remained whole if exposed to such violence. Tlie muscles within the shoulder-blade act as powerful and safe springs. They yield, as far as necessary, to the force impressed upon them ; by their gradual yielding they destroy the violence of the shock, and then, by their elastic power, immediately regain their former situation. SPRAIN OP THE SHOULDER. In some violent and unexpected shock these muscles are occasionally in- jured. Although we do not believe that, in one case in twenty, the farrier is right when he talks of his shoulder-lameness, yet it cannot be denied, that the muscles of the shoulder are occasionally sprained. This is cfliccted oftener by a slip or side-fall, than by fair, although violent exertion. It is of considerable importance to be able to distinguish this shoulder-lameness from injuries of other parts of the fore extremity. We shall look in vain for much tenderness, or heat or swelling : it is a sprain of muscles deeply seated, and where these symptoms of injury cannot possibly exist. If, on standing before the horse, and looking at the size of the two shoulders, or rather their points, one should appear evidently larger than the other, we must not consider this as indicative of sprain of the muscles of the shoulder. It probably arises from bruise of the point of the shoulder, which a slight examination will determine ; or the whole of the limb, this SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 229 portion of Avbich is enlarnred, may be sound, while the other mav be shrnnk from M'ant of equal exertion, arising- from injury of long- standing-. The heat and tenderness, if there be any, will be found within the arm, close to the chest ; and will belong- more to the muscles of the breast than to those under the shoulder. The symptoms, however, of shoulder-lameness can scarcely be mistaken; and, when we relate them, the farmer will recollect, that they very seldom occurred when the village-smith pointed to the shoulder as the seat "of disease, and punished the animal for no purpose. In sprain of the shoulder the horse will evidently suffer extreme pain while moving, and the muscle nnderneath being- inflamed and tender, he will extend it as little as possible. He will drag his toe along the ground. It is in the lifting- of the foot that the shoulder is principally moved : if the foot be lifted high, let the horse be ever so lame, the shoulder is little, if at all affected. The lame limb is suffered to bear the w^eight a much shorter time in this than in any other kind of lameness. In sprain of the back sinews, it is only when the horse is in motion that the injured parts are put to most pain; the pain is greatest here when the weight rests on the limb, and, therefore, there is a peculiar quickness in catching up the limb, in shoulder-lameness, the mo- ment the weight is thrown on it. This is particularly evident when the horse is going down hill, and the injured limb bears an additional portion of the weight. In the stable, too, when the horse points or projects one foot before the other, that foot is usually flat on the ground. Jn shoulder- lameness the toe alone rests on the ground. The circumstance which most of all characterizes this affection, is, that when the foot is Ufted, and then brought considerably forward, the horse will express great pain, which he will not do if the lameness be in the foot or the leg. We have dwelt longer on this point, that our readers may be enabled to put to the test the many cases of shoulder-lameness which exist only in the imagi- nation of the groom or the fi-u-rier. In sprain of the internal muscles of the shoulder, few local measures can be adopted. The horse should be bled from the vein on the inside of the arm (the plate vein), because the blood is then abstracted more imme- diately from the inflamed part. A dose of physic should be given, and fomentations applied, and principally on the inside of the arm, close to the chest; while the horse is kept as quiet as possible. The injury is too deeply seated for external stimulants to have very great effect, jet a blister will very properly be resorted to, if the lameness is not speedily removed. The swimming of the horse is an inhuman practice; it tortures the animal, and increases the inflammation. The jyf'gging of the shoulder (puncturing the skin, and blowing into the cellular structure beneath, until it is cou- siderably puffed up) is another relic of ignorance and barbarity. SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. The lessening or breaking of the shock, from the weight being thrown violently on the fore legs, is effected in another way. It will be observed, that (see G and J, p. 63) the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are not connected together in a straight line, but form a very con- siderable angle with each otlier. This will be more evident from the fol- lowing cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities in the situations which they occupy in the horse. This angular construction of the limbs reminds us of the similar arrange- ment of the springs of a carrit)ge, and the ease of motion, and almost per- fect freedom Irom jolting, which are thereby obtained. THE HORSE. We will not say that the form of the spnng' was borrowed from this construction of the limbs of the horse, but the effect of the carriage-spring beautifully illustrates the connexion of the different bones in the extremi- ties of this quadruped. The obliquity or slanting direction of the shoulder effects another very useful purpose. That the stride in the gallop, or the space passed over in the trot, may be extensive, it is necessary that the fore part of the animal should be considerably elevated. The shoulder, by means of the muscles which extend from it to the inferior part of the limb, is the grand agent in effecting this. The slightest inspection of the last cut, or of that at p. 63, will show that, just in proportion as the point of the shoulder is brought forward and elevated, will be the forward action and elevation of the limb, or the space passed over at every effort. At each contraction of the muscles which extend from G to J, or from the shoulder-blade to the bone of the arm, will the point of the shoulder be projected and elevated. In the upright shoulder it can scarcely be carried beyond the point at which it is placed in these cuts. In the oblique or slanting shoulder it commences its action from that point; therefore it is that a slanting shoulder is indis- pensable in a horse from which good action and considerable speed are required. The slanting shoulder accomplishes another very useful object. The mus- cles extending from the shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are the powers by which motion is given to the whole of the limb. The extent and energy of that motion depend much on the force exerted or the strength of the muscle ; but there are circumstances in the relative situa- tions of the different bones which have far greater influence. Let us suppose that by means of a lever we are endeavouring to raise a certain weight. SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 231 A is a lever, resting or turning on a pivot B ; C is the weight to be raised, and D is the power and the situation at which the power is applied. If we apply our strength in a direction perpendicular to tlie lever, as repre- sented by the line E, we can easily calculate the strength which we must exert. In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre of motion exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the advantao-e o-ained. The power here is twice as far from the centre as the weight is, and therefore we gain advantage in the proportion of two to one ; or if the weight be equal to 200 lbs., a force of 100 lbs. will balance it. If we alter the direction in which the power is applied, and suppose it to be in that of the line F, will 100 lbs. now do? No; nothing like it. How shall we calculate, then, the power that is necessary? We must prolong the line of direction until another line, falling perpendicularly from the lever, and commencing at the centre of motion, will cut it; and the length of that line will give us the actual effect of the strength we employ. Now, this new line is but half as long as the distance of the weight from the centre of motion, and therefore we lose advantage in the proportion of two to one ; or a strength equal to 400 lbs. must be exerted to raise the 200 lbs., and so on in proportion to the deviation from the right or perpen- dicular line. Let us next take the shoulder of the horse. The point of the shoulder, the shoulder joint, is the pivot or centre of motion ; the leg attached to the bone of the arm is the weight ; the shoulder-blade being more fixed is the part whence the power is exerted ; and the muscles extending from the one to the other are the lines in which that power is exerted. These lines approach much more nearly to a perpendicular in the oblique than in the upright shoulder (see cut). In the upright shoulder, the shoulder-blade and the bone of the arm are almost in a straight line, and the real action and power of the muscle are most strangely diminished. In this point of view the oblique shoulder is most important. It not only gives extensive action, but facility of action; the power of the muscles is more than doubled by being exerted in a line approaching so much nearer to a perpendicular. There is yet another advantage of the oblique shoulder. The point of the shoulder is projected forward ; and therefore the pillars which support the fore part of the horse are likewise placed proportionably forward, and they have less weight to carry ; and are exposed to less concussion, and especially concussion in rapid action. The horse is also much safer; for having less weight lying before the pillars of support, he is not so likely to have the centre of gravity thrown before and beyond them by an acci- dental trip ; or, in other words, he is not so likely to fall ; and he rides more pleasantly, for there is far less weight bearing on the hand of the rider, and annoying and tiring him. It likewise happens unfortunately that nature, as it were to supply the deficiency of action and of power in an upright shoulder, has accumulated on it more muscle, and therefore the upright shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy ; and the muscles ot the 232 THE HORSE. breast which were desi2:ned to strengthen the attachment of the shoulders to the chest, and to bind them together, must, when the point of the shoulder lies backward, and under the horse, be proportionably thickened and strengthened, and the horse is thus still more heavy before, more unpleasant, and more unsafe to ride. Then, ought every horse to have an oblique shoulder? No! We have been speaking of those which are designed to ride pleasantly, or from which extensive and rapid action is required. In them we have said that an oblique shoulder is indispensable: but there are others which are never ridden ; whose pace is slow, and who have nothing to do but to throw as much weight as possible into the collar. To them an upright shoulder is an advantage, because its additional thickness gives them additional weight to throw into the collar, which the power of their hinder quarters is fully sufficient to accomplish ; and because the upright position of the shoulder gives that direction to the collar which enables the horse to act upon every part of it; and that inclination of the traces which will enable his weight or power to be most advantageously employed. Of this, however, we shall better speak when we come to describe the implements of agriculture, and particularly the construction of wheel carriages. An improved breed of our heavy draught horses has of late years been attempted, and with much success. Sufficient uprightness of shoulder is retamed for the purposes of draught, while a slight degree of oblic[uity has materially quickened the pace and improved the appearance. Above its junction with the humerus, or low^er bone of the shoulder, the shoulder-blade forms what is called the point of the shoulder. There is a round blunted projection, best seen in the cut (p. 230). The neck of the shoulder-blade then forms a shallow cavity, into which the head of the next bone is received. The cavity is shallow because extensive motion is required, and because both of the bones being so moveable, and the motion of the one connected so much with that of the other, dislocation was not so likely to happen as if one of them had been fixed. A capsular Wgameni, or one extending round the heads of both bones, confines them securely together. This joint is rarely or never dislocated ; or should it sutler dislocation, the muscles of the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are so strong, that the reduction of it would be impossible. The point of the shoul- der, however, projecting considerably, is much exposed to injury from acci- dent or violence ; even turning in a narrow stall has intlicted a serious bruise. Fomentations of warm water will usually remove the tenderness and lame- ness, but should they fail, hlood may be taken from the plate vein, and, in very obstinate cases, a blister may be resorted to. A description of the principal muscles of the shoulder-blade, their situa- tion, attachments, and use, may not be uninteresting to the lover of the horse, and may guide his judgment as to the capability and proper form of that noble animal. CUT OF MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. a and b represent a portion of the muscle (the trapezius, quadrangular muscle), which rises from the longer bones of the withers, broadly and strongly, and from the ligament of the neck (a portion of A\hich is seen at b), and narrowing below, and terminating almost in a jioint, is inserted into a prominent part of the s\nne or ridge of the shoulder-blade. It occupies the space between the withers and the upper part of the shoulder- blade, and is large and strong in proportion to tie height of the withers, SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 233 ^^3X. ^%\ ■\' il" and the slanting of tlie shoulder. Its use is evidently to support the shoulder, to raise it, and likewise to draw it backward ; therefore, con- stituting one of the most important muscles connected with the action of the horse, and illustrating- the advantage of high withers and a slanting shoulder. A portion of it is represented as turned back, to show other muscles beneath. A mo- ment's inspection will con- vince the reader, that al- though we may have been justified in objecting to a low forehead and thick shoulder, yet still some ful- ness and fleshiness are ne- cessary, even about the withers; otherwise, although there may be height of withers, and obliquity of shoulder, to give extensive action, there will not be sufficient muscular power to work the machine with either quickness or continu- ance. At c is a portion of the levator humeri (the raiser of the shoulder), descending even from the tubercle at the back of the head (see cut, page 63), and from the base of the temporal bone, and attaching itself to the first four bones of the neck, and to the ligament of the neck ; inserting itself into the covering of the muscles of the shoulder, and the -mus- cles about the point of the shoulder, and at length ter- minating in a ridge on the lower bone of the shoulder. It is a muscle of immense power and great utility, raising and drawing forward the shoulder and the arm, and, when these are fixed, turning the head and neck if one acts, and depressing them if the muscles on both sides act at the same time. At d is a portion of the great saw-like or tooth-shaped muscle of the shoulder, constituting the bulk of the lower part of the neck ; deeply seated ; arising, as here seen, from the five last bones of the neck, and the two first ribs, and the lower portion of it springing from all the true ribs ; all the fibres tending towards, and inserted into the inner surface of the shoulder; and by means of which the shoulder is attached to the chest, and the immense weight of the body supported. We have already spoken of the use of this muscle in obviating concussion. When the horse is standing, this muscle occasionally discharges another important function. The shoulders and legs are then rendered fixed, and immoveable by the weight of the body ; and this muscle no longer \^\p 234 THE HORSE. beino- able to move the limbs, exerts its power in enlarging the cavity of tlfe chest, and thus materially assists in the act of breathing. There- fore, as we have stated when treating of that disease, a horse labouring under inflammation of the lungs will obstinately stand night and day, that he may obtain the assistance of this muscle in respiration, which is become laborious and painful ; and we regard his lying down as one of the most favourable symptoms that can occur, because it shows us that the breathing is so much relieved that he needs not the assistance of this muscle. At e is a small portion of the splenius muscle, of which we have spoken when describing the neck, p. 154. /represents a muscle sometimes described as a portion of the raiser of the shoulder, arising from the nipple-shaped process of the temporal bone, running down the somewhat lateral but fore-part of the neck, inserted into the upper and middle part of the lower bone of the shoulder, and thence continued down to the arm. Its office is to bend the head ; or, the head and neck being fixed, to elevate and bring forward the arm. It is fn powerful action when the horse is running at his speed with the head pro- jected. At g is a portion of the sterno-maxillaris, or muscle common to the fore- part of the chest and the lower jaw, and described at p, 156. h o-ives the principal muscle extending from the shoulder to the lower bone of the shoulder, and employed in drawing this bone towards the shoulder- blade, and bending the w hole of the limb. Exceedingly powerful action is required from this muscle, therefore it is very tendinous, and inserted in such a direction as to act with great mechanical advantage, and that advantage increased in proportion to the slanting of the shoulder. The muscle at i, aiitea spinatus (before the spine) is situated, as its name would intimate, on the external part of the shoulder before the spine or ridge, and fills the whole of that space. It proceeds towards the bone of the arm, and, dividing into two parts, is inserted into the two prominences in front of that bone. It is a very strong muscle, and extends the arm and carries it forward. Themuscleatj, ^;o5/m sp27zr/f2fs (behind the spine or ridge), occupies that space. It likewise goes to the lower bone of the shoulder, and is in- serted into the outer and upper head of the bone. It draws this bone out- ward and upward. At k is a muscle common to the breast and the shoulder-blade, and called the little jjectoral, or breast muscle. It arises from the breast-bone, and reaches to the covering of the shoulder-joint, and the muscles of the shoulder. Its action, in common with tliat of a larger muscle, seen at 771 {the great pectoral), is to draw back the head of the lower bone of the shoulder and the lower part of the shoulder-blade, and to make the latter bone more upright. At q is the tendon of a very important muscle, the long extensor of the arm, extending from the upper angle, and the posterior border of the shoulder-blade, to the point of the elbow, and the inside of the arm, and which will be presently described; and at r and s are the three divi- sions of another muscle concerned in the same office, arising from the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder, and likewise attached to the point of the elbow by a very strong tendon. This cut represents the muscles on the inside of the slioulder and fore- arm, a is a very prominent one. It is called the pectoralis transversus (the muscle crossing the breast). It arises from the first four bones of the chest, and runs across to the inner part of the arm, and is inserted THE LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER. 235 into the tendinous substance cover- ing the muscles of the forearm, and reaching' a considerable way down the arm. The use of this muscle is ob- vious and important. It binds the arm to the side of the horse; it keeps the legs straight before the horse when he is at speed, that the weight of the body may be received on them in a direction most easy and safe to the horse and to the rider, and most ad- vantageous for the full play of all the muscles concerned in progression. Considering the unevenness of surface over which a horse often passes, and the rapid turnings which are sometimes necessary, these muscles have enough to do : and when the animal is pushed beyond his strength, and these muscles are wearied, and the forelegs spread out, and the horse is " all abroad,'' the confused and unpleasant manner of going, and the sudden falling oiF in speed, are well known to every rider. THE LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER. Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade at the point of the shoulder is the humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder (J. p. 63, and p. 230). It is a short strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite direction to the shoul- der-blade. At the upper part it has a large round head, received into the shallow cavity of the shoulder-blade. It has several protuberances for the insertion of muscles, and is terminated below by two condyles or heads, which in front receive the principal bone of the arm between them as in a groove, thus adding to the security and strength of the joint, and limiting the action of this joint, and of the limb below, to mere bending and extension, without any side motion. Farther behind, these heads receive the elbow deep betv/een them, to give more extensive action to the arm. In a well-formed horse this bone can scarcely be too short, in order that the fore-legs may be as forward as possible, for reasons at which we have already glanced ; and because, when the lower bone of the shoulder is long, the shoulder must be too upright. Dislocation can scarcely occur in either of the attachments of the bone, and fracture of it is almost impossible. The lower bone of the shoulder, and the shoulder-blade, are by horse- men confounded together, and included under the appellation of the shoul- der, and in compliance with general usage we have described them as combining to form the shoulder. Among the muscles arising from the lower bone of the shoulder, are two short and very strong ones, seen at the lower r and s, the first pro- ceeding from the upper part of this bone to the elbow, and the second from the internal part, and likewise going to the elbow, and both of them bemg powerful agents in extending the leg. In front, at y, is one of the muscles of the lower bone of the shoulder, 236 THE HORSE. the external one, employed in bending the arm ; arising' from the inner and back part of the neck and body of the lower bone of the shoulder, turning obliquely round that bone, and inserted into the inner and up- per part of the bone of the arm. THE ARM. The arm extending from the elbow to the knee (see K and L, p. 63, and also cut, p. 230), consists, in the young horse, of two distinct bones. The long and front bone, called the radhis, is nearly straight, receiving into its upper end the lower heads of the lower bone of the shoulder ; and the lower end corresponding with the upper layer of the bones of the knee. The short and hinder bone is called the nlna. It has a very long and powerful projection, received between the heads of the lower bone of the shoulder, and called the elbow; it then stretches down, narrowing by degrees (see L, p. 63, and the cut, p. 230) to below the middle of the front bone, where it terminates in a point. The two bones are united together by cartilage and ligament, but these are by degrees absorbed and changed to bone, and before the horse becomes old the whole of the arm consists of one bone only. It will be perceived that, from the slanting direction of the lower bone of the shoulder, the weight of the horse, and the violence of the concussion, will be shared between the radhis and the ulna, and therefore less liable to injure either ; and the circumstance of so much weight and jar being communicated to them, will account for the extensive and peculiarly strong union between these bones in the young horse, and the speedy inflammation of the uniting substance and absorption of it, and substitution of bone, and complete bony union between the radius and ulna, in the old horse. The immense mus- cles which are attached to the point of the elbow likewise render it neces- sary that the union between these bones should be very strong. The arm is a most important part of the horse, as will be seen when we describe the muscles which belong to it. We have spoken of those at q, r, and s, proceeding from the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder, and inserted into the elbow. They are the grand agents in ex- tending the arm ; and in proportion to the power which they exert, will be the quickness and the length of the stride. The strength of the horse, so far as his fore-limbs are concerned, principally resides here. Then we look for a large and muscular arm, and we look likewise for such a formation of the limb, and particularly of the elbow, as wall enable these muscles to act with most advantage. The principle of the lever, to which we have referred (p. 231), is here beautifully applicable. The elbow-joint is the centre of motion ; the whole of the lower part of the leg is the weight to be raised ; and the power by which it is to be raised in one act of progression, the extending of the limb, is the muscles inserted into the elbow. In proportion as the weight is more distant than the power from the centre of motion, as it is in the construction of this limb, so will be the greater degree of energy requisite to be exerted. We will suppose that the weight, taking the knee to be the centre of it, is eighteen inches Irom the elbow-joint, that the limb weighs 60 lbs., and that the elbow projects two inches from the joint ; then an energy equal to nine times the weight, or 540 lbs,, will be needed to move and extend the limb, because the weight is nine times farther from the centre of motion than the power is. We will suppose that in another horse the point of the elbow projects three inches from the joint, the weight of the leg remaining th.e same. Three are one-sixth of eighteen ; and only six . THE ARM. 237 times the force, or 3G0 lbs., will be required, making- a difference in, or savinir of muscLdur action, equal to 180 lbs. in each extension of the arm. If a few pounds in the weig:ht of the rider tell so much for or ar, confining it in its situa- tion, and likewise itself assisting in extending or straightening the leg. The muscles employed in bending the leg are both numerous and powerful. Two of the superficial ones are given in the cut, page 233. The first is at t, page 233 ; it is also seen at 6, page 235. It is called the middle flexor, or bending muscle of the shank-bone, because it lies precisely on the middle of the back part of the arm. It arises from the inner head of the lower bone of the shoulder, and is inserted into one of the bones on the inner side of the knee. The other is seen at v, page 233. It is called the external flexor of the leg, because it lies on the outer side of the arm, towards the back. It arises from the outer head of the lower bone of the shoulder ; advancing towards the knee, it is tendinous, and the tendon divides into two portions, one of which is inserted into the same bone of the knee, and the other into the outer small bone of the leg. The internal flexor is seen at e, page 235. It proceeds from the inner head of the lower bone of the shoulder, and is inserted into the head of the inner splint bone, and its office is to bend the leg, and very slightly turn it. A portion of one of the most powerful of the flexor muscles, and powerful indeed they must be, is delineated at c, page 235. It is the flexor of the arm. It rises from the extremity of the ridge of the shoulder-blade in the form of a large and round tendon, which runs between two prominences in the upper part of the front of the lower bone of the shoulder, in as perfect a groove or pulley as art ever contrived. This groove is lined with smooth cartilage ; and between it and the tendon there is an oily fluid, so that the tendon plays freely in the pulley without friction. Having escaped from this pulley, and passed the head of the lower bone of the shoulder, the cord swells out into a round fleshy body, still con- taining many tendinous fibres. Deeply seated, it contributes materially to the bulk of the front of the arm ; and, having reached the arm, it is inserted into the head and neck of the bone of the arm, and likewise into the capsular ligament of the elbow joint. It is the main muscle by which, almost alone, the whole of the leg below the arm is bent. It acts at great disadvantage. It is inserted into the very head of the bone of the arm, and expanded even upon the joint. Then the power is applied almost close to the centre of motion, while the weight to be raised is far distant from it. The power is thirty times nearer the centre of motion than is the weight ; and, calculating, as before, the weight of the arm and the rest of the limb at 60 lbs., it must act with a force of thirty times sixty, or 1800 lbs. In addition to this, the line of the direction of the force strangely deviates from a perpendicular: the direction of the muscle is nearly the same as that of the limb, and the mechanical disadvan- tage is almost incalculably great. We will take it at only ten times more ; then this muscle, and its feeble coadjutors, act with a Ibrce of ten times 1800 or 18,000 lbs. Why this almost incredible expenditure of muscular power? — First, that the beauty of the limb might be preserved, and the joint might be compact. If the tendon had been inserted halfway down the arm, the elbow-joint would have offered a very unsightly appearance. Beauty of form, however, is the least result of this conformation ; with- out it the animal would not have been fitted for the purposes to which we devote him. It is a law of mechanics, that what is lost in power is gained THE APvM. 239 ill velocity. The product of the power, and the space passed over by the arm of the lever to which it is attached, must always be equal to the pro- duct of the weight, and of the space passed over by the arm that supports it ; and if a power, equal to thirty times the weio-ht, is oblio-ed to be ex- erted at the upper part of the bone of the arm, the centre of that bone, which may be considered as the centre of the weight, will pass over thirty times the space, and the extremity of the limb will pass over sixty times the space. The muscle will contract with a great deal of rapidity, but the foot will move with sixty times that rapidity, in order to pass over sixty times the space in the same time. This is precisely what we want. Exten- sive and rapid motion are the excellences of the horse. He is valuable in proportion as he has them, combined with stoutness ; and by this con- formation of the limb alone could he obtain them. Therefore the tendon is at first unusually strong; it plays through the natural but perfect pulley of the bone of the arm without friction ; the body of the muscle is mixed with tendinous fibres, and the insertion into the fore-arm is very extensive, lest the application of such immense force should tear it from its adhe- sions. There is sufficient strength in the apparatus ; the power may be safely applied at this mechanical disadvantage; and it is applied close to tlie joint to give an extent and rapidity of motion which could not otherwise have been obtained, and without which the horse would have been comparatively useless. At the back of the arm are other flexor muscles of great power, to bend the lower portions of the limb. We have described two of them belonging to the arm and the leg, and we must not pass over the vei^y peculiar ones acting on the feet. Only a small portion of one of them can be seen in our cut, page 233, at 1. The first is the perforated flexor muscle : the reason of the name will presently appear. It arises from the lower and back part of the inner head of the lower bone of the shoulder, and intermixed with, or rather between the origins of the muscle next to be described, and called the perforating muscle. As it descends along the bone of the arm, it becomes tendinous; and, approaching the knee, it is bound down by arches or bands of ligament, that it may not start in sudden and violent action. Proceeding from the knee, it widens, and partly wraps round the tendon of the perforating muscle, and they run down together in contact, yet not adhering ; freely playing over each other, and mucous fluid obviating all friction. Both of them are in- closed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, attached to them by numerous fibrils ; and they are likewise supported by various ligamentous expansions. Near the fetlock the tendon still farther expands, and forms a complete ring round the tendon of the perforating muscle. This is seen at J, p. 111. The use of this will be best explained when we are treating of the fetlock. The perforated tendon soon afterwards divides, and is inserted into the smaller and larger pastern bones, and flexes or bends them. The next is the perforating flexor muscle. It has nearly the same origin as the other, but with somewhat distinct heads. It con- tinues muscular farther down the arm than the perforated, and lies before it. At the knee it passes, like the perforated, under strong ligamentary arches, which confine it in its situation. It then becomes round, and is partly wrapped up in the perforated ; and at the fetlock is entirely surrounded by it. It emerges from the perforated when that tendon divides, and continues its progress alone after the other has inserted itself into the pasterns, and, passing over the navicular bone, terminates on the base of the coffin-bone, or bone of the foot. It is sufficiently plain that the arm should be large and muscular, 240 THE HORSE. otherwise it cannot diseharg'e all these duties. Horsemen differ on a va- riety of other points, but here they are ag-reed. A full and swelling' fore- arm is the characteristic of every thorough-bred horse, and for speed and continuance he is unequalled. Whatever other good points a horse may possess, it" the arm be narrow in front and near the shoulder, flat on the side, and altogether poor in appearance, that horse is radically defective : he can neither raise his knee for rapid action, nor throw his legs suffi- ciently forward. The arm should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ; and in pro- portion to the degree of contraction in the muscle will be the extent of motion in the part of the limb beneath. A racer, with a short arm, would be sadly deficient in stride ; a hunter, with the same defect, would not be able to double his legs well \mder him in the leap. There is, how- ever, a medium in this, and the advantage of length in the arm will depend on the use to which the horse is applied. The lady's horse, the cavalry horse, every horse in which prancin,g action is esteemed a beauty, and in which utility is, to a certain degree, sacrificed to appearance, must not be too long in the arm. If he be long there, he will be proportion- ably short in the leg ; and although this is an undoubted excellence, whether speed or continuance be regarded, the short leg will not give the grand and imposing action which fashion may require : and, in addition to this, a horse with short legs may not have quite so easy action as another whose leno'th is in the shank rather than in the arm. THE KNEE. The Knee (M, p. 63, and cut, p. 230) constitutes the joint or joints be- tween the arm and the shank or leg; audit is far more complicated than any joint we have yet considered. Beside the lower head of the bone of the arm, and the upper heads of the three bones of the leg, there are no less than six other bones interposed, arranged in two rows, three in each row, and the seventh placed behind the other, to which an eighth is sometimes added. What was the intention of this complicated structure ? A joint between the elbow and the fetlock was absolutely necessary to the action of the horse. An inflexible pillar of that length could scarcely have been lifted from the ground, and certainly could not have been lifted far enough for rapid or safe motion. It was likewise necessary, that the interposing joint shoidd be so constituted as to preserve this part of the limb in a straight direction, and should possess sufficient strength to resist all common work and accidents. Being in a straight direction, the shock or jar between the ends of the bones of the arm and the leg would be dreadful, and would speedily inflict irreparable injury. The heads of all bones are covered with elastic cartilage, to protect them from injury by concussion, but this would be altogether insufficient here. Six distinct bones, then, are placed here, each covered above and below by a thick coating of cartilage, connected together by strong ligaments, but separated by fluids and membranes interposed. The concussion is thus spread over the whole of them — shared by the whole of them ; and, by the peculiarity of their connexion, deadened and rendered harmless. These six distinct bones, united to each other by numerous and powerful ligaments, will also afford a far stronger joint than the apposition of any two bones, however perfect and strong might be the capsular ligament, or by whatever other ligaments it could be strengthened. In addition to the THE KNEE. 241 connexion between the individual bones, there is a perfect capsular h'tra- nient here, extendinj^ from the bone of the arm to those of the leg ; and the result of the whole is, that, although the centre of such a column must be the weakest part, and most liable to bow out and give way, the hardest work and the severest accidents produce little deformity, and no dislocation in the knee: nor do the shocks and jars of many a year cause inflammation or disease. It is an undeniable fact, that such is the perfect construction of this joint, and to so great a deg-ree does it lessen concus- sion, that the injuries resulting from hard work are, almost without an exception, found below the knee. The seventh bone, the trapezium, so called from its quadrangular figure, is placed (see M, p. 63) behind the others, and does not bear the slightest portion of the weight. It, however, is very useful. Two of the flexor muscles, already described, proceeding from the bone of the arm, are inserted into it ; and thus, being thrown off the limb, have a less oblique direction given to them ; and, therefore, according to the principle of the lever, act with considerably more power. It is also useful in another way. As the tendons of the various muscles descend the limbs, they are tied down, as we have described, by strong ligamentous bands : this is particu- larly the case in the neighbourhood of the joints. The use of this is evident. The extensor tendons, which lie principally on the front of the leg, are prevented from starting, and strengthened and assisted in their action ; but the flexor tendons which lie at the back would be liable to friction, and their motion would be impeded, if they were bound down too tightly. This projecting bone prevents the annular or ring-like ligament from pressing too closely on the main flexor tendons of the foot; and while it leaves them room to play, leaves room likewise for a little bag, filled with mucus to surround them, which mucus, oozing slowly out, supplies the whole course af the tendons down the legs with a fluid that takes away the possibiiity of injurious friction. The knee should be broad. It should present a very striking width, compared with the arm above, or the shank below. The broader the knee is, the more space there is for the attachment of muscles, and for the accumulation of ligamentous expansions and bands. In proportion to the breadth of the knee there will be more strength; and likewise the direction of some muscles will be less oblique, and those of others will be more removed from the centre of motion ; and, in either case, much power will be gained. BROKEN KNEES. The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable importance, for many horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds in the knee-joint. The horse, when falling, naturally throws his knees for- ward ; they receive all his weight, and are sometimes very extensively lacerated. The first thing to be done is, by very careful washing with warm water, to cleanse the wound from all gravel and dirt. It must then be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of the probe on one of the bones of the knee, on the depth to which the probe enters the wound, will ol\en too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened. Should any doubt exist, let a linseed-meal poultice be applied. This will at least act as a fomentation to the wound, and will prevent or abate inflammation ; and when, twelve hours afterwards, it is taken off, the synovia, or joint-oil, in the form of a glairy, yellowish, transparent fluid, will be seen, if the capsular ligament has been ][;enetrated. Should doubt remain alter the first poultice, apply a second. R 242 THE IIORSIi). The opening of the johit being; ascertained, the first and immediate care is to close tlie orifice; for the "finid which separated and kibricated the bones of the knee being suffered to flow out, they will be brought into actual contact with each other; they will rub upon each other; the delicate membrane with which they are covered will be highly inflamed ; the con- stitution will be speedily affected, and a degree of fever will ensue that will destroy the horse : and, in the mean time, of all the tortures that can be inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accompanies inflammation of the membranes lining the joints. The manner of closing the orifice must be left to the judgment of the veterinary surgeon, who alone is capable of properly treating such a case. It may be effected by a compress enclosing the whole of the wound, and not to be removed for many days ; or it may be attempted by the old and generally successful method of applying the hot iron over the wound, and particularly over the spot where the ligament appears to be lacerated. A poultice may then be placed on the part, and the case treated as a com- mon wound. Should the joint-oil continue to flow the iron may be ap- plied a second, or even a third time. By the application of the iron, so much swelling is produced on the immediate puncture, and in the neigh- bouring parts, as mechanically to close and plug up the orifice. If" however, the opening into the joint be extensive, and the joint-oil continues to flow, and the horse is evidently suffering much pain, humanity will dictate that he should be destroyed. The case is hopeless. A high degree of fever will ere long carry the animal off, or the inflammation will cause a deposit of matter in the cavity of the joint which will produce in- curable lameness. The pain caused by the iron is doubtless great ; it is, however, necessary ; but let no reader of ' The Horse' permit the torturing experiments of the farrier to be tried, who will frequently inject stimulating fluids, and even oil of vitriol, into one of the most sensible and irritable cavities in the whole i'ram.e. A person well acquainted with the anatomy of the part will judge of the probability of a favourable result, not merely by the extent, but by the situ- ation of the wound. If it is low down and opposite to the bottom row, a small opening into the joint will be easily closed ; a larger one need not cause despair, because there is little motion between the lower row and the bones of the \e<^. If it be high up, there is more danger, because there is more motion. If it be situated opposite to the union of the two rows, the result is most to be dreaded, because between these is the principal motion of the joint, and that motion would not only disunite and irritate the exter- nal wound, but cause dreadful friction between the bones brought into actual contact with each other, through the lossof the joint-oil. When the skin has been lacerated, although the wound may be healed, some blemish will remain. The extent of this blemish will depend on the extent and nature of the original wound, and more especially on the nature of the treatment which has been adopted. Every caustic application will destroy more of the skin, aiid leave a larger mark. Should the blemish be considerable, a mild blister may be applied over the part, after tiie wound has healed. It will stimulate the hair to grow more rapidly and thickly round the scar, and particularly hair of the natural colour ; and by contracting the skin it will lessen the scar itself Many persons have great faith in ointments, which are said to promote the growth of the hair. If they have that property, it must be from stimulating Uie skin, in which the roots of the hair are embedded. These ointments must contain a small portion of blistering matter, in the form of turi^ntine, or the Spanish- THE LEG. 243 fly. The common application of gunpowder and lard may, by blackening the part, conceal the blemish, but can have no possible effect in quickening the growth of the hair. In examining a horse for purchase, the knees are very strictly scru- tinized. A blemish on them should not induce us at once to condemn the animal ; for a bad rider, or the merest accident, may throw the safest horse. A broken knee, however, is a suspicious circumstance, and calls for the most careful observation of the make and action of the horse. If it be accompanied by a thick and upright shoulder, and legs far under the horse, and low slovenly action, he is unwise who does not take the hint : this faulty conformation has produced its natural consequence. But if the shoulder be oblique, and the withers high, and the fore-arm strong, the good judge will not reject the animal, because he may have been acciden- tally thrown. THE LEG. The part of the limb between the knee and the fetlock consists of three bones — a large one before, called the cannon or shank^ and two smaller or sjjlint bones behind (see N, p. 63). The shank-bone is rounded in front, and flattened, or even concave behind. It is the straightest of the long bones, as well as the most superficially situated, for in some parts it is covered only by the skin. The upper head is flat, with slight depressions corresponding with the lower row of the bones of ihe knee. The lower liead is differently and curiously formed. It resembles a double pulley. ^i'here are three elevations, the principal one in the centre, and one on each side ; and between them are two slight grooves ; and these so precisely cor- respond with deep depressions and slight prominencies in the upper head of the larger pastern, and are so enclosed and guarded, by the elevated edges of that bone, that when the shank-bone and the pastern are fitted to each other, they form a perfect hinge : they admit of the bending and extension of the limb, but of no lateral or side motion ; which is a circum- stance of very great importance in a joint so situated, and having the whole w^eight of the horse thrown upon it. The smaller bones are placed behind the larger on either side ; a slight projection only of the head of each can be seen in front. The heads of these Ijones are enlarged, and receive part of the weight conveyed by the lower row of the bones of the knee. They are united to the larger bone by the same kind of substance which is found in the colt between the bone of tlie elbow and the main bone of the arm ; and which is designed, like that, by its great elasticity, to lessen the concussion or jar when the weight of the animal is thrown on them. They reach from one-half to two-thirds of the length of the shank-bone, and, through their whole extent, are nnited to it by this substance ; but, as in the elbow, from the animal being worked too soon, or too violently, inflammation ensues, and bony matter is deposited in the room of the ligamentous ; and a bony uni-on takes place instead of the natural one. There is no doubt that the ease of mo- tion is somewhat lessened by this substitution of bone, but other elastic principles are probably called into more powerful action, and the value of the horse is not perceptibly impaired ; although it is hard to say what secret injury may be done to the neighbouring joints, and the cause of which, lameness appearing at a distant period, is not suspected. In this process, however, mischief does often immediately extend to the neighbouring parts. The disposition to deposit bone reaches beyond the circumscribed space between the larger and smaller bones of the leg ; and R 3 244 THE HORSE. a tumour, first callous and afterwards bony, is found, with part of its base restino- on the line of union between these bones. This is called a SPLINT. The splint is invariably found on the outside of the small bone, and gene- rally on the inside of the leg (c, p. 255.) Why it should appear on the outside of th.e small bones it is difficult to explain, except that the space between these bones is occupied by an important mechanism, which will be pre- sently described ; and, as in the case of abscess, a natural tendency was given to them to determine outward, that vital parts may not be injured. The cause of their almost exclusive appearance on the inside of the leg admits of easier explanation. The inner splint-bone is placed nearer^the centre of the weight of the body than the other, and, from the nature of its connexion with the bones of the knee, actually receives more of the weight than does the outer bone, and therefore is more liable to injury, and inflanimation, and this consequent deposit of bone. The inner bone receives the whole of the weight transmitted to one of the small bones of the knee. It is the only support of that bone. A portion only of one of the bones rests on the outer splint-bone, and the weight is shared between it and the shank. In addition to this, it is the absurd practice of many smiths to raise the outer heel of the shoe to an extravagant degree, which throws still more of the weight of the horse on the inner splint-bone. These tumours occasionally appear on other parts of the shank-bone, being the consequence of violent blows, or other external injuries. When the splint is forming, the horse is frequently lame. The peri- osteum or membrane covering the bone is painfully stretched ; but when this membrane has accommodated itself to the tumour that extended it, the lameness subsides and altogether disappears, unless the splint be in a situation in which it interferes with the action of some tendon or ligament, or in the immediate neighbourhood of a joint. Pressing upon a li- gament or tendon, it may cause inflammation of those substances ; or, bein"* close to a joint, it may interfere with its action. Splints, then, do not necessarily cause unsoundness, and may not lessen in the slightest def^Tee the action or value of the horse. All depends on their situation. When w^e have described the situation and course of the suspensory ligas. ments, we shall be enabled to enter more fully into this. The treatment of splints, if it be worth while to meddle with them, is exceedingly simple. The hair should be closely shaved off round the tumour ; a little strong mercurial ointment rubbed in for two days ; and this should be followed by an active blister. If the splint be of recent formation, it will usually yield to this, or to a second blister. Should it resist these applications, it can rarely be advisable to cauterize the part, luilcss the tumour interferes materially with the action of the suspensory ligament ; for it not unfrequently happens, that, although the splint may have apparently resisted this treatment, it will afterwards, and at no great distance of time, begin rapidly to lessen, and quite disappear. There is also a natural process by which the greater part of splints disappear when the horse gets old. As for the old remedies, many of them brutal enough, — bruising the splint with a hammer, boring it with a gimlet, chipping it off with a mallet, sawing it olf, slitting down the skin and periosteum over it, sweat- ing it down with hot oils, and passing setons over it, — the voice of huma- nity, and the progress of science, will consign them to speedy oblivion. The inside of the leg, innnediately under the knee, and extending to the SPLINT. 245 head of the inner splint-hone, is subject to injury from what is termed the speedy cut. A horse with hij^h action, and in the fast trot, violently strikes this part either with his hoof or the edge of the shoe. Sometimes bony enlargement is the result, at others great heat and tenderness ; and the pain from the blow seems occasionally to be so great that the horse drops as if he were shot. The only remedy is to take care that no part of the shoe projects beyond the foot ; and to let the inner side of the shoe, except the country be very deep, or the horse used for hunting, have but one nai!, and that near the toe. This part of the hoof, being unfettered with nails, will expand when it comes in contact with the ground, and contract when in air and relieved from the pressure of the weight of the body ; and, although this contraction is to no great extent, it will be sufficient to carry the foot harmlessly by the leg. Care should likewise be taken that the shoe be of equal thickness at the heel and the toe, and that the bearing be equal on both sides. Immediately under the knee we find one of those ligamentous rings by which the tendons are so usefully bound down and secured ; but if the hinder bone of the knee, the trapezium, described at p. 241, be not sufficiently prominent, this ring will confine the flexor tendons of the foot too tightly, and the leg will be very deficient in depth under the knee. This is called being tied in below the knee, (b, p. 255.) Every horseman recognizes it as a most serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and most assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot be ridden far and fast without serious sprain of the back sinews. The reason is plain : the pressure of the ring will produce a degree of friction inconsistent with the free action of the tendons ; more force must, therefore, be exerted in every act of progression ; and, although the muscles are powerful, and sufficiently powerful for every ordinary purpose, the repetition of this extra exertion will tire and strain them. A more serious evil, however, remains to be stated. When the back sinews or tendons are thus tied down, they are placed in a more oblique direction, and in which the power of the muscles is exerted with greater disadvantage ; and, therefore, both for extraordinary, and even ordinary action, a greater degree of exertion is required, and fatigue and sprain will frequently result. There are few more serious defects than this tying-in of the tendons immediately below the knee. The fore- leg may be narrow in front, but it must be deep at the side, in order to render the horse valuable ; for then only will the tendons have free action, and the muscular force be exerted in the most advantageous direction. The recollection of the reader will convince him, that there are few good race-horses whose legs are not deep below the knee. If there are ex- ceptions, it is because their exertion, although violent, is but of short duration. The race is decided in a few minutes ; and, during that little period, the spirit and energy of the animal may successfully struggle with the disadvantages of form ; but where great and long-continued exertion is required, as in the hunter or the hackney, no strength can long contend against this palpably disadvantageous misapplication of muscular power. As they descend the back part of the leg, the tendons of the perforated and perforating flexor muscle should be far and distinctly apart from the shank- bone. There should be space free from thickening for the finger and thumb on either side to be introduced between them and the bone, and that extending from the knee to the fetlock. In a perfect leg — and towards its lower part, there should be three distinct and perfect projections visible to the eye, as well as recognizable by the finger, the sides of the shank-bone, the most forward of the three ; next, the suspensory ligament ; and hinder- most of all, the flexor tendons. When these are not to be distinctly seen or 246 THE HORSE. felt, or there is considerable tliickening about them and between them^ (J), p. 255) and the leg is round instead of flat and deep, there has been what is commonly, but improperly, called, SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. These tendons are enclosed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, to confine them in their situation, and to defend them from injury. Between the tendon and the sheath there is a mucous fluid, to prevent friction : but when the horse has been overworked, or put to sudden and violent exertion, the tendon presses upon the delicate membrane lining the sheath, and in- flammation is produced, and a different fluid is thrown out, which coagu^ latcs, and adhesions are formed between the tendon and the sheath, and the motion of the limb is more difficult and painful. At other times, fron) violent or long-continued exertion, some of the fibres which tie the ten- dons down are ruptured. A slight injiu-y of this nature is called a sprain of the back- sinews or tendons ; and when it is more serious, the horse is said to have broken down. It should be remembered, however, that the tendon can never be sprained, because it is inelastic and incapable of ex- tension ; and the tendon, or its sheath, are scarcely ever ruptured, even in what is called breaking down. The first injury is confined to inflamma- tion of the sheath, or rupture of a few of the attaching fibres. The in- flammation of the part, however, is often very great, the pain intense, and the lameness excessive. The anguish expressed at every bending of the limb, and the local swelling and heat, will clearly indicate the seat of injury. In every serious affection of this kind, care should be taken that the local inflammation does not produce general disturbance of the system ; and, therefore, the horse should be bled and physicked. The bleeding may be at the toe, by which an important local, as well as general effect, will be produced. The vessels of the part will be relieved, while fever will be prevented. Let not the bleeding be performed in the usual farrier's way of first paring down the sole, and then taking out a piece of it at the toe of the frog ; in which case a wound is made often difficult to heal, and through w^hich fungous granulations from the sensible parts beneath will obstinately spring: but after the sole has been well thinned, let a groove be cut with the rounded head of a small drawing-knife, at the junction of the sole and the crust (see z in the next cut, p. 249). The large vein at the toe will thus be opened, or the groove may be widened backward until it be found. When the blood begins to appear, the vein may be more freely opened, by a small lancet thrust horizontally under the sole, and almost any quantity of blood may be easily procured. The im- mersion of the foot in warm water will cause the blood to flow more rapidly. When a sufficient quantity has been drawn, a bit of tow may be placed in the groove, and the shoe tacked on. The bleeding wall be im- mediately stopped, and the w^ound will readily heal. As a local application, let no hot farrier's oil come near the part, but let the leg be well fomented with warm water two or three times in the day, and half an hour at each time ; and, between the fomentations, let the leg be enclosed in a poultice of linseed-meal. Any herb that pleases the owner may be added to the fomentation, or vinegar or Gou- lard's extract to the poultice ; but the beneficial effect of both depends simply on the warmth of the water and the moisture of tlie poultice. The first object which the surgeon has in view, is to abate the inflammation of SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. 247 the part, and no means are so likely as these to effect that purpose. Eveiy stimulating application will infallibly a2C2:ravate the mischief. The horse beg'iunino; to put his foot better to the ground, and to bear pressure on the part, and the heat having disappeared, the object to be accomplished is changed ; recurrence of the inflammation must be pre- vented, the enlargement must be got rid of, and the parts must be strengthened. The two latter purposes cannot be better effected than by usTng an elastic bandage — one of thin flannel will be the best. This will sustain and support the limb, while by few means are the absorbents sooner induced to take up the effused coagulable matter of which the swelling is composed, than by moderate pressure. If the bandage be kept wet with vinegar, to each pint of which a quarter of a pint of spirit of wine has been added, the skin will be slightly stimulated and contracted, and the cold produced by the constant evaporation will tend to subdue the remaining and deep-seated inflammation. This bandage should be daily tightened in proportion as the parts are capable of bearing increased pres- sure, and the treatment should be persisted in for a fortnight : if, at the expiration of that period, there be no swelling, tenderness, or heat, the horse may gradually, and very cautiously, be put to his usual work. Should there, however, remain the slightest lameness or considerable enlargement, the leg must be blistered ; and, indeed, it would seldom be bad practice to blister after a case of severe sprain ; for^the inflam- mation lies deep in the sheath of the tendons, and the part once sprained long remains weak, and subject to renewed injury, not only from unusual, but even ordinary exertion. If the blister be resorted to, time should be given for it to produce its gradual and full effect, and the horse should be turned out for one or two months ; and here we must be permitted to repeat, that a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remains about the part, otherwise the slightest injury may be, and often is, converted into incurable lameness. Very severe sprains, but much oftener sprains badly treated, may re- quire the application of the cautery. If from long-continued inflamma- tion the structure of the part is materially altered, if the swelling is be-^ coming callous, or the skin is thickened and prevents the free motion of the limb, no stimulus short of the heated iron will be sufficient to rouse the absorbents to remove the injurious deposit. The principal use of firmg is to rouse the absorbents to such increased action that they shall take up and remove the diseased thickness of the skin, and likewise the unnatural deposit in the cellular substance beneath. The firing should be applied^ in straight lines, because the skin, contracting by the apphcation oi the cautery, and gradually regaining its elastic nature, will thus form the best bandage over the weakened part. Here, even more particularly than in the blister, time should be given for the full action of the firing. This removal of diseased matter is a work of slow progress. Many weeks pass away before it is perfectly accomplished ; and, after firing, the horse should have at least a six months', and it would be better if he could be given a twelve months' run at grass. When the animal has been set to work in a few weeks, and the enlargement remains, or lameness returns, the fault is to be attributed to the impatience of the owner, and net to the want of power in the operation, or skill in the operator. Farriers are apt to blister immediately after firhig. A blister may be useful six weeks or two months after firing, if lameness remains; but can never be wanted immediately after the severe operation of the cautery. It the iron has been skilfully applied, subsequent blistering inflicts on the THE HORSE. animal, already sufficiently tortured, much unnecessary and useless pain, and should never be resorted to by him who possesses the slightest feeling- of humanity. In examining a horse for purchase, the closest attention should be paid to the appearance of these flexor tendons. If there be any thickness of cellular substance around them, that horse has been sprained violently, or the sprain has not been properly treated. This thickening will probably fetter the motion of the tendon, and dispose the part to the recurrence of inflammation and lameness. Such a horse, although at the time perfectly free from lameness, will be regarded with suspicion, and cannot fairly be considered as sound. He is only patched up for a while, and will pro- bably fail at the close of the first day's hard work. WIND-GALLS. Approaching nearer to the fetlock, we occasionally find considerable en- largements, oftener on the hind leg than the fore one, which are denomi- nated wind-galls (e, p. 255). Between the tendons and other parts, and wher- ever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suf- fering to ooze slowly from them a mucous fluid. From undue pressure, ai|jj^ that most frequently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons, these little bags become injured ; they take on inflammation, and they grow large and hard. The tendons are mostly inserted into the neighbourhood of joints, and there is most motion and pressure, and con- sequently these enlarged mucous bags {bursce jmicoscB) are oftenest found, about the joints. There are few horses perfectly free from them. When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but otherwise, except when they attain an enormous size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind — hence their name, wind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation has often been produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment ; but if these tumours are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The bandage may be wetted with the lotion re- commended for sprain of the back-sinews. The wind-gall will often diminish or disappear by this treatment, but will too frequently return when the horse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effectual remedy ; and firing still more certain, if the tumours be sufficiently large and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so severe. In bad cases the cautery is the only cure, for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contracting the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumour. THE PASTERNS. At the back of the shank just below the knee, and in the space between the two splint-bones, are found two extraordinary and important ligaments, extraordinary as being elastic, and important ug being admirably adapted THE PASTERNS. 249 io obviate concussion. They have their origin from the head of the shank- bone, and also from the heads of the spUnt-bones ; then descending down the leg, they fill the groove between the splint-bones, but are not attached to either of them ; a little lower down they expand on either side, and, ap- proaching the pasterns, they divide, and are inserted into two little bones found at the back of the upper pastern, one on each side, called the sessa- moid bones. (See p. 63, and in this cut which represents the pastern and foot, sawn through the middle.) They form a kind of joint both with the lower head of the shank-bone, and the upper pastern-bone, to both of which they are united by ligaments (J, and g), but much more closely tied to the pastern than to the shank. The flexor tendons pass down be- tween them through a large mucous bag to relieve them from the friction to which, in so confined a situation, they would be exposed. This liga- ment is continued over the sessamoids, and afterwards obliquely forward over the pastern to unite with the long extensor tendon, and downward to the perforated tendon, which it surrounds and fixes in its place, and also to the smaller pastern bone. M i41 a The shank-bone. h The upper and larger pastern-bone. c The sessamoid-bone. d The lower or smaller pastern-bone. e The navicular or shuttle-bone. / The coffin-bone or bone of the foot. g The suspensory ligament inserted into the sessamoid-bone. h A continuation of the suspensory ligament inserted into the smaller pasteru-bone. i The small inelastic ligament, tying down the sessamoid bone to the larger pastern- Done. k A long ligament reaching from the pastern-bone to the knee. / The extensor tendon inserted into both the pasterns and the coffin-bone. 250 THE HORSE, VI The tendon of the perforating flexor inserted into the coffin-houe, after having passed over the navicular bone. n The seat of the navicular joint lameness. The inner or sensible frog. 2^ The cleft of the horny frog. q A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the smaller pastern. r A ligament uniting the navicular lione to the coftin-bone. s The sensible sole, between the coffin-bone and the horny sole. t Tlie horny sole. u The crust or wall of the foot. V The sensible laminae to which the crust is attached. 7v The coronary ring of the crust. cc The covering of the coronary ligament from which the crust is secreted. z Place of bleeding at the toe. It will be easy to perceive, from this description of the situation of the suspensory ligament, why splints placed backward on the leg are more likely to produce lameness than those which are fovmd on the side of the leg. They may interfere with the motion of this ligament, or, if they are large, may bruise and wound it. The principal action of these ligaments is with the sessamoid bones, which they seem to suspend in their places, and they are therefore called the suspensory li^ments. The pasterns (see cut, p. 249) are united to the shank in an oblique direction, differing in degree in the different breeds of horses, and in each adapted to the purpose for which that breed was de- signed. The weight falls upon the pastern in the direction of the shank- bone, and the pastern being set on obliquely, a portion of the weight must be communicated to the sessamoids. Much jar is saved by the yielding of the pasterns, in consequence of their oblique direction ; and the concus- sion which would be produced by that portion of weight which falls on the sessamoid-bones is completely destroyed, for there is no bone under- neath to receive it. They are suspended by this ligament — an elastic ligament, which gradually yields to, and is lengthened by, the force im- ]3ressed upon it, and in this gradual yielding and lengthening, all painful or dangerous concussion is rendered impossible. If the ligament lengthens, the sessamoid-bones must descend when the weight is thrown on them, and it would appear that they do so. If the thorough-bred horse with his long pasterns is carefully observed as he stands, the tuft at the fetlock will be some inches from the turf ; but when he is in rapid motion, and the weight is thrown violently on this joint, the tuft descends and sweeps the very ground. This, however, is the combined action of the fetlock and pastern-joints, and the sessamoid-bones. The sessamoids do not actually descend ; but they revolve, they partly turn over. The strong ligament by which they are attached to the pastern-bone acts as a hinge, and the projecting part of the bone to which the suspensory liga- ment is united, turns round with the pressure of the weight; and so that part of the bone becomes lower. How is it raised again? Tliis ligament, strangely constructed as a ligament, is elastic. It yields to the force im- pressed upon it, and lengthens ; but as soon as the foot is lifted from tlie ground, and the weight no longer presses, and the force is removed, its elastic power is exerted, and it regains its former dimensions, and the ses- samoid-bone springs back into its place, and by that forcible return assists in raising the limb* * Mr. Percivall very clearly describes this : ' Fm'lhermore it seems to us that these elastic parts assist iu the elevatigu of the feet from the ground iu those paces in which THE PASTERNS. .25V Tlieleno'tli and obliquity of the pastern vary, we have said, in the differ- ent breeds of horses, and in proportion to the leng-th and slanting direction of the pastern is the springiness of the horse and the easiness of his paces. The pastern must be long in proportion to its obliquity, or the fetlock would be too close to the ground, and, in rapid action, would come violently upon it. It is necessary that the fetlock should be elevated a certain distance from the ground, and this may be effected either by a short and upright,- or a long and slanting pastern. In proportion as the pastern is oblique or slantin"% two consequences will follow : less weigb.t will be tlu'own on the pas- tern, and more on the sessamoid, and, in that proportion, jar or concussion will be prevented; and the jar of the weight which is thrown on the pas- tern will be lessened by the very obliquity of the bones, agreeably to vvlua we have already stated of the angular construction of the limbs. Every advantage has, however, to a certain extent, its corresponding disadvantages. In proportion to the obliquity or slanting of the pastern, will be the stress on the fetlock-joint, and, therefore, the liability of that joint to injury and strain ; and also the liability to ' sprain of the back- sinews,' from the increased action and play of the flexor tendons; and likewise to injuries of the pastern-joints, for the hgaments will be weak in proportion to their length. The long and slanting pastern is an excellency in the race-horse, from the springiness of action and greater extent of stride by which it is accompanied. A less degree, of it is ne-^ cessary in the hunter who is to unite continuance of exertion with case" of pace, and who, in his leaps, requires almost as much springiness as the race-horse; but for the wear and tear of the hackney a still less de- gree of obliquity should be found. There should be suthcient to give pleasantness of going, but not enough to endanger continuance and strength. Experience among horses will alone point out the most advan- tageous direction of the pastern, for the purpose required ; but the slightest observation will prove the necessity of considerable variety in the structure of this part. Let the reader imagine the heavy dray-horse with his short and upright pasterns, contending in the race ; or the race-horse with his long and\eak pasterns, endeavouring to dig his toe into the ground to move some heavyweight. The concussion is little in a cart-horse because his movements are slow, and therefore the upright and strong pastern is given to him, which he can force into the ground, and on which he can throw the whole of his immense weight. Tiie oblique pastern is given to the race-horse because that alone is compatible with extent of stride and great speed. Except a horse for general purposes, and particularly for riding, be very hardly used, a little too much obliquity is a far less evil thanli pastern too upright. The upright pastern is unsafe. The very circumstance which enables the dray-horse to throw himself into his collar, throws the riding-horse down; and while the jolting of the upright pas- tern is an insufferable nuisance to the rider, it is injurious to the horse, and produces many diseases in the feet and legs. A riding-horse, with up- right pasterns, will soon begin to knuckle over, even with ordinary work ; and this will be followed by ringbone, ossification of the cartilages, and contracted feet. they are called into sudden and forcible action. The suspensory ligament, by its reac- tion, instantaneously after extension, aids the flexor-muscles ni benduigthepastern-jomts. The astonishino; activity and expedition displayed in the movements oi the race-horse at speed, seem to be referable, in pait, to the promptitude with which the suspensory liga-. ment can act before the flexor-muscles are duly prepared ; the latter, we should say, catch, as it were, and then direct the limb first snatched from the ground by the powers ot elasticity.'— PercivaU's Lectures ou the Veterinary Art, vol, i., p. ^34. 25^ THE HORSE. RUPTURE OP THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. The suspensory ligament is sometimes ruptured by extraordinary exertion. The sessamoids are then let down, and the fetlock almost touches the ground. This is generally mistaken for rupture of the flexor tendon ; but one circumstance will sufficiently demonstrate that it is the suspensory liga- ment which is concerned, viz. that the horse is able to bend his foot. Rup- ture of this ligament is a bad, and almost desperate case. The horse is fre- quently lame for life, and never becomes perfectly sound. Keeping him altogether quiet, bandaging the leg, and putting on a high-heeled shoe, will afford the most probable means of relief. THE FETLOCK. The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew which are not accompanied by inflammation of the Hgaments of this joint ; and many supposed cases of sprain higher up are simple affec- tions of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some expe- rience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the principal guides. An affection of the fetlock -joint demands blistering more promptly and severely than one of the sheaths of the tendons. GROGGINESS. The peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock -joint, and tottering of the whole of the fore-leg, known by the name of groggi?iess, and which is so often seen in old and over-worked horses, is seldom an affection of either the fetlock or the pastern-joints simply, although these have their full share in the mischief that has been produced by tasking the poor animal beyond his strength. Sometimes it is difficult to fix on any particular joint ; at others, it seems to be traced to a joint deep in the foot, where the flexor ten- don runs over the navicular bone. It seems oftenest to be a want of power in the ligaments of the joints generally, produced by frequent and severe sprains, or by ill-judged and cruel exertion ; and, in the majority of cases, admits of no remedy ; especially as dissection often discovers ulcera- tion within the joints, and of the membrane which lines the cartilage, and even of the cartilage itself, which it was impossible to reach or to remove. CUTTING. The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients have been tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been raised and lowered, and the outside raised and lowered ; and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and there w^as no point so involved in obscurity, or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. The most successful remedy, and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is to put on a shoe, of even thickness from heel to toe ; to let the bearing be perfectly level ; and then to drive but one nail, and that near the toe, in the inside of the shoe, which is placed on the foot by which the injury is done ; care being taken that the CUTTING. 253 shoe shall not extend beyond the edge of the crust, and the crust being rasped a little at the quarters. The principle on which this shoe acts has been stated when we spoke of the speedy cut. There are some defects, however, in the natural form of the horse, which are the causes of cutting, and which no contrivance will remedy ; as when the legs are placed too near each other, or when the feet are turned inward or outward. A horse with these defects should be carefully examined at the inside of the fetlock, and if (here be any sore or callous places from cutting, there will be sufficient reason for rejecting the animal. Some horses will cut when they are fatigued, and many colts will cut before they arrive at their full strength. a The upper pastern. b The lower pastern. f. The navicular bone. d The coffin-hone. Fig. 2. a The sessamoid-hone. b The upper pastern, c The lower pastern. d The navicular bone. € The coffin-bone, with the horny laminae. The upper pastern bone (5, p. 249, and a in the first figure, and b in the second in this cut) receives the lower pulley-like head of the shank- bone, and forms a hinge-joint admitting only of bending and extension, but not of side motion ; it likewise articulates with the sessamoid-bones. Its lower head has two rounded protuberances, which are received into corresponding depressions in the lower pastern. On either side, above the pastern-joint, are roughened projections for the attachment of very strong ligaments, both the capsular ligaments, and many cross ligaments, which render the joint between the two pasterns sufficiently secure. The lower pastern (d, p. 249, and b in the first figure, and c in the se- cond in this cut) is a short and thick bone, with its larger head downward. Its upper head has two depressions to receive the protuberances on the lower head of the upper bone, bearing some resemblance to a pulley, but not so decidedly as the lower head of the shank-bone. Its lower head re- sembles the lower head of the other pastern, and has two prominences, hkewise somewhat resembling a pulley, and by which it articulates with the coffin-bone; and d depression in front, corresponding with a projection in the coffin-bone ; and also two slight depressions behind, receiving eminences in the navicular bone. Neither of these joints admit of any lateral motion. The ligaments of this joint, which is called the coffin-joint, are, like those of the pastern-joint, exceedingly strong, both the capsular and the cross ones. The tendon of the extensor muscle is inserted into the fore part, both of the upper and lower pastern -bones, as well as into the upper part of the coffin-bone (l, p. 249) ; and at the back of these bones the suspensory ligament is expanded and inserted, while a portion of it goes over the fore part of the upper pastern to reach the extensor tendon. These attachments in front of the bones are seen in the accompanying cut^ iu 254 TilS nORSF'. which a represents tlie lower part of llie shank- bone ; h the sessamoid-bones ; c the upper pastern ; d the lower pastern ; and e the coffin-bone ; / are the branches of the suspensory ligaments going to unite with the extensor tendon ; g- the long extensor tendon; h ligaments connecting the two pastern-bones together ; and i the lateral cartilages of the foot. And now, having anived at the foot, which is the most complicated and important part in the frame of a horse, we shall defer the consideration of the coffin and navicular bones until we have described the hinder extremities. We may, however, observe that both these joints are subject to sprain, and particu- larly the coffin-joint. SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT. The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tender- ness are principally felt round the coronet. Bleeding at the toe, physic, fo- mentation, and blisters are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by a blister ; and if removed, like sprains of the fet- lock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and, finally, produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. This wrick, or sprain of the coffin-joint, sometimes becomes a very serious affair, not being always attended by any external swellings and being detected only by heat round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the o-room and the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed before its nature is discovered. There is no species of lameness more confounded with affections of the shoulder than this, because it is the cus- tom of these ignorant and prejudiced persons to trace every lameness to the shoulder which is not palpably referable to another part. From violent or repeated sprains of the pastern or coffin-joints, or exten- sion of the ligaments attached to other parts of the pastern-bones, inflam- mation takes place in the periosteum, and bony matter is formed, which often rapidly increases, and is recognised by the name of RINGBONE. Ringbone commences in one of the pasterns, and usually about the pas- tern-joint, but it rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot. When the first deposit is on the lower pas- tern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the ligaments of the joints, it is recognised by a slight enlargement, or bony tumour on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet. (See /"in the following cut.) This is more frequent in the hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before ; yet the lameness is not so great, because the disease is confined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by concussion ; wliile iVom the position of the fore limbs and their exposure to concussion, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. In its early stage, and when recog- nised only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or in some few cases on one side only, the lameness is not very con- siderable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blister- ing, or by the application of the cautery : but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the infiammation and the disposi- tion to the formation of bone rapidly spread The pasterns first become CUT OF THE LEG. connected tog-other by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint. Its motion is lost. From this joint the disease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to' the union between the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones ; and the motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of this part of the foot becomes one mass of spongy bone. From this disposition to spread, (and at first round the pastern-joint, which is situated just above the coronet,) this disease has acquired the name of ringbone. CUT OF THE LEG. This cut will show the situation and appearance of this and some other de- fects of the fore-leg. a will represent the capped hock or enlargement of the joint of the elbow ; 6 the tying-in of the leg below the knee; c the most fi^equent situation of splint on the side of the shank-bone, and not producing lameness after its first form- ation, because it does not interfere with the motion of the knee, or injure the suspensory ligament, d is the si- tuation and appearance of the enlarge- ment accompanying sprain of the back- sinews. This, however, is an aggravated case; and the sprain may be great, and the lameness distressing, without all this swelling. e is the place of wind- gall. / gives the appearance of ring- bone, when it first appears on the side of the pastern, about the joint, and where there is naturally some prominence of bone ; g is the situation of sand-crack in the fore-leg. h the situation of the moUenders. Ringbone is one of the most serious lamenesses with which the horse can be afflicted. It is unsoundness when existing in the slightest degree, for the lateral enlargement may speedily extend ; and when the bony deposit begins to spread, the disease is incurable. The fore-legs, when viewed in front, should be widest at the chest, and should gradually approach to each other as we descend towards the fetlock. The degree of width must depend on the purpose for whicli the horse is wanted. The legs of a heavy draught-horse can. scarcely be too far apart. His rounded chest enables him to throw more weight into the collar ; and being seldom, if ever required for speed, he wants not that oc- casionally hicreased expansion of chest which the circular form is not calcu- lated to give. A himter, a hackney, and a coach-horse^ should have sufficient 256 THE HORSK* expansion of the chest, or the legs sufficiently wide^ apart, to leave room for the play of the lungs ; but depth more than roundness of chest is here required, because the deep chest admits of most expansion, when the horse, in rapid action, and the circulation proportionally quickened, needs more room to breathe : yet if the breast be too wide, there will be considerable weight thrown before, and the horse will be heavy in the hand, and unsafe. Whether the legs are near to each other or v»^ide apart, they should be straight. The elbow should not have the slightest inclination inward or outward. Tf it inclines towards the ribs, its action will be confined, and the le